PRINCETON, N. J. Division. Section f.,YY..* Number. ±8.1$. Plate XVII. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/mannerscustomsof03wilk_0 THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS / BY SIR J. GARDNER WILKINSON, D.G.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Viee-Pres. British Archaeological Association ; Hon. Member of the Royal Institute of British Architects ; Corresp. M. of the Entomological Soc. ; M. of the Ethnologiccl Soc. of London; Von. Corr. M.R.S.L.; Hon. M. of the Egyptian Institute of Alexandria; Hon. M. of the Ethnological and Oriental Societies of America; Corr. M. of the Bombay Branch of the R. Asiatic Soc. ; Hon. M. of the Egypt. Soc. of Cairo ; V. P. of the Candrrian Arch. Assoc. ; Corr. M. of the Arch. Soc. of Edinburgh ; V. P. of the Lincoln Diocesan Soc.; Hon. St. of the Ethnti. and Orient. Socs. of Hew York ; Bon. M. of the Archil. Soc. of Oxford ; Hon. M. of the Orient. Soc. of Paris; M. of the Instit. of Arch. Corr. of Rome; Corr. M. R. Acad, of Turin ; Corr. M. of the R. and I. Acad, of Vienna, etc. A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED By SAMUEL BIECH, LL.D., D.C.L., of the Egyptian and Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum ; President of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, etc. IN THREE VOLUMES.— Vol. III. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON: JOHN MUEEAY, ALBEMAKLE STKEET. 1878. The right of Translation is reserved. LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIII. Page The Egyptian Pantheon — Chnoumis — Arnen-ra — Ptah-Socharis-Osiris — Che per — Hak — Khem or Am si — Thriphis — Sat's — Hut — Buto — East — Neith — Ra— Phoenix— Aten-ra — Seb — Nu — Nut — Osiris — Apis — Hnevis — Sarapis — Isis — Sothis — Athor — Horus — Haroeris — Harpocrates — Ahi — Har-Hat — Nubti— Set — Bes — Apap, Apophis — Anubis 1 CHAPTER XIV. The Sacred Animals— Care — Expense — Animals in the Adytum — Embalm- ing of them — Burial — Origin and Eeason of Worship — Rank — List — Apes and Monkeys — Bat — Hedgehog — Shrewmouse — Bear — Weasel — Otter — Dog — Wolf — Fox — Jackal — Ichneumon — Hya?na — Cat — Dog — Lion — Panther — Leopard — Chaus — Mouse — Rat — Jerboa — Porcupine — Hare — Elephant — Hippopotamus — Hy rax — Horse — Ass — Camel — Giraffe — Or}rx — Ibex — Sheep — Kebsh — Oxen — Apis — Hnevis — Bacis — Buffalo — Zebu — Dolphin — Sphinx — Vulture- — Eagle — Hawk — Raven — Swallow — Hoopoe — Fowl — Pigeon — Dove — Quail — Ostrich — Ibis — Heron — Plover — Goose — Duck — Phoenix — Tortoise — Crocodile — Lizard — Asp— House-snake — Horned Snake — Frog — Oxyrhynchus — Phagrus — Lepidotus — Latus — Ha?otis — Scorpion — Spider — Scaraba?us — Persea — Acanthus — Lotus — Garlic — Onions — Palm — Ivy — Emblems . . 242 CHAPTER XV. Processions — Coronation and other Ceremonies — Triumphs — Holydays — Fetes, &c 354 CHAPTER XVI. Funeral Rites — Offerings to the Dead — Tombs — Funeral Processions — Trials of the Dead — Sacred Lake — Burial — Embalming — Sarcophagi — Papyri, &c 427 Index 495 LIST OF THE PLATES, VOL. III. (Those illustrations tvhich have an asterisk prefixed are not drawn by Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson.) Page Plate XVII. Great Triad of Thebes — Amen, Mut, and Khonsu Frontispiece: see Vol. II. p. 512 „ XVIII. Xnum or Chnoumis, Sati or Satis, and Sept or Sothis . 3 „ XIX. Amen-ra . . . . . . . . .8 XX. Ptah or Phtka 14 „ XXI. Phtha-Sekar-Asar— Ptah-Socharis-Osiris ... 18 ,, XXII. Ra and Harmachis . . . . " . . .45 ,, XXIII. Khuenaten and family adoring the Aten or disk To face 52 „ XXIV. Nut 63 „ XXV. Asar or Osiris 66 „ XXVI. Asi or Isis . . . .100 „ XXVII. Hat-har, Athor, or Hathor 114 „ XXVIII. Athor . . 118 „ XXIX. Har-ur, Haroeris, and Harsaasi or Harsiesis . . . 122 „ XXX. Harsaasi, Harsiesis . . . . . . .129 „ XXXI. Figs. 1, 2, Nubti and Thothmes III. Figs. 3, 4, Har-hat and Thothmes III 137 „ XXXII. Taur, Thoueris, and S'epu 146 „ XXXII T. Cippus representing Horus on the crocodiles, with the head ofBes 153 ,, XXXIV. Fig. 1, Apap or Apophis. Fig. 2, Horus spearing Apap or Apophis ........ 155 „ XXXV. Anepu or Anuhis ....... 158 „ XXXVI. Thoth 163 „ XXXVII. Fig. la, unknown. Fig. 2, Ta-sen-t-nefer. Fig. 3, Har- semt-ta. Fig. 4, Har-pa-ra. Fig. 5, Paneb-ta. Fig. 6, Heka 177 „ XXXVIII. Atum 179 „ XXXIX. Fig. i, Tefnu. i%2,Ur-hek. Fig. 3, Menhi. Fig. 4, Bast 192 „ XL. Nekheb or Nishem, Eileithyia . . . . . 195 XLI. Uati or Buto ........ 199 XLII. Sefekh 202 XLIII. Atum, Barneses II., Sefekh, and Thoth . To face 203 XLIV. Hapi,or the Nile 208 XLV. Figs, la and lb, -Thebes. Fig. 2, Tentyris. Fig. 3, Bak. Figs. 4 and 5, Rannu . . . . . .212 XLVI. Fig. 1, Bai. Fig. 2, Heh. Fig. 3, Be[n]pi. Figs. 4 and 5, Amen.t 215 „ XLVII. Fig. 1, Nebhotep. Fig. 2, Ta-aha. Fig. 3, Unnu. Fig, 4, souls or spirits of Buto and Mcui .... 218 vi LIST OF THE PLATES. Page Plate XLVIII. Fig. 1, Amset. Fig. 2, Hapi. Fig. 3, Tuautmutf. Fig. 4, Qabhsenuf 220 XLIX. The Forty-two Daemons of the Dead . . To face 223 „ L. Arat or Cerberus : various types ..... 225 „ LI. Tanen, Iusaas, Hu, Sebak 227 LII. Fig. 1, Khu. Fig. 2, Isis. Fig. 3, Hek. Figs. 4 and 5, Naham-ua . . . . . . . .229 LIII. Fig. 1, Mer-sekar. Fig. 2, Mert. Fig. 3, Ani. Fig. 4, Ta-neu 231 LIV. Fig. 1, Horns. Fig. 2, Ras. Fig. 3, Isis. Fig. 4, Ra-ta . 233 LV. Figs. 1, 4, and 5, Reshpu. Fig. 2, Ket. JP1^. 3, Khem . 235 LVI. Fig. 1, Anta. 2^. 2, Sapt. i^/. 3, Anhar. jFfy. 4, Menq 237 LVII. jF^. 1, Mat'et. Fig. 2, Mau. Figs. 3 and 4, Slum. Fig. 5, Ra.t 238 „ LVIII. Fig. 1, Sat. 2, Tat-un. i and other writers, in speaking of the Jupiter of Ethiopia, evidently had in view the god Chnoubis ; and there is less difficulty in accounting for the notion of his being the same as Jupiter, since he was, if not the king, at least the leader, of the gods. He corresponded to no other deity of the Greek Pantheon ; and the triad of the Cataracts, by uniting him with Sati or Juno, appears to give him a claim to the name of J ove. There is not, however, the same excuse for confounding Chnoubis with Amen, or giving to the latter deity the head of a ram, as his general attribute. i The inhabitants of the Thebai's,' says Plutarch,2 ' worship their god Kneph only, whom they look upon as without beginning so without end, and are exempt from the tax levied for the main- tenance of the sacred animals.' But this could only be true if he alludes to the earliest inhabitants of that district; for the worship of Amen, or Amen-ra, was much more general through- out the Thebaid, except at the island of Elephantine, and Syene. Eusebius seems to confound him with Agathodsemon, but this name applies rather to another deity, the hawk-headed Har-Hat, whose emblem was the winged globe, placed over the doors and windows of the Egyptian temples, and overshadowing the sacred person of the monarch ; or to the asp, frequently represented in the tombs of Thebes, guarding the wine-presses and gardens of the Egyptians, which was dedicated to another divinity, the 1 Herodotus says the only two gods Bacchus ; meaning Chnoumis and Osiris, worshipped at Meroe were Jupiter and 2 Plut. de Isid. et Osir. s. 21. Chap. XIII.] CHNOUMIS. 5 goddess Kaimu,1 who is sometimes figured with the head of that snake. The asp was also sacred to Chnoumis, and that deity is fre- quently represented in the tombs standing in a boat, with the serpent over him ; and he is not unfrequently seen with this emblem on his head, without any other ornament. At the Cataracts I have found him with the asp rising from between his horns, and bearing the crown of the Lower Country on its head, as if intended to indicate the dominion of the deity there as well as in the Thebaid. This serpent was the type of dominion ; for which reason it was affixed to the head-dress of the Egyptian monarchs; and a prince, on his accession to the throne, was entitled to wear this distinctive badge of royalty, which, before the death of his father, he was not authorised to adopt. Many other parts of the royal dress were ornamented with the same emblem ; and ' the asp-formed crowns,' mentioned in the Kosetta Stone, were exclusively appropriated to the kings or queens of Egypt. The asp also signified, in hieroglyphics, ' a goddess ;' and when opposed to the vulture, ' the Lower Country ; ' 2 and it was given to Ra, the physical sun, probably as an emblem of that dominion which he held over the universe, and from his character of prototype of the Pharaohs. Champollion has satisfactorily accounted for the name Urseus given to the snake, by suggesting that the word derives its origin and signification from ouro, in Coptic ' a king,' answering, as Horapollo tells us,3 to the Greek /Sao-tXtWo?, ' royal ;' and it is from this last word that the name basilisk has been applied to the asp. But I do not know on what authority he supposes the royal asp to be different from the asp ' of Chnouphis.' 4 The description given by Porphyry of ' Kneph, with a human head, azure black colour, bearing a feather on his head,' agrees exactly with the god Shu, but not with Chnoumis ; and these two deities can in no way be related, — the latter being one of the great gods, and the former always having the title * Son of the Sun,' and being of an inferior order of divinities. Nor does any representation occur of * the egg proceeding from his mouth, which Porphyry conjectures to signify the world ; and from which proceeded another god called Phtha, the Vulcan of the 1 Champollion was perfectly correct in Lower Egypt. considering the asp of Chnoumis different 3 Horapollo, Hierog. i. 1 : ' The Egyp- from this guardian genius. I had supposed tians call it Ouraius, which, in the Greek this last to belong also to Chnoumis. language, signifies QacrtMo-Kos.' 2 See the god Nubti, and the genius of 4 Champollion, Pantheon, Ne£ 6 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. Greeks and, indeed, this cannot be applied to any deity of the Egyptian Pantheon. The figure of Chnoumis was that of a man with the head of a ram, frequently of a green colour ; sheep were particularly sacred to him ; and with Satis, Juno, and Anoukis, Yesta, he formed one of the great triads of Upper Egypt. His worship, as I have already observed, was very generally admitted in the cities of Ethiopia, particularly above the Second Cataract, where the ram's head, his emblem, was used as a common ornament, or as an amulet by the devout ; and in that part of the country lying between the First Cataract and the modern Shendy, the ram-headed Chnoumis, or Cnouphis, was the principal god. One deity alone shares with him equal honours, but this is in the two temples of Wady Owateb and Wady Benat alone, where the lion-headed god appears to be the principal ob- ject of worship. At Napata, the capital of Tirhakah (now Gebel Berkel), Chnoumis received the highest possible honours ; and it may not be unreasonable to conclude that Napata, Nouba,1 and the Nobatae were called from this deity, whose name has the varied sound of Cnouphis, Chnoubis, Chnebis, Chnoumis, Noub, and apparently even of Nou(m), in some of the hieroglyphic legends of the Thebaid. Herodotus states that, in consequence of sheep being sacred to the Theban Jupiter,2 the people of that nome never sacrifice them, but always select goats for their altars : and this is con- firmed by the sculptures of Thebes^ by which we find that sheep were never immolated for the altars of the gods, nor slaughtered for the table. The large flocks of sheep in the Thebaid were kept for their wool alone ; and the care bestowed upon them, so that they might have lambs twice a year and be shorn twice within the same period, the number of persons employed there in making woollen cloths, and the consequence which the sculptures show to have been attached to those animals, testify to the importance of the wool trade in Egypt, and serve as an additional proof of the advancement of this people in manufactures. At Esne or Latopolis, Chnoumis3 is represented under the 1 Some have derived this from noub, ' gold.' 2 Herodot. ii. 42. More properly to Chnebis, who was represented with the head of a ram, and not Amen, as he supposes. 3 As the name Neph does not occur in the hieroglyphs for this god, Chnoumis has been inserted instead throughout this and the preceding pages. His name had no connection with the Egyptian word Nif, 'breath,' but is written Nem or Num, a word meaning 'cistern,' 'reservoir,' 'to join' or ' unite.' (Pierret, Vocab., p. 268.)— S. B. Chap. XIII.] CHNOUMIS. 7 form of a ram, from between whose horns rises the sacred asp : and in some of the legends, the name over it is followed by those of Osiris, Ka, Shu, and another god with whom Chnoumis is connected on this occasion. He is also figured as a man having two or four rams' heads ; but this is of rare occurrence, except on monuments of a late date, or in subjects relating to the dead and the mysteries of a future state. At Esne instances occur of Chnoumis with the additional title Ka, which then connects him with the sun, and may perhaps be an argument in support of the opinion I have mentioned of the early Sabaean worship of Egypt. To Chnoumis were given not only the ordinary horns of the sheep, curving downwards, but also the long projecting horns 1 of that animal, which, from their twisted form, being readily mistaken for those of the goat, have caused some difficulty respecting two characters in the names of the Caesars, both being supposed to represent the same animal, and also to stand for the two letters b and s. It is, however, evident that the latter was the sheep or ram, siu, which had the alphabetic force of s as in Trajanus, and that the former was the goat, ba-em-pe, which was chosen to represent the letter b or v, as in Tifcerius, Severus, and Se&astus. [The god Khnum was the deity of the waters, and the early character of his worship is proved by the association of his name with that of Khufu or Cheops, in the cartouches of that monarch. At the time of the 12th Dynasty, he was allied with the goddess Heka or Hak, and is mentioned as ' existing * or 4 formed at first.' He was a demiurgos, and is represented at Philse as making man out of clay on a potter's wheel, and in many texts he is styled the builder of mankind. In connection with the waters he was particularly the god of the fowler who caught the water-fowl. While his emblem, the ram's head, ba, connected him with the soul or cosmic soul of the gods, his attributes of the solar disk and urseus allied him to the sun ; and in the later representation of the sun's progress though the hours he appears in the solar disk in the 4th and 10th hours, as if a personification of that luminary. He reconstructed the limbs of the mutilated Osiris, was father of fathers of the gods, making heaven, earth, hades, the streams, and hills.2 In the Kitual 3 Khnum is said to be at the wall of the house of the 1 Owing to the error respecting Amen, they have been the origin of the name of the Ammonite ; and thus has this mis- nomer been perpetuated in stone. 2 Birch, ' Gallery of Antiquities,' i. p. 10. 8 Ch. lvii. 1. 5 ; ch. Ixiii. L 4. Chap. XIII.] AMEX. 9 deceased, and to make sound his limbs. He was coloured blue in his celestial, and green in his chthonic character; but his worship, although most ancient, was localised in the south, and never took the range acquired by that of Amen-ra. — S. B.] It may appear singular that Amen should be placed second to Chnoumis ; I have, however, noticed them in this order, not from any superiority of the latter, but because he is said to have been the oldest deity of Upper Egypt ; and, since some alteration has been made in the name of the god known to us as Amen, it may even be supposed that in the earliest times he had not the same character as in the age of the last kings of the 18th Dynasty. Indeed, if Chnoumis really answered to the spirit which pervaded and presided over the creation, and was the same whom Iamblichus describes from the books of Hermes, he may in justice claim a rank above Amen, or any other of the eight great gods. The alteration to which I allude is a circumstance well worthy of attention ; and, as I have elsewhere remarked,1 has been observed by me on many of the oldest monuments of Egypt, where 'the hieroglyphics or phonetic name of Amen-ra have been continually substituted for others, the combinations of which I could never discover, being most carefully erased, and the name of Amen, or Amen-ra, placed in their stead. The figure of the god remains unaltered, as is also the case with that of Khem, when in the character of Amen-ra Generator, whose phonetic hieroglyphics, and not figure, have been changed. To make this last observation more intelligible, I must acquaint the reader with a fact not yet mentioned, — that Amen-ra, like most of the gods, frequently took the character of other deities ; as of Khem, Ea, and Chnoumis ; 2 and even the attributes of Osiris : but he is then known by the hieroglyphics accompanying his figure, which always read Amen-ra, and therefore differ from those given the deities in their own character.' In examining the sculptures of an early period, I have found that, wherever the name of Amen occurs,3 the substitution has been so systematically made, that nothing short of a general order to that effect sent to every part of Egypt, and executed with the most scrupulous care, can account for it ; and from this alteration 4 being confined 5 to monuments erected previous to 1 * Materia Hierog.,' Pantheon, p. 4. 3 It may be seen on the Obelisk of S. 2 But still as a member of the triad of Giovanni Laterano, at Rome. which Amen was the chief. I have even * The name Amen existed long before, found him with a hawk's head, styled Witness the kings of the 17th Dynasty. ' Amenra, Ra Atmu, Lord of Thebes.' 5 This has been subsequently discovered 10 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. and during the reign of the third Amenophis, we may conclude that it dates after his accession, or about the year 1420 B.C. Another peculiarity is observable in the name of Amen, that the hieroglyphics which compose it frequently face the wrong way ; that is, they turn in a different direction from the rest of the inscription : the reason of which it is not easy to determine. I have stated that Amen-ra and other gods took the form of different deities, which, though it appears at first sight to present some difficulty, may readily be accounted for when we consider that each of those whose figure or emblems were adopted, was only an emanation or deified attribute of the same great Being, to whom they ascribed various characters, according to the several offices He was supposed to perform. The intellect of the Deity might be represented with the emblems of the Almighty Power, or with the attributes of His goodness, without in any manner changing the real character of the heavenly mind they portrayed under that peculiar form ; and in like manner, when to Osiris, or the Goodness of the Deity, the emblems of Ptah the Creative Power were assigned, no change was made in the character of the former, since goodness was as much a part of the original Divinity from whom both were derived, as was the power with which He had created the world ; and if, as sometimes happens, Amen-ra is represented making offerings to Osiris, it will be recollected that one attribute might be permitted to show respect to another, without derogating from its own dignity, and that Osiris in his character of judge of Amenti, and as the object of the most sacred and undivulged mysteries, held a rank above all the gods of Egypt. Amen, or Amen-ra, formed with Mut and Khonsu the great triad of Thebes. The figure of Amen was that of a man, with a head-dress surmounted by two long feathers ; 1 the colour of his body was light blue, like the Indian Vishnu, as to indicate his peculiarly exalted and heavenly nature ; but he was not figured with the head or under the form of a ram, as the Greeks and Komans supposed, and the contortis comibus Ammon is as to be due to the heretical worship of the of the solar orb, the Dame of Amen was sun's disk introduced by the Queen Tau, replaced by chiselling away that of Aten. widow of Amenophis III. The name of the — S. B. solar disk or orb, aten, was substituted 1 Q. Curtius, speaking of the deity of wherever accessible or possible for that of the Oasis of Ammon, says, * Id quod pro the god Amen-ra, whose name was tried Deo colitur, non eandem effigiem habet, to be suppressed and destroyed. After the quam vulgo Diis artifices accommodaverunt, fall of the monarch Amenophis IV., who Umbilico tenus arieti similis est habitus, assumed the name of Khuenaten in honour smaragdis et gemmis coagmentatus/ Chap. XIII.] AMEN. 11 inapplicable to the Egyptian Jupiter as the description of the dog-lieaded Anubis to the Mercurius Psychoponipos of the region of Amenti. He was considered by the Greeks the same as Jupiter, in consequence of his haying the title ' King of the Gods ; ' and under the name Amen-ra he was the intellectual sun, distinct from Ka, the physical orb. This union of Amen and Ea cannot fail to call to mind the Jupiter Belus of the Assyrians, Baal or Belus • being the sun : and if it be true that Amunti, or Amenti, signified ' the giver and receiver,' the name Amen-ra may be opposed to Aten-ra, and signify the sun in the two capacities of * the receiver and giver.' As in most religions, the supreme Deity was represented in the noblest form that could be suggested, that of a human being, and Amen was therefore figured as a man, whom Holy Writ states to have been made after the image of his Creator. At Thebes, 1 the King of the Gods ' may be considered under two distinct characters, as Amen-ra and as Amen-ra Generator; in this last assuming the form and attributes of Khem, the god of generation. It is probable that he was then the same whom the Greeks styled the ' Pan Euodos ; ' 1 he was the chief of a second Theban triad, the other members of which were Tamen and Harka : the former a character of Neith, and perhaps a sort of female Amen ; the latter the offspring of the first two, as Khonsu was of Amen-ra and Mut. According to Manetho, the word Amen2 means ' concealment ;' and Hecatseus observes 3 that, so far from being the proper name of the god, it was a word in common use, signifying 'come,'4 by which his benignant influence and presence were invoked ; and Iamblichus says, it implies 'that which brings to light, or manifestation.' If the observation of Manetho or of Hecatseus be true, it is not improbable that the name of this god was merely a mysterious title. The word Amoni, signifying ' to envelope ' or 1 conceal,' applied in hieroglyphics to a man enveloped in a cloak, confirms the statement of Manetho ; as Amoini, 4 come,' accords with that of Hecatseus : and the change in the hieroglyphic legends of the god, and the introduction of the word Amen throughout the sculptures, may be explained by supposing it a title rather than the actual name of the deity. We are told by Herodotus,5 that the horned snake was sacred to this deity, and buried in his 1 nANI ETOAfil occurs in an inscription at the Breccia quarries, on the road from Contra- Apollinopolis to Berenice, with the figure of Khem. 2 Of some gods it was said, amen ranf, * hidden is his name.' — S. B. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 9. 4 The word 'come,' or 'come ye,' is 0A. 3 1 Materia Hierog.,' Pantheon, p. 7. 4 Conf. Horapollo, i. 12. 5 Plut. de Isid. s. 10 ■ Horapollo, Hierog. i. 10; and Porphyry says, 1 Cantharum Soli accominodatura.' 10 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. Socharis-Osiris and Ptah Cheper; but since they are represented by the Egyptians as different and separate divinities, I have thought it better to keep them apart from the god of whom they were, perhaps, originally emanations,'1 and treat of them as distinct deities. It is also possible that to Ptah, the Creative Power, were ascribed four or more different offices, each being a separate form of that deity, as, 1st, the creator of the universe generally ; 2nd, the creator of the world we inhabit ; 3rd, the creator of all animal and vegetable life ; and, 4th, the creator of mankind. The Greeks, as I have already stated, considered the Ptah of Egypt the same as their Vulcan or Hephaestus, and it is more than probable that their idea of this deity was derived from the demiurgos in the Egyptian Pantheon ; the error they made in the character of the opifex, or framer of the world, proceeding from their degrading him to the level of a mere physical agent, as Iamblichus has very properly remarked. According to Cicero, there were several deities who bore the name of Vulcan, and one was reputed to be the son of the Nile, from which we may infer his Egyptian origin. The Greek name, according to Phurnutus, is supposed to have been taken from hephthai,2 signifying * to burn ; ' and other etymologies have been offered by various writers : but the word Hephaestus, and still more the derivation suggested by Phurnutus, sufficiently indicate the real root of the name in the Egyptian Ptah. The form of this deity is generally a mummy, not holding in his hands the flagellum and crook of Osiris, but merely the emblems of life and stability, with the staff of purity ; which last is common to all the gods, and to many of the goddesses, of Egypt. The absence of the flagellum and crook serves to dis- tinguish him from another deity,3 Khonsu, the third member of the Theban triad, even when his hieroglyphical name is wanting ; and this last has, in addition, a disk and crescent, or short horns, on his head, which are not given either to Ptah or Osiris. The ordinary head-dress of Ptah, when in the form of a mummy, is a close cap without any ornament ; but he occasionally wears a disk with the lofty ostrich feathers of Osiris, and holds in each 1 The passages between inverted commas are extracted from my ' Materia Hierogly- phica.' - airb tov r\ Egyptian mummy than to a statue of the ancient Greek style. From their name, it might be inferred that they were peculiar to the god Mercury ; but this depended on the head they bore : those with the face of Apollo being styled Hermapollos; of Minerva, Hermathenas ; and others, accord- ing to their respective combinations. The Hermes figure was therefore the exclusive name given to statues ot a peculiar lorm, sochans-osiris, used as box and not to those of Mercury alone. For, mummied objects' besides the fact of the latter being repre- sented in a perfect form like the other gods, we find from Cicero that these Hermes statues were forbidden to be erected upon a tomb, which would seem to be the most appropriate situation for a figure of Mercury, the deity to whom the care of the dead was particularly confided. In one of several groups of hieroglyphics signifying ' Egypt/ a tree is introduced as the symbol of that country ; but whether any peculiar tree was sacred to the god Khem, or its name re- sembled the word ' Chemi,' Egypt, I will not pretend to decide ; trees of the same form as that occurring in the name of Egypt 1 accompany the shrine of the god,2 and they may be emblems both of the country and of the deity whose name it bore.3 For Egypt was denominated * Chemi, Khemi, or the land of Ham/ as we find in the hieroglyphic legends ; and the city of Khem, or Panopolis, was called in Egyptian Chemmo, of which evident traces are preserved in that of the modern town E'Khmim.4 Indeed, the name of the god appears from the hieroglyphics to 1 See the Rosetta Stone. 2 Woodcut No. 504. 8 The tree is the sycamore, Neha ; Egypt being called amongst other titles the land of the sycamore. — S. B. 4 It is singular that this town should have had the name given to the whole country of Khemi; and another, Coptos, Koft or Kebt, have retained that of Egypt, which is Gypt with a prefixed letter or diphthong. 24 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. have been Chemmo or Kheino ; and when in the character of Amen-ra Generator, the title of Khemo is added to that of Amen. Plutarch says 1 that * the leaf of the fig-tree represented both their king Osiris as well as their native country;' and it is possible that this notion was founded upon the circumstance of the fig-tree itself being the symbol of Egypt : but from what he afterwards says of the Priapean character of Osiris, we may 1 2 3 4 5 No. 504. Khem, Min, or Amsi. 1, 3. 'Amsi, Amen-ka-mutef.' 2. 'Amsi, son of Isis.' 4. ' Amsi-ra, lord of . . . .' 5. ' Ka-mutef, issue of the Sun.' conclude he has confounded that deity with the god Khem. If this be true, the tree above mentioned may be the fig, or more probably the Ficus sycamorus ; and the conventional form adopted by the Egyptians for this and all trees, excepting the palm, dom, pomegranate, and a few others, appears to justify this conjecture. The sycamore was particularly sacred to the goddess Nut, as the Persea to Athor ;2 but these I shall have occasion to mention hereafter. 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 36. neb.t neha, ' mistress or lady of the syca- 2 Who is also called, at the 4th Dynasty, more.' — S. B. Chap. XIIL] HAM — K HEM — MIZ E AIM. 25 The assertion of Herodotus,1 that the Egyptians represented the god Pan, like the Greeks, with the head and legs of a goat, applies neither to the god Khem, nor to any other deity in the Egyptian Pantheon, and is as little worthy of credit as the statement he afterwards makes respecting an occurrence in the Mendesian nome ; where he also states that ' the goat and the god Pan both have the name Mendes in the Egyptian language.' The description of the god worshipped at Panopolis, given by Stephanus of Byzantium,2 accords exactly with the Egyptian Pan, or Khem, which the learned Prichard has supposed to be 1 Osiris or Horus ;' and it is Khem, and not Mendes, to whom belong the attributes of the god of generation. The Hebrew word Ham is identical with the Egyptian Khem, being properly written Khm, Kham, or Khem ; and is the same which the Egyptians themselves gave to their country, in the sculptures of the earliest and latest periods. The Bible also applies to Egypt the name of Mizraim, or Mitzrim, a dual or plural word, which, as I have before observed, seems to refer to the two regions of Egypt, the Upper and Lower Country, over which the Pharaohs are always said in their regal titles to hold dominion. It is, however, remarkable that the word itself does not occur in hieroglyphics, though traced in the modern name Musr or Misr, by which both Cairo and Egypt are known at this day. Ac- cording to the Scriptural account3 of the peopling of the world by the sons of Noah, it appears that Ham or Khem colonised the lands of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Lower Egypt and the Thebaid), Phut or Libya, and Canaan (Syria) ; the four being mentioned as ' sons of Ham ; ' which may refer to the migration of an Asiatic tribe to those countries, and tend to confirm my opinion respecting the Oriental origin of the inhabitants of the valley of the Nile. Ham or Khem may have been the original name of that tribe which settled in the two districts called Mizraim ; and the Egyptians may have retained the appellation which they had as conquerors, in preference to that of the country they occupied. The progeny of Cush is equally re- markable. Cush4 is the name of Ethiopia, both in Scripture and in the hieroglyphics of the earliest periods ; and was applied to that country lying above the Second Cataract,5 inhabited, 1 Herodot. ii. 46. like the word Ethiopia. 2 Prichard, p. 120. 5 Tirhakah was king of Cush (2 Kings 3 Geu. x. 6. xix. 9). The capital of Tirhakah's dominion 4 In Hebrew it signifies 1 blackness ; ' was at El Berkel, the ancient Napata. Sul- therefore applied to ' the black country,' pitius Severus calls him Tirchac. 26 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. as at present, by a copper-coloured race. After the Bible has enumerated the sons of Cush, it mentions an offset in Nimrod, who founded the kingdom of ' Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh in the land of Shinar,' 1 from which country the Assyrian founders of Nineveh emigrated. This connection between an African and Asiatic Ethiopian race is the more remarkable, as the same is noticed by profane writers : the Ethiopian Memnon was said2 to be a general of Teutamis, the twenty-first king of Assyria after Semiramis, and to have been sent with a force of 10,000 Ethiopians, and the same number of Susians, to assist Priam, when Troy was besieged ; and the Cushites of Africa are also called Ethiopians. To the god Kheni the Egyptians dedicated their exvotos in the quarries of the Kossayr road ; nor were temples and votive inscriptions put up in honour of Sarapis till the time of the Komans, and in a few instances during the reigns of the Ptolemaic kings. In the Greek exvotos he is styled the 'Pan Euodos,' but the hieroglyphic inscriptions have not the title Amen-ra, though it is probable that in this character he was the same as Amen-ra Generator. I should not be surprised to find that the name of Kheni was that for which Amen-ra was substituted ; in which case, these would be two characters of Khem, instead of Amen-ra. Either this may have been the case, or the original legend may have contained a name of the deity, which in after- times was deemed too sacred to be exposed to the eyes of the profane, when the uninitiated had become acquainted with the previously occult meaning of hieroglyphic writing. Khem was considered the generating influence of the sun, whence perhaps the reason of his being connected with Amen-ra : and in one of the hieroglyphic legends accompanying his name he is styled the sun ; that is, the procreating power of the only source of warmth, which assists in the continuation of the various created species. I have twice found hieroglyphic legends stating him to be ' engendered by the sun,' and in another he is called the 1 son of Isis,' which might seem to deny him a place among the eight great gods ; but these may refer to a distinct office he was supposed to bear on some occasions ; and his intimate con- nection with Amen-ra fully establishes his claim to the rank Herodotus has given him in the Egyptian Pantheon.3 ' The Greeks,' says the historian, 'consider Hercules, Bacchus, and 1 Gen. x. 8, 10. 2 Diodor. ii. 22. 3 Herodot. ii. 145. Chap. XIII.] THEEPHIS. 27 Pan as the most modern of their gods ; the Egyptians, on the contrary, look upon Pan as very ancient, holding a rank among the first eight deities ; Hercules they place in the number of the twelve, called the second order ; and Bacchus ranks with those of the third order, who are engendered by the twelve.' It is not improbable, then, that Khem was also considered by the Egyptians the generating principle of nature itself ; and this will accord with the idea they entertained of his extending his immediate influence over all the animal and vegetable world. On the Kossayr road I have met with a tablet in which the god Khem is represented as a hawk, with human legs, and an arm holding up the usual flagellum, his head crowned with the long feathers of Amen ; but this is an unusual form of the deity, and of uncertain date. Thriphis was the favourite and contemplar companion of Khem, as well at Panopolis as in the temple of Athribis or Crocodilopolis, whose ruins are still seen to the west- ward of Soohag. She appears to be one of the goddesses re- presented with a lion's head ; but I have been unable exactly to ascertain her attributes and office. The Greek inscription at Athribis 1 designates the town by the same name, Thriphis. It is still called by the Arabs Atrib, and by the Copts Athrebi ; and the honours with which the goddess was there worshipped may be inferred from the dimensions of her temple, 200 feet in length and 175 in breadth. Part of the inscription is lost, but may be easily restored ; and the name of the emperor mentioned in it occurs also in the hieroglyphics, which on the other face of the same architrave present the ovals of Tiberius Claudius Caesar Germanicus. In the Greek is . the name of the Empress Julia, the widow of Agrippa and daughter of Augustus, with the date of the ninth or fifth year of Tiberius, which shows that her death could not have happened as early as is generally supposed.2 The dedication to 'the most great goddess Thriphis,' and the mention of 'Apollonius, prefect of the city of Thriphis,' show them both to have borne the same name ; as the ovals of Ptolemy the eldest son of Auletes, which occur in another part of the building, prove that the foundation of the temple dated before the empire, and that the inscription of Tiberius was only attached to repairs or additions made during his reign. The Greek 1 The Arab tradition, mentioned by the 2 [Since this was written I find that, historian Macrizi, of the four sons of according to Letronne, this was not Julia Mizraim, Oshmun, Atrib, Sa, Koft, is, Augusta, daughter of Augustus, but Julia, like many others which abound in Egypt, who, after the death of Augustus, took the in order to account for the names of cities. name of Julia Augusta. — G. W.] 28 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. inscription at Panopolis is of the time of Trajan. It has the date of his twelfth year, and mentions Pan and Thriphis as the chief deities of the place. The story of Pan having been the lieutenant-general of Osiris, in his Indian expedition, and by the fright he caused to the enemy having given rise to the expression s Panic terrors,' is an idle legend, which, too, cannot apply to the Pan of Egypt. It is mentioned by Plutarch and Polyenus. [This deity is supposed to represent in himself the double part of father and son, connected with Amen-ra, and perhaps Osiris as the title of his mother; at the same time he appears as the Ear nekht, ' powerful Horus,' or Horus the son of Isis. He symbolises the productive power of nature, and figures are occasionally found of him made of barley. He was an ancient god, appearing in the oldest chapters of the Eitual. ' I am Khem,' one passage says in his proceeding.1 There are two plumes on his head. 6 Khein,' says the esoterical explanation, * is the saviour of his father,' and Horus the son of Isis. ' His proceeding ' is ' his birth.' The plumes on his head are Isis and Nephthys. There are the two hawk feathers on his head, placed upon him ; they are as two birds ; they are firm on his head ; or they are the great uraei in front of his father Turn, ' or his eyes are the plumes on his head.' He is also called ' Khem the king, the powerful Horus,' an allusion still closer described as 1 I am Khem, the Horus saviour of his father, the substance of his father Unnefer,' Onnophis or Osiris. The festival of his procession or manifesta- tion is mentioned at the earliest period, and celebrated with the highest honours at Medeenet Haboo, in the month Tybi, of which he was the eponym. — S. B.] The goddess Sati, or Juno, always accompanies Chnoumis in the exvotos at the Cataracts of Syene and the Island of Sehayl ; where she forms the second member of a triad composed of Chnou- mis, Sati, and Anouqa. This triad frequently occurs on different monuments in the vicinity of Syene, it being customary for every town to assign a conspicuous post in their temples to the chief deities and to the peculiar triad, worshipped by their neighbours, as a mark of respect not only to the gods, but to the inhabitants of the adjoining districts. And the general adoration paid to the principal member of this triad throughout Nubia readily accounts for its constant occurrence in the temples between the First and Second Cataracts. At Dakkeh, the manner in which it 1 Pierret, 'Diet. d'Ant. Egypt.,' p. 290. 1. 2; c. 125, 11. 15, 60; c. 142, 1. 60; c. Lepsius, ' Todtenbuch,' c. 17, 1.11; c 124, 145, 1. 75; c. 148, L 2 ; c. 149, 1. 3. Chap. XIIL] SATI, OK JUNO. 29 is mentioned over one of the doors is remarkable ; the Ethiopian King Ergamun being styled, on one side, * Son of Neph, born of Sati, nursed by Anouqa/ and on the other, 1 Son of Osiris, born of Isis, nursed by Nephthys.' The Island of Sehayl was formerly called Sete, a name not unlike that of the Egyptian Juno; and a Greek inscription there mentions the dedication of a temple to the above-mentioned triad. In another, inscribed upon a column at the granite quarries of Caracalla, near Syene, Jupiter-Hammon-Cenubis and Juno are said to preside over the hill near whose summit it was erected ; but these would not have been sufficient to identify the goddess, had not the sculptures presented the name of an arrow, which, piercing a standard, forms her hieroglyphics, written in phonetic characters, and expressing the word Sati. Horapollo affirms that Juno, Sati, presided over the lower part of heaven, and Keith, Athene, over the upper hemisphere : but it is pos- sible that he may have confounded Neith with Nut; though some confirmation of his remark may be derived from the fact of the cap worn by Neith signifying, in hieroglyphics, 'Upper Egypt,' and that of Sati, the ' Lower Country.' Horapollo is fully borne out by the hieroglyphics in what he afterwards says, — that ' the Egyptians think it absurd to designate the heaven in the masculine, but represent it in the feminine, inas- much as the generation of the sun and moon and the rest of the stars is perfected in it, which is the peculiar property of a female.' 1 The marriage of Jupiter with his sister Juno, in Greek mythology, was probably derived from the story of Osiris and Isis, who were also brother and sister and the children of Seb, considered by the Greeks the same as Saturn ; but the confusion caused by their judging of the identity of their own and the Egyptian deities from casual analogies is so great, that to Jupiter alone are attributed legendary tales taken from Amen, Chnoumis and Osiris. The statues of the Greek J uno were not always confined to one particular form ; and to that goddess were sometimes given the attributes of Pallas, of Diana, of Yenus, of Nemesis, of the Fates, and other divinities. In this respect they resembled many of the deities of Egypt, who, as already observed, borrowed each other's attributes, and could only then be recog- nised by the hieroglyphic legend placed above them. The goddess Sati does not appear to have played so important 1 Horapollo, i. 11. 30 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. a part in Egyptian mythology as the Juno of Greece. Nor will I pretend to decide if she presided over marriages : and little is known of her from the accounts of ancient writers. Diodorus,1 Horapollo, and some other authors merely make a cursory mention of the Egyptian Juno, and little dependence can be placed on what Manetho relates concerning her. According to Porphyry,2 the priest of Sebennytus states that three men were daily sacrificed to the Juno of Egypt, after having been examined like the clean calves chosen for the altar ; which ceremony was abolished by order of Amosis. And to this Plutarch alludes,3 when he says, * We are informed by Manetho, that they were formerly wont, in the city of Idithya,4 to burn men alive, giving them the name of Typhos, and winnowing their ashes through a sieve : which sacrifices were performed in public, and at a stated season of the year, — in the dog-days.' If, indeed, this were ever the case, it could only have been at a very remote period, long before the Egyptians were the civilised nation we know them from their monuments, as I shall have occasion to show in treating of the sacrifices. According to Herodotus, the great goddesses of Egypt were Neith — Minerva, Buto — Latona, Bubastis — Diana, and Isis ; the Greeks having become acquainted with their names, from being worshipped in Lower Egypt ; and to their ignorance of the deities of the Thebaid may be attributed their silence respecting Mut, the great goddess of Thebes, and Sati, the second member of the triad of Elephantine. Sati was represented as a female figure, wearing on her head the cap or crown of the Upper Country, from which projected the horns of a cow ; and in her hand she holds the usual sceptre of the Egyptian goddesses. Another goddess appears also to lay claim to the name of Sati ; but her form and character differ from those of the Egyptian Juno ; and she seems rather to repre- sent the western bank of the Nile. From her occurring frequently in tombs, it is probable that she had some office in Amenti. Indeed, the evident connection, and the similarity in the name, of Amenti, 'the lower regions,' and Ement, 'the west,' are remarkable ; and the idea of the end of the world being in the west, as its commencement in the east, is thus noticed by Plutarch. The Egyptians make ' a sacred dirge or lamentation over Osiris, bewailing him who was born on the right side of the 1 Diodor. i. 13, 15. 2 Porphyr. de Abst. ii. 55. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 73. 4 Probably Ilethya or Eileithyia, the city of Lucina, a title given to the Greek Juno. Chap. XIII.] MUT. 31 world, and who perished on the left. For it must be observed that the Egyptians look upon the east as the front or face of the world, upon the north as its right side, and upon the south as its left.'1 The goddess Mut,2 or Tmau, was the second member of the Theban triad. Her name signi- fies ' mother ;' and though many divinities, as Isis, Nut, and others, have the title ' Mother- goddess/ the name Mut was peculiarly applied to the one before us, who may with much reason be supposed to represent in this capacity Nature, the mother of all. From the pre- sence of the vulture in her hieroglyphics, she has been supposed the same as Neith (Minerva) ; but that bird is merely a phonetic character signifying * mother,' and not an emblem of the goddess herself. For the vulture, as Horapollo observes,3 being the peculiar type of a female and of mater- nity, 'the Egyptians, when- ever they wish to designate a mother, represent this bird.' . Some may be disposed to iden- tify her with Buto,4 the Latona of Egypt, and imagine that the name she bears refers to the office she held in the creation of the world, or to her duties as nurse of Horus. Some indeed have confounded Buto with Minerva, who was said to have been the tutor of Bacchus.5 The oracle of Buto was one of the most celebrated in the world, and the honours rendered this goddess by the Egyptians were doubtless very great, since, as Herodotus states, they had / No. 505. Mut. 1. ' Mut, mistress of heaven.' 2. of Asher.t.' 3. 'Mut-Uati.' 4. mistress of Asher.' regent of the Earth.' Mut, Mut, the soul 5. 'Mut, pupil of the Sun, 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 32. The Arabs call the north the left, being on their left as they look towards the east, or towards Mekkeh. 2 Or Mu, t being the female sign. 3 Horapollo, i. 11. 4 The goddess Uat is now recognised as Buto. Although a separate goddess, she is sometimes identified with Mut, as in wood- cut No. 505, where Mut is called also Uat. — S. B. 5 Diodor. iii. 69. 32 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. greater veneration for her oracle than for that of any'other deity.1 'It is consecrated to her,' says the historian,2 'in a large city (also called Buto) situated near the Sebennytic mouth of the Nile. You pass it in going from the sea by that branch of the river. It contains several temples ; — of Apollo, of Diana, and of Latona. In this last the oracles are delivered. It is of very great size, having porticoes 10 orgyai (fathoms) in height. But of all that I observed within the enclosure sacred to Latona, the chapel of the goddess caused me the greatest surprise. Its sides are of a single stone, square both ways, measuring in length and breadth 40 cubits ; and another block, whose thickness is 4 cubits, forms the roof. Nothing, in fact, in the whole of this consecrated spot is more worthy of admiration. Next to this is the Isle of Chemmis, situated in a deep and spacious lake near the temple of Latona at Buto. According to the Egyptians, it is a floating island ; but I confess I neither saw it float, nor even move, and I was much surprised to hear that any islands did float. In it is a large chapel of Apollo, with three altars. The soil produces a number of palm and other trees without culture, some of which bear fruit. * The following reason is given by the Egyptians for its floating. Latona, one of the eight most ancient divinities, who lived at Buto, where her oracle now is, having been charged by Isis with the care of Apollo, concealed him in this island, which is now called the Floating Island, though formerly fixed and stationary. She preserved him there in safety, while Typhon was searching everywhere for the son of Osiris : for they say that Apollo and Diana are born of Bacchus and Isis, and that Latona was their nurse and preserver. Apollo is called Orus, Horus, in Egyptian ; Ceres is Isis ; and Diana, Bubastis.' Of the form and attributes of the Egyptian Latona we are completely ignorant. It is far from certain that Mut and Buto are two characters of the same deity ; and unfortunately the sculptures of her temple, mentioned by Herodotus, are no longer in existence to clear up the difficulty. But if Strabo be correct in stating that the mygale or shrew mouse was worshipped at Athribis, it is very probable that the lion-headed goddess Thriphis,3 who gave her name to that city, was the same as the Egyptian Latona. The mygale is universally allowed to have 1 Herodot. ii. 83. 2 Ibid. ii. 155. See also ii. 75. Strabo, xvii. p. 551. 3 Strabo, xvii. p. 559. Chap. XIII.] BUTO, PRIMEVAL DARKNESS. 33 been sacred to Buto ;* it was buried in the city of that name : and if the Egyptians really assigned the reason mentioned by Plutarch for the worship of this animal, we may believe that the goddess Buto represented, as Champollion supposes, the dark- ness which covered the deep. ' The mygale,' says that writer, ' received divine honours by the Egyptians, because it is blind, and darkness is more ancient than light.' 2 This idea of night being older than day was very ancient, and commonly entertained. We find in Genesis, that ' the evening and the morning were the first day ; ' 3 which is retained to the present time by the Arabs, in the expression layl oo nahr, 1 night and day.' ' The Egyptians,' says Damascius, ' celebrated unknown darkness as the one principle of the universe.' 4 Accord- ing to Hesiod, ' from chaos arose Erebus and black night ; from night, iEther and day:' 5 and Aristotle tells us, ' the theologians consider all things to be born from night.'6 Aristophanes makes ' Chaos, Night, Erebus, and Tartarus the first ; ' 7 and in the Orphean Fragments we find, ' I will sing of Night, the genitor of gods and men ; Night, the genesis of all things.' The Anglo- Saxons also, like Eastern nations, began their computations of time from night, and the year from the day corresponding with our Christmas, which they called ' Mother Night ;' and ' the Otaheitans refer the existence of their principal deities to a state of darkness, which they consider the origin of all things.' 8 This darkness was not, however, the same as night, or evening, in the ordinary acceptation of the word, when the sun withdraws its light from the earth, but that primeval night or darkness from which all created nature had its commencement. And if Buto represented darkness the companion of chaos, or ' night the genesis of all things,' another goddess claimed the post of night, who, under the name of Athor, received the sun into her arms, as he retired behind the western mountain, of which she was the presiding deity. Porphyry and others seem to confound the two, and supposed Latona to be the atmosphere, which appears light and dark beneath the moon ; deriving the name of Leto from the forgetfulness caused by sleep during the night, over which they suppose her to preside. This, like many other mysteries, being clothed by the Egyptian priests in the guise of a popular 1 Herodot. ii. 67. 2 Plut. Sympos. iv. quaest. 5. 3 Gen. i. 2 and 3. 4 Cory, Fragments, p. 320. VOL. III. 5 Hesiod, Theog. v. 123. 6 Metaph. xii. 6. 7 Aristoph. Birds. 8 Cory, Fragments, p. 320. D 34 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. tale, suited to the comprehension of the people, was placed beyond the reach of the uninstructed or the profane; and the sanctity of the mygale was attributed to *the protection it afforded to Latona, who, under its form, eluded the pursuit of Typho. It is this custom of explaining the nature of the gods in two different ways — the one intended for the instruction of the initiated, the other to satisfy the profanum vulgus, who were excluded from all participation in metaphysical truths — which has been the cause of so much apparent contradiction in the character of the Egyptian deities ; and we may readily conceive the labyrinth into which the human mind was led by similar ex- planations. But the object of the priest was obtained by these means : for since they presented no difficulties to the com- prehension of a superstitious people, they had the appearance of truth, and effectually prevented their indulging in speculation upon the religion they were taught to obey. Mut is represented as a female figure wearing on her head the pshent, or double crown, of the Upper and Lower Countries, placed upon a cap ornamented with the head, body, and wings of a vulture. This pshent is not worn by her as by the kings, the one crown placed within the other, but side by side, — a mode of arranging it adopted also by Atmu and some other deities. Instances also occur of Mut with the head of a lion, or of a cat. She probably then has the attributes of Bast or Bubastis, or of Thriphis above mentioned. But it is frequently difficult to ascertain whether these heads are those of a lion or of a cat ; even the ears are not always a sufficient guide, though generally the latter are erect and pointed, and the others round. Some black basalt sitting figures in the British Museum, and other European collections, represent the Egyptian Bubastis, 4 No. 506. Various forms of the name of Bast or Bubastis. whose name frequently occurs in Lower Egypt over a goddess with a lion's head. Above is the form of the name Bubastis, fig. 4. This goddess was principally worshipped in the Delta and Lower Egypt. Great honours were also paid her in the Upper Chap. XIII. J BAST, BUBASTIS, DIANA. 35 Country, and at Thebes her figure holds a conspicuous place among the contemplar deities. The city of Bubastis, where she was particularly adored, stood east of the Delta, and at a short distance from the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, where lofty mounds, called Tel Basta, still mark its site. 'Here/ says Herodotus,1 'is a temple of Bubastis deserving of mention. Other temples are larger and more magnificent, but none more beautiful than this. The goddess Bubastis is the same as the Greek Diana. Her temple stands in an is- land surrounded on all sides by water, except at the entrance passage. Two separate canals lead from the Nile to the entrance, which diverging to the right and left, surround the temple. They are about 100 feet broad, and planted with trees. The vestibule is 10 orgyai, or fathoms, high, orna- mented with very fine figures six cubits in height. The temple stands in the centre of the town, and in walk- ing round the place you look down upon it on every side, in consequence of the foundations of the houses having been elevated, and the temple still continuing on its original level. The sacred enclosure is encompassed by a wall, on which a great number of figures are sculptured ; and within it is a grove, planted round the cella of the temple, with trees of a considerable height. In the cella is the statue of the goddess. The sacred enclosure is a stadium (600 feet) in length by the same in breadth. The street which corresponds with the entrance of the temple crosses the public square, goes to the east, and leads to the temple of Mercury : it is about three stades long and four plethra (400 feet) large, paved,2 and planted on either side with large trees.' Bubastis is represented with the head of a lioness or a cat, and to her the latter was peculiarly sacred. On her head she bears a Bronze figures of Bast. No. 507. British Museum. 1 Herodot. ii. 138. 2 At Dimmay or Nerba, in the Fyoom, is a paved causeway leading through the town to the temple, though smaller than this of Bubastis. D 2 36 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. disk, from which rises the uraeus, or royal asp, and in her hand she holds the usual sceptre of the Egyptian goddesses. From the difficulty above stated of distinguishing between the cat and the lion-headed figures, doubts sometimes arise respecting the form of the Egyptian Diana : though it appears that she took the head of both those animals. The goddess of the Speos Artemidos 1 is represented in the hieroglyphics by a lioness ;2 and if it be true to H No. 508. Se^et and Menhi, forms of Bast. that the wolf and jackal were dedicated to one deity, Anubis, we can with equal reason suppose the lion and cat to have been emblems of the goddess.3 In the bronze figures of Bast more care seems to have been taken to distinguish between the lion and the cat, the head of the latter being evidently given to this goddess. They some- times represent her holding a sistrum in her right hand, and in 1 ' Egypt and Thebes,' p. 379. 2 * Materia Hierog.' No. 3. 3 The head of the goddess is not that of a cat, but a lion, alluding to the arseno- thelic or male and female nature of the goddess. She only appears with the head of a cat at a later period, and then prin- cipally in small votive bronzes. — S. B. Chap. XIII.] BAST. 37 IP ?! 1 1 1 A MJ her left the head of a lion surmounted by a disk and asp ; some- times with a basket upon her arm : but they are frequently of a late date, and the attributes they present are less to be depended upon than the sculptures of the ancient monuments. One of the principal festivals of the Egyptians was held at Bubastis in honour of Bast ; and Herodotus 1 considers that they took a greater interest in it than in any of the numerous fetes annually celebrated in Egypt. * This,' says the his- torian, ' is the nature of the ceremony on the way to Bu- bastis. They go by water, and numerous boats are crowded with persons of both sexes. During the voyage, several women strike the crotala ;2 some men play the flute ; the rest singing and clapping their hands. As they pass near a town, they bring the boat close to the bank. Some of the women continue to sing and play the crotala ; others cry out as long as they can, and utter reproaches against the people of the town, who begin to dance, while the former pull up their clothes before them in a scoffing manner. The same is repeated at every town they pass upon the river. Arrived at Bubastis, they celebrate the festival of Diana, sacrificing a great number of victims ; and on that occasion, a greater consump- tion of wine takes place than during the whole of the year ; for, according to the accounts of the people themselves, no less than 700,000 persons of both sexes are present, besides children.' Bast, or Bubastis, is a member of the great triad of Memphis, and the usual companion of Ptah ; by whom she is said, in the No. 509. Bast. I. 'Mut-Uati.' 2. 'Ur.t.hek.' 3. ' Mut dwelling in the house of Rah, mistress of Heaven, regent of Earth.' 5. ' Menhi, regent of ^enta.' 1 Herodot. ii. 59, 60. 2 The crotala were either cymbals, or a sort of clapper of wood or metal — perhaps the same as the cylindrical maces mentioned in vol. i. p. 454. ix. 13 :— * Nile, tuus tibicen erat Phillis.' Conf. Propert. iv. Eleg. crotalistria 38 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. hieroglyphic legends, to be ' beloved.' Herodotus considers her the daughter of Bacchus (Osiris l) and Isis. Were this true, she could not hold a rank among the eight great deities, but among those of the third or even fourth order ; and his assertion is fully disproved by the exalted character she bears in the temples of Thebes. This error I believe to have arisen from the supposed identity of Horus (the son of Osiris) and the sun, or the Apollo of the Greeks, whose sister Diana was reputed to be. Horus the Elder, whom they called Aroeris, was brother of Osiris, and said to be the same as the sun ; whence he also was considered by the Greeks to answer to Apollo. But it was the younger Horus who was the son of Isis and Osiris, and he had no sister ; nor, indeed, could Bubastis have been the sister of the Egyptian Aroeris. Another mistake respecting this goddess arose from the idea that Isis was the same as the moon ; and the relation- ship of Isis and her brother Aroeris confirmed the Greeks in this erroneous fancy. Isis, however, was distinct from the moon ; she was in no way connected with Bubastis ; and the latter goddess was not the representative of that luminary. Ovid has reported the fabulous story of the Egyptian Diana (if, indeed, she can be called by that name) assuming the form of a cat, to avoid the enmity of Typho.2 But Juvenal has banished her from the Pantheon of Egypt : 1 Oppida tota canem vene- rantur, nemo Dianam;' not, as the learned Prichard supposes, because ' her worship had been discontinued, or had sunk into obscurity, before Egypt fell under the Koman yoke,' but because Juvenal, in common with so many other persons who visited the country, was ignorant of the nature of its religion. The Greeks, indeed, gave to Diana three different characters. As the moon, she was Lucina ; as goddess of the chase, Diana ; as a deity of the lower regions, Proserpine or Hecate : hence the poets styled her triformis ; and they sometimes represented her with three heads 3 — that on the right being of a horse, that on the left of a dog, and that in the middle of a wild boar — though Pausanias 4 thinks this custom neither ancient nor universal. But the form and attributes of nearly all the Greek deities were very un- certain ; and Cicero has shown how confused were their genea- logies and origin. He even confesses that the mode of represent- ing them depended on the caprice of painters and fabulists,5 1 Herodot. ii. 156. 2 Ovid, Met. lib. v. 330. 3 Virg. Mn. lib. iv. 511. 4 Paus. in Corinth, c. 30. 5 Cicero, de Nat. Deor. Chap. XIII.] BAST. 39 who committed the palpable absurdity of representing the gods subject to anger, lust, and other bad passions, and exposed to the infirmities of human nature. [Formerly the name of this goddess was read Pasht, but recent researches have demonstrated that the true reading is Sekhet ; and in the sculptures the lion-headed goddesses have various names : as * Sekhet the great Merenptah,' 1 or beloved of Ptah, * mistress of the heaven/ and ' Sekhet the great Urhek,' 2 or ' Menh-Sekhet.'3 She is also connected with Mut, and then styled ' Mut dwelling in the abode of Ptah, mistress of the heaven, regent of the earth, and Mut-Uati, Ur.t-hek, also Menh, resident on the earth.' Sekhet has been supposed to symbolise the devouring fury of the sun, and punished the damned in the Egyptian Hades, while on earth she performed the part of Bellona. As wife of Ptah, Sekhet was the mother of JNefer Atum, and formed the second personage of the Memphite triad. Allied with her was her sister Bast, in the same way as Isis was connected with Nephthys, except that Bast represented at a later period the vegetation of the two countries.4 Her mixed nature is described in the Kitual, where she is figured as the Mother, or Mut, having three heads, one that of a lioness, pxa^ naving plumes ; another that of a man wearing the jpshent ; and another of a vulture, phallic, having wings, and the claws of a lion.5 — S. B.] The idea of a connection existing between Pasht and Hecate seems to be in some degree authorised by the sculptures of the Egyptian temples, since we find the hieroglyphical name of the latter attached to the goddess before us ; 6 and the character and title of Hecate were also applied to Mut and Isis. Another reason that the moon in the Egyptian mythology could not be related to Bubastis is, that it was a male and not a female deity, personified in the god Thoth. This was also the case in some religions of the West. The Bomans recognised the god Lunus ; and the Germans, like the Arabs to this day, con- sider the moon masculine, and not feminine, as were the Selene and Luna of the Greeks and Latins. Neith, the Egyptian Minerva, was particularly worshipped at Sais7 in the Delta. Pausanias 8 pretends that Minerva at Thebes 1 Woodcut No. 508, lines 1, 2. 2 Line 3. 3 Line 4. 4 Pierret, 1 Diet. d'Arch. Egypt.,' p. 89. 5 Lepsius, Todt., lxxix. c. 164, 11. 12, 13. The vignette does not correspond. 6 Woodcut No. 509, hierog. 2. 7 Cicero is correct in saying, 1 Minerva secunda, orta Nilo, quam ^Egyptii Saitae colunt.' (Nat. Deor. iii. p. 248.) 8 Pausanias, Ixxi. c. 12. 40 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. was styled Onka,1 which is a Phoenician and not an Egyptian name ; but it was also one of her names in Egypt, written Onk or Anq [j This, however, was the name of her city in the Delta; and it is evident that she was called Neith both in the Upper and Lower Country ; and Plato and Erato- sthenes are correct in stating this to be her Egyptian name. 1 2 3 1 2 3 No. 510. Nat (Neith). 1, 3. ' Neith.' 2. 1 Neith, great mistress of Heaven.' 'There is,' says the former, 'a certain nome of Egypt in the Delta, called Sai'tic, whose capital is the city of Sais, the birth- place of King Amasis. The founder of this city was a goddess, whom the Egyptians call Neith ; the Greeks, Minerva ; 2 and its inhabitants are very much attached to the Athenians, to whom 1 What Pausanias says is, ' As to those who think that Cadmus, who came to Thebes, was an Egyptian, and not a Phoenician, the name of this Minerva is opposed to their statement ; for she is called Siga, Saka, in the Phoenician language, and not Sais, as in the Egyptian.' That Onka (yOyK•* t: In hieroglyphics, the name of Neith is usually composed of the following character, or » accompanied by the half circle and egg, the female signs, or by two half circles ; and an instance occurs at Esneh of the word written with the bowl, or basket ^^^^ / though this last is uncommon, and of Eoman time. Her figure is frequently represented at Esneh, where, Strabo says, Minerva and the Latus fish were particularly worshipped. Plutarch2 shows that he misunderstands the character of Neith, when he attributes to Isis the inscription in the temple of Minerva, ' I am everything which has been, which is, and which will be, and no mortal has yet lifted up my veil ; ' for though Isis may frequently have taken the attributes of Neith and of other deities, they were always kept distinct in the Egyptian Pantheon. In another place,3 he says, * Isis is frequently called, by the Egyptians, Athena? signify- ing, in their language, " I proceeded from myself;" ' from which the Greeks probably borrowed the idea of that goddess being born without a mother. But Athena was not her Egyptian name ; and she was not, as already observed, the same as Isis. Neith was to Sais what Amen was to Thebes. The names of several monarchs of the 26th Dynasty contained the legend of the Egyptian Minerva ; and in the sacred precincts of her temple were buried all the kings of that Saite family. Neith was represented as a female wearing the crown of the Lower Country, and holding in her hand the hooked staff of the gods, or the usual flower-headed sceptre of the goddesses, sometimes with the addition of a bow and arrows; being, as Proclus5 tells us, the goddess of war as well as of philosophy, Keith with water No. 512. 1 In either case they read Nt, Neit, or 4 This may have been corrupted from Nith. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 9. one of the Egyptian titles of Isis. 3 Ibid. s. 62. 5 Proclus in Timaeum. Chap. XIII.] KEITH. 43 and bearing some resemblance in her attributes to the Minerva of Greece. She was styled the ' Mother of the Gods/ or 'Goddess Mother/ though distinct from Mut ; and Porphyry, as quoted by Macrobius,1 considers her * that virtue of the sun which administers prudence to the human mind.' Clemens mentions a peculiarity in her worship — * that the wisest of the Egyptian priests es- tablished the sanctuary of Minerva in the open air, as the Jews made their temple without any image ;' 2 which, if true, might appear to have some connection with the statement of Horapollo, that this goddess ' presided over the upper, as Juno over the lower, hemisphere.' Diodorus 3 thinks that she was a deified personification of the air, 'the daughter of Jove, and deemed a virgin because air is of an incorruptible nature.' He also derives the fable of her being produced from Jupiter's head, from her elevated position above the world ; as her name Tritogeneia from her thrice changing her nature — in spring, summer, and winter, the three seasons of the Egyptian year. Lions were said to be sacred to her, as to the Cybele of the Phrygians ; and the vulture is supposed by some to have been emblematic of the Egyp- tian Minerva. [The name of the goddess Nit, or Neith, written with the determinative of a shuttle, shows that her name meant ' the weaver/ and referred to her character as the inventor of the art of weaving. She formed one of the Theban triad, being the antithesis or double of the goddess Mut; hence she is occasionally called the female Amen. Another of her characters was the same as the goddess Hathor, being styled ' the cow which gave birth to the sun, her first born;' and as such she is the mother of Ea. Considered as the Minerva, she often holds in her hand a bow and arrows, or instructs monarchs in the use of them. Although the tesher or red cap was especially her emblem as goddess of the lower world, she is occasionally termed the mistress of the upper world. At Esneh Caracalla is seen reaping in her presence, but in what mystic sense does not A form of Neith. No. 513. 1 Macrob. Saturn, i. 19. with the construction of the Parthenon. 2 Clem. Strom, v. p. 155. Compare this * Diodor. i. 12. 44 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. appear.1 Occasionally she is seen suckling two crocodiles. They are the children of Neith.2 Her green colour alluded to her terrestrial functions. — S. B.] In mentioning the remaining gods, it is not my intention to point out the order of the twelve secondary deities, and thence proceed to those of the third order. I shall therefore follow, as nearly as possible, the arrangement adopted in my ' Materia Hieroglyphica,' after I have noticed the god Ka, the physical sun, whom I had there placed among the eight great deities of Egypt. The worship of Ea, the physical sun, appears to have been universal throughout Egypt. The name of this deity was pronounced Ka; and, with the definite article Pi prefixed, it was the same as Phrah, or, as we erroneously call it, Pharaoh, of Scripture, — Pire, in the Theban dialect, being written at Memphis Phre. I have already noticed3 the origin of the title Phrah, Pharaoh, given in the Bible to the kings of Egypt, and have shown that the Hebrew word Phrah4 is no other than the Memphitic name of the sun, Phre, pronounced Phra, which is still retained in the Coptic Pi-re. I have also shown that the hawk and globe, emblems of the sun, are placed over the banners or the figures of the kings in the sculptures to denote this title, and that Amen and other deities are often seen pre- senting the sign of life or power to the monarch under this emblem. ' In every case,' as I have observed, * it will read Phre ; and if Hermapion, in his translation of the obelisk of Barneses, given by Ammianus Marcellinus, had used the word "sun" instead of "Apollo," the sense would have been much better. ' It is singular that the Greeks never mention the title Phre, or Pharaoh, as we term it ; and I can only account for this by supposing that they translated it wherever it occurred, as is the case in Hermapion's translation of the obelisk, where in the third column, instead of "the powerful Apollo," we ought to read " the powerful Phre, Pharaoh,5 the all-splendid son of the 1 Pierret, ' Diet. d'Arch. Egypt.,' p. 363; 5 Josephus supposes this name to be taken Birch, 'Gall, of Antiq.' p. 12. from Phouro, 'the king,' in Egyptian ; but 2 'Records of the Past,' iv. p. 110. though Phouro has this meaning, it is not 3 ' Materia Hierog.,' Pantheon, pp. 6, 109, the word used for Pharaoh either in Hebrew and ' Hierog. Extracts,' p. 6. 1 think it or Egyptian. [The word Pharaoh is sup- right to allude particularly to my mention posed now to be the Egyptian per aa, or of this as early as the year 1827, as it has per aa anx, the 'great house,' or 'great since appeared as a new observation. house of life,' an expression which, like our 4 n'V")S, $apa— 1 Implevitque mero pateram, quam Belus et omnes A Belo soliti ' — says, 'Lingua Punici Bal Deus dicitur, apud Assyrios autem Bel dicitur.' 4 [Written in Punic Hnbal ; in Hebrew characters, ^V33H. — G. W.] 5 In his fourth book on the Gods of the World. 8 Pint, de lsid. s. 6. 54 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. ' Those who minister to the god of Heliopolis never carry any wine into the temple, — looking upon it as indecent to drink it during the day, when under the immediate inspection of their lord and king. The priests of the other deities are not altogether so scrupulous on this point ; making use of it, though sparingly ; unless at some of their more solemn purifications, when they wholly abstain from it. Indeed, they give themselves up wholly to study and meditation, hearing and teaching those truths which regard the divine nature/ This, however, does not appear to refer to the ordinary libations made to the sun, which were doubtless of wine* as the usual drink-offerings presented to the gods, but to a regulation which prevented the priests from indulging in the use of wine, and we find abundant proofs, from the sculptures in other places, of its having been offered to the sun. Plutarch continues to observe, that 'even the kings them- selves, being of the order of priests, have their wine given them according to a certain measure prescribed in the sacred books, as we are told by Hecataeus ; and it is only since the reign of Psammatichus that this indulgence has been granted them : for before that time they drank no wine at all ; and if they made use of it in their libations to the gods, it was not because they looked upon it as in its own nature acceptable, but as the blood of those enemies who formerly fought against them, which, being mixed with the earth, produced the vine : and hence they think that drinking wine in quantities makes men mad, being filled with the blood of their own ancestors. These things are related by Eudoxus, in the second book of his Tour, as he had them from the priests themselves/ The assertion, however, respecting the prohibition of wine, previous to the time of Psammatichus, is erroneous ; and I have already shown that the kings and priests were permitted its use at the earliest periods, as the sculptures abundantly prove, as well as the Scriptural account of Pharaoh's butler.1 It was of Heliopolis, or On, that Potipherah2 was a priest, whose daughter Asenath was given in marriage to Joseph ; and ■ the name of that person is evidently ^ J "* ' Compounded Of Phre Or Phrah, 4 the Name of Potipherah, Pet-phra, or Pet-ra. Sun,' and answers to the Egyptian Pet- phra, or Heliodotus, which in hieroglyphics would be thus written : 1 Gen. xl. 11. 2 Gen. xli. 45. Chap. XIII.] EENOWN OF HELIOPOLIS. 55 The priests of the sun at Heliopolis, like those of Thebes and Memphis, were celebrated for their learning ; and it was to this city that Plato, Eudoxus, and other Greek sages repaired, in order to study ' the wisdom of the Egyptians and 'Pythagoras,' according to Plutarch,1 'was the disciple of Oinuphis the Heli- opolite.' Astronomy and all branches of science were studied at Heliopolis : and the priests of the sun enjoyed the greatest repu- tation for learning. Their city, though small, was the university of Egypt; and near it was an observatory, which Strabo2 at- tributes to Eudoxus, but which we may conclude with greater reason belonged of old to the city, whither he had gone from Greece to study the secrets of the Egyptian wisdom. In the time of the geographer, the reputation of this seat of learning had already declined ; the spacious mansions in which the priests lived were pointed out to him as objects of bygone days ; and the inhabitants spoke of the former sojourn of learned men among them. The colleges, as well as the doctrines they taught, no longer existed in Heliopolis ; nor was anyone shown to him who occupied himself in the pursuits of former times. Alexandria was the seat of learning at that period : philosophy seemed to have sought an abode and patronage near the court ; even its obelisks were removed with its learning from Heliopolis, and all that could give it splendour or celebrity was taken to the new city. The hawk, as before stated, was peculiarly sacred to the sun. Herodotus also mentions a bird called the Phoenix, of which he gives the following account : 3 — ' I have never seen it but in a painting, for it seldom makes its appearance, and, if we may believe the Heliopolitans, it only visits their country once every 500 years, on the death of its father. If it is like its picture, its wings are partly gold, partly red, and its general appearance is similar to an eagle, both in form and size. They relate a peculiarity respecting it, which to me appears incredible. It comes, as the Egyptians say, from Arabia, bringing with it the body of its father enveloped in myrrh, and buries it in the temple of the sun. For this purpose it makes a mass of myrrh into the form of an egg, of the weight which it thinks itself capable of carrying, and having raised it and found it portable, it proceeds to hollow out the mass; and then introducing the 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 10. 2 Strabo, xvii. p. 555. 3 Herodot. ii. 73. 56 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. body of its father, and closing the orifice with myrrh, the egg is found to be of the same weight as when solid ; and this being done, it brings it to Egypt and deposits it in the temple of the sun.' ' The Phoenix of Arabia,' says Pliny,1 ' surpasses all other birds ; but I do not know if it be a fable that there is only one in the whole world, and that seldom seen. According to report, it is the size of an eagle, of a gold colour about the neck, the rest being purple, its .tail blue, varied with red feathers, its face and head richly feathered, with a tuft on the top. Manilius observes that no man ever saw it feeding ; that in Arabia it is held sacred to the sun ; that it lives 660 years, and when it grows old it builds a nest with twigs of cassia and frankincense, and, having filled it with aromatics, dies upon it. A worm is afterwards produced from its bones and marrow, which, having become a young bird, carries the entire nest to the city of the sun, near Panchaea, and there deposits it on the altar. Manilius also says that the revolution of the great year agrees with the life of this bird, in which the seasons and stars return to their first places ; beginning at noon on the day when the sun enters Aries.' This imaginary bird, of which so many tales have been handed down to a late period, is frequently represented in the paintings and sculptures of the temples of Egypt, though without appearing peculiarly emblematic of, or sacred to, the sun. It occurs in the ornamental details of cornices, friezes, and other parts of buildings, at the bases of columns, and on the sails of ships ; and sometimes a monarch is seen presenting it as an offering to the gods.2 According to Horapollo,3 it was the emblem of one who had returned home after travelling over distant countries ; and it was therefore very properly chosen to ornament monuments erected by the victorious monarchs of Egypt, after achieving conquests that shed a lustre over their names, and claimed the congratulations of a grateful country for their safe return. The Egyptian Phoenix is represented under the form of a bird with wings partly raised, and seated upon its open claws, having at the back of its head a small tuft of feathers similar to that of the crested plover,4 so common in 1 Plin. x. 2. 2 [This is really the ' pure soul ' of the king. The Phoenix seems to be the Bennu, or Ardea, sacred to Osiris. — G. W.] 3 Horapollo, i. 35. * This bird appears rather to represent 1 intelligence,' or in the plural * intelli- gences ' or ' intelligent beings,' as unen meant ' visible things,' and enti, ' invisible things.' It is doubtful if it is the Phoenix Chap. XIIL] THE PHCENIX. 57 Egypt ; and in front it raises two human arms as if in an attitude of prayer. But it may be doubted if this be the same whose picture Herodotus mentions ; and from the slight description he gives of it, we might rather suppose he had in view the hawk, which was the emblem of Ea, and which is seen on obelisks and other monuments, whether dedicated to the sun or other deities. They sometimes represent the Phoenix under the form of a man with wings, in the same attitude of prayer, and bearing the tuft of feathers on his head,1 accompanied also by a star, which, as I have observed, seems to have been connected with the idea of adoration. Of its name in the Egyptian language we are ignorant. Ovid says, i the Assyrians call it Phoenix ; ' and from this bird and the palm-tree having the same name in Greek, we are sometimes in doubt to which of the two ancient writers in that language allude, as in the case of the phoinika,2 carried in the hand of the Horoscopus, mentioned by Clemens. Pliny even pretends that the bird received its name from the palm.3 In the time of Herodotus, as the learned Larcher observes, the notion of the Phoenix rising from its ashes had not yet been entertained. Suidas, who flourished about the tenth century, states that from its ashes issued a worm which changed itself into a Phoenix ; and the early fathers of the Greek and Latin Church availed themselves of this accredited fable as a proof of the resurrection.4 But though the story of its rising from its ashes may have been a late invention, the Phoenix itself was of very ancient date, being found on monuments erected about the commencement of the 18th Dynasty. And we even find mention of this long-lived bird in the Book of Job.5 This, at least, is the opinion of Bede, who, in accordance with the Septuagint trans- lation of the word we render ' sand/ reads, i I shall die in my nest, and shall multiply my days as the Phoenix : ' and Prichard, which is represented by a kind of heron with two tufts behind its head, and is called Bennu, the same word as phoin-ix ; and in the Ritual the mystical interpreta- tion given to it is, 1 The Bennu is Osiris ; in An or Heliopolis, the verifier or reckoner of things visible and invisible is his body,' or 1 it is an age and eternity.' (Lepsius, 1 Todt.', c. 17, 11. 10, 11.) Aim, or « age,' is the day, eternity is the night. The Phoenix cycles, or periods, are supposed to represent the time required for the wanderings of the soul, to purification, of 1500 and 500 years. (Lepsius, 'Einleit.,' p. 196.)— S. B. 1 Conf. Plin. x. 2, and xi. 37. 2 &OIVIKO.. 3 Plin. xiii. 4. 4 Ambrosius says: 'Phoenix avis in Arabiae locis perhibetur .... doceat igitur nos haec avis exemplo sui resurrectionem credere.' (Hexamer. lib. v. c. 23.) It is also celebrated by Lactantius, Gregory Nazianzenus, and Tertullian. 5 Job xxix. 18. The Hebrew name is ?^n, Hoi or Khol, which also means 'sand,' as in our Version. The Septuagint has 58 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. Gesenius, and others allude to the same interpretation of the passage. Several ancient writers mention the periodical return of the Phoenix : some agreeing with Herodotus in fixing it at about 800 years ; while others state it to have been 660, 600, 500, 340, or 1460. ' Various,' says Tacitus,1 * are the opinions respecting the number of years. They most commonly allow 500, though some extend the interval to 1461, and assert that the bird appeared in the age of Sesostris, of Amasis, and the third Ptolemy.' But these two periods do not agree : that from Sesostris (or Kameses the Great) to Amasis being about 780 years ; that from Amasis to Ptolemy III. about 330. Some have thought that, by the Phoenix, the Egyptians intended to indicate the appearance of comets ; and I have seen a paper written to prove that the average 2 number of years assigned to the return of the Phoenix corresponded to the great comet of 1680. Without however assenting to the opinion of Seneca3 — who thinks, 'because Eudoxus, having studied in Egypt, and thence introduced into Greece the knowledge of the motions of the planets, took no notice of comets, that the Egyptians, the greatest observers of celestial phenomena, had not attended to this part of the subject,' — I must confess that the reappearance of the Phoenix appears rather to indicate, as Pliny, on the authority of Manilius, supposes, the return of a certain period. And the mention of the number 1461 argues strongly in favour of the opinion that the Sothic period was the real Phoenix of Egypt. This, as I have elsewhere shown, was the number of years that elapsed before the solar year of 365 days coin- cided with the Sothic or fixed year of 365J days. It was also called the Great Year of the Egyptians, at the end of which all the planets returned to the same place they occupied at its commencement. [The name of Ka is supposed to mean ' disposer,' as the deity who made the cosmos out of the material given by Ptah. He is also supposed to be fire, and existence or ' to-day,' the present. His worship was at the earliest period, and was universal ; and during his passage through the hours of the day and night he assumed the types of all the principal solar deities who were associated or identified with him. He was the great god, lord of the heaven, born of the great cow of 1 Tacit. Annal. vi. 28. Sen. Ep. 42. 2 The average of 600 and 540 years is taken by the writer, being 575. 3 Sen. Nat. Quaest. lib. vii. c. 3. Chap. XIII.] SEB, SATUEN. 59 Hathor or Neith, and resident or dwelling in the solar orb ; the great victorious god of the disk, the creator of the mun- dane egg, and the one proceeding out of the nu, or celestial waters. In his transformations he assumed the form of the lion, cat, and hawk. The battle in heaven with the gigantic Apap, or great serpent ; his final triumph, and strangling of the dragon, and his diurnal renewal of the fray, formed the subject of the walls of the tombs and sarcophagi at the time of the 18th and subsequent dynasties. His name is found in a cartouche as one of the divine rulers of primitive Egypt, after Ptah, of whom he was the son, according to the Memphite tradition. This myth is so extensive in its bearings that only the principal facts of it can be given in the present work.1— S. B.] Seb,2 the father of Isis and Osiris, was supposed to be the same as Saturn, probably from his having the title ' Father of the Gods/ This, however, referred to his being the parent of the deities above mentioned, and not to any resemblance he bore to the sire of J ove ; for the Saturn of Egypt, ' the father of Osiris,' was said to be ' the youngest of the gods.' Indeed, the character of Saturn differed essentially from that of the Egyptian Seb ; and the rites of the former, when introduced by the Ptolemies, were looked upon by the Egyptians to be so much at variance with their religious notions, that his temple, like that of Sarapis, was not admitted within the precincts of their cities ; and it was not without compulsion that the worship of these two deities was tolerated by the people. Macrobius says : 1 Through the tyranny of the Ptolemies they were obliged to receive those gods into their worship, after the manner of the Alexandrians, by whom they were particularly adored ; ' 3 the opposition made to their introduction being, as he thinks, in consequence of the novel custom of slaying victims in their honour. He states that it was not lawful for the Egyptians to propitiate the gods by sheep and blood, but with prayers and incense only ; and Porphyry4 expresses a similar opinion, when he says, * Those in earlier times who performed sacrifices offered herbs, flowers, and trees, or incense of aromatic substances ; for it was unlawful to slay animals.' ' Among the offerings 5 made 1 Birch, 1 Gall, of Antiq.,' p. 24 ; Pierret, 1 Diet. d'Arch.,' p. 468 ; Brugsch, ' Gesch. Aegypt.,' p. 30 ; Lepsius, ' Ueber den ersten Gotterkreis.'— S. B. 2 Chronos, or Time. 3 Macrobius, Saturn, i. 4. 4 Porphyry, de Abstinentia, lib. ii. 4 ' Materia Hieroglyphica,' p. 15. 60 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. to the Egyptian deities, libations and incense hold, it is true, a prominent place, as well as flowers, fruit, and other productions of the soil ; but geese, and other birds, gazelles, capricorns, the legs and bodies of oxen or of the wild goat, and, what is still more remarkable, the head of the victim, are also placed before them : ' 1 and thus the reason given by Macrobius is fully dis- proved. Herodotus also tells us that the oxen, after having been examined by a priest and marked with his seal, were led to the No. 516. Seb, father of the gods. altar and sacrificed ; and this is fully confirmed by the sculptures in every part of Egypt. I shall not here stop to inquire if really, in early times, the Egyptians or other ancient people contented themselves with offerings of herbs, incense, and libations, and abstained from sacrifices of victims. This, if it ever was the case, could only have been in their infancy as a nation ; and it is more probable, as I have already observed, that the kind of offering considered most acceptable to the deity, which was ' a firstling of the flock/ had been established and handed down 1 'Materia Hieroglyphica,' p. 16. Chap. XIII.] THE CHILDKEN OF SEB. 61 from the very earliest period, as a type of the destined perfect propitiation for sin, which man was taught to expect. The story of the birth of the children of Saturn, mentioned by Plutarch,1 abounds with contradictions. 'Shea,' who is Nut, ' having had intercourse with Saturn by stealth, was discovered by the sun, who thereupon denounced a curse upon her ' that she should not be delivered in any month or year.' Mercury, however, being likewise in love with the same goddess, in recompense for the favours which he had received from her, played at tables2 with the moon, and won from her the seventieth part of each of her illuminations. These several parts, making in the whole five new days, he afterwards joined together, and added to the 360, of which the year formerly consisted ; which days, therefore, are even yet called by the Egyptians the epact, or superadded, and observed by them as the birthdays of their gods. For upon the first of them, they say, was Osiris born, at whose entrance into the world a voice was heard, saying, " The lord of all the earth is born." .... Upon the second was Aroeris born, whom some call Apollo, and others distinguish by the name of the Elder Horus. Upon the third, Typho came into the world ; being born neither at the proper time, nor by the right place, but forcing his way through a wound which he had made in his mother's side. Isis was born upon the fourth, in the marshes of Egypt ; as Nephthys upon the last, whom some call Teleute and Aphrodite, and others Nike. Now, as to the fathers of these children, the two first of them (Osiris and Aroeris) are said to have been begotten by the sun, Isis by Mercury, Typho 3 and Nephthys by Saturn; and accordingly the third of these superadded days, because it was looked upon as the birthday of Typho, was regarded by the kings as inauspicious, and conse- quently they neither transacted any business on it,4 nor even suffered themselves to take any refreshment until the evening. They further add, that Typho married Nephthys ; and that Isis having a fond affection for Osiris while they were yet together in their mother's womb, became pregnant by her brother, and from this commerce sprang Aroeris, whom the Egyptians likewise call the Elder Horus, and the Greeks Apollo.' According to this account, Osiris was the son of Nut, or Khea, by the sun ; Isis, by Mercury : how, then, could they be twins ? And * Saturn,' 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 12. 2 Uerrcla. * An unlucky day. Some persons are 3 The word Typho is to be preferred to equally superstitious about unlucky days, Typhon. even in these enlightened times. 62 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. we are told by Plutarch, ' intrusted the care of the child Osiris to Paamyles ; ' which could not reasonably be expected, unless he were his own son. Were Plutarch our only guide, we might remain in uncertainty upon the subject ; but fortunately the hieroglyphics solve the difficulty, and establish the claims of Seb (or Saturn) to the title of father of Osiris. Seb is sometimes represented with a goose standing upon his head, which is the initial of his phonetic name; and, in the hieroglyphics, he has the title 'Father of the Gods/ This alludes to his being the father of Osiris, and the other deities born on the days of the epact ; and the frequent occurrence of the formula which the gods are made to utter, ' I give you the years of Seb,' appears to connect this deity with Kronos,1 the Saturn of the Greeks,2 distinct as he was from the Saturn of Koman mythology. His dress, and that of Nut, his consort, are remarkably simple. [Seb was also called the repa or 'heir of the gods/ and, in allusion to the goose, ' the great cackler,' which produced the egg, apparently the mundane one. There was an intimate connection between the name of Seb and the word for star, and he is supposed by some to have represented the planet Saturn. He was not however demiurgic, like Ptah or Khnoum, but of the order of terrestrial gods. — S. B.] 'Nut has frequently been mistaken for Neith, but the hieroglyphics, calling Osiris the son of Nut and Seb, leave no room for further doubt upon the subject.3 It is not altogether impossible that Horapollo may have ascribed to Neith what in reality belongs to the wife of Seb ; since the firmament is her emblem, or, at least, indicates the last syllable4 of her name. Another goddess with whom, from the similarity of name, she might possibly be confounded, is Nephthys; but the sister of Isis differs entirely from the Egyptian Khea; and Tpe, the goddess of the heavens, enclosing the zodiacs, is also distinct from her, as from Neith and Nut. She is sometimes repre- sented with a vase on her head, the initial of her name ; and she frequently occurs in the paintings of the tombs, standing in the sycamore fig-tree, pouring a liquid from a vase, which the deceased and his friends, and even the soul of the former under 1 XpoVos. 2 Macrob. Saturn, i. 5. 3 ' Materia Hierog.,' p. 18 ; and Plate XXV. Hierog. 7. 4 Dr. Young was not wrong in stating that syllables (or, at least, the initial letter for the whole syllable) were used occa- sionally in hieroglyphics — as M for Mai, the hare for owon, and others — independently of the omission of the intermediate vowels between consonants, as in Arabic and Hebrew. 64 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. the form of a bird with a human head, are catching in their hands. Besides this nectar of heaven, she presents them with a basket of fruit from the sacred tree/ It is to Nut that the sycamore was dedicated ; and 'the number of instances I have met with of Nut in this tree1 leave no doubt of the fig, which gave the name of Hierosycaminon to a town of Nubia,2 being sacred to the mother of Osiris.' The representation of this tree at Hierosycaminon is very rude, and of the late era of the Roman empire : if, therefore, the goddess seated beneath it has rather the character of Isis, or of Athor, than of Nut, the authority of such a period is of little weight ; and we have abundant proofs from the oldest monuments, that the sycamore was consecrated to Nut, as the Persea to Athor. [In Plate XXIV., Nut (fig. 1) is seen in this character, and the in- scription reads, 'Nut, the greatly splendid, in her name of the sycamore neha, I present to thee the fresh water. Refresh thy heart with it ; it is the water which proceeds from Nu,' the deity of the celestial waters or abyss of heaven, the living water of the Egyptian myths. — S. B.] The Athenians had a holy fig-tree, which grew on the ' sacred road,' where, during the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries, the procession which went from Athens to Eleusis halted. This was on the sixth day of the ceremony, called Iacchus, in honour of the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who accompanied his mother in her search for Proserpine ; but the fig-tree of Athens does not appear to have been borrowed from the sycamore of Egypt, unless it were in consequence of its connection with the mother of Isis and Osiris, whom they supposed to correspond to Ceres and Bacchus. In one of the hieroglyphic legends given in the plate,3 Nut appears to be identified with Lucina, and to preside over births and nursing. Indeed, it is probable that mothers looked to her for protection, being the fabled parent of their favourite deities Isis and Osiris, from which she derived the title ' Mother 1 This is one of the vignettes of the Book of the Dead, or Ritual, appearing in the 38th chapter, that of drinking the waters in Hades. Nut also represented the female nature of the dual element of water con- sidered as male and female. The corre- sponding male deity was Nu, or, as it is possible to read the name, Han, and then the name of Nut, Han.t. — S. B. 2 Now Maharraka, or Oofideena. 3 Plate XXIV., hierog. No. 2, from Denderah. [The inscription reads, 'Nut, mother of the gods, the nurse, having power over the place of new birth, mesxen, holding temples, the chief of bandages/ Hierog. 3 reads, 'Nut, mother of the gods, mistress of heaven.' — S. B.] Chap. XIII.] OSIRIS. 65 of the Gods.' Of the Egyptian Lucina, worshipped at Eileithyia, I shall have occasion to speak hereafter. 'Osiris, in his mysterious character, was the greatest of all the Egyptian deities ; but little is known of those undivulged secrets which the ancients took so much care to conceal. So cautious indeed were the initiated, that they made a scruple even of mentioning him ; ' 1 and Herodotus, whenever he relates anything concerning this deity, excuses himself from uttering his name. His principal office, as an Egyptian deity, was to judge the dead, and to rule over that kingdom where the souls of good men were admitted to eternal felicity.2 Seated on his throne, accompanied by Isis and Xephthys, with the four Genii of Amenti, who stand on a lotus growing from the waters, in the centre of the divine abode, he receives the account of the actions of the deceased, recorded by Thoth. Horus, his son, introduces the deceased into his presence, bringing with him the tablet of Thoth, after his actions have been weighed in the scales of Truth. To Anubis, who is styled the director of the weight,' belongs this duty ; and, assisted by Horus, he places in one scale the feather or the figure of Thmei, the goddess of Truth, and in the other a vase emblematic of the virtuous actions of the judged. A Cynocephalus, the emblem of the ibis-headed god, sits on the upper part of the balance; and Cerberus, the guardian of the palace of Osiris, is present. Sometimes also Harpocrates, the symbol of resuscitation and a new birth, is seated on a crook of Osiris, before the god of letters, — expres- sive of the idea entertained by the Egyptians and other philo- sophers, that nothing created . was ever annihilated ; and that to cease to be was only to assume another form — dissolution being merely the passage to reproduction. Some of the figures of the dead are represented wearing round their necks the same emblem which appears in the scales, after they have passed their ordeal, and are deemed worthy of admission into the presence of Osiris ; the purport of which is, that they are justified by their works, weighed and not 'found wanting.' To men and to women also was given after death the name of Osiris,3 — implying that, in a future state, the virtuous returned to the fountain of all 1 Herodot. passim. Plut. de Isid. s. 21, texts of papyri, however, have this formula; &c. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 79. but then it is uncertain what is their exact 3 Ibid. s. 28. At a later period, no in- age. The form ma xcrM> 'justified* or stance occurs on the tombs or monu- 'truth-speaking,' which was particularly in ments, except in the case of kings, up to relation with Osiris, does not appear till the 12th Dynasty. Some of the oldest the close of the 12th Dynasty.— S. B. VOL. III. F Chap. XIII.] TRANSMIGRATION OF THE SOUL. 67 good, from which they originally emanated ; and that the sonl, being separated from its material envelope, was pure and intel- lectual, divested of all the animal feelings which a distinction of sex might indicate, and free from those impurities or imperfec- tions to which human nature was in this life subject. They also considered the souls of men to be emanations of that divine soul which governed and pervaded the universe ; each eventually re- turning to its divine origin, provided the virtuous course of life it had led in this world showed it to be sufficiently pure to unite with the immaculate nature of the deity. It was their opinion that those which had been guilty of sin were doomed to pass through the bodies of different animals, in order so to purify them that they might be rendered worthy again to mix with the parent soul whence they emanated ; the number and duration of these transmigrations, and the kind of animals through which they passed, depending on the extent of their impieties, and the consequent necessity of a greater or less degree of purification. This doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigration of the soul, was afterwards adopted by Pythagoras, with many other opinions he acquired during his stay in Egypt. The idea of the return of the spirit to the Deity seems also to have been ad- mitted by the Jews, in the time of Solomon ; since we find in Ecclesiastes, ' Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was ; and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it.' 1 The cha- racters of Osiris were numerous,2 as were those of Isis, who was thence called Myrionymus, or 'with 10,000 names.' He was that attribute of the Deity which signified the divine Goodness ; and in his most mysterious and sacred office, as an avatar, or manifestation of the Divinity on earth, he was superior to any even of the eight great gods.3 And though, as Herodotus 1 Eccles. xii. 7. 2 Hence confounded with other deities. (Diodor. i. 25.) 3 The principal types of Osiris are repre- sented in the accompanying Plate XXV. Fig. 1 represents him in his form prior to his death, holding the sceptre, uas or t'am, and the symbol of life, and wearing two ostrich feathers on his head to indicate his being lord of the hall of the two truths. Hierog. 1, 2, are his name, As-ar. Fig. 2 is Osiris in his celestial character, wearing the white crown of the upper world or hemi- sphere, bearded, enveloped in bandages, raer-em hbes, holding the harrier-headed sceptre, uas, the crook, heqa, and whip, nexex, emblem of his rule and dominion. Before him is the pard-skin on a pole, the hieroglyph of the word nem, ' second,' in re- lation to the 1 second life.' Hiei-og. 3 is his name, ' eternal ruler ;' 4, 1 lord of Abut or Abydos.' Fig. 3 represents him as judge of the dead in the Egyptian hall of the two truths in Hades, wearing the atef or cap of the upper world, with two ostrich feathers, holding the crook and whip. His titles, hierog. 5, are, 1 Osiris, lord of the age, bull in the Amenti.' Fig. 4 is Osiris in the same attributes with the head of the Bennu or Phoenix, emblem of his soul. Fig. 5 is Osiris Tat or Tattu, draped, with peculiar face, holding the crook and whip, and wearing a disk, and tvro ostrich- feathers on the goat's horns, haying a 68 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. informs us,1 all the Egyptians did not worship the same gods with equal reverence, the adoration paid to Osiris and Isis was universal, and he considers Isis the greatest of all the divinities of Egypt.2 Of the manner in which the Egyptians supposed this manifestation of the deity in a human form to have taken place, I will not pretend to decide. This was always a profound secret, revealed only to some of those who were initiated into the higher order of mysteries. Suffice it to say, that Osiris was not believed by them to have been a human being, who after death was translated into the order of demigods ; for, as I have already observed, no Egyptian deity was supposed to have lived on earth, and to have been deified after death, as with the Greeks and other people. Pythagoras also borrowed from the Egyptians his notion re- specting emanation. He held that the Deity was the soul which animated all nature — the anima mundi, or soul of the universe — not an external influence, but dwelling within it, as the soul of man within the human body ; and from this universal soul all other gods, as well as the souls of men and other animals, and even of plants, directly proceeded. Plutarch, indeed, attempts to show that the worship of animals in Egypt was borrowed from this idea, when he says, * On the whole, we ought to approve the conduct of those who do not reverence these creatures for their own sakes, but who, looking upon them as the most lively and natural mirrors wherein to behold the divine perfections, and as the instruments and workmanship of the Deity, are led to pay their adoration to that God who orders and directs all things ; concluding, on the whole, that whatever is endued with soul and sensation is more excellent than that which is devoid of those perfections — even than all the gold and precious stones in the universe, though collected into one mass. For it is not in the brilliancy of colour, in the elegance of form, or in the beauty of surface, that the divinity resides. So far from it, those things which never had life, and have not the power of living, are in a much lower degree of estimation than those that once enjoyed existence, though they may since have lost it. But whatever disked urseus on each side. It appears begotten by Seb ; ' 8, same as 6 ; 9 has no from a coffin at Cambridge that the Tat relation to Osiris; 10-13, Osiris Unnefer alone, or emblem of stability, represented or Onnophris, the name in a cartouche to Osiris ; and the emblem of life, anx, the show that he had ruled over Egypt. — S. B. goddesses Isis and Nephthys. The titles 1 Herodot. ii. 42. of the god are, 6, Asar xent Amenti, 'Osiris 2 Ibid. ii. 40. resident in the west ; ' 7, 'Osiris son of Nut, Chap. XIII.] OSIRIS, JUDGE OF THE DEAD. 69 beings are endued with life, and the faculty of seeing, with a principle of voluntary motion in them, and are able to dis- tinguish what belongs to and is proper for them — all these, as Heraclitus says, are to be regarded as the affluxes, or so many portions of that supreme wisdom which governs the universe ; so that the Deity is not less strikingly represented in these, than in images of metal and stone made by the hand of man.' 1 The same is mentioned by Eusebius as the opinion expressed in the old Hermaic books called Genica : 2 * Have you not been informed by the Genica, that all individual souls are emanations from the one soul of the universe ? ' and Porphyry says, * The Egyptians perceived that the divinity not only entered the human body, and that the (divine) soul dwelt not, while on earth, in man alone, but passed in a measure through all animals.' Osiris was called3 the ' manifester of good,' or the 'opener of truth,' and said to be ' full of goodness, grace, and truth.' He appeared on earth to benefit mankind; and after having per- formed the duties he had come to fulfil, and fallen a sacrifice to Typho the evil principle (which was at length overcome by his influence, after his leaving the world), 'he rose again to a new life,'4 and became the judge of mankind in a future state. The dead also, after having passed their final ordeal and been ab- solved from sin, obtained in his name, which they then took, the blessings of eternal felicity. The title ' manifester of good ' accords well with what Plutarch5 says of Osiris, that he was a 1 This doctrine is well described by Virgil (^En. vi. 724) in the following beautiful lines : — 1 Principio ccelum, ac terras, camposque liquentes Lucentemque globum lunae, Titaniaque astra, Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet. Inde hominum pecudumque genus, vi- taeque volantum, Et quae marmoreo fert monstra sub aequore pontus. Igneus est ollis vigor, et coelestis origo Seminibus. ..... Quin et supremo cum lumine vita re- liquit, Non tamen omne malum miseris, nec funditus omnes Corporeae excedunt pestes ; penitusque necesse est Malta diu concreta modis inolescere miris. Ergo exercentur pcenis, veterumque malorum Supplicia expendunt. Donee longa dies perfecto temporis orbe Concretam exemit labem, purumque reliquit ^Ethereum sensum, atque aural simplicis ignem. Has omnes, ubi mille rotam volvere per annos, Lethaeum ad fluvium Deus evocat ag- mine magno : Scilicet immemores supera ut convexa revisant, Rursus et incipiant in corpora velle reverti.' 2 Prichard, p. 208. 3 Unnefer, the Greek Onnophris. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 35. 5 Ibid. s. 42. 70 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. ' good being, and sometimes styled Omphis (Onuphis), which signifies a benevolent and beneficent power the word Onuphis being evidently the Egyptian appellation of this god Ouon- nofre, ' the opener of good.' This was his principal title. He was also frequently styled ' President of the West,' ' Lord of Abydus' (which may either be Ebot, Abydus, or Ebt, the East), ' Lord of the World,' < Lord of Life,' ' the Eternal Ruler/ and < King of the Gods.' These, with many others, are commonly found in the hieroglyphic legends accompanying his figure, as may be seen 1 2 3 4 5 No. 517. Some of the titles of Osiris. Thtbes. 1. * Osiris dwelling in Artsu.' 2. ' Osiris, lord of the East,' or ' Abydos.' 3. ' Lord of Taser,' or « Hades. ' 4. 'Kui land.' 5. 'Lord of the living.' 6. • Dwelling in the West.' 7. ' Lord of an aeon,' or' age,' •time.' 8. 'Eternal ruler.' 9. ' Over the circle of the gods,' or 'nine gods.' 10. 'Dwelling in Ku- sat,' or the gateway leading to Hades, region of hell. 11. Imperfect inscription, 'over his crew.' 12. « Osiris, king of the gods.' in the annexed woodcut ; and the papyri frequently present a list of forty-nine names of Osiris in the funeral rituals. The custom of applying the name of Osiris both to men and women who were supposed to partake sufficiently of the qualities of the good being to be worthy that honour, appears to have some connection with the Greek notion of Dionysus or Bacchus (who was thought to answer to Osiris) being both male and female.1 It is also worthy of remark, that Servius, in comment- ing on the mystical fan of Iacchus 2 of Virgil, affirms that ' the sacred rites of Bacchus pertained to the purification of souls.' If Osiris was represented as one of the gods of the third order3 (who, according to their extravagant calculation, lived 15,000 years before the reign of Amasis, and consequently later 1 As in Aristides, p. 52, 8, 10 ; and the Orphic poems, Hymn 30, and 42, 4. 2 1 Mystica vannus lacchi.' 3 Herodot. ii. 145. Chap. XIII.J CHAKACTER OF OSIRIS. 71 than Hercules, Pan, and other deities of the second class), we may suppose that this was intended to show that he visited the earth after the religion of Egypt had been long established ; or that it was an idea introduced into their religious system sub- sequently to the systematic arrangement of the other members of their Pantheon. The sculptures, however, of the oldest monuments abundantly prove that, if it were of more recent introduction, the change must have occurred at a very remote period, before the erection of any building now extant in Egypt ; as the tombs in the vicinity of the Pyramids, belonging to individuals who were contemporary with their founders, show that Osiris had at that time the same offices as in the age of the Ptolemies and Caesars. In an ancient inscription this deity is made to say, 1 Saturn, the youngest of all the gods, was my father ; I am Osiris :' and in another, ' I am the eldest son of Saturn, of an illustrious branch, and jpf noble blood ; cousin of the day ; there is no place where I have not been, and I have liberally distributed my benefits to all mankind.' But the character of Osiris given by Tibullus,1 as the teacher of agriculture, seems to refer to Khem rather than to the son oi Seb ; and the attributes of the Egyptian Pan have, in more than one instance, been given to Osiris. The notion that the gods imparted to men the arts of civilisation, was common to the Egyptians as to the Greeks. Nu is re- presented teaching the kings the use of the bow ; Chnoumis and Ptah show 2 them the potter's art ; and Thoth instructs them in the mode of catching birds with the net, in the art of writing, and in everything connected with calculation, medicine, and astronomy. In all cases, however, it was an abstract idea representing the different means by which in- tellectual gifts were imparted from the deity to man. The Greeks identified Osiris with Bacchus, 3 in consequence of his reputed conquest of India, and some other analogies in the attributes or character of those two deities. * The histories,' says Plutarch,4 * on which the most solemn feasts of Bacchus, the Titania and Nuktelia, are founded, exactly correspond with what we are told of the cutting to pieces of Osiris, of his rising again, 1 Tibull. i. Eleg. 7. 2 [At Philae, these two gods are mould- ing the clay of which Osiris was to be formed, when he visited the world in human shape. — G. W.] 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 13, 37. The ancient Bacchus of Greece was represented with a long beard ; the youthful Bacchus, on Greek vases, dates after the time of Alex- ander. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 35. 72 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. and of his new life.' He was also supposed to answer to Pluto,1 from his office of ruler of Hades or Amenti ; ' a circum- stance of which the priests,' according to Plutarch,2 ' never speak but with the utmost caution and reserve. For the erroneous ac- ceptation of this truth has given occasion to much disturbance, — the minds of the vulgar not being able to conceive how the most pure and truly holy Osiris should have his dwelling under the earth, amongst the bodies of those who appear to be dead. This god is, indeed, removed as far as possible from the earth, being free from all communication with such beings as are liable to corruption and death. As, therefore, the souls of men are not able to participate of the divine nature while encompassed with bodies and passions ; so, when they are freed from these impediments, and removed into the pure unseen regions which are not discernible to our senses, it is then that this god becomes their leader and king, and they behold that beauty for which Isis has so great an affection.' 4 Osiris,' says Diodorus,3 ' has been considered the same as Sarapis,4 Bacchus, Pluto, or Ammon. Others have thought him Jupiter, many Pan ; and some look upon Sarapis as the same as the Greek Pluto.' The historian also endeavours to identify him with the sun, as Isis with the moon, — an opinion maintained by other ancient writers: but which I have already shown to be at variance with the authority of the monuments, and the well- known character of Osiris. Many fanciful notions have been derived from his fabled rule on earth ; and comparisons have been made with Osiris and other deities, which, as in the case of Isis, are mere speculations of a late time, totally at variance with the opinions of the Egyptians — at least, of those who understood their religion and the nature of the gods. Divested, then, of all the fancied connection with the sun and the many deities to whom Osiris is compared, we see in him the Goodness of the Deity, which was supposed to have been manifested upon earth for the benefit of mankind, and in a future state the Judge of the world. There were other personages in the lower regions, according to the Greek mythology, whose names bear the stamp of an Egyptian origin,5 though they cannot be themselves 1 Plut. de Isid. S3. 27, 28. Greek, Dionysus and Serapion. — G. W.] * [And in the Phoenician inscription at two from Asia — Minos and Rhadaman- Malta the names Abd-Osir (slave of Osiris) thus — and one from Europe ;' and that ' he and Osir-shamar are in the accompanying will confer this additional dignity on 2 Ibid. s. 79. 3 Diodor. i. 25. 5 Plato, in the Gorgias, makes Jupiter say that he ' has made his sons judges : Chap. XHL] WOESHIP OF OSIRIS. 73 exactly traced amongst the deities of Amenti. These are Minos, iEacus, and Bhadamanthus, the judges of the dead ; in the first of which the Egyptian Min or Men is easily recognised, and in the last the name of Amenti itself. Numerous explanations have been given of the mythological history of Osiris, many of which are the result of fancy, as those of Diodorus and Macrobius,1 already mentioned. I have stated that the principal character of Osiris was the Goodness of the Deity, who was supposed to have visited the world ; but upon the story of his imaginary life on earth were engrafted numerous allegorical fables, and different interpretations were given to them, according to the circumstances to which his history appeared to be adapted. The existence of Osiris on earth was, of course, a speculative theory, — an allegory, not altogether unlike the avatars of the Indian Vishnoo ; and some may be disposed to think that the Egyptians, being aware of the promises of the real Saviour, had anticipated that event, recording it as though it had already happened, and introducing that mystery into their religious system. Of the mysteries and of the festivals in honour of Osiris, we can obtain little or no information from ancient authors. The former were too sacred to be divulged ; and few of the Greeks and other strangers were admitted even into those of the lesser order. They were divided into the greater and less mysteries; and before admission into the former, it was necessary that the initiated should have passed through all the gradations of the latter. But, to merit this great honour, much was expected of the candidate, and many even of the priesthood were unable to obtain it. Besides the proofs of a virtuous life, other recommendations were required ; and to be admitted to all the grades of the higher mysteries, was the greatest honour to which anyone could aspire. It was from these that the mysteries of Eleusis 2 were borrowed : for, though celebrated in honour of Osiris, they applied more immediately to Isis, and to the grief she felt for the loss of her consort, as the former recorded the lamentations of Ceres at the fate of her daughter. The Thes- mophoria, in honour of the same goddess, were also derived from Egypt. Herodotus mentions a ceremony on the Lake of Sais, in which the history of Osiris was represented. They styled it Minos, — that he shall decide whatever (Taylor, Trans, iv. p. 453.) may be inscrutable to the other judges.' 1 Macrob. Saturn, i. 21. 2 Diod. i. 29. 74 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Ciiap. XIII. the Mysteries. 'Though/ adds the historian,1 ' I am well acquainted with them, I refrain from revealing any, as well as those relating to the institutions of Ceres, called by the Greeks Thesmophoria ; and I shall only mention as much of them as my religion permits. The daughters of Danaiis brought them from Egypt, and taught them to the Pelasgic women ; but at length, the Dorians having expelled the ancient inhabitants of Pelo- ponnesus, these rites were lost, except amongst the Arcadians, who, not being driven out of the country, continued to preserve them/ ' At Sals,' says the same author, 1 they show the sepulchre of him whom I do not think it right to mention on this occasion : it is in the sacred enclosure, behind the temple of Minerva, and close to the wall of this temple, whose whole length it occupies.' * They also meet at Sais to offer sacrifice 2 during a certain night, when every one lights in the open air a number of lamps around his house. The lamps consist of small cups filled with salt and oil, having a wick floating in it which burns all night. This fete is called that of the burning lamps. The Egyptians who are unable to attend also observe the sacrifice and burn lamps at home ; so that not only at Sais, but throughout Egypt, the same illumination takes place. They assign a sacred reason for the fete celebrated on this night, and the respect they have for it.' Of the ceremonies during the fete of Busiris, I shall speak in describing the goddess Isis. It was held in honour of her and of Osiris ; Busiris, like Philse, Abydus, Memphis, Taposiris, and other places, claiming the honour of being the supposed burial- place 3 of this mysterious deity. Having noticed the metaphysical character of Osiris, I proceed to examine some of the allegories founded upon his fabulous history ; though, as already stated, I believe them to be for the most part mere fanciful speculations, forming no part of their religious belief, but rather designed to amuse the ignorant and satisfy the people with a plausible story ; while the real purport of all connected with the deity was reserved for those alone who were admitted to a participation of the mysteries. Of these, the principal one is that in which he is compared to the Nile, and Isis to the land of Egypt. * By Osiris,' says Plutarch,4 'they mean the Nile; by Isis, that part of the 1 Herodot. ii. 171. 2 Ibid. ii. 62. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 21. * Ibid s. 32. Chap. XIIL] HISTOEY OF OSIRIS. 75 country which Osiris or the Nile overflows ; and by Typho, the sea, which, by receiving the Nile as it runs into it, does as it were tear it into many pieces, and entirely destroy it, except- ing only so much of it as is admitted into the bosom of the earth in its passage over it, which is thereby rendered fertile/ And the notion of Osiris being born on the right side of the world, and perishing on the left, is explained ' by the rising of the Nile in the south country, which is the left, and running northwards till it is swallowed up by the sea.' The story of the supposed life of Osiris is briefly as follows.1 ' Osiris, having become king of Egypt, applied himself towards civilising his countrymen, by turning them from their former barbarous course of life, teaching them moreover to cultivate and improve the fruits of the earth. . . . With the same good dis- position, he afterwards travelled over the rest of the world, in- ducing the people everywhere to submit to his discipline, by the mildest persuasion. . . . During his absence from his kingdom, Typho had no opportunity of making any innovations in the state, Isis being extremely vigilant in the government, and always on her guard. After his return, however, having first persuaded seventy-two other persons to join with him in the conspiracy, together with a certain queen of Ethiopia named Aso, who chanced to be in Egypt at the time, he contrived a proper stratagem to execute his base designs : for, having privily taken the measure of Osiris's body, he caused a chest to be made exactly of that size, as beautiful as possible, and set off with all the ornaments of art. This chest he brought into the banqueting room, where after it had been much admired by all present, Typho, as if in jest, promised to give it to any one of them whose body upon trial it might be found to fit. Upon this, the whole company, one after the other, got into it ; but as it did not fit any of them, last of all Osiris laid himself down in it ; upon which the conspirators immediately ran together, clapped on the cover, and then, fastening it on the outside with nails, poured melted lead over it. After this, having carried it away to the river-side, they conveyed it to the sea by the Tanaitic mouth of the Nile, which for this reason is still held in the utmost abhorrence by the Egyptians, and never named by them but with proper marks of detestation. These things happened on the 17th day of the month Athyr, when the sun was in 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 13. 