I' PRINCETON, N..J. No. Cas(^,_^ ^J^fe No. Shelf, ^^.: No. Book, v W ^- — . ■-■■J l*.-«M' The John M. Krebs Donation. vafV BR 165 .C65 1841 c.l Coleman, Lyman, 1796-1882, The antiquities of the Christian church THE ANTIQUITIES THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH TRANSLATED AND COMPILED THE WORKS OF ATJQXJSTI, WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS FROM RHEINWALD, SIEGEL, AND OTHERS. BY REV. LYMAN COLEMAN. ANDOVER: GOULD, NEWMAN & SAXTON. NEW YORK : CORNER OF FULTON AND NASSAU STS. BOSTON : TAPPAN &; DENNETT — GOULD, KENDALL & LINCOLN. PHILADELPHIA : HENRY PERKINS. 1841. Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1841, by LYMAN COLEMAN, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. PREFACE. In preparing the following summary of the rites and institutions of Ancient Christianity, the author has sought to make it intelligible to the English reader ; and, at the same time, to present to the theo- logical student a convenient book of reference, and to the scholar and antiquary a guide in his more extended and original investigations. German authors, with a provoking reliance upon the scholarship of those who may consult their pages, are accustomed to overspread them with original quotations from the dead languages, and refer- ences to writers in every tongue, so that even the practised scholar but darkly threads his way through the endless mazes of their works. Much therefore remains for humbler minds in selecting, arranging, translating and condensing, before the researches of these great men can be made available to the mass of the reading public. This task, in the absence of a better work, has been attempted in the preparation of the following pages ; and in the execution of it the author has endea- vored to perform the service only of a translator and compiler. In the fulfilment of this duty, the original authorities, when in- troduced into the text, are followed by a translation ; but more fre- quently they are transferred to the margin in the form of notes, or dismissed with a reference to the works from which they were taken, according as Iheir importance seemed to require ; and all for the purpose of presenting to the eye of the reader a fair English page. For the same general reasons, the references are all brought to- gether in an index at the end. These references, in the original, are accumulated to an excess even for German scholarship and scholastic affectation. Of these very many have been omitted, but enough, it is believed, are retained, not only to direct to sufficient 4 PREFACE. original authorities, but to satisfy the largest desires even of the an- tiquary or the scholar. From the rich and abundant materials which August! has fur- nished, it has been a difficult task to decide what to select, and what to omit ; and from the parts selected, it has been one of equal diffi- culty so to abridge as to preserve a just medium between a tedious detail and a barren abstract. In the progress of this work, how- ever, other writers on the same and kindred subjects have been freely consulted, to supply, in some instances, the omissions and de- ficiencies of Augusti, and in others, to enrich the following pages with the combined results of diflerent authors. Compilations have been freely gathered from many sources, and incorporated with the work in hand. The works especially of Rheinwald, and Siegel, to- gether with those of Neander, Gieseler, and others, have been laid under contribution to a greater or less extent. With the two first mentioned, the several subjects in their order have been compared with more or less care, and numerous compilations from them are embodied in the work. In making these compilations, the course pursued has been to go through with an abridgment of a given article from Augusti, and then to compare it with these authorities, such additions and corrections being made as the subject seemed to require. These additions, when of any considerable extent, are distinguished as quotations with appropriate references, or introduced with preliminary remarks in- dicating the source from whence they are derived. In other in- stances, additional or qualifying words and sentences have been si- lently entered without any formal acknowledgment. In all this the compiler has considerably increased the labor and responsibility which devolved upon him ; but the work, it is believed, has by this means been rendered more complete and valuable. It is important farther to remark that the larger work of Augusti has been freely consulted, and in several instances entire articles have been trans- lated or abridged directly from it. At other times the order of the PREFACE. O sentences and paragraphs has been transposed as occasion required. It is hardly necessary to add that the above explanations should be borne in mind in making a comparison of this abridgement and com- pilation with the originals. The reader will not expect in this volume a close or literal trans- lation ; the work, however, has been executed with a constant en- deavor to give a fair and faithful interpretation of the author, and, on important or disputed points, to give it in terms as literal as the idioms of our language would admit. In other instances merely the results of the author are given with references, to the original sources from which he has derived his authorities. And at other times, the substance of his researches and conclusions is presented in language appropriately our own. After having advanced far towards the completion of his task, the compiler obtained a copy of Riddle's Manual of Christian Antiqui- ties. This work is an abridged translation from Augusti, with occa- sional compilations from Siegel, and copious extracts from Bingham. The work, though executed with candor and ability, is unsuited for the American public, and too expensive for general circulation. The compiler however acknowledges himself under many obliga- tions to this author in the revision and correction of his own transla- tions. The translation from Siegel on the Agapae, or love-feasts of the primitive church, in the following pages, is transferred entire from that work. The article on Prayers for the Dead is also from his hand, together with various extracts, in different parts of the fol- lowing work, of which the most important are acknowledged in their proper place. Jamieson on the Manners and Trials of the primitive Christians came to hand just as this work was going to the press. From this work various extracts have been made by way of recapitulation, though at the hazard of being occasionally repetitious. These ex- tracts give a brief and popular view of the topics which have been previously treated of in a manner more methodical and minute. b PBEFACE. His reputation as a distinguished preacher in Edinburgh entitles this treatise to the confidence of the reader, especially when informed by the author himself that he " has with minute and patient industry tested almost every statement contained in his book with the original authorities." The chapter on the Domestic and Social Character of the Primitive Christians is compiled chiefly from this work. The Plan of churches and the Chronological Index are from Ehein- trald. The reader will here find a valuable compend of the histori- cal events connected with the antiquities of the church, in which the successive stages of departure from the simplicity and purity of primitive worship are distinctly stated, in connection with the con- temporary authors and rulers in church and state, who were instru- mental either in introducing or opposing these innovations. The critical observer will notice some confusion in the accentua- tion of oxytone words in the Greek language. The accents were incautiously copied as found on the pages of Augusti, and the print- ing had advanced some distance before the more approved mode of the accentuation of such individual words was adopted. The chapter on the Sacred Seasons of the Puritans supplies an obvious deficiency in the history of our forefathers, and will, no doubt, be received as a valuable addition to this work, and an impor- tant contribution to our own ecclesiastical history. The account of the religious rites of the Armenian church from Eev. H. G. O. Dwight, missionaiy at Constantinople, cannot fail to interest the christian reader, while it reveals to him, through the dimness of a high antiquity, the customs of the primitive church. This work v/as undertaken with the hope that it would, in some measure, supply a great deficiency in our ecclesiastical literature, and serve to direct the attention of the public to this neglected branch of study. Many topics of great interest relating to the rites, institutions and authority of the ancient church, are now the subject of earnest controversy in England, and of eager inquiry in this country. Ancient Christianity is destined, in both countries, to be severely PREFACE. 7 scrutinized anew, and its merits sharply contested. And this conside- ration presents one reason among many for offering this publication, at the present time, to the service of the public. But the various reasons, which recommend the study of Christian Antiquities to the attention of the public, are clearly exhibited by the Rev. Prof. Sears, in the Introduction which he has very kindly prepared for this work. The reader is there presented with the views of an eminent scholar, thoroughly familiar with the researches of German authors on this subject, and fully qualified to speak of their comparative merits, and of the importance of this department of sacred literature. It only remains to render my grateful acknowledgments to this gentleman not only for his valuable contributions to this work, but for his advice and assistance which in the progress of it have been as kindly given as it has been freely sought. Similar acknowledg- ments are also due to the Rev. Prof. Edwards, of this place, for like offices of kindness and assistance, in these protracted labors which are now drawing to a close. Conscious of having labored diligently to prepare a compend of this interesting branch of the history of the church, that shall be at once acceptable and useful in disclosing the sources from which the venerable institutions of our religion are derived, and in delineating the virtues of those holy men from whom they have been transmit- ted down to us, I now commit it, with all its deficiencies, to the charitable consideration of the public, and await in submission the result of their decision. Andover^ Jlpril, 1841. NOTE. The Print upon the back of this volume is a copy of an ancient christian coin. The monogram at the top, is formed by blending the Greek capitals X, P, the initial letters of the word XQiaro?, Christ ; which, with the prim- itive Christians, was the most sacred name of our Lord. This device is of very ancient date. It was their favorite emblem of our Saviour's name, which they not only engraved upon their tombs, and upon the walls of their cemeteries, but they caused it to be impressed upon coins and medals which they wore upon their breasts as sacred memorials of their Lord. Constan- tine adopted it as the emblem of his victorious banner under which he led on the conquests of the cross. This banner, called the labarum, is described as a long pike intersected by a transverse beam in the form of a cross. The silken veil which hung down from this beam, was curiously inwrought with the images of the monarch and his sons. The summit of the pike supported a crown of gold which en- closed this mysterious monogram. In the print before us, it rests upon a cross from which is suspended the veil of the labarum. At the foot lies a dead serpent, emblem of the great deceiver crushed by the cross of Christ. The whole, therefore, combines the expressive emblems both of the fall and recovery of man. The motto, Spes Pubuca, points to the cross as the hope of a lost world. Constantine caused this device to be painted upon the ves- tibule of his palace and to be imprinted on the coin of his kingdom. These coins are now extremely rare ; but they continued in common use through the reigns of several succeeding emperors. — .^ringhi, Roma Subterranea, torn, ii. pp. 566, 705^j Eckhel, Doctrina Mtm. Vet. 4. torn. viii. p. 88. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. J. Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople. 1. A Font of water, where the worshippers wash before ''entering^the church. — 2. The Great Porch, probably having a portico or vestibule in front. — 3. Entrance into the Narthex. — 4. The Narthex. — 5. Entrance into the church. — 6. The Inner Porch. — 7. Entrance into the Nave. — 8. Entrance to court surrounding the Nave.— 9. The Court.— 10. The Nave.— 10. a) The Solea. — 10. b) Probable site of the Ambo. — 11. Pillars supporting the Galle- ry.— 12. — The Chancel surrounding the Choir, or Sanctuary. — 13. Entrance to the Sanctuary. — 14. The Sanctuary. — 1.5. The Altar. — 16. The Canopy of the Altar. — 17. The bishop's Throne. — 18. The Seats of the presbyters. — 19. The emperor's Throne. — 20. Apartments for the Utensils of the church. — 21. Passage from the church. II. St. Paul's Church at Rome. 1, Entrance to the Porch, or the Vestibule. — 2. The Porch. — 3. The Nave divided into five parts by rows of pillars. — 4. The Choir, Bema, or Sanctua- ry.— 5. The Altar. — 6. The bishop's Throne. III. Church at Tyre. 1. Entrance to the Porch, or the Vestibule. — 2. The Porch. — 3. Pillars of the porch. — 4. Font of water. — 5. Doors of the church. — 6. The Nave. — 7. Probable site of the Ambo. — 8. Ascent to the sanctuary. — 9. Chancel of the sanctuary. — 10. The Sanctuary. 11. The Altar. 12. The bishop's Throne, — 13. Tlie Seats of the presbyters. — 14 a. Supposed to be the Bap- tistery.— 14. The Oixoi, or Ante-chambers. — 15. — The Exedrae. IV. Church of St. Clement at Rome. 1. Entrance, with four pillars supporting the piazza. — 2. The Portico, or Vestibule. — 3. The Porch. — 4. Entrance to the church. — 5. The Nave in three divisions. — 6, 7. Two Ambos within one enclosure, surrounded by the nave. — 8. The Altar with pillars. — 9. Bishop's Throne. 10. Presbyters' Seats. V. The Baptistery of St. Sophia. 1. Stairway leading to the entrance. — 2. Front Porch, or Vestibule. — 3. The Basement-room of the baptistery. — 4. The First Story. — 5. Pillars in the basement. — 6. Ascent to the font. — 7. The baptismal Font. — 8. The Court of the baptistery. 11 ♦ m m\ ® m m Jk^^sJtm ^iip.:«k3 1 ■ i "i"» CONTENTS. Page. Introduction, 17 CHAPTER 1. A General View of the Organization and Worship of the Primi- tive Church. Sec. 1. Accounts from Jewish and profane authors, ... 25 2. Origin of the christian church, ...... 32 3. Peculiarities of the christian system, 34 4. Of the secret discipline, the disciplina arcani, of the ancient church, apostolical constitutions, etc. .... 35 CHAPTER II. Names and Classes of Christians. Sec 1. Scriptural appellations and names assumed by Christians, . 39 2. Names of reproach and derision conferred on Christians by their enemies, 43 3. Division and classification of Christians, , . . , 45 4. Of the christian church, 47 5. Of catechumens, 49 6. Of believers, or the faithful, 57 7. Of Penitents, 61 8. Of energumens, or demoniacs, ...... 61 9. Ascetics, coenobites, monks, and fraternities, ... 62 CHAPTER in. Of the Ministers of the Church. Sec 1. Of the clergy and the laity, 66 2. General remarks upon the different orders and classes of the clergy, ..... 3. Of the episcopal form of religion, 4. Official duties of the bishop, 5. Of the insignia of the bishop, 6. Of the several orders of bishops, . 2 10 CONTENTS. I. Superior order, 84 II. Inferior order, 90 7. Of presbyters, their equality and identity with bishops, . 94 8. Official duties of presbyters, 103 9. Different orders or classes of presbyters, .... 106 10. Of the rank and duties of deacons, 107 11. Of the archdeacons, 113 12. Of deaconesses, 115 CHAPTER IV. Of the Inferior Officers of the Church. Sxc. 1. Of subdeacons, ......... 119 2. Of readers, 120 3. Of acolyths, 121 4. Of exorcists, 122 5. Of singers, or precentors, 123 6. Of ostiarii, or door-keepers, 125 7. Of the subordinate officers of the church and of the clergy, 125 a) Copiatae, sextons, . 125 b) Parabolani, 126 c) Sacrista, ......... 126 d) The custos, or aedituus, 126 e) The campanarii, bell-ringers, 126 f) The matricularii, ....... 126 g) The parafrenarii, ....... 126 8. Of the occasional officers of the church, who ranked with the clergy, 127 a) Catechists, 127 b) Cappellani, 127 c) Hermaneutae, interpreters, 128 9. Officers not belonging to the clergy, . . ... 128 a) Mansionarii, 128 b) Otxovofiotj stewards, 128 c) Cimeliarchs, treasurers, 129 d) Notarii, scribes, ........ 129 e) Apocrisiarii, responsales, 130 g) Syncelli, . . . 130 h) Syndici, ......... 130 i) Patroni, . 130 CHAPTER V. Appointment to Ecclesiastical Offices. Skc. 1. Of election by lot, 131 2. Of election by the church coUectively, .... 131 CONTENTS. 11 3. Of election by representatives, or interventors, . . 135 4. Of unusual forms of election, 137 5. Of church patronage, 138 CHAPTER VI. Of the Rank, Rights, Privileges, and Costume of the Clergy. Sec. 1. Of the rank of the clergy, 140 2. Of the immunities, rights, and privileges of the priesthood, 142 3. Of the costume of the clergy, 144 CHAPTER Vn. Of the Revenue of the Church, and Maintenance of the Clergy, 148 CHAPTER Vni. Of Ordination. Sec. 1. Remarks, . . • 2. Disqualifications and qualifications for ordination, 3. Administration of the rite, 4. Remarks of Chrysostorn, Jerome, and Gregory Nazianzen rela- ting to the character and duties of christian ministers, . 5. Punishment of delinquents, 152 153 158 161 173 CHAPTER IX. Of Churches and Sacred Places Sec 1, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6, 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12 13, 14. History of Churches, Form, site, and position of churches, Arrangement, and constituent parts. Of the bema, or sanctuary. Of the nave, Of the narthex, or ante-temple. Of the outer buildings, or exedrae, Of towers, bells, and organs, Of the altar, Of the doors of the church, Of the pavements and walls. Of the windows of the church, Veneration in which churches were held, and the privileg( tached to them, .... Churches as a place of refuge, . es at- 176 180 181 182 183 185 188 190 192 194 195 195 197 199 12 CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. Of the Prayers and Psalmody of the Church. Sec. 1. Preliminary remarks, . . . , 2. The Unity and the Trinity of the Godhead, tions of the ancient church, 3. Divine worship paid to Christ, . 4. Worship of martyrs, saints, and angels, 5. Filial spirit of the prayers of the church, 6. Simplicity and brevity of their devotions, 7. Catholic spirit of their worship, 8. Audible and silent prayer, . 9. Of the Lord's prayer, 10. Of the responses. Amen, Hallelujah, etc. 11. Of the psalmody of the church, 12. Attitude and gesture in singing, and in prayer, mplied in the devo- 201 203 205 206 209 210 210 211 212 218 221 222 CHAPTER XI. Use of the Holy Scriptures in religious worship. Sec. 1. Preliminary remarks, 228 2. Of the order in which the Scriptures were read, . . 230 3. Mode of designating the divisions and lessons, . . . 231 4. Of the manner in which the Scriptures were read, and other ex- ercises in connection, . 232 5. Of the Psalter, 234 6. Of the Pericopae, 234 CHAPTER Xll. Of Homilies. Sec. 1. General remarks, names, etc 237 2. By whom the homilies were delivered, .... 239 3. Of the frequency of sermons, 241 4. Time allotted for the delivery of the sermon, . . . 242 5. Of the position of the speaker, 242 6. Attitude of the speaker, mode of delivery, deportment of the audience, etc. 243 7. Of the construction of the sermon, . .... 244 8. Of the subjects of discourse, . . .... 246 CHAPTER Xlll. Of Catechetical Instructions, 252 CONTENTS. 13 CHAPTER XIV. Of Baptism. Sec. 1. Names by which the ordinance is designated, 2. Historical sketch, 3. Infant baptism, . 4. Ministers of baptism, 5. Times of baptism, 6. Place of baptism, 7. Element for baptism, 8. Mode and form of baptism, 9. Rites connected with baptism, a) Ceremonies before baptism, b) Ceremonies after baptism. Recapitulation, 10. Of sponsors, 11. Of names given at baptism, 255 256 258 269 271 273 274 275 278 278 281 282 284 287 CHAPTER XV. Of Confirmation. Sec 1. Whether derived from apostolic usage, 2. Confirmation in connection with baptism, 3. Ministers of confirmation, . 4. Administration of the rite. 288 289 290 291 CHAPTER XVI. Of the Lord's Supper, Sec. 1. Names or appellations of the sacrament, 2. Scriptural account of the Lord's supper, 3. Testimony of pagan writers, 4. Testimony of apostolical fathers, 5. Times of celebration, 6. Place of celebration, 7. Ministers of the Lord's supper, 8. Of the communicants, 9. Of the elements, 10. Consecration of the elements, . 11. Distribution of the elements, 12. Accompanying rites, . 13. Of the agapae, or feasts of charity, 14. Sacramental utensils, 292 298 300 300 304 306 307 308 314 317 317 323 325 329 14 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVII. Of the Discipline of the Ancient Church. Sec. 1. Preliminary remarks, 330 2. Origin of penance, ........ 332 3. Subject of penance, or offences for which it was imposed, 337 4. Different classes of penitents, 338 5. Duties of penitents, and the discipline imposed; or the different kinds and degrees of penance, 340 6. Re-admission of penitents into the church, . . . 342 7. Private penance, 344 8. Recapitulation, 347 9. Of councils, 356 CHAPTER XVHI. Domestic and Social Character of the Primitive Christians. Sec. 1. Of their mode of life, 367 369 371 375 378 379 382 384 386 394 397 2. Of their dress and furniture, ..... 3. Of their diet and mode of taking their meals, . 4. Of their daily devotions, ...... 5. Religious education of their children, 6. Sign of the cross, ....... 7. Their deportment in the business and recreations of life, 8. Their mutual love and concord, .... 9. Their benevolence, 10. Their hospitality and mode of salutation, 11. Their patience under injuries, CHAPTER XIX. Of Marriage. Sec. 1. Of christian marriage, 399 2. Of divorce, 401 3. Marriage rites and ceremonies, 4U2 4. Remarks upon the marriage rites and ceremonies of the ancient church, 405 CHAPTER XX. Funeral Rites and Ceremonies. Sec. 1. Treatment of the dead, 408 2. Affection for the dying, 411 3. Funeral solemnities, 412 4. Of mourners, 414 5. Prayers for the dead, 417 6. Cemeteries of the early Christians, 421 CONTENTS. 15 CHAPTER XXI. Sacred Seasons, Festivals akd Fasts. Sec. 1. Preliminary remarks, 423 2. Of the sabbath, 428 3. General view of the sacred seasons, and of the period of the three great festivals, 432 4. Christmas, the festival of Christ's nativity, . . . 434 5. Easter, commemorative of the death and resurrection of our Lord, 436 6. Pentecost, or "Whitsunday, 439 7. Festivals in honor of the virgin Mary, .... 440 8. Festivals in honor of the martyrs, 441 9. St. John's day, 442 10. Of the apostles' days, 442 11. OfFasts, 444 CHAPTER XXn. Sacred Seasons of the Puritans. 1. Preliminary Remarks, 446 2. Reasons for such days, 447 3. Continuance, 449 4. Mode of their appointment, 452 5. Penalties, 457 6. Periodical observance, 459 7. Observance by other States, 464 CHAPTER XXni. Of the Armemian Church. 1. Origin and progress, 466 2. Church officers and government, 468 3. ^octrines, 470 4. Forms of worship, festivals, etc. 472 Index of Authorities, . . . 475 Chronological List of Councils, ...... 527 Chronological Index, . 528 General Index, 543 INTRODUCTION. ^^"^'M-^ ''^ '''^' The subject of Christian Antiquities will be variously regarded by different individuals according to their religious creeds and their in- tellectual habits and tastes. He who regards the church as the source of religious knowledge, and its doctrines and rites as revela- tions of the will of God, would, of course, study the history of these doctrines and of these riles with as much earnestness and zeal as he would study the Scriptures themselves. This will best account for the fondness which learned men in the Catholic church have always shown for ecclesiastical antiquities. Protestants have generally contemplated the subject under quite a different aspect. With them the voice of the church has no au- thority coordinate with that of the Bible. Their interest in the anti- quities of the church arises from other considerations. For them the sentiments and practices of the early church have a theological importance only so far as they serve to illustrate the sentiments and practices of the inspired writers. Hence they have been interested to show the gradual departure of the early church from the purity and simplicity of the apostolic age, and to point out the late origin of many things which others had regarded as descending from the primitive apostolical church. The English church, occupying intermediate ground between the Catholics and Protestants, in this respect, have leaned quite as much to the former as to the latter ; and this is in perfect consistency with the principles of reform originally adopted by that church. We have alluded to these circumstances for no other purpose than that of tracing out the causes of the obvious diversity that exists among the older writers in their mode of treating this subject. In respect to the end which they have had in view, they may be divi- ded into three general classes according to their ecclesiastical rela- tions. The different, and often opposite considerations which have in- spired their zeal, could not fail to give a peculiar feature to their works. While the individual writers of each of the three classes men- 3 18 INTEODUCTIOIM. tioned above have had their individual peculiarities, with an almost endless variety in regard to ability, learning, and candor, they have, in general, been either warm polemics, or laborious apologists for their respective parties. Even where this feature is less obvious, there is a peculiar spirit and manner manifested in the topics selected, and in the relative importance attached to each, betraying the author's ec- clesiastical preferences. Hence the solemn awe and tedious minute- ness with which the Catholic writer describes the veriest trifles ; the belligerent manner in which the Protestant, whether Lutheran or Calvinistic, musters his forces, using the weapons of the antiquary chiefly, perhaps, because others have abused them ; and the plea- sure with which the English churchman approaches the subject of the clerical orders and the venerable liturgy. Far be it from us harshly to censure those great men, and profound scholars, of different parties who lived in the age of theological war- fare, or to cast reproach upon any one class of them. Still we must maintain that they have all gone out of the way, some from the vio- lence of their own passions, and more, we would hope, from the agi- tations of the times on which they were cast. We are happy in the belief that we live in an age when it need not be argued that the zeal of the partizan is worse than useless to the historian. The antiquities of the church, no less than other sub- jects, must and will be studied with the calm spirit of philosophic in- quiry. The spirit of the Magdeburg Centuriators is passing away, at least in the literary and scientific world, and a purer and nobler or- der of historians is rising up to adorn and bless the church. Impar- tialily is now the watch-word through all the higher ranks of scien- tific historical inquirers. There is at present, especially in some parts of Europe, a greater interest in the study of christian antiquities than ever existed before. This is owing to a variety of causes, — to the unparalleled zeal with which every branch of history is cultivated ; to the increased and in- creasing attention bestowed upon the study of the Christian Fathers ; to the critical taste of the age, reviewing with rigid scrutiny all the grounds of historical belief; and to the attention given to the philo- sophy of history, as illustrative of the nature of man. Nor is it strange that reflecting men should be attracted to this study ; they are influenced by important considerations, a few of which will here be named with as much brevity as possible. INTE0DT7CTI0N. 19 1. This branch of study belongs to the history of man. No indi- didual, who is desirous of viewing the character and conduct of his species under all its aspects, and particularly of contemplating the human mind under extraordinary moral influences, — of watching the various experiments of Christianity when combined in a social sys- tem with other elements, can consent to be excluded from such a source of instruction as is found in the antiquities of the christian church. 2. It is indispensable as a key to many parts of ecclesiastical his- tory. The very same circumstance which renders Greek and Ro- man antiquities important to the classical student, and Jewish antiqui- ties to the biblical student, renders christian antiquities important to the ecclesiastical historian. He who supposes that he can find all he needs on this subject in certain chapters in general works on church history, has only to make the trial, and then take up such a work as the following, and compare the results, and the difference will be sufficiently perceptible. Church history itself has gained no less by making this a distinct branch of study than by making the history of christian doctrines a distinct branch ; both have con- tributed immeasurably to the advancement of the historical branch of theology within a few years past. How much broader and clearer the light which now shines on this whole department of study than at the close of the last century ! 3. A polemic use of this branch of knowledge cannot be safely and profitably made except by him who has previously studied the sub- ject with no other interest than that of truth, aside from all party aims. One of the most grievous evils which has afflicted the church, is that men have been driven into these dark regions by the violence of the- ological strife. Facts have been guessed at, or seized, at a venture, out of their connections, and a momentary triumph has been gained only to be surrendered again on maturer investigation. Thus with all the controversies that have agitated the church, there has been but little scientific progress, but little won which could be regarded as an earnest of final union in the truth. 4. Few studies have a more salutary influence in liberalizing the mind than the philosophic study of the religious customs and usages of a christian people. When we perceive how little the common mind is what it makes itself, and how much it is what descent, he- reditary customs, political connections, popular literature, the pre- 20 INTRODUCTION. vailing philosophy and the spirit of the age make it, we find our- selves almost unconsciously cherishing a feeling of humanily instead of an odium theologicum, towards those whose views we regard as erroneous. 5. Ecclesiastical antiquities have a special value for men of letters. They stand intimately connected with modern European history, and with the fine arts. Their influence was inconceivably great in forming the character of the Middle Ages, and the Middle Ages were the nursery of modern civilization. Who can entertain any just views of society in the south of Europe, and yet be ignorant of the influence of those ecclesiastical usages which have descended from a venerable and sacred antiquity ? History, ancient usages, sacred associations, poetry, painting, sculpture and a thousand name- less things which captivate the imagination and kindle the natural sensibilities, hold the people spell-bound to a religious and social sys- tem from which they can be broken off" by no mere power of logic. It is from these and other similar views that the German scholars of the present age have had their attention more particularly direct- ed to the antiquities of the christian church. The same causes have also led to great improvements in the treatment of the subject. In most of the older works, an account of the rise and progress of ec- clesiastical usages and a philosophical view of the internal as well as external causes are almost entirely wanting. Indeed the entire method which characterizes Neander and his school was either un- known to them, or unheeded by them. Though the most important changes were perpetually going on from the time of Justin Martyr to the timeof Chrysostom, even such men as Bingham and Pelliccia seem to have written under the impression, that what was true in the fifth century was equally so in the second. The sentiments and usa- ges of a later age are, in numerous instances, imposed upon a pre- ceding age, and witnesses are often brought forward to testify to what occurred centuries before their birth. Thus the philosophical element of history is almost entirely wanting, and with it the great- est charm connected with the study. But a new era has commenced in the mode of treating history and antiquities. The internal bond which holds all external events to- gether in an organized system, is now a leading object of search ; all those phenomena, which were once supposed to be accidental, are now regarded as springing from the life and spirit of a people as INTRODUCTION. 21 naturally as flowers and leaves from their stems. This tracing out of the connections actually existing in nature, gives a truth to the representations of history not otherwise to be obtained. It must not hence be inferred that the facts of history are less val- ued, or less scrupulously investigated ; directly the reverse. There never was a time when facts were brought lo light in greater abun- dance. The sources of evidence are explored with a most search- ing criticism ; the spurious writings on which the older authors placed so much dependence, are subjected to the severest scrutiny, and es- timated according to their proper value ; ancient ecclesiastical wri- ters are more rigidly, and by consequence, more safely interpreted ; each point of inquiry is investigated in the concentrated light of the entire literature of that age ; numerous treatises and even large works, on single topics, are continually issuing from the press, so that every new writer has the advantage of laboring in a highly cultivated field. To Augusti more than to any other one, belongs the honor of re- viving among the learned a taste for ecclesiastical antiquities. His great work Denkioiirdigkeiten aus der christlichen Archdologie, in twelve octavo volumes, published 1817 — 1831, was the most complete that had appeared since the time of Bingham. However deficient it was in arrangement and in some of its details, still by its rich col- lection of materials, and by its incorporating for the first time chris- tian art as a branch of this subject, it aroused the public mind and gave a new impulse and a new direction to the study. The Sinnbilder der alien Christen by Miinter, published with plates, in 1825, contributed also much to awaken an interest in Chris- tian art, and from the time of those publications to the present, the subject of ancient art has continued to lend its charm to the antiqui- ties of the church. A manual which should combine scientific ar- rangement and accuracy with completeness and brevity, was still wanting. This was admirably supplied by Rheinwald, a disciple of Neander, in a single volume with plates, in 1831. The new edition of Pelliccia's Politia, by RiUer and Braun, Cologne, 1829 — 1838, in two octavo volumes, has, indeed, rendered the work very accessible, and corrected the errors of the author ; but it contains too little that is new. The work of Binterim, in seven volumes, of which a second edition was commenced in 1838, is but a German translation of Pel- liccia, with great additions, made in the spirit of a true son of the Catholic church. 22 INTEODUCTION. In 1835, August! undertook the abridgement of his great work, in such a way as to furnish what was still a desideratum, and in the two following years appeared his Handbuch der christUchen Arclid- ologie, in three volumes, which forms the basis of the present vol- ume. The text of Rheinwald's Manual like that of Gieseler's Church History, was a mere thread for the convenient arrangement of ex- tracts from original documents in the form of notes, and is better adapted to the critical scholar, than to the common reader. The author's Denkwurdigkeiten were too extensive for general use. He, therefore, aimed to unite copiousness with brevity^ and to give, in an improved form, the substance of his larger work. By adopting a plan directly the reverse of Rheinwald's, — by crowding his pages with the facts of christian archaelogy, and making quotations spar- ingly, he has, in reality, given a new edition of his great work, in a compressed and more convenient form, with a pretty thorough re- vision of each subject ; thus presenting by far the most complete manual now before the public. This work, in a modified form, has already been brought before the English publicby the Rev. J. E. Rid die. Though tiia compiler, or translator appears to have perform- ed his task with ability, yet he who is acquainted with the original, could foresee that the modifications necessary to make it acceptable to the church of England, would be an indifferent recommendation to the American public in general. We do not desire this remark to be understood as disparaging the labors of that learned gentleman, but merely as explaining the reason why the present undertaking was not relinquished, when that work appeared. We have felt much pleasure in examining another work, entitled Handhiich der chrisllich-kirchUclien Alter' timmer in alphabetischer Ord/mng, by C. C. F. Siegel, now lecturer on christian antiquities in the university of Leipsic. The first volume was published about the same time wiih the first volume of Augusti's Manual, and the fourth and last, in 1838. These two works, though independent of each other, are very similar in extent and in their critical value. Siegel's production, has, of course, all the advantages and disadvan- tages of an alphabetical arrangement. The reader will have no oc- casion to regret the free use that has been made of it in the follow- ing pages. Of W. Bolmier's CJirisiUch-kirchliche Alterthumswissenschaft now in a course of publication and of which only two volumes have ap- INTRODUCTION. 23 peared (1836 and 1839), we have had no opportunity to form an opin- ion of our own. From the scattered hints we have seen in German notices, we should infer that it is in Archaeology what Olshausen's Commentary is in exegesis, distinguished for learning, piety and genivs. Staudenmaier's Geist des Chrisienthunis, dargesidU in den heiligen Zeiten, in den heiligen Handlungen und in der heiligen Kunst, second edition, 1838, though the production of a good scholar, is addressed chiefly to the sensibilities of the heart; and is one of those good books, which lose their value in crossing the Atlantic. Of these two last works the former could not be obtained in sea- son, and the latter, though obtained, could not be used in preparing the Manual here presented to the public. In regard to the life and literary character of the author' of the volumes from which this work is chiefly compiled, we must limit ourselves to a few words. He was bom in Eschenberga, a small town in the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha, in 1772. After pursuing his studies with success under a learned minister by the name of Moller, he entered the university of Jena and devoted his attention to theo- logy. At the age of twenty-six he became a Privaldocent^ or tutor in the same place, and rose rapidly to distinction, being made Ex- traordinary Professor of Philosophy after a period of only two years, and. Ordinary Professor of Oriental Languages in three years from that time. After laboring in this latter department of instruction nine years, he went to Breslau as Professor of Theology, and seven years later to Bonn, where he still remains as professor, though he holds an additional ecclesiastical office, as Oherconsislorialrath at Coblence. He is the author of several productions in various depart- ments of theological learning. Besides those already mentioned, his Translation of the Bible in conjunction with de Wette, his Introduc- tion to the Old Testament, his History of Christian Doctrines, his System of Theology, and his Symbolical Books of the Reformed Church are best known. The order of his talent and scholarship is characterized by versatility and universality rather than by profound- ness of reflection or investigation. His reading is very extensive; his acquisitions are easily and rapidly made ; all his ideas assume a definite and tangible form, and the reader follows him with ease and pleasure. He possesses, in short, all the qualities necessary to a high degree of success in such a work as his Manual of Antiquities. 24 INTRODUCTION. He is a professed believer in the orthodox faith, and has written, in general, with an impartiality becoming a historian. His own coun- trymen unite in giving him this praise, and the popularity of his Man- ual with them is one of the surest proofs of its deserving, as it un- doubtedly will receive, a similar popularity among us. The writer of these introductory lines does not hold himself re- sponsible for the sentiments either of the author or of the translator of the following pages. Indeed, on some points, he differs from them both. Yet from the means of judging which have been afford- ed him, he is fully convinced of the translator's ability, indefatiga- ble labor, and candor, and of the general accuracy of the work. The difficult task of making a judicious selection of the matter, of arrang- ing it and of adapting it to the mass of American readers, appears to have been performed not only with great care, but in the exercise of a sound discrimination. B. SEARS. JVewton Tlieological Institution, April, 1841. CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES. CHAPTER I. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE ORGANIZATION AND WORSHIP OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. <5i 1. Accounts from Jewish and profane Authors. To one who would inquire into the early liistory of the primitive church, or critically examine its policy, the testimony of contempo- rary writers of another faith must be peculiarly important. But such writers, both Jewish and profane, of the first three centuries of the Christian era, unfortunately afTord us very imperfect informa- tion on these points. The Jews, from whom we might expect the fullest information, offer us none of any value. The celebrated passage in Josephiis which has been so often cited, even if genuine, only proves that he had knowledge of the author of the christian re- ligion and some faint apprehensions of his divine character; but it gives us no knowledge of the religion which he taught. Nor does Philo, his contemporary, otTer any essential aid to our inquiries. Greek and Roman authors, especially the latter, take but little notice of the early Christians. They probably regarded the Chris- tians as only an heretical body of Jews, or as a detestable and dan- gerous sect. Accordingly the passages in which Suetonius,^* Taci- tus,2 Arrian, Antoninus, Dio Cassius, and other writers speak of Christians, throw little or no light on their manners and customs.^ The most important notices of this kind, occur in the letters of Pliny the younger, who, according to the most approved chronology, was governor of Bithynia in the years 103, 104 ; and in the writ- ings of Lucian of Samosata, an opponent of Christianity, who also lived in the second century. Pliny had been instructed, by the em- * The numerical numbers refer to the Index of Authorities. 4 26 ORGANIZATION OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. peror Trajan, to keep a strict guard against all secret societies, and under this commission, proceeded to severe measures against the assemblies of Christians. In reporting his proceedings to the em- peror, he takes occasion to explain the character of these Christians, and the nature of their assemblies. In this manner he unconscious- ly passes a high encomium upon these primitive Christians. The letter itself was written but about forty years after the death of St. Paul, and, together with Trajan's reply, constitutes the most impor- tant record extant of the times immediately succeeding the apostles. They are accordingly given entire, with a translation by Melmoth. Plinius Trajano. Solenne est milii, Domine, omnia, de quibus dubito,ad Te referre. Quis enim potest melius vel cunctationem meam regere, vel igno- rantiam instruere ? Cognitionibus de Christianis interfui nuiiquam : ideo nescio, quid et quatenus aut puniri soleat aut quaeri. Nee mediocriter haesitavi, silne aliquod discrimen aetalum, an quamlibet teneri nihil a robuslioribus difierant ; deturne poenitentiae venia, an ei, qui omnino Christianus fuit, desisse non prosit ; nomen ipsum etiamsi flagitiis careat, an flagitia cohaerentia nomini puniantur. In- terim in iis, qui ad me tanquam Chrisiiani deferebantur, hunc sum secutus modum. Interrogavi ipsos, an essent Christiani. Confiten- tes iterum et tertio interrogavi, supplicium minatus : perseverantes duci jussi. Neque enim dubitabam, qualecunque esset quod fateren- tur, pervicaciam certe et inflexibilem obstinationem debere puniri. Fuerunt alii similis amentiae : quos, quia cives Romani erant, anno- tavi in urbem remittendos. Mox ipso tractatu, ut fieri solet, diffun- dente se crimine, plures species inciderunt. Propositus est libellus sine autore, multorum nomina continens, qui negarent, se esse Christianos aut fuisse. Cum praeeunte me Deos appeliarent, et im- agini Tuae, quam propter hoc jusseram cum simulacris numinum aiferri, thure ac vino supplicarent, praeterea maledicerent Christo^ quorum nihil cogi posse dicuntur, qui sunt revera Christiani ; ergo dimittendoo putavi. Alii ab indice nominati, esse se Christianos dixerunt, et mox negaverunt : fuisse quidem, sed desisse, quidam ante triennium, quidem ante plures annos, nonnemo etiam ante vi- ginti quoque. Omnes et imaginem Tuam, Deorumque simulacra venerati sunt, et Christo maledixerunt. Affirmabant autem, hanc JEWISH AND PROFANE AUTHORS. 