76 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. Scorpio, in the 28th year of Osiris's reign ; though others say he was no more than twenty-eight years old at the time. The first who knew the accident that had befallen their king, were the Pans and Satyrs who lived about Chemmis ; and they, immediately acquainting the people with the news, gave the first occasion to the name of Panic terrors Isis, as soon as the report reached her, cut off one of the locks of her hair, and put on mourning ; whence the spot where she then happened to be has ever since been called Koptos, or the city of mourning. And being in- formed that Osiris, deceived by her sister Nephthys, who was in love with him, had unwittingly taken her to his embraces instead of herself, as she concluded from the melilot-garland which he had left with her, she proceeded to search out the child, the fruit of their unlawful union. For her sister, dreading the anger of her husband Typho, had exposed it as soon as it was born ; and it was not without great difficulty that, by means of some dogs, she discovered the place of its concealment. Having found it, she bred it up ; and it afterwards obtained the name of Anubis.' 'At length she received more particular news of the chest. It had been carried by the waves of the sea to the coast of Byblos, and there gently lodged in the branches of a tamarisk bush, which in a short time had shot up into a large tree, growing round the chest, and enclosing it on every side, so that it could not be seen ; and the king of the country, having cut down the tree, had made the part of the trunk wherein the chest was con- cealed, a pillar to support the roof of his house. . . . Isis, having gone to Byblos, obtained possession of this pillar, and then set sail with the chest for Egypt. . . . But intending a visit to her son Horus (Orus), who was brought up at Butus, she deposited the chest in the meantime in a remote and unfrequented place. Typho, however, as he was one night hunting by the light of the moon, accidentally met with it, and, knowing the body en- closed in it, tore it into fourteen pieces, disposing them up and down in different parts of the country. Being acquainted with this event, Isis set out once more 1 in search of the scattered members of her husband's body, using a boat made of the papyrus rush, in order more easily to pass through the lower and fenny parts of the country .... And one reason assigned for the many different sepulchres of Osiris shown in Egypt, is, that wherever any one of his scattered limbs was discovered, she buried it in that i Plut. de Isid. s. 18. Chap. XIII.] HISTOEY OF OSIRIS. 77 spot ; though others suppose that it was owing to an artifice of the queen, who presented each of those cities with an image of her husband, in order that, if Typho should overcome Horus in the approaching conquest, he might be unable to find the real sepul- chre. Isis succeeded in recovering all the different members, with the exception of one, which had been devoured by the Lepidotus, the Phagrus, and the Oxyrhynchus ; for which reason these fish are held in abhorrence by the Egyptians. To make amends, therefore, for this loss, she consecrated the Phallus, and instituted a solemn festival to its memory.' * A battle at length took place between Horus and Typho, in which the latter was taken prisoner. Isis, however, to whose custody he was committed, so far from putting him to death, set him at liberty ; which so incensed Horus, that he tore off the royal diadem she wore ; but Hermes substituted in its stead a helmet made in the shape of an ox's head. After this, Typho publicly accused Horus of illegitimacy; but, with the assistance of Hermes, the question was set at rest by the judgment of the gods themselves ; and at length two other battles were fought, in which Typho was defeated. It is also related that Isis had intercourse with Osiris after his death, and, in consequence, brought forth Harpocrates, who came into the world before his time, and lame in his lower limbs.' Proceeding with the examination of the different parts of this allegorical fable, Plutarch observes 1 that, ' Osiris being the inundation of the Nile, and Isis the land irrigated by it,' from the conjunction of these two, Horus was born, meaning thereby that just and seasonable temperature of the circumambient air which preserves and nourishes all things. Horus is, moreover, supposed to have been brought up by Latona, in the marshy country about Butus, because a moist and watery soil is best adapted to produce those vapours and exhalations which serve to relax the excessive drought arising from heat. In like manner, they call the extreme limits of their country, their confines, and sea-shores, Nephthys, Teleute, or the end, whom they suppose to have been married to Typho. Now, as the overflowings of the Nile are sometimes very great, and extend to the boundaries of the land, this gave rise to the story of the secret intercourse between Osiris and Nephthys, as the natural consequence of so great an inundation would be the springing up of plants in those parts of the country which were formerly barren. Hence they 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 38. 78 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII- imagine that Typho was first made acquainted with the infidelity of his wife by the melilot-garland which fell from the head of Osiris while in her company ; and that the legitimacy of Horus, the son of Isis, may thus be explained, as well as the illegitimacy of Anubis, who was born of Nephthys. ' Furthermore, by the conspiracy of Typho, and his tyranny, are to be understood the force and power of drought, which overcome the moisture whence the increase of the Nile proceeds. His being assisted by the queen of Ethiopia refers to the southern winds blowing from that country ; which when strong enough to prevail against the Etesian or annual northern ones, that carry the clouds towards Ethiopia, prevent those showers of rain from falling and contributing to the increase of the Nile. ... As to the shutting up of Osiris in a chest, this signifies the withdraw- ing of the Nile within its own banks, when the Etesian winds have ceased, which happens in the month Athyr. About this time, in consequence of the increasing length of the nights, the power of darkness appearing to prevail, whilst that of light is diminished, the priests practise doleful rites, in token of the grief of the goddess. One of these is to expose to public view a gilded ox, covered with a pall of fine black linen ; this animal being regarded as the living image of Osiris. The ceremony lasts four days, beginning on the 17th of the month, and is in- tended to represent four things : — 1st, the falling of the Nile, and its return within its own channel ; 2nd, the ceasing of the north winds ; 3rd, the length of the nights and decrease of the days ; and, lastly, the destitute condition in which the land then appears. Thus they commemorate what they call the loss of Osiris. But upon the 19th of the month Pachon, they march in procession towards the sea, whither the stolistse and priests carry the sacred chest, containing a vessel of gold, into which they pour some river-water, and all present exclaim, " Osiris is found." Then throwing fresh mould into the water, and mixing with it aromatics and precious incense, they make an image in the form of a crescent, which is dressed up and adorned, to show that these gods are the powers of earth and water.1 ' Isis having recovered the body of Osiris, and brought her son Horus to maturity (whose strength, by means of exhalations 1 Clem. Recogn. lib. x. 27 : ' Osiri dorus, lib. ix. ; and Clem. Homil. vi. 9 : aquam, Hammoni arietem Origen, V. in ' aquam terra1 inferiorem. . . . Osirin Celsum, p. 65 : 1 Osiris water, and Isis nuncuparunt.' earth or the Nile, according to Helio- Chap. XIII.] INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY OF OSIRIS. 79 and clouds, was continually increasing), Typho was in his turn conquered, though not totally destroyed. For the goddess, who is the earth, in order to maintain a proper temperament of heat and cold, would not permit this enemy of moisture to be quite extinguished, but loosed his bonds and set him at liberty, well knowing that it was impossible for the world to subsist in per- fection, if the force of heat was totally extinguished.' To sum up the details of this story according to the foregoing interpretation, we may apply to each its distinct meaning, as follows : — Osiris, the inundation of the Nile. Isis, the irrigated portion of the land of Egypt. Horus, their offspring, the vapours and exhalations reproducing rain. Buto, Latona, the marshy lands of Lower Egypt, where those vapours were nourished. Nephthys, the edge of the desert, occasionally overflowed during the high inundations. Anubis, the son of Osiris and Nephthys, the production of that barren soil, in consequence of its being overflowed by the Nile. Typho, the sea, which swallowed up the Nile water. The conspirators, the drought overcoming the moisture, from which the increase of the Nile proceeds. The chest in which Osiris's body was confined, the banks of the river, within which it retired after the inundation. The Tanaitic mouth, the lake and barren lands about it, which were held in abhorrence from their being overflowed by the river without producing any benefit to the country. The twenty-eight years of his life, the * twenty-eight cubits to which the Nile rises at Elephantine, its greatest height.' 1 The 17th of Athor, the period when the river retires within its banks. The queen of Ethiopia, the southern winds preventing the clouds being carried southwards. The different members of Osiris's body, the main channels and canals by which the inundation passed into the interior of the country, where each was said to be afterwards buried. That one which could not be recovered was the genera- tive power of the Nile, which still continued in the stream itself ; or, as Plutarch thinks, it was said to have been thrown into the river, because ' water or moisture was the first matter upon which the generative power of the deity operated, and that principle by means of which all things capable of being were produced.' The victory of Horus, the power possessed by the clouds in causing the successive inundations of the Nile. Harpocrates, whom Isis brought forth about the winter solstice, those 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 43. 80 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. weak shootings of the com produced after the inundation had subsided.1 According to another interpretation,2 ' by Typho is meant the orb of the sun, and by Osiris that of the moon ; the former being of a scorching, the latter of a moistening and prolific, nature. When, therefore, they say that Osiris's death happened on the 17th day of the month, it means that the moon is then at its full, and from that time is continually on the wane. In like manner, Osiris is said to have lived or reigned twenty -eight years, alluding to the number of days in which she performs her course round the earth. As to his being torn into fourteen pieces, this is supposed to mark out the number of days in which the moon is continually decreasing from the full to its change ; and by the war between Typho and Horus is meant, that in this terres- trial system sometimes the principle of corruption prevails, and sometimes that of generation, though neither of them is ever able entirely to conquer or destroy the other.' For other explanations of this history, I refer the reader to Plutarch's treatise of Isis and Osiris ; who very properly observes, that we are not to suppose the adventures there related to be ' really true, or ever to have happened in fact.'3 He treats it, as it really was, in the light of a metaphysical question ; for, he adds, he alone is competent to understand it, * who searches into the hidden truths it contains, and examines the whole by the dictates of reason and philosophy.'4 ' And taking a proper view of these matters, we must neither look upon water, nor the sun, nor the earth, nor the heavens, simply as Osiris and Isis ; nor must we by Typho understand either fire, or drought, or the sea ; but, in general, whatever in these bodies is irregular and dis- orderly, or whatever is bad, is to be attributed to Typho ; as, on the contrary, whatever is good and salutary is the operation of Isis and the image of Osiris.' 5 Many, however, were disposed to clothe with reality all the emblematic characters of Osiris, looking upon abstract ideas or allegories as positive facts. With this view, they deemed him the deity of humidity, instead of the abstract quality or benefit arising from it ; and hence * the votaries of Osiris abstained from destroying a fruit-tree, or marring any springs of water.'6 A similar notion also induced them * to carry a water-jar at the head of the sacred processions in honour of this god.' 7 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 65. 3 Ibid. ss. 11, 20. 5 Ibid. s. 64. 7 Ibid. s. 36. 2 Ibid. s. 41. 4 Ibid. s. 3. 6 Ibid. s. 35. Chap. XIIL] OSIRIS THE PARENT KING. 81 In the fabulous history of Osiris, we may trace a notion, common to all nations, of a god who in the early ages of their history1 lived on earth, and was their king, their instructor, and even the father of their race ; who taught them the secrets of husbandry, the arts of civilisation, and the advantages of social intercourse; and who, extending his dominion over the whole world, permitted all mankind to partake of his beneficent in- fluence. They represent him to have been assailed by the malignant attacks of some monster, or enemy of man, either as an evil principle, or the type of a destructive power. He is sometimes exposed to the waters of the sea — an evident allusion to the great deluge — from which he is saved by taking refuge in a cavern, or by means of a floating island, a lotus, or a snake, which bears him safely to the summit of a mountain. He is frequently aided by the interposition of some female companion, who is his sister, his daughter, or his wife, and the mother, as he is the father, of the human race, which springs from their three sons ; like the family of Adam, repeated in that of Noah. But though we observe some analogy between these and the history of Osiris, it is only in particular points that any positive resem- blance can be admitted : the office of Osiris was of a more im- portant character than that usually assigned to the hero-god and parent of man ; as the notion of a trinity was of a more exalted nature than that given to the material work of its hands — the three sons of Noah and his prototype. Osiris is frequently represented of a black colour, as Plutarch observes,2 but more usually green ; and when Judge of Amenti, he has the form of a mummied figure, holding in his crossed hands the crook and flagellum, which is the mystical vannus — 'whose fan is in his hand.' He is clad in pure white, and wears on his head the cap of Upper Egypt decked with ostrich-feathers ; which head-dress, if not exclusively, at least particularly, belongs to this deity. In the sculptures, a spotted skin is sometimes suspended near him — an emblem supposed to connect him with the Greek Bacchus;3 and occasionally assuming the character of 'stability,' he appears with his head and even face covered with the four-barred symbol,4 which in hieroglyphics has that 1 The Bisharee tribe of Arabs still speak instances where this is introduced show it of their founder Bega, who was their first to be the leopard or panther ; which, as parent as well as god. well as the nebris, belonged to Bacchus. 2 Plut. de lsid. s. 33. * Woodcut No. 518. Osiris was also 3 Diodor. i. 11. The skin is usually called Lord of Tattu, or the city of the Tat, represented without the head ; but some supposed to be Busiris. — S. B. " VOL. III. G 82 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. tChap. XIII. signification, and which may also refer to the intellect of the Deity. In former times, the four-barred symbol of stability was mistaken for a Nilometer, as the sign of life or crux ansata was compelled to submit to the unintel- ligible name of ' Key of the Nile.' So far, however, is the latter from any con- nection with the river, that it is less frequently seen in the hand of the god Nilus than any deity of the Egyptian Pantheon ; and the former never occurs among the numerous emblems or offer- ings he bears. It is represented as a sort of stand or support in workmen's shops, where, for the sake of the goods they wished to sell, we may charitably hope it required no graduated Kilometer to measure the height of the intrusive inundation. Osiris also takes the character of the god Bennu, with the head of a crane, peculiarised by a tuft of two long fea- thers ; and he sometimes appears as a human figure, with a simple cap sur- mounted by two ostrich plumes. The statement of Plutarch,1 that the dress of Osiris was of one uniform shining colour, is confirmed by the paintings, which generally represent him clad in white. Isis was dressed in robes of various hues, because, according to the same writer, 'her power was wholly conversant about matter, which becomes all things and admits all, light and darkness, day and night, fire and water, life and death, beginning and end.' Osiris also appears, when in the character of Socharis- Osiris, with the head of a hawk.2 Under that title he has some connection with Ptah; and it is then that he is considered to have risen from the dead after his visit to the world. The phallic ceremonies, said to have been performed in honour of Osiris, appear rather to have belonged to the generative principle of the deity worshipped under the name of Khem ; though Osiris Tat, called 'Sept, father of the gods.' No. 518. 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 78. 2 Ibid. s. 51. Chap. XIII.] FETES OF OSIRIS. 83 Plutarch and other writers assert that they derived their origin from the search made by Isis for the scattered members of her husband.1 Plutarch, in another place, says,2 the festival of the Paamylia, which bears a great resemblance to the Phallophoria of Greece, was kept in honour of the birth of Osiris, and so called from Paamyles, to whom the education of Osiris had been in- trusted by his father Saturn. ' From the manner of celebrating it,' he adds,3 ' it is evident that Osiris is, in reality, the great principle of fecundity. They therefore carry about in procession and expose to public view a statue of this god with the triple phallus, signifying that he is the first principle, and that every such principle, by means of its generative faculty, multiplies what proceeds from, or is produced by, it. The phallus being threefold, merely implies a great or indefinite number ; ' or it probably refers to the action of that principle upon matter, which was represented by the number three. It is probably the same to which Herodotus alludes, as a fete of Bacchus.4 * On that occasion, every one killed a pig before his door, at the hour of dinner ; and then restored it to the person of whom it had been purchased. The Egyptians,' he adds, 'celebrate the rest of this festival nearly in the same manner as the Greeks, excepting the sacrifice of pigs ; but, in lieu of phalli, they make little puppets about a cubit high, which women carry about the towns and villages, and set in motion by means of a string. They are accompanied by a chorus, with a flute-player5 at their head, singing the praises of the deity.' The historian then describes the appearance of these phallic figures, which he ascribes to a sacred reason ; and it is a curious fact that similar puppets are made by the Egyptians on the occasions of public rejoicing at the present day. The name of Osiris is frequently enclosed in an oval like those of the kings; but the hieroglyphics forming the name itself generally precede it, and within is the title, ' manifester of good- ness and truth.' His usual appellation is ' Osiris, president of Amenti,' or ' Lord of Abydus ;' and I have found an instance of his being styled ' King of the Gods.' He was the first member of the triad composed of Osiris, Isis, and Horus ; his worship was universal throughout Egypt ; and every city assigned to him a conspicuous post among the contemplar gods it worshipped. [The worship of Osiris, one of the most extensive at a later 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 18. 2 Ibid. s. 12. 3 3 Ibid. s. 36. * Herodot. ii. 48. 5 Plut. de Isid. s. 8. G 2 84 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. period, is found chiefly in connection with that of the sepulchres, and the tablets and other objects of the dead are consecrated to him. The principal incidents detailed by Plutarch are found in the different inscriptions, with some additional ones : his identifi- cation with the principal deities of Egypt as the son of Ka and emanation of the god Ptah ; his proceeding from the north of the sea ; the scarabseus, the living type of Ptah and Ra, proceeding from his nostril ; his representation by two crocodiles or a serpent, and his assimilation to the god Sebak, and the recovery of his limbs in the water by Horus in the shape of a crocodile ; his personification of the earth, and his rule over the sand and Anrut, or land of sterility, and Egypt being the eye of Osiris ; his connection with the Apis as the black bull and bull of the west ; his residence in the sycamore-tree and the nar or tamarisk, with the Bennu personified as his soul ; his mystical annular shape, and his festival of dwelling in the Amenti on the 16th of the month Choeak.1 The myth of Osiris in its details — the laying out of his body by his wife Isis and his sister Nephthys, the reconstruction of his limbs, his mystical chest, and other incidents connected with his myth — are represented in detail in the temple of Philae. It is principally, however, as the one dwelling in the West, and the judge of the Hall of the Two Truths, or of the dead, and awarder of the final judgment, that Osiris is seen wearing the atef, seated on his throne, attended by Isis and Nephthys, while the heart of the deceased is weighed in a scale against the feather of truth. The deceased being led in by Ma, Truth, or Anubis, Thoth records the judgment ; and the lotus of the sun, with the four gods or genii, as they are called, of the dead, are seen ; while the Am, or the devouring Cerberus of the Egyptian Hell, and the forty-two avenging daemons, each the punisher of a fault, are seated before him awaiting the final decree of Osiris.— S. B.] Each town had its protecting deity, who presided over it ; and the post of honour in the adytum, as in the most con- spicuous parts of the temple erected in his honour, was assigned to him. The peculiar triad of the place also held a prominent station in the sculptures ; and to the contemplar gods was assigned a post according to the consideration they there enjoyed. But the deities worshipped in the towns of one nome, or province 1 Lefebure, signifying ' full.' The remainder of this word is probably the same name of Athor, or Thy-or ; or its termina- tion iri, 'to make,' may complete the interpretation given by Plutarch. Herodotus 5 supposes that Latona, who was Buto, performed the office of nurse to Horus (or as he calls him, Apollo), the son of Isis ; but the sculptures plainly prove that Isis nursed the child herself; and when Athor is represented with the infant, she is the member of another triad. The Greeks and Eomans seem to have at once adopted the emblems of Athor in their representations of Isis, and, 1 [Athor being the Venus of Egypt, Atarbechis was translated Aphroditopolis. It was composed of atar or athor, and bedti or bek, 1 city.' Aphroditopolis is supposed to have been at the modern Shibbeen, in the Isle of Prosopitis, between the Canopic and Sebennytic branches of the Kile, on an offset of the latter, called Thermuthiac, which formed the western, as the Seben- nytic did the eastern, boundary of the Isle ot'Xatho. There were other towns called Aphroditopolis in Upper Egypt. — G. W.] - [Herodotus sometimes confounds Isis with Athor (book ii. c. 4). This is not surprising, since the attributes of these two goddesses are often, more especially in later times, so closely connected that it is difficult to distinguish them in the sculp- tures, Tinless their names are directly specified ; and at Denderah Athor has very nearly the appearance of Isis, though that they were distinct goddesses is shown by each of them having a temple at that place.— G. W.] 3 JFMau, Nat. Anim. x. 27. *■ Plut. de Isid. s. 56. 3 Herod, ii. 156. Chap. XIII.] ISIS AND ATHOE. Ill unacquainted as they were with the Egyptian Yenus, to have assigned exclusively to Isis the sacred cow, with whose horns she was represented in the celebrated festival in her honour, described by Ovid.1 It must indeed be admitted, that Isis, even in olden times, was sometimes figured in Egyptian sculpture with a cow's head, as well as with a head-dress surmounted by the horns of Athor ; No. 525. The cow of Athor at Denderah, which the Sepoys are said to have worshipped. but she then assumed the attributes of that goddess — a custom which I have shown to be common to many Egyptian deities, who frequently appeared with the emblems and even under the form of other members of the Pantheon. The general form of 1 Ovid, Met. ix. 685 :— ' Cum medio noctis spatio, sub imagine somni, Inachis ante torum, pompa comitata suorum, Aut stetit, aut visa est. Inerant lunaria fronti Cornua, cum spicis nitido flaventibus auro, Et regale decus : cum qua latrator Anubis, Sanctaque Bubastis, variusque coloribus Apis ; Quique premit vocem, digitoque silentia suadet : Sistraque erant, nunquamque satis qua> situs Osiris, Plenaque somniferi serpens peregrina veneni.' The number of errors in these lines is remarkable. 112 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. Triad of Isis, Horus, and Nephthys. No. 526. Isis was that of a female with a throne upon her head, particularly in her capacity of the presiding goddess of Amenti. Her office then related principally to the souls of men in a future state, where she formed the second member of a triad composed of Osiris, herself, and Nephthys, and assisted at the ordeal which took place before the judgment-seat of her brother and hus- band. Isis was also the second member of another triad, particularly wor- shipped at Philse, consisting of Osiris, Isis, and Horus. She was said to be the ' protector (or defender) of her brother/ in which capacity they repre- sented her covering Osiris 1 with her out- spread wings. She was styled the ' royal consort and sister of Osiris,' ' Goddess-Mother,' the Muth of Plutarch ; and sometimes Hekte — on which account she may be thought to answer to Hecate or Proserpine, as before observed. She was occasionally figured with the head of a cat, or with the attributes of Bubastis ; and I have once found her represented with the throne of Neph- thys on her head, in the character of her sister.2 In addition to the globe and horns of Athor, Isis has sometimes the flowers of water-plants rising from her head, particularly when repre- sented as the mother of the infant Horus, and the second member of the triad of Philse. She often wears a cap representing the sacred vulture; its head projecting from her forehead, its body covering her head, and its wings extending downwards at the side of her face to her shoulder; though this is not confined to Isis, as iElian supposes,3 but is given equally to other goddesses, No. 527. Isis suckling Horus. 1 Isis protects him in this manner, both deities Ptah and Osiris, in the character of Osiris and of Ptah- 2 As if uniting in herself the two princi- Socharis-Osiris ; which connects the two pies. Plate XXVI. fig. 2. 3 iElian, x. 22. Chap. XIII.] WOKSHIP OF ISIS. 113 and even to the queens of Egypt. The title ' royal wife and sister ' was derived from her having married her brother Osiris ; and this fabulous notion was supposed to have been the origin of a custom prevalent in Egypt from the earliest v . to the latest periods, which permitted brothers and ^mffW sisters to marry; such an alliance being considered (TjL fortunate, in consequence of the example set by Isis and Osiris.1 ^tSkkr^ Many individuals, even among the priesthood ^^B^, of early Pharaonic periods, are found, from the / l\l 1 r- r sculptures of Thebes, to have married their sisters; f^^f^^ and the same authorities agree with the accounts a head-dress of isis. of ancient Greek and Koman writers, in proving No> 528, FhikB- that some of the Ptolemies adopted this ancient custom. The principal temple of Isis was in the Sacred Island of Phila?, where she was worshipped as the second member of the triad, already mentioned ; and it is probable that the most solemn performance of the great mysteries took place there, which, as at Sais and Busiris, had been instituted to commemorate the im- portant secret of Osiris's death. Coptos also, according to iElian,2 distinguished her worship with peculiar rites ; which, if we may believe Plutarch, were connected with the memory of Osiris, and the grief of the goddess. The festivals of Isis were magnificent, and celebrated with all the pomp which religion and super- stition could invent ; and particular ceremonies were exclusively appropriated to her.3 An epigram in the Anthology of Constantine Cephalus,4 mentioning certain offerings made to Isis, thus addresses her : * 0 goddess clad in linen, who governest the fertile black land of Egypt, honour these offerings with thy presence ; this cake, this couple of geese, this ointment, these wild figs, these dried raisins, and this incense are already on the altar. Thou hast protected 1 Diodor. i. 27. 2 .Elian, Nat. Anim. x. 23. 3 Some of the principal events of the career of Isis are mentioned in the texts, especially the tearing away of her head by Horus, and its replacement by Set on the 26th of Thoth, in the battle of three days and nights between Set and Horus, when it was replaced by that of a cow. (Chabas, « Calendrier Sallier,' p. 31.) Her titles on the monuments are, ' The great mother or mother-goddess, mistress of heaven, ruler of earth, queen of the Two VOL. III. Countries.' Her principal types were her celestial one, crowned with a cylindrical cap of uraei, surmounted by the disk and horns, and her terrestrial or chthonic one, represented by her wearing the seat or throne, kneeling at the feet of Osiris laid out on the bier ; at a later period winged, and on the symbol of gold following Osiris and covering him with her wings. She was supposed to be the moon. (Birch, ' Gall, of Antiq.,' p. 31.)— S. B. . 4 In Reiske. Given by Larcher, Herodot. vol. iii. p. 567. I Chap. XIII.] ATHOK. 115 Damis from the dangers of the sea ; if thou wilt also deliver him from poverty, he will offer you a fawn with gilded horns.' From the connection which appears to subsist between Isis and Athor, it may not be out of place to introduce the last- mentioned goddess, before I proceed to mention Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, and the other members of the family of Seb. Athor, Hathor, or Athyr, the Egyptian Yenus or Aphrodite,1 is frequently represented with the attributes of Isis, — with whom, therefore, she is identified by Apuleius; and in one of her characters she so nearly resembles her, that with difficulty, as already observed, she can be distinguished from the consort of Osiris. The analogy between these divinities is also strongly marked by the name Athor, which, as Plutarch justly observes, implies * Horus's habitation.' Thy-hor,2 Tei-hor, or Eit-hor, ' the house of Horus,' is a literal translation of her hieroglyphic name ; which consists of a hawk, the emblem of Horus, within the character representing a house, the Coptic ei or tei,3 the whole group reading, et Hor or tei Horf ' the house of Horus.' In a papyrus published by Champollion she is said to be ' Keith in the East Country, and Sme in the lotus and waters of the West ;' which calls to mind the Yenus of Sparta and Cy thera, who wore the dress and arms of Minerva. She is frequently figured under the form of a spotted cow, thought to live behind the western mountain of Thebes, from which the paintings of the Necropolis represent it issuing. She is probably then the morn- ing star ;5 since there is every reason to believe that the planet Yenus belonged to her,6 and that from the Egyptian Athor was borrowed the Greek Yenus, the reputed daughter of Coelus and Dies,7 distinct as this last was from the goddess of beauty the wife of Yulcan. From her presiding over the West, we may conclude that the western part of Thebes, or indeed of the Thebaid, derived the name of Pathyris,8 ' belonging to Athor ;' for it was applied to the whole district on that bank, even to the city of Hermonthis, which was said to belong to Pathyris of the Thebaid.9 It was into her arms that the setting sun, as it retired 1 She was sometimes called Nub, or golden, recalling to mind the Chryse Aphro- dite, or golden Venus. — S. B. 2 Her correct name is Ha.t har. — S. B. 3 HI or THI. 4 KT-&OP or THI-^Op. 5 [Or she may be Aurora.— G. W.] u Pliny says, to Isis; but these two deities are easily mistaken for each other. 7 Cicero, de Nat. Deor. lib. iii. 8 [Ptolemy, Geog. iv. c. 5, who speaks of 1 Memnon and the inland village Tathy- ris,' using Ta for Pa. — G. W.] 9 In a papyrus mentioned by Reuvens (Lettre iii. p. 30), 4v 'Epuwydrf tov ria- dvpirov tt)s ®r)f3a'i8os. i 2 116 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. behind the mountain, was thought to be received ; and in this character she answered to Night, who presided over the West, — though, as already observed, she was distinct from that primeval night, or primitive darkness, from which all things proceeded into existence. While mentioning this subject, I cannot but pay a just tribute to the diligent inquiry of the learned Jablonski, who, though wrong in his etymology of Athor, and in not observing the distinction between the two Nights of their mythology, claims the greatest credit for that research and accurate percep- tion which, without the aid of hieroglyphical discovery, enabled him to ascertain one of the most important characters of the Egyptian Yenus. We may also see in the name of the cow, aha, the origin of the Greek Io, who, according to the mytho- logical tales of the ancients, was supposed to have visited Egypt in her wanderings,1 and to have been ' changed into Isis,2 in the city of Coptos, where she was worshipped under that name.' The third Egyptian month was called after Athor, in which the death of Osiris was fabled to have happened ; 3 and it was at this season that the shrines of the goddess (Ceres or Isis) were carried in procession ; ' the common time/ says Plutarch,4 ' for the solemnisation of the feasts in her honour, falling within the month in which the Pleiades appear, and the husbandmen begin to sow their corn, called by the Egyptians Athyr.'5 She was held in particular veneration at Aboccis, or Aboo- simbel, or, as it is called in the hieroglyphic legends, Abushak, Abshak, where she appears as the second member of the great triad of that place. In the temple dedicated to her there, she is represented under the form of a cow, to which the king and queen offer flowers and libations, as it stands in a sacred boat surrounded by water-plants ; and in a niche at the upper end of the adytum is the fore-part of a cow, bearing on its head the globe and feathers of Athor. In the hieroglyphic legends at the side she is styled, * Athor, the lady of Abushak, the foreign land ' — the town being out of Egypt, though within the territories of the Pharaohs. Strabo 6 tells us, that ' at Momemphis, where the Egyptian Yenus was adored, a sacred cow was kept with the 1 Jablonski, iii. 1. p. 11, and ii. 1. p. vii. 2 Diodor. i. 24. Conf. Ovid. Met. i. and Propert. ii. Eleg. xxviii. 17 : — i Io versa caput primos mugiverat annos : Nunc Dea, quae Nili flumina vacca bibit.' Of Io, see Herodot. i. 1. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 39. 4 Ibid. s. 69. 5 Hesychius says, 1 One of the months, and the' cow, are called Athyr by the Egyptians.' 6 Strabo, xvii. p. 552. Chap. XIII.] ATHOK. 117 same religious feeling as the Apis at Memphis, or the Mnevis at Heliopolis and the sacred animal of Momemphis was the same which received divine honours at Atarbechis, and other places devoted to the worship of Athor. The geographer 1 also speaks of the sacred cow of ' Aphroditopolis, the capital of a nome of the same name on the Arabian side of the river/ which he describes of a white colour ; and iElian 2 says, that ' at the small but elegant village of Chusse, in the Hermopolitan nome, they worshipped Yenus under the name Urania or heavenly, and paid honours to a cow, which animal was thought to appertain more particularly to that goddess/ It must, however, be observed that the 4 latuit nivea Saturnia vacca,' 3 of Ovid, does not suffice to establish any analogy between Juno and the Egyptian Venus ; and the monuments disprove the opinion of the learned Prichard, that ' the goddess Nephthys was sometimes called Urania, or the dark or nightly Venus, at other times Juno or Saturnia, and that a white cow was the sacred animal or living symbol of that goddess.' 4 Atarbechis, or the city of Athor, a part of Thebes called Pathyris, already mentioned, and several other places, vied with each other in the honours paid to the Egyptian Aphrodite ; and at Denderah, the ancient Tentyris, a magnificent temple still remains, erected to her in the reigns of the last Ptolemies, and completed under Tiberius, where she is represented nursing her son, the third member of the triad of the place. This is the temple of Aphrodite mentioned by Strabo. The name of Tentyris may have signified the abode of Athor, and have been corrupted from Tei-n-athor, or Tynatyr, to Tentyra. She is generally represented as a female with a head-dress surmounted with long horns,5 and a solar disk ; and between the horns of the spotted cow, her emblem, are the same disk and two feathers. She some- times bears on her head a perch, upon which is seated a hawk, with an ostrich-feather before it, being the head-dress of the genius or goddess of the West. She is then in the character of President of the Western Mountain, and in an office particularly connected with the dead. In temples of a Ptolemaic epoch, Athor is often represented with the long feathers in addition to the horns and globe ; but this is rarely the case on monuments 1 Strabo, xvii. p. 556. - iElian, Nat. Anim. x. 27. 3 4 Saturnian Juno lay hid under the type of a white cow.' 4 Prichard, p. 148. 5 The figure 1 of Plate XXVII. is from a Ptolemaic Temple. Chap. XIII.] ATHOE. 119 of early Pharaonic date, where that head-dress is appropriated to the queens, and only given to Athor when under the form of a cow. [Athor, in fact, was identified with Nut, as the goddess of the celestial water or ether, and as such gives the bread and water of life, out of the sycamore, to the soul which thirstily drinks the living waters flowing from her vase. She is also supposed to represent Isis in her cow form, when she suckles the young Horus, and as such the kings are often seen nursed by this goddess. That she presided over the passion of love will be seen by the inscriptions at Denderah, in which she states that she gives the love of women to the king. Like Isis, too, she becomes Sothis, or the Dog-star, and is also Truth itself, representing, in the deepest sense, the female reproductive power of nature, and the dual element, from which the Kosmos proceeded. Her connec- tion with the West allied her with the setting sun, or the god Atum, also one of the demiurgic deities, another form of the god Ra, of whom she was the wife ; while, as her name signified the * abode of Horus/ it intimately connected her with the final habitation of the great luminary. Hence she is found inside coffins, on the board on which the mummy was laid, receiving him, as it were, into her arms, as the earth, or West ; while Nut, as the heaven, on the inner part of the lid, covers the body of the deceased — or the two symbolise the day and night. — S. B.] The Persea was sacred to her, as the sycamore to Nut ; and in the funeral subjects of the Theban tombs she is seen performing the same office to the deceased and his friends as that goddess — giving them the fruit and drink of heaven. But the title 'Lady of Het,' bestowed on Athor at Thebes, Memphis, and other places, appears to signify 1 Lady of the Tree,' and not exclusively ' of the Persea ;' the same being applied to Nut, to whom the sycamore was sacred. That the Persea and peach were often confounded by ancient authors, is very evident ; and the fact of the former being the sacred tree, on whose fruit (which in the sculptures resemble the human heart) the gods inscribed the name of a favourite king, sufficiently proves that Plutarch 1 had in view the Persea, or at least the sacred tree of Athor, when he speaks of the fruit of the peach-tree resembling the heart, and the leaves being emblematic of ' the human tongue.' The analogy seems also to be increased by the circumstance of 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 68. 120 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. the goddess of speech (language, or letters) being present on the same occasion, and assisting to write the name of the prince on the fruit. Athor sometimes, under the form of a cow, gives milk to an infant king — the hieroglyphic legend accompanying the picture stating that she treats him 'as a mother.' The female heads with cows' ears, which form the capitals of columns at Aboo- simbel, Denderah, and other temples, usually ascribed to Isis, are of the Egyptian Aphrodite ; and many shrines, arks, and sacred emblems are ornamented with the head of Athor. These heads are certainly the most beautiful which the Egyptian artists have invented. They argue in favour of Athor being the goddess of beauty, like the Venus of the Greeks ; and some of the sculp- tures of Denderah may show her to have been the patron of laughter and amusements. From some subjects represented in the sculptures it appears that this goddess was considered to be the patroness of ornaments and dress, symbolically designated by a necklace.1 A peculiar neck-ornament is sometimes sur- mounted by a head of Athor ; being a form of that placed on the neck of sacred cows and bulls, and worn by some deities. The worship of the cow2 in Egypt has led many persons to suppose an intimate connection between the religions of India and of that country ; and the fact of some Sepoys in our Indian army, who crossed from the Ked Sea to the Nile, having, on a visit to the temple of Denderah, prostrated themselves before the cow of Athor, has been considered a decisive proof of their resemblance. The mere circumstance, however, of a cow being sculptured on the walls of an Egyptian temple, and respect being paid to it by those strangers, proves nothing beyond the accidental worship in two countries of the same animal. Had it been an arbitrary emblem of some peculiar form, which only existed in the imagination, the case might have been different ; but the cow being chosen by two agricultural people, as the sword or any other arm by two military nations, as a fit emblem of the deity, does not imply the necessity of any intercourse between them. Nor was it as a mere emblem that the cow and 1 As 'mistress of sports and dancing,' see her, and they said with one mouth, she is represented holding the tambourine. that she should die a violent death.' (Birch, ' Gall, of Antiq.,' p. 20.) These seven cows are represented in chap- 2 It appears from the tale of the 'Two ter cxlviii. of the Ritual, along with the Brothers' that there were seven cows of bull, perhaps Mnevis, or the bull of Turn. Athor, and that they were maleficent, like Each has a name. ( Lepsius, ' Todtenbuch.' th» fairies of modern folk-lore. In this * Records of the Past,' vi. p. 145.) — S. B. tale it says, 'The seven Hathors came to Chap. XIII.] COW-WORSHIP— HORUS. 121 ox were selected by the Egyptians, in consequence of their utility in the tillage of the land ; another and a more forcible reason subsisted for the honours paid to the former, which is explained by Porphyry.1 ' The utility of cattle, and the small- ness of their herds, induced the Egyptians to prohibit the slaughter of cows ; therefore, though they killed oxen for the altar and the table, they abstained from the females, with a view to the preservation of the race, and the law deemed it a sacrilege to eat their meat.' ' The Egyptians and Phoenicians,' he adds, ' would rather feed on human flesh than the flesh of a heifer/ in consequence, as St. Jerome observes, of the small stock of cattle in Palestine and the valley of the Nile ; and a similar motive may originally have induced the Hindoos to venerate the cow. Instances sometimes occur of the cow with a human head, wearing the asp and horns of Athor. The goddess is also re- presented as a bird with a human head, wearing her disk and horns. She is then in a character connected with the virtuous souls who have been admitted to the regions of Amenti. To Athor also appears to have been dedicated one of the sacred fish of Egypt, which even bears her name in the hieroglyphic legend that accompanies it.2 The name of Younger Horus was given to Horus, son of Isis and Osiris, to distinguish him from Aroeris, the brother of Osiris, who was styled the Elder Horus. He was supposed to have come into the world soon after the birth of his parents, and on the death of Osiris to have stood forth as the avenger of his father, de- feating Typho in several battles, and enabling Isis to thwart his evil intentions. It was probably in consequence of his victories over the enemy of mankind, that he was so often identified with Apollo, the story of whose combat with the serpent Pytho is evidently derived from the Egyptian mythology;3 and, indeed, the evil genius of his adversary is frequently figured under the form of a snake, whose head Horus is seen piercing with a spear. But this is not confined to Egyptian and Greek mytho- logy. The same fable occurs in the religion of India, where the malignant serpent Caliya is slain by Yishnoo, in his avatar of 1 Porph. de Abst. ii. 11. the breath which came out of her mouth. 2 Sometimes Athor wears on her head Her other children were Ahi-ur, Har-semt- the emblem of the West, of which she was ta, and Kamutef, all types of Horus.— S. B. 'regent," and her other titles called her 3 Macrob. Saturn, i. 19, p. 131, for this 'mistress ' or ' lady of the heavens.' She was fable, which he explains by the rays of the also mother of the god Shu, who lived by sun overcoming the humidity of the earth. Chap. XIII.] HOKUS. 123 Crishna ; and the Scandinavian deity Thor was said to have bruised the head of the great serpent with his mace. The origin of this may be readily traced to the Bible history. The serpent pierced by the spear of Horus is evidently the Apophis alluded to by Plutarch,1 which, from the signification it bears in the Egyptian language, * the giant/ appears to have been the origin of the fable of the wars of the gods and giants. Horus generally stands in a boat accompanied by other deities, while piercing the evil being in the water, who is sometimes repre- sented under the form of a man, though generally as a long serpent ; calling to mind ' the dragon in the sea ' mentioned by Isaiah.2 The hawk of Horus is sometimes perched on the back of an oryx, whilst various gods approach it in an attitude of prayer ; but this is apparently of late date, and perhaps connected with astrological speculations. Aroeris, or the Elder Horus, may with equal reason be supposed to correspond to Apollo, if we may judge from the Greek dedications at Ombos and Apollin- opolis Parva, inscribed to * Aroeris, the great Apollo.' But the opinion of Herodotus,3 that Horus the Younger answered to that deity, is of greater weight, from the connection subsisting between the deity of the floating Isle of Buto and Apollo, who is shown by the fabulous history attached to him to be the son of Isis. * Latona,' says the historian, * who lived at Buto, where her oracle now is, having been charged by Isis with the care of Apollo, concealed him in this island. She preserved him there in safety, while Typho was searching everywhere for the son of Osiris. For they say that Apollo and Diana are born of Bacchus (Osiris) and Isis, and that Latona was their nurse and preserver. Apollo is called Orus (Horus) in Egyptian ; Ceres, Isis ; and Diana, Bubastis.' This appears to have been the origin of the fable respecting the Delos of the Greek Apollo, which floated on the sea till it was made stationary by Xeptune in order to receive Latona, who was on the eve of being delivered of Apollo. Diodorus4 tells us that Apollo is the same as Horus, that the latter was taught the art of medicine by his mother Isis, and that he was the last of the gods who were fabled to have reigned on 1 Plut. de Isid. ss. 36 and 25. 3 Herodot. ii. 144, 156. 2 Isaiah xxvii. 1: 'Leviathan, that crooked * Diodor. i. 25. Macrob. Saturn, i. 21. serpent ; and he shall slay the dragon that jElian, x. 14, &c. is in the sea. 124 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. earth, — a figurative tale, which I have already explained by the historical fact of the priesthood of different gods having ruled Egypt before the monarchical form of government was estab- lished in the person of Menes and his successors. Little reliance, however, is to be placed on what the Greeks tell us of the deities of Egypt. The authority of Greek inscrip- tions in the temples should be preferred to that of Herodotus, Diodorus, Macrobius, or any other writers ; but, unfortunately, some difficulty arises from the uncertainty of the hieroglyphic legends themselves, — and these even leave undecided the claims of Horus and Aroeris to the name of Apollo. Plutarch1 would lead us to conclude that the city of Apollo was sacred to Horus ; since * the solemn hunting of the crocodile, annually held there, commemorated the escape of Typho from the pursuit of Horus under the form of that animal.' And as there is evidence of that city having been Apollinopolis Magna, now Edfoo, it is probable that the god worshipped there, who answered to the Greek Apollo, was another character of Horus the son of Osiris, having the additional title and attributes of Hat, or Agathodsemon. Such is the uncertainty on this point, that the deities of the two cities of Apollo do not appear to be the same, — one being Aroeris, and the other Har-Hat, or Aga- thodsemon : Strabo even appears to mistake Mentu for Aroeris ; and there is great confusion between the elder and younger Horus. This last and Harpocrates are not always easily sepa- rated, nor has Plutarch maintained a proper distinction between the elder and younger Horus ; and he not only gives to both of these the name of Apollo,2 but even to Harpocrates,3 whom he confounds with the elder Horus. Horus, Aroeris, and Har-Hat, are all represented with the head of a hawk4 crowned with the pshent, or double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. But the peculiar and distinguishing title of the younger Horus is ' the support or defender of his father, Osiris ; ' 5 and to him the kings of Egypt were likened, when, in the proclamation issued at the coronation, they were said to ' put on the crown of Egypt like Horus, the son of Isis.' A similarly complimentary formula is used in the Kosetta Stone, 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 50. 2 Ibid. s. 12. 3 Ibid. s. 54. 4 The hawk's head is also given to Ra, Mentu, Ptah-Socharis-Osiris, Khonsu, and Qabsenuf. 5 In the fabulous interpretation of this story, Horus may be supposed to assist his father, the inundation, by forming the clouds carried to the sources of the river whence it proceeded. Chap. XIII.] HORUS. 125 relative to the benefits conferred on the country by Ptolemy Epiphanes, — the king being compared to ' Horus, who assisted his father Osiris ;' and these, with numerous other legends, show that Horus was the prototype of royalty, and the representative of divine majesty. It was this idea which obtained for him the post of director of the sacred boats ; under which form was indi- cated 'the governor of the world,- as we are told by Iamblichus:1 and there can be little doubt that, from his occupation of steers- man in the baris of the dead, were borrowed the name and office of Charon in the mythology of Greece. The hieroglyphic legend accompanying the figure of Horus is the hawk, some- times with a line, sometimes with the flageUum of Osiris, over it, — the same signs which are given to the child Harpocrates. It is probable that an additional reason for supposing the Apollo of the Greeks to be the same as Horus, was owing to his being the son of Jupiter and grandson of Saturn, as the latter was son of Osiris, the son of Seb ; and the connection of the two deities is confirmed by the name ' Horapollo' borne by individuals ; though it is true that this might, with equal justice, apply to the elder as to the younger Horus. Plutarch,2 on the authority of Manetho, says, ' The loadstone was called by the Egyptians the bone of Horus, as iron was the bone of Typho :' he also tells3 us, that 'the constellation of Orion was sacred to Horus,4 as the dog-star to Isis ; ' and in another place,5 he mentions the allegorical and fanciful notion of ' Horus being of a fair, as Typho was of a red, and Osiris of a black, complexion.' The same author states that Horus sig- nified that just and seasonable temperature of the circum- ambient air which preserves and nourishes all things ; 6 and that the festival celebrated on the 30th day of Epiphi, when the sun and moon were supposed to be in the same right line with the earth, was called the birthday of Horus's eyes, — both those bodies being looked upon equally as the eyes or light of Horus.7 This deity was also reputed to have instituted the sacrifice to the sun, which was celebrated on the 4th day of every month in honour of that luminary ; and Horapollo even says that Horus was the sun.8 It is scarcely necessary to 1 Iambi, de Myst. ch. i. : 1 When they introduce the deity as pilot of a ship, they mean government, or the ruler of the world.' 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 62. 3 Ibid. s. 22. 4 The name of the constellation Orion is supposed to have been Sah, the ' Traverser,' or Sek. (Lepsius, ' Einleit.,' p. 109.)— S. B. s Plut. de Isid. s. 22. 6 Ibid. s. 8. 7 Ibid. s. 52. 8 Horapollo, i. 317. 126 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. observe, that the remark of Suidas,1 who says Horus was iden- tical with Priapus, can only apply to a character given him at a late period ; an instance2 of which occurs at Denderah in sculptures of Eoman time. But these are of little authority respecting the real forms of the Egyptian deities; several in- novations in the forms and attributes of the gods having been introduced on the monuments of that era, totally unauthorised by the sculptures of an ancient Pharaonic age. One of the principal duties of Horus was that of introducing the souls of the dead into the presence of Osiris, after they had passed the ordeal of their final judgment. He also assisted Anubis in weighing and ascertaining their good conduct during life, previous to their admission into the august [presence of his father, in the blessed regions of Amenti. The hawk placed on the wooden tablets in the tombs, and sometimes on the mummy case itself, was an emblem of Horus. The warlike character, as well as the name of Horus, may also suggest a re- semblance to Ares, the Mars of Greek mythology ; and, indeed, Horapollo seems to have in view either Horus or Aroeris, when he says,3 ' To denote Ares and Aphrodite, the Egyptians delineate two Tablet surmounted by hawk, nawks ' — sinCe the hawk is the emblem mummied, axem. perhaps em- > biem of Horus. k0th 0f Horus and Athor, the Egyptian Yenus. This, however, could only be a partial analogy; since the god of war is represented under another distinct form, with the name Kesppu ; and the weapons put into the hand of Horus only serve to prove his connec- tion with the Apollo of Greece, the patron of the bow, and the destroyer of the serpent. If the Greeks assigned to Mars, Apollo, and Minerva, the use of destructive weapons, which might appear exclusively to belong to the gods of war, the Egyptians in like manner extended the privilege to several deities independent of their god Keshpu. The spear was given to Horus and to Shu ; the bow and arrows to Neith, to Sati, and to Khemi, who also holds the battle-axe and spear ; and the 1 Suidas, voc. Upiairos. 2 Burton's Excerpta, plate 26. 3 Horapollo, Hierog. i. 8. Chap. XIII.] HOKUS AND AEOEEIS. 127 shield and arrows were not denied as an emblem to a goddess who has the office of nurse. The fanciful notion of Diodorus, Macrobius, Horapollo, and others,1 that the horai, horse, ' hours ' and ' seasons/ received their name from Horus, because the sun was so called by the Egyp- tians, is on a par with many other Greek etymologies, with this difference — that the Greeks usually derived the words of other languages from their own. The analogy between Horus and ouro, ' king,' mentioned by Salmasius,2 is remarkable, as Horus was the representative of majesty among the gods, and the hawk is put to designate a Pharaoh. But, as I have frequently had occasion to observe, it is from Ka or Phra and not from Horus, or, as Josephus supposes, from ouro, that the word Phrah, Pharaoh, was derived.3 The close affinity in some instances between Ea, the sun, and Horus, makes it difficult to distinguish between them, especially as the hawk is an emblem of both. But the hawk bearing on its head the disk of the sun belongs to Ka ; and that which wears the pshent, to Horus, the son of Osiris (who, like Ka, was the type of majesty) ; though, as already stated, this crown is sometimes appropriated by other hawk-headed deities, as Aroeris and Har-Hat. I have noticed the difficulty which presents itself in deciding which of these deities, the elder or younger Horus, corresponds to the Greek Apollo. It is true that Aroeris4 is mentioned, in the Greek dedication at Apollinopolis Parva, as the deity of the place, answering to Apollo ; and the same occurs again at Ombos, where he is figured as Horus, though not as the son of Osiris. But the many points of resemblance brought forward by Herodotus, Plutarch, and others, between Apollo and the son of Osiris, argue strongly in favour of the opinion that the younger Horus answers to the Greek Apollo. Aroeris was son of Seb and Nut ; and in a hieroglyphic legend at Philae he is styled son of Nut, and repre- sented under the singular form of a hieracosphinx. Plutarch ( thinks him to have had the sun for his father, and to have been born on the second day of the epact. Little more is related concerning him, nor does he appear to have acted a very 1 Diodor. i. 26. Macrob. S*turn. i. 26. 4 Haroeris, in Egyptian Har-ur, means Horapollo, i. 17. < the greater ' or ' elder Horus.' He was the 2 Jablonski, ii. 4, p. 222. brother of Osiris, and persouified divine 3 The texts show that it is derived from pre-existence, and was adored at Ombos, per aa, 1 the great house ' or ' court,' or and so united with Set or Nubti.— S. B. 4 the great two houses ' or 1 courts.' — S. B. 128 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. prominent part in the mythological history of his brother Osiris. In a papyrus published by Champollion, he is styled * Haroeris, lord of the solar spirits, the beneficent eye of the sun ; 1 and it is in this last sense that he appears to bear some analogy to Apollo, who, according to Plato, received his name from * the emission of the rays of light.' Apollo and the sun were distinct in the mythology of Greece ; and it is probable that the Egyptians separated the light from the heat, and perhaps even from the splendour of the sun ; considering it in the various characters to which I have already alluded. Har-oeri, or Aroeris, may be considered the eye and light,1 or the splendour and brightness of the sun, like the Greek Phoebus ; and if his connection with Ea is not sufficiently obvious, the statements of Greek writers, added to the testimony of dedicatory inscriptions at Ombos and Apollinopolis Parva, authorise this opinion, while the younger Horus may enjoy an undisputed claim to the character of Apollo. Harpocrates2 was born of Isis after the death of her husband, and is therefore distinct from Horus, her elder son by Osiris, who is said at that time to have been engaged in war with Typho. Plutarch tells us,3 that ' Harpocrates, being the offspring of the intercourse of Osiris with Isis after his death, and having come into the world before his time, was lame in his lower limbs.' This allegorical fable he explains 4 by interpreting ' Harpocrates, whom she brought forth about the time of the winter solstice, to be those weak and tender shootings of the corn which are as yet feeble and imperfect; for which reason the Egyptians dedicate the firstfruits of their lentils to this god, and celebrate the feast of his mother's delivery just after the vernal equinox.' ' We must not, however,' he adds,5 ' really look upon Harpocrates as an infant and imperfect deity, or as the young and tender shoots of the pulse, but rather as the governor and rectifier of those weak, incomplete notions, which we are apt to form of the divine nature. For which reason, we see him described with his finger pointing to his mouth — a proper emblem of that modest and cautious silence we ought to observe in these matters. So, when they offer him the firstfruits of their lentils in the month 1 This cannot fail to call to mind the aor, 4 light,' of the Hebrews ; though not resembling the Egyptian word of the same meaning. 2 His name was Harpaxvat, ' Horus the child ' or 1 germ.' (Pierret, Vocab. p. 247.) — S. B.] 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 19. 4 Ibid. s. 65. 5 Ibid. s. 68. 130 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. Mesore, they at the same time exclaim, " The tongue is fortune, the tongue is god : " and hence it is that, of all Egyptian plants, the peach-tree is looked upon peculiarly sacred to Harpocrates, because of the resemblance observed between its fruit and the heart, and between its leaves and the human tongue.' There is, however, reason to believe that this is one of the many errors with which the accounts of Greek writers abound. The peach- tree, unless it be the same as Persea, was not sacred to any deity ; and it is evident that he had in view the holy tree of Athor, whose fruit, as represented in the sculptures, so strongly resembles the heart. Harpocrates is represented as an infant nursed by Isis, or with his finger to his mouth, having a lock of hair falling from the side of his head. The same figure is commonly employed by the Egyptians to indicate a child. He is generally in a sit- ting posture ; instances, however, occur of his standing upright, and walking alone, or at the side of his mother. The lock of hair, the distinguishing mark of a child, though one of his principal characteristics, is not confined to Harpocrates : it is given to the younger members of other Egyptian triads, as Ahi, Har-semt-ta, Pneb-ta, Har-para, Harka, and Hake, who in form and general attributes are similar to the child of Isis. It is also worn by Khonsu, the offspring of Amen and Mut, in the great Theban triad ; and the priest who officiates in the leopard-skin dress, even though he be the king himself, assumes this badge of youth, probably emblematic of that spotless innocence with which it became the supreme pontiff to approach the presence of the gods. I have occasionally met with Harpocrates wearing round his neck a vase, the emblem of Ma, the goddess of truth ; which probably refers to ' the amulet ' said by Plutarch 1 to have been ' worn by Isis at the time she brought him into the world, which was reported to mean " speaking the truth." ' As the child of Isis, he may represent youth in general : and when seated in Hades before Osiris, or in the sepulchral chambers containing the sarcophagi of the dead, he is the symbol of resuscitation, or new birth. This alludes to the change of state which every one undergoes at his death, purporting that dis- solution is only the cause of reproduction ; that nothing perishes which has once existed;2 and that things which appear to be 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 68. Phaedo: 'The living are generated from 2 QvrjaKei 8' ovSev rwv ytyvofievcau, of the dead, no less than the dead from the the Chrysippus of Euripides ; and Plato, living ' (p. 280, trans. Taylor). Chap. XIII.] HAEPOCEATES. 131 destroyed, only change their natures and pass into another form. The same idea is probably repeated in the triad (so often found in the tombs made of blue pottery or other composition) con- sisting of Isis, Nephthys, and Harpocrates, which I suppose to signify the beginning, the end, and reproduction after death.1 It may also be traced in what Macrobius says of the mode of representing the sun ' by an image having a lock of hair on the right side of its head,' 2 which was emblematic of the reappearance of that luminary ' after it was concealed from our sight at its setting ; or of the return of the sun to the solstice.' 3 But this seems rather to apply to the god Ahi. In some monuments of the late date of the Ptolemies and Caesars, Harpocrates is repre- sented seated on a throne, supported by lions, and even placed upon the backs of those animals ;4 which cannot fail to call to mind the remark of Horapollo,5 that * the Egyptians put lions under the throne of Horus — this being their name for the sun : ' though he is wrong in supposing the sun to be the same as Horus. The notion respecting his being the god of silence appears to be of Greek origin : for, as I have already observed, the Egyptians did not indicate it by the finger, but by placing the whole hand over the mouth.6 The position of Harpocrates' finger, therefore, appears rather to refer to a habit common to children in all times and in every country : and that the form of his body, with a prominent abdomen, was aptly chosen to indicate extreme youth, is sufficiently proved by the appearance of Egyptian children at the present day. Instances occur of Harpocrates with the cap and feathers of Amen ; but as these are bronze statues, and unaccompanied by hieroglyphics, there is no possi- bility of ascertaining the exact character he bore when so represented.7 The connection between Harpocrates, as well as other of these infant deities, and the god, generally called Typhonian, whom I have supposed to represent death, is very remarkable. But I shall treat of it more fully in another place, when describing the attributes and character of that deity. 1 The supposed connection in Hebrew 4 Rosellini, plate 18. between mout, ' death,' and mut, 1 mother/ 5 Horapollo, i. 17. is an erroneous notion ; since the latter is 6 In the bronze figures the finger is am, and not mut. raised to the level of the chin. — S. B. 2 Macrobius, Saturn, i. 26 : 1 Rursum 7 They represent Har as the eldest son emergendi uti capillos habere substantiam.' of Amen, perhaps a variety of the type of 3 Ibid. i. 26 : • Rursus emergens ad Khonsu. (Birch, ' Gall, of Antiq.,' p. 38.) a'stivum hemisphaerium tanquam enascens — S. B. in augmenta porrigitur.' 132 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. The form and attributes of the youthful deity Ahi are similar to those of Harpocrates, from whom the hieroglyphic legends alone distinguish him. He is the third member of the triad of Denderah, and son of Har-hat and Athor, by whom he is nursed. This goddess, in the character of mother of an infant, appears to have borrowed the attributes of Isis ; but the same office is assumed by other goddesses. Athor occurs again at Edfoo as the mother of Har-semt-ta, her son by Har-Hat ; and Nebuu, a form of Neith, is at Esneh the mother of the young Hake. Like Harpocrates, and other of these infant deities, he is represented with his finger raised to his mouth, the sign of extreme youth ; and he is sometimes represented sitting on the flower of a lotus. He is then supposed to signify the sun in the winter solstice, or the rising sun ; and the crook and flagellum, the emblems of Osiris, which he some- times carries, may be intended to indicate the influence he is about to exercise upon mankind. The vase from which the plant grows is a lake of water, and the usual initial of the word ma or moo, ' water.' ' They do, indeed,' says Plutarch,1 ' characterise the rising sun as though it sprang every day afresh out of the lotus-plant ; but this implies, that to moisture we owe the first kindling of this luminary.' I may, however, venture to offer another interpretation, suggested both by the allegory itself, as well as by his hieroglyphical name Ahi, — that he corresponds to the day or morning ; and in this character he may answer to Aurora. Some might perhaps apply to him the name Phos- phorus, which seems to accord with an inscription mentioned by Jablonski ; 2 but he was distinct from Yenus, or the morning star. The resemblance, indeed, between Ahi, or Pa-hru, 6 the day,' in Egyptian, and Eos, the Greek Aurora, is sufficiently striking : and if for the ' sun ' rising every morning from a lotus-flower, we substitute the ' day,' we find the remark of Plutarch justly applies to this deity : and we may readily pardon his error in mistaking him for Harpocrates, whom he so much resembles. It may, then, be supposed that he represents the day ; and he is with justice considered the child of Athor, or night, from which every new day was supposed to spring. I must, in conclusion, make this remark on the lotus-plant on which he is represented 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 11. 2 Jablonski, ii. 6, p. 256 : — ' Bono Deo, Puero Phosphoro.' Chap. XIIL] AHI — HAE-HAT. 133 seated, — that it is always the Nymphaea lotus, and in no instance the Nelumbo. And though this last is mentioned by several ancient authors among the plants of Egypt, it is never intro- duced into the sculptures as a sacred emblem, or, indeed, as a production of the country ; a fact which goes far to disprove one of the supposed analogies of the Egyptian and Indian objects of veneration. With regard to the common lotus, so frequently represented as a favourite flower in the hands of the Egyptians 12 3 1 3 4 No. 530. Hat and Har-hat. 1. ■ Har-hat, great god, lord of heaven.' 2. ' Har-hat, great god, lord of heaven, lord of Denderah.' 3-6. 4Haf [Edfu]. (as the rose or others might be in the hands of any modern people), there is no evidence of its having been sacred, much less an object of worship, though it is an emblem of the god Nefer-Atmu. As there appears to be some connection between the deity Hat and Horus, I introduce him with the members of the family of Seb. Hat was the Good Genius, or Agathodsemon, under whose THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. protection the persons of the kings and the temples of the gods were placed. In the form of a sun supported by two asps and outspread vultures' wings, he occurs over the doorways and facades of buildings. Sometimes he is represented as a winged scarabseus, supporting a globe or sun with its fore-feet; as a hawk, he hovers over the monarch while offering sacrifices in the temples, or on other occasions ; and as a deity of human shape, with a hawk's head, he pours alternate emblems of life and power over the prince at his coronation. In this office he is assisted by the god Nilus, Thoth, or Nubti ; one of whom, placed opposite him, pours a stream of similar emblems from another vase over the king who stands between them. His place is sometimes taken by one of those deities. When opposed to Nubti, he appears to represent the Upper, as the latter the Lower, Country. He also assists in binding the throne of the monarch with the stalks of water-plants, in company with Nilus, or with Thoth, — one using those emblematic of the Upper, the other of the Lower, Country. The ceremony itself refers to the dominion of the king over Upper and Lower Egypt. When represented as a man, with a hawk's head, he appears to be related to the Agathodaamon of the Phoenicians ; which, according to Eusebius, was supposed (though erroneously) to be the same as Neph, with i the head of a hawk.' In the character of the winged globe, he unites the attributes of Ka, Khnum, and Mut, the sun, asp, and vulture's wings. He may then be said more particularly to deserve the name of the Good Genius ; though, as I have already observed, the Agathodsemon, which presided over the affairs of men as the guardian spirit of their houses, was the asp of Eannu ; according with another state- ment of Eusebius.1 that Agathodaemon was figured under the form of a serpent. The winged globe may perhaps call to mind the i land shadowing with wings ; ' 2 as the figures kneeling at either end of the sacred arks, or boats, recall the winged seraphim. The name of this deity is written Hat, when under the form of a hawk, and of the winged globe, in attendance on the kings ; and when under the name and character of Har-Hat, he usually wears the fslient, or crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, which seems to connect him with Horus. He is some- times represented with wings, holding a spear, and crowned with the fslient of Horus ; but this is in temples of a Ptolemaic 1 Euseb. Proepar. Evang. i. 10. Isaiah xviii. 1. Chap. XUL] NUBTI. 135 era. He frequently appears at Denderah, and also in the oldest temples, in all these characters ; and the temple of Edfoo, or Apollinopolis Magna, being dedicated to him, seems to give him a claim to the name of Apollo. At this last place, an instance occurs of the god Har-Hat with the head of a lion and the solar disk, holding a monkey in his hand. He stands in a boat ; and before him Thoth, Isis, Nephthys, and two other goddesses, raise their hands in an attitude of prayer, while Horus pierces the head of Apophis with a spear.1 12 3 1 2 No. 531. Nubti. L ' Nubti 1 (Ombos). 2. « Nubti, lord of tbe earth.' 3. The five children of Seb — Osiris, Aroeris, Set, Isis, Nephthys. A. 'Set, son of Nut.' 5. Her-ef-aeru 6. The two-headed god Horus or Har of Hat and Set united. The deity Nubti is sometimes represented, as already observed, in company with, and in the same office as, the last-mentioned god, pouring the emblems of life and power over the kings, in the place of Thoth ; and as teaching them the use of the bow, together with the same hawk-headed god, Har-Hat. It might 1 The winged disk is supposed to repre- against the conspirators of Set. (Naville, sent the sun passing through the heavens. ■ Mythe d'Horus.' Pierret, Vocab., p. 187.) Har of Hat is the type of Horus fighting — S. B. 136 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. appear that Nubti was connected with the Lower Country, as Har-Hat with Upper Egypt, to whom he was opposed. For, in the ceremony of the Panegyries, where the king is represented running to the temple to perform the accustomed rites, we find this deity introduced on the side of the picture, corresponding to Lower Egypt, with all the emblems of that part of the country, as the asp, the northern water-plant, and the genius of Lower Egypt; the king also wearing the cap of that district. But Nubti generally has, in his hieroglyphic legend, the title ' Lord of the region of the Upper Country,' as is the case even in the subject to which I have above alluded, though accompanied by the emblems of Lower Egypt. This, then, may be intended to indicate the combined protection of the deities of both regions. In the cartouches of Osirei and other Pharaohs, his figure is introduced as a substitute for Osiris. In the hieroglyphic legends on the monuments,1 he is shown to have been the son of Nut ; on the wooden cubits found at Memphis, the names of Seb and Nut are followed by Osiris, Isis, Nubti,2 Nephthys, and Aroeris ; and I have met with a group of figures representing the family of Nut, in which he occurs with Osiris, Aroeris,3 Isis, and Nephthys, as the third son of that goddess. This agrees with the statement of Plutarch,4 that Osiris was born on the first, Aroeris on the second, Typho on the third, Isis on the fourth, and Nephthys on the fifth day. Hence it is evident that the deity before us was one of the characters of Typho, and the reason of his figure being erased on almost all the monuments where it occurs was owing to the hatred with which they viewed the Evil Being he represented : though, as I shall have occasion to show, the good and bad principles were viewed with a different feeling by the philosophers of early times. He is figured under a human form, having the head of a quadruped with square-topped ears, which some might have supposed to represent an ass with clipped ears, if the entire animal did not too frequently occur to prevent this erroneous conclusion. That it was an imaginary creature is evident from its form, and from being placed at Beni-Hassan with sphinxes 5 and other fanciful animals ; all conjecture is 1 An instance of this occurs on the Horus. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 12. Obelisk of Luxor, at Thebes. 5 The sphinx was chosen as an emblem 2 Nubti means the town of Ombos, and of the king, and was intended to imply the he is the' Set of Nubti,' when so mentioned. union of physical and intellectual force, by — S. B. its body of a lion and its human head ; or, 3 This deity wears the pshent, like as Clemens of Alexandria says, ' the union 138 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. therefore useless, both regarding its name and the reason for which it was selected. Had the head of this deity been that of the ass, its adoption would have suited the character of the Evil Being, and have accorded with the statement of Plutarch, who says the Egyptians considered that animal emblematic of Typho. * Hence the Coptites have the custom of throwing an ass down a precipice ; and the inhabitants of Busiris and Lycopolis carry their detesta- tion of it so far as never to make use of trumpets, fancying that their sound is similar to the braying of an ass. Indeed, this animal is generally regarded by them as unclean, on account of its supposed resemblance to Typho ; for which reason, the cakes offered with their sacrifices, during the two months Paimi and Phaophi, have the impression of an ass, bound, stamped upon them.' 1 Even if the entire quadruped itself were not present to decide this point, their mode of representing animals was too accurate to admit of such a misconception ; and a figure with the head of an ass represented among the numerous genii in the temple of Tuot, or Tuphium, suffices to show the marked distinc- tion between it and the one before us. The inaccuracy of Greek writers presents considerable difficulty in deciding upon any point not elucidated by the Egyptian monuments. We are told that Typho was the name of the Evil Being, who was the son of Nut, and brother of Osiris. But, judging from the hieroglyphic legends, there is reason to believe Typho to be a female deity, apparently distinct from the Evil Being who was the persecutor of Osiris ; and we are unable to trace in the name of Nubti any of the titles, Seth,2 Bebo,3 Babys,4 or Smy,5 given by Plutarch to Typho. On this last point, however, I shall not insist, since the force of the hieroglyphics 6 composing it is not positively ascertained ; but we may be certain that the name Typho was not applied to this deity, though he fulfilled the office of the Evil Being opposed to the good Osiris, his brother, and answered- in every respect to the character of the third son of Nut. It appears that the Egyptian mythology acknowledged two of force with prudence or wisdom,' clKktis re av jxera avveaecos rj a ciple, and also the sun-god. But the great interest of the god Set was his connection with the Hykshos and Canaanites, when he generally bears the name of Sutekh or Sut. As such he was worshipped during the Shepherd rule in Amaris ; after which his 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 12. It is singular that the name ' Typhon ' (Tiphoon) was applied to a ' sudden whirlwind ' in former times (Plin. ii. 28), as at the present day ; and that Tuphan is the Arabic name of the Deluge. [It is the Chinese Tai fung, ' great wind.'— S. B.] Chap. XIII.] TYPHO. 145 worship still continued, apparently in connection with Baal, and he was the type of Northern, as Horus of Southern, Egypt. Two of the monarchs of the 19th Dynasty bore his name ; and his worship as Set-ra, from which it is supposed may be derived the Sethroites, was kept up by Osorkon II. He was the chief god of the Khita, and at a later period, for reasons unknown, either religious or political, his name was erased from the public monuments. The chief seat of his worship was at Ombos, where he had the name Nubti, or Ombos, and Set-Nubti, or Set, Lord of Ombos. One idea is, that his name was the most ancient one of God amongst the Semitic races. He assumed the form of a man, of a lion, or beast, perhaps a hippopotamus, a boar, and a serpent, in the war of the gods. His name Set means * limestone' and 'fire.'1 — S. B.] I have already observed, that there is reason to consider the evil being, the son of Nut, distinct from Typho ; and this last to be a female rather than a male deity. The son of Nut whom, in the uncertainty which still attends the reading of his name, I consider to be Nubti, has evidently no office in connection with Horus ; but the figure in the accompanying plate is re- presented opposed to the son of Osiris, and holds a conspicuous place in those temples and sculptures which refer to his mysterious history. Taur appears to be the principal personage amidst the frightful and capriciously formed figures which appear as the evil genii of the Egyptian mythology ; and in astronomical subjects she may be supposed to represent, as Plutarch says of Typho, the eclipses of the sun and moon, and the occultations of the stars, or to preside over the birth of the sun. She has the body, apparently, of a hippopotamus, or of a bear, with the head some- times of a hippopotamus, sometimes of a crocodile, the tail of the latter, and the hands and breasts of a woman ; and she frequently wears on her head the globe and horns of Athor, with two long feathers. Her hand reposes on an emblem not very unlike a pair of shears ; and she sometimes rests one hand upon a crocodile's head, standing on its tail.2 At the quarries of Silsilis she is worshipped as a deity, 1 M. Ed. Meyer, ' Set-Typhon,' Leipz. months. Taur has the title of 'resident 1875. Pleyte, 1 Die Religion der Pre-Israel- in the pure waters belonging to the abyssal ites,' Utrecht, 1862. heights of heaven, regent of gods.' Apet is 2 The name of this goddess is Taur or called 'the great one who has given birth Thoueris, and she is said to be the concubine to the boy, companion of the great one who of Typhon ; she also had the name of She- resides in Thebes, the great mother of pu, and Apt or Apet, 1 the hippopotamus.' Kamutf.' (Birch, 'Gall, of Antiq.,' p. 41. At Ombos these deities presided over the Pierret, ' Diet.,' p. 52.) — S. B. VOL. III. L Chap. XIII.] TYPHO. 147 accompanied or followed by Thoth and a goddess, apparently Nut, before whom, as a triad, the queen of Kameses the Great holds two sistra. She has a human head, with the usual body of a monster standing erect on its hind-legs ; and I have met with the same deity with a human figure and head of a hippopotamus, on a tablet, where she is the first person of a triad made up of Eileithyia and Athor. She sometimes appears to be connected with the idea of parturition, or gestation — which may account for her being introduced with the Egyptian Lucina. Her figure in the hieroglyphic legends of Isis1 and Nut2 appears to refer to her capacity of protectress of mothers. I have also found an instance of this goddess with the name Isis over her, in an astro- nomical subject on a mummy-case now in the British Museum. The hippopotamus and the crocodile were emblems of Typho, except, perhaps, in those towns where they happened to be worshipped : as at Papremis, the city of Mars, which held the former among the animals dedicated to its protecting deity ; and at Ombos, and other places, where the crocodile was sacred. * At Hermopolis,' says Plutarch,3 * there is shown a statue of Typho, which is a hippopotamus with a hawk upon its back fighting with a serpent. By the hippopotamus is meant Typho ; and by the hawk, the power he frequently assumes by violence, and then employs to his own annoyance and to the prejudice of others. So, again, the cakes they offer on the 7th day of Tybi, to celebrate the return of Isis from Phoenicia, have the impression of a hippo- potamus, bound, stamped upon them. The solemn hunt of the crocodile in the city of Apollo, when every one is obliged to eat of its flesh, is in like manner established to show their abhorrence of Typho, whose emblem it is. The same feeling is the origin of their hatred of the ass.' The connection of Typho and Mars, of both of whom the hippopotamus was said to be an emblem, is singular ; and there appears to be a great analogy between Hercules and other of the reputed Typhonian figures. In the buildings called by some Typhonia, and in many of the mysterious subjects above alluded to, she is accompanied by another figure of hideous shape, which has also been con- sidered Typhonian. This monster forms the ornamental part of the capitals of the columns around the Mammeisi Temples, formerly called Typhonia, as at Denderah and other places. 1 Plate XXVI., hierog. 8. 2 Plate XXIV., hierog. 2. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 50. L 2 148 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. The name of Typhonium has been improperly applied to these monuments, since they were not consecrated to Typho, but are rather connected with the mysterious rites of Harpocrates and other infant deities, relating to their birth, or generally to the principle of regeneration. The ingenious Champollion has as- signed to them the appellation of Mammeisi, the * lying-in places,' where the third member of the triad, worshipped in the adjoining temple, was born, and nursed by the deities who were supposed to perform that office in Egyptian mythology. [The next deity to consider is the god Bes, a god not of Egyptian origin, but coming from Arabia, and subsequently identified with Set. Like the Pataikos or Ptah, he has the appearance of deformity, but is an unborn child of Herculean proportions of limbs, covered with the skin of a lion entirely concealing his face, and giving it a Gor- gonian appearance. — S. B.] His appear- ance is of a short deformed man, with a tail, a curly beard, and a head-dress of long feathers : but little is known of his office and attributes, nor have I been able to ascertain if he be the husband of Typho. The story of Nephthys being the wife of Typho, even if Typho were a god, is not authorised by the sculptures ; and the origin of this notion is probably owing to Nephthys being placed in con- tradistinction to Isis, as the end to the beginning, and in the funeral rites being No. 532. Bes. in an office opposed to that of her sister. I have reason to believe that he re- presented ' Death,' in a bad sense, as the dissolution of the animal part of man, and the decay of all things, applied to animals as well as to mankind : and this will readily account for the presence of the peculiar demonstrative sign — the hide of an animal with the tail attached to it — which always follows the legends denoting 6 a beast.' He is also said ' to adore his lord' — alluding to the attitude in which he stands before Harpocrates, who in the character of renovation, or new life, might properly be adored by the god of death. He occurs, as already stated, on the columns of the Mammeisi of Denderah and other places ; and he presents Chap. XIII.] BES. 149 the same appearance in some of the temples of Southern Ethiopia. He is found at the distant Kermesat, in Wady Kerbeean, beyond Wady Benat; and in the sculptures of the supposed hunting palace of Wady Benat, where he is represented armed with a shield and sword, slaying the captives he grasps in his hand.1 Images of this deity are also found at Thebes and other places, armed in the same manner with the emblems of war, which may argue his being death in the sense of destruction ; and an in- stance occurs of his having the dress of a Koman soldier ;2 which No. 533. Bes holding nosegays. seems to connect him with the god of war, in the same sense the destroying power. In a papyrus of M. Keuvens, he ap- proaches near to the figure of Hercules, whom I shall presently have occasion to notice ; and we might even suppose him to be the deity of strength. 1 Besides these warlike types, he is seen of mirrors and parts of head-rests, and his in more festive mood playing on the tri- appearance suggests that he had evil attri- gon or triangular lyre, or on the tambour- butes. — S. B. ine, or holding children, cynocephalic apes, 2 Woodcut No. 534. The shrine he and other objects. He is often found bears on his head is remarkable. But carved on stibium-pots, on the handles this figure is of late date — Roman period. 150 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. If he represented Death, his frequent occurrence in company with the infant Horus may readily be explained by the con- nection supposed to subsist between death and reproduction ; and I have seen a statue which combines the attributes of both those gods, under the form of a youth with the lock of childhood descending from his head, and the beard and unseemly features of this aged monster. Sometimes, and indeed more generally, the head of the latter is placed over that of the youthful deity (as in the cippus, Plate XXXIII.), who, holding in one hand two snakes with a scorpion and Capricorn, in the other similar snakes with a lion and scorpion, stands upon two cro- codiles, and is surrounded by the emblems and figures of different gods. Though most of these are well known, I do not pretend to offer an explanation of the whole subject, which appears to bear an astrological as well as a mytho- logical sense.1 The three principal figures — the crocodile, the young Horus, and the monster head — may signify darkness,2 the origin of all things, existence or production, and death.3 They may also explain an apparent resemblance between this deity and a repre- sentation of Ptah the Creative Power.4 These groups are, I believe, of late date— of Ptolemaic or Koman time ; and it is generally observable that similarly complicated subjects are of a period when the religion of Egypt was overgrown with fanciful speculation, which the simplicity of earlier sculptures had not adopted. No. 534. 1. lies, armed. 2. Details of another shield. 1 Macrobius, Saturn, i. 26. Clemens (Strom, v.) says, ' The Egyptians sometimes represent the sun in a boat, sometimes on a crocodile.' 2 Horapollo, i. 69, 70. 3 These cippi (one of which is figured on page 153) are all of a late period, and are covered with representations of the principal deities of the Egyptian Pantheon in adoration or present with Horus. The mystical inscription, stating Horus to be the god, son of a god, sheep, son of a sheep, proceeding from Osiris, and that he is the old one who becomes young, and the direc- tion to the crocodiles to shut their mouths, is given by Messrs. Chabas and Pierret, 'Zeitsch. f. agypt. Spr.,' 1868, pp. 99-136. — S. B. 4 Woodcuts No. 536 and No. 498. Chap. XIII.] BES. 151 May this deity have been Besa, whose oracle is placed by ancient writers in the vicinity of Abydus or of Antinoe?1 His name in some of the hieroglyphic legends resembles that of the unknown Besa; and if his character appears little likely to justify the notion of his possessing an oracle, it will cease to present an objection, when we recollect that in Greece even the monster Geryon, slain by Hercules, was deemed worthy of No. 535. Bes and Hi. • Hi adores his lord.' * Bes adores his lord.' a similar honour. Professor Keuvens2 gives an invocation to Typhon Seth, 'who destroys and renders desert, and is sur- named " he who agitates, and is invincible ; " ' which seems to suit the character of this destroying deity, and to account for his presumed connection with Typho. The fact of his being thus invoked corresponds with his ambiguous title and appearance ; and the learned Professor's3 opinion, that he was derived from Ptah or from Chnoumis, is sufficiently plausible. But I should exclude the name of Chnoumis, and for Ptah should substitute 1 Hamilton places this Abydus at Aboo Hannes (a Christian village) to the S. of Antinoe. 2 Keuvens, Lettre i. p. 39. 3 Lettre iii. pp. 78, 79. 152 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. that of the pigmy Ptah-Socharis-Osiris, to which I have already alluded. This also calls to mind the connection between the operation of the Creator and of the Destroying Power. Having mentioned the bad principle, and shown the dis- tinction between Typho and the son of Nut, it may not be out of place to introduce another character of the Evil Being ; in which we cannot fail to recognise the serpent the enemy of mankind, and from which the Pytho of Greek mythology was evidently derived. Aphophis, or Apop, which in Egyptian signifies a giant, was the name given to the serpent of which Horus is represented as the destroyer. From this, the Greeks borrowed the story of Apollo's destruction of the serpent Pytho ; as from the name Aphophis, the wars between the giants, or Bes like Hercules. Bronze figure of Bes. Bes, seated, holdiug some object. No. 536. No. 537. No. 538. British Museum. Titans, and the gods. 'For/ as Plutarch observes,1 ' those wars, which are so much spoken of by the Greeks, the detestable actions of Saturn, and the combats between Apollo and Pytho, the flights of Bacchus, and the wanderings of Ceres, are of the same nature as the adventures of Osiris and Typho.' In an- other place,2 he speaks of ' Apopis as a prince, who was brother to the sun, and made war upon Jupiter, by whom he was de- feated through the assistance of Osiris,' which tends to the same point; and it is remarkable that the combat of the gods and giants occurs under various forms in many religions. The destruction of the serpent by Horus, who, standing in a boat, pierces his head with a spear, as he rises above the water, frequently occurs in the sculptures ; and whether it has the body 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 25. 2 Ibid. s. 36. Plate XXXIII. Cippus representing Horus on the Crocodiles, with the head of Bes. L Horns. 2. Thoth and Har-shef. 3. Hek and Neitb. 4. Khnnm. 5. Ast.t. 6. Ptah. 7. Serq, or Selk. 8. Nebhotep. 9. Commencement of long inscription continued on back. 10. Urhek. 11. 'Great god in Rat, and snake User.' 12. Isis. 13. Sebak. 14. Horus. 15. Golden hawk, Isis, Selk. 16. Horus. 17. Buto, Hu, and Sa. 154 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. of a snake with the head of a man, or assumes the entire human form, it appears to be the same monster. The representation of Typho, mentioned by Plutarch, at Hermopolis, evidently refers to this conflict of Horus and Aphophis. I will not decide whether the serpent Aphophis has any relation to ' the snake which, when Thoueris, the concubine of Typho, deserted to Horus, was killed by his soldiers' as it pursued her ; * an event,' says Plutarch,1 ' still commemorated by the ceremony of throwing a rope into the midst of their assemblies, and then chopping it in pieces.' Nephthys, the sister of Isis, and youngest daughter of Nut, was supposed by the Greeks to have been the wife of Typho ; but, as I have already observed, this notion probably arose from her being placed in opposition to Isis, particularly in funeral subjects, where Isis stands at the head and Nephthys at the feet of the deceased. She represented the end, as Isis the beginning, of all things ; but she was not opposed to her sister in a bad sense, as Typho to Osiris. In the regions of Amenti, a triad was composed of Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys ; and another con- sisted of Isis, Nephthys, and Harpocrates. In the fabulous history of Osiris,2 she may have been con- sidered as the sea-shore, and the confines of Egypt, from being opposed to Isis, who was that part of the land irrigated by the inundation of the Nile ; without the idea of her possessing the injurious nature which was attached to Typho. Even in this character her inferiority might be of a negative kind, not that of a positive agent of evil, being merely the representative of a barren soil, whose unproductiveness was owing to its not having received the fertilising influence of the inundation. Like Isis in her mysterious character, Nephthys was principally employed in offices connected with the dead ; and she is represented assisting her sister to perform the last rites to Osiris, when he quitted the earth to assume his duties in Amenti as judge of the dead. She is therefore appropriately styled 'rectrix of the lower regions.' Her name, written Neb-thy, or Neb-tei, signifying ' the lady of the abode,' consists of a bowl or basket, called neb, placed upon a house, answering to ei or tei. These she wears upon her head ; as Isis has the throne, her hieroglyphic emblem. She is frequently styled the sister-goddess, referring to her relationship to Isis and Osiris ; and I have met with an instance 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 19. 2 Ibid. s. 38. 156 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. of her being called ' Nephthys, the saviour sister-goddess, Anouka/ This connects her with Anoukis the Egyptian Vesta, and accords with the Greek notion of Vesta being the daughter of Saturn and Khea, who answered to the Seb and Nut of the Egyptian Pantheon. In another hieroglyphic inscription over a door at Dakkeh, the Ethiopian king Ergamen is said to be ' a son of Osiris, born of Isis, and nursed by Nephthys;' and the two triads of which she was a member frequently occur in the No. 539. 1, 2 Neb-ta, or Nephthys. 1, 2. ' Nephthys Uat, sister-goddess Anoukis, daughter of the sun, regent of the land.' 3. ' Nephthys, great sister-goddess Ma or Truth.' 4. 'Nephthys, lady of heaven, regent of the two countries.' Egyptian tombs. She is sometimes called ' a daughter of the sun,' though Plutarch1 supposes her begotten by Saturn; and the same author gives to her the names of Teleute, or the end, Aphrodite, and Nike. He considers her,2 in one of her cha- racters, * the lower and invisible, as Isis was the upper and visible, parts of the world ; ' and he says,3 that * the sistrum having the face of Isis on one side and of Nephthys on the Plut. de Isid. s. 12. 2 Ibid. s. 44. 3 Ibid. s. 63. Chap. XIII.] NEPHTHYS. 157 other, symbolically represents generation and corruption.' This idea, like that previously expressed respecting the contradistinc- tion of Isis and her sister, did not convey the impression of a malevolent deity ; corruption or the termination of life not being looked upon as annihilation, as I have already had occa- sion to observe. All persons, therefore, who died, were thought to pass, through the influence of Nephthys, into a future state ; and the presence of Nut on the coffins of the dead also pur- ported that, being born again and assuming the title of Osiris, each individual had become the son of Nut, even as the great Ruler of Amenti, to whose name he was entitled when admitted to the mansions of the blessed. But though Nephthys was the 1 End/ she was distinct from ' Death,' whom I have mentioned as a separate deity. I have once met with an instance of Nephthys with the adjunct Sothis, connecting her with the dog- star. This is perhaps an assumption of the attributes of her sister, or may refer to that star at the end instead of the begin- ning of the year, from which its heliacal rising was usually calculated : but, being of rare occurrence, it is not important, nor does it suffice to connect the dog-star with the sister of Isis. According to Hesychius, ' the Egyptians worshipped a goddess, called by the Greeks Aphrodite shotia, " the dark or nocturnal Venus," ' whom Prichard supposes to be Nephthys ; 1 but this rather applies to the Egyptian Athor. The jackal-headed god was one of the principal deities of Amenti. He was ' son of Osiris,' not by Nephthys, as Greek writers state, but, according to the positive authority of the hieroglyphics, ' by Isis,' as is shown in a legend given by Salt, from a mummy-case in his possession, where ' Anubis ' 2 is called 'the son of Isis.' This suffices to disprove the opinion of Plutarch3 respecting Nephthys; though the same author allows that ' Isis was also reputed his mother, though born of Nephthys.' 4 Another notion, which assigns to Anubis the 1 Prichard, p. 146. 2 Anubis was the god of embalming, and as such is represented as the divine em- balmer of his father Osiris. At the earliest period the sepulchral dedications at Mem- phis were addressed to him, and not Osiris ; and his titles are 4 president of embalming ' and ' chief of the mountain,' referring to the western hills where the dead were de- posited. He was also guide of the roads of the north and south, and opener of those which led to Rusat, the gateway of Hades. In connection with the legend of Osiris, he is called conqueror of the enemies of his father. (Pierret, ' Diet.,' p. 50.) At a later period an Anubeum or temple of Anubis is found attached to the Serapeum at Memphis, which was kept by Pastophori, priests who had charge of the libations. Under the Roman Empire he formed one of the personages of the universally dissemi- nated lsiac worship. (Rhone, ' L'Egypte,' p. 256.)— S. B. 3 Plut. de Isid. ss. 14, 38. * Ibid. s. 44. Chap. XIH.] ANUBIS. 159 head of a dog instead of a jackal, is one of the greatest and most generally accredited errors which the ignorance of the Greeks and Komans has set forth respecting the gods of Egypt ; and every writer, whether in poetry or prose, who has mentioned this deity, has described him with the head of a dog. Even altars were erected to him under this form by his votaries at Kome ; and so universal was the belief in the canine character of the latrator Anubis,1 that the fabulous history of Osiris was perverted in order to accord with this established notion. The unques- tionable authority, however, of the Egyptian sculptures, has corrected this misconception, and we there find that he was not only represented with the head of a jackal, but also under the form of the entire animal. And lest scepticism and the force of long-received opinion should still retain a doubt, or suppose this jackal to be intended for a peculiar species of dog, it may not be irrelevant to remark, that the same jackal is introduced at Beni-Hassan with the wolf and other wild animals of Egypt, and that the dogs are never figured in the paintings of a form which could justify a similar conclusion. According to the ex- planation given by Plutarch 2 of the history of Osiris from the phenomena of the heavens, Anubis was supposed, in one of his characters, ' to represent the horizontal circle which divides the invisible part of the world, called by the Egyptians Xephthys, from the visible, which they term Isis. In short, Anubis seems to be of the same power and nature as the Grecian Hecate, a deity common both to the celestial and infernal regions.' This last, however, I have shown to apply t o Isis rather than to Anubis. * Others,' he adds, * are of opinion, that by Anubis is meant Time, which begets all things out of itself; but this is one of the secret doctrines known only to those who are initiated into his worship The universal reason, moreover, is called by them Anubis, and sometimes Hermanubis ; the first of these names expressing the relation it has to the superior, as the latter to the inferior, world.'3 The office of Anubis was to superintend the passage of the souls from this life to a future state, in which he answered to the Mercury of the Greeks in his capacity of Psychopompos, or * usher of souls.'4 He presided over tombs, and at the final judgment he weighed the good actions of the deceased in the scales of truth, and was thence styled i director 1 Propert. lib. iii. Eleg. xi. 41. 3 Pint, de Isid. s. 61. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 44. * Horn. Odyss. I A', 1, and Hor. Od. I. h. 17. 160 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. of the weight.' He is frequently introduced on coffins, standing over a bier on which a corpse is deposited. [He appears, too, in the vignette of the eighty-ninth chapter of the Kitual, laying out the body on its sepulchral bier, which the soul revisits in the shape of the human-headed hawk, and in the preceding plate1 it is seen holding life in one hand, and a sail, the emblem of breath, in the other. — S. B.] Anubis may be considered to answer to death, in a good sense, as the departure of the soul from the body, on its way to a better state, and applied only to mankind ; death in another sense, as the decease of the animal portion of man, being figured by the Egyptians under a different form, as I have already shown. It is probably from this his character, that Plutarch was led to the notion of Anubis being Time, the Tempus edax rerum. Apuleius 2 calls Anubis ' the interpreter of gods of heaven and of Hades, sometimes with a black, at others with a golden face, . . . holding in his left hand a caduceus, and in his right shaking a palm-branch., But in this description we discover the union of Anubis and Thoth, both of whom bear analogy and cor- respond to the Mercury of Greece. The office of interpreter in heaven and in Hades applies to Thoth. Anubis and Thoth were both deities of Hades, and the former had sometimes a black, sometimes a golden face ; but the palm-branch belonged to Thoth, and the caduceus to neither of them. And if Greek and No. 540. Jackal of Anubis protecting a deceased person. 1 Plate XXXV., hierog. 3. 2 Apul. Metam. 11. Chap. XIII.] ANUBIS. 161 Eoman bas-reliefs give to Anubis a character according with the description of Apuleius, they are at direct variance with the sculptures, and show that they are not taken from Egyptian authority of an ancient date. I have once met with an instance of Anubis with the head of a ram in lieu of that of the jackal ; on which occasion he had assumed the attributes of Chnoumis. Diodorus 1 relates that Anubis accompanied Osiris in his Eastern expedition, together with Pan and Macedo, who were his generals. Mercury held the office of counsellor to the Queen Isis, Hercules was viceroy during his absence, Busiris governor of the provinces on the sea-coast towards Phoenicia, and Antaeus of those bordering on Ethiopia and Libya. Anubis and Macedo, according to Diodorus, were sons of Osiris ; and the latter is described by him dressed in the skin of a wolf, as Anubis in that of a dog. Of Macedo I have been unable to ascertain anything from the sculptures ; though it is possible that he may also have the form of a jackal-headed deity similar to Anubis, with the horns and other devices as his hieroglyphic ; and it is not impossible that these horns may in some way refer to the idea of punishment which Horapollo 2 tells us was denoted by a cow's horn. It is also remarkable that this deity is styled the ' Lord of Lycopolis,' Sioout. [It will be as well here to introduce the account of the de- struction of mankind by the gods, although it forms part of an earlier myth than that of Osiris, and strictly belongs to the solar myths. According to the legend, the god Ka tells Nu to summon a certain number of his companions, and the sun-god accuses mankind of speaking against him, and demands counsel of the gods. The god Nu refers the question back to Ea. The result is, that Tefnu proceeds to slaughter the human race, and Sekhet the avenging goddess makes the blood of mankind flow to Heracleopolis. Ka then orders that fruit should be sought to make a drink, and seven thousand jugs are filled with the liquid, which rejoices the god. At night water was put in the vases, and the fields inundated. Subsequently Ka, tired of mankind, and unable to proceed, makes Nu call Shu and Nut to his assistance, and the god is carried by Nut, or the celestial waters, into the sanctuary of the mystical cow, either Neith or Athor. Un- successful in his attempt to destroy mankind, the god departs to heaven, and creates there the Aah-lu or Elysium, and the people 1 Diodor. 1. 17. VOL. III. 2 Horapollo, Hierog. ii. 17. M 162 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. of the stars, and Shu and Nut are placed over them as protectors. Ea then tells Thoth to call the god Seb into his presence, and confides reptiles to his care, while Hades is placed under the charge of Thoth and the Ibis, the Cynocephalus ape, and the two storks of Thoth, and the wings of the same birds are produced. This remarkable myth, apparently derived from an ancient Kitual, forms part of the mystical cosmogony, portions of which are found in the Eitual of the Saite period.1 — S. B.] Having now mentioned the different members of the family of Seb and Nut, who are Osiris, Aroeris, the Evil Being, Isis, and Nephthys, with their children Horus, Harpocrates, Anubis, and Macedo, and in connection with them Typho and the serpent Aphophis, I proceed to notice the remaining deities of the Pantheon, which will form a second part of this chapter. I shall not stop to inquire respecting their rank or right to priority ; nor shall I distinguish between those of the second and third order, the former of whom are limited by Herodotus to the number of twelve. And if any preference is shown in their arrangement, it is solely in consequence of their being of more frequent occurrence, or represented on older monuments. The monuments indeed afford no proof of this arrangement ; and the number of genii or inferior deities suggests that those excluded from the second rank were not all comprehended in the same class of tertiary gods. It might even be difficult to fix upon the twelve of the second order. The most important are doubtless Ea the sun, Atum, Thoth the moon, Eileithyia, Shu, Ma, Athor, Thriphis, Amenta or Tamen, Mentu, Seb, Nut, Tefnu, Eannu, Sfe^: but of these fifteen, Shu, Ma, and Tefnu are born of Ea, and should therefore be of the third order ; and Seb and Nut only seem to claim a rank in the same class with Ea, Atum, and the others, from being the parents of Isis and Osiris. I should perhaps have placed Atum before Thoth, from the rank he holds on the monuments of Thebes as well as of Lower Egypt ; but the duties of Thoth bringing him into frequent communication with Osiris, and his character of the moon connecting him with Ea the sun, may serve to claim for him prior notice. Thoth,2 the god of letters, had various characters,3 according 1 M. Naville, 'La Destruction desHommes — S. B. par les Dieux,' in the Trans, of the Soc. Bibl. 3 It is remarkable that the Gauls called Archseol. 1875, vol. iv. pp. 1-19. their Mercury Theutates. 2 His correct Egyptian name was Tahuti. M 2 164 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. to the functions lie was supposed to fulfil. In his office of scribe in the lower regions, he was engaged in noting down the actions of the dead ; and in presenting or reading them to Osiris, the judge of Arnenti : ' the dead being judged out of those things which were written in the books, according to their works.' He also overlooked and registered the actions and life of man while on earth ; holding then, instead of his tablet, a palm-branch, em- blematic of a year, to which were attached the symbol of life and a frog.1 Thoth was the ' first Hermes 1 mentioned by Manetho ; the same who was reputed to have been the preceptor of Isis, and the Hermes of Plutarch,2 whom an idle fable represented with one arm shorter than the other.3 Plato, in his 'Phaedrus,'4 makes Socrates relate the following fable of this deity : — • I have heard that about Naucratis, in Egypt, there was one of their ancient gods, to whom a bird was sacred, which they call Ibis ; but the name of the daemon 5 himself was Theuth. According to tradi- tion, this god first discovered numbers and the art of reckoning, geometry and astronomy, the games of chess and hazard, and likewise letters. Thamus was at the time king of all the country, and resided in that great city of Upper Egypt which the Greeks call Egyptian Thebes: the god himself being denominated Ammon. Thoth, therefore, going to Thamus, showed him his arts, and told him that he ought to distribute them amongst the other Egyptians. Thamus asked him con- cerning the utility of each ; and when they had been explained to him, he approved what appeared reasonable, and blamed that which had a contrary aspect. After Theuth had fully unfolded to Thamus many particulars respecting each art, he proceeded to discourse upon letters. " These, 0 king," said he, " will render the Egyptians wiser, and increase their powers of memory : for this invention may be regarded as the medicine of memory and wisdom." " 0 most learned Theuth," replied Thamus, " one person is more adapted to artificial operations, and another to judge of the detriment or advantage arising from their use. Thus it happens that you who are the father of letters, through the benevolence of your disposition have affirmed just the con- trary of what letters are able to effect : for these, causing the memory to be neglected, will produce oblivion to the mind of the learner ; because men, trusting to the external marks of 1 These emblems are mentioned by Horapollo. 4 Phaedr., Tayl. transl., p. 364. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 19. 3 Ibid. s. 22. 5 Aaifxwv, in a good sense. Chap. XIII.] THOTH. 165 writing, will not exercise the internal powers of recollection. So that you have not discovered the medicine of memory, but of admonition. You will likewise deliver to your disciples an opinion of wisdom, and not truth." ' Psellus confounds Thoth with Hermes Trismegistus, whom he makes posterior to Moses, and imagines to be the Argeiphontes of the Greeks. But he applies to Trismegistus the characteristics of Mercury, instead of to Thoth. This Argeiphontes Macrobius supposes to be the sun, at whose rising the hundred eyes of Argus, or the light of the fixed stars, were put out. The first month of the Egyptian year, says the former writer, was called after Thoth, as also the city of Hermopolis ; where, as we learn from the sculptures of the portico, the cynocephalus shared with this deity, of whom he was the type, the honours of the temple. The few columns which remained of the portico at Oshmoonein, or Hermopolis Magna, were thrown down in 1822 by the Turks, and burnt for , lime ; suffering the same fate as the ruins at Antinoopolis, and other limestone relics : and though strictly forbidden by Mehemet Ali, many sandstone monuments have been since used as convenient quarries for the construction of modern buildings. To return to Thoth. The cynocephalus is synonymous with the hieroglyphic of letters ; and we even find it holding the tablet, and fulfilling the office of Thoth ; which shows that it was not only the emblem, but also the representative of that deity. Iamblichus says that certain physical properties were common to it and to the moon ; and, according to Horapollo, the latter was represented in hieroglyphic writing by a cynocephalus. This statement is perfectly borne out by the sculptures, Thoth and the ape, his emblem, being both introduced in the character of the moon. Indeed, the crescent is found followed by the figure of Thoth in several hieroglyphic legends, with the phonetic name Aah or Ioh, signifying the * moon.' This last word occurs in Plate XXXVI., accompanied by the ibis, the sacred bird of Thoth ; and Plutarch 1 states that * Mercury was supposed to accompany the moon round the world, as Hercules did the sun/ Thoth, therefore, in one of his characters, answers to the moon, and in another to Mercury. The Egyptians represented their moon as a male deity, like the German Mond and Monat, or the Lunus of the Latins ; and it is worthy of remark, that the same custom of calling it male is retained in the East to the present 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 41. 166 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. day, while the sun is considered female, as in the language of the Germans. Thoth is usually represented as a human figure with the head of an ibis, holding a tablet and a pen, or a palm-branch, in his hands; and in his character of Lunus he has sometimes a man's face with the crescent of the moon upon his head, support- ing a disk, occasionally with the addition of an ostrich-feather ; which last appears to connect him with Shu or with Ma. Plutarch says the Egyptians * call the moon the " mother of the world," and hold it to be of both sexes ; — female, as it receives the influence of the sun ; male, as it scatters and disperses through the air the principles of fecundity.' 1 He also supposes ' Osiris to be the power and influence of the moon, and Isis the generative faculty which resides in it.'2 But this is evidently at variance with the authority of the sculptures, which fully establish the claims of Thoth, and disprove any connection between Isis and the moon. Nor is there any authority for the opinion of Spar- tianus,3 who says that, although the (Greeks or) Egyptians call the moon a goddess, they really consider it in a mystical sense a god, both male and female. ' The sun and moon,' observes Plutarch, ' were described by the Egyptians as sailing round the world in boats, intimating that these bodies owe their power of moving, as well as their support and nourishment, to the principle of humidity ;'4 which statement is confirmed by the sculptures : and some have thought that a species of scarabaeus was sacred to Thoth or the moon.5 The ibis-headed deity was called * Lord of the Eighth Kegion,' the name of the city where he was particularly worshipped, which is now called Oshmoonein, the Shmon6 of the Copts. There is, indeed, an evident connection between his title, 'Lord of the Eighth Kegion,' and Oshmoonein, the modern name of Hermopolis, which, derived from Shmen or Shmon, signifying eight, implies the ' two eights ;' and if some have been disposed to think it refers to the eight books of law which Menes 7 pretended to have received from the Egyptian Mercury, the demonstrative sign of 'land,' following this group, sufficiently refutes this opinion. His title ' twice-great ' frequently occurs on the monuments, as in the inscription of the Kosetta Stone, where the Greek styles him * the great and great,' or twice-great. 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 43. * Plut. de Isid. s. 34. 5 Horap., i. 10. 2 Ibid. ss. 43, 52. e mj^QH ft , 3 Spartian. Vit. Antonini Caracall. cap. *^ vii., quoted by Jablonski, i. cap. iii. 6. 7 Diodor. i. 94. He calls the king Mnevis. Chap. XIII.] THOTH. 167 The ibis was particularly sacred to him, and standing on a perch, followed by a half-circle and two lines,1 indicated the name of the god. It was thought to bear some relation to the moon, * from its feathers being so mixed and blended together, the black with the white, as to form a representation of the moon's gibbosity.' 2 * The space between its legs while walking was observed to form an equilateral triangle ;' and ' the medicinal use it makes of its beak ' was thought to be connected with the office of Thoth, who taught mankind the art of curing diseases, and communicated all intellectual gifts from the deity to man. Such was the respect paid to this bird, from its destroying the venomous reptiles which infested the country, that any person killing one was punished with instant death ;3 and * those priests who were most punctual in the performance of their sacred rites, fetched the water they used in their purifications from some place where the ibis had been seen to drink.' 4 According to Plutarch,5 a sow was sacrificed ' to Typho once a year at the full moon :' and the animal is sometimes represented in a boat, in the paintings of the tombs, accompanied by one or more monkeys. This appears to connect it with Thoth, or the god Lunus ; and if, as I suppose, the subject refers to the com- mencement of a new period, being the beginning of the future state of a soul condemned for its sins to migrate into the body of a pig, the relation it bears to the office of Thoth is readily accounted for. The impression that the animal was offered to Typho may proceed from its having been chosen as an emblem of sin. iElian says, ' They sacrifice a sow to the moon once a year ;' which statement is confirmed by Herodotus, who asserts that ' the only deities to whom the Egyptians are permitted to offer the pig are the moon and Bacchus.' But he makes no mention of Typho, and the supposed * discovery of the body of Osiris by Typho, while hunting a wild boar at the full moon,' 6 would rather lead them to offer it to Osiris than to Typho : for, as Plutarch himself confesses, ' the opinion of the Egyptians was that sacrifices ought not to be of things in themselves agreeable to the gods, but, on the contrary, of creatures into which the souls of the wicked have passed ;'7 and the pig was an emblem of Evil. 1 The half-circle had the force of T, which was doubled by these lines, reading Tot or Taut. [The correct form is Ta-huti or Thaut.— S. B.] s Plut. de Isid. s. 75. 3 Diodor. i. 83. Cic. Tusc. Quaest. v. 27. The same motive induced the Thessalians to protect the stork. (Plin. x. 23.) 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 75. 5 Ibid. s. 8. 6 Ibid. s. 18. 7 Ibid s. 31. 168 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. I have observed that Thoth, in one of his characters, cor- responded to the moon, in the other to Mercury. In the former he was the beneficent property of that luminary, the regulator and dispenser of time, who presided over the fate of man, and the events of his life : in the latter, the god of letters and the patron of learning, and the means of communication between the gods and mankind. It was through him that all mental gifts were imparted to man. He was, in short, a deification of the abstract idea of the intellect, or a personification of the intellect of the deity. This accords well with a remark of Iamblichus, that Hermes was the god of all celestial knowledge, which, being communicated by him to the priests, authorised them to inscribe their own commentaries with the name of Hermes. He may also be considered analogous to the ' septenary intel- lectual agents ' of modern philosophers. ' These are called by Hesiod guardians of mankind, bestowers of wealth, and royal daemons; are described by Plato as a middle order of beings between the gods and men, ministering to their wants, carrying the prayers of mortals to heaven, and bringing down in return oracles and all other blessings of life.' 1 According to the fabulous account of the Egyptian Mercury, ' he was reported to have invented letters,2 regulated the language, given names to many things, and taught men the proper mode of approaching the deity with prayers and sacrifice. He in- structed them in the system of the stars, and the harmony and nature of voices. He was the inventor of the pal&stra, and of the lyre, to which he gave three strings, in accordance with the three seasons of the Egyptian year ; the treble to correspond to summer, the bass to winter, the tenor to spring. He was the patron of elocution, whence called Hermes, " the interpreter," by the Greeks. In the sacred rites of Osiris he was represented as the scribe of the deity, and his counsellor ; and it was to him that the Egyptians supposed mankind indebted for the olive, and not to Minerva, as is the opinion of the Greeks.' 3 He was distinct from the Mercury who ushered the souls of the dead into the region of Hades, answering to the Anubis of Egypt, as already stated ; and also from Hermes Trismegistus, whom I shall have occasion to mention presently. The circumstance of the god Lunus being the dispenser of time, and represented noting off years upon the palm-branch, 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 26. 2 Plato, Phileb. p. 374. 3 Diodor. i. 16. Chap. XHL] THOTH. 169 appears to argue that the Egyptians, in former times, calculated by lunar instead of solar years ; and the hieroglyphic of a month, which is a lunar crescent, shows their months to have been originally regulated by the course of the moon. I have once met with the figure of an ibis-headed deity as a female,1 but I am uncertain respecting the character and office of that goddess, nor is it certain that the name of Thoth was applied to her. Thoth at the temple of Samneh appears to be styled the son of Chnoumis. According to Cicero,2 the Greeks reckoned in their mythology five Mercuries : ' One, the son of Heaven and the Day. Another, of Yalens and Phoronis, the same who is beneath the earth, and called Trophonius. A third, the son of Jupiter and Maia, and who is said to have begotten Pan by Penelope. A fourth, the son of the Nile, whom the Egyptians consider it unlawful to name. A fifth, worshipped by the Pheneata?, who is said to have slain Argus, and on that account to have fled to Egypt, and to have given laws and letters to the Egyptians. He was styled by them Thoyth, and bore the same name as the first month of their year.' Of the last two the former was probably Anubis, whom, in his mysterious office connected with Osiris and the final judgment of the dead, it may have been unlawful to men- tion ;3 and the latter, the ibis-headed deity Thoth, in his character of the dispenser of intellectual gifts to man, and the god of letters. The epithet Trismegistus, ' thrice-great,' has been applied by some to Thoth; but the deity here represented is shown by numerous Greek inscriptions upon his temple at Pselcis to have been distinguished from the god of letters by this name, with the additional title, * Lord of Pautnouphis.' Much confusion has arisen in consequence of these two deities having the name Hermes; many having ascribed to Trismegistus the honour of inventing letters, which in reality belongs to Thoth alone, as the monuments of Egypt prove beyond the possibility of doubt. The temple of Pselcis,4 now Dakkeh, in Nubia, was erected by the Ethiopian king Ergamen, a contemporary of Ptolemy Phila- delphus, and completed by the Lagidae, in honour of this Hermes. On the towers of the area, and in the portico, are numerous Greek 1 A green porcelain figure formerly in the possession of Chevalier Kestner, for- merly Hanoverian minister at Rome. 2 Cicero, de Nat. Deor. iii. 22. s Or even Thoth, as scribe of Amenti. 4 Pselcis was probably called from the goddess Selk, if we may judge from a legend given in pi. xv. of M. Champollion's Pantheon. • The temple of the land of Pselk.' 170 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. fchap. xiii. inscriptions ; the general purport of which is that the writers came and * adored the very great god Hermes,' (frequently with the title) ' Pautnouphis.' The name Pautnouphis probably refers to the town of which he was the presiding deity, since the name in hieroglyphics, Taut-n-pnoubs, or Taut-n-pa-noubs, is followed by the sign of land and the female sign; which last may perhaps be read as part of the name, making it Taut-n-pa-t-noubs. A tree also seems to be a demonstrative sign accompanying the name, as if it ended with * the land of the tree/ 1 The ibis was sacred to him as to Thoth, of whom, indeed, he may possibly be an emanation ; to its perch is at- tached an ostrich-feather, the emblem of Truth, which, like the head-dress of four plumes he wears, belongs also to the god Shu. In his hand he fre- quently bears a staff, surmounted by the head of a hawk, the emblem of Ea, with a snake twined round it, accom- panied by a scorpion, the symbol of the goddess Selk. From this the idea of the cadueeus of Mercury may have been derived, signifying, as some suppose, prudence. In the opinion of many writers, as Eusebius, Psellus, and others, Hermes Trismegistus was a priest and philosopher who lived a little after the 1. 'Thoth, of the land of Penebs, or * * Pnups.- 2. «Thoth of Penebs, or Pnups, time of Moses, and taught his country- great god, lord of ... 1 7 ° «, . men mensuration, theology, medicine, and geography, upon which subjects he wrote forty-two books. According to others, he was a cotemporary of Osiris ; but this fable is contradicted by the fact of no Egyptian individual having been raised to the order of gods. It is possible that the works of some philosopher (perhaps of the same name, the Egyptians having the custom of forming the names of No. 541. Thoth. 1 These legends read Taut en Pnebs, and opposite Tasitia and the 4th nome of 4 Thoth of the land of Pnebs,' the town of Kenous or Nubia. (Brugsch, 4 Geogr. Pnoups, placed by Ptolemy in 22° N. lat., Inschr.,' i. pp. 104-107.)— S. B. Chap. XIII.] BOOKS OF HEKMES. 171 individuals from those of their gods) may have been ascribed in after-times, through the ignorance of the Greeks, to a deity, who was in fact no other than the abstract quality of the understand- ing, the supposed cause of that success which the human mind obtained on the various subjects they ascribed to him.1 Their motive for separating this Hermes from Thoth it is difficult to ascertain. It was probably one of those subtle distinctions which philosophy had established, and religion had deified as a separate attribute of the divine wisdom, as modern inquiries have shown the difference between the understanding and the reasoning faculty. 4 The principal books of this Hermes,' according to Clemens2 of Alexandria, ' forty-two in number, were treated by the Egyptians with the most profound respect, and carried in their religious processions. First came the singer, .... holding two in his hand, one containing hymns in honour of the gods, the other certain rules for the conduct of the monarch. Next to him the horoscope, .... whose duty was to recite the four books of astrology, one of which treated of the fixed stars, another of solar and lunar eclipses, and the remaining two of the rising of the sun and moon. Ten books contained those things which related to the gods and the religion of Egypt, as sacrifices, first-fruits, hymns, prayers, processions, holy days, and the like. Last of all came the prophet with ten other books, called sacerdotal, relating to the laws, the gods, and rules of the priesthood. Thus, then, of the forty-two most useful books of Hermes, thirty-six contained all the philosophy of Egypt, and the last six treated of medicine, anatomy, and the cure of diseases.' 3 [The next of the members of the Pantheon to be considered is the god Shu.] He bears on his head a single ostrich-plume, or a cluster of four feathers, and is always painted of a black or dark colour. In the tomb of Kameses III., at Thebes, he is re- presented seated on a throne, on either side of a small chamber, where it is possible that the king's minstrel was buried ; and before him two figures are playing the harp, as though he were the patron of music. From Porphyry's description of Kneph, 1 Supra, p. 168. such constantly invoked by scribes and 2 Clem. Alex. Strom, lib. vi. p. 196. writers, of whom he was the patron. He J The myth of Thoth has been examined also was the god who presided over all in its details by Dr. R. Pietschmann, literature and sciences, and the revealer of * Hermes Trismegistus,' 8vo. Leipzig, 1875. knowledge of different things to mankind ; Thoth was lord of the arts and sciences of and all revealed or inspired writings were writing divine words or hieroglyphs,and as called Hermetic, and supposed to be written 172 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. which represents him of a black colour, and wearing a single feather on his head, Shu has been confounded with the ram- headed deity ; but this has been already noticed. The ingenious and much-regretted Champollion supposed him to be the Egyptian Hercules. As Hercules, the title ' son of the sun,' which he always has in the hieroglyphics, would accord perfectly with his cha- racter : for Hercules was the abstract idea of strength, applied to it in every sense; he was the power of the deity and the force of the sun.1 ' Agreeably to which notion,' says Plutarch, ' Hercules was supposed by the Egyp- tians to be placed in the sun, and to accom- pany him round the world, as Mercury does the moon.'2 According to Hero- dotus,3 he was one of the twelve gods born of the eight great divini- ties of the country. Cicero 4 considers the Nile his father ; and shows him to have been distinct from the famous Hercules of Tyre, the reputed son of Jupiter and Asteria. The antiquity of this deity is noticed by Herodotus in contradistinc- tion to the comparatively modern date of the Greek hero,5 and by the fingers of the god himself. He pre- be self-formed, x«Z*?r t'sA although at a later sided over the notation of the festivals time a genealogy may possibly be found, and time, was a lunar deity, and justified or — S. B. 1 Macrob. Saturn, i. 23. pleaded for Osiris against his enemies, and 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 41 . 3 Herodot. ii. 43. also for the dead in the future state ; and 4 Cic. de Nat. Deor. lib. iii. 16. Diodorus in the Ritual a series of these justifications says of Hercules that he was by birth an is given under the name of the ' Crown of Egyptian (i. 24, v. 76). Truth.' He bore the name of the ibis, hab, 5 Herodot. ii. 145, 146. It is very and was adored under it. Thoth was in doubtful if Shu represents Hercules in fact a kind of Logos, and is a being said to the mythology of Egypt, for he was a Chap. XIII.] SHU. 173 is distinctly pointed out by Macrobius, who says, ' Hercules is religiously worshipped at Tyre; but the Egyptians venerate him with the most sacred and august rites, and look upon the period when his worship was first adopted by them as beyond the reach of memory. (HfA^il He is believed to have killed the giants, U^|jpii when, in the character of the valour of Wml the gods, he fought in defence of heaven MSi, which accords with the title of a work called f5v3« 'Semnuthis,' written by Apollonides or Porw^g&frS^kSupport* Horapius,1 describing the wars of the gods No- 543> Brit- Museum- against the giants. Semnuthis, or Semnoute, signifies the * power of the gods ; ' and some suppose the name of Sebennytus to be derived from the same word. Iamblichus calls Hercules ' the force of nature ;' 2 and these different authorities tend to confirm the opinion already stated, that he was the abstract idea of valour or strength, and when represented with the sun, he was the force of that luminary. The Greeks acknowledged two deities of this name, ' one worshipped as an immortal god, the other as a hero ; ' 3 and it is probable that the former derived his origin from the Egyptian Gom, or from the Tyrian Melcarthus, whose temple was founded in Phoenicia 2300 years before the age of Herodotus. The Greek mythology also acknowledged a goddess of strength, unconnected with Her- cules, who was the sister of victory and valour, and the daughter of Pallas, the son of Crius and Eurybia, by the nymph Styx. Champollion at one time conjectured that the name of the deity in woodcut No. 542 might read Moue, and that he was the splendour of the solar rays ; but there is no positive authority respecting the force of the ostrich-feather. [The god Shu frequently supports the solar disk with his hands, and appears to be the same as woodcut No. 543. See also the name of the god at Tel el Amarna, Plate XXIII., where Shu seems to be said * to reside in the solar disk.' — G. W.] solar god in immediate connection with the sun, and his name meant 'light.' He is symbolised by the disk and emblem of valour, the hind-quarters of an animal on his head. In the Ritual Shu is re- presented in the 16th chapter elevating the solar disk, and sui'rounded by cynoce- phali. (See the legend of the destruction of mankind, Naville, 'La Destruction des Hommes par les Dieux,' Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch. iv. p. 12.) Throughout the Ritual the uta en Shu, or symbolic eye of Shu, is mentioned as the vital principle. Along with Tef or Tefun, his sister, also a pupil or daughter of the sun, he represented the constellation Gemini at the Roman period. Throughout the solar myths he plays a subordinate part. — S. B. 1 In Theophil. Antioch. ad Autolyc. lib. ii. c. 6. * Iambi. Vita Pythag. c. 28 : Svvafiis rrjs (pvatws. 3 Herodot. ii. 44. 174 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. There is another deity who appears to lay claim to the name of Hercules, from the lion-skin he wears over his head and back ; but as his figure and hieroglyphics are not met with on the monuments, I offer this merely as a conjecture, from his having the principal attribute of the Greek Hercules. The only re- presentations I have seen are small terra-cotta figures of Bes or Besa,1 with a rude beard, not unlike some of the Typhonian monsters already mentioned, or the deformed Ptah-Socharis of Memphis. Khonsu was the third member of the great Theban triad, the first two, as already shown, being Amen-ra and Mut. He was also the third member of the first triad of Ombos, composed of Sebak, Athor, and Khonsu, where his name is sometimes accompanied bv the hawk of Horus. He is represented under the form of a mummy, holding in his hands the emblems of life, stability, and purity, with the flagellum and crook of Osiris ; at the side of his head falls the plaited lock of Harpocrates, or of childhood, given to the youthful third personage of the Egyptian triads ; and he has the crescent and globe worn by Thoth in his character of the moon. He is also figured as a man with a hawk's head ; and he sometimes holds in his hand the palm-branch of Thoth, on which he is seen marking off the number of years with a reed or pen, like the last-mentioned deity. This, as well as the crescent and the globe, may appear to connect him with the moon ; but I am rather disposed to see in him some analogy to the Egyptian Hercules, or the representative of created things. The name of Chon, given to Hercules by the author of the ' Etymologicum Magnum,'2 is certainly in favour of the former supposition, though much doubt still exists respecting the real character of the Egyptian Hercules. It was from this god that the name of an individual, Petechonsis, mentioned in a papyrus found at Thebes, was derived, which signifies Chonsodotus, or ' gifted by Khonsu.' It is compounded, like Diodotus, Herodotus, Am- monodotus, and others, of the word pet, ' gifted ' or ' giver/ and the name of the deity. [Chons is the personification of the moon, and in this character he is called Chons-aah, or Chons the moon, and emanates from Han or Nu, the celestial abyss. He wears on his head the lunar disk, or has the head of a hawk, emblem of the deities of light. As a lunar deity the cynocephalic apes sacred to that luminary were adored in the shrine of the god at Thebes. 1 One in the collection of Chevalier Kestner. 2 Jablonski, lib. ii. c. 3, s. 3. Chap. XIII.] KHONSU. 175 He bore several names, and is sometimes mentioned as 'the god with two names,' his second name being Nefer-hetp, under which he was worshipped at Uas or the Thebaid. He was also called the counsellor of Thebes and chaser of the rebels, and his name seems to mean 4 the chaser' or * pursuer.' The small temple attached to his worship at Thebes contained a tablet recording • I* Q m> m No. 544. 2 1 Xonsu, Khonsu, Chons. Nefer-hetp.' 2, 3. * Chons, counsellor in Thebes.' the mission of Chons to exorcise the daughter of the king of Bakhtan, in the 26th year of the reign of Eameses XIV., his successful expulsion of the daemon, and triumphal return in the ark in which he had set out for that country.1 He appears to have had a kind of oracle at Thebes. His type resembled that of Ptah and Horus.— S. B.] I have already observed that several deities were represented in the same character as the youthful Harpocrates. Khonsu, the last-mentioned god, differs from them by assuming the form of a 1 De Rouge, ■ Stele Egyptienne,' Paris, 1858. 176 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. mummy, by holding in his hands the emblem of stability, united with the sign of life and purity, and by his finger not being raised to his mouth. But he was, like them, the third member of a triad, and his youth was indicated in a similar manner by a lock of hair, the symbol of infancy. At Ombos he has even the hawk of Horus attached to his name, like most of these youthful deities. Ahi, the child of Athor, has been already mentioned, as well as Harpocrates, the son of Isis. It remains now to speak of Heka, Paneb-ta, Har-pa-ra, Har-semt-ta, and Harka. Heka is the third member of a triad at Esneh, proceeding from Chnoumis and Nebaut, a goddess who is one of the forms of Neith. He is figured as a child, like Harpocrates, having the usual lock of hair, with his finger to his mouth, and carrying in his hand the crook and flagellum of Osiris. [He formed with these deities a triad adored at Esneh ; and with Khem or Amsi, and the goddess Ament, a Theban triad.1 — S. B.] The youthful deity Paneb-ta is the third member of the lesser triad of Ombos. He has the usual emblems of Harpocrates, and is styled the son of Horus or Aroeris ! his name signifying 'the lord of the world.'2 Har-pa-ra, ' Horus the sun,' a deity of similar form, is the third member of the triad of Hermonthis, proceeding from Mentu and the goddess Ba-ta. [His type is endowed with the solar disk and uraeus. — S. B.] Har-semt-ta, whose name implies 1 Horus, the support of the world/ is the third member of the triad of Edfoo and Denderah, composed of Har-Hat, Athor, and this infant deity. Harka is the third member of the second triad of Thebes, the offspring of Amen-ra Generator and Tamen. He is evidently of ancient date, occurring on monuments of the Pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty. In form he resembles Harpocrates and other of these youthful deities, from which the hieroglyphic legends alone distinguish him. The goddess Ta-sen-t-nefer is the second person of the lesser triad worshipped at Ombos, consisting of Aroeris, Ta-sen-t-nefer, and their son Paneb-ta. Her name seems to apply to Isis, as it signifies 'the sister of the Good/3 which title peculiarly belongs to Osiris. 1 Pierret, ' Diet.,' p. 244. — S. B. called son of Horus ; and in hierog. 6, son of 2 In Plate XXXV1L, hierog. 5, he is Ombos. — S. B. 3 Or 'the good sister.' 178 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. The remaining deity represented in this plate 1 is taken from the sculptures at Tuot (Tuphium), but his name is unknown, and the absence of hieroglyphic legends prevents our ascer- taining his character and office. From his head project what appear to be two ears, which alone are remarkable in his other- wise simple form. He is probably of an inferior class of deities, and of uncertain date. Atum was one of the principal deities of the second order of gods. His name appears to read Atum, Tmu, or Tethmu, being written both with A and T as the initial letter. We may perhaps trace in Atum the word tern, ' to complete or perfect,'2 but I am unable to decide to what deity he corresponds in the mythology of Greece. There is reason to suppose him the Heron of Egypt, from whom the city Heroopolis, on the canal which communicated from the Nile to the Ked Sea, was called. A monument still existing amidst the mounds of an old town near the site of that city, which presents his figure with that of Ptah, Kheper, and King Eameses the Great, seems to confirm this opinion. Cham- pollion quotes a passage from a hieratic papyrus, which says, * My right temple belongs to the spirit of the sun in the day, and my left temple to the spirit of Atum in the night ; ' which would seem to identify him with Sol Inferus, and recalls the word atme, ( darkness,' which in the Arabic language has that signification. The same ingenious savant thinks that the analogy between Atum and Heron is confirmed by the monumental inscriptions giving to the kings the title * born of Atum,' since Hermapion, in his translation of the Obelisk of Kameses, calls that monarch the ' son of Heron.' The expression ' Phrah, Lord of Years like Atum,' common on obelisks and dedicatory inscrip- tions, serves to maintain the connection between those formulae and that given by Hermapion ; and the latter appears to have reference to the idea of completion of time, which accords with the name of Atum. Though principally worshipped in Lower Egypt, he holds a conspicuous place amongst the contemplar gods of Thebes ; and the paintings in the tombs show that he fulfilled an important office in the regions of Amenti. He is there represented in a boat, accompanied by Thoth, Ma (the goddess of truth and justice), and Athor ; Horus, ' the son of Osiris,' performing, as usual, the office of steersman. The boat > Plate XXXVII. fig. 1. Rather tamio, 1 to arrange or distribute.' 180 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. appears to be styled ' of Thoth, the Lord of the Eight Kegions,' and also * of the son of Osiris ; ' but this last is probably in con- sequence of its being entrusted to the charge of Horus. On the prow sits a swallow ; but the rare occurrence of this bird is not- sufficient to fix it as an emblem of Atum ; and we even find it in the same position in the boat of Ka. Atum wears the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, not however placed one within, but at the side of, the other ; and he is always figured with a human head, and painted of a red colour. Sometimes, though rarely, he appears with a simple cap, and he holds the staff of purity Chap. XIII.] NEFEE-ATUM— ANOUKA. 181 common to all the gods of Egypt. [Atum, or Turn, represented the setting sun, and after his setting in the west gave life to the inhabitants of the lower hemisphere. He was the setting, as Ea was the rising sun. Besides his solar character, he was a demi- urgos, and a creator of things or existences both visible and invisible. So mingled was he with Ka that the sun-god pro- ceeding from the abyss is said to be his father, and Turn becomes in turn the father of Shu, or the rising sun. His chief worship was at An or Heliopolis, of which he is called the powerful bull, and he appears there with the parhedral gods Harmachis, Nausaas, Athor, and Nebhotep.1 — S. B.] Nefer-Atum was perhaps an emanation from, or a character of, the one just mentioned. The prefix Nefer signifies 1 good ;' and he may possibly be the abstract idea of goodness, without interfering with the privileges of Osiris : for Osiris was, in like manner, distinct from the goddess Ma, though called 'the Lord of Goodness and Truth.' Nefer- Atum was styled 'the Defender ' or 1 Protector of the World,' or 1 the Two Kegions of Egypt.' He bore on his head a lotus-flower, or two long feathers upon a shaft, on either side of which was attached a peculiar pendent emblem ; and he frequently carried in his hand a sceptre with a summit of the same form. I have sometimes found his figure in the tombs of Thebes accompanied by a symbol which appears of particular importance in relation to the dead, and may allude to some office he held in the region of Hades. He is even represented standing on the back of a lion. [He was the son of Ptah and Bast, and his functions are difficult to understand.] The goddess Anouka was the third member of the triad of Northern Ethiopia and the Cataracts, composed of Chnoumis, Sati, and Anouka ; and at Dakkeh she is represented as the nurse of a king, who is said to be 1 the son of Chnoumis, and born of Sati,' the two other deities of the same triad. She was the Yesta of the Egyptian Pantheon, as we learn from an inscription at Sehayl, formerly Sete, an island immediately below the First Cataract, which calls her ' Anouka or Hestia.' Herodotus2 seems to think that Vesta was not among the number of the Egyptian divinities, when he says, • Nearly all the names of the Greek gods have come from Egypt ; for, excepting Neptune, the Dio- 1 In the Greek inscriptions he is called Tomos. (Pierret, 1 Diet.,' p. 77. 1 Records of the Past,' vi. p. 52.) — S. B. 2 Herodot. ii. 50. 182 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. scuri, Juno, Vesta, Themis, the Graces, and Nereids, those of all the other deities have always been known in Egypt ; and this is asserted by the Egyptians themselves.' It is possible that he means the name, and not the character, of this goddess ; for there is abundant evidence of Juno and Themis being Egyp- tian deities. But still the re- semblance between the name of the latter, and of the Egyp- tian goddess (Ma), was greater than of any other in the two Pantheons ; and in proof of this we have only to compare those of Amen and Zeus, Khem and Pan, Thoth and Hermes, and many others, which have scarcely a single letter in com- mon, and directly contradict the assertion of the historian. It is, at all events, certain that Juno, Vesta, and Themis were Egyptian deities, though there is no evidence of the others he mentions being admitted to their Pantheon ; and Neptune, according to the historian, ' was only known to the Libyans.' To the Greek appellation of the ocean-god, Poseidon, it may not be too presumptuous to apply the meaning of the ' Deity of Sidon,' from which maritime town of Phoenicia Greece very probably derived his worship ; and the Latin Neptune may present a similar claim to an Eastern origin, in the commencement of his name Neb, which in the language of Egypt and Syria signified ' Lord/ Diodorus 1 admits Vesta into the number of the gods of Egypt, together with the Sun, Saturn, Ehea, Jupiter, Juno, Vulcan, and Mercury ; and the im- portance of her office is shown by her frequent occurrence in the oldest temples. She also seems to bear some analogy to Neith, though in reality distinct from that goddess. The head-dress of Anouka, which is singular, and exclusively No. 546. Anka, or Anoukis. 1, 2. Her name. 1 Diodor. i. 13. Chap. XIII.] MA, GODDESS OF TRUTH AND JUSTICE. 183 appropriated to her, is a cap or crown surmounted by several feathers placed in a circular form.1 The deity Ma had a twofold character, as goddess of truth and of justice. Her figure is frequently represented in the hands of the kings, who present it as a fit offering to the gods ; and many, in their regal titles, are said to love, or to be loved by, Ma.2 A small image of this goddess was also worn by the chief judge while engaged in listening to the cases brought before him in court ; and when the depositions of the two parties and their witnesses had been heard, he touched the successful litigant with the image, in token of the justness of his cause. A similar emblem was used by the high priest of the J ews ; and it is a remarkable fact that the word Thummim is not only translated ' truth,' but, being a plural or dual word, corresponds to the Egyptian notion of the ' Two Truths,' or the double capacity of this goddess. According to some, the Urim and Thummim signify ' lights and perfections,'3 or 'light and truth,' — which last present a striking analogy r ^iMMW((((i{((W(((( " to the two figures of Ka and Ma, in the // j, 7 f\< breast-plate worn by the Egyptians. And // I \\ \\ though the resemblance of the Urim and / |j i \M \ the urseus, or basilisk, the symbol of . i maiestV, Suggested bv Lord Prudhoe, is A breastplate with the figures of ■ * J in t t i j No. 547. Ra and Ma. very remarkable, 1 am disposed to think the ' lights,' Aorim,4 or Urim, more nearly related to the sun, which is seated in the breast-plate with the figure of Truth.5 This goddess was sometimes represented by two similar figures placed close to each other ; or by one figure wearing two ostrich-feathers, her emblem ; and sometimes by the two feathers alone, as in the scales of the final judgment. It is to these figures that Plutarch6 alludes, when he speaks of the two Muses at Hermopolis, under the names of Isis and Justice. Diodorus describes the chief judge in the sculptures of the tomb of Osymandyas,7 with the figure of Truth suspended to his neck, 1 Her type and name announce a foreign origin, but her worship appears as early as the 12th Dynasty. She was in the same relation to the triad of Elephantine as Nephthys to that of Abydos, and festivals to her were celebrated on the 28th of Paophi and the 20th of Athyr.— S. B. 2 Conf. the title L^ >or >r4^>-^ I > aPPears to justify; but I have found no instance of the goddess to whom she is opposed having the hieroglyphic signifying ' the North,' or Soven also appears occasionally with a vulture's head, and I have found instances of this goddess as an Ophigyps, with the body of a vulture and the head of a snake, on the coffins of the dead. [The goddess Uat or Uati is the same as the Greek Buto, and was worshipped at Tep, or the city of Buto, situated at the extremity of the Kosetta branch of the Nile".3— S. B.] This goddess has also the character of guardian and protectress of the monarchs, and is placed in opposition to Eileithyia, as the genius of the Other forms of the goddess Eileithyia. No. 552. No. 553. Fig. I. Uati, or the genius of the Lower Country, opposed to Jigs. 2 and 3, Nishem, or the goddess Eiieithyia. Lower Country. She is represented under the form of an asp, frequently with wings, having the crown of Lower Egypt, which is also worn by her when figured as a goddess. She is treated as one of the contemplar divinities at Thebes and other towns of the Upper Provinces, with the same honours as the last- mentioned deity. She also occurs under the form of a vulture, 1 Upper Egypt was called Mares, whence or else ras, the Coptic form. — S. B. the Arabic name Marees or Mare&ee ap- 3 Brugsch in the 1 Zeitschrift f. agypt. plied to the south wind. Sprache,' 1871, p. 12. 2 The word for south, however, was qema, 198 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. Fig. I. Uati. 2 and 3. Nishem, the goddess No. 564. Eileithyia. alternately with the vulture of Eileithyia, on the ceilings of the temples; being distinguished only by the cap of the Lower Country, and the hieroglyphic legend which accompanies her emblem. She even attends [I=£ [f^L || \ Isis while nursing Horus, together with the goddess jdH/^ ^^NrJ* Eileithyia. ^T>** ^EfL Egypt, as might reason- ably be expected, was among the deities worshipped in the country. She is represented with the emblem of purity on her head, and another apparently signifying ' cul- tivated land,' which also enters into the names of the goddess Kahi and the deity of Tentyris. In one hand she holds a spear with a bow and arrows, and in the other a battle-axe and the sign of life, illustrative of the military power of the country. In this she resembles one of the forms of Neith or Minerva. I had imagined this goddess to be the genius of the ' Eastern Bank,' opposed to another of similar character, whom I have called the * Western Bank of the Nile ;' but the hieroglyphic legends appear to authorise the conclusion of her representing Egypt. A strong argument in support of this is also derived from her being put in opposition to the foreign nations with whom the Egyptians were at war. The character forming her name is the sceptre seen in the hands of the gods, erroneously said to be surmounted by the head of the Upupa ; a misconception into which Horapollo has also been led, as is evident from his considering that * bird a fit ornament for the sceptres of the gods,' because it is the type of ' gratitude.' But the head is that of a quadruped,1 not of a bird ; though easily mistaken for the Upupa when carelessly sculptured, or of a small size. Its being emblematic of purity makes it an appropriate characteristic of the divine nature, and it is very properly associated with the feather of Truth. The name of Egypt was Khemi, which, as I have already stated, bore a strong analogy to the word khami, ' black ;' and both are sometimes written in the same manner by the hieroglyphic 1 According to Pierret (' Diet.,' p. 496), the head is that of a dog, a harrier. It was called uas or t'am, and is generally but not exclusively carried by gods. — S. B. 200 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. of a crocodile's tail,1 which signified ' black,' or at least had the force of Kh, the initial of the word. Egypt was also called the ^ ' land of the tree ' and * of the eye ' Jff (°f Osiris)-2 The last two occur in Bfct !$>P4 the inscription of the Kosetta Stone, as on other monuments, but the 3 JS, . j. .? . ^ 1 c former are more usual on sculptures The crocodile s tail in the name of m r No. 555. Egypt, 'Kham/ 0f an early period. It is singular that no one of these groups is applied to, or enters among, the hieroglyphics of this goddess. There is, however, a god who seems to represent Egypt, or Other modes of writing the name , r nj r \ No. 556. of Egypt. Khemi, on whose head the crocodile's tail is placed ; but he is of late date, and only found in monu- ments of a Ptolemaic or Roman epoch. He performs the office of steersman of the boat of Atum, in the place of Horus. That Egypt was called Kham in the earliest times is evident from the sculptures : but the name Egypt is not found in the hieroglyphics ; nor do we find that of Aeria, by which some pretend it was known at a very remote period.3 There is a goddess who may either be the west bank of the river, or the West generally, opposed to the goddess who represents the East, whose name is preceded by the same signs,4 and generally followed by the annexed hieroglyphic signifying 6 mountain.' This was evidently borrowed from the circumstance of the valley of the Nile being bordered on one side by the Libyan, on the other by the Arabian hills : as the mode of representing a 'foreign land ' by a mountain originated in the distinction of the level plain of the Egyptian valley, and the hilly country of Syria or other foreign lands. I have also met with the goddesses of the East and West, each bearing on her head her peculiar emblem raised upon a perch. In these the table of offerings denotes the former ; and the hawk on a perch, with the ostrich-feather before it, is indicative of the West. The goddess at fig. 4, Plate XLL, is styled ' the West, Queen 1 Horapollo (Hierog. i. 70) says, ' A crocodile's tail signifies darkness ;' in Coptic K6JULC, KHJULCTC) XPeJULC' XejULC> or 2 Of the sycamore and the symbolic eye. — S. B. 3 Aul. Gell. xiv. 6. 4 Set abt. The name of land is set. Chap. XIII.] GODDESSES OF THE EAST AND WEST. 201 of Heaven, Directress of the Gods ;' and she frequently wears her usual emblems placed on another signifying ' cultivated land.' To Athor is sometimes given the same hawk seated on a perch, in her character of President of the Western Mountain. Her office is evidently connected with the dead, as is that of Athor, when she assumes these attributes ; probably in consequence of the western district or mountain, particularly at Thebes and Memphis, being looked upon as the abode of the dead. She may also be a type of Hades or Amenti, the resem- blance between which name and the West, Ement, is consistent with its supposed connection with the lower regions, as I have already had occa- sion to observe. The funeral rituals of the papyri frequently represent four rudders, each of which is applied to the four cardinal points, designated No- 557- Fi9- ». ™e west, as rudders of the S., N., W., and E. This division was of the earliest date in Egypt, being mentioned in the oldest monuments that exist. The expression ' S., N., W., and E.' signified the whole world ; as in the Coronation ceremony, where the carrier pigeons are ordered to fly to those four points, to proclaim that the king has assumed the crown. They in like manner divided the world into four quarters : one being Egypt ; another the South, or region of the Blacks ; a third the East, or the Asiatic country; and the fourth the North, comprising Syria, Asia Minor, and probably Europe. It appears that the expression 6 conqueror of the nine regions ' signified ' of the remaining three parts of the world/ Egypt itself completing the whole number twelve, and three being the sign of plurality for each set, in the sense of ' the regions.' The name of the goddess in Plate XLII. appears to read Sefah 1 or Sefekh ; and these letters are followed by demonstra- tive signs, which are intended to represent horns. Erom her employment, noting on the palm-branch of Thoth the years of human life, and from her title, ' Lady of Letters/ she appears also to be the goddess of writing. She may perhaps be a deification 1 This may call to mind the Hebrew the Sofis of Persia ; or the Greek IV 6 4 Herodot. ii. 82. p 2 Chap. XIII.] GENIUS OF THE LAND. 213 genius, as well as a presiding deity ; though the respect paid to it did not extend beyond the precincts of the town, or the nome to which it belonged. The name of Tentyris, where Athor was particularly wor- shipped, was probably a modification of Thy-n-athor (shortened into Tynator and Tentore), signifying the abode of Athor. The Coptic uame is Tentore. The hieroglyphic legend of the god- dess, the genius of the place, presents the name of the town ; and this group is generally added to her head-dress, followed even by the sign ' land.' The genius of the ' land ' 1 was represented as a goddess, bearing on her head the symbolic hieroglyphics signifying ■ land ' and ' cultivated country.' She was styled ' Mother of all the Kegions,' and may therefore be considered an abstract notion applying to the earth generally, or to Egypt as the mother and chief of all. It must be confessed that Earth, the great mother, ought to hold a more important post in the mythology of Egypt than the deity before us, however low might be the rank of physical objects compared to that of the great gods of their Pantheon. The Greeks considered the earth as the mother, as the heaven was the father of all ;2 and Yarro3 supposes them to have been the chief deities. But when he tells us they were the same as Sarapis and Isis in Egypt, he betrays great ignorance of the religion of that country. It is probable that the Greeks paid them much greater honours than they received in Egypt, where there is reason to believe the earth was only revered as the abstract idea of a combination with the divine power for the exercise of the creative agency. The goddess Kannu, represented with the head of an asp, is common in the oldest temples. She is frequently employed as the nurse of the young princes, whose early education was supposed to be entrusted to her care, and she presided over gardens as well as the god Khem. Athor and Mut are also re- presented suckling the young princes in temples of the oldest times ; and instances occur of the former under the form of a cow, her emblem, performing the same office for the young Kameses. But this was more particularly the part of the asp- 1 The hieroglyphic supposed to be a kind of the word tcma, 1 town ' or 1 village.' The of cake or biscuit is found in the texts as word bak is rarely found. — S. B. determinative of the name of all Egyptian * Plut. de Plac. Philosoph. i. 6. cities and nomes. It is also determinative 3 Vairo, de Ling. Lat. lib. iv. &c. 214 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. FChap. XIII. headed Rannu. This goddess was also represented under the form of an asp, crowned with long feathers and a disk and horns, or as a female figure bearing an asp upon her head, which, as I have already observed, was sacred to her, as to the god Chnoumis, and which was probably the Agathodsemon of Eusebius. There is another asp-headed goddess, whose name is written Hoph, or T-hoph, which calls to mind the snake Hefi. The Coptic word hof signifies the viper, analogous to the hye of the Arabs. She has some office in Amenti, but does not appear to be related to the deity before us. The snake Bai also appears to have been figured as a goddess, and sometimes under its own form, as guardian of the doorways of those chambers of the tombs which represent the mansions of heaven. Another snake-headed goddess has the name Heh, or Hih.1 She occurs at Denderah and Philse. I am not aware of her office. Other goddesses with the head of a snake occur in the chamber of Osiris at Phihe ; but as their office relates to the dead, they may only be connected with the genii of Amenti. From the palm-branch which the goddess Renpi bears on her head, I have supposed her to denote the year, which in Egyptian is called Renpa, and in Coptic rompi, though from the comparison of different legends it appears that her name in the hieroglyphics does not read Renpa, but Rpe, which resembles the word erpe, ' a temple.' The palm-branch, however, favours the conjecture that she represented the deified notion of the year. In her hand she holds the usual sceptre of the goddesses, and sometimes a palm-branch, with the emblems of a hundred thousand years, as well as the figurative sign of the assemblies, which marked fixed periods of time. The deity of a month may very properly be considered Thoth, or the moon ; but the figures representing some other divisions of time, as well as the three seasons, are still unknown. The goddess Ament, who frequently occurs at Thebes, has been considered a female Amen ; the only difference between her name and that of the Egyptian Jupiter being the addition of the female sign, or article, t. She is also styled * the President 1 The name of this goddess means a long period of time, more than a cycle and less than eternity, such as an aion or ' age.' She is called 1 maker of invisible, creator of visible beings.' — S. B. 216 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. of Thebes.' She wears the crown of the Lower Country, like the goddess Neith, and she sometimes bears in either hand the sign of ' water.' From her name she might be mistaken for the West, Ement, or the lower regions, Amenti. But the absence of the demonstrative signs indicating either of them sufficiently contra- dicts this opinion : and from her rank as second member of the second Theban triad, composed of Amen Generator, Tamen, and Harka, it is evident that her character and office were very different from either of those two. She may be one of the forms of the Egyptian Minerva.1 From the hieroglyphics of the goddess Nebhotep we may suppose her to represent the abstract idea of dominion ; and the presence of the vulture and asp together on her head-dress may perhaps tend to confirm this opinion, though they were not ex- clusively appropriated to her. She also wears the globe and horns of Athor in common with many other goddesses. Her name occurs in the temple of Kameses III. at Medeenet Haboo : she is therefore of an early Pharaonic age.2 Besides the sacred cow of Athor, was another, supposed by the learned Kircher to be dedicated to the moon, whom he considers the same as Isis ; but from the hieroglyphic legend given by Champollion, in which she is styled ' Genetrix of the Sun,' she seems rather to be the darkness of Chaos, ' which was upon the face of the deep,' and from which sprang the light of the sun. He therefore supposes her to be one of the characters of Buto, though, from a legend accompanying another figure he gives of the same cow, it appears that she was sometimes identi- fied with Neith, whose name precedes that of Aha. She is some- times represented as a female figure with a cow's head, and the globe and horns of Athor surmounted by two ostrich-plumes ; and her name Aha, ' the Cow,' is followed by its figurative hieroglyphic, or demonstrative sign. The name Aha was evidently the origin of the Greek Io, though I am inclined to think that persecuted wanderer to be derived from the history and emblem of Athor, or from Isis, rather than from the goddess before us.3 The consecration of every month and day to a particular deity, mentioned by Herodotus, is more than confirmed by the 1 Her type is that of Neith.— S. B. of offering.'— S. B. 2 This goddess is one of the parhedral 3 Eustathius says, ' Io, in the language of deities of Heliopolis associated with Ra and the Argives, is the moon.' (Jablonski, ii. c. 1, Turn. Her name means 'lady of peace, or p. 7 ; and supra, p. 166, on Thoth.) Chap. XIII.] GENII OF THE HOURS. 217 fact of our finding the hours themselves treated as divinities. But it is possible that the statement of the historian may only refer to the almanacs, where, according to Chaeremon, the names of the gods appeared affixed to each day, in the same manner as those of saints in modern calendars. According to the Egyptian system, the hours were not merely dedicated to particular deities: each was considered a peculiar genius in itself, a minute fraction of the divine essence which pervaded it ; and, if not worshipped with the same honours as the superior gods, prayers were addressed to them with the hope of rendering them favourable to the individual who invoked their aid. The hours are frequently found in tombs and on sarco- phagi, where the deceased is represented either praying or making an offering to each in succession, beginning with the first and terminating with the twelfth, hour, both of day and night. From not finding them in any temple, I suppose that their introduction implies a review of the hourly occupa- tions of the individual during his life, and that these deities or genii were principally connected with the final ordeal of the dead. [The hours, Plate XLYIL, were called in Egyptian Unnu, a word meaning ' apparent, visible, or actual,' and the word is written in various manners. Each hour of the day and night had a name, as will be seen in the accompanying plate of those there represented. They bore on their heads stars, showing that the division of time was sidereal, and they held the uas, or sceptre, and emblem of life. — S. B.] The first of those here introduced, No. 7, is the eighth hour of day, No. 6 the twelfth hour, No. 5 the tenth hour, and No. 8 the tenth hour of night ; which last is written phonetically Jiarh, the Coptic edjorh,1 * night.' Macrobius 2 supposes that Apollo, being called Horus by the Egyptians, 4 gave his name to the twenty- four hours of day and night, as to the four seasons, during which he completes his annual course;' and the same is stated by Diodorus3 to be the opinion of some of the Greeks. The three figures of hawk and jackal-headed deities on Plate XLYIL, No. 4, are common in the tombs of Thebes, but I do not 1 e2£u)p£,. The Coptic letter 2C is always soft. It is, however, supposed genga, is a hard g, and not dj ; and from that it was originally hard in Arabic, like this the Cairenes have probablv derived the Hebrew gimel. their hard pronunciation of the Arabic g * Macrob. Saturn, hb. i. c. 26. gim, or g, which in Arabia and other places Diodor. 1. 26. Chap. XIII.] THE FOUR GENII OF HADES. 219 know their office. Two large figures of the hawk-headed deity, with similar hieroglyphic legends, are conducting, together with the jackal-headed and other deities, Kameses III. into the presence of the god of the temple at Medeenet Haboo. These kneeling figures seem to be beating themselves in the manner the Egyptians are said by Herodotus to have done (in honour of Osiris), and as Athenagoras tells us was the custom at all the great festivals celebrated in the temples. They are sometimes represented in the same attitude before the god Atum ; and from their hieroglyphic legend we may suppose them to be the spirits who pervaded the earth.1 The four genii of the lower regions on Plate XLVJUL perform a conspicuous part in the ceremonies of the dead. They are present before Osiris while presiding in judgment, and every individual who passed into a future state was protected by their influence. When a body was embalmed, the intestines were taken out and divided into several portions, each being dedicated to one of these deities ; and they were either deposited in vases,2 which bore their respective heads, or were returned into the body accompanied by these four figures. Amset, Hapi, Tuaut- mutf, and Qabhsenuf, were their names. The first had the head of a man,3 and was sometimes represented holding the staff, and having the form of the other deities, but only in the tombs ; the second had the head of a cynocephalus ape, the third of a jackal, and the fourth of a hawk ; and, though differing from them in form, they cannot fail to call to mind the four beasts of the Eevelation.4 They were generally in the form of mummies ; but they sometimes occur as human figures walking, and even carrying the body of the dead, as in the chamber of Osiris at Philae, where they bear the deity to his tomb under the form of Socharis. To Amset were dedicated the stomach and lar^e intes- tines ; to Hapi the small intestines ; to Tuautmutf the lungs and heart ; and to Qabhsenuf the liver and gall-bladder. This point was long a desideratum ; and though it was known that the four vases, placed in the Egyptian tombs with the sarcophagi, each 1 These spirits are addressed in the presence of the sun. Their name was 111th and 112th chapters of the Ritual. Ammu. — S. B. (Lepsius, 'Todt.,' xlii.-xliii., c. Ill- 2 These vases have been improperly 113.) The spirits of Pe or Buto are Horus, styled canopi. Amset, and Hapi ; those of Meni, Horus, 3 I have found one instance of Amset Tuautmutf, and Qabhsenuf. According in the form of a woman, on a mummy-case to M. de Rouge, the hawk-headed repre- in the British Museum, sented the spirits of earth adoring in 4 Rev. iv. 7. Chap. XIIL] THE FOUE GENII OF HADES. 221 of which bore the head of one of these genii, contained the intestines of the dead, no one had examined them with sufficient care to ascertain the exact portion in each. To Pettigrew we are indebted for this interesting fact ; and in introducing it I have much pleasure in paying a just tribute to the patience and zeal with which he conducted the examination, and in returning him my thanks for his communication upon the subject. I have already- noticed the assertion of Plutarch, that the Mendesian goat had the same name as the sacred bull Apis ; and have shown that the only deities so called were the Memphite bull, the god Nilus, and one of the genii of Amenti. Though we may find a difficulty in accounting for such a misconception, it is more probable that this last, which was represented with the head of a cynocephalus, should have been mistaken for the animal he mentions than the god Nilus. And as he doubtless speaks from a vague report, originating in the ignorance of the Greeks, it is possible that the form of the ape-headed figure, added to the similarity of name, led to his error ; which, indeed, is not more inconsistent with truth than the belief of Herodotus that the god Pan was represented with the head and legs of a goat.1 One inference may perhaps be drawn from these erroneous statements — that the name Apis, Hapi, signifies a ' genius ' or ' emblem Apis being the * genius,' or, as Plutarch calls it, * the image of the soul' of Osiris. Hapimau may therefore be the genius of the water, or the Nile ; and the cynocephalus-headed Hapi, the emblem of the terrestrial nature of man. This conjecture, however, I offer, with great diffidence, to the opinion of the learned reader. When the body of a person of quality was embalmed, the intestines were deposited in four vases of alabaster, or other costly materials, according to the expense which the friends of the deceased chose to incur. Some were contented with those of cheaper materials, as limestone, painted wood, or pottery; but in all cases the cover of each vase was surmounted by the head of its own peculiar deity, according to its contents. In em- balming the bodies of poorer people, who could not afford this expense, the intestines, when properly cleansed, were returned into the body by the usual incision in the left side, through which they had been extracted ; and the figures of the four genii, generally of wax, or aromatic composition, enveloped in cloth, 1 Herodot. ii. 46. 222 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. were introduced into the cavity. This was done with the same view of protecting the parts under their peculiar influence as when they were deposited in the vases. The aperture was after- wards closed, and covered with a leaden plate, on which they represented the symbolic eye, or sometimes the same four genii who were thought to preside within. But I shall have occasion to mention this hereafter in describing the funeral rites of the Egyptians, where I shall also notice the error of Porphyry respecting their throwing the intestines into the Nile. The hieroglyphic legends painted on the exterior of the vases alluded to the deity whose head they bore, and it is principally from these that their names have been ascertained.1 The goddess Selk is sometimes found accompanying the four genii, in the paintings of the tombs, and I have once found an instance of Tuautmutf with a human head. The name of Amenti, 'that subterraneous region whither they imagined the souls of the dead to go after their decease/2 signified, according to Plutarch, ' the receiver and giver ; ' in which we may perhaps trace a proof of its being considered a temporary abode. The burial of arms and different objects of use or value with the body may also indicate their belief of a future return to earth, after a certain time, which is said by Herodotus to have been fixed at 3000 years; though Plato gives this period to a philosopher, and 10,000 to an ordinary individual. The resemblance of the names Amenti, ' Hades,' and Ement, ' the West,' is remarkable. This last was looked upon as the end, as the east was the beginning, of the world. There the sun was buried in the darkness of night, and there he was supposed allegorically to die and pass through another state, previous to his regeneration and reappearance upon earth, after each diurnal revolution. This analogy between them cannot fail to call to mind the similarity of the Hebrew word Ereb, or Gharb,3 signifying ' sunset,' or ' the West,' and the Erebus of Greece. Clemens 4 says that ancient temples were turned towards the West ; but this was not the case in Egypt, where the points of the compass do not appear at any time to have been points of religion, at least as regards the position of their sacred buildings, no two of which are made to face exactly in the same direction. 1 In these sepulchral vases having the 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 29. shape of the deities the deceased was 3 The Gharb, 4 West,' of the Arabs ; and supposed to be in the shape of each deity. Europe is Arb or Gharb, 1 the West.' — S. B. 4 Clem. Strom, vii. Chap. XIII.] FOKTY-TWO ASSESSOES OF THE DEAD. 223 Nor does his assertion/ that temples were formerly styled tombs, apply to those of the Egyptians.2 The number of the assessors who attended at the final judg- ment was forty-two. They frequently occur in funeral rituals, on sarcophagi, tombs, and papyri. I have also found them complete in the side adytum of a temple at Thebes, which, from the subjects there represented, appears to have been appropriated to funeral purposes. Diodorus3 speaks of ' Osiris and the assessors seated below him,' whose approbation King Osymandyas hoped to obtain after death by his piety, in presenting to the gods of Egypt such offerings as were peculiarly acceptable to them ; and the forty- two judges he mentions,4 at the sacred lake of the dead, were a type of those who, in the region of Amenti, pronounced their acquittal or condemnation of the soul, when it sought admittance to the Eegions of the Blessed. These assessors were similar to the bench of judges who attended at the ordinary tribunals of the Egyptians, and whose president, or archjudge, corresponded to Osiris. They may perhaps call to mind the four-and-twenty elders mentioned in Kevelation,5 as the four genii of Amenti appear to bear some analogy to the four beasts who were present with them before the judgment-seat. The assessors were represented in a human form with different heads. The first had the head of a hawk, the second of a man, the third of a hare, the fourth of a hippo- potamus, the fifth of a man, the sixth of a hawk, the seventh of a fox, the eighth of a man, the ninth of a ram, the tenth of a snake, and the others according to their peculiar character. But to avoid a tedious detail, I refer the reader to the plate, from which it will be seen that they varied in different rituals, though the number, when complete, was always the same. They are supposed to represent the forty- two crimes from which a virtuous man was expected to be free when judged in a future state, or rather the accusing spirits, each of whom examined if the deceased was guilty of the peculiar one which it was his province to avenge. They were distinct from the thirty-six daemons mentioned by Origen. These presided over the human body, which was divided into the same number of parts, each appropriated to one of them ; and they were often 1 Clem. Orat. Adhort. p. 19. 2 These were the children of Osiris. — S. B. 3 Diod. i. 49, 92. 4 One (the Codex Coislinianus) reading gives 8vai ir\(ia> tuiv TeaaapaKovTa (i. 29). 5 Rev. iv. 4, xix. 4, &c. 224 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. invoked to cure the infirmities of the peculiar member imme- diately under their protection.1 There is a monster supposed to be the guardian of the Lower Eegions, or the accusing spirit. It is more probably the former, being seated near the entrance to the abode of Osiris, and called Am-t-en-Amenti, ' the Devourer of Amenti,' and ' of the wicked.'2 It has the form of a hippopotamus, a peculiarly Typhonian animal ; sometimes with the head of a fanciful creature, partaking of the hippopotamus and the crocodile ; and it is frequently represented as a female. Seated at the entrance of Amenti, it watches the arrival of those who present themselves for judgment, and, turning its hideous head with angry looks, appears to menace the wicked who dare to ap- proach the holy mansion of Osiris. This monster was the prototype of the Greek Cerberus ; but the lively imagination of the Greeks improved upon or exaggerated the deformity : its neck was said to bristle with snakes ; it was represented with three, or with fifty heads; and Virgil3 and others describe its rapacity, and the terror it was supposed to cause. I now proceed to examine the form or attributes of those deities whose names are unknown. The first of these is a goddess (Plate LI. fig. 1), whose hiero- glyphics appear to read Tanen. She wears the globe and horns of Athor, and is styled the Daughter of the Sun ; but her office is not defined. She is found in the old temples of a Pharaonic age. Her function is obscure. Her name was the same as one of the god Ptah. The next two figures of this plate (2 and 3) contain those of Tusaas, daughter of the sun, regent of Heliopolis, and allied with the worship of Ka and Turn. The name of the deity at fig. 4 reads Hu. His form and office are unknown. He occurs in temples of a Pharaonic age, the annexed figure being from Medeenet Haboo at Thebes. [He personifies food or taste, and is often seen in the boat of the sun, allied with the god Sa. — S. B.] 1 These forty-two daemons formed part Han, celestial ether ;' 21. 'Anref, bringing of the vignette of the 128th chapter of the the month, proceeding from Karneter or Kitual, and were present at the great Hell.' To each the deceased announced he judgment in the Hall of the Two Truths. had not committed some sin.— S. B. Each of the forty-two had an appropriate 2 The sign * wicked ' is a man killing name — as, 1. ' Uammt, or devourer, pro- himself by beating his own head with a ceeding from Panopolis ;' 18. 'Nahabnefer, hatchet or club, according to Champol- goodneck, proceeding from Heliopolis ;' 16. lion's ingenious interpretation. ' Hi, assistant, proceeding from the Ku, or 3 Virg. Mn. vi. 421. 226 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. The name of the god at Plate LI., fig. 5, is [Kabak, or Sebak, of whom he appears to be a form as a representative of Seb, whose title he bears as 'Kabak, heir of the gods.' — S. B.] I have only met with him in temples of a late date, as at Denderah. [The following deity is a form of Tahuti-Aah, or Thoth Lunus, Thoth the Moon.— S. B.] He has the title < Euler of the Eighth great Begion,' or Hermopolis, which seems to imply some con- nection with Thoth ; and he bears on his head the disk and crescent given to the moon. Ho. 560. Form of Thoth. 1 Sheps' in Hermopolis, lord of Heaven.' No. 561. Satem. ' Satem in the abode of Shu the bull, powerful lord.' The bull-headed deity (No. 561) appears to have the name Satem or Au ; which last signifies ' a bull/ since it frequently occurs over oxen, as the word Aha over cows. I do not, how- ever, suppose him to be connected with the god Au, previously mentioned.1 Sept, or Soptet, appears to be the name of the deity in woodcut 1 He represents Satem, or 1 Hearing' personified, the one resident in the house of Shu, and has the title 4 Lord of Victory.'— S. B. 228 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. No. 562. His office is uncertain. This figure is from one of the tombs of the kings at Thebes. His hieroglyphics call to mind those which follow the name of the god Khefra, the soul and the spirits or rulers of the land. [This deity, Sapti or Sapt-har, is a form of Osiris or Horus, principally adored in the Egyptian possessions in Arabia, where he is called Lord of the East. He is supposed to be the entire Osiris, before his destruction by Typhon, and is called in the texts of the tablets * the greatest of the spirits of Heliopolis.' — S. B.] No. 562. Sapti. No. 563. Neith, or Sa, Sais. 1 Sapti, noblest of spirits of Heliopolis.' 1 Sa gives life to her son.' * Daughter of the Sun-supplier.' The goddess in woodcut No. 563 is represented nursing a child ; not as Isis and Athor, but merely holding it on her hand, as though it were entrusted to her charge. Her hieroglyphic consists of a shield crossed by two arrows, which she also bears on her head ; but I am ignorant of her name and office.1 The goddess represented in Plate LIL, fig. 1, has the attri- butes of the goddess Ma, or Truth ; fig. 2 is one .of the characters 1 She is a form of the goddess Nat or Neith, the living, giving life, the daughter of the sun, and supporter. — S. B. 230 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. of Isis, as the protecting deity who averts misfortunes from mankind. Her hieroglyphic legend signifies * defender,' and in the first line is the phonetic name of ' Isis.' She holds the ostrich-feathers, the emblem of truth and justice, and her posi- tion with outspread wings is similar to that of Isis when pro- tecting her husband Osiris.1 Of the deity at Plate LII. fig. 3, I have been unable to ascer- tain the name and office ; but from his having an emblem of strength as his hieroglyphic, which he also bears upon his head, he may be one of the forms of Gom, the Egyptian Hercules.2 The name of the goddess at figs. 4 and 5 appears to read Naham-ua. She is styled 'Mistress of the Eighth Eegion [or Hermopolis], Dominatrix of Tentyris,' from which place her figure and hieroglyphics are copied. She is called ' daughter of the sun.' Her head-dress consists of a shrine, from which water- plants are sometimes represented to rise, her head being covered by the body and wings of a vulture. In her hand she holds the usual sceptre of the goddesses. At the quarries of the Troici Lapidis Mons she occurs as the second member of a triad composed of Thoth, this goddess, and Horus or Aroeris. Mention is also made of the goddess Merti or Milt. The goddess at Plate LIII. fig. 1, is from one of the tombs of the kings at Thebes. Her name appears to read Mersekar, and she is styled 'Kuler of the No. 565. Fig. 1. Mersekar opposed to Eileithyia, fig. 2. West,' or of Amenti, the lower regions. She wears the globe and horns of Athor, in common with many other goddesses ; and I have found an instance of her under the form of a winged asp, with the cap of the Lower Country, having the same appearance as the genius of Lower Egypt,3 and opposed in like manner to Eileithyia. The goddess Mert (fig. 2) is frequently met with in the oldest temples, where she always accompanies the king when repre- sented running with a vase and the flagellum of Osiris in his 1 The legend reads, 'protectress of her son.' 2 He is called Heka, the great god resi- dent in some place. — S. B. 3 Her name means 1 loving to silence,' and she is often represented as a snake with a human head, wearing a disk and plumes, and is called Regent of the West, and ' the forehead of the western heaven, the place of silence.' (Pierret, ' Diet.,' p. 346.)— S. B. 232 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. hands, amidst various emblems. Her name appears to be Milt, or Mert. In the lower regions she has sometimes the united heads of a lion and crocodile, with the globe of Ka and the two long feathers of Amen ; but this figure is of rare occurrence, and I believe only in funeral subjects, among the genii or minor deities connected with the dead. She usually bears on her head a cluster of the northern or southern water-plants, upon a cap terminating in a peculiar form at the back ; from which it might seem that she was more par- ticularly connected with the Lower Country, those water-plants being emblematic of that part of Egypt. Sometimes, however, she has those of Upper Egypt ; but the more frequent assump- tion of the former sufficiently proves that her name was not Mares,1 one of the appellations of the Thebaid. The name of the deity at Plate LIII. fig. 3, is uncertain. I had supposed her to represent Phut, or Libya ; but this opinion does not seem to be supported by subsequent observations. She was one of the contemplar deities of Tentyris, and occurs also at Thebes ; but at Esneh her hieroglyphics are totally different, or may, indeed, be of another goddess who has assumed her form and attributes.2 The snake-headed god at PI. IAN. fig. 1, seems to be related to Horus. His figure seldom occurs. This is from Denderah.3 I have seen some bronzes of the same god. The deity named Has or Sas was probably one of the cha- racters of Osiris. His name is sometimes followed by the emblem of stability, sometimes by that of goodness — both belonging to Osiris, whose head-dress he wears. I have only met with him at Philse and Dendoor, in sculptures of a Ptolemaic or Koman period. The name of the goddess Ka-ta is composed of Ka, ' the sun/ and Ta, 'the world/ She is called 'Kegent of the Gods,' and occurs in the oldest temples, wearing the globe and horns of Athor. At Tuot or Tuphium and Hermonthis she is the second member of the triad, of which Mentu is the principal divinity. 1 Whence the modern Egyptian name the sun, pupil of the sun, lady of heaven.' Mere'es, or Mereesee, given to the south — S. B. wind. 3 His titles describe him as ' Horus united 2 Her name, as also that of fig. 4, Plate of the North and South Countries, resident LIII., is Ani or Peti. She is called 'resident in Aahen[ru], the lord dwelling in the in Tentyris, mother-goddess, divine mother . . . , shining in the hills, placed in the boat of Horus her son,' and 'Ani the great pupil Mat, taking his place in the boat Seket.' or eye of the sun in Tentyris.' She was a He is ' son of Ra, the first resident in the form of Hathor. The other goddess with region of the tomb, great god in ... , spiral is the distinct Ta-nen, ' daughter of ordering night and day.' — S. B. 234 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. The name of the god in Plate LV., jigs. 1, 4, 5, is Eeshpu : his form is very peculiar, and from his attributes he claims the title of God of War. He is sometimes represented with a spear in his hand ; sometimes bearing in his left hand a spear and shield, while with the other he wields a battle-axe, as if in the act of striking ; a quiver full of arrows being suspended at his back. He wears the helmet or crown of the Upper Country, in front of which projects, in lieu of the usual asp, the head of an oryx, a gazelle, or a goat. He sometimes occurs with a goddess, who, standing on a lion or on two crocodiles, holds out towards him two emblems resembling snakes with one hand, and with the other a bundle of lotus-flowers, apparently as an offering to the god Khem. Connected with this group are figures in the act of fighting, which would imply that the subject was emblematic of war. It may reasonably be supposed that the Egyptian Mars did not hold a very high rank in their Pantheon. His character was not connected with the operations of the deity ; nor did a god of war present any abstract notion of a divine attribute, unless it were as the avenging power. This, indeed, appears, as already stated, to have been represented by Mentu — in which character he probably answered to the Mars Ultor of Eome, and to the Ares mentioned by Hermapion in his inscription translated from the obelisk of Rameses. Reshpu occurs on tablets, but not in any of the temples of Egypt.1 [The Asiatic goddess of war, Anta, Anath, and perhaps Anoutis (Plate LVL, fig. 1), was introduced at the time of the 18th Dynasty, for none occur older than Amenophis L, and her worship chiefly flourished at that period. She formed part of a group of foreign deities introduced at the period. Amongst them was Baal, probably a form of Besa, as the Egyptian Besa is of common occurrence on the Phoenician scarabsei, and appears on the coins of the Island of Gaulos. Another deity mentioned in the papyri and texts is Astaruta or Ashtaroth, but her form has not been found represented on the monuments. Amongst the other varieties of inferior types is that of Sapt, lord of the land of Sat or Eastern foreigners, the desert, and lord 1 The god Reshpu was an Asiatic god, and represented the Reseph of the Phoeni- cians, and as Reseph Michal the Apollo Amyclseus of the Greeks. He is repre- sented in the company of the goddess Ken or Ket, and Anta, the goddess of war. His titles are ' great god, lord of heaven,' and in this capacity he wears the Upper crown, hut. — S. B. 236 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIII. of the East (Plate LVL, fig. 2). The figure is from a stone tablet of the time of Usertesen II., found at the temple of Wady Gasoos, in the desert near Kossayr. The deity who is next represented is probably Anhar, or, as his name is given in the Greek papyri, Onouris. His name means ' conductor of the heaven,' and he generally wears a plume of four hawk's feathers on his head. He often has a cord in his hand. He is called by the Greeks Mars, and as a form of Shu is seen in conflict with the Aphophis, the daily enemy of the sun, finally divided into birds, beasts, and fishes. — S. B.] The fourth figure has the name Menq, or Menqt, in her peaceable occupation of presenting two vases. She is probably a form of Sekhet or Bast. The lion-headed god in Plate LYII. is seldom met with in the Egyptian sculptures, and never, I believe, in temples of a very early epoch. The first figure is from the temple of Denderah, which is of Ptolemaic and Koman date; the second is from Dabod, where he accompanies the god Amen, to whom a Caesar is making offerings.1 He has a lion as his hieroglyphic. The second figure is called ' the great lion-god, very valiant.' The third [of Shuu] has not a lion's head, but that animal is intro- duced as a demonstrative sign after his hieroglyphic name, which reads Shuu or Mui, signifying ' Lion.' The fourth has also a lion as the demonstrative sign, and may be the same as the last deity [and is called 'Uu, perhaps for Shuu, great son of Neith']. They are of late time ; and being copied from monuments imperfectly preserved, the legends are uncertain. The name of the goddess with a lion's head, fig. 5, appears to read Ka.t; but I am ignorant of her character and office. [She is called the * very great, the female Horus.'] The name of the goddess in Plate LVIII.^. 1, is uncertain. She has an eye upon her head ; and she sometimes stands in an 1 The name of this god is Mat'et, and he that he is in the house of Osiris, shooting was one of the daemons of the Egyptian with his hand, and invisible. He goes Karneter or Hades. In chapter xvii. of the round the world invisible, but with fire, as Ritual (Lepsius, ' Todtenbuch,' ix. c. 17, Hapi or the Nile has ordered him. His 1. 58), there is the following description of face is said to be that of a dog, with Mat'et on the night of the great punish- human eyebrows ; also that he lives off ment of the wicked, when they are dragged the condemned, that at the pool of fire he to the block and decapitated. Mat'et is poured forth the hearts and thrust out the stated to have one head with [the feather corpses of the dead, and that his name was of] Truth, and another with a hawk or three Eater of Millions in the waters of Pount or heads. His name is said to be Mat'et, and Somali. — S. B. Chap. XIII.] TAT-UN, NEBUU, ETC. 239 attitude of prayer, before other deities. She occurs in temples of a Eoman and Ptolemaic date, as at Edfoo. Though her office is unknown, she may have been a deity of some importance. [Her name is Sat, the same as that of the Eastern foreigners, and she is perhaps a form of Sati. She wears the right symbolic eye of the sun, Horus, or Shu. — S. B.] The eye she bears on her head is the same which enters into the name of Egypt, and holds a distinguished post in the ceremonies of the dead. It is frequently found in the tombs, made of stone or blue pottery ; and is painted on sarcophagi, boats, and fancy ornaments. [The deity Tat-un (Plate LVIII.^. 2) is from the temple of Samneh, at the third cataract of the Nile, of the early time of Usertesen II. He is called ' Tat-un, who dwells in Kens or Kenous.' — S. B.] The name of the following goddess (fig. 3) is Nebuu. She is one of the contemplar deities of Esneh or Latopolis, and the second member of the triad worshipped there, which consisted of Chnoumis, this goddess, and their son Hake. She is a form of Neith, the Egyptian Minerva, like the lion-headed goddess Menhi, already mentioned. [She is styled in the inscriptions 'Nebuu, pupil of the sun, over the great place and mistress of Torerah.'— S. B.] The name and character of the next god (fig. 4) are of late date ; [and from the titles following, his name appears to be a form of the god * Seb/ as he bears the same titles, 1 heir of the gods, great god, maker of men.' — S. B.] The two gods at figs. 5 and 6 are forms of the youthful deity Ahi or Ahi-ur, the son of Athor, and the third member of the triad of Denderah, who has been already described. There is a god with the head of a hippopotamus, who may be one of the characters of the Egyptian Mars, the animal itself being worshipped at Papremis, the city of that deity.1 I have only found him so represented in small pottery figures, but never in the sculptures ; though the hippopotamus-headed goddess occurs on monuments of early date. The connec- tion, indeed, of the god Mars and this Typhonian animal is remarkable. Heron I have supposed to correspond to Atum, and Antaeus to be Nubti, but of Perseus I have not yet been able to form any conjecture. Nor do I know if Busiris is a character of 1 Herodot. ii. 59, 63, and 71. Chap. XIII.] THE MINOK DEITIES. 241 Osiris, or a separate deity. Of the form of Thoueris, the con- cubine of Typho, of Canopus, and of his supposed wife Menuthis, worshipped in a town of the same name,1 I am also ignorant ; 2 as well as of the two deities of winter and summer, whose statues are said by Herodotus to have been erected by Khampsinitus. I have not introduced the minor divinities who held various offices in the regions of the dead, their attributes and functions being as yet imperfectly ascertained, or altogether unknown ; and many were only inferior emanations of some of those already described. Others were genii or daemons ; and some were of that class of beings who were thought to people every part of the universe, and to be present unseen amongst mankind, sometimes influencing their actions, and sometimes themselves acting in obedience to their commands. They were mostly represented under a human form, with the heads of different quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, or fishes ; among which may be mentioned the cat, lion, ape, fox, cow, ram, hare, hawk, duck, crane, crocodile, tortoise (generally the entire animal in the place of a head), and the garmoot 3 fish. Some were figured as mere emblems ; and one even assumed the form of the usual sceptre of the gods. In concluding this notice of the Egyptian deities, whatever opinion I have ventured to express is offered with great diffidence, owing to the intricacy of the question, and the doubtful authority of Greek writers. I have therefore given little more than the forms of the gods, and their principal characters whenever they could be ascertained ; and I conclude in the words of Seneca,4 applied to an observation of Aristotle, — ' Egregie Aristoteles ait, nunquam nos verecundiores esse debere, quam cum de diis agitur.' 1 Jablonski, vol. iv. p. 153. 2 See Taur, pp. 145-147. 3 Silurus Carrnuth, or Heterobranchus bidorsalis. 4 Seneca, Xat. Quaest. vii. 30. Pectoral plute. Ouelisk between Ra and Ma. VOL. III. B Vignette N.— View of the modern town of Manfaldot, showing the height of the banks of the Nile in summer. In the mountain range, opposite Manfaldot, are the large crocodile-mummy caves of Maabdeh. CHAPTEE XIV. The Sacred Animals — Care — Expense — Animals in the Adytum — Embalming of them — Burial — Origin and Reason of Worship — Rank — List — Apes and Monkeys — Bat — Hedgehog — Shrew-mouse — Bear — Weasel — Otter — Dog — Wolf — Fox — Jackal — Ichneumon— Hysena — Cat —Dog — Lion — Panther — Leopard — Chaus — Blouse — Rat — Jerboa — Porcupine — Hare — Elephant — Hippopotamus — Hyrax — Horse— Ass — Camel — Giraffe — Oryx — Ibex — Sheep — Kebsh — Oxen — Apis — Mnevis — Bacis — Buffalo — Zebu — Dolphin — Sphinx — Vulture — Eagle — Hawk — Raven — Swallow — Hoopoe — Fowl — Pigeon— Dove — Quail — Ostrich — Ibis — Heron — Plover — Goose — Duck — Phcenix — Tortoise — Crocodile — Lizard — Asp — House-snake — Horned Snake — Frog — Oxyrhynchus — Phagrus — Lepidotus — Latus — Masotis — Scorpion — Spider — Scarabasus — Persea — Acanthus — Lotus — Garlic— Onions — Palm— Ivy — Emblems. I next proceed to mention the sacred1 animals, of which many different grades existed. Some were looked upon as deities, others were merely emblems of the gods. The worship of some was general throughout Egypt, that of others was confined to particular districts ; and the same animal which received divine honours in one part of the country was often execrated and held in abhorrence in another. In one city a sacred fish was venerated, in another it was served up among the delicacies of the table ; and many serious quarrels ensued between whole towns and provinces, owing to the circumstance of a sacred animal having been killed, either from accident or design, by the inhabitants of a neigh- bouring district where its worship was not acknowledged.2 It is, however, very improbable that such lawless disputes took place in the early periods of Egyptian history during the reigns of the Pharaohs, when a vigorous government had the power of maintaining order, and when a wise priesthood watched 1 [iElian, Hist. An. lib. x. — G. W.] 2 Juv. Sat. xv. 3G. Chap. XIV.] THE SACEED ANIMALS. 243 equally over the interests of all. No opinion, indeed, is more liable to error than one which judges the customs and character of the Egyptians from the degraded state of the country under the rule of the Ptolemies and Caesars : for, as De Pauw1 justly observes, there is no more reason to believe such excesses were perpetrated at that period, than to expect the modern towns of Europe to make war on each other in order to maintain the pre-eminence of their saints and patrons. Herodotus2 says, 'They are obliged by law to feed the sacred animals, and certain persons of both sexes are appointed to take care of each kind. The employment is an honourable one, and descends from father to son.' And ' so far,' observes Diodorus,3 'are they from declining, or feeling ashamed, openly to fulfil this office, that they pride themselves upon it; going in pro- cession through the towns and country, with the distinguishing mark of their occupation, as if they were partakers of the highest honours of the gods. And bein^ known by a peculiar emblem belonging to each, the people perceive, on their approach, of what animal they have the care, and show them respect by bowing to the ground, and by other marks of honour.' 'When parents, living in towns, perform vows for the recovery of their children's health,4 they offer prayers to the deity to whom the animal is sacred, and then shaving a portion, or half, or the whole of the child's head, they put the hair into one scale of the balance and money into the other, until the latter outweighs the former ; they then give it to the person who takes care of the animal, to buy fish (or other food).' It was not, however, on accidental bounty that the nourish- ment of these creatures depended. The value of a whole head of child's hair, even when they paid its weight in gold, or any other gift depending upon accidental vows (frequently performed after a long interval), would have been a precarious means of support for the unremitting appetite of the divine beasts; it was, therefore, wisely managed, that a fixed revenue should be provided for the purpose ; and ■ each had a piece of land be- longing to it, the produce of which was sold for its maintenance, and sufficed for the payment of the curators.5 The custom of bearing the emblems of the different sacred creatures to whose service they were devoted, may still be 1 De Pauw, ' Rech. sur les Eg. et Chin.,' 3 Diodor. i. 83. i- 145. 4 Herodotus and Diodorus, loc. cit. 2 Herodot. ii. 65. 5 Diodor. i. 83. B 2 * 244 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. traced in the banners borne by the guardians of the Sheikhs' tombs, who travel throughout Egypt in quest of charitable donations; and though seldom differing from, or inferior to each other in the discordant and deafening noise of drums and clamorous instruments, they are as readily distinguished by the peculiar emblems of the saint to whose service they belong. But the duty is not wholly gratuitous ; being performed partly from a prospect of rewards in paradise, and partly from the love of the tangible benefits they obtain on earth, by means of his useful name. Vows are also made, as in former times, by the credulous and the devout, for the recovery of health or the accomplishment of a wish ; but the accuracy of the balance is no longer required to regulate the extent of the donor's piety, or to adjust the quantity of his gratitude to the nice precision of a hair. The expense incurred by the curators for the maintenance of the sacred animals was immense. Not only were necessary pro- visions procured for them, but imaginary luxuries which they could neither understand nor enjoy. They were treated with the same respect as human beings : warm baths were prepared for them, they were anointed with the choicest unguents, and per- fumed with the most fragrant odours. Eich carpets 1 and orna- mental furniture were provided for them, and every care was taken to consult their natural habits. Females of their own species were kept for them, and fed with the utmost delicacy and expense ; those only being selected which were remarkable for their beauty. When any died, the grief of the people could only be equalled by that felt at the loss of a child ; and in so sumptuous a manner were their funeral rites performed, that they frequently cost more than the curators had the means of paying.2 The same respect was extended to those which died in foreign countries ; and when engaged in distant wars, they did not neglect 6 the cats and hawks, or leave them behind, but even when it was difficult to obtain the means of transport, they were brought to Egypt/ that they might be deposited in holy ground. Geese were kept for some of the sacred animals. Meat was cut into pieces and thrown to the hawks,3 who were invited by 1 Carpets are frequently mentioned by 3 Cf. the inscription given by Lepsius, ancient writers, as I have already had 'Abh. Kon. Akad. Berlin,' 1871, of the fields occasion to observe. Vide also Theocrit. assigned for the support of the sacred Id. xv. 125. 2 Diodor. i. 84. hawks.— S. B. Chap. XIV.] RESPECT FOR THE SACRED ANIMALS. 245 well-known cries to their repast ; cats and ichneumons were fed on bread soaked in milk, and with certain kinds of fish caught on purpose for them ; and every animal was provided with food suited to its habits.1 Whenever any one of them died, it was wrapped up in linen, and carried to the embalmers, attended by a procession of persons of both sexes, beating their breasts in token of grief. The body was then prepared with oil of cedar and such aromatic substances as tended to preserve it, and was deposited in a sacred tomb. The respect paid to the sacred animals was not confined to the outward ceremony of their funeral, or to the external marks of grief the mourners voluntarily imposed upon themselves, by shaving their eyebrows on the death of a cat, and their whole body for the loss of a dog : all the provisions which happened to be in the house at the time were looked upon as unlawful food, and were forbidden to be applied to any use.2 And so remarkable was the feeling of veneration in which they were held by the Egyptians, that, in time of severe famine, when hunger compelled them to eat human flesh, no one was ever known to touch the meat of any of them, even on the plea of preserving life. To destroy one voluntarily subjected the offender to the penalty of death : but if any person even un- intentionally killed an ibis or a cat,3 it infallibly cost him his life ; the multitude immediately collecting, and tearing him in pieces, often without any form of trial. For fear of such a calamity, if any person found one of those animals dead, he stood at a distance, and, calling out with a loud voice, made every demonstration of grief, and protested that it was found lifeless. 'This superstitious regard for the sacred animals,' observes Diodorus, ' is thoroughly rooted in their minds, and every Egyp- tian has his passions strongly bent upon their honour. For at the time when Ptolemy had not yet been called a king by the Komans, and the people were using every possible effort to flatter the Italians who visited the country as strangers, and studious to avoid everything that could excite disputes or lead to war, a Koman having killed a cat, and a crowd being col- lected about his residence, neither the magistrates who were sent by the king to appease their rage, nor the general terror of the Koman name, were able to save the offender from ven- Diodor. i. 84. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. i. 83. 246 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. geance, although he had done it unintentionally. And this we relate not from the testimony of others, but from what we ourselves had an opportunity of seeing during our journey in Egypt.' ' Never/ says Cicero,1 ' did any one hear of a croco- dile,2 an ibis, or a cat having been killed by an Egyptian.' * Rather would they submit to suffer death than destroy an ibis, an asp, a cat, or a crocodile ; and if anyone accidentally injured one of those animals, he would object to no kind of punishment.' 3 I have stated the reasons assigned by Diodorus for the worship of sacred animals, and have noticed the ridicule with which the Greeks delighted to treat this strange custom of the Egyptians. We are not, indeed, surprised that it should have struck any people as absurd and inconsistent ; and the Hebrew legislator felt the necessity of preventing the Jews from falling into this, the most gross practice of which idolatry was guilty. The worship of the golden calf, a representation of the Mnevis of Heliopolis, was a proof how their minds had become imbued with the superstitions they had beheld in Egypt, which the ' mixed multitude had practised there : ' and it frequently happened that the Egyptians were more attached to such emblems than to the gods themselves. This was the natural result of idolatrous feelings, which have in all times forgotten the deity in a blind respect paid to the type that chanced to represent him. ' In Egyptian temples/ says Clemens,4 * the porticoes, vesti- bules, and groves are constructed with great splendour; the halls are adorned with numerous columns ; the walls are per- fectly splendid with rare stones and brilliancy of colour ; the sanctuary 5 shines with gold, silver, and amber, and with a variety of glittering stones from India, or Ethiopia, and the adytum is hung with curtains of gold tissue. If you enter the circuit of the holy place, and hastening to behold what is most worthy of your search you seek the statue of the deity, one of the priests who perform the rites there steps forward to introduce you to the object of his worship, looking upwards with a grave and reverent face, as he chants the Paean hymn in his native tongue. But no 1 Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 29. 2 Cicero would have been more correct in substituting a hawk, or a cynocephahts, tor a crocodile, which last was not sacred throughout Egypt. 3 Cic. Tusc. Disput. v. 27. 4 Clem. Alex. Paedagog. iii. c. 2. 5 The body of the temple, or aedes, whither the profane did not penetrate, the adytum being the most holy part of the aedes. Chap. XIV.] PUNISHMENT OF THE SACEED ANIMALS. 247 sooner does he draw aside a portion of the veil, as if to show a god, than you find ample reason for smiling at the mysterious deity. For the god you sought is not there ; but a cat, or a crocodile, or a native serpent, or some such animal, which is more suited to a cave than a temple ; and you behold an Egyptian god in a beast 1 lying before you on a purple carpet.' The same idea is conveyed in the two lines of Juvenal.2 It sometimes happened that, like the gods of Eome or the saints of modern Italy, the sacred animals fell into disgrace, in consequence of the wishes of their votaries not having been complied with ; and this supposed neglect was resented with the same feelings which subject the image of a saint to the basti- nado, or to the ignominy of having a string tied round its neck, and being lowered for a time into a well. Plutarch 3 tells us, that whenever any great drought, or pestilential disease, or other extraordinary calamity, happened, it was customary for the Egyptian priests to select some of the sacred animals, and having conducted them with all silence and secrecy to a dark place, to terrify them with threats, and afterwards, if the disorder still continued, to devote them to death.' And Porphyry relates that they were in the habit of using threats, not only to the sacred animals, but even to the gods themselves — ' declaring that, unless they did what they desired, or if they acted contrary to their wishes, they would " disclose the mysteries of Isis, divulge the secrets hidden in the abyss, stop the Baris (the sacred boat)," or "scatter before Typho the members of Osiris.'" The above-mentioned ceremony, adds Plutarch, of putting those animals to death, * being performed in secret, and at no fixed season of the year, but as occasion requires, is wholly unknown to the generality of the people, except at the time they celebrate the funeral of some particular species ; when openly, and in sight of all, they throw them into the grave, to be buried alive with those whose obsequies they are performing. They imagine that by this means they shall vex Typho, and cut off the pleasure they suppose he enjoys from the sad event before them.' ' But the animals at whose funeral the above-mentioned rite is practised, are such as are honoured and worshipped by the 1 In the inner or minor sanctuary of the great temple of Karnak is the statue of a colossal hawk on a pedestal, though the temple was dedicated to Amen and not to Ra. 2 Juv. Sat. xv. 7 :— ' Illic caeruleos, hie piscem fluminis, illic Oppida tota canem venerantur, nemo Dianam.' 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 73. 248 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. whole nation, as the ibis, the hawk, the cynocephalns, and the Apis ; ' and the selection of the others depended, of course, upon the character of the gods and of the peculiar emblems worshipped in the place where those ceremonies took place. Peculiar sepulchres were frequently set apart for certain species, and animals of different kinds were not generally buried in the same place. But in large populous places, the mummies of oxen, sheep, dogs, cats, serpents, and fishes were deposited in the same common repository ; though the more usual custom was to bury one or more of each species in a tomb exclusively appropriated to them ; which was usually a small square cavity hewn in the rock, and sometimes of considerable dimensions. The promiscuous admission of different animals into one sepulchre may have been from their enjoying less consideration there than in other towns where their worship prevailed. For even those which were held sacred throughout the country were not equally esteemed in every place ; and the exclusive privileges they enjoyed in one town might have been denied in another, without depriving them of the title they claimed to the name of sacred animals. At Thebes, however, Signor Passalacqua dis- covered birds, rats, shrewmice, toads, snakes, scarabsei, and flies, embalmed and deposited in the same tomb ; and I have seen one there, in which were found the mummies of cats, snakes, and cows. But in the same cemetery I observed a sepulchre appropriated solely to cats, another to hawks, and another to fish. Some were buried in the district where they died; others were transported to the nome or city where they were particularly sacred — except, perhaps, when the place in which they had been kept paid them similar honours. For it is not to be supposed that the city of Thebes would willingly suffer the embalmed bodies of the ibis it had fed, and highly venerated, to be trans- ported to Hermopolis ; though this last was the place more peculiarly appointed to the worship of that bird, and of Thoth, the deity to whom it was sacred. Indeed, the fact of our finding the embalmed bodies of the ibis both at Thebes, Memphis, and other places, sufficiently establishes this conjecture, and shows that the animals removed to the patron city were only taken from places where their worship was not particularly regarded, and probably only from towns or villages in the vicinity. And when Herodotus 1 says, ' They carry the cats which die to certain holy 1 Herodot. ii. 67. Chap. XIV.] DEATH AND BUEIAL OF SACEED ANIMALS. 249 places, where they are embalmed, and thence removed to Bubastis,' we may infer that the historian only alludes to those that died in places where the cat and the goddess Bubastis did not enjoy any conspicuous share of the honours of the sanctuary. The same applies to his observations respecting other sacred animals of Egypt, as ' the shrew-mouse, the hawk, and the ibis,' though he says ' the two former 1 were transported to the city of Buto, and the latter to Hermopolis,' The fact of the sacred animals having been embalmed and buried in the tombs at Thebes, shows that Plutarch 2 is wrong in stating that the inhabitants of the Thebaid were exempt from the taxes levied throughout the country for the maintenance of the sacred animals ; and we can only explain this by supposing the Thebans to have had the privilege of providing separately for the animals they kept, without contributing to the common fund levied for that purpose on the rest of the Egyptians. * Dogs were buried in their own town, being deposited in sacred coffins ; ' and ' bears (which Herodotus states to have been rare in Egypt) and wolves were interred in the place where they were found dead.' The same author 3 says, ' When a bull or a heifer dies, the latter is thrown into the river, and the former buried in the suburbs, with one or both of its horns above the ground to mark the spot. Here the body remains till it is decomposed, and a boat despatched from the Isle of Prosopitis comes round to each town at a particular period. This Prosopitis is an island in the Delta, nine schoenoi in circumference, containing several towns — one of which, called Atarbechis, sends the boats destined to collect the bones, and employs several persons to go from town to town to exhumate them, and take them to the particular spot where they are buried. They inter in like manner all other cattle that die ; 1 but it may be doubted if the Egyptians defiled their sacred stream by throwing into it the body of any animal that had been found dead, unless it were in those places where the crocodiles were fed. The discovery of the bodies of cows or heifers embalmed and buried in the tombs disproves this state- ment ; and the remark above made, respecting the interment of animals in the place where they died, applies equally to bulls, whose embalmed bodies are discovered in the sepulchres of Thebes and other places. 1 This must be an error ; the hawk being sacred to Ra, not to Buto. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 21. ■ Herodot. ii. 41. 250 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. The law which obliged them to bury the bodies of animals when found dead in the field, or elsewhere, owed its origin to a wise sanitary precaution ; and the respect paid to certain birds arose from their great utility in removing those impurities which, in a climate like Egypt, necessarily arose from the decomposition of animal substances exposed to a burning sun. The same consideration induces the modern Egyptians to abstain from molesting the Vultur percnopterus,1 the kite, and others of the falcon tribe. The mode of preserving and interring different animals depended on circumstances. Those which were sacred were embalmed with great care, and at a considerable expense : particular tombs were set apart for them ; and funeral ceremonies were performed, according to the consideration they enjoyed in the temples of the town where they died. Some idea may be formed of the enormous sums occasionally expended on those occasions from the statements of Diodorus,2 who affirms that the guardians of the sacred animals, in his time, laid out no less than 100 talents at a single funeral ; and when Apis died, in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, the curator spent the whole of the money collected for the purpose, and borrowed from the king 50 talents in addition to defray the expenses of its burial. Many and various theories have been suggested to account for the origin of animal- worship in Egypt ; 3 which, according to Manetho, was introduced in the reign of the second king of the 2nd Dynasty. ' It is difficult,' says Diodorus,4 ' to ascertain their motive for so singular a custom. The priests, indeed, assign a peculiar and hidden reason for it ; but three others are commonly reported amongst the people. The first of these, altogether fabulous, and in character with the simplicity of primitive notions, is, that the gods, in the early ages of the world, being in fear of the numbers and wickedness of mankind, assumed the form of animals, in order to avoid their cruelty and oppression. And having at length obtained the dominion of the world, they decreed, as a reward to those animals by whom they had been 1 The Rokham, or Rakham ; called also to be proved by Manetho, who says that 4 Pharaoh's hen,' or ' the scavenger of the the Apis, &c, were ordered to be treated as Nile.' 2 Diod. i. 84. gods in the reign of Xn02, the second 3 [It seems really to have been an African king of the 2nd Dynasty, according to custom, vestiges of which still remain in Eusebius, the KAIEXhS of Africanus' ver- the interior of Soodan : it was probably sion. — G. W.] * Diodor. i. 86. adopted by the Egyptians also. This seems Chap. XIV.] SEASONS FOE ANIMAL- WOESHIP. 251 saved, that mankind should ever after respect and nourish them while alive, and perform funeral honours to them at their decease. ' The second is, that the ancient inhabitants of Egypt, having suffered several signal defeats from their neighbours, in con- sequence of the confusion and want of discipline in their army, devised the plan of carrying standards, and for this purpose selected the figures of animals. These, being placed upon a spear and raised to a sufficient height, served as a rallying-point for the soldiers, and enabled them to keep their ranks in the confusion of battle. And by this means having obtained the victory over their enemies, they attributed their success to the animals whose figures they bore, and out of gratitude abstained from killing any of the same species, treating them afterwards with religious veneration. 'The third reason is, gratitude for the benefits conferred by them on mankind. For the cow not only ploughs the land itself, but produces those which perform the same useful office ; sheep bring forth lambs twice (in the year l), and from their wool are made clothes and ornamental furniture, while their milk is an article of food, both itself and the cheese made from it. The dog is required both for the chase and as a guard ; 2. . . . the cat is a protection against the approach of the venomous asp and other reptiles ; and the ichneumon is useful in destroying the eggs of the crocodile, which would otherwise multiply so much as to render the river unapproachable. The ichneumon even wars with that animal itself, and overcomes it by a wonderful stratagem. Having enveloped itself in mud, it watches its opportunity, while the crocodile sleeps with its mouth open on the shore, and then adroitly glides through its mouth into its stomach, and, eating its way out, escapes unhurt, at the same time that it kills its enemy. The hawk is worshipped because it destroys scorpions, horned snakes, and noxious creatures which endanger human life; though some suppose the reason to be from its being the bird selected by augurs for predicting future events.' These remarks agree with an observation of Cicero, ' that the Egyptians only hold those animals sacred which are of use to man, as the ibis, from its being the destroyer of serpents ; and 1 Conf. also Diodor. i. 36. This is the Anubis with a dog's head.' I have else- case at the present day. where noticed this error, in speaking ot 2 1 Therefore,' he adds, ' they represent the dog. 252 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. much might be added respecting the utility of the ichneumon, the crocodile, and the cat.' 4 Goats, bulls, wolves, and others,' continues Diodorus, ' are reported to have been venerated for similar motives.' The historian then proceeds to give other reasons, one of which, though highly improbable, deserves to be mentioned — ' that in the early period of the Egyptian monarchy, the people being prone to rebellion against the government, one of the kings devised this method of sowing the seeds of discord among them and preventing their union. He divided the country into several parts, to each of which he assigned a peculiar animal, establishing its worship there, and forbidding it to be eaten. By which means, the same animal that was adored in one place being regarded with no respect, and even despised, in another, all community of feeling was destroyed, and the animosity arising between neighbouring provinces prevented their uniting against their rulers.' The historian also refers, in another place,1 to the supposed sojourn of the gods on earth ; when, in their visits to different places, they assumed the form of various animals — ' a notion which,' he adds, 'the poet2 introduced into his verses, having learnt it during his stay in Egypt.' Plutarch, in mentioning the same subject, says,3 ' That the gods, through a dread of Typho, metamorphosed themselves into animals, lying concealed in the bodies of ibises, dogs, and hawks, is more extravagant than the most fanciful tales of fable. It is equally incredible, that the souls of those who survive their bodies should return to life again only through such animals. Of those, therefore, who wish to assign a political reason for their worship, some assert that Osiris, having divided his army into several divisions, assigned to each a separate standard, distin- guished by a particular animal, which afterwards became sacred, and was worshipped by the troops to whom it had been given. Others maintain that it was in consequence of some of the later kings, who wished to strike terror into their enemies, having decked themselves with gold and silver figures of those animals. Others, again, attribute it to the artifice of a crafty prince, who, perceiving the Egyptians to be of a volatile disposition, always inclined to change and novelty, and, from their numbers, in- vincible as long as they were guided by wise counsels and acted 1 Diodor. i. 12. Homer. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 72. Chap. XIV.] CHOICE OF SACKED ANIMALS. 253 in concert, devised this sort of superstition, whilst they were yet dispersed up and down in their several habitations, as a means of propagating discord amongst them. For, amongst the different species of animals he enjoined them to worship, many bore a natural antipathy to each other, and some were eaten in one part of the country and some in another. He therefore foresaw that, as each party would defend its own favourite animals, and resent whatever injuries they suffered, this must imperceptibly engender a hostile feeling amongst them, and prevent their plotting against the government.' These were, of course, merely the fanciful notions of the uninstructed, as Diodorus justly observes. Many of the animals were worshipped, not from a particular respect paid to them, or on account of any qualities they possessed, but solely because they had been chosen as emblems of certain deities; and their selection for this purpose is a separate and independent question. That the reasons for it were often as capricious and ridiculous as those stated by the historian is very probable ; and what could be more arbitrary than the adoption of the ibis to represent the god Thoth, or the spotted cow to be the emblem of Athor ? For, if they looked upon the ibis with a feeling of gratitude on account of its utility in destroying serpents, the reason for its being chosen as the peculiar type of the Egyptian Hermes could not originate there ; nor does a cow, however useful to mankind, appear to be a suitable representative of the goddess Venus. It is therefore evident that neither the benefits derived by man from the habits of certain animals, nor the reputed reasons for their peculiar choice as emblems of the gods, were sufficient to account for the reverence paid to many of those they held sacred. Some, no doubt, may have been indebted to the first- mentioned cause ; and, however little connection appears to subsist between those animals and the gods of whom they were the types, we may believe that the ox, cow, sheep, dog, cat, vulture, hawk, ibis, and some others, were chosen from their utility to man. We may also see sufficient reasons for making some others sacred, in order to prevent their being killed for food, because their flesh was unwholesome, as was the case with certain fish of the Nile — a precaution which extended to some of the vegetables of the country. But this will not account for the choice they made in many instances ; for why should not the camel and horse have been selected for the first, and many other common animals aud reptiles for the last-mentioned reason? 254 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. There was, as Porphyry observes, some other hidden motive, independent of these ; and whether it was, as Plutarch supposes, founded on rational grounds, ' with a view to promote the welfare of the community,' on accidental or imaginary analogy, or on mere caprice, it is equally difficult to discover it, or satisfactorily to account for the selection of certain animals as the exclusive types of particular deities. Porphyry gives another reason for the worship of animals, which is consistent with the speculative notions of the Egyptians ; but still it offers no elucidation of the question respecting the preference shown to some before others, nor does it account for one or other being chosen to represent a particular attribute of the deity. * The Egyptian priests,' says that writer,1 * profiting by their diligent study of philosophy, and their intimate acquaintance with the nature of the gods, have learnt that the Divinity permeates other beings as well as man ; that he is not the only creature on earth possessed of soul ; and that nearly the same spiritual essence pervades all the tribes of living creatures. On this account, in fashioning images of the gods, they have adopted the forms of all animals, sometimes joining the human figure with those of beasts ; at others, com- bining the shapes of men and of birds. Wherefore some of their images have the form of a man up to the neck, with the face of a bird, or a lion, or any other creature : others, again, have the head of a man, with the remainder of the body, either the upper or lower parts, shaped like some other animal. Thus we find the lion adored as a god ; and there is a part of Egypt called the Leonto~polite nome, from the lion, another called the Busirite,2 from the bull, and a third the Lycopolitan, from the wolf. Under these semblances they adore the universal power which the gods have severally displayed in the various forms of living nature.' If, as he supposes, all animals had been admitted by them,3 this notion of the universal participation of the divine essence would account for the adoption of each member of the animated creation as the representative of its own particular portion of the divinity from whom it emanated. But the difficulty is not solved by this statement, or by that of Plutarch,4 who says, ' Many suppose the soul of Typho to have been divided amongst those animals5 — 1 Porphyr. de Abstin. iv. c. 9. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 73. 2 Bovcipirt\s. This is a Greek fancy. 5 As in the account of the Aphophis, a 3 Cicero is also wrong in saying, ' Omne form of Typhon, being cut up into animals, fere genus bestiarum iEgyptii consecra- — S. B veruut.' (De Nat. Deor. iii.) Chap. XIV.] DOCTEINE OF EMANATION. 255 signifying that the irrational and brutal nature proceeds from the Evil Principle ; and, consequently, all the reverence paid to these creatures is with a design to pacify him.' Plutarch1 and Porphyry attach great importance to the doctrine of emanation, as the source of animal-worship; and the statements of those two writers tend to show the principle which guided the Egyp- tians in their speculations respecting the connection between the Creator and His creatures. The doctrine of emanations from one great soul, to which all returned again, after having been sufficiently purified from the contaminations to which each soul was subject during its earthly career, formed a principal feature of their religion ; and not only was man, or the human soul, considered an emanation from the same great and universal Source, but every animated creature was supposed to partake of its divine essence. This idea extended even to ' herbs and stones,' which were thought to * have within them the natural property of the Divinity.' 2 I have already had occasion to observe,3 that the idea of the human soul, which was an emanation from the great soul that governed and pervaded the universe, returning to its divine origin after certain purifications, led to the doctrine of the trans- migration. The evil propensities of man, and the sinful actions of which he was frequently guilty, were thought so to taint the original purity of the divine nature of the soul, that, on leaving the body, it was no longer in a fit state to reunite itself with the immaculate Source from which it proceeded : they therefore supposed that it underwent a proportionate degree of purification, according to the nature of the impieties each individual had committed. For this purpose it was condemned to a state of purgatory, by passing through the bodies of various animals.4 The most wicked were confined in those of the most odious descrip- tion, as the pig and others, which for this reason they believed to be fit emblems of the Evil Being ;5 and * those,' as Plato6 makes Socrates say, ' who were guilty of injustice, tyranny, and rapine, entered into the tribes of wolves, hawks,7 and kites.' Hence it appears that the animals they held sacred, which partook more immediately of the divine nature, were distinct from those into which the ' souls of wicked persons passed during 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 77. 2 Mercur. Trismeg., Dialogue with As- clepius. 3 Supra, loc. cit. * Plut. de Isid. s. 72. 5 Ibid. s. 31. 6 Plato, Phaedo, p. 224 ; trans. Taylor. 7 This was according to the ideas of the Greeks. 256 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV the period of their transmigration ; 9 and that it was imparted to some in a direct manner, while others only received it through the medium of other influences. It also appears that intermediary agents and daemons were supposed to inhabit the bodies of certain animals, in which they visited the earth ; and conformably to this notion, the numerous genii of the Egyptian Pantheon were figured with the heads of different animals distinct from the deities to whom those animals were peculiarly sacred. The custom of representing the gods under a human form was owing to their considering man the intellectual representative of the Deity, who bore the stamp of the mind of the Creator, and the only created being who was worthy of being considered a likeness of the Divine Original ; and in adding the heads of particular animals they probably alluded to certain properties, of which they were deemed suitable emblems. From what has been stated it is reasonable to suppose that the sacred animals enjoyed different gradations of rank ; and the same respect was not paid to the crocodile, whose worship was confined to particular parts of the country, as to the universally adored ibis, or the cow of Athor. Some were in themselves sacred — being looked upon, as Strabo and Porphyry say, * really to be gods ' — as the bull Apis and others ; some were adored as represen- tatives of the deities to whom they were sacred ; and others were only emblems. It is not, however, always easy to ascertain to what degree the animals were held sacred by the Egyptians, since ancient authors disagree on this point. Thus we find that, though Strabo supposes the Oxyrhynchus to have been worshipped throughout the country, Plutarch says the Cynopolites eat this fish ; and the dog, which the geographer considers universally sacred, was in like manner, out of revenge, killed and eaten by the people of Oxyrhynchus. Strabo's words1 are, * All the Egyptians venerate the Oxyrhynchus fish. For there are some animals which every Egyptian worships : as for instance, of quadrupeds, three — the ox, the dog, and the cat ; of birds, the hawk and ibis ; of fish, two — the Lepidotus and Oxyrhynchus. Some are adored in particular places : as the sheep, by the Saites and Thebans ; the Latus, a fish of the Nile, by the people of Latopolis ; the wolf, by the Lycopolites ; the Cynocephalus, at Hermopolis ; the Cepus, by the Babylonians who live near Memphis ; . . . . the eagle, by the Thebans ; the lion, at Leontopolis ; the goat, 1 Strabo, xvii. p. 559. Chap. XIV.] SACKED AND NON-SACEED ANIMALS. 257 by the Mendesians ; the Mygale, at Athribis; and others in different places.' The bodies, however, of all animals which were fonnd dead were removed and buried, as might be reason- ably expected, since this regulation arose from a sanitary \ Xo. 566. Stone lion. British Museum. precaution ; and it therefore appears, from the most common kinds, as horses, asses, and others, not being discovered, that the embalming process was confined to certain animals, and rarely extended to those which were not sacred to some deity. No. 567. Ostrich, with the feathers and eggs. Thebes. In order to enable the reader to distinguish the sacred animals of Egypt, I shall introduce a list of those known there in former times, and point out such as appear, from the authority of competent writers, or from being found embalmed in the tombs, to have a claim to that title ; arranging them under their respective heads of mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects, to which I shall add some of the holy members of the vegetable kingdom. VOL. III. s 258 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. m O O CP O CO iE^"-1 3 © lb St 2 © © © ^5 >^ o« fa, ja cl, s>fl 2 © © o tcj a o « u ,£ ^ ^ ^ 99 a a a a CO CO 55 GO GO © o CO CO o o u . o s~ • 'fa o jS CO pa CO u tyj S3 cey o wcus rder O aT 1 ephal O be 2 .i ? moc Ctf VJ < -U *© s_ U o ■*3 P5 ^ O bfj 0 a « ^ 13 Chap. XIV.] LIST OF ANIMALS. 259 E- r-1 Q B - 1 CO B fa OS . 3 o ■*a hi Dl, es CO C Pi CO o* o o Oh Oh 2 >^ >> H Eh es Oh Eh ■H-HTS-HT! C o a; a> o o o o 03 03 03 03 es C en O o o o o o a ^ £ £ £ £ << ^ CO £ g O O O ^5 o) a? 03 cc o3 13 p-O rO _ _ _ fa S g g © o o 2 * £ g I AS g £ co 03 ,» 03 03 'f5 ,0 3 fa T3 ^ 2 fa ^ h s-2 §3 B Cfa O H .*?>£ J>3 ££fc!B 260 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. p. — E3 3 o CO p* ,g3 is 3 pi 5 CO 3 EJ CO O CO CO c3 x o 2 2 .2 S a a G •ed •ed emb! •ed saci •ed o •ed •ed An Saci Not Saci J ^ co Sac] Saci c5 e« © CO CO ^ K5 Si4 . -2 §< 'W d SO a O o 3 cw CO CO 5 i S | 11 co O -2 ^> Oh ■5 a Chap. XIV.] LIST OF ANIMALS. 261 O •a II 1 a I 2 8 J 4! ■3 .-T > S3 CO O >* ^ -ti -p -u •S •§ 3s O C^ I p 'o o eS ee o o a> 3 3-^333 Ph p< a. a, a, o o ^2 o o o co co K co co co .2 a ."IS 1 CO o o *C 'rf n5 13 <■ J) a> S3 P a. a* P ~* o o o o o. jou] ; and : 3 Oh o =a • Soul Plato, <5 JHerodot. \ tures Sculptui Herodot. — Oh 3 u QQ O SJ O Zi ■- ■- - - S3 3 p p hj hJ hj Oh _Oh "p "5 "5 p o y o o CO CO CO CO T3 -O -3 o> a) o o « o o o o o 55 55 !Z5 55 -h a> o -g a I .s s S © w 55 ■si QChO'O Sri ll 3 s . B .8 | If § I - s — - ll « S g * 'Si! 3j< -c £ s; s Chap. XIV.] LIST OF ANIMALS. 263 1 :a«8 > „ li o GO 1 ^ "a c/2 o • o « c3 » « 3W 3 w to tc cc I . g if 14 T3 < 8 g 2 02 ^5 i 00 I 1 5 o •"11 "S .2 T3 ill ** -> fan © S w ■"O « es a 3 «3 ^ £ a ft? O -2 85 0 • a 0 £ 35 o ■g}* o ~ 1st! £ g 2 $ * p B •tt a 0 g.s a >^ • a «ih ' s l> o ^13J5 to a) o s ? S ** © IS -2 ► gKg ■ C "h . 3 ! s« | S| s 5 ■ »S rS 55 . 5 g ^ ^ w V w 2 -°. O rt itii m S S 53 2 M •.-»* w bfi 264 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. 2 2 3 5 ^ ^M £ b a s <* .2 S3 K — ►a "5 © © © o © c3 00 s o "■+3 d co © © (-1 rH H S 3 OS 1/3 4 *T a .a * w w -2 J?, J jj> a 3 GO O i a 2 . w . . § S? 5 s W J3 .g . w '*-> a, Oh O- ^ c a%~ 1 &l J* a _ — -i- CO CO GO 00 S 2? "S o 5, -g 8.8 o .2 IB 2 £ 8 g Ph g Ph O c3 d « .2 d pi o> S a i s S ~ o a c — co Eh — 3 ^ .5 5 134 Ol, £ Chap. XIV.] THE CYNOCEPHALUS. 267 Some fabulous insects may also be cited, as well as fabulous quadrupeds, which were chiefly emblems appropriated to parti- cular gods, or representative of certain ideas connected with religion, the most remarkable of which were scarabaei with the heads of hawks, rams, and cows. Of these many are found made of pottery, stone, and other materials, and the sculptures represent the beetle with a human head. This change did not render them less fit emblems of the gods : the scarabaeus of the sun appears with the head of a ram as well as a hawk ; and the god Ptah was sometimes figured with the body of a scarabaeus and the head and legs of his usual human form. Having now stated the name of the deity to whom they were consecrated, and the town where divine honours were particularly paid to them, it remains to add a few remarks on the comparative claims of each, in order to distinguish the animals worshipped as deities, those held sacred throughout Egypt, those whose worship was confined to particular districts, and those which were revered merely out of respect to the gods of whom they were emblems. The Cynocephalus ape,1 which was particularly sacred to Thoth, held a conspicuous place among the sacred animals of Egypt, being worshipped as the type of the god of letters, and of the moon, which was one of the characters of Thoth. It was even introduced in the sculptures as the god himself, with 1 Thoth, Lord of Letters/ and other legends inscribed over it ; and in astronomical subjects two Cynocephali are frequently represented standing in a boat before the sun in an attitude of prayer, as emblems of the moon.2 Their presence in a similar boat with a pig probably refers to them as types of the divinity in whose honour that animal was sacrificed ; * the moon and Bacchus,' according to Herodotus,3 being the sole ' deities to whom it was lawful to immolate swine, and that only at the full moon.' 4 But their presence was not confined to Thoth or the moon. On two sides of the pedestals of the obelisks of Luxor, four Cynocephali stand in the same attitude, as if in adoration of the deity to whom those monuments were dedicated ; a balustrade over the centre doorway of the temple of Amen at Medeenet Haboo is ornamented with figures of these animals ; and a row of them forms the cornice of the exterior of the great temple dedi- _ 1 It was called aani, and came from 4 Plutarch (de Isid. s. 8) says, ' A sow Kush or Ethiopia, Punt or Somali. was sacrificed to Typho once a year, at 2 Horapollo, i. 14, 15. » Herod, ii. 47. the full moon.' THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. cated to Ka at Aboosirabel. Sometimes a Cynocephalus, placed upon a throne as a god, holds a small ibis in his hand ; and in the judgment scenes of the dead it frequently occurs seated on the summit of the balance, as the emblem of Thoth, who had an important office on that occasion, and registered the account of the actions of the deceased. Horapollo 1 states some curious reasons for Cynocephali being chosen as emblems of the moon. Iamblichus also speaks of certain physical analogies common to them and to ,that lumi- nary ; and the former supposes that they were brought up in the temples in order to enable the priests to ascertain from their habits the exact instant of the conjunction of the sun and moon. Several equally ridiculous reasons are given for their relation to Thoth, and to other hieroglyphic symbols. The place where this animal was particularly sacred was Hermopolis, the city of Thoth. Thebes and other towns also treated it with the respect due to the representative of the Egyptian Hermes ; and in the Necropolis of the capital of Upper Egypt a particular spot was set apart as the cemetery of the sacred apes. There were living Cynocephali attached to the temple of the god Khons at Karnak. Mummies of the Cynocephalus are put up in a sitting posture, which is that usually given to the animal in the sculptures when representing the god Thoth ; and its head forms one of the covers of the four sepulchral vases deposited in the tombs of the dead. It was then the type of the god Hapi, one of the four genii of Amenti, who was always figured with the head of a Cynocephalus. Many of this species of ape were tamed and kept by the Egyptians, and the paintings show that they were even trained for useful purposes, as I have already had occasion to observe. It was a native of Ethiopia, as Pliny 2 and other authors state, where it is still common ; and many are brought down to Cairo at the present day to amuse the crowds in the streets, by exhibiting the antics they are taught, to the sound of drums and other noisy instruments; but the constant application of the stick shows the little respect now paid in Egypt to the once revered emblem of Hermes. Strabo agrees with other writers 3 in stating that the Hermo- politans worshipped the Cynocephalus. He afterwards mentions Horapollo, i. 14 ; and Plin. viii. 54. 2 Plin. vii. 2, and viii. 54. 3 Strabo, xvii. p. 559. Chap. XIV.] MONKEYS. 