27 fuisse summam vel culpae suae vel erroris, quod essent soliti stato die ante lucem convenire, carmenque Christo quasi Deo dicere se- cum invicem ; seque Sacramento non in scelus aliquod obstringere, sed ne furta, ne latrocinia, ne adulteria committerent, ne fidem fal- lerent, ne depositum appeliati abnegarent ; quibus peractis, inorem sibi discedendi fuisse rursusque coeundi ad capiendum cibum, pro- miscuum tamen et innoxium : quod ipsum facere desisse post edic- tum nneum, quo secundum mandata tua haetarias esse vetueram. Quo magis necessarium credidi, ex duabus ancillis, quae ministrae dicebantur, quid esset veri et per tormenta quaerere. Sed nihil aliud inveni, quam superstitionem pravam et immodicam. Ideo di- lata cognitione ad consulendum Te decurri. Visa est enim mihi res digna consultatione, maxime propter periclitantium numerum. Mul- ti enim omnis aetatis, omnis ordinis, utriusque sexus etiam, vocantur in periculum et vocabuntur : neque enim civitates tantum, sed vicos etiam atque agros, superstiiionis istus contagio pervagata est. Quae videtur sisti et corrigi posse. Certe satis constat, prope jam desolata templa coepisse celebrari, et sacra solennia diu intermissa repeti, passimque venire victimas, quarum adhuc rarissimus emtor invenie- batur. Ex quo facile est opinari, quae turba hominum emendari possit, si sit poenitentiae locus. Trajanus Plinio. Actum, quern debuisti, mi Secunde, in excutiendis causis eorum, qui Christian! ad te delati fuerant, secutus es. Neque enim in univer- sum aliquid, quod quasi certam formam habeat, constitui potest. Conquaerendi non sunt : si deferantur et arguantur, puniendi sunt ; ita tamen, ut qui negaverit se Christianum esse, idque re ipsa mani- festum fecerit, i. e., supplicando Diis nostris, quamvis suspectus in praeteritum fuerit, veniara ex poenitentia impetret. Sine autore vero propositi libelli, nullo crimine locum habere debent : nam et pessimi exempli nee nostri seculi est. — Ep. Lib. X. p, 96, 97 ; al 97, 98. Edit. Gierig. Vol. IL 1802. p. 498. Pliny to the Emperor Trajan. " It is a rule. Sir, which I inviolably observe, to refer myself to you in all my doubts ; for who is more capable of removing my scruples, or informing my ignorance ? Having never been present 28 ORGANIZATION OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. at any trials concerning those who profess Christianity, I am unac- quainted not only with the nature of their crimes, or the measure of their punishment, but how far it is proper to enter into an examina- tion concerning them. Whether, therefore, any difference is usually made with respect to the ages of the guilty, or no distinction is to be observed between the young and the adult ; whether repentance entitles them to a pardon ; or, if a man has once been a Christian, it avails nothing to desist from his error ; whether the very profes- sion of Christianity, unattended with any criminal act, or only the crimes themselves inherent in the profession, are punishable ; in all these points I am greatly doubtful. In the mean while, the method I have observed towards those who have been brought before me as Christians, is this : — 1 interrogated them whether they were Chris- tians ; if they confessed, I repeated the question twice again, adding threats at the same time ; when, if they still persevered, I ordered them to be immediately punished ; for I was persuaded, whatever the nature of their opinions might be, that a contumacious and in- flexible obstinacy certainly deserved correction. There were others also brought before me, possessed with the same infatuation, but being citizens of Rome* I directed them to be carried thither. But this crime spreading, (as is usually the case,) while it was actually under prosecution, several instances of the same nature occurred. An information was presented to me without any name prescribed, containing a charge against several persons, who upon examination denied they were Christians, or had ever been so. They repeated after me an invocation to the gods, and offered religious riles with wine and frankincense before your statue, (which for this purpose I had ordered to be brought, together with those of the gods,) and even reviled the name of Christ: whereas there is no forcing, it is said, those who are really Christians into a compliance with any of these articles. I thought proper, therefore, to discharge them. Some of those who were accused by a witness in person, at first confessed themselves Christians, but immediately after denied it ; while the rest owned indeed that they had been of that number formerly, but had now (some above three, others more, and a few above twenty * It was one of the privileges of a Roman citizen, secured by the Sem- pronian law, that he could not be capitally convicted but by the suffrage of the people ; which seems to have been still so far in force, as to make it necessary to send the persons here mentioned to Rome. — Melmoth. JEWISH AND PROFANE AUTHORS. 29 years ago) forsaken that error. They all worshipped your statue and the images of the gods, throwing out imprecations also at the same time against the name of Christ. They affirmed that the whole of their guilt or error was, that they met on a certain stated day before it was light and addressed themselves in a form of prayer to Christ, as to some god, binding themselves by a solemn oath, not for the pur- poses of any wicked design, but never to commit any fraud, theft, or adultery ; never to falsify their word, nor deny a trust when they should be called upon to deliver it up ; after which it was their cus- tom to separate, and then re-assemble, to eat in common a harmless meal. From this custom, however, they desisted after the publica- tion of my edict, by which, according to your orders, I forbade the meeting of any assemblies. After receiving this account, I judged it so much the more necessary to endeavor to extort the real truth, by putting two female slaves to the torture, who were said to ad- minister in their religious functions :* but I could discover nothing more than an absurd and excessive superstition. I thought proper, therefore, to adjourn all further proceedings in this affair, in order to consult with you. For it appears to be a matter highly deserv- ing your consideration, more especially as great numbers must be involved in the danger of these persecutions, this inquiry having al- ready extended, and being still likely to extend, to persons of all ranks and ages, and even of both sexes. For this contagious super- stition is not confined to the cities only, but has spread its infection among the country villages. Nevertheless it still seems possible to remedy this evil, and restrain its progress. The temples, at least, which were almost deserted, begin now to be frequented; and the sacred solemnities after a long intermission are again revived ; while there is a general demand for the victims, which for some time past have met with but few purchasers. From hence it is easy to imagine, what numbers might be reclaimed from this error if a pardon were granted to those who shall repent." Trajan to Pliny. " The method you have pursued, my dear Pliny, in the proceed- ings against those Christians which were brought before you, is ex- tremely proper ; as it is not possible to lay down any fixed plan, by * Deaconesses. 30 ORGANIZATION OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. which to act in all cases of this nature. But I would not have you officiously enter into any inquiries concerning them. If indeed they should be brought before you, and the crime is proved, they must be punished ; with this restriction, however, that when the party denies himself to be a Christian, and shall make it evident that he is not, by invoking our gods, let him (notwithstanding any former suspi- cion) be pardoned upon his repentance. Informations without the accuser's name subscribed ought not to be received in prosecutions of any sort ; as it is introducing a very dangerous precedent, and by no means agreeable to the equity of my government." From this record of antiquity, we learn several important particu- lars respecting the early Christians. 1. That they were accustomed to meet on a certain stated day for religious worship — whether on the first or last day of the week, does not appear. 2. Their meetings were held in the morning before day-light — doubtless that they might the better avoid the notice of their ene- mies. 3. They appear not to have had, at this time, any stated place of worship. 4. They worshipped Christ as God. The phrase, carmen Chris- io quasi Deo dicere secum invicem^ may imply any short ascrip- tion of praise to Christ, a doxology, a prayer, a psalm, or hymn, in prose or verse, though the latter is most probable. Christ was the object of worship to whom they offered this doxology or prayer, re- hearsing it alternately, or in responses. It appears from this passage that these Christians were not only acquainted with the doctrine of the divinity of Christ, but manifested great boldness in asserting it. 5. They celebrated the sacrament and their love-feasts in these assemblies. This is implied in their binding themselves by a solemn oath not to commit sin, and in their coming together to take bread, " ad capiendum cibum promiscuum tamen et innoxium." These re- ligious rites appear also to have been accompanied with the reading and exposition of the Scriptures. It seems to be included in these solemnities, though it is not distinctly mentioned. 6. This epistle bears honorable testimony to unflinching steadfast- JEWISH AND PROFANE AUTHORS, 31 ness of faith in these Christians, which Pliny styles an absurd and excessive superstition. 7. This epistle affords a striking proof of the early and extensive propagation of Christianity, and of its tendency to overthrow idola- try. It also confirms the statements of the early apologists respect- ing the same points, while it establishes our confidence in their statements where we have not, as in this case, the testimony of con- temporary writers.4 Lucian of Samosata travelled in Syria, Asia Minor, Italy, and France, and had the best means of becoming acquainted with the Christians who had already become numerous in those countries. From his frequent and reproachful mention of the Christians of his day,^ we may collect the following particulars. 1. He speaks of the followers of Christ by their appropriate name. Christians, though in speaking of them he usually employs some reproachful epithet. 2. He speaks of the author of this religion as one who lived in Palestine and was crucified. He styles him a great man, and says that his followers reverence him as their lawgiver. 3. He denominates their religious teachers, prophets, masters of the synagogue, and rulers. 4. He, in common with many of the fathers, calls their rites of worship, new mysteries. 5. He particularly mentions the fraternity of Christians, their de- nial of the.^gods of the Greeks, and their worshipping of Him cruci- fied. 6. He records their readiness to relieve and to support those who were sick or in prison. 7. He mentions their dnTiva noixlla, their manifold meals, refer- ring obviously to their agapae and sacramental suppers, possibly to abuses similar to those which are reproved by the apostle Paul, 1 Cor. 11: 20—22. 8. It is observable also that Lucian makes mention of the sacred books of the Christians ; and also, 9. Of their community of goods, as is described Acts 4: 32—37 ; and, Finally, of certain prohibited articles, as by the church at Jerusa- lem they were required to abstain from things strangled and from blood ; — all which evinces their piety and benevolence and diligence in the christian life. 32 ORGANIZATION OF THE PHIMITIVE CHURCH. § 2. Origin of the Christian Church. Christianity, after the lapse of several centuries, assumed an in- termediate character between other forms of religion. But it was at first a substitute for the religion of the Jews, or rather it was only a modified and improved form of the same. The author of this system was himself obedient in all things to the law of Moses, out of which he also taught his disciples, and, undeniably, derived from the same source the rites of initiation and fellowship, baptism and the Lord's supper. This affinity between the Jewish and christian religion, was well understood by intelligent heathen, and by the ancient apologists of Christianity it was not denied. Chrysostom complained that the Christians, even of the fourth century, were lialf Jews. On the contrary, scarcely the remotest trace of paganism can be found in the christian church as originally constituted. Whatever has been adduced in favor of such a resemblance, is only uncertain conjecture, or gratuitous hypothesis. The apostle of the gentiles re- monstrates against the incorporating of any part of their religion with the Christian, Gal. 2: 14, 15 ; and the apostle Peter accords with him on this point, 1 Pet. 4: 3. Neither can anything be drawn from the apostolic fathers and early defenders of the christian reli- gion which, with any appearance of truth, can be made to harmo- nize with the religion of the gentiles. But they uniformly manifest the strongest aversion to any connection with idolaters and their re- ligious rites. Basil, of Seleucia, has indeed affirmed that there is paganism dis- guised under the form of Christianity. But this can be said with truth only after the establishment of the system of secret discipline, and when the jealousy of the church for the purity of her faith and the integrity of her discipline had, in a measure, abated. Even the most celebrated Roman Catholic writers find much difficulty in the attempt to trace this blending of two systems back to a remote anti- quity. Protestant writers, on the other hand, labor to show that the decline of the church dates its origin from the introduction of pagan- ism into Christianity ; and that papacy is little else than a disguised system of pagan superstition.^ The truth is, that the primitive church was at first established on the p-inciples and in the spi'nV of ORIGIN OF THE CHKISTIAN CHURCH. 33 tlie Jewish church ;^the domestic riles of the Jews, and their levili- cal priesthood being strictly excluded. But when, in process of time Christianity became the state religion, this alliance of church and state, it was thought, would acquire more honor and respect by blending with it a priesthood and a ritual like that of the Old Testa- ment. This, therefore, became the basis of a new church-service ; and the same office was transformed into a priesthood the elements of which were derived both from Jew and gentile systems of religion. The rules and institutions of the primitive church are chiefly val- uable to show what Christ and his apostles taught and approved. They have not, with us, the form of a law any further than they are founded on the Scriptures. Accordingly, different religious denom- inations have, from time to time, varied at pleasure from their ori- ginal form, not only the less important and common institutions of religion, but even the characteristic ordinances of the church — bap- tism and the Lord's supper — and that too, without laying any sacri- legious hand upon the ancient church of Christ. The law of the Christian church is the law of liberty. The truth, says Christ, shall make you free, with evident reference to the free- dom of religious worship under the Christian dispensation. To this the sacred writers frequently refer, John 4: 24. Rom. 6: 18, 22. 1 Cor. 7: 22. Gal. 5: 1 seq. 4: 9 seq. Col. 2: 16—20. James 1: 25. com p. 2: 12. Not only do the several writers of the New Testa- ment declare the unrestrained freedom of christian worship ; but the earliest and most venerable fathers harmonize with this sentiment, which again is confirmed by the symbolical books, and many other writings of indisputable authority. Christianity accordingly rejected from the religion of the Jews all that related to them as a separate and peculiar people, and modified that religious system, so that it might become the religion of all na- tions. At the same time it rejected with abhorrence every other form of religion. In this way it sought to retain whatever might best promote the kingdom of God, and the edification of his people. On the same principle did the reformers, Luther, Melancthon, Zuin- glius and Calvin proceed. They confessedly retained much that pertained to the Catholic religion, and yet theywere actuated by the most enlarged views of religious freedom and independence. 34 OEGANIZATION OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. § 3, Peculiarities of the Christian System, 1. This system presents the only true form of a church. The Jews had no distinct organization which could, with propriety, be denominated a church. Much less is any association under other forms of religion, entitled to this appellation. 2. The christian church has always been distinguished for its ven- eration for the Holy Scriptures. The reading and exposition of these has, from the beginning, been an important part of christian worship. All the instructions and exhortations of the preacher, have been drawn from this source. The prayers, the psalmody, the catechisms and confessions of faith of the primitive Christians, to- gether with their religious ordinances, were all based on the Scrip- tures. 3. The doctrines of the Trinity and of the divinity of Christ, are the distinguishing characteristics of the christian system. The church itself is based especially on the first mentioned doctrine ; so that there is not an ancient symbol, or confession, or rule of faith, in which it is not either expressed or distinctly implied, nor an ordi- nance which is not commemorative of the belief in God, the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. This is implied in the consecration of churches to God. Even the names of God, Kvgiog, Dominus, ac- cording to the Athanasian creed, expresses the idea of a triune God. Deus triunus. Pater Dominus, Filius Dominus, Spiritus Sanctus Do- minus ; non tamen tres Domini, sed mms Dominus. The same sentiment is implied in the baptismal formulary ; in the three ele- ments of the eucharist — the bread, the wine, and the water ; and in \he three great festivals of the ancient church, which were instituted about the fourth century. [The author might have added, that the same is implied in the form of the ancient Christian's oath which was usually taken in the name of God, of Christ, and of the Holy Spirit. — Vegetius, as quoted by Bingham and Cave. — Tr.] The doctrine of the divinity of Christ appears in the sacrament which commemorates his death, and in the religious services con- nected with this ordinance, as well as in the prayers, doxologies, psalms and hymns, which are addressed to him. The same senti- ment is expressed in many of the emblems and symbols of the an- cient church, and in their mystical names, such as ix&i?-, composed of SECRET DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. 35 the initials of the following words : ^h](JOvq Xqiaioq Oeov Tlog, JTwtj/^, Jesus Christ the Savior, the Son of God. The mystical word Abraxas, is another instance of the same kind, each letter repre- senting ihe initials of the following words : :i< Father, Z'z Son, 7-r]~\ Spirit, nnN one, i. e. one God, Xgicnog Christ, "Av&Qmnoq man, i. e. God-man, -Twij)^ Savior.^ 5. It is peculiar to the christian religion, that all the people take part in their religious services. The humblest worshipper, as Well as the highest functionary, here enters the temple of his God, ap- proaches the altar, and offers an acceptable sacrifice to our common God and Father. 6. It is the peculiar privilege of the Christian that he may wor- ship God, not at some appointed place, and at stated seasons ; but at all times and in every place. The reader is directed to an ex- tended discussion of this subject in the index of authorities.^ § 4. Of the Secret Discipline, the Disciplina Arcani, of the Ancient Church, Apostolical Constitutions, etc As frequent references will be made to these in the subsequent work, a brief explanation is given for the information of the common reader. No intimation is given either in the Scriptures, or in the writings of the apostolic fathers, or by Justin Martyr, that any rites or ordinances of religion are to be concealed from the people. Ire- naeus, TertuHian, and Clemens are the first who make mention of any such custom of the church. But it afterwards became custom- ary to celebrate the sacrament with an air of the most profound mystery, and indeed to administer baptism, and to perform most of the appropriate rites of religion with cautious secresy. Not only were unbelievers of every description excluded from the view of these rites, but catechumens also, and all who were not fully initia- ted into the church and entitled to a participation in its ordinances. From all else the time, and place, and manner of administering the sacred rites were concealed, and the import of each rite was a pro- found mystery which none was at liberty to divulge or explain. To relate the manner in which it was administered, to mention the words used in the solemnity, or to describe the simple elements of which it consisted, were themes upon which the initiated were as strictly forbidden to touch, as if they had been laid under an oath of secresy. 36 ORGANIZATION OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. Not a hint was allowed to be given, nor a whisper breathed on the subject to the uninitiated. Even the ministers, when they were led in their public discourses to speak of the sacraments, or the higher doctrines of faith, contented themselves with remote allusions, and dismissed the subject by saying: The initiated know what is meant, i'lratriv ol /Afixinj^tivoi. They never wrote about them except through the medium of figurative and enigmatical expressions, for fear of giving that which is holy unto dogs, or casting pearls before swine. These mysteries were particularly— the manner of administering baptism ; the unction or chrism ; the ordination of priests ; the man- ner of celebrating the Lord's supper; the liturgy or religious service of the church; the knowledge of the holy Trinity, the creed, and the Lord's prayer. Such was the secret discipline of the ancient church, the disciplina arcani above mentioned. The reason which led to the introduction of this discipline proba- bly was, the persecution to which the early Christians were subject. Under these circumstances they very naturally would conceal their worship as far as practicable from the observation of their enemies by whom they were surrounded. This precaution is distinctly indica- ted in the foregoing letter of Pliny, p. 26. Accordingly this secret discipline gradually fell into disuse after the time of Constantine, when Christianity had nothing to fear from her enemies.^ Apostolical Constitutions and Canons. These two collections of ecclesiastical rules and formularies, were attributed in early ages of the church to Clement of Rome, who was supposed to have committed them to writing from the mouths of the apostles, whose words they pretend to record. The authority thus claimed for these writings has, however, been entirely disproved ; and it is generally supposed by critics that they were chiefly com- piled during the second and third centuries ; or that at least the greater part must be assigned to a period before the first Nicene council. We find references to them in the writings of Eusebius, Epiphanius, and Athanasius, writers of the third and fourth centu- ries. A modern critic supposes them not to have attained their pre- sent form until the fifth century. The Constitutions are comprised in eight books. In these the apostles are frequently introduced as speakers. They contain rules and regulations concerning the duties of Christians in general, the APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS AND CANONS. 87 constitution of tlie church, the offices and duties of ministers, and the celebration of divine worship. The tone of morality which runs through them is severe and ascetic. They forbid the use of all per- sonal decoration and attention to appearances, and prohibit the read- ing of the works of heathen authors. They enjoin Christians to as- semble twice every day in the church for prayers and psalmody, to observe various fasts and festivals, and to keep the sabbath, (i. e. the seventh day of the week,) as well as the Lord's day. They require extraordinary marks of respect and reverence towards the ministers of religion ; commanding Christians to honor a bishop as a king or a prince, and even as a kind of God upon earth, — to render to him absolute obedience, — to pay him tribute, — and to approach him through the deacons or servants of the church, as we come to God only through Christ! This latter kind of (profane) comparison is carried to a still greater extent ; for the deaconesses are declared to resemble the Holy Spirit, inasmuch as they are not able to do any- thing without the deacons. Presbyters are said to represent the apostles ; and the rank of christian teachers is declared to be higher than that of magistrates and princes.— We find here also a complete liturgy or form of worship for christian churches ; containing not only a description of ecclesiastical ceremonies, but the prayers to be used at their celebration. This general description of the contents of the Books of Constitu- tions is alone enough to prove that they are no productions of the apostolic age. Mention also occurs of several subordinate ecclesias- tical officers, such as readers and exorcists, who were not introduced into the church until the third century. And there are manifest con- tradictions between several parts of the work. The general style in which the Constitutions are written is such as had become prevalent during the third century. It is useless to inquire who was the real author of this work ; but the date, and probable design, of the forgery are of more importance, and may be more easily ascertained. Epiphanius, towards the end of the fourth century, appears to be the first author who speaks of these books under their present title. Apostolical Constitutions. But he refers to the work only as one containing much edifying matter, without including it among the writings of the apostles; and indeed he expressly says that many persons had doubted of its genuineness. One passage, however, to which Epiphanius refers, speaks a language 38 ORGANIZATION OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. directly the reverse of what we find in the corresponding passage of the work now extant ; so that it appears probable that the Apos- tolical Constitutions which that author used have been corrupted and interpolated since his tinac. On the whole, it appears probable, from internal evidence, that the Apostolical Constitutions were compiled during the reigns of the heathen emperors towards the end of the third century, or at the beginning of the fourth ; and that the compilation was the work of some one writer (probably a bishop), of the eastern church. The advancement of episcopal dignity and power appears to have been the chief design of the forgery. If we regard the Constitutions as a production of the third century (containing remnants of earlier compositions), the work possesses a certain kind of value. It contributes to give us an insight into the slate of christian faith, the condition of the clergy and inferior eccle- siastical officers, the worship and discipline of the church, and other particulars, at the period to which the composition is referred. The growth of the episcopal power and influence, and the pains and arti- fices employed in order to derive it from the apostles, are here par- tially developed. Many of the regulations prescribed, and many of the moral and I'eligious remarks, are good and edifying ; and the prayers especially breathe, for the most part, a spirit of simple and primitive Christianity. But the work is by no means free from traces of superstition ; and it is occasionally disfigured by mystical inter- pretations and applications of Holy Scripture, and by needless re- finements in matters of ceremony. We find several allusions to the events of apostolical times ; but occurrences related exclusively in such a work are altogether devoid of credibility, especially as they are connected with the design of the compiler to pass off his book as a work of the apostles. The Canons relate chiefly to various particulars of ecclesiastical polity and christian worship ; the regulations which they contain be- ing for the most part sanctioned with the threatening of deposition and excommunication against offenders. The first allusion to this work by name is found in the acts of the Council which assembled at Constantinople in the year 394, under the presidency of Nectari- us, bishop of that see. But there are expressions in earlier councils and writers of the same century which appear to refer to the canons, although not named. In the beginning of the sixth century, fifty of NAMES ASSUMED BY CHRISTIANS. 39 these canons were translated from Greek into Latin by the Roman abbot Dionysius the younger ; and about the same time thirty-five others were appended to them in a collection made by John, patri- arch of Constantinople. Since that time the whole number (eighty- five) have been regarded as genuine in the east ; while only the first fifty have been treated with equal respect in the west. It appears highly probable that the original collection was made about the mid- dle of the third century, or somewhat later, in one of the Asiatic churches. The author may liave had the same design as that which appears to have influenced the compiler of the Apostolical Constitu- tions. The eighty-fifth canon speaks of the Constitutions as sacred books ; and from a comparison of the two works, it is plain that they are either the production of one and the same writer, or that, at least, the two authors were contemporary, and had a good under- standing with each other. The rules and regulations contained in the Canons are such as were gradually introduced and established during the second and third centuries. In the canon or list of sacred books of the New Testament given in this work, the Revelation of St. John is omitted, but the two epistles of Clement and the Apostol- ical Constitutions are inserted.^ CHAPTER II. NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. § 1. Scriptural Appellations and Names assumed by Christians. The professors of the christian religion were originally denomi- nated saints, uyioi. This is their usual appellation in the sacred Scriptures. This they apply, not only to apostles and teachers, but generally to the community of Christians. The inspired writers are indeed particularly styled, holy men of God, 2 Pet. 1:21. Timo- thy is denominated a man of God, 2 Tim. 3: 17. But it might also be shown from many passages that all Christians, without distinc- tion, are included in the venerable appellation of saints. The term 40 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. is derived from the Hebrew C^'JJlp , by which the Jews were deno- ted as God's chosen people, in distinction from all idolatrous nations. But, by the apostle Peter, the several prerogatives and titles of the people of God are ascribed also to all Christians. He denominates them a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a peculiar people, 1 Pet. 1: 15. But he also teaches that this sanctity consists, not in mere outward forms of social worship, but in that piety which their holy calling requires them to cultivate, 2 Pet. 3: 11. comp. Eph. 5: 3. Col. 1: 12. 3: 12. The name was doubtless adopted for the sake of convenience, and not as implying that all were the true worshippers of the holy Jesus. For among Christians wicked persons were also found. Even a Judas Iscariot was numbered with the apostles. But, to the highest honor of Christianity, it should be said that her followers, generally, were men of a pure spirit, and sanctified the Lord God in their hearts. Such is the uniform testimony of her early histori- ans and apologists. And even her enemies acknowledged, that the spotless character of her followers caused religion to be universally respected, and led to its introduction into every country. The names which Christians assumed for themselves, such as, saints, uyiou ; helievers, maitvaavxiq ; elect, ixltxTol ; disciples, [ua&)]Tal ; brethren, uddqiol ; people of God, Xabg tov Osov, and the like, were adopted from the Jews, and were expressive, several- ly, of some moral quality. But in process of time, the common ac- ceptation of these terms became so different from their original ap- plication, that they ceased to be used as the distinctive appellations of their community, composed both of Jews and Gentiles. What name they should assume, became now a question on which they were greatly divided among themselves ; and so much the more so because they had, from the first, refused all sectarian names. They would call no man master ; neither would they receive any title which should imply that their religion was of human origin, as the writers of the fourth and fifth centuries began to assert. In this di- lemma a name was providentially conferred on them, which soon gained ascendancy among friends and foes, and supplanted all others. Of the origin of this name we have a distinct account in the eleventh cliapter of the Acts of the Apostles ; where we are inform- ed, that while Paul and Barnabas were laboring together at Antioch, NAMES ASSUMED BY CHRISTIANS. 41 the disciples of our Lord first began to be called Christians. The form of tliis word, XQiannvol, clearly proves it to be a Latin deriva- tive from A'og. From him or some other ancient father, it passed into a sur-name, but whether from his de- claration to the emperor Trajan that he bore Christ his God in his heart— or from the blessing of Christ bestowed upon him in his child- hood—or from the name of Christ imprinted on his breast— or for some other reason, is not knov/n. It is certain, however, that many other eminent Christians were so named.*^ 6. 'Ix&ig Fishes. An acrostic fancifully derived from the initials of the several appellations of our Saviour, "irjaovg, Xijktio?, Osov Tlog, Hmho. The first letters of each are united in the word 'l/^vc. The names Christian, Christiana, Christopher, Theophilus, and the like, so common in every age of the church, though adopted for convenience, by implication denotes also, devotedness to the service of Christ, and the acknowledgement of his name and his divinity. § 2. Names of Reproach and Derision conferred on Christians BY their enemies. These are indeed without number. Such hatred and contempt was felt for Christianity and its professors, both by Jews and gen- tiles, that they seized every opportunity to expose the disciples of Christ, as dangerous and contemptible men. The reproachful epi- thets cast upon them, with few exceptions, relate only to the first 44 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. centuries of the christian era, and are chiefly interesting to the his- torian and antiquarian. And yet they are of importance as illustra- ting the condition of the primitive church. 1. Jews. By the Romans, Christians were at first regarded merely as a Jewish sect, like the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. As such they were accordingly denominated Jews., and despised as a super- stitious and misanthropic sect. After they began to be distinguished from the Jews, they were described by Suetonius as a class of men of a new and mischievous superstition. Genus hominum supersti- tionis novae et maleficae.^ 2. Nazarenes. Both Jews and gentiles unitedly denominated the Christians Nazarenes. The word is variously written Nazurenes, Nazarenes, Nazorenes, Nazerenes, and Nazirenes. The significa- tions of the term seem to have been as various as its form, though it is uniformly applied in a bad sense.^ Acts 24: 5. 3. Galileans. The author of the name Galileans as a term of re- proach was, according to Gregory Nazianzen,^ Julian the apostate. This he constantly employed, and made a law requiring that they should not be called by any other nanne. He died with these re- markable words on his lips : Ah ! thou Galilean ! thou hast con- quered.'* 4. Greeks. In direct opposition to Julian, christian converts were by the ancient Romans, styled Greeks ; which with them was a pro- verbial phrase, expressive both of suspicion and contempt, as an im- postor. Whenever they saw a Christian in the high way, they were wont to exclaim: Ah! a Greek impostor.^ Christ himself was re- garded as an impostor. Matt. 27: 63. 5. Magicians. By heathen nations, the author of the christian religion was styled Magician, and his followers Magicians.^ Of other names which the malice of their persecutors invented or applied to them, the following is a brief summary. Sihyllists. From their being charged with corrupting the Sibyl- line books. A favorite insinuation of Celsus.'' Sarmentitii. Derived from the faggots with which the fires were kindled around them at the stake.^ Semaxii. From the stake to which they were bound. Paraholani, naqu^oXoi.. From their being exposed to ravenous beasts.3 Bia&dvttiot, self-murderers. Alluding to their fearlessness of death. CLASSIFICATION OF CHRISTIANS. 45 "A&soi, Atheists?^ NsortQoi,^^ Novelli, 7iew lights. ~iav()olurQai,^^ worshippers of the cross, 2 Cor. 1: 18. Plautinae prosapiae^^ homines et Pistores, men of the race of Platitus, bakers. Plautus is said to have hired himself lo a baker, to grind in his mill. Asinarii,'^ loorshippers of an ass. Creduli, Simplices, Stulti, Lu- cifugae, Stupidi, Fatui, Imperiti, Abjecti, Hebetes, Idiotae, etc. § 3. Division and Classification of Christians. As in the Old Testament, two great classes of persons are recog- nized and distinguished, the one from the other — the children of Israel and the gentiles rNnu;-] ""rs and 'z^'m. So in the New Tes- tament we observe a similar division, ol icroi and ol I'^w, those that are within and those that are without. The former denotes Chris- tians, not only as united together in the fellowship of the church, but as opposed to the latter class, which includes both Jews and gen- tiles. This classification, however, has no reference to a division of Christians among themselves, but simply to the distinction between such as are, and such as are not, believers in the Christian religion. A similar form of expression is used in various passages also to distinguish the true and the false disciples of Christ, Mark 4: 11. 13: 14. Luke 6: 13. 2 John 2: 19. The equality of all Christians is clearly asserted in the Scriptures. They are brethren, and as such have equal rights, laojifnoi. Comp. 2 Pet. 1: 1. They are one heritage, 2 Pet. 5: 3; and all members of the same head. Col. 1: 18. Nay, Christ himself asserts the equality of all his disciples, Luke 22: 25, 26. And yet a distinction is made between the master and his disciple — the teacher and the taught. The one are denominated the people, 6 Xaog,- the flock, to •noijivlov ; the body of believers, to nlij&og twv tikttwv ; the church, i\ i>iy.h]ula ; private persons, Idi^xai ,• and laymen, or men devoted to seculiar pursuits, SioitdcoI. The others are styled teachers, 8i- ddaHakot, ; leaders, ijyov^svoi ; shepherds, notfiivsg ; overseers, inia- KOTiok; elders, iiQosa^vxBQoi ; rulers, 7iQ0f(jTbJzsg, etc. Subordinate to these were the deacons, didxovot. ; the widoivs, xvQf^h or deacon- esses, diuKovhauL ; the attendants, vnfjgsTai, and the inferiors, vmis- qai. So that even the New Testament indicates an ecclesiastical order, which at a later age became much more prominent. 46 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. The sacred persons mentioned in the New Testament, and the regulations prescribed for the worship of God, were undoubtedly- derived from the relif^ion of the Jews. Indeed this fact has never been called in question. The only inquiry has been whether the or- ganization of the christian church is to be derived chiefly from the forms of the tempJe service^ or from those of the synagogue worship, both of which were in use through the period of the second temple, from the time of the Babylonish captivity to that of the christian era. This difference of opinion is evidently very ancient. Tertullian compares the office of bishop with that of the high priest.^ Cyprian and Jerome consider the Mosaic economy as the prototype of the christian church ;^ while Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Augustine and others, refer its origin to the synagogue. The church of Rome manifestly has great interest in establishing the first hypothesis. And yet there are not wanting in that church those who maintain the contrary opinion. The majority of the learned, especially of the evangelical church, oppose the theory that the constitution of the church is to be traced for the most part to the temple service ; but in every particular they labor to show that it is derived from the regulations of the Jewish synagogue. The most ancient specific classification in the church, of which we have any knowledge, is found in Eusebius.^ " In every church there are three orders of men. One of the i]yov^iivm>, svperiors, i. e. rulers, leaders or guides ; and two of the vjio^3s(ii]x6T(ov, suhjecis, i. e. the people, the body of the church. The latter class comprehends two divisions, the unbaptized, and the faithful. The unbaptized are usually denominated xairj;(oi'[Aivoi, catechumens, candidates for bap- tism." See § 5- The above classification of Eusebius, in reality recognizes but two classes of men. Those that teach, and those that are taught. And this corresponds with the classification given by Jerome,^ though he specifies five classes — bishops, presbyters, deacons, believers, and catechumens. Here again, there really are but two divisions ; those that teach, comprising the first three, and those that are taught, comprising the last two. The divisions of the church which occur in periods still later, are substantially the same. They universally recognize the distinction of the teacher, and the taught. These are most frequently denominated the laity and the clergy, with this difference, that in the latter class, the idea of ruler as well as teacher OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 47 is comprehended, a distinction, however, which is rather implied than expressed. § 4. Of the Christian Church. This term, iy.xh](Tia, in the New Testament, and by the ancient fa- thers, primarily denoted an assembly of Christians, i. e. believers in the christian religion in distinction from all others. In this sense it included the officers and teachers, though these were more frequent- ly denominated ixy.h](nuaTiy.ol, ecclesiastics. But it has, from the earliest ages, been used in a more restricted sense to denote the great body of the church, the laity, in distinction from her officers and teachers. So it is used by Eusebius, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Amalarius. That it so seldom occurs in this signification, is to be ascribed merely to the circumstance that the term laity was the technical name of the body of the church in contradistinction from the clergy. The derivation of the word is unquestionably from the Greek kuog, people. In this sense it is not indeed used in the New Testament, but it occurs in the earliest christian writers, and was in familiar use in the third century. Tertullian especially complains of heretics, that they confounded the officers of the church. One is made bishop to-day, another to- morrow. One is to-day a deacon, to-morrow a reader ; to-day a pres- byter, to-morrow a layman ; for they confer the sacerdotal offices even upon the laity.^ Such was the anxiety of the ancient church to distinguish between the clergy and laity, and to guard them from assuming any of the official duties of the priesthood. Jerome in- deed speaks of a lay priesthood, but by the term he only designates those who have received christian baptism, in allusion to the passage : He hath made us kings and priests unto God ! The laity were also divided into different classes, which were very distinctly known and cautiously observed previous to the gene- ral introduction of infant baptism. The prevalence of this ordi- nance changed, in a great measure, the ancient classification of the church, which again was subject to other modifications by the rise of the different classes of penitents, and of the energumens and the several orders of monastics. 48 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. [The views which the primitive Christians entertained of them- selves as the priests of God are clearly exhibited in the following extracts from Bib. Repos. July 1840, pp. 97 — 99. " They viewed themselves as the j^riests of God, placed in a polluted world to sanc- tify it, to be purified temples in. which the Holy Spirit might dwell, safe from the contact of surrounding corruption, to be purified chan- nels in which the sweet influences of heaven, the rills from the river of life, which surrounds the throne of God, might freely flow to puri- fy a world which lay in wickedness. " ' We,' says Justin Martyr, (Dial. Tryph. 355,) ' are the true high priests of God, as God himself testifies, when he says that plea- sant incense and a pure offering shall in every place among the heathen be offered to him. Mai. 1: 11. He receives offerings from none but his priests. Prayer and thanksgiving only, brought by the worthy, are genuine offerings well pleasing to God ; and those, Christians alone are in a condition to give.' Says Irenaeus (iv. 20), ' All the righteous have the sacerdotal dignity.' Says Tertullian (de Orat. c. 28), ' We are the true worshippers and the true priests, who, praying in the Spirit, in the Spirit offer to God the prayer which is his due, and is well-pleasing to him. Such prayer, coming from a heart full of devotion, nourished by faith, kept pure by a blameless life, made glorious by love, and accompanied with good works, we must with psalms and hymns bring to the altar of God ; and it is all which God requires of us.' " There was then no such distinction between clergymen and lay- men, that compliances which would be acknowledged improper in the one would yet be considered harmless in the other. They were all equally the priests of God, and as such they felt their responsi- bilities, and as such they endeavored to keep themselves unspotted from the world, and always to maintain the grave and serious de- meanor becoming in a priest of the Most High. Says Tertullian (Monog. 7), ' We are priests, called thereto by Christ. The su- preme High Priest, the great Priest of the Heavenly Father, even Christ, when he clothed us with that which is his, for as many of you as are baptized have put on Christ, Gal. 3: 27, hath made us kings and priests to God and his Father.' Rev, 1:6. ' We are de- luded if we imagine that that is allowed to the layman which is not permitted to the priest. Are not we laymen also priests.^' (Exhort. 0.7.)" CATECHUMENS. 49 According to Rhelnwald, Arch. ^ 12, and Gieseler Kirchengesch, I. 169, the distinction between laity and clergy was unknown until the second century. Previous to this, all performed the office of priests as they had occasion. The power of speaking and exhorta- tion was considered rather the free gift of the spirit, and was posses- sed by many of the Ciiristians, though exercised in different ways — prophets, teachers, speaking with tongues, 1 Cor. 12:28 — 31. chap. 14. There was as yet no distinct order of clergy, for the whole so- ciety of Christians was a royal priesthood, 1 Pet. 2: 9 ; the chosen people of God, 1 Pet. 5: 3. comp. Deut. 4: 20. 9: 29. In support of his opinion, Gieseler quotes the following authorities. — " TertuUian de exhort, castit. c. 7. Amhrosiaster (Hilarius Dla- conus.=>), about A. D. 380, in comment, ad Ephes. iv. 11 : Primum omncs docebant et omnes baptizabant, quibuscunque diebus vel tem- poribus fuisset occasio ; nee enim Philippus tempus quaesivit aut diem, quo eunuchum baptizaret neque jejunium interposuit. * * * Ut ergo cresceret plebs et multiplicaretur, omnibus inter inilia con- cessum est et evangelizare et baptizare et scripturas in ecclesia ex- planare. At ubi omnia loca complexa est ecclesia, conventicula constituta sunt et rcctores, et caetera officia in ecclesiis sunt ordina- ta, ut nullus de clericis [ceteris ?] auderet, qui ordinatus non esset, praesumere officium, quod sciret non sibi creditum vel concessum. Et coepit alio ordine et providentia gubernari ecclesia, quia si omnes eadem possent, irrationabile esset, et vulgaris res et vilissima vide- retur. Hinc ergo est, unde nunc neque diaconi in populo praedi- cant, neque clerici vel laici baptizant, neque quocunque die creden- tes tinguntur, nisi aegri. Ideo non per oinnia conveniunt scripta ApostoU ordinationi, quae nunc in ecclesia est, quia Iwec infer pri- mordia sunt scripta. — Tr.] § 5. Catechumens. These take their name from yarrixovusvoi, learners, a word of fre- quent occurrence in the New Testament, Acts 18: 25. Gal. 6: 6. Rom. 2: 19. 1 Cor. 14: 19. The catechumens of the ancient church were candidates for baptism under instruction for admission into the christian church. They were styled candidates, candidi, because they were wont to appear dressed in white on their admission to church. In the Latin church they were sometimes denominated 7 50 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. Novilii, Tirones, Audientes, Rudes, Ltcipientes, Pueri, etc. equiva- lent to the terms pupils, beginners, etc. The importance of this order in the opinion of the ancient cliurch, appears from the fact tliat schools were instituted especially for their instruction, and caleciiists appointed over them. One part of the church service was also suited to them especially, and another to the faithful. The discipline and instruction which they received in this manner, was usually an indispensable preliminary to their ad- mission into the churcii. The reasons which led to the institution of tliis order, are well de- scribed by Jamieson, in the following extract : " While those who were entitled to partake of the Lord's supper were exclusively denominated the faithful, and considered as occu- pying the rank of perfect or approved Christians, there were seve- ral other classes of persons, who, though connected with the Church, and forming constituent parts of it, were yet separated from, and in- ferior to, the former, being in various stages of advancement towards a qualification for the holy riles of the Gospel. These orders, known by the name of catechumens, were distinguished from each other by lines of demarcation, beyond which none was allowed to pass with- out a long and gradual preparation ; and between a newly made cate- chumen, and a Christian in the rank of the faithful, there was as wide a difference in the eye of the primitive Church, as between an mfant of a day, and one who has attained the stature of a full-grown man. In the records of apostolic times, we shall in vain look for any traces of this distinction, — for then a heathen no sooner made an avowal of his faith in Christ, than he received the initiatory rile of Christianity. His conversion was immediately followed by his bap- tism, and whatever shades of difference there might be in the know- ledge of the new converts, all were considered as equally entitled to the outward sign, as they were to the inward ari'd spiritual benefits of the ordinance. But in the process of time, when the Church was enlarged by a daily increasing influx of members from heathenism, and when her purity was no longer guarded by the presiding care of those who possessed the miraculous gift of discerning spirits, the pi- ous solicitude of her rulers in after-times, gave rise to the custom of deferring the admission of converts into the fellowship of the Church, till clear and satisfactory evidence was obtained of their fitness, in point of knowledge and sincerity, to be enrolled in the ranl.s of the CATECIIUMKNS. 51 disciples. The dear-bought experience of the primitive Christians had convinced them that the gross habits of idolaters were not easily and all at once, in many instances, rclinquisiied for the pure and spiritual principles of the Gospel, and tliat multitudes of professed believers held their faith by so slender a tie, that the slightest temp- tation plunged them anew into tlicir former sensuality, and the first alarm drove them back into the enemies' camp. To diminish, and, if possible, to prevent the occurrence of such melancholy apostasies, which interrupted the peace and prosperity of the christian society, and brought a stain on the christian name, was a consummation de- voutly wished for by the pious fathers of the primitive age ; and ac- cordingly, animated by a spirit of holy jealousy, they adopted the rule, w iiich soon came into universal practice, of instituting a severe and protracted inquiry into the character and views of candidates for admission to the communion of the church, — of not suddenly ad- vancing them to that honorable degree, but of continuing them for a limited period in a state of probation. It was thus that the order of the catechumens arose, an order which, though unknown to the age of Peter and Paul, boasts of a very early introduction into the prim- itive church ; and, at whatever period its date may be fixed, its ori- gin is to be traced to the laudable desire of more fully instructing young converts in the doctrines of the christian faith, and at the same time affording them opportunities to give evidence of the sincerity of their profession, by the change of their lives and the holiness of their conversation." — Manners of Prim. Christ, pp. 130 — 2. Alexandrinus and Origen have much to say in recommendation of a certain secret doctrine of the church, /.ivajJiQioaoqiu, scientia arcani. This discovers itself about the same time with the order of catechumens, and appears to have fallen into disrepute, as the church increased, and additions were made to it from baptized children of christian families, rather than from the candidates who had been re- ceived from among Jews and Gentiles. There was no specific rule respecting the age at which Jewish and heathen converts were received as catechumens. History in- forms us, that the greater part were persons of adult age. Even Constantine the Great was reckoned among this class. The delay of baptism, against which Gregory of Nyssa and otliers inveighed so earnestly in the fourth century, seems to intimate that these subjects of baptism were usually advanced beyond the legal age of manhood. 52 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. It must indeed be admitted as an exception to this usage, that whole families were occasionally baptized, as in the times of the apostles, Acts 16: 15, 31. 18: 8. 1 Cor. 1: 16. And as an argument in favor of infant baptism, this usage is the more persuasive from the fact that after the fourth century paedobaptism was much more gene- rally introduced and defended. In the meanwhile, no rule is given for the children of christian parents, respecting their requisite age, for becoming catechumens. And it is remarkable that Tertullian and Cyprian who, in other respects are so harmonious, should so disagree on this point. The latter was an advocate for paedobap- tism ; the former, a zealous opposer. " It is better, he says, for each one to delay his baptism, according to his condition, disposition and age — especially for the young. Let them come when they have arrived to maturity ; let them come when they have sufficient know- ledge— when they are taught why they come ; let them become Christians (by baptism) when they have a competent knowledge of Christ."! The case of Augustine may with propriety be cited in this place. By his pious mother Monica he had, from his infancy, been care- fully instructed in the christian religion. In consequence of a dan- gerous sickness he was about to be baptized in early childhood, that he might die as a Christian, under the covenant. But the adminis- tration of the ordinance was deferred in consequence of his re- covery ; and the delay he regarded as a kind Providence. From this example the inference is, that he might have received due pre- paration for the ordinance from his pious mother, but that his bap- tism would have been an exception to the general rule on this sub- ject. He was converted under Ambrose of Milan, and, though at this lime a distinguished writer, became a regular catechumen. Af- ter due preparation, he was baptized in the year 387. It is however certain that children were, at an early age, the sub- jects of baptism, and that too, not merely in cases of emergency, but by established rule and usage ; for it was against this usage that Tertullian felt himself constrained to write. But these little children ■who were incapable of knowing Christ, as Tertullian describes them, could not of course be subject to any such preliminary preparation as the catechumens received. They could only be subject to such exercises subsequent to boplism, jusX as, since the general introduc- tion of infant baptism, the subsequent instructions preparatory to CATECHUMENS. 53 confirmation are regarded, which is a religious ordinance introduced into the church very unlike the original usage. No general rule prevailed respecting the time which the catechu- mens should spend in that relation. It varied at difTerent limes, and according to the usages of the several churches ; especially, ac- cording to the proficiency of each, individually. In the constitution of the apostles,^ three years are prescribed. By the council of lUi- beri,3 A. D. 673, two years. By that of Agatha,^ A. D. 506, eight months. Cyril of Jerusalem, and Jerome, direct them to observe a season of fasting and prayer for forty days.^ From all which, the inference is, that there was no determinate rule on this subject. This public preparation of the catechumens necessarily implies, that they were previously subject to private instrucLioh. The same is inferred from the instructions which were preliminary to confirmation. The true idea of which is, that of completing and confirming the discipline to which the candidate has already been subjected. Ex- ceptions there undoubtedly were. Instances may be adduced in which all the preparation which the candidate received was limited to a single day.*^ And the procedure is authorized by examples in the Scriptures. But the rules of the church, have ever required a longer period of probation. The catechumens were early divided into separate classes. But their number, and their names, were somewhat different. The Greek canonists specify two classes.'^ The uninitiated, uisUcthqoi, and the more advanced, jeharfQoi, perfectiores. These are styled by Suidas,^ the a>:QO(x\usvoi., such as are occupied in learning, and Ev/of^svol, such as are engaged in devotional pursuits. Maldonatus gives three classes,^ the audientes, the coinpetenles, and the poenilen- tes. According to Bingham, ^'^ there were four classes. 1. Those who were subject to private instruction. 2. Such as received pub- lic instruction. 3. Those who were occupied with devotional ex- ercises. 4. Those who were duly qualified for baptism. But this classification is not duly authorized. These distinctions, however, are of little importance, and have never been generally recognized. They seem to have been made as occasion required, rather than by any essential rule of classifica- tion. The churches at Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, and Alex- andria, were at variance among themselves on this point, and each agreed with the churches of its own communion only in a few lead- 54 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. ing particulars. The gradations of improvement were particularly observed. The age, and sex, and circumstances of the catechu- mens, were also duly regarded ; men of age, and rank, not being classed with children of twelve or thirteen years of age. At one time they may have all been united in one class, and at another, may have been divided into two, three, or even four several divisions. The mode of their admittance was very brief, and unceremonious. But some form of admission was uniformly required, a circumstance which illustrates the degree of consideration in which the rile was held, while it indicates the existence both of some determinate time of admission, and of some difference of opinion respecting it. The imposition of hands was one of the prescribed ceremonies. ^^ The sign of the crosfe is also mentioned. Augustine received the sign of the cross, and affirms that this, with the imposition of hands, was the usual mode of setting them apart. By Porphyry, bishop of Ga- za, converts from paganism were received, by prostrating them- selves at his feet, and requesting to receive the sign of the cross. After having passed upon them this sign, and received them as cate- chumens, he propounded them for admission to the church, and dis- missed them with his benediction. Soon after this, he baptized them, having previously given them catechetical instruction.^- In this instance, the term of probation must have been short. They were also immediately recognized as candidates for baptism, without reference to the distinction of classes. The manner of receiving a catechumen, therefore, was substan- tially as follows ; The bishop examined the candidate, and, if he was found worthy, enroled his name in the records of the church. The solemnity was then concluded by prayer, imposition of hands, and the signing of the cross. — Siegel, Catechumenat, Vol. I. p. 367. The exercises of the catechumens until their union with believ- ers, were wholly directed with reference to their preparation for baptism. They consisted generally in attending to various catecheti- cal and doctrinal instructions, the reading of the Scriptures, etc. The advanced class, before baptism, were subject to repeated exami- nations, and to a kind of exorcism accompanied with imposition of hands, the sign of the cross, and insufflation, the breathing of the priest upon them. They also passed many days in fasting and prayer, and in learning the words of their creed and the Lord's prayer.'*^ CATECHUMENS. 55 In case of severe sickness, baptism was administered to tlie pa- tient on his bed, ini xr,q vllvriq. This was called clinic baptism. In such instances, it was allowable to administer it by sprinkling. Bap- tism was also administered to apostate catechumens in the near ap- proach of death, and to such apostates as gave evidence of repent- ance it was not denied, even though they were not received to the class of penitents. Any one devoted to martyrdom, was reckoned among the cate- chumens, martyrdom being regarded as a full substitute, and there- fore styled hJood haplism.^'^ This notion was derived from various passages in the Scriptures. ' He that loseth his life, shall find it,' Matt. 10: 39. 'I have a bap- tism to bo baptized with,' Luke 12: 50. Baptism was accounted essential to salvation. Martyrdom was also esteemed a passport to heaven. It was therefore made a substitute for baptism. On the contrary, if any catechumen who had caused the delay of his baptism by his crimes, died unbaptized, he was not treated as a Christian. His name was not enrolled in the records of the church while living, and after death, he was denied the solemnities of chris- tian burial, and refused a place in the catalogue of Christians. He was buried, Sine cruce el luce. Much controversy has arisen out of a passage from Augustine,'^ respecting the sacrament of the catechumens, relating chiefly to the consecrated bread jmnis henedictus. But Bona, Basnage and Bing- ham have sufficiently shown, that it was not the sacramental bread, but bread seasoned with salt ; and that this, at their baptism, was administered with milk and honey, salt being the emblem of purity and incorruption.'*^ Tiie ancient discipline of the catechumens, preparatory to their admission into the communion of the church as above stated, is briefly summed up in the following extract. It exhibits so clearly the extreme caution and deliberation of the ancient church, in re- ceiving candidates into their communion, that no apology can be necessary for inserting it as a brief recapitulation. "The moment that a heathen announced his resolution to aban- don the religion of his fathers, and to embrace that of Jesus, he was introduced to the pastor of the place, who, having laid liis hand upon his head, a ceremony of very frequent use in all the offices of the ancient church, and prayed that he might become a partaker of the 56 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CnKISTIANS. grace of the gospel, consigned him to the care of some missionaries, whose duty it was from time to time to wait upon him privately, and in his own house, to instruct him in the elementary principles of the christian faith. At an appointed time, and when he had satis- fied his private instructors of his capacity to profit by the services of the church, he was permitted to come into the congregation, where he stood in a particular place appropriated to the hearers — those who were admitted to hear the Scriptures read, and the plain and simple discourses on the fundamental articles of faith and points of duty, which always formed the subject of the preliminary exhor- tations of the church. If the proficiency and conduct of the cate- chumen during his continuance in this lower rank were approved of, he was, at a certain period, advanced to a higher order, which was privileged not only to be present at the reading of the Scriptures, and the delivery of the sermons, but also at the prayers, which we described as concluding the first service. After remaining the ap- pointed time in this more advanced stage of his progress, he was successively privileged to be present at the public prayers of the church, to hear the discourses addressed to the faithful on the higher and more abstruse doctrines of Christianity, and even to witness, at an humble distance, the dispensation of the Lord's supper. He was then considered ripe for baptism, and immediately put upon a new course of discipline, preparatory to partaking of the holy mysteries at the next celebration of the solemnity. Hitherto, he had been trained, by a regular course of catechetical instructions in private, to a knowledge of the leading doctrines and duties of the gospel, and now he was subjected to frequent and minute examinations in public on every branch of his religious education. If approved, he was forthwith instructed in some of the sublimer points of Christianity, which had been hitherto withheld from him, — such as the doctrine of the Trinity, the union of the divine and human natures in Christ, the influences of the Spirit, and the way in which a participation of the symbols of a Saviour's love gives spiritual nourishment to the soul. He was allowed to employ the Lord's prayer, — the use of which was considei'ed as the exclusive privilege of his adopted chil- dren ; and was enjoined to commit to memory the creed, as a formula which embodied, in a small compass, all the grand articles of revealed truth, which it had been the object of his protracted dis- cipline to teach him. For twenty successive days he continued a OF BELIEVERS. 57 course of partial fasting, during which he had daily interviews with his minister, who, in private, and secluded fronn llie presence of every other observer, endeavored, by serious discourse, to impress his mind with a sense of the important step he was about to take, — and more especially, prayed with him, in the usual solemn form, by imposition of hands, that he might be delivered from any evil spirit that had possession of his heart, and be enabled to consecrate him- self a living sacrifice to God and the Saviour. Such was the disci- pline of the catechumens, — a discipline to which all ranks and descriptions of men, who were desirous of being admitted into the bosom of the church, were in primitive times indiscriminately sub- jected. " None," to use the words of Lord King, " were permitted to enjoy the privileges of the faithful, till they had in a manner merited them, — which was, when they had, through a considerable time of trial, manifested the sincerity of their hearts by the sanctity and purity of their lives. When they had changed their manners, and rectified their former habits, then they were washed with the waters of baptism, and not before. " The period during which they continued this course of prepara- tion varied in different places, and was, indeed, often regulated by no other rule than the proficiency of the candidates. In general, it lasted for two or three years ; though, in cases of severe indisposi- tion and imminent danger, the probation was shortened, and the most benevolent and anxious provision made to dispense to the sick or dying catechumens, whose life was consistent with their views, though they had not completed their appointed time of discipline, all the comforts which a participation in the privileges of the church could give. But when no such pressing emergency occurred, the young disciple was left to accomplish his noviciate in the ordinary course; and it was only by slow and progressive steps he ascended to the standard of knowledge and virtue that gave him a passport to the region of the faithful." § 6- Of Believers — or, the Faithful. This term is used to designate the constituents of the christian community, that body or assembly which was appropriately denom- inated the church, i\ ixxlrjala, and ixxli^aia iwv uyibtv. Persons of this description were distinguished by various names, designed in a 8 58 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. measure to illustrate the true nature and peculiar constitution of the church. 1. They were styled maioi, the faithful, as has already been men- tioned. This is the favorite and universal name which has uniform- ly been used to denote such as have been duly instructed in the fun- damental principles of the christian religion ; and received, by bap- tism, into the communion of the church. By this name they are distinguished on the one hand from the uTi/o-ioi, such as are not Christians, and heretics, and on the other, from the clergy and from the catechumens, penitents, energumens, and ascetics. It is worthy of remark, that the disciples of Christ use the active form, oi tjiutsv- ovTiQ, or niajfmai'Tfg, while the fathers uniformly use the j)a-^^i'^^-> Oi niaxol. The latter, however, occurs occasionally in the New Testament, Acis 16: 1. 2 Cor. 6: 15. 1 Tim. 4: 12. 5: 16, but in a sense more unlimited than that in which it is used by the fathers. 2. 'l'(uTi'^u[uivoi, illuminati, the enlightened. This name they re- ceived upon being baptized, baptism being by them denominated cpwji(T[xog, or q)ania^a, illumination. It is a curious fact, that the baptized are denominated (ptiniConsvoi, and candidates for baptism qiuTiad&i'Tfg, while on grammatical principles precisely the reverse might have been expected. The usage of (foma&ivm is supposed to be derived from Fleb. 6: 4, as the most proper to denote such as were suitably enlightened to be received into the church. 3. MffivTj^ivoi, the initialed. This appellation was most in use in the fourth and fifth centuries, when so much was said of the ar- cani disciplinn^ the secret mysteries of the christian religion. It de- notes such as have been initiated into these mysteries, a privilege belonging exclusively to members of the church. The phrase the initialed kyiow, occurs about fifty times in Augustine and Chrysos- tom alone. The terms fivarai and fivaTaymyrjioi are also often used, and, in short, almost all the phraseology which profane writers use respecting an initiation into their mysteries. Indeed the rite of bap- tism itself has an evident relation, as Cyril of Jerusalem represents,' to the initiatory rites of Eleusis, Samothrace, etc. 4. Tihiot, and jslsiovfisvot, the perfect. This name, like the fore- going, has a relation to their sacred n)ysteries. It is adopted from the New Testament, where it is used, not indeed in the same, but in a kindred meaning in relation to christian perfection. To join the church was styled ^Xduy iml to nhiov, or fuiixiiv tov ifhiov, to at- I OF BELIEVERS. 59 tain unto perfection ; and the participation of the sacrament, which in the ancient church invariably followed baptism, was denominated ifXtji] idsT(tJv,~ perfection of perfections. 5. The titles, brethren, saints, elect, leloved, sons of God, etc. have ever been applied as the special prerogative of believers, or professing CIn'istiaris. The foregoing titles also conveyed to those who bore them exclu- sively, certain rights and privileges. 1. They were permitted to be present at all religious assemblies without exception, — to take part in the 7nissa caleclmmenorum, the first religious service of public worship, designed especially for the catechumens, as well as in the missa fidelium, the after-service, which was particularly designed for them, and which none but the initi- ated were permitted to attend. To this service neither catechu- mens, nor any other, were permitted to be present, not even as spec* tators. 2. It was another special privilege of the faithful, that they were permitted to hear and join in the rehearsal of the Lord's prayer. None but believers were permitted, in any case, audibly to adopt the language of this prayer and say, Our Father who art in heaven ; though it might be used in silent prayer. In the worship oi the faithful, on the contrary, it might be rehearsed aloud, or sung by them, or repeated in responses. 3. As another prerogative, they were allowed to seek an explana- tion of all the mysteries of the christian religion. Origen and Gre- gory of Nyssa often allege, in commendation of Christianity, that it has refined mysteries, (ivan'jnca, uii^rjTu, and otTTOQ^Tjia, which no vul- gar mind can comprehend. By which is understood, among other things, the rites and doctrines of the church, and the subtleties of their faith. All these were cautiously concealed from catechumens, and taught to believers only, because " by God's gift they were made partaker of these mysteries, and therefore qualified to judge of them." To the uninitiated, the ancient fathers discoursed only on obvious points of morality ; and if, at any time, they were led to touch upon their profound mysteries, they dismissed them with the expression, iffamv oi ^u^vrnxit'oi, To the initiated it is given to know these things.* * De moralibus quotidianum sermonem habuimus, cum vel Patriarcharura gesta, vel proverbiorum legcrentur praecepta : ut his informati atque insti- 60 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. 4. The most important religious privilege of believers, is that of partaking of the eucharist, which has always comprehended a right to participate in all the sacred mysteries, and hence has derived the significant name o^ xoivuvla, communion. 5. In close connection with this communion stands also that im- portant right which, as a member of the church, each communicant had of taking part in all the transactions of that body, especially in the choice of thp clergy {Wahl der Geistlichen) , and iii the disci- pline of the church. In view of the importance of this right, we are surprised to observe that it is passed over in entire silence by Bingham, and but briefly touched upon by other writers on this subject. In treating of rules for electing a bishop. Book IV. Ch. 2, Bingham has indeed much to say respecting the rights of suffrage enjoyed by the people, but that relates only to {\^eform of the election. This, however, is the pro- per place distinctly to assert tliis right of suffrage which the faithful enjoyed, although it is of necessity implied and included in the gen- eral privileges of church membership. That the church, i. e. the united body of believers has had a part in the election of their pas- tor, from the earliest period downward, is certain, not merely from the testimony of Scripture, but also from the most ancient of the fa- thers ; and has never been denied even by those who, in this respect, have been most anxious to abridge the privileges of the people. All they assert is, that the original usage has been changed, because of its manifold abuses, and of necessity abrogated. Hence has arisen tuti assuesceretis majorum ingredi vias eorumque iter carpere, ac divinis obedire mandatis, quo renovati per baptismuin ejus vitae usum teiieretis, quae ablutos deceret. Nunc dc mysteriis dicere admonet atque ipsam sacra- mentorum rationem edere : quam ante baptisinuni si putassemus insinuan- dum nondum initiatis, prodidisse potius, quain edidisse, aeslimaremur. Am- BROS., De Ids qui mysteriis initientur, c. 1. — Dimissis jam catedliumenis, vos tanturn ad audiendum retinuimus : quia,praeter ilia, quae onines Christianos convenit in commune servare, specialiter de caelestibus mysteriis locuturi sumus, quae audire non possunt, nisi qui ea donante jam Domino percepe- runt. Tanto igitur niajore reverentia debetis audire quae dicimus, quanto majore ista sunt, quae solis baptizatiset fidelibus auditoribus coramittuntur, quam ilia, quae etiam catechumeni audire consueverunt. August. Serm. 1 o,d JVeoph. — 'u4jt'/fiojg Sioi zoig afivi'irovs ntQi twv &twn> Sialtyofitd'a fivarT]- Qiwv TovTvjv Si xujQiLo/j-ivojVj aacpws xo' s fie/xvi^fiivovs SiSdanofisv. Theo- DORET. Quaest. 15 in JVum. OF PENITENTS. 61 the question whether, in the eleclion of a pastor, the church is enti- tled to a valid, elective vote, or whether their suffrage should be testimonial only, or negative. Then again arises another question, of equal importance, relating to the method of voting by proxy and by a body of electors which, so far as is known, appears to have been first practised by the church in Africa.^ The participation of the church in church-discipline discovered itself especially in the excommunication of penitents, and reception of them again, which, although administered by the bishop, could not be ratified except by the concurrence of the church.* § 7. Of Penitents. None but such as had received baptism and confirmation could be reckoned among the penitents. They consisted wholly of such lay- members of the church as had been separated from it by reason of their unworthy deportment, or for grosser offences, and who volun- tarily submitted to the penalties inflicted upon them with a view to their readmission into the church and restoration to christian fellow- ship, and the privileges of communion. See Chap. XVII, on Penance. § 8. Of Energumens, or Demoniacs. Mention is often made in the ancient church, of persons possessed of an evil spirit. The regulations of the church bestow upon them special care. They constitute a distinct class of Christians, bearing some relation both to the catechumens and the faithful ; but differing from both in this, that they were under the special oversight and di- rection of Exorcists, while they took part in some of the religious exercises of both classes. Catechumens who, during their probationary exercises became de- moniacs, were never baptized until thoroughly healed, except in case of extreme sickness.^ Believers who became demoniacs, in the worst stages of their disease, like the weeping penitents, were not perniit- * In ordinationibus clericis, fratres carissimi, solemus vos ante consulere, et mores ac merita singulorum communi consilio ponderare. Cyprian, ep. 23. ad der. et pleb. Carth. Plebs ipsa maximam habet potestatem vel eli- gendi dignos sacerdotes, vel indignos recusandi. Cijp. ep. 68. 62 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. led to enter the church ; but were retained under close inspection in the outer porch. From this circumstance they were denominated, /f//<«sO,«6rot, or y.fifiu'CovTfg, hycmanles* When partially recovered they were permitted, with the audientes, to join in public worship, but they were not permitted to partake of the sacrament until whol- ly restored, except in the immediate prospect of death. In general, the energumens were subject to the same rules as the penitents.^ § 9. Ascetics, Coenobites, Monks, Fraternities. The ascetics of antiquity, and of the middle ages were essentially different in many respects. To the first class belong all those who sought a life of solitude for religious exercises, and private contem- plation, and either alone, or in company with others, separated them- selves from christian society without wholly excluding themselves from the communion of the church. These constituted, therefore, a distinct class of the laity. The origin of the ascetic manner of life dates back far beyond the christian era. In Egypt, Assyria, Persia, and India, there were at this early period ascetics, hermits, and recluses. The Therapeutics, of whom Philo and Josephus speak, were a religious fraternity, who in many respects had a striking influence in the subsequent forma- tion of monastic establishments. Many of the Pythagorian institutes also bore a striking resemblance to the monastic rules of later date. Some again have compared them with those of the Nazarites and Eechabites of Scripture, respecting whom, Witsius and Less may be consulted. The prophet Elijah, the schools of the prophets, and John the Baptist, have also been considered as patterns of monastic life. But its high antiquity is sufficiently proved by Jerome.' As early as the second century, the foundations of monachism were laid in a vain admiration of the supposed virtues of fasting, solitude, and celibacy. Soon after the age of the apostles, bodily mortifica- tion, and a contemplative life, began to be regarded by many Chris- tians as indications and means of extraordinary piety. In the time of Cyprian and Tertullian, the " sacred virgins of the church," or the " canonical virgins," were recognized as a distinct class, and celiba- (* Suicer, Bingham and Du Fresne derive it from the agitations to which they were subject, like a ship in a storm. — Tr.) ASCETICS. 63 cy was extolled as a species of super-eminent sanctity. Cyp. Ep. 62. al. 4, ad Pompon. Such superstition with its pernicious adjuncts and consequences made rapid progress in the church. But many Greek and Latin writers concur in ascribing the origin of christian Anchorets and Monks to the third century. They are beheved to have arisen first in Egypt. Among the founders of this sect, some of the most celebrated were Paulus, Antonius, Pachomi- us, Fliiarion, and Athanasius. To these may be added Basil the Great, Ephraim the Syrian, the two Gregories, Epiphanius, Cliry- soslom, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Cassian, and many others. In the fourth and fifth centuries the monastic life had become common to all orders of men, not only in the eastern, but also in the western church ; but it had not attained the celebrity which it after- wards acquired. Men of the highest distinction obtained indeed great renown from this manner of life ; but as yet, they were far from en- joying equal privileges with the clergy. Neither were they reckoned among the laity. But they were accounted a distinct religious order, denominated Religiosi, or Canonici, by which, until the tenth cen- tury, they were distinguished, both from the clergy and laity. From that period they began to be reckoned with the clergy. About the same time arose the distinction between the Clerici seculares, and Clerici regulares. The former denoted such as had a regular pa- rochial charge and cure of souls ; the latter, the clergy belonging to some religious order. The Clerici seculares, however, uniformly refused to own the monastics as fellow laborers in the ministerial of- fice. Indeed the monks have never been fully blended with the cler- gy. On the contrary, in all cloisters, there have ever been a certain class of lay-brethren, or lay-monks, monachi laid, who, without discharging any of the appropriate functions of the ministry, have, as in the ancient church, occupied an intermediate station between the clergy and the laity. The following are the principal orders of the monks and the names by which they are distinguished. 1. Ascetics, 'Aaxrjial. Originally the term was used by profane writers to denote the gladiators and athletae of the ancients. But in the fathers it denotes all those, of every age and condition, who de- vote themselves peculiarly to acts of piety, such as fasting, prayer, watchings, and the denial of sensual desires. They are sometimes styled ciya^uoi, unmarried, and fyxQaulg, conlinentes. There were 64 NAMES AND CLASSES OF CHRISTIANS. also female ascetics. The places appropriated for these exercises were styled SaxrjTQia. 2. Monks, appropriately so called. Movuxoi, sometimes Movu- i,ovTiq, ol ^lovoi ^(ovTtg i?f&>. Such as lived a sequestered life, taking no part in the ordinary pursuits of men, and retiring alone into de- sert places, and solitary cells ; or, in company, frequenting the wil- derness and distant mountains. These belonged exclusively to the laity, and were characterized chiefly by their deep seclusion from society, while the ascetics belonged either to the clergy or laity, and were distinguished particularly for their austerities. These monks were sometimes denominated Coenobites, Solitarii, Solitares, etc.^ 3. Anchorets, 'Ava^MQijrttl, Hermits. A distinction however is sometimes made between the two— anchorets denoting those who led a solitary life without establishing their residence in solitude, while hermits are those who inhabit the most desolate and inhospita- ble places, in solitary cells and caves.^ 4. Coenobites, from xoirog ^log, communis vita. So called from their inhabiting one place in common, styled coenobium, and having all things common. They are also called avyoSliai'^ and from avv- oSoig,^ conventuales.^ 5. Grovagi. Strolling vagrants, whose lives were dishonored by the lowest sensuality, and the most shameless vices.^ 6. -ivlaai, PiUarists. So called from their living continually upon a pillar, a manner of life so austere and forbidding, that few were induced to adopt it.^ There are a multitude of names denoting different classes of monks and ascetics, the mention of which may serve to show how numer- ous were these religious orders in the ancient church, and the esti- mation in which they were held. Such as the following : — TTovSaloi,, studiosi^ ^ExXstcrol, electi,^^ 'Ay.oi^i]Toi, insomnes^^ Boa- xol, pascetites,^^ who lived by themselves in perpetual silence ; 'Jlav- /«o-T«t, quiescentes ;^^ ^Anota^u^^voi, renuntianles ;^^ Culdei, Keldei, Keledei, etc., certain monks in Scotland and the Hebrides ; Aposlo- lici, monks in Britain and Ireland. 8. Canonici regulares, clerical monks. These were the priests who were addicted to a monastic life in distinction from the secular or parochial clergy, canonici seculares. 9. Secular Monks, Monachi Seculares ; a class distinct from the lay brethren. These without renouncing marriages and the social ASCETICS- 65 relations, under the guidance of overseers of their choice, devoted themselves to various offices of piety. Thus constituted, tliey served as patterns for those religious fraternities or brotherhoods which first appeared in France, Italy and Germany in the ninth century, and in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries became exceedingly nume- rous and powerful, and widely dispersed. All these fraternities oc- cupied an intermediate rank between the laity, the monks, and the clergy.'^ Monastics of the female sex were not, at first, accounted a distinct religious order. Nor is there mention of them as such so long as the ancient rule of the church remained in force, which positively debarred women from ever conducting religious worship, or assum- ing any of the offices of the priesthood. Monasteries and nunneries probably arose simultaneously. The first traces of the associations of women in a monastic life discover themselves in the fourth century. In this period they begin to be denominated Mova/^al, but more frequently Movul^ mo7iae, salae, vi- duae. Jerome was the first to call them Nonnae, Nuns. By some, this is understood to be the same as matron, or venerable widow. Others derive it from Novlg, a virgin. They are also called by many other names, such as Sanctinioniales, Virgines Dei, s. C/irisli, AnciUae Dei, Sorores ecchsiae, etc. But by whatever name they are known they are carefully to be distinguished from the ancient order of deaconesses in the church. As early as the fifth and sixth centuries, the office of deaconess ceased in the Western church. After this, many offices of charity which they were wont to perform to the poor and the sick, were discharged by the sisters of the church. For this purpose they formed themselves into various associations and corporations. Their influence was, in general, very happy, and so powerful that they outlived the storms of political revolutions ; and, to a great extent, still survive under various names and in dif- ferent establishments. 66 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER III. OF THE MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Of the Clergy and the Laity. Such as bore the office of the priesthood were denominated, in distinction from the laity, the clergy, cleri and clcrici. Respecting the derivation of this term the learned are much divided in opinion. All agree indeed that it is derived from xAJj^o?, a Jot, but allege very different reasons for using it to denote the priesthood. Some affirm, that men at first were elected to this office by Jot, and were there- fore called cleri, from xlSiqai;. In confirmation of this theory, they allege that this mode of election was common., both among pagans and Jews, and not unknown in the primitive church, as ap- pears from the choice of Matthias, ly lot, Acts 1: 17, 25. But this method of electing persons to the sacred office, has never been al- lowed in the church, except in some extraordinary cases. Jerome says, they were called clergy, either because they are chosen by lot to be the Lord's, or because the Lord is their lot, or heritage. The Jews were of old God's peculiar people, the heritage of the Lord. Such, especially, were the Levites who ministered at the altar. And, after the cessation of the Levitical office, the name was transferred to the ministers of the christian church. Hence the name vliiqog, clergy, which primarily signifies a lot, or Jieritage. Such is the approved derivation of this word. But many learned men derive it from the mode of election, by lot.^ Many allege that this term came into general use in the begin- ning of the third century, as the name of the religious teachers of the church. But this cannot be accurately determined. The formal distinction between the clergy and laity, was evidently introduced at a period still later. Previous to this, the whole church were styled God's heritage, 1 Pet. 5: 3 ; and every Christian, a priest of God.2 And yet, the epithet might with peculiar propriety be ap- plied to those, who devoted themselves to the ministerial office ; and the more naturally, inasmuch as this phraseology is common in the Old Testament. With this usage, several passages in the New CLERGY AND LAITY. 67 Testament very well accord, Acts IG: 18. Col. 1: 12. Eph. 1: 11. The unlearned again, ISimtch, in 1 Cor. 14 : 16, 23, 24, nfiay, for aught that appears, be laymen or catechumens, as Chrysoslom and Theodoret affirm. Different officers there certainly were in the time of the apostles, such as rulers, bishops, elders, deacons, etc., derived immediately from the .Jewish synagogue^ though they may with propriety be compared also with the Levitical priesthood, as the author of the epistle to the Hebrews has done. Much importance is attached to the authority of Clemens Roma- nus on this subject, who, in the first century speaks of the laity, and the several officers of the church and orders of the priesthood, as though they were then the same that they are known to have been in the second and third centuries ;•"' that passage, however, relates to the Levitical priesthood. Ignatius is also quoted to the same effect, but the genuineness of the passage is disputed.^ It is worthy of remark, that the advocates of the Episcopal form of church government, labor much to prove tliat the distinction be- tween the clergy and the laity, was as ancient as the time of the apostles, while the Roman Catholic writers, Rigaltius, Salmasius, and others, deny this early distinction. The dispute, however, is of little importance ; for the distinction can, in no case, be proved to be of apostolic authority. It can, therefore, be of little consequence to show, that it was introduced a few years earlier or later. Boeh- mer, and Rigaltius, have shown that TertuUian may be regarded as the author of the distinction in question, — but in this general sense only, that he distinctly pointed out the difference between the laity and clergy, and clearly defined the limits of the several offices of the church ; the confounding of which he complained of, as the leading fault of heretics. And yet, who will venture to affirm, that these distinctions and offices were wholly unknown before Tertul- lian lived ? It may at least be said with truth, that at some time in the first tv/o centuries, the three higher orders, bishops, presbyters, and deacons, were denominated clergy ; so that a higher antiquity may be claimed for this name, than for some subordinate classes which had their origin in the third and fourth centuries.-^ The clergy were also known by the name of canonici, xavovixol, oi Tov xavovog. Two reasons are assigned fur this appellation. One, that they were subject to the canons, or general rules of the church. The other, that they were wont to be registered in a cata- 68 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. logue of the church, as the authorized officers of the same. This catalogue was also called a canon^xavMv, uyiog xavoiv^xaidkoyog U§a- 11x6?, album, malricula, and tabula clericorumfi They were also called Ecclesiastics, Doginatisis, and Gnostics, names applicable to all Christians, but especially to their officers and teachers. In the middle ages, it was customary to denominate the subordinate officers of the church ecclesiastics. Another name by which they were less frequently known, is zd- ^ig ivv (j)]fiaToc, order of the altar, or shrine^ from their being permitted to enter within the sacred enclosure which surrounded the altar. The word order, ordo, xd^tg UgaTixri, as applied to the priesthood, like that oC xki'jQog, has also been the subject of more critical discus- sion than its importance demands. Many contend, that it is adopted from the Roman language, and used by TertuUian and others in the classic sense, to exhibit the patrician rank of the clergy like the ordo senatorius of the Romans. The result, however, of the discussion is, that the word is derived from the Roman language as a technical phrase, but applied not accoi-ding to the usus loquendi of the Ro- mans, but, of the church, and of the Scriptures, to denote the dis- tinction between the priesthood and the people, — the ordo ecclesias- ticus and the laily ; and that, in this sense it has been used since the close of the second century. Jerome uses it as synonymous with gradus, ojicium, potestas, dignilas, etc.; Basil, as the same as TK^ic, Toiyfxu, Bad^oQ, y(i'iQU, «?('«, oiJ/cDji/a, etc' The precise time, when this distinction between the superior and inferior clergy was introduced, is unknown. It must, however, have been very early, for the several offices and officers of the church were clearly defined, towards the close of the second, and beginning of the third century. To say nothing of the authority of Ignatius which is justly suspected, there are authorities sufficient to show that, at this early period, the officers of the church were, substantially, the same as in later centuries.^ On this subject, the remark of Ama- larius is worthy of special notice : " that the offices of the priesthood and deacons were instituted by the apostle Paul, because they were indispensable in the church, and that as the church increased, other offices were created, and inferior officers appointed in aid of the superiors. 9" The Roman Catholics divide the officers of the church into two CLASSES OF CLEBGY. 69 classes, ministers, and magistrates. In the former, are included bishops and presbyters ; in the latter, the other officers of the church. ^"^ According to the authority of Cave, " the whole y.ctTutloyog UQaxixog, as it is often called in the Apostle's Canons, — the roll of the clergy of the ancient church, taking it within the compass of its first four hun- dred years, consisted of two sorts of persons, — the itQovfuvoi, who were peculiarly consecrated to the more proper and immediate acts of the worship of God ; and the vntjoiTui, such as were set apart for the lower and common services of the church. Of the first sort were these three, bishops, presbyters, and deacons."^' The distinction of ordinary and extraordinary officers of the church, is given on the best authority, based on many passages of Scripture, Eph. 4: 11, 12. 1 Cor. 12: 28. Rom. 12: 7, 8. 