269 the Cebus,1 which was sacred in Babylon,2 near Memphis ; but from his description of that animal, * with a face like a satyr, and the rest between a dog and a bear,' we may suppose he had in view the sacred ape of Thoth, as no animal worshipped in Egypt answers his description so well as the Cynocephalus.3 Indeed, it is possible that he mistook the Cynocephalus of Hermopolis for one of the smaller kind of monkeys, and applied the name Cebus to the sacred type of the Egyptian Hermes. This is further confirmed by the account given by Pliny 4 of ' the Cebus, whose hind-feet resembled human feet and thighs, and the fore-feet were like human hands,' and by its being ' a native of Ethiopia.' Some might suppose that he had in view the Typhonian figure which occurs so often in the astronomical sub- jects; but this is generally represented with the head of a hippo- potamus and the body of a bear, or of some fanciful monster.5 The green monkey of Ethiopia was frequently brought to Egypt with the Cynocephalus by those who paid tribute to the kings of Egypt : there is, however, no evidence of its having been sacred to any deity. Some writers mention the Cercopithecus, which seems to have been remarkable for the length of its tail.6 This might even apply to the green monkey of Ethiopia. Indeed, Pliny's descrip- tion of the Cercopithecus with a black head accords with one species still found there.7 They seem to have been embalmed at Thebes and other places, and may therefore have some claim to a rank among the animals revered by the Egyptians ; and if we may believe Juvenal,8 the Cercopithecus was worshipped in the capital of the Thebaid. It was frequently represented as an ornament in necklaces, in common with other animals, flowers, and fanciful devices; and the neck of a bottle was sometimes decorated with two sitting monkeys. This is evidently the Egyptian kaf ., though applied to the monkey, not to the baboon or Cynoce- phalus. Strabo evidently supposes the Cynocephalus to be different from the Cebus, but he is in error. The word 'ape,' in 2 Chron. ix. 21, is kof (kqfim), and the same as the Egyptian kaf. But the word is Tamul, as also is tok (tokiim), * peacocks.' 2 The modern town of Old Cairo stands on the site of Babylon, of which the prin- cipal remains are the Roman station men- tioned by Strabo (xvii. p. 555). 3 Passalacqua mentions a monster re- sembling a Cynocephalus found at Herm- opolis. (Pettigrew on Mummies, p. 184 ; and Passalacqua's Catalogue, p. 149.) 4 Plin. viii. 19. iElian, Nat. An. xvii. 8. 5 The monkey with the name kaf, 1 mon- key,' appears under the chair of a person who lived iu the reign of Cheops (Lepsius, ' Denkm.,' Abth. II. Bl. 36), proving that the word is much older than the Sanscrit form, and apparently Egyptian. — S. B. 6 ' Si mihi cauda foret cercopithecus eram.' 7 Plin. (viii. 21) does not place the Cer- copithecus among the monkey tribe. 8 Juv. Sat. xv. 4. 270 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. The bat is represented in the paintings of Beni-Hassan. It does not appear to have been sacred, nor do I know any instance of its being found embalmed. Egypt produces several species, some of which are of great size. The ancient Egyptians classed it among birds ; but this was probably in reference to the element in which it moved, in the same manner as they introduced the crocodile and hippopotamus with the fish of the Nile. Small figures of the hedgehog were sometimes made of earthenware and other materials to serve as ornaments. Lamps of terra-cotta are also met with in the tombs having the form of this animal. They do not, however, appear to have been con- nected with a religious feeling ; but, like the small porcelain figures of the ibex, hippopotamus, fly, frog, and others, frequently found in Egypt, were probably intended for ornamental purposes, and frequently used as toys or trinkets.1 The My gale 2 or shrewmouse held a conspicuous place amongst the sacred animals of Egypt; but I never observed any repre- sentation of it in sculptures relating to the religion or the natural history of the country. It has been found embalmed in the tombs of Thebes, and Passalacqua has thence brought specimens of two species. It is remarkable that one of these is larger than any with which we are acquainted. Herodotus3 tells us that they removed the shrews which died to Butos, where they were buried, in consequence of their being sacred to Buto or Latona, the goddess of that city; and Plutarch4 asserts that it received divine honours from being blind, and was therefore looked upon as a proper emblem of darkness, which was more ancient than light. The notion of its blindness they doubtless derived from its habit of coming forth only at night, when all was darkness, and from their impression that no animal who had the power of sight could neglect to take advantage of so valuable a gift ; but however we may ridicule the Egyptians for believing the blind- ness of the My gale, we find a parallel in the proverbial stigma we have attached to the mole and the bat. I have already noticed the character of the goddess Buto or Latona, of whom it was the emblem. According to the meta- physical notions of the priesthood, she was that primordial 'darkness which covered the deep,' represented, according to their custom, by the name and under the form of a deity. The 1 It is seen as an animal of the fields or chase. — S. B. 2 Sorex myosurus, Pall. 3 Herodot. ii. 67. 4 Pint. Symp. iv. quaest. 5. Chap. XIV.] THE MYGALE— THE BEAR. 271 gods of Egypt consisted, as I have frequently shown, of abstract ideas, as well as those things on which the divine intellect operated. Of this system an idea may be obtained from many parts of the Mosaic account of the Creation ; and the second verse of Genesis might present to an Egyptian at least six members of his Pan- theon, in the Earth, Chaos, Darkness, the Deep, the Spirit of God, and the Waters. But a similar abstruse notion was beyond the reach of the uninstructed. They were contented to see in Latona the nurse of Horus ; 1 and the Mygale was said to be the animal whose form she assumed to elude the pursuit of Typhon, when he sought to destroy the son of Osiris, who had been com- mitted to her charge. I have already shown that the Mygale is found embalmed at Thebes, and that the burying-place of this animal was not confined to Butos.2 Strabo, indeed, would lead us to infer that Athribis vied with that city in the honours it bestowed upon the emblem of Latona ;3 and if he is correct in this assertion, the relationship, or perhaps the identity, of Buto and the lion-headed goddess Thriphis may be established. The Athribis mentioned by the geographer was the capital of a nome of the same name, lying between Bubastis and the Nile. Another Athribis stood in Upper Egypt, in the nome of Aphroditopolis, close to the Libyan range of hills, where extensive mounds and ruins of a temple still mark its site. It was also called Croco- dilopolis ; but tradition has retained the name of Athribis in the Coptic Athrebi. The inmates of the White Monastery, which stands in the vicinity, designate it by that of Atrib, or Medeenet Ashaysh ; and the inscription on one of the fallen architraves of the temple distinctly shows that the goddess, as well as the city, bore the name of Thriphis. Herodotus 4 says * bears are rare in Egypt,' but there is little doubt that this animal was always unknown there ; and the only instance of it in the paintings or sculptures is when brought by foreigners to Egypt among the gifts annually presented to the Pharaohs. It is therefore singular that Prosper Alpini5 of Padua should assert it to be a native of that country, and describe it 'as not larger than our sheep, of a whitish colour, more easily tamed and less fierce than our own.' 1 Herodot. ii. 156. 2 The inscriptions placed by the dedi- cators on the pedestals of the small bronze figures of the Mygale call it Horus x<™t Xtw, ( Horus, who dwells in the region Khem,' or Sekhem, and do not mention Uat or Buto.— S. B. 3 Strabo, ivii. p. 559. 4 Herodot. ii. 67. 5 Prosper Alpinus, Hist. Nat. JEg., iv. 9. 272 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. According to Plutarch,1 the soul of Typho was fabled by the Egyptians to have been translated into the constellation of the Bear.2 This notion is probably derived from the frequent repre- sentations of a Typhonian monster in astronomical subjects ; which are the more remarkable, since they date from the early period of the 18th Dynasty. That writer also asserts3 that 'the weasel was worshipped by the Egyptians, as well as the asp and beetle, on account of certain resemblances (obscure as they are) which those creatures are thought to present to the operations of the divine power, like the image of the sun seen in drops of rain. For there are many who think, and are ready to assert, that the weasel engenders at the ear, and brings forth her young at the mouth, and they consequently look upon it as a just symbol of the divine reason.' From his having already mentioned the Ichneumon, it is evident he does not allude to that animal ; and we are therefore bound, on his authority, to give the weasel a place among the sacred animals of Egypt. Porphyry says, that ' the weasel, the beetle, and the crocodile were emblems of the sun ; ' and Iamblichus 4 considers * the dog, Cynocephalus, and weasel common to the moon.' It is on the authority of Herodotus 5 that the otter is men- tioned amongst the animals of Egypt; but I have already observed that it is unknown in Egypt, and that he probably had in view the large Lacerta Nilotica or monitor of the Nile, — the name enhydris, or ' water animal,' being too vague to be exclusively applied to the otter. Whatever this was, he asserts it to have been sacred ; and had he not mentioned the Ichneu- mon,6 we might feel certain that he had taken it for the otter (if by enhydris he meant to designate that particular inhabitant of the water), and I have known the same mistake to have been made by modern travellers. Indeed, though Herodotus was aware of the existence of the Ichneumon in Egypt, he may have been led into this error on seeing it in the river ; and it is more likely that the Ichneumon should be mistaken for an otter than the monitor of the Nile. Since writing the above, I find my last opinion fully con- firmed by Ammianus Marcellinus,7 who says it is ' the Eydrus, a kind of Ichneumon' which attacks the crocodile ; and the name 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 21. 2 The only bear seen in the sculptures is the cinnamon-coloured bear, Ursus Syri- acus, brought as tribute by the Kutennu or Syrians. — S. B. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 74. 4 Iamblichus, de Myster., sect. v. c. 8. 5 Herodot. ii. 72. 6 Ibid. ii. 67. 7 Ammian. Marcell. xxii. 14, p. 336. Chap. XIV.] THE DOG. 273 of Enhydrus, given it by Solinus and Isidorus, added to the observation of Hesychius, who describes ' the Enhydrus as an amphibious animal, like the beaver/ may suffice to show that the Enhydris of Herodotus is no other than the ichneumon. The dog was held in great veneration in many parts of Egypt, particularly at the city of Cynopolis, where it was treated with divine honours. Strabo tells us a stated quantity of provisions was always supplied by the inhabitants of that city for the maintenance of their favourite animals ; and so tenacious were they of the respect due to them, that a civil war raged for some time between them and the people of Oxyrhynchus, in consequence of the latter having killed and eaten them. This had been done in revenge for an insult they had received from the Cynopolites, who had brought to table their sacred fish.1 6 In ancient times,' says Plutarch,2 ' the Egyptians paid the greatest reverence and honour to the dog ; but by reason of his eating of the flesh of Apis, after Cambyses had slain it and thrown it out, when no other animal would taste or even come near it, he lost the first rank he had hitherto held amongst the sacred animals.' Such is the opinion of Plutarch ; but it may be doubted if the dog ever enjoyed the same exalted rank among the sacred animals as the cat and many others, however much it was es- teemed by the Egyptians for its fidelity. It was sacred,3 but not universally worshipped. It was not held in the same repute in every part of Egypt, as we have already seen from the disputes between the Cynopolites and Oxyrhynchites ; nor was it looked upon as one of those ' which were worshipped by the whole nation, as were the ibis, the hawk, the Cynocephalus, and the Apis.'4 The assertion of Plutarch respecting the disgrace into which the dog fell may be justly doubted ; and Herodotus, whose authority is to be preferred, in his account of Apis's death, and the care taken by the priests to bury its body, disproves his statement, and stamps it with the fabulous character which belongs to so many of the stories contained in the treatise of * Isis and Osiris.' Indeed, the idea seems so nearly connected with the group of the god Mithras, where the dog is represented feeding on the blood of the slaughtered ox, that there is reason to believe the story derived its origin from the Persian idol. 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 72. Strabo (xvii. p. * Plato (Gorgias, p. 398, transl.) calls 559) says the Oxyrhynchus fish was sacred it ' one of the deities of Egypt.' Plut. de in all Egypt. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 44. Isid. ss. 72, 75. 4 Ibid. s. 73. VOL. III. T 274 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. Among those who acknowledged the sacred character of the dog, the respect it received was very remarkable ; for whenever one of those animals died a natural death, all the inmates of the house shaved their heads and their whole body ; 1 and if any food, whether wine, corn, or anything else, happened to be in the house at the time, it was forbidden to be applied to any use. According to some ancient authors, the dog was fabled to have been the guard of Isis and Osiris, and to have been revered on account of its assisting Isis in her search after the dead body of her husband ; * for which reason,' they add,2 ' dogs are made to head the procession in the ceremonies of Isis, as if to record their utility on that occasion/ Herodotus does not confine the burying-place of the dog to any particular district. ' Every one/ he says, ' inters them in their own town, where they are deposited in sacred chests ; ' 3 and if their funeral rites were performed with greater honour in the Cynopolite nome, it is evident, from the mummies found in different parts of the country, that great care was taken in the mode of embalming them in other places. We are told 4 that, having been properly prepared by the embalmers of animals, and wrapped in linen, they were deposited in the tombs allotted to them, the bystanders beating themselves in token of grief, and uttering lamentations in their honour. According to Clemens of Alexandria,5 two dogs were the emblems of the two hemispheres. Horapollo 6 pretends that the dog represents 'a scribe,7 a prophet, laughter, the spleen/ and other things equally improbable ; and Iamblichus 8 supposes a certain physical analogy in the dog, as well as the Cynocephalus and the weasel, with the moon. But the latter evidently con- founds the moon or Thoth with the other Mercury, Anubis, to whom the dog was thought to be sacred. The greatest number of dog-mummies that I met with in Egypt were at the small town of El Hareib, a little below the modern Manfaloot, at Thebes, and in the vicinity of Sharona. But it is probable that every town had a place of interment set apart for them, as for other animals that died and were buried at the public expense, 1 Herodot. ii. 66. Diod. i. 84. the dog he means the so-called jackal, s Diod. i. 87. and is right.— S. B.] 3 Herodot. ii. 77. 7 Perhaps a mistake arising from the * Diod. i. 84. Cynocephalus being the symbol of Thoth 5 Clemens, Strom, lib. v. and of letters. • Horapollo, i. 39, 40, and ii. 22. [By 8 Iambi, de Myst. sect. v. c. 8. Chap. XIV.] ANUBIS NOT DOG-HEADED. 275 which, having accidentally escaped the researches of modern excavators, remain unknown. The different breeds of dogs in Egypt I have already men- tioned, which were kept by chasseurs and others for the same purposes as at the present day. According to iElian, they were the most fleet in pursuit of game ; and the same quickness seems to have taught them a mode of avoiding the crocodile while drinking at the Mle. 'For, fearing to stop in one spot, lest they should be carried off by one of those animals, they run by the edge of the stream, and, licking the water as they pass, they may be said to snatch, or even to steal, a draught, before their enemy lurking beneath the surface can rise to the attack.' 1 But this is not the only remarkable peculiarity mentioned by iElian,2 who had heard (for the naturalist always defends him- self with the words ' I hear' ) that socialism already existed among the dogs of Memphis, who, depositing all they stole in one place, met together to enjoy a common repast. I now proceed to notice an error which has been repeated by ancient Greek and Eoman writers, respecting the god Anubis, who is universally represented by them with the head of a dog. It would be tedious to enumerate the names of those who have repeated this fable. The dog was universally believed by all but the Egyptians themselves to be the peculiar type of Anubis. Koman sculptors went so far as to represent him with the dog's head they thought he bore in the temples of the Nile ; and the ignorance of poets and others who persisted in describing Anubis as a dog-headed god, is only equalled by that which led them to give a female character to the sphinx. It was the jackal, and not the dog, which was the emblem of Anubis ; and if this god was really worshipped as the presiding deity of Cynopolis, as some have maintained,3 it was probably in consequence of the jackal and the dog having been included under the same generic denomination. But no representation occurs of Anubis with the head of that animal. The dog is rarely, if ever, found except as a domestic animal in Egyptian sculpture : the only one I re- member to have seen, which had any reference to a sacred subject, was in a mutilated statue representing a man seated beneath the animal's head, in the attitude common to figures found in the tombs ; and the hieroglyphics accompanying it plainly show it to have been a funeral group. But it is possible 1 .Elian, Nat. An. vi. 53. 1 Ibid. rii. 19. 3 Strabo, xvii. p. 558. T 2 276 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. that even this was intended to represent a jackal ; for unless the exact character of the latter has been carefully maintained, it is difficult, in a mutilated statue, to distinguish between it and the Egyptian fox-dog ; and from its forming part of a funeral group, and therefore connected with Anubis, it is more likely to have been intended for the jackal than the dog. I have restored the lost portions of it in the drawing given in woodcut No. 540. The hieroglyphics are evidently of early time ; and if it was really intended to represent a dog, it only goes to prove that this animal was also dedicated to Anubis. The fidelity of the dog and its utility to man were no doubt the original causes of its being admitted amongst the sacred animals of Egypt ; and it is evident from the paintings that it enjoyed great privileges as a domestic animal, being the constant companion of persons of all classes, as in European countries at the present day. It accompanied them in their walks, assisted them in the chase, and was kept as a favourite in the house. A similar regard is not extended to it by the modern Egyp- tians, whose Moslem prejudices consider it an unclean animal. Even a Malehi, the most liberal of the four sects in favour of the dog, would not touch the nose or the wet hairs of this animal without thinking himself defiled and bound to submit to purifica- tion from the contact. The dog is therefore seldom admitted into the houses of the Moslems, who even believe that, indepen- dently of its being unclean, its presence within doors keeps away the good spirits from their abode. But it is not ill-treated, and those which are wild in the streets are fed by morsels occa- sionally thrown to them during a repast ; and small tanks of water placed at the corners of the streets are regularly filled for their use. The name of dog applied to any man is, as might be supposed, a great term of reproach among the Moslems, ' a Jew's dog,' the lowest caste of dog, being the unapproachable climax ; but it appears somewhat inconsistent in us to choose the dog as the most uncomplimentary designation, when we are disposed to speak so favourably of that faithful animal. This, however, may be accounted for by early impressions received from the Bible,1 and some other causes. The name of the wolf, in Coptic ouonsh, is satisfactorily 1 With the Jews a Mead dog ' was the greatest term of reproach. Cf. 2 Sara. xvi. 9, 2 Kings viiL 13, for the term 'dog.' Chap. XIV.] THE WOLF. 277 •shown from the hieroglyphics to have been the same in olden times ; the figure of the wolf, like the other wild beasts, being accompanied by its phonetic name1 in the paintings of Beni- Hassan. It was peculiarly sacred at Lycopolis,2 in Upper Egypt, where wolf -mummies are found in small excavated chambers in the rock, behind the modern town of E'Sioot ; and the coins of the Lycopolite nome, in the time of the Empire, bear on their reverse a wolf, with the word Lyco. 'In that nome alone of all Egypt/ says Plutarch,3 'the people eat sheep, because the wolf does, whom they revere as a god;' and Diodorus4 includes the wolf among the animals which after death were treated with the same respect as during their lifetime, like the cat, ichneumon, dog, hawk, ibis, crocodile, and others. Herodotus 5 observes that the wolves of Egypt were scarcely larger than foxes ; Aristotle 6 considers them inferior in size to those of Greece ; and Pliny 7 says they were small and inactive, which is fully proved by modern experience. In their habits they are also unlike the wolves of Europe, as they never range in packs, but generally prowl about singly ; nor do I ever re- member having seen more than two together, either in the desert or in the valley of the Nile. Sonnini's erroneous assertion, that the wolf and fox are not found in Egypt, I have already noticed ; and, as the learned Larcher justly observes, the historian of Hali- carnassus, ' an Asiatic by birth, must have known the jackal, which was common to all Asia Minor, as well as the wolf; and if he knew them both, it was impossible for him to have mistaken a jackal for a wolf.' Herodotus mentions8 a festival which still continued to be celebrated during his visit to Egypt, and which was reported to have been instituted to commemorate the descent of King Khamp- sinitus to the lower regions, where he played at dice with Ceres. ' On this occasion,' says the historian, ' one of the priests being clad in a cloak of tissued stuff, made on the very day of the cere- mony, and having his eyes covered, is conducted to the road leading to the temple of Ceres, and there left. Two wolves then take him to the temple of the goddess, distant about 20 stades (2J miles) from the city, and afterwards bring him back to the 1 Ansh : it was also applied to a kind of 5 Herodot. ii. 67. hound. — S. B. 6 Aristotle, Hist. Anim. lib. viii. 28. 2 Strabo, xvii. p. 559. 7 Pliny, viii. 22. * Plut. de Isid. s. 72. 4 Diodor. i. 83. 8 Herodot. ii. 122. 278 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. same spot.' Herodotus very naturally treats this idle story as it deserves. But we may infer, from the wolf being mentioned with the goddess Ceres, that the animal was connected with some of the rites of Isis ; and Eusebius1 states that the wolf was honoured in Egypt because Isis with her son Horus, being on the point of encountering Typho, was assisted by Osiris under the form of a wolf. Diodorus,2 after saying ' that some suppose the wolf to have been honoured on account of the affinity observed between it and the dog,' states that ' they give another but more fabulous reason,' which is similar to that mentioned by Eusebius. * They pretend,' says the historian, * that Osiris came from Hades in the shape of a wolf, to assist Isis and her son Horus, when preparing to give battle to Typho; and the latter being defeated, the conquerors paid religious respect to the animal to whose appear- ance they attributed the victory. Others affirm that during an invasion of the Ethiopians, a large body of wolves having routed the enemy and driven them out of Egypt, beyond the city of Elephantine, their worship became established in that part of the country, which received the name of the Lycopolite Nome.' With this fable may be connected the statement of Macrobius,3 that * the Thebaic city Lycopolis venerates Apollo (Horus) and the wolf with similar honours;' though his etymological sug- gestions abound with the combined fancies of the Komans and the Greeks. Fabulous as are these tales, they tend to show that the worship of this animal had reference to some of the festivals of Isis ; and future researches at Lycopolis may enable us to discover the relation between the goddess and the sacred animal of that city. According to Herodotus,4 the bodies of wolves which died in different parts of Egypt were not transported to Lycopolis, but were buried in the place where they happened to be found ; but it is probable that they did not receive the same honours throughout the country, and those places where the sheep was particularly sacred could scarcely be expected to venerate the enemies of their favourite animal. iElian,5 indeed, confines the worship of the wolf to certain parts of the country in the expression ' those Egyptians who venerate the wolf.' But his idea of their rooting up the wolf- 1 Euseb. Praepar. Evang. ii. I. 2 Diodor. i. 83 and 88. 3 Macrob. Saturn, i. 19. 4 Herodot. ii. 67. 5 ;Elian, ix. 18. Chap. XIV.] THE JACKAL — ICHNEUMON. 279 bane is one of the many idle tales of ancient writers, who paused not to inquire if a plant bore the same name in other countries by which it was known to them, or even if it was a production of the soil. The worship of the wolf was perhaps connected with that of the fox and jackal ; and the caves of Lycopolis present the mummies of these last, as well as of the animal whose name it bore. The jackal is the invariable emblem of Anubis. The deity has the head of that animal, and it even occurs in the place of the god himself. For some mysterious reason it is always of a black colour ; and the length of its legs, and generally elongated form, show that their mode of representing it was conventional. This was probably owing to their confining themselves to the imita- tion of an early style, from which later artists were forbidden to depart, as was usually the case in the religious subjects of the Egyptians. The head of the jackal was even given to one of the four genii of Amenti, whose figures were attached to particular portions of the viscera of human mummies, and whose heads form the covers of the four vases deposited in the tombs. Foxes and jackals are very common in Egypt. They are inferior in size to the generality of those in Europe and Asia, which accords with a remark of Denon, that the animals of Egypt are a smaller variety than in some other countries; but their habits are similar. Every evening, about sunset, the jackals issue from their caves or lurking-places. Then, calling each other together by loud and continued howlings, accompanied by an occasional bark, they leave the mountains, and scatter themselves over the plains in quest of food; and it is amusing to see them enjoy a plentiful repast of locusts, whenever a swarm of those insects settles in the country. The Ichneumon1 was particularly worshipped by the Hera- cleopolites,2 who lived in a nome situated in the valley of the Nile, a little to the south of the entrance to the modern province of the Fyoom. It was ' reputed sacred to Lucina and Latona.' The principal cause of the respect paid to this animal was supposed to be its hostility to the crocodile, an animal held in 1 Viverra ichneumon, Linn. ; the Man- hawk, like the Apis, occur. The story that gusta, Cuv. ; or Herpestes, Tllig. [Bronze it cannot be killed by the bite of a snake figures of the Ichneumon, which have on is uncertain. — S. B.] their back the vase, disk, vulture, and 2 ^Elian, x. 47. 280 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. great abhorrence by the people of Heracleopolis. It destroyed its eggs, and some believed that it attacked the crocodile itself. Diodorus 1 affirms that it broke the eggs of the crocodile, not for the sake of food,2 but from a benevolent motive towards mankind, whose welfare it sought to promote by killing the offspring of that odious animal. But this idea probably arose from its having been observed not to eat the young when of a large size and ready to leave the egg, preferring, as no doubt it did, with the taste of an epicure, a fresh-laid egg, or at least one which had not so far undergone a change as to contain within it the hard and scaly substance of a full-formed crocodile. 'Were it not,' adds the historian, 'for the service it thus renders to the country, the river would become unapproachable, from the multitude of crocodiles ; and it even kills them when full-grown, by means of a wonderful and almost incredible contrivance. Covering itself with a coat of mud, the ichneumon watches the moment when the crocodile, coming out of the river, sleeps (as is its custom) upon a sand-bank, with its open mouth (turned towards the wind), and, adroitly gliding down its throat, pene- trates to its entrails. It then gnaws through its stomach, and, having killed its enemy, escapes without receiving any injury.' However unworthy of credit this story may be, the destruction of the crocodile's eggs by the ichneumon is not improbable, both on account of its preferring eggs to every kind of food, and from its inhabiting the banks of the river where those animals deposit them in the sand. And though the part of the country in which the ichneumon abounds lies more to the north than the usual abode of the crocodile at the present day, there is little doubt that in former times the latter frequented Lower Egypt; and this is proved by the fact of its having been the sacred animal of the Arsinoite nome. It is, indeed, fortunate for the crocodiles of the present day that ichneumons no longer abound in the same districts, and that their degenerate descendants have not inherited the skill of those mentioned by Diodorus. The chivalrous adventures of the ichneumon have ceased to be recorded by the more matter- of-fact researches of modern naturalists ; and the interests of the two animals no longer clash, as in the days of their adoration. The nome of Heracleopolis, the Fyoom, and the vicinity of 1 Diodor. i. 87. 2 Ibid. i. 35. Chap. XIV.] THE ICHNEUMON. 281 Cairo, still continue to be the chief resorts of the ichneumon ; and it is sometimes tamed and kept by the modern as by the ancient Egyptians, to protect their houses from rats. But from its great predilection for eggs and poultry, they generally find the injury it does far outbalances the good derived from its services as a substitute for the cat. In form it partakes of the weasel ; with which it was formerly classed, under the head of Viverra. It is the Mangousta of Buffon, and the Nims, Tiffeh, and Kot Pha- raoon, or 'Pharaoh's Cat,' of the Arabs. Its length is 2 feet 7 inches, measuring from the end of the tail to the tip of the nose, the tail being 1 foot 4 inches, and it is covered with long bristly hair. Though easily tamed, ichneumons are seldom used by the modern Egyptians, for the reasons already given. Unless taken very young, and accustomed to the habits of a domestic life, they always prefer the fields to the confinement of the house ; and those I kept at Cairo, though perfectly tame and approachable, were ever ready to escape to the garden when an opportunity offered. And, whether from a jealousy common to two of the same profession, or from some natural hostility, I always found an irreconcilable hatred to exist between the ichneumons and the cats of the menage, which last generally avoided a second rencontre with a full-grown ichneumon. Much controversy has existed on the question whether ichneumons were tamed, and used in the houses of modern Egypt. Some have affirmed that they were frequently domesticated, others that this was incompatible with their nature. The truth, as in many similar instances, lies between both. Some have most unquestionably been reared, and have served the purpose of cats, as I know from positive experience, as well as from the reports of others. The two in my own possession at Cairo were very imperfectly tamed, being caught when full-grown ; but I saw one in the house of Lavoratori perfectly domesticated, against which the only complaint was its propensity to appro- priate the eggs and poultry. On the other hand, it may be observed that the custom of keeping them is by no means general, and the few which are accidentally met with are rather objects of curiosity than utility. The paintings of Thebes, Memphis, and other parts of Egypt frequently represent this animal clandestinely searching for eggs, or carrying off young birds from their nests amidst the water-plants of the lakes ; and some representations of it in bronze confirm the authority of those ancient writers who place 282 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. it among the sacred animals of Egypt. Plutarch1 attributes the religious respect of the Egyptians for the ox, sheep, and ichneu- mon, to their utility to mankind.2 ' The people of Lemnos in like manner venerate the lark, from its finding out and breaking the eggs of the caterpillar ; and the Thessalians 3 the stork, because on its first appearance in their country it destroys the numerous serpents with which it is then infested. They have therefore made a law that whoever kills one of these birds should suffer banishment.' ' The asp, the weasel, and the beetle, on the other hand, are worshipped on account of certain resemblances, obscure as they are, which those creatures are thought to present to the operations of the Divine Power.' Herodotus says little respecting the ichneumon,4 except that it received the same honours of sepulture as the domestic animals. But iElian5 tells us that it destroyed the eggs of the asp, and fought against that poisonous reptile, which appears the most plausible reason for the veneration in which it was held by the Egyptians. Pliny,6 Strabo, and iElian7 relate the manner in which it attacked the asp, and was protected from the effect of its poisonous bite. iElian says it covered itself with a coat of mud, which rendered its body proof against the fangs of its enemy ; or if no mud was near, it wetted its body with water and rolled itself in the sand. Its nose, which alone remained exposed, was then enveloped in several folds of its tail, and it thus commenced the attack. If bitten, its death was inevitable;8 but all the efforts of the asp were unavailing against its artificial coat of mail, and the ichneumon, attacking it on a sudden, seized it by the throat and immediately killed it. Strabo9 gives a similar account of its covering itself with mud in order to attack the crocodile ; and adds, that its mode of killing the asp was by seizing it by the head or tail, and drag- ging it into the river. In Pliny and Aristotle's description 10 of the ichneumon, we find the same story respecting the coat of mud in which it was clad for an encounter with the asp ; and the former adds, that on perceiving its enemy, it deferred the attack until it had called to its assistance other ichneumons. But modern experience proves that, without having recourse to 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 74. 2 Cicero, de Nat. Deor. lib. i. 3 Conf. Plin. x. 23. * Herodot. ii. 77. 3 ./Elian, Nat. An. vi. c. 38. 6 Plin. viii. c. 24. 7 jElian, iii. 22. 8 Contrary to the common story of its eating a particular herb as an antidote, like the ndran subsequently mentioned. 9 Strabo, xvii. p. 558. 10 Aristot. Hist. Anim. ix. 6. Chap. XIV.] SNAKE-DESTBOYING ANIMALS. 283 a cuirass of mud, the ichneumon fearlessly attacks snakes ; and the moment it perceives them 1 raise their head from the ground, it seizes them at the back of the neck, and with a single bite lays them dead before it. Diodorus affirms 2 that the cat was regarded as the destroyer of the asp and other deadly serpents. But though the cat is known to attack them, its habits are not such as to ensure its success in these encounters. Even in attacking the scorpion, few have the address to kill that reptile, till it has been acquired by experience, which with the asp would be far too dearly bought. The way in which cats attack the scorpion is curious. They turn it over on its back by a blow of their claws upon its side, and then placing one foot on the body they tear off the tail with the other ; and thus deprived of its weapon of offence, it is killed, and sometimes eaten, without further risk. The Arabs relate that when the wdran, or lizard monitor, attacks a snake, and is bitten by its venomous fangs, it immediately runs to a particular herb which grows in the desert ; and eating some of it, and rubbing the wounded part upon the leaves, it recovers from the effect of the poison and returns to the fight. One assured me that he had witnessed an encounter of this kind, in which he perceived the effects of the herb whenever the lizard was wounded by its adversary ; and having plucked it up during their continued encounter, he saw the wounded lizard seek in vain this antidote, and die of the bite. But the tales of the Arabs are not always true ; and this cannot fail to recall the ancient belief in the properties of the Elaphoboscon 3 and Dictamnus. Pliny mentions several plants said to be remedies against the bites of serpents ; 4 and Cicero 5 asserts that * the wild goats of Crete, when wounded by poisonous arrows, fled to a herb called Dictamnus, which they had no sooner tasted than the arrows forthwith fell from their bodies.' This is repeated in other words by Aristotle and Pliny,6 and by Virgil.7 1 Pliny (viii. 24) says, it only eats the brains. 2 Diodor. i. 87. 3 [Some suppose this to be the parsnip. -G. W.] 4 Plin. xxii. 22, et alibi. 5 Cicero, de Xat. Deor. lib. ii. 6 Plin. xxv. 8 : ' Statim decidentibus telis.' Aristot. Anim. ix. 6. 7 Virg. .En. xii. 412 : 'Dictamnum genitrix Cretaea carpit ab Ida Puberibus caulem foliis, et flore comantem Purpureo: non ilia feris incognita capris Gramina, cum tergo volucres habere sagittae.' 284 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. With regard to ^Elian's remark 1 of the ichneumon being both male and female, we may conclude that, like the notion respecting the spotted hyaena (or Marafeen of Ethiopia), it originated in a peculiarity common to both those animals ; and the ludicrous statement afterwards given by the naturalist was supplied by a misguided imagination. The vicinity of the Heracleo polite and Arsinoite nomes, where two animals the most hostile to one another were revered, seems to have led to serious and repeated disputes. And to such a point was their animosity carried, that even the respect with which the national vanity of an Egyptian might be expected to regard a monument so universally celebrated as the Labyrinth, was not sufficient to restrain the fanaticism of the Heracleopolites in maintaining the cause of their favourite animal.2 The representations of the hyaena in the paintings of Thebes show it to have been looked upon as an enemy to the flocks and fields, and to have been hunted by the peasants, who either shot it with arrows or caught it in traps. No sculpture in the temples, and no emblem in the tombs furnish the least authority for supposing it sacred, though some have thought it was dedicated to the Egyptian Mars.3 It is very common throughout Egypt ; and the paintings of Thebes, Beni-Hassan, and the tombs near the Pyramids, show it to have frequented the Upper and Lower Country in ancient times as at the present day. Its Coptic name is hoite4 — in Egyptian het Or heti, and the same by which the hieroglyphics prove it to have been known in the ancient Egyptian language. The favourite food of this animal seems to be the ass. It sometimes attacks cattle and men, and is particularly dreaded by the modern peasants ; but I never found one which ventured to attack a man who fearlessly advanced towards it, except when rendered savage by a wound, or by the desire natural to all animals of defending its young. On these occasions it is a rude and dangerous antagonist. Its general mode of attacking a man is by rushing furiously against him, and throwing him down by a blow of its large bony head ; and in a sandy place it is said first to throw up a cloud of dust with its hind legs, and then to close with its opponent, while disconcerted by this wily artifice. 1 jElian, An. x. 47. 2 Plin. xxxvi. 13. lists of food of the time of Cheops it is 3 At the time of the 4th Dynasty the registered as eaten. (Lepsius, ' Denkm.,' hyaena is represented as a domesticated Abt. II. Bl. 25.) — S. B. animal, or kind of game ; and in one of the 4 p OITG* Chap. XIV.] THE HY2ENA. 285 The Abyssinians have an extraordinary fancy respecting the hyaena. They affirm that a race of people who inhabit their country, and who usually follow the trade of blacksmiths, have the power of changing their form at pleasure, and assuming that of the hyaena. I had often heard this tale from natives of Abyssinia living in Egypt, and having been told many equally extravagant I was not surprised at their credulity. Meeting accidentally with an Englishman who had lived about thirty years there, and who on his way to Europe was staying a few days at Cairo, I mentioned, in the course of conversation, this singular notion, with an evident demonstration of my own disbelief, and with an inquiry whether it was generally credited. Looking at me with an unequivocal expression of pity for my ignorance, he answered that no Abyssinian ever doubted it, and that no one at all acquainted with that country would think of asking such a question. ' Every one,' he added, * knows that those blacksmiths have the power of assuming the form of a hyaena, which as naturally belongs to them as that of a man. I had a proof of it a few days before I left Abyssinia. For while walking and conversing with one of them, I happened to turn my head aside for a few instants, and on looking round again I found that he had changed himself, and was trotting away at a little distance from me under his new form/ The Hysena crocuta, or spotted hyaena,1 differs from the former in its form and colour, as well as its habits, which are gregarious. It appears to answer to the Chaus of Pliny,2 which Linnaeus places in the Felis tribe. It is the Crocuta of Strabo,3 which he considers a hybrid of the wolf and the dog. Large packs of them infest the country in many parts of Upper Ethiopia, but they do not extend their visits to Nubia or Egypt ; and in former times also they seem to have been unknown in Egypt : for the sculptured representations of them show that they were only brought out of curiosity as presents to the Pharaohs, to be placed among the strange animals of foreign countries in the vivaria, or zoological gardens, of the royal domain. Nor is there any probability of their having held a place amongst the sacred animals either of Egypt or Ethiopia. The respect with which the cat was treated in Egypt was such as few of the sacred animals enjoyed. Its worship was 1 The Marafeen or Marafeeb of Berber 2 Plin. viii. 19: 'Effigie lupi, pardorum and Sennaar. niaculis.' 3 Strabo, xvii. p. 533. 286 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. universally acknowledged throughout the country ; 1 and though, in some districts, the honours paid to it were less marked than in the immediate neighbourhood of Bubastis, its sanctity was nowhere denied ; and the privileges accorded to the emblem of the Egyptian Diana were as scrupulously maintained in the Thebaid as in Lower Egypt. * Never,' says Cicero,2 6 did anyone hear tell of a cat having been killed by an Egyptian ; ' and so bigoted were they in their veneration for this animal, that neither the influence of their own magistrates, nor the dread of the Koman name, could prevent the populace from sacrificing to their vengeance an unfortunate Eoman who had accidentally killed a cat.3 When one of them died a natural death, all the inmates of the house shaved their eyebrows in token of mourn- ing, and, having embalmed the body, they buried it with great pomp; so that, as Diodorus4 observes, 'they not only respected some animals, as cats, ichneumons, dogs, and hawks, during their lifetime, but extended the same honours to them after death.' All writers seem to agree about the respect shown to the cat throughout the country ; we can therefore with difficulty credit the assertion of a late author,5 who states, ' that in Alexandria, one of these animals was sacrificed to Horus,' even though the city was inhabited by a mixed population, in great part composed of Greeks. Those which died in the vicinity of Bubastis 6 were sent to that city, to repose within the precincts of the place particularly devoted to their worship. Others were deposited in certain consecrated spots set apart for the purpose near the town where they had lived. In all cases the expense of the funeral rites depended on the donations of pious individuals, or on the peculiar honours paid to the goddess of whom they were the emblem. Many were, no doubt, sent by their devout masters to Bubastis itself, from an impression that they would repose in greater security near the abode of their patron ; and to the same feeling which induced their removal to a choice place of burial may be attributed the abundance of cat-mummies in the vicinity of Sheikh Hassan, where a small rock temple marks the site of the Speos Artemidos.7 Those cats which during their lifetime had been worshipped 1 Strabo, xvii. p. 559. 2 Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 29. 3 Diodor. i. 83. 4 Ibid. 5 Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrhon. Hypotyp. iii. 24, quoted by Larcher. Herodot. ii. 301. 6 Herodot. ii. 67. 7 'Egypt and Thebes/ p. 379. Chap. XIV.] THE CAT. 287 in the temple of Bast, as the living types of that goddess, were doubtless treated after death with additional honours, and buried in a far more sumptuous manner. This distinguished post raised them from the rank of emblems to that of representatives of the deity herself. The Cynocephalus kept in the temple of Herm- opolis, or the sacred hawk adored at Heliopolis, enjoyed in like manner a consideration far beyond the rest of their species, though all were sacred to Thoth and Ka, the gods of those cities ; and this remark equally applies to all the sacred animals of Egypt. I have already observed, that in places where the deities to whom particular animals were consecrated held a distinguished post in the sanctuary, the ceremony of removing them after death to another city was dispensed with. We consequently find that the bodies of cats were embalmed and buried at Thebes and other towns, where the rites of Bast were duly observed : and if some individuals, as already stated, preferred, from a bigoted fancy or extravagant affection, to send the body of a favourite to the Necropolis of Bubastis, it was done with the same view as when a zealous votary of Osiris requested, on his death-bed, that his body should be removed from his native town to the city of Abydus. This, as Plutarch says,1 ' was in order that it might appear to rest in the same grave with Osiris himself ; ' but it was merely a caprice, in no way arguing a common custom. A few instances of a similar kind probably induced Herodotus to infer the general practice of removing the cats which had died in other places to Bubastis, as the ibis to Hermopolis.2 After showing how prolific Egypt was in domestic animals, Herodotus mentions 3 two peculiarities of the cats, by which he accounts for their numbers not increasing to the extent they otherwise would. But these, like other prodigies of the good old times, have ceased in Egypt, and the actions of cats, like other things, have been reduced to the level of commonplace realities. He tells us that, ' when a house caught fire, the only thought of the Egyptians was to preserve the lives of the cats. Banging themselves therefore in bodies round the house, they endeavoured to rescue those animals from the flames, totally disregarding the destruction of the property itself ; but, notwithstanding all their precautions, the cats, leaping over the heads and gliding between 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 20. ■ Herodot. ii. 67. 3 Herodot. ii. 46 ; and vElian, vii. 27. 288 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. the legs of the bystanders, rushed into the flames, as if impelled by divine agency to self-destruction/ Were this true, the love of their domestic animals must frequently have sacrificed several contiguous houses during their exertions to prevent the suicide of a cat; but however great the grief of the Egyptians in witnessing these wonderful cases of a feline felo de se, we may make some allowance for the exaggeration of a Greek,1 and doubt the neglect of their burning dwellings stated by the historian. That their numbers do not diminish in Egypt is perceptibly felt by the present inhabitants of Cairo, who are frequently obliged to profit by the privilege of sending their surplus cat population to the house of the Kadi, where a fund is charitably provided for their maintenance. When they are found to have increased, as is often the case, to a troublesome extent in a house, the inmates send a basketful of cats to be set loose in the Kadi's courtyard, without much regard to the feelings of the neighbours, who happen to live in so disagreeable a vicinity. Daily, at the asser,2 a person employed for this purpose brings a certain quantity of meat, cut into small pieces, which is thrown into the middle of the courtyard, and a prodigious number of cats is seen about that hour coming down from the walls on all sides, to partake of their expected repast. The weak and the newly- arrived fare but badly, the whole being speedily carried off by the veterans and the most pugnacious of the party — the former excelling in rapidity of swallowing, the latter in appropriating, and many only obtain a small portion while the claws and teeth of their stronger competitors are occupied. A similar feeling in favour of this animal provides food for other communities of cats in various parts of the city ; and though they no longer enjoy the same honours as their pre- decessors, they are invariably well treated by the modern Egyptians, from their utility in freeing the houses from the numerous rats and reptiles which so often infest them. Such favourites are they, that, while the dog is looked upon as an unclean animal, whose touch is carefully avoided by the Moslem, the cat is often allowed to partake of the same dish with its 1 I have had occasion to observe that instances of this may be pointed out in his Herodotus has sometimes sacrificed truth Euterpe, 35 and 36. to the pleasure of setting forth an amusing 2 In the afternoon, between midday and contrast to Greek customs, and striking his sunset, readers or hearers with surprise. Several Chap. XIV.] THE CAT. 289 master, unless there be reason to suppose it has been con- taminated by eating a scorpion or other unclean reptile. The origin of the respect paid to the cat by the ancient Egyptians, was owing to the benefits it was thought to confer on mankind by destroying various noxious reptiles.1 And though, as I have already observed, Diodorus, in considering it as the enemy of the asp and other serpents, gives it more credit than it really deserved, its utility in a country like Egypt must have been universally allowed. This predilection for it is frequently alluded to in the paintings, where a favourite cat is represented accompanying the master of the house in his fowling excursions, or when seated at home with a party of friends. 'The care they took of the cat and other sacred animals,' says Diodorus,2 ' was remarkable. For these and the ichneumons they prepared bread sopped in milk, or fish of the Nile cut up into small pieces, and each was supplied with the kind of food best suited to its habits and taste. As soon as they died they were carried amidst bitter lamentations to the embalmers, and their bodies having been prepared with oil of cedar, and other aromatic substances capable of preserving them, were deposited in sacred vaults.' Numerous embalmed cats are found in tombs at Thebes and other places in Upper and Lower Egypt.3 They are frequently accompanied by the mummies of dogs — probably from these two being looked upon as the favourite domestic animals of the country. They are generally enveloped in the same manner — the legs bound up with the body, and the head alone left in its real shape. This, from the ears and painted face, readily indicates the animal within the bandages ; which are sometimes of various colours, arranged in devices of different forms. Cat- mummies were sometimes deposited in wooden boxes or coffins ; but in all cases they were wrapped in linen bandages, which, as Diodorus observes,4 were employed for enveloping the bodies of cats and other sacred animals.5 ■ According to Plutarch,6 the cat was placed upon the top of 1 Diodor. i. 87. 2 Ibid. i. 83. 3 They are found bandaged in different manners, and generally with much care, sometimes made up with the bandage re- taining the shape of the head of the animal in it.— S. B. 4 Diodor. i. 83. VOL. III. 5 There was also a favourite or more expensive way of depositing their mummies in cases of wood or bronze, which had the form of a cat, and the pedestal in shape of the hieroglvph of the name Bast or Bubastis.— S. B. 6 Plut. de Isid. s. 63. . U 290 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. the sistrum, ' to denote the moon ; 1 its variety of colour, its activity in the night, and the peculiar circumstances attending its fecundity, making it a proper emblem of that luminary.' For it is reported, that at first it brings forth one, then two, afterwards three, and so on ; adding one to each former birth till it reaches seven ; so that it brings forth twenty-eight in all, corresponding to the several degrees of light which appear during the moon's revolutions. * And though,' he adds, * such things may appear to carry an air of fiction with them, yet it may be depended upon, that the pupils of her eyes seem to fill up and to grow larger upon the full of the moon, and to decrease again and diminish in their brightness on its waning.' The notion of the cat having been emblematic of the moon was probably owing to the Greeks supposing Bast or Bubastis, the Egyptian Diana, to be related to the moon, as in their own mythology. That it was erroneous is evident, from the fact of the moon being represented in the Egyptian Pantheon by the god Thoth; but it may be more readily pardoned than many of the misconceptions of the Greeks. According to the fable which pretended to derive the worship of animals from the assumption of their various shapes by the gods, when striving to elude the pursuit of Typho, or the wicked attacks of mankind,2 the goddess Diana was said to have taken the form of a cat. The worship of the lion was particularly regarded in the city of Leontopolis ;3 and other cities adored this animal as the emblem of more than one deity. It was the symbol of strength,4 and therefore typical of the Egyptian Hercules. With this idea the Egyptian sculptors frequently represented a powerful and victorious monarch accompanied by it in battle ; though, as Diodorus5 says of Osymandyas, some suppose the king to have been really attended by a tame lion on those occasions. Macrobius,6 Proclus,7 Horapollo,8 and others, state that the lion was typical of the sun — an assertion apparently borne out 1 There is no reason for believing the cat represented the moon, but it did the sun, for the reason of the dilatation of the pupil of the eye. The male cat symbol- ised the sun, or Ra, and as such is repre- sented in the vignettes of the 17th chapter of the Ritual, destroying the serpent Aphophis. The female cat was emblematic of Bast or Bubastis, also a solar deity. — S. B. 2 Diodor. i. 86. Conf. Plut. de Isid. s. 72. Ovid. Met. v. 323. 3 Diodor. i. 84. Strabo, xvii. Porphyr. de Abstin. iv. 9. iElian, Hist. An. xii. 7. Plin. v. 10. 4 Clem. Strom, lib. v. 5 Diodor. i. 48. 6 Macrob. Saturn, i. 26. 7 Proclus, de Sacrific. : ' Some animals are solar, as lions and cocks.' 8 Horapollo, i. 17. Chap. XIY.] TEE LION. 291 by the sculptures, which sometimes figure it borne upon the backs of two lions. It is also combined with other emblems appertaining to the god Ka. I have had occasion to mention a god and several goddesses who bore the head of a lion, independently of the Egyptian Diana, Bast or Bubastis. This deity had the head of a cat, or of a lion ;* and the demonstrative sign following her name was some- times the latter, in lieu of the cat, her peculiar emblem. Hence it is evident that the Egyptians not only included those two animals in the same family, but considered them analogous types. This, however, seems only to apply to the female, and not to have extended to the male lion, which was thought to partake of a different character, more peculiarly emblematic of vigour and strength. Macrobius pretends that the Egyptians employed the lion to represent that part of the heavens where the sun, during its annual revolution, was in its greatest force, ' the sign Leo being called the abode of the sun;' and the different parts of this animal are reputed by him to have indicated various seasons, and the increasing or decreasing ratio of the solar power.2 The head he supposes to have denoted the * present time ;' 3 which Hora- pollo interprets as the type of vigilance ; and the fire of its eyes was considered analogous to the fiery look which the sun con- stantly directs towards the world. In the temple of Dakkeh the lion is represented upon the shrine or sacred table of the ibis, the bird of Hermes ; and a monkey, the emblem of the same deity, is seen praying to a lion with the disk of the sun upon its head. Some also believed the lion to be sacred to the Egyptian Minerva ; and iElian says the Egyptians consecrated it to Yulcan,4 1 attributing the fore-part of this animal to fire, and the hinder parts to water/ Sometimes the lion, the emblem of strength, was adopted as a type of the king, and substituted for the more usual representative of royal power, the sphinx; which, when formed by the human head and lion's body, signified the union of intellectual and physical strength. In Southern Ethiopia, in the vicinity of the modern town of Shendy, the lion-headed deity seems to have been the chief 1 Not lioness — the mane is indicated. — the sun is the 'heart of heaven,' and the S- B. 'mind of the world.' Besides other names, 2 Macrob. Saturn, i. 26. he has that of Phanes (i. 18). * Ibid. i. 25. Macrobius (i. 20) also says, * ^Elian, Nat. An. xii. 7. u 2 292 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. object of worship. He holds a conspicuous place in the great temple of Wady Owateb, and on the sculptured remains at Wady Benat ; at the former of which he is the first in a procession of deities, consisting of Ra, Chnoumis, and Ptah, to whom a monarch is making offerings. On the side of the propylaaum tower is a snake with a lion's head and human arms, rising from a lotus ; and in the small temple at the same place, a god with three lions' heads and two pair of arms holds the principal place in the sculptures. This last appears to be peculiarly marked as a type of physical strength; which is still farther expressed by the choice of the number three, indicative of a material or physical sense. The lion also occurs in Ethiopia, devouring the prisoners or attacking the enemy, in company with a king, as in the Egyptian sculptures.1 According to Plutarch,2 ' the lion was worshipped by the Egyptians, who ornamented the doors of their temples with the gaping mouth of that animal, because the Nile began to rise when the sun was in the constellation of Leo.' Horapollo3 says lions were placed before the gates of the temples as the symbols of watchfulness and protection. And ' being a type of the inundation, in consequence of the Nile rising more abund- antly when the sun is in Leo, those who anciently presided over the sacred works made the waterspouts and passages of fountains in the form of lions.' 4 The latter remark is in perfect accordance with fact — many waterspouts terminating in lions' heads still remaining on the temples. iElian 5 also says, that ' the people of the great city of Heliopolis keep lions in the vestibules or areas of the temple of their god (the sun), con- sidering them to partake of a certain divine influence, according to the statements of the Egyptians themselves ;' 6 and temples are even dedicated to this animal.' But of this, and the state- ment of Horapollo respecting the deity of Heliopolis, under the form of a lion, I have already spoken. The figure of a lion, or the head and feet of that animal, were frequently used in chairs, tables, and various kinds of furniture, and as ornamental devices. The same idea has been common in all countries, and in the earliest specimens of Greek sculpture. 1 At Beitoualli, in the reign of Rameses Plutarch (Sympos. iv. 5) speaks of the II., an actual lioness, or lion, called Anta- Egyptian fountains ornamented with lions' em-nekht, or 'Anath in strength,' accom- heads for the same reason. panied the king to the war as is said of 3 Horapollo, i. 19. Sesostris.— S. B. * Ibid. i. 21. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 38. Pliny, xviii. 18. 5 .Elian, Nat. Hist. xii. 7. Chap. XIV.] SACEED LIONS— THE LEOPARD. 293 The lions over the gate of Mycenae are similar to many of those which occur on the monuments of Egypt.1 No mummies of lions have been found in Egypt. They were not indigenous 2 in the country, and were only kept as curiosities, or as objects of worship. In places where they were sacred they were treated with great care, being * fed with joints of meat, and provided with comfortable and spacious dwellings — particularly in Leontopolis, the City of Lions ; and songs were sung to them during the hours of their repast.' 3 The animal was even permitted to exercise its natural propensity of seizing its prey, in order that the exercise might preserve its health, for which purpose a calf was put into the enclosure. And having killed the victim thus offered it, the lion retired to its den, probably without exciting in the spectators any thought of the cruelty of granting this indulgence to their favourite animal. We naturally Censure them for sacrificing their humanity to a religious prejudice ; but while we do so, let us not forget to anticipate the reply of an Egyptian, by calling to mind the fact that many keepers of animals in modern Europe, without the plea of religious feeling, commit a similar act of cruelty ; living creatures being given as food to snakes and other animals, frequently for the sole purpose of amusing or astonishing an idle spectator. The panther, leopard, and Felis Chaus do not appear to have been sacred in Egypt, and the first two only are represented in the sculptures. It is evident that they were merely brought to Egypt as curiosities ; and their skins, which were in great request for ornamental purposes, were among the objects presented by the Ethiopians in their annual tribute to the Egyptian monarchs. Though the Felis Chaus does not occur in the sculptures, it is a native of Egypt, inhabiting principally the hills on the western side of the Nile, and sometimes extending its predatory rambles to the vicinity of the Pyramids. In appearance it is like a large cat, with a tuft of long black hair on the extremity of its ears, in which, as in its size, it bears some resemblance to the lynx. 1 The lion was named mau, and appears Set, or Shu and Tefnu. (Pierret, ' Diet.,' in the mythology to symbolise the sun, p. 303.) — S. B. and the Ethiopian god, Hbos, or Hebs. 2 On some of the earliest tombs the Two lions are represented supporting the lion appears represented with the usual solar disk instead of the mountains, ap- animals in the hills as hunted, and conse- parently inferring to the xui or Horizon quently the lion was indigenous, though of the East and West. The twin lions also probably later driven out of the country, represented and meant either Horus and — S. B. 3 iElian, xii. 7. 294 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. The injuries caused by mice and rats, in a country like Egypt, were far from suggesting any sanctity in these destructive animals ; though jerboas, from their more secluded habits and smaller numbers, might not have excited the same animosity, either among the peasantry or the inhabitants of the towns. Two species of jerboa inhabit the country. They are the same which Pliny and iEiian 1 mention as ' mice walking on two legs,' 'using,' as the latter observes, 'their fore-feet for hands,' and * leaping, when pursued, upon their hind-legs.' Those with bristles, like the hedgehog, described by Pliny,2 are still common in Egypt, principally in the desert, where their abode is among stones and fallen rocks. The mummies of mice and rats are said to have been found in the tombs of Thebes. The rat is figured in the paintings among the animals of Egypt ; and at Beni-Hassan it is very consistently placed near its natural enemy, the cat.3 The number of these destructive animals in some parts of Egypt is beyond belief. The fields, the banks of the river, and the boats themselves, swarm with rats, frequently of immense size ; and even in the deserts I have occa- sionally found a small kind, which Nature enables to live, though far removed beyond the reach of water, and apparently with very little means of subsistence. The porcupine is also represented in the Egyptian paintings among the wild animals of the desert. But it does not appear whether, like the modern Italians and others, the ancient Egyp- tians ate its flesh ; and there is no evidence of its having been sacred, or even kept by them, and embalmed after death. The hare was probably lawful food to the Egyptians, though forbidden to the Jews ; 4 and it is frequently shown by the sculp- tures to have been among the game caught by their chasseurs. It differs in appearance from our own ; and though frequently exaggerated by the Egyptian artists, the length of its ears and general form show it to be distinct from the European species. Some idea may be formed of it from the paintings in the tombs, one of which is preserved in the British Museum. Though not sacred, it was admitted as an emblem of some of the genii, or 1 iElian, xv. 26. vourest the abominable rat of Ra,' or the 2 Plin. x. 65. Those which walk on sun; and again, 'Thou eatest the filthy two legs should be distinct from the cat,' mau, or ' beast' — the vignettes of bristly-haired mice. some papyri giving a sow to this chapter. 3 The name of the rat was pennu, and — S. B. it appears in the hieroglyphs. In chap- 4 Levit. xi. 6 : ( And the hare, because ter xxxiii. 1. 2, of the Ritual, the text he cheweth the cud and divideth not the says of the rer, or snake, ' Thou de- hoof ; he is unclean unto you.' Chap. XIV.] THE ELEPHANT — HIPPOPOTAMUS. 295 lower order of gods, who were figured in the funeral subjects with the head of this animal. In the hieroglyphics it signified 1 to open,' as Horapollo tells us — being the beginning or prin- cipal part of the word un. The elephant is represented in the sculptures, together with the bear, among the presents brought by an Asiatic nation to the Egyptian king. Ivory is also frequently shown to have been sent to Egypt from Ethiopia and the interior of Africa ; 1 and the Ptolemies, at a subsequent period, established a hunting-place on the confines of Abyssinia, for the chase of the elephant. It does not appear at any time to have held a post among the sacred animals of the country ; even at the island of Elephan- tine, which took its name from it, nothing indicates the worship of the elephant. It only occurs there in the name of the place, which in hieroglyphics 2 is styled ' the Land of the Elephant.' 3 Nor does it appear as an object of adoration in the numerous subjects which cover the walls of the ^^u-^S neighbouring island, Philae, where, had it been A © sacred in the vicinity, it would not have been Ei^Snune. omitted ; and the only instance of it is in a side No' 567*' entrance to the front court of the temple of Isis, where the god Nilus brings an elephant among the presents to be offered for the king to the deity of the place. In Ethiopia the elephant is once found in a temple at Wady Benat, near Shendy, with various deities and sacred devices ; but there is no evidence of its having been worshipped there, or even ranked among the sacred animals of that country. The hippojDotamus was sacred to the god Mars, and wor- shipped at Papremis. In former times it seems to have been a native of Egypt, and to have lived in the northern part of the Nile. The city where it is reputed to have been principally honoured stood in the Delta; and Herodotus,4 Diodorus,5 and others mention it among the animals of Egypt. But it is now confined to the upper parts of Ethiopia, being seldom known to come into Nubia, or that part lying between the Second and First Cataracts ; and if ever it is seen in Egypt, its visit is purely accidental, and as contrary, as I have already had occasion to 1 This may have been the teeth of the hippopotamus, as well as the tusks of elephants, which are mentioned as early as Thothmes III.— S. B. 2 Vide Plate 59 of the Hieroglyphics of the Royal Society of Literature. 3 Probably from its being the depot of ivorv. — S. B. * 'Herodot. ii. 59, 63, and 67. 5 Diodor. i. 35. Aristot. Hist. An. ii. 7. 296 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. remark, to its own expectations as to those of the astonished natives who witness its migration. I have also mentioned the mode of catching it, and the uses to which its hide was applied, both in ancient and modern times. Herodotus says, that though the hippopotamus is sacred in the Papremitic nome, they have not the same respect for it in the rest of Egypt ; and, according to Plutarch, ' it was reckoned amongst the animals emblematic of the Evil Being. At Her- mopolis,' he adds, * is shown a statue of Typho, which is a river- horse with a hawk upon its back, fighting with a serpent ; the river-horse signifying Typho, and the hawk that power and sovereignty which he frequently gets into his hands by violence, and then employs in works of mischief, both to his own annoy- ance and to the prejudice of others. So, again, those sacred cakes offered in sacrifice upon the seventh day of the month Tybi, when they celebrate the return of Isis from Phoenicia, have the impression of a river-horse bound stamped upon them.' From the representations of this animal in the sculptures, both in Upper and Lower Egypt, it is evident that the respect paid to it was far from being general in the country ; and figures of a Typhonian character in religious subjects on the monuments are frequently portrayed with the head of a hippopotamus. Even the Cerberus, or monster of Amenti, is sometimes represented under the form of this animal. I have nowhere found a male, deity with the head of a hippopotamus, or accompanied by it as an emblem, in any of the sculptures of Egypt; and the only instances of a hippopotamus-headed god are in some figures of blue pottery, probably from the vicinity of Papremis, to which, as Herodotus observes, its worship was confined. According to Plutarch, the ' river-horse ' was the emblem of ' impudence.' 1 This he endeavours to show by a hieroglyphic sentence in the porch of the temple of Sals, composed of an infant, an old man, a hawk, a fish, and a hippopotamus, which he thus interprets : ' Oh ! you who are coming into the world, and who are going out of it (that is, young or old), God hateth impu- dence/ 2 And, indeed, if the reason he gives 3 for its having been chosen as this symbol were true, or even believed by the Egyp- tians, we ought not to be surprised that he was considered to be sufficiently unamiable to be a Typhonian animal. Clemens 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 32. 2 Which is quite correct.— S. B. 3 Conf. ^Elian, Hist. An. vii. 19. Chap. XIV.] THE HIPPOPOTAMUS-THE PIG. 297 substitutes the crocodile for the hippopotamus in this sentence, which he gives 1 from a temple of Diospolis ; and Horapollo 2 assigns to the claws of the hippopotamus the signification of 'injustice and ingratitude,' as to the whole animal the force of ' time ' or ' an hour.' The injury done by this animal to the corn-fields3 might suffice to exclude it from the respect of the agricultural popula- tion ; and the Egyptian peasants were probably called upon to frighten it out of their fields on many occasions with brass sauce- pans and other utensils, in the same manner as the modern Ethiopians. But it probably never abounded in that part of the Nile south of the First Cataract ; 4 and its worship was confined to places beyond the reach of its intrusion. The hippopotamus was also said to have been a symbol of the western pole, or the region of darkness 5 — distinct, of course, from that primeval darkness which covered the deep, and from which sprang the light, supposed to have been typified by the mygale, the emblem of Buto. I have already explained the opinions of the Egyptians on this point ; and on the supposed analogy of the West, which buried the sun in darkness, and the gloomy mansions of the dead ; the former being termed Ement, and the latter Amenti. I have also noticed the resemblance between Ereb, or Gharb, the West, of the Hebrews, and the Erebus of Greece. Mummies of the hippopotamus are said to have been found at Thebes, and a figure of one is preserved in the British Museum. The horror in which the pig was held in Egypt I have had occasion to mention.6 According to Herodotus,7 the same aversion extended to the people of Cyrene, who abstained from the meat of swine, as well as ' of the cow out of respect to Isis.' Hero- dotus 8 says it was unlawful for the Egyptians to sacrifice the pig to any gods but to the moon and Bacchus, which was only done at the full moon — a sacred reason forbidding them to offer it on 1 Clem. Strom, v. p. 159. [Which has the same meaning. — S. B.] 1 Horapollo, i. 56, and ii. 20. 8 jElian, v. 53. 4 There is, however, reason to believe that it descended the Nile at the time of the 4th Dynasty as far as Memphis, where it appears in the hieroglyphs, and a female of the time of Chephren is called Teb.t, 1 the female hippopotamus.' It is also called kheb, or bekham, and represented the god- desses Thoueris and Apet, both connected with the waters. In the planisphere it is called rer, the hog. (Lepsius, ' Einleit.,' p. 10.) It also designated that which was abominable. — S. B. 5 Euseb. Praep. Evang. iii. 12. 6 It has been stated that the eating of its flesh produced leprosy, and that the Jews who do not eat it never have cancer. — S. B. 7 Herodot. iv. 186. 8 Ibid. ii. 47. 298 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. any other festival.1 It was on the former occasion alone that the people were permitted to eat its flesh — a wise sanitary regulation having made it unclean in the hot climate of Egypt. A similar prohibition was denounced against it by the Jewish legislator, and the Abyssinian Christians continue to think it a religious duty to abstain from this unwholesome food. From the aversion felt by the Egyptians to the pig, we can readily account for their choosing it as an emblem of uncleanness,2 and a fit abode for the souls of wicked men. The prejudices of other people have to the present day followed its name, even to a proverb, however wel- come its meat may be at table ;3 and though we may not enter into all the horror of an Egyptian on seeing the great predilec- tion of a Greek for the pig, we may ourselves feel surprised at Homer's respect for a feeder of pigs, who had the title * divine/ and * prince of men.'4 In the fete of Bacchus, the historian tells 5 us, they did not eat the pig which was sacrificed before their door, but gave it back to the person of whom it had been purchased. Plutarch,6 however, says that ' those who sacrifice a sow to Typho once a year at the full moon, afterwards eat its flesh ; giving as a reason for the ceremony, that Typho, being in pursuit of that animal at this season, accidentally found the chest wherein was deposited the body of Osiris.' But it does not appear whether he had in view the festival of Bacchus, Osiris, or that of the full moon previously mentioned by Herodotus ; and it is possible that both writers intended to confine the custom of eating swine's flesh to one single day in the year. iElian, indeed, affirms, that they only sacrifice the sow (which they consider an animal most hateful to the sun and moon) once a year, on the festival of the moon, but on no other occasion either to that or any other deity. Though the pig may not properly be classed among the sacred animals, it was an emblem of the Evil Being ; and this may account for Plutarch's supposing it to have been connected with the history of Osiris and Typho.7 Several instances occur 1 The celebration of this rite I shall mention in treating of the ceremonies. 2 Horapollo, ii. 37. iElian, x. 16. 3 Cicero does not pay a compliment to pigs, when he says they have ' animam pro sale ne putrescant.' (De Nat. Deor. lib. ii.) ./Elian, on the authority of Agatharcides, gives the pigs of Ethiopia horns (v. 27). 4 Horn. Od. IA, 22 and 48; IE, 350, 388, &c. 5 Herodot. ii. 48. 6 Plut. de Isid. s. 8. 7 The boar was called rer, probably from the onomatopoeia of its grunt. The sow was called sau. Many small porcelain figures of sows, sometimes with their little pigs, are found of a later period, although it is unknown in what sense. In the legends of Horus, Set transformed himself into a black boar, and attempted to destroy Chap. XIV.] THE PIG — THE HOESE. 299 of the pig in sacred subjects, principally in the tombs, where the attendance of monkeys might be supposed to connect it with the moon. But these seem chiefly to refer to the future state of the wicked, whose souls were thought to migrate into that unclean animal ; and the presence of Anubis confirms this opinion. Pigs were kept by the Egyptians, as I have already observed, to be employed for agricultural purposes ; and iElian,1 on the authority of Eudoxus, pretends that * they were sparing in their sacrifices of swine, because they were required to tread in the grain, pressing the seed with their feet from the surface into the soil, and securing it from the ravages of birds.' It does not appear whether the wild boar was hunted by the chasseur — those parts of Egypt where hunting scenes are repre- sented not being frequented by that animal, whose resorts were probably, as at present, confined to the banks of the Birket el Korn,2 and the vicinity of Lake Menzaleh. As the Hyrax did not hold a rank among the sacred animals, I need only refer to what has already been stated respecting it in enumerating the animals of Egypt. Notwithstanding the great utility of the horse,3 it did not enjoy sacred honours,4 nor was it the emblem of any deity. This is the more remarkable, as the breed of horses was con- sidered of the highest importance in Egypt ; and even among the Greeks, less scrupulous regarding the sanctity of animals, it was dedicated to one of the principal gods of their Pantheon. For though Neptune was unknown in Egypt, and the sea was odious to the Egyptians, the warlike horse might well have found some deity of eminence to adopt it as a type ; and surely few would stand less in need of so peculiarly a terrestrial animal than the god of the Ocean, and few be less consistently chosen as the patron of the horse. the eye of Horus, probably the moon, and Horus avenged himself by instituting the sacrifice of the pig. (Lefebure, ' Les Yeux d'Horus,' p. 43.) The boar is represented in a tomb at Thebes proceeding in a boat, in which are two cynocephali, and is called Am, or 'gluttony' personified. Cory, Horapollo, 1840, plate 2— S. B. 1 jElian, x. 16. 2 In the Fyo6m, formerly Lake Mceris. 3 The horse or stallion was called htar, if that, indeed, does not mean the pair, or ' yoke ' of the chariot, as the two horses only bore one name. The name of the female horse was seS'mut, the last word either expressing 'mother,' like the English 'mare,' or the plural, and is Semitic, being the same as the Hebrew sus-im. It does not appear in the monuments till the time of the 18th Dynasty, and after that was an important and highly-esteemed animal. Prior to the Shepherd invasion the ass was used for purposes of transport, but there is no representation of its being ridden astride, although prior to the invention of chariots a kind of seat or pillion was occasionally used on its back. — S. B. 4 Traces of worship are supposed to be found.— S. B. 300 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chai\ XIV. But an evident distinction was conferred on the less dignified ass ; and if, as some have thought, it is a greater disgrace to pass unobserved than to be noticed, even in an unfavourable or equivocal manner, the ass enjoyed the marked but uncompli- mentary honour of being sacred to Typho. This distinction entailed upon it another less enviable, though more positive mark of their notice, ' the Coptites being in the habit of throw- ing an ass down a precipice, considering it unclean and impure, from its supposed resemblance to Typho.' 1 ' The inhabitants of Abydus,2 Busiris, and Lycopolis carried their detestation of this animal still farther ; so that they even scrupled to make use of trumpets, because their sound was thought to be like the braying of an ass.'3 It was from ' the idea entertained by the Egyptians of the stupidity and sensuality4 of its disposition, that they gave the Persian Prince Ochus the name of the Ass, in token of their execration of so detestable a tyrant.' Even the colour of this animal was thought to partake of the nature of the Evil Being ; and with a similar prejudice, whenever any individual happened to have a red complexion or red hair, they considered him con- nected with Typho. For this reason they offered red oxen in their sacrifices ; and in consequence of its supposed resemblance to Typho, ' those cakes offered in sacrifices, during the two months Paiini and Phaophi, had the impression of an ass bound stamped upon them ; and for the same reason, when they sacri- ficed to the sun, they strictly enjoined all who approached to worship the god, neither to wear any gold about them,5 nor to give provender to an ass.' Another superstitious reason was also assigned by them, according to Plutarch, for their contempt of the ass : * that Typho escaped out of battle upon that animal, after a flight of seven days, and after he had got into a place of safety begat two sons, Hierosolymus and Judseus.'6 But this, he adds, ' is evidently told to give an air of fable to the Jewish history.' 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 30. Ezekiel xxiii. 20.— S. B. 2 jElian (x. 28) says, Busiris, Abydus, 5 We cannot fail to be struck by such and Lycopolis. superstition ; but an old Egyptian might 3 Most people will agree in the un- smile at the scruples of many persons who melodious voice of this animal ; but the object to commence a journey on a Friday, Pythagoreans had a curious idea, that ' it dine thirteen at table, or look upon a new was not susceptible of harmony, being in- moon without silver in their pocket. A sensible to the sound of the lyre.' (iElian, modern Egyptian avoids visiting a friend x. 28.) suffering from ophthalmia with 1 any gold 4 This quality of the ass was called in about him,' lest he should increase the hieroglyphics act, and is alluded to by malady. 8 Plut. de Isid. s. 31. Chap. XIV.] THE ASS— THE CAMEL. 301 Some instances occur of an ass-headed deity.1 He is rarely- met with, and is apparently of the order of daemons or an inferior class of gods connected with a future state in the region of Amenti. The only place where I have seen the Onocephalus is at Tuot,2 the ancient Tuphium ; but the head of the ass is sometimes introduced among the hieroglyphics. The prejudice against the ass3 appears to have been universal in all ages. Egypt and the East, however, seem to have looked upon it rather as an emblem of perverseness than of stupidity ; and in this character it is still viewed by the Arabs,4 as the bull is considered by them the symbol of stupidity. -ZElian 5 pretends that ' Ochus, king of Persia, in order to afflict the Egyptians, slew the Apis, and, consecrating an ass in its stead, commanded them to pay it divine honours ; ' and even if not looked upon with the same detestation at Memphis as at Lyco- polis and Busiris, we may suppose, if iElian's story be true, how fully the tyrant's intention was gratified by the substitution of this animal for their god. Neither the mummies of the pig, hyrax, horse, or ass, have been found in the tombs of Egypt. Of the camel,6 stag, giraffe, gazelle, and other antelopes, I have already treated. I have also remarked the singular fact of the camel not being represented in the hieroglyphics, either in domestic scenes or in subjects relating to religion. Though its flesh was forbidden to the Jews,7 it is probable that religious scruples did not prevent the Egyptians from eating it; and the modern inhabitants, as well as the Arab tribes, delight in this light and wholesome food. But the wisdom of forbidding so valuable an animal is evident, from the great pro- bability of its being killed when about to die a natural death ; 8 and the Arabs are so scrupulous on this point, that few can be induced to eat the meat of the camel, unless certain of its having 1 Horapollo (i. 23) supposes the Onoce- phalus to signify one who has never tra- velled out of his own country. 2 Tuot, or Selem^eh, is in the Thebaid, nearly opposite Hermonthis, or Erment, on the east bank. 3 Jerem. xxii. 19. 4 See the introductory tale in the Arabian Nights. * .Elian, Hist. An. x. 28. 6 Plin. viii. 18, of the camel and giraffe. Strabo, xvii. 533. [The camel is men- tioned by its name kamalu, in the texts of some papyri. (Chabas, ' Etudes,' p. 400.) At the time of the Ptolemies it was introduced into Egypt, but not before, and is represented on coins of the Arabian nome under the Romans. — S. B.] 7 Levit. xi. 4. 8 [A wise precedent as regards the horse- flesh of Europe ! We might learn other hygienic lessons from the ancients : the Greeks, as Athenaeus shows, forbade fish- mongers to lower the price of their fish as the day went on, lest the poor people should be induced by the fall of price to buy stale fish in the evening. — G. W.] 302 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. been killed when in a healthy state. The giraffe frequently occurs, both in the paintings, as a rare animal brought from Ethiopia to Egypt, and as a hieroglyphic in monumental sculp- tures. But there is no appearance of its having been sacred, though an instance is mentioned of its having been found em- balmed. It is introduced as an emblem connected with the religion in the sculptures of Hermonthis, where it accompanies the figure of Death, some apes, and a jackal in adoration of the winged scarabseus, the emblem of the sun. Pliny says it was called by the Ethiopians Nabin, or Nabis. Of the antelopes, the oryx was the only one chosen as an emblem, but it was not sacred; and the same city on whose monuments it was represented in sacred subjects, was in the habit of killing it for the table. The head of this animal formed the prow of the mysterious boat of Ptah-Socharis-Osiris, who was worshipped with peculiar honours at Memphis, and who held a conspicuous place among the contemplar gods of all the temples of Upper and Lower Egypt. This did not, however, prevent their sacrificing the oryx to the gods, or slaughtering it for their own use, large herds of them being kept by the wealthy Egyptians for this pur- pose ; and the sculptures of Memphis and its vicinity abound, no less than those of the Thebaid, with proofs of this fact. But a particular one may have been set apart and consecrated to the deity — being distinguished by certain marks which the priests fancied they could discern, as in the case of oxen exempted from sacrifice.1 And if the law permitted the oryx to be killed without the mark of the pontiff's seal (which was indispensable for oxen previous to their being taken to the altar), the pri- vilege of exemption might be secured to a single animal, when kept apart within the inaccessible precincts of a temple. In the zodiacs the oryx was chosen to represent the sign Capricornus. Champollion considers it the representative of Set; and Horapollo2 gives it an unamiable character, as the emblem of impurity. It was even thought * to foreknow the rising of the moon, and to be indignant at her presence.' Pliny is disposed to give it credit for better behaviour towards the Dog-star,3 which, when rising, it looked upon with the appearance of adora- 1 Herodot. ii. 38. 2 Horapollo, i. 49. ^Elian, Hist. An. x. 28. 5 Plin. ii. 40. .Elian, Hist. An. vii. 8. Ohap. XIV.] THE GOAT— THE IBEX. 303 tion. But the naturalist was misinformed respecting the growth of its hair,1 in imitation of the bull Pacis. Such are the fables of old writers ; and, judging from the important post it held in the boat of Socharis, I am disposed to consider it the emblem of a good2 rather than of an evil deity, contrary to the opinion of Champollion.3 According to Herodotus,4 the goat was sacred in the Men- desian nome, where great honours were paid to it, particularly to the male.5 In that province, even the goatherds themselves were respected, notwithstanding the general prejudice of the Egyptians against every denomination of pastor. The same consideration was not extended to these animals in every part of the country ; and some of the inhabitants of Upper Egypt sacri- ficed them : as the Mendesians offered to their god sheep, which were sacred in the Thebai'd.6 .ZElian7 states that at Coptos the she-goat was sacred, and religiously revered, being a favourite animal of the goddess Isis, who was particularly worshipped there; but this feeling did not prevent their sacrificing the males of the same species. Herodotus also tells us that the goat was sacred to Pan, who was worshipped in the Mendesian nome. When a he-goat died, the whole Mendesian nome went into mourning; and Strabo8 and Diodorus9 also mention the venera- tion in which it was held, in some parts of Egypt, as the emblem of the generative principle. It is, therefore, singular that the horns of the goat were not given to Khem, who answered to that attribute of the Divine Power. Plutarch pretends that the Men- desian goat was called Apis, like the sacred bull of Osiris ; but this is very questionable, as I have already observed. The ibex, or wild goat of the desert, occurs sometimes in astronomical subjects,10 and is frequently represented among the animals slaughtered for the table and the altar, both in the Thebaid and in Lower Egypt.11 1 Plin. viii. 53. 2 Horus is sometimes represented hold- ing a gazelle in the hand, supposed to explain his victory over Set ; but a mummied gazelle, showing that it was a sacred animal, is in the collection of the British Museum, No. 6778a, Antilope Dorcas. It was called kahas. — S. B. * The leucoryx, often seen in the hiero- glyphs, was called ma het, or ' white beast.'— S. B. 4 Herodot. ii. 46. 5 The goat appears to have been called ba in the hieroglyphics, and was used to ex- press the idea ' soul.' In Coptic it was 6a- em-pe, < goat of heaven.' — S. B. 6 Herodot. ii. 42. 7 jElian, x. 23. 8 Strabo, xvii. p. 559. 9 Diodor. i. 84 and 88. 10 ^Elian, xiv. 16. ; 11 On one tablet, in the Belmore Col- lection, it appears as an emblem, or sacred to the god Amen-ra. — S. B. 304 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. The sheep was sacred in Upper Egypt, particularly in the vicinity of Thebes and Elephantine. The Lycopolites, however, sacrificed and ate this animal, 'because the wolf did so, whom they revered as a god ;' 1 and the same was done by the people of the Mendesian nome ; though Strabo 2 would seem to confine the sacrifice of sheep to the nome of Nitriotis. In the Thebaid it was considered not merely as an emblem, but ranked among the most sacred of all animals. It was dedicated to Chnoumis, one of the greatest deities of the Thebaid, who was represented with the head of a ram, for, as I have already observed, this was not given to Amen, as the Greeks and Komans imagined ; and the inhabitants of that district deemed it unlawful to eat its flesh,3 or to sacrifice it on their altars. According to Herodotus, they sacrificed a ram once a year at Thebes, on the festival of Jupiter4 — the only occasion on which it was permitted to kill this sacred animal ; and after having clad the statue of the god in the skin, the people made a solemn lamentation, striking themselves as they walked around the temple. They afterwards buried the body in a sacred coffin. The sacred boats or arks of Chnoumis were ornamented with the head of a ram ; and bronze figures of this animal were made by the Thebans to be worn as amulets, or kept as guardians of the house, to which they probably paid their adorations in pri- vate, invoking them as intercessors for the aid of the deity they represented. Their heads were often surmounted by the globe and uraeus, like the statues of the deity himself. Strabo,5 Clemens,6 and many other writers, notice the sacred character of the sheep ; and the two former state that it was looked upon with the same veneration in the Sai'te nome as in the neighbour- hood of Thebes. The four-horned sheep mentioned by iElian,7 which, he says, were kept in the temple of Jupiter, are still common in Egypt. Numerous mummies of sheep are found at Thebes ; and, as I have already observed, large flocks were kept there. For though it was neither required for sacrifice nor for the table, the wool was of the highest importance to them ; and much care seems to have been bestowed upon this useful animal, whose benefits to 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 72. 2 Strabo, xvii. p. 552. 3 Plutarch seems to think all the priests abstained from it, as from swine's flesh (ss. 5, 74). 4 Herodot. ii. 42. 5 Strabo, xvii. pp. 552, 559. 6 Clemens, Orat. Adhort. p. 17. 7 .Elian, Hist. An. xi. 40. Chap. XIV.] THE OX AND THE COW. 305 mankind Diodorus1 supposes to have been the cause of its hold- ing so high a post among the sacred animals of Egypt. The ram was chosen to represent the sign Aries in the zodiacs of Egypt ; but these partake too little of the mythology of the country to be of any authority respecting the characters of the animals they contain. Of the Kebsh, or wild sheep of the desert, I have already spoken in treating of the animals chased by the Egyptians. The ox and cow were both admitted among the sacred animals of Egypt. All, however, were not equally sacred ; and it was lawful to sacrifice the former and to kill them for the table, provided they were free from certain marks, which the priests were careful to ascertain before they permitted them to be slaughtered. When this had been done, the priest marked the animal by tying a cord of the papyrus-stalk round its horns, fastened by a piece of clay, on which he impressed his seal. It was then pronounced clean, and taken to the altar. But no man, on pain of death, could sacrifice one that had not this mark.2 ' All the clean oxen were thought to belong to Epaphus,'3 who was the same as the god Apis. Herodotus says that a single black hair rendered them unsuitable for this purpose; and Plutarch4 affirms that red oxen were alone lawful for sacrifice. But the authority of the sculptures contradicts these assertions, and shows that oxen with black and red spots were lawful both for the altar and the table in every part of Egypt. This I shall have occasion to notice more fully in treating of the religious ceremonies. It will suffice for the present to observe that certain marks were required to ascertain the sacred bulls, as the Apis, Mnevis, and Pacis ; and that the cow of Athor was recognised by peculiar signs known to the priests, and doubtless most minutely described in the sacred books. The origin of the worship of the bull was said to be its utility in agriculture,5 of which Clemens considers6 it the type, as well as of the earth itself ; and this was the supposed reason of the bull being chosen as the emblem of Osiris, who was the abstract idea of all that was good or beneficial to man. Though oxen and calves were lawful food, and adapted for sacrifice on the altars of all the gods, cows and heifers were for- 1 Diodor. i. 87. 2 Herodot. ii. 38. Vide infra, on sacrifices. 3 Ibid. ii. 38, and iii. 27. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 31. the 5 Ibid. s. 74. Diodor. i. 88. 6 Clem. Strom, v. VOL. III. X 306 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. bidden to be killed, being consecrated, according to Herodotus, to Isis ; 1 or rather, as he afterwards shows, and as Strabo, in perfect accordance with the sculptures, states, to Athor. This was a wise regulation, in order to prevent too great a diminution in the cattle of the country ; and the prohibition being ascribed by the priests to some mysterious reason, was naturally looked upon in process of time as a divine ordinance, which it would be nothing less than sacrilege to disregard. According to Strabo,2 many, both male and female, were kept in different towns, in and out of the Delta ; but they were not worshipped as deities, like the Apis and Mnevis, which had the rank of gods at Memphis and Heliopolis. Nor did they enjoy the same honours that were paid to the sacred cow at Momemphis, where Yenus was worshipped. Bull and cow mummies are frequently met with at Thebes and other places ; and though Herodotus states that the bodies of the former were thrown into the river, and the latter all removed to Atarbechis in the Isle of Prosopitis, there is suf- ficient evidence of their having being buried in other parts of Egypt.3 The god Apis has been already mentioned. ' Mnevis, the — ^ ■ 9 sacre(^ ox °^ Heliopolis,4 was honoured by the ![I^^fQ/\ jj Egyptians with a reverence next to the Apis, € VTL T A A whose sire some have pretended him to be. He ses. Name of Apis. too was dedicated to Osiris, and represented of a black colour, like the god himself, by whom his worship was instituted ; 5 and though inferior to Apis, the respect shown him was universal throughout the country.' In the Coronation Ceremony at Thebes he appears to be in- troduced under the name of * the white bull,' which is specified by the same character used to denote silver, or, as the Egyptians called it in their monumental inscriptions, ' white gold.' If this really represents the Mnevis, Plutarch and Porphyry are mis- taken in stating its colour to be black ; and from what the latter says of the hair growing the wrong way, it seems that he had in view the Pacis or black bull of Hermonthis. Ammianus Marcel- linus,6 Porphyry, and .ZElian suppose that Mnevis was sacred to the sun, as Apis to the moon ; Macrobius states that Mnevis, Apis, 1 Herodot. ii. 41. up in the form of the animal. — S. B. 2 Strabo, xvii. p. 552. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 33. Diodor. i. 84. 3 As at Thebes, parts of the bodies, in- 5 Diodor. i. 88. eluding the skull, were dried and wrapped 6 Animian. Marcell. xxii. 14, p. 332. Chap. XIV.] SACKED BULLS. 307 and Pacis were all consecrated to the sun ; and Plutarch con- siders Mnevis to be sacred to Osiris.1 Strabo merely says, in the Heliopolitan prefecture is the city of the sun, raised on a lofty mound,2 having a temple dedicated to that deity, and the bull Mnevis, which is kept in a certain enclosure, and looked upon by the Heliopolites as a god, like the Apis in Memphis. The bull of Heliopolis appears to have been called, in the hieroglyphic legends, Mena.3 It had a globe and feathers on its head ; but though found on the monuments of Upper Egypt, it is evident that it did not enjoy the same honours as Apis beyond the precincts of its own city. It was from this, [and not the Apis, that the Israelites bor- rowed their notions of the golden calf; and the offerings, dancing, and rejoicings practised on the occasion, were doubtless in imitation of a ceremony they had witnessed in honour of Mnevis during their sojourn in Egypt. iElian mentions a story of Bocchoris introducing a wild bull to contend against Mnevis, which, having rushed at him without effect, and having fixed its horns into the trunk of a Persea, was killed by the sacred animal. The king was said to have incurred, by this profane action, the hatred of all his subjects. But the story is too improbable to be credited, though related to him by the Egyptians themselves. Basis or Pakis was the sacred bull worshipped at Hermonthis. iEiian4 calls it Onuphis. 1 The Egyptians,' he says, ' worship a black bull, which they call Onuphis. The name of the place where it is kept may be learnt from the books of the Egyptians, but it is too harsh both to mention and hear.' * Its hair turns the contrary way from that of other animals, and it is the largest of all oxen.' Macrobius relates the same of the sacred bull of Hermonthis, but gives it the name of Bacchis. ' In the city of Hermonthis,' he says, ' they adore the bull Bacchis,5 which is consecrated to the sun, in the magnificent temple of Apollo. It is remarkable for certain extraordinary appearances, according with the nature of the sun. For every hour it is reported, to change its colour, 1 In a papyrus mentioned by Professor posed to be the incarnation of the sun, and Reuvens, Lettre iii., p. 50, mention is made wore the solar disk on its head surmounted of Osor-Apis, and Osor-Mnevis. by plumes of two hawk's feathers on the 2 Its lofty mound, and the obelisk of coins of the Heliopolitan nome at the Usertesen L, still mark the site of Roman period. Sometimes it has only the Heliopolis. solar disk and uraeus. — S. B. 3 This is uncertain : the word men rather 4 jElian, Nat. An. xii. 11. means cattle than an individual animal. 5 Some MSS. read Bacis and Pacis. It was called in hieroglyphics Ur-mer, sup- x 2 308 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. and to have long hairs growing backwards, contrary to the nature of all other animals ; whence it is thought to be an image of the sun shining on the opposite side of the world.' 1 Strabo2 mentions the sacred bull of Hermonthis, but without stating its name ; and the Onuphis, mentioned by iElian, ap- pears rather to have been a title, signifying * the opener of good,' or Ouonnofri, which properly belonged to Osiris.3 If, indeed, this name was really given to the bull Pacis, we may conclude that, like Apis, it was sacred to, or an emblem of, Osiris ; as was Mnevis, according to Plutarch and Diodorus : 4 and thus the three, instead of being emblems of the sun, as Macrobius supposes, were consecrated to Osiris. The other bulls and cows mentioned by Strabo5 did not hold the rank of gods, but were only sacred : and this distinction may be applied to other animals worshipped by the Egyptians. I have met with no representation of the buffalo ; though, from its being now so common in the country and indigenous in Abyssinia, it was probably not unknown to the ancient Egyptians. The Indian or humped ox was common in former times, and is abundant in Upper Ethiopia, though no longer a native of Egypt. Like other cattle, it was used for sacrifice as for the table ; and large herds were kept in the farms of the wealthy Egyptians, by whom the meat, particularly the hump on the shoulder, was doubtless esteemed as a dainty. It is sometimes represented decked with flowers and garlands on its way to the altar ; but there is no appearance of its having been emblematic of any deity, or of having held a post among the sacred animals of the country. The dolphin, a native of the sea, was not likely to command the respect of the terrestrial, or, if they adopted the same epithet as the modern Chinese, the celestial Egyptians. It is, indeed, difficult to account for its selection by the Greeks as the companion of Yenus : for, however little we may object to its presence with her statue, under the guise of white marble and the classical name of dolphin, it recalls too strongly our ideas of the porpoise to appear to us a suitable attendant on the goddess of beauty. 1 Macrob. Saturn, i. 26. 4 Diodor. i. 88. s Strabo, xvii. p. 361. 5 Strabo, xvii. p. 552. He applies his 3 The Omphis of Plutarch (de Isid. s. remark only to Apis and Mnevis. 42) is evidently this name. Chap. XIV.] THE DOLPHIN— THE SPHINX. 309 Pliny,1 Seneca,2 and Strabo3 speak of the contests of the dolphin and the crocodile ; in which the former, wounding the crocodile with the spine of its dorsal fin in the abdomen, gained an easy victory over it, even in its own river. But its credit seems principally in- debted to fable, its weapons, like its beauty, being imagi- nary ; and whatever may have been the prestige in its favour among the classic writers of No-569- Androsphinx. Greece and Kome, the Egyptians do not appear to have noticed it so far as to give it a place in their paintings or their alphabet. The most distinguished post amongst fabulous animals must be conceded to the sphinx. It was of three kinds, — the androsphinx, with the head of a man and the body of a lion, denoting the union of intel- lectual and physical power ; the Tcriosphinx, with the head of a ram and the body of a lion ; and the hieracosphinx, with the same body and the head of a hawk. They were all types or representatives of the king. The last two were probably so figured in token of respect to the two deities whose heads they bore, Chnoumis and Ba ; the other great deities, Amen, Khem,Ptah, and Osiris, having human heads, and therefore all connected with the form of the androsphinx.4 The king was not only represented under the mysterious figure of a sphinx, but also of a ram No. 570. Kriosphinx. body and No. 571. Hieracosphinx. 1 PUd. viii. 26. 2 Seneca, Nat. Quaest. iv. p. 886. 3 Strabo, xvii. p. 567. 4 Sometimes kneeling rams were sub- stituted for androspbinxes, as at Karnak, Gebel Berkel, and other places. The an- drosphinx symbolised the union of intellec- tual and physical strength ; and Clemens and Plutarch say they were placed before the temples as types of the mysterious nature of the Deity. (Strom, v. 5, p. 664, and 7, p. 671 ; and Plut. de Isid. s. 9.) 310 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. Sta, asp-headed monster No. 572. and of a hawk; and this last had, moreover, the peculiar signification of Phrah, or Pharaoh, the sun, personified by the monarch.1 [Sometimes the paintings re- presented an asp, or some other snake (woodcut No. 572). Egyptian sphinxes were not composed of a woman and a lion, like those of Greece; and if an instance occurs of this, it was a mere caprice, and probably a foreign innova- tion, justified by its representing a queen, the wife of King Horus of the 18th Dynasty ; and they are sometimes seen in the sculptures that portray the spoil taken from Asiatic nations. One sphinx has been found of the early time of the 6th Dynasty (in the possession of Mr. Larking, of Alexandria), having the name of King Merenra ; and another of the 12th Dynasty (on a scarabseus of the Louvre); which at once decide the priority of those of Egypt. Sometimes an androsphinx, instead of The queer. Mut-netem of the 18th Dynasty as a female the lion's "DawS, has human sphinx. hands, with a vase or censer between them. The winged sphinx is rare in Egypt, but a few solitary instances of it occur on the monuments and on scarabsei ; as well as of the hawk-headed sphinx called sefer, which is winged (wood- cut No. 575). There are other fanciful creatures, one of which has the spotted body of a leopard, with a winged human head on its back resembling a modern cherub ; and another is like a gazelle with wings (woodcut No. 576). There is also the square-eared quad- ruped, the emblem of Seth (woodcut No. 577). The Egyptian unicorn, even in the early time of the 12th "Dynasty, was the rhinoceros ; and though less known then than afterwards, it had No. 574. Androsphinx. 1 The sphinx was the emblem of the god Harmachis, and represented the king in that character. Its earliest appearance is at the time of the 4th Dynasty, the great sphinx representing Shafra or Khefren. Sphinxes were called Ha or Akar : as a hieroglyphic they represented the idea neb or ' lord.'— S. B. Chap. XIV.] FABULOUS ANIMALS. 311 Sefer, or hawk-headed sphinx. the pointed nose and small tail of that animal, of which it is a rude representation. Over it is abu, a name applied also to 1 ivory,' and to any large beast. The winged Greek sphinxes, so common on vases, are partly Egyptian, partly Phoenician in their character, the recurved tips of the wings being evidently taken from those of Astarte. — G-. W.] Sphinxes were frequently placed be- fore the temples, on either side of the dromos, or approach to the outer gate. Sometimes lions, and even rams, were substituted for them, and formed the same kind of avenues, as at the great temple of Karnak at Thebes; a small figure of No- 575- the king being occasionally attached to them, or placed be- tween their paws. When represented in the sculptures, a deity is often seen presenting the sphinx with the sign of life, or other divine gifts usually vouchsafed by the gods to a king, as well as to the ram or hawk, when in the same capacity, as an emblem of a Pharaoh. Instances of this occur on several of the obelisks and dedicatory in- scriptions. Pliny 1 mentions sphinxes and other fabulous monsters, who were supposed to live in Ethiopia; and the Egyptian sculp- No. 576.nged gazelle* tures, as I have already shown, are not behindhand in relating the marvellous productions of the valley of the Nile. Plutarch2 and Clemens3 are satisfied with the enigmatical intention of these compound animals : the former saying TrTJ that sphinxes were * placed before the temples as types of the enigmatical nature of their * theology ; * the latter supposing them to l V7 signify that 'all things which treat of the \ \/\ Deity must be mysterious and obscure/ jAV^^iixl The Egyptian sculptures also represent _ 1[\ (t\> cows with human heads, lions with the ^ m e~blem of ^ heads of snakes and hawks or with wings, No- 577- winged crocodiles with hawks' heads, and other monsters, some of which occur on monuments of the early period of the 1 Plin. viii. 21 ; Strabo, xvii. p. 533. jElian (xii. 7) considers it fabulous. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 9. 3 Clem. Strom, v. p. 156. 312 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. 17th Dynasty. One of these, with the winged body of a quad- ruped and the head of a hawk, was called axeX > an^ one name(i sak united a bird, a quadruped, and a vegetable production in No. 578. Axex. No- 5?9- Sak. its own person. It had the head of a hawk, the body of a lion, and a tail terminating in a full-blown lotus ; and, being a female, threatened to produce other monsters as horrid as itself, with a facility unknown to ordinary hybrids. The large vulture of Egypt was said to have been emblematic of Neith, or Minerva ; 1 and the sculptures show it to have been connected with more than one deity of the Egyptian Pantheon. It enters into the name of Mut, though it does not appear to be an emblem of that goddess, signifying only, as the word mut or tmu implies, ' mother.' iElian2 supposes that 6 vultures were all females,' as if to account for their character as emblems of maternity. He even believes that a black vulture of Egypt was produced from the union of an eagle and a vulture ; and he reports other tales with equal gravity. Another deity to whom it was particularly sacred was the Egyptian Lucina ;3 and as her emblem it seems to protect the kings, whom it is represented overshadowing with its wings, whilst they offer to the gods in the temples, or wage war with an enemy in the field of battle.4 Under this form the goddess is portrayed with outspread wings on the ceilings of the temples,5 particularly in those parts where the monarch and the officiating priests were destined to pass on their way to celebrate the accustomed rites in honour of the gods. For this reason the vulture is introduced on the ceiling of the central avenues of the portico, and the under side of the lintels of the doors, which lead to the sanctuary. Sometimes in lieu 1 Horapollo (i. 11) says, ' of Minerva, or 4 Probably on account of the name of of Juno, or heaven, Urania, a year, a the vulture, urau, being the same as the mother,' &c. 2 iElian, ii. 46. word urau, 1 victory,' in the hieroglyphs. — 3 [iElian calls it the bird of Juno. — S. B. G. W.] 5 [Conf. jElian, x. 22. — G. W.] A Chap. XIV.] THE VULTURE, EAGLE, AND HAWK. 313 of its body is placed a human eye with the same outspread wings. The goddesses and queens frequently wear the vulture with outspread wings in lieu of a cap, the heads projecting from their foreheads, and the wings falling downwards on either side to their neck.1 Mummies of this vulture have been found embalmed at Thebes. The vulture Percnopterus was probably regarded with great indulgence by the Egyptians ; but though frequently represented in the sculptures, there is no evidence of its having been worshipped, or even considered the peculiar emblem of any deity. Tradition, however, seems to record its having enjoyed a considerable degree of favour, in former times, by one of the names it now bears, ' Pharaoh's hen.' Even the Moslem in- habitants of Egypt abstain from ill-treating it in consequence of its utility, together with the kites and other birds of prey, in removing those impurities which might otherwise be pre- judicial in so hot a climate. It is generally known in Arabic by the name rakham, which is the same it bore in Hebrew, reham, translated in our version of Leviticus gier-eagle ;2 where it is comprised among the fowls forbidden to be eaten by the Israelites. Diodorus3 and Strabo* tell us that the eagle was worshipped at Thebes. But it is evident that they ought to have substi- tuted the hawk, which the sculptures, as well as ancient authors, abundantly prove to have been one of the most sacred of all the animals of Egypt. Diodorus, indeed, shows the connection he supposes to have subsisted between the latter bird and that city, when he says,5 ' The hawk is reputed to have been worshipped, because augurs use them for divining future events in Egypt ; and some say that in former times a book or papyrus, bound round with red or purple6 thread, and containing a written account of the modes of worshipping and honouring the gods, was brought by one of those birds to the priests at Thebes. For which reason the hierogrammats or sacred scribes wear a (red) 1 [To indicate that they were mothers. — will translate very badly a ' purple patch S. B.] Conf. ^Elian, x. 22. though it is evident, from the 1 certantem 2 Levit. xi. 18. 3 Diodor. i. 87. et uvam purpura,' that the Latin as well 4 Strabo, xvii. 5 Diodor. loc. ext. as the Greek word signified also the colour 6 The words (poiuiKbs and purpureus are we call purple. (Hor. Ars Poet. 18 ; and translated 1 purple,' but it is evident that Epod. ii. 20.) The purple continued to they originally signified fire-colour, or change in colour at different times till it red ; and the ' purpureus late qui splendeat arrived at the imperial hue, and that unus et alter assuitur pannus ' of Horace adopted by the modern cardinals. 314 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. purple band and a hawk's feather in their head.1 The Thebans worship the eagle because it appears to be a royal animal worthy of the Deity.' But though the eagle was not worshipped, it frequently occurs in the hieroglyphics, where it has the force of the letter a, the commencement of the word akhom, its name in Coptic. Plutarch,2 Clemens,3 and others, agree in considering the hawk the emblem of the Deity; and the sculptures clearly indicate the god to whom it was particularly sacred to be Ka, or the sun. Other deities also claimed it as their emblem ; and it is shown by the monuments to have belonged to Ptah-Socharis- Osiris, to Aroeris, to the younger Horus, to Mentu, to Khonsu, to Har-Hat, and to Qabhsenuf, one of the four genii of Amenti ; all of whom are represented with a hawk's head. There is also a goddess who bears on her head a hawk seated upon a perch, supposed to be the deity of the west bank of the Nile. The same emblem is given to Athor; and the name of the Egyptian Venus is formed of a hawk in a cage or shrine. The boat or ark of Ptah-Socharis-Osiris is covered by the hawk, and several of those birds are represented rowing it, while others stand upon the pillars which support its canopy ; and the hawk is frequently introduced overshadowing the king while offering to the gods or engaged in battle, in lieu of the vulture of Eileithyia, as an emblem of Har-Hat or Agatho- dsemon. iElian4 says, ' The hawk was sacred to Apollo, whom they call Horus.' The Tentyrites, he also states,5 have them in great honour, though hated by the Coptites; and it is probable that in some ceremonies performed in towns where the crocodile was particularly revered the presence of the hawk was not permitted, being the type of Horus, whose worship was hostile to that animal. But this did not prevent the hawk-headed Aroeris and the crocodile-headed Sebak from sharing the same temple at Ombos. The hawk was particularly known as the type of the sun, and worshipped at Heliopolis as the sacred bird and representative 1 Clem. Strom, vi. p. 196. go to certain desert islands near Libya, 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 32. recalls the modern Arab story of the Gebel 3 Clem. Strom, v. p. 159. e' Tayr or ' mountain of the bird,' near 4 iElian, vii. 9, x. 14. He makes them Minieh. (iElian, ii. 43.) live 700 years. iElian's account of the 5 iElian, x. 24. two hawks being deputed by the others to Chap. XIV.] SACRED HAWKS. 315 of the deity of the place. It was also peculiarly revered at the island of Philae, where this sacred bird was kept in a cage, and fed with a care worthy the representative of the deity of whom it was the emblem. It was said to be consecrated to Osiris, who was buried at Philae ; and in the sculptures of the temples there the hawk frequently occurs, sometimes seated amidst lotus-plants. But this refers to Horus, the son of Osiris, not to that god himself, as the hieroglyphics show whenever the name occurs over it. The hawk of Philae is the same kind as that sacred to Ka, and not, as some have imagined, a different species. It is therefore difficult to account for Strabo's assertion1 that the bird worshipped at Philae, though called a hawk, appeared to him unlike those he had been accustomed to see in his own country, or in Egypt, being much larger and of a different character. The only mode of accounting for his remark is to suppose he alludes to the hawk I have named Falco Aroeris, which is larger than the ordinary kinds of Europe and Egypt, and is seldom seen even in the valley of the Nile. At Hieraconpolis, or the City of the Hawks, which stood nearly opposite Eileithyia, on the west bank, and at Hieracon, opposite Lycopolis, this bird likewise received divine honours; and the remains at the former, of the time of the first Usertesen, prove the antiquity of that place, and argue that the worship of the hawk was not introduced at a late period. The universal respect for the gods, of whom it was the type, rendered the honours paid to the hawk common to all Egypt; and though the places above mentioned treated it with greater distinction than the rest of the country, no town was wanting in respect to it, and no individual was known to ill-treat this sacred bird. It was one of those * confessedly honoured and worshipped by the whole nation,' 2 and ' not only venerated while living, but after death, as were cats, ichneumons, and dogs ; ' 3 and if, says Herodotus,4 ' any one, even by accident, killed an ibis or a hawk, nothing could save him from death.' iElian,5 indeed, asserts that the Coptites showed great hatred to hawks, as the enemy of their favourite animal the crocodile, and even nailed them to a cross; but this appears improbable, since the sun and other deities, of whom they were emblems, were worshipped at Coptos as throughout Egypt. 1 Strabo, xvii. p. 562. 4 Herodot. ii. 65. 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 73. 3 Diodor. i. 83. 8 .Elian, Nat. An. x. 24. 316 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. These sacred birds were maintained at the public expense. Every possible care was taken of them, by certain persons especially entrusted with that honourable duty,1 who, calling them with a loud voice, held out pieces of meat cut up into small pieces for the purpose, until they came to take them. And whenever, like the curators of the other sacred animals, they travelled through the country to collect charitable dona- tions for their maintenance, the universal veneration paid to the hawks was shown by the zeal with which all persons contributed. A hawk with a human head was the emblem of the human soul, the haieth of Horapollo. The goddess Athor was sometimes figured under this form, with the globe and horns of her usual head-dress. Hawks were also represented with the head of a ram. Several species of hawks are natives of Egypt, and it is difficult to decide which was really the sacred bird. But it appears that the same kind was chosen as the emblem of all the difYerent gods above mentioned, the only one introduced into the sculptures besides the sacred hawk being the small sparrow- hawk,2 or Falco tenunculo'ides, which occurs in certain myste- rious subjects connected with the dead, in the tombs of the kings. The sacred hawk had a peculiar mark under the eye, which, by their conventional mode of representing it, is much more strongly expressed in the sculptures than in nature ; and I have met with one species in Egypt which possesses this 1 Diodor. i. 83. ' a hawk ;' or, as Johnson supposes, of the * The origin of this inconsistent name Saxon spearhafoc. may be a corruption of sperviero, epervier, 4 Chap. XIV.] THE KITE— THE OWL. 317 peculiarity in so remarkable a degree as to leave no doubt respecting the actual bird called sacred in the country. I have therefore ventured to give it the name of Falco Aroeris. Numerous hawk-mummies have been found at Thebes and other places. And such was the care taken by the Egyptians to preserve this useful and sacred bird, that even those which died in foreign countries,1 where their armies happened to be, were embalmed and brought to Egypt to be buried in conse- crated tombs.2 The kite was also treated with consideration, because it destroyed rats and noxious reptiles, and, like the Vultur percno- pterus, aided in freeing the country of impurities which might be injurious to man. It does not, however, appear to have been worshipped as a sacred animal ; though it is probable that, like the sparrow-hawk and others, it was thought to belong to Ka, the patron deity of all the falcon tribe, the various members of which were represented by, or included under the name and form of, the sacred hawk. The horned and white owl are frequently represented in the sculptures ; but there is no evidence of their having been sacred, which is the more remarkable, as this bird has been chosen in many countries as the emblem of a deity, or connected with some mysterious notion. Its constant occurrence on the monu- ments, where it stands for the letter m, and bears the sense of 'in,' 'with/ and 'for/ together with the eagle, vulture, hawk, chicken, and swallow, led to the name 'bird writing,'3 which has been applied to hieroglyphics by the modern Egyptians.4 There is no reason for supposing the owl to have been an emblem of the Egyptian Minerva, as some have imagined. And if it obtained any degree of respect for its utility in 1 Diodor. i. 84. 2 The hawk was called bah, the emblem of all the solar gods, Ra, Mentu, Amen, Socharis, Horus, and even Osiris. It also expressed sometimes the idea ' god.' It represented likewise the lunar god Khonsu. In the future state the deceased turned into a hawk, and a ' gold hawk,' which last was the author of time and also one of the Pharaonic titles. — S. B. 3 The Greeks and Romans applied to them the name of ' animal writing.' Hero- dotus speaks of c the causeway of the pyramids, with the figures of animals carved upon it ' (ii. 124). Lucan says — ' Saxis tantum volucresque feraeque, Sculptaque servabant magicas animalia linguas.' Ammianus Marcellinus, in describing the hieroglyphics on the sculptured walls of the Egyptian excavated monuments, observes, ' Excisis parietibus volucrum ferarumque genera multa sculpserunt, et animalium species innumeras, quas hieroglyphicas literas appellarunt ' (xxii. c. 15, p. 339). 4 It is remarkable, however, that the owl, accompanied by the crook and the whip, occurs in certain silver coins sup- posed to have been struck by the Persians. — S. B. 318 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. destroying noxious animals, the return for those benefits was thought to be sufficiently repaid by the care with which it was embalmed after death. Several mummies of owls have been found in the Necropolis of Thebes. According to Horapollo,1 the sparrow 2 was used by the Egyp- tians to denote ' a prolific man,' and, according to others, ' the revolution of a year.' But neither the swallow, sparrow, raven, crow, nor upupa, received divine honours among the Egyptians ; and though the Moslems distinguish the raven by the name of ' Noah's crow,' and often consider it wrong to kill it, no peculiar respect appears to have been paid it in ancient times. According to Horapollo,3 the Egyptians represented Mars and Yenus by two hawks, or by two crows ; and the latter were chosen as the emblems of marriage. The same author assigns to the representation of a dead crow the idea of a man who has lived a perfect life,4 and to young crows the signification of a man passing his life in movement and anxiety.5 iElian pretends that this bird was sacred to Apollo, two only which belonged to his temple being seen in the vicinity of Coptos.6 The naturalist adds, that the Eomans employed at the emerald mines observed the same number there also — a remark which originated in the circumstance of ravens7 being almost the only birds seen in that tract ; and their habit being to live in pairs. They go a very short distance from their usual haunts ; but different valleys are visited by a different couple. iElian8 also states that the sepulchre of a raven was shown in the vicinity of Lake Myris (Moeris) ; and relates a story of King Marras, who, having employed a raven to carry his letters, buried it there at its death in token of his esteem for its fidelity. From what he mentions in another place,9 it appears that the race of crows and ravens has wofully degenerated, though greatly to the advantage of the modern inhabitants. Eor those birds, as soon as they saw a boat passing on the river, in a supplicating manner approached, and petitioned for whatever they required : if given, they departed quietly ; but if refused, they settled on 1 Horapollo, Hierog. ii. 115. 2 [Probably a peculiar species, or a variety, as the sparrow of Tunis is, differing slightly from that of Europe. — G. W.] 3 Horapollo, i. 8, 9, and ii. 40. 4 Ibid. ii. 89. What he says of its living thirteen years, and the Egyptian year being equal to four years, is obscure. 5 Horapollo, ii. 97. 6 -Elian, vii. 18. 7 He calls them crows, but I believe that both jElian and Herodotus mean ravens; the Egyptian being the Royston crow, or Corvus comix. I believe the latter to be sometimes represented in the Egyptian paintings, and even on papyri. 8 iElian, vi. 7. 9 Ibid. ii. 48. Chap. XIV.] FOWLS — COCKS. 319 the prow, and pulling to pieces the ropes, revenged themselves on the offenders. His well-known story of the Libyan crows dropping pebbles into jars until the water rose within reach of their bills is also on a par with the animal sagacity of those times. The swallow1 often occurs in hieroglyphics, where it some- times signifies ' great 9 and * valuable ; 9 but it does not occur as an emblem of any deity, and the only instance of its occurrence in religious subjects is on the boat of Atum. Isis was not wor- shipped under the form of a swallow, as some have supposed ; and if a group, of which this bird forms the principal feature, accompanies her name, it is only in the sense above mentioned, and applied to her in common with other deities. The swallow is found embalmed in the tombs of Thebes. Another bird, which is generally mistaken for the swallow, and has been conjectured by Champollion to represent a sparrow, is figured in the hieroglyphic legends as the type of an impure or wicked person. I believe it to be the wagtail, or Mota- cilla ; and it is worthy of remark that this bird is still called in Egypt ' Aboo fussad,' ' the father of corruption,' as if in memorial of the hieroglyphical character assigned to it by the ancient Egyptians. It does not appear that the upupa was sacred. iElian2 states that the Egyptians respected this bird and the Vul- panser goose3 for their love of their young, and the stork for its tenderness to its parents, but there is no reason to believe that any one of these was sacred. It is a remarkable fact that, though fowls abounded in Egypt, they are never represented in the sculptures. Plutarch4 tells us they sacrificed white and saffron-coloured cocks to Anubis, but without saying that they were the emblems of any god. Indeed, the universal use of fowls as an article of food argues against the probability of their having been sacred ; nor are they found embalmed in the tombs. It is not, however, impossible on this account that they might have been emblems, as the goose, though so universally adopted as an article of food, was the symbol of the god Seb ; and, were it not for the absence of all 1 Called men. The word for ' great ' is ur, the Latin Mr-undo. — S. B. 8 .Elian, Nat. An. x. 16. 3 The goose was sacred to, and the living emblem of Seb. (Prisse, 'Rev. Arch.,' 1845, p. 729.) There were several kinds of geese, called sa, seb sa, seb apt, and khenen or Xen, like the Greek xV- See the list of these found in the tombs. (Rosellini, 4 Mon. Civ.,' torn, i., p. 189.)— S. B. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 61. 320 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XI V. proof of it in the sculptures, we might believe that the assertion of Proclus respecting the cock applies to the religion of Egypt. That author says it held a rank among * solar animals, because it appears to applaud the sun at its rising, and partakes like the lion of the solar influence : for though so inferior in size and strength, the irock is said to be feared by the lion, and almost revered by it, the virtue of the sun being more suited to the former than to the latter : and daemons with a lion's head, when the cock is presented to them, are known to vanish instantly.' This notion of the lion and cock being analogous emblems, and the latter possessing power to contend with his powerful competitor, probably led to the design engraved by a Eoman artist on a stone I found in the Fyoom, representing a lion and cock fighting, whilst a rat carries off the bone of contention. This, besides the obvious moral it conveys, shows that the two animals were chosen as the types of strength or courage. It also recalls the assertion of Pliny,1 that ' cocks are a terror to lions, the most generous of animals.' Pigeons are not generally represented in the sculptures ; but an instance occurs of their introduction at the Coronation Ceremony, which is particularly interesting, as it shows the early custom of training carrier-pigeons, and adds one more confirma- tion of the truth of Solomon's remark, ' there is no new thing under the sun.' The king is there represented as having as- sumed the pshent or double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt ; and a priest lets fly four pigeons, commanding them to announce to ' the south, the north, the west, and the east, that Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, has put on the splendid crowns of the Upper and Lower Country — that is, that the king Kameses III. has put on the two crowns.' The pigeon2 is also noticed as a favourite food of the Egyptians; and so pure and wholesome was it considered by them, that when the country was visited by epidemic diseases, and all things were affected by the pestilential state of the atmosphere, they believed3 that those alone who contented themselves with it were safe from the infection. Indeed, during that period, no other food was placed upon the tables of the kings and priests, whose duty it was to keep themselves pure for the service of the gods. There is, however, no appearance 1 Plin. lib. x. c. 21. heaven,' are also applied to birds. — S. B. 2 It was called kar-em-pe, ( the bird of 3 Horapollo, Hierog. i. 57. heaven.' The word ari-em-pef 1 keepers of Chap. XIV.] THE IBIS. 321 of pigeons, or even doves,1 having been sacred ; and neither these nor the quail are found embalmed. The quail is represented among the offerings to the gods in the tombs, and was eaten by the Egyptians, but it was not the emblem of any deity. Nor did the ostrich hold a place among the sacred animals of Egypt, though much esteemed for its plumes. This is the more singular, as the ostrich-feather was a symbol of the goddess of Truth or Justice. It belonged also to the head-dress of Shu ; it was adopted by Hermes Trisme- gistus, as well as some other deities; and it was worn by the soldiery and the priests on certain religious festivals. Ostrich eggs were highly prized by the Egyptians, and were part of the tribute paid to them by foreigners whose countries it inhabited ; and it is possible, as I have already observed, that they were considered, as at the present day, the emblems of some divine attribute, and suspended in their temples, as they still are in the churches of the Copts. The ibis was sacred to Thoth,2 who was fabulously reported to have eluded the pursuit of Typho under the form of this bird. It was greatly revered in every part of Egypt; and at Herm- opolis, the city of Thoth, it was worshipped with peculiar honours, as the emblem of the deity of the place. It was on this account considered, as Clemens and iElian3 tell us, typical of the moon, or the Hermes of Egypt. Its Egyptian name was Hab ; from which Champollion supposes the town of Xibis to have been called, being a corruption of Ma-n-hip, or n-hip, * the place of the ibis.' This name was applied to the Ibeum, where it received the same honours as at the city of Thoth. Such was the veneration felt by the Egyptians for the ibis, that to have killed one of them, even involuntarily, subjected the offender to the pain of death ; 4 and ' never,' says Cicero,5 * was such a thing heard of as an ibis killed by an Egyptian.' So pure did they consider it, that ' those priests who were most scrupulous in the performance of the sacred rites, fetched the water they used in their purifications from some place where the ibis had been seen to drink ; it being observed of that bird that it never goes near any unwholesome and corrupted water.' 6 The 1 The doves represented on the monu- ments, called men, appear to have been ring-doves. — S. B. 2 Plato in Pnaedone. JElian, Nat. An. x. 29. Horapollo, i. 10 and 36. vol. in. 3 Clem. Strom, lib. v. p. 242. yElian, Nat. An. ii. 38. 4 Herodot. ii. 65, and Diodor. i. 83. 5 Cic. de Nat. Deor. lib. i. 29. 6 Plut. de Isid. s. 75. iElian, vii. 45. y 322 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. particular respect paid to it was supposed to be owing to its destroying venomous reptiles, which, as Cicero says, its height, its hard legs, and long horny beak enable it to do with great ease and safety ; thus averting pestilence from Egypt, when the winged serpents are brought by the westerly winds from the deserts of Libya.1 Pausanias,2 Cicero, and others,3 think the existence of these serpents not impossible ; and Herodotus says he only saw their bones and wings. But we may readily pardon their credulity, when we find it asserted by a modern traveller that they still exist in Egypt. The account of Herodotus is this : 4 ' In Arabia (the eastern or Arabian side of the Nile), very near to the city of Buto, is a place to which I went to inquire about the winged serpents. On my arrival I saw a great quantity of bones and backbones of serpents scattered about, of all sizes, in a place where a narrow gorge between two hills opens upon an extensive plain contiguous to the valley of Egypt. These serpents are reported to fly from Arabia into Egypt about the beginning of spring, when the ibis, meeting them at the opening of this defile, prevents their passing, and destroys them : in gratitude for which service, the Arabs say that the Egyptians have great veneration for the ibis ; and they themselves allow it is for this reason they honour that bird. ' There are two kinds of ibis. The first is of the size of a crex,5 with very black plumage ; the legs like those of the crane, and the beak curved. This kind attacks the serpents. The other ibises are more common, and often seen. They have the head and all the neck without feathers ; their plumage is white, except the head, neck, and extremity of the wings and tail, all which are quite black ; the legs and beak being the same as in the other species. The winged serpent is in figure like a water- snake ; its wings are without feathers, and exactly like those of a bat.' Among the many fanciful animals of the Egyptian sculptures, the winged serpents mentioned by Herodotus are nowhere found. Even among the many monsters in the mythological subjects of their tombs, none are represented, as he describes them, with the wings of bats, though some occur with the feathered wings of birds. Had the Egyptians themselves believed the existence of that kind of serpent, we may reasonably 1 Cicero, de Nat. Deor. lib. i. Herodotus 3 iElian, Nat. An. ii. 38. Aram. Marc, says they came frcm Arabia. xxii. 15, p. 338. * Herodot. ii. 75. 2 Pausan. x. 21. 5 Eallus crex. Chap. XIV.] THE IBIS. 323 suppose they would not have omitted it in the numerous scenes connected with the Evil Being, of whom this hateful monster would have been an appropriate type. We may therefore conclude that Herodotus was imposed upon by some deceitful or credulous Egyptian, who showed him the backbones of serpents mixed with the wings and bones of bats ; which last abound in great numbers in Egypt, and many have been found in the gorge near Buto.1 The common ibis mentioned by Herodotus corresponds with the Numenius Ibis, or Ibis religiosa, of modern naturalists, as Cuvier has shown ; 2 but this is not the ibis famed for its attack on the serpents, which was less common, and of a black colour. Those we find embalmed are the Numenius. They are white, with black pinions and tail : the body measures 12 inches, and 4 \ in diameter, and the beak about half a foot. The leg, from the knee to the plant of the foot, is about 4^ inches, and the foot the same length; the wing, from the pinion-joint to the extremity of the feathers, being nearly 10 inches. The Ardea Ibis of Hasselquist, which is a small heron with a straight beak, has no claim to the title of ibis of the ancients. The black and the common Egyptian ibis were related to the curlews, both having curved beaks. The Tantalus Ibis of Linnaeus is indefinite, from its comprehending, as Cuvier says, ' four species of three different genera.' 3 That the ibis was of great use in destroying locusts, serpents, scorpions, and other noxious creatures which infested the country, is readily credited. And its destruction of them4 led to the respect it enjoyed ; in the same manner as the stork was honoured in Thessaly,5 where it was a capital offence to kill one of those birds.6 Some have doubted the bill of the ibis havino- sufficient power to destroy serpents ; and therefore, questioning the accuracy of Herodotus's description of the birds which attacked them in the desert near Buto, have suggested that they were of the Ardea kind. But it is evident that the bill of the ibis is sufficiently strong for attacking serpents7 of ordinary size, 1 From his never mentioning locusts, some might suppose he had made this mistake on seeing the bones and wings of those insects ; but the form of the snakes, the bat's wings, and what he afterwards says of their living in Arabia, prevent this conclusion. (Herodot. ii. 75, and iii. 107, 109.) 2 Jameson's Cuvier's 4 Theory of the Earth,' p. 300, et seq. 3 Ibid. p. 329. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 75. 5 Ibid. s. 74. 6 Plin. x. 23. 7 Some birds, as the secretary and others, attack snakes by striking them with the edge of their pinions, and, having stunned them, then use their beaks. Y 2 324 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. and well suited for the purpose. With regard to the statement of Herodotus, nothing conclusive can be derived from it ; his whole testimony, as Cuvier observes, only proving that he saw a heap of bones, without having ascertained, beyond report, how they were brought to the spot. Bronze figures of the ibis represent it attacking snakes; which, if not of ancient Egyptian, but of Koman time, suffice to show the general belief respecting it ; and Cuvier actually found the skin and scales of a snake, partly digested, in the intestines of one of these mummied birds. The food of the common ibis also consisted of beetles and other insects ; and in the body of one were several Coleoptera, two of which have been ascertained by Mr. Hope to be Pimelia pilosa,1 and Ahis reflexa of Fabricius, common in Egypt at the present day. Insects, snakes, and other reptiles appear to have been the food of both kinds of ibis. Plutarch and Cicero pretend that the use it made of its bill taught mankind an important secret in medical treatment.2 The form of the ibis, when crouched in a sitting position, with its head under its feathers, or when in a mummied state, was supposed to resemble the human heart : 3 * the space between its legs, when parted asunder as it walks, was observed to make an equilateral triangle,' 4 and numerous equally fanciful peculiar- ities were discovered in this revered emblem of Thoth. Pettigrew says,5 ' The heart was looked upon by the Egyp- tians as the seat of the intellect ; and in this way it has been attempted to explain the attribute of the ibis, which was no less than to preside over and inspire all sacred and mystical learning of the Egyptian hierarchy.' Horapollo describes the Egyptian Hermes as - the president of the heart, or a personification of the wisdom supposed to dwell in the inward parts.' iElian's story of the length of its intestines, ascertained by those who presided over the embalming of this bird to be 96 cubits long,6 and its obstinate refusal to eat any food when taken out of Egypt, are among the number of idle tales respecting the ibis.7 I have stated that it was particularly sacred to Thoth, the 1 M. Latreille?s genus Trachyderma — so 5 ' History of Egyptian Mummies,' p. named from their thick elytra. 205. 2 The bill is not a tube. (Plut. de Isid. 6 Larcher says they were ascertained at s. 75. Cicero, de Nat. Deor. lib. ii. iElian, the Academie des Sciences to be 4 ft. 8 in. Nat. An. ii. 35, &c.) French. (Herod. Larch, p. 231. iElian, x. 3 Horapollo, i. 10, 36. jElian, x. 29. 29.) 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 75. The expression 7 Larcher has also freed it from the inl- and the beak ' is very unintelligible. putation of a felo de se. Chap. XIV.] THE IBIS. 325 moon, or the Egyptian Hermes, and that Hermopolis was the city in which it received the greatest honours. As an emblem of Thoth it was represented standing on a perch ; and the god himself was almost invariably figured with the head of this bird. There was another Hermopolis, distinguished by the adjunct Parva, where it was also revered as an emblem of the same god ; and the town of Ibeum, situated, according to the Itinerary of Antoninus, 24 miles to the north of Hermopolis, was noted for the worship of the ibis. But all Egypt acknowledged its sacred character ; and there is no animal of which so many mummies have been found, particularly at Thebes, Memphis, and Hermo- polis Magna. In the former they are enveloped in linen bandages, and are often perfectly preserved ; at Memphis they are deposited in earthenware vases of conical shape, but nearly always decomposed ; and at the city of Hermes, in wooden or stone cases of an oblong form. Some have been found mummied in the human form ; one of which, in the collection of Passa- lacqua, is made to represent the god Thoth.1 Both kinds of ibis mentioned by Herodotus were doubtless sacred to the Egyptian Hermes. The ibis is rarely found in Egypt at the present day, though said sometimes to frequent the Lake Menzaleh, and occasionally to be seen in other parts of the country. Cuvier and others have made considerable researches respecting it ; and that celebrated naturalist brings forward a curious proof of its having been domesticated, from the discovery of a mummied ibis, whose 'left humerus had been broken and joined again.' For, he observed, ' it is probable that a wild bird whose wing had been broken would have perished before it had healed, from being unable to pursue its prey or escape from its enemies.'2 It is probable that many of the heron or crane tribe were looked upon with, respect by the Egyptians, though they did not receive the same honours given to the ibis ; and some were chosen as emblems of other gods, distinct from every connection with Thoth. Some were killed for the table and the altar; and the Egyptian chasseur is frequently represented felling them with the throw- stick 3 in the thickets of the marshes.4 Several occur in the hieroglyphics, and in the paintings: 1 Pettigrew, plate 13, fig. 6. of coming back to the thrower, did not 2 Cuvier's ' Theory of the Earth,' p. 307. belong to the Egyptian throw-stick, which 3 This calls to mind the boomerang of New was also more straight. Holland ; but the peculiarity of this last, 4 Woodcut No. 366. 326 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. among which we may distinguish the Ardea cinerea or heron,1 the Platalea or spoonbill, the stork, charadrius, and others.2 Cranes and other wading birds are found in the winter in Upper Egypt, but far more in Ethiopia, and in spring immense flights of storks (Ciconia alba) collect together, which, after soaring round in cir- cles at a great height, return for the summer to the north. From the migration of cranes to Ethiopia arose the fable of the Cranes and Pygmies. The Ardea cinerea and garzetta, the Platalea or spoonbill, the pelican, and some others remain the whole year in Egypt. The Grus cinerea, a crane, winters in Ethiopia about Gebel Berkel. This last has been strangely mistaken for an ostrich at Beni-Hassan, and is probably the Grus undeter- mined by Pickering.3 The ibis is rarely seen except near the Lake Menzaleh, where ducks, coots, and numerous water-fowl abound. The avocet was a native of Egypt as early as the 12th Dynasty. The Xumidian demoiselle, Anthropoides Virgo, is found, but not common, in Upper Egypt. Kites remain all the winter, and swallows also, though in small numbers, even at Thebes.4 That which held the next rank to the ibis was the tufted Bennu,5 one of the emblems of Osiris, who was sometimes figured with the head of this bird. It was distinguished by a tuft of two long feathers falling from the back of its head; and this peculiarity seems to point out the small white aboogerdan, which I have often seen with two similar plumes. Its pure white6 colour, its custom of following the plough, and living in the cul- tivated fields, from which the French have given it the name of gardeboenf, as well as its utility in eating the worms and insects in newly-tilled lands, argue in favour of this conjecture, and suggest it to be an appropriate emblem of the beneficent Osiris. It is the Ardea bubidcus of Savigny. More than one Charadrius was a native of Egypt. The Charadrius oedicnemus, the modern Karawan, the Cristatus or crested plover, and the Armatus or spur-winged plover, were very common. But the most remarkable, from the tale attached to it, was the Trochilus.7 Sicard is right in saying that it is called 1 Vol. ii. woodcut No. 369, fig. 15. 2 Vol. ii. p. 114, and woodcuts Nos. 368, 369 ; also Plate LIX. 3 Page 169. 4 [I have, however, found a swallow at Thebes which had died of cold.— G. W.] 5 Woodcut No. 578. 6 I believe, however, that the Bennu is represented of a bluish grey or slate colour. 7 jElian, xii. 15, says there were 'several species of Trochilus (i.e. Charadrius), with hard names,' to which he seems always to have a great objection. Chap. XIV.] THE TROCHILUS— THE GOOSE. 327 Siksak by the Arabs, though this name is also applied to the spur-winged and crested plovers. The benefit it confers on the crocodile, by apprising it of the approach of danger with its shrill voice,1 doubtless led to the fable of the friendly offices it was said to perform for that animal, as I have already observed. Ammianus Marcellinus calls the Trochilus a small2 bird, which does not disagree with the dimensions of the Siksak, being only 9^ inches long. It is of a slate colour, the abdomen and neck being white. The head is black, with two white stripes running from the bill and meeting at the nape of the neck, and a black mantle extends over the shoulders to the tail. The No. 581. The Trochilus, or Charadrius melanocephalus , Linn. feet are blue, and the beak black. The wings are also black, with a broad transverse white band. It is the Charadrius melanoeephalus of Linnaeus.3 The Egyptian goose was an emblem of the god Seb,4 the father of Osiris. It is not, however, among the sacred animals of Egypt which were forbidden to be eaten ; as is evident from there having been a greater consumption of geese than of any 1 .Elian, viii. 25. 2 Or 'short/ brevis : Ammian. Marcell. xxii. p. 336. 3 Linnaeus has taken the Trochilus as a generic name for the humming bird, par- ticularly for those with curved bills. 4 [As an emblem of Seb it was connected with the great mun- dane egg, in which form the chaotic mass of the world was pro- duced. Part of the 26th chapter of the funeral Ritual trans- No- 5»2- lated by Dr. Hincks contains this dogma, alluded to in the Orphic Cosmogony : 1 1 am the Egg of the Great Cackler. I have protected the Great Egg laid by Seb in the world : I grow, it grows in turn : I live, it lives in turn : I breathe, it breathes in turn.' This Dr. Birch shows to be used on coffins of the period about the 12th Dynasty. (See Glid- don's ' Otia Egypt.' p. 83.) On the Orphic Cosmogony and the connection between the egg and Chronus (Saturn, the Seb of Egypt), see Damascius in Cory's 4 Fragments,' p. 31 3. Aristophanes (Birds, 7 00) mentions the egg produced by 1 black-winged Night.' (Cory, p. 293, and see Orphic Hymn to Protogonus, p. 294.) As Seb and Nut answered to Saturn and Rhea, their chil- dren Osiris and Isis, being brother and sister, answered to Jupiter and Juno, though they did not really bear any other resemblance to them. Seb and Nut were the earth and the heaven above. — G. W.] 328 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. other bird, even in those places where the god Seb was parti- cularly adored. And if Herodotus 1 says 4 it was sacred,' he probably refers to its having been the emblem of the husband of Nut, the Egyptian Saturn. It signified in hieroglyphics 'a child ; ' 2 and Horapollo says, ' It was chosen to denote a son, from its love to its young, being always ready to give itself up to the chasseur in order that they might be preserved : for which reason the Egyptians thought it right to revere this animal.' The goose was very common in every part of Egypt, as at the present day ; but few mummies have been found of it, which is the more readily accounted for from its utility as an article of food, and as an offering for the altar. Among the minor deities or genii of the tombs a duck-headed god is sometimes represented ; but this bird does not appear to have held a rank among the sacred animals of Egypt. Horapollo says, ' The pelican was the type of a fool ; ' 3 and relates a ridiculous story of the reason for this unenviable dis- tinction. But he adds, ' Since it is remarkable for the defence of its young, the priests consider it unlawful to eat it, though the rest of the Egyptians do so, alleging that it does not defend them with discretion like the goose, but with folly.' This reason, however, at once impugns the truth of a statement which leads us to infer that they abstained from eating geese, since we know they were served at the tables of the priests themselves, and constituted one of the principal articles of food throughout the country. The pelican is sometimes eaten by the modern Egyp- tians ; but it is very coarse and strong, and requires much cooking to overcome the greasy properties of its flesh, and we cannot be surprised at the ordinance which forbade it to the Israelites.4 Its Hebrew name is Kath ; and it is now com- monly known in Egypt as the Gemmal el hahr, or ' camel of the river.' Among fabulous birds, the Phoenix 5 holds the first place ; but this I have already mentioned, as well as the Baieth, and the vulture with a snake's head. Hawks were often represented with the heads of rams and men. 1 Herodot. ii. 72. viii. 12). 2 Horapollo, i. 53. It answered to the 5 [This bird I formerly supposed to be letter s, of se, ' a child.' the one represented on the monuments 3 Horapollo, Hierog. i. 54. with human hands, and often with a man's 4 Levit. xi. 18. Deut. xiv. 17. Pliny head and legs, in an attitude of prayer; also tells a strange tale about the pelican, but it appears to be the 'pure soul' of the which he calls Platea (x. 40 ; and Aristot. king.— G. W."| Chap. XIV.] THE CKOCODILE. 329 A tortoise-headed god1 occurs as one of the genii in the tombs ; but it does -not appear that the tortoise held a rank among the sacred animals of Egypt. The crocodile, as has been already shown, was peculiarly sacred to the god Sebak. Its worship did not extend to every part of Egypt : some places considering it the representative of the Evil Being, and bearing the most deadly animosity to it, which led to serious feuds between neighbouring towns. Such was the cause of the quarrel of the Ombites and Tentyrites de- scribed by Juvenal : 2 and the same animal which was worshipped at Ombos ' was killed and eaten by the inhabitants of Apollin- opolis. Indeed, on a particular day, they had a solemn chase of the crocodile,3 when they put to death as many as they could, and afterwards threw their bodies before the temple of their god ; assigning this reason, that it was in the shape of a crocodile that Typho eluded the pursuit of Horus.' It enjoyed great honours at Coptos, Ombos,4 and Athribis or Crocodilopolis in the Thebaid. In Lower Egypt it was particu- larly sacred at a place also called the City of Crocodiles, and afterwards Arsinoe, in honour of the wife and sister of Ptolemy Philadelphus, which was the capital of a nome, now the province of Fyoom. The animals were there kept in the Lake Moeris, and were buried, according to Herodotus,5 in the underground chambers of the famous Labyrinth. There was another Croco- dilopolis in the Thebaid, placed by Strabo on the west bank, next in order to, and on the south of, Hermonthis ; which I sup- pose to have stood at the Gebelayn, where the vestiges of a town appear on the hill nearest the river. Judging from the numerous mummies of crocodiles in the extensive caves of Maabdeh, oppo- site Manfaloot, another town particularly devoted to their worship also stood in that neighbourhood. From the account of iElian 6 it appears that, in places where they were worshipped, their numbers increased to such an extent * that it was not safe for anyone to wash his feet or draw water at the river ; and no one could walk near the edge of the stream either in the vicinity of Ombos, Coptos, or Arsinoe, without extreme caution.' Near one of the cities called Crocodilopolis was the place of interment of the first Asclepius, the reputed inventor of medi- 1 Supposed to represent idleness. — S. B. 562. « Jllian, x. 24. 2 Juv. Sat, xviii. 36. 5 Herodot. ii. 148. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 50. Strabo, xvii. p. « iElian, x. 24. 330 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. cine; to whom a temple was said to have been dedicated on the Libyan hills in the vicinity.1 That city was probably Athribis, noted for the peculiar honours paid to its presiding deity Thriphis, the contemplar companion of Kherti. Strabo 2 speaks of the great respect shown to the crocodile in 'the nome of Arsinoe, or, as it was formerly called, Croco- dilopolis. He states that one was sacred there, and kept apart in a particular lake, which was so tame that it allowed itself to be touched by the priests. They called it Souchos, or Suchus. It was fed with bread, meat, and wine, which were brought by those strangers who went to see it. Strabo's host, a man of con- sideration, when showing the geographer and his party the sacred curiosities of the place, conducted them to the brink of the lake, having taken with him from table a cake, some roast meat, and a cup of wine. The animal was lying on the bank ; and while some of the priests opened its mouth, one put in the cake, and then the meat, after which the wine was poured into it. The crocodile, upon this, taking to the water, passed over to the other side; and another stranger, having come for the same purpose, made similar offerings to it as it lay there. The Suchus of Strabo appears to agree with, and to be taken from, the name of the god Sebak ; and it was probably applied exclusively to those which were sacred. Herodotus says the Egyptians called crocodiles Champses ; a corruption of the Coptic or Egyptian name msah, or emsooh, from which the Arabs have derived their modern appellation temsah. The croco- deilos3 of the Greeks was merely the Ionian term for all lizards, as our alligator is the Portuguese o lagarto, ' the lizard.' Herodotus agrees with Strabo in saying they were rendered so tame as to allow themselves to be touched with the hand ; their ears were decked with earrings,4 and their fore-feet with bracelets ; and as long as they lived they were fed with the flesh of victims, and other food ordained by law. Thebes did not refuse divine honours to the crocodile, as the emblem of Sebak, who was admitted among the contemplar deities of that city ; and we learn from the sculptures that many other towns acknowledged it as a sacred animal. 1 Mercur. Trismegistus' dialogue with not think themselves bound by any religious Asclepius. 2 Strabo, xvii. p. 558. feeling to bore their ears ; if so, the office 3 KpoKoSeiXos. of curator of the crocodiles must have 4 Herodot. ii. 69. We may hope they did been no sinecure. Chap. XIV.] THE CKOCODILE. 331 Herodotus mentions the respect paid to them at Thebes and the Lake Mosris ; and observes that ' some of the Egyptians con- sider them sacred, while others do all they can to destroy them : among which last are the people of Elephantine and its vicinity, who have no scruple in eating their flesh.' Diodorus1 makes the same remark of their having been worshipped by some only of the Egyptians. * Many,' says the historian, ' naturally ask how an animal which devours men can have been considered worthy of the respect shown to the gods. They answer, that not only the Nile, but the crocodiles are a defence to the country. For the robbers of Arabia and Africa, who would pillage the lands, dare not swim across the river from the number of these animals ; and one great impediment would be removed if they were hunted and destroyed. An historical tale relates that Menas,2 one of their ancient kings, being driven by his own dogs into the Lake Moeris, was miraculously taken up by a crocodile, and carried to the other shore : in commemoration of which benefit the king built the " City of the Crocodiles " in that district, ordering divine honours to be paid to them, and assigning the lake for their maintenance. Near it he built a tomb for himself, with a four- sided pyramid and a labyrinth, which are the admiration of all who behold them.' The crocodile was supposed by some to be an emblem of the sun, its number sixty being thought to agree with that lumi- nary;3 and Clemens tells us4 the sun was sometimes placed in a boat, at others on a crocodile.5 On the subject of the crocodile M. Pauw6 makes a very judi- cious remark, * that on his examining the topography of Egypt, he observed Coptos, Arsinoe, and Crocodilopolis, Athribis, the towns most remarkable for the adoration of crocodiles, to be all situated on canals at some distance from the Nile. Thus, by the least negligence in allowing the ditches to be filled up, those animals, from being incapable of going far on dry land, could never have arrived at the very places where they were considered as the symbols of pure water. For, as we learn from iElian, and 1 Diodor. i. 35. 2 From what follows, of his tomb and the labyrinth, he evidently means Moeris. 3 Iamblich. de Myst. sect. 5, c. 8. Por- phyr de Abstin. 4 Clemens, Strom, lib. v. 5 There is a curious subject at Philaj of a man's body on a crocodile's back, with other sculptures referring to the sun, moon, and stars. They are of late time. 6 Pauw, ' Recherches Philos.' vol. ii. part 3, sect. 7, p. 122. This has been quoted by Pettigrew. 332 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. more particularly from a passage in Eusebius,1 the crocodile signified water fit for drinking and irrigating the lands. As long as their worship was in vogue, the Government felt assured that the superstitious would not neglect to repair the canals with the greatest exactness.' Thus was their object gained by this religious artifice. I also avail myself of this opportunity of introducing an ingenious suggestion of Mr. Salt, that in Juvenal's account of the dispute between Ombos and Tentyris, Coptos2 should be substituted for the former; this town being much nearer, and consequently more likely to be engaged in a feud caused by the injuries done to an animal it held sacred in common with the more distant Ombos. The towns where it was looked upon with particular execra- tion were Tentyris,3 Apollinopolis, Heracleopolis, and the island of Elephantine ; and the same aversion was common to all places where the Evil Being was typified by the crocodile. Of the mode of hunting the crocodile by the Tenty rites, and the skill they possessed in overcoming so powerful an animal, I have already spoken ; and have mentioned the method adopted, according to Herodotus, of catching it with a hook, to which a piece of pork was attached as a bait. But I ought not to omit another mode practised at the present day. They fasten a dog upon a log of wood, to the middle of which is tied a rope of sufficient length, protected by iron wire or other substance, to prevent its being bitten through ; and having put this into the stream, or on a sandbank at the edge of the water, they lie con- cealed near the spot, and await the arrival of the crocodile. As soon as it has swallowed the dog they pull the rope, which brings the stick across the animal's throat. It endeavours to plunge into deep water, but is soon fatigued by its exertions, and is drawn ashore ; when, receiving several blows on the head with long poles and hatchets, it is easily killed.4 It is now seldom eaten, the flesh being bad ; but its hide is used, especially by the Ethiopians, for shields and other pur- poses; the glands are taken from beneath the arm or fore-leg for the musk they contain ; and some parts are occasionally dried and used as filters. In former times it seems rather to have 1 Euseb. Praep. Evang. iii. 11. 4 They were also probably harpooned, as 2 1 Barbara haec Coptos.' the ends of harpoons with a single barbed 3 Plin. vii. 25. Of the skill of the hook, surmounted by a crocodile and having Tentyrites in catching this animal, see beneath a ring, are in collections. (Brit. jElian, x. 24. Mus. Guide to Egypt. Rooms, p. 40.)— S. B. Chap. XIV.] THE CEOCODILE. 333 been eaten as a mark of hatred to the Evil Being, of whom it was the emblem, than as an article of food ; 1 but those who by- religious scruples were forbidden to eat its flesh, were not thereby deprived of a delicacy of the table. I have mentioned 2 the fable of the trochilus and the croco- dile, and the animosity said to subsist between the latter and the ichneumon, as well as the supposed security against the crocodile to those who used a boat made of the papyrus. Herodotus says,3 * Of all animals, none that we know of becomes so large, after having been so small: its eggs4 are scarcely larger than those of the goose, but by degrees it reaches 17 cubits (25 J feet) in length, and even more.' Plutarch5 relates other tales of this oviparous animal, to which he attributes a plausible reason for paying it divine honours. * It has no tongue, and is therefore looked upon as an image of the Deity Himself; the divine reason needing not speech, but going through still and silent paths, whilst it administers the world with justice.' 'Another peculiar property of the crocodile is, that though in the water its eyes are covered by a thin pellucid membrane which comes down from the forehead,6 yet it is able to see, at the same time that it cannot be perceived to do so ; in which respect likewise it bears some resemblance to the first god. It is further remarked, that in whatever part of the country the female lays her eggs, so far will be the extent of the inunda- tion for that season, .... showing that it is imbued with an accurate knowledge of what will come to pass Moreover the eggs it lays are sixty in number, as are the days which pass before they are hatched, and the years of those which live the longest — a number of great importance to those who occupy themselves in astronomical matters.' jjElian7 mentions the same number of eggs, the sixty days before they are laid, and the same period before they are hatched. He also gives them sixty ver- tebrae in their spine, and as many nerves, a life of sixty years, a mouth with this proportion of teeth, and a period of annual torpidity and fasting during the same number of days. It is from this number that Iamblichus thinks the crocodile connected with the sun. The mummies of crocodiles are found at Thebes, 1 Diodor. i. 35. 2 Herodot. ii. 68. JElian, iii. 11, viii. 25. Ammian. Marcell. xxii. p. 336. 3 Herodot. ii. 68. 4 Macrob. Saturn, lib. vii. c. 16, on the eggs of Crocodiles. 5 Plut. de Isid. s. 75. 6 From the side — the nictating, or nicti- tating, membrane. 7 iElian, x. 21. Cf. Aristot. Hist. An. v. 334 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. Maabdeh, and other places, many of which are of full size and perfectly preserved.1 Of the lizard tribe2 none but the crocodile seems to have been sacred. Those which occur in the hieroglyphics are not emblematic of the gods, nor connected with religion. I have already spoken of the choice of this serpent as an emblem of Chnoumis, and as a symbol of royalty,3 on which account it received the name of basilisk.4 Diodorus says the priests of Ethiopia and Egypt had the asp coiled up in the caps they wore on religious ceremonies ; but this should rather have been applied to the kings, being a royal emblem, given only to the sovereign or to the gods. Plutarch 5 states that * the asp is worshipped on account of a certain resemblance between it and the operations of the divine power ; and being in no fear of old age, and moving with great facility, though it does not seem to enjoy the proper organs for motion, it is looked upon as a proper symbol of the stars.' It was one of those creatures which were sacred throughout the country, though it enjoyed greater honours in places where the deities of whom it was the type presided, and, if we may believe Pausanias, particularly ' at Omphis,6 in Egypt.' Phylarchus 7 relates that great honours were paid to the asp by the Egyptians, and, from the care they took of it, that it was rendered so tame as to live with their children without doing them any harm. It came from its place of retreat when called by the snapping of the fingers ; and after dinner some paste mixed with honey and wine being placed upon the table, it was called to take its repast. The same signal was used when anyone walked in the dark at night to warn the reptile of his approach. This serpent was called Thermuthis, and with it the statues of Isis were crowned as with a diadem.8 * Asp-formed crowns' are frequently represented on the heads of goddesses and queens 1 The crocodile was called in Egyptian em suhu, 1 sprung of an egg.' They were sacred to Sebak, but also considered male- volent and personifications of evil actions, as the Egyptians had a great dread of the crocodile, which they exorcised. In the future state the deceased had to repulse the crocodiles, which had different mystical names.— S. B. 2 Plin. viii. 25. * It was called in Egyptian drd, the Greek ouraios. It was the determinative or emblem of all goddesses, and placed on the disk or head-dresses of all the principal solar deities, probably on account of its representing Neb.t unnu, * the lady of the hours,' attached to Ra or the sun. — S. B. 4 jElian considers it different from the asp ; and thinks it so deadly that if it bit a stick it would cause the death of him who held it. (Nat. An. ii. 5.) 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 74. 6 Pausanias (Bceot. c. 21) says, ' The asps of Ethiopia are black, like the people.' 7 iElian, Nat. An. xvii. 5. 8 Ibid. x. 31. Chap. XIY.] THE ASP. 335 in the Egyptian sculptures. The statues of the mother and wife of Amenophis (the vocal Memnon) in the plain of Thebes have a crown of this kind ; and the Kosetta Stone mentions ' asp-formed crowns,' though this last might refer to the single asp attached to the front of the cap usually worn by the king. Instances some- times occur of a fillet of asps bound round the royal crown, and I have once seen the same encircling the head-dress of Osiris. iElian1 mentions a custom of ' the Egyptian kings, to wear asps of different colours in their crowns, this reptile being emblematic of the invincible power of royalty/ Some, he adds, 'are of a greenish hue, but the generality black, and occasionally red.' I am however inclined to think that this idea arose from the different colours given to the asp in the paintings, rather than from any real variety in the living animal. The asp was also the emblem of the goddess Eannu. It was then supposed to protect the houses or the gardens of individuals, as well as the infancy of a royal child, in the character of guardian genius. Sometimes an asp was figured with a human head. iElian2 relates many strange stories of the asp,3 and the respect paid to it by the Egyptians ; but we may suppose that in his sixteen species4 of asps other snakes were included. He also speaks5 of a dragon,6 which was sacred in the Egyptian Melite (3Ietelis), and another kind of snake called Parias, or Paruas, dedicated to JEsculapius.7 The serpent of Melite had priests and ministers, a table and a bowl. It was kept in a tower, and fed by the priests with cakes8 made of flour and honey, which they placed there in the bowl. Having done this, they retired. The next day, on returning to the apartment, the food was found to be eaten, and the same quantity was again put into the bowl, for it was not lawful for anyone to see the sacred reptile. On one occasion a certain elder of the priests, being anxious to behold it, went in alone, and having de- posited the cake withdrew, until the moment when he sup- posed the serpent had come forth to its repast.9 He then entered, throwing open the door with great violence; upon which, the serpent withdrew in evident indignation, and the 1 iElian, Nat. An. vi. 33. that the dragon of the Greeks was only a 2 Ibid. iv. 54, x. 31, and xi. 32. He large kind of snake with, as he says, ' scales even makes it in love, without being com- like a pine-cone.' 7 iElian, viii. 19. plimentary to Egyptian beauty. 8 Cakes seem to have been usually given 3 Plin. viii. 23. 4 iElian, x. 31. to the snakes of antiquity — as to the dragon 5 iElian, xi. 17. of the Hesperides. (Virg. iEn. iv. 483.) 6 It is evident from Pausanias (Att. 21) 9 Ovid, lib. ii. Amor. Eleg. 13, to Isis. 336 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. priest shortly after became frantic, and having confessed his crime expired. According to . Juvenal,1 the priests of Isis, in his time, con- trived that the silver idols of snakes, kept in her temple, should move their heads to a supplicating votary ; and ex- travagant notions connected with serpents are not wanting in the paintings of the tombs of the kings at Thebes, and are traced in the religions of all nations of antiquity. The Egyptian asp is a species of Cobra da capello,2 and is still very common in Egypt, where it is called Nashir, a word signifying ' spreading,' from its dilating its breast when angry. It is the same which the Hawee, or snake-players, the Psylli3 of modern days,4 use in their juggling tricks, having previously taken care to extract its fangs, or, which is a still better pre- caution, to burn out the poison-bag with a hot iron. They are generally about three or four feet long, but some are consider- ably larger, one in my possession measuring exactly six feet in length ; and iElian 5 scruples not to give them five cubits. They are easily tamed. Their food is mice, frogs, and various reptiles ; and they mostly live in gardens during the warm weather,6 where they are of great use — the reason, probably, of their having been chosen in ancient times as a protecting emblem.7 In the winter they retire to their holes, and remain in a torpid state, being incapable of bearing cold, as I had reason to observe with two I kept in the house at Cairo, which died in one night, though wrapped up in a skin and protected from the air. The size of the asp necessarily suggests the question, why should Cleopatra have chosen so inconvenient a serpent ? 8 This name was perhaps sometimes applied, like our term viper, to many venomous serpents of different species; and another kind of poisonous snake of a much more convenient and 1 Juv. Sat. vi. 537. 2 Coluber, or Naja Haje. 3 JElian, i. 57. 4 ./Elian, speaking of the power of the Egyptians over snakes and birds, says, ' They are said to be enabled by a certain magical art to bring down birds from heaven, and to charm serpents, so as to make them come forth from their lurking- places at their command ' (lib. vi. c. 33). He thinks that no one ever recovered from the bite of an asp (vi. 38) ; though he modifies this opinion in another place (ii. 5). 5 iElian, Nat. An. vi. 38. He mentions dragons of thirteen and fourteen cubits (20 feet), brought from Ethiopia to Alex- andria. This was for iEsculapius. ' Deus intersit ' (xvi. 39). 6 iElian, v. 52. 7 Ammian. Marcell. (xxii. 15, p. 338) says, ' The asp exceeds all others in size and beauty.' His acontia is perhaps the tyar, ' flyer,' of modern Egypt. Plin. viii. 23 : ' Jaculum ex arborum ramis vibrari.' 8 The reason assigned is that from ob- servation or experiment she had found that the bite of the asp caused death attended by the least apparent pain. It was also more easily introduced to her. — S. B. Chap. XIY.] THE SNAKE. 337 portable size, common in Lower Egypt,1 may have been the one used by her, and have been miscalled by the Greeks an asp.2 Mummies of the asp are discovered in the Necropolis of Thebes. The harmless house-snake, from its destroying mice and various reptiles in their dwellings and outhouses, was looked upon with great respect by the Egyptians. Though used to represent Eternity, and sometimes occurring in the mysterious subjects of the tombs, it does not appear to have been sacred to any of the great deities of Egypt ; and if it belonged to any, it was probably only to those of an inferior order, in the region of Amenti. It is doubtful if the snake with its tail in its mouth was really adopted by the Egyptians as the emblem3 of Eternity. It occurs on papyri,4 encircling the figure of Harpocrates ; but there is no evidence of its having that meaning, and I do not remember to have seen it on any monuments of an early Egyptian epoch. The snake in former times played a conspicuous part in the mysteries of religion : many of the subjects, in the tombs of the kings at Thebes in particular, show the importance it was thought to enjoy in a future state; and .ZElian5 seems to speak of a * subterraneous chapel and closet at each corner of the Egyptian temples, in which the Thermuthis asp was kept/ as if it were the universal custom throughout the country to keep a sacred serpent. That the asp was universally honoured ap- pears to be highly probable ; but other serpents did not enjoy the same distinction, and one was looked upon by the Egyptians as a type of the evil being, under the name of Aphophis, ' the giant.' It was represented to have been killed by Horus ; and in this fable may be traced that of Apollo and Pytho, as well as the war of the giants against the gods, in Greek mythology. 1 The Echis pavo. passed, and Plutarch (Vit. Anton.) shows 2 [That is, if Cleopatra's death had that the story of the asp was doubted, been caused by any serpent, but the Nor is the statue carried in Augustus' story is disproved by her having decked triumph, which had an asp upon it, any herself in 4 the royal ornaments,' and being proof of his belief in it, since that snake found dead 'without any mark of suspicion was the emblem of Egyptian royalty: the of poison on her body.' Death from a statue (or the crown) of Cleopatra could serpent's bite could not be mistaken ; and not have been without one, and this was her vanity would not have allowed her to probably the origin of the whole story. — choose one which would have disfigured G. W.] her in so frightful a manner. Other 3 Macrobius (Sat. i. 5) says it was a poisons were well understood and easy of Phoenician mode of representing the world, access, and no boy would have ventured to 4 A papyrus in the Berlin Museum has carry an asp in a basket of figs, some of this emblem, which he even offered to the guards as he 5 iElian, x. 31. vol. in. z 338 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIY. By the serpent the Jews also typified the enemy of mankind. And such is the aversion entertained for snakes by the Moslems, that they hold in abhorrence everything which bears a resem- blance to them ; and a superstitious fancy induces them to break in two every hair that accidentally falls from their beards, lest it should turn to one of these hateful reptiles. The notion mentioned by Pliny,1 of snakes being produced from the marrow of the human spine, is not less ridiculous and unaccountable ; and no animal has enjoyed so large a share of the marvellous as the snake, which, from the earliest times, excited the wonder, the respect, or the abhorrence of mankind. Some venerated it with unbounded horrors : it was an emblem of the world, which Eusebius says was sometimes described by a circle intersected by a serpent passing horizontally through it : some gods were accompanied by it as a type of wisdom ; and several religions considered it emblematic both of a good and bad deity. The Hindoo serpent Caliya, slain by Vishnoo, in his incarnation of Crishna (which corresponded to the Python and Aphophis of the Greek and Egyptian mythologies), was the enemy of the gods, though still looked upon with a religious feeling ; the Mexicans and Scandinavians considered the snake the type of an evil deity ; and the Tempter of mankind was represented under the same form. Gods and heroes obtained credit for ridding the world of these hateful creatures; and humble individuals were sometimes made to partake of this honour. iElian2 speaks of snakes expelled by Helen from the isle of Pharos, on planting a herb, called after her Helenium,3 which she had received from Polydamna, the wife of Thonis; and a similar kind office is attributed to some Christian saints.4 A remnant of superstitious feeling in favour of the serpent still exists in Egypt in the respect paid to the snake of Sheikh Hereedee, which is supposed to perform cures for the credulous and devout, when propitiated through the pockets of its keepers. The winged serpents of Herodotus have been already men- tioned,5 whose existence was believed by Aristotle6 and many other writers of antiquity. Those introduced into the paintings 1 Plin. x. 66 ; iElian, i. 52. iElian seems to consider snakes the food of the stag, as asses of the wolf, bees of the merops, cicadas of the swallow (viii. 6, and ii. 9). 2 jElian, ix. 21. 3 Ibid. ix. 20, where he mentions a stone of similar efficacy. 4 Possibly the horned snake is the emblem of the goddess Nahab or Nahab-qa. — S. B. s Herodot. ii. 75, iii. 107. Cicero brings them from Libya (de Nat. Deor. lib. i.), Herodotus from Arabia. 6 Aristot. Anim. i. 5. Chap. XIV.] THE HORNED SNAKE. 339 of Egypt are of a different kind, and merely emblematic repre- sentations connected with the mysterious rites of the dead, or the fables of Amenti. ' In the environs of Thebes/ says Herodotus,1 ' is a species of sacred snake of a very small size, on whose head are two horns. They do no harm to man ; and when they die, they are buried in the temple of Jupiter, to whom they are reputed to be sacred.' These horned snakes (Cerastes) are very common in Upper Egypt, but are seldom found as far north as Cairo. I have, however, seen one in the Fyoom, even in the island in the middle of Lake Moeris, which is very remarkable, as they are not in the habit of entering the water, like the asp and some other serpents. The female alone has horns, the male resembling it in every other respect. They are both exceedingly venomous ; and from their habit of burying themselves in the sand, which is of their own colour, they are extremely dangerous. It is perhaps to these that Strabo2 alludes when he says that the desert between Pelusium and Heroopolis is infested by numerous reptiles, which bury themselves in the sand; unless, indeed, he refers to the Lacerta monitor and other lizards, which live in holes in the sandy soil, and which still abound in that part of the country. But Pliny3 distinctly points out their habit of burying them- selves, when he says, ' The cerastes have small horns rising from their bodies (heads), often in two pairs, by which they entice birds to them, the rest of their body being concealed.' It is fortunate that Herodotus was not convinced of his error, re- specting their harmless nature, by personal experience; and Diodorus4 properly ranks them among reptiles particularly destructive to man. They are called by the Arabs Hye hil Koroon, or the horned snake ; Cerastes by Pliny ; and Viper (or Coluber) cerastes by Linnaeus. There is no evidence from the sculptures of their having been sacred to the god of Thebes ; and Diodorus thinks the hawk was esteemed from its hostility to these as well as to other noxious reptiles. They were, however, honoured with sepulture there, as the Father of History tells us ; and, on his authority, I have ranked them among the sacred animals of Egypt.5 1 Herodot. ii. 74. 2 Strabo, xvii. p. 552. 3 Plin. viii. 23. Aristotle also mentions the cerastes (Anim. ii. 1). The snake- catchers often bring the cerastes with four horns, the extra pair being cleverly put in beneath the scales. Some are offered for sale with long flowing hair. 4 Diodor. i. 87. 5 The Egyptian name was Hfi, and they were used in hieroglyphics for the mas- culine affixed pronoun f. They do not z 2 340 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. The frog was an emblem of man in embryo, as we are in- formed by Horapollo.1 There are also a frog-headed god and goddess;2 the former, probably, a form of Ptah, the Creative Power, though in some inferior capacity. The importance at- tached to the frog, in some parts of Egypt, is shown by its having been embalmed and honoured with sepulture in the tombs of Thebes. The fabulous reptiles mostly consist of snakes with the head of a man, a lion, or a hawk, frequently with legs, or with wings; and the head of a snake is sometimes attached to the body of a lion, or a vulture. Of the sacred fish3 the most noted were the Oxyrhynchus, the Phagrus, and the Lepidotus. They, however, appear not to have been worshipped throughout the country, if we may judge from the war between the Oxyrhynchites and the people of Cynopolis.4 Plutarch5 tells us these three fish were unlawful food to the Egyptians, in consequence of their having devoured a part of the body of Osiris, which Isis was unable to recover when she collected the scattered members of her husband. They were therefore particularly avoided. In another place he says, 'The Egyptians, in general, do not abstain from all fish, but some from one sort and some from another. Thus, for instance, the Oxyrhynchites will not touch any taken by a hook; for as they pay an especial reverence to the Oxyrhynchus, from which they borrow their name, they are afraid the hook may be defiled by having, at some time or other, been em- ployed in catching their favourite fish. The people of Syene, in like manner, abstain from the Phagrus ; for, as it is observed by them to make its first appearance just as the Nile begins to overflow, they pay especial regard to the voluntary messenger of such joyful news. The priests, indeed, abstain entirely6 from all sorts ; and therefore on the ninth day of the first month, when all the rest of the Egyptians are obliged by their religion appeal- to have been worshipped, but some- for ' ./Elian ? (iElian, vi. 41, of Mice.) times were sculptured. The other snakes 2 Nu or Nun, and Nut, the male and were the viper, used as the consonant t; the female principle of water and the celestial mehen, a very long snake ; and the Apap water or abyss. Another frog-headed god- or Aphophis, also of large size. — S. B. dess, Heqa, the wife of Num or Khnum, 1 Horapollo, i. 25 ; Diodor. i. 10 ; and also presided over the same element. — S. B. JElian, ii. 56, who ' was once caught in a 3 For the fish of the Nile, see Strabo, lib. shower of rain mixed with imperfect frogs, xvii. p. 566. near Naples, on his way to Dicaearchia.' 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 72. He was an eye-witness of it ; but, as Gibbon 5 Ibid. s. 18. says of Abu-Rafe, ' who will be witness 6 Clemens Alex. Strom, vii. p. 240. Chap. XIV.] SACKED FISH— THE OXYEHYNCHUS. 341 to eat a fried fish, before the door of their houses, they only- burn them, without tasting them at all. They assign two reasons for this: one connected with the sacred account of Osiris and Typho (already mentioned) ; the second, that fish is neither a dainty, nor even a necessary kind of food. And this seems to be confirmed by the writings of Homer, who never mentions either his delicate Phaeacians, or the people of Ithaca, though both islanders, feeding upon them ; nor even Ulysses' companions themselves, during their long and tedious voyage, till reduced to it by extreme necessity.'1 I have already stated my belief that the Oxyrhynchus was the Mizdeh of modern Egypt, a species of Mormyrus. It was remarkable for its pointed nose, whence its name, a peculiarity easily recognised in one of those represented in the sculptures ; though, from the fins (if really intended to be a faithful repre- sentation), it would appear that several kinds were comprehended under the same denomination by the Egyptians.2 No. 583. The Oxyrhynchus fish, iu bronze. It is singular that the Oxyrhynchus should be commonly figured amongst the fish caught by the Egyptians, in the paintings of Thebes, of Beni-Hassan, and of Memphis. This would seem to confine its worship to the nome and city of Oxyrhynchus, where, as already stated, the people were so scru- pulous, that they could not be induced to eat any other fish which had been taken by a hook,3 lest it should at any time have been defiled by catching their favourite. 'Even when many different kinds were taken by them in a net, they looked most carefully for any Oxyrhynchus that might accidentally be caught, preferring to have, none rather than the most abundant draught, if a single one were found in it.' But it is probable 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 7. and Dorsalis, have not the dorsal fin like 2 That with a pointed nose curved down- that of the M. oxyrhynchus, and a less wards is the Mormyrus oxyrhynchus. Its pointed nose ; which last in the M. cypri- dorsal fin extends nearly along the whole no'ides is abrupt or round. back, which is the case with the M. caschive, 3 .^Elian, Nat. An. x. 46. Plut. de Isid. whose nose is much less prominent. Other s. 7. Mormyri, as the Labiatus, Anguilloides, 342 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. that many other places extended to this fish a feeling of venera- tion ; small bronze figures of it being often discovered in Egypt, some of which have the horns, globe, and urseus of Athor. In the temple of the Great Oasis is also a representation of this fish, accompanied by the name of the goddess, which leaves no doubt of its having been her emblem ; and this is the more remarkable, as it coincides with the metamorphosis of Yenus, who was said to have changed herself into a fish, and shows the Egyptian origin of that fable. At the oasis. 'Hathor Its reputed sanctity was perhaps owing to nustress of Sen (or Es- ^ being thought lesg wn0leSOme than Other No' 584, kinds ; for it is still an opinion in Egypt that smooth-bodied fish are less proper for food than those with scales [and the Oxyrhynchus, from the smallness of its scales, may have been reckoned among the former. — G. W.]. It is, however, probable that the prejudice in its favour was in some way con- nected with the careful maintenance of the canal which took the water from the river to the city where it was particularly worshipped. The Phagrus or eel was sacred at Syene1 and the Cataracts. It also gave its name to the nome and city of Phagroriopolis, near to Heroopolis ; where its worship was doubtless introduced with a view to secure the preservation of the canal2 of fresh water, which passed from the Nile to the Ked Sea. The eel is once represented at Beni-Hassan among the fish of the Nile ; but I have not seen it in the sculptures as a sacred fish.3 There is, however, no reason to doubt the assertion of Plutarch and other writers ; and it is probable that the Egyptians generally abstained from eating it on account of its unwholesome qualities. The name of Lepidotus (which, from the meaning of the word, is shown to have been ' a scaly fish ') has been given to the Kelb el Bahr, Salmo dentex* the Kisher or Gisher, Perca Nilotica, and the Binny, Cyprinus lepidotus. I have previously stated the pro- bability of the first of these having been the Lepidotus ; yet the 1 Clemens, Orat. Adhort. p. 17. Eue- nitae should evidently be Suenitae. (iElian, Nat. An. x. 19.) 2 Strabo, lib. xvii. pp. 533 and 566. 3 It was, however, deified and apparently- embalmed, as bronze boxes for holding the mummies, surmounted by the figure of the head of a goddess wearing the pshent and the body of an eel, are found in collections. (British Museum, Guide to Egyptian Gall., p. 62, No. 6880a.) They should from the head-attire represent the goddess Mut. The eel was sacred to Hapi or the Nile.— S. B. 4 Or Characinus dentex of Savigny. Chap. XIV.] OTHEE SACRED FISH. 343 form of what I believe to be this sacred fish, represented in bronzes found at Thebes, accords rather with the last ; though the modern name kisher, signi- fying ' scaly,' may tend to strengthen the claim of the second of the three. But the indefinite name of kisher appears to be often applied to other fish, besides the Perca Nilotica ; and it is evident that the Binny is Bronze Lepidotus. also called by the Arabs kisher. The Binny is the Cyprinus lepidotus of the 'Description de l'£gypte,' and the same as represented in the bronze of the preceding woodcut. De Pauw1 supposes the Latus to be the Perca Nilotica, but I do not know on what authority. Were it not for the circumstance of the bronze fish bearing a stronger resemblance to the Binny than to any other with which I am acquainted, I should not suppose it to have been a forbidden fish, since it is one of the best and most wholesome the Nile produces, and should still have preferred giving the name of Lepidotus to the Kelb el Bahr, whose appearance might serve to prejudice them against it. The uncertainty respecting the sacred fish of Egypt neces- sarily leads to many doubtful conjectures ; but the appearance of the bronzes induces me to renounce the opinion I had formed respecting the Kelb el Bahr, and to give to the Binny, or Cyprinus, the name of Lepidotus. Another fish, the Latus, was worshipped at Latopolis,2 now Esneh. In the sculptures several repre- sentations occur of fish, particularly one kind, which may possibly be the peculiar species held sacred in that city, as it is surrounded by an oval usually given to the names of kings and gods. The Maeotes is said by Clemens of Alexandria to have been sacred at Elephantine ; 3 but I am ignorant of its species and general character. It is possible that it may have been the karmoot, a species of Silurus,4 which, if not worshipped in the Thebaid, was connected with one of the genii of the Egyptian A fish at Esneh. No. 586. 1 Vol. i. sect. 3, p. 136. 4 Silurus cannuth, or Heterobranchus bi- 2 Strabo, lib. xvii. p. 559. dorsalis. 3 Clemens Alex. Orat. Adhort. p. 17. 344 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. Pantheon, who appears under a human form, with the head of this fish, in the sculptures of the Diospolite tombs. In Lower Egypt the karmoot was caught for the table ; but there is no evidence of its having been eaten in the Thebaid, and this may be an argument in favour of its having held a place among the sacred animals in that part of the country. iElian,1 however, states that the Phagrus, the sacred fish of Syene, was the same as that called by the people of Elephantine Mseotes. The reason assigned by him for the veneration there paid to it, is the inti- mation it gave of the rising Nile ; 2 and he gives it the additional credit of being exempt from the cannibal propensity common to other fish, of eating those of its own kind. Several fish have been found embalmed in the tombs; but their forms are not easily distinguished, and it is difficult to ascertain the species to which they belong.3 The scorpion was an emblem of the goddess Selk ; though we should rather expect it to have been chosen as a type of the Evil Being.4 iElian5 mentions scorpions of Coptos, which, though inflicting a deadly sting and dreaded by the people, so far respected the goddess Isis, who was particularly worshipped in that city, that women, in going to express their grief before her, walked with bare feet, or lay upon the ground, without receiving any injury from them.6 Many extravagant fables are reported by the same author of these as of other animals, and he even furnishes scorpions and pigs with wings.7 No representation has yet been found of the Solpuga spider,8 which is common in Upper Egypt, and which from its venomous qualities is looked upon as a noxious reptile ; though some think it of great use, from its enmity to scorpions, which it is said to destroy. To its power of doing so I can bear ample testimony, having witnessed more than one contest between them, in which the Solpuga was victorious ; though, when stung by its adversary, 1 jElian, Nat. An. x. 19. 2 Plutarch applies the same to the Phagrus. 3 Besides the first mentioned, there are some others described in the papyri, some of which are foreign and were introduced into the country ; as the ut, the baka or fahaka of the Nile of the Arabs, the ra, two sorts of barui or mullets, the amesku (conjectured to be a kind of mormyrus or oxyrhynchus), the hauana and the khep-nen of the Euphrates, the at and khept-pennu, ' rat's tail,' perhaps eel of the ditches of the inundation. ('Select Papyri,' Plate xcvi. 6-9; Birch, * Patere Egyptienne,' p. 39.) The Synodontis Sehal was the sacred fish of the goddess Hathor. — S. B. 4 iElian, vi. 23 : he even produces them from a dead crocodile (ii. 33). 5 .Elian, x. 23. 6 A bronze figure of a scorpion in the British Museum (No. 6680a) with a human head surmounted by a female head with head-dress, unfortunately broken, has on the pedestal the name of the goddess Isis. — S. B. 7 jElian, xvi. 41, and xii. 38. 8 The Solpuga araneo'ides, Plin. viii. 29, xix. 4, and xxii. 25. Chap. XIV.] THE SCAEAB^EUS. 345 it generally dies on the spot. But this seldom happens, owing to the great quickness of its movements ; and whenever the place in which the contest takes place is sufficiently spacious, the rapidity with which it runs round its adversary and seizes it by the head (when the sting of the scorpion can only reach the hard shelly head of the Solpuga) always ensures its success. The frequent occurrence of the scarabaeus in the sculptures, no less than the authority of numerous ancient writers, shows the great consequence attached by the Egyptians to this insect. ' A great portion of Egypt,' says Pliny,1 ' worship the scarabaeus as one of the gods of the country ; a curious reason for which is given by Apion, as an excuse for the religious rites of his nation — that in this insect there is some resemblance to the operations of the sun.' It was an emblem of the sun, to which deity it was particu- larly sacred ; and it often occurs in a boat with extended wings, holding the globe of the sun in its claws, or elevated in the firmament as a type of that luminary in the meridian.2 Figures of other deities are often seen praying to it when in this character. [The Nubians, transferring the idea of the worshipper to the thing worshipped, call the scarabaeus ' infidel.' — G. W.] It was also a symbol of the world, which it was chosen to signify in the hieroglyphics ; and it was probably in connection with this idea that Ptah, the Creative Power, claimed it as his emblem, being the demiurge, or maker of the world. By Ptah- Socharis-Osiris, the pigmy deity of Memphis, it was adopted as a distinctive mark, being placed on his head ; and Ptah was even represented under the figure of this insect. It belonged likewise to Ptah-Tore, another character of the Creative Power. Plutarch supposes that, from being emblematic of virility and manly force, it was engraved upon the signets 3 of the Egyptian soldiers, their opinion being 6 that no females existed of this species, but all males ; * and some have supposed that its position upon the female figure of the heavens, which encircles the zodiacs, refers to the same idea of its generative influence mentioned by Plutarch. It has always been a matter of doubt to what purpose the numerous scarabaei of all sizes and qualities found in Egypt were applied. Some suppose them to have been money; but 1 Plin. xxx. c. 11. from noon to evening; and Vishnoo in the 2 With the Hindoos the sun is called west and at night. Brahma in the east or morning; Siva 3 Plut. de Isid. ss. 10 and 73. 346 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. this conjecture is not supported by fact, nor indeed by proba- bility, in consequence of their great dissimilarity in size, weight, and many particulars required for establishing the value of a coin. They were principally used for rings, necklaces, and other ornamental trinkets, as well as for funeral purposes. Some of a larger size frequently had a prayer, or legend connected with the dead, engraved upon them ; and a winged scarabaeus was generally placed on those bodies which were embalmed according to the most expensive process. It is probably to their being worn as rings that Plutarch alludes, in speaking of ' the beetle engraved upon the signets of the soldiers.' The custom is mentioned by iElian ;x and some have been found perfect, set in gold with the ring attached. The scarabaeus may then be considered, 1, an emblem of the sun ; 2 2, of Ptah, the Creative Power, and of Ptah-^eper ; 3, of Ptah-Socharis-Osiris ; 4, of the world ; 5, connected with astro- nomical subjects ;3 and 6, with funeral rites. The scarabaeus was not only venerated when alive, but em- balmed after death, and some have been found in that state at Thebes. But the cities where it re- ceived the greatest honours were proba- bly Memphis and Heliopolis, of which Ptah and the sun were the chief dei- ties. Considerable inge- nuity has been exer- cised in order to dis- cover the real sacred beetle of Egypt, and to ascertain to what extent other species partook of the honours paid to that insect. I do not intend to detain the reader by any examination of this intricate question, which I leave to naturalists more capable than myself to settle,4 Rameses IL holding a Bhrine with scarabaeus (o). No. 587. British Museum. 1 .Elian, x. 15. 2 A winged scarabaeus bearing the disk 3 It occurs in some zodiacs in the place of Cancer. of Ra was also put for the winged globe of 4 Pettigrew's ' History of Mummies,' pp. Har-Hat; but this was only in lieu of 223-225. the sun. Chap. XIV.] THE SCAEAxLEUS. 347 and shall only observe that the one so frequently represented in the sculptures appears to be the beetle still common in every part of Egypt.1 And if Horapollo mentions a beetle * with two horns,' the Copris Isidis, consecrated to the moon, his statement is not confirmed by the sculptures, where it is never introduced.2 Horapollo 3 says, ' There are three species of beetles. One has the form of a cat, and is radiated, which from supposed analogy they have dedicated to the sun (the statue of the deity of Heliopolis having the form of a cat) ; and, from its having thirty fingers, corresponding to the thirty days of a solar month. The second species has two horns, and the character of a bull, which is consecrated to the moon; whence the Egyptians say that the bull in the heavens is the elevation of this goddess. The third has one horn,4 and a peculiar form, and is supposed, like the ibis, to refer to Mercury.' The mode of representing the scarabaei 5 on the monuments is frequently very arbitrary, and some are figured with or without the scutellum. But I do not believe they denoted a different genus ; and the characteristic of another kind of beetle appears rather to be introduced to show that they were all comprehended under one general denomination, and was intended rather to combine than to distinguish separate genera. That it was not with a view to indicate a distinct division of this class of insects is shown by their sometimes introducing two scutella, one on either clypeus, no example of which occurs in nature;6 and it seems that the scarabaeus, Buprestis, Ateuchus, and Copris, were all used by the Egyptians as synonymous emblems of the same deities. This is further confirmed by the fact of Passalacqua having found a species of Buprestis embalmed in a tomb at Thebes. But the scarabaeus, or Ateuchus sacer, is the beetle most commonly represented, and the type of the whole class. Fabulous insects did not hold a less conspicuous place on the 1 The Scarahoeus sacer (Linn.), or Ateu- baeus occasionally occur. — S. B. chus sacer (Oliv.), which is black, like that 5 The principal varieties on the monu- of the monuments. The green Ateuchus ments are as follow : scarabaei with plain JEgyptiorum is not the one there repre- elytra, indicated by a single division ; sca- sented. rabaei with plain elytra and a double divi- 2 In the British Museum is the bronze sion or line between the elytra ; scarabaei figure of a scarabaeus with two horns. with striated elytra and single or double (' Guides to the First and Second Egyptian divisions. These varieties occur in all Rooms,' p. 20, 2042a.) — S. B. materials and sizes. — S. B. 3 Horapollo, i. 10. 6 An instance of this occurs in the large 4 Small figures of the one-horned scara- scarabaeus of the British Museum. 348 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. Egyptian monuments than fanciful animals and birds; and beetles with the heads of hawks, rams, cows, and even men,1 are represented in the sculptures. This change of form did not make them less fit emblems of the gods : the scarabseus of the sun appears with the head of a ram as well as of a hawk ; and a scarabaeus with the head and legs of a man was equally emblematic of the god Ptah.2 Of other insects I shall only observe, that flies are said to have been preserved in the same tombs ; but doubtless without any idea of sanctity being attached to so odious and troublesome an insect.3 Indeed they still continue to be one of the plagues of Egypt ; and the character of a tormenter, applied to the Evil Being, seems to have been aptly designated by the title Beelzebub,4 or * the lord of flies.' The ant is also one of the plagues of the country, as in most hot climates. Horapollo5 says it represented in hieroglyphics • knowledge ;' but the consideration of its wisdom did not prevent the Egyptians from being fully sensible of the in- convenience it caused them, ' having the art of discovering whatever is most carefully concealed ;' and the origanum plant was used in order to drive away this industrious and tiresome insect. Few insects of ancient Egypt have come down to us either in the paintings of the monuments, or preserved by accident : the former being confined to the butterfly, beetle, wasp, dragon- fly, locust, and housefly ; and the latter, to those which have been found in the bodies or heads of mummies.6 I have stated that the Persea was sacred to Athor, as the 1 The principal varieties are as follow : scarabaei with human heads; scarabaei with the heads of rams, emblems of the god Khnum or Chnoumis ; scarabaei with the heads of hawks, always of lapis-lazuli, em- blems of the god Ka ; and haematite scara- baei with the head of a bull, probably emblematic of Apis. These were probably sepulchral amulets. — S. B. 2 The scarabaeus was called kheprar or kheprer, and was the emblem of type, shape, or metamorphosis. It was also named ab or a/, ' fly.' — S. B. 3 The fly was used as a honorary emblem and applied to certain decoi-ations bestowed for the reward of military honour, ap- parently as the order of the fly : it was then made of gold. Small flies of steatite glazed were used for necklaces. — S. B. 4 The zebub or dthebdb of the Arabs is the noted fly of the desert, which causes a disease to camels called by the same name. 5 Horapollo, i. 52, and ii. 34. 6 Pettigrew has enumerated all that have been ascertained by Mr. Hope, to whom those in one of the heads brought by me from Thebes were submitted for examination : — 1. Corynetes violaceus, Fab. 2. Necrobia mumiarum, Hope. 3. Dermestes vulpinus, Fab. 4. pollinctus, 5. roei, • Hope. 6. elongatus, 7. Pimelia spinulosa, King ? 8. Copris sabaeus ? ' found by Passa- lacqua ; so named on the testimony of Latreille.' [d. Chap. XIV.] SACEED TEEES AKD PLANTS. 349 sycamore to Nut. I have also observed that Plutarch supposes the peach to have been sacred to Harpocrates ;* though there is reason to believe that his opinion is erroneous, and that he has confounded it with the tree of Athor. Athenseus, on the authority of Hellanicus,2 mentions some acanthus (acacia) trees, which blossomed all the year, at a place called Tindium, where certain celebrated assemblies were held ; and this town had a large temple, surrounded with black and white acanthus-trees, on which chaplets made of their flowers, and pomegranate - blossoms entwined with vine - leaves, were placed. But this seems rather to indicate a local respect for the acanthus of Tindium than any adoration generally paid to those trees by the Egyptians. Tt^^ The acanthus 3 was the sont, or Mimosa Nilotica, of modern Egypt. Its flowers were frequently used for chaplets ; and its pod, which repre- sented a letter in hieroglyphics, was, we find, sometimes placed among the offerings on the altars of the gods. There is no evidence of its having been sacred. The tamarisk was a holy tree, from having been chosen to overshadow the sepulchre of Osiris, in commemoration of the fable of the chest containing his body having lodged in the branches of one of those trees on the coast of Byblus, where, driven ashore by the waves of the sea, it was discovered by Isis.4 The tree is represented in the sacred chamber dedicated to that god at Philae, and in a small sepulchre at How (Diospolis Parva). No. 588. Sacred tamarisk of Osiris. Tomb at How. The hieroglyphics refer to the bird ' Ben (Bennu) of Osiris.' 9. Midas, Fab. 10. Pithecius, Fab. 11. A species of cantharis in Passa- lacqua's Collection, No. 442. (Petti- grew, p. 55, whose work is replete with valuable information on the subject of mummies.) 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 68. 2 Athen. xv. pp. 679, 680. 3 It probably included others of the Mimosa or Acacia genus which grew in Egypt. 4 Plut. de Isid. ss. 15 and 21. 350 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. T No. 5o9. Priest watering the sacred tamarisk. From the sculptures representing the mysterious history of Osiris at Philce. In the latter the bird Bennu is seated in its branches, ac- companied by the name of Osiris, of whom it was an emblem ; and in the former two priests are represented watering the tree, as it grows beneath a canopy. This confirms in a remark- able manner the account of Plutarch,1 who, in de- scribing ' the tomb of Osiris at Philse, crowned with flowers at the solem- nisation of his funeral rites by the priests,' says, * it is overshadowed by the branches of a tamarisk- tree, whose size exceeds that of an olive/ Of the lotus I have already spoken, as also of the papyrus and other plants of the country. The agrostis, alluded to by Diodorus, was not related to the grass called agrostis by modern botanists, but seems rather to be a name applied to the lotus, which was so commonly held in the hands of guests in the convivial meetings of the Egyptians. Proclus pretends that the lotus was peculiarly typical of the sun, ' which it appeared to honour by the expansion and con- traction of its leaves.' It was an emblem of Nefer-Atum, and introduced with the infant deity Ahi. ' Garlic and onions/ according to Pliny,2 'were treated as gods by the Egyptians when taking an oath;' and Juvenal3 derides them for their veneration of these garden-born deities. Plutarch says, being held in abhorrence, the priests abstained from them 4 as unlawful food ; the reason of which was probably derived from a sanitary precaution, as in the case of beans and ' other kinds of pulse.' 5 But there is no direct evidence from the monuments of their having been sacred; and they were admitted as common offerings on every altar. Onions and other vegetables were not forbidden to the generality of the people, to whom they were a principal article of food : for, 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 21. 2 Plin. xix. 6. 3 Juv. Sat. 15. 4 Plut. de Isid. s. 8. 5 Ibid. s. 5. Chap. XIV.] EMBLEMS. 351 whatever religious feeling prohibited their use on certain occa- sions, this was confined to the initiated, who were required to keep themselves more especially pure for the service of the gods. The palm-branch I have shown to have been adopted to represent a year, as Horapollo also states ; 1 and Clemens 2 con- siders it the symbol of astrology. Plutarch tells us 3 the ivy was styled by the Egyptians Chenosiris ; that is, as some in- terpret it, ' the plant of Osiris ;' and Diodorus,4 after saying ( it was consecrated to that god, and called in the Egyptian tongue the plant of Osiris,' affirms that ' it was carried before the vine in consecrations, because, while this loses its leaves, the ivy continues to retain them.' Many instances occur of the pre- ference shown by the ancients for evergreen plants ; and for a similar reason they dedicated the myrtle to Yenus, the laurel (bay-tree) to Apollo, and the olive to Minerva. But we may doubt if the ivy was at any time a native 5 of Egypt. The Periploca secamone may have been mistaken for that plant in the representations given of it in the paintings, both from its climbing nature and even the form of its leaves ; though it must be confessed that a plant having so acrid a juice could scarcely have been used for garlands, if even it were tolerated in the hand. Plutarch mentions a garland of the melilotus,6 which fell from the head of Osiris. This plant may therefore have been deemed sacred by the Egyptians. Clemens mentions thirty-six plants, dedicated to the thirty-six decans or genii, who presided over portions of the twelve signs of the zodiac ;7 but the symbols of those mysterious beings had no claim to sanctity. The most remarkable emblems, independent of the types of the deities, were the signs of life, of goodness, of purity, of majesty and dominion (the flail and crook of Osiris), of royalty, of stability, and of power, which were principally connected with the gods and kings. Many others belonged to religious ceremonies, a long list of which may be seen in the chamber of Osiris at Philae, and in the Coronation Ceremony at Medeenet Haboo. The sign of life, tau, or crux ansata,8 I have mentioned else- where. The sign of goodness is the initial of the word nefer, 1 Horapollo, i. 4. 2 Clemens Alex. Strom, vi. 3 Plut. de Isid. s. 37. 4 Diodor. i. 17. 5 [That is to say, indigenous. It may- have been introduced there. The ivy of the Greeks and Romans is supposed to be that with yellow berries, common now in Italy.— G. W.] 6 Plut. de Isid. s. 36. This signified the plants produced by the inundation at the edge of the desert. 7 Prichard, p. 329. 8 Called anx, perhaps an earring. 352 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XIV. * good,' a guitar ; and the sceptre with the head of a harrier, uas or t'am, which the gods hold in their hands, has been shown to enter into one of the groups signifying ' Thebes.' This has been styled the upupa-headed sceptre ; but I have shown the head to No. 590. 234 5678 9 10 11 Emblems of Life (1), Goodness (2, 3), Purity (4), Royalty (5-10), and Stability (11). be that of an animal, and not of a bird, as usually supposed. The lower end is forked ; and this, as well as the head itself, has been found in the excavations at Thebes. A similar staff seems to have been used by the Egyptian peasant, perhaps as a crook ; and the Arabs to the present day make their mahgin of this form, for the purpose of recovering the fallen bridle of their dromedaries.1 It is even represented in the hands of labourers engaged in the corn-fields ; an instance of which occurs in one of the ancient paintings The gifts of, 1, life and purity; 2, with stability; 3, power; 4, victory ; and 5, royal majesty, or dominion of the world. No. 591. from Thebes preserved in the British Museum.2 This, with the tau, are the principal gifts of the gods to man, in the hieroglyphic legends where the deity thus addresses the kings : ' We give you life and purity,' or ' a pure life,' with * stability,' * power,' ' victory,' * majesty,' ' dominion,' ' and other good things,' similar to which are the favours said to be bestowed by the deity on King Kameses, in the inscription of the obelisk translated by Hermapion. The flagellum 3 and crook 4 of Osiris, the emblems of majesty and dominion, were presented by the gods to the king, sometimes with the falchion of victory or vengeance, when he was about to undertake an expedition against the enemies of his country ; and in some instances the monarch is represented holding the phoenix in his hand, emblematic of his long absence from Egypt in a foreign land. In the following woodcut we observe a singular proof of a flagellum of Osiris being really a handle and thong, and not, as it usually appears, both in the hands of statues and in the sculptures, with the two limbs of a hard substance.5 1 It is so called from hegin, the name of a dromedary. 2 In the Egyptian Room, marked No. 176. 3 neXeX or XeX- 4 hat or at. 5 The whip of Osiris is three-thonged, or else represents a flail. — S. B. Chap. XIV.] EMBLEMS. 353 The sign of royalty is a reed ; which is also the emblem of Upper Egypt, and the initial of the word suten, ' king.' But this, and the pshent, or cap of the Upper and Lower Country, which is the union of the two crowns, the symbol of stability, the palm-branch of Thoth, and the sign of the great assemblies over which the king presided, have been already noticed. The eye of Osiris — or sym- bolic eye, uta — was one of the most important emblems. It was generally given to that deity, and to Ptah when under the form of the em- A king receiving from Amen the emblems of majesty li n , i •!«, t, and dominion. Jn his left hand is a pure soul, and in Diem 01 Stability. it WaS his right is the mystic • vannus.' The god holds the 111 / 1 • • palm-branch and the type of the great assemblies. placed on boats (but origin- JJr 592 ally and properly only on the boats of the dead), on coffins, and in other conspicuous positions, as if to indicate the all-seeing presence of the divinity, and it was a symbol of the land of Egypt. The frog was the symbol of hefnu, 100,000, or an immense number. It sat on a ring, or seal, a sign occasionally used in lieu of the tau, or * life and from its back rose a palm-branch, which sometimes appeared in the state of a tender leaf rising from the date-stone. The lotus was introduced into all subjects, particularly as an ornament, and as the favourite flower of the country, but not with the holy character usually attributed to it, though adopted as an emblem of the god Nefer-Atum. No. 593. VOL. III. Sacred scarabams. Brit sh Museum. 2 A Vignette 0.— Temple at Kdfou. CHAPTER XV. FESTIVALS — SACRIFICES. Processions — Coronation and other Ceremonies — Triumphs — Holy days — Fetes, &c. No nation took greater delight in the pomp of ceremonies than the Egyptians — a partiality which the priests did not fail to encourage, as it tended to increase their own consequence, and to give them a great moral ascendency over all classes. Grand processions constantly took place to commemorate some fanciful legendary event ; the public mind was entertained by the splen- dour of impressive and striking ceremonies ; and a variety of exhibitions connected with religion were repeated, to amuse that lively and restless people. Respect for the priesthood was also induced by the importance of the post they held on those occa- sions ; and the superior abilities of that powerful body had ample means of establishing its authority over credulous and super- stitious minds. The priesthood took a prominent part in every- thing ; there was no ceremony in which they did not partici- pate, and even military regulations were subject to the influence of the sacerdotal caste. Nothing was beyond their jurisdiction : the king himself was subject to the laws established by them for his conduct, and even for his mode of living ; and, independently Chap. XV.] THE PROCESSION OF SHRINES. 355 of being bound by duty to obey these ordinances, he was obliged on ascending the throne to become a member of their body. One of the most important ceremonies was ' the procession of shrines,' which is mentioned on the Kosetta Stone, and is fre- quently represented on the walls of the temples. The shrines were of two kinds ; the one a sort of canopy, the other an ark or sacred boat, which may be termed the great shrine. This was carried with grand pomp by the priests, a certain number being selected for that duty, who, supporting it on their shoulders by means of long staves passing through metal rings at the side of the sledge 1 on which it stood, brought it into the temple, where it was placed upon a stand or table, in order that the prescribed ceremonies might be performed before it. The stand was also carried in the procession by another set of priests, following the shrine by means of similar staves ; a method usually adopted for transporting large statues and sacred emblems, too heavy or too important to be borne by one person. The same is stated to have been the custom of the Jews in some of their religious processions,2 as in carrying the ark ' to its place, into the oracle of the house, to the most holy place,' when the temple was built by Solomon.3 The number of shrines in these processions, and the splendour of the ceremony performed on the occasion, depended on the particular festival they intended to commemorate. In many instances the shrine of the deity of the temple was carried alone, sometimes that of other deities accompanied it, and sometimes that of the king was added — a privilege granted as a peculiar mark of esteem for some great benefit conferred by him upon his country, or for his piety in having beautified the temples of the gods. Such is the motive mentioned in the inscription of the Kosetta Stone ; which, after enumerating the benefits conferred upon the country by Ptolemy, decrees, as a return for them, 1 that a statue of the king shall be erected in every temple in the most conspicuous place ; that it shall be called the statue of Ptolemy, the defender of Egypt ; and that near it shall be placed the presiding deity presenting to him the weapon of victory. Moreover, that the priests shall minister three times every day to the statues, and prepare for them the sacred dress, and perform 1 Pint, de Isid. s. 35. 2 [' The Levites bare the ark on their shoulders.' (1 Chron. xv. 2 and 15 ; 2 Sam. xv. 24; Joshua iii. 12; 1 Esdras i. 4.) The gods of Babylon, as well as those of Egypt, were borne and ' set in their place' in a similar manner. (Is. xlvi. 7 ; Baruch vi. 4-26.}- G. W.] 3 1 Kings viii. 6. 2 a 2 356 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XY. the accustomed ceremonies, as in honour of other gods at feasts and festivals : that there shall be erected an image and golden shrine of King Ptolemy in the most honourable of the temples, to be set up in the sanctuary among the other shrines : and that on the great festivals, when the procession of shrines takes place, that of the god Epiphanes shall accompany them ; ten royal golden crowns being deposited upon the shrine, with an asp attached to each, and the double crown, pshent, which he wore at his coronation, placed in the midst/ It was also usual to carry the statue of the principal deity in whose honour the procession took place, together with that of the king and the figures of his ancestors, borne in the same manner on men's shoulders, like the gods of Babylon mentioned by Jeremiah.1 Diodorus 2 speaks of an Ethiopian festival of Jupiter, when his statue was carried in procession, probably to commemorate the supposed refuge of the gods in that country : which may have been a memorial of the flight of the Egyptians with their gods at the time of the Shepherd invasion, mentioned by Jose- phus3 on the authority of Manetho. This does not, however, appear to be the reason assigned by Diodorus, who says, ' Homer derived from Egypt his story of the embraces of Jupiter and Juno, and their travelling into Ethiopia,4 because the Egyptians every year carry Jupiter's shrine over the river into Africa, and a few days after bring it back again, as if the gods had returned out of Ethiopia. The fiction of their nuptials was taken from the solemnisation of these festivals ; at which time both their shrines, adorned with all sorts of flowers, are carried by the priests to the top of a mountain/ The usual number of priests who performed the duty of bearers was generally twelve or sixteen to each shrine. They were accompanied by another of a superior grade, distinguished by a lock of hair pendent on one side of his head, and clad in a leopard-skin, the peculiar badge of his rank, who, walking near them, gave directions respecting the procession, its position in the temple, and whatever else was required during the ceremony ; which agrees well with the remark of Herodotus,5 that ' each deity had many priests, and one high priest.' Sometimes two priests of the same peculiar grade attended, both during the 1 Epistle of Jeremiah in Baruch vi. 4, 3 Joseph, contr. A p. i. 27. 26. Isaiah xlri. 7. 2 Diodor. i. 97. 4 Horn. II. A, 423. 5 Herodot. ii. 73. Chap. XV.] THE PROCESSION OF SHRINES. 357 procession, and after the shrine had been deposited in the temple. These were the pontiffs, or highest order of priests : they had the title of ' Sem,' and enjoyed the privilege of offering sacrifices on all grand occasions. When the shrine reached the temple, it was received with every demonstration of respect by the officiating priest, who was appointed to do duty upon the day of the festival ; and if the king happened to be there, it was his privilege to perform the appointed ceremonies. These consisted of sacrifices and prayers; and the shrine was decked with fresh-gathered flowers and rich Xo. 593a. Shrine with decorations on a sledge. garlands. An endless profusion of offerings was placed before it on several separate altars ; and the king, frequently accompanied by his queen, who held a sistrum in one hand, and in the other a bouquet of flowers made up into the particular form required for these religious ceremonies, presented incense and libation. This part of the ceremony being finished, the king proceeded to the presence of the god, represented by his statue, from whom he was supposed to receive a blessing, typified by the sacred tau, the sign of life. Sometimes the principal contemplar deity was also present, usually the second member of the triad of the place ; and it is probable that the position of the statue was 358 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. near to the shrine alluded to in the inscription of the Eosetta Stone. Some of the sacred boats or arks contained the emblems of life and stability, which, when the veil was drawn aside, were partially seen ; and others presented the sacred beetle of the sun, overshadowed by the wings of two figures of the goddess Ma or Truth, which call to mind the cherubim of the Jews.1 The dedication of the whole or part of a temple was, as may be reasonably supposed, one of the most remarkable solemnities at which it was ' the prince's part ' to preside. And if the actual celebration of the rites practised on the occasion, the laying of No. 594. One of the sacred boats or arks, with two figure-* resembling cherubim, a and b represent the king ; the former under the shape of a sphinx. the foundation stone, or other ceremonies connected with it, are not represented on the monuments,2 the importance attached to it is shown by the conspicuous manner in which it is recorded in the sculptures, the ostentation with which it is announced in the dedicatory inscriptions of the monuments themselves, and the answer returned by the god in whose honour it was erected. Another striking ceremony was the transport of the dedi- catory offerings made by the king to the gods, which were carried in great pomp to their respective temples. The king and all the priests attended the procession, clad in their robes of ceremony ; and the flag-staffs attached to the propylaea of the vestibules were decked, as on other grand festivals, with banners. 1 Clemens, Strom, v. p. 243, on the Ark of the Hebrews and the Adytum of the Egyptians. 2 It is singular that the mace and rod in the king's hand on these occasions are the same as those used in the chase of the hippopotamus. Chap. XV.] CEKEMONIES. 359 The coronation of the king was a peculiarly imposing cere- mony. It was one of the principal subjects represented in the court of the temples ;* and some idea may be formed of the pomp displayed on the occasion even from the limited scale on which the monuments are capable of describing it. I have already mentioned the remarkable manner in which this subject is treated in the temple of Medeenet Haboo, and therefore refer the reader to a previous part of this work, where I have described the pro- cession given in Plate LX. Clemens introduces an account of an Egyptian procession, 1 c d | 3 g 4 No. 595. Dedication of the pylon of a temple to Amen by Rameses III., who wears on one side the crown of Upper, on the other that of Lower Egypt. 1, 4. Rameses 111. 2, 3. Amen-ra. a, b. Titles of Rameses. c. Speech of Amen-ra, 'lord of heaven and seats of earth : I give thee life, health established, d, * all countries and lands.' The king ' makes a gift of the house to thee, his god.' c. Same speech. /. King's titles, g. 'Gives a house to thee, his god.' which, as it throws some light on similar ceremonies, and may be of interest from having some points of resemblance with the one before us, I here transcribe. 1 In the solemn pomps of Egypt the singer usually goes first, bearing one of the symbols of music. They say it is his duty to carry two of the books of Hermes ; one of which contains hymns of the gods, the other precepts relating to the life of the king. The singer is followed by the horoscopus, bearing in his hand the measure of time, hour-glass, and the palm-branch,2 the symbols of astrology, astronomy, whose duty it is to be versed in or recite the four books of Hermes, which treat of that science. 1 It occurs in the same part of the 2 $otvina. It is a question whether Memnonium or Ramesseum as of Medeenet this should be translated the palm or the Haboo. phoenix. 360 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XY. Of these one describes the position of the fixed stars, another the conjunctions, eclipses, and illuminations of the sun and moon, and the others their risings. Next comes the hierogrammateus, or sacred scribe, having feathers 1 on his head, and in his hands a book, papyrus, with a ruler 2 (palette) in which is ink and a reed for writing. It is his duty to understand what are called hieroglyphics, the description of the world, geography, the course of the sun, moon, and planets, the condition of the land of Egypt and the Nile, the nature of the instruments or sacred ornaments, and the places appointed for them, as well as weights and measures, and the things used in holy rites. Then follows the stolistes, bearing the cubit of justice and the cup of libation. He knows all subjects relating to education, and the choice of calves for victims, which are comprehended in ten books. These treat of the honours paid to the gods and of the Egyptian reli- gion, including sacrifice, first-fruits, hymns, prayers, processions, holy days, and the like. Last of all comes the prophet, who car- ries in his bosom a water-jar, followed by persons bearing loaves of bread. He presides over all sacred things, and is obliged to know the contents of the ten books called sacerdotal, relating to the gods, the laws, and all the discipline of the priests.' 3 One of the principal solemnities connected with the corona- tion was the anointing of the king, and his receiving the emblems of majesty from the gods. The sculptures represent deities themselves officiating on this as on other similar occasions, in order to convey to the Egyptian people, who beheld these records, a more exalted notion of the special favours bestowed on their monarch. We, however, who at this distant period are less interested in the direct intercourse between the Pharaohs and the gods, may be satisfied with a more simple interpretation of such subjects, and conclude that it was the priests who performed the cere- mony, and bestowed upon the prince the title of ' the anointed of the gods.' With the Egyptians, as with the Jews,4 the investiture to any sacred office, as that of king or priest, was confirmed by this external sign ; and as the Jewish lawgiver mentions 5 the ceremony 1 The feathers are of the ostrich, not of 5 ' Thou shalt take the garments, and the hawk, as already observed. put upon Aaron the coat, and the robe of 2 The usual palette represented in the the ephod, and the ephod, and the breast- hands of scribes. plate, and gird him with the curious 3 Clemens Alex. Strom, vi. p. 196.. girdle of the ephod; and thou shalt put * Exod. xxviii. 41. the mitre upon his head, and put the holy Chap. XV.] CORONATION CEREMONY. 361 of pouring oil upon the head of the high priest after he had put on his entire dress, with the mitre and crown, the Egyptians represent the anointing of their priests and kings after they were attired in their full robes, with the cap and crown upon their head. Some of the sculptures introduce a priest pouring oil over the monarch,1 in the presence of Thoth, Har-Hat, or Nilus ; which may be considered a representation of the cere- mony before the statues of those gods. The functionary who officiated was the high priest of the king. He was clad in a leopard-skin, and was the same who attended on all occasions which required him to assist, or assume the duties of, the monarch in the temple. This leopard-skin dress was worn by the high priests on all the most important solemnities, and the king himself adopted it when engaged in the same duties. They also anointed the statues of the gods ; 2 which was done with the little finger of the right hand. The ceremony of pouring from two vases alternate emblems of life and purity over the king, in token of purification, previous to his admittance into the presence of the god of the temple, was performed by Thoth on one side and the hawk-headed Har- Hat on the other ; sometimes by Har-Hat and Nubti, or by two hawk-headed deities, or by one of these last and the god Nilus. The deities Xubti and Horus are also represented placing the crown of the Two Countries upon the head of the king, saying, ' Put this cap upon your head like your father Amen-ra :' and the palm-branches they hold in their hands allude to the long series of years they grant him to rule over his country. The emblems of dominion and majesty, the crook and flagellum of Osiris, have been already given him, and the asp-formed fillet is bound upon his head. Another mode of investing the sovereign with the diadem is figured on the apex of some obelisks, and on other monuments, where the god in whose honour they were raised puts the crown upon his head as he kneels before him, with the announcement that he ' grants him dominion over the whole world.' 3 Goddesses in like manner placed upon the heads of the queens the peculiar crown upon the mitre. Then shalt thou take the anointing oil, and pour it upon his head.' (Exod. xxix. 5-7.) 1 2 Kings ix. 3. 2 The king was anointed : Amenophis II. was anointed king. (' Records of the Past,' ii. p. 63.)— S. B. 3 Obelisk of Karnak and others, and the translation of Hermapion, in Ammian. Marcellin. xvii. s. 4, p. 108, ed. Gronov. : BcSciprj/jLal aoi aud irdcrrju oIkov/j.(vtju fitrd Chap. XV.] CORONATION CEREMONY. 363 insignia they wore ; which were two long feathers, with the globe and horns of Athor ; and they presented them their peculiar sceptre. The custom of anointing was not confined to the appointment of kings and priests to the sacred offices they held : it was the ordinary token of welcome to guests in every party at the house of a friend ; and in Egypt, no less , T , , , . Y • Sceptre of a queen. than m Judaea, the metaphorical expression, No 596. ' anointed with the oil of gladness,' was fully understood, and applied to the ordinary occurrences of life. It was not confined to the living : the dead were made to par- ticipate in it, as if sensible of the token of esteem thus bestowed upon them ; and a grateful survivor, in giving an affectionate token of gratitude to a regretted friend, neglected not this last unction of his mortal remains. Even the head of the bandaged mummy, and the case which contained it, were anointed with oils and the most precious ointments. Another ceremony represented in the temples was the blessing bestowed by the gods on the king, at the moment of his assuming the reins of government. They laid their hands upon him ; and presenting him with the symbol of life, they promised that his reign should be long and glorious, and that he should enjoy tranquillity, with certain victory over his enemies. If about to undertake an expe- dition against foreign nations, they gave him the falchion of victory, to secure the defeat of the people whose country he was about to invade, saying, ' Take this weapon, and smite with it the heads of the impure Gentiles.' To show the special favour he enjoyed from heaven, the gods were even repre- Tau, or sign of nfe. , , . . i . . . . ^ No. 597. sented admitting him into their company, and communing with him; and sometimes Thoth, with other deities, taking him by the hand, led him into the presence of the great triad, or of the presiding divinity, of the temple. He was welcomed with suitable expressions of approbation ; and on this, as on other occasions, the sacred tau, or sign of life, was presented to him — a symbol which, with the sceptre of purity, was usually placed in the hands of the gods. These two were deemed the greatest gifts bestowed by the deity on man. 364 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. The origin of the tau I cannot precisely determine ; nor is it more intelligible when given in the sculptures on a large scale. A remarkable fact may be mentioned respecting this hiero- glyphic character — that the early Christians of Egypt adopted it in lieu of the cross, which was afterwards substituted for it, prefixing it to inscriptions in the same manner as the cross in later times. The triumph of the king was a grand solemnity. Flattering to the national pride of the Egyptians, it awakened those feelings of enthusiasm which the celebration of victory naturally inspires, and led them to commemorate it with the greatest pomp. When the victorious monarch, returning to Egypt after a glorious campaign, approached the cities which lay on his way from the confines of the country to the capital, the inhabitants flocked to meet him, and with welcome acclamations greeted his arrival and the success of his arms. The priests and chief people of each place advanced with garlands and bouquets of flowers ; the principal person present addressed him in an appropriate speech ; and as the troops defiled through the streets, or passed without the walls, the people followed with acclamations, uttering earnest thanksgivings to the gods, the protectors of Egypt, and praying them for ever to continue the same marks of favour to their monarch and their nation. Arrived at the capital, they went immediately to the temple, where they returned thanks to the gods, and performed the customary sacrifices on this important occasion. The whole army attended, and the order of march continued the same as on entering the city. A corps of Egyptians, consisting of chariots and infantry, led the van in close column, followed by the allies of the different nations who had shared the dangers of the field and the honour of victory. In the centre marched the body- guards, the king's sons, the military scribes, the royal arm- bearers, and the staff corps, in the midst of whom was the monarch himself, mounted in a splendid car, attended by his fan-bearers on foot, bearing over him the state flabella. Next followed other regiments of infantry, with their respective banners, and the rear was closed by a body of chariots. The prisoners, tied together with ropes, were conducted by some of the king's sons, or by the chief officers of the staff, at the side of the royal car. The king himself frequently held the cord which bound them, as he drove slowly in the procession ; and two or more chiefs were sometimes suspended beneath the axle of his chariot, contrary to the usual Chap. XV.] TRIUMPHS. 365 humane principles of the Egyptians, who seem to have refrained from unnecessary cruelty to their captives, extending this feeling so far as to rescue, even in the heat of battle, a defenceless enemy from a watery grave. Having reached the precincts of the temple, the guards and royal attendants selected to be the representatives of the whole army entered the courts, the rest of the troops, too numerous for admission, being drawn up before the entrance; and the king, alighting from his car, prepared to lead his captives to the shrine of the god. Military bands played the favourite airs of the country ; and the numerous standards of the different regiments, the banners floating in the wind, the bright lustre of arms, the immense concourse of people, and the imposing majesty of the lofty towers of the propylaea, decked with their bright-coloured flags streaming above the cornice, presented a scene seldom, we may say, equalled on any occasion in any country. But the most striking feature of this pompous ceremony was the brilliant cortege of the monarch, who was either borne in his chair of state by the principal officers of state under a rich canopy, or walked on foot, overshadowed with rich flabella and fans of waving plumes. As he approached the inner pylon, a long procession of priests advanced to meet him, dressed in their robes of office ; censers full of incense were burnt before him ; and a hierogrammateus read from a papyrus roll the glorious deeds of the victorious monarch, and the tokens he had received of the divine favour. They then accompanied him into the presence of the presiding deity of the place ; and having performed sacrifice and offered suitable thanksgivings, he dedicated the spoil of the conquered enemy, and expressed his gratitude for the privilege of laying before the feet of the god, the giver of victory, those prisoners he had brought to the vestibule of the divine abode.1 In the meantime, the troops without the sacred precincts were summoned, by sound of trumpet, to attend the sacrifice prepared by the priests, in the name of the whole army, for the benefits they had received from the gods, the success of their arms, and their own preservation in the hour of danger. Each regiment marched up by turn to the altar temporarily raised for the occasion, to the sound of the drum,2 the soldiers carrying in their hand a twig of olive,3 with the arms of their respective 1 The impure foreigners were not taken mitted. 2 Clem. Psedag. ii. 4. into the interior of the temple, to which * Or of the bay-tree. This may be an the king and the priests were alone ad- illustration of the remark of Clemens 366 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV corps ; but the heavy-armed soldier laid aside his shield on this occasion, as if to show the security he enjoyed in the presence of the deity. An ox was then killed, and wine, incense, and the customary offerings of cakes, fruit, vegetables, joints of meat, and birds, were presented to the god they invoked. Every soldier deposited the twig of olive he carried at the altar ; and as the trumpet summoned them, so also it gave the signal for each regiment to withdraw and cede its place to another. The cere- mony being over, the king went in state to his palace, accom- panied by the troops ; and having distributed rewards to them, and eulogised their conduct in the field, he gave his orders to the commanders of the different corps, and they withdrew to their cantonments, or to the duties to which they were appointed. Of the fixed festivals, one of the most remarkable was the celebration of the grand assemblies, or panegyries, held in the great halls of the principal temples, at which the king presided in person. Of their precise nature, and of the periods when they were held, we are still ignorant ; but that they were of the greatest import- 1 "U*-* ance is abundantly proved by the frequent " I mention of them in the sculptures. And ^2 that the post of president of the assem- 2! NtbsetmTte/ef ptah. blies was the highest possible honour may No 598, be inferred, as well from its being enjoyed by the sovereign alone of all men, as from its being assigned to the deity himself in these legends: 'Phrah (Pharaoh), lord of the panegyries, like Ra,' or 'like his father Ptah,'1 which so frequently occur on the monuments of Thebes and Memphis. From these assemblies being connected with the palm- branch, the emblem of a year, and frequently attached to it when in the hands of the god Thoth, we may conclude that their celebration was fixed to certain periods of the year ; and the title 'Lord of Triacontaeterides, like the great Ptah,' applied to Ptolemy Epiphanes in the Rosetta Stone, is doubtless related to these meetings, which, from the Greek word, some suppose to have taken place every thirty years. But this period is evi- dently too long, since few sovereigns could have enjoyed the (Strom, v. p. 243), that ' twigs were given to those who came to worship.' He men- tions in the same place 4 the wheel turned in the sacred groves.' 1 See woodcut No. 598, figs. 1 and 2. 368 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. honour. It more probably refers to the festivals of the new moons,1 or to those recorded in the great calendar sculptured on the exterior of the S.W. wall of Medeenet Haboo, which took place during several successive days of each month, and were even repeated in honour of different deities every day during some months, and attended by the king in person. Another important religious ceremony is often alluded to in the sculptures, which appears to be connected with the as- semblies just mentioned. In this the king is represented running, with a vase or some emblem in one hand, and the flagellum of Osiris, a type of majesty, in the other, as if hasten- ing to enter the hall where the panegyries were held ; and two figures of him are frequently introduced, one crowned with the cap of the Upper, the other with that of the Lower Country, as they stand beneath a canopy indicative of the hall of assembly. The same deities who usually preside on the anointing of the king present him with the sign of life, and bear before him the palm-branch, on which the years of the assemblies are noted. Before him stands the goddess Mert, bearing on her head the water-plants, her emblem ; and around are numerous emblems appropriated to this subject. The monarch sometimes runs into the presence of the god bearing two vases, which appears to be the commencement of, or connected with, this ceremony ; and the whole may be the anniversary of the foundation of the temple, or of the sovereign's reign. An ox or cow is in some instances represented running with the king on the same occasion. The birthdays of the kings were celebrated2 with great pomp. They were looked upon as holy : no business was done upon them, and all classes indulged in the festivities3 suitable to the occasion. Every Egyptian attached much importance to the day and even to the hour of his birth ; and it is probable that, as in Persia,4 each individual kept his birthday with great rejoicings, welcoming his friends with all the amusements of society, and a more than usual profusion of the delicacies of the table. They had many other public holydays, when the court of the king and all public offices were closed. This was sometimes 1 Isaiah i. 13, 14 : ' The new moons and pointed feasts my soul hateth.' sabbaths, the calling of assemblies, I cannot 2 Rosetta Stone. away with ; it is iniquity, even the solemn 3 Gen. il. 20. 4 Herodot. i. 133. meeting. Your new moons and your ap- Chap. XV.] DAILY SACRIFICES— THE NILOA. 3C9 owing to a superstitious belief of their being unlucky ; and such was the prejudice against the ' third day of the Epact,1 or the birthday of Typho, that the sovereign neither transacted any business upon it, nor even suffered himself to take any refresh- ment till the evening.'2 Other fasts were also observed by the king and the priesthood, out of respect to certain solemn puri- fications they deemed it their duty to undergo for the service of religion. Among the ordinary rites the most noted, because the most frequent, were the daily sacrifices offered in the temple by the sovereign pontiff. It was customary for him to attend there early every morning, after he had examined and settled his epistolary correspondence relative to the affairs of state. The service began by the high priest reading a prayer for the welfare of the monarch, in the presence of the people. He extolled his virtues, his piety towards the gods, and his clemency and affable demeanour towards men, and he then proceeded to pass in review the general conduct of kings, and to point out those virtues which most adorn, as well as the vices which most degrade, the character of a monarch. But I need not enter into the details of this ceremony, having already noticed it in treating of the duties of the Egyptian Pharaohs. Of the anniversary festivals one of the most remarkable was the Niloa, or invocation of the blessings of the inundation, offered to the tutelary deity of the Nile. According to Heliodorus,3 it was one of the principal festivals of the Egyptians. It took place about the summer solstice, when the river began to rise ; and the anxiety with which they looked forward to a plentiful inundation induced them to celebrate it with more than usual honour. Libanius asserts that these rites were deemed of so much importance by the Egyptians, that unless they were performed at the proper season, and in a becoming manner, by the persons appointed to this duty, they felt persuaded that the Nile would refuse to rise and inundate the land. Their full belief in the efficacy of the ceremony secured its annual per- formance on a grand scale. Men and women assembled from all parts of the country in the towns of their respective nomes, grand festivities were proclaimed, and all the enjoyments of the table were united with the solemnity of a holy festival. Music, the 1 The five days added at the end of Mesore. a Plut. de Isid. s. 11. 3 Heliodor. jEthiopic. lib. xi. VOL. III. 2 B 370 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XY. dance, and appropriate hymns marked the respect they felt for the deity; and a wooden statue of the river god was carried by the priests through the villages in solemn procession, that all might appear to be honoured by his presence and aid, while invoking the blessings he was about to confer. Another festival, particularly welcomed by the Egyptian peasants, and looked upon as a day of great rejoicing, was (if it may so be called) the harvest home, or the close of the labours of the year, and the preparation of the land for its future crops by the inundation; when, as Diodorus tells ns, the husbandmen indulged in recreation of every kind, and showed their gratitude for the benefits the deity had conferred upon them by the bless- ings of the inundation. This and other festivals of the peasantry I have already noticed in treating of the agriculture of Egypt. Games were celebrated in honour of certain gods, in which wrestling and other gymnastic exercises were practised. ' But of all their games/ says Herodotus,1 'the most distinguished are those held at Chemmis in honour of Perseus ; in which the rewards for the conquerors are cattle, cloaks, and skins.' The form and attributes of this Perseus I have been unable to discover ; and unfortunately the imperfect remains at Chemmis afford no accurate information respecting the deities of the place. It is, however, probable that he was not the only god in whose honour gym- nastic exercises were performed ; and the fondness of the Egyptians for such amusements is fully proved by the monu- ments they have left us, on which wrestling and other games are portrayed with great minuteness. Wrestling, indeed, was a very favourite amusement in Egypt. Hercules was there re- ported to have overcome Antaeus by wrestling ; and it is highly probable that games similar to those mentioned by Herodotus were celebrated in the nome of Heracleopolis, as well as in honour of other Egyptian gods. The investiture of a chief was a ceremony of considerable importance, when the post conferred was connected with any high dignity about the person of the monarch, in the army, or the priesthood. It took place in the presence of the sovereign seated on his throne ; and two priests, having arrayed the candidate in a long loose vesture, placed necklaces round the neck of the person thus honoured by the royal favour. One of these ceremonies frequently occurs in the monuments, which was 1 Herodot. ii. 91. Chap. XV.] INVESTITIVE OF OFFICEES. 371 sometimes performed immediately after a victory ; in which case we may conclude that the honour was granted in return for distinguished services in the field ; and as the individual on all occasions holds the flabella, crook, and other insignia of the office of fan-bearer, it appears to have been either the appoint- ment to that post, or to some high command in the army. On receiving this honourable distinction, he held forth his hands in token of respect ; and raising the emblems of his newly-acquired office above his head, he expressed his fidelity to his king, and his desire to prove himself worthy of the favour he had received. A similar mode of investiture appears to have been adopted in all appointments to the high offices of state, both of a civil and military kind. In this, as in many customs detailed in the sculptures, we find an interesting illustration of a ceremony mentioned in the Bible, which describes Pharaoh taking a ring from his hand and putting it on Joseph's hand, arraying him in vestures of fine linen, and putting a gold chain about his neck.1 In a tomb opened at Thebes by Hoskins, another instance occurs of this investiture to the post of fan-bearer, in which the two attendants or inferior priests are engaged in clothing him with the robes of his new office. One puts on the necklace, the other arranges his dress, a fillet being already bound round his head, and he appears to wear gloves upon his uplifted hands. In the next part of the same picture — for, as is often the case, it presents two actions and two periods of time — the individual, holding the insignia of fan-bearer and followed by the two priests, presents himself before the king, who holds forth his hand to him to touch,2 or perhaps to kiss. A stand bearing necklaces is placed before him, and by his side a table, upon which is a bag, probably the treasure for paying the troops, and behind are the officers of his household bearing the emblems of their office. The office of fan-bearer to the king was a highly honourable post, which none but the royal princes, or the sons of the first nobility, were permitted to hold. These constituted a principal part of his staff, and in the field they either attended on the monarch to receive his orders, or were despatched to take the command of a division ; some having the rank of generals of cavalry, others of heavy infantry or archers, according to the 1 Gen. xli. 42. the hand of one to whom he would show 2 In the East an inferior merely touches great respect, and then kisses his own. 2 b 2 372 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. service to which they belonged. They had the privilege of pre- senting the prisoners to the king, after the victory had been gained, announcing at the same time the amount of the enemy's slain, and the booty that had been taken ; and those whose turn it was to attend upon the king's person as soon as the enemy had been vanquished resigned their command to the next in rank, and returned to their post of fan-bearers. The office was divided into two grades — those who served on the right and left hand of the king, the most honourable post being given to those of the highest rank, or to those most esteemed for their services. A certain number were always on duty, and they were required to attend during the grand solemnities of the temple, and on every occasion when the monarch went out in state, or transacted public business at home. At Medeenet Haboo is a remarkable instance of the ceremony of carrying the sacred boat of Ptah-Socharis-Osiris, which I conjecture to represent the funeral of Osiris. It is frequently introduced in the sculptures ; and in one of the tombs of Thebes this solemnity occurs, which, though on a smaller scale than on the walls of Medeenet Haboo, offers some interesting pecu- liarities. First comes the boat, carried as usual by several priests, superintended by the pontiff clad in a leopard-skin ; after which two hieraphori, each bearing a long staff surmounted by a hawk ; then a man beating the tambourine, behind whom is a flower with the stalk bound round with ivy (or the periploca, which so much resembles it). These are followed by two hieraphori, carrying each a staff with a jackal on the top, and another bearing a flower, behind whom is a priest turning round to offer incense to the emblem of Nefer-Atum. The latter is placed horizontally upon six columns, between each of which stands a human figure with uplifted arms, either in the act of udoration or aiding to support the sacred emblem, and behind it is an image of the king kneeling, the whole borne on the usual staves by several priests, attended by a pontiff in his leopard-skin dress. In this ceremony, as in some of the tales related of Osiris, we may trace those analogies which led the Greeks to suggest the resemblance between that deity and their Bacchus ; as the tambourine, the ivy-bound flower or thyrsus, and the leopard-skin, recall the leopards which drew his car. The spotted skin of the nebris or fawn may also be traced in the leopard-skin suspended near Osiris in the region of Amenti. Chap. XV.] CAKEYING AEK OF SOCHAKIS. 373 At Medeenet Haboo the procession is on a more splendid scale : the ark of Socharis is borne by sixteen priests, accom- panied by two pontiffs, one clad in the usual leopard-skin, and Kameses himself officiates on the occasion. The king also per- forms the singular ceremony of holding a rope at its centre, the two ends being supported by four priests, eight of his sons, and four other chiefs, before whom two priests turn round to offer incense, while a hierogrammateus reads the contents of a papyrus he holds in his hands. These are preceded by one of the hiera- phori bearing the hawk on a staff decked with banners (the standard of the king or of Horus), and by the emblem of Nefer-Atum, borne by eighteen priests, the figures standing between the columns over which it is laid being of kings, and the columns themselves being surmounted by the heads of hawks. Another peculiarity is observable in this procession, that the ark of Socharis follows, instead of preceding, the em- blem of Nefer-Atum, and the hawks are crowned with the pshent or double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, usually worn by the Pharaohs and by the god Horus, the prototype of royalty. In the same ceremony at Medeenet Haboo it appears that the king, when holding the rope, has the cubit in his hand, and, when following the ark, the cup of libation ; which calls to mind the office of the stolistes mentioned by Clemens, ' having in his hand the cubit of justice and the cup of libation ; ' and he, in like manner, was preceded by the sacred scribe. The mode of carrying the sacred arks on poles borne by priests or by the nobles of the land was extended to the statues of the gods and other .sacred objects belonging to the temples.1 The former, as Macrobius states,2 were frequently placed in a case or canopy ; and the same writer is correct in stating that the chief people of the nome assisted in this service, even the sons of the king being proud of so honourable an employment. What he afterwards says of their 6 being carried forward accord- ing to divine inspiration, whithersoever the deity urges them, and not by their own will/ cannot fail to call to mind the sup- posed dictation of a secret influence, by which the bearers of the dead in the funeral processions of modern Egypt pretend to be actuated. To such an extent do they carry this superstitious It appears from some inscriptions that the ark was carried round the walls. — S. B. 2 Macrob. Saturn, i. 30. 374 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XY. belief of their ancestors, that I have seen them in their solemn march suddenly stop, and then run violently through the streets, at the risk of throwing the body off the bier, pretending that they were obliged by the irresistible will of the deceased to visit a certain mosque, or seek the blessing of a particular saint. Few other processions of any great importance are repre- sented in the sculptures ; nor can it be expected that the monu- ments would give more than a small proportion of the numerous festivals or ceremonies which took place in the country. [At Denderah the following scenes are represented : — 1. The king gives the goddess Athor a heart-shaped urn, the goddess confers happiness and joy ; 2. He then gives two sistra, Athor and Horus permits him to govern Egypt and conquer foreigners, and to be beloved of women ; 3. The king gives incense and water to Osiris and Isis, the gods give an inundation and Arabia ; 4. The king gives two vases of wine, the gods give vineyards ; 5. The king brings flowers, the goddess promises verdure ; 6. The king gives fields, the gods corn ; 7. The king and queen give sistra, the gods the love of his subjects ; 8. The king gives a variety of objects, the gods produce. It will be seen that the gifts had reference to the things required.1 Before penetrating into the adytum he appears to have entered the temple with his sandals off, preceded by five banners, and then to have been purified to receive the two crowns and to enter the presence of the gods. Before the first stone of the temple was laid, he traced the area with a furrow, made with his own hands the first brick of the peribolos wall, and on the opening or completion of the temple decapitated a bird. — S. B.] Many of the religious festivals were indicative of some peculiar attribute or supposed property of the deity in whose honour they were celebrated. One, mentioned by Herodotus,2 was emblematic of the generative principle, and the same that appears to be alluded to by Plutarch3 under the name of Paamylia, which he says bore a resemblance to one of the Greek ceremonies. The assertion, however, of these writers, that such figures belonged to Osiris, is contradicted by the sculptures, which show them to have been emblematic of the god Khem, or Pan ; and this is confirmed by another observation of the latter writer, that the leaf of the fig-tree represented the deity of that 1 Mariette, ' The Monuments of Upper Egypt,' London, 1877, p. 35 and full. 2 Herodot. ii. 48. 3 Plut. de lsid. s. 11. Chap. XV.] FESTIVALS OF THE MOON AND OF BACCHUS. 375 festival, as well as the land of Egypt.1 The tree does indeed represent Egypt, and always occurs on the altar of Khem ; but it is not in any way connected with Osiris, and the statues mentioned by Plutarch2 evidently refer to the Egyptian Pan. According to Herodotus,3 the only two festivals in which it was lawful to sacrifice pigs were those of the moon and Bacchus, or Osiris : the object of which restriction he attributes to a sacred reason, which he does not think it right to mention. * In sacrificing a pig to the moon, they killed it, and when they had put together the end of the tail, the spleen, and the caul, and covered them with all the fat from the inside of the animal, they burnt them, the rest of the victim being eaten on the day of the full moon, which was the same on which the sacrifice was offered, for on no other day were they allowed to eat the flesh of the pig. Poor people who had barely the means of subsistence made a paste figure of a pig, which, being baked, they offered as a sacrifice.' The same kind of substitute was doubtless made for other victims by those who could not afford to purchase them ; and some of the small clay figures of animals found in the tombs have probably served for this purpose. * On the fete of Bacchus every one immolated a pig before the door of his house at the hour of dinner ; he then gave it back to the person of whom it had been bought.' ' The Egyptians/ adds the historian, ' celebrate the rest of this fete nearly in the same manner as the Greeks, with the exception of the sacrifice of pigs.' The procession on this occasion was headed, as usual, by music,4 a flute-player, according to Herodotus, leading the van ; and the first sacred emblem they carried was a hydria, or water- pitcher.5 A festival was also held on the 17 th of Athor and three succeeding days, in honour of Osiris, during which they exposed to view a gilded ox, the emblem of that deity, and commemorated what they called the loss of Osiris. Another followed in honour of the same deity after an interval of six months or 179 days, ' upon the 19th of Pachons,6 when they marched in procession towards the sea-side, whither likewise the priests and other proper officers carried the sacred chest, enclosing a small boat or vessel of gold, into which they first 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 36. According to the 3 Herodot. ii. 48. literal translation, it is 4 by the fig-leaf 4 Clem. Strom, vi. p. 196, and the they describe their king and the south sculptures. climate of the world.' 5 Plut. de Isid. s. 36. 6 Ibid. s. 39. a Ibid. ss. 36 and 51. 376 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. poured some fresh water, and then all present cried out with a loud voice, " Osiris is found." This ceremony being ended, they threw a little fresh mould, together with rich odours and spices, into the water, mixing the whole mass together, and working it up into a little image in the shape of a crescent. The image was afterwards dressed and adorned with a proper habit, and the whole was intended to intimate that they looked upon these gods as the essence and power of earth and water.' Another festival in honour of Osiris was held ' on the new moon of the month Phamenoth,1 which fell in the beginning of spring,2 called the entrance of Osiris into the moon;' and on the 11th of Tybi (or the beginning of January3) was celebrated the fete of Isis' return from Phoenicia, when cakes having a hippopotamus bound stamped upon them were offered in her honour to commemorate the victory over Typho. A certain rite was also performed in connection with the fabulous history of Osiris, in which it was customary to throw a cord in the midst of the assembly,4 and then chop it into pieces; the supposed purport of which was to record the desertion of Thoueris, the concubine of Typho, and her delivery from a serpent, which the soldiers killed with their swords as it pursued her in her flight to join the army of Horus. Among the ceremonies connected with Osiris the fete of Apis holds a conspicuous place : but this I have already noticed, as well as the grand solemnities performed at his funeral. Clemens5 mentions the custom of carrying four golden figures, or standards, in the festivals of the gods. They were two dogs, a hawk, and an ibis ; which, like the number four, had a mys- tical meaning. The dogs represented the two hemispheres, the hawk the sun, and the ibis the moon; but he does not state if this was usual at all festivals, or confined to those in honour of particular deities. Many fetes were held at different seasons of the year ; for, as Herodotus observes,6 ' far from being contented with one festival, the Egyptians celebrate annually a very great number, of which that of Diana, Bast,7 kept at the city of Bubastis, holds the 1 Phamenoth began on Feb. 25 (o. S.). 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 43. Macrobius and others say that the Egyptian fetes in spring were all of rejoicing. 3 Jan. 6th (o. 8.). * Plut. de Isid. s. 19. 5 Clem. Strom, v. p. 242. 6 Herodot. ii. 59 et seq., 82. 7 Bubastis or Bast corresponded to the Greek Diana. Chap. XV.] FESTIVAL OF DIANA. 377 first rank, and is performed with the greatest pomp. Next to it is that of Isis, at Busiris, a city situated in the middle of the Delta, with a very large temple consecrated to that goddess, the Ceres of the Greeks. The third in importance is the fete of Minerva (Neith), held at Sais ; the fourth, of the sun at Helio- polis ; the fifth, of Latona in the city of Buto ; and the sixth is that performed at Papremis in honour of Mars.' In sroing to celebrate the festival of Diana at Bubastis it was customary to repair thither by water ; and parties of men and women were crowded together on that occasion in numerous boats, without distinction of age or sex. During the whole of the journey several women played on crotcda, and some men on the flute ; others accompanying them with the voice and the clapping of hands, as was usual at musical parties in Egypt. Whenever they approached a town the boats were brought near to it, and, while the singing continued, some of the women in the most abusive manner scoffed at those on the shore as they passed by them. [The fete of the Kikellia, an unknown festival, is mentioned in the tablet of Canopus. — S. B.] Arrived at Bubastis, they performed the rites of the festival by the sacrifice of a great number of victims ; and the quantity of wine consumed on the occasion was said to be more than during all the rest of the year. The number of persons present was reckoned by the inhabitants of the place to be 700,000, with- out including children ; and it is probable that the appearance presented by this concourse of people, the scenes which occurred, and the picturesque groups they presented, were not altogether unlike those witnessed at the modern fetes of Tanta and Dessook in the Delta, in honour .of the Sayd el Beddawee and Sheikh Ibrahim e' Dessookee. The number stated by the historian is beyond all probability, notwithstanding the population of ancient Egypt, and cannot fail to call to mind the 70,000 pilgrims reported by the Moslems to be annually present at Mekkeh. The mode adopted (as they believe) for keeping up that exact number is very ingenious, every deficiency being supplied by a mysterious complement of angels, who obligingly present themselves for the purpose ; and some contrivance of the kind may have suggested itself to the ancient Egyptians at the festival of Bubastis. The fete of Isis was performed with great magnificence. The votaries of the goddess prepared themselves beforehand by fast- ing and prayers, after which they proceeded to sacrifice an ox. 378 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. When slain, the thighs and upper part of the ^haunches, the shoulders, and neck were cut off, and the body was filled with unleavened cakes of pure flour, with honey, dried raisins, figs, incense, myrrh, and other odorific substances. It was then burnt, and a quantity of oil was poured on the fire during the process. In the meantime those present scourged themselves in honour of Osiris, uttering lamentations1 around the burnt offering ; and this part of the ceremony being concluded, they partook of the remains of the sacrifice. This festival was celebrated at Busiris to commemorate the death of Osiris, who was reported to have been buried there in common with other places, and whose tomb gave the name to the city. It was probably on this occasion that the branch of absin- thium, mentioned by Pliny,2 was carried by the priests of Isis ; and dogs were made to head the procession, to commemorate the recovery of his body. Another festival of Isis was held at harvest time, when the Egyptians throughout the country offered the first-fruits of the earth, and with doleful lamentations presented them at her altar. On this occasion she seems to answer to the Ceres of the Greeks, as has been observed by Herodotus ;3 and the multiplicity of names she bore may account for the different capacities in which she was worshipped, and remove the difficulty any change appears to present in the wife and sister of Osiris. One similarity is observable between this last and the fete celebrated at Busiris — that the votaries presented their offerings in the guise of mourners ;4 and the first-fruits had probably a direct reference to Osiris, in connection with one of those allegories which represented him as the beneficent property of the Nile.5 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 14. Coptos, the city of mourning. 2 Plin. xxvii. 7. He says the best kind grew at Taposiris. 3 Herodot. ii. 59. 4 Conf. Deut. xxvi. 14: 'I have eaten thereof in my mourning.' 5 The Eponymous Festivals of the thirty days of the Egyptian month, and the god who presided or named the day, were as follow: — 1. Festival of the Neomenia — Thoth. 2. Festival of the day of the month — Horus, avenger of his father. 3. First mespcr, day of Osiris. 4. First of appearance of smat, Amset. 5. Sacrifice — god Hapu. 6. Tuautmutf. 7. Of separa- tion— Qabhsenuf. 8. Beginning of Sop — Avtitefef. 9. Of Sekau— Arflef. 10. Of violation — Arrantesef. 11. Of the giver- out of sunbeams — Netnut. 12. Of Herher — Annet. 13. Of eyes giving out sunbeams — Teken. 14. Of Sa— Henba. 15. Of the 15th — Armau. 16. 2nd mesper — Mehxeruf. 17. Of Sa— Horus on the column. 18. Of the moon — Ahi. 19. Of Setemxeruf— Anmutef. 20. [lost]— Anubis. 21. . . .— Anubis. 22. Of Pehutet — the serpent Na. 23. . . . — Anubis. 24. Kerh, darkness — the red serpent Na. 25. Of the pourer out — Sema. 26. Of apparition — Maameref. 27. Of Useb— Untab. 28. Of celestial abyss — Chnoumis. 29. Of Hasa — Utet tefef. 30. Of the grasshopper — Netas. (Brugsch, 'Materiaux,' p. 57.) Several festivals are also given in the Sallier Calendar. Khonsu was conceived on the Chap. XV.] FESTIVALS OF ISIS AND OSIRIS. 379 I will not pretend to decide whether the festivals mentioned by Greek writers in honour of Isis or Osiris really appertained to them. It is highly probable that the Greeks and Komans who visited Egypt, having little acquaintance with the deities of that country, ascribed to those two many of the festivals which were celebrated in honour of Khem and other gods ; and it is evident that the Egyptians themselves often aided in confirming strangers in the erroneous notions they entertained, especially on the subject of religion. And so confirmed were the Greeks in their mistaken opinions, that they would with difficulty have listened to anyone who informed them that Anubis had not the head of a dog, and Amen that of a ram, or that the cow was the emblem of Athor rather than of Isis. In the absence, however, of such authority as that which has satisfied us respecting the last-mentioned points, we must for the present content ourselves with the statements of Plutarch and other writers respecting the festivals of Isis and Osiris. We must conclude that they were solemnised at the periods they mention, and for the reasons assigned by them, connected with the seasons of the year, or the relation supposed to subsist between the allegorical history of his adventures and natural phenomena. But we cannot believe that the Paamylia mentioned by Plutarch was a festival in honour of Osiris, which, he says, resembled the Phallophoria, or Priapeia of the Greeks.1 And though a plausible reason seems to be assigned for its institution, it is evident that the phallic figures of the Egyptian temples represent Khem, the generative principle, who bore no analogy to Osiris ; and there is no appearance of these two deities having been confounded, even in the latest times, on the monuments of Egypt. Such opinions seem to have been introduced by the Greeks, who were ignorant of the religion of the Egyptians, and who endeavoured to account for all they heard or saw repre- sented by some reference to the works of nature, compelling 15th day of the month and born on the calendar was as follows : — 1. First of year. 16th, which god was also lord of the epony- 2. Thoth. 3. New Year. 4. Uaka. 5. mous festival of the 2nd and 15th day of Socharis. 6. Greater and less burning, the month, also of the 6th. The festival 7. Holocausts. 8. Manifestation of Khem. of Khem or Amsi in the reign of Rameses 9. Sat. 10. First of month. 11. First of III. was on the 26th of Pachons. A list of half-month. Under the 12th Dynasty were the local festivals of Amen is also given by added : — 12. Festival of Osiris. 13. Epa- the same author from the 8th Thoth to gomense. (Brugsch, Ibid. p. 26.) — S. B. Pachons. Each principal town had a local 1 Plut. de Isid. ss. 12 and 18. calendar. Under the earlier dynasties the 380 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XY. every thing to form part of their favourite explanation of a fanciful fable. But in justice to Plutarch it must be observed, that he gives those statements as the vulgar interpretations of the fabulous story of Isis and Osiris, without the sanction of his own authority or belief ; and he distinctly tells us that they are mere idle tales, directly at variance with the nature of the gods. The festival of Minerva at Sais was performed on a particular night, when everyone who intended to be present at the sacrifice was required to light a number of lamps in the open air around his house. They were small vases filled with salt and oil,1 on which a wick floated, and, being lighted, continued to burn all night. They called it the Festival of Burning Lamps. It was not observed at Sais alone : every Egyptian who could not attend in person was required to observe the ceremony of lighting lamps, in whatever part of the country he happened to be ; and it was considered of the greatest consequence to do honour to the deity by the proper performance of this rite. On the sacred lake of Sais they represented, probably on the same occasion,2 the allegorical history of Osiris, which the Egyptians deemed the most solemn mystery of their religion. Herodotus always mentions it with great caution. It was the record of the misfortunes which had happened to one whose name he never ventures to utter; and his cautious behaviour with regard to everything connected with Osiris shows that he had been initiated into the mysteries, and was fearful of divulging any of the secrets he had solemnly bound himself to keep. It is also obvious that the fetes he describes with the greatest rever- ence were connected with that deity, as those of Isis and of the burning lamps at Sais ; which may be accounted for by the same reason — his admission to the mysteries of Osiris. And though it is not probable that a Greek who had remained so short a time in the country had advanced beyond the lowest grades in the scale of the initiated, and that too of the lesser mysteries alone, he was probably permitted to attend during the celebra- tion of the rites in honour of that deity, like the natives of the country. The lake of Sais still exists near the modem town of Sa el Hagar.3 The walls and ruins of the town stand high above the level of the plain ; and the site of the temple of Neith might be 1 Perhaps water, salt, and oil. The 2 Herodot. ii. 171. offering mentioned towards the end of this 3 Or ' Sa of the Stone,' from the ruins .chapter is probably of a lamp. there. Chap. XV.] OTHEK FESTIVALS. 381 ascertained, and the interesting remains of that splendid city might, with careful investigation and the labour of some weeks' excavation, be yet restored to view. There is some resemblance between the fete of lamps at Sais and one kept in China, which has been known in that country from the earliest times ; and some might even be disposed to trace an analogy between it and the custom still prevalent in Switzer- land, Ireland, and other countries, of lighting fires on the summits of the hills upon the fete of St. John. But such accidental similarities in customs are too often considered of importance, when we ought, on the contrary, to be surprised at so few being similar in different parts of the world. Those who went to Heliopolis and to Buto merely offered sacrifices. At Papremis the rites were much the same as in other places ; but when the sun went down, a body of priests made certain gestures about the statue of Mars, while others in greater numbers, armed with sticks, took up a position at the entrance of the temple. A numerous crowd of persons, amounting to upwards of 1000 men, each armed with a stick, then presented themselves with a view of performing their vows ; but no sooner did the priests proceed to draw forward the statue, which had been placed in a small wooden gilded shrine upon a four-wheeled car, than they were opposed by those in the vestibule, who en- deavoured to prevent their entrance into the temple. Each party attacked its opponents with sticks ; when an affray ensued which, as Herodotus observes, must, in spite of all the assertions of the Egyptians to the contrary, have been frequently attended with serious consequences, and even the loss of life. Another festival mentioned by Herodotus1 is said to have been founded on a mysterious story of King Khampsinitus, of which he witnessed the celebration. On that occasion the priests chose one of their number, whom they dressed in a peculiar robe, made for the purpose on the very day of the ceremony, and then conducted him, with his eyes bound, to a road leading to the temple of Ceres. Having left him there, they all retired ; and two wolves were said to direct his steps to the temple, a distance of twenty stades, and afterwards to recon- duct him to the same spot. On the 19th of the first month was celebrated the fete of Thoth, from whom that month took its name. It was usual for 1 Herodot. ii. 122. 382 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. those who attended * to eat honey and eggs, saying to each other, How sweet a thing is truth!'1 And a similar allegorical custom was observed in Mesore, the last month of the Egyptian year,2 when, on * offering the first-fruits of their lentils, they exclaimed, " The tongue is fortune, the tongue is God ! " ' Most of their fetes appear to have been celebrated at the new or the full moon, as we learn from Plutarch and Herodotus, the former being also chosen by the Israelites for the same purpose ; and this may, perhaps, be used as an argument in favour of the opinion that the months of the Egyptians were originally lunar, as in many countries even to the present day. The historian of Halicarnassus speaks of an annual ceremony which the Egyptians informed him was performed in memorial of the daughter of Mycerinus.3 The body of that princess had been deposited within the wooden figure of a heifer, and was still preserved, in the time of Herodotus, in a richly ornamented chamber of the royal palace at Sais. Every kind of perfume was burnt before it during the day, and at night a lamp was kept constantly lighted. In an adjoining apartment were about twenty colossal statues of wood, representing naked women, in a standing position, said by the priests of Sais to be the concubines of Mycerinus. ' But of this/ adds the historian, ' I can only repeat what was told me ; and I believe all they relate of the love of the king, and the hands of the statues, to be a fable. The heifer is covered with a crimson housing, except the head and neck, which are laid over with a thick coat of gold ; and between the horns is a golden disk of the sun. It is not stand- ing on its feet, but kneeling ; and in size it is equal to a large cow. Every year they take it out of this chamber, at the time when the Egyptians beat themselves and lament a certain god (Osiris), whom I must not mention : on which occasion they expose the heifer to the light, the daughter of Mycerinus having made this dying request to her father, that he would permit her to see the sun once a year.'4 The ceremony was evidently connected with the rites of Osiris ; and if Herodotus is correct in stating that it was a heifer (and not an ox), it may have been the emblem of Athor, in the 1 Plut. de Tsid. s. 68. This answered to the 16th September (o. s.). 2 Ibid. s. 68. Mesore began on the 29th August (O. S.). 3 Herodotus very properly doubts the story of the love of Mycerinus, and of his concubines having their hands cut off. (Euterpe, s. 131.) * Herodot. ii. 132. Chap. XV.] MYSTERIOUS EITES AT SAlS. 383 capacity she held in the regions of the dead. The honours paid to it on such an occasion could not have referred solely to a princess whose body was deposited within it : they were evidently intended for the deity of whom it was the emblem ; and the in- troduction of Athor into the mysterious rites of Osiris may be explained by the fact of her frequently assuming the character of Isis. Plutarch,1 who seems to have in view the same ceremony, states this animal exposed to public view on this occasion to be an ox, in commemoration of the misfortunes reported to have happened to Osiris. * About this time (the month of Athor, when the Etesian winds have ceased to blow, and the Nile, returning to its own channel, has left the country everywhere bare and naked), in consequence of the increasing length of the nights, the power of darkness appears to prevail, whilst that of light is diminished and overcome. The priests, therefore, practise certain doleful rites ; one of which is to expose to public view, as a proper representation of the present grief of the goddess Isis, an ox covered with a pall of the finest black linen, that animal being looked upon as the living image of Osiris.2 The ceremony is performed four days successively, beginning on the 17th of the above-mentioued month. They represent thereby four things which they mourn : — 1. The falling of the Nile and its retiring within its own channel ; 2. The ceasing of the northern winds, which are now quite suppressed by the prevail- ing strength of those from the south ; 3. The length of the nights and the decrease of the days ; 4. The destitute condition in which the land now appears, naked and desolate, {its trees despoiled of their leaves. Thus they commemorate what they call the "loss of Osiris ;" and on the 19th of the month Pachons another festival represents the "finding of Osiris,"' which has been already mentioned. The statement of Plutarch argues very strongly in favour of the opinion that the gilded figure annually exposed at Sals appertained to the mysterious rites of Osiris ; and the priests doubtless deviated as far from the truth in what they related respecting the burial of the daughter of Mycerinus within it, as 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 39. 2 Diodorus says, " The reason of the worship of this bull (Apis) is, that the soul of Osiris was thought to have passed into it ; others say because Isis deposited the members of Osiris in a wooden cow, enve- loped in cloths of fine linen (byssine), whence the name of the city Busiris (i. 85). 384 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. in the fable, readily rejected by Herodotus, of the cause of her death. Indeed no one who considers the care taken by the Egyptians to conceal with masonry and every other means the spot where the bodies of ordinary individuals were deposited, can for a moment believe that the daughter of a Pharaoh would be left in that exposed situation, unburied, and deprived of that privilege, so ardently coveted by the meanest Egyptian, of reposing within the sacred bosom of the grave, removed from all that is connected with this life, and free from contact with the impurities of the world. Small tablets in the tombs sometimes represent a black bull bearing the corpse of a man to its final abode in the regions of the dead. The name of this bull is shown by the sculptures in the Oasis to be Apis, the type of Osiris : it is therefore not unreasonable to suppose it in some way related to this fable. There were several festivals in honour of the sun. Plutarch 1 states that a sacrifice was performed to it on the fourth day of every month, as related in the books of the genealogy of Horus, by whom that custom was said to have been instituted. So great was the veneration paid to this luminary, that in order to propitiate it they burnt incense three times a day — resin at its first rising, myrrh when in the meridian, and a mixture called Kuphi at the time of setting. The principal worship of Ea was at Heliopolis and other cities of which he was the presiding deity ; and every city had its holy days peculiarly consecrated to its patron, as well as those common to the whole country. Another festival in honour of the sun was held on the 30th day of Epiphi, called the birthday of Horus's eyes,'2 when the sun and moon were supposed to be in the same right line with the earth ; and on the 22nd day of Phaophi, after the autumnal equinox, was a similar one, to which, according to Plutarch, they gave the name of ' the nativity of the staves of the sun ; ' intimating that the sun was then removing from the earth, and as its light became weaker and weaker that it stood in need of a staff to support it. In reference to which notion, he adds, ' about the winter solstice they lead the sacred cow seven times in procession around her temple, calling this the searching after Osiris, that season of the year standing most in need of the sun's warmth.' In their religious solemnities music was permitted, and even required, as acceptable to the gods ; except, if we may believe 1 Plut. de Isid. ss. 52 and 80. 2 Ibid. s. 52. Chap. XV.] CIKCUMCISION. 385 Strabo, in the temple of Osiris, at Abydus. It probably differed much from that used on ordinary festive occasions, and was, according to Apuleius, of a lugubrious character.1 But this I have already mentioned in treating of the music of the Egyptians. The greater part of the fetes and religious rites of the Egyptians are totally unknown to us ; nor are we acquainted with the ceremonies they adopted at births, weddings, and other occasions connected with their domestic life. But some little insight may be obtained into their funeral ceremonies from the accounts of Greek writers, as well as from the sculptures ; which last show that they were performed with all the pomp a solemnity of so much importance required. Circumcision was a rite practised by them from the earliest times. ' Its origin,' says Herodotus,2 ' both among the Egyptians and Ethiopians,3 may be traced to the most remote antiquity ; but I do not know which of those two people borrowed it from the other, though several nations derived it from Egypt during their intercourse with that country. The strongest proof of this is, that all the Phoenicians who frequent Greece have lost the habit they took from Egypt of circumcising their children.' The same rite is practised to the present day by the Moslems of all countries, and by the Christians of Abyssinia, as a salutary precaution well suited to a hot climate. We are ignorant of the exact time or age fixed for its performance by the ancient Egyptians. St. Ambrose says the 14th year : but this seems improbable, and it was perhaps left to the option of the individual, or of his parents, as with the Moslems.4 Though very generally adopted, no one was compelled to conform to this ordinance unless initiated into the mysteries or belonging to the priestly order ; and it is said that Pythagoras submitted to it in order to obtain the privileges it conferred, by entitling him to a greater participation of the mysteries he 1 Apuleius says, 4 iEgyptia numina ferme the temple of Chons at Karnak, where a plangoribus, Graeca plerumque choreis, lad, supposed to be a son of Rameses II., and gaudent.' about ten or more years of age, is repre- 2 Herodot. ii. 37, 104. sented standing assisted by two matrons. 3 Diodor. iii. 31, of the Troglodyta?. (Chabas," Rev. Arch.,' 1 861.) The rite pro- 4 It is evident from an inspection of the bably arose from some physical defect, as monuments that the Egyptians were cir- in Europe individuals require to be circum- cumcised, and this explains why the phalli cised for reasons not religious. In ancient of their uncircumcised enemies were times necessity was sanctioned by a religions brought into the camp to verify the observance. Ideas curious if not absurd number of the slain. The rite of circum- prevail amongst all the African races. — cision is represented on the bas-relief of S. B. VOL. III. 2 c 386 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. sought to study. But if the law did not peremptorily require it for every individual, custom and public opinion tended to make it universal. The omission was a ' reproach ; ' the uncircumcised Egyptian subjected himself to one of the stigmas attached to the ' impure race of foreigners ; ' and we may readily understand how anxious every one was to remove this ' reproach ' from him, which even the Jews feared to hear from the mouth of an Egyptian.1 By the Jewish law a stated time2 was appointed for it, which was the eighth day after the birth of the child. It was per- emptorily required; and the divine displeasure was threatened to the uncircumcised. His ' soul ' was doomed to be ' cut off ' from God's people as the breaker of a covenant ; and even the stranger bought with money as a slave was obliged to conform to this sacred rite.3 The antiquity of its institution in Egypt is fully established by the monuments of the Upper and Lower Country, at a period long antecedent to the Exodus and the arrival of Joseph ; and Strabo tells us that ' a similar rite 4 was practised in Egypt5 which was customary also among the Jews/ 6 and the same as adopted by the Moslems and Abyssinians at the present day.7 Some have supposed that it was done by the simple imple- ment used by Zipporah,8 6 a sharp stone,' and that certain stone knives found in the tombs of Thebes were intended for the purpose ; but it is more probable that these were used in other rites connected with sacrifice, in which the employment of so rude an instrument would not subject the victim to unnecessary inconvenience, and often to unlooked-for results. We may con- clude that the means adopted by the Egyptians were more nearly related to the ' sharp knives ' of Joshua 9 than the primitive implement used by Zipporah in ' the wilderness.' They were particular at all times to observe omens connected with everything they undertook, whether it related to contract- ing a matrimonial alliance, building a house, or any event over which they had or had not control. They even watched the day 1 Josh. v. 9 : 'This day have I rolled Idumeans, see Josephus, Antiq. xiii. 9. away the reproach of Egypt from off you.' 4 ra flrjAe'a cKre/xveiv. 2 Gen. xvii. 12. Luke ii. 21. Philip. 5 Strabo, xvii. p. 556. The covenant iii. 5. with Abraham ordained that every male 3 Calmet, on the circumcision of child should be circumcised. (Gen. xvii. Foreigners. He is wrong in supposing the 10.) 6 Strabo, xvi. p. 524. Egyptians were contented with this ; but it 7 This is described by Sonnini. is sometimes practised by the Moslems, 8 Exod. iv. 25. 9 Josh. v. 2. who also circumcise at any age. Of the Chap. XV.] INITIATION INTO MYSTERIES. 387 when anyone was bom ; 1 and, predicting the lot that awaited him, they determined what he would become, the kind of death he would die, and other particulars relative to his fate in this world. With the same scrupulous care they examined the entrails of animals, or other omens, when about to commence a war, or any other undertaking which involved the interests of the State.2 Of the ceremonies performed at the initiation into the mysteries we must necessarily remain ignorant. Indeed, the only means of forming any opinion respecting them are to be derived from our imperfect acquaintance with those of Greece, which were doubtless imitative of the rites practised in Egypt. With the Egyptians great care was taken to preserve them from the profanation which some secret rites underwent among the Greeks and Komans, and they excluded all persons who were considered unfit to participate in solemnities of so sacred a nature. And ' not only,' says Clemens, * did they scruple to entrust their secrets to every one, and prevent all unholy persons from becoming acquainted with divine matters, but confined them to those who were invested with the office of king, and to such of the priesthood who, from their worth, learning, and station, were deemed worthy of so great a privilege.' Many rites and ceremonies were borrowed by Greece from Egypt ; of which the next in importance to the mysteries of Eleusis, and the institution of oracles, was the Thesmophoria — a festival in honour of Ceres, celebrated in many Greek cities, and particularly at Athens. * These rites,' says Herodotus,3 1 were brought from Egypt into Greece by the daughters of Danaus, who taught them to the Pelasgic women ; but in the course of time, the Dorians having driven out the ancient inha- bitants of Peloponnesus, they fell into disuse, except amongst the Arcadians, who, having remained in the country, continued to preserve them.' He states that they resembled the ceremonies, or, as the Egyptians called them, the mysteries, performed on the sacred lake of Sais, in allusion to the accidents which had befallen Osiris, whose tomb was in that city. In Athens the worshippers at the Thesmophoria ' were free- 1 Herodot. ii. 82. ' Do not look at a rat on that da}-.* (Chabas , - The existence of omens is proved by 1 Le Calendrier,' p. 69.) — S. B. the expression in the calendar of the 3 Herodot. ii. 171. Such appears to be Papyrus Sallier, of the age of Meneptah, the meaning of the historian. 2 c 2 388 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. born women,1 it being unlawful for any of servile condition to be present, whose husbands defrayed the charges of the solemnity, which they were obliged to do if their wives' portion amounted to three talents. These women were assisted by a priest called Stephanophoros, because his head was adorned with a crown whilst he executed his office ; as also by certain virgins, who were strictly confined, and kept under severe discipline, being main- tained at the public charge in a place called Thesmophoreion. The women were clad in white apparel, to intimate their spotless innocence, and were obliged to observe the strictest chastity for two or three days before and during the whole time of the solemnity, which lasted four days. For which end they used to strew upon their beds such herbs as were thought to calm the passions, such as Agnus castus, fleabane, and vine-branches.2 It was held unlawful to eat pomegranates, or to adorn themselves with garlands. Everything was carried on with the greatest appearance of seriousness and gravity, and nothing was tolerated that bore the least show of wantonness and immodesty, or even of mirth, the custom of jesting upon one another excepted, which was constantly done in memory of Iambe, who by a taunting jest extorted a smile from Ceres when in a pensive and melancholy humour. Three days at least were spent in making preparations for the festival. Upon the 11th of Pyanepsion, the women, carrying books containing the laws upon their heads, in memory of Ceres' invention,3 went to Eleusis, where the solemnity was kept. This day was hence called Anodos, " the ascent." Upon the 14th the festival began, and lasted till the 17th. Upon the 16th they kept a fast, sitting upon the ground, in token of humiliation; whence the day was called Nesteia, u the fast." * It was usual at this solemnity to pray to Ceres, Proserpine, Pluto, and Calligenia ; though some will have this Calligenia to have been the nurse of Ceres, others her priestess, others her waiting-maid, and some suppose her the same as Ceres.4 The custom was omitted by the Eretrians alone of all the Grecians. There was also a mysterious sacrifice called Diogma, or Apodiogma, either because all men were excluded and banished from it, or because in a dangerous war the women's prayers were so prevalent 1 Potter, ' Antiq.,' vol. i. p. 463. Thesmophoros. e These last were used by the Milesian 4 This is refuted by the testimony of women. Aristophanes. (Potter, p. 464.) 3 Diod. i. 14, where Ceres was called Chap. XV.] THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. 389 with the gods, that their enemies were defeated and put to flight as far as Chalcis ; whence it was sometimes called Chalcidicon diogma. Another sacrifice, called Zemia, " the mulct," was offered as an expiation of any irregularities which happened during the solemnity. At the beginning of the festival all prisoners com- mitted to gaol for smaller faults — that is, such as did not render them incapable of communicating in the sacrifices and other parts of divine worship — were released.' The Eleusinian mysteries, the most noted solemnity of any in Greece, were also instituted in honour of Ceres ; and from their being derived from Egypt, it may not be foreign to the present subject to introduce some account of their mode of celebration in Greece.1 ' They were often called by way of eminence, Hysteria, " the mysteries," without any other note of distinction ; and so superstitiously careful were they to conceal these sacred rites, that if any person divulged any part of them,2 he was thought to have called down the divine judgment upon his head, and it was accounted unsafe to abide in the same house with him. He was even apprehended as a public offender, and put to death. Every- thing contained a mystery : Ceres herself (to whom, with her daughter Proserpine, this solemnity was sacred) was not called by her own name, but by the unusual title of Achtheia, which seems to be derived from Achthos, grief or heaviness, because of her sorrow for the loss of her daughter when stolen by Pluto. The same secrecy was strictly enjoined not only in Attica, but in all other places of Greece where the festival was observed, except Crete ; and if any person, not lawfully initiated, did even through ignorance or mistake chance to be present at the mysterious rites, he forfeited his life. . . . Persons of both sexes and all ages were initiated. Indeed, it was not a matter of indifference whether they would be so or not ; for the neglect of it was looked upon as a crime, insomuch that it was one part of the accusation for which Socrates was condemned to death. All persons initiated were thought to live in a state of greater happiness and security than other men, being under the more immediate care and protection of the goddess. Nor did the benefit of it extend only to this life : even after death they enjoyed (as was believed) far greater degrees of felicity than others, and were honoured with the first places in the Elysian shades. But since the benefits of initiation were so great, no 1 Potter, 'Antiq.,' vol. i. p. 449. 2 Cf. Herodot. ii. 171. Hor. Od. iii. 2, 26. 390 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. wonder they were very cautious what persons they admitted to it. Such, therefore, as were convicted of witchcraft, or any other heinous crime, or had committed murder, though against their will, were debarred from these mysteries ; and though in later ages all persons, barbarians excepted, were admitted to them, yet in the primitive times the Athenians excluded all strangers, that is, all who were not members of their own commonwealth. Hence, when Hercules, Castor, and Pollux desired to be initiated, they were first made citizens of Athens.1 Nor were they admitted to the greater mysteries, but only to the less, which were sacred to Proserpine, and were instituted for this purpose, in order that the laws might not be violated by the admission of Hercules.' They were not celebrated, like the former, in the month Boe- dromion, at Eleusis, an Attic borough, from which Ceres was called Eleusinia, but at Agrse, a place near the river Ilissus, in the month Anthesterion. ' In later times, the lesser festival was used as a preparative to the greater ; for no persons were initiated in the greater unless they had been purified at the lesser. The manner of the purification was this : — Having kept themselves chaste and unpolluted nine days, they came and offered sacrifices and prayers, wearing crowns and garlands of flowers, which were called ismera, or imera. They had also, under their feet, Bios Jcodion, "Jupiter's skin," which was the skin of a victim offered to that god. The person that assisted them herein was called hydranos, from hydor, " water," which was used at most purifications ; and they themselves were named mystai, or persons " initiated." 'About a year after, having sacrificed a sow to Ceres, they were admitted to the greater mysteries, the secret rites of which, some few excepted being reserved for the priests alone, were frankly revealed to them ; whence they were called ephoroi, and epoptai, " inspectors." The manner of initiation was thus : — The candidates, being crowned with myrtle, had admittance by night into a place called mystikos sekos, " the mystical temple," which was an edifice so vast and capacious that the most ample theatre did scarce exceed it. At their entrance they purified themselves by washing their hands in holy water, and at the same time were admonished to present themselves with minds pure and undefiled, without which the external cleanness of the body would by no means be accepted. After this the holy mysteries 1 Plut. in Thes. Chap. XV.] THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. 391 were read to them out of a book called petroma ; which word is derived from petra, " a stone," because the book consisted of two stones fitly cemented together. Then the priest who initiated them, called hierophantes, proposed certain questions, as whether they were fasting, &c, to which they returned answers in a set form.1 This done, strange and amazing objects presented them- selves. Sometimes the place they were in seemed to shake round them ; sometimes it appeared bright and resplendent with light and radiant fire, and then again was covered with black darkness. Sometimes thunder and lightning, sometimes frightful noises and bellowings, sometimes terrible apparitions astonished the trembling spectators. The being present at these sights was called autopsia, " intuition." 2 After this they were dismissed with these words, Jconx ompaxP During that part of the ceremony called epopteia, ' insj^ec- tion,' the gods themselves were supposed to appear to the initiated ; and it was in order to discover if the candidates were sufficiently prepared for such a mark of their favour that these terrific preludes were instituted. Proclus thus describes them in his Commentary on Plato's Eepublic : ' In all initiations and mysteries the gods exhibit themselves under many forms, and appear in a variety of shapes. Sometimes their unfigured light is held forth to the view ; sometimes this light appears under a human form, and it sometimes assumes a different shape.' In his Commentary on the first Alcibiades he also says : ' In the most holy of the mysteries, before the god appears, the impul- sions of certain terrestrial daemons become visible, alluring the initiated from undefiled goods to matter.' Apuleius4 mentions the same extraordinary illusions, 'The sun being made to appear at midnight, glittering with white light ;' and it is supposed that Ezekiel alludes to similar scenes when speaking of the abominations committed by the idolatrous ' ancients of the house of Israel in the dark, every man in the chambers of his imagery.' 5 The preliminary ordeals through which candidates were obliged to pass previous to admission into the Egyptian mys- teries were equally if not more severe; and it frequently happened that their lives were exposed to great danger, as is said to have been the case with Pythagoras. But the reluctance 1 Meursius's treatise on this festival. profani,' and to have that meaning in 2 Rather, ' inspection by oneself.' Sanscrit. If so, they were misapplied. 3 Some have supposed these words to 4 Metam. lib. ii. 256. answer to the ' I'rocul, 0 procul este 5 Ezek. viii. 12. 392 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. of the Egyptians, particularly in the time of the Pharaohs, to admit strangers to these holy secrets probably rendered his trial more severe even than that to which the Egyptians themselves were subjected ; and it appears that, notwithstanding the earnest request made by Polycrates to Amasis to obtain this favour for the philosopher, many difficulties were thrown in the way by the priests on his arrival in Egypt. Those of Heliopolis,1 to whom he first presented the letters given him by Amasis, re- ferred him to the college of Memphis, under the pretext of their seniority ; and these again, on the same plea, recommended him to the priests of Thebes. Kespect for the king forbade them to give a direct refusal ; but they hoped, says Porphyry, to alarm him by representing the arduous task he had to perform, and the repugnance of the previous ceremonies to the feelings of the Greeks. It was not, therefore, without surprise that they beheld his willingness to submit to the trials they proposed ; for though many foreigners were, in after-times, admitted to the mysteries of Egypt, few had then obtained the indulgence, except Thales aud Eumolpus. This prejudice of the Egyptians against the Greeks is perfectly consistent with the statement of Herodotus, and is shown by other writers to have continued even after the accession of the Ptolemies and the Eoman conquest. * The garments2 of those initiated into the Eleusinian mys- teries were accounted sacred, and of no less efficacy to avert evils than charms and incantations. They were therefore never cast off till completely worn out. Nor was it then usual to throw them away, but they were made into swaddling clothes for children, or consecrated to Ceres and Proserpine. ' The chief person who attended at the initiation was called liierojyhantes, " the reveal er of holy things." He was a citizen of Athens, and held his office during life; though amongst the Celeans and Phliasians it was customary for him to resign his place every fourth year, at the time of the festival. He was obliged to devote himself wholly to divine service, and to live a chaste and simple life ; to which end it was usual for him to anoint himself with the juice of hemlock, which by its extreme coldness is said to extinguish in a great measure the natural heat. The MerophanUs had three assistants ; the first of whom was called, from his office, dadoachos, "torch-bearer,"3 and to 1 Porphyr. de Vita Pythag. So5ovxoy T«*/ aKturaTwv 'EAeuo-u/aj? 2 Potter, ' Antiq.' vol. i. p. 452. /uvo-rr/ptW, in the time of Constantine. 3 An inscription on one of the tombs of This was about sixty years before those the kings at Thebes was written by a mysteries were abolished by Theodosius. Chap. XV.] THE ELEUSIXIAX MYSTERIES. 393 him it was permitted to marry; the second was the heryx, or u herald ;" the third ministered " at the altar," and was for that reason named ho epi toi bomoi. The hierophantes is said to have been a type of the great Creator of all things, the dadouchos of the sun, the heryx of Mercury, and ho epi toi bomoi of the moon. ' There were also certain public officers whose business it was to take care that all things were performed according to custom, first, basileus, " the king," who was one of the Archons, and was obliged at this solemnity to offer prayers and sacrifices, to see that no irregularity was committed, and the day following the mysteries to assemble the senate to take cognizance of all the offenders. Besides the king were four epimeletai, " curators,"' elected by the people ; one of whom was appointed out of the sacred family of the Eumolpidse, another out of the Ceryces, and the remaining two from the other citizens. There were also ten persons who assisted at this and some other solemnities, who were called hieropoioi, because it was their business to offer sacrifices. ' This festival was celebrated in the month Boedromion, and continued nine days, beginning upon the fifteenth and ending upon the twenty-third day of that month, during which time it was unlawful to arrest any man, or present a petition, under a penalty of 1000 drachms, or (as others report) under pain of death. It was also unlawful for those who were initiated to sit upon the covering of a well, or to eat beans, mullets, or weasels. If any woman went in a chariot to Eleusis, she was, by an edict of Lycurgus, obliged to pay 6000 drachms ; the design of which was to prevent the richer women distinguishing them- selves from those who were poor. 1 1. The first day was called Agyrmos, " assembly," because then the worshippers first met together. ' 2. The second was named Alade Mystai, that is, " to the sea, you that are initiated," because (I suppose) they were com- manded to purify themselves by washing in the sea. ' 3. Upon the third they offered sacrifices, consisting chiefly of an iExonian mullet, in Greek trigle? and barley out of Bha- rium, a field of Eleusis in which that sort of corn was first sown. These oblations were called thya, and accounted so sacred that the priests themselves were not allowed (as in other offerings) to partake of them. The Triglia of the modern Italians. 394 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. ' 4. Upon the fourth they made a solemn procession, wherein the kalathion, or holy basket of Ceres, was carried in a consecrated cart; crowds of people shouting as they went along, Chaire Demeter, " Hail, Ceres." After these followed certain women, called kistophoroi, who (as the name implies) carried baskets, con- taining sesamun, carded wool, some grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, reeds, ivy-boughs, a sort of cake called phthois, poppies, and other things. ' 5. The fifth was called He ton lampadon hemera, " the torch day," because at night the men and women ran about with torches in their hands. It was also customary to dedicate torches to Ceres, and to contend who should present the largest ; which was done in memory of Ceres' journey when she sought Proserpine, being conducted by the light of a torch kindled in the flames of Etna. * 6. The sixth was called Iakchos, from Iacchus, the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who accompanied the goddess in her search for Proserpine with a torch in her hand ; whence it was that his statue held a torch. This statue was carried from the Ceramicus to Eleusis in solemn procession, called after the hero's name Iahchos. The statue and the persons that accompanied it had their heads crowned with myrtle. They were named Iakchagogoi, and all the way danced and sang and beat brazen kettles. The road by which they issued out of the city was called hiera Jiodos, " the sacred way " — the resting-place, hiera syke, from a fig-tree which grew there, and was (like all other things concerned in this ceremony) accounted sacred. It was also customary to rest upon a bridge built over the river Cephissus, where they made themselves merry by jesting on those who passed by. Having crossed this bridge, they went to Eleusis, the way into which was called the mystical entrance. * 7. Upon the seventh day were sports, in which the victors were rewarded with a measure of barley, that grain being the first sown in Eleusis. ' 8. The eighth was called " the Epidaurian day," because it once happened that iEsculapius, coming from Epidaurus to Athens, and desiring to be initiated, had the lesser mysteries repeated. Whence it became customary to celebrate them a second time upon this day, and to admit to initiation such persons as had not before enjoyed that privilege. * 9. The ninth and last day of the festival was called " the earthen vessels," because it was usual to fill two such vessels with Chap. XV.] CLOTHING OF STATUES OF GODS. 395 wine, one of which was placed towards the east, and the other towards the west. These, after the repetition of certain mystical words, were both thrown down, and the wine being spilt upon the ground, was offered as a libation.' 1 During 'the feasts and festivals,' the statues of the gods were dressed in 'the sacred vestments;'2 and the priests minis- tered to them ' three times ' in the course of the day, according to certain regulations 'ordained by law.'3 The ceremony of clothing them was the peculiar office of a class of priests called Hierostoli by Greek writers, who had the privilege of entering the sanctuary for this purpose, like the chief priests and pro- phets. Each deity had its particular emblems, and a proper dress, of a form and character prescribed in the sacred books. Thus the vestments of Osiris were of a uniform shadowless white, as we learn from Plutarch and the sculptures of the temples ; those of Isis were dyed with a variety of colours, and frequently imitated the complicated hue and arrangement of feather work, as if she were enveloped in the wings of the sacred vulture.4 1 For,' says the same author,5 ' as Osiris is the First Principle, prior to all beings, and purely intelligent, he must ever remain unmixed and undeflled ; consequently, when his vestments are once taken off his statues, they are ever afterwards put by, and carefully preserved untouched ; while those of Isis, whose power is totally conversant about matter, which becomes and admits all things, are frequently made use of, and that too without the same scrupulous attention.' This ceremony of dress- ing the statues is still retained in the religious rites of some people at the present day, who clothe the images of gods or saints on particular festivals, and carry them in procession, like 1 That many of the Egyptian doctrines were mysteries, is evident from the rubrics of certain chapters, in which it is stated that the thing affirmed was the greatest of mysteries, and also that the deceased knew certain things necessary to his passage in the future state, as the mystical names of the bark of Acheron, those of the door and its parts of the Hall of the Two Truths, and the appellations of certain deities. According to Clemens, the knowledge of mysteries was kept by the priests. It is not improbable that they were communi- cated by certain secret rites and ceremonies, to which the word mystery may be applied. One of the initiations was no doubt seeing the figure of the god, as the Ethiopian monarch Pianchi did at Heliopolis. An inscription of a high priest at Memphis states that he knew the arrangements of earth and those of Heliopolis and Memphis, that he had penetrated the mysteries of every sanctuary, that nothing was con- cealed from him, that he adored God and glorified Him in all His works, and that he hid in his breast all that he had seen. — S. B. 2 Jerem. x. 9 ; and Baruch vi. 15, 58, 72, where also the custom of gilding the wooden idols of Babylon is mentioned (v. 8, 39, &c), and of making ' crowns for the heads of their gods ' (v. y), and 4 lighting them candles ' (v. 19). 3 Rosetta Stone, lines 7 and 40. 4 Like the figure of Mut, in woodcut No. 505. 5 Plut. de Isid. s. 78. 396 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. Nor can the custom of put- ting the kisweh, or sacred covering, upon the tomb of a Moslem sheikh fail to remind us of the hieros Jcosmos (holy ornament or covering) of antiquity ; as the * crowning the tomb of Osiris with flowers/1 which was done on stated occasions by the priests of that deity at Philae, recalls that of carrying flowers and palm- branches to the grave of a departed friend in the cemeteries of modern Egypt. The same was done to individuals as well as in honour of Osiris, and sarcophagi are frequently found in the tombs of Thebes with flowers and garlands placed in or near them, either by the priests, or the relations of the deceased who attended at the funeral. In the time of the Ptolemies the religious societies2 were obliged to perform an annual voyage to Alexandria, the royal residence at' that period, to present themselves at the palace. This was doubtless in conformity with a custom established in the olden times of the Pharaohs, when the seat of government was at Thebes or Memphis; and it continued to be observed until dispensed with by Epiphanes. Besides the feasts and ceremonies of public rejoicing or of general abstinence, many fasts were enjoined on each individual, either as occasional voluntary expiations of secret offences which were dependent upon their own conscience, or in compliance with certain regulations at fixed periods. They were then re- quired to abstain from the enjoyment of luxuries, as of the bath, the table, and perfumes, and, above all, from the gratification of the passions. Some of these, as Apuleius3 informs us, lasted ten days, during which time the latter prohibition 4 was strictly enforced — a measure which appears in Italy to have called forth great complaints from the votaries of Isis, when her worship was established in that country. [It is doubtful if fasting, as a sacred rite, was practised by the Egyptians. Some have thought it alluded to in the negative confession of the Kitual. — S. B.] It is to this Propertius 5 alludes. In the time of the Greeks and Komans they had some fetes of a wanton character, in which the object was to seek amuse- ment and indulgences of every kind ; but it does not appear whether they were instituted in early times, or were a Greek innovation. Strabo mentions one of these, * during which a 1 Plut. de Isid. s. 21. 3 Metam. ii. p. 1000. 2 Rosetta Stone, line 17. 4 Juven. Sat. vi. 535. 5 Propert. lib. ii. Kleg. 33, lines 1 and 15. Ovid. Amor. iii. 10, 1. Chap. XV.] SACRIFICES AND OFFERINGS. 397 dense crowd of people hurried down the canal from Alexandria to Canopus to join the festive meeting. Day and night it was covered with boats bringing men and women, singing and dancing with the greatest licentiousness ; and at Canopus itself inns were opened upon the canal purposely for the convenience of indulging in these amusements.' 1 Athenseus mentions a grand procession in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, the splendour of which was surprising. The most rare and curious animals from all countries were conducted in it, and the statues of the gods, as well as everything which could give dignity and interest to the spectacle, were brought together on the occasion. There is reason to suppose that it resembled in many respects similar pomps of the early Pharaohs ; I therefore refer the curious reader to the full account of it in the work of that author.2 I have already mentioned, in a preceding chapter, the nature of sacrifices offered in early ages, and have shown at how remote an era the mode of addressing prayers to the deity, the adoption of the peculiar forms and attributes of the gods, the establish- ment of oracles, and other matters connected with religion, were introduced among the Egyptians. If at the earliest periods of their history they were contented with herbs and incense, they afterwards admitted animals 3 into their sacrifices, and victims were bound and slain on the altar, and either offered entire or divided into portions before the statue of the god, together with cakes, fruit, and other offerings prescribed by law. To some deities oblations of a peculiar kind were made, being deemed more particularly suited to their worship; and some festivals required an observance on this head which differed greatly from ordinary custom, as the burning of the body of the victim at the fete of Isis 4 and the offering of a pig at the festivals of Bacchus 5 and the moon. For though many ceremonies, as the libations of wine, and certain formulae, were common to all or most of the Egyptian sacrifices, the inspection of entrails and the manner of burning the victims required a particular method in the rites of some deities,6 and peculiar offerings were reserved for remarkable occasions. Incense [called sen neter, 1 divine incense ' or 1 frankincense '] 1 Strabo, xxii. p. 551. oxen ; and Varro, de Re Rustica, ii. 5. 2 Athen. Deipn. v. p. 196, et seq. 4 Herodot. ii. 40. 3 See Pausanias (lib. i. c. 24) on the 5 Ibid. ii. 48. « Ibid. ii. 39. remains of a prejudice against slaughtering 398 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. was offered to all the gods, and introduced on every grand occa- sion whenever a complete offering was made : for the Egyptians, like the Jews and other people, frequently presented a simple oblation of wine, oil, or other liquid, or any single gift, as a necklace, a bouquet of flowers, ointment, or whatever they had vowed, or the occasion required. Incense was sometimes presented alone, though more usually accompanied by a libation of wine. It consisted of various qualities or ingredients, according to circumstances, as I have stated in the offerings made to the sun,1 when resin, myrrh, and kuphi were adapted to different times of the day. Myrrh, says Plutarch, is supposed to be called Bal 2 by the Egyptians, signifying the dissipation of melancholy ; and the ' Kuphi is a mixture composed of the sixteen following ingredients : honey, wine, raisins, Cyprus, resin, myrrh, aspalathus, seselis, sthcenan- thus, asphaltus, saffron, and dock,3 the greater and lesser juniper, cardamums, and aromatic reed.' No. 599. Fig. 1. Throwing the balls of incense into the fire. 2, 3. Censers, a, a. Cups for holding the incense balls. b, c. The cup in which was the fire. In 6 are three flames of fire, in c only one. 4. A censer without a handle. 5, 6. Other censers, with incense balls or pastilles within. These last two are from the tombs near the Pyramids. Some resinous substances have been found in the tombs at Thebes, but it does not appear if they were used for incense, or other purposes ; and one of those brought to England by Lord Claud Hamilton is probably mastic, used by women in the East at the present day, and probably also in former times, to sweeten their breath.4 According to the chemical examination made of it by Ure, ' it has a specific gravity of 1*067, and dissolves both in alcohol and oil of turpentine, which circumstance, with its topaz yellow colour/ leads him ' to believe it to be mastic,' a gum resin that exudes from the Lentiscus, well known to be 1 Plut. de Isid. ss. 52, 80. spikenard, crocus and cassia,' and for 1 car- 2 Bal signifies ' the eye,' or ' the end,' damum,' ' cinnamon.' (Squire, translation in Coptic; UkX is 'myrrh.' of Plutarch, de Isid s. 81.) ^ The GreTk name is kdnados. Demo- \ln ,the "^cal papyrus Ebers is a crates substitutes for 'seselis, asphaltus, recelPt P«*tilliS for the breath.-S. B. saffron, dpvov, and lapathus,' ' bdellium, Chap. XV.] MODE OF OFFEEING INCENSE. 399 common in the island of Scio. The other is thus described by Dr. Ure : ' It has a ruby red colour and the remarkable density of 1*204, being much more than any resinous substance known at the present day. It intumesces when heated over a lamp, and burns much like amber. Like it, also, it affords a musky odour when heated with nitric acid. It dissolves in alcohol and wood spirit, in which respect it differs from amber. It is insoluble in oil of turpentine or caustic lye/ The incense burnt in the temples before the altar was made into small balls, or pastilles,1 which were thrown by the hand into the censer. The latter generally consisted of an open cup of bronze (sometimes two), holding the fire, supported by a long handle, whose opposite extremity was ornamented with the head No. 600. Incense burnt at the festival of the inundation of the Nile. of a hawk, surmounted by a disk representing the god Ra or the sun ; and in the centre of this was another cup, from which the pastilles were taken with the finger and thumb to be thrown upon the fire. Sometimes the incense was burnt in a cup with- out the handle, and some censers appear to have been made with a cover, probably pierced with holes to allow the smoke to escape, like those now employed in the churches of Italy. When a victim was sought for the altar, it was carefully examined by one of the Sphragistai? an order of priests to whom this peculiar office belonged. According to Plutarch,3 red oxen were alone selected for the purpose ; 1 and so scrupulous,' he adds, 1 Called tsa.—S. B. 2 Herodot. ii. 38. Plut. de Isid. s. 31. * Plut. de isid. s. 31. 400 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. were they on this point, that a single black or white hair rendered them unfit for sacrifice, in consequence of the notion that Typho was of that colour. For in their opinion sacrifices ought not to be made of such things as are in themselves agree- able to the gods, but rather of those creatures into which the souls of wicked men have been confined during the course of their transmigration.' The same remark is made by Diodorus,1 who not only states that it was lawful to offer red oxen, because Typho was supposed to be of that colour, but that red, or red-haired men, were formerly sacrificed by the Egyptian kings at the altar of Osiris. This story is repeated by Athenaeus, and by Plutarch,2 who states, on the authority of Manetho, that ' formerly in the city of Idithya 3 they were wont to burn even men alive, giving them the name of Typhos, and winnowing their ashes through a sieve to scatter and disperse them in the air, which human sacrifices were performed in public, at a stated season of the year, during dog-days.' But from its being directly contrary to the usages of the Egyptians, and totally inconsistent with the feelings of a civilised people, it is scarcely necessary to attempt a refutation of so improbable a tale ; and Herodotus justly blames the Greeks 4 for supposing that * a people to whom it was forbidden to sacrifice any animal except pigs, geese, oxen, and calves, and this only provided they were clean, should ever think of immolating a human being.' 5 Some have felt disposed to believe that in the earliest times (to which indeed Manetho and Diodorus confine those sacrifices), and long before they had arrived at that state of civilisation in which they are represented by the Bible history and the monu- ments, the Egyptians may have been guilty of these cruel practices and have sacrificed their captives at the altars of the gods. The abolition of the custom was said to have taken place in the reign of Amosis,6 and De Pauw, who is disposed to believe the statement, endeavours to excuse them by observing,7 that ' the famous Act for burning heretics alive was only abrogated in England under the reign of Charles II.,' as though it were 1 Diodor. i. 88. with the Greek notion of appeasing the 2 Plut. de Isid. s. 73. Athen. iv. p. winds. (Herodot. ii. 119 ; and Virg. Mn. 172. 3 Eileithyia. ii. 116.) 5 Herodot. ii. 45. 4 It was a Greek custom in early times. 6 Certainly not the Amosis of the 18th Twelve Trojan captives were killed at the Dynasty. funeral of Patroclus : Homer's Iliad, A, 33. 7 ' Sur les Egyptiens et les Chinois,' vol. Menelaus was seized by the Egyptians for ii. p. 113. sacrificing young children in accordance Chap. XV.] SUPPOSED HUMAN SACEIFICES. 401 analogous to a human sacrifice. Many even suppose the record of this ancient custom may be traced in the groups represented 1 on the facades of Egyptian temples, where the king occurs as if in the act of slaying his prisoners in the presence of the god. 1 The men put to death in the cere- the priest,' previous to initiation and a monies represented in the tombs of the new life, or those condemned to a par- kings appear to be either Neophytes, who ticular fate hereafter, were required to ' pass under the knife of VOL. III. 2 D 402 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. But a strong argument against this being commemorative of a human sacrifice is derived from the fact of the foreigners he holds in his hand not being bound, but with their hands free, and even holding their drawn swords, plainly showing that it refers to them in a state of war, not as captives. It is therefore an allegorical picture, illustrative of the power of the king in his contest with the enemies of his country. Indeed, if from this anyone were disposed to infer the exist- ence of such a custom in former times, he must admit that it was abandoned long before the erection of any existing monument,1 consequently ages prior to the accession of the Amosis whose name occurs in the sculptures — long before the Egyptians are mentioned in sacred history, and long before they were that people we call Egyptians. For it is quite incompatible with the character of a nation whose artists thought acts of clemency towards a foe worthy of record, and whose laws were distinguished by that humanity which punished with death the murder even of a slave. I have, therefore, no scruple in doubting this statement altogether, and in agreeing with the historian of Halicarnassus respecting the improbability of such a custom among a civilised people. And when we consider how solemnly the Moslems declare the pillar of clay, now left at the mouths of the canals when opened to receive the water of the inundation, to have been the substitute which the humanity of Amer adopted in lieu of the virgin annually sacrificed to the Nile at that season previous to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, we may learn how much reliance is to be placed on tradition, and what is stated to be recorded fact. For though Arab historians lived very near to the time when that sacrifice is said to have been abolished, though the pillar of earth is still retained to com- memorate it, and though it bears the name of Harooset e' Neel, 4 the bride of the Nile ' — all far stronger arguments than any brought forward respecting the human sacrifices of early Egypt — we are under the necessity of disbelieving the existence of such sacrifices in a Christian country, at the late period of 1 The learned Prichard (p. 363) thinks two knives stuck into his forehead, two in that a subject described from the temple his shoulders, one in his thigh, and another of Tentyra proves this custom to have in his body,' can scarcely be an argument existed in Egypt. But that temple is of in favour of a human sacrifice, unless men late Ptolemaic and Roman date, and ' the of that description were proved to have figure of a man with the head and ears of lived in those days. an ass, kneeling, and bound to a tree, with Chap. XV.] CONTEMPT FOE FOEEIGNERS. 403 Heads of foreigners which once supported part of the ornamental architecture at Medeenet Haboo in Thebes. No. 602. a.d. 638, when the religion of Islam supplanted that of the Cross on the banks of the Nile. That red-haired men were treated with great contempt by the Egyptians is perfectly true. But however much their prejudices were excited against them, it is too much to suppose they thought them unworthy to live ; and they were probably contented to express their dislike to foreigners, who were noted for that peculiarity, by applying to them some reproachful name ; as the Chinese contemptuously de- signate us ' red-haired barbarians.' * In Egypt,' says Diodorus, * few are found with red hair, among foreigners many.' 1 Such, indeed, was the prejudice against them, that 'they would not willingly converse with people of that complexion ;' 2 and whenever they wished to show their contempt for a northern race, they repre- sented them on their sandals, and in other humiliating positions, with red hair, and of a yellow colour. This contempt for strangers induced the Egyptian architects to introduce them supporting on their heads portions of buildings, as in the pavilion of King Eameses at Thebes, where they occupy the same un- comfortable positions generally given to men and monsters on our old churches. The idea of * making his enemies his . foot- stool' is also shown from the sculptures to have been common in Egypt, as in other Eastern countries. The sacrifice of red oxen cannot fail to call to mind the law of the Israelites, which com- manded them to ' bring a red heifer without spot, wherein was no blemish, and upon which never came yoke.'3 According to Maimonides, they were so particular in the choice of it, that ' if only two white or black hairs were found lying upon Enemies as the footstool of a king. 1 All countries and lands under thy sandals.' No. 603. Thebes. Diodor. i. 88. Plut. de Isid. s. 33. Numb. xix. 2. 2 d 2 404 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. each other, the animal was considered unfit for sacrifice ;' 1 and Herodotus 2 says, that if the Egyptians ' found a single black hair upon the ox they were examining for that purpose, they immediately rejected it as unclean.' * They believe/ says the historian, * that all clean oxen belong to Epaphus, and this is the reason they examine them with so much care. There is a particular priest for that office, who, when the animal is brought, examines it in every position, standing, and lying on its back; aod having drawn out its tongue, he ascertains if it is free from certain marks described in the sacred books, which I shall mention elsewhere.3 He even looks if the hairs of its tail are such as they ought to be naturally ; and when all the requisite signs are found for pro- nouncing it clean, the priest marks it with his seal, after which it is taken to the altar ; but it is forbidden under pain of death to slay a victim which has not this mark/ His statement differs in some respects from that of Plutarch, nor does the historian consider the red colour necessary to render it fit for sacrifice. The principal point seems to be the absence of those marks which characterise Apis, or Epaphus, the sacred bull of Memphis ; and the sculptures, as I shall presently show, abundantly prove that oxen with black and red spots were usually killed in Egypt, both for the altar and the table. It was lawful to slay all oxen answering to a particular de- scription in the sacred books; but the sacrifice of heifers was strictly forbidden, and in order to enforce this prohibition they were held sacred.4 So great was their respect for this law, that the ' cow was esteemed more highly among the Egyptians than any other animal ;' 5 and their consequent horror of those persons whose religion permitted them to slay and eat it was carried so far ' that no Egyptian of either sex could be induced to kiss a Greek on the mouth, to make use of his knife, his spit, or his cooking utensils, nor even to taste the meat of a clean beast which had been slaughtered by his hand.' Aware of this prejudice, and of the consequent displeasure of the Egyptians in the event of their sacrificing a heifer,6 the Israelites proposed to withdraw into the desert a distance of three days' journey, where they might perform the ceremony without openly offending against the laws of Egypt. And when told by Pharaoh ' to go and sacrifice,' the answer of Moses was, 1 Maimon. in lib. de Vaccat rufa1, c. i. 4 To Isis, or rather to Athor. 2 Herodot. ii. 38. 5 Herodot. ii. 41.; 3 In lib. iii. 28. 6 Exod. viii. 26. Chap. XV.] SACRIFICES OF OXEN. 405 * It is not meet so to do ; for we shall sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians to the Lord our God : lo, shall we sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians before their eyes, and will they not stone us ? We will go three days' journey into the wilderness, and sacrifice to the Lord our God, as He shall command us.' 1 It does not appear that in this instance they were ordered to offer a red heifer, as described in a subsequent ordinance ; 2 and indeed victims of that peculiar description, according to Maimon- ides, were reserved for certain occasions, nine only having been sacrificed from the time of Moses to ' the desolation of the Second Temple.'3 At other times the Israelites made no distinction between those of different colour, and their apprehensions from the anger of the Egyptians proceeded solely from their infring- ing a law which forbade the slaughter of any but male cattle. Though they were then4 commanded to slay a heifer, it is evident that they too, on most occasions, were restricted to male victims,5 a wise regulation for the preservation of the species, which the legislators of Eastern nations seldom overlooked. ' In Egypt and Palestine,' says St. Jerome,6 'in consequence of the great scarcity of cattle, no one eats the meat of cows;' and Porphyry7 asserts that 'the scruples of the Egyptians and Phoenicians were so strong on this point, that they would rather have lived on the flesh of man than of the cow.' That the Egyptians abstained from the meat of heifers is attested by the authority of ancient authors and by the sculptures them- selves ; but we find from these last that the restriction to animals of a red colour, if really in force at any time, was not generally maintained either in sacrifices or when required for the table. A black and white ox is represented at the altars of several gods, even of Osiris himself ; and the butcher or the cook is frequently engaged in slaughtering spotted oxen, and preparing them for the use of the family. 1 Exod. viii. 26, 27. 2 Numb. xix. 2. 3 'Nine red heifers,' says Maimonides, ' have been sacrificed between the original delivery of this precept and the desolation of the Second Temple. Our lord Moses sacrificed the first, Ezra offered the second, and seven more were offered up during the period which elapsed from the time of Ezra to the destruction of the Temple ; the tenth King Messiah himself will sacrifice : by His speedy manifestation He will cause great joy.' (Maimon. de Vacca" rufd, c. 3.) I do not, however, suppose this to be taken literally, and we trace in it that reference to numbers so common in ancient times. [Maimonides, a great Jewish teacher, was born at Cordova in 1131 A.D., and died in Egypt at the age of seventy, equally esteemed by Jews and Christians. — G. W.] 4 It was perhaps to break through and prevent their being hereafter influenced by this great Egyptian prejudice. 5 Levit. i. 3 : ' Let him offer a male without blemish,' et alib. 6 Hieron. adv. Jovin. ii. 7. 7 Porphyr. de Abstin. ii. 11. Herodot. ii. 41. 406 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. Nor did any colour exempt them from labour; and black, white, spotted, or red oxen were indiscriminately employed in the plough and ' all manner of service in the field.' It is there- fore evident, that if any restriction respecting colour actually existed, it was only attended to on certain occasions, or at peculiar ceremonies in honour of some of the gods, and perhaps only when worshipped in a particular character. This is the more probable, as we find they did not scruple to offer a coloured victim before the altar of Osiris, to whom the red ox was said to be an offering peculiarly acceptable. Certain marks may have excluded an animal, and have rendered it unfit for the altar or the table, particularly if they bore any resemblance to those which characterised Apis ; and some oxen may have been forbidden in consequence of their being thought to appertain to Mnevis, the sacred bull of Heliopolis. It was, perhaps, on the occasion of sacrificing the red ox that the imprecations mentioned in Herodotus and Plutarch were uttered by the priest upon the head of the victim, which, as I have already observed, strongly reminds us of the scapegoat of the Jews j1 and if so, this may serve to confirm my conjecture of that * important ceremony being confined to certain occasions and to chosen animals, without extending to every victim which was slain.' According to Herodotus, 'They took the ox destined for sacrifice to the altar ; and having lighted a fire, they poured a libation of wine upon the table and about the prostrate animal, and invoking the deity slew it. They then cut off the head and removed the skin from the body, and, solemnly loading the former with imprecations, they prayed the gods to avert all the evils that might have happened to their country or themselves, and to make them fall on that head. After which they either sold it to foreigners or threw it into the Nile ;2 for no Egyptian would taste the head of any species of animal.' But, as I have already shown, the Father of History is wrong in this assertion ; the heads of ordinary victims being commonly offered on the altars of the gods, and even taken with other joints to the kitchen. The head may not have been a fashionable 1 Levit. xvi. 21. 2 Herodot. ii. 39. ^Elian says the Ombites gave the heads of their victims to the crocodiles. (De Nat. Animal, x. 21. Plut. de Isid. s. 31.) There was a ceremony practised by the Jews, in which the head of a heifer was cut off for the expiation of murder by an unknown hand, the elders of the vicinity washing their hands over the body. (Deut. xxi. 4, 6.) Chap. XV.] MODE OF SLAYING VICTIMS. 407 dish at a Theban dinner ; but this would not imply a prohibition ; and it may be said that few people as refined as the Egyptians are in the habit of giving it a place at their table. The ceremony of fixing upon & proper victim was probably very similar on all occasions. Herodotus and Plutarch state that it was done by a class of priests, called by the latter sphragistee, 'sealers/ to whom this duty exclusively belonged.1 After having examined the animal, and ascertained that its appearance accorded with the prescribed rules, the priest put on a mark as a token of its acceptance, which was done in the following manner. Having tied a band made of the stalk of the papyrus round its horns, he applied a piece of fine clay to the knot, and stamped it with his seal, after which an inferior functionary conducted it to the altar. Herodotus fails to inform us respecting the nature of this seal ; 2 but Plutarch, on the authority of Castor, says ' it bore the figure of a man on his knees, with his hands tied behind him, and a sword pointed at his throat.' This figuratively symbolic group I have met with more than once in the hieroglyphics of sculptures relating to the sacrifice of victims. The characters which refer to or explain similar cere- monies in the temples are generally phonetic, as in the commencement of the accompanying hieroglyphics, where the word smau, signifying to *5£ ^t»^5n^5SS! f slay/ accords with the demonstrative na£v0? fif word ' t0 km* sign following it, and recalls the Hebrew word shah-gat,3 ' to kill/ which it so closely resembles. But no oxen represented in the sculptures as victims about to be slaughtered have yet been found bearing this device, though they frequently occur decked with flowers for the occasion. The usual mode of slaying a victim was by cutting the throat, as was the commandment of Moses to the Israelites, probably from one ear to the other, which is the custom of the Moslems at the present day. The officiating priest generally placed his hand upon its head,4 as he drew the knife across its throat ; and if an ox or a goat, he held it by the horns, the feet having been previously tied together as it lay upon the ground. Birds were 1 Clemens says the stolistes was required 2 0f the seals of the Egyptians, infra, to know the fio 1 the chosen ' part. Sometimes the left was the first taken off. 5 Pausan. in Attic, and in Arcad. 6 Apollon. Rhod. lib. i. 432. 410 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. sacrifices depended in some degree on the quality or employment of the person by whom they were presented, as in the first offering made by Cain and Abel. Thus, 6 the tiller of the land immolated an ox, the shepherd a lamb, and the goatherd a goat. Some were permitted to present simple cakes or incense ; and a poor man made his oblations by kissing his right hand.' The joints and parts most readily distinguished in the sculp- tures are the legs, the hind-leg (jig. 1) with its thigh or upper joint (2), the kidneys (4), the ribs (5 and 8), the heart (3), the rump (6), the caul (7), and the liver (9) ; and those most commonly seen on the altars are the head, the hind-leg,1 and the ribs. When the Egyptians offered a holocaust they commenced with a libation of wine,2 a preliminary ceremony common, according to Herodotus, to all their sacrifices ; and after it had been poured upon the altar, the victim was slain. They first removed the head and skin, a statement which, I have already shown, is fully confirmed No. 606. Different joints placed on the altars or the tables. Thebes. by the sculptures ; they then took out the stomach, leaving only the entrails and the fat ; after which the thighs, the upper part of the haunches, the shoulders, and the neck, were cut off in succession. Then, filling the body3 with cakes of pure flour, honey, dried raisins, figs, incense, myrrh, and other odoriferous substances, they burnt it on the fire, pouring over it a con- siderable quantity of oil. The portions which were not consumed were afterwards given to the votaries who were present on the occasion, no part of the offering being left ; and it was during the ceremony of burning the sacrifice at the fete of Isis that they beat themselves in honour of Osiris. Similar to this was the burnt offering 4 of the Jews ; when ' the fat, and the rump, and all the fat that was upon the inwards, and the caul above 1 This in hieroglyphics signified ' power ' or ' strength.' 2 Herodot. ii. 39, 40. 3 This mode of filling the body with raisins and other sweet things recalls a common dish of modern Egyptian and other Eastern tables ; but they fortunately omit the myrrh and incense, which, how- ever well adapted to the taste of the gods, would be by no means palatable to men. 4 Levit. viii. 25-28 Chap. XV.] RESEMBLANCE OF JEWISH SACRIFICES. 411 the liver, and the two kidneys, and their fat, and the right shoulder/ were taken together with ' one unleavened cake, a cake of oiled bread, and one wafer,' placed 1 on the fat, and upon the right shoulder,' and burnt on the altar. Herodotus 1 describes 1 the sacrifice of a pig to the moon,' in which ' the end of the tail, the spleen, and the caul 2 were covered with all the fat " that was upon the inwards," and then burnt, the rest of the victim being eaten on the day of the full moon.' But this I have already noticed, as well as the difference observed in the manner of making offerings to some deities.3 Many of the religious rites of the Jews bear a striking resemblance to those of Egypt, particularly the manner in which the sacrifices were performed ; it may therefore not be irrelevant to state the nature of some of the principal offerings mentioned in the Levitical law. Among the first were the holocaust or burnt offering, the meat offering, the sin and trespass offering, or sacrifice of expiation, and the peace offering, or sacrifice of thanksgiving. 1. The holocaust was ordered to be a bullock, a sheep, or a goat, a male without blemish;4 and the person who offered it having brought it to the door of the tabernacle of the congrega- tion, and having put his hand upon its head, it was accepted to make atonement for him. He then killed it; and the priests taking the blood, and sprinkling it upon the altar of meat offering, flayed the victim, and cut it into pieces. The head, with the fat and the other parts, were laid upon the wood of the fire which was kindled upon the altar, the legs and the inside of the body having been previously cleansed with water. The whole of it was consumed ; and neither the priests nor the individual who presented it were permitted to reserve any portion of the sacrifice. Turtle-doves, or young pigeons, were also accepted as a burnt offering ; and the priest having plucked the bird and wrung off its head, burnt it on the wood. The fire upon the altar was required to burn incessantly,5 and the priest replenished it with wood every morning, the offering being laid in order thereon, and the fat of the peace offering being burnt upon it. 2. The meat offering* consisted of fine flour, with oil and 1 Herodot. ii. 47. altar .... shall not be put out.' 1 The 2 Epiploon, or omentum. fire shall ever be burning upon the altar ; 3 Herodot. ii. 39. 4 Levit. i. 2, et seq. it shall never go out.' * Levit. vi. 12, 13 : 1 The fire upon the 6 Levit. ii. 1. 412 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. frankincense. The priest took a handful of the flour, and a portion of the oil, with all the frankincense, and burnt them on the altar, the remainder belonging to the priest who officiated on the occasion. This offering was also permitted to consist of unleavened cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, or of unleavened cakes anointed with oil, which might be baked either in the oven or the pan ; and being cut into pieces, oil was poured upon them, and a portion was burnt on the altar by the priest, who reserved the remainder for himself. No honey or leaven was allowed, but an abundance of salt was required in every offering which was burnt. In oblations of firstfruits no portion was consumed by fire. But when a meat offering of corn was pre- sented, the grain was beaten out of full and green ears and dried by the fire ; and oil and frankincense being put upon it, part of the corn and oil, with the whole of the frankincense, were burnt as a token or ' memorial ' of the sacrifice. 3. A peace offering1 was from the herd, or from the sheep or goats, and might be either a male or female. It was killed in the same manner. In the holocaust all the fat that was upon the inwards, and the kidneys with their fat, and the caul above the liver, were burnt upon the altar; and it was particularly commanded that no one should eat either of the fat or the blood of any animal. 4. The sin offering2 was intended for the expiation of sin unintentionally committed. If the priest who was anointed had offended, he was required to bring a young bullock, and having placed his hand as usual upon its head, to slay it, and to sprinkle the blood seven times before the veil of the sanctuary. He also put some of the blood on the horns of the altar of sweet incense which was in the tabernacle of the congregation, and poured all the remainder at the bottom of the altar of burnt offering which stood at the door of the tabernacle. Then taking off all the fat, with the caul and the kidneys, as in the peace offering, he burnt them upon the altar of burnt offering ; and the skin, with the flesh and head, the legs, and all the remainder of the bullock, were carried out of the camp into a clean place, where the ashes were poured out, and the whole was burnt. If all the people had offended, the elders placed their hands upon the head of the victim, and the rest of the ceremony was performed in the same manner as in the peace offering ; but if a ruler, he offered a male Levit, iii. 1, et seq. 2 Levit. iv. 1, et seq. Chap. XV.] JEWISH SACRIFICES. 413 kid, and every other individual a female of the flock, either of sheep or goats.1 5. The trespass offering 2 was regulated by the same law as the last.3 If anyone touched an unclean thing, or pronounced an oath, he was required to offer a lamb or a kid ; or if his means were limited, a pair of turtle-doves, or two young pigeons, one for a sin offering, the other for a burnt offering ; or at least the tenth part of an ephah of fine flour for a sin offering, but without any oil or frankincense. If anyone offended through ignorance 4 in the holy things, he was commanded to bring a ram, estimated by shekels of silver after the shekel of the sanctuary, for a trespass offering ; and to make amends for the offence, and to ' add the fifth part thereto, and give it to the priest,' who made atonement for him with the ram. 6. The peace offering was a voluntary return of thanks for benefits received, a solicitation of favours, or solely a token of devotion ; and it depended on the will of the individual by whom it was presented. The victim might be either a male or female, and the law only required that it should be without blemish. There were some other sacrifices very similar to those already mentioned — as of the high priests, which consisted of a young calf for a sin offering, and a ram for a burnt offering ; the perpetual sacrifice,5 a daily offering of two lambs on the altar of burnt offerings, one in the morning, the other in the evening ; and some others, which it is unnecessary to enu- merate. There were also five sorts of offerings, called Mincha, or Korban Mincha : 6 1, fine flour or meal ; 2, cakes of various kinds, baked in the oven ; 3, cakes baked on a griddle or plate ; 4, cakes baked on a plate pierced with holes ; 5, first- fruits of new corn, offered either pure and unmixed, roasted or parched, in the ear or out of the ear: but these have been already mentioned, as well as the offerings of bread, salt, fruits, wine, oil, honey, and other things included under the name of Mincha. I have also noticed the primitive nature of sacrifices, the probable worship of the Egyptians in their infancy as a nation, their early introduction of oracles, and the rites practised on certain occasions. The most usual offerings mentioned in the sculptures, besides 1 Levit. iv. 28 and 32. 2 Levit. v. 7, et seq. 5 Exod. xxix. 38. Numb, xiviii. 3. 3 Levit. vii. 7. 4 Levit. v. 15. 6 Levit. ii. L 414 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. the sacrifices of animals and birds, are wine, oil, beer,1 milk, cakes, grain, ointment, flowers, fruit, vegetables, and various productions of the soil, which answered in some degree to the Mincha of the Jews. They are not only introduced upon the altars themselves, but are enumerated in lists or catalogues sculptured in the temples and tombs, some of which specify the day and month on which they were dedicated to the deity. The ordinary subjects in the interior of the temples represent the king presenting offerings to the deities worshipped there ; the most remarkable of which are the sacrifices already men- tioned, incense, libation, and several emblematic figures or devices connected with religion. He sometimes made an ap- propriate offering to the presiding deity of the sanctuary, and to each of the contemplar gods, as Diodorus'2 says Osymandyas was represented to have done; the memorial of which act of piety was preserved in the sculptures of his tomb. The historian's words are, 'Contiguous to the library stand the images of all the gods of Egypt, to each of whom the king presents a suitable offering, in order to show to Osiris and the Assessors seated below him that his life had been spent in piety and justice towards gods and men.' We are not, however, to suppose that every deity of the country was there introduced ; but those only who held a place among the contemplar gods worshipped in the city, as was the custom in all the temples and sacred monuments of Egypt. And though the statues he men- tions no longer remain, there is reason to believe that the list of offerings is still preserved in the innermost remaining chamber of the Eameseum or Memnonium, which, as I have had occasion to observe, has every appearance of being the monument alluded to by Diodorus. In offering incense, the king held in one hand the censer, and with the other threw balls or pastilles of incense into the flame. Then, addressing the god before whose statue he stood with a suitable prayer to invoke his aid and favour, he begged him to accept the incense he presented, in return for which the deity granted him 'a long, pure, and happy life,' with other favours accorded by the gods to men. 1 [This is the olvos Kpidivos of Xeno- with wine lie on their faces, but those phon. Diodorus (i. 34) mentions it as 'a with beer on their backs. He cites Heca- beverage from barley called by the Egyp- taeus respecting the use of beer in Egypt, tians zythus,' which he thinks ' not much whose words are, ras npidas els rb ir6p.a inferior to wine.' Athenaeus (i. p. 34 A ; KaraXeovai. I have found the residue x. p. 418 E) calls it 'macerated barley;' of some malt at Thebes, once used for and says Aristotle supposes that men drunk making beer. — G. W.] 2 Diodor. i. 49. 416 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. 'Offering of incense' and a libation. No. 607. The censer has been already noticed. A libation of wine was frequently offered together with incense; flowers were often presented with them ; and many sacrifices consisted of oxen or other animals, birds, cakes, fruit, vegetables, ointments, and other things, with incense and libation. On some occasions two censers of incense were offered, and several oxen, birds, and other consecrated gifts were placed on the altar. And that it was customary to present several of the same kind is shown by the ordinary formula of presentation, which says, ' I give you a thousand (i.e. many) cakes, a thou- sand vases of wine, a thousand head of oxen, a thousand geese, a thousand vestments, a thou- sand censers of incense, a thousand libations, a thousand boxes of ointment.' The cakes were of various kinds. Many were round, oval, or triangular; and others had the edges folded over, like the fateereh of the present day. They also assumed the shape of leaves, or the form of an animal, a crocodile's head, or some capricious figure, and it was frequently customary to sprinkle them (particularly the round and oval cakes) with seeds. Wine was frequently presented in two cups. It was not then a libation, but merely an offering of wine ; 1 and since the pouring out of wine upon the altar was a preliminary ceremony, as Herodotus observes, common to all their sacrifices, wre find that the king is often represented making a libation upon an altar covered with offerings of cakes, flowers, and the joints of a victim killed for the occasion. The Egyptian artists did not bind themselves to one instant of time in their representations of these subjects. The libation, therefore, appears to be poured over the mass of offerings collected upon the altar ; but the knowledge of their mode of drawing, and the Mut em arp. Wine offered in two cups. No. 608. 1 [This is to be distinguished from beer, oluos Kpidivos, ' barley-wine ' (see supra, p. 414), both of which were made in great quantities in Egypt. The most noted were those of Mareotis, Anthylla, Plinthine, Coptos, and the Teniotic, Sebennytic, and Alexandrian ; and many were noticed in the offerings made in the tombs and temples of Egypt. Among them wine of the ' Northern Country' is mentioned, and that long before the Greeks carried wine to Egypt. In later times, when the pi-ejudices of the Egyptians had begun to relax, a trade was established with the Greeks, and Egypt received wine from Greece and Phoenicia twice every year (Herod, iii. 6), and many Greeks carried it direct to Naucratis. The wine-presses and offerings of wine in the tombs at the Pyramids show wine was made in Egypt at least as early as the 4th Dynasty. — G. W.] No. 609. Vases used for libations. Chap. XV.] OFFEKINGS OF WINE, FLOWERS, ETC. 417 authority of Herodotus, explain that the libation was poured out before the offerings were placed upon it ; and instances are even found in the sculptures of this preparatory ceremony. Two kinds of vases were principally used for libation, and the various kinds of wine were indicated by the names affixed to them. 'Giftofaaou-jar* White and red wines, those of the Upper and Lower Country, grape-juice or wine of the vineyard (one of the most delicious beverages of a hot climate, and one which is commonly used in Spain and other countries at the present day), were the most noted denominations introduced into the lists of offerings on the monuments. Beer and milk were also admitted j£ ^ bz^ amongst them ; and oils of various kinds, f for which Egypt was famous, were presented / '/ f?I as welcome offerings at the shrines of the offering of miik, art. , ° No. 610. gods. I have already had occasion to notice some of the gifts pre- sented to Isis for preserving an individual from the danger of the sea ; and it is evident from this, and the prayer that accom- panied it, that the size of the offering depended on the gratitude of the donor for the favour he received, and on the extent of the demand made by him for future blessings. Flowers were presented in different ways ; either loosely, tied together by the stalks, or in carefully-formed bouquets, without any other gifts. Sometimes those of a particular kind . were offered alone, the most esteemed being the lotus, papyrus, convolvulus, and other favourite productions of the garden, and sometimes a bouquet of peculiar form was presented, or two smaller ones carried in each of the donor's hands. Chaplets and wreaths of flowers were also laid upon the altars, and offered to the deities, whose statues were frequently crowned with them. Those which were most grateful or useful to man were chosen as the most acceptable to the gods; and the same feeling guided them in their selection of herbs and roots destined for the altar. It was probably the utility, rather than the flavour, that induced them to show so marked a pre- ference for the onion, the Raphanus,1 and cucurbitaceous plants, 1 Eaten by the workmen who built the Pyramids. VOL. III. 2 E 418 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. No. 611. Various flowers from the sculptures. Thebes. In fig. 8 is an attempt at perspective. The upper part (a) appears to be the papyrus ; b is a lotus ; and c probably the melilotus. From fig. la, it would seem that one bell-formed flower is a convolvulus ; though lb, 4, 6, 1, and 9a, may be the papyrus; and the shafts of columns with that kind of capital have an indication of the triangular form of its stalk. 3. The lotus. 2, 11, 12, 13. Different bouquets. The inscription at 12 and 13 is rta ab en tef, 1 the gilt of a bouquet to his father.' 10. Architectural fleurette. 5, perhaps the same as 4. Chap. XV.] OFFERINGS OF VEGETABLES AND FRUIT. 419 which, so generally found a place amongst the offerings. Their frequent use is equally shown by the authority of the Bible,1 of Herodotus,2 and of the sculptures, where they appear as the representatives of the vegetables of the country.. We are thus enabled to account for the great importance attached to onions, which, being forbidden to the priests and those initiated in the mysteries, might appear unworthy of the gods ; and I have already shown the- peculiar form in which they were offered on some occasions, the mode of decking them with garlands, and the remarkable circumstance of their being frequently presented by the priests who wore the leopard-skin dress. In ordinary offerings they were bound together in a simple bundle, though still made up with great care ; and if instances occur of onions being placed on the altar singly (even in sculptures Fig. 1. A basket of sycamore figs. 2, 3, 4. Hieroglyphic, signifying ' wife.' 5. 6. Cucurbita Lagenaria, or K^arra-toweeL 1, 8. E^phanus. sativus, var. edulis. 9. Onions. No. 612. executed during the time of the 16th Dynasty), they are of very rare occurrence. Of fruits, the sycamore fig and grapes were the most esteemed for the service of the altar. They were presented on baskets or trays, frequently covered with leaves to keep them fresh ; and sometimes the former were represented placed in such a manner, on an open basket, as to resemble the hieroglyphic signifying < wife.' Ointment was presented in different ways, according to the ceremony in which it was offered. It was placed before the deity in vases of alabaster or other materials as a gift, which he was represented to receive with the promise of a suitable return to the donor ; the name of the god to whom it was vowed being engraved upon the vases that contained it. Sometimes the king or priest took out a certain portion to anoint the statue of the deity, which was done with the little finger of the right 1 Numb. xi. 5. The name of ' melons ' the Bat&kh, ^j^j, or water-melon of is Abtakhim, VmXfc or avat-tee-gheem, modem £gypt C " ' 2 ~ u5 2 e 2 420 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. Preparing to anoint. Art t'et en mutf, ' gives oil to his No. 613. mother.' Thebes. hand.1 Macrobius2 says, ' Those Egyptian priests who were called prophets, when engaged in the temple near the altars of the gods, moistened the ring-finger of the left hand (which was that next to the smallest) with various sweet ointments, in the belief that a certain nerve communicated with it from the heart.' But this pro- bably refers to some other religious cus- tom, since it is not likely that the left hand would be employed to anoint the statues of the gods ; and the sculptures abundantly show that the ceremony was performed as here represented. Ointment often formed part of a large donation, and always entered into the list of those things which constituted the complete set of offerings already men- tioned ; and the various kinds of sweet-scented ointments used by the Egyptians were liberally offered at the shrines of the gods.3 According to Clemens, one of the most noted was the jpsagdai, for which Egypt was particularly famed ; and Pliny and Athenseus both bear testimony to the variety of Egyptian ointments, as well as the importance attached to them ; which is confirmed by the sculptures, and even by the vases discovered in the tombs. Kich vestments, necklaces, bracelets, jewellery of various kinds, and other ornaments, vases of gold, silver, and porcelain, bags of gold, and numerous gifts of the most costly description, were also presented to the gods. They constituted the riches of the treasury of the temples ; and the spoils taken from con- quered nations were deposited there by a victorious monarch as a votive gift for the success of his arms, or as a token of grati- tude for favours. he was supposed to have received. Tables of the precious metals and rare woods were among these offerings ; and an accurate catalogue of his votive presents was engraved on the walls of the temple, to commemorate the piety of the donor and the wealth of the sanctuary. They do not, however, properly come under the denomination of offerings to the gods, but are rather dedications to their temples ; and it was in pre- 1 The notion of superiority attached to the right hand was always remarkable, and is now scrupulously maintained in the East. It calls to mind one of the precepts of Pythagoras, 'Take off your right shoe first, but put your left foot first into the bath.' 2 Macrob. Saturn, vii. p. 270. 3 Plin. xiii. 1, 3 ; Clem. Paed. ii. 8. Chap. XV.] EMBLEMATIC OFFEEINGS. 421 senting them that some of the grand processions took place, to which I have already alluded. But it was not only customary to deposit the necklaces and other ' precious gifts ' collectively in the temple ; the kings frequently offered each singly to the gods, decorating their statues with them, and placing them on their altars. They also presented numerous emblems, con- nected with the vows they had made, the favours they desired, or the thanksgivings they returned to the gods : among which the most usual were a small figure of Truth; the symbol of the as- semblies, fig. 1 ; a cow of Athor, 1 fig. 2 ; the hawk- headed necklace, us%, of Socharis, fig. 3 ; a cyno- cephalus, fig. 4 ; parts of dress (?), fig. 5 ; ointment, figs. 6a and 6b ; gold and silver in bags, or rings, fig. 7, a and b ; Mut ma en tefef. 'He gives Truth (or Justice) to his father. No. 614. >io. 615. Emblematic offering* 1, festivals of thirty years. 2, mut mena, ' gives a counterpoise.' 3, rat usv, ' gives a collar. 4, rat shebt, ' gives ' the object called shebt or ushebt, perhaps a clepsydra— the word sheb means ' to tell, or answer. 5, gift of linen. 6a, gift of unguent*; 6 b, gift of cosmetics. 7 a, rat ntb, 'gives gold ; * b, rat hat, ' gives silver.' 8, gift of fields. 1 In lieu of a collar, or its counterpoise. 422 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XY. three feathers or heads of reeds, the emblem of a field, fig. 8 ; a scribe's tablet and ink-stand, fig. 9, a and b ; a garland or wreath, No. 616. Emblematic offerings. 11. Saq ta het, ''brings along white bread. fig. 10 ; and an emblem of pyramidal form, perhaps the seal or key of the sanctuary,^. 11. Thanksgivings for the birth of a child, escape from danger, or other marks of divine favour, were offered by individuals through the medium of the priests. The same was also done in private ; and secret as well as public vows were made in the hope of future favours. The quality of these oblations depended on the god to whom presented, or the occupation of the donor : a shepherd bringing from his flocks, a husbandman from his fields, and others according to their means ; provided the offering was not forbidden by the rites of the deity. But though the Eg)^ptians considered certain oblations suited to particular gods, others inadmissible to their temples, and some more peculiarly adapted to prescribed periods of the year, the greater part of the deities were invoked with similar offerings; and in large sacrifices the same things were laid on all the Egyptian altars, with the exception of those expressly forbidden in particular temples. Sistra were often held forth, generally by the queens and princesses, in the presence of the gods, as well as the emblematic instru- ments, surmounted by the head of Athor ; and the privilege of bearing them in the temples was principally confined to those who held the office of pallakides. They frequently presented flowers at the same time that they performed the peculiar rites required on this occasion. A singular ceremony is frequently represented of the king retiring from the presence of the god, to whom he has been Ar s'es' en tef, 'gives sistra to his father.' No. 617. Thebes. Chap. XV.] EITES BEFOEE MUMMIES. 423 his hand emblem 1. A priest kneeling at the altar, on vvhick another (2) pours a libation. 3 appears to hold the cubit, or a tablet from which he is reading. 4. Another priest, who holds what is supposed to be a tail, ' bringing the foot.' No. 618. Thebes. performing a libation, and holding in which, from its appearance, always looks back as he with- draws ; and the same is done by the priests when officiating on a similar occasion. It is evidently not the tail worn by the king taken off and held in his hand, since he is repre- sented wearing it during the ceremony; and it differs also in form from that portion of the royal dress. Sometimes a number of persons are seen beating them- selves before the mummy of a dead person, under the usual form of Osiris ; and another retires holding one or even two of these emblems in his hand. But even this appears to be connected with a libation, which is performed in the compartment below, as part of the same solemnity in honour of the deceased. The custom of beat- ing themselves in token of grief is frequently mentioned by Herodotus, who explains1 that it was upon the breast, as throughout the East from the earliest times 2 to the present day ; and this is fully confirmed by the monuments themselves. [The custom of weeping and throwing dust on their heads is often represented on the monuments ; when the men and women have their dresses fastened by a band round the waist, the breast being bare, as described by Herodotus. For seventy days,3 or, according to some, seventy-two days, the family mourned at home, singing the funeral dirge, very much as is now done in Egypt ; and during this time they abstained from the bath, wine, delicacies of the table, and rich clothing;4 and even after the body had been removed to the tomb it was not unusual for the near relations to exhibit tokens of grief, when the liturgies, or services for the dead, were performed by the priests, by beating themselves on the breast in presence of the mummy. Persons beating themselves before a No. 619. mummy. Thebes. 1 Kerodot. ii. 85. 3 Cien. 1. 3. 2 Luke xxiii. 48. 4 Diod. i. 91. 424 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. No. 620. A lamp. Thebes. ' Smiting themselves on the breast ' 1 was a common token of grief in the East, which continues to the present day. (See woodcut No. 619.) The Egyptians did not 'cut themselves' in mourning ; this was a Syrian custom, and forbidden to the Jews. — G. W.] Another remarkable offering, if indeed it be distinct from the usual censer, is apparently a lamp made of glass, with a wick erect in the middle ; which last is sometimes taken out and held separately, as though the bearer were about to place it in the vase previous to its being lighted.2 The same form is given to the flame of the censers wherein the incense is burnt. There is also a ceremony which appears to have some con- nection with the dead, the purport of which it is difficult to ascertain. Two persons, a man Jfe and a woman, hold the opposite W r" f~^\ V enc^s °^ a corc^' keened in a knot around the centre of a pillar of wood, which, held in an upright position, is struck against the ground, the lower end being pointed, the upper round. It may be connected with some religious rite, or be one of their numerous games. [But it seems to be con- nected with the twisted rope in the mysterious ceremonies of the dead mentioned by Diodorus, in speaking of the lake, &c, at Memphis. There, however, one end of the rope was twisted, and the other untwisted, by other persons. — G. W.] 'The Egyptians,' says Herodotus,3 'are very religious, sur- passing all men in the honours they pay to the gods.' ' The art of predicting future events, as practised in Greek temples, came from Egypt; and it is certain that they were the first people who established festivals, and the mode of approaching and communing with the Deity.' 4 Of the customary mode of doing this I have already spoken; and while praying or presenting No. 621. A game or ceremony. Thebes. 1 Luke xxiii. 48. 2 This wick may have stood upright in the salt mentioned by Herodotus in the lamps at Sais. The lines may represent the twisted nature of the cotton wick, as they do the watering of the glass vase. (Herodot. ii. 62.) 3 Herodot. ii. 37. 4 Ibid. ii. 58. Chap. XV.] ATTITUDES OF EESPECT AND WOESHIP. 425 No. 622. An attitude of adoration. offerings, it will be seen from the sculptures that the kings and priests either stood with uplifted hands, or knelt before the statue of the god (usually on one knee). They bowed before it in token of respect, ' lowering the hand to the knee ;' which, Herodotus1 says, was their man- ner of saluting each other when they met. They also put the hand upon the breast, as is the modern custom in the East, or bowed down with one or both hands to the level of the knee ; and sometimes placed one hand over the mouth.2 But the usual mode of standing in the presence of a superior was with one hand passed across the breast to, the opposite shoulder; they then bowed, lowering the other to the knee; and the same position of the hand upon the shoulder was adopted when deprecating punishment. Sometimes libations were performed by priests kneeling on one or both knees, and other tokens of honour were shown to the gods ; but prostration3, seems seldom to have been required in the temple. We only find two instances of a votary in this attitude, both of which are in the sculptures at Philse,4 of Ptolemaic date, where the king, prostrate upon the ground, worships the goddess Isis, apparently as a preliminary ceremony previous to his being admitted to the presence of Osiris. It is not a subject seen in any Egyptian temple of Pharaonic time ; and this extraordinary show of devotion in the Greek king was probably intended to flatter the priesthood, and obtain an influence which those foreigners, often found it prudent to court. The system of rendering religion subservient to ambitious or interested views is of all eras and every country. But pretended sanctity generally betrays its real motive ; and we frequently discover, in the marks, of favour bestowed by the Ptolemies on the religion of Egypt, a strained and unnatural display of 1 Herodot. ii. 80. 2 This was customary also in Persia. The object was to prevent the breath reaching the face of a superior. * In the presence of superiors they ' bowed the knee,' and even prostrated themselves on the ground. (Gen. xli. 43, xlii. 6, and xliii. 26. Conf. Matt, xviii. 26.) 4 The same occurs in the Ptolemaic sculptures at the Great Oasis. 426 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XV. devotion, the contrast of which with the simplicity and real feeling of ancient times cannot fail to strike those who compare the monuments of the two eras. Vigxette P. — Interior of a mummy-pit, or sepulchral chamber, at Thebes ; with a Felldk woman searching for papyri and ornaments. CHAPTEB XVI. Funeral Rites — Offerings to the Dead— Tombs — Funeral Processions — Trials of the Dead— Sacred Lake — Burial — Embalming — Sarcophagi— Papyri, &c. The offerings made to the dead were similar to the ordinary oblations in honour of the gods. It was not to the deceased as a man translated to the order of the gods that these ceremonies were performed, but to that particular portion of the divine essence which constituted the soul of each individual and returned to the Deity after death. Everyone, therefore, whose virtuous life entitled him to admission into the regions of the blessed, was supposed to be again united to the Deity, of whom he was an emanation ; and, with the emblem of Ma, purport- ing that he was judged or justified, he received the holy name of Osiris. His body was so bound up as to resemble the mysterious ruler of Amenti ; it bore some of the emblems peculiar to him ; and the beard of a form which belonged exclusively to the gods was given to the deceased in token of his having assumed the character of that deity. Offerings were also made to the god Osiris himself, after the burial, in the name of the deceased ; and certain services or liturgies were performed for him by the priests, at the expense of the family ; their number depending upon their means, or the respect they were inclined to pay to the memory of their parent. 428 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. If the sons or relations were of the priestly order, they had the privilege of officiating on these occasions ; and the members of the family had permission, and were perhaps frequently expected, to be present, whether the services were performed by strangers or by relations of the deceased. The ceremonies consisted of a sacrifice, similar to those offered in the temples, vowed for the deceased to one or more gods, as Osiris, Anubis, and others con- nected with Amenti ; incense and libation were also presented, and a prayer was sometimes read, the relations and friends being 4 3 2 1 The members of the family (3, 4, 5) present when the services were performed (2). No. 624. 4 The skilful scribe, Anen' (1). Thebes. present as mourners. They even joined their prayers to those of the priest ; and embracing the mummied body, and bathing its feet with their tears, they uttered those expressions of grief and praises of the deceased which were dictated by their feelings on so melancholy an occasion. The priests who officiated at the burial service were selected from the grade of pontiffs who wore the leopard- skin ; but various other rites were per- formed by one of the minor priests to the mummies previous to their being lowered into the pit of the tomb, as well as after that ceremony. Indeed they continued to be administered at intervals, as long as the family paid for their performance ; and it is possible that upon the cessation of this payment, or after a stipulated time, the priests had the right of A woman embracing and weeping before her husband's mummy. His wife who loves him, Nebenni.' No. 625. Thebes. Chap. XVL] OFFERINGS TO THE DEAD. 429 transferring the tomb to another family, which, as I have already observed, the inscriptions within them show to have been done, even though belonging to members of the priestly order. When the mummies remained in the house, ^^C^ I ^ or in the chamber of the sepulchre, they were kept in movable wood- en closets, with folding doors, out of which they were taken by the minor functionaries to a small altar, before which the priest officiated. The closet and the mummy were placed on a sledge, in order to facilitate their move- ment from one place to another ; and the latter was drawn with ropes to the altar, and taken back by the same means when the cere- mony was over. On these occasions, as in the prayers for the dead, they made the usual offerings of incense and libation, with cakes, flowers, and fruit ; and even anointed the mum- my, oil or ointment be- ing poured 1 over its head. Sometimes seve- ral priests attended. One carried a napkin over his shoulder, to be used after the anointing of the mummy ; another brought a papyrus roll containing a Conf. 2 Kings ix. 3 : 'Take the box of oil, and pour it on his head.' 430 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. Pouring oil over the head of a mummy. The priest {fig. 1) has a napkin on his shoulder adopted in the East by servants while guests are washing their hands before meals. No. 627. Tomb at Thebes prayer, or the usual ritual deposited in the tombs with the dead ; and others had different occupations according to their respective offices. They were not of the order of pontiffs, but an inferior grade of priests deputed to per- form similar duties in lieu of the high priests, who, as already stated, officiated only at the burial, or on other important occasions. Single oblations of various kinds were made to the mummies by individuals of the family as well as by the priests ; but many of the ceremonies, as well as the emblematic offer in gs, were of a Fig. 2 holds a papyrus. The mode of placing ( # o > the napkin is remarkable, being the same as now singular kind, the meaning of nrlont.pH in the East, hv servants while eruests are r . which it is. difficult to comprehend. One of these last has the appear- ance of some kind of instrument. It occurs in the names of several kings in the sense of 4 chosen,' 1 or ' approved ; ' and is probably intended to point out the excellence of the gifts selected for the deceased, being used as the demonstrative sign accom- panying the ' chosen part ' of the sacrifices in the temples and the tombs. It is probable that lamps were kept burning in the tomb while these ceremonies were performing, or as long as it was open, as in the Koman sepulchres ; a duty which fell to the charge of the keeper or servant of the tomb. These funeral oblations answer exactly to the inferise orparen- talia of the Romans, consisting of victims, flowers, and libations ; when the tomb was decked with garlands and wreaths of flowers, and an altar was erected before it for presenting the offerings. And that this last was also done by the Egyptians is proved by the many small altars discovered outside the doors of the cata- combs at Thebes. These altars are of stone, frequently granite or basalt ; 2 and upon them are carved in bas-relief the various offerings they bore, which are the same as those represented in the paintings of the tombs. At one side projects a small spout, to which a channel, carried round the inside, is intended to convey the As in that of Rameses the Great, where it occurs as ' the chosen of the sun.' 2 They were called hetep or tuhept. — S. B. Chap. XVI.] ALTARS OF THE DEAD. 431 liquid of the libations ; and some with two spouts are of a larger size, and intended for a greater number of offerings. Being very low, each was placed on a small pedestal or stool, which has been found, together with the flat altar stone it once supported, as figured on the monu- ments. The channel around the altar stone calls to mind the 'trench' made by Elijah 'round about the altar ' at Mount Carmel ;x though the ob- ject was not the same, the water with which this was filled being intended to prove the miraculous in- terference of the Deity, when the fire that 'con- sumed the burnt sacrifice 1 • i -i , -i , • , -I Aii altar, in tbe British Museum, showing that the trench llCKea Up tne Water in tUe is for carrying off the libation. The objects on it are eight ■f Vi ' anrl +V»a+ r\f +Vio circular cakes, a jar with food, two trussed geese, two water- trencn, anQ. mat OI tne jugs, a lotus-flower, and two cucumbers, all on a mat. Egyptian altar being Xo' 628 merely intended to carry off the libation poured upon it. It is probable that when any of the sacerdotal caste died, whose families could not afford the expense of the liturgies, certain collections 2 were made to pay for their performance ; which, being deposited in the hands of the priests, added in no inconsiderable degree to their revenues. And the fact, as Young observes, ' that one moiety of a third part of the collections for the dead (priests of Osiris), lying in Thynabunun,' when sold by ' Onnophris, one of the servants of the goddess Isis,' required no less than sixteen witnesses, plainly proves the value of this privilege. 0 0 A 00 001/00 1 1 Kings xviii. 32 et seq. : 1 And he made a trench about the altar, as great as would contain t wo measures of seed. And he put the wood in order, and cut the bullock in pieces, and laid him on the wood, and said, Fill four barrels (pails) with water, and pour it on the burnt sacrifice, and on the wood And the water ran round about the altar ; and he filled the trench also with water Then the fire of the Lord fell, and consumed the burnt sacrifice, and the wood, and the stones, and the dust, and licked up the water that was in the trench.' The word barrels is in the Hebrew kadim, properly pails or pitchers, as in Gen. xxiv. 14, from 13, kad, answering to the Cadus of the Latins. I cannot in this place refrain from adding my humble testimony to the accuracy of our translation of the Bible ; which is the more surprising, as it was done without all the aid which an insight into Eastern customs has in later times afforded. 2 Young's 1 Discov. in Hierog. Litera- ture,' pp. 60, 69, 74. [The legal number of witnesses at the time was sixteen ; before that period four only were required. — S. B.] 432 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. Diodorus and the papyri show that it was not an uncommon thing to keep the mummies in the house, after they had been returned by the embalmers to the relations of the deceased, in order to gratify the feelings which made them desirous of having those they had loved in life as near them as possible after death. Damascenius states that they sometimes introduced them at table,1 as though they could enjoy their society ; and Lucian, in his essay on grief, says that he was an eye-witness of this custom. They were sometimes left in the house until the family could prepare a tomb for their reception ; and the affection of a wife or husband frequently retained the body of a beloved consort, in order that both might be deposited at the same time in their final resting-place. A room was set apart for the purpose, the coffin being placed upright against the ' firmest of the Avails.' 2 Many months often elapsed between the ceremony of embalming and the actual burial ; and it was during this period that the liturgies were performed before the mummy, which were after- wards continued at the tomb. A Greek inscription upon the coffin of a mummy, found by Grey, states that ' Tphous, the daughter of Heracleus Soter and Sarapous, who was born in the 5th year of Adrian our lord, the second of Athyr, and died in the 11th year, the 10th of Tybi, aged six years, two months, and eight days, was buried in the 12th year, the 12th of Athyr ; ' so that in this instance the burial took place a whole year after her death,3 and some were doubtless kept, for various reasons, much longer. It was during this interval that feasts were held in honour of the dead, to which the friends and relations were invited ; as was customary among the Greeks and other people of antiquity.4 On these occasions they dined together, and enjoyed the same festivities as when invited to a repast, the guests being in like manner anointed and decked with flowers, and presented with other tokens of welcome usual at an Egyptian party ; and it was principally at this veicpoheiirvov that I suppose the introduction of the mummy to have taken place. Small tables made of reeds or sticks, bound together and 1 Silius Italicus, Punic, lib. iii. were called iraffrocpSpoi. (Vide woodcut 2 Diodor. i. 92. The word \apva$ No. 195, fig. 4, vol. i. p. 419 ; and infra, may apply to the coffin or mummy-case, or p. 444, woodcut No. 631.) to the closet above mentioned. They bore 3 Young, ' Hierog. Lit.,' p. 115. some resemblance to the thdlami or iraffTol, 4 Horn. II. 9. Achilles invites the in which the small figures of the gods Myrmidons to supper in honour of Pa- were carried ; whence the bearers of them troclus. Chap. XVL] OFFERINGS TO THE DEAD. 433 A table found in a tomb by Burton, on which are a duck trussed and another cut open, with cakes. No. 629. British Museum. interlaced with palm-leaves, were sometimes placed in the tombs, bearing offerings of cakes, ducks, or other things, according to the wealth or inclination of the donors ; one of which was found at Thebes by Burton, and is now in the British Museum. On the lower compartment, or shelf, are cakes ; the central shelf has a duck, cut open at the breast and spread out, ' but not divided asunder,'1 in a manner frequently adopted at this day in Egypt for grilling fowls and chickens ; and at the top is a similar bird, trussed in the usual mode when brought to an Egyptian table. Similar offerings ' for the dead ' were strictly forbidden by the law of Moses ;2 and it was doubtless the Egyptian custom that the Hebrew legislator had in view when he introduced this wise prohibition. Though the privilege of keeping a mummy in the house was sanctioned by law and custom, care was always taken to assign some plausible reason for it, since they deemed it a great privi- lege to be admitted to the repositories of the dead, as their final resting-place. To be debarred from the rites of burial reflected a severe disgrace upon the whole family ; and the most influential individual could not be admitted to the very tomb he had built for himself, until acquitted before that tribunal which sat to judge his conduct during life. In cases of debt, a certain law, enacted, according to Herodotus, by King Asychis, subjected the tomb to a claim from the creditors of the deceased, who had the right to prevent the body of a debtor from being buried with his fathers ; and this law even put the former in possession of the family sepulchre. The tombs of the rich consisted of one or more chambers, ornamented with paintings and sculpture, the plans and size of which depended on the expense incurred by the family of the deceased, or on the wishes of the individuals who purchased them during their lifetime. They were the property of the priests ; and a sufficient number being always kept ready, the purchase Levit. i. 17 VOL. III. 2 Deut. xxvi. 14. 2 F 434 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. was made at the ' shortest notice ; ' nothing being requisite to complete even the sculptures or inscriptions but the insertion of the deceased's name, and a few statements respecting his family and profession. The numerous subjects representing agricultural scenes, the trades of the people, in short the various occupations of the Egyptians, were already introduced. These were common to all tombs, varying only in their details and the mode of their execution ; and were intended as a short epitome of human life, which suited equally every future occupant. It has been a question why the Egyptians took so much care in embellishing their sepulchres, ' styling them,' as Diodorus 1 tells us, * eternal habitations, and neglecting no excess of magnifi- cence in their construction, whilst they termed the dwellings of the living inns, to be inhabited only for a limited period, paying little attention to the mode of building or ornamenting them.' Some have supposed that they considered the soul conscious of the beauty of these abodes, and that it took a pleasure in con- templating the scenes it delighted in during its sojourn upon earth, which were represented on their walls. The same idea may be traced in the writings of Plato,2 who puts these words into the mouth of Socrates : — ' Death seems to me nothing else than the dissolution of two things, viz. of the soul and body from each other. But when they are mutually separated, each possesses its own habit not much less than when the man was living, the body conspicuously retaining its own nature, attire, and passions. So that, for instance, if the body of anyone while living was large by nature or aliment, or both, the body of such a one when dead will also be large ; . . . . and so with respect to other things. And if anyone while living was studious to obtain long hair, the hair also of the dead body of such a one will be long ; . . . . and if the limbs of anyone were broken or distorted while he lived, these will likewise appear so when he is dead. In short, whatever was the condition of the body of anyone while living, such will be its condition entirely, or for the most part, during a certain time, when dead. The same thing also, Callicles, seems to take place respecting the soul, viz. that all things are conspicuous in the soul after it is divested of the body, as well whatever it possesses from nature, as those passions which the man acquired in his soul from his various pursuits.' A still closer resemblance is found in the 1 Diodor. i. 51. 2 Plato, Gorgias, pp. 453, 454. Chap. XVI.] PEEPAEATION OF A TOMB. 435 description given by Virgil of the occupations of those who in a future state were admitted to the abode of the blessed.1 The same notion would account for the custom of burying different objects with the dead, which had belonged to them during life ; as arms with the soldier, and the various implements of their peculiar trade with the bodies of artisans. Thus iEneas selected suitable objects for the sepulchre of Misenus.2 But another reason also suggests itself for this custom — the supposed return of the soul to the same body after the lapse of a certain period of years, which I shall have occasion to notice in treating of transmigration. In some instances all the paintings of the tomb were finished, and even the small figures representing the future occupant were introduced, those only being left unsculptured which being of a large size required more accuracy in the features in order to give his real portrait ; and sometimes even the large figures were completed before the tomb was sold, the only parts left unfinished being the hieroglyphic legends containing his name and that of his wife. Indeed the fact of their selling old mummy-cases and tombs belonging to other persons shows that they were not always over-scrupulous about the likeness of an individual, pro- vided the hieroglyphics were altered and contained his real name — at least when a motive of economy reconciled the mind of a purchaser to a second-hand tenement for the body of his friend. The tomb was always prepared for the reception of a husband and his wife ; and whoever died first was buried at once there, or was kept embalmed in the house until the decease of the other, as I have already had occasion to observe. The manner in which husband and wife are always portrayed, with their arms round each other's waist or' neck, is a pleasing illustration of the affectionate feelings of the Egyptians ; and the attachment of a family is shown by the presence of the different relations, who are introduced in the performance of some tender office to the deceased. Each is said to ' love/ or to ' be loved by him ; ' and when children died, they were buried in the same tomb with their parents. Any person desirous of purchasing a tomb for himself, or for a deceased friend, applied to those who were known to have them for sale, and the parties proceeded to view them and make a selection. The bargain, no doubt, took the usual time occupied 1 Virg. Mb. vi. 638, 653. 5 Ibid. vi. 232. 2 f 2 436 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. on such occasions in the East ; but notwithstanding all the efforts of the purchaser, the advantage was greatly on the side of the seller, who profited by the wants of the former, as well as by immense profit on a small outlay ; and no competition could be expected among the priests, who enjoyed this privileged monopoly. When the bargain had been agreed to, a deed was carefully drawn up to secure to the purchaser the property he had bought ; and some idea may be formed of the precautions taken by the Egyptians to prevent any future question upon the subject by the number of witnesses required for the smallest contracts. And, judging from the minute repetition of expres- sions, and the precision witn which the acceptance of the price was acknowledged, we may conclude that they were as ready to take advantage of the least flaw in a deed as any people of the present day. Besides the upper rooms of the tomb, which were ornamented with the paintings already mentioned, were one or more pits, varying from twenty to seventy feet in depth, at the bottom or sides 1 of which were recesses, like small chambers, for depositing the coffins. The pit was closed with masonry after the burial had been performed, and sometimes re-opened to receive other members of the family. The upper apartments were richly ornamented with painted sculptures, being rather a monument in honour of the deceased than the actual sepulchre ; and they served for the reception of his friends, who frequently met there and accompanied the priests when performing the services for the dead. Each tomb, and sometimes each apartment, had a wrooden door, either of a single or double valve, turning on pins, and secured by bolts or bars, with a lock ; which last was pro- tected by a seal of clay, upon which the impress of a signet was stamped when the party retired, as Herodotus describes at the treasury of Khampsinitus. Kemains of the clay have even been found adhering to some of the stone jambs of the doorways in the tombs of Thebes ; and the numerous stamps buried near them were probably used on those occasions. It may be a question whether these stamps were really seals by which the impressions were made upon the clay, because the characters upon them are in relief, and because their edges are sometimes raised unequally around their faces, both arguing 1 < Whose tombs are in the side of the pit ;' and the common expression in the Bible, ' They that go down to the pit,' meaning those that die. (Ezek. xxxii. 29, &c.) Chap. XVI.] SEALS FOUND IN TOMBS. 437 that they had been impressed with another seal. We even find them of a square form, with a stamp on all the sides, and made of the same materials ; which is a clay mixed with fine ashes, and afterwards burnt, the exterior being of a finer quality than the inside. It may also be said that the red ochreous colour with which they are sometimes stained, was imparted to them from the seal that stamped the impression; though, on the other hand, as the colour frequently extends half-way up the whole length, it is evident that they were dipped into this red mixture for some purpose. Again, if they were mere impressions, and not used as seals, it is difficult to understand the reason of their being so stamped and buried near the tombs — unless, indeed, they were passports from the family, or the priest who had the superintendence of the tomb, to permit strangers to visit it. a b No. 630. Seals found near the tombs at Thebes. 1, 2. Instances of seals with raised edges round the stamped part. 3. Another stained with red ochre from a to b. 4. Style of the inscriptions on some of them :— ' Neferhetp the justified, fourth priest of Amen, and his wife Amenhetp, the lady of the house.' 5. A brick stamped in a similar manner. They generally bear the name of the person of the adjacent tomb, with that of his wife, and sometimes the same characters occur on different ones, which vary also in size. They are mostly of a conical shape, about a foot in length, the circular face bearing the inscription being about three inches in diameter ;x and they appear to be made for holding in the hand, and for giving rather than receiving an impression. The characters were probably first put upon them, when unburnt, from a mould. This they after- wards imparted to the clay seals ; and the red liquid into which they were dipped was intended to prevent their adhering. Similar seals were used for securing the doors of temples, houses, and granaries. Tombs were built of brick and stone, or hewn in the rock, according to the position of the necropolis. Whenever the 1 Several are met with in the British some to have been worked into the orna- Museum and other European collections. mental architecture, or else to mark the [Their use is not quite certain. They are site of the sepulchres. — S. B.] only found at Thebes, and supposed by 438 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. mountains were sufficiently near, the latter was preferred; and these were generally the most elegant in their design and the variety of their sculptures, not only at Thebes, but in other parts of Egypt. Few, indeed, belonging to wealthy individuals were built of masonry, except those at the Pyramids in the vicinity of Memphis. The sepulchres of the poorer classes had no upper chamber. The coffins were deposited in pits in the plain, or in recesses excavated at the side of a rock, which were closed with masonry, as the pits within the large tombs. Mummies of the lower orders were buried together in a common repository ; and the bodies of those whose relations had not the means of paying for their funeral, after being ' merely cleansed by some vegetable decoc- tions, and kept in an alkaline solution for seventy days,'1 were wrapped up in coarse cloth, in mats, or in a bundle of palm- sticks, and deposited in the earth. Some tombs were of great extent ; and when a wealthy in- dividual bought the ground, and had an opportunity during a long life of making his family sepulchre according to his wishes, it was frequently decorated in the most sumptuous manner. And so much consequence did the Egyptians attach to them, that people in humble circumstances made every effort to save sufficient to procure a handsome tomb, and defray the expenses of a suitable funeral. This species of pomp increased as refine- ment and luxury advanced ; and in the time of Amasis and other monarchs of the 26th Dynasty the funeral expenses so far exceeded what it had been customary to incur during the reigns of the early Pharaohs, that the tombs of some individuals far surpassed in extent, if not in splendour of decoration, those of the kings themselves. Many adorned their entrances with gardens, in which flowers were reared by the hand of an attached friend, whose daily care was to fetch water from the river, or from the wells on the edge of the cultivated land ; and I have myself found remains 2 of alluvial soil brought for this purpose, and placed before some of the sepulchres at Thebes. It is reasonable to suppose that in early times the tombs were more simple and of smaller dimensions ; which is proved by the appearance of those at Thebes, and in the vicinity of Memphis. 1 Herodot. ii. 88. This is confirmed by — S. B. the later Ptolemaic tablets, which mention 2 I have indicated some of these in my seventy days as the time of embalmment. ' Survey of Thebes.' Chap. XVI.] EAKLY TOMBS. 439 The tombs in the rock at the Necropolis of Thebes, of the time of Amenophis L and other early monarchs of the 18th Dynasty, were smaller and more simple than those made at the close of that dynasty ; and this display in the mode of decorating them and extending their dimensions continued to increase to the time of Amasis, when, as Herodotus states, the wealth of Egypt far surpassed that of any previous period. But as a detailed description of them would encroach too much on the limits of this work, I must be contented for the present with referring to my ' Topography of Thebes ;' where I have spoken of their dimensions and general plan, as well as the subjects that adorn the walls of their passages and chambers, nearly all of which are hewn in the limestone rock of the Libyan mountain.1 Those tombs at Memphis and the Pyramids which are of masonry differ in their plan, and in many instances in the style of their sculptures. The subjects, however, generally relate to the manners and customs of the Egyptians ; and parties, boat scenes, fishing, fowling, and other ordinary occupations of the people, are portrayed there, as in the sepulchres of Thebes. The Tombs of the Kings at Thebes are principally of Pharaohs of the 18th and 19th Dynasties ; the oldest in the eastern valley, where they are nearly all situated, being of Kameses L, the grandfather of the conqueror of the same name. That of the third Amenophis is in the western valley, with two others of an old and uncertain era. They have likewise been mentioned in my * Topography of Thebes/ 2 where their plans and the subjects of their sculptures are described as of the sepulchres of private individuals. ' When anyone died,3 all the females of his family, covering their heads and faces with mud, and leaving the body in the house, ran through the streets with their bosoms exposed, striking themselves,4 and uttering loud lamentations.' Their friends and 1 The tombs were placed generally at of the first chamber. (Mariette, 'Mon. the sides of mountains, and were not very of Upper Egypt,' pi. 7.) — S. B. conspicuous, and consisted of a small 2 ' Topography of Thebes,' p. 100 et seq. building with a rectangular and vertical 3 Herodotus (ii. 85) says, ' a person of cell leading to the vault beneath, which rank ;' but the same lamentation was was the sepulchral chamber. The ex- made by the family, whatever his station terior building was a kind of memorial or in life might be ; the only difference being mortuary chapel, open at all times, and that the funeral was not attended by where the relatives of the dead assembled, strangers, out of respect to the deceased, Between the brickwork was a narrow pas- when unknown or of low condition, sage, in which figures of the deceased were 4 They were forbidden to cut them- deposited and then walled up. At Beni- selves, as were the Jews. (Levit. xix. 28 ; Hassan the tombs were hollowed out of Deut. xiv. 1.) This was a Syrian custom the mountain, and the cell in a corner at the worship of Baal. (1 Kings xviii. 28.) 440 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. relations joined them as they went, uniting in the same de- monstrations of grief ; and when the deceased was a person of consideration, many strangers accompanied them, out of respect to his memory.1 Hired mourners were also employed to add by their feigned demonstrations 2 of grief to the real lamentations of the family, and to heighten the show of respect paid to the deceased. ' The men in like manner girding their dress below their waist, went through the town smiting their breast,'3 and throwing dust and mud upon their heads.4 But the greatest number of mourners consisted of women, as is usual in Egypt at the present day ; and since the mode of lamentation now practised at Cairo is probably very similar to that of former times, a description of it may serve to illustrate one of the customs of ancient Egypt.5 As soon as the marks of approaching death are observed, the females of the family raise the cry of lamentation ; one generally commencing in a low tone, and exclaiming, ' 0 my misfortune!' which is immediately taken up by another with increased vehemence ; and all join in similar exclamations, united with piercing cries. They call on the deceased, according to their degree of relationship, — as, ' 0 my father,' ' 0 my mother,' ' O my sister,' ' 0 my brother,' ' 0 my aunt ;' or according to the friendship and connection subsisting between them, as ' 0 my master,' * 0 lord of the house,' ' 0 my friend,' ' 0 my dear, my soul, my eyes ;' and many of the neighbours, as well as the friends of the family, join in the lamentation. Hired mourning women are also engaged, who utter cries of grief, and praise the virtues of the deceased ; while the females of the house rend their clothes, beat themselves, and make other violent demon- strations of sorrow. A sort of funeral dirge 6 is also chanted by the mourning women to the sound of a tambourine, from which the tinkling plates have been removed. This continues until the funeral takes place, which, if the person died in the morning, is performed the same day ; but if in the afternoon or evening, it is deferred until the morning, the lamentations being continued all night. Previous to, or immediately after the departure of, the vital spark, they take 1 As the Egyptians mourned for Jacob. (Gen. 1. 3.) 2 Hor. de Arte Poet, verse 429. Conf. Jerem. ix. 17 ; Matt. ix. 23. 3 Herodot. ii. 85. 4 Ibid. Diodor. i. 91. 5 I refer to Lane's admirable work on the Modern Egyptians, vol. ii. p. 286. 6 Like the ' inconditum quoddam car- men,' mentioned by Quintus Curtius, sung by matrons and virgins at the temple of Ammon. Chap. XVI.] MODERN FUNERAL CUSTOMS. 441 care to close the eyes and mouth ;* which is always looked upon as a tender and dutiful office worthy of the kind feelings of a sincere friend ; and soon after the mourners have collected, the body is given over to the moghussel (or washer), who, placing it on a bench, the eyes being closed, and the mouth bound up, washes it, the barber having previously performed his office. In the meantime prayers are read in an adjoining apartment by the fekkees, who officiate as priests ; and preparations are then made for carrying out the corpse to the grave. It is placed on a bier borne by four friends of the deceased, who, after a short distance, are relieved by four others, and so on, till arrived at the cemetery ; the procession which accompanies it depending on the rank of the person, or the attentions of his friends. This has been so fully and so accurately described by Lane,2 that I cannot do better than give it from his valuable book. ' The first persons (in the procession) are about six or more poor men, called Yemeneeh, mostly blind, who proceed two and two, or three and three together. Walking at a moderate pace, or rather slowly, they chant in a melancholy tone the profession of faith, or sometimes other words : they are followed by some male relations and friends of the deceased, and in many cases by two or more persons of some sect of dervishes, bearing the flags of their order. . . . Next follow three or four or more school- boys, one of whom carries a copy of the Coran, . . . placed upon a kind of desk formed of palm-sticks, and covered over generally with an embroidered kerchief. These boys chant in a higher and livelier voice than the Yemeneeh, usually some words of a poem descriptive of the events of the last day, the judgment, &c, commencing — * " (I assert) the absolute glory of Him who createth whatever hath form, And reduceth His servants by death : Who bringeth to nought (all) His creatures, with mankind ; They shall all lie in the graves : The absolute glory of the Lord of the East : 3 The absolute glory of the Lord of the West :4 The absolute glory of the Illuminator of the two lights ; The sun, to wit, and the moon : His absolute glory : how bountiful is He ! M 'The schoolboys immediately precede the bier, which is borne head foremost. Three or four friends of the deceased usually carry it for a short distance ; then three or four other 1 As did the Romans. (Virg. jEn. ix. 487, &c.) * * Modern Egyptians,' ii. 289. 3 1 Literally, " the two Easts," or " the two places of sunrise ;" the point where the sun rises in summer, and that where it rises in winter.' 4 1 Or " the two places of sunset." ' 442 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. friends, who are in like manner relieved. Behind the bier walk the female mourners ; sometimes a group of more than a dozen or twenty, with their hair dishevelled, though generally concealed by the head-veil, crying and shrieking ; and often the hired mourners accompany them, celebrating the praises of the deceased. Among the women the relations and domestics of the deceased are each distinguished by a strip of linen, or cotton stuff, or muslin, generally blue, bound round the head, and tied in a single knot behind, the ends hanging down a few inches. Each of these also carries a handkerchief, usually dyed bine, which she sometimes holds over her shoulders, and at other times twirls with both hands over her head, or before her face. The cries of the women, the lively chanting of the youths, and the deep tones uttered by the Yemeneeh, compose a strange discord. 6 The wailing of women at funerals was forbidden by the Prophet ; and so also was the celebration of the virtues of the deceased. . . . Some of these precepts are every day violated ; . . . and I have seen mourning women of the lower classes following a bier, having their faces (which were bare), and their head-coverings and bosoms, besmeared with mud. * The funeral procession of a man of wealth, or of the middle classes, is sometimes preceded by three or four or more camels, bearing bread and water to give to the poor at the tomb, and is composed of a more numerous and varied assemblage of persons.' In this, besides the persons already mentioned, ' the led horses of the bearers, if men of rank, often follow the bier ; and a buffalo, to be sacrificed at the tomb, where its flesh is to be distributed to the poor, closes the procession.' The funeral of a devout sheikh differs in some respects from that of ordinary mortals ; and ' the women, instead of wailing, rend the air with shrill and quavering cries of joy, called zughareet ; and if these cries are discontinued but for a minute, the bearers of the bier protest they cannot proceed, that a supernatural power rivets them to the spot.' Very often, it is said, a welee impels the bearers of his corpse to a particular place ; a curious anecdote of which is related by Lane ;* and I have repeatedly witnessed instances of this at Cairo, having for some time lived in the main street leading to a cemetery near one of the gates of the city. Several points of resemblance may be observed between the 1 Lane, 1 Modern Egyptians,' ii. p. 294. Chap. XVI.] FUNEEAL OF THE SOVEREIGN. 443 funeral processions of ancient Egypt and the above-mentioned ceremony : as in the female mourners ; their heads bound with a fillet ; the procession of the friends on foot ; the head of the corpse foremost ; the horses (or chariot) in the procession ; and the ox or calf for sacrifice, the meat of which was probably given to the poor, like the visceratio of the Eomans. Of the magnificent pomp of a royal funeral in the time of the Pharaohs no adequate idea can be formed from the processions represented in the tombs of ordinary individuals ; and the solemn manner in which a public mourning was observed in his honour, the splendour of the royal tombs, and the importance attached to all that appertained to the king, sufficiently show how far these last must have fallen short of regal grandeur. A general mourning was proclaimed throughout the country, which lasted seventy-two days after his death. ' The people tore their garments,1 all the temples were closed, sacrifices were forbidden, and no festivals were celebrated during that period. A pro- cession of men and women, to the number of two hundred or three hundred, with their dresses attached below their breast, wandered through the streets, throwing dust2 and mud upon their heads ; and twice every day they sang the funeral dirge in honour of the deceased monarch, extolling his virtues, and passing every encomium upon his memory. In the meantime a solemn fast was established ; and they neither allowed them- selves to taste meat or wheaten bread,3 abstaining also from wine and every kind of luxury ; nor did anyone venture, from a religious scruple, to use baths or ointments, to lie on soft beds, or in any way to gratify his appetites ; giving himself up entirely to mourning during those days, as if he had lost the friend most dear to him.' Considering the marked distinction maintained between the sovereign and the highest subjects in the kingdom, in a country where the royal princes walked on foot when in attendance upon their father, and even bore him in his chair of state upon their shoulders, — where the highest functionaries of the priestly order, the most influential of the hereditary nobles of the land, walked behind the chariot 4 of their monarch, — we may readily believe 1 Diodor. i. 72. 3 ' As the bread of mourners.' (Hos. 2 The Greeks say ' mud ;' but in dry, ix. 4.) dusty Egypt this would have been more 4 The greatest honour conferred on difficult to find than dust in England, Joseph was permission ' to ride in the if we had so unpleasant a custom at our second chariot which he (the king) had.' funerals. This was a royal chariot, no one being 444 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. Closets containing figures of gods. Ko. 631. how greatly the funeral processions of the wealthiest individuals fell short of those of the kings. But from the pomp of ordinary- funerals some idea may be formed of the grand state in which the body of a sovereign was conveyed to the tomb. In the funeral processions of the Egyptian grandees the order was frequently as follows, as will be seen in Plate LXVI. : — First came several servants, carrying tables laden with fruit, cakes, flowers, vases of ointment,1 wine, and ^gai ru=gUj other liquids, with three young geese and a calf for sacrifice, chairs and wooden tablets, ^JL jk napkins,2 and other things. Then others v| vl bringing the small closets in which the JLL .11 J H. mummy of the deceased and of his ancestors had been kept, while receiving the funeral liturgies previous to burial, and which some- times contained the images of the gods. They also carried daggers, bows, sandals, and fans ; each man having a kerchief or napkin on his shoulder. Next came a table of offerings, fauteuils, couches, boxes, and a chariot ; and then the charioteer with a pair of horses yoked in another car, which he drove as he followed on foot, in token of respect to his late master. After these were men carrying gold vases on a table, with other offerings, boxes, and a large case upon a sledge borne on poles by four men, superintended by two functionaries of the priestly order ; then others bearing small images of his ancestors, arms, fans, the sceptres, signets, collars, necklaces, and other things appertaining to the king in whose service he had held an important office. To these succeeded the bearers of a sacred boat, and the mysterious eye of Shu or Horus as god of stability,3 so common on funeral monuments ; the same, which was placed over the incision in the side of the body when em- balmed, was the emblem of Egypt, and was frequently used as a sort of amulet, and deposited in the tombs. Others carried the well-known small images of blue pottery representing the deceased under the form of Osiris, and the bird emblematic of the soul. Following these were seven or more men bearing upon allowed to appear in his own in the pre- sence of majesty, except in battle. 1 I have had occasion to notice the different materials of which vases used for holding ointment were made. Alabaster was most common, as with the Greeks and Romans, who even adopted the name * alabaster,' alabastron, to signify a vase, as in Theocr. Id. xv. 112 : 5e pipe? xpu and therefore substituted the x> as they now do in modern names ; as Charris for Harris, &c. 5 'Cocyti stagna alta .... Stygiam- que paludem.' (Virg. JEn. vi. 323.) Chap. XVI.] OEDEAL OF THE DEAD. 459 mouth of the dead by the Egyptians.1 For though they did not intend it as a reward to the boatman,2 but rather as a passport to show the virtuous character of the deceased, it was of equal importance in obtaining for him admittance into the regions of the blessed.3 The Egyptian custom of depositing cakes in the tombs probably led to the Greek notion of sending a cake for Cer- berus, which was placed in the mouth of the deceased ; and it was by means of a similar one, drugged with soporiferous herbs, and given to the monster at a hungry hour,4 that iEneas and the Sibyl obtained an entrance into the lower regions. The judge of the dead is recognised in Osiris ; the office of Mercury Psychopompos is the same as that of Anubis; the figure of Justice without a head, and the scales of Truth or Justice at the gate of Amenti, occur in the funeral subjects of the Egyptian tombs ; and the hideous animal who there seems to guard the approach to the mansion of Osiris is a worthy prototype of the Greek Cerberus. It was not ordinary individuals alone who were subjected to a public ordeal at their death : the character of the king him- self was doomed to undergo the same test ; and if anyone could establish proofs of his impiety or injustice, he was denied the usual funeral obsequies when in the presence of the assembled multitude his body was brought to the sacred lake, or, as Dio- dorus 5 states, to the vestibule of the tomb. ' The customary trial having commenced, anyone was permitted to present himself as an accuser. The pontiffs first passed an encomium upon his character, enumerating all his noble actions, and pointing out the merit of each ; to which the people, who were assembled to the number of several thousands, if they felt those praises to be just, responded with favourable acclamations. If, on the contrary, his life had been stained with vice or injustice, they showed their dissent by loud murmurs : and several in- 1 On one of these plates I have seen the following characters — rft- VOZ|=l"R>A N E B N N OT0- perhaps ' the lord of the gods.' 2 Virg. JEn. vi. 299: 'Portitor has horrendus aquas et flumina servat Terribili squalore Charon Ipse ratem conto subigit, velisque mi- nistrat, Et ferruginea subvectat corpora cymba.' 3 Pettigrew, Plate 6, fig. 1, and p. 63. 4 Virg. Mn. vi. 419 : 'Cui vates, horrere videns jam colla co- lubris, Melle soporatam et medicatis frugibus offam Objicit : ille fame rabida tria guttura pandens, Corripit objectam.' 5 Diodor. i. 72. 460 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. stances are recorded of Egyptian monarchs having been de- prived of the honour of the customary public funeral by the opposing voice of the people.' ' The effect of this,' adds the historian, * was that succeeding kings, fearing so disgraceful a censure after death, and the eternal stigma attached to it, studied by their virtuous conduct to deserve the good opinion of their subjects ; and it could not fail to be a great incentive to virtue, independent of the feelings arising from a wish to deserve the gratitude of men, and the fear of forfeiting the favour of the gods.' The custom of refusing funeral rites to a king was not con- fined to Egypt ; it was common also to the Jews,1 who forbade a wicked monarch to repose in the sepulchres of his fathers. Thus Joash, though 'buried in the city of David,' was not interred ' in the sepulchres of the kings ; ' 2 Manasseh ' was buried in the garden of his own house,'3 and several other kings of Judah and Israel were denied that important privilege. That the same continued to the time of the Asmoneans, is shown by the conduct of Alexander Janneus, who, feeling the approach of death, charged his wife, * on her return to Jerusalem, to send for the leading men among the Pharisees, and show them his body, giving them leave, with great appearance of sincerity, to use it as they might please — whether they would dishonour the dead body by refusing it burial, as having severely suffered through him, or whether in their anger they would offer any other injury to it. By this means, and by a promise that nothing should be done without them in the affairs of the kingdom, it was hoped that a more honourable funeral might be obtained than any she could give him, and that his body might be saved from abuse by this appeal to their generosity.' 4 They had also the custom of instituting a general mourning for a deceased monarch5 whose memory they wished to honour. But the Egyptians allowed not the same extremes of degrada- tion to be offered to the dead as the Jews6 sometimes did to those who had incurred their hatred ; and the body of a male- factor, though excluded from the precincts of the necropolis, was not refused to his friends, that they might perform the last duties to their unfortunate relative. The loss of life and the 1 1 Kings xiv. 13. 2 Kings ix. 10. 2 2 Chron. xxiv. 25. 3 2 Kings xxi. 18 and 26. * Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 15, 5. 5 1 Kings xiv. 18, &c. 6 As Jezebel was eaten by dogs (2 Kings ix. 35). Chap. XVI.] OEDEAL OF THE DEAD. 461 future vengeance of the gods was deemed a sufficient punish- ment, without the addition of insult to his senseless corpse ; and hence the unusual treatment of the body of the robber taken in Khampsinitus' treasury appeared to his mother a greater afflic- tion than the death of her son. It was not, however, a general custom among the Jews to expose the bodies of malefactors or those who had incurred their hatred : it was thought sufficient to deprive them of funeral obsequies; and the relations were permitted to inter the body in their own house, or in that of the deceased. Thus Joab 'was buried in his own house in the wilderness'1 when slain by the order of Solomon for the murders he had committed ; and the greatest severity to which they usually exposed an individual was to deny him the rites of burial.2 A question might arise whether the Egyptians positively prevented a king, thus rejected at his public ordeal, from being buried in the catacomb prepared for him, or, merely forbidding the celebration of the pomp customary on that occasion, con- ducted his body privately to the sepulchre. But the evidence of the sculptures in one of the tombs of the kings of Thebes appears conclusive on this point. The name of the monarch has been erased ; which shows that he was not admitted to the consecrated precincts of the royal cemetery ; and this suggests that the same custom prevailed in Egypt as with the Jews, of burying the kings rejected by the public voice either in their own private grounds or in some place set apart for the purpose. It was not the dread of this temporary disgrace which the Egyptians were taught to look upon as the principal inducement to virtue : a far graver consideration was held out to them in the fear of that final judgment which awaited them in a future state, where they were to suffer both for crimes of omission as well as of commission, and where nothing could shield them from the just vengeance of the gods. The same doctrine is put forth in the writings of Plato, who, in his Seventh Epistle, says, 'It is necessary, indeed, always to believe in the ancient and sacred discourses, which announce to us that the soul is immortal, and that it has judges of its conduct, and suffers the greatest punish- ment when it is liberated from the body/ The commission of secret crimes might not expose them to the condemnation of the world ; they might obtain the credit of 1 1 Kings ii. 34. 1 Ps. lxxix. 3. Jer. viii. 2, xiv. 16, and xvi. 4. 462 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. a virtuous career, enjoying throughout life an unsullied reputa- tion ; and many an unknown act of injustice might escape those who applauded them on the day of their funeral. But the all- scrutinising eye of the Deity was known to penetrate into the innermost thoughts of the heart ; and they believed that what- ever conscience told them they had done amiss was recorded against them in the book of Thoth, out of which they would be judged according to their works.1 The sculptured walls of every sepulchre reminded them of this solemn ceremony ; the rewards held out to the virtuous were reputed to exceed all that man could imagine or desire ; and the punishments of the wicked were rendered doubly odious by the notion of a transmigration of the soul into the most hateful and disgusting animals. The idea of the punishment was thus brought to a level with their comprehension. They were not left to speculate on, and con- sequently to call in question, the kind of punishment they were to suffer, since it was not presented to them in so fanciful and unintelligible a guise as to be beyond their comprehension : all could feel the disgrace of inhabiting the body of a pig ; and the very one they beheld with loathing and disgust probably con- tained the soul of a wicked being they had known as their enemy or their friend. ' The Egyptians/ according to Herodotus,2 * were the first to maintain that the soul of man 3 is immortal ; that after the death of the body it always enters into that of some other animal which is born ; and when it has passed through all those of the earth, water, and air, it again enters that of a man ; which circuit it accomplishes in three thousand years.' This doctrine of trans- migration is mentioned by Plutarch, Plato, and other ancient writers as the general belief among the Egyptians, and it was adopted by Pythagoras4 and his preceptor Pherecydes, as well as other philosophers of Greece. Plutarch5 says that 'the Egyptians thought the souls of men, 1 [Each man's conscience, released from the sinful body, was his own judge ; and self-condemnation hereafter followed up the yvwOi and alax^v^o (reavrbv enjoined on earth. Thoth, therefore (or that part of the divine nature called intellect and conscience), weighed and condemned ; and Horus (who had been left on earth to follow out the conquests of his father Osiris after he had returned to heaven) ushered in the just to the divine presence. — G. W.] 2 Herodot. ii. 123. 3 St. Augustine says, ' iEgyptii soli cre- dunt resurrectionem, quia diligenter curant cadavera mortuorum ; morem enim habent siccare corpora et quasi aenea reddere ; gab- baras ea vocant.' It is singular that the word now used in Egypt for a tomb is gabr or gobber. (Aug. Sermon, c. 12.) 4 Conf. Lucian's Gallus ; and Hor. 1 Od. xxiii. 10. 5 Plut. de Isid. ss. 31 and 72. Chap. XVL] FUTUEE STATE OF SOULS. 463 which still survive their bodies, returned into life again in animals ; ' and that 1 they considered it right to prefer for sacrifice those in whose bodies the souls of wicked men were confined during the course of their transmigration ; ' while the precept in the golden verses of Pythagoras commands men to abstain from food connected with the purifications and solution of the soul. The reason of this purification of the soul I have already noticed, as well as the greater or less time required, according to the degree of sin by which it had been contaminated during its sojourn in the world.1 Herodotus fixes the period at 3000 years, when the soul returned to the human form ; 2 and Plato says,3 * If anyone's life has been virtuous, he shall obtain a better fate hereafter ; if wicked, a worse. But no soul will return to its pristine condition till the expiration of 10,000 years, since it will not recover the use of its wings until that period, except it be the soul of one who has philosophised sincerely, or, together with philosophy, has loved beautiful forms. These, indeed, in the third period of 1000 years, if they have thrice chosen this mode of life in succession .... shall, in the 3000th year, fly away 4 to their pristine abode ; but other souls being arrived at the end of their first life shall be judged. And of those who are judged, some, proceeding to a subterraneous place of judgment, shall there sustain the punishments they have deserved ; but others, in consequence of a favourable judgment, being elevated into a certain celestial place, shall pass their time in a manner becoming the life they had lived in a human shape. And in the 1000th year both the kinds of those who have been judged, returning to the lot and election of a second life, shall each of them receive a life agreeable to his desire. Here also the human soul shall pass into the life of a beast, and from that of a beast again into a man if it has first been the soul of a man. For the soul which has never perceived the truth cannot pass into the human form.' It is possible that the Egyptians also supposed the period of 1 The same occurs in these lines of Milton's Comus : — ' But when lust, By lavish act of sin, Lets in defilement to the inward parts, The soul grows clotted by contagion, Imbodies, and imbrutes, till she quite lose The divine property of her first being.' 2 This seems to disagree with the custom of giving all good men the name of Osiris immediately after their burial, as if their soul had already returned to the Deity, whence it emanated. 3 Plato, in Phaedone, p. 355, tr. Taylor. 4 This agrees with the Egyptian notion of a winged soul. 464 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. 3000 years to have been confined to those who had led a philo- sophically virtuous life ; but it is difficult to determine if the full number of 10,000 years was required for other souls. From the fact of the number ten signifying completion and return to unity, it is not altogether improbable — particularly since the Greek philosophers are known to have derived their notions on this, as on many other subjects, from the dogmas of Egypt. Herodotus states that several Greeks adopted the doctrine of transmigration and used it as their own, whose names he refrains from mentioning ; and it is generally supposed by Diodorus, Diogenes Laertius, Porphyry, and others, that Pythagoras had the merit of first introducing it into Greece.1 And if Cicero thinks Pherecydes of Syros, of whom Pythagoras was a disciple, to be the first to assert that the souls of men were immortal, the Egyptian origin of the doctrine is only the more confirmed, since he had also visited and studied under the Egyptian priests. This metempsychosis, or rather metensomatosis, being the passage of the soul from one animal to another, was termed * the circle or orbit of necessity ;' 2 and besides the ordinary notion of its passing through different bodies till it returned again in a human shape, some went so far as to suppose that after a certain period all events which had happened were destined to occur again, in the identical order and manner as before. The same men were said to be born again, and to fulfil the same career ; and the same causes were thought to produce the same effects, as stated by Virgil. This idea of a similarity of causes and effects appears to be quite consistent with the opinions of the Egyptians, mentioned by Herodotus ; 3 and not only, says the historian, ' have the Greek poets adopted many of their doctrines,' but the origin of most of the religious speculations of Greece may be traced to the Egyptians, who * have invented more prodigies than all the rest of mankind.' The Egyptian notion that the soul, after its series of migra- tions, returned to the same human body in which it had formerly lived on earth, is in perfect accordance with the passage of the Koman poet above alluded to; and this is confirmed by Theo- phrastus, who says, 4 The Egyptians think that the same soul enters the body of a man, an ox, a dog, a bird, and a fish, until 1 Diodor. i. 98 ; Diog. Laert. viii. 14 ; Porph. Vit. Fyth. 19. 2 Kvk\os avdyKT)s. 3 Herodot. ii. 82. Chap. XVI.] EEASON OF EMBALMING BODIES. 465 having passed through all of them, it returns to that from which it set out.'1 There is even reason to believe that the Egyptians preserved the body in order to keep it in a fit state to receive the soul which once inhabited it, after the lapse of a certain number of years ; and the various occupations followed by the Egyptians during the lifetime of the deceased, which were represented in the sculptures, as well as his arms, the implements he used, or whatever was most precious to him, which were deposited in the tomb with his coffin, might be intended for his benefit at the time of this reunion, which at the least possible period was fixed at 3000 years.2 On the other hand, from the fact of animals being also embalmed (the preservation of whose bodies was not ascribable to any idea connected with the soul), the custom might appear rather owing to a sanitary regulation for the benefit of the living, or be attributable to a feeling of respect for the dead — an affectionate family being anxious to preserve that body or outward form by which one they loved had been long known to them. We are therefore still in uncertainty respecting the actual intentions of the Egyptians in thus preserving the body and ornamenting their sepulchres at so great an expense ; nor is there any decided proof that the resurrection of the body was a tenet of their religion. It is, however, highly probable that such was their belief, since no other satisfactory reason can be given for the great care of the body after death. And if many a one, on returning to his tomb, might be expected to feel great disappoint- ment in finding it occupied by another, and execrate in no very measured terms the proprietor who had re-sold it after his death, the offending party would feel secure against any injury from his displeasure, since his return to earth would occur at a different period. For sufficient time always elapsed between the death of two occupants of the same tomb, the 3000 years dating from the demise of each, and not from any fixed epoch. The doctrine of transmigration was also admitted by the 1 The doctrine of the metempsychosis by the 76th and following chapters of the appears from the Ritual to have been Ritual. (Lepsius, 1 Todt.,' Taf. xxviii.- ancient Egyptian, and the soul or the xxxiii.) — S. B. manes transformed itself in the future state 2 The Egyptians considered man to have into the form of a man, the god Ptah, a soul, ba, represented as a hawk with a Osiris, the chief of the gods, a hawk, heron, human head ; a shade, khebi; a spirit or in- swallow, serpent, crocodile, and lotus- telligence, khu, and into which he became flower. The deceased had also the power changed as £a being of light;' and an ex- of taking all the forms he wished. The istence, ka, besides life, ankh. The soul, ba> above forms seem essential to the future only revisited the body. It is thought to destiny of the soul. These are illustrated have been immortal. — S. B. VOL. III. 2 H 466 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. Pharisees ; their belief, according to Josephus,1 being ' that all souls were incorruptible ; but that those of good men were only removed into other bodies, and that those of the bad were subject to eternal punishment.' The Buddhist and other religions have admitted the same notion of the soul of man passing into the bodies of animals : and even the Druids believed in the migration of the soul, though they confined it to human bodies.2 The judgment scenes found in the tombs and on the papyri sometimes represent the deceased conducted by Horus alone, or accompanied by his wife, to the region of Amenti. Cerberus is present as the guardian of the gates, near which the scales of Justice are erected ; and Anubis, * the director of the weight/ having placed a vase representing the good actions3 of the deceased in one scale, and the figure or emblem of Truth in the other,4 proceeds to ascertain his claims for admission.5 If on being * weighed' he is ' found wanting,'6 he is rejected; and Osiris, the judge of the dead, inclining his sceptre in token of condemnation, pronounces judgment upon him, and condemns his soul to return to earth under the form of a pig, or some other unclean animal. Placed in a boat, it is removed, under the charge of two monkeys, from the precincts of Amenti, all com- munication with which is figuratively cut off by a man who hews away the earth with an axe after its passage ; and the commence- ment of a new term of life is indicated by those monkeys, the emblems of Thoth. But if, when the sum of his deeds are recorded by Thoth, his virtues so far predominate as to entitle him to admission to the mansions of the blessed, Horus, taking in his hand the tablet of Thoth, introduces him to the presence of Osiris ; who, in his palace, attended by Isis and Nephthys, sits on his throne in the midst of the waters, from which rises the lotus, bearing upon its expanded flower the four genii of Amenti. Other representations of this subject differ in some of the details ; and in the judgment scene of the royal scribe whose 1 Joseph. Bell. Jud. ii. 8, 14. 2 Ca?s. Bell. Gall. lib. vi. 3 This is supposed by Champollion to be a human heart. 4 The same kind of balance is represented on a Greek vase published in the ' Archseo- logia' of Rome, of 1833, Plate 47, repre- senting Arcesilaus, king of Cyrene, seated and superintending the weighing of sil- phium, where the ape is seated above, and a figure in the attitude of Osiris sits on a throne holding a barred sceptre, similar to the emblem of stability in the hand of the judge of Amenti. 5 This subject is the vignette of the 125th chapter of the Ritual, called that of proceeding to the hall of the Two Truths, where a person is separated from his sins, and is allowed to see the faces of the gods. (Lepsius, ' Todt.,' xlvi. c. 125, rubric.) It is called the great judgment, or day of great judgment. — S. B. 6 Conf. Daniel v. 27 ; and Job xxxi. 6. 468 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. funeral procession has been described, the deceased advances alone in an attitude of prayer to receive judgment. On one side of the scales stands Thoth, holding a tablet in his hand ; on the other, the goddess of justice ; and Horus, in lieu of Anubis, performs the office of director of the balance, on the top of which sits a Cynocephalus, the emblem of Thoth. Osiris, seated as usual on his throne,1 holding his crook and flagellum, awaits the report from the hands of his son Horus. Before the door of his palace are the four genii of Amenti, and near them three deities, who either represent the assessors, or may be the three assistant judges, who gave rise to the Minos, iEacus, and Khadamanthus 2 of Greek fable.3 Another, figured in the side adytum of the Ptolemaic temple of Dayr el Medeeneh, at Thebes, represents the deceased ap- proaching in a similarly submissive attitude, between two figures of Truth or Justice, whose emblem, the ostrich-feather, he holds in his hand. The two figures show the double capacity of that goddess, corresponding, as already shown, to the Thummim, or two Truths, and according well with the statement of Diodorus respecting her position ' at the gates of Truth.' Horus and Anubis superintend the balance, and weigh the actions of the judged, whilst Thoth inscribes an account of them on his tablet, which he prepares for presentation to Osiris, who, seated on his throne, pronounces the final judgment, permitting the virtuous soul to enjoy the blessings of eternal felicity. Before him four genii of Amenti stand upon a lotus-flower ; and a figure of Harpocrates, seated on a crook of Osiris between the scales and the entrance of the divine abode, which is guarded by Cerberus,4 is intended to show that the deceased on admission to that pure state must be born again, and commence a new life, cleansed from all the impurities of his earthly career. It also represents the idea common to the Egyptians and other philosophers, that to die was only to assume a new form, — that nothing was annihilated, — and that dissolution was merely the forerunner of reproduction. Above, in two lines, sit the forty-two assessors, the complete number mentioned by Diodorus ; whose office, as I have already observed, was to assist in judging the dead, and whose various forms have been given among the other deities of the Egyptian Pantheon. 1 Lucian's 1 Minos on a high throne, with 2 Virg. iEn. vi. 566. the punishments, avenging spirits, and 3 Diodor. i. 97, on the punishment of furies standing near him.' (Necromantia.) the dead. * The amti, or ' devourer.' 470 THE AKCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. Many similar subjects occur on funeral monuments, few of which present any new features. One, however, is singular, from the goddess of justice being herself engaged in weighing the deceased, in the presence of Thoth, who is represented under the form of a Cynocephalus, having the horns and globe of the moon upon its head, and a tablet in its hand. Instead of the usual vase, the figure of the deceased himself is placed in one of the scales, opposed to that of the goddess ; and close to the balance sits Cerberus with open mouth, as though prepared to vent his savage fury on the judged,1 if pronounced unworthy of admit- tance to the regions of the blessed. Another may also be noticed, from the singular fact of the goddess of justice, who here introduces the deceased, being without a head, as described by Diodorus, from the deceased holding in each hand an ostrich-feather, the emblem of truth, and from Cerberus being represented standing upon the steps of the divine abode of Osiris, as if in the act of announcing the arrival of Thoth with the person of the tomb. Sometimes the deceased wore round his neck the same vase which in the scales typified his good actions, or bore on his head the ostrich-feather of truth. They were both intended to show that he had been deemed worthy of admission to the mansions of the just ; and in the same idea originated the custom of placing the name of the goddess after that of virtuous individuals who were dead, implying that they were 'judged,' or 'justified.' Some analogy to this may perhaps be traced in the following passage of Plato's Gorgias : 2 — ' Sometimes Khada- manthus, beholding the soul of one who has passed through life with truth, whether it be the soul of a private man, or of any other is filled with admiration, and dismisses it to the islands of the blessed,3 and the same things are done by .ZEacus.' The goddesses Athor and Nut frequently presented the virtuous after death with the fruit and drink of heaven ; which calls to mind the ambrosia and nectar of Greek fable.4 The process of embalming is thus described by ancient writers : — * In Egypt,' says Herodotus,5 ' certain persons are appointed by law to exercise this art as their peculiar business ; 1 Cerberus welcomed those who came 4 Some suppose the former to have been in, and devoured those who endeavoured to eaten, the latter drunk (Hesiod, Theog. go out of the gates of Hades. (Hesiod, 640); though Homer, Od. T, 359, calls the Theog. 770.) 2 Plato, Gorgias, p. 458. wine ' a stream of ambrosia and nectar.' 3 Conf. Lucian on Grief. 4 Herodot. ii. 86. Chap. XVI.] METHOD OF EMBALMING. 471 and when a dead body is brought them they produce patterns of mummies in wood, imitated in painting, the most elaborate of which are said to be of him (Osiris) whose name I do not think it right to mention on this occasion. The second which they show is simpler and less costly ; and the third is the cheapest. Having exhibited them all, they inquire of the persons who have applied to them which mode they wish to be adopted ; and this being settled, and the price agreed upon, the parties retire, leaving the body with the embalmers. ' In preparing it according to the first method, they commence by extracting the brain from the nostrils by a curved iron probe, partly cleansing the head by these means, and partly by pouring in certain drugs; then making an incision in the side with a sharp Ethiopian stone, they draw out the intestines through the aperture. Having cleansed and washed them with palm wine, they cover them with pounded aromatics ; and afterwards filling the cavity with powder of pure myrrh, cassia, and other fragrant substances, frankincense excepted, they sew it up again. This being done, they salt the body, keeping it in natron during seventy days, to which period they are strictly confined. When the seventy1 days are over, they wash the body, and wrap it up entirely in bands of fine linen, smeared on their inner side with gum, which the Egyptians generally use 2 instead of glue. The relations then take away the body, and have a wooden case made in the form of a man, in which they deposit it ; and when fastened up, they keep it in a room in their house, placing it upright against the wall. This is the most costly mode of embalming. * For those who choose the middle kind, on account of the expense, they prepare the body as follows : — They fill syringes with oil of cedar,3 and inject this into the abdomen, without making any incision or removing the bowels ; and taking care that the liquid shall not escape, they keep it in salt during the specified number of days. The cedar oil is then taken out ; and such is its strength that it brings with it the bowels and all the inside in a state of dissolution. The natron also dissolves the flesh, so that nothing remains but the skin and bones. This process being over, they restore the body without any further operation. 1 According to Genesis 1. 3, only forty mourning, days, which is more probable. Diodorus 2 On this occasion, but not for other says 4 upwards of thirty.' The seventy or purposes, seventy-two included the whole period of ■ Pliny, xvi. 11. 472 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. * The third kind of embalming is only adopted for the poor. In this they merely cleanse the body by an injection of syrmtea, and salt it during seventy days, after which it is returned to the friends who brought it. * The bodies of women of quality are not embalmed directly after their death, and it is customary for the family to keep them three or four days before they are subjected to that process.' The account given by Diodorus1 is similar to that of the historian of Halicarnassus. ' The funerals of the Egyptians are conducted upon three different scales, — the most expensive, the more moderate, and the humblest. The first is said to cost a talent of silver ; 2 the second twenty-two minae ; 3 and the third is extremely cheap. The persons who embalm the bodies are artists who have learnt this secret from their ancestors. They present to the friends of the deceased who apply to them an estimate of the funeral expenses, and ask them in what manner they wish it to be performed ; which being agreed upon, they deliver the body to the proper persons appointed to the office. First, one, who is denominated the scribe, marks upon the left side of the body, as it lies on the ground, the extent of the incision which is to be made ; then another, who is called jiaraschistes* cuts open as much of the flesh as the law permits with an Ethiopian stone, and immediately runs away,5 pursued by those who are present, throwing stones at him amidst bitter execrations, as if to cast upon him all the odium of this necessary act. For they look upon everyone who has offered violence to, or inflicted a wound or any other injury upon a human body, to be hateful ; but the embalmers, on the contrary, are held in the greatest consideration and respect, being the associates of the priests, and permitted free access to the temples as sacred persons. ' As soon as they have met together to embalm the body thus prepared for them, one introduces his hand through the aperture into the abdomen, and takes everything out, except the kidneys and heart.6 Another cleanses each of the viscera with palm 1 Diodor. i. 91. Egyptians believed the heart to be the 2 About 250/. sterling. 3 Or 60/. great vital principle, and that man could 4 The dissector. not live beyond 100 years from its being 5 Pausanias, Attic, lib. i. c. 24, speaks impaired by that time. [An embalmed heart of the priest fleeing away as soon as he had bandaged has been found in a sepulchral killed the victim, before the altar of jar in possession of Dr. Higgens of Birken- Jupiter Polieus, at Athens. head. — S. B.] 6 According to Pliny, lib. xi. c. 37, the Chap. XVI.] MODES OF EMBALMING. 473 wine and aromatic substances. Lastly, after having applied oil of cedar and other things to the whole body for upwards of thirty days, they add myrrh, cinnamon, and other drugs, which have not only the power of preserving the body for a length of time, but of imparting to it a fragrant odour. It is then restored to the friends of the deceased. And so perfectly are all the members preserved, that even the hairs of the eyelids and eye- brows remain undisturbed, and the whole appearance of the person is so unaltered that every feature may be recognised. The Egyptians, therefore, who sometimes keep the bodies of their ancestors in magnificent apartments set apart for the purpose, have an opportunity of contemplating the faces1 of those who died many generations before them ; and the height and figure of their bodies being distinguishable, as well as the character of the countenance, they enjoy a wonderful gratification, as if they lived in the society of those they see before them.' On the foregoing statements of the two historians I may be permitted some observations. First, with regard to what Herodotus says of the wooden figures kept as patterns for mummies, the most elaborate of which represented Osiris. All the Egyptians who from their virtues were admitted to the mansions of the blessed were permitted to assume the form and name of this deity. It was not confined to the rich alone, who paid for the superior kind of embalming, or to those mummies which were sufficiently well made to assume the form of Osiris ; and Herodotus should there- fore have confined his remark to those which were of so inferior a kind as not to imitate the figure of a man. For we know that the second class of mummies were put up in the same form of Osiris ; and if it was not so with the cheapest kind, this was in consequence of their being merely wrapped in cloths or matting, and assuming no shape beyond that of a bandaged body.2 Secondly. It is evident from the mummies which have been found in such abundance at Thebes and other places, that in the three different modes of embalming several gradations existed, some of which differ so much in many essential points as almost to justify our extending the number mentioned by the historians, as will be seen from what I shall hereafter state respecting the various modes ascertained from the bodies themselves. I may 1 Diodorus is wrong in supposing that 2 He perhaps had in view those only they could see the actual face of the dead which had a cartonage. body. 474 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. also refer for this subject to Pettigrew's valuable work on the ' History of the Egyptian Mummies.' Thirdly. The extraction of the brain by the nostrils is proved by the appearance of the mummies found in the tombs ; and some of the crooked instruments (always of bronze) supposed to have been used for this purpose have been discovered at Thebes. Fourthly. The incision in the side is, as Diodorus says, on the left. Over it the sacred eye of Osiris1 was placed, and through it the viscera were returned when not deposited in the four vases. Fifthly. The second class of mummies without an incision in the side are often found in the tombs ; but it is also shown from the bodies at Thebes that the incision was not always confined to those of the first class, and that some of an inferior kind were submitted to this simple and effectual process. Sixthly. The sum stated by Diodorus, of a talent of silver, can only be a general estimate of the expense of the first kind of embalming, since the various gradations in the style of preparing them prove that some mummies must have cost far more than others ; and the sumptuous manner in which many persons per- formed the funerals of their friends kept pace with the splendour of the tombs they made or purchased for their reception. Seventhly. The execration with which the paraschistes was pursued could only have been a religious form, from which he was doubtless little in apprehension — an anomaly not altogether without a parallel in other civilised countries. Eighthly. Diodorus is in error when he supposes the actual face of the body was seen after it was restored to the family ; for even before it was deposited in the case, which Herodotus says the friends made for it, the features as well as the whole body were concealed by the bandages which enveloped them. The resemblance he mentions was only in the mummy-case, or the cartonage which came next to the bandages ; and, indeed, what- ever number of cases covered a mummy, the face of each was intended as a representation of the person within, as the lower part was in imitation of the swathed body. Diodorus mentions three different classes of persons who assisted in preparing the body for the funeral, — the scribe, who regulated the incision in the side ; the paraschistes or dissector ; and the embalmers. To these may be added the undertakers, 1 On the mummy of a priestess of Amen, opened by me some years ago, the left symbolic eye was engraved on a rectangular thin tin plate over the flank incision. — S. B. 476 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. who wrapped the body in bandages, and who had workmen in their employ to make the cases in which it was deposited.1 Many different trades and branches of art were constantly called upon to supply the undertakers with those things required for funeral purposes : as the painters of mummy-cases ; those who made images of stone, porcelain, wood, and other materials ; the manufacturers of alabaster, earthenware, and bronze vases ; those who worked in ivory; the leather-cutters, and many others. And it is not improbable that to the undertakers, who were a class of priests, belonged a very large proportion of the tombs kept for sale in the cemeteries of the large towns. I have stated that the body was enveloped and placed in its case previous to its delivery to the relations of the deceased ; but Herodotus seems to say that the undertakers having received it from the embalmers, and swathed it in bandages, sometimes returned it without any other covering than the linen wrappers, or, when of the better quality of mummies, in the painted car- tonage, and the relations employed other persons to make the coffins or mummy-cases in which it was finally deposited. We may, however, conclude that even in these instances the under- takers were again applied to for the purpose ; and we see among people far less prejudiced than the Egyptians, and far less inclined to favour monopolies in religious matters, that few have arrogated to themselves the right of deviating from common custom in their funeral arrangements. The number of days, seventy or seventy-two,2 mentioned by the two historians, is confirmed by the Scripture account of J acob's funeral ; and this arbitrary period cannot fail to call to mind the frequent occurrence of the numbers seven and seventy, which are observed in so many instances both among the 1 The mode of embalming not only dif- fered according to the period, but also ac- cording to the individual. Scarcely two mummies have ever been found treated in the same manner. Those of the older dynasties, contemporary with the Pyra- mids, either drop to pieces on exposure to the air or exhale a faint odour of bitumen ; the mummies of the 11th Dynasty are also yellow, dry, and brittle, and many reduced to mere skeletons ; but at the time of the 12th and 13th Dynasties the mummies are black, the skin flexible but dry. From the 18th to the 21st Dynasty the mum- mies of Memphis are black, and so dry that they break with the least effort. But at Thebes the art attained its highest per- fection. The mummies are yellow and rather shining, the nails of the hands and feet dyed with henna, and they are so flexible that they can be bent without breaking, and yield to the imprint of the nail. After the 26th Dynasty the mum- mies become black and heavy, and do not break, except by aid of an instrument, and the art rapidly disappears. Some mummies have a tanned appearance. (Mariette-Bey, ' Musee de Boulaq,' pp. 35- 43.)— S. B. 2 Diodorus (i. 72) assigns only about thirty to the embalming process ; and from Gen. 1. 3 we learn that 'forty days were fulfilled' for Jacob, as was customary for those who were 1 embalmed.' Chap. XVI.] EMBALMERS. 477 Egyptians and Jews. But there is reason to believe that it comprehended the whole period of the mourning, and that the embalming process only occupied a portion of it ; forty being the number of days expressly stated by the Bible to have been assigned to the latter, and ' three score and ten ' to the entire mourning. The custom of embalming bodies was not confined to the Egyptians : the Jews adopted this process to a certain extent, ' the manner of the Jews ' being to bury 1 the body ' wound in linen cloths with spices.' The embalmers, as I have already observed, were probably members of the medical profession, as well as of the class of priests. Joseph is said to have * commanded the physicians to embalm his father ;' 2 and Pliny states that during this process certain examinations took place, which enabled them to study the disease of which the deceased had died. They appear to have been made in compliance with an order from the govern- ment,3 as he says the kings of Egypt had the bodies opened after death to ascertain the nature of their diseases, by which means alone the remedy for phthisical complaints was discovered. Indeed it is reasonable to suppose that a people so far advanced as were the Egyptians in knowledge of all kinds, and whose medical art was so systematically arranged that they had regulated it by some of the very same laws followed by the most enlightened and skilful nations of the present day, would not have omitted so useful an inquiry, or have failed to avail them- selves of the means which the process adopted for embalming the body placed at their disposal. And nothing can more clearly prove their advancement in the study of human diseases than the fact of their assigning to each his own peculiar branch, under the different heads of oculists, dentists, those who cured diseases in the head, those who confined themselves to intestinal complaints, and those who attended to secret and internal maladies.4 Their knowledge of drugs, and of their effects, is sufficiently shown by the preservation of the mummies, and the manner in which the intestines and other parts have been removed from the interior. And such is the skill evinced in the embalming process, that every medical man of the present day who witnesses the evidence derived from an examination of the 1 John xix. 40. - Gen. 1. 2. 8 Plin. xix. 5. * Herodot. ii. 84. 478 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. mummies willingly acquiesces in the praise due to the ability and experience of the Egyptian embalmers. Certain regulations respecting the bodies of persons found dead were wisely established in Egypt, which, by rendering the district or town in the immediate vicinity responsible in some degree for the accident, by fining it to the full cost of the most expensive funeral, necessarily induced those in authority to exercise a proper degree of vigilance, and to exert their utmost efforts to save anyone who had fallen into the river, or was otherwise exposed to the danger of his life. From these, too, we may judge of the great responsibility they were under for the body of a person found murdered within their jurisdiction. 6 If a dead body,' says Herodotus, ' was accidentally found, whether of an Egyptian or a stranger, who had been taken by a crocodile, or drowned in the river, the town upon the territory of which it was discovered was obliged to embalm it according to the most costly process, and to bury it in a consecrated tomb. None of the friends or relations were permitted to touch it ; this privilege was accorded to the priests of the Nile alone, who interred it with their own hands, as if it had been something more than the corpse of a human being.' 1 Another reason assigned for their embalming the dead, in- dependent of those already mentioned, has been supposed to be a belief that the soul remained in the body as long as the latter was preserved, and was thus prevented from passing to any other.2 But this is directly opposed to the known opinion of the Egyptians, which, as we see even from the sculptures, was that the soul left the body at the moment of death ; and, according to Herodotus, they asserted that, having quitted the body, it returned again after a certain period. Cassian gives another reason, still more at variance with truth, — 'that they were unable to bury their dead during the inundation ;' which is at once disproved by the fact of the tombs being accessible at all seasons of the year. Herodotus 3 observes that ' they forbade the body to be burnt, because they looked upon fire as a savage beast, devouring all that it can lay hold of, and dying itself after it is satiated, together with the object of its prey ; and that being forbidden by their laws to suffer any animal to live upon a dead body, they embalmed it as a pro- 1 Herodot. ii. 90. 2 Servius ad Virg. iEn. iii. v. 68. * Herodot. iii. 16. Chap. XVL] BANDAGES— DISPOSAL OF INTESTINES. 479 tection against worms/ This at least has more appearance of probability ; and in the same fear of engendering these origi- nated the prohibition against enveloping a corpse in woollen cloths. That the bandages were of linen has already been shown;1 and the prejudice in favour of that quality of stuff extended even to the wrappers used for enveloping the small wooden figures deposited in the tombs, which were seldom if ever allowed to be of cotton, and apparently in no instance of woollen texture. Herodotus fails to inform us what became of the intestines after they had been removed from the body of those embalmed according to the first process ;2 but the discoveries made in the tombs clear up this important point, and enable us to correct the improbable account given by Porphyry.3 The latter writer says, * When the bodies of persons of distinction were embalmed, they took out the intestines and put them into a vessel, over which (after some other rites had been performed for the dead) one of the embalmers pronounced an invocation to the sun in behalf of the deceased. The formula, according to Euphantus, who translated it from the original into Greek, was as follows : — " 0 thou sun, our sovereign lord ! and all ye deities who have given life to man ! receive me, and grant me an abode with the eternal gods. During the whole course of my life I have scrupulously worshipped the gods my fathers taught me to adore ; I have ever honoured my parents, who begat this body ; I have killed no one ; I have not defrauded any, nor have I done an injury to any man ; and if I have committed any other fault during my life, either in eating or drinking, it has not been done for myself, but for these things." So saying, the embalmer pointed to the vessel containing the intestines, which was thrown 1 The bandages were wetted and placed on the body with the greatest care, so as to follow the general contour of the form, and the inequalities were carefully padded with pledgets. They were chiefly com- posed of old linen, from three to four inches wide and several yards long. Under the Romans the limbs were bandaged separately. Large shrouds of linen dyed salmon-colour by the Carthamus tinctorius were placed over the body. Occasionally the name of the person bandaged is found written with marking ink on the inner bandages, in order to indicate the body, as if several were in hand at once and might otherwise be mistaken. Leather straps over the shoulders, crossing in front and stamped at the end with a figure of the god Khem or Amsi, appear on certain mummies of the 20th and 30th Dynasties. — S. B. 2 The intestines were returned into the stomach bandaged, or laid between the legs and covered by the bandages of the mummy ; but at the time of the 18th Dynasty and subsequently they were em- balmed, wrapped up in bandages in vases of alabaster or calcareous stone, wood, or porcelain, and the viscera distributed amongst them. In some instances vases of solid wood were made, and the viscera otherwise distributed. — S. B. 3 Porphyry, de Abstin. iv. 10. 480 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. into the river ; the rest of the body, when properly cleansed, being embalmed.' Plutarch 1 gives a similar account of their ' throwing the intestines into the river,' as the cause of all the faults committed by man, ' the rest of the body when cleansed being embalmed ;' which is evidently borrowed from the same authority as that of Porphyry,2 and given in the same words. But the positive evidence of the tombs, as well as our acquaintance with the religious feelings of the Egyptians, sufficiently prove this to be one of the many idle tales by which the Greeks have shown their ignorance of that people ; and no one who considers the respect with which they looked upon the Nile, the care they took to remove all impurities which might affect their health, and the superstitious prejudice they felt towards everything appertaining to the human body, could for an instant suppose that they would on any consideration be induced to pollute the stream or insult the dead by a similar custom. I have frequently had occasion to remark how erroneous were the opinions of the Greeks respecting Egypt and the Egyptians ; and not only have we to censure them for failing to give much interesting information which they might have acquired after their intercourse with the country became unrestrained, but to regret that the greater part of what they have given us is deficient and inaccurate. To such an extent is this inaccuracy carried, that little they tell us can be received with confidence, unless in some way confirmed by the monuments or other plausible evidence ; and many of those things which for a time were considered unquestionably true have proved incorrect, — as the description of Anubis with a dog's head, Amen with that of a ram, and many observations relating to the customs of the Egyptians. Hence we often find ourselves obliged to undo what has been already done, which is a far more difficult task than merely to ascertain what has hitherto been untouched, and undisguised by the intervention of a coloured medium. It might appear incredible that errors could have been made on the most common subjects, on things relating to positive customs which daily occurred before the eyes of those who sought to inquire into them, and are described by Greek writers who 1 Plut. Sept. Sap. Conviv., and Orat. ii. 2 Plutarch lived in the time of Trajan, de Esu. Cars. Porphyry died in the reign of Diocletian. Chap. XVI.] EMBALMING OF INTESTINES. 481 visited the country. But when we observe the ignorance of Europeans respecting the customs of modern Egypt — of Euro- peans who are a people much less averse to inquire into the manners of other countries, much more exposed to the criticism of their compatriots in giving false information than the ancient Greeks, and to whom the modern inhabitants do not oppose the same impediments in examining their habits as did the ancient Egyptians ; — when we recollect the great facilities they enjoy of becoming acquainted with the language and manners, and still find that Italians, French, and others, who have resided ten, twenty, or more years in Egypt, with a perfect knowledge of Arabic, and enjoying opportunities for constant intercourse with the people, are frequently, I may say generally, ignorant of their most ordinary customs, and are often prevented by preconceived notions from forming a right judgment of their habits and opinions; — when, I say, we bear this in mind, and witness so much ignorance in Europeans at the present day, we can readily account for the misconceptions of the Greeks respecting the customs or opinions of the ancient Egyptians. As far as the invocation of the sun, and the confession pro- nounced by the priest (rather than the embalmer) on the part of the deceased, the account of Porphyry partakes of the character of truth ; though the time when this was done should rather be referred to the ceremony on the sacred lake, or to that of depositing the body in the tomb. The confession, indeed, is an imperfect portion of that recorded in the sculptures, which has been already mentioned. As soon as the intestines, had been removed from the body, they were properly cleansed, and embalmed in spices and various substances, and deposited in four vases. These were afterwards placed in the tomb with the coffin, and were supposed to belong to the four genii of Amenti, whose heads and names they bore. Each contained a separate portion, which, as I have before observed, was appropriated to its particular deity. The vase with a cover representing the human head of Amset held the stomach and large intestines ; that with the Cynocephalus head x>f Hapi contained the small intestines ; in that belonging to the jackal-headed Tuautmutf were the lungs and heart ; and for the vase of the hawk-headed Qabhsenuf were reserved the gall-bladder and the liver. They differed in size and the materials of which they were made. The most costly were of VOL. III. 2 I 482 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. Oriental alabaster, from ten to twenty inches high, and about one-third of that in diameter, each having its inscription, with the name of the particular deity whose head it bore. Others were of common limestone, and even of wood ; but these last were generally solid, or contained nothing, being merely em- blematic, and intended only for those whose intestines were returned into the body. They were generally surmounted by the heads above mentioned, but they sometimes had human heads ; and it is to these last more particularly that the name of Canopi has been applied, from their resemblance to certain vases made by the Komans to imitate the Egyptian taste. I need scarcely add that this is a misnomer, and that the applica- tion of the word Canopus to any Egyptian vase is equally inadmissible. Such was the mode of preserving the internal parts of the mummies embalmed according to the most expensive process. And so careful were the Egyptians to show proper respect to all that belonged to the human body, that even the saw-dust of the floor where they cleansed it was taken and tied up in small linen bags, which, to the number of twenty or thirty, were deposited in vases and buried near the tomb. In those instances where the intestines, after being properly cleansed and embalmed, were returned into the body by the aperture in the side, images of the four genii of Amenti, made of wax, were put in with them, as the guardians of the portions particularly subject to their influence ; sometimes, in lieu of them, a plate of lead, or other material, bearing upon it a representation of these four figures. Over the incision the mysterious eye of Shu or Horus was placed, whether the intestines were returned or deposited in the vases. I have stated that many different gradations existed in the three classes of mummies, — if, indeed, they can be limited to that number. They may be arranged under two general heads : 1 — I. Those with the ventral incision. II. Those without any incision. I. Of the mummies with the incision are — 1. Those preserved by balsamic matter. 2. Those preserved by natron. 1. Those dried by balsamic and astringent substances are 1 Pettigrew, p. 70, from whom these observations are taken. He cites Rouyer's 'Notice sur les Embaumements des Anciens Egyptiens.' Chap. XVI.] DIFFERENT SORTS OF MUMMIES. 483 either filled with a mixture of resin and aroniatics, or with asphaltum 1 and pure bitumen. When filled with resinous matter they are of an olive colour ; the skin dry, flexible, and as if tanned, retracted and adherent to the bones. The features are preserved, and appear as during life. The belly and chest are filled with resins, partly soluble in spirits of wine. These substances have no particular odour by which they can be recognised, but thrown upon hot coals a thick smoke is produced, giving out a strong aromatic smell. Mummies of this kind are dry, light, and easily broken, with the teeth, hair of the head, and eyebrows well preserved. Some of them are gilt on the surface of the body; others only on the face, or the sexual parts, or on the head and feet. The mummies filled with bitumen are black ; the skin hard and shining, and as if coloured with varnish ; the features per- fect ; the belly, chest, and head filled with resin, black, and hard, and having a little odour. Upon being examined, they are found to yield the same results as the " Jews' pitch" met with in commerce. These mummies are dry, heavy, shapeless, and brittle. They have, however, been prepared with great care, and are very little susceptible of decomposition from exposure to the air. 2. The mummies with ventral incisions prepared by natron are likewise filled with resinous substances, and also asphaltum. The skin is hard and elastic : it resembles parchment, and does not adhere to the bones. The resins and bitumen injected into these mummies are little friable, and give out no odour. The countenance of the body is little altered, but the hair is badly preserved : what remains usually falls off upon being touched. These mummies are very numerous, and if exposed to the air they become covered with an efflorescence of sulphate of soda. They readily absorb humidity from the atmosphere. Such are the characteristic marks of the first quality of mummies, according to the mode of embalming the body. They may also be distinguished by other peculiarities ; as, 1. Mummies of which the intestines were deposited in vases. 2. Those of which the intestines were returned into the body. The former included all mummies embalmed according to 1 ' When the asphaltum incorporates when it does not incorporate with the flesh , with the body, it becomes brown and it retains its shining black colour.' greasv, and easily crumbles into powder ; 2 i 2 484 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. the most expensive process (for though some of an inferior quality are found with the incision in the side, none of the first quality were embalmed without the removal of the intestines) ; and the body, having been prepared with the proper spices and drugs, was enveloped in linen bandages, sometimes measuring 1000 yards in length.1 It was then enclosed in a cartonage fitting closely to the mummied body, which was richly painted, and covered in front with a network of beads and bugles arranged in a tasteful form, the face being laid over with thick gold leaf, and the eyes made of enamel. The three or four cases which successively covered the cartonage were ornamented in like manner with painting and gilding ; and the whole was enclosed in a sarcophagus of wood or stone, profusely charged with painting or sculpture. These cases, as well as the cartonage, varied in style and richness, according to the expense incurred by the friends of the deceased. The bodies thus embalmed were generally of priests of various grades. Sometimes the skin itself was covered with gold leaf ; sometimes the whole body, the face, or the eyelids ; sometimes the nails alone. In many instances the body, or the cartonage, was beautified in an expensive manner, and the outer cases were little ornamented ; but some preferred the external show of rich cases or sarcophagi. Those of which the intestines were returned into the body, with the wax figures of the four genii, were placed in cases less richly ornamented ; and some of these were, as already stated, of the secondary class of mummies. II. Those without the ventral incision were also of two kinds.2 1. Salted, and filled with bituminous matter less pure than the others. 2. Simply salted. 1. The former mummies are not recognisable ; all the cavities are filled, and the surface of the body is covered with thin mineral pitch. It penetrates the body, and forms with it one undistinguishable mass. These mummies, Kouyer conceives, were submerged in vessels containing the pitch in a liquid state. They are the most numerous of all kinds : they are black, dry, heavy, and of disagreeable odour, and very difficult to break. Neither the eyebrows nor hair are preserved, and there is no gilding upon them. The bituminous matter is fatty to the touch, less black and brittle than the asphaltum, and yields a very 1 Pettigrew, p. 89. 2 Ibid. p. 71. Chap. XVI.] DIFFERENT SOETS OF MUMMIES. 485 strong odour. It dissolves imperfectly in alcohol, and when thrown upon hot coals emits a thick smoke and disagreeable smell. When distilled, it gives an abundant oil, fat, and of a brown colour and fetid odour. Exposed to the air, these mummies soon change, attract humidity, and become covered with an efflorescence of saline substances. 2. The mummies simply salted and dried are generally worse preserved than those filled with resins and bitumen. Their skin is dry, white, elastic, light, yielding no odour, and easily broken, and masses of adipocere are frequently found in them. The features are destroyed ; the hair is entirely removed ; the bones are detached from their connections with the slightest effort, and they are white, like those of a skeleton. The cloth enveloping them falls to pieces upon being touched. These mummies are generally found in particular caves which contain great quantities of saline matters, principally the sulphate of soda. Of the latter also several subdivisions may be made, according to the manner in which the bodies were deposited in the tombs ; and some are so loosely put up in bad cloths and rags, as barely to be separated from the earth or stones in which they have been buried. Some are more carefully enveloped in bandages, and arranged one over the other without cases in the same common tomb, often to the number of several hundred ; a visit to one of which has been well described by Belzoni.1 Some have certain peculiarities in the mode of their preserva- tion. In many the skulls are filled with earthy matter in lieu of bitumen ; and some mummies have been prepared with wax and tannin, a remarkable instance of which occurs in that opened by Dr. Granville, for a full account of which I refer the reader to his work descriptive of the body and its mode of preservation. I cannot, however, omit to mention one of many wonderful proofs of the skill of the embalmers. By means of a corrosive liquid they had removed the internal tegument of the skull of the mummy in his possession, and still contrived to preserve the thin membrane below, though the heat of the embalming matter afterwards poured into the cavity had perforated the suture and scorched the scalp.2 It has been a general and a just remark that few mummies 1 Pettigrew, p. 39. the same property of hardness, to judge 2 The thickness of the Egyptian skull is from the blows they bear from the Turks, observable in the mummies ; and those of and in their combats among themselves, the modern Egyptians fortunately possess — G. W. 486 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. of children have been discovered — a singular fact, not easily accounted for, since the custom of embalming those even of the earliest age was practised in Egypt.1 Greek mummies usually differed from those of the Egyptians in the manner of disposing the bandages of the arms and legs. The former had the arms placed at the sides, and bound separately ; but the arms as well as the legs and even the fingers of the ^Egyptians were generally enclosed in one common envelope, without any separation in the bandages. In these last the arms were extended along the side, the palms inwards and resting on the thighs, or brought forwards over the groin, sometimes even across the breast ; and occasionally one arm in the former, the other in the latter position. The legs were close together, and the head erect. These different modes of arranging the limbs were common to both sexes, and to all ages ; though we occasionally meet with some slight deviations from this mode of placing the hands. But few Egyptians are found with the limbs bandaged separately, as those of Greek mummies, though instances may occur of the latter having the arms enveloped with the body. Sometimes the nails and the whole hands and feet were stained with the red dye of the henneh ; 2 and some mummies have been found with the face covered by a mask of cloth fitting closely to it, and overlaid with a coating of com- position,3 so painted as to resemble the deceased, and to have the appearance of flesh. But these are of rare occurrence, and I am unable to state if they are of an early Egyptian or Greek epoch. This last is most probable ; especially as we find that the mummies which present the portrait of the deceased, painted on wood and placed over the face, are always of Greek time. Some remarkable instances of these are preserved in the collections of Europe ; and one upon a body sent to England by Salt, which has been figured by Pettigrew, is now in the British Museum. On the breast was frequently placed a scarabaeus, in immediate contact with the flesh. These scarabaei,4 when of stone, had their extended wings made of lead or silver ; and when of blue pottery, the wings were of the same material. On 1 Pettigrew, p. 73. imitation of nature. They have then a 2 Lawsonia spinosa et inemis, Linn. ring for suspending them, being probably 3 I have seen a very good specimen in intended for ornamental purposes, as neck- the possession of Dr. Hogg. laces and the like. Sometimes the head 4 The two most usual forms of scarabaei and thorax are replaced by a human face, found in tombs are with the lower part as and occasionally the body, or elytra, have a flat level surface for bearing an inscrip- the form of a royal cap. tion, or with the legs inserted there in Chap. XVI.] MUMMY-CASES. 487 the cartonage and case, in a corresponding situation above, the same emblem was also placed, to indicate the protecting influence of the deity ; 1 and in this last position it sometimes ^ stood in the centre of a boat, with the goddesses Isis and Nephthys on either side in an attitude A stone ^rabffiUIn^ with tbe su" of prayer.2 On the outer No- 636- cases the same place was occupied by a similar winged scarabaeus or the winged globe, or a hawk, or a ram-headed vulture or hawk, or both these last, or the same bird with the head of a woman, or by the goddess Nut ; and sometimes a disk was supported by the beetle, having within it a hawk and the name of Ea. The subjects represented on the mummy-cases differed ac- cording to the rank of the persons, the expense incurred in their decoration, and other circumstances ; and such was their variety that few resembled each other in every particular. I shall, therefore, in describing them, confine my remarks to their general character, and to the most common representations figured upon them. In the first quality of mummies the innermost covering of the body, after it had been swathed in the necessary quantity of bandages, was the cartonage. This was a pasteboard case fitting exactly to its shape, the precise measure having been carefully taken, so that it might correspond to the body it was intended to cover, and to which it was probably adjusted by proper manipula- tion while still damp. It was then taken off again, and made to retain that shape till dry, when it was again applied to the bandaged body, and sewed up at the back. After this it was painted and ornamented with figures and numerous subjects : the face was made to imitate that of the deceased, and frequently gilded ; the eyes were inlaid ; and the hair of females was made to represent the natural plaits as worn by Egyptian women. The subjects painted upon the cartonage were the four genii of Amenti,3 and various emblems belonging to deities connected 1 The scarabaeus with extended wings the network of mummies. (See Woodroffe, was placed on the breast of mummies, and 'The Scarabaeus Sacer,' 4to, 1876.) — S. B. represented the af, fly, or ap, the same idea. 2 Pettigrew, pi. viii. figs. 1, 2, 3. The pectoral plates of various materials 3 [Hades was called in Egyptian Ament placed on mummies had the ordinary sea- or Amenti, over which Osiris presided as rabaeus, with the chapters relating to judge of the dead. Plutarch (de Isid. s. the heart, c. 30-64, of the Ritual. The 29) supposes it to mean ' the receiver and porcelain flying scarabaei were worked into giver.' It corresponded, like Erebus, to 488 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. with the dead. On the breast was placed the figure of Nut, with expanded wings, protecting the deceased ; sacred arks, boats, and other things were arranged in different compartments ; and Osiris,1 Isis, Nephthys, Anubis, Socharis, and other deities, were frequently introduced. In some instances Isis was represented throwing her arms round the feet of the mummy, with this appropriate legend, * I embrace thy feet ' — at once explanatory of, and explained by, the action of the goddess. A long line of hieroglyphics, extending down the front, usually contained the name and quality of the deceased, and the offerings presented for him to the gods ; and transverse bands frequently repeated the former, with similar donations to other deities. But as the arrangement and character of these sacred ornaments vary in nearly all the specimens of mummies, it would be tedious to in- troduce more than a general notion of their character. Even the cartonage and different cases of the same mummy differ in all except the name and description of the deceased ; and the figure of Nut is sometimes replaced by a winged sun or a scarabseus. This goddess, however, always occurs in some part of the coffin, and often with outspread arms at the bottom of the inner case, where she appears to receive the body into her embrace, as the protectress of the dead. The face of the cartonage was often covered with thick gold leaf, and richly adorned, the eyes inlaid with brilliant enamel, the hair imitated with great care, and adorned with gold ; and the same care was extended to the three cases which successively covered it, though each differed from the next, the innermost being the most ornamented. Kich necklaces were placed or represented on the neck of each, for all were made in the form of the deceased ; and a network of coloured beads was frequently spread over the breast, and even the whole body, worked in rich and elegant devices. The outer case was either of wood or stone. When of wood, it the West, called Ement by the Egyptians, this was because they happened to be near the place of darkness, where the sun set. the river, and the Libyan hills were too The western hills being especially appro- distant ; and the principal places of burial, priated to tombs in all the places where as at Thebes and Memphis, were on the W. pyramids were built will account for these — G. W.] monuments being on that side of the Nile. 1 Osiris is sometimes introduced under The abode of the dead was supposed to be the form of a vase or a peculiar emblem the West, the land of darkness where the surmounted by two long feathers, and sun ended his course ; and the analogy was bound with a fillet. It is raised on a shaft, kept up by the names Ement, the 4 west,' and over it are the names and titles of and Amenti, the 'lower regions of Hades.' the god. Socharis was another form and Some tombs were in the Eastern hills, but character of Osiris. Chap. XYL] SARCOPHAGI. 489 had a flat or a circular summit, sometimes with a short square pillar rising at each angle. The whole was richly painted, and it frequently had a door represented near one of the corners. At one end was the figure of Isis, at the other Nephthys ; and the top was painted with bands or fancy devices. In others the lid repre- sented the curving top of the ordinary Egyptian canopy. The stone cases, usually called sarcophagi, were of oblong shape, having flat straight sides like a box, with a curved or pointed lid. Sometimes the figure of the deceased was represented upon the latter in relief,1 and some were in the form of a king's name or royal oval. Others were made in the shape of the mummied body, whether of basalt, granite, slate, or limestone, specimens of which are met with in the British Museum and other collections. I have even seen one of this form, found during my stay at Thebes, of a red earthenware, very similar to our tiles, made in two pieces sewn together, small holes having been made in the clay before it was burnt for this purpose. The upper part was broken off, but it was evidently a continuation of the human figure in the form of the mummy it contained. [Under the Old Empire the sarcophagus was rectangular, with a vaulted lid of red granite, basalt, or calcareous stone, with few or no inscriptions. A wooden coffin of several pieces of wood pegged together, having a human face, is found inside. At the time of the 11th Dynasty the wooden coffins are of the same kind, but 1 As that of the queen of Amasis at the granite, on the sarcophagus of one of the British Museum. I have seen a figure kings at Thebes, raised nine inches in relief, and cut in 490 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. made of the solid trunk of a tree ; others are rectangular, and with a flat cover, but painted with floral ornaments, and having painted inside the wardrobe of the deceased. These coffins dis- appear under the 12th and 13th Dynasties, but fine coffins of the kings are still in vogue. Under the 18th Dynasty to the 21st, at Memphis, granite sarcophagi in the shape of mummies were in use, slightly decorated with sculptures of Nut and crossing bands of hieroglyphs. At Thebes the coffins were of wood, painted with the subjects of sepulchral deities and the four genii of the dead, the mask of the face red or gilded, a vulture on the breast, and inscriptions in one vertical and several crossing bands. The yellow-coloured coffins with mystical scenes, with profusion of ornaments and vignettes and pretty painted interiors, appear at the time of the 21st Dynasty. From the 22nd to the 26th Dynasty the coffins are black with red faces, and others white with figures in colours. Under the 25th there are three coffins or envelopes, the coffins plain with white back-ground or pictured with green hiero- glyphs, the interior ones with red or gilded faces ; at Memphis, at the time of the 26th Dynasty, granite sarco- phagi, rectangular, or with vaulted lids with face. Under the Greeks and Eomans the coffins found at Thebes are of thin wood, and covered with paintings and texts; some with vaulted cover and flat boards, instead of the chests in which the dead were laid, and often with zodiacs inside the lid ; while at Memphis the stone sarcophagi still continue. As the Eoman Empire continued, the coffins became worse in their form and Sepulchral figure No. 638. Side view of same. No. 639. Chap. XVI.] OBJECTS PLACED WITH THE DEAD. 491 decoration, and the hieroglyphs with which they are covered mere senseless scrawls. — S. B.1] It is unnecessary to examine in detail all the various sub- stances used in embalming, as they have been already indicated by Pettigrew. With regard to the question when the custom of embalming the body ceased in Egypt, it may be observed that some are of opinion that it ceased at an early time, when Egypt became a Koman province. But this has been fully disproved by modern discoveries ; and it not only appears that the early Christians embalmed their dead, but according to ' St. Augustine mummies were made in his time, at the beginning of the fifth century.' The custom may not have been universal at that period, and it is more probable that it gradually fell into disuse than that it was suddenly abandoned from any accidental cause connected with change of custom, or from religious scruple. The disposition of various objects placed with the dead varied in different tombs according to the rank of the person, the choice of the friends of the deceased, or other circumstances, as their number and quality depended on the expense incurred in the funeral. For, besides the richly decorated coffins, many vases, images of the dead, papyri, jewels, and other ornaments were de- posited in the tomb ; and tablets of iNo' G40' stone or wood were placed near the sarcophagus, engraved or painted with funeral subjects and legends relating to the deceased. These last resembled in form the ordinary Egyptian shield, being squared at the base, and rounded at the summit ; and it is probable, as already observed, that their form originated in the military custom of making the shield a monument in honour of a deceased soldier. Many of the objects buried in the Mariette-Bey, ' Monuments du Musee de Bouiaq,' 1869, p. 46. Sepulchral figure. 492 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. tomb depended, as I have already observed, on the profession or occupation of the individual. A priest had the insignia of his office ; as the scribe his inkstand or palette ; the high priest the censer ; the hieraphoros a small model of a sacred shrine, or a figure bearing an image or emblem of a deity ; and others according to their grade. In the sol- dier's tomb were deposited his arms ; in the mariner's a boat ; and the pe- culiar occupation of each artisan was pointed out by some implement em- ployed in his trade. The four vases, each with the head of one of the genii of Amenti, have been already mentioned. There were also others of smaller size, of alabaster, hard stone, glass, porcelain, bronze, and other materials, many of which were of exquisite workmanship ; but these were confined to the sepul- chres of the rich, as were jewellery and other expensive ornaments. Papyri were likewise confined to persons of a certain degree of wealth ; but small figures of the deceased, of wood or vitrified earthenware, were common to all classes, except the poorest of the community. These figures are too well known to need a detailed description. They usually present a hiero- glyphic inscription, either in a vertical line down the centre, or in horizontal bands round the body, containing the name and quality of the deceased, with the customary presentation of offerings for his soul to Osiris, and a funeral formula very similar to many on the scarabaei. In the hands of these figures are a hoe and a bag of seed. Their arms are crossed in imitation of certain representations of Osiris, whose name and form I have before shown the dead assumed ; and their beard indicates the return of the human soul, which once animated that body, to the deity from whom it emanated. [In the Kitual of the Dead these figures were called ushebtiu, or ' respondents,' and were supposed to answer the call for help or assistance, and to be labourers to transport the sand of the West Sepulchral vase of pottery in shape of Tuautmutf. No. 641. Chap. XVI.] SEPULCHEAL FIGUEES. 493 to the East, to work the fields and water the furrows. They are generally, but not always, of the type represented in woodcuts 638-640, and of different materials, having been made of dark stones, alabaster, granite, basalt, wood (chiefly sycamore, but some- times ebony or acacia), and very rarely of metal, some of copper having been discovered ; but they are most abundant in porcelain or glazed ware of dark or light blue, white, and other colours. A few of late age, used for the poorer classes, are of crude clay with painted inscriptions. Their first appearance is in the middle of the 18th Dynasty, in the reign of Amenophis III., and those in stone of that monarch have a different formula. One rare ex- ample 1 has the text of the 5th chapter of the Kitual, the rubric of which states it to be the chapter of ' Avoiding ' or ' How not to do work in Hades,' showing the object of these small figures was to enable the deceased to avoid the agricultural labour or other toils of the future state. Many of these figures commence with the phrase, ' Illuminate,' or ' whiten, the Osiris ' or deceased, and his name is usually inserted on the figure ; but some few have blank spaces, as if prepared ready for use. The figures in stone and wood generally have no square pedestal at the foot, and often have the human-headed hawk, emblem of the soul, on the breast, a subject taken from the 89th chapter of the Eitual, referring to the visit of the soul to the body in Hades. The age of the porcelain figures can be determined from their fabric, those of the oldest period, the 18th and 19th Dynasties, having all their details and inscriptions traced in dark outline, whilst those of the 26th Dynasty are stamped incuse as if made from moulds. It is uncertain if they were employed later than the 26th Dynasty, and none can be identified to bear criteria of later age. They were made in great numbers, and either laid on the floors of the tombs or else placed in wooden boxes, which had appro- priate representations of sepulchral deities, inscriptions, formulas, and chapters of the Kitual painted on them. Great numbers have been found in royal tombs. — S. B.] I do not enter into a minute description of all the modes of arranging the objects in the tombs, the endless variety of Egyp- tian mummies, or the subjects of their painted cases. The sub- ject, even if it were sufficiently interesting to the reader, would 1 This figure of porcelain, of the time of the 20th Dynasty, belongs to the Rev. H. S. Brooks, of Chelmsford. 494 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. [Chap. XVI. lead to an inquiry beyond the scope of the present work. And now, having accompanied the Egyptians to the tomb, I take my leave of them with this wish, — * Sedibus ut saltern placidis in morte quiescant.' No. 642. Sepulchral vases in shape of Amset, Hapi, and Qabhsenur. ( 495 ) INDEX. The word (il.) signifies that the subject is illustrated by a woodcut or plate, as well as described in the text. A, Aahenru, Aahlu, or Elysium, creation of, iii. 161, 458. Ablutions, of priests, i. 181. , frequency of, ii. 331. Aboo8imbel, temple built by Ramese3 the Great at, i. 50. , Greek inscription at, i. 105. , seat of the worship of Athor at, iii. 116. Absinthe, cultivation of, ii. 43. Abstinence of priests, i. 181. Abydus, imitation of an arch at 07.), ii. 300. Acacia tree, represented in tombs, ii. 413. , cultivation of the, ii. 414. wood, ii. 416, 417. , uses of the wood, ii. 195. Acanthus, a sacred tree, iii. 349. Accumulation of alluvial deposit of the Nile, i. 8. Axex, a fabulous creature (il.), iii. 312. Achlys, a primaeval deity, ii. 479. Achoris, history of his reign, i. 138. Acmon, a deity, ii. 479. Acrobatic feats (il.), ii. 53, 54. Actisanes, history of his reign, i. 72. Acusilaus, his system of a Trinity, ii. 487. Adonis, adoration of, iii. 53. Adoration, attitudes of (il), iii. 425. Africa, vegetable products of, ii. 413. , nature of the tribute from the in- terior of, ii. 416. Africanus, Egyptian dynasties according to, i. 17-26. Agathodxmon, confounded with Chnou- mis, iii. 4. Agriculture, encouraged by the kings, i. 32. , methods of, i. 334. , operations of (il), i. 372 ; ii. 389. , progress of, ii. 362-364. AM, history and myths of, iii. 132, 133. , the child of Athor, iii. 176. , or Ahi-oer, an inferior deity (il), iii. 238, 240. Aiemhotep, or ^Esculapius, history of iii. 204, 205. AMENOPHIS. Akori, member of a late triad ril), ii. 514. Alabaster, beaker of (il), ii. 42. , pillows for the head of (il), i. 143. , shell and spoon of (il), ii. 46. , various kinds of vases (il). ii. 8, 11, 12. vases, for unguents, iii. 444. Aldbastron, or Psinaula, ruins of the city 07.), i. 350. , Egyptian villa, from the sculptures at (il), i. 369. Alexander, arrival of, in Egypt, i. 142. Alexandria, situation of the city of, i. 6, 7. , state of religion at, ii. 495, 510. , temple of Sarapis at, iii. 95. , annual vovage of religious societies to, iii. 396, 397. , plan of (il), iii. 426. Allaga, gold mines at, ii. 238, 239. Allegorical character of forms and figures of the gods, ii. 475. Allegories, divine, ii. 500, 501. Alloys, nature of, ii. 255. Alluvial deposit, increase of, ii. 435, 436. Almond, cultivation of the, ii. 405. Altar for libations at funeral ceremonies (il), iii. 430, 431. Alteration of name of Amenra in the in- scriptions, iii. 9. Amada, building of the temple at, i. 40. Amasis, a general of Apries, elected king, i. 116. , history of his reign, i. 72, 116-129. , laws of, i. 324. Amauri, or Amorites, enemies of Egvpt 07.), i. 259, 260. Amen, temple of, enlarged by Psammati- chus, i. 103, 104. , one of the Theban triad (il). ii. 484, 512, 513. endowing a king with emblems (il.), iii. 353. , dedication of a pylon to (il), iii. 359. Amenophis IL, his treatment of foreign chiefs, i. 307. , purification of {il), iii. 362. Amenophis III., colossi of, ii. 306. , dress of {il), ii. 327. 496 INDEX. AMENOPHIS III. Amenophis III., gradual changes in the land at the site of his temple on the plains, ii. 433, 434. Amenophis IV., or Khuenaten, distributing gifts to courtiers (il.), i. 40. , endeavours to introduce disk -worship, iii. 52. ■ adoring the disk (il.), ib. Amenra, Generator, or God of Gardens, 1. 405. , connection of, with Chnoumis, iii. 2, 4. , history of the worship of (il.), iii. 9- 15. , one of the Theban triad, iii. 10-12. , connection of, with Khem, iii. 26, 28. , figure of (il), iii. 46. Ament, goddess; account of (il.), iii. 214, 215. Amenti, ceremonies of the, iii. 65, 84. , provinces of the four genii of the, in relation to the mummy, iii. 481. Amnion, oracle of, ii. 463, 464. Amosis, king, history of his reign, i. 35-37. Amphorae, for wine (il), i. 385. Am set. a genius of the Lower Regions (il.), iii. 219-222. Amsi, a variant form of Khem, iii. 23. Amt, or Cerberus, account of (il.), iii. 224, 225. Amu, tribe of, i. 1. Amusements, early kinds of, i. 32. Amyrtseus, history of his reign, i. 136. Anaxandrid.es, his derision of animal wor- ship, ii. 469, 470. Androsphinx (il.), iii. 309, 310. Anhar, Anhour, or Onouris, god ; account of (i7.), iii. 236, 237. Ani, goddess ; account of (il.), iii. 231, 232. Animals, introduction of the worship of, i. 18. , rearers of domestic, i. 288-290. , domesticated and tamed, i. 381. — — , vases consisting of parts or whole forms of (il.), ii. 5-7. , forms of, on boxes (il.), ii. 15, 16. , sacrifices of, on the altar (il.), ii. 29. , hunting of (il), ii. 78-92. , for stocking preserves (il), ii. 82, 86. , care and rearing of (il), ii. 443-451. , attention to, when out of health (il), ii. 452, 453. , different, sacrificed in various dis- tricts, ii. 467, 468. , sacred, worship of, ii. 468. , Greek derision of Egyptian worship of, ii. 469. , Latin notions of a similar character, ii. 470. , heads of, applied to figures of the gods, ii. 475-477. , dedicated to certain deities, iii, 50, 51. . sacred, in certain districts of Egypt, but not in others, iii. 85. APOLLO. Animals, sacred, care and veneration of, iii. 242 et seq. , theories and conjectures of the ancients to account for the worship of, iii. 250-257. , partial character of the worship, iii. 256. , classified list of sacred, iii. 258-265. Aniseed, cultivation of, ii. 410. Anointing, customs of (il.), i. 425,426; ii. 346. , ceremonies of (il), iii. 361-363. Anouka, or Anouke, goddess ; one of the triad of Elephantine, and the Cataracts, ii. 484, 513. , in a triad at Sehayl, iii. 28. , the Egyptian Vesta, in connection with Nephthys, iii. 156. , history and mythology of (il), iii. 181-183. Anta, goddess of war (il), iii. 234, 236. Antxus, sacred nature of, iii. 140. , worshipped at Antseopolis, ib. Antelopes, various (il), ii. 90, 94, 95. , notice of various kinds of, iii. 260, 301. Antiphanes, his derision of animal worship, ii. 469. Antiquity, of music, i. 435. , of the arch, ii. 207-301. Anubideum, attached to the Serapeum at Memphis, iii. 157. Anubis, or Anepu, god ; history, myths, and worship of (il), iii. 157-161. , standard of 07.), iii. 369. , in judgment scenes 07.), iii- 467-470. Anucis, goddess ; handle of a mirror in form of the (il), ii. 351. Anysis, history of his reign, i. 88, 89. Ap, goddess of Thebes (il), iii. 210, 212. Apachnas, a Shepherd king, history of, i. 15. Apap, or Great Serpent, battle in heaven with the, iii. 59. Apappus, a Shepherd king, history of, i. 15. Apheru, or Anubis (il), iii. 158. Aphophis, destruction of, by Horus, iii. 135 ; see Apap. , the Evil Being, history and myth of 07.), iii. 153-155. Aphrodite, site and trade of, i. 152. Apis, Psammatichus builds a temple for the, i. 104. , killed and eaten by Ochus, king of Persia, i. 142. , mythology, history, and worship of, in connection with Osiris (il), iii. 86-94. , hieroglyphic names of, iii. 88, 89. , the bull god, name of (il), iii. 306. , bronze figure of (il), i. p. xvi. ; iii. 88. Apollinopolis Parva, site and trade of, i. 152. Apollo, uncertainty of the Egyptian deity equivalent to, iii. 127. INDEX. 497 APBIES. Apries, history of his reign, i. 114-119. Apron, royal (il), ii. 326, 327. Apt, or Apet, goddess worshipped at Ombos (il), iii. 145-147. Arabia, early commerce of, i. 33. , Egyptian intercourse with, i. 150. 151. Arable land, gradual increase of, ii. 433- 436. Arch, antiquity of the (il), ii. 297-301. Archaic vases (il.), ii. 2, 7. Arched rooms (jtt.% i. 357, 360. roof of a tomb (il.), i. 358. stone tomb ' il.). ii. 262. Archer, with suspended whip (il), i. 226. Archers, notices of, i. 1W0. , a body of (il), i. 263. Archery, skill of the Egyptians in, i. 46. Arches, imitation of (il), ii. 3<)0. Architectural improvements by Thothnies III., i. 40. Architecture, early, at Beni-Hassan, i. 32. , religious and domestic, ii. 139. , scope of, ii. 268. , paiuted, ii. 285-288. , art of, ii. 291-293, 297. Area of Egypt, i. 144, 145. Areca, seed of the, ii. 413. , cultivation of the, ii. 414. Argos captured, i. 22. Ark of Chons, i. 60. Armais, designs of, against his brother Seso&tris, i. 69. Armour, coats of, i. 219. Arms, notices of various, i. 187. of the Shasu, i. 250. of the Shaii, i. 253. , various (il), i. 277, 278. Army, constitution of the, i. 187. Aroeris, birth of, iii. 61. , or Elder Horus, history and myths of, iii. 121, 123, 124, 127. Arragonite vases, ii. 11. Arrian, testimony of, respecting the Nile, i. 7. Arrows, method of using and carrying (il), i. 204. , construction of, i. 205. , with flint heads (il), i. 205. , stone and bronze heads of, ii. 259. Arsinoe, site and trade of, i. 153. Artificers, castes of various, i. 158, 283. Artists, style of, and methods employed by (il), ii. 293-296. Arts, Egyptian, excellence of, in the time of Rameses II., i. 44, 45. , encouraged by Amasis, i. 126. , encouraged by Nectanebo, i. 139. , various, history and detailed descrip- tion of, ii. 136-256. , attempted revival of, during the 26th Dynasty, ii. 2U0. Arum, cultivation of the, ii. 409. Asar, a name of Osiris, q. v. VOL. III. AUXILIARIES. Asarhapi, see Sarajris. Ascalon, account of, i. 260. Asclepius, the son of Ptah, iii. 205. Asi, a name of Isis, q. v. Asia, invasion of, by Usertesen, i. 15. , conquests of Neco II. in, i. 110. ' , nature of the tribute from, ii 416. , origin of Egyptians from, i. 2, 3. ! Asmach, or deserters, i. 105. ' Asp, guardian of wine-presses and gardens, iii. 4. ' , sacred to Chnoumis, iii. 5. I , signification of the, ib. , monster with the head of an (il), iii. 310. ' , sacred nature, and attributes of the, j iii. 334-337. ! Ass, use of the (il.), i. 237. ! an emblem of Typho, iii. 144. , account of the, iii. 259, 300, 301. , Asses, abundance of, ii. 101. Asses, a shepherd king, subjugates North- ern Egypt, i. 1 5. Assessors of the dead (il), iii. 223. Assur in Nubia, pyramid at (il), iii. 1. Assyrian stela at Nahr-el-Kelb. i. 67. Assyrians conquered by Tirhakah (il), iii. 401. Ast.t, a deity (il), iii. 153. Astrology, practice of, ii. 465. Astronomical sciences, knowledge of, ii. 316. Asychis, history of his reign, i. 87, 88. , remarkable law of, iii. 433. Atarbechis, a town of Prosopitis, forms of worship at, iii. 109, 117. Aten, or solar disk, worship of (il), iii. 52. Aten-ra, mythology of, iii. 51, 52. Athena, origin and etymology of the name, iii. 41, 42. Athens, Temple of Theseus at, described, ii. 286. Athletic sports, various feats of dexteritv and 07.), ii. 68-74. Athor, goddess, in a triad (il), ii. 514 ; iii. 147. , connection of, with Isis, iii. 94. , Hat-har, or Hathor. history, mvths, and worship of (il), iii. 109, 114-121. , the Venus of Egypt, iii. 1 10. , cow of, at Denderah, iii. 111. , occurrence of, at Edfoo, iii. 132. , signs of the cow of, iii. 305. Athribis, or Crocodilopolis, temple of, iii. 27. Attitudes of adoration (il), iii. 425. Alum, history, worship, and mythology of (il), iii. 178. , in a triad, with Rameses II. (il), iii. 203. Au, or Satem, god; account of (il), iii. 226. Australian type of Egyptians, i. 2. Auxiliaries of Egypt, i. 262. 2 K 498 INDEX. AXl£. Axe, use of the, i. 213, 214. Axes, battle (il), i. 214-216. , construction of, ii. 393, 394. Azotus in Syria, siege of, by Psammnti- chus, i. 106. B. Baal, etymology of the name of, iii. 53. Babylonians overcome the Egyptians under Neco II., i. 113. Bacchis, the bull of Hermonthis so called, iii. 306-308. Bacchus, identified with Osiris by the Greeks, iii. 71, 72. , festivals of the god, iii. 375. Bactrians, rebellion of, i. 73-75. Baggage, carriage of, i. 235. Bags of precious stones (il.), ii. 3. Bai, a snake goddess (il.), iii. 214, 215. Baieth, or snake-headed vulture, iii. 328. Bait, or Baieth, member of a late triad (il.), ii. 513, 514. Bak, or goddess of land (il), iii. 212, 213. Bakhtan, land of, i. 60. Balance, use of the, ii. 246, 247. Baldness rare among the Egyptians, ii. 332. Ball, various games at (il.), ii. 65-67. Balsams, cultivation of, ii. 405. Bdmia, cultivation of, ii. 402, 403. Barbers (il), ii. 357. Barley, reaped (il), ii. 427. wine, occurrence of, i. 397. Barrels, uses of, ii. 204, 205. Barter, curiosities of, ii. 245. Basins, golden (il), i. 425. Basket of tools (il), i. 401. Baskets for grapes (il), i. 382. Bits-relief, art of Sculpture in, ii. 2fi3. 266. Bast, or Bubastis, names and attributes of the goddess, iii. 34. , bronze figures of (il), iii. 35. , figure of (il), iii. 192. , ceremonies in connection with, iii. 376, 377. Bastinado (il), i. 305, 306, 308. Bat, account of the, iii. 258, 270. , figures of the (il), ii. 113. Bath, lady in a (il), ii. 353. ■ , Greek style of using the, ii. ."54. Battle, disposition of the, i. 224. Battle-axes (il), i. 213-216. Battlements on houses and other objects, ii. 3]2. Bay-tree, ii. 413. Beads, glass, inscribed (il), ii. 141, 145. , manufacture and uses of, ii. 148. 149. Bear, notice of the, iii. 258, 271, 272. Beard, false, ii. 333. , form of the, ii. 334. Bears found in the country of the Rut-en- nu, i. 43. Beating (il), i. 305, 306. , practice of self- (il), iii. 423. BOATS. Becos, etymology of the word, i. 107. Bed of a priest, nature of the, i. 185. Bedstead, modern Egyptian (il), i. 420. Beef eaten, ii. 22, 30. Beer, manufacture and use of, i. 395-398. , offerings of, iii. 417. Bees, management of, ii. 415. Beetle, or scarabaeus, emblem of the sun, iii. 15. Beetles, various kinds of, iii. 347. , see Scaiabseus. Behnesa, encroachment of sand at, ii. 436. Beisa, antelope so called, ii. 94. Beitoualli, i. 410. Bellows, use of (il), ii. 312, 313. Beni-Hassan, testimony of the sculptures at, i. 32. , paintings at, ii. 272. , architectural details from the grottoes at (il), ii. 292, 293. , rock-hewn tombs at, iii. 439. Bennu, or Phcenix, a sacred bird, iii. 57. , tufted ; sacred nature of the, iii. 326. , or Bird of Osiris {il), iii. 349, 350. Berenice, site and trade of the city of, i. 152. Bes, god, figured on pillows, i. 419. , playing a trigon (il), i. 469. , head of (il), ii. p. iv. , on a box or spoon (il), ii. 13. , history and myths of (il), iii. 149- 153. , in connection with Horus (il), iii. 150, 152. Bible history, i. 59. Bier, ancient (il), i. 420. Bird traps and nets (il), ii. 103, 104, 109, 110. , method of carrying alive (il.), ii. 106. Birds, large variety of (il), ii. 112-114 ; iii. 312. , f lightening away (il), i. 381. on boxes (il.), ii. 16. Birth of Sesostris, circumstances of the, i. 67, 68. Birthday celebrations, iii. 368. Bithynians, military dress of the, i. 245. Black slaves (il), i. 272 ; ii. 38. Blind harper (il), i. 442. Blindness of Anysis, i. 88. of Sesostris, i. 72. Blood, offerings of, ii. 456. , use of, ii. 27, 31. , use of, in cooking, iii. 409. Blow-pipe, use of the (il), ii. 140, 234, 235. Bnon, a shepherd king, history of, i. 15. Boar, wild, account of the, iii. 259, 298. Boards, writing on, ii. 183. Boat used in fishing (il.), ii. 103, 107, 108. of Atum (il), iii. 178, 179. of Ra, iii. 180. , ceremony of the sacred, iii. 372, 373. Boats, modern, on the Nile (il), ii. 136. INDEX. 499 BOATS. Boat*, builders of, ii. 205. , construction of (il), ii. 205, 206, 208. , various forms and uses of, ii. 207- 209. , size and importance of (il.), ii. 209- 224. for carrying cattle and goods (il.), ii. 213, 215, 216. , sacred, ii. 222, 223. used at funerals (il.), iii. 447. Boatmen in a sliam light (il), ii. 74. , caste of, i 283. Bocchoris, King; history of his reign, i. 51,86,87. Bonomi, Joseph : his description of the gold mines of Eshuranib, ii. 239. Book, the Sacred ; written by King Suphis, i. 18. Boss of a shield (il), i. 199. Botany : various plants and trees of Egypt comprehending the Flora of the country (il), ii. 401-118. Bottles, case of (il.), i. 428. , Chinese (il), ii. 153. , Egyptian, exported, ii. 155. , glass 07 ), ii- 11, 141, 142. , terra-cotta (il), ii. 19. , various forms of, and materials for, ii. 19. Bow and arrow, used by hunters (il), ii. 89. Bow-cases (il.), i. 230. Bowmen, equipments of, i. 207. Bonos, various 07.), i. 202-204. Bowstrings, i. 205. Boxes, various forms and uses of (il), ii. 13-18. , manufacture and uses of various kinds of 07.), ii. 197-201. for holding kohl (il), ii. 318. Bracelets (il), ii. 342, 343. Brands, placed on animals (il), ii. 82, 84. Brass, antiquity of, i. Brazen men, oracle concerning, i. 100. Braziers, caste of, i. 283. Bread, use of wheaten, ii. 41, 42. Brick stamped with a sepulchral seal 07.), iii. 437. Brick-pyramids of Asychis, i. 87. at Memphis, i. 36. Brick wall of Sesostris, i. 71. Bricks, employment of (il), ii. 2D7-301. and brickmakers 07-), i- 312-345. , inscribed, i. 36. Bridges of the Khita (il), i. 256, 257. Bronze, antiquity of, i. 41. , early uses of, ii. 249, 250. , analysis of a chisel, ii. 401. , figure of Apis 07.), iii- 88. figures of Bast (#.), iii. 35. figure of Bes (il), iii. 151. , figures of fish in (il), iii. 341-343. ladles 0'-), ii- 46, 47. needles, ii. 349. CALDRONS. Bronze spoons (il), ii. 45. statuette of Amenra (il), iii. 13. strainers, ii. 48. , uses of, ii. 256. vases, various form? of (il.), ii. 3-10. Bruce' s harpers 07.), i- 435-437. Bubastis, worship of (il), iii. 31-39. , ceremonies at, iii. 376, 377. Bitbastite dynasty, i. 23. Buckler, attendant carrying a (il), i. 421. -, various forms of the (il), i. 201. Buffalo not unknown to Egyptians, iii. 308. Buffoonery, delight in, ii. 76. Buffoons, i. 459. Buildings, numerous, erected by Kameses the Great, i. 50. , excellence of the manner of, ii. 377. Bull, sacred nature and attributes of the, iii. 305-308. Bull-fights (il), ii. 75, 77. Bulla worn by children, ii. 331. Bulioarks, i. 244. Burial of objects of varying value with the dead, ii. 321. , methods of, iii. 221, 222. refused to those who have performed ill actions, iii. 455. Burnt offerings, iii. 410. Burton (J.), table found by, in a tomb at | Thebes (il), iii. 433. Busiris, the reputed burial-place of Osiris, I iii. 85, 86. , nature of the festival of Isis at,, iii. 108. , ceremonies at, iii. 377, 379. Butchers 07.), ii- 26, 27, 32. Buto, oracle of Latona at, i. 85, 100 ; iii. 31-33, 123. , temple of Latona at, ii. 307. , festivals at, iii. 377, 381. Buto, goddess, figure of 07 ), iii 152. , presence of, at a festival (il), ii. 367. , protecting Rameses II. (il), iii. 415. 1 Buto and Meni, souls or spirits of (il), iii. 217 218 Butterflies (il), ii. 107, 115. Byblus, or papyrus, uses of, ii. 121. C. j Cabinet work, early manufacture of, i. 32. , various kinds of, ii. 195. Cabins, ii. 218. Cabiri of Egypt and Phoenicia, iii. 483. Cairo, views of (U.\ i. 339 ; ii. 361. : Cuke of dates (il.), ii. 43. Cakes, various (il), ii. 34, 35. [ , variety of sacrificial, iii. 416. 1 , deposited in tombs, iii. 459. Calasiries, i. 188. , Calathus, ii. 11. i Caldrons for boiling food (il), ii. 35. 2k2 500 INDEX. CALENDAR. Calendar, computation and regulation of the, ii. 368-376; iii. 103-107. Caliya, the Hindoo serpent, iii. 338. Cambtjses, history of his invasion of Egypt, i. 129-131. Camel, occurrence of the, i. 233. ■ , account of the, ii. 101 ; iii. 259, 301, 302. Camp, arrangement of a (il.), i. 266-268. Canaanite invasion of Egypt, i. 15. Canal from Nile to the Gulf of Suez, cut by Eameses the Great, i. 47, 48. . from Nile to Bed Sea, i. 49. , recommenced by Neco II., i. 110. Candidates for priesthood, condition of, i. 175. Canopic vases, ii. 10. , various forms ot (il.), iii. 493. Canopus, situation of, i. 4, 5. , evidence of the tablet of, respecting the calendar, iii. 105. Caper, cultivation of the, ii. 408. Capitals of columns, styles of, ii. 293. Captive monarchs draw the chariot of Sesostris and of Rameses III., i. 71. Captives employed as builders by Sesostris, i. 70. , treatment of, i. 264-266. — — , employment of, i. 271. , secured by handcuffs (il.), i. 338. , brickmakers (il), i. 342, 345. , work of, in the gold mines, ii. 240- 242. Captivity of the Jews in Egypt, i. 35, 36. Car, with attendant (il.), i. 33. , Egyptian, in perspective (il.), i. 239. , Persian 07.), i. 241. Cars used in the army, i. 46. Caracalla, inscribed column at the quarries of, iii. 29. Carchemish, on the Euphrates, expedition of Neco II. to, i. 110, 111. Carians encouraged by Psammatichus, i. 101. , customs of, at Busiris, iii. 109. Caricature, Egyptian talent for, ii. 21. , example of (il), iii. 429, 447. Carpenters, work of (il), ii. 178. , classes of, ii. 194. , woods used by, ii. 195. ' tools (il), i. 401 ; ii. 196, 197. , various work of, ii. 198, 199. Carpet seat, a (il), i. 416. Carpets, ii. 176. Carthamus, varieties of the, ii. 403, 411. Car ts of the Takkari (il), i. 247-249. Cas anets, player with (il), i. 456. Castes, various, i. 156. Castorberry-tree, cultivation of, for its oil- producing properties, ii. 400, 408, 413. Cat, domesticated (il), ii. 107, 108. , figure of a (il), ii. 90. , description of the wild, ii. 98. CHILDREN. Cat, sacred nature and symbolism of the, iii. 51. , notice of the care for and veneration of the sacred animal, iii. 258, 285-290. Cataracts, triad of the, ii. 484, 513. Cattle, ii. 100. , management of (il), ii. 445-449. Caucasian type of the Egyptians, i. 2. Cavalry, i. 190-192. Cedar, uses of the wood, ii. 416. Ceilings, coloured (il), i. 362-364. Cephren, king, erects a pyramid, i. 85. Cerastes, or horned snake, iii. 339. Cercopithecus, a sacred monkey, iii. 258, 269. Cereals, cultivation of, ii. 409. , varieties of, ii. 398. Ceremonials of daily government, i. 164. Ceres, goddess, plays at dice with Rhamp- sinitus, i. 84. , mysteries relating to, iii. 388-395. Chair, like a camp-stool (il.), ii. 59. Chairs, various kinds of (il), i. 408-416. Chaldeans, their proficiency in astrology, ii. 465. , Trinity of the, ii. 488. Chance, games of, ii. 63. Chaplets, common use of, i. 403. , offerings of, iii. 417. Charadrius, or Trochilus, history and attributes of the (il), iii. 326, 327. Charcoal-pan for cooking (il), ii. 35. Chariot, construction of (il), i. 227-234. corps, i. 241. drawn by oxen (il), i. 235. , Egyptian guest driving to an enter- tainment in a (il), i. 424. with Ethiopian princess (il), ii. 202. , exportation of the, i. 150, 236. , formation of the (il), ii. 201-203. , on board a boat (il), ii. 216. , military (il), i. 223. of the Scythians, i. 46. Charioteer of a prince (il), i. 224. Charon, identified with Horus, iii. 458. Chaus, Felis ; notice of the Egyptian animal so called, iii. 259, 293. Chembes, name of, ii. 273. Chemmis, seat of the worship of Khem, iii. 22. , religious games at, iii. 370. Chenosboscion, early royal and other names in the grottoes of, ii. 275. Cheops, history of his reign, i. 84, 85. , his name connected in the cartouches with Chnoumis, iii. 7. Cheper, a form of Ptah (il), iii. 20, 21. Children, costume of, ii. 334. carried in a funeral procession (il), ii. 334. , customs and laws relating to, i. 320, 321. , lock of hair as worn by (il), ii. 325, 326. INDEX. 501 CHILDREN. Children, severe duties of, in the East, i. 49. , thanksgiving for birth of, iii. 422. Chinese bottles (it), ii. 153, 154. Chinese, use of compass by, ii. 228. Chnoumis, or Chnum, one of the triad of Elephantine, &c., ii. 484, 513. , history and worship of (il), iii. 1-9, 152. ■ , in relation to Ptah, iii. 15. , in a triad with Sati and Anouka, iii. 28. Chons, ark of the god, sent to Bakhtan, i. 60. Choristers (il.), i. 442. Chronology of events, i. 28-145. Chrysanthemum, gods crowned with, ii. 412. Chusorus, a Phoenician deity, ii. 488. Cippi, with representations of deities (il.), iii. 150. Circumcision practised by the Colchians and others, i. 66. ■ , practice of, bv the Egyptians, i. 1 83 ; iii. 385, 386. Clay, manufacture of pottery in (il ), ii. 192-194. Cleanliness, love of, ii. 331. Clematis produced in Egypt, ii. 412. Cleopatra, considerations relating to her death by the bite of the asp, iii. 336, 337. Clepsydra, offering of a (il.), iii. 421. Closets of mummies, witli figures of gods, iii. 444. Cloth, method of weaving, ii. 170. , manufacture of (il.), ii. 173. , mummy, ii. 161-163. , piece of, with blue border (il.), ii. 152. Clover, cultivation of, ii. 398, 426. Clubs (il), i. 218. Coast line of Egypt, i. 7. Cock, sacrifice of the, iii. 319, 320. Coffin -makers, ii. 205. Coins, early, ii. 245, 246. Colchians, origin and customs of, i. 66. Colchytes, or reader at funerals (il.), iii. 449. Coleseed, cultivation of, ii. 398. Colossal statues, method of moving, ii. 306. Colossi, or vocal statues, of Thebes (il), ii. 1. Colossus, completing and polishing a (il.), ii. 311. Colours of cloth, ii. 163. of ceilings (il), i. 362-364. Column overthrown by a careless guest, incident of, ii. 20, 21. Columns of the labyrinth, i. 63, 64. Comb for flax making (il.), ii. 174. Commerce, early, with Arabia, i. 33. , early progress of, ii. 229-232. Compass, invention of the, ii. 228. Composition of painting and sculpture, ii. 264, 265. Combs (il), ii. 347. Concerts, see Music. CROPS. Cones, inscribed ; doubtful use of, iii. 437. Confectioners (il), ii. 34. Conjurers, or thimblerig (il), ii. 70. Conquests of Seti I., i. 43, 44. , extent of the Egyptian, i. 260. Conventional art of Egypt, ii. 263, 264, 271. Conversation, topics of, ii. 21. , charms of, ii. 22. Convolvulus from the sculptures (il), iii. 418. Cookery (il), ii. 31, 32. Cooks, duties of, ii. 22. C>pper, uses of, ii. 232, 247. Coptic Calendar, notes on the, iii. 105. Coptos, site and trade of, i. 152. , seat of worship of Isis, iii. 113, 116. Coriander, cultivation of, ii. 398. Corn, measuring and registering (il.), i. 308. , vitality of seeds, i. 471. , varieties of, for bread, ii. 42. , harvesting and thrashing (il), ii. 418- 428. Coronation, symbolic representations of, iii. 134. ceremonies (il), iii. 359-364. Corpse, treatment of the, iii. 453. Corslet, remarkable one of fine linen, ii. 166. , forms of the (il), i. 220, 221. Cosmetic boxes, ii. 13. Cosmogony, doctrinal system of the, ii. 503- 505. Cost of food small, ii. 334. Costumes of men, various (il), ii. 321-327. of women (il.), ii. 337, 338. of the Khita (il), i. 258, 259. of negroes, i. 261. of the Pount, i. 252. Cotton, cultivation of, ii. 402, 403. 409. , u^e and manufacture of, ii. 158, 159. Couches (il), i. 416. Country, love of, i. 322, 323. Coursing with dogs, ii. 85, 86, 92. Cow, sacred to Isis and Athor (il), iii. 10.9- 112, 115-117, 119. , reflections on, and legends of the worship of, iii. 119-121. , sacred character and attributes of. iii. 305-308. Creation, myths of the, i. 1 ; ii. 503. Criminal law, i. 295, 296. Criosphinx, description of the (il), i. 127 ; iii. 309. Crocodile, history of, and veneration for the, ii. 131-135. , emblem of Typho, iii. 147. , hostility of the ichneumon to the, iii. 279-281. , sacred nature and attributes of the, iii. 329-334. Crocodilopolis, in the Thebaid. iii. 329-331. Crops, nature of the plants forming the, ii. 398, 399. 502 INDEX. CROTALA. Crotala, i. 494. , striking, to keep time (il), ii. 305. , use of, iii. 37. Crow, Egyptian, iii. 318, 319. Crowns (il.), ii. 328. Cruelty of Ochus, i. 142. to prisoners, charges of, discussed, i. 265. Cubit, difficulty of ascertaining correct standard of the, ii. 383-386. , varieties of the, ii. 385. , ancient measure found at Karnak, ib. , subdivisions of the, ib. Cucumber, cultivated varieties of, ii. 399. Cuirass, formation of, i. 219. Culinary utensds (il.), ii. 9. Cultivation, extent of, i. 144-146. Cummin, cultivation of, ii. 398, 409. Currier (il), ii. 187. Curved sticks (il), i. 218. Cushy settlement of, iii. 25. Customs during reign of Ueertesen L, i. 31. Cymbals (il), i. 453. Cynocephalus ape, sacred to Thoth and other deities, iii. 165, 258, 267-269. Cyperus, varieties of, ii. 403, 408, 410, 412. Cyprus rendered tributary, i. 122. Cyrenxans of Libya defeat Aprits, i. 115. D. Dabod, triad of, iii. 188. Dxmons of the dead, forty-two (il), iii. 223. Dagger (il), i. 277. Daggers, with sheaths (il), i. 211. , various (il), i. 212, 213. Daimogorgon, a deity, ii. 479. Dakkeh, triad worshipped at, iii. 29. , inscription tit, relating to king Erga- men, iii. 29, 156. Damascening, art of, ii. 257. Dancing, forms of. i. 448. , varieties of (il), i. 454, 501-510. in the street, to drums (il), i. 458. girls (il.), ii. 37. women (il), i. 490. Darabooka drum (il), i. 443, 444, 451, 452. , used at funerals, i. 451. Darius, history of his rule over Egypt, i. 133, 134. , laws of, i. 324. Darkness, divine personification of, ii. 488, 491. , primeval ; myths concerning, iii. 33. Date-tree, paintings of, in tombs, ii. 413. wood, uses of, ii. 416. Dates, a cake of (il.), ii. 43. , uses of, i. 399, 400. Dayr, temple built by Rameses the Great, i. 50. , representation of moving a colossus, in a grotto at (il), ii. 303-306. DOLLS. Death, personified by Bes, in a bad sen&e, iii. 148, 150, 157. , personified by Anubis, in a good sense, iii. 160. , notkms concerning, iii. 434. , customs consequent upon the death of a relation, iii. 453. Debt, laws of, i. 310-312. Debtors, practice of, i. 304. Decapitation, i. 307. Decline of arts in Egypt, i. 138. Decoy bird (il), ii. 104, 105, 107, 108. Dedication of a temple (il), iii. 359. Deities, classification of, in Egyptian, Roman, and Greek systems, ii. 481-483. , see Gods. Delta, jtge of the, i. 4, 5. , extent of, i. 6. , worship of Bast in the, iii. 34. Deluge of Deucalion, date of the, i. 21. of Ogyges in Attica, i. 29. Demiurgic legends, i. 1,2. Deuderah, temple of Athor at. iii. 117. , triad of, iii. 132. , seat of worship of Har hat (il), iii. 133, 135. , Typhonia at, iii. 147, 148. , ceremonies depicted at, iii. 374. Depravity of Cheops, i. 84, 85. Deserts, description of those bordering upon Egypt, ii. 437-439. Deucalion, deluge of, i. 21. Devices, variety of decorative, i. 363, 364. on rings, signets, bracelets, and neck- laces (il), ii. 342-345. Dial, use of the, ii. 317, 318. Diana, the Bast or Bubastis of Egypt, iii. 37. Dice, history of the game (il), ii. 62, 63. Diet of the Egyptians, ii. 31. Dinner, preparation of, ii. 20. , method of serving, ii. 39. , party at (il), ii. 44. Diodorus, his list of Egyptian kings, i. 16. Diospolite dynasties, i. 20-23, 29, 34. , list of the dynasty, i. 52. Discipline of troops, i. 274. Diseases of animals, skill in curing, ii. 449. Dishes on a table (il), ii. 43. Disk-worship, introduction and subversion of, iii. 52. Documents, style and age of existing, i. 312. , mode of drawing up and attesting, i. 312-315. Dog, use of the, in hunting (il), ii. 85-89, 92. , various kinds of (il), ii. 99, 100, 109. , a sacred animal, noticed and de- scribed, iii. 258, 273-276. Dog-star, influence of, on the inundation, iii. 103-105. Dolphin, account of the, iii. 308, 309. Dolls, wooden (il), ii. 64. INDEX. 503 DOM-XCT. Dom-nut tree, uses of, i. 402. Doora, cultivation of the, ii. 399. , varieties of, ii. 402, 409. , method of gathering (il), ii. 427, 428. Doors, construction of (il), i. 351-356. Doorway, with inscription (il), i. 346, 362. , folding, with bolts (il), ii. 135. Dove, Arabic legend of the, i. 271. Drag-net (il), i. 291, 292. Draught-board and box (il), ii 57-59. Draughtmen (il), ii. 56. Draughts, game of (il), i. 32. , variety and antiquity of the game (il), ii. 55-60. Drawing, conventional forms of, ii. 265. Dream of Xectanebo, i. 139, 140. Dreams, belief in, ii. 3.56. Dress of kings and princes (il), i. 163. • of priests (il), i. 182-184. of the Shasu, i. 249. of the Rebu, i. 251. of dancers, i. 504. of hunters, ii. 81. , coloured specimens of, ii. 168. Dressing applied to surface of land, ii. 395-397. Drill and bow (il), i. 400. Drinking cups (il), ii. 42. , various kinds of, i. 430. Drugs, ii. 417. Drum, use of the, i. 197. , darabooka (il), i. 443, 444, 451, 452. , various (il), i. 456-461. Drum-stick (il), i. 209. Dust thrown on the head in token of grief (U.), i. 167 ; iii. 423. Duties of sovereigns, i. 165. Dwarfs (il), ii. 70. Dyeing, antiquity of, ii. 168-170. Dykes, nature, extent, and necessity of, ii. 433. Dynasties, dates of the, i. 12. , according to Manetho, i. 17-26. . , comparative list of, i. 28-143. Eagle, worship and attributes of the, iii. 313, 314. Ear, exvotos on account of cures for diseases of the (il), ii. 358. Ear-rings, ladies talking about (il), ii. 21. , varieties of (il), ii. 339, 340, 342, 34y. Earthenware ball, painted (il), ii. 67. vases (il), ii. 4. Ebony, boxes of, ii. 17, 18. chairs, i. 409. , uses of the wood, ii. 416. Edfoo, or Apollinopolis Magna, triad of, ii. 513. , occurrence of Athor at, iii. 132. , temple of, dedicated to Hat, iii. 135. EMBLEMS. Edfou, temple of (il), iii. 354. Education of the royal family, i. 163; iii. 447. of priests' children, i. 175. of children, i. 320, 321. Eggs of geese, ii. 449. artificially hatched (il), ii. 450-452. Egleeg, or balanites, uses of the wood, ii. 416. Egypt, coast-line and soundings, i. 7. , name of, i. 7. , primeval history of, i. 11. , division of, into nomes, i. 97-99. , soldierv of, desert Psammatichus, i. 104. devastated by Cambyses, i. 130. made a Persian province, i. 132. attempts to throw off the Persian rule, i. 134-136. reduced by Ochus, king of Persia, i. 141. deficient in conception of art, ii. 263. Egypt, or Khemi, a goddess, history ami attributes of (il), iii. 198. Egyptian numbers, arrangement of, ii. 493. Egyptians, origin of, i. 1-4 Eileithyia, song found in a, tomb at, ii. 418. 421. , reputed human sacrifices at (il), iii. 400-402. Eileithyia, a goddess in a triad, iii. 147. , or Nishem, goddess, history, and mythology of (il), iii. 194-198. , opposed to Mersekar 07.), iii. 230. Elean embassy to Greece, i. 11 3, 114. Elephant, notices of the, iii. 259, 295. Elephantine, change of levels at, i. 8. , triad of deities worshipped at, ii. 484. 513. , chief seat of the worship of Chnoumis, iii. 1. Elephantinite dynasty, i. 19. Elephants found among the Rut-en-nu, i. 43. Eleusinian mysteries, iii. 388, 395. Eliahim restored to the Jewish throne by Xeco II., i. 112. Elijah, manner of his sacrifice at Mount Carmel, iii. 431. El Khargeh in the Great Oasis, titles of Darius in the temple of, i. 133. El Maasara, removal of stone from the quarries of (il), ii. 302. Elohim, meaning of, ii. 485, 486. Embalmers, account of, i. 158 ; ii. 359. Embalming, Anubis the god of, iii. 157. , theories concerning, iii. 465. , methods of (U.), iii. 470-486. of sacred animals, iii. 247-250. Embassy of the Eleans to Egypt, i. 113, 114. Emblems, variety of sacred (il.), iii. 351- 353, 363, 364. on mummy-cases (il), iii. 445. , offerings of (il), iii. 421. 504 INDEX. EMBROIDERY. Embroidery exported, i. 150. Emerald mines, i. 33. , stations on the road to, repaired, i. 40. Emerald of glass, imitative, ii. 146, 147. Employments, public, i. 159. Enamelling, ii. 154. Encampment, guard at the gate of an 07.), i. 266. Encaustic painting, ii. 155. Endive, cultivated, ii. 410. Enemies, arms of, i. 245. of Egypt (tl), i. 246-263. Engines, tiege, i. 244. Engraved stones, ii. 151, 152. Entertainments, i. 421-432. Entrances to houses (il), i. 346. Jjjpaphus, divinity of, iii. 305. , nature of sacrifices to, ib. Eponymous festivals, iii. 378, 379. Erasure of names of deities, reasons as- signed for the, iii. 142-144. Eratosthenes, his canon of Theban kings, i. 25-27. Ergamen, king of Ethiopia, inscription concerning him at Dakkeh, iii. 29, 156. builds the temple of Pselcis, iii. 169. Ericapxus, an Orphic deity, ii. 487. Eros, divinity of, ii. 487. Eshuranib, gold mines of, ii. 238, 239. Esneh, or Latopolis, triad of, ii. 513 ; iii. 238. , seat of the worship of Chnoumis, iii. 6, 7. , mystic sculptures at, iii. 43. , occurrence of Nebuu or Neith at, iii. 132. Ether, a deity in various trinities, ii. 487, 488. Ethiopia, inhabitants of, contrasted with Egyptians, i. 3, 4. , connection of the term with Upper Egypt, i. 9, 10. , dynasty of, i. 24. , conquered by Sesostris, i. 68. , the Egyptian soldiery retire to, i. 101. , princess of, in a chariot (il.), i. 235 ; ii. 202. , seat of the worship of Chnoumis, iii. 1, 6. , temples of Bes in the south of, iii. 149. Etruscan bronze work in early times, ii. 257. trade with Egypt, ii. 155. Eulogy for the king, i. 165. read at a funeral, iii. 450. Eunuchs, i. 317. Eusebius, Egyptian dynasties according to, i. 17-26. Events, chronological series of, i. 17-27, 28-143. Evil Being, history and myth of Nubti as the personification of the, iii. 136-144. FIG. Evil Being, historv and myth of Set as, iii. 144. , history and myth of Typho as the, iii. 145. Ewers and basin, golden (il), i. 425. Exhibitions of music and feats of agility after dinner (il), ii. 53, 54. Exodus, state of Egypt at the time of the, i. 11. of the Israelites, i. 38, 39. , difficulty of assigning a true date to the, i. 53. Expeditions of Amasis, i. 122, 123. of Apries, various, i. 115. of Cambyses against Egypt, i. 129- 131. of Raineses III., i. 56-59. of Sesostris by land and sea, i. 65-69. Expenses, necessary, very small, i. 312. Exports, variety of, i. 150. , nature of the, ii. 377, 378. Extent of the country, i. 144. Exvotos (il), ii. 357, 358. Eye, symbolic, of Osiris, iii. 353. of Horus, iii. 445. Ezekiel, prophecies of, concerning Egypt, i. 118, 119. F. Fabulous animals (il), iii. 310-312. Falchions, use of, i. 213. Fan, or Vannus, mystical, iii. 70, 81. Fanbearers, princes held the office of, i. 49. , office and rank of the, iii. 371. Farmers, i. 158, 280. Farmyards (il), i. 370. Fast appointed at the funeral of a king, iii. 443. Fasting, practice of, doubtful, iii. 396. Fauttuils, elegant forms of {il), i. 409-416. Female Sphinx, Queen Mut-netem as a (il), iii. 310. Females attached to the service of the gods, ii. 496. Fennel, a species of, ii. 407. Fenugreek, cultivation of, ii. 410. Festival, celebration of a, by Rameses II. OX), iii. 367. Festivals of the return of Rhampsinitus, i. 84. , dates of, ii. 318-320. of husbandmen at the time of the inundation, ii. 442, 443. at Bubastis in honour of Bast, iii. 37. of Osiris, iii. 83. of the Apis, iii. 89-93. , nature of, iii. 366. , grand assemblies or Panegyries, ib. , wanton nature of some, iii. 396, 397. , mummies introduced at, iii. 432. Fiction, Egyptian works of, i. 11. Fig, cultivation of the, ii. 405, 408. represented in tombs, ii. 413. INDEX. 505 Fig, sacred tree of Athens, iii. 64. Figure dances (il), i. 507. Fir wood, uses of, ii. 416. Fire-balls, i. 244. Fish forbidden to priests, i. 179. on boxes (il.), ii. 15, 16. , eating of, ii. 23. eaten (il), ii. 44. , varieties and uses of (il.), ii. 115, 118-120. , preparation of (il.), ii. 118. captured during subsidence of inun- dation, ii. 389. , dedication of. to Athor, iii. 121. , sacred kinds of, iii. 340-344. Fisheries, ii. 122, 123. Fishermen (il), i. 291-293. Fishing, various methods of (il), ii. 102, 115-126. Fishponds, i. 407. Flax, cultivation of, ii. 172, 398, 409. , preparation of (il), ii. 173, 174. Fleet, construction of the, ii. 214-216. of Neco II., i. 108. of Sesostris, i. 68, 69. Fleets and vessels (il), i. 274-277. Fleurettes, architectural (il), iii. 418. Flint, arrow heads of (il), i. 205. knives and other implements (tZ.), ii. 261. Flooring over an arched room (il), i. 360. Flour, box filled with, ii. 18. Flowers, fondness for, at entertainments, i. 403, 429. , guests adorned with (il), i. 427. , offerings of 07.), iii. 417-419. employed at funerals, iii. 451. Flute, history and use of the, i. 484-488. Flutes, use of (il), i. 434, 437, 440, 441. Flute-player (il), i. 486. Food of priests, i. 179. , various kinds of, ii. 22-36. , varieties of (il), ii. 43-45. Footstool of a king, enemies forming the (il), iii. 403. Foreign conquests of Thothmes III., i. 38, 39. Foreigners precluded, i. 328. Fort, assault of a (il), i. 243. Fortification, styles of, i. 268, 269. Fowlers (il), i. 290. Fowling-scenes (il), ii. 102, 104, 107, 108. , methods of, ii. 111. Fowls, notice of Egyptian use of, iii. 319, 320. Fox, notice of the sacred, iii. 258, 277. Foxes (il), ii. 90, 92. Fringe, use of, ii. 323. Fringes of cloth, ii. 174, 175. Frog, symbol of Ptah, iii. 15. — — , deities with heads of the, iii. 21, 22. , emblem and attributes, iii. 340, 353. Fruit gathered by monkeys (il), i. 382. — used in sacrifices (il), ii. 459-461. Fruit trees, various, i. 402. wine, i. 398. Fullers (il), ii. 190. Funeral boat, or Ban's (il). ii. 211. of a king, i. 167. music, i. 451, 452. of sacred cattle, iii. 109. rites and ceremonies (il), iii. 427-430. oblations, iii. 430, 431. , modern customs, iii. 440-442. procession of a grandee (il), iii. 444, 445. , method of conducting those of a simpler kind, iii. 448-452. procession described (il), iii. 449- 452. , description of a very touching sub- ject, iii. 452. Furniture of rooms (il), i. 408. , manufacture of, ii. 195, 196. Fyoum, early remains at the, i. 15. Galley (il), i. 275. Game of mora (il.), ii. 55. of draughts (il), ii. 55-60. of throwing knives into a block of wood (/?.), ii. 69. unknown ceremony, or (il), iii. 424. Games, variety and antiquity of, ii. 54-68. , celebration of, iii. 370. Garden beds (il), i. 375. Gardens (il). i. 375-378. , use and culture of, i. 406. at entrances to tombs, iii. 438. Gardeners, i. 280, 281. Garlic, cultivation of, ii. 403, 409. , treated as a god, iii. 350. Garrison towns, list of, i. 187. Gauffering instrument (il), i. 185. Gazelle, notice of the, iii. 260, 301. winged (il), iii. 311. caught in a noose, ii. 87. (il), ii. 90, 92. for chase and preserves (il), ii. 83-86. Gebel Zabdra, emerald mines of, i. 33. Genii of the Lower Regions (il), iii. 219. " Genius of the earth," au original deity, ii. 479. Geometry, origin and progress of, ii. 314, 315. , science of, ii. 377. Gerf-Hossayn, in Nubia, the temple built by Eameses the Great, i. 50. Giant, Aphoph, a giant king, i. 21. Gilding, processes of, ii. 243. Gilt ladles (il), ii. 47. objects, ii. 244. Giraffe, notice of the, ii. 98 ; iii. 259, 301. Gizeh, plan of the Pyramids of, and adjacent country (il), ii. 360. Glass, early manufacture of, i. 32. 50f> INDEX. Glass, invention of, i. 37. , cut, vase (il), ii. 9, 11. , bottles (il), ii. 11. blowing (il.), ii. 140. bottles and heads (il), ii. 141, 142, 152. , various manufactures and uses of, ii. 142-150. , history of the invention and use of, ii. 142-144. lamp (il), iii. 424. Glazed tablets of wood, for writing on, ii. 183. Gleaning (il), ii. 419, 422. Glue, ii. 199. Goat (il), ii. 90. , a sacred animal, iii. 260, 303. Goats treading grain after sowing (U.\ ii. 390. Goddesses of Egypt, the four great, iii. 30. Gods, figures of, on wooden pillows, i. 419. depicted in bas-relief on vases (il), ii. 9. , duration of their reign, ii. 51], 512. , festivals of the, iii. 378, 379. , statues of, clothed, iii. 395. , figures of, on closets of mummies 07.), iii. 444. Gold, early working in, i. 32. , baskets of (il), ii. 236, 237. beating, ii. 243. , ewers and basins of (il), i. 425. , early use of leaves of, ii. 242. , manufacture of, ii. 233-244. ■ , use of, in jewellery, ii. 233. , processes of smelting, weighing, &c. (il.), ii. 234. mines, i. 154, 155. , method of working the mines, ii. 237. model of a galley, ii. 223. , offerings of (il.), iii. 421. ornaments, ii. 340-344, 349. thread, ii. 166. , vases of {il), ii. 2, 5, 7. imbricated vases (il), ii. 258. Gold-beaters' skin, ii. 243. Goldsmiths (il), ii. 234, 235. Goose, kinds of, i. 292. eaten commonly (il.), ii. 22, 30, 44. , cooking of (il), ii. 35. , management of the (il), ii. 448. , eggs counted and reported, ii. 449. , treatment of the, when out of health 07.), ii. 452, 453. , offerings of the, iii. 408. , the emblem of Seb, iii. 60-62. , sacred nature and attributes of the 07. \ iii. 327, 328. Gourd-shaped box (il), ii. 16. Government, earliest, of Egypt, i. 11. , daily routine of the conduct of, i. 164. Grace before meals, ii. 49, 50. Grain, abundance of, i. 155, 156. Grain, exports of, ii. 377-379. Granaries {il), i. 348, 349, 371. , notice of, ii. 423. Grapes, see Vineyard. , sacred use of (il), iii. 419. Greece, allegorical history of the nation, i. 11. , the nation favoured by Psammati- chus, i. 104, 105. , Egyptian origin of the names of the deities of,ii. 461, 462. , unsubstantial nature of the mythology of, ii. 499. , doctrines of various philosophers of, ii. 506, 507. Greek intercourse with Egypt encouraged by Amasis, i. 123. use of the bow, i. 205. music, i. 446-449. harpers, i. 463. customs at meals, ii. 88-41. habits of cleanliness, ii. 48. entertainments alter meals, ii. 53. intercourse with Egypt, ii. 155. art of the pottery, ii. 193. art of damascening, ii. 258. influence on Egyptian arts, ii. 291. calculation of the month, ii. 321. art of prediction derived from Egvpt, ii. 465. derision of animal worship of Egypt, ii. 469, 470. variation in conventional representa- tions of gods, ii. 478. classification of gods, ii. 483. ideas of Egyptian religion erroneous, ii. 497-499, 5 12. notions concerning the god Ptah, iii. 16. legends derived from Egyptian myths, iii. 29. ideas concerning Bast, iii. 38. notions of Osiris, iii. 71-73. ideas concerning Isis, iii. 99, 103. notions concerning Athor, iii. 110. notions of good and evil, iii. 140-142. rites and mysteries, iii. 387-395. religion contrasted with the Egyp- tian, iii. 458. Greeks, assistance given by the, to the Egyptian king Teos, against Persia, i. 140. , purchasers of the heads of animals, ii. 28. , mistaken opinions concerning reli- gion, ii. 473. , ancient belief in a single deitv, ii. 479. , early religious notions of the, ii. 479. , Alexandrian, venerate Sarapis, iii. 98. Grey (Mr.), mummy with Greek inscription on coffin found by, iii. 432. Griffin (il), ii. 93. Guard, camp (il), i. 266. INDEX. 507 GUEST. Guest, incident of a column overthrown by a careless, ii. 20, 21. Guests, arrival and treatment of (il), i. 423- 427. Guitar, player upon a (il), i. 462. , female playing on a (il), i. 407. played by a woman, on a box (il), ii. 14. Guitars (il), i. 438-441. played by women (il), i. 481-483. Hades, genii of (il), iii. 219-222. , notions concerning, iii. 487, 488. Hair of the Kebu, i. 251. , pride of the Egyptian women of their, ii. 21. , method of wearing the, bv women (il), ii. 338, 339. , the single lock of, worn by several deities, iii. 130. Ham, connection of, with the myth of Khem, iii. 25. Hamilton (Mr. W. E.), extract from hid 'iEgyptiaea,' i. 330. Handcuffs (il), i. 338. Hanging, i. 307. Hanno, voyage of, i. 109. Hapi, or Nilus, God (il), iii. 206-210. , a genius of the Lower Regions (il), iii. 219-222. Harbours in the Arabian Gulf, i. 151. Hare for preserves (il.), ii. 83, 86. , figures of 01), ii. 90, 92. , description of the, ii. 96. , account of the, iii. 259, 294, 295. Hareem, constitution of the, i. 319. of Rameses III. (il), ii. 60. Har-hat, or Har of Hat, hawk-headed god, guardian of temples, iii. 4. , history and myths of (il), iii. 127, 128, 132-135. , or Horus, type of (il.), iii. 135. and Thothmes III. (ii.), iii. 137. assists at the symbolic ceremony of coronation, iii. 139. Harka, myth of, iii. 176. Harmachis, "the great God" (il), iii. 45, 50. Harness, various (il), i. 237-241. , Persian (il), i. 241. Har-pa-ra, myth of (il), iii. 176, 177. Harpocrates, first fruits of lentils offered to, ii. 442, 443. , history and myths of, iii. 128-132. , deities in the character of (il.), iii. 175-177. Harps, Bruce's notice of, i. 435-437. , various (il), i. p. xxx. ; i. 436-443. , various forms and uses of (il), i. 462- 472. Harris papyrus, mention of golden objects in the, ii. 237. HERCULANETJM. Harrowing machine (il. , ii. 361. Har-sa-asi (il), iii. 129. Harsemt-ta, myth of (il), iii. 176, 177. Harshef (il), iii. 152. Harsiesis (il), iii. 129. Harvest home, celebration of, iii. 370. Hasheps or Hatasu, Queen, name on a vase (il), ii. 12* , history of her reign, i. 37, 38. , name of, upon a bead, ii. 141. , her fleet, ii. 221. Hat, or Agatlwdxmon, history, myths, and worship of (il), iii. 133-135. Hatchet (il), i. 278. , military (il), i. 214. Hawk of Horus (il), iii. 122-126. , mummied (&), iii. 126. , varieties of the sacred, iii. 313, 328. , worship and attributes of the (il , iii. 314-317. , universal sanctity of the, iii. 315. Hawk-headed deity, Har-hat, iii. 4. ■ deities, iii. 124. sphinx (il), iii. 311. Head-dress of foreigners, i. 245. , Persian (il), i. 247. , various forms of 1 77.), ii. 325-328. of ladies (#.), ii. 33*, 339. of Isis (il), iii. 112. Hearse with four wheels (tl.\ i. 237. , shape and construction of the, iii. 451. Heaven, Ccelus or Ouranos, a divine being, il 479. Hecate, connected with Pasht, iii. 39. Hedgehog, account of the, iii. 258, 270. Heh, or Hih, snake-headed goddess (U.\ iii. 214, 215. Heh, or Gom, the Egyptian Hercules (//.), iii. 229, 230. Heka, or Hek, goddess, allied to Chnouniis, iii. 7. , a frog-headed goddess [il. , iii. 21, 22. , figure of (il), iii. 152. , myth of (il), iii. 176, 177. Helen, story of, i. 79. Heliopolis, accumulation of soil at, i. 8. , obelisks at, L 51. , view of (il), ii. 361. , donations of live stock to, by Raines III., ii. 453. , spirits of, ruled by Xeper (il), iii. 21. , seat of the worship of Ra, iii. 53-55. , festivals at, iii. 377, 381. Helmets, various kinds of (il), i. 218, 219. Hemp, cultivation of, ii. 398. Henneh, cultivation of, ii. 4<>2. Heptanomis, division and limits of, i. 325, 326. Heqa, God (il), iii. 208. Heracleopolite dynasty, i. 20. Herculaneum, double pipes of (il). i. 489. , musical instruments from (il), i. 49S. 508 INDEX. HERCULES. Hercules, Shu and other deities, the Egyp- tian equivalents to, iii. 172-174. , Bes resembling the Egyptian (il.), iii. 149, 151. Herdsmen, caste of, i. 288-290. Hereditary castes doubtful, i. 158, 159. sovereignty, i. 161. Hermes Trismegistus, books of, ii. 367 ; iii. 171. , his classification of Gods, ii. 483. Hermonthis, triad of, ii. 513 ; iii. 232. , account of the bull of, iii. 306-308. , Thoth the divine lord of {il.), iii. 163. , statue of Typho at, iii. 147. Hermotybies, corps of the, i. 188. Herodotus, his list of Egyptian kings, i. 16. Heron identical with Atum, iii. 178, 239. Hesiod, testimony of, respecting the use of iron, i. 41. , the trinity of, ii. 488. Heivn-stone, first used in building, i. 1 8. Hi, a deity connected with Bes (il.), iii. 151. Hieraconpolis,~or city of sacred hawks, iii. 315. Hieracosphinx (il.), iii. 309. , symbol of Aroeris (il.), iii. 127, 131. Hierarchy, early, of Egypt, i. 11. Hieroglyphs, depth of those cut on stone, i. 50. , alterations in the style of carving, i. 58. , method of sculpturing, ii. 253, 254. of « Egypt' (il i, i. 405. of sacrifice, ii. 458. of a tree, i. 376. of a vineyard, i. 370. of a wife (il), iii. 419. Hiqh priests occupy the throne after Ba- meses XIII., i. 60. Hindoo religious ideas resembling those of Egypt, ii. 475. Hinges, curious forms of, ii. 199, 200. Hippopotamus, chase of the (it), ii. 126- 131. , emblem of Typho, iii. 147. , a sacred animal, iii. 259, 295-297. Hippopotamus goddess, or Taur, history of, iii. 145. Hippopotamus-headed god, notice of a, iii. 238. History of the kings of Egypt, i. 27-143. , the reign of Barneses III. the best period of the, i. 59. Hoes, wooden (il), ii. 251, 252, 393. , use of, in breaking the land (il), ii. 394. Holocaust, Levitical, iii. 411. Holydays, celebration of, iii. 368. Homer, testimony of, regarding the age of the Delta, i. 5. Honey, importance attached to, ii. 416. Hoop, game of (il), ii. 62. IAMBLICHUS. Hoopoe, respect for the, iii. 319. Hoph, goddess, history of (il.), iii. 214. Horology, history of, ii. 317. Horseman, armed (il), i. 191. Horses, abundance of, ii. 101. exported, i. 150, 236. used in war, i. 191. used by the enemies of Barneses the Great, i. 46. , account of, iii. 259, 299. Horus, one of the triad of Philse, ii. 484, 513. , connection of, with Khem, iii. 28. , in a triad (il), iii. 112. , suckled by Isia (il), ib. , son of Isis and Osiris, history, myths, and worship of (il), iii. 121-124. , the antagonist of Set, iii. 144, 145. , in connection with Bes (il), iii. 150, 152. spearing Aphophis (il), iii. 153- 155. , form of (il), iii. 232, 233. crowning Barneses II. (il), iii. 361. purifying Amenophis II. (il), iii. 362. , eye of, iii. 445. identical with Charon, of Greek mythology, iii. 458. Hoshins ( G. A.), tomb at Thebes opened by. iii. 371. Hours, the, or Unnu, a goddess (il.\ iii. 217, 218. Household, officer of the (il), i. 197. Houses, nature and construction of (il), i. 340-369. Hu, goddess, notice of (il), iii. 224, 227. Human sacrifices, iii. 400. Hunting, preserves for, i. 407. , love for, and various forms of, de- scribed, 78-92. Huntsman, caste of. i. 282. Husbandmen, i. 279, 280. , condition of the, ii. 387, 397, 398. Hyaena in a trap (il), ii. 78. , figures of 01), ii. 90, 92. , habitats of the, ii. 97. , account of the, iii. 284, 285. Hykshos, or Shepherd kings, remains of, at Tanis, i. 5. , recent researches into their history, i. 15, 16. , connection of the god Set with the, iii. 144. Hymns to Amen-ra, iii. 13. Hyrax, notice of the, iii. 259, 299. I. Iamblichus, his classification of gods, ii. 482, 483. , cosmogony of, ii. 505. — -, his ideas of unity and trinity, ii. 509. INDEX. 509 IANNIAS. Iannias a Shepherd king, history of, i. 15. Ibex, or wild-goat, cut up for food {il), ii. 28. , hunting the (il), ii. 88. , figures of (il), ii. 90, 92. , description of the, ii. 95. , notice of the, iii. 260, 303. Ibis, sacred to Thoth, iii. 164-167, 170. , sacred nature and attributes of the, iii. 321-326. Ichneumon, figures of {il.), ii. 90, 107. , description of the, ii. 97, 98. , a sacred animal, history of the, iii. 258, 279-284. Immolation of the sons of Phanes, i. 131. Imonthos, or iEsculapius (*7.), iii. 204. Implements of wood sheathed with iron, ii. 251. Imports, early, i. 154. Incense, offering (il.), i. 493. , employment of (il.), iii. 398-400. , method of offering iii), iii. 414-416. India, Egyptian intercourse with, i. 150, 151. , commercial intercourse of Egypt with, ii. 213, 229-231. , boats of, compared with those of Egypt, ii. 219. , consideration respecting worship of analogous deities in Egypt and, iii. 120, 121, 133. , vegetable products of, ii. 413. , method of notation and numeration used in, ii. 496. Indian Ocean visited by Sesostris, i. 47. Indigo, cultivation of, ii. 402, 403. Infantry, various kinds of, i. 193-195. Inscribed figures of sepulchral use (il), iii. 490-493. Inscribed table (il), i. 418. Inscriptions set up by Sesostris, i. 70. placed over entrances (il), i. 361, 362. on a chair, i. 412. upon a bead (il), ii. 141. on a bottle (il), ii. 142. upon a reel (il), ii. 176. relating to gold mines, ii. 242. Insects, fabulous, iii. 265, 267, 348. Intaglio sculptures, ii. 288-291. Inundation near Delta, view of, i. 1. , agricultural results of the, ii. 364- 366. , height of the, ii. 431. , result of, in elevating the plateau of land, ii. 432. , system of embanking alluvial deposit of, ii. 432, 433. , season of the, ii. 427, 428. , cattle rescued from (il), ii. 429. , management of, during its course, ii. 430, 4:51. , fetes connected with the, ii. 442, 443. JERUSALEM. Invasion of Egypt by Ochus, king of Persia, i. 141. Investiture of a chief (il), iii. 370-372. Ionians colonized in Egypt by Psam- matichus, i. 101. Iron, use of, discovered, i. 41. money, ii. 246. , early use of, ii. 247, 248. , working in, ii. 24!), 250. implements, ii. 250, 251. hoes, &c. 07.), ii. 252. 253. Irrigation by thu shadoof, date of the, i. 38. practised by Sesostris, i. 70. , extent of, i. 146. with water pots (il), i. 373. , art and practice of, ii. 365, 387-389. Isiac table at Turin, characteristics of the work of the, ii. 290, 291. Isis, monarch prostrate before (il.), ii. 453 , titles of, ii. 480. , one of the Philse triad, ii. 484, 513. , in combination with Ptah-Socharis- Osiris and Nephthys (il), iii. 20. , birth of, iii. 61. , myths of, iii. 75-77. , her connection with Athor, iii. 94. , worsliip of, iii. 95. , history, myths, and worship of (il), iii. 98-115. , connection of, with Athor, iii. 1 10. and Harpocrates, iii. 128-132. , figure of (il), iii. 152. protecting Osiris (il), iii. 225. , peculiar form of (il), iii. 2^8-230. , a form of (il), iii. 232, 233. , ceremonies of, at Busiris, iii. 377- 379. Italians defeated by Barneses III., i. 58. Iusaas, goddess, account of (il), iii. 224, 227. Ivory, boxes of various kinds (il), ii. 13-18 , inlaid work of, i. 409, 410. hand (il), ii. 358. spoons (il), ii. 13, 45, 46. vase with ointment (il), ii. 12. Ivy probably not indigenous, iii. 351. J. Jackal, symbolic of Anubis (il), iii. 157- 161. , a sacred animal, iii. 258, 279. Javelins (il), i. 208, 209. , heads of (il), i. 278. Jehoahaz deposed by Neco IL, i. 111. Jehovah, signification of the word, ii. 485, 486. Jerboa, an Egyptian animal, iii. 259. Jerusalem, temple of, pillaged by Sheshonk i. 92. , names of, i. 112. INDEX. JEWS. Jews, connection of, with Egypt in the time of Joseph, i. 34-36. . exodus of, in the time of Thothmes III., i. 38, 39. , the history of the bondage of, i. 53-55. employed in captivity as brickmakers, i. 342, 343. , cultivation of music by the, i. 445. , lyres of the, i. 479. , religious music of the, i. 494, 495. , knowledge of iron, ii. 248. , various offerings of the, ii. 465-467. , Mosaic representations of the Trinity, ii. 484, 485. , names of the Creator used by the, ii. 485. , sacrificial customs of the, iii. 405, 406, 411-413. Jewellery (il.), ii. 340-344. , admiration for, ii. 21. . of gold (il), ii. 235. Jingling instrument (il), i. 442. Joints placed on altars or tables (il), iii. 410. Joseph, dates of, i. 30. Josephus, his account of the exploits of Sesostris, i. 65, 66. Josiah defeated by Neco II., i. 111. Judaea captured by Sheshonk, i. 92, 93. invaded by Neco II., i. 110, 111. Judges, i. 294, 295. selected from priests, i. 186. Judgment, scenes of the, and theories in relation to the (il), iii. 466-470. Judicature, conduct of, i. 297. Juno, or Sati of the Egyptians, worship of, iii. 28, 29. Jupiter, fete of. ii. 467. , Pallakides of, ii. 496. analogous to Amen-ra, iii. 11. . oracle of, at Thebes, iii. 12. Jupiter- Hammon-Cenubi8, iii. 2. Justice, goddess of (il.), i. 296. Juvenal derides animal worship of Egyp- tians, ii. 470. K. Ka, a frog-headed deity, form of Ptah (il.), iii. 21. Kalabshi, triad of, iii. 188. Kanana, or Canaanites (il.), i. 259-261. Kardassy, encroachment of sand at, ii. 436. Karnak, colonnade at, i. 32. , erection of the temples of, i. 40. , sculptured wars of Rameses at, i. 47. Kar-neter, or Hades, scenes of the, i. 307. Katesh on the Orontes, plan of the fortress (il), i. 257. Kebsh, or wild sheep, figure of, ii. 90. . description of the, ii. 95. Kephren, name of, ii. 273. Kermesat, in Wady Kerbeean, worship of Bes at, iii. 149. KLFA. Ket, goddess, account of (il), iii. 234. Key (il), i. 354, 355. Kharu,ov Northern Syrians (il), i. 246. Khem, the god of gardens (il), i. 404, 405. , nature of his divinity, attributes, and worship (il), iii. 22-28. , figure of (il), iii. 234. anointed by Seti I. (il), iii. 362. Khita, Sheta, or Scythians, character and costume of, i. 256-259. , worshippers of Set, iii. 145. Khons in a triad (il), ii. 512. , one of the Theban triad, ii. 484, 513. — — , history and myths of (il), iii. 174-176. Khnum, see Chnoumis. ! Khu, a form of Isis (il), iii. 228-230. | Khuenaten, see Ameuophis IV. 1 Kids browsing on vines (il), i. 383. Kings of Egypt, Manetho's record concern- ing them, i. 12. , early sepulchres of, i. 13. , comparative lists of, i. 16-26. , monumental and literary history of the, compared, i. 27-143. , historical note of the kings of the 16th Dynasty, i. 34. chosen from the two upper castes, i. 159. , rank and office of, i. 159-168. J , conduct of, in battle, i. 224. , the legislative rights of the, i. 293. , respect paid to the, i. 321, 322. , names of ancient (il), ii. 274. , theory concerning the divided juris- diction of early, ii. 276. , dress of (il), ii. 326, 327. , ceremonies of crowning (il), iii. 359- 364. receiving emblems from Amen (il), iii. 353. , celebration of birthdays of, iii. 368. offering various sacrificial objects (il), iii. 414. , magnificence of the funerals of, iii. 443. Kitchen (il), ii. 32. , scenes in the, ii. 22-36. Kite, care of the, iii. 317. j Kneeling, rarity of, iii. 425. Kneph, see Chnoumis. Knife, use of, in battle, i. 213. Knivea, stone (il), ii. 260, 261. Knot of a belt (il), iii. 446. Kohl, or stain for the eyes, use of, ii. 348. Kollabismos, a Greek game (il), ii. 59, 61. ' Kosmos, divine nature of the, ii. 488. Kossayr road, quarries of the, i. 33 ; iii. 26, 27. , royal names on the rocks of the (il), ii. 275, 276. Kriosphinx (il), i. 127 ; iii. 309. Kronos, a Sidonian deity, ii. 488. Kufa, people of, character and costume of, | i. 255, 256. oil KUFA. Kufa, or Phoenicians (it), i. 259. Kush, origin of the inhabitants, i. L , or Ethiopian negroes (il), i. 259. L. Labyrinth built by Mendes, or Moiris, i. 16. built by Lachares, i. 20. , description of the, i. 63. Ladanum, cultivation of the plant pro- ducing, ii. 404. Lady in a bath (il,), ii. 353. Lake built by Moiris, i. 16. , cultivation around Lake Moeris, in early periods, ii. 441. , sacred, traversed by funeral proces- sions, iii. 447, 448. Lakes of the dead, in large cities, iii. 456, 457. Lambs carried in baskets, ii. 447. , careful rearing of, ii. 452, 453. Lamp, offering of a (il), iii. 424. Lamps, ii. 157. kept burning in tombs, during cere- monies, iii. 430. Land, measures of, i. 323. Land or square measure, ii. 386. lands, partition of, by Barneses the Great, i. 50, 51. Language, experiment to find earliest, i. 106, 107. Lanterns (ii), ii. 156, 157. Latin ideas concerning Bast, iii. 38. Latona, temple of, at Buto, ii. 307. of the Egyptians, form and attributes of, iii. 32. Latus, a sacred fish (il.), iii. 343. Lawgivers of Egypt, i. 64, 65. , different, i. 323. Laws, i. 299. , primitive, i. 307. , liberality of the, i. 162. , enactment of, i. 293. , Boman, in Egypt, i. 333. Layers-out of mummies (il.), iii. 451. Leather, work in (il.), i. 232. costumes of the Bebu, i. 251. seats of chairs (il.), i. 411, 414. bottles, ii. 19. ball (il.), ii. 67. , manufacture of thongs of (il.), ii. 177, 178. , writing on, ii. 183. , manufacture and varieties of, ii. 185. , employment of, for numerous uses, ii. 185-189. shoes and boots, ii. 337. Leather workers, caste of, i. 283. Leek, cultivation of the, ii. 409. Legends of the wall of Sesostris, i. 71. Lemanon, enemies of Egypt, i. 260, 261. Lentils used for food, ii. 24. LUXOB. ! Lentils, cultivation of, ii. 403, 409. , offering of, to Harpocrates, ii. 442, 443. Leopard skins worn by priests (il.), i. 182, 184. , notice of the (il.), ii. 90 ; iii. 259, 293. Lepidotus, a sacred fish (il.), iii. 342, 343. Lettuce, cultivation of, ii. 398. , varieties of, ii. 411. Leucos Portus, site and trade of, i. 153. Libation (il.), i. 184. , practice of, iii. 416, 423. , method of performing a, iii. 425. , altar for (il ), iii. 430. Library in the tomb of Oaymandyas, i. 76. Libya, revolt of, i. 18. Libyan desert, encroachments of the sands of the, ii. 436, 437. ■, position and roads of, ii. 439. Libyans defeated by Barneses III., i. 58. Linen, early manufacture of, i. 32. cloth exported, i. 150. — — , manufacture of, ii. 157. , use of, ii. 158-160. , variety of, ii. 165. , paper made from, ii. 185. Lintels, enormous size of, ii. 307. Lion, hunting with a (il), ii. 88. described, ii. 97. , emblem of the sun, iii. 51. , couchant, in stone (il.), iii. 257. , notice of the sacred, iii. 258. 290- 293. Literature patronised by Tosorthrus, i. 18. Live stock, management of (il.), ii. 443-449. , donations of, by Barneses III. to Heliopolis, ii. 453. Loadstone in connection with Horus, iii. 125. Locust (il.), ii. 113. Locust-tree, cultivation of the, ii. 405. represented in tombs, ii. 413. Loom, horizontal (il), ii. 170. , cloth made on a (il), ii. 171. Lotus, use of the flower, i. 429 ; ii. 25. , cultivation of the, ii. 407. , supposed sacred nature of the, iii. 132, 133. , account of its svmb >lism, iii. 350, 353. , offerings of the (il), 4 IS. ; ' Love,'' origin of, ii. 479. | Luc (M. de), his ideas respecting the sands, i. 147, 148. I Lucina identified with Nut and Nishem, iii. 64, 65, 193, 194. , Thoueris the Egyptian, iii. 147. , vulture the emblem of, iii. 312. Lunus, the male moon, iii. 165-167. Luxor, or Luqsor, foundation of the temple of, i. 40. , topographical det lils of, in reference to the inundations, ii. 434. 512 INDEX. LUXOR. Luxor, worship of Nilus at, iii. 209. Luxury, increase of, i. 311. Lycopolites alone eat sheep, ii. 467. Lyre (il), i. 439, 441. Lyres, various forms and uses of (il.), i. 475-480. Ma, or Thmei, goddess (il), i. 296, 297. , history and mythology of (il), iii. 183-185. Macaroni, a sort of, used, ii. 33. Macedo, history and mythology of, iii. 161. Maces (il), i. 216, 217. , musical, of cylindrical shape (il), i. 453, 454. Machinery, limited use of, ii. 309. Madyas, king of Scythia, exploits of. i. 108. Mxotes, a fish of Egypt, iii. 343. Magistrates, caste of, i. 157. Magoor, or brazier (il), ii. 35. Mail armour of the Scythians, i. 46. Mammeisi temples, iii. 147, 148. Man standing on his head (il), i. 394. Mandoulis, Maloul, or Meru-ra, god ; history and mythology of (il), iii. 188, 189. Maneros, song of, used by the peasants, i. 449, 450 ; ii. 442. Manes, his position among the gods, ii. 479. Manetho, character of the fragments of, i. 11. , his list of Egyptian kings, i. 12. , his account of the Shepherd kings, i. 14. , his Egyptian dynasties, i. 17-26. Mankind, destruction of, by the gods, iii. 161, 162. Maniifacturers, caste of, i. 283. Manufactures, early, i. 38. March of Seti I. depicted at Karnak, i. 43, 44. March, order of the military, i. 263. Marea, nature of the wine produced at, ii. 441. Mariette-Bey, discovery of the Serapeum at Saqqara by, iii. 94, 95. Marriage, contracts of, i. 315. , duties and conditions of females after, i. 316-319. of brother and sister permitted, i. 319; iii. 113. Married women at meals, customs of, ii. 41. Mashuasha, enemies of Egypt (il), i. 255. Masons, employments of (il), ii. 309, 310. Mast, formation of the, ii. 224. Mastic, gum, use of, iii. 398. Mat-making (il), ii. 170. Matet, god, history and mythology of (?7.), iii. 236, 239. Mathematical knowledge and practice, i. 176. Mau, a deity, account of (il), iii. 236, 239. MENDESIANS. Measures of land, ii. 379, 380. of length, ii. 380, 381. of the Nilometer, ii. 382-385. , cubit standard of, ii. 383-386. Meat, method of slaughtering and prepar- ing joints for the table (il), ii. 26-32. , cooking of (il), ii. 35. , Jewish offerings of, iii. 411. Medeenet Haboo, description of the palace- temple of Rameses III. at, ii. 278-285. , pavilion of Ranieses III. at (il ii 454. , the seat of the worship of Khem, iii. 28. , ceremonies depicted at, iii. 372, 373. , heads of foreigners on the architec- ture of (il), iii. 403. Medicine, early practice of, ii. 355, 356. , knowledge and treatment of, ii. 356- 358. , plants used in, ii. 404-413, 417. , plants of Arabian use, ii. 417. Megiddo, battle of, i. 111. Meidoum, the oldest pyramid at, i. 13. Melcarthus, a Tyrian deity, iii. 173. Melilotus, a common plant, ii. 410. , a sacred flower, iii. 351. , offerings of (il ;, iii. 418. Melon, cultivation of the, ii. 399, 402, 403. Melons, use of, iii. 419. Memnon, or Amenophis, i. 22. Memnonium, or palace-temple of Rameses II., description and plau of, i. 45, 76-78. , colossal statues in the, ii. 306. , see Rameseum. Memphis, capital of the Shepherd kings, i. 15. , lake at, made by Menes, i. 62. , temple of Ptah at, erected by Menes, i. 62, 63. , founders of, i. 67. adorned by Sesostris, i. 69. reduced by Cambyses, i. 131, 132. , name of, ii. 273. , temple of the Cabiri at, ii. 483. , charges against the priesthood of, ii. 495. , seat of the worship of Ptah-Socharis- Osiris, iii. 17-20. , East a member of the triad of, iii. 37. , reputed burial-place of Osiris, iii. 86. , history of the worship of the Apis bull at, iii. 86-94. , Anubideum at, iii. 157. , tombs at, iii. 439. Memphite dynasties, i. 18, 19, 29, 30. Mendes, history of his reign, i. 73. , history and mythology of the god, iii. 185-187. , dynasty of, i. 25. Meudesian kings, list of the 29th Dynasty of, i. 137. Mendesians, sacrifices by the, ii. 467. INDEX. 513 MENDESIANS. Mendenans, worship of the goat by the, iii. 303. Meneptah, king, history of his reign, i. 51. Menes, history of his reign, i. 61, 62. Menhai, or Menhi, goddess, history and attributes of (il), iii. 192, 193. , a form of the goddess Bast (il), iii. 36. Menq, a form of Bast (&), iii. 236, 237. Mentu, or Mentu-Ra, god ; history and my- thology of (*?.), iii. 187, 188. Menzaleh, lake ; haunts of the ibis at, iii. 325. Mercenaries employed by Psammatichus, i. 102. described, i. 1 90. Mercenary troops (il), i. 189. Mercury, connection of, with Thoth, iii. 166-169. Mersekar, goddess ; mythology of (il), iii. 230, 231. Mert, goddess; account of (il.), iii. 230-232. , at the celebration of a festival (il.) , iii. 367. Metal arrow-heads (il.), i. 206. Metals, commerce in, and employment of, ii. 231-259. , compound, ii. 255. Metempsychosis, theory of, iii. 464, 465. Metensomatosis, theory of, iii. 464. Metis, an Orphic deity, ii. 487. Mice, account of, iii. 259, 294. Military caste favoured by Queen Hatasu, i. 37. power of Egypt in the time of Rameses II., i. 45. modes of the Egyptians, i. 46. caste of the soldiers, i. 158. rank, office, and customs of the class, i. 186-190. music, i. 197. punishments, i. 273. constitution of the kingdom, i. 327. chief carried in a palanquin (il.), i. 421. band {il), i. 456. , see Soldier. Milk, offerings of, iii. 417. Millet, cultivation of, ii. 402. Mills, i. 359. Mimosa, varieties of, ii. 414, 415. Min, a variant form of the god Khem.iii. 24. " Mincha," or "Korban Mincha," offerings entitled, iii. 413. Minerva, temple of, at Sais, i. 127. , the Neith of the Egyptians, iii. 39. Mines, notice of, i. 154, 155. , methods employed in the gold mines, ii. 237-242. Mirrors, metal (il), ii. 350, 351. Missiles, various, i. 244. Mizraim, district of, iii. 25. , sons of, iii. 27. Mnevis, the lawgiver, i. 323. VOL. III. MUMMY. Mnevis, a sacred bull, account of the, iii. 306, 307. Mock fights encouraged, i. 189. Model of a house (il.), i. 351. Models of boat;*, ii. 223. Moiris, king, forms the lake above Memphis, i. 16. Mazris, lake, description of the formation of the, i. 63, 64. , late pyramids at, i. 13. , fisheries of the lake, ii. 123-126. Momemphis, battle at, i. 102. , second battle at, i. 116, 117, 120. , sacred cow of, iii. 116. Monarchy, duration of the, i. 13. Money, ring (il), i. 286. , early, ii. 244-246. Monkey, Egyptian, ii. 190. Monkeys gathering fruit (il), i. 382. , sacred, iii. 258, 269. Monolithic edifice brought from Elephantine to Sais, i. 127. Monopoly of the Government in papyrus, ii. 179. Monstrous animals (il), ii. 93. Months, name and duration of the, ii. 368- 374. Monuments, oldest, i. 13. of the Shepherd kings, at Tanis, i. 16. , lists of early kings from the, i. 30, 31 . , history from the, defective after Ra- meses III., i. 60. , fasti of the 20th to the 23rd Dynasty with dates, i. 90, 91. erected by Psammatichus, i. 103. erected throughout Egypt by Amasis, i. 127, 328. of the reign of Nectanebo, i. 139. Moon,ihe, a male deity in Egypt, iii. 39, 165. , worship of the, iii. 47. personified by Chons, iii. 175. , festivals of the, iii. 375. Mora, game of (il.), i. 32 ; ii. 55. Mortars, pounding substances in (il), ii. 203, 204. Mosaic work in glass, ii. 149. Mourner, a peculiar attendant or, at fune- rals (il.), iii. 449. Mourning for a king, i. 167, 168. , customs used in, iii. 423. Mules, use of, i. 236, 237. Mulqufs, or wind vanes (il), i. 339, 361. Mummies, occurrence of, of the hippo- potamus, iii. 297. of the lower orders, iii. 438. , various sorts of, iii. 477-486. of bulls and cows at Thebes, iii. 306. of hawks, iii. 317. Mummy pledged for debts, i. 311. cloth, manufacture and quality of the, ii. 161-163. form of Ptah, iii. 16. , services and ceremonies before the (il), iii. 423, 428, 429. 2 L 514 INDEX. MUMMY. Mummy, conveyance of, in a sledge, to the tomb O'Z.), iii. 429. sometimes kept in the bouse, iii. 432, 433. introduced at festivities, ib. , instance of one not buried for a year, ib. in a closet with open panel (il), iii. 445. , methods of preparing (il), iii. 474- 476. cases (il), iii. 487-490. Mummy-pit, interior of a, or sepulchral chamber, at Thebes (il), iii. 427. Murder, law of, i. 302, 303. Murrhine vases, ii. 156. Music, military, i. 197. used at entertainments (il), i. 431. , character of the Egyptian, their study and fondness of, various instru- ments (il), i. 431-500. and dancing at a party (il), ii. 37. , use of, in ceremonies, iii. 384, 385. , cost of instruments of, i. 455. scale of pipes, i. 488. Musicians, hired (il), i. 439, 448. Mustard, cultivation of, ii. 403, 410. Mat, or Tmau, goddess ; one of the Thebau triad, ii. 484, 513. in a triad (il), ii. 512. , worship of (il), iii. 31-34. , connection of Sekhet with, iii. 39. Mycerinus, history of his reign, i. 85, 86. , festival of the daughter of, iii. 382. Myos Hormos, port of, i. 152. Muosotis, peculiar use of the juice of the, ii. 413. Myrobalanum, plant producing, ii. 404. represented in tombs, ii. 413. Myrtle, cultivation of, ii. 408. Mysteries, importance of the divine, i. 174. , initiation into, iii. 387. , Eleusinian, iii. 389-395. Mythological fables and tales, origin and inconsistency of, ii. 498, 499. N. Nahamua, goddess, history and mythology of (il), iii. 229, 230. Xalir-el-Kelb, stele at, i. 66, 67. Names of ancient kings, numerous (il), ii. 273-276. Napata, or Gebel Berkel, site and ruins of, i. 41. , seat of the worship of Chnoumis, iii. 6. Napkin, method of carrying a (il), iii. 430. Nat, or Neith, goddess (il), iii. 39-42. , see Neith. Naucratis, rise of, i. 123. Naval constructor, statue of a royal, ii. 227. engagements, i. 275-277. NILE. Navigation, origin and progress of, ii. 227, 228. Nebhotep, a goddess (il.), iii. 152. , history of (il), iii. 216, 218. Nebuchadnezzar, victories of, i. 113. , history of his Egyptiau conquests, i. 119. Nebuu, a form of Neith, iii. 132. , an inferior goddess (il), iii. 238, 240. Nechesia, site and trade of, i. 153. Nerho, voyage of discovery fitted out by, ii. 228. Necho II, history of his reign, i. 108. Necklaces, various forms and specimens of (il), ii. 343, 344. Nectanebo, history of his reign, i. 1 39. Nectanebo IX., history of his reign, i. 141. Needles (il), ii. 349. Nefer-Atum, an emanation of the god Atum (U.), iii. 180, 181. Nefer-hetp, a name of the god Chons, iii. 175. Negro features of Amenophis III., i. 42. nations subdued, i. 259, 261. Neitatis, Princess, history of, i. 129. Neith, the goddess of Sais, i. 34. presides over the upper hemisphere, iii. 29. , the Esrvptian Minerva, history and myths of (il), iii. 39-44. , inventress of the art of weaving, iii. 43. , one of the Theban triad, ib. , example of her representation (il.), iii. 152. , peculiar form of (il), iii. 228. , vulture sacred to, iii. 312. , ceremonies of, at Sais, iii. 377, 380, 381. Nepenthes, history and cultivation of the, ii. 412. Nephthys, goddess, in combination with Ptah and Isis (il), iii. 20. , birth of, iii. 61. , myths of, iii. 75-77. (or Nebta), history, myths, and wor- ship of (il), iii. 155-157. Net-making (il), ii. 170. Nets used in hunting, ii. 80-82. , fishing (il), ii. 102. used in bird-catching (il), ii. 103, 109-111. for landing fish (il), ii. 117. Netting-needles (il), ii. 175. Nile, river; inhabitants of the valley of the, i. 2. , extent of, in ancient times, i. 6, 7. , deposits of the, i. 8. , course of, diverted, i. 61. , mystical interpretation of the inun- datL >n of the, iii. 79. , incense burnt at the festival of the inundation of the (il), iii. 399. INDEX. 515 NILOA. Niloa. or festival of invocation of the Nile, iii. 369, 370. Nilometer, measurements involved in the, ii. 382-385. , uses of the, ii. 434. , evidence of the gradual change of level indicated by that of Elephantine, ii. 433. Nilus, or Hapi, deity ; history and mytho- logy of 07.), iii. 206-210. Nishem, lady of Eileithyia, inscription con- cerning her (il), iii. 137. , the Egyptian Lucina (il), iii. 194- 198. Nitocris, Queen; description of, i. 19. , history of, i. 62. Nomarchs, election, constitution and autho- rity of, i. 98-100. , office of, i. 326, 327. Nomes, or provinces of Egypt, i. 97-99, 325. , their government by nomarchs, ii. 387. Noose, or lasso, used in the chase (il), ii. 87. Noreg, or threshing implement (il), i. 408. , the corn drag of modern Egypt, ii. 421, 423. Notegays held bv the god Bes (il), iii. 149. Noses, cutting off of, i. 308. Notaries (il), i. 285, 286. Nu, the primordial water, myth of, ii. 500. , myths connected with, iii. 161. Nubia, wars of Rameses sculptured on the temples of, i. 47. , extent and ancient condition of, i. 149. , nature of the valley of, ii. 438, 439. Nubti, god ; history, myths, and worship of (il), iii. 134-140, 145. , an equivalent of Antaeus, iii. 238. Numbers, mystic, ii. 489, 494. , method of notation, ii. 489, 490. , modern symbolism applied to, ii. 493. Nut, goddess, on a sarcophagus (UX ii. 359. , myths concerning, iii. 61. , mythology and worship of (il), iii. 62-64. , legends concerning, iii. 136. , her connection with Lucina, iii. 193, 194. Nutpe, goddess, in a triad at Silsilis, iii. 147. 0. Oak, cultivation of the, ii. 405. Ours, use of, ii. 217. Oases, nature of the soil in the, ii. 439-441. Oasis, ram-headed Chnoumis worshipped in the, iii. 2. Obelisk at Heliopolis, i. 32. 1 of glass, ii. 146. , a broken, abandoned at Syene, ii. 307. ORACLE. Obelisk on a pectoral plate (il ), iii. 240. Obelisks, various, erected by Queen Hatasu. i. 37. erected by Thothmes III., i. 40. erected by Meneptah, i. 51. set up by Sesostris, i. 69. , occurrence of, in villas (il.), i. 365. 366. , construction of, ii. 138. , history of, ii. 307, 308. , transport of, ii. 309. . dedication of, iii. 50. , figures on the apex of, iii. 361. Offences, various, with punishments, i. 307, 308. Offerings, variety of, i. 180, 181. of onions (il), i. 181. of onions to deceased parents (il), ii. 515. , Jewish, ii. 465-467. , stands for (il), iii. 408. , variety of (il), iii. 413-422, 429. by kings (il), iii. 415. , variety and costly nature of, iii. 420, 421. at funerals, iii. 427. sculptured on an altar (il), iii. 430. , various, placed on tables in tombs (il), iii. 432, 433. Officer, seated figure of an (il), ii. p. xii. Officers of the household (il), i. 197. of the court, i. 324. of the empire, i. 328. Oil, vegetables yielding, ii. 399, 400, 408- 413. , offerings of (il), iii. 415, 419. , mummies anointed with (il), iii. 429, 430. Ointment, variety of, ii. 345, 346. of Trigonella, ii. 399. frum a vase in Alnwick Castle, ii. 401. , offerings of, iii. 419, 420. Old age, respect for, i. 321. Olive, cultivation of the, ii. 406. represented in tombs, ii. 413. Ombos, triads of, ii. 513. , seat of the worship of Set, iii. 145. , seat of the worship of Taur and Apt, iii. 145, 147. Omens, belief in, ii. 456 ; iii. 3S6. Onions tied up for offerings (il), i. 181. offered by a priest to deceased paients (il), i. 515. used in food and offerings, but for- bidden to priests, ii. 25. , uses of, ii. 25, 26. , cultivation of, ii. 402, 40.;, 409. treated as deities, iii. 350. , use of 07.), iii. 419. Oaka, Onk, or Ank, appellation of Mim rva and Neith, iii. 41. Oracle of Latona at Butos. i. 85, 100 ; iii 31-33, 123. , consultation of Apia as an, iii. 93. 2 L '1 516 INDEX. ORACLES. Oracles, belief in, ii. 4G1-463. , history of, ii. 464. Orchards 07.), i. 379-381. Ordeal undergone by the dead, iii. 459- 461. Origanum, varieties of, ii. 409, 410. Ornamental powers of the Egyptians, i. 374. Ornaments, personal, of the Bebu, i. 251. of gold, ii. 236, 237. Orpheus, his system of worship, ii. 487. Orphic system, as explained by Prichard, ii. 509. Oryx, or goat 07.), ii. 90, 92. , description of the, ii. 94 ; iii. 260, 302, 303. Oshmoonein, the modern Hermopolis, iii. 165, 166. Osirei, see Seti I. Osiris, the god; great respect for, as a ruler, i. 12. , figure of, exhibited to guests (?7.), ii. 51. , ceremony of, described, ib. , character of the worship of, ii. 480. , his nature and appellations, ib. , one of the Philse triad, ii. 484. , specially worshipped atPhila?, ii. 486. , character and history of, ii. 486, 487. , the primal cause, ii. 489. , restored to shape by Chnoumis, iii. 7. , attributes of, taken occasionally by Amen, iii. 9. , connected with Khem, iii. 28. , derivation of Greek legends from those of, iii. 29. , birth of, iii. 61. , destruction of, by Typho, iii. 75-77. , history, emblems, myths, and worship of (?7.), iii. 65-86. , under form of the Apis 07.), iii. 86- 98 , relation of, to Isis, iii. 101-104, 113. , duties of, in Amenti, iii. 126. , in connection with Nephthys, iii. 156. , connected with Anubis, iii. 157-161. , his sons Anubis andMacedo, iii. 161. , protected by Isis (tL), iii. 225. , his character as Eas (il), iii. 232. , ceremonies connected with the myth of, iii. 372, 373, 375, 376, 382-384. sitting in judgment (il.), iii. 466-470. , figures relating to the worship of 07.), iii. 492. Osiris Tat, called Sept, father of the gods 07.), iii. 82. Osorcho, the Egyptian Hercules, i. 23. Ostrich, with feathers and eggs 07.), i- 283 ; iii. 257. Ostriches (il), ii. 92. Osymandyas, a Thibau monarch, according to Diotiorus, i. 16. , history of his reign, i. 73-75. , tomb of, ib. PAPYRUS. Otter, account of the, iii. 258, 272. Ottomans, or couches 07.), i- 415. Ovens for hatching eggs OH.), ii. 450. Owls, notice of, in Egypt, iii. 317, 318. Ox, Indian or humped (il.), ii. 90. , sacred character and attributes of the, iii. 305-308. , sacrifice of the, iii. 403-406. , wild : caught with lasso 07.), ii- 87. , chased with bow and arrow Oil.), ii. 89. Oxen treading out corn 07.), ii. 419-424. , , wild, figures of («7.), ii. 90, 92. Ox-car, with Ethiopian princess (il), i. 235. Oxherd, deformed (il), ii. 444. Oxherds held in contempt, ib. OxyrJiynchus, a sacred fish (il), iii. 340- 342. P. Paamylia, festival so termed, iii. 379. Paint and colours, composition of, ii. 287, 288. Painted architecture and intaglio sculp- ture, ii. 285. sculptures at Medeenet Haboo, ii. 278- 285. Painting the face, female custom of, ii. 347, 348. of vases, ii. 155. Paintings in tombs, iii. 435. Palanquin (il), i. 421. Pallahides of Amen, i. 169. of Jupiter, ii. 496. Palm of Thebes, uses of the (il), i. 400. trees (il), i. 378. , occurrence of the, i. 398. wine from the, i. 397. , sacred symbolism of the, iii. 351. branches strewn at funerals (il), iii. 451. Palma, cultivation of 1hc, ii. 404, 405. Pan identified with Khem, iii. 186, 187. Paneb-ta, myth of 07.), iii. 176, 177. Panegyrics, ceremony of the, iii. 136. Panelled walls (il), i. 368. Pannier on two asses (il), i. 237. Panopolis, seat of the worship of Thriphis, iii. 27. Panther, account of the, iii. 259, 293. Pantomimic representations, i. 455, 510. Paper, manufacture of, ii. 179-182. Papi, name of (il), ii. 275, 276. Papremis, sham fight at, ii. 75. , festivals at, iii. 377, 381. , forms of worship at, iii. 147. Papyrus, chaplets of, i. 403. -, eating of, ii. 25. , flowers of, on boxes (il), ii. 14. , uses of the, ii. 121. , cultivation, varieties, uses, and manu- facture of, ii. 179-182, 403, 406. INDEX. 517 PAPYRUS. Papyrus, canoe3 made of (il), ii. 208. , sails of (il), ii. 221. , offerings of (il), iii. 418. Parasol, or fly-Sup, Persian (il), i. 422. Parchment, antiquity of, ii. 182. , manufacture and uses of, ii. 183. Parks, i. 406. Party of ladies (tL\ i. 393. , man carried home from a (il.), i. 394. Parties and social entertainments (il.), ii. 36-40. Pa*ht, now more properly Sekhet, a god- dess, iii. 39. Passports, i. 300, 301. Pastrycooks (il), ii. 33, 34. Patarbemis, an Egyptian courtier, tragic history of, i. 116. Pathyris, a part of Thebes, origin of the name, iii. 115. Patterns from ceilings (il), i. 362. of chair-seats (il), i. 414, 415. of loom stuffs, ii. 166. Paur, or Paser, investiture of (il), iii. 371. Pautaouphis, a title of Thoth, iii. 169, 170. Pavilion of Eameses III. at Medeenet Haboo (il). ii. 454. Pe, goddess, history and mythology of, iii. 205, 206. Peace offering, Jewish, iii. 413. Peach, cultivation of the, ii. 405. Pegs, musical, i. 454. Pelicans (il.), ii. 102. , account of, iii. 328. Pellices, or Pallakides, of Amen, i. 169. of Jupiter, ii. 496. Pelusium, surrender of, to Persia, i. 141. People, sacerdotal influence over the, i. 177. Persea-tree, cultivation of the, ii. 408, 414. , represented in tombs, ii. 413. , sacred to Athor, iii. 119. Persepolitan figures in variety of dress and armour (il), i. 248. Persian kings of Egypt, i. 24, 25. dynasty of Egypt, i. 1 33. dynasty, list of the, i. 142. nation foiled in the attempt to sub- jugate Egypt, i. 139. car (il), i. 211. chief 07.), i. 422. head-dress (il], i. 247. oracles of Zoroaster, trinity from, ii. 488. saddle (il), i. 238. Persians, softness of the skulls of the, ii. 332. Personal characteristics of the people registered, i. 301. Phagrtis, a sacred eel, iii. 342. Phalanx of infantry (il), i. 194. of the Khita (il), i. 257. Phallic monuments set up, i. 20. fkures, iii. 379. PIPES. Phallus of Osiris, myth of the consecra- tion of the, iii. 77. Phanes of Halicarnassus, account of, i. 130, 131. , an Orphic deity, ii. 487. Pharaoh, signification and philology of the name, L 31. , etymology of the name, iii. 44, 54, 127. Pherecydes of Sidon, the Trinity of, ii. 488. Philx, triad of deities worshipped at, ii. 484, 513. , Osiris specially venerated at, ii. 486. , representation of Chnoumis at, iii. 7. , myth of Osiris and his sepulchre at, iii. 84, 85. , seat of the worship of Isis, iii. 113. , worship of Nilus at, iii. 209. , hawk of, iii. 315. Philoteras, port of, i. 33. , site and uses of the poxt of, i. 151. Phoenician sailors double the Cape of Good Hope, ii. 228. Phoenicians encouraged by Psammatichus, i. 107. , voyage of discovery by, along the African coast, i. 108, 109. , tin trade of the, ii. 229-232. , their mythology compared with Egyptian Pantheon, ii. 483. , their Trinity, ii. 488. Phoenix, or Bennu (il), ii. 135. painted on sails, ii. 226. , history of the legends respecting, iii. 55-58. , first of fabulous birds, iii. 328. Phrygian language, experiment demon- strating the antiquity of the, i. 106, 107. Physicians, employment and skill of, ii. 354, 355. Pictorial representations, origin of, ii. 266, 267. Pietschmann (Dr.), his history of Hermes Trismegistus, iii. 171. Pigeon, use of the, in coronation ceremonies, iii. 320. , favourite food of Egyptians, ib. Pigs (il), ii. 100. sacrificed to the Moon and Bacchus, ii. 467 ; iii. 375. , account of, iii. 259, 297-299. in the barque of Glutton v (il), iii. 467. , method of pasturing, ii. 394. , the flesh of, forbidden to priests, i. 179. Pillar of wood, unknown ceremony of the 07.), iii. 424. Pillow, or head -rest (il), i. 419. , description of the, i. 186. , various forms of, iu alabaster (il), i. 143. Pins (il), ii. 349. Pipes, double 07.), various, i. 436, 438- 441, 489, 490. 518 INDEX. PLAGUES. Plagues in Egypt, i. 17. Plane, or smoother, for pressing cloth (il), ii. 175. Planets dedicated to certain deities, iii. 49. Plans of houses (il). i. 345, 348. Plants introduced into Egypt, i. 154. used in tanning and curing skins, ii. 186, 190. , wild and field, great variety of, ii. 403. , cultivated, tabular synopsis of, ii. 404-413. , illustrations of, ii. 413. , list of sacred, iii. 266. Plato, trinity of, ii. 488. , religious doctrines and systems of, ii. 506-508, 510. Pleasure boat (il.), ii. 212. Plectrum, use of the (il.), i. 476. Flethrum, a measure of length, i. 74. Pliny, expression of, concerning Ethiopia, i. 9. , his account of Egyptian plants, ii. 404-413. Plough, use of the (il), ii. 390, 391, 396. , form and construction of the (il.), ii. 391-393. Plutarch, trinity of, ii. 488. , account by, of the birth of the children of Saturn, iii. 61. Pluto, connection of, with Sarapis, iii. 95, 96 Pule-axes (il), i. 216. Political changes, i. 329. Polycrates of Samos, history of, i. 124-126. , friendship of, with King Amasis, ib. Polygamy, notice of, i. 318. Pomegranate-tree {il), i. 376. represented in tombs, ii. 413. Pond in a garden (il), ii. 212. Poppy, cultivation of the, ii. 399, 410. Population, statistics of, i. 145. , conditions of various classes of, i. 156. Porcelain drinking-cup (il), ii. 7. vases, shapes and colours of, ii. 11. vases and tups (il), ii. 12. draughtnien (il), ii. 56. , manufacture of, ii. 150. Porch (il), i. 346, 347. Porcupine to stock preserves (il), ii. 83, 86. ■ , figures of 07.), ii. 90, 92. , not an Egyptian animal, ii. 95. , not a sacred animal, iii. 259, 2l)4. Port of Philoteras, foundation of the, i. 33. Ports of the Ked Sea, i. 151-153. , commerce of the, ii. 229. Potsherds, documents written on, ii. 183. Potters, numerous, ii. 190. , emplovment and skill of (il), ii. 191-194. Potter s-ivheel, history and use of the (il), ii. 191, 192. PROPYL.EON. Poidterer's shop (il), i. 364. Poulterers (il), i. 289, 290, 292. Poultry, mode of rearing, ii. 102. Pourd, Somal, or South-Eastern Africans 07.), i. 246. , character and costume of the, i. 252. , tribute brought by the, i. 252. , wars with the foreigners of, i. 33. Precious stones, bags of (il), ii. 3. Prerogatives of priests, i. 172. Presents made by Amasis to Greek deities, i. 123. Preserves of wild animals, i. 407. Priapus, notice concerning, i. 404, 405. , the equivalent to the God Khem, iii. 22. Prichard (J. C), his remarks on human sacrifices, iii. 402. Priests, rank and functions of the, i. 168, 169. , extent of their influence, i. 178. , frugality of the, i. 179. , marriage of, i. 318. , study of music by the, i. 444. offering incense (il), i. 493. , food of, ii. 25. , costume of (il), ii. 324. with walking-sticks (il), ii. 352. , creed of, unknown to the general body of the people, ii. 471. , secrecy of the, in matters of doctrine and belief, ii. 472, 478. ofTering onions to deceased parents 01), ii. 515. of Heliopolis, iii. 54, 55. watering the sacred tamarisk (il), iii. 350. , duties of, in processions, iii. 354-358. , various ceremonies performed by the (il), iii. 423. , ceremonies of, at funerals (il), iii. 428-430. , collections made to defray funeral expenses of, iii. 431. , funeral procession of royal scribe 07.), iii. 447. Priestesses of Amen, i. 169. Primeval history of Egypt, i. 11. Prince, the son of Barneses, in a chariot (il), i. 224. Princes, duties of, i. 49, 50. distinguished by their attire, i. 162, 163. in chariots (il), i. 223. , head-dresses of (il), ii. 325. Princesses educated by priests, iii. 447. Prisoners of Tirhakah (il), i. 253. Processions, various characters of the (il), iii. 354 et seq. Prophecies concerning Egypt, i. 114, 115. , fulfilment of, against Egypt, i. 118, 119, 122. Prophets, class of, i. 173. Propylxon (il), i. p. xiv. INDEX. 519 PROPYL^UM. Propylxum at Sai's in honour of Minerva, i. 127. Prosopitis, island of, sacred cattle interred in the, iii. 109, 110, 249. Prosperity of Egypt under Amasis, i. 121. Prostitution of priestesses, alleged, i. 171. , see Pallakides. Proteus, or Cetes, history of his reign, i. 79, 80. Provinces, division of, i. 325. Prwihoe (Lord), lions from Xapata in the possession of, i. 41. , his theory of the Exodus, i. 53-55. Psammatichus, legend of, i. 100. ■ erects the Apis temple at Memphis, iii. 89. Psammatichus II., history of his reign, i. 113, 114. Psammatichus III, or Psammenitus, his- tory of his reign, i. 131. Psammatichus iT.,history of his reign, i.l 36. Pselcis, the land of Pselk, now Dakkeh, temple of, iii. 169. Psellus, his confused notions of Thoth, iii. 165. Ptah, temple of, at Memphis, i. 62, 63. , temple of, adorned by Sesostris, i. 69. , temple of. vestibule erected by Psam- matichus, i. 104. , deformed, but the creator of the world, ii. 472. ' , his position in the Orphic philosophy, ii. 509. , mythological account of (il), iii. 14- 22. , associated with Bast, iii. 37. , figure of (il.), iii. 152. Ptah-Socharis- Osiris, nature of the worship of (U.% iii. 17-20, 23, 528. , connected with Apis, iii. 94. , ceremony of the boat of, iii. 372, 373. I Pthahmen Septhah, history of his reign, i. 55, 56. Ptolemaic period, style of the sculptures of the, ii. 291. Ptolemy Soter, history of his introduction of the worship of Sarapis, iii. 95. Public weighers (il), i. 285. Pulleys, use of, in rigging (il), ii. 225. Pulse, varieties of, cultivated, ii. 398. Pulusata, captives of the tribe of, on a vase (il), ii. 6. , captives of the, ii. 220. Punishment, forms of, i. 273, 302-311. of sacred animals, iii. 247. Pyramid of Zowaryet el Arrian, stone saw found at the, i. 4 ; ii. 261. of Cephren, i. 85. of Mycerinus, i. 85, 86. of Asychis, i. 87, 88. at Assur, in Nubia (il.), iii. 1. , step-shaped , at Saqqara, iii. S<4. Pyramids during inundation, view of (il), i. 1. BAilESES in. Pyramids, date of the, i. 14. , number of the, i. 13. , builders of thp, i. 16, 17. built by various early kings, i. 29. of brick, i. 36. built by Cheops, i. 13, 84, 85. , brick (il), ii. 298-300. of Gizeh, plan of (il), ii. 360. , tombs at the, iii. 43tf. Pythagoras, his theory of music and sound, i. 447. , doctrines of, ii. 508, 509. , his theories of transmigration and emanation, iii. 67, 68. Pytliaqoreans, mystic numbers of the, ii. 490^494. Q. Qahhsenuf, a genius of the Lower Regions (il), iii. 219-222. Qasr e'Sydd. rock-hewn tomb at, ii 272. Qoorneh, plain of, colossi in ihe, ii. 306. Qoos. site and trade of, i. 152. Quail, account of the, iii. 321. Quarries of the Kossayr road, notice of the, i. 33. of the Kossayr road, exvotos at, de- dicated to Khem, iii. 26, 27. Quarry, mode of commencing a (il), ii. 300, 302. Queens of Barneses the Great (il), i. 170. Ra, the sun, universal worship of (il), iii. 44, 45. , myths connected with, iii. 161. Rain, duration of, ii. 425, 426. Ram. place of, in Egyptian zciiac, iii. 305. Ram-headed Chnoumis (il), iii. 2, 3. Ra lueses L, history of his reign, i. 42, 43. Rameses IL, the Great, history of his reign, i. 44-49. , queens of (il), i. 170. , his victories over the Rebu, i. 250, 251. , number of his family, i. 49. , colossus of, ii. 306. , attended by three deities il), iii. 203. , accompanied to battle by a lion, iii. 292. holding a shrine with the figure of a scartiba3us (il), iii. 346. crowned by Set and Horus (il), iii. 361. celebrating a festival (il), iii. 367. Rameses III, history of his reign, i. 56-59. . his victories over the Rebu, i. 250, 251. , papyrus relating to, i. 307. , ottomans from the tomb of {il), i. 415 playing at draughts (il), ii. 59, 60. in his hareem (il), ii. 60. 520 INDEX. EAMESES III. Barneses III., fleet of. ii. 228. , golden baskets from Lis tomb (ii), ii. 23(3. , progress of art under his reign, ii. 277-279. , description of his palace temple at Medeenet Haboo, ii. 278-289. , his donations of live stock to Heli- opolis, ii. 453. , pavilion of, at Medeenet Haboo (il.), ii. 454. depiction of the °:od Shu in the tomb of, at Thebes, iii. 171. dedicating a pylon (il.), 359. Rameseum, or Eamesseion, the, formerly known as the Memnonium. i 78. , subjects relating to offerings in the, iii. 414. , see Memnonium. Rannu, goddess, inbcribtd figure of, upon a table U7.), i. 418. , goddess of gardens, i. 404. , history and mythology of, iii. 212- 214. Raphanus. cultivation of, ii. 408. Ras, or Sas, a character of Osiris (il.), iii. 232, 233. Rat, figure of a (*7.), ii. 90. , Egyptian, iii. 259, 294. Ra.t, a goddess, account of (il.), iii. 236, 238. Ra-ta, goddess, mythology of (■/?.), iii. 232, 233. Rats destroy the weapons of Sennacherib's army, i. 96. Raven, Egyptian, iii. 318, 319. Reaping, methods of (il), ii. 396,419, 422, 424, 427. Rebellion of Syria, i. 43. Rebu, or Libyans, uniform of (il), i. 246. , wars of the, i. 250. , dress and armour of the, i. 251. Reclining at meals, ii. 40, 41. Records, care for public, i. 176. Red Sea, armaments of Kameses the Great on the, i. 47. , inbabitants of the shores of the, re- duced by Sesostris. i. 65. Red, the sacrificial colour, iii. 403-406. Red hair, contempt for, iii. 403. Reed, cultivation of varieties of the, ii. 409, 412. , arrows of (il.), i. 206. , pipes of (il.), i. 486. Registration of the people (il.), i. 300. Regnier, extracts from his work on Egypt under the Romans, i. 336. Rekhmara, tomb ot (il.), i. 38. Relatives, mummies of, pledged for debts, i. 311. Religion instituted by Menes, i. 62. , worship of the great gods, ii. 468. , worship of sacred animals, ii. 468- 473. ROBBERS. Religion, earlier form of, ii. 471. , later forms of, ii. 472. , mistaken opinions of the Greeks on, ii. 473. , symbolic character of the figures of the gods, ii. 475, 476. , divine attributes, ii. 476, 477. , nature of, and reasons for Egyptian divine symbolism, ii. 477, 478. , original belief of the ancients in a sole deity, ii. 479. , unity of the deity, ii. 480. , ineffable name of the deity, ib. , allegory of his eternity, ib. , classification of gods, ii. 481-484. , great gods, ii. 484, 511. , system of triads, ii. 484, 513-515. , doctrine of the Trinity, ii. 485, 486. connected with that of the Noachical dispensation, ii. 486. , notions concerning a trinity, ii. 486- 488. , original notions of a deity, ii. 494- 496. , allegorical character of, ii. 500, 501. , cosmogony, ii. 503-506. . Platonic ideas and doctrines, ii. 506, 5U7. , Pythagorean doctrines, ii. 50S, 509. , Greek confusion concerning, ii. 510- 512. , triads of various localities, ii. 513- 515. Religious dances, i. 509. opinions of the Egyptians, ii. 454. practices connected with meals, ii. 49-52. inclination of the Egyptians, iii. 424. Remai, king, name of (il.), ii. 275, 276. Rernenen, or Armenians (il. ), i. 259, 260. Rempi, a goddess {il.), iii. 214, 215. Reshpu, god; historv and mythology of (il.), iii. 234, 235. " Revenue of the Egyptians, i. 150, 334. from land, ii. 387. Revolt of the Egyptians against Apries, i. 115. Rhampsinitus, history of his reign, i. 81- 85. and Ceres, ii. 61. , festival of, iii. 381. Rhinocolura, a town of banished robbers, i. 72. , origin of the town, i. 308. Rhus indigenous in Egypt, ii. 413. Rice, cultivation of, ii. 402. Rigging, method of, ii. 225. Ring, story of the emerald ring of Poly- crates, i. 124-126. Rings worn by women (il.), ii. 340, 341. , various specimens of (il.), ii. 342, 343. Roads improved by Sesostris, i. 70. elevated, ii. 432. Robbers violate the tombs of the kings, i. 60. INDEX. 521 ROBBERS. Bobber 8 mutilated and banished to Rhino- colura by Actisanes, i. 72. , tale of, in connection with the riches of Rhampsinitus, i. 81-84. Bocks sculptured with name of Usertesen III., i. 33. of Lycus, near Beiroot, inscribed with the records of Rameses the Great, i. 45. Boman rule in Egypt, i. 303-338. winepress (il), i. 385, 386. classification of gods, ii. 481, 482. conceptions concerning Egyptian re- ligion, ii. 495-497. ideas concerning Isis, iii. 99-103. calculations with respect to the calendar, iii. 104-107. notions concerning Athor, iii. 111. Boqfing, methods of (il.), i. 357. stones, enormous size of, ii. 307. Booms, description of, i. 347-350. Base, cultivation of the, ii. 407, 410. Budder, history of the, ii. 223. Bui, statue of (il.), i. p. xi. Buin of Egypt by Ochus of Persia, i. 142. But-en-nu attacked by Seti I., i. 43, 44. , chariot of the (il), i. 235, 236. , uniforms of Syrians or, i. 246. i character and costume of the, i. 254, 255. , women of the (il), i. 272. S. Sabaco, the Ethiopian king, overruns Egypt, i. 88, 89. , dress of (il), ii. 327. Sabsean forms of worship, iii. 47, 48. Sabooa, temple built by Rameses the Great, i. 50. Sacerdotal caste, i. 157. See Priests. Sacred music, i. 467. , characteristics of (il), i. 492-3. offices held by women (il), i. 170. Sacrifices, ii. 29. , nature of the (il), ii. 457-161 ; iii. 397. , human, to Sati, iii. 30. , doubtful human, iii. 400-402. , nature of the early, iii. 59-61. to Isis at Bubastis, iii. 108, 109. , daily, iii. 369. Sacrificial parts of animals (il), ii. 410, 459, 460. objects, from a tomb (il), ii. 460. food (il), ii. 461. Saddle, Persian (U.), i. 238. Safflower, cultivation of, ii. 398. used as a dye, ii. 399. Sailors, i. 274. Sails, embroidered (iL\ ii. 209. < , various forms of (il), ii. 209, 218, 220-224. SAUCER. Sails, painted and embroidered, ii. 226. j Sa'is, embellished by Amasis, i. 127. , monolithic remains at, ii. 306. , seat of the worship of Neith, iii. 39, 40. , ceremonies at, iii. 73, 74, 377. 380- 384. Saite dynasty, i. 24, 93. , list of the kings of, i. 102. ! , the 28th Dynasty, i. 137. Sak, a fabulous creature (il), iii. 312. 1 Sale of land, document concerning, i. 301. Salutation, manner of, iii. 425. Samians, early arts of, in bronze work, ii. 257. Samneh, height of Nile at, i. 34. , temple at, ii. 473. Samos patronised by Amasis, i. 123. , Sanchoniatho, trinity of, ii. 488. | Sandals (il), ii. 335, 336. Sands, theory of the encroachments of the, i. 146, 147. , encroachment in Nubia, i. 149. , encroachments of the Libyan desert of, ii. 436, 437. , whirlwind of (il), ii. 136. Sapt, see Sopt. Saqqdra, tomb at (il), ii. 262. , early royal tombs at, ii. 275. , Serapeum, step-shaped pyramid, and other recently discovered remains at, iii. 94, 95. Sarapis, Asarhapi, or Osiris-Apis (il), iii. 87, 89. , myths of, introduced into Egypt, iii. 95-98. , nature and history of the worship of, ib. , types and temples of, iii. 95. , uncertain notions respecting the nature of, iii. 97. , points of resemblance to Serapis, iii. 97, 98. , statue of, in glass, ii. 146. Sarcophagi occasionally covered with glass, ii. 149. Sarcophagus, with figure of the goddess Nut (il), ii. 359. covered with flowers, iii. 445. , varieties of (il), iii. 489-491. Sardinian Confederation defeated by Ra- meses DDL, i. 58. Saruhen, or Sharon, pursuit of the Shepherd kings as far as, i. 15. Sasyches, laws introduced by, i. 323. Sat, a goddess, account of (il), iii. 238, 241. Satem, god, notice of (il), iii. 226. Sati, or Satis, one of the triad of Elephan- tine, &c, ii. 484, 513. , goddess (il), iii. 3. , goddess, equivalent to Juno ; the mythology and history of, iii. 28-31. Saturn, origin of, ii. 479. Saucer of glazed ware [il), ii. 42. 522 INDEX. SAWS. Saws (il), i. 4, 401 ; ii. 261. Scale-armour (ii.), i. 221. Scales, use of the, ii. 246, 247. Scaling-ladder (il.), i. 243. , use of the, i. 46. Scarabseus, sacred (il.), iii. 353. , sacred nature, worship, and symbol- ism of (il), iii. 345-347. of stone, set with precious metals (il), iii. 487. Sciences encouraged by Sasyches, i. 65. , knowledge and practical use of, ii. 315-317. , early, ii. 367. taught at Heliopolis, iii. 55. Sf-orpion, emblem of Selk, iii. 344. Scribes, caste of, i. 157. noticed, i. 287-289. registering persons (il.), i. 300, 301. registering corn, i. 308. writing 07.), ii. 296. , costume of, ii. 324, 325. superintending harvest (il.), ii. 419, 422. taking stock of an estate (il.), ii. 445. , universal employment of, ii. 449. , continual necessity for, ii. 499. Sculpture, character of that of the period of Barneses III., i. 58. , details of the tomb of Osymandyas, i. 74, 75. , curious alteration in a, ii. 60. , ait and subjects of 07.), ii. 262-291. , progress of improvement in the art of, ii. 272. Scythians conquered by Barneses the Great, i. 45. , their condition, i. 45. , reduced by Sesostris, i. 66. , advance against Egypt, i. 107. , car of the (il), i. 236. Seal of king Naifaurut, i. 136. , sacrificial (il), iii. 407. Seals found in tombs (il), iii. 437. , uses of, for doors of edifices, iii. 437. Seasons (il), ii. 372-374. , arrangements of the, iii. 106. Seb, or Saturn, god, history of, ii. 499, 511. , mythology and worship of (il), iii. 59-62. , children of (il), iii. 135, 136. , scene representing Seb and Pe, the heaven and the earth (il), iii. 206. , a form of 07.), iii. 238, 240. Sebak, or Sonchis, god (il), iii. 152. ■ , history and mythology of (il.), iii. 189. . account of (il), iii. 226, 227. , the crocodile sacred to, iii. 329. Sebennyte dynasty, i. 25, 139. Sebbenuytus, temple at, repaired, i. 139, 110. Sebritx, or Egyptian deserters, i. 105. Sefekh, or Sefah, goddess ; history and mythology of (il.), iii. 202, 203. SHEEP. Sefekh, with Rameses II. (il), iii. 203. Sehayl, island of, seat of worship of Sati, iii. 28, 29. Sekhet, goddess, a form of Bast (il), iii. 36. , myths connected with, iii. 39, 161. Selk, goddess, history, worship, and mytho- logy of 07.), iii. 152, 203, 204, 344. Semneh, fortress at, i. 269. Semnuthis, signification and contents of the book so called, iii. 173. Sennacherib overthrown by Sethos, i. 95. Sensuphis erects Pyramids, i. 13. Sept, Sothis, Soptet, Sopti, or Sopt-har, god, notice of (il). iii. 3, 226, 228. Sepulchral figures (il), iii. 490-493. Sepulture, early customs connected with, ii. 267. Serapeum at Saqqara, iii. 94, 95. at Memphis, ib. Serq, or Selk (il), iii. 152. Servant and mistress (il), i. 392. Servants with flowers (il), i. 427. , costume of, ii. 338. Sesamum, cultivation of, ii. 408. Sesoosis II., history of his reign, i. 72. Sesostris, conquests of, i. 20. , stature of, i. 20. ■ , the same as Barneses the Great, i. 41. , history of his reign, i. 65-72. , laws of, i. 323. , fleet of, ii. 228. Set, son of Nut (il), iii. 135. , history and myths of, iii. 144, 145. crowning Barneses II. (il.), iii. 361. , with an emblem of years (il), iii. 369. Seth, fabulous emblem of (il.), iii. 311. Sethos defeats Sennacherib, i. 95. Seti I., cr Osirei, history of his reign, i. 43, 44. anointing Khem (il), iii. 362. investing an officer of rank (il), iii. 371. Shadoof, or instrument for raising water 07.), i. 279-281. Shairetana, maritime allies of Egypt ia the time of Barneses the Great, i. 47. conquered by Barneses III., i. 57. , or Sardinians, figures of (il), i. 189. , military dress of the, i. 245, 246. in military array (il), i. 246, 247. Sham-fights (il), ii. 73, 74. Shari, or Kharu, character and costume of the, i. 252, 253. Shasu, or Arabs, origin of the, i. 2. , history of the, i. 15. , description of their character, and armour of the (il), i. 246, 249. Shaving, ii. 330-332. Sheaves, wheat bound in (il), ii. 424. Shell of alabaster (il), ii. 46. Sheep eaten, ii. 22. , shoulder-bones of, for writing upon, ii. 183. INDEX. 523 SHEEP. Sheep never sacrificed, ii. 460. not slaughtered in the Thebai'd, iii. 6. kept for wool only, ib. , sacred, iii. 260, 304, 305. Sliepherd, caste of the, i. 288-290. , arts of the, ii. 376. , worship of Set by the, iii. 144. , subjection of the class of, ii. 444. Shepherd kings, Manetho's account of the, i. 14. , probable origin of, i. 14-16. , settlements of the, ii. 361. Shepu, or Apt, goddess, worshipped at Orabos (il), iii. 145. Sheshonk, or Sesostris, history of his reign, i. 91, 92. Shields, various (H), i. 198-202. Ships on the Red Sea fitted out by Rameses the Great, i. 47. , construction of, i. 275-277. of war, part of a (il), i. 199. of war 07.), ii. 211-224. , size and capacity of, ii. 226, 227. Shoes 01), ii. 335, 336. , varieties of, ii. 337. Shoolinq at targets (il), i. 27, 406, 407. Shops (il), i. 364. , description of, ii. 187-189. Shrewmouse, or Mygale, a sacred animal, iii. 258, 270, 271. Shrine in a boat, on a car (il.), i. 237. Shrines, processions of (il.), iii. 355-358. Shu, god, confounded with Chnoumis, iii. 5. , history and mythology of (il.), iii. 171-173. Shuu, a deity, account of 07.), iii. 236, 239. Sidonian Trinity, the, ii. 488. Sieves, ii. 178. Signets (il.), ii. 342. Silsili*, triad worshipped at, iii. 145-147, 513. , worship of Nilus at, iii. 209. Silver earring (//.), ii. 349. mines, i. 155. thread, ii. 167. , offerings of 07.), iii. 421. Simpula, or ladles (ii.), ii. 46, 47. Simsim, or Sesame, cultivation of, ii. 399, 402, 403, 408. Sinai, Mount, names of kings found at, ii. 273. Singing-men (il.), i. 440, 441. Single-stick, righting with (il.), ii. 72. Siphon, history and use of the 07.), ii- 313, 314. Sistrum, a musical instrument (il.), various kinds of, i. 497-500. Sistra, offerings of (il), iii. 422. Sitting postures of Egyptians, on the ground (il), i. 419. Slaves, black (il), i. 272. , music performed by, i. 459. offering wine at a party (il), ii. 37- SPINDLES. Slaves, costume of, ii. 338. Sledge, or sacred boat bearing a shrine (il), iii. 357, 358. for mummies 07.), iii- 429. Sling, for birds (il), i. 381. Slingers and slings 07.), i- 210. Slings (il), i. 278. Snakes, destruction of, by animals, iii. 283. , respect for, iii. 337, 338. Soap, history, manufacture, and uses of, ii. 49. Socrates, his fable of Thoth, iii. 164. , his opinions concerning death, iii. 434. Soil of the Nile, i. 8. , richness of the, ii. 361. I Solanum, varieties of the, ii. 411. \ Soldering, art of, ii. 259. Soldier, duties of the, i. 187. Soldiers, uniform of different corps of, i. 222. Solon visits Egypt, i. 126. Sulpuga spider, account <>f, iii. 345. Song, characteristics of Egyptian, i. 449. of the thresher (il), ii. 418, 421. see Maneros. Sont, uses and cultivation of the tree, ii. 413-415. , wood of the, ii. 416. Sopt, or Snpt, an inferior deity (il), iii. 234, 236, 237. Sothic period, computation of the, ii. 370- 374. Sothis, or the Dogstar, connection of, with Isis, iii. 103-107. Soul, transmigration of the, iii. 67. , Egyptian belief concerning the future state of the, iii. 462. Sow sacrificed to Thoth and Typho, iii. 167. I Sowing (il), ii. 390, 396. , operation of (il), ii. 395, 396. Sparroic, emblematic signification of the, iii. 318. Spear, method of carrying the (il), i. 200. for fishing, or bident, ii. 121. and reel used in hunting the hippo- potamus (il), ii. 128, 129. I Spearing fish (il.), ii. 107. Spears (il), i. 208, 209. Sphinx, age of the, i. 40. 128. , plan of the 07.), ii- 360. , varieties and symbolic natures of the, ii. 94. , varieties of the (il), iii. 309-311. | , symbolism of the, iii. 136. , signification of the, ii. 475. Sphinxes, avenues of, i. 56. , dromos of, between Luxor and Kar- nak. ii. 434, 435. , dromos of, at Saqqara, iii. 95. Sphragistx. class of, i. 157. Spindle, use of the (il), i. 317. Spindles, various forms and uses of 07.), ii- 171, 172. 524 INDEX. SPINNING. Spinning, universal employment in (il), ii. 169, 170. Spoons, account of, ii. 13. , various (il.), ii. 45-47. Square-measures, ii. 386. Stabbing, method of (il.), i. 211. Stability represented with the god Ptah (il), iii. 17. Stables, use of, i. 370. Stag, notice of the, iii. 259, 301, 302. Stags (il), ii. 90. Stand, wooden, for a cup (il.), i. 427. , with a bottle-case {il.), i. 428. Standard-bearers, i. 196. Standards, various (il.), i. 195. Stands for offerings [il.), iii. 408. Star, connection of a, with the attitude of prayer, iii. 48 Statistics, military, i. 188. Statuary, work of the (il), ii. 310, 311. Statue of Serapis, in glass, ii. 146. Statues of Amasis, in wood, at Samos, i. 123. , origin and conventional character- istics of, ii. 268, 269. , description of details and proportions of, ii. 270, 271. , mode of transporting colossal (il.), ii. 305. of gods, clothed (il), iii. 395. Stelae erected by Sesostris, i. 65. 66. erected by Sesostris still standing, i. 66-68. Stewards superintending houses, grounds, and agricultural operations (il), i. 372. Stibium, vase for (il), ii. 12. , use of, ii. 348, 349. Stone, arches of, ii. 299. , arrow heads and other early imple- ments of 07.), ii. 259-261. , method of transporting large blocks of (il), ii. 302-310. , documents on, ii. 183. saw found at the pyramid of Zowaryet el Arrian, i. 4 ; ii. 261. ' vase (il), ii. 8. period in Erage of wine (il), i. 388. Strainers, bronze, ii. 48. Straw, uses of, ii. 425. String, seat of a chair formed of inter- laced 07.), i. 412. Stringed instruments of more or less harp- like character (il), i. 468-470, 473, 474. Suicide, i. 307. Sun, worship of the, iii. 44-48. , festivals of the, iii. 384. , invocation of the, iii. 481. Superstition of the ancients and moderns contrasted, iii. 300. Superstitions, variety of, ii. 454-456. Suphis, or Cheops, occurrence of his name, ii. 273. TA-SEN-T-NEFER. Suphis, or Cheops, erects pvramids, i. 13, 84, 85. Sutecli, temple of, built, i. 15. Swallow, occurrence of the, iii. 319. Swords (il), i. 211. Sycamore represented in the tombs, ii. 413. , cultivation of the, ii. 414. wood, uses of, ii. 416, 417. sacred to Nut, iii. 118, 119. , basket of figs (il), iii. 419. Syene, cataracts of, the triad of the, ii. 484, 513; iii. 28. Symbols on sails, ii. 226, 228. of victory and peace, i. 270, 271. Syria, rebellion of, i. 43. T. Ta-aha, the cow goddess, account of (il), iii. 216, 218. Taanauna, or Danai 07.). *• 189. Table carried behind the stavue of the god Khem (il), i. 404. Tables, various (il), i. 417, 418. for dinner, use of, ii. 38-44. with offerings, placed in tombs (il), iii. 432, 433. Tablet surmounted by a mummied hawk 07.), iii. 126. Tactics of the army, i. 263. Taharha, see Tirhakah. Tail, an emblem supposed to be a (il), iii. 423. Tahkari, or Teucrians, conquered by Kameses III., i. 57. , uniform of the (&), ii. 246, 247. , carts of the (il), i. 247-249. Tamahu, or Libyans, origin of the, i. 2. Tamarind depicted in tombs, ii. 413. Tamarisk of Osiris, sacred 07.), ii- 135. , uses of the wood of the tree, ii. 195, 416. , cultivation of the, ii. 407. , represented in tombs, ii. 413. , sacred to Osiris (il), iii. 349, 350. Tambourine, uses of, i. 491, 492. Tambourines (il), i. 439, 443. Tanen, goddess, account of (il), iii. 224, 227, 231. Tanis, or Zoan, foundation of, i. 4, 5. , siege of, i. 15. , shepherd monuments at, i. 16. Tanite dynastij, i. 23, 30. Tanning, ii. 185, 186, 190. Taposiris. reputed burial-place of Osiris, iii. 86. Target, shooting at a (il), i. 27, 406, 407. Targets, young men shooting at(#-)>i.« 406. Tartarus, origin of, ii. 479. , a deity, ii. 488, 491. Taruau, or Negroes, costumes of the (il.}, i. 259. Ta-sen-t-nefer, myth of (il), iii. 176. INDEX. 525 Tat, the emblem of Osiris, iii. 68, 82. Tat-un, an inferior deity 07.), iii. 238, 240. Tau, or sacred sign of life (il), iii. 352, 363, 364. Taur, or Thoueris, an evil goddess, history and myths of 07.), iii. 145-147. , goddess, figures of, on pillows, i. 419. Tax, land, instituted by Kameses the Great, i. 50, 51. Taxes, story illustrative of the reluctance to paying, i. 308, 307. , direct, i. 337. Tefnu, goddess, history and mythology of 07.), iii. 191, 192. , deity, sister to Shu, iii. 173. , slaughter of mankind by, iii. 161. Tel-Basta, mounds of, iii. 35. , temple of Bast at, ib. Tel-et-Mai, monolithic remains at, ii. 307. Temple in the province of Crocodilopolis, i. 32. of Heliopolis, i. 32. erected in the Wadee Jasoos, i. 33. , subjects of offerings in the, iii. 414. at Edfou 07.), iii. 354. Tentyris, goddess of the town 07.), iii. 212, 213. Terra-cotta bottles 07.), ii. 19. Terrace of a house (il. ), i. 359. Testudo, use of the 07.), i- 46> 47, 242-244. Tetraktys, mystic name of creative power, ii. 492. Thamus, a king of Egypt, legend respect- ing, iii. 164. Thanksgiving after victory, i. 270, 271. Thebaid, appellations of the, i. 9, 10. , limits of the, i. 326. , southern part of the, chief seat of the worship of Chnoumis, iii. 1. Thebes, kings of, according to Eratosthenes, i. 25-27. , dynasty of, i. 34, 35. , temples of, adorned by Tirhakah, i. 96. , nature of sacrifices at, ii. 467. , sacred women, pellices or Pallakides, of, ii. 496. , tombs of the kings at, i. 42 ; iii. 438, 439. , etymology of the name, i. 61. , founders of, i. 67. , document relating to sale of land at, i. 301. , plan of 07.), ii- 1- , colossi of (il.), ii. 1. , topographical details of, in relation to inundations, ii. 434. , triad of deities worshipped at, ii. 484, 513 ; iii. 10-12. , charges against the priesthood of, ii. 495. , the great triad of 07.), ii. 513. , Mut, the second deity of the triad of, iii. 31. TIRHAKAH. Thebes, image of Bes at, iii. 149. , Ap, the goddess of the city of (il), iii. 210-212. , interior of a mummy-pit, or sepul- chral chamber, at (il.), iii. 427. , scene of a funeral, from a tomb at 07.), hi. 449, 450. Theodontius, testimony of, respecting ori- ginal belief in a sole deity, ii. 479. Theology, notions of the priests concerning, i. 178, 179. , twofold explication of, iii. 33, 34. Thermuthis, name of the asp, iii. 334. Thieves, i. 307-309. , profession of, i. 309. Thinite or Theban dynasties, i. 17, 18, 28. Thong inside a shield (il), i. 199. Thorn, holy, ii. 417. Thoth (il), iii. 152. worshipped at Silsilis, iii. 147. , in connection with Anubis, iii. 160. , history and mvthology of (il). iii. 162-171. with Rameses II. (il), iii. 203. , the ibis an emblem of, iii. 324. , of Hat, purifying Amenophis II. (il), iii. 362. , connection of, with coronations and with festivals, iii. 363, 366. , festival of, iii. 386. Thoth-Lunus, notice of 07.), iii. 226. Thothmes I., history of his reign, i. 37. Thothmes III., history of his remarkable reign, i. 38-40. , styles of art during his reign, ii. 272. , bottle with name of (il), ii. 142. , name of, on a gold bracelet (il), ii. 342,343. instructed in the use of the bow by Nubti, and by Harhat in the use of the spear (il), iii. 134, 137. offering a pylon (il), iii. 415. Thothmes IV. as a sphinx (il), iii. 46. Thoueris, see Taur. I Thrace reduced by Sesotris, i. 66. Thread, fineness of, for nets, ii. 165. Threshing (il), ii. 418, 419. , description of, ii. 423. , implement for, or noreg (il), i. 408. Thriphis, goddess, history and mythology of, iii. 191. , companion of Khem, iii. 27. Throw-stick for fowling (il), ii. 104, 105, 107, 108. , use of the, iii. 325. Thummim, history of the, i. 296, 297. Timber, varieties of, ii. 414-416. Time beaten to the music with the hands 07.), i. 440, 444, 462, 490. , divisions of, ii. 318-320. Tin, early commerce in, ii. 229-232. Tirhakah, history of his rei^n, i. 94-97. | , prisoners of (il), i. 253. 526 INDEX. TIRHAKAH. Tirhakah conquering the Assyrians (il.), J iii. 401. Tman, or Mut, goddess, see Mut. Tnephaehthus, history of his reign, i. 86. Toilet bottles, ii. 11. , objects of the, ii. 345. Tohlmri, see Takkari. Tomb of Osymandyas, i. 73-75. of Amasis, site of the, i. 129. at Saqqara, arched with stone (il), ii. 262. , preparation of a, iii. 435, 436. , rooms in a, ib. Tombs near Pyramids, date of the, i. 13. of kings at Thebes, i. 42. , ornamented doors of (it), i. 356. , cost and beauty of, i. 339, 340. , period of the construction of the, ii. 272. , art of painting and sculpture in the, ii. 277. , tables with offerings placed in the 07.), iii. 433. • seized by creditors, iii. 433. , richness and extent of, iii. 433-435, 438. , account of, by Diodorus, iii. 434. , seals found in (il), iii. 436, 437. of the poorer classes, iii. 438. , early, at Thebes and Memphis, iii. 439. Tools,' carpenters' (il),i. 401; ii. 196-199. of curriers, ii. 18/. of sandal-makers (il.% ii. 188. for sculpturing hieroglyphics, ii. 253-255. , various woods used for, ii. 416. Tortoise, notice of the, iii. 329. Torture, notice of, i. 307. Tower over terrace (il), i. 360, 361. Towns, ancient, on banks of the canal, i. 49. , number of, i. 145. Toys (il.), ii. 64, 65. Trade of Egypt with the East, i. 151. Trades, various, i. 284. Tradesmen and shopkeepers, castes, i. 158. Transmigration, theories concerning, iii. 464, 466. Trap with hysena (il.j, ii. 78. Traps, see bird. Trees with roots earthed round (il), i. 375, 376. , fondness for, i. 403. , various uses of, ii. 195. , cultivation of various, ii. 414-416. , various sacred kinds of, iii. 349-351. Triad of Isis, Horu?, and Nephthys (il.), iii. 112. Triads of Gods, local worship of, ii. 484. , divine mystery of the number three, ii. 491, 513. , various, ii. 513. Tri