1 Tim. 3: 5. etc. The shepherds and teachers were the same as bishops and elders, ministers of particular congregations, who were equally necessary at all times. But there were others, who were known in the church only while the miraculous gifts of the Spirit were con- tinued, and of whom mention is very seldom made in later times. Among these may be reckoned, 1. Apostles, including the imme- diate disciples of Christ, and several others, Acts 14:4. 2 Cor. 8: 23. Phil. 2: 25. In the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, missiona- ries to foreign lands bore this title. 2. Evangelists. This term is used sometimes in a restricted, and sometimes in a wider sense. Eph. 4: 11. Acts 21: 8. 2 Tim. 4: 5. In later ages, the officer who read, or chanted the gospel, was called Evangelist. 3. Prophets. In- spired writers and teachers of the christian religion — such as fore- told future events, and also a particular class of teachers in the primitive church, whose business it was to act as expounders of the Scriptures, and interpreters of the divine will. § 2. General remarks upon the different Orders and Clas- ses OF the Clergy. The pastors and teachers noi^iveg and diSuaxalot, of whom men- tion is made in Eph. 4: 11, and 1 Cor. 12: 28 — 30, are usually reck- oned among the permanent and ordinary teachers and rulers of the church. The extraordinary teachers might also bear the same names, inasmuch as they are represented as overseers of the church. 70 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. and promulgators and defenders of the gospel of Christ. An apos- tle or evangelist might with propriety be styled noi^uiv v.al didaaxaXog, a pastor and teacher. Bat after the cessation of the extraordinary teachers, the ordinary, with great propriety assumed their names as venerated and significant titles, derived from the writings of the Old Testament. The term pastor or shepherd, 71011-11)1', without regard either to sa- cred or profane writers, is particularly recommended by the circum- stance, that our Lord styled himself a shepherd, and the church his flock, John 10: 12. The apostle Peter also denominated him the chief Shepherd, 1 Pet. 5: 4. The word master, teacher, diduay.cdoi;, was the honorary title of a .Jewish teacher. It is the Greek interpretation of the Hebrew "isn , rahbi, John 1: 38. These terms, pastor, and teacher, have ever been approved in the church, to designate one who is entitled to in- struct, to administer the sacrament, and to discharge all the func- tions of the ministerial office. The appropriate officers of the church which are specified in the New Testament, are these three. 1. Imidy.onoi, overseers, siiperin- tendants ; 2. II§i(T(jinfgoi, presbyters, elders ; 3. Jiay.ovoi, deacons. These together constitute the ordo ecclesiasticus, the ecclesiastical order, and require a more extended examination. Some derive these several orders from the institutions of the Romans ; but they bear a closer, and a more natural comparison, with the orders be- longing to the temple and synagogue of the Jews, and from them, they were doubtless derived ; as the following remarks may suffi- ciently show. 1. The^Eniffy.onoi in the church correspond to the rulers of the synagogue, as their name overseers implies. The ruler of the syna- gogue, who in Hebrew was styled head of the assembly, np:2ri uiNl, had the oversight both of the discipline and instructions of the syna- gogue. He is also styled 'SniAJ, our master, or teacher, and rT'Vip "nis^r: , legatus congregationis. 2. The 7r() f (7(5 1'rfjpoi correspond to the n"':j:.T , elders, which, among the Jews, designated, not so much the age of these officers, as the rank and authority of their office. In the latter ages of the He- brew commonwealth, the members of the Sanhedrim were styled by preference, j)resbyters, or elders. They are classed in the New Testament with the rulers, the chief priests, and the scribes. CLASSES OF CLERGY. 71 The connection of nqtiT-iiTfQoi, elders, with Bnlaxonoi, bishops, is in like manner indicated in the following passages. Acts 11: 30. 14: 23. 15. 2, 4, 6,22,23. 16: 4. 20: 17. 21: 18. 1 Tim. 5: 17, 19. Tit. 1: 5. James 5: 14. 1 Pet. 5: 1. 2 John 1: 3. 3 John 1. But in all these passages, these elders of the church compare, not with the fspT , the elders of the Jews ; but with the officers of the syna- gogue, who were styled a"'w5n-: — a word which, both in Chaldee and Syriac, denotes pastors, rulers, etc. 3. The office of deacon was similar to that of ]Tr: , inspector, overseer. But the official duties of the deacon, in the second, third, and fourth centuries, better compare with this Jewish officer, than those which were at first prescribed, such as the care of the sick, and of the charities of the church, Phil. 1: 1. 1 Tim. 3:8, 12. Rom. 16: 1. The principal duties of the ]Tn was to preserve order and decorum, to assist in the reading of the law, and to lead the singing. But the silence of Scripture, on this subject, is no evidence that the deacons might not also have the same offices to perform. And these Jewish officers might also have been charged with the care of the sick, and the contributions of the people. At least, it is certain that the usage in regard to these points has not been uniform. The vnr}osTi]g, servant, corresponds to the Hebrew nD;i;y , which is rendered dovkog, nulg, a servant. In Luke 4: 20 he is styled the waiter in the synagogue. At other times he is a waiter or attendant upon the assembly of the Sanhedrim, Acts 13: 5. 26: 16. 1 Cor. 4: 1. He acts, not with freedom and independence in the discharge of his duties, but is subject to the direction of another. These ser- vants are analogous to the sub-deacons, acolyths, and subordinate officers of the church who have the general title oi inferiors. The distinction of inferior and superior orders, though not of apos- tolic origin was very early made, as has been already observed. Jerom.e and many others assert that in the first two centuries bishops and presbyters constituted the superior order, and dea- cons with their assistants and subordinate officers, the inferior or- der.- At times, however, Jerome classes them with bishops and presbyters, styling them co-presbyters and associate priests — Au- gustine, and Optatus also, do the same. They were, undeniably, reckoned as a third class in the superior order, except when the of- fices of bishops and presbyters were regarded as the same ; in which case deacons constituted the second class in the same order. 72 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. The ordo sacerdotalis, and ordo ecclesiasUcus of Tertullian^ is the same as the senatus ecclesiasticiis of Jerome.^ It is an ecclesiastical court, a presbytery ; and even if laymen were received as members, it consisted chiefly of clergymen, and was controlled by them. In the absence of the bishop, or when his office was vacant, it was con- ducted by presbyters and deacons.^ From which we infer that dea- cons were considered as belonging to the superior order. In the division of the priesthood it is a great mistake to seek for any general and fixed rules at a time when circumstances would not admit of them, and without regard to the exigencies of different com- munities and countries. In a populous city, and among a numerous body of clergymen, a more careful distinction of office and of rank might naturally be expected, than in smaller states and dioceses. This remark is too obvious to require any illustration, but is fully con- firmed by a letter to Fabius, bishop of Antioch, from Cornelius bish- op of Rome, who died in the year 252.'' From this epistle several important facts and inferences are derived. 1. That Cliristians at Rome had, at this early period, become so numerous as to have more than forty churches. 2. That there were more than 1500 wi- dows and paupers who were supported by charity. In this connec- tion it is worthy of remark, that according to Chrysostom, more than three thousand widows and virgins were daily fed by the church of Antioch, with only moderate revenues, besides the contributions in food and clothing made for the maintenance of clergymen, prisoners, leprous persons, and strangers. So that even Julian recommended the heathen to imitate the Galileans, in the care which they took of the poor.''' 3. It appears that at Rome the members of the church consti- tuted three classes — the clergy and paupers, who were supported by the church — the rich, who paid for their support by contributions and taxes — and the great body of the people, who paid little or nothing. 4. It is particularly worthy of notice that Cornelius recognizes the order of the clergy, and declares the inferior order to comprehend five distinct classes. Sub-deacons, vnodiaxovovg; acolyths, uxoXov- ■&ovg ; exorcists, i^ooy.iaTag ; readers, avayvwaiag, and door-keepers, nvXcoQovg. 5. It is also worthy of remark, that there were only seven deacons. It is also observable that the usages in the neighboring churches such as Milan, Naples, Syracuse, and Ravenna, did not, at the same time, correspond with those of Rome. For the vast church at Constantinople, Justinian prescribed the CLASSES OF CLERGY. 73 following officers— sixty presbyters, one hundred deacons, forty dea- conesses, ninety sub-deacons, one hundred and ten readers, and twen- ty-five singers ; in all, four hundred and twenty-five, besides one hundred door keepers, osllarii. Fronn all these authorities the inference clearly is, that the dis- tinction of superior and inferior clergy was recognized in all the churches, though there was no uniform rule of division. In this connection it is important also to take notice of the differ- ent classifications which prevail in the several great divisions of the church. In the Greek church, the officers were as follows : 1. Bishops ; 2. Priests ; 3. Deacons ; 4. Sub-deacons ; and 5. Readers, to which class the singers and acolyths also belonged. Their ecclesiastical judicatories consisted of three orders — arch- bishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs. To these another officer still higher was sometimes added, styled ea:arc/t. The ecclesiastical court of Russia is styled the Holy Synod. Its organization corres- ponds with that of the Greek church.^ The Syriac and Nestorian churches affect to copy after the hea- venly hierarchy, and to compare their officers with those of the court of heaven. The Nestorians compare their patriarchs, metropolitans, and bishops with the orders of Cherubim, Seraphim, and Thrones, — their arch-deacons, pastoral priests, and preachers, with angels of the second rank, styled Virtues, Powers, and Dominations— their dea- cons, sub-deacons and readers with those of the third raiik^ viz. Princedoms, Archangels, and Angels."^ The Roman Catholics of the Western church, in general abide firmly by the principle established by the schoolmen, that the priest- hood is to consist of seven classes corresponding to the seven spirits of God. Of these, the three who are chiefly employed in the duties of the ministerial office, compose the superior order, and the four, whose duty it is to wait upon the clergy in their ministrations, and to assist in conducting public worship, belong to the inferior order. The canonists divide the priesthood into nine classes, of which four belong to the higher order, and five to the lower. The follow- ing is a catalogue of the several classes as given by them, proceed- ing from the lowest to the highest. Of the inferior order — 1. Sing- ers ; 2. Door-keepers ; 3, Readers ; 4. Exorcists ; 5. Acolyths. 10 74 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. Of the superior order — 6. Sub-deacons ; 7. Deacons ; 8. Presbyters ; 9. Bishops.ii The classification according to the scholastics of the Roman Cath- olic church, is as follows : Of the superior order, three — 1. Presby- ters or priests ; 2. Deacons ; 3. Sub-deacons. Of the inferior order, four — 1. Acolyths ; 2. Exorcists; 3. Readers ; 4. Door-keepers. This classification of the inferior order was established by the council of Trent, but another of a subordinate rank is sometimes added.i2 § 3. Of the Episcopal form of Religion. 1. The official and honorary titles of the clergy. The term bisJiop, is the same as the Latin episcopvs, and the Greek iTnaxonog. In the Latin it is sometimes rendered inspector, sujKr inspect or ; superinten dens ^o\ super attendens. Augustine more properly renders it speculator, and prepositus.^ Jerome derives it from sTiL(T>ionoiri(c, i. e. superintendentes, superintendants.- The Hellenists translate the Hebrew T^pa and T'^S, inlaHonog. The word nlip C of very common occurrence is accordingly rendered iniaxoni'i, hishoprick. The apostle Peter, also, in saying, ye have returned to the shepherd, and hishop of your souls, uses the phrase, not to denote any official rank in the church, but to designate the o£ice rather of an overseer, guardian, or protector. The Greek wri- ters, as appears from Athenaeus, Demosthenes, and the scholiasts of Aristophanes,^ sometimes use the term i.TliTxoTiog to denote a spe- cific civil office, — that of revising the judicial and municipal admin- istration of the government. According to this analogy the inlirxo- nog, praeses, praejectiis, maybe compared with the bishop under the Carlovingian dynasty, as the framer of the synodical court of judicature. By the term bishop the Hellenists also translate the Hebrew ni2::3n ujnt , who is ruler of the synagogue, and the ^112:4^7 h''r"*p, i, e. ujiodjolog sy.y.Xrjaiag. The office of bishop they compare with that of ruler of the synagogue. According to this comparison, the bishops are the same as presbyters, T'^p." , or elders. The apostle Peter, in exhorting the elders, nqm^vitooi, to feed the flock of Christ, taking the oversight of them, inicrxonovvTig, evidently uses the term TiqsalivjfQoi as an honorary, and iniaxoixovvisg or iniaxonoi as an of- EPISCOPAL FORM OF RELIGION. 75 Jicial title of the same persons. This usage is also very frequent with the ancient fathers, and in oiTicial documents even down to the third century. [Rheinwald, Gieseler and Siegel concur also in opinion with our autl)or, that originally the term bishnp denoted merely the official title of a presbyter who had been constituted a moderator, ruler, or overseer of the church.'' For a fuller explanation of the name see references. — Tr.]^ The following are the most important names which were ancient- ly applied to the bishops. 1. IlQtajSvTSQoi, nQOfCTTOJTfg, 1 Tim. 5: 17; TiQoitiTnfiSvot,, 1 Thess. 5: 12 — rendered in Latin preposili, and used to designate them as the presiding officers in christian assemblies. The Greek fathers are careful to add the phrase spiritual, TTViVfiarixol or nvivijtxTixvv Xo^oii, to distinguish them from secular rulers.'^ 2. JTqosSqoi, praesides, praeside7iies, — used in close connection with the foregoing, and derived from the ngosd^ia, the elevated seat which the bishop occupied in the synod, and in the religious assem- blies of the people.''' 3. "£(poQoi, inspectors. Not often used because it is liable to be confounded with the tqioQoi of the Greeks. Both the Greek and Latin term is much in use among protestants to designate the prin- cipal of a school, or corporation, or church, and is synonymous with church or school inspector, or master of a gymnasium. 4. "AncaToXoi, apostles. So called by Theodoret to distinguish thein from presbyters who were also called inlaxonoi.^ — Also, Jid- 8oxoi rwv anoaxolMv , vicarii, or successors of the ajwstles.^ On this title now depends the important dogma concerning the perpetual and uninterrupted succession of bishops which, not only the Greek and Romish churches, but a portion also of the church of England maintain with singular pertinacity. 5. Angeli ecclesiae, angels of the church. An epithet derived from the angel of the church in the Apocalypse. It was a doctrine of great antiquity that some angel in heaven acted as the represen- tative of every nation and kingdom and province, and that some guardian angel was intrusted with the care of each individual, Heb. 1: 14. The bishops, therefore, who were appointed by Christ and his apostles to the ministry of the gospel, and the service of the saints, were supposed to bear the same relations in the hierarchy of 76 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. the church that these tutelary angels bore in the court of heaven. On the subject of guardian angels, see references. ^"^ 6. Summi sacerdoles, poiilijices tnaximi, chief priests, etc. These titles were conferred by those writers who derived the organization of the church from the regulations of the temple service, rather than from those of the synagogue. They afterwards became the titles of the patriarchs and bishops of the Roman Catholics. 7. Paires, patres ecclesiae, pa/res clericorum, and palres palrum, ' fathers, fathers of the church, fathers of the clergy, fathers of fa- thers ;' according to the oriental custom of calling a teacher or su- perior, :3N, M/5/5(J( and a^^a?, father. The title of a presbyter is usually that of pater laicorum, father of the laity, or simply j^a/er, father. The presiding officer of these was accordingly called pater patrum. Abba and abbas was originally the common appellation of a monk. Modern usage also confers upon him the name of father. Papa, pope, corresponds in signification with «/5/5a, ndnn a, father, honored father, and is a familiar and affectionale form of expression. The most probable opinion is, that it was first applied to the bishop of Alexandria. Siricius was probably the first Roman bishop wlio, about the year 384, assumed the name as an official thle in a public document.i^ It was not, however, employed officially until the time of Leo the Great ; and it was afterwards applied exclusively to the bishop of Rome according to an order of Gregory the Great, who declares this to be the only appropriate title, belonging to the office. 8. Patriarchs. At first all bishops were called by this name, as being superior to the presbyters, who were merely denominated pa- tres. It was afterwards only applied to the archbishop and metro- politan, or to the bishop of some large and influential diocese. Be- tween the fourth and sixth centuries, five large churches arose whose highest ecclesiastical officer bore the title of patriarch. These were the churches of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Theopolis or Antioch, and Jerusalem. 9. Stadtholders and vicegerents of Christ and of God. From the time of Ignatius and the date of the apostolic constitutions, the bish- ops were represented to have received their commissions from Christ himself, and, in his name, to administer the affairs of the church. Cyprian speaks of the bishop as acting " vice Christi,''"' in the place of Christ. Basil represents him as occupying the place of DUTIES OF THE BISHOP. 77 the Saviour ;'~ and Augustine and Ambrose employ much the same language. So early did the church forget the Saviour's injunction, " Call no man master." 10; "AQxovTfg ixxlrjaiwv, rulers of the church. So Origen, Euse- bius, Chrysostom, Jerome and others. They were rulers, however, not in a political, but merely in a religious sense. 11. Princeps sacerdotum, and Episcopus episcoporum, are synony- mous with archbishop, patriarch, etc. 12. Various other epithets are applied to them, such as Messed, most blessed — holy, most holy— most beloved of God, etc. The usual salutation of a letter was as follows : Tw aytonaToj xul fiaxaQoxajci aQ/UTiKTicono) xttl olxovi^svixo) naiQiuQ/j]. § 4. Official duties of the Bishop. The office of bishop comprehended in general two different clas- ses of duties. I. All those that relate to the worship of God. This division comprises all the offices of religious worship without exception, whether performed by the bishop in person, or by others acting un- der his commission. II. Duties relating to the government, and discipline of the church. Under this class, is comprised the oversight in all the churches of his diocese, both of the laity and the priesthood ; and the manage- ment of the affairs of the several churches which were submitted to his care. These separate divisions require, each, a careful examination. I. In regard to duties pertaining to religious worship, we are to distinguish carefully, between the right or vocation, and the actual exercise of the duties consequent upon this vocation. In the earliest period of the church, while yet the greatest simplicity of form pre- vailed, and before any determinate distinction was known between bishop and presbyter, iniaxonog and uQfa^vrfQog, many services re* lating to the worship of God were prescribed to the deacons and ministers, Siaxovoig and vnTjghaig, who were already known in the New Testament. According to Justin Martyr,^ it was the duty of the minister, 6 TiQoscrxag tdjj' udfXifwv, synonymous with iniaxonog, aQ/uQilg, liQugx^g, to consecrate the elements. To the deacons be- longed the duty of distributing them. The same distribution of the 78 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. services is also prescribed in the Apostolical Constitutions.^ Other duties are also assigned to the deacons and subordinate officers of the church, to be performed however by the direction, or under the immediate oversight of the bishop, whose representatives they all are. It is made especially the duty of the bishop to perform the servi- ces of cate.cliist and preacher. Ambrose expressly declares that it was the duty of the bishop to instruct the people? This duty was distinctly acknowledged, and actually performed by Chrysoslom, Gregory Nazianzen, Cyprian, Augustine, Leo the Great, Gregory the Great, and others. Such was not only the sentiment of the church generally, but Charlemagne and Louis I., expressly en- join the bishops not to neglect this important part of their official duties on any plea of ignorance or indolence.^ The same duty is explicitly taught by the council of Trent in the following terms, and in perfect accordance with the views of the primitive church. " Whereas the preaching of the gospel, which is the peculiar office of bishops, is as essential to every christian community as the read- ing of the word, therefore, this sacred synod has determined and de- creed that all bishops, archbishops and primates, and all other pre- lates of the churches, are themselves required, and personally bound, to preach the blessed gospel of Jesus Christ unless specially pre- vented, legitime prohibiti.''''^ Such, beyond all controversy is the duty of those who sustain the office of bishop, though Xha'u practice has at times been altogether the reverse of this, and still is in part. Occasionally, even in the ancient church, the bishops, through the pressure of secular cares, neglected entirely their ministerial duties. At other times they re- fused in the pride of office their duties as preachers and catechists ; and the more humble duties of the sacred office, as derogatory to their character. But at no time has the right and the duly of the bishop, to discharge all the offices of the ministry been called in question. The act of ordination, of itself, and according to the ca- nons of the church, exclusively invests them with all the offices and prerogatives of the priesthood. It only remains to specify certain other offices which belong ex- clusively to them. L The conjirjnation of hapiized persons, by which they are re- ceived as regular members of the church. This, which is styled tiie DUTIES OF THE BISHOP. 79 sealing of the covenant, was the prerogative of the bishop. This rite is still performed in the Roman Catholic church by the bishop himself, or his substitute. In the orthodox churches, as the act of confirmation follows immediately upon baptism, and no rule is given respecting it, the priest is permitted to administer the ordinance. 2. Tlie ordination of the clergij, and consecration of other officers of the church. It has been a uniform rule of the church, both in an- cient and modern times, to which there have been only occasional exceptions that the right of ordaining belongs to the bishop. The substitute was regarded as acting strictly in the place of the bishop, and in this way the bishop gained peculiar influence and considera- tion in the view of pagan observers. The archdeacon is sometimes represented as officiating in the ancient church in the ordination of inferior officers ; but he is to be regarded as acting in such cases in the place of the bishop, so that what he does by another he does of himself. Instances of this kind are also to be found in the ancient church. Three bishops were required to assist in the ordination of one to that office ; but some of the higher officers in other orders of the clergy were subsequently permitted to assist in this service. 3. The reconciling of penitents., or the restoration of o fending members of the church. It is the duty of the bishop to announce those who make profession of penitence — to receive them on pro- bation— to prescribe the time and form of their penance, and to ex- ercise a watch over them ; though in all this the presbyter often co- operates with him. But to remove the sentence of excommunica- tion was in the ancient church the especial prerogative of the bishop which was very seldom delegated to a presbyter or any other. On the introduction of the forms of confession and private absolution, the whole system of penance previously in use was changed, but there still remained much to be administered publicly by the bishop. 4. It was especiall}^ the duty of the bishop to perform the several acts of consecration, and to pronounce the benediction. II. Of the power of the bishop in the government arid discipline oj the church, after the establishment of the hierarchy. It was a favorite sentiment in the church after the establishment of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, that all power centered in the bishop as an universal hierarch — that all the clergy were subject to his au- thority— that all spiritual benefices and preferments proceeded from him, and that all the sacraments were to be administered in his name, 80 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. and by a commission from him. Both the Apostolical Constitutions and the liturgy of the pseudo Dionysius the Areopogite, represent that everything relating to the worship of God in all its parts, is the collective work of the bishop. But restrictions were early laid up- on the authority of the bishop by regulations of the church, by synodical divisions, and by metropolitan, patriarchal, and papal de- crees. By these regulations and decrees, the power of the bishop was at times greatly reduced. But however limited his prerogatives, the bishop uniformly remained the source and centre of ecclesiasti- cal authority within his own diocese. The diocesan clergy of every rank were dependent upon him, and by him were the regu- lations of the churches directed. His influence was especially manifested in the following particulars. 1. In tlie superintendence of religious worship. All the forms of public worship were subject to his direction. This direction he gave at pleasure, either in accordance with his own will, or in conformity with usage, or by rules more or less specific. It was his business to see that everything was done according to the established order. Over occasional and peculiar religious acts, such as processions, pil- grimages, fasts, and vows, he had a special control. 2. The oversight of all the members of his diocese in regard to spiritual and ecclesiastical matters. This oversight he exercised by adjudicating, excommunicating, prescribing penance, and regulating the laws of the marriage institution. The doings of the priest were especially open to an appeal to him and subject to his revision. In a word, all that related to the discipline of the church, was subject to his control. 3. All the suhordiiiate memhers of the priesthood, and the servants in the church were subject to the superintendence of the bishops, both as to the discharge of their offices, and the conduct of their lives. It was an ancient rule in the church that the clergy are under the same subjection to the bishop as the soldier to his commander. His- tory indeed abounds with examples of severe punishment inflicted upon a refractory and disobedient priesthood. At first, no exemp- tion was made in favor even of the monks; but in the middle ages they threw off" their subjection to the bishops to the great dishonor of that office — to the injury of the parochial clergy and of the wel- fare of the church. 4. It was the specific duty of the bishop to visit curates, churches. DUTIES OF THE BISHOP. 81 schools, cloisters, and religious estdblishments. Many rules of the church enforce this duty upon the bishops personally, and it was with reluctance allowed to the bishop to appoint to this service ru- ral bishops, chorepiscopi, exarchs, and itinerantor visiting presbyters, TifQtodhvtaL The council of Laodicea in the nniddle of the fourth century, decreed that bishops should not reside in the country or smaller villages ; but itinerant presbyters only, and that these should do nothing without the knowledge of the bishop residing in the city, just as presbyters acted in subordination to his will. Under the Car- lovingian dynasty, bishops and counts of the realm were placed on equal footing, and exercised a joint jurisdiction. 5. The bishop acted as moderator of all synods within his diocese, and gave direction to their doings. This was formerly a privilege of great importance. The disrespect into which synodical councils and decrees have fallen in modern times, has greatly reduced the au- thority and influence of the bishops. Ecclesiastical councils are supposed to have been first held in the Greek church towards the close of the second century. 6. The bishop controlled and disbursed at pleasure, both the occa- sional contributions and the stated revenues of the church. The dea- cons at first, acted as his assistants in the business, but as the man- agement of the revenue became more intricate and responsible, it was intrusted to stewards subject to the direction of the archdeacons, over whom the bishop retained a general superintendence. 7. The bishop exercised in part a civil as well as ecclesiastical ju- risdiction, especially in cases relating to marriages and divorces, and to the person or goods of ecclesiastics ; and in what are called mixed cases in civil and penal actions which are to be adjudged, both by statute and by common law. At first there were certain justices, ty.dixoi, and avvdiy.oi, advocati, and consul.es, who acted as his substi- tutes and in his name. Special tribunals were established here as occasion required for the management of his various judicial con- cerns. Such was the origin of the office of deputies, officials and chancellor, and of the courts of the archdeacons and consistories. But these all acted in the name, and by the authority of the bishop, and were accountable to him. Chapters of clergy and collegiate establishments were entirely un- known in the ancient church. The first traces of them appear in the ninth century. In the twelfth they obtained a constitution through 11 82 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. the influence of the court of Rome and the favor of iheir sovereigns, which laid, indeed, salutary restraints upon the arhitrary will of the bishop ; but, at the same lime, it laid the foundation for a most per- nicious aristocracy in the church. The bishop continued indeed o be nominally at the head of these bodies, but his best intentions and efforts were baffled by their detraction and intrigue. § 5. Insignia of the Bishof. No badge of office or clerical dress was worn by the clergy until the fourth century. The various insignia or emblems of office which have from time to time been appropriated to the bishop are as fol- lows : 1. A ring, emblematical of his espousals to the church in imita- tion of the ancient ceremony of presenting a ring on the espousal of the parties in marriage. It was called the ring of his espousals, an- nuJus sponsalitius, annulus ]]ro7iubus, and sometimes, aiinulus pa- lata. 2. A shepherd's staff or crook, dixdvlxiov. Sometimes a straight staff was presented instead of the crook. That of the archbishop had usually a single, and that of the patriarch a double cross piece. According to Montfaucon the staff of the Greek archbishop had a head-piece resembling the letter T.^ According to Goari, it was curved upward, thus, Y for which he offers the following whimsical reason: Ansas retortas habet baculus hamorum instai, ut efferatos fuget et perniciosos el ultimo Christi crucem manifestet.^ 3. A 7}iilre or Jillet. It is usually stated that only bishops and ab- bots of the Western church have worn the mitre since the tenth cen- tury. But the usage was not unknown in the Eastern church also.^ 4. A jiciir of gloves, chirothecae. These the bishop always wore when engaged in any religious offices.'* 5. Sandals. Without these, no priest was permitted to celebrate mass. They consisted of a sole so attached to the foot as to leave the upper part bare. They were called sandals from the vegetable color in which they were dyed. From the seventh and eighth cen- turies they are mentioned as one of the badges of the episcopal of- fice, in distinction from that of the priests.^ 6. Caligae or boots. These, in ancient warfare, were a part of INSIGNIA OF THE BISHO?. 83 the military equipments of the soldier. To tiie bishop they were emblematical of that spiritual warfare upon which he entered. 7. The robe, wuocfOQiov, hnc( uToXlj, pallium superhiuncrale^peclo- rale; ephod. This badge was so essential, that writers often use the robe to denote both the person and the oflice of the bishop. It was at first worn by all bishops, but afterwards became the distinctive badge of archbishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs.^ Gregory Na- zianzen affirms,'^ that it was the insignia of the Roman emperor as ponlifex maximus ; and that Constantino the great, first granted it to the bishop of Jerusalem. But this is in direct opposition to tradition, which reports that Mark the Evangelist as bishop of Alexandria first assumed the robe, and left it for his followers. Nothing is known of the form and quality of the robe in the first centuries, save that it was a seamless garment, nullis acubus 'perfo- rata, made of white linen, and hung loosely from the shoulders.*^ It was afterwards made of woollen. In the twelfth century, it was made of white woollen, having a circular gathering on the shoulders, and two scarfs hanging over it behind and before. On the left side it was double, and single on the right. Previous to the eighth cen- tury, it had also four purple crosses upon it, — before and behind, one ; and one on either side. It was fastened by three golden pins.9 The Greek bishops, according to the patriarch Germanus, assumed the purple crosses as early as the eighth centur}^ The robe itself was styled iiolvaTavQiov. The rationale, 10 luyiov, of the robe has been the subject of dis- pute among the learned. It appears, however, to relate to the prop- er form of it when the bishops of Rome assumed it as they did the name of pontifices maximi, high priests, and all the prerogatives of the Jewish high priest. 8. The cross. This was both worn on the neck or breast, and carried in public processions, and thus became a twofold badge of the bishop's office. He was accustomed to wear upon the neck or breast, a cross made of wood, or gold, or some sacred relic, whicli by the Greeks was called 10 niQiafiuu, and was regarded as an amulet, or phylactery. It was also sometimes called to syx6lniov,h'om xolnog, the bosom.^^ The cross was used in like manner, in the Latin church. Binterim is of opinion that it was at first worn by Christians indis- criminately, and not as an official badge. '^ The cross which was carried before the bishops in processions 84 MINISTERS OF THE CHUECH. and festive parades, was called crux gestatoria. For a long time the bishops of Rome claimed the right of carrying the cross as ex- clusively their own. In the twelfth century it was granted to me- tropolitans and patriarchs, and to archbishops in the time of Grego- ry IX. The patriarchs of the Greek church did not so frequently carry the cross, but in the place of it, they carried lamps and burn- ing candles. § 6. Of the several orders of Bishops. The names of several orders of bishops appear early in the histo- ry of the church, such as archbishops, metropolitans, patriarchs, etc. But their office was very unlike those of the same name under the established hierarchy of the church, just as in civil governments, the same name may, at different times, denote offices widely different. In this place it is proper to remark, that a long, intricate, and an- gry strife existed between the Eastern and Western churches, as well as between particular and provincial churches. But it would be foreign to my purpose to speak of these, and I dismiss them with this brief notice. The Episcopal form of government recognizes in general two or- ders of bishops — superior and inferior. I. Of the superior order of BisJwps. These are archbishops, metropolitans, primates, exarchs, inde- pendent bishops, patriarchs, cardinals, and high priests. 1. Of Archhishups, "AQxnniijy.onov, They are not the same as metropolitans, as has frequently been supposed. The two have ever been distinct in the Eastern church, and usually in the West- ern. The archbishop is the highest functionary, and as such presides over both metropolitans and bishops.^ The theory of Bingham is not altogether correct, who supposes that the bishops of larger cities, such as Alexandria, Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, etc. may have gained an ascendancy in the fourth and fifth centuries over the bish- ops and metropolitans of smaller towns, and assumed the name of archbishops to denote this superiority. The title however is known to have been first given to the bishop of Alexandria, and to have been adopted as an official title in the year 431.- But it prevailed only until the introduction of the Jewish title, patriarchy to which the SUPERIOR ORDER OF BISHOPS. 85 name of archbishop gave place, and yet it was very seldom used as exactly synonymous with it. The first bishop of any diocese was sometimes styled archbishop. The policy of the church of Rome in giving the occupants of such a place, the title of archbishop was to prevent them from exercising the rights of metropolitans. That church even bestowed the title upon such as had no diocese under their jurisdiction. In the Greek church the office was held in more respect. 2. Melropolita7is. These were so called because they presided over the principal town of the district or province,^' but the limits of their authority were not necessarily the same as those of the slate ; for there are many examples both in ancient and modern history of inconsiderable towns which yet were metropolitan sees. The title was not in use previous to the council of Nice."* But instead of it, other titles were employed, such as u()Xicni(Ty.onoc, nQanog, y.iffuXv, ticiQxo? T/Jc i.T:aQXi()tg, etc. The third council of Carthage decreed that the chief bishop should neither be called princeps sacerdotum, nor siimmus sacerdos ; but merely primae sedis episcopus, senior bishop. In Africa, and especially in Nicomedia and Mauritania, his title continued for a long time to be senex and senior, while the sen- iority of office continued to be carefully maintained and observed. 3. Primates, nQwroi, jQcoTsvovisg, iniaxonoiv. This title is not, as many suppose, derived from an ancient civil office in Rome. The term primas urhis, casteUi, palatii, etc. primate of the city, palace, etc. is of much later origin, and probably was itself derived at first from the church. Bishops, venerable for their age or personal dior. nity, and those who held offices over other dignitaries of the church, were called primates. The distinction, however, between titular or honorary primates, and primates in power, was very early made. In Africa, the senior bishop, and the bishop of Carthage, were each respectively styled primate of all Africa. The term pri?iiate was often the same in signification as archbishop, metropolitan, and pa- triarch. In the eighth and ninth centuries it was common to style the chief dignitaries of the whole province, or empire, primates — such as primate of the kingdom, primate of Gaul, Germany, etc. But it has ever been the policy of the Roman church to take care that these splendid titles should not express any high prerogative. 4. Exarchs. These were in the Eastern church the same as the primates of the Western church. Morini affirms it to be an ecclesi- 86 MINISTERS OF THE CHUECII. astical office inferior in c]ic:;nity to that of patriarch, but superior to that of metropolitan.'^ Evagrius asserts that the bishops of Antioch, Ephesus, Caesarea, and Heraclea were distinguished by tlie title of exarch, and that they exercised the right of the patriarch in conse- crating the metropolitans of their diocese. ^ It is a disputed point whether the word originally denoted an ecclesiastical, or civil office. But the title of exarch of Italy, Ravenna, Africa, etc. of later times assuredly denoted a secular office. 5. Absolute or independent bishops, uy.i(prdoi and avTorJcpcdoi, not subject to the authority of a superior. Such were all bishops and metropolitans who had the independent control of their dioceses. It was not in frequent use because the Monophysites claimed the same title in another, but kindred sense. According to Bingham the four following classes received this title. 1. All metropoli- tans anciently. 2. Some metropolitans who remained independent after the establishment of the patriarchal power, such as those of Cyprus, Iberia, Armenia, and Britain. 3. Such bishops as acknow- ledged no subjection to metropolitans, but only to the patriarch of the diocese. 4. Such as were wholly independent of all others, and acknowledged no superior whatever."^ In reality, however, none but the pope, in the height of his supremacy, can with propriety be said to be uy.icpnXog or amoyJqxdog. The independent bishops of the Western church were so only in regard to their archbishops and pri- mates, and even the church of Ravenna, which for a long time re- fused to surrender her independence, submitted at last to the apos- tolic see.^ 6. PalriarcJis. Few topics of antiquity have been so much the subject of strife among the learned, as this relating to the patriarchs of the ancient church.^ But it will be sufficient for our purpose, to take only a brief view of the points in question. This term originally applied to the archbishop, first occurs in the year 451, and was synonymous with i^aqxag ttJ? fnag/iug.'^^ It was borrowed from the Jews who after the destruction of Jerusalem, styled the primates of their church patriarchs, and when this office became extinct, the name was conferred upon the dignitaries of the christian church. According to Jerome, the Monanists and Cata- phryians had already appropriated this title previous to that event. '^ The bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem particularly were called patriarchs. Several councils SUPERIOR ORDER OF BISHOPS. '87 had bestowed upon these bishops pccuhar marks of distinction, '- which encoin-agod them proudly to assume this title. Agreeably to the designs of Theodosius the Great, Constantinople maintained her proud prerogative, and became a second Rome in ecclesiastical power and dignity. These high pretensions of her rival, Rome her- self reluctantly saw ; Alexandria and Antioch uniformly protested against them ; Jerusalem, retained indeed her empty honors, but not her patriarchal rights and privileges. The Romanists are careful to say that there were at first five patriarchs in the church, that those of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch were deservedly so called, per se et exnatura; but that those of Constantinople and Jerusalem were by mere accident, per accidens, graced with this title. In the sixth century Rome and Constantinople engaged in a bitter strife for the title of imperial patriarch, naToiaQ/rig T)jg oiy.ov/.av7}c, universalis ecclesiae papa. But the primate of Rome finally ended the controversy by resigning the title of patriarch, and assuming only tliat of pope, or pontifex Maximus. The following summary of the prerogatives of the patriarch is given by Bingham, Book II. chap. 17. 1. " They were to ordain all the metropolitans of their own diocese, and to receive their own ordination from a diocesan synod. 2. To call diocesan synods and and to preside over them. 3. To receive appeals from metropoli- tans and provincial synods. 4, To censure metropolitans and their suffragan bishops if metropolitans were remiss in censuring them. 5. They might delegate metropolitans as their commissioners to hear ecclesiastical causes in any part of the diocese. 6. They were to be consulted by metropolitans in all matters of moment. 7. To communicate to their metropolitans such imperial laws as concerned the church, as the metropolitans were to notify the pro- vincial bishops. 8. Absolution of great criminals was reserved to them.'3 9, They were absolute and independent one of another. 7. Cardinals.^'^ The order of cardinals really belongs to the Western church. The corresponding court in the church of Con- stantinople is the college of the Exocatacoeli.* To the Russian church Peter the Great gave, after the resignation of the patriarchal * Critics are not agreed as to the origin of this name. The most proba- ble is that of Du Cange who derives it from the fact that, those who were high in ofRce ■Were seated in public assemblies in high and more h(jnorable seats erected for the purpose on either side of the patriarchal throne. 88 MINISTEKS OF THE CHURCH, power, the court of the holy synod, corresponding to the college of cardinals at Rome, and with that of the electors in the Roman catho- lic States of Germany. The term has long been in use, and originally either signified the same as praecipuus, principalis, id quod rei cardo est, synonymous with praelatus ; or else it was derived from cardinare or incardinare, to hinge or join together ; and was applied to the regular clergy of the metropolitan church. In Italy, Gaul, etc., such churches early received the title of cardinal churches, the ministers of these churches were also called cardinals. The following statements comprise the important historical facts relative to the office of Cardinal. 1. The institution of the office has been ascribed by respectable Roman catholic writers to Christ himself, — to the apostle of their faith, — to the Roman bishop Evaristus, to Heginus, Marcellus, Boniface, III, and others. But we only know that cardinals, pres- byters, and deacons occur in history about the sixth and seventh centuries, who were however not itinerant, but stationary church officers for conducting religious worship. The deacons and pres- byters of Rome especially bore this name, who composed the pres- bytery of the bishop of the place. The title was also conferred up- on the suffragan bishops of Ostia, Albanum, and others in the im- mediate vicinity, but without any other rights, than those which were connected appropriately with the ministerial office. 2. The import of the term was varied still more in the ninth cen- tury, and especially in the eleventh, by Nicolaus II., who, in his con- stitution for the election of the Roman pontiff", not only appointed his seven suffi*agan bishops as members of the pope's ecclesiastical council, but also constituted them the only legitimate body for the election of the pope.^^ To these he gave the name of cardinal bishops of the church of Rome, or cardinals of the Lateran church. This is the important period in history when the first founda- tion was laid for rendering the hierarchy of the church independent both of the clergy and of the secular power. This period has not been noticed so particularly by historians as its importance requires. They seem especially to have overlooked the fact that the famous Hildebrand, Gregory VII, in the year 1073, concerted these meas- ures for the independence of the church, as the following extract will show. " It was the deep design of Hildebrand, which he for a SUPERIOR ORDER OF BISHOPS. 89 long time prosecuted with unwearied zeal to bring the pope wholly within the pale of tlie church, and to prevent the interference, in his election, of all secular inflLjence and arbitrary power. And that measure of the council which wrested from the emperor a right of so long standing, and which had never been called in question, may deservedly be regarded as the master-piece of popish intrigue, or rather of Hildebrand's cunning. The concession which disguised this crafty design of his, was expressed as follows— /Aa/ the emperor should ever hold from the pope ^ the right of appointing the pope.''''^^ 3. As might have been expected, this privilege was afterwards contested by the princes of the German States, especially by those of Saxony, and the house of Hohenstaufen. But these conflicts uni- formly resulted in favor of the ambitious designs of the pope. A momentary concession, granted under the pressure of circumstances, became reason sufficient for demanding the same ever afterwards as an established right. In the year A. D. 1179, Alexander III, through the canons of the Lateran, confirmed yet more the inde- pendent election of the pope, so that after this the ratification of the emperor was no longer of any importance. Something similar was also repeated by Innocent III, A. D. 1215, and Innocent IV, A. D. 1254. The former had already, in the year A. D. 1198, renounced the civil authority of Rome, and ascended the papal throne. In the year 1274, the conclave of cardinals for the election of the pope was fully established by Gregory X, and remains the same to this day. 4. The college of cardinals, which, until the twelfth century, had been restricted to Rome and its vicinity, has since been greatly en- larged, so as to become the supreme court of the church universal. Priests of illustrious name in other provinces and countries, have been elevated to the dignity of cardinals. Of this Alexander III gave the first example in the year 1165, by conferring the honor upon Galdinus Sala, archbishop of Milan, and upon Conrad, arch- bisho[) of Mentz. But to the injury of the church, the greater part have ever been restricted to the limits of Rome and Italy. 5. The formal classification of the cardinals into three distinct orders, 1. Cardinal bishops; 2. Cardinal presbyters; 3. Cardinal deacons, was made by Paul II, in the fifteenth century. He also gave them, instead of the scarlet robe which they had worn since the year 1244, a purple role, from whence they derived the name of the purple, a title indicative not merely of their superiority to 12 90 MINISTERS OF THE CHTJRCH. bishops and archbishops, but of their regal honors and rights. Boni- face VIII, gave them the title of eminent issimi, most eminent ; and Pius V, in the year 1567, decreed that no other should have the name of cardinal. 6. The number of cardinals was at first not less than seven, and. af- ter having ranged from seven to fifty-three, it was reduced again in the year 1277, to the minimum above mentioned. The General As- sembly of the church of Basil limited the number to twenty-four ; but the popes from this time increased them at their pleasure. Un- der Leo X, there were sixty-five cardinals ; Paul IV, and Pius V, decreed that the maximum should be seventy — equal in number to the disciples of Jesus. These were arranged under the following grades. 1. Six cardinal bishops with the following titles — the bishops of Ostia, Porta, Alhano, Frescati, Sasina, and Palaestrina. 2. Fifty cardinal priests, who were named after the parochial and cathedral churches of Rome. 3. Fourteen cardinal deacons, who were named after the chapels. This number was seldom full, but since 1814, they have again become quite numerous. Lastly. Among the superior officers of the church may be men- tioned the Pope, papa Romanus,pontifex Maximus. Upon this offi- cer, elevated to the summit of ecclesiastical dominion, we can only bestow a complimentary notice. An entire volume would be re- quired merely for an enumeration of the most important transactions of the pope, and they are recorded by innumerable authors both an- cient and modern. II. Of the inferior order of Bishops. 1. 'Eniaxonoi axoXa^ovifc, vacui, vacantes, cessantes, quiescentes, iishops without cures. To this class belong those who, for any cause, declined the duties oftheiroff.ee. In times of persecution and reli- gious commotion, especially in the fourth and fifth centuries, many men of distinction refused to be considered candidates for the office of bishop, and even when elected, declined the duties of the office. Others resigned who had been fully inducted into office ; and others again, not being acknowledged by their colleagues and dioceses, were subject to a compulsory resignation. Under this head may al- so be ranked those bishops who, though they did not resign, absent- ed themselves from their diocese for a length of time, and resided, without good reason, in other places. In the fourth and fifth centu- INFERIOR ORDER OF BISHOPS. 91 ries it was not uncommon for ten or twelve bishops to relinquish the duties of their office, and resort to the court at Constantinople. These were deservedly accounted subordinate to their colleagues who continued in the faithful discharge of their duties. 2. Titular bishops, Episcopi inpartibus infideUutn, Episcopi gen- tium, regionarii. Bishops of this class were invested with their of- fice, but had no stated charge or diocese. This title was first given in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, to the bishcpsof those provin- ces which had been gained by the conquests of the cross, and which had long been held under the dominion of the Saracens and Tartars. They may be compared with various juridical and political pretend- ers, and with the kings of .Jerusalem, who retained their title after the overthrow of the kingdom. The patriarchs of Constantinople made the same claim, and resigned it with extreme reluctance. Since the reformation, the Romish church has manifested the same deportment towards those bishoprics which they have lost. That church expressly decreed that no one should be ordained at large, anokslvfiBvmg, without a specific charge.^ And yet their titular dig- nitaries receive the unmeaning titles of bishops of Tarsus, Ephesus, Samaria, Aleppo, etc. Under a change of circumstances, a bishop so ordained, might enter immediately upon the discharge of the of- ficial duties of his office. Even Bingham, though zealously opposed to these nugatory and titular bishops, admits that instances of this kind sometimes, though seldom, occurred in the ancient churcL 3. Suffragan bishojis. These were originally the same as dioces- an bishops, who acted as the representatives and substitutes of their metropolitans. They were called suflVagan, either because they could not be consecrated without the suffrage of the metropolitan, or because they had the right of suffrage in the synod, whilst yet dis- tinct from other members of that body. The latter is the most prob- able explanation of the term. These suffragan bishops are not the same as the chorepiscopi.^ But after the cessation of these, the necessity of suffragans became much greater ; and they were accordingly increased. Bishops who had no metropolitan power, first began in the tenth century to have suffragans under them. These were also styled vicar generals, vice- gerents, bishops in pontificalibus, vice Episcopi, e\.c? The suffra- gan bishops of Germany were appointed for the ordination of infe- rior officers, and the consecration and benediction of churches, al- tars, baptismal waters, etc. 92 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. 4. Country bishops. XagsTrlaxonoi, Episcopi rurales, s. villani. These, though of ancient origin, have been the subject of much dis- pute among the learned, and called forth a multitude of treatises and authors, ancient and modern. These authorities are not agreed as to the etymology of the word. Some derive it from chorus, a choir of singers.'* Others from the ap- pellation, occulus or cor episcopi, eye or heart of the bishop, as his archdeacon was sometimes called ;^ and others again from the Syri- ac word, TD which in connection with the word bishop, denotes a vicar of the bishop.^ But it was doubtless derived from x(''9^ ^'^ XfaQiov, cowitry, and denotes a country bishop. The most important points in explanation of this ofRce, may be comprised under the following remarks. a) There is not indeed satisfactory evidence that this office is autho- rized in Titus 1: 5, but there is very early notice of its institution from Clemens Romanus, who says that " as they, the apostles, preached in the cities and country places, /.Moag, they appointed their first con- verts as bishops and deacons over them that should believe, having first proved them by the spirit."" Eusebius speaks both of presbyters and bishops over the neighboring countries and cities, tuv ofjioqav a/Qoiv T£ xai nohwv ngsa^visQoi, distinguishing thus these chorepisco- pi from the bishops of the cities.^ Some affirm that no churches were established in the country in the first three centuries, and accordingly, that this office was not instituted until a later period.^ But the inlcTxoTioi xwv a'/QoJv of Eusebius are the chorepiscopi in ques- tion, nor is it fair to infer that they were first created in the fourth century, because the synods of that period more definitely prescribe the duties of their office, for they speak of the office itself as already well known. b) Those that sustained this office are expressly distinguished from presbyters both of the city and country, but are described as officia- ting bishops, subordinate in rank and restricted in many respects. ^^ They are styled (xvUsizovgyoi, fellow laborers with the bishop, and, like the cardinals of later times, were reckoned seventy in number, which shows again that they, as well as the bishops, were compared with the apostles in office. ^^ The council of Nice also, c. 8, so speaks of them as to show that they held an intermediate grade between presbyters and bishops. Their duties were, to give letters of re- commendation and the testimonials of the church, to lake the over- INFEKIOR ORDER OF BISHOPS. 93 sight of the church in the section of country allotted to them, to ap- point the readers, sub-deacons, and exorcists ; and they might ordain presbyters and deacons, but not without the consent and cooperation of the city bishop. ^^ In the year 451, they voted, for the first time, as the substitutes or representatives of their bisliops.'^ Previous to this lime, they had an independent vote in general council, as in the council of Nice, and in the presence of the city bishops.^'* c) These officers were at first confined to the Eastern church. In ihe Western church, and especially in France, they began to be' known about the fifth century. They have never been numerous in Spain and Italy. In Africa, on the contrary, they constitute a nu- merous body under the name of Donatists. In Germany they must have been frequent in the seventh and eighth centuries.'^ And in the twelfth century the arrogance, insubordination and injurious con- duct of this class of ecclesiastics became a subject of general com- plaint in the Western church ; but more especially in France. In the East the order was abolished for the same reasons by the coun- cil of Laodicea, A. D. 361. But so little respect was entertained for this decree that the order continued until the tenth century. They were first prohibited in the Western church in the ninth century ,!'• but according to some writers they continued in France until the twell'th century, and until the thirteenth in Ireland. About this time they disappeared from the page of history, and were succeeded by archdeacons, rural-deans, and vicar-generals. 5. Visitors, niQiodfviul, itinerant presbyters. They were, at first, appointed by the council of Laodicea in the room of the chore- piscopi. Their business was, to go about continually to guard the wavering, and to confirm the faithful. But it was their peculiar characteristic that they had no fixed abode. They had not the inde- pendent prerogatives of the country bishops, but were merely vica- rious assistants of the bishop, like a visiting committee of the church, or the visitores ecdesiarum o( the Latin church.'^ 6. Intercessors, intercessores and interventores. Officers peculiar to the African church, who are first mentioned in the fifth council of Carthage. They were temporary incumbents of a vacant bishopric, and, for the time being performed the several offices of bishop. It was their duty to take measures for the regular appointment of a bishop as speedily as possible. To prevent abuse no one was allow- ed to continue in office more than one year. 94 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. § 7. Of Presbyters — their equality and identity with Bishops. Bishops and presbyters are regarded by some as having been, from the beginning, distinct orders of the clergy. Others maintain that they were originally the same ; and that the bishop was only the foreman or chairman of a body of presbyters or clergymen. Of these conflicting views, the former is entertained by those who con- tend that the bishops were constituted hy the apostles themselues a distinct and superior order of the clergy. The latter, by those who deny the divine origin of episcopacy. The controversy on this subject has arisen chiefly from tlie equi- vocal import of the term nQiai°vT^Qog which, in the peculiar |)hrase- ology of the church, denotes both a superior and a teacher. The first mentioned signification earliest prevailed. The nQia^vifooi, presbyters or elders of the christian church correspond to the Cij^.f , elders of the Jews. Both denote pjrecedence in ojice, not seniority in age. But as seniority of age and precedence in office are very natu- rally united in the same person, and in the christian church ever have been united, so also in the New Testament there are examples of the union of both in the same person. The apostles style them- selves elders and fellow laborers, nQia-jvngovg and ai\un(jiai3LrsQov?, with evident reference to this twofold relation. The passage in 1 Tim. 5: 17, is peculiarly pertinent in this connection. Let the el- ders that r«/e zre// be counted worthy of double honor; especially they lolio labor in the icord and doctrine. In other passages these elders are styled sheplierds and teachers. It is equally evident also that both bishops, inlay.onoi, and elders, 7iQS(r(SvT(Q0i, are of similar import both in the Scriptures and ecclesi- astical writings of the first centuries of the christian era. In the Scriptures in the following passages : Acts 17: 28. Phil. 1: 1. 1 Tim. 3:1. Tit. 1:5, 7. comp. Acts 15: 2, 4, 6, 22,23. 1 Cor. 12:28— 30. Eph. 4: 11, etc.* The following passages are sufficient to illus- trate the usage of early ecclesiastical writers. Chrysostom says that the elders or presbyters were formerly called bishops and dea- cons of Christ, and that the bishops were called elders. Ol nQioftv- tSQOt TO naXaiov ixaXovpro iniaxonoi y.ul diuxoroi lov Xgiaxov, xal ol iniaxonoi (ixakovvzo) ngts^vtiQoi.^ Theodoret styles both the elders OF PRESBYTERS. 95 and the bishops, watchmen, alleging that, at that time, they were called by both names, ujJcpoTfQa yuQ sl/ov y.ai fy.urov jov aaiQov t« ovofiiaa.^ Ill another passage lie also says, that those who were called bishops evidently held the rank of presbyter's, elders, tog Hfui, d^jkov on vno joviov itiXovv ol iv to) nQooi^m y.irj&iviig inia/.onoi, lov nQfa<3vtiQov driloyoTi i}]v id'^iv nlrjoovvxig. The famous Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, in his official letter to the Roman bishop Victor, enumerates all the bishops who preceded Victor at Rome, and styles them presbyters who formerly presided over that apostolic church at Rome. " Jerome, one of the most learned of the Latin fathers, who had before him all the testimonies and arguments of earlier writers, has placed this matter in its true light witli peculiar distinctness. In his annotation on the first chapter of the Epistle to Titus, he gives the following account of the nature and origin of the episcopal office: — 'A presbyter is the same as a bishop. And until, by the instigation of the devil, there arose divisions in religion, and it was said among the people, " I am of Paul, and I of Apollos, and I of Cephas," churches were governed by a common council of the presbyters. But afterwards, when every one regarded those whom he baptized as belonging to himself rather than to Christ, it was everywhere de- creed that one person, elected from the presbyters, should be placed over the others ; to whom the care of the whole church might be- long, and thus the seeds of division might be taken away. Should any one suppose that this opinion, — that a bishop and presbyter is the same, and that one is the denomination of age, and the other of office,— is not sanctioned by the Scriptures, but is only a private fan- cy of my own, let him read over again the apostle's words to the Philippians, "Paul and Timotheus, the servants of Jesus Christ, to all the saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi with the bishops and deacons ; grace be unto you and peace, from God our Father, and from the Lord Jesus Christ," etc. Philippi is a single city of Macedonia ; and certainly, of those who are now styled bishops there could not have been several at one time in the same city. But, because at that time they called the same persons bishops whom they styled also presbyters, therefore the apostle spoke indifTerently of bishops as of presbyters.' The writer then refers to the fact, that St. Paul, having sent for the presbyters (in the plural) of the single city of Ephesus only, afterwards called the same persons 96 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. bishops. (Acts xx.) To this fact he calls particular attention ; and then observes that, in the Epistle to the Hebrews also, we find the care of the church divided equally amongst many ; ' Obey them that have ihe rule over you, and submit yourselves ; for they watch for your souls, as they that must give account ; that they may do it with joy, and not with grief, for that is [un] profitable for you.' — ' And Peter,' continues Jerome, ' who received his name from the firmness of his faith, says, in his Epistle, " The presbyters who are among you I exhort, who am also a presbyter, and a witness of the sufferings of Christ, and also a partaker of the glory that shall be revealed ; feed the flock of God which is among you, [he omits the words, taking the oversight thereof, imaxonovv-ifg, i. e, superintend- ing it,] not by constraint, but willingly." These things we have brought forward to show that, icith the ancients, presbyters were the same as bishops. But in order that the roots of dissension might be plucked up, a usage gradual! y took place thai the whole care should devolve xipon one. Therefore, as the presbyters know that it is by the custom of the church that they are subject to him ivho is placed over them, so let the bishops know that they are above •presbyters rather by custom than by the truth of our Lord''s appointment, and that they ought to rule the church in common, herein imitating Mo- ses,' etc.* * ' Idem est presbyter, qui et episcopus ; et antequam diaboli instinctu studia in relisione fierent, et diceretur in populis, Ego sum Paiili, ego .Spot- to, ego autcm Ceptiae, coinniuni presbyterorum consiJio ecclesiae guberna- bantar. Postquam vero unusquisque eos, quos baptizaverat, suos putabat esse, non Christi, in toto orbe decretum est, ut unus de presbyteris electus superponeretur caeteris, ad quern omnis ecclesiae cura pertineret, et schis- matuni semina tollerentur. Putet aliquis non Scripturarum, sed nostram, esse sententiam, episeopum et presbyterum unum esse, et aliud aetatis, aliud esse nonien officii : relegat Apostoli ad Pliilippenses verba dicentis, " Pau- ]us et Timothcus servi Jesu Christi, omnibus Sanctis in Ciiristo Jesu qui sunt Philippis, cum episcopis et diaconis, gratia vobis et pas," — etreliqua. Phi- lippi una est urbs Rlacedoniae, et certe in una civitate plures, ut nuncupatur, episcopi esse non poterant. Sed quia eosdem episcopos illo tempore quos et presbyteros appellabant, propterea indifferenter de episcopis quasi de pres- byteris est locutus. Adhuc hoc alicui videatur ambiguum, nisi altero testi- monio comprobetur. In Actibus Apostolorum scriptum est, quod cum ve- nisset Apostolus Miletum, miserit Ephesum, et vocaverit presbyteros eccle- siae ejusdem, quibus postea inter caetera sit locutus, " Attendite vobis, et omni gregi in quo vos Spiritus Sanctus posuit episcopos, pascere ecclesiam OF PRESBYTERS. 97 " The same views are maintained by this father in his Epistle to Evagrius, with the additional mention of the fact, that from the first foundation of the church of Alexandria down to the days of Heraclas and Dionysius, the presbyters of that church made (or, as we should say, consecrated) their bishops. The passage, which is quoted at some length in the note, is very important. Having referred to several passages of the Acts and Epistles in proof of an assertion which he had made, to the effect that bishop and presbyter were at • first the same, he proceeds to say that ' afterwards, when one was elected, and set over the others, this was designed as a remedy against schism. * * * For at Alexandria, from the evangelist Mark down to the bishops Heraclas and Dionysius, the presbyters always gave the name of bishop to one whom they elected from themselves, and placed in a higher degree ; in the same way as an army may create its general, or as deacons may elect one of their own body, whom they know to be assiduous in the discharge of duty, and call him archdeacon. For what does a bishop perform, except ordina- tion, which a presbyter may not do,' etc.* The fact which Jerome Domini, quam acquisivit per sanguinem suum." Et hoc diligentius obser- vate, quo niodo unius civitatis Ephesi presbjteros vocans, postea eosdem episcopos dixerit. Si quis vult recipere eaiii epistolam, quae sub nomine Pauli ad Hebraeos scripta est, et ibi aequaliter inter plures ecclesiae cura dividilur. Siquidem ad plebein scribit, " Parete principibus vestris,et subjecti estole ; ipsi enim sunt qui vigilant pro animabus vestris, quasi rationem red- dentes, ne suspirantes hoc faciant : siquidem hoc utile (sic) vobis est." Et Fetrus, qui ex fidei firmitate nomen accepit, inepistola sua loquiler dicens, " Presbyteros ergo in vobis obsecro compresbyter, et testis Christi passion- um, qui et ejus gloriae, quae in futero revelandus est, socius sum, pascite eum qui in vobis est gregem Domini, non quasi cum necessitate, sed volun- tarie." Haec propterea, ut ostenderemus apud veteres eosdem fuisse pres- byteros quos et episcopos ; paulalim vero. ut dissensionum plantaria evelle- rentur, ad unum omnera sollicitudinem esse delatam. Sicut ergo prcsbyteri sciunt se ex ecclesiae consuetudine ei qui sibi praepositus fuerit esse sub- jectos, ita episcopi noverint se magis consuetudine quam dispositionis domi- nicae veritate presbyteris esse majores, et in commune debere ecclesiam re- gere, imitantes Moysen ; qui cum haberetin potestate solus praeesse populo Israel, septuaginta elegit, cum quibus populum judicaret. — Hieron. Com- ment, in Tit. i.' * ' Quod autem postea unuselectus est qui caeteris pracponercter, in schis- matis remedium factum est : ne unusquisque ad se traliens Christi eccle- siam rumperet. Nam et Alexandriae a Marco evangelista usque ad Hera- 13 98 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. here states respecting the appointment and ordination of bishops in the church of Alexandria by presbyters alone for the space of more than two centuries, is attested also by Eutychius, patriarch of Alex- andria. And the opinion of Jerome respecting the original equality, or rather identity, of presbyter and bishop, is in perfect accordance with the language of a still earlier writer, Tertullian. De Bap. c. 17."* The identity of bishops and presbyters is further evident from the circumstance that they loth received the same honorary titles., ttqoe- cnaisg, riQoaitxTai, TTQ6e5QOL.,prepositi, antistes, equivalent to presi- dents, moderators, chairmen or prcsidi7ig officers. Presbyters were also denominated aut&Qovoi and ol lov &q6vov, partners of the throne. A distinction is sometimes made between those of the first, and of the second throne ; in which case the latter evidently designates pres- byters. But it is still plain that, in such, instances, the preeminence ascribed to the bishop is only that o{ primus inter pares — chief among equals. Even the most zealous advocates of the Episcopal system in the Greek, Roman, and English church are constrained to recognize and admit the identity of the terms ijilaxoTiog and TTQia.jvieoog according to the ustis loqiiendi of the ancient church. They are constrained clam et Dionysium'episcopos, presbyteri semper unum ex se electuni, in excelsiori gradu collocatuin, episcopum nominabant: quo niodo si exeroitus imperalorem faciat ; aut diaconi eligant de se, quern industrium noverint, et archidiaconum vocent. Quid enim facit, excepta ordinatione, episcopus, quod presbyter non faciat ? Nee altera Romanae urbis ecclesia, altera totius orbis existimanda est. Et Galliae, et Britanniae, et Africa, et Persis, et Oriens, et India, et omnes barbarae nationes unum Christum adorant, unam observant regulam veritatis. )Si auctoritas quaeritur, orbis major est urbe. Ubicunque fuerit episcopus, sive Romae, sive Eugubii, sive Constanlinopoli, sive Rhegii, sive Alexandriae, sive Tanis, ejusdem meriti, ejusdem et sacer- dotii. Potentia divitiarum, et paupertatis humilitas, vel sublimiorem, vel inferiorem, episcopum non facit. Caeterum omnes apostolorum successores sunt Presbyter et episcopus aliud aetatis, aliud dignitatis, est nomen. Unde et ad Tituni, et ad Timolheum de ordinatione episcopi et di- aconi dicitur ; de presbyleris omnino reticetur ; quia in episcopo et presby- ter continetur. . . Et, ut sciamus traditiones apostolicas sumetas de ve- teri Testamento ; quod Aaron et filii ejus (one order, namely, priests, cor- responding to bishops or presbyters), atque Levitae (another order, corres- ponding to deacons), in templo fuerunt, hoc sibi episcopi et presbyteri, et diaconi, vindicent in ecclesia. — Hieron. Ep. ad Evagrium, 65.' • Riddle, pp. 186—106. OF PRESBYTKHS. 99 to admit that the distinction between the office of bishop and presby- ter, which prevailed about the third and fourth centuries and to a period still later, was unknown in the first two centuries. A fierce controversy arose about the time of the Reformation whether the word 7T()((Ti3vif(>og, as used in the Scriptures, and in the most ancient documents of the church, does not denote merely the laitt/ and not any order of the clergy. This position was maintain- ed not only by Presbyterians, but by another class of modern wri- ters who are in reality no friends of the system. They sought to show that both presbyters and bishops were not originally religious teachers, but overseers and managers of the general concerns of the church. According to this theory, which had many advocates,^ the presbyters were merely municipal officers like the elders of the Jews. The principal arguments for this theory were drawn from 1 Tim. 5: 17. 1 Thess. 5: 12, especially the first. This theory has been ablv discussed by Vitringa, Danovius,Gabler, and many others. The result of the whole is given in the following extract from Gab- ler.^ " We admit that there were not a few presbyters in the apos- tolic age, appointed by the churches who did not act as religious teachers. But contend that Paul, disapproving of this measure, and that he might prevent the further spread of the errors of false teach- ers and apostles, ordered that all presbyters should be teachers, es- sent Sidixxiol. If now we admit that Paul in 1 Tim. 5: 17 speaks of presbyters as they were (not as they ought to be), all acting as ru- lers, but not all acting as teachers, still we learn from another pas- sage in this same epistle, 1 Tim. 3: 2, that the apostle's desire and direction was, that all who should, in future, be chosen presbyters should be " apt to teach." History clearly informs us that presbyters were uniformly reckon- ed as belonging to the regular priesthood from the time when tiie church first begun to rear up an ecclesiastical hierarchy, and when the distinction began to be made between clergy and laity. The language of the fathers, and especially of Cyprian seems to imply that there still were some who did not perform the duties of their office as teachers ; but even these were still reckoned among the regular clergy, and not as belonging to the laity. Ignatius always joins bishops and presbyters together as presiding over the church, one, in the place of Jesus Christ, and the other, as the great council of God, in the place of the apostles, without which 100 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. the church is no church. Tl 8e nQsa^vtiQiov u).)! ij aiaxri^a Uqov, iTVjti^ovXoi y.al (TvrsdgfVTnl tov ijiiay.onov. Tfisig ds {vjgima&s avroiig (ijiiaxonoig) mq Xqkttov Ir/aovv ol 8s TiQiafjVTiQOt, wg avvidgiov ■&(oi! xal avvdia^iog txnoaiulav Xftiaxoi? Much the same representations are ir.ade by many other ancient authors. In the Apostolical Constitutions, the presbyters are denomi- nated the counsellors of tlie bishop — the sanhedrim and council of the church fi Chrysostom calls them the sanhedrim of the presby- ters.9 Cyprian styles them the sacred and venerable assembly of our clergy,^" and Jerome the assembly of presbyters — the senate of the church.il The original of each is here given in their order. ^VfiliovXoi (consiliarii) iniay.onoi — avvLStiLov x«i ^ovXi] ri/c ixy.Xijuiag — Apost. Con. To Tcu*' 7i(jfa^vjiot)v ^^('^(Jotoy— Chrysostom. Cleri nostri, sacer venerandusque consessus — Cyprian. Coeliis presbytero- rum, settccfus ecclesiae— Jerome. To which the following may with propriety^be added : Primum presbyteri episcopi adpellabantur ut uno recedente sequens ei succederet. Primum episcopi et presby- teri una ordinatio sint. Uterque enim sacerdos est, sed episcopus primus est ut omnis episcopus presbyter est ; non omnis presbyter, episcopus: Hie enim episcopus est qui inter presbuteros primus est. From all these passages the conclusion is that the imposition of hands and the pivileges of the priesthood, hQioavv)}, belonged of right to the presbyters. For this reason, and not because of any seniority in age, they were called TiQEalSviiooi, which is the same as priests, or pastors, shepherds, etc. The term senior or elder., which is the literal interpretation o{ nQia^iiioog very seldom occurs, and when it does is applied only to such persons as sustained no ministerial of- fice, bishops, presbyters, deacons, and seniors, and seniors of the people are mentioned in connection. The clergy and seniors are also contrasted one with the other. These seniors Augustine styles viri nobilissimi, opl.imatcs, prijicipes, etc. They correspond with the elders in the Presbyterian church, and with the notables in the Reformed church in France. Bingham erroneously compares them to church-wardens, vestry-men and stewards who assist in the cere- monies of the church, but take no part in its discipline, or ministerial services. [Gieseler's account of the foregoing subject is as follows. " The new churches everywhere formed themselves on the model of the mother church at Jerusalem. At the head of each were the elders^ OF PRESBYTERS. 101 ngsa,SvTiQoi, inlaxonoi, all officially of equal rank, though in several instances a peculiar authority seems to have been conceded to some one individual from personal considerations.* — After the death of * That these names are the same, follows from Acts 20. 17,28. Til. 1:5,7. Phil. 1:1.1 Tim. 3: 1, 8. Acknowledged by Ilieronijmus, Epist. 82 (al. 83) ad Occanum : Apud veteres iideni Episcopi et Frcsbyteri, quia ijlud nomen dignitatis est, hoc aetatis: £/;/sf. 101, ad Evangelum. See under § 32, n. 2. — Idem ad Tit, 1: 7. Idem est ergo Presbyter, qui Kpiscopus : et antequam di- aboli instinctu studia in religione fierent, ct diccretur in populis, Ego sum Pauli, ego Apollo, ego autem Cephae, cuininu!ii Presbyterorum consilio ec- clesiae gubernabantur. Postquatn vero unusquisque eos, quos baptizaverat, sues putabat esse, non Cliristi ; in toto orbe decretum est, ut unus de Pres- byteris electus superponeretur caeteris, ad quern oninis ecclesiae cura pertine- ret, et schismaluin seniina tollerentur. Put The archpresbyters enjoyed the highest consideration between the fifth and eighth centuries, and occupied bishoprics as suffi-agans and vicar-generals. When the bishop's see became vacant they dis- RANK AND DUTIES OF DEACONS. 107 charged his duties, and took care to secure the vacant office for themselves. Several branches of administration tliey held under their entire control ; they even aspired to an equality with the bishops, with whom they not unfrequently engaged in a spirited controversy. The bishops, on the other hand, sought by every means to oppose them, and accordingly favored the archdeacons as a check upon the archpresbyters. The first notice of this policy appears in the fourth council of Carthage. These presbyters were finally made subject to the archdeacon by Innocent III, in the twelfth century. 3. The office of dean was first known in England about the eleventh or twelfth century. The word is derived from decanus, dexaduo/og, and denotes the ruler of a decad, a body of ten men. The deans of cathedral churches were dignitaries of importance. Rural deans were inferior officers, who finally became merely itin- erant visitors, and were at all times subject to the authority of the archdeacon. 4. The word presbytera, presbyterissa,nQf(T^vTiQa,7TQ((T^vng,\so{ frequent occurrence in ancient writers, and may denote either the wife of a presbyter, a female officer, or a deaconess in the church ; sometimes it denotes the matron of a cloister, and an abbess. § 10. Of the Rank and Duties of Deacons. The terms didxovog, diaxovia, ^totxomv, are primarily employed with reference to every kind of service, and every species of assist- ance, whether relating to religion or not ; but they generally de- noted some specific office. They correspond with the Hebrew mo and rT};f573 , though the Septuagint does not so interpret them, except in two instances. In the New Testament the words are of frequent occurrence, both in a general, and specific application. But they are generally used in a specific sense to denote some kind of service in religious things, as in the following passages, diaxovla rov loyov, Acts 6: 4 ; Sicw.oviu xov nviv^aiog, 2 Cor. 3: 8 ; diaxovla x^? hnovqyiag, 2 Cor. 9: 12 ; KXifqog t>k 8iaxoviitg, Acts 1: 17,25. 20:25. 21: 19. Rom. 11: 13; 8i.ny.ovoi xaivi'jg dia&7iy.T]g, 2 Cor. 3: 6 ; dnixovoi Osov, 2 Cor. 6: 4. Compare also 1 Pet. 4: 10. 1: 12. 2 Tim. I: 18. Acts 19:22. It is particularly important however to remark that the word 8ia- 108 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. xovla has, in many passages, reference to an office in the church in- stituted by the apostles ; and that the apellation of didxovog, deacon, denotes one whose duty it is to receive the charities of the church, and to distribute their alms, Acis 9:29,30. 12: 25. Rom. 16: 1,31. 15: 25. 2 Cor. 8: 4. 9: 1, 13, 19, 20. Heb. 6: 10. 1 Tim. 8: 8, 10, 12, 13. Phil. 1: 1. 1 Peter 4: 10, 11. An explicit account of the first appointment of a deacon in the church at Jerusalem is given in Acts 6: 1 — 7. Here it may be observed, 1. That the appointment was made to obviate a misunderstanding between their Jewish and Gentile converts respecting the distribution of the daily alms of the church. 2. This account presupposes that there were already al- moners of the poor ; but that they belonged exclusively to the Jewish converts. Mosheim^ and KuinoeP have well observed, that the office of deacon was derived from the Jewish synagogue, in which there were three persons entrusted with the care of the poor, who were called D'^D^TD , pas/ores. But in the church at Jerusalem seven were appointed, that they might better reconcile the two parties. 3. These seven were Hellenists, Grecians, as both their names and their care of the widows of such sufficiently indicate. 4. They were inducted into office by prayer, and the imposition of hands, and yet, though full of faith and the Holy Ghost, they took no part in the ministration of the word. 5. They were not reckoned with the priesthood. By virtue of their ordination they became officers of the church, and bore a part in the service of the church, dcaxovta t»Jj XsLiovQ/lag, while they had no concern with the instruction or disci- pline of the church. These officers continued for a long time to perform only the du- ties at first ascribed to them, nor does it appear that they were ap- pointed in any church save that at Jerusalem. It is at least remarka- ble that no trace of them is perceptible in the Acts of the apostles, not even when the apostles are making arrangements for the due administration of the church in their absence, chap. 14: 23. comp. Tit. 1: 5, nor in the epistles to the Romans, Ephesians, Colossians, and Thessalonians. In Philippians 1: 1, mention is merely made of them in connection with bishops, but no intimation is given re- specting their office. On the other hand in 1 Tim. 3: 8 — 13, instructions are given for the appointment of deacons in the church at Ephesus, whose offices are totally unlike those of the seven whose appointment is recorded RANK AND DUTIES OF DEACONS. 109 in the sixth chapter of Acts. 1. They are introduced in immediate connection with bishops, of whom Luke makes no mention. 2. In Jerusalem they were chosen by the church and installed in their office. Here nothing is said of their election and the inference is from Titus i. and ii, that Timothy was authorized to appoint them. 3. If bishops and presbyters are classed together as one in office, then these deacons obviously constitute a distinct class. But if the deacons and presbyters are identical, then it would follow that there is no mention of deacons in the New Testament as constituting a third order. The ancients adopted the first supposition and accord- ingly always unite the terms bishops and deacons. 4. Many have denied that the deacons were entitled in any case to preach.^ In re- ply to which no further proof is requisite, than the words of the apostle. ' Holding the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience. They that have used the office of a deacon well, purchase to them- selves a good degree, and great boldness in the faith which is in Christ Jesus.^ 1 Tim. 3: 9, 13.' The most ancient authorities afTord the fullest evidence that they were strictly ministers who acted as the assistants of bishops and presbyters in their religious services and other official duties.*^ To use a military phrase, they were the adjutants of the bishop. Such is the uniform testimony of ancient history.'^ 'Let the deacon,' says the book of Apostolical Constitutions, ' refer all things to the bishop, as Christ did to the Father.' ' Such things as he is able, let him recti- fy by the power which he has from the bishop, just as the Lord is delegated by the Father to act and to decide ; but let the bishop judge the more important cases.'*^* — Again, ' let the deacon be the ear, the eye, the mouth, the heart, the soul of the bishop.' They are also styled his angels and his prophets. So universally did the bish- op employ their service in the discharge of his duties. In consequence of these relations to the bishop they early assumed to themselves great consequence, and refused to render similar as- sistance to presbyters, so that it often became necessary in ecclesi- astical councils to admonish them of their duties by such decrees as the following. " Let the deacons observe their proper place, know- * This reference to the relations of Christ to the Father was very common in the second and third centuries. From the fourth century it was avoided to prevent giving countenance to the Arian theory of his actual subordina- tion. 110 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. ing that they are indeed the assistants of the bishop, but that they are inferior to the presbyters."^ — " Let the deacon know that he is alike the minister of the presbyter, and of the bishop. "^^^ The same coun- cil proceeds to admonish him of his subordination, reminding him that he was ordained to his office by the bishop alone without the aid of presbyters, for which they offer the following reason : Quia non ad sacerdotium sed ad ministerium consecratur. The deacons continued to acquire increasing consideration as the bishops rose in power. Those particularly who were called arch- deacons gained great favor with the bishop by reason of the assis- tance they rendered to him in curtailing the power of the presbyters. The seven who were originally appointed at Jerusalem, became a precedent for limiting their number in other churches, beyond which they were never much increased. So that they derived increasing consequence from the fact that they were so few.^' There was another class of persons whose duty it was to perform the loioer offices of deacons, and who, for this reason, were called subdeacons and assistants, vnodiuxovoi, vntj^iTai,. These were crea- ted a distinct class when the duties of the deacons became too ardu- ous for them, in order that they might not diminish, by the increase of their own number, the consideration which they had acquired. Even these subdeacons are, in many churches, included in the su- perior order of their officers. Deacons are sometimes called Levites, and their office levitica dignitas, leviticum ministerium. In the councils of the Western church presbyters and deacons are indiscriminately called by that name.^^ From the above statements it appears, that the duty of the dea- cons was to perform the services which the bishops and presbyters were either unwilling or unable to discharge, with the exception of those which, according to the rules and usages of the church, could not be delegated to another. There were official duties of his own which the bishop could not impose upon presbyters. These it was equally unlawful for him to delegate to the deacons. Exceptions were occasionally made, especially in the case of the archdeacon, but they were violations of established usage. In consequence of performing the delegated duties of the bishop, the deacons made many pretensions to superiority over the presbyters, of which the latter often complained. RANK AND DUTIES OF DEACONS. Ill The consecration of the eucharist was one of the reserved rights which could not be delegated to the deacons. ^-^ Instances to tlie contrary occasionally occurred, but tliey were violations of an es- tablished rule. Baptism, extreme unction, etc. they were allowed to administer as not belonging to the most sacred offices of the priesthood. From their performing only these subordinate ministe- rial duties they were early called sacerdoles secundi vel tertii or- dinis. But there must have been certain duties belonging to their office besides those which were delegated to them, else they could not with propriety be regarded as a third order of officers in the church. Of those offices, tico are generally specified — that of reading the gospels — and of assisting the bishop and presbyter in the sacrament of the Lord''s supperM Diaconatus est ordo sacer in quo confertur gratia, et traditur precipua potestas ministrandi proxime Episcopo et Presbutero in missa sacrificio et solemnitur legendi Evangelium. The deacons alone were permitted to read the gospel in the commu- nion service. For this reason the presentation of the gospel to them was one of the rites of their ordination. The above were the distinguishing characteristics of their office. A full enumeration of their duties is given below. 1. Their first duty was to assist in the administration of the sacra- ment. ' After the benediction of the minister, and the response of the people, says Justin Martyr, they whom we call deacons distribute the consecrated bread and wine and water to each one who is pre- sent, and carry them to those who are absent.''^ According to the Constitutions, the bishop distributed the bread, and the deacons pre- sented the cup. I'' In the absence of the bishop, the presbyter inva- riably performed the same service. Connected with the sacramental service, certain other duties de- volved upon the deacons, a) They publicly proclaimed the name of each communicant.'" b) They received the contributions of the communicants and delivered them to a subordinate officer for safe keeping, c) They had the charge of the sacred utensils — the cha- lice, the patin or plate, the napkin, the fan for repelling the flies, glniSiov, fabeUum, etc.^^ 2. It was their duty, previous to the appointment of readers, to perform the services of that office. Subsequently it continued to be their duty to read the gospels in the celebration of the eucharist 112 MINISTERS OF THE CEURCH- whenever the bishop did not officiate in person, in which case the reading devolved upon the presbyter.'^ At Alexandria the arch- deacon alone read the Scriptures — in other churches, the deacons, and in many also the presbyters performed this service, and on feast days it was discharged by the bishop himself.^° 3. They acted as monitors in directing the several parts of reli- gious worship, giving notice by set forms, called Tr^oo-qpwyTjcm?, of the commencement of each act of worship, and calling the attention of the audience to it, commanding silence and preserving order. For this reason they were called the sacred heralds of the church, lego- xi^QvxEg, xijQvxig, tibicines sacri, precones, etc. The following are examples of these forms : Ssr]&wf4Ev, oremus, let us pray ; orate cat- echumerii, let the catechumens pray ; altendamus, attention ; Jlecta- mus geMua, kneel ; anolvm&s, you are dismissed ; nQosX&nE, ite, withdraw ; missa est, the service is ended ; sursum corda, lift up your hearts ; sancta Sanctis, holiness becomes sacred things ; and the like.21 4. They had a general oversight of the assembly in religious wor- ship to prevent disturbance, and see that everything was conducted with propriety. 5. They occasionally preached in the absence of the bishop. Chrysostom, when deacon of the church at Antioch, preached for his bishop Flavianus, as did also Ephraim the Syrian, under similar cir- cumstances. The right is firmly denied by Ambrose,^'^ but explicitly authorized by the second council of Vaison, A. D. 529. c. 2. which devolves upon them the duty of conducting the worship in the ab- sence of the bishops and presbyters, or when they were prevented by infirmity from officiating. 6. The duty of giving catechetical instructions stood on the same footing. It was the appropriate duty of the bishop ; but the deacons were frequently intrusted with this service to the candidates for baptism, especially when it was continued for a length of time. 7. They administered baptism by permission of the bishops and presbyters as their substitutes, but not as authorized administrators of the ordinance.^^ 8. They were not only permitted, but in certain cases required, to absolve and restore penitent backsliders. St. Cyprian says, " If they, the sick, are seized by any dangerous disease, they need not await my return, but may have recourse to any presbyter that is present, OF AHCIIDEACONS. 113 or if a presbyter cannot bo found, and tbeir case becomes alarming, they may make their confession before a deacon that so they may receive imposition of hands and go to the Lord in peace." — Ep. 13. al. 18. 9. They liad the charj^e of tlie inferior orders of church officers and servants, and, in the absence of the presbyters might, at their discretion, censure or suspend them for a time for misconduct. 10. They acted as the representatives and proxies of their bishops in general council. In such cases they sat and voted, in the Eastern church, not as deacons^ but as proxies, in the room and place of those that sent them. In the Western church they voted after the bishops, and not in the place of those whose proxies they were. 11. They exercised an inspection over the life and morals both of the clergy and laity. They were the justices and grand jurymen of the church, and were to make diligent inquiry and due presenta- tion to their bishops. It is in this sense that they are styled ike eyes and the ears of the bishop."^' Their office evidently must have been one of great respectability ; but at the same time such duties must have rendered it odious to the community. 12. It was their duty to receive and disburse the charities of the church. In the discharge of these duties they were styled the month and the heart or soul of the bishop. In this sense they were ac- counted the indispensable assistants of the bishop, without whom he could do nolhing.-^s Their duties increased with the possessions of the church, so that they acted essentially as the accountants and clerks of the bishop. § 11, Of Archdeacons. The policy of the bishop, in attaching to himself the interests of the deacons in opposition to the presbyters, was peculiarly mani- fested in respect to the archdeacon, who was the firm adherent of the bishop, and the bitter opponent of the archpresbyters. Contrary to the general usage of antiquity, qualifications for office had more influence in his election than seniority of age and ordina- tion. Athanasius of Alexandria, while yet a young man, was in- vested witli the office of archdeacon.^ Jerome also gives us to un- derstand that the deacons chose from among themselves indiscrimi- 15 114 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. nalely the most suitable candidate for the office ; according to the sanne author, there was one archdeacon for each church. The office was in certain churches elective ; in others it was filled by appointnnenl of the bishop. Indeed, he might very naturally be expected to guard with peculiar jealousy the appointment of this officer who, according to the antiquated phraseology of the day, was to be his own right hand., his mouth, his ear, his eye. Accordingly, when the rule of seniority prevailed, he retained the right of over- ruling it at pleasure, leaving to the candidate elect his rank and title, but substituting in his place another better qualified to transact the business of the office.- The leading historical facts relating to this office are briefly as follows. 1. The office occurs as early as the fourth or fifth century, but without any distinct title; such were Athanasius of Alexandria, Caecilianus of Carthage, and the famous Leo the Great of Rome. 2. The arrogance and ambition of the archdeacons became, as early as the fifth century, the subject of bitter complaint.^ 3. They usu- ally had the address to become the successors of the bishop ; they claimed to take precedence of the presbyters, and to be second in rank only to the bishop.^ 4. Their power became greatly extended through the period reaching from the seventh to the ninth centuries, when they were not only authorized to remove deacons, and sub- ordinate officers,^ but the honors shared by them were in some in- stances eagerly sought by the presbyters themselves ;^ even the jurisdiction of the bishop was disowned by them, with whom they became, in a measure, partners in office.'' 5. From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, the bishops were engaged in a fruitless en- deavor to curtail the grasping ambition of the archdeacons, who still had the address to ally themselves more and more with the secular power, and finally, not only became independent of the bishops, bu-t subjected them, in a degree, to their own control.^ The establishment and the increase of their power was favored at Rome, as the means of weakening the hands of the bishops, and extending the influence of the Romish see. So that the very order of men that the bish- ops employed to assist them in gaming ascendency over the presby- ters, was now employed by a more aspiring power against themselves. 6. In the thirteenth century, the archbishops succeeded in putting an effectual check upon the immoderate power of the archdeacons ; a DEACONESSES. 115 decree in council having been finally obtained which prohibited the archdeacon from employing any substitute whatever in the discharge of his office, or passing any judicial sentence for grave otTences without the permission of the bishop. The archbishops also required of the bishops that they should employ in the discharge of their du- ties, a new class of officers, who should be entirely distinct from the archdeacons. These were first appointed by Innocent IV, A. D. 1250, and were called vicarii, ojficialcs, officials, vicars, and also vi- car generals, because they were intrusted with judicial authority and adjudicated in the name of the bishop. This measure had the de- sired effect to reduce the power of the archdeacon, which in conse- quence became an inconsiderable office. In the East it became ex- tinct as early as the eighth century. The office itself may be compared both with that of bishop and deacon, for it partook in part of the nature of both. The principal complaint against the archdeacon arose from the abuse of his power in assuming as his right what was only delegated to him, as has been already related. His various offices are specified by Bingham in the following summary, 1. To attend the bishop at the altar ; 2. to assist him in managing the church revenues ; 3. in preaching ; 4. in ordaining the inferior clergy ; 5. he also had power to censure deacons, and the inferior clergy, but not presbyters. § 12. Of Deaconesses. The office of deaconess may be regarded as substantially the same with that of female presbyters. They were early known in the church by a great variety of names, all of which, with some cir- cumstantial variations, denoted the same class of persons. They were helpers, assistants to perform various services in the church. The following are the most frequent names by which they are dis- tinguished, nosdi^vTiSeg, TiQHjfivxtQai, diaxoviaaai, episcopae, episcopis- sae, aiitistae, xVQ"^h vidu&e, viduatas, Tiooxa&i'jiAEvai, ministrae, ancillac, etc. Their most frequent appellation however is that of deaconess, diaconissa^a term which does not occur in the Scriptures, though reference is undoubtedly had to the ofice in Rom. 16: 1. Profane writers use the term v diunovog, and diacona, to denote both the wife of a deacon, and an officer in the church ; which has been a fruitful source of controversy. The principal ])oints of dispute 116 MINISTERS OF THE CHORCII. which have been raised on this subject are arranged utidcr the fol- lowing heads. 1. The terms diuaovat, x^lQ^h TiQio^in^Qui, in many passages dis- tinctly indicate that tliey were appointed to perform the same offices towards the female sex, as the deacons discharged for their sex, Rom. 16: 1. 2, 12. 1 Tim. 5: 3, seq. Titus 2: 3, seq. 1 Tim. 3: 11. No satisfactory explanation has yet been given of the origin of this office, some suppose it to have been derived from the Jews ; others, that it was peculiar to the Christian church ; Paul's commendation of Phebe, Rom. 16: 1, 2, however, refutes the hypothesis that they were appointed to administer exclusively to their own sex. Hugo Grotius, in his commentary on that passage says, that " in Judea the deacons could administer freely to the female sex. The of- fice of deaconess was accordingly unknown among the Jews ; but in Greece no man was allowed to enter the apartment of that sex, which custom gave rise to two classes of female assistants, one call- ed nQij^viids^, or nijoy.a&jj^evai, who devoted their attention to the department of the women ; the other Siuxovoi, Latin diaconissa^ . whom Pliny in his epistle to Trajan calls ministrae, attended to the poor and the sick of their own sex, and provided for their wants." Others give a different explanation of this matter ; and indeed it must be admitted, that from the second to the fourth century the office was known in many churches in various countries, though it was never universally adopted. One part of their office was to give religious instruction, which undoubtedly was merely catechetical ; for the language of Paul, 1 Cor. 14: 34. 1 Tim. 2: 8 — 12, forbids the supposition that they ever usurped the place of public teachers ; but the primitive church at least agreed in permitting them to impart catechetical instruction to their own sex. They were in this way private catechists to fe- male catechumens. 2. Satisfactory evidence of the reality of this office is derived, not only from the apostles and the ancient fathers, but from pagan wri- ters, particularly from Pliny, (see page 25 — 27,) who mentions them in his account of the persecutions of the Christians as anillace quae ministrae dicebantur. They are also mentioned by Lucian of Samo- sata, and Libanius.^ 3. The requisite age for this office was usually sixty years and upward,^ 1 Tim 5: 9 ; but the usage of the church in this respect DEACONESSES. 117 was not uniform. According to sonne councils they were eligible to this office at forly ;^ some were chosen even at the early age of twenty.^ Their age probably varied with the particular duties to which they were appointed ; matrons, venerable for age and piety, being selected for religious teachers, and younger women for alms- giving, the care of the sick, assistants at baptism, etc. — Neither were widotcs alone invariably appointed to this office. Tertullian however directs that they should be the widow of one man, having children. But Ignatius in his epistle to the Smyrneans salutes the virgins\\\:x\. are called widows ; and such were not unfrequently chosen to this office,^ though it must be admitted that widows of virtuous character were sometimes denominated TiaQ&ivoo, virgins.'^ 4. The ordination of deaconesses has been the subject of much dispute ; but there is satisfactory evidence that they were consecra- ted to their office by prayer, and the imposition of hands.''' This form of consecration was indeed prohibited by certain councils,^ but even the prohibition of it is evidence that it was practised. Their consecration, however, gave them no pozoer to perform any of the duties of the sacred office ; they were merely a religious order in the church. The views of the primitive church respecting them, are well expressed by Epiphanius, y.al ozi /.tsv diuHonauwv xuynu (ordo) eaxiv tlgviiv iy.xXfaiav, c/JS ot/t slg IsQajsviiv, ovdsri imxoiQHV innqz- ■jisip, etc. 5. Their duties were, a) To take the care of the poor and the sick ; this in the apostolic age was their principal office. A service so commendable that, in imitation of it, even Julian the Apostate re- quired the same. Under this head may also he classed the duty of ministering to martyrs, and confessors in prison, b) To instruct catechumens, and to assist at their baptism. They instructed female candidates in the symbols, and other things preparatory to their bap- tism. Their attendance at the baptism of candidates of their own sex, was requisite to assist in divesting them of their raiment, to ad- minister the unction, and to make arrangements for the administra- tion of the ordinance with all the decency becoming a rite so sacred.* c) To exercise a general oversight over the female members of the church. This oversight they continued, not only m^all the exercises * The custom of the tunes was to baptize by iimaersion, and in a state of nudity. '" 118 MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH. of religious worshisp, of the sacrament, and of penance, but in pri- vate life, imparting needful admonition, and making due reports of them to the presbyters and bishop. ^^ 6. This office ceased in the church at an early period, but the precise time cannot be determined. It was first abrogated in France, by the Council of Orange, A. D. 441. But it continued for some time after this, and gradually disappeared from the Western church. In the Greek church it became extinct in the twelfth century. ^- Morinus offers several reasons for the abrogating of this office in Syria,^^ which were briefly — that the services of these women be- came less important after the cessation of the agapae of the primi- tive church, — that the care of the sick and the poor which had de- volved upon the church, was in the time of Constantino assumed by the state,— that after the introduction of infant baptism, their attend- ance at this ordinance became of less importance — and finally, that they, in their turn, became troublesome aspirants after the preroga- tives of office ; just as the abbotesses and prioresses of later times as- sumed all the offices of the bishop, preaching, administering the communion, absolving, excommunicating, and ordaining at pleasure; abuses which it required all the authority of councils, and of the pope himself, to rectify ; in a word, the order was abolished because it was no longer necessary. Cessante causa, cessat effectus. [There were fanatical sects even in the ancient church, such as the Montanists and Collyridians, who authorized and encouraged women to speak, dispute, and teach in public. But the sentiment of the church has uniformly been opposed to such indecencies. What impudence, says Tertullian, in these heretical women to teach, to dispute, to exorcise, and even to baptize ! De Bap. 17. Let no wo- man speak in public, nor teach, nor baptize, nor administer the sacrament, nor arrogate to herself any office of the ministry be- longing to the other sex, De Virg. vel. c. 9. Let not a woman, however learned or holy, presume to teach men in public assembly — is the injunction of the council of Carthage, IV. 99. Let all the female sex, says Chrysostom, forbear from assuming the responsi- bility of the sacred office, and the prerogatives of men, De Sacerdo- iio, L. II. The Apostolic Constitutions declare it to be a heathenish custom. Lib. 3. c. 9 ; and Epiphanius has a particular dissertation in which he shows at large, that no woman, from the foundation of the world, was ever ordained to offer sacrifice, or perform any sol- emn service of the church. — Tr.] OF SUBDEACONS. 1 19 CHAPTER IV. INFERIOR OFFICERS OF THE CHCRCH. § 1. Of Subdeacons. The vnrjQhai, servants, of the New Testament are the same as the subdeacons of whom mention is so frequently made, both by the early fathers and by later ecclesiastical writers. This appellation was first used by Athanasius, but earlier traces of it occur in the epistles of Cyprian, 8. 20. 29. 34. 35, etc., as a term in use in the Latin church, from whom it was afterwards adopted by the Greek church. ^ The office became common to both the Eastern and Western churches in the fourth century. The specific duty of the subdeacons was to assist the deacons in their duties. The number of these was so limited that it was quite impracticable for them personally to discharge all the duties of their office. For this reason they were provided with the assistance of the subdeacons. Like the deacons they were usually seven in num- ber. To this number the church of Rome adhered with singular pertinacity. But in order that they might retain their sacred num- ber seven, and still have the aid of a sufficient number of assistants, they created three several orders of these officers, consisting of seven each, and called palatini, stationarii, and regionarii.^ In the church at Constantinople there were at one time ninety, and at another, seventy subdeacons. Authorities are not agreed respecting the consecration of the sub- deacons. Some affirm that they were, and others that they were not, ordained by the imposition of hands. ^ In the East they were uniformly regarded as of a subordinate rank, and classed with the readers. In the West they ranked the first in the lower order of the priesthood, and about the twelfth or thirteenth centuries they were transferred to the superior order.^ The reason for this pro- motion was that on the elevation of the episcopal order the three or- ders might still retain their original number and relative rank. The Eastern church adhered more closely to the original design for which they were appointed. 120 OFFICERS OF THE CHURCH. Before their promotion in the Western church, their duties were the following : — to convey the bishop's letters or messages to foreign churches, and to execute other commissions of the superior minis- ters ; to fit and prepare the sacred vessels of the altar, and to deli- ver them to the deacon in time of divine service ; to attend the door of the church during the communion service, taking care that no one went in or out during the tim.e of oblation ; and, perhaps, to conduct those who came into church to their proper places.^ After their promotion in the Western church, they were permitted to assist in celebrating mass. An empty chalice and patine was de- livered to them at their ordination ; byt they were not allowed either to consecrate, or distribute the sacred elements. As it was custom- ary to deliver to the deacons a copy of the gospels, so to the sub- deacons was delivered a copy of the epistles also, at their ordination. In a word the strife was to elevate their office as much as possible above that of the reader, and to attach to it all possible honors. Con- trary to all the authority of the primitive church, they were often promoted to the highest honors and offices of the priesthood. § 2. Of Readers. These occupied the first rank in the lower order of church officers in the Greek church ; in the Roman they were next in rank to the subdeacons. They have been frequently regarded as an order in- stituted by the apostles, and by them derived from the Jewish syna- gogue. Compare Luke 4: 16. Acts 13: 15, 27. 2 Cor. 3: 14. And it must be admitted, that reading formed a very important part of public worship. There were also, among the Jews, persons who performed the same duties as the readers in the christian church.' But the fact that the Scriptures were read by certain individuals, is not proof that these constituted a distinct order. Justin, indeed, dis- tinguishes between the reader and the presiding officer of the church, and yet the former may have been a presbyter or deacon. The deacons were expressly required to read at the communion service, but this is no certain evidence that they may not have been at the same time the ordinary readers in the religious service. For these reasons it is advisable to refer the institution of this order to the third century. They are first mentioned by TertuUian, who complains of the heretics that they confound all rule and order, allowing the OF ACOLYTilS. 121 same person to perform iilternately the offices of bishop, presbyter, dcacoi), and reader.- Cyprian also mentions the ordination of a reader, and remarks that the readers are a subordinate class who are candidates for promotion to the clerical office. Ep. 24. (al. 29).3 The office was at first held in peculiar honor, Cyprian styles the reader the instructor of the audience, intimating thereby both the dignity of the office, and the importance of the readinjf of the Scrip- tures as a part of divine worship. The church observed the rules of the synagogue in admitting persons to this office without prescrib- ing to them any specific age. As with the Jews, so with the primi- tive Christians, lads at an early age, if duly qualified, might serve as their readers. There are instances on record of youth who, even at seven years of age, have been employed in this service ; and others at eight, ten, and twelve years of age. Young men of noble birth especially, aspired to this office.'* In the Western church the subdeacons soon sought means to bring the readers under subordination to them, and accordingly this order finally ceased from the church. In the cloisters and chapters, on the contrary, they acquired still increasing consideration, and at a peri- od still later, as they were withdrawn from the service of the church, they were transferred to the professorships of Philosophy and Theol- ogy in the universities and other schools of learning. § 3. Of Acol\'ths. The word a-Aolovdoq denotes a servant. The office corresponds to that of the Roman apparil.or, or pedellus, bedelJvs, a beadle. The word is evidently of Greek origin. Hesychius defines it by o vtdm- Qog nalg, -d^sfJuiKov, 6 nsQi to aoJua, a servant, or personal attendant. With this view of the origin of the word, it is remarkable that it was, for four hundred years, an office of the Lathi church, and adopted from them by the Greek at a late period. This may have arisen from the fact that the subdeacons in the Greek church have a close analogy with the acolyths in the Latin, and that name was common- ly retained. But the term «xoAov5-oe was also familiar in the Greek church, and is explicitly mentioned by Eusebius and others.^ Eu- sebius relates that an inconceivable number ot presbyters, deacons, acolyths and others attended the bishops at the council of Nice. The acolyths, as their name implies, were the immediate atten- 16 122 OFFICERS OF THE CHURCH. dants and followers of the bishop, especially in public processions, and on festive occasions, and were employed by them in errands of every kind. Their duties in regard to religious worship, as specifi- ed by the council of Carthage, were to light the candles, and to bring the wine and water for the eucharist.^ § 4. Of Exorcists. Our business is merely to speak of the origin and offices of this order in the church. And this we can do by adopting the language of Bingham, who gives the following as the result of his investiga- tions on this subject : 1. That exorcists did not at first constitute any distinct order of the clergy ; 2. That bishops and presbyters were in the three first centuries the usual exorcists of the church ; 3. That in a certain sense, by prayer and by resisting the devil, every Chris- tian might be his own exorcist ; and 4. That exorcists began to be known as a distinct order in the church in the latter part of the third century. The appointment and office of the exorcists is by the fourth council of Carthage, c. 7, described as follows : When an exorcist is ordained, he shall receive at the hands of the bishop a book where- in the forms of exorcising are written, the bishop saying, " receive thou these and commit them to memory, and have thou power to lay hands on the encrgumens, whether they he baptized or only catechu- meiis.'''' This was the uniform mode of ordination, although, after the introduction of infant baptism, the assistance of exorcists in ad- ministering this ordinance was either omitted entirely, or greatly changed. Subsequently, the. exorcising of demoniacs was either wholly discontinued, or subjected, by explicit decrees of council, to the oversight of presbyters or bishops. " The routine of their duties was prescribed by the bishop according to circumstances of time and place. In some churches in Germany, they had the oversight of the consecrated water, and the vessels in which it was kept. In oth- er churches they reciprocated their duties with the door-keepers, readers, and acolyths of the church, or it was their business to conduct communicants in crowded assemblies to the sacramental table. "^ [According to the authority of Bingham, " Nothing is more cer- tain than that, in the apostolic age, and that next following, the pow- er of exorcising or casting out devils was a miraculous gift of the Holy Ghost, not confined to the clergy, much less to any single or- OF SINGERS. 123 der among them, but given to other Christians also, as many other extraordinary gifts then were." For his authorities, see reference.^ Cave's account of this order is as follows : " After the miracu- lous power of casting out devils began to cease, or at least not to be so common as it was, these possessed persons used to come to the out parts of the church where a person was appointed to exorcise them, i. e. to pray over them in such prayers as were peculiarly composed for such occasions, and this he did in the public name of the whole church, the people also at the same time praying within, by which means the possessed person was delivered from the tyranny of the evil spirit without any of those charyns and conjurations and other un- christian forms and rites which by degrees crept into this office, and are at this day in use in the church of Rome. "-^ — Te.] <^ 5. Of the Singers, or Precentors. The appointment of singers and choristers takes its origin from the importance in which the singing of psalms and hymns was held not only in the temple and synagogue service of the Jews, but in the apostolic and primitive churches. We have the fullest and most sat- isfactory evidence of the early and universal introduction of this part of religious worship into the christian church,^ Eph. 5: 19, 20, Col. 3: 16, and of the appointment of singers as a distinct class of church officers.* It is remarkable that this part of public worship was re- stricted by the council of Laodicea,^ to a distinct order in the church, styled by them aavovi^iol ijjuXiai, canonical singers. These went up into the singer's seats and sung from a book. The object of this restriction was to correct abuses and suitably to regulate this part of worship. The subjects of their psalmody were submitted to the con- trol of the bishops or presbyters. But all that related to the perform- ance of the music as an art was left to the singers. [Bingham asserts, that from the apostolic age, for several centu- ries, the whole body of the church united in singing, and that these xavovLxol ifjulxai were only a temporary provision to regulate and restore the singing to some tolerable degree of harmony, and that it continued to be the usage of the church for the whole assembly to join in singing. For this opinion he quotes various authorities. Baumgarten. p. 136, and Siegel, Vol. II. 206, also agree with Bing- ham in opinion. — Tr.] 124 OFFICERS OF THE CHURCH. Systems of psalmody, both plain and complicated, were early in- troduced into the church. The singer in the Latin church is some- times called psalmista or psalmistaniis, but more frequently, cantor. The term vno^olilg also occurs in connection with the singers, who may be styled psalmi pronuntiafores, or sucenlores, leaders. Their office was to begin the psalm or hymn, and thus lead the singing, so that others might unite their voices harmoniously with them. The duties of the office are thus described by Durandus ; perlinet ad psal- niistam, officium canendi, dicere benedictiones, laudes, sacrificium, responsoria, et quidquid pertinet ad cantandi peritiam.'* No special form for the ordination of singers is prescribed ; and by the fourth council of Carthage, c. 10, the presbyter is authorized to make the appointment without the knowledge or authority of the bishop. This commission the presbyter delivered in these words : Vide ut quod ore cantas, corde credas ; et quod corde credis, 'operi- bus comprobes. See that what thou singest with thy mouth thou be- lievest also with thy heart ; and that what thou believest in thy heart, thou confirmest in thy life. In the Catholic church the singers do not constitute a separate class, and in other churches they are reck- oned with the readers. But though the singers have not been classed with the priesthood, they have ever been held in great respect, as appears from the es- tablishment of schools of sacred music, and from the peculiar atten- tion which was paid to them ; especially to the instructors of them. Such schools were established as early as the sixth century, and be- came common in various parts of Europe, particularly in France and Germany. These schools were very much patronized by Gregory the Great ; under whom they obtained great celebrity. From them originated the famous Gregorian Chant, a plain system of church music which the choir and the people sung in unison. The prior, or principal, of these schools was a man of great consideration and influence. The name of this officer at Rome, was archicantor ec- clesiae Romanae, and like that of prelatus cantor, in their chapters and collegiate churches, it was a highly respectable and lucrative office.^ OF DOORKEEPERS. 125 § 6, Of Ostiarii, or Doorkeepers. These, though the last of the lower orders, were of a more eleva- ted rank than the modern sexton, with whom they should not be con- founded. The ostiarii belonged, in a sense, to the clerical order; while the sexton is the attendant and waiter on the clergy. Their duties were more comprehensive than the latter, in that they separa- ted the catechumens from believers, and excluded disorderly persons from the church.^ They closed the doors of the church, not only at the close of religious worship, but during the services, especially after the first part of it, called the missa catechiwienorum. They had also the care of the ornaments of the church, and of the altar. It afterwards became their duty to ornament the church and the al- tar on festive occasions— to guard the grave-yards and sepulchres of the dead ; to present the book to the preacher ; to ring the bell ; to sweep the church, and on Thursday of passion-week to make pre- paration for the consecration of the chrism, or anointing oil.^ They are sometimes called mansionarii and janitores. The most probable explanation of the origin of this order is that they were made doorkeepers of the christian church in imitation of the doorkeepers of the Jewish tabernacle as related in the book of secret discipline. If so the origin of this office was antecedent to the time of the apostles. The office was esteemed as essential in observing the secluded rites of our religion as it was in celebrating the mysteries of pagan superstition. The office was known in the Eastern church in the time of the Sardinian council (c. 24) but was discontinued about the seventh or eighth centuries — being no lon- ger necessary. The customary forms of ordination are prescribed in the fourth council of Carthage, c. 9, and the ceremony of delivering the keys is derived from the book of secret discipline. § 7. Of the subordinate servants of the Church and of the Clergy. a) The Copiatae, undertakers, grave-diggers, sextons. These were intrusted with the care of funerals, and the burial of the dead. They are called vespillones, bisjjellones, vtxQo&dnTui ,• also 126 OFFICERS OF THE CHURCH. ordo fossariorum^ fossores^ grave-diggers — Asxiixof^toi,^ bearers of the bier, and collegiati, decani, collegiates and deans. They are said to have been first instituted at Constantinople by Constanline the Great, and to have been further organized and es- tablished by the emperor Anastasius.^ b) The Parabolani. Their office was to take care of the sick; a service which in the times of the apostles and primitive Christians was of great importance, especially during the prevalence of severe sickness. The common belief is that they took their name from the hazardous office in which they were employed, sgyov nagd^okov, negotium periculosum. Others derive it from nuqu^oloi in the sense of bestiarii, persons of great courage and desperate character who exposed themselves in combat with wild beasts.^ They were chiefly limited to Egypt and Asia Minor ; where they were the more necessary by reason ot the contagious diseases of these countries. Still they were regarded with jealousy as danger- ous disturbers of the peace ; and for this reason, efTorts were fre- quently made to diminish their number.^ Very few traces of them appear in the history of the Western church ; in the middle ages, the brothers and sisters of charity supplied their place. c) The sacrista, sacristanus, and sacrislarius, was much the same as treasurer, the keeper of the sacred things, sacrorum cristas, qui ecclesiae suretum curat. ^ d) The ciistos,- custor, aedituus, was much the same as the sacris- tan. Sometimes he is called capellanus, which denotes particularly the keeper of the altar. e) The campanarii, campanatores, were the hell-ringers. An of- fice which of necessity has been instituted since the introduction of bells in the ninth century. Their usual business was to light the church, and ring the bell for religious worship. f) The matricularii were intrusted with the care of the church, in which they were accustomed to sleep ; they also had a specific office to perform in public processions. g) The parafrenarii were the coachmen of the higher clergy who had also the care of their stables, horses, and coaches. They were sometimes reckoned among the number of the clergy, but of an in- ferior order.^ OF OCCASIONAL OFFICERS. 127 § 8. Of OCCASIONAL Officers in the Church who ranked with THE Clergy. a) Catechists.^ In view of the importance in which catechetical instructions were held, it is truly surprising that none were permanently designated to this office. The name of catechist indeed is of common occurrence, but they did not constitute a distinct order. These instructions were given in part by the bishops themselves, who were, by virtue of their office, the chief catechists, and had the oversight of all such exer- cises in which presbyters, deacons, readers, and exorcists bore a part. The deaconesses, and aged women also, acted as catechists for their sex. There was indeed a famous catechetical school at Alexandria. But the catechists of that institution sustained the relations of a mod- ern lecturer or professor, rather than those of a common catechist.^ b) Capdlani. The name is derived from capcUa, which primarily means a cer- tain kind of hood. In the fifth century it became the name of ora- tories, or private churcJies, which were built about that time in France, and afterwards became common in the West. The first instance of this form of private worship occurs in the life of Con- stantine,^ who constituted his military tent a place for religious wor- ship in the open field. Probably the iiaqxvQiov tnl /.nn'jf^ii] rwi' unoff- Tokwv, which according to Eusebius was erected by Constantino, was a sort of court-church. Certain it is that we read of the clerici pal- latii, sacelli regit, court-preachers, under the succeeding emperors. The chief among these were called nanag jov naXmiov, etc. answer- ing to the Capellani, Regii, Archi-Capellani, Summi, Sacellani, etc. under the monarchs of France, Germany, and England.^ The capellanus then was the chaplain or minister of these private or court chapels. After the crusades multitudes of places where sacred relics were preserved were also called chapels, and the persons who had the care of these relics received also the name of chaplai?is, though they had no slated ministerial office, but occasionally officiated by special permission. 128 OFFICERS OF THE CHURCH. c) Hermeneutai, Interpreters. The duty of these was to translate from one tongue into another, where people of different languages were commingled ; like the Greek and Syriac, — Latin and Punic. They had a seat also with the bishop to assist in translating the correspondence of the church into different languages — to interpret synodical records, etc. Readers and deacons were employed as interpreters for the preacher when they were competent for the discharge of such duties, but whoever performed this service, must of necessity be regarded as acting the part of a religious teacher, and, in this sense, as belong- ing to the priesthood. The bishop's assistant translators might be chosen from among the laity, when no suitable person belonging to the clergy could be found ; and though he was little else than a notary or scribe, he was honored with a place among the clergy. § 9. Of Officers of the Church who did not belong to the Priesthood. Persons of this description are to be distinguished by their rank and influence respectively, as well as by the time and circumstances of their appointment. They were chosen at one time from the clergy, at another from the laity. In the service of the church they often sustained much the same relations as did the archbishops, and other dignitaries, when acting as ministers of state. Their in- fluence was chiefly felt in Rome and Constantinople, rather than in the provincial dioceses. The influence of some of these officers was often greater even than that of a prime minister, archbishop, or patriarch, just as the most important concerns of church and state are often controlled by a secretary or counsellor. Officers of this class however had little or no concern with the approj^riate duties of the ministry. And we will treat of them very briefly in the order of their importance proceeding from the lowest to the highest, a) The Mansionarii, stewards, to whom was instrusted the care of the church-glebes, styled also ■noodj.iovuQioi, naqauovaQioi. — b) Ol- novofiot, persons appointed by the bishop and archdeacon to assist in managing the possessions of the church. This became in the mid- dle ages, an ofiice of great influence, and was in a good degree in- OFFICERS NOT BELONGING TO THE PRIESTHOOD. 129 dependent of the bishop. They were totally distinct from tlie stew- ards of cloisters, and other similar establishments. c) Cimeliarchs, xEtfitjliuQxui, Thesaurii, Sacellii, Sacrisiae, dif- ferent from the sacristans, or se.vtons before mentioned, treasurers. Miyuq (TxavotpvXa^, chancellor of the exchequer ; (xiyuq (Tuxd).rxij(og, treasurer of the cloisters, prefect of monasteries, etc. d) Notarii. The Greek voiuoio:, was of late origin. Previous to this, the corresponding terms were /Qa^fiurdg, inoyQucpaig, vno- Soxtvg, o|i7^«jqpto-,u«, ipi'jipog, scrulinium.^'^ But the com- mon method was by acclamation. The people exclaiming ot^iog,Jit ; or ityuliog, imjil. The apostolical constitutions,^ c. 4, direct that the ELECTION OF REPRESENTATIVES. 135 inquiry be three times made whether the candidate is worthy of the office, and that the uniform and concurring response be, He is wor- thy. In the Latin church the acclamation was dignus est etjuslus.^^ § 3. Election by Representatives or Interventors. The popular elections above described were liable to great irregu- larities. Great care was accordingly requisite, lest the exercise of this right should lead to disorder, and disturb the public peace by ex- citing a malignant party spirit. To what a pitch these tumultuous elections were carried, may be seen from a remarkable description of them by Chrysostom. " Go witness a popular assembly conven- ed for the election of ecclesiastical officers. Hear the complaints against the minister, manifold and numerous as the individuals of that riotous multitude, who are the subjects of church-government. All are divided into opposing factions, alike at war with themselves, with the moderator, and with the presbytery. Each is striving to carry his own point ; one voting for one, and another for another ; and all, equally regardless of that which alone they should consider — the qualifications, intellectual and moral, of the candidate. One is in favor of a man of noble birth ; another of a man of fortune who will need no maintenance from the church ; and a third, one who has come over to us from the opposite party. One is wholly enlisted for some friend or relative, and another casts his vote for some flat- terer. But no one regards the requisite qualifications of the mind and the heart.^" Similar disorders prevailed not only at Constantinople, but at Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and other large cities. To correct these abus- es, many distinguished bishops passedjnto the opposite extreme, and, by the exercise of arbitrary power, appointed men to spiritual offices. This gave great offence to the people, who were ever jealous of their rights, and were provoked, by these means, to commit scandalous and violent outrages. The emperor Valentinian III. upbraids Hi- lary of Aries, that he unworthily ordained some in direct opposition to the will of the people, and when the people refused to receive those whom they had not chosen, that he collected an armed force and by military power thrust into office tlie ministers of the gospel ofpeace.^ Leo the Great also passes a similar censure upon this procedure.*^ It has been supposed that the council of Nice deprived the people 136 APPOINTMENT TO ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES. of the right of suffrage, and conferred the right of appointnnent upon metropolitans and patriarchs, but the supposition is clearly refuted by Bingham.'* The same council distinctly recognizes the right of the people in the choice of a bishop. The council of Laodicea, denied indeed the right of suffrage to the rabble^ xoig oyloiq. But they carefully distinguished between these and the people, tw Aaw, to whom they did not deny the right. An ef- fort was made, particularly in the Latin church, to correct the disor- ders of popular elections without taking away the rights of the peo- ple. This they did by the agency of an interve?itor, who was sent among the people to endeavor to unite their votes upon a given per- son, and thus to secure his election without division or tumult. Sym- machus and Gregory the Great encouraged this procedure ;^ but it was received with little approbation, and was soon discontinued. Justinian, for a similar purpose, restricted the right of suffrage to the arislocracy of the city. By his laws it was provided ' that when a bishop was to be ordained, the clergy, and chief men of the city should meet and nominate three persons, drawing up an instrument, and swearing in the customary forms of an oath, upon the Holy Bi- ble, that they chose them, neither for any gift, nor promise, nor friendship, nor any other cause ; but only because they know them to be of the catholic faith, of virtuous life, and men of learning. Of these three, the ordaining person was required to choose, at his own discretion, that one whom he judged best qualified.'''^ Had now some permanent restrictions been laid upon the body of electors, and had it been more clearly defined who should be reck- oned among the chief men of the city, and how they were to coop- erate with the clergy, tlien would order have been established, and much arbitrary abuse of power prevented. In this way a worthy body of men would have been organized from the people of the dio- cese, by whom the rights of the people would have been secured, and disorder, and party spirit, and discord, would have been pre- vented. But, instead of this, the whole was left to the direction of accident, and of arbitrary power. Thus the right of suffrage was wrested from the people, and was shared in part by the rulers, who were ac- counted the chief men of the city, and in part by the priesthood, who, either by their bishops and suffragans, or by collegiate conventions, often exercised the right without any regard to the people. FORMS OF ELECTION. 137 The church sometimes protested earnestly against this encroach- meni of secular power ; but in vain. The council of Paris, 557, decreed that " no bishop should be consecrated contrary to the will of the citizens, a\\eg\n^, in vindication of this measure, the neglect of ancient usage, and of the ordinances of the church. Nor should he attain to tliat honor who had been appointed by the authority of the rulers, and not by the choice of the people, and of the clergy, and whose election had not been ratified by the metropolitan and other bishops of the province." Whoever entered upon his ofhce merely by the authority of the king, they commanded the other bish- ops not to acknowledge, under penalty of being themselves de- posed from office. But such attempts to restore the apostolical and canonical forms of election were but seldom made, and were followed by no lasting result. In Spain the appointment of a bishop, as early as the sev- enth century, was made dependent entirely upon the king.^ Under the Carlovingian dynasty in France, it was divided between the rulers and the bishops without entirely excluding the people. Inno- cent III, in the thirteenth century, excluded entirely the people, and made the election dependent only on the chapter of the cathedral.'^ In the East, the people were excluded much earlier.^ § 4. Of certain unusual Forms of Election. The examples on record of this description, relate only to the ap- pointment of bishops. The appointment by lot, as above described, may with propriety be classed among the unusual forms of election in question. To this may be added, 1. Elections hy divine authority, and providential manifestations. To this class belong the appointments which the apostles made by the divine authority with which they were invested. Tradition in- forms us that many churches were planted by them, besides those which are mentioned in their writings. John, the apostle, after his return from Patmos, is said by Clemens Alexandrinus to have taken charge of the churches of Asia in the neighborhood of Ephesus; " in one place appointing bishops, in another, taking upon himself the regulation of whole churches, and in another, choosing hy lot one from such as had been designated by the Spirit."^ Then fol- lows a list of young men whom he committed to the instruction o( 18 138 APPOINTMENT TO ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES. the bishop whom he had ordained, together with an account of the wonderful conversion of these youths. Ancient history abounds with similar examples of divine interposi- tion in such appointments.- Various providential circumstances were regarded as divine designations, such as remarkable tokens of divine approbation, visions, the lighting of a dove on the head of the candidate, and the unexpected concurrence of a discordant people in a candidate, as in the case of Martin, bishop of Tours, and Am- brose, bishop of Milan, whose elections were carried by the sudden and unanimous acclamation of the multitude. Vox popuK, vox Dei ! 2. It was at times submitted to some one who was universally re- spected, to settle a contested election by his own nomination of a bishop. Alexander, bishop of Comana, was elected thus by Gregory Thaumaturgus, who is said to have been directed by special revela- tion."^ Bishops were also appointed by nomination, for distant prov- inces and unorganized districts.'* 3. Whenever a bishop resigned his office, or was removed to another diocese, he very frequently nominated his successor ; but in all such cases on record, the concurrence of the people was either presupposed, or expressly obtained.^ The council of Antioch, A. D. 441, c. 23, forbade such nominations;*^ still they were sometimes made, and a divine intimation plead in justification. The church at Rome, on the contrary, in the year 503, conceded to tlie bishops the right of nominating their successors before their decease. This was however a recommendation of the candidate, rather than an election, but it was as influential as the direct "presentation of a candidate on the part of a patron. It laid the foundation in part, of ecclesiastical benefices^ that crafty expedient by which so many canonized rights have been usurped. § 5. Of Church Patronage.'' The prevalent opinion is, that the origin of the right of patronage ought to be referred back to the fifth century. And it is true that the subject of church and state rights began to be publicly asserted and discussed as early as the year 441 ;- but the right in question, was both asserted and exercised at a date still earlier. The council of Orange gave permission to any bishop to build a church in an- other's diocese, reserving the right of consecration to him in whose CHURCH PATRONAGE. 139 diocese it was erected, and instructing him to ordain any one to the clerical office whom the founder might nominate to officiate in the church, and requiring of him a quiet acquiescence in the nomination, if the person 'presented hod already been ordained. But at the same time, it was provided that the entire government of the church should be submitted to him in whose territory the church was buiU.*^ It appears from Chrysostom that wiiat is called secular patronage prevailed in the church at a date still earlier.'* He speaks of nam- ing the founders of churches in the prayers of the congregation. In Justinian's Novels, 123. c. 18, the right of lay-patronage is confirm- ed and perpetuated by inheritance. The bishop is required to or- dain the person nominated, unless disqualified by virtue of the ca- nons. From the fifth century the name of patron becomes familiar in public documents, indicating the relation of landlord to his de- pendents, [in consequence of his having settled a parsonage and glebe upon churches which he had built;] but the whole system of church patronage in conferring benefices, etc, was not established until about the eighth or ninth century. Thomassin takes notice of several distinct stages in the progress of this system. 1. The right of patronage and presentation, extending through five centuries. 2. Ecclesiastical and lay-patronage from Clovis, A. D. 496, to Chai'le- magne, A. D. 800. 3. Through the dynasty of Charles and his de- scendents. 4. From the year 1000. The whole he sums up in the following remark. " It appears therefore that ecclesiastical patron- age was first introduced in the Western church, and lay-patronage, at least so far as related to the conferring of benefices, began first in the Eastern church ; and that the limited exercise of lay-patron- age in the first centuries after its introduction, was abundantly com- pensated by the controlling influence which the laity had in the elec- tion and ordination of bishops, and other incumbents." In most of the Lutheran, and some of the Reformed churches, the members of the church possess a negative vote concerning the presentation of a minister, but nothing more. 140 or THE CLERGY. CHAPTER VI. OF THF, RANK, RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES AND COSTUME OF THE CLERGY. § 1. Rank of the Clergy. Nothing appears to indicate the relation of rank either in the age of the apostles, or of their immediate successors ; nor indeed until the establishment of Christianity as the religion of state under Con- stantino. The representations which the Scriptures and the primi- tive fathers so frequently make of the dignity and worth of religious teachers have no reference to this subject. They only represent these teachers as the servants and stewards of God, and their office as one in the highest degree elevated and heavenly. Ignatius styles bishops the vicegerents of Christ, whose instructions are to be obey- ed as the ordinances of Christ and his apostles, and whom men should honor above potentates and kings. But all this is only what, in the phraseology of the times, philosophers, poets and orators might have claimed for themselves. Such representations are only ideal delineations which present the reality in a contrast the more striking. Such, indeed, was the I'eal estimation in which some of the most em.inent christian bishops were held, by the world, in the first three centuries, that one might fitly say of them — the greatest in the kingdom of heaven was the least of all men. The famous Origen was, in regard to rank, one of the lesser lights in the church, invested at first with only the humble office of cate- cliisl, and afterwards, informally, with that of deacon, or according to some with that of presbyter. Yet had he more influence and au- thority than any dignitary of the church in his time. Clemens Alex- andrinus and TertuUian were never bishops ; but they were held in the highest estimation both by their contemporaries and by posterity. Jerome was only an itinerating presbyter, but he was honored as the dictator of the church. And still later, even when the aristocracy of the church was fully established, there occurred, at times, instan- ces of men who, by their talents, rose superior to all the distinctions of rank and of office. On the other hand, even the bishops of Rome, BANK OF THE CLEEGT. 141 Antioch, Alexandria, Carthage and others, notwithstanding their high office, were often treated with the greatest indignities. Something analogous to the relations of rank must have existed among the priesthood themselves previous to the time of Consiantine, as appears from the fact that they were regarded as a distinct order, and were divided into the classes superior and inferior. But it was a long time before even these relations became so distinct as they have been since the establishment of the Eastern and Western hie- rarchy in the eighth century. The primitive presbyters first sus- tained an arduous conflict against the pretensions of bishops to supe- riority ; and then again, against the order of deacons, and especially with the archdeacons, who arrayed themselves on the side of the bishops. And the bishops again sustained a struggle, arduous and disastrous to themselves, with the archbishops, primates, and patri- archs. With the latter, particularly, a long and obstinate strife for the mastery was maintained, which finally resulted in the popish su- premacy ; but the conflict ceased not so long as one remained to sustain it. But previous to the reign of Constantino no relations of rank were established among the clergy, save those of different gradations among themselves. As in both the Jewish and Roman states the priesthood were invested with peculiar honors, so this monarch sought to transfer the same to the christian ministry. Thus these forms of the priesthood perpetuated themselves in the christian church after the overthrow of the religion to which they, at first, respectively belonged.^ The bishops, especially, profited by this reference to the priest- hood of Jewish and pagan systems of religion. The christian bish- ops, it was supposed, ought at least to be equal in rank to the Jew- ish patriarchs.2 It was an expedient for elevating a depressed priest- hood, to invest them with new honors, just as Julian the apostate sought again to overthrow them by reinstating the pagan priesthood in their ancient rank.-^ And again Constantino himself sustained a certain relation to the priesthood. Eusebius declares him to have been a bishop duly constituted by God.'* And he styles himself bishop, Tcuv ixTog ino -dsov xa^Ecndfiivov intay.onov — a phrase of sim- ilar import with pontifex maximiis, which after the example of the Roman emperors he solemnly assumed in the year325.5 The em- peror Gratian was the last who bore this title. But so long as it was 142 • OF THE CLERGY. retained it had the effect to elevate the office, both of bishops and emperors in the estimation of the people, and to justify the interven- tion of secular power in ecclesiastical councils, and in the elections of bishops. The priesthood of the christian church were the constituted guard- ians of the morals of the community, and in this relation had a de- cided superiority to the Pagan and Jewish priesthood. Even the highest magistrates and princes were not exempt from the sentences of suspension and excommunication. Theodosius the Great submit- ted himself to this discipline, and his example was imitated by many of his successors down to the time of Henry IV.^ Gregory Nazi- anzen, in speaking on this subject, says " The law of Christ subjects you to my control. For we also are in authority, and 1 will add, an authority greater and more perfect than yours, inasmuch as the carnal is inferior to the spiritual — the earthly, to the heavenly."'^ Multitudes of passages of similar import are found in the writings of Chrysostom,^ Ambrose,^ and other of the fathers.'^ But notwithstanding the high consideration in which the clergy were held, we are still left in ignorance of their relative rank in civil life. But on the reestablishment of the western empire, their civil and political relations were clearly defined ; and under the Carlovingi- an dynasty, the bishops obtained the rank of barons and counts, and as civil dignitaries took part in all political and ecclesiastical concerns, of importance. They were regular members of all imjierial diets, which were in reality ecclesiastical synods. At a later period, bish- ops, archbishops and abbots were, by statute laws, made princes of the empire, and electors. And the last mentioned were often involv- ed in conflicts with the Roman cardinals for superiority. This or- ganization was continued until the dissolution of the German confed- eracy subsequent to the French Revolution, and became a pattern for other lands. § 2. Immunities, Prerogatives, and Privileges of the Priesthood. Reference is here had to these privileges only as they have ex- isted since the fourth century, when the priesthood were duly ac- knowledged by the civil authorities as a distinct body. Previous to his conversion Constantine gave to the clergy of the christian church, PRIVILEGES OF THE PRIESTHOOD. 1 43 equal privileges with the Pagan and Jewish priests. These acts of toleration were followed by others conferring upon the clergy of the church certain specific privileges which were confirmed and increas- ed by his sons. And what was lost by the intervention of JuUan the apostate, was fully regained under the propitious reigns of Valen- tinian III, Gratian, Theodosius the Great, Honorius, etc. For a full account of the several grants of the early emperors, see references.^ The principal rights and privileges of the priesthood were as fol- lows : 1. Exemption from all civil ojfices and secular duties to the slate? Such exemption was granted by Constantino, A. D. 312 ; and in 319 and 330, it was extended to the inferior order, and the reason assign- ed for conferring this privilege was, that " the clergy might not, for any unworthy pretence, be called off" from their religious duties," 7ie sacrilego livore quorundam a divinis obsequiis avocentur, or as Eu- sebius expresses it, " that they might have no false pretence or ex- cuse for being diverted from their sacred calling, but rather might rightfully prosecute it without molestation." By this right they were excused from bearing burdensome and expensive municipal offices. The Jewish patriarchs and Pagan priests enjoyed a similar exemp- tion.3 2. Exemption from all sordid offices, both predial and personal. This right was also granted by Constantine and confirmed by Theo- dosius the Great, and Honorius.^ The right relieved them from the necessity of furnishing post-horses, etc. for public officers, and sometimes from that of constructing and repairing public highways and bridges.^ 3. Exemi)tion from certain taxes and imposts., such as the census capiiwm— analogous to poll-tax ; but the learned are not agreed re- specting the precise nature of it — the aurum tironimn — an assessment for military purposes, a bounty paid as a substitute for serving in the army, — the equus canonicus, the furnishing and equipping of horses for military service, — chrysargyrum, /qvctuq/voov, commerce- mo- ney, duties on articles of trade assessed every five years, and paid in silver and gold, — the nietatwn, tax levied for the entertainment of the emperor and his court as he travelled, or forjudges and soldiers in their journeys, — the collatio superindicta et extraordinaria., a di- rect tax levied on special emergencies.'^ Certain taxes on real es- tate they were required to pay.' 144 OF THE CLEKGY. 4. Exemption from mililary duty. This right is not expressly stated, but fairly inferred from many considerations. The maxim, ecclesia non sitil sanguinem., was always recognized by the state. 5. Exemption in certain civil and criminal prosecutions. They were not required to give testimony under oalh^. Neither were they required to make oath to affidavits, but instead thereof, they attested the truth of them on the Bible at home.^ Sacerdotes, ex levi causa, jurare non dehent. 6. No ecclesiastical matters were to he tried lef ore secular courts.^^ Of this nature were all questions of faith and practice which came appropriately under the cognizance of presbyteries, bishops, or syn- ods, together with all such acts of discipline as belonged to individu- al churches in which the clergy were allowed a controlling int^uence. The primitive church had originally no other authority than that of deposing from office, excommunicating, and pronouncing their sol- emn anathema. But after the church became dependent upon the civil authority, that power was often exercised to redress the offences of the church. Heretics especially were thus brought before courts of justice. For it is undeniably evident that heresy was regarded as an actionable offence, deserving severe punishment. Oflences of a graver character were at all times punishable, not in ecclesiastical, but in secular courts of justice. 7. Bishops, like the Jewish patriarchs, were often requested to set- tle disputes and act as arbitrators and umpires in civil matters.'^ They were also common intercessors in behalf of criminals for their reprieve or pardon when condemned to death.^^ § 3. CoSTtJME OF THE ClERGY. The Roman Catholics attach great importance to the attire of the priesthood. They prescribe a peculiar uniform to the several or- ders of their priesthood, according to the nature of their duties. The origin of this usage their writers, together with most protestants, concur in referring to the fourth century. ^ " No one can be igno- rant," says Pellicia, " that the garb of the clergy in the first three centuries was nowise different from that of the laity." Whether any distinction was known in the fourth century is a disputed ques- tion ; but ecclesiastical history clearly informs us, that the dress of the clergy and laity was generally the same, even in the sixth cen- COSTUME OF THE CLERGY. 145 tury.2 Writers on this subject, however, seem not to have been suf- ficiently attentive to the distinction between the ordinary and offi- cial garb of the priests ; for, although there were no existing rules of the church on this subject, all analogy requires us to believe that there was, even in the first three centuries, some clerical dress which was worn during the celebration of divine service. And in this belief we are the more confirmed from the fact, that Christianity was originally derived from the Jewish religion. After the third and fourth centuries, this official garb became more distinct and splendid, and to this result both the writings of the Old Testament, and the customs of the pagan priests in Greece and Rome undenia- bly contributed. In illustration of the general subject before us, the following re- marks are worthy of notice. 1. There is a tradition extant relating to certain insignia of the apostles. Hegesippus, as related by Eusebius,^ ascribes to John, James, and Mark, a golden head-band, and to Bartholomew, a splen- did mantle.^ The Koran also speaks of the apostles under the name of candidates, albati, in allusion, as it would seem, to their white robes. 2. It is but reasonable to suppose, that in the times of persecu- tion, the priesthood wore no sacerdotal habit in civil and social life ; just as all such is of necessity excluded wherever religion is not pro- tected by the civil authorities. But because a missionary lays these aside in China, or in Turkey, is it therefore to be presumed that he would appear without them in a religious assembly in the discharge of his official duties ? 3. After the persecutions ceased, the secret discipline of the primitive church must have offered urgent reasons for the use of the sacerdotal robe. When all was done with the air of solemnity and mystery, is it to be supposed that the principal actor would en- ter upon these solemnities only in his daily altire ? Read the direc- tions given in the Apostolical Constitutions, and in the mystical cate- chism of Cyril of Jerusalem, respecting the ceremonies of baptism, and the Lord's supper ; and then say, is it becoming for the admin- istrator of these ordinances to appear in his daily habit .'' The sub- jects of baptism, " grex niveus," were arrayed in the purest white. Oi S UQ V7iod^ri(TTyj'^sg iv ti^aaiv 7ii]fj.q)avooii(nv "Etnaaav, ayyi^txriq ilmviq ayXattji.^ 19 146 OF THE CLERGY. At the baptism of the younger Theodoslus, all the grandees of the court were dressed in white raiment : ut existimaretur muUitudo esse nine repletafi Under these circumstances would the minister at the altar appear only in his usual garb ? According to Clemens Alexandrinus, the whole assembly were required to engage in public worship in a hecoming dress, iatoXiafiivot, xoaftlagj And would not the rule apply with peculiar force to him who ministered to the assembly ? 4. It is manifestly absurd to suppose that the hierarchy of the church was established in the second or third centuries, with the different orders inferior and superior, and yet that they had no badge of office. Besides, the badges of the different clerical orders be- came in the fourth century, the subject of consideration in ecclesias- tical councils. The council of Laodicea ordered that the iuquqiov, the surplice or robe of an officiating minister, should not be worn by the suboi-dinate attendants, readers, or singers. The fourth council of Carthage, c. 41, forbade deacons the use of the white sui-plice, nisi in sacro ministcrio, except in the discharge of the ministerial office. In this, and similar decrees,^ a distinction between the official garb and ordinary attire is clearly indicated. It has been errone- ously supposed that these instructions to the clergy to appear in suitable dress, is evidence that no official uniform was known ; whereas these instructions relate only to their daily dress, and merely show that when not engaged in official duties, they wore no professional habit. The monks were the first to assume such a garb ; a practice which was strongly reprobated by the church. " One habit," says Jerome,^ " is proper when engaged in religious duties ; another, in common life. Hence we learn, that it ill becomes us to enter into the most holy place in our customary attire, but that we ought with a pure conscience, and unsullied raiment, to administer the ordi- nances of the Lord." Stephhaus III, bishop of Rome, A. D. 260, directs ministers and the clergy generally, to wear the sacred vest- ments, not in their daily occupations, but only in the church.^" 5. In view of the foregoing considerations, and others that could be mentioned, we must dissent from the received opinion that no cleri- cal costume was in use before the fourth or fifth century ; but we need not suppose that the fashion of it has from the beginning been the same. All analogy, as well as authentic history, justifies the COSTUME OF THE CLERGY, 147 belief, that in form, and color, and materials, the costume may have been entirely changed. Some such essential change was probably made about the sixth century, by adoiHing the ancient. Gi'eek and Roman costume. In support of this hypothesis we offer the following considerations. a) This costume had been so superseded by the barbarian inva- ders, that it had already become obsolete and antiquated, and was now recommended not only by its natural fitness, and by its an- tiquity, but by the hallowed associations with which it was con- nected. b) It was the best means of preventing the general adoption of the odious garb of the monks, which in the fifth century was most zealously opposed.^ ^ c) The adoption of this costume was greatly facilitated by being combined with the insignia and ornaments of the Jewish priests. The pallium of TertuUian, the tETgdyavov of Greek writers, which was afterwards known by the name of cappa, was the cowl of the monks, and was greatly abhorred. But the pallium, called w^iocpo- Qiov, corresponded to the ephod of the Jews, and was one of the distinguishing insignia of bishops, patriarchs, etc. 6. Bellarmin, who traced the history of the clerical costume through eight or nine hundred years, has very justly remarked that, notwithstanding some circumstantial changes, the characteristic badges of the several orders remained substantially the same.^~ 7. The costume in question was originally white, and that has ever been the prevailing color of the christian uniform, Xevxop /iiw- viayov, iv Isvxdlg, veste candente, in albis, is the phraseology in which it is constantly described by ancient writers.i^ The bishops of Constantinople, and the higher order of clergy in the fourth cen- tury, assumed the black robe, and the Novatians retained the whiteM But since the tenth century, the modern Greek church have chang- ed again the color of their costume. On festivals in honor of saints, they are accustomed to wear a purple robe. In the seventh and eighth centuries, red, blue, and green, was worn in clerical vestments, as well as black, and white. Inno- cent III. prescribed white, the emblem of purity, for confessors and young people, — red, as a suitable memorial of the apostles and mar- tyrs,— green, for sunday and feast-days ; and black, for fasts, fune- 148 OF THE CLEEGY. rals, lent, etc. ; violet was worn at first but twice a year, but after- wards became common in some churches.^^ 8. Peculiar attention was paid to the head-dress both of bishops and priests. The clerical tonsure was introduced between the sixth and eighth centuries, and continued an essential requisite of the clergy, while the other ornaments of the head were endlessly varied, both in the Eastern and Western churches. The use of the wig is of a date still later, and was totally unknown in the primitive church. It was universally adopted by the clergy against all pre- cedent, and, although often prohibited, was for a long time retained, and then again passed into disuse. In the protestant church it was again introduced in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and became alternately the badge of orthodoxy, heresy, and neology. i'^ 9. Sandals and the caligae, a kind of half boot, or bootees, were at first the only ornaments of the foot ; the use of common shoes was censured as unbecoming. i''' In the year 789, the priests were required to wear shoes made after the fashion at Rome.^^ In the middle ages, ihey wore, in the summer, a kind of boot called aesti- valia. The accampia were probably some military boot. 10. The various kinds of ornaments which were worn by the priests are passed in silence. A mere enumeration of them would be of no value, and a treatise respecting them would of necessity be too extensive for this work. For information respecting their sacred vestments the curious reader is referred to the works of Ferrarius, Ritter, Bonanni, DuTour, Saussaeus, Boileau, and others. CHAPTER VII. OF THE REVENUE OF THE CHURCH, AND THE MAINTENANCE OF THE CLERGY. Nothing like the provisions of the levitical law, for the mainte- nance of the priesthood was known in the primitive church. Neither was there any distinction between the property of the church and of the parish. But the duty of the church to maintain her religious teachers is presupposed and implied in the writings of the New Tes- REVENUE OF THE CHURCH. 149 lament. The workman is worthy of his meat, says Christ, to which the apostle appeals. Even so hath the Lord ordained that they which preach the gospel should live by the gospel, 1 Cor. 9: 14, which he had previously shown to be not only an obvious conclusion from the words of Christ, but from the common understanding of men, and from the Mosaic laws, vs. 7 — 13. All this he is careful to show is said, not for his own sake, vs. 15 — 18, for he uniformly preached the gospel and served the church gratuitously ; Acts 20: 33-35. 2 Thess. 3: 7 seq. 2 Cor. 11: 7, 8. 12: 13. Phil. 4: 16— 18. 1 Tim. 6: 5. Tit. 1: 11. Acts 18: 3. 24: 17, etc., but to exhibit the duty of the Church towards her teachers. The example of the apostle was the general rule of the apostolic age. The church pos- sessed no property, and exacted no tithes ; but her wants were sup- plied by voluntary olTerings and contributions. The ordinary maintenance of the clergy consisted merely in the supply of their personal wants, 2 Thess. 3: 8. 1 Cor. 11: 20. 22: 33. Jude 11, 12. For this end the priests were accustomed to retain a due portion of the contributions which were made at the agapae, or love feasts of the church. But TertuUian severely censured this custom, together with other abuses connected with this festival. ^ Whatever was given for the relief of the poor and for the support of religious worship, was altogether voluntary on the part of the church. Acts 11: 29. Rom. 15: 26, 1 Cor. 16: 1 seq. TertuUian particularly informs us that they were accustomed once a month, or at any time, to deposit in a charity box whatever any one was able and willing to give, and adds, Nam nemo compellitur, sed sponte con- fert? These charities were expended in providing for the support and burial of the poor ; of orphans, of aged domestics, of the disa- bled and infirm ; and for their brethren in bonds. It is worthy of remark that in all this, no mention is made of the clergy, as a distinct class ; but they are included among the aged and the poor. Such collections were at all times voluntary in the church, and when at length specific provision was made for the support of the clergy, and of religious worship, it was not by any ordinance of the church, but by the law of the state. Cases growing out of voluntary or stated contributions and compensations made to clergymen, were frequently submitted to the decision of councils.^ Fees paid to the clergy for services rendered, were called sporlae, sportellae, and sportulae ; probably in allusion to the bringing of the first fruits 150 REVENUE OF THE CHURCH. in a basket, sportula, Deut. 26: 1 — 12. They surely were not the same as the jura stolae, stol-gebiihren, surplice fees, which were total- ly unknown in the primitive church. It was an established rule that no fees should be received for religious services. The council of 11- libiris, c. 48, forbade the custom of dropping a piece of money into the baptismal basin as a gratuity to the minister for administering the ordinance.^ Another strictly prohibited the receiving of anything from communicants at the Lord's table, alleging that the grace of God was not an article of merchandize, neither was the sanctification of the spirit imparted for money.^ Neither was it lawful to receive any fee for performing the burial service.'^ The first departure from the voluntary principle above mentioned, began with the celebration of religious ordinances in a private man- ner^ in which the individual, at whose request this private celebra- tion was performed, was required to pay something as an equivalent for the public and voluntary oblations which would otherwise have been made. For the sake of increasing the treasury of the church, a dispensation of the primitive usage was also introduced in the case of penance, which shortly led on to a wider departure from the rules of the church. Still when the payment of surrogate and sur- plice fees became common, they were not paid to the officiating priest, but into the public treasury of the church. The payment of fees and perquisites as now practised, is an abuse of later date than the above mentioned, which, like the penance-fees so often and so justly censured, still has found supporters even in the protestant churches of Europe.^ So far as the clergy of the primitive church can be said to have had any salary, it was paid, either according to their necessities, or according to some general rule, from the treasury of the church, or of the society. The treasury was supplied only from incidental sources, and chiefly from voluntary contributions. The amount paid lo servants of the church, and for the poor, must have been more or less, according to the receipts of the treasury. The revenue of the church was submitted to the direction of the bishops, who employed the deacons and the oeconomi, or stewards to disburse it. Various rules were from time to time given for the distribution of funds.9 One required that they should be divided into three equal parts, one of which was to be paid to the bishops, another to the clergy, and the third was to be expended in making repairs and pro- REVENUE OF THE CHURCH. 151 vlding lights for the house, etc^^ Another orders a fourfold divi- sion, to be equally appropriated to the bishop, the clergy and the poor, and in repairs of the churches and their furniture. ^^ In the fourth century the church and the clergy came into the possession of property, personal and real. Asearly as the year 321, Constantino granted the right of receiving the donations and bequests of pious persons.i^ This right was often renewed and defined to prevent unjust exactions and other abuses. According to Eusebius, he granted at one time more than seventy thousand dollars from his treasury for the support of the ministry in Africa ; which is only one instance among many of his liberal donations. i^ The laws of Julian confiscating this property were themselves either quickly abrogated, or but partially enforced, without producing any lasting effect.^"^ The liberality of Gratian, Theodosius the Great, Theodosius the Younger, and other emperors, we must pass in silence ; but there were certain other ordinances for enriching the revenue of the church which are worthy of notice. 1. On the demolition of heathen temples and the dispersion of their priests by Theodosius and his sons, some of the spoils were secular- ized to enrich the treasury of the state ; but the greater part were applied to the benefit of the clergy, or appropriated to religious uses.^^ 2. On the same principle the property belonging to heretics was sequestrated to the true catholic church. ^^ 3. The estates of the clergy who died intestate and without heirs, and of all those who left the ministry for unworthy reasons, became the property of the church. i" 4. The church was the heir at law of all martyrs and confessors who died without near relations.i^ 5. The revenue of the church was increased by tithes and Jirst fruits. The primitive church might be expected to have introduced this ordinance of the Jews from the beginning. But it was wholly unknown until the fourth and fifth century. Irenaeus, indeed, speaks o{ first fruits at an earlier period,'^ but it is a disputed passage,20 and only relates to the wine and the bread of the eucharist as the first fruits of Christ. Besides Irenaeus,^! Chrysostom,^^ Gregory Nazi- anzen,-3 Hilary ,2-1 Augustine,'-^^ and others, all enjoin the paying of tithes as a duly., and not in imitation of the Jews. These tithes and first fruits the primitive Christians gave as a freewill offering, and 152 OF ORDINATION. not by constraint of law, of which there appears no indication in the first five centuries. The council of Magon, in the year 585, ordered the payment of tithes zn the church, as the restoration of an ancient and venerable custom. They directed the clergy to urge the duty in their public addresses, and threatened with excision from the church all who should refuse compliance.^^ This it will be observ- ed is merely an ecclesiastical law. No mention is made of any enactment of the state. Charlemagne first required the payment of tithes by statute law, and enforced the duty by severe penalties.-'^ That emperor himself paid tithes from his private property and his Saxon possessions. His successors confirmed and completed the system of tithe by law, which was subsequently introduced into England and Sweden.^^ In the Eastern church the support of religion was never legally enforced, but it was urged as a religious duty, and tithes were paid as a voluntary offering.^^ In the Western, under the general name of offerings, the ancient system of contributions and almsgivings was perpetuated in connection with the tithes and first fruits. These of- ferings were made, in some instances, in money, and in provisions, and in live stock — cattle, swine, lambs, geese, fowls, etc. The avails of these were applied to the treasury of the church, or pre- sented particularly to the parson, vicar, chorister, or warden. Simi- lar offerings are still common in the protestant churches. The payment of a stipulated salary to the clergy, in money, par- sonages, tithes, interest, and other rents, and the distribution of regu- lar salaries and occasional perquisites, is an institution of the middle ages, and too extensive and complicated to be discussed in this place. CHAPTER VIII. OF § 1. Remarks. The solemn consecration of a religious teacher to his office, as an institution of religion, is derived from the ordinances of the syna- gogue, as they were constituted after the Babylonish captivity. The presidents and readers of the synagogue were at first appointed to DISQUALIFICATIONS FOR ORDINATION. 153 their office by the solemn imposition of hands. Afterwards was added the anointing with oil, the investiture with the sacred gar- ments, and the dehvery of the sacred utensils. This was callef' n; NV.'a , the filling of the hands, Ex. 29: 21. Lev. 21: 10. Num. 3: 3. ' ' The first instance on record of an ordination in a christian church is that of the seven deacons at Jerusalem, in Acts 6: 1 — 7. These, though not appointed to the office of religious teachers, were set apart by prayer and the laying on of hands. The consecration of religious teachers and officers of the church is also mentioned in the following passages, Acts 13: 1—4. 14: 23. 1 Tim. 4: 14. 5: 22. 2 Tim. 1: 6. In these passages three particulars are mentioned, fasting, prayer, and the laying on of hands. The historical fact is undeniable, that the church has, at all times, observed some prescribed mode of inducting into the sacred office those who were appointed to serve in that capacity. The several offices which were subsequently created were indeed unknown in the first organization of the church, as well as the different rites of ordination and installation. But the injunction that all things should be done decently and in order — the ministry of the word, and the laying on of hands, of which the apostle so often speaks, all imply a consecration to the sacred office by peculiar religious rites. The most ancient liturgies also, both of the Eastern and Western church, prescribe at length the mode of consecration to this office, and in this manner illustrate the solemnity of the transaction in the estima- tion of the ancient fathers of the church. It is also worthy of observation, that the various religious sects, schismatics and heretics, almost without exception, observed the rites of ordination. § 2. Disqualifications and qualifications for Ordination. The strictest precaution was exercised by the church to guard against the introduction of unworthy or unsuitable persons into the ministry. Several classes of persons were accordingly excluded from ordination, such as the following. 1. Women^ This rule was in conformity with the apostolical precept, 1 Cor. 14: 34, 35. 1 Tim. 2: 11 seq. The appointment of deaconesses was no exception to this rule. They were not appoint- 20 154 OF ORDINATION. ed to bear rule, or to teach, but to perform certain offices which, from a due sense of decency and propriety were restricted to their own sex.* They were ordained with the usual formalities in the early periods of the church,- but the custom was afterwards discon- tinued.-^ 2. Catechumens. To this rule there were a few exceptions as in the case of Ambrose, Nectarius, etc., but in general it was observed with great strictness. 3. Neophytes, novices ; men who were deficient in age, or know- ledge, or christian experience,t 1 Tim. 3: 6. 4. Energumens ; including all who were subject to severe mental or bodily infirmities. 5. Penitents ; all who for any offence had fallen under the cen- sure of the church, even though they had been fully restored to the privileges of its fellowship and communion. 6. Apostates. All who lived a vicious life after baptism.^ Offen- ces committed previously were not alleged as a disqualification.^ 7. All who were devoted to theatrical pursuits, ox d^wy occupations which disqualified them from receiving baptism. | 8. Slaves, and Jreedmen who were still under some obligation to their former masters. This restriction was made not by reason of their humble condition, but because such ])ersons could not be supposed to act with the freedom and independence which became the ministerial office. 9. Soldiers and military men of every description ; for reasons * Kal uTi [XEV zlinxoviaoMV Tiiy/Aix icnlv fig tvv ixxlr^alav, ukk ovxl ilg TO liQonsisiv, Olds TO inixbj()Hv iunQsmiv, tvsKiv 8a (TspvoTijTog Toii yvvaixiiov yivovg, i} So wQUf Iovtqov, i} imaxitpsag na&ovg, i] ncvov, xal 0T£ yufxva&ioij dw^ia yvviuov, iV« ^t>j tno avSqtjJv UQOVfjyovvTbw -d^stj- ■&tor], akk vjio Trig Siay.opovffijg. Epiph. Haeres. 79, n. 3. f Mt) Ssop TTQoaq^aToi' [n^oacpdrcj?] (fOJTia&h'Tag TTQoadyaax^ac iv rdy/naTc leQaroxm- Cone. Laodi.c. can. :i Conveniens non est, nee ratio, nee disci- plina patitur, ut teniere vel levitcr ordinelur, ant Episcopus, aut Presbyter, ant Diaconus, qui Neophytus est. . . . Seel hi, quorum per longum tempus examiiiata sit vita, et merita fuerint comprobata. Cone. Sardic. c. 10 ; Conf. Grf.cor M. Epist. lib. iv. ep. T^O ; lib. vii. ep. 3 ; Justin. Kov.QijC. 1 ; Nov. 137, e. 1 ; Cone. Paris. A D. 829, can 5. X Puto nee maiestati divinae (says Cyprian), nee evangelieae disciplinae congruere, ut pudor et honor eeclesiae tarn turpe et infarni contagione foede- tnr. DISQUALIFICATIONS FOR ORDINATION. 155 substantially the same as those which are mentioned in the preced- ing article. 10. Laiinjers and civilians. Men bearing civil offices, or in any- way entangled with the afTairs of state, were incapacitated for the sacred office. Cavendum ab his est (says Innocent I.), propter tri- bulationem quod saepe de his ecclesiae provenit. The power of Rome at times overruled this regulation, but the church uniformly sought to separate herself wholly from all connection with the state.^ 11. All who were mai7ned, especially eunuchs. Non infirmitaiem (says Ambrose), sed firmitatem ; non victos, sed victores, postulat ecclesia. To this rule there were exceptions. 12. Persons who had contracted a second marriage. This rule is based on an erroneous interpretation of 1 Tim. 3: 2, and Tit. 1: 6. To these views of the church may be traced the ancient sentiments respecting the celibacy of the clergy, which prevailed as early as the fourth century, and in the twelfth required of them the vow of celibacy in the Roman Catholic church. 13. Those who had received baptism upon their beds in extreme sickness, or under any urgent necessity when they might be suspect- ed of having acted not voluntarily, but by constraint.''' 14. They toho had been baptized by heretics. An exception, how- ever, was made in favor of the Novatians and Donatists. 15. Persons who had been guilty of simoniacal conduct, i. e. of using bribery or any unfair means of obtaining ordination. This species of iniquity, the buying and selling of appointments to spiri- tual offices, and the obtaining of them by any unfair and dishonora- ble means, was severely censured by the church. The penalty was deposition from office, both on the part of him who was invested with holy orders, and of those who had assisted in his ordination. The laws of Justinian also required the candidate elect to make oath that he had neither given nor promised, nor would hereafter give, any reward directly or indirectly as a remuneration for aiding in his appointment.^ The exceptions above mentioned are comprised in the following lines : Alco ; venator ; inilos ; caupo ; aulicus ; erro Mercator; lanius; pincerna ; tabell'io ; tutor, Curator; sponsor; conductor; conciliator; pronexeta Patronus causae ; procurator ve forensis ; In causa judex civili ; vel capital!, Clericus esse nequit, nisi Canones transgrediantur 156 OF ORDINATION. Besides the foregoing negative rules, there were others of a j)osi- live character prescribing the requisite quahfications for ordinations. 1. The candidate was required to be of a certain age. The rules by which this canonical age was determined were undoubtedly de- rived from the Jewish rituals. The deacons were required to be of equal age with the levites — twenty-five years. The canonical age of presbyters and bishops was the same as that of the priests of the Jews — thirty years. The Apostolical Constitutions prescribe fifty years as the canonical age of a bishop. This was afterwards reduc- ed to thirty. In some instances, persons may have been introduced into the ministry at an age still earlier.^^ Both Siricius and Zosimus required thirty years for a deacon, thirty-five for a presbyter, and forty-five for a bishop. ^^ The age at which our Lord entered upon his ministry is frequent- ly alleged as a reason for requiring the same age in a presbyter and bishop. That was usually the lowest canonical age.'~ Children were sometimes appointed readers. The age of subdeacons, aco- lyths, and other inferior officers, was established at different times, at fifteen, eighteen, twenty, and twenty-five years. 2. They ^oere subject to a strict examination previous to ordination. This examination related to their faith, their morals, and their world- ly condition. They weie especially subjected to the severest scrutiny in regard to the first particular. It was the duty of the bishop and subordinate officers of the clergy to conduct, for the most part, the examination ; but it was held in public, and the people also took a part in it. No one would be duly ordained without the concurrence of the people in this examination, and the united approbation both of them and the bishop.* Cyprian also insists upon the concur- rence of the people in the selection of a pastor, and offers as a rea- son, the consideration that they were more familiarly acquainted with the life and conversation of the candidate. ^"^ The names of the candidates were published, in order that they might be subjected to a severer canvass by the people.^"* By a law of Justinian, the candidate was required to give a written statement of his religious faith, in his own handwriting, and to take a solemn oath against si- mony.^^ * NiiUus clericus ordineter non probatus vet cpiscoporum examine, vet pop- uli tcsiimonio. Cone. Carthage, 111, c. 22. QUALIFICATIONS FOR ORDINATION. 157 The extracts in the margin show how carefully the church observ- ed the apostolic injunction to lay hands suddenly on no man.* 3. No person could regularly he appointed to the higher offices of the church without having passed through the subordinate grades. To this rule there were frequent exceptions, but the principle was strenuously maintained, in order that no one should assume the min- isterial office until he had, in this way, become practically familiar with the whole system of ecclesiastical discipline and polity."^ 4. Every one urns to he ordained to some special charge.] This was supposed to be the apostolical rule. Acts 14: 33. Tit. 1:5. 1 Pet. 5: 2. Exceptions sometimes occurred, though very rarely, and always against the decided sentiments of the church. Non-resident clergy who are in this way removed from the watch and discipline * Qui episcopus ordinatus est, antea examinetur : si natura sit prudens, si docilis, si moribus temporatus, si vita castus, si sobrius, si semper suis nego- tiis vacans, [al. cavens], si humilis, si affabilis, si niisericors, si literalus, si in lege Uomini instructus, si in Scripturaruin sensibus cauliis, si in dogmati- bus ecclesiasticis exercitatus, et ante omnia, si fidei docnmenta verbis sim- plicibus afFerat [asserat]. Quaeiendumetiam ab eo; si novi vel veteris Tes- tament!, id est legis et prophetarum et apostolorum, unum eundemque credat auctorem et Deum ; si Diabolus non per conditionem sed per arbitrium fac- tus sit malus. Cone. Carth. iv. c. 1. — Quando episcopus ordinationes f'acere disponit, omnes, qui ad sacrum ministerium accedere volunt, feria quarta an- te ipsam ordinationcm evocandi sunt ad civitatem, unacum archipresbyteris, qui eos repraesentare debent. Et tunc episcopus a latere suo eligere debet sacerdotes et alios prudentes viros, gnaros divinae legis, exercitatos in eccle- siasticis sanctionibus, qui ordinandorum vitam, genus, patriani, aetatem, in- stitutionem, locum ubi educati sunt, si sint bene literati, si instruct! in lege Domini, diligenter investigent, ante omnia si fidem catholicam firmiter tene- ant, et verbis simplicibus asserere queant. Ipsi autem, quibus hoc commit- titur, cavere debent, ne aut favoris gratia, aut cujuscunque muneris cupidi- tate illecti a vero devient, et indignum et minus idoneum ad sacros gradus suscipiendos episcopi manibus applicent. Cone. JVannetense, A. D. (558. can. 11. Presbyterum ordinari non debet ante legitimum tenipus, hoc est, ante xxx aetatis annum ; sed priusquam ad presbyteratus consecrationem ac- cedat, maneat in episcopio discendi gratia ofKcium suum tarn diu, donee pos- sint et mores et actus ejus animadverti ; et tunc, si dignus fuerit, ad sacerdo- tium promoveatur. Cmc. Turon. 3, A. D. 813, c. 12. t Ut ex laico ad gradum sacerdotii ante nemo veniat, nisi prius in officio lectorati vel subdiaconati disciplinam ecclesiasticam discat, et sic per singu- los gradus ad sacerdotium veniat. Cone. Bracar. 2, A. D. 5G3, c. 20. Va- ria habendu est ordinatio quae, nee loco fundata est nee auctorilate mu- iiita.'^ 158 OF ORDINATION. of the church, receive no favor from the ancient canons, and early ecclesiastical writers.* 5. Every minislcr loas required to remain in the diocese over which he teas ordained ; and no one could, at the same time, be in- vested with more than one office. Plurality of livings were unknown to the ancient church. 6. A clerical tonsure was made requisite about the fifth or sixth century. No mention is made of it before the fourth, and it is first spoken of with decided disapprobation.^^ § 3. Administration of the Rite. The duty of administering the rite devolved, ex officio, upon the bishop alone. This is abundantly implied in the canons of councils, and often expressly asserted by ecclesiastical writers.^ Ordination by a presbyter is frequently declared to be null and void.^ The of- fice of the presbyter in the rites of ordination was to assist the bishop in ordaining a fellow presbyter.t The ordination was solemnized in the church and in the presence of the assembly. Private ordinations were severely censured.^ During the first four centuries, the ordination was had at any sea- son of the year, as occasion required, and on any day of the week. It afterwards became a rule of the church that the ordination should be performed only on the sabbath,'* sometimes in the morning, some- * Mrjdiva dnolslv/iivojg (absolute) yfnQorovsiod'at fti'ivs TTQsa^vTSQOVj fiTjrs Sidy.ovov, ftt'jTS bh'jg riva. tujv iv i'KKXrjoiaaTiy.M Tayfiari si fiy iSiaws (specia- liler) f I iayXijoia noXso)?, tJ ko'jju7js, ?] fia^rvQivj, i] jj.ovaar7]Qioj c ytiQOTOvovfie- vog iTTinrjfjvTTOiTO. Taig St aTtoXvrojg yttQOTOvovfitvo? ojQiatv 7] dyla ai'vooos uy.vQov I'yuv 17)1' Toiavxr^v ytiQO&fciav, xai fi7jd'auov Si vaa&ai iVfQyilv icp v^- Qtt Tov yttQOTOvi'joavTag. Cone. Chalccd. A. D. 451, c.C; Conf. Cone. Va- lent c. 6. t Presbyter cum ordinatur, episcopo eum benedicente et nianum super ca- put ejus tenente, ctiani oinnes presbyteri qui praesentes sunt, manus suas juxta manum episcopi super caput illius tenearit ; Cone. Carth.'w . c. A. — Presbyteros quoque et diaconos sola nianuum iuipositione ordinabant ; sed suos presbyteros quisque episcopus cum presbyterorum collegio ordinabat. Quanquani autem idem agebant omnes, quia tamen praeibat episcopus et quasi ejus auspiciis res gerebatur, ideo ipsius dicebatur ordinatio. Unde ve- teres hoc saepe habent, non differre alia re ab episcopo presbyterum, nisi quia ordinandi potestatem non habeat. Calvin. Instit. Ret. Chr. lib. iv. c. 4, § 15. ADMINISTRATION OF THE RITE. 159 times in the evening, but usually in connection with the celebration of the Lord's sup[)er.-^ Candidates for ordination were accustomed uniformly to observe a season of fasting and prayer preparatory to this ordinance,*^ and to receive the sacrament. The first and most significant act in the rite of ordination was the imposition of hands. This has been, from the beginning, an uni- form and expressive rite in the consecration of one to the service o,f the sacred ministry ; and in this, accompanied with prayer, the act of ordination essentially consisted. By many this is supposed to dif- fer from the common imposition of hands at baptism, confirmation, and absolution. The manner of performing the ceremony has dif- fered at different times. About the ninth century it became customary, in the Romish church, to anoint the candidate for holy orders. The investiture — the custom of delivering the sacred vessels, or- naments and vestments— was introduced in the seventh century. But some mention is made of it at an earlier date. The badges and insignia varied with different persons according to the nature of their ofRce. In the ordination of a bishop, an open Bible was laid upon his head — sometimes delivered into his hands, to indicate that he was continually to consult this for direction in duty. A ring was put upon his finger as a token of his espousal to the church, and a staff in his hand as the shepherd of the flock. The mitre was added in the tenth century, and the glove was also introduced, but at what time does not appear. The presbyter received the sacramental cup and plate, in token of his service in administering the sacrament. Upon the deacon, the bishop laid his right hand and delivered to him a copy of the gospels, to indicate that he was to act as the agent and organ of the bishop. The subdeacon received an empty patin and cup, with an ewer and napkin ; the reader received a copy of the Scriptures ; the acolyth, a candlestick with a taper ; and the ostiarii, the keys of the church. The party ordained was signed with the sign of the cross, and, after his ordination, received the kiss of charity from the ordaining minister and his assistants.''' 160 OP ORDINATION. The following is the prayer which is prescribed by the Apostoli- cal Constitutions, to be used in the ordination of a bishop. " O eternal and almighty Lord God, the only unbegotten and su- preme, who art from eternity, before all time and all things ; thou who hast need of nothing, and art exalted far above all circumstan- ces and events ; thou who art the only true, the only wise, the high- est over all ; whose nature is inscrutable, and whose knowledge is without beginning ; thou who alone art good, and with whom no one may compare ; thou who knowest all things, before they come to pass ; thou from whom no secrets are hid, whom no one can ap- proach unto, whom no one can command ; O thou God and Father of thine only-begotten Son, our Lord and Saviour ; thou who through time hast created all things, and who upholdest all ; thou father of mercy, and God of all consolation ; thou who dwellest in the highest, and regardest the things that are below ; thou who hast given to the church its bounds by the incarnation of thy Christ, with the testimony of the Comforter, by thine apostles, and by the bishops here present by thy grace ; thou who from the beginning, amongst the first men, didst for the good of thy people appoint priests, even Abel, Seth, Enos, Enoch, Noah, Melchizedek, and Job ; — thou who didst choose thy faithful servants Abraham and the other patriarchs, Moses, Aaron, Eleazar, and Phineas, and didst appoint from among them princes and priests for the service of the covenant ; who didst make Samuel both priest and prophet, who didst not leave thy sanctuary without ministers and attendance, and didst show favor unio those whom thou didst cause to minister to thy glory ; — we be- seech thee to pour out now through us, by the mediation of thy Christ, the power of thine almighty spirit, which is given through thy beloved Son Jesus Christ, and which he imparted to thine holy apos- tles, according to thy will, O eternal God. Grant, O thou searcher of the heart, that this thy servant, whom thou hast chosen to the office of a bishop, may feed thy holy flock in thy name, and may serve thee unblameably as thine high priest, day and night ; and that he, propitiating thy countenance, may gather unto thee the number of those who shall be called, and may present the offerings of thy holy church. Grant unto him, O Lord Almighty, by thy Christ and the communication of the Holy Spirit, that he may have power to remit sins according to thy commandment, to confer orders (Sidoycii y.h'iQovc) according to thy appointment, and to loose every DUTIES OF CHRISTIAN MINISTERS. 161 bond {TidtvTit aind((T[tuv) according to the power which thou didst grant unto thine apostles. (,Trant that he may please tiiee by meek- ness, purity of heart, constancy, sincerity, and a blameless conver- sation ; that so he may offer unto thee the pure and unbloody sacri- fice which thou hast appointed hy Christ in the sacrament of the new covenant, and as the offering of a sweet-smelling savor, through thy dear Son Jesus Christ, our God and Saviour, through whom be unto thee glory, honor, and adoration, in the Holy Spirit, now and for ever. Amen." § 4. Remarks of chrysostom, Jerome, and Gregory Nazianzen, relating to the character and duties of christian ministers. Bingham has inserted in his Antiquities a large collection of quotations from the Fathers, especially Chrysostom, Jerome, and Gregory Nazianzen, relating to the character and duties of christian ministers ; from which I make the following selection. The subject is one of more than ordinary interest ; and many of the observations of these pious writers of former times will be found to possess an uncommon degree of intrinsic weight and value. It may also be a seasonable relief to us, in the midst of this collection of testimonies from the early writers concerning the external constitution and prac- tices of the church, to hear the evidence of the same writers con- cerning something of a more internal character ; to learn what was their standard of moral and spiritual excellence in the character of a christian minister, as well as to consider their institutions concern- ing the different orders of clergy, their appointments, the offices as- signed to them, their revenues, and dress. " Some," says Gregory Nazianzen, " do, with unwashen hands and profane minds, press to handle the holy mysteries, and affect to be at the altar before they are fit to be initiated to any sacred ser- vice ; they look upon the holy order and function, not as designed for an example of virtue, but only as a way of supporting themselves; not as a trust, of which they are to give an account, but in a stale of absolute authority and exemption. And these men's examples cor- rupt the people's morals, faster than any cloth can imbibe a color, or a plague infect the air ; since men are more disposed to receive the tincture of vice than virtue from the example of their rulers." In opposition to this, he declares it to be incumbent upon all spiritual 21 162 OF ORDINATION. physicians, " that they should draw the picture of all manner of vir- tues in their own lives, and set themselves as examples to the peo- ple ; that it might not be proverbially said of them, that they set about curing others, while they themselves are full of sores and ul- cers." He urges, also, the necessity of purity in the life and con- versation of the clergy, from the consideration of the dignity and and sacredness of their office. " A minister's office places him in the same rank and order with angels themselves ; he celebrates God with archangels, transmits the church's sacrifice to the altar in heaven, and performs the priest's office with Christ himself;* he reforms the work of God's hands, and presents the image to his maker; his workmanship is for the world above ; and therefore he should be exalted to a divine and heavenly nature, whose business is to be as God himself, and make others gods also." (Greg. Naz. Orat. 1, Apologet. de Fuga.) And Chrysostom makes use of the same argument, " that the priesthood, though it be exercised upon earth, is occupied wholly about heaven- ly things ; that it is the ministry of angels put by the Holy Ghost in- to the hands of mortal men ; and therefore a priest ought to be pure and holy, as being placed in heaven itself, in the midst of those heavenly powers." (Chrysostom, De Sacerdot. lib. 3, c. 4.) He dwells, also, upon the dangerous influence of bad example. '' Sub- jects commonly form their manners by the patterns of their princes. How then should a proud man be able to assuage the swelling tu- mors of others } or an angry ruler hope to make his people in love with moderation and meekness } Bishops are exposed, like com- batants in the theatre, to the view and observation of all men ; and their faults, though never so small, cannot be hid ; and therefore, as their virtuous actions profit many by provoking them to the like zeal, so their vices will render others unfit to attempt or prosecute any- thing that is noble and good. For which reason, their souls ought to shine all over with the purest brightness, that they may both en- * This mistaken view of the ministerial office is one of the errors of the times in which Gregory wrote. Misrepresentations concerning the real na- ture of the christian ministry are not peculiar to the church of Rome; they arose as early as the third and fourth centuries. But while we discard the errors of the men of those times, let us not throw aside their reverent regard for that which constitutes the real dignity and usefulness of the sacred of- fice as a minister in holy things. DUTIES OF CHRISTIAN MINISTERS. 163 lighten and stimulate the souls of others, who have their eyes upon them. A priest should arm himself all over with purity of life, as with adamantine armour ; for if he leave any part naked and un- guarded, he is surrounded both with open enemies and pretended friends, who will be ready to wound and supplant him. So long as his life is all of a piece, he needs not fear their assaults ; but if he be caught in a fault, though but a small one, it will be laid hold of, and improved, to the prejudice of all his former virtues. For all men are most severe judges in his case, and treat him not with any allowance for being encompassed with flesh, or as having an human nature ; but expect that he should be an angel, and free from all in- firmities." (Ibid. lib. iii. c. 14.) " He cannot, indeed, with any tol- erable decency and freedom discharge his office in punishing and reproving others, unless he himself be blameless and without re- buke." (Ibid. lib. v. c. 3.) The j>eculiar virtues of the external life and conversation of the clergy, which these pious writers most frequently commend, are the following; — hospitality and kindness to the poor, — frugality, and a holy contempt of the world, — harmless and inoffensive discourse ; — and care to avoid all suspicion of evil. — Jerome says, " It is one of the glories of a bishop to provide for the poor; but a disgrace to the sacred function, to seek only to enrich himself." (Hieron. Ep. 2 ad. Nepotian.) Chrysostom highly extols his bishop Flavian upon ac- count of this virtue. He says that " his house was always open to strangers, and to such as were obliged to have recourse to flight for the sake of religion ; where they were received and entertained with such liberality and kindness, that his house might as properly be called ' The house of strangers,' as ' The house of Flavian.' Yea, it was so much the more his own, for being common to strangers; for whatever we possess is so much the more our property for being communicated to our poor brethren ; there being no place where we may so safely lay up our treasure, as in the hands of the poor." (Chrysos. Serin. 1 in Gen.) On the other hand, Jerome observes, in his instruction to Nepotian, " You must avoid giving great enter- tainments to secular men, and especially to those who are high in office. For it is not very reputable to have the lictors and guards of a consul stand waiting at the doors of a priest of Christ, who him- self was crucified and poor ; nor that a judge of a province should dine more sumptuously with you, than in a palace. If it be pre- 164 OF ORDINATION. tended tliat you do this only to be able to intercede with him for poor criniHials ; there is no judge but will pay a greater deference and respect to a poor clergyman than to a rich one, and show great- er reverence to your sanctity than to your riches. Or if he be such an one as will hear a clergyman's intercession only at his table, I should willingly be without this benefit, and rather beseech Christ for the judge himself, who can more speedily and powerfully help than any judge." (Hieron. Ep. 2 ad Nepolian.) Again, " The laity should rather find us to be comforters in their mournings, than com- panions in their feasts. That clergymen will soon be despised, who never refuses any entertainments when lie is frequently invited to them." (Ibid.) — The virtues of the tongue were also considered of great importance in the life of a clergyman, in the times of which we are treating. Jerome gives a particular caution to ministers, against the sin of detraction and calumny, and especially against giving encouragement to evil speaking, by a patient hearing. " No slanderer," says he, " tells his story to one who is not willing to hear him. An arrow never fixes in a stone, but often recoils, and wounds him that shoots it. Therefore let the detractor be less forward and busy, by your unwillingness to hear his detraction." (Hieron. Ej). 2 ad Nepolian.) The same writer recommends another virtue of the tongue to clergymen ; namely, the habit of keeping secrets, and of observing a becoming silence, especially about the affairs of public persons. " Your office," says he, " requires you to visit the sick, and thereby you become acquainted with the families of matrons and their children, and are entrusted with the secrets of noble men. You ought, therefore, to keep not only a chaste eye, but a chaste tongue. .... You ought not to let one house know from you what may have been done in another." {Ibid.) Chrysostom gives some excel- lent advice respecting the greatduty of avoiding every appearance of evil, — a duty especially incumbent upon Christian ministers. " If," says he, " the holy apostle St. Paul was afraid lest he should have been suspected of theft by the Corinthians ; and upon that account took others into the administration of their charity with himself, that no one might have the least pretence to blame him ; how much more careful should we be to cut off all occasions of sinister opinions and suspicions, however false or unreasonable they might be, or dis- agreeable to our character. For none of us can be so far removed DUTIES OF CHRISTIAN MINISTERS. 165 from any sin, as St. Paul was from theft ; yet he did not think fit to contemn the suspicions of the vulgar; he did not trust to the repu- tation which both his miracles, and the integrity of his life, had gen- erally procured for him ; but, on the contrary, he imagined that such suspicions and jealousies might arise in the liearts of some men, and therefore he took care to prevent them ; not suffering them to arise at all, but timely foreseeing them and prudently forestalling them ; providing, as he says, for honest things, not only in the sight of God, but also in the sight of men. The same care, and much greater, should we take, not only to dissipate and destroy the ill opinions men may have entertained of us, but to foresee afar off from what causes they may spring, and to cut off beforehand the oc- casions and pretences from which they may arise. And it is much easier to do this, than to extinguish them when they are risen, which will then be very difficult, and perhaps impossible ; besides that their being raised will give great scandal and oflence, and wound the conscience of many." (Chrysost. de SacerdoL. lib. vi. c. 9.) Je- rome in like manner, represents it as the duty of a minister to avoid all suspicions ; and to take care before hand that there should be no probable grounds for fictitious stories to the disadvantage of his moral character. (Hieron. Ej). 2 ad Neoplian.) But it might hap- pen, as Bingham truly observes, that a man, after the utmost human caution and prudence that could be used, might not be able to avoid the malevolent suspicions of ill-disposed persons ; for our blessed Lord, whose innocence and conduct were both equally divine could not in his converse with men wholly escape them. Now, in this case the church could prescribe no other rule than that of patience and christian consolation, given by our Saviour to his apostles, " Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for my sake ; rejoice, and be exceeding glad ; for great is your reward in heaven." (Matt. 5: 11.) " When we have done," says Augustin, " all that in justice and pru- dence we could, to preserve our good name, if, after that, some men will notwithstanding endeavor to blemish our reputation, and blacken our character, either by false suggestions or unreasonable suspicions, let conscience be our comfort, and even our joy, that great is our reward in heaven." (Augustin. De Bono Viduitat. c. 22.) From these observations respecting the general life and conversa- 166 OF ORDINATION. tion of the clergy, let us pass to others more immediately relating to the exercise of the duties and offices of their sacred function. The fathers frequently insist upon the necessity of due sLudy and application, in order to the right discharge of the ministerial office. For since, as Gregory Nazianzen observes, {Oral. 1. De Fvga,) a man could not become master of the meanest arts without the cost of much time and pains, it were absurd to think that the art of wis- dom, which comprehends the knowledge of things human and di- vine, and comprises everything that is noble and excellent, was so light and vulgar a thing, as that a man needed no more than a wish or a will to obtain it. Some indeed, he complains, (Ibid.) were of this fond opinion ; and, therefore, before they had well passed the time of their childhood, or knew the names of the books of the Old and New Testament, or how well to read them, if they had learnt but two or three pious words by heart, or had read a few of the Psalms of David, and put on a grave habit, which made some out- ward show of piety, they had the vanity to think themselves qualified for the government of the church. They then talked of nothing but the sanctificaiion of Samuel from his cradle, and thought themselves profound scribes, great rabbles and teachers, sublime in the know- ledge of divine things; and were for interpreting the Scripture, not by the letter, but after a spiritual way, propounding their own dreams and fancies, instead of the divine oracles, to the people. This, he complains, was for want of that study and labor which ought to give continual employment to those persons who take upon them the of- fices of the sacred function. Chrysostorn pursues this matter a litde further ; and shows the necessity of continual labor and study in a clergyman, from the nature of the work which he has upon hand, each part of which requires great and sedulous application. For, says he, first, he ought to be qualified to minister suitable remedies to the several maladies and disorders of men's souls ; the cure of which requires greater skill and labor than the cure of their bodily distempers. And this can be done only by the doctrine of the gos- pel ; wuh which, therefore, it is necessary that he should be inti- mately acquainted. Then again, secondly, he must be able to stop the mouths of all gainsayers, Jews, gentiles, and heretics, who em- ploy different arts and different weapons in their attacks upon the truth ; and unless he exactly understands all their fallacies and so- phisms, and knows the true art of making a proper defence, he will DUTIES OF CHRISTIAN MINISTERS. 167 be in danger not only of suffering each of them to make havoc of the church, but of encouraging one error while combating another. For nothing was more common, in Chrysostom's time, than for ig- norant and unskilful disputants to run from one extreme to another ; as he shows in the controversies which the church had with the Mar- cionites and Valentinians on the one hand, and the Jews on the other, about the law of Moses ; and the dispute about the Trinity, between the Arians and the Sabellians. Now, unless a man were well skil- led and exercised in the word of God, and the true art and rules of disputation, which could not be attained witliout continual study and labor, he concludes that " it would be impossible for him to maintain his ground, and the truih, as he ought, against so many subtle and wily opposers." He then inculcates that instruction of St. Paul to Timothy, " Give attendance to reading, to exhortation, to doctrine : meditate upon these things ; give thyself wholly to them, that thy profiting may appear to all men." Thirdly, he shows " how diffi- cult and laborious a work it was to make continual homilies and regular discourses to the people, who were become very severe judges of the preacher's compositions, and would not allow him to rehearse any part of another man's work, nor so much as to repeat his own upon a second occasion. Here his task was something the more difficult, because men had generally nice and delicate palates, and were inclined to hear sermons as they heard plays, more for pleasure than profit. Which added to the preacher's study and la- bor ; who, though he was to contemn both popular applause and censure, yet was also to have such a regard to his auditory, as that they might hear him with pleasure, to their edification and advan- tage." Some persons having been ready to plead the apostle's au- thority for their ignorance, and even to pride themselves upon their want of learning, to this Chrysostom very properly replies, that "this was a misrepresentation of St. Paul's meaning, and was vainly urged in excuse for any man's sloth and negligence in not attaining to those necessary parts of knowledge which the clerical life required. If the utmost heights and perfections of foreign eloquence had been rigidly exacted of the clergy ; — if they had been required to speak always with the smoothness of Isocrates, or the loftiness of Demos- thenes, or the majesty of Thucydides, or the sublimity of Plato, — then indeed it might be pertinent to allege this testimony of the apos- tle. But rudeness of style, in comparison with such eloquence, may 168 OF ORDINATION. be allowed ; provided men be otherwise qualified with knowledge, and furnished with ability to preach and dispute accurately concern- ing the doctrines of faith and religion, as St. Paul was ; whose tal- ents in that kind have made him the wonder and admiration of the whole world ; and it would be unjust to accuse him of rudeness of speech, who by his discourses confounded both Jews and Greeks, and wrought many into the opinion that he was the Mercury of the gentiles. Such proofs of his power of persuasion were sufficient evidence that he had bestowed some pains upon this matter ; and therefore his authority was vainly abused to patronize ignorance and sloth, whose example was so great a reproach to them." The same writer afterwards proceeds to show, that a good life alone is not a sufficient qualification for a minister, nor ought to be regarded as any valid ground of excuse for want of knowledge and study, and the art of preaching and disputing. " Both these qualifications," says he, " are required in a priest ; he must not only do, but teach, the commands of Christ, and must guide others by his word and doctrine as well as by his practice ; each of these have their part in his of- fice, and are necessary to assist one another, in order to complete men's edification. For otherwise, when any controversy may arise about the doctrines of religion, and Scripture may be pleaded in be- half of error ; what will a good life avail in this case .'' What will it signify to have been diligent in the practice of virtue, if, after all, a man through gross ignorance and unskilfulness in the word of truth, fall into heresy, and cut himself off from the body of the church .'' And I know many that have done so. But, suppose that a man should stand firm himself, and not be drawn away by the adversa- ries ; yet, when the plain and simple people who are under his care shall observe their leader to be baffled, and that he has nothing to say to the arguments of a subtle opponent, they will be ready to im- pute this not so much to the weakness of the advocate, as to the bad- ness of his cause : and so, by one man's ignorance, a whole people will be carried headlong to utter destruction : or, at least, will be so shaken in their faith, that they will not stand firm for the future." (Chrysost. De Sacerdot. lib. iv. 5.) And, in like manner, Jerome observes in his Epistle to Nepotian, " that the plain rustic brother should not value himself upon his sanctity, and despise knowledge ; neither should the skilful and eloquent speaker measure his holiness by his tongue. For, though of two imperfections it was better to DUTIES OF CHRISTIAN MINISTERS. 169 have a holy ignorance than a vicious eloquence ; yet both qualifica- tions were necessary to complete a priest, and he ought to have knowledge as well as sanctity to fit liinj for the several duties of his function." (Hieron. Ep. 2 ad Nepotian.) But it was the study of the Holy Scriptures which was especially enjoined upon christian ministers by these pious writers. Chrysos- tom says, " In a'j(Jiov, v«6g, teinphwi, elc, the Lord's house, houseof the church, bouse of prayer, temple, etc. These names became familiar in the third and fourth centuries. The German kirclie, from which is derived the Scotch kirk, and English church, came into use in the eighth century. The original of the word is y-vQiaxuv, xi'^jiny.i'j, the Lord's house. Churches have also been entitled /.luoivgiu, in honor of the holy martyrs, and for the same reason particular churches have been called by the names of different saints and martyrs, St. Paul's, St. Peter's, etc. The fol- lowing names have also, at different times, and for various reasons, been given to christian churches : tituli, [tliIol], uvu/.toqov, 7()6nui,a,- ay.rivi}, concilia, conciliahula, conventicuia, casae, avvoSoi, fiovaatijQiov, y,oiin]xiiQiov, columba, corpus Christi, vuug, vijaog, unocnolilov, ttqo— (fji]iHov, and many others. The primitive Christians were compelled to unite in the worship of God wherever they could meet without molestation, — in private houses, in the open fields, in desert and solitary places, in caves and dens of the earth. ^ In view of these circumstances, many have sup- posed that no sacred edifices were set apart for the worship of God in the first and second centuries. But there is satisfactory evidence of the existence of such churches in the year 202,^ and that they were allowed to appropriate to themselves such places of wor- ship, under the emperors, from A. D. 222 to 235,^ and again fro«i 2G0 to 300.'* From this time, the evidence of the existence of chris- tian churches becomes full and satisfactory.^ Dioclesian directs his rage especially against them, ordering them by his edict, A. D. 303, to be razed to the earth,^ of which more than forty had already been erected in Rome. Optatus mentions that in his time there were forty or more large churches in Rome. — De Schism. Donat. lib. 2. c. 4. After the persecution of Dioclesian, under Constantino and his suc- cessors, the demolished churches were rebuilt, and such as had been closed were again opened.''' Pagan temples were, in some instances, converted into christian churches; but they were usually deslroyed, as not suited for public worship.^ Churches in great numbers were erected, in a style of magnificence before unknown, in Constanti- nople, in Jerusalem, and throughout 'he cities of Palestine, and sol- emnly dedicated to the worship of God.^ This religious rite was first introduced by Constantino.^" 23 178 or CHURCHES AND SACRED PLACES. In his zeal for building churches, Justinian I. far surpassed all oth- ers, and throughout his long reign, from A.D. 527 to 565, made this the great business of his life. But his chief care he expended in building the magnificent and colossal church of St. Sophia at Con- stantinople. Such was the splendor of this work, that at the conse- cration of it he exclaimed, iVfi'/zjjKK (r« .5'oAojU&>r, " I have surpassed thee, O Solomon." The perpendicular height, from the summit of the grand arch to the pavement of this edifice, was one hundred and eighty feet. Some idea of this great work may be obtained from the number of ministers and attendants who were appointed by the de- cree of the emperor for the service of this church. They were as follows : sixty presbyters, one hundred deacons, forty deaconesses, ninety subdeacons, one hundred and ten readers, twenty-five singers, one hundred door-keepers ; making a retinue of five hundred and twenty-five ministers and attendants ! The value of 40,000 pounds of silver was expended in ornamenting the altar and the parts adja- cent. The entire cost was nearly $5,000,000.^^ After the death of Justinian, the zeal for building churches greatly declined, and few of any notoriety were erected from the fifth to the eighth century. The arts of architecture, sculpture and painting, had fallen into disrepute, and the churches which were erected were of an inferior character, devoid, in a great degree, of ornament and taste. The Byzantine, or ancient CTOthic style of architecture, was intro- duced under Theodoric, in the beginning of the sixth century j^^ and in this and the following centuries, many churches of this order were built in Italy, Spain, France, England, and Germany. From the seventh to the twelfth century, the resources of the christian church were expended chiefly on cloisters, monasteries, and other establishments suited to the ascetic life, to which Christians of those ages generally addicted themselves. The vast cathedrals of Europe, in the style of Modern Gothic, are the product of the middle ages, and some of them date back even to the thirteenth century. About this time ecclesiastical archi- tecture attained to the height of its perfection. After the introduc- tion of the pointed arch, at the beginning of this period, buildings were erected which exceeded, in size and architectural beauty, all which had hitherto been dedicated to the services of the church. The style of architecture which obtained at this time has been usu- HISTORX^ OF CHURCHES. 179 ally denominated Gothic, or new Gothic ; but it may more properly claim the title of German, or English. It prevailed in Germany, the Netherlands, England, and Denmark ; and from those countries it was introduced into Italy, France, and Spain. Some suppose that Saxony is the country to which its origin may be traced. Some antiquaries regard the beautiful architecture of this period as a sudden etTect produced by the invention of the pointed arch ; while others contend that it was the result of a gradual improvement in the art during the course of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Certain, however, it is, that this style of building, after having at- tained its perfection more or less rapidly in the thirteenth century, prevailed almost exclusively during the fourteenth and fifteenth. Opinions are divided also upon a question relating to the quarter from which this style was originally derived. Some persons sup- pose that it was brought from the Arabians or Saracens, at the time of the Crusades, or from the same people, in Spain and Sicily, at a still earlier date. And it seems likely that some of its forms, at least, may have originated in this quarter. Others refer the design to the talent and invention of one or two great masters, whom they sup- pose to have flourished in the early part of the century, but without being able to say who they were. While others again consider that we are indebted for the improvement to the societies of masons, which existed from a very early period, and were greatly encour- aged by popes and emperors during the middle ages. They had lodges in England and on the Continent ; some place their beginning in Germany, others in France, and others in England under the Saxon kings. These architectural corporations must not be con- founded with the modern freemasons. Early in the eleventh century began the system of raising money for ecclesiastical buildings by the sale of indulgences. The example of this practice was set by Pontius, bishop of Aries, in the year 1016. According to Morinus, (De Sacram. Panit. lib. vii. c. 14, 20,) the French bishops professed, during the twelfth century, to remit a third or fourth part of penance to persons who should contribute a certain sum of money towards the building or restoring of a place of worship. In this way Mauritius, bishop of Paris, built the splen- did cathedral of Notre Dame, and four abbeys ; for which, however, he incurred the censure of some of his contemporaries. In later times the example was frequently followed at Rome ; and it is well 180 OF CHURCHES AND SACRED PLACES. known that the collection of Peter's pence, and the sale of indul- gences in raising money for the building of St. Peter's, was one of the proximate causes of the German reformation. § 2. Form, Site, and Position of Churches. 1. Form. The most ancient and approved form for churches was an oblong ; sometimes with parallel sides, but more frequently elliptical, like the form of a ship. So the Apostolical Constitutions direct, lib. 2. c. 57, 7xqi~nov fitv o oixog lora) f7T/^u»'x>;c, (oblong) uari? toixe vifC. As it was common to speak of the christian community under the metaphor of a ship, so the edifice in which they worship- ped was denominated naris, a ship, circa, an ark, navis Noae, the ark of Noah, navicula Petri, the boat of Peter ; having an allegori- cal reference to the perils to which the church was exposed, and its safety in God. Another favorite form for several ages after Constantino the Great was that of a cross, (jravgov diyrjy, ajavgoiiStj^ aiavQuna. Some were also quadrangular, octagonal , poly gonal , and sometimes, though very rarely, circular ; this was the usual form of lieathen temples, and therefore was disapproved by Christians. 2. Site. For the location of their churches the primitive Chris- tians selected the summit of some high hill or elevated ground, unless compelled for the sake of concealment to resort to some place less conspicuous. At other times they erected their churches over the graves of martyrs and confessors. And not unfrequently for some special reason, they prepared for themselves churches and oratories under ground, which served both for devotional purposes, and as sepulchres for their dead.^ In the tenth and eleventh centuries, there were many such in Germany ; these were denominated >;^i'7r- T«/, cryptae. " During the sanguinary persecutions that assailed the primitive disciples, the myrmidons of imperial vengeance often broke in up- on their worship, dispersed their assemblies, and violently disposses- sed them of the " upper rooms," in which they were wont to con- gregate ; and in these circumstances, while some fled to the moun- tains and some to the deserts, multitudes took permanent refuge in the spacious cemeteries that were situated in the outskirts of the_an- cient cities. Amid the deep and unbroken solitude of the cata- ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTITUENT PARTS. 181 combs— places of abode less irksome, perhaps, from the ancient style of building, than we are apt to imagine, — they solaced and ani- mated one another from midnight till dawn, with spiritual exhorta- tions to constancy in the faith ; and while the sword of vengeance was sheathed, and the fury of their jjcrsecutors slumbered in the night, they continued, in those undiscovered retreats, their wonted exercises of prayer and praise. About forty-three of such subter- ranean excavations still remain in the neighborhood of Rome alone, containing the most convincing evidences that they were employed for the ordinances of religion, as well as for concealment ; and when we consider that numbers died, and deposited their bones there, some of whom had eminently distinguished themselves as martyrs in the cause of Christ, it is not difficult to imagine the strong emo- tions that would animate the primitive Christians for the venerable dust that surrounded them, and the intense power which religion would acquire over their minds, in places which served at once for the offices of worship and for the burial of the saints."* 3. Position, or aspect. In the aspect of their churches, the an- cient Christians reversed the order of the Jews, placing the altar on the East, so that in focing towards the altar in their devotions they were turned to the East, in opposition to the Jewish custom of turn- ing towards the West in prayer. As the Jews began their day with the setting sun, so the followers of Christ began theirs with the rising sun. The eye of the Christian turned with peculiar interest to the East, whence the day-spring from on high had visited him. There the morning star of his hope fixed his admiring gaze. Thence arose the Sun of righteousness with all his heavenly influences. Thither in prayer his soul turned with kindling emotions to the altar of his God. And even in his grave, thither still he directed his slumbering eye, in quiet expectation of awaking to behold in the same direction the second appearing of his Lord, when he shall come in the clouds of heaven to gather his saints.^ § 3. Arrangement, and constituent parts. No established order of arrangement and division prevailed in the first three centuries. The churches of this period were rude and * Jamieson,pp. lOG, 107. 182 OF CHURCHES AND SACREU PLACES. simple structures, varying in form and size according to circumstan- ces ; but about the fourth century, great uniformity began to be ob- served in this respect. The body of the church was divided into three divisions^ corresponding with the three orders among Chris- tians ; the cZer^^, including all officers of the community, ihe faith- ful, or believers, and the catechumens. This arrangement also bore a resemblance to the division of the Jewish temple into the holy of holies, the sanctuary, and the court. Perhaps there was an inten- tional reference to both of these divisions ; for it must be remembered that there was, at this time, an increasing disposition, in the chris- tian church, to imitate the rites of Jewish worship. The three divi- sions were, 1. The bema or sanctuary, a sacred enclosure around the altar appropriated to the clergy. 2. The naos or nave, occu- pied by the faithful, the lay members of the church. 3. The nar- thex, or ante-temple, the place of the penitents and catechumens. Sometimes four or five divisions are enumerated ; which arise from sub-dividing the narlhex into outer and inner, and reckoning the e.xe- drael, or rniier buildings, as a portion of the church. We adhere to the threefold, or more simple division, and proceed to speak of each part in the order already described. § 4. Of the Bema, or SANCTUARy.* The bema, or sanctuary, the inner portion of the church which was appropriated to the clergy, was known by many different names. It was called the chorus or choir, '^ from the singing of the service by the clergy, ^i]^a from ava^aivtiv, to ascend, being an ele- vated platform, uyiov, uyiua^a, ayiov, ayiav, sanctum, sanctua)'iu7n,^ etc., because it was the sanctuary where most of the sacred rites were performed. It was also denominated UguTttov,-^ ngta^vTi'jQiov, SiaxovLxov, &v(jiu who gives- this response. It is also used at the conclusion of a doxology. Rom. 9: 5^ Justin Martyr is the fii-st ofthe fathere who speaks of the use of this response. In speaking of the sacrament he says, that at the close of the benediction and prayer, all the assembly respond, "•Amen,.'"' which, in the Hebrew tongue is the same as, " So let it be." 3- Ac- cording to Tertullian, none but the faithful were permitted, to join ira the response.* In the celebration of the Lord^s supper especially, each commu- nicant was required to give this response in a tone of earnest devo- tion.^ Upon the reception, both ofthe bread, and ofthe wine, each uittered a loud 'Amen ;' and, at the close of the consecration by the priest, all joined in shouting a loud ' Amen.' But the practice was discontinued after the sixth century. At the administration of baptism also, the witnesses and sponsors; uttered this response in the same manner. In the Greek church, it was customary to repeat this response as follows : "^This servant ofthe Lord is baptized in the name of the Father, Amen ; and of the Son, Amen ; and ofthe Koly Ghost, Amen ; both now and forever, world! without end ;' to which the people responded, '^Amen.^ This usage is still observed by the Greek church in Russia. The repetitions were given thrice, with reference to the three persons ofthe Trinity. 2. Hallelujah. This was adopted from the Jewish psalmody, particularly from those psalms (cxiii — cxviii) which were sung at the passover, called the Great Hillel or Hallel. It was this that our Sa- vior sang with his disciples at the institution of the sacrament. The word itself is an exhortation to praise God, and was so understoodi by Augustine, Isiodorus, and others.^ The use of this phrase was first adopted by the church at Jenisalera.," and from, this was re- ■OF THE RESPONSES. *'319 ly re- quired of all who had fallen under censure of the church for their offences, as an indispensable condition of their restoration to their former covenant relations. Basil denominates it the less pencmce, in distinction from pr&straiioiij which was called the greater penemce. It must indeed be admitted that it was very common both to kneel and to stand in prayer. But the assertion that kneeling was the uni- form posture in prayer, in all acts of worsl)ip except on the sabbath and festive occasions, is an unwarranted assumption. The most important authorities from the fathers are given in the index.^ 3. Bowing the head. This was- a kind of intermediate attitude between standing and kneeling. Occasionally the inclination of the body is also mentioned. The bowing of the head was especially re- quired in connection with intercessory prayers and the receiving of the benediction.'^ 4. Prostration upon the ground. This.is occasionally mentioned, but was not required as a rule of worship. It was chiefly appropri- ate to deep humiliations and expressions of shame or sorrow upon some very remarkable occasion, but was not the general practice of the church.!^ Sitting in prayer, according to Bingham, was never allowed in the ancient church. It was universally regarded as an irreverent and heathenish posture in these devotions 5. The lifting up of the hands. This was a common rite in pa- gan worship, but with the christian fathers it was peculiarly signifi- cant as an emblem of the cross, designed to assist them in holding 224 PRAYERS AiND PSALMODY OF THE CHURCH. in lively remembrance Christ crucified. Occasionally the hands were clasped together in prayer. In regard to the covering of the head, the church strictly observed the rule given by the apostle, 1 Cor. xi, requiring the men to be un- covered, and the women to wear their appropriate covering in prayer. In this their custom was directly opposed to that of both Jews and Gentiles. With them, to appear with the head covered, denoted freedom and independence. But the Christian, as the servant of the Lord, appeared uncovered^ in token of his humility and dependence. From the period of the second century it was customary, both in the Eastern and Western church to pray facing towards the easl^ contrary to the custom of the Jews who prayed towards the west, 1 Kings 8: 4. 2 Chron. 29: 6. Dan. 6: 10. The altars of the chris- tian churches were situated towards the east, and the dead were buried so that the eye might be turned in the same direction. The reason for all this seems to have been derived from the ceremonies of baptism, in which they were accustomed to turn towards the west as the region of darkness, where the prince of darkness might be supposed to dwell and solemnly to renounce the devil and his works ; and then to turn about to the east and enter into covenant with Christ. They might, therefore, very naturally suppose that in prayer they ought to direct themselves to God in the same manner in which they first entered into covenant with him.^^ Of the time for prayer. Christ and his apostles give no specific instructions, but generally, to pray at all times, and in every place. But it became, in the second and third centuries, a prevalent senti- ment in the church, that every Christian ought to pray three times a day ; at the third, sixth and ninth hour, corresponding to the hours of nine, twelve and three o'clock. For the observance of these hours they had certain mystical reasons drawn from the doctrine of the trinity. The third being emblematical of the trinity, and the sixth and ninth being formed by repetitions ofthree.^'^ But Tertul- lian and Cyprian both urge the propriety of morning and evening prayer, at the rising and setting of the sun, in remembrance of the sun of righteousness whose absence we have so much occasion to deplore, and in whose light we must rejoice. The Apostolical Con- stitutions also prescribe the offering of prayers five, six, and even seven times a dav.^^ ANCIENT PSALMODY. 22£ As a specimen of the ancient psalmody of the church, the follow- ing hymn from Ambrose is inserted, with bishop Mant's version of it.— 0pp. T. II. H. 8. Aetenia Cfiristi munera Et niartyniin victorias, Laurles ferentes debitas, Laetis canatmis ineutibus. Ecclesiarum principes, Belli trill mphales duces, Caelestis auiae tnilites, Et vera nnuidi lumina. Terrore victo saecuii Spretisque poenis corporis. Mortis sacrae compendio, Vitam beatam possident. Traduntur igni martyres, Et bestiarum dentibus, Armata saevit unguJis Tortoris insani manus. Nudata pendent viscera, Sanguis sacratus funditur, Sed permanent inimobiles Vilae percnnis gratia. Devota sanctorum fides, Invicta spes credentium ; Perfecta Christi caritas, Mundi triumpbat principem. In his paterna gloria, In his voluntas filii, Exsultat in his Spiritus, Caelum repletur gaudiis. Te nunc, redemtor, quaesumus, Ut ipsorum consortio Jungas precantes servuios, In sempiterua saecula. Amen. Bishop Manfs Version. Lord, who didst bless thy chosen band. And forth commissioned send. To spread thy name from land to land, To thee our hymns ascend. The princes of thy church were they. Chiefs unsubdued by fight. Soldiers on earth of heaven's array. The world's renewing light. Theirs the firm fiiith of holy birth. The hope that looks above. And, trampling on the powers of earth, Their Saviour's perfect love. 29 226 PRAYERS AND PSALMODY OF THE CHURCH. In them the heavens exulting own The Father's might revealed, Thy triumph gaiuM, begotten Son, Thy Spirit's influence sealed. Tlien to thy Father, and to Thee, And to thy Spirit blest, All praise for these thy servants be By all thy church addrest. The most ancient hymn of the primitive church extant, is that of Clement of Alexandria, which is given below. ^To^iov TTcolcov aduojv, JJjfQov oQvi&cov unXavojv, Ola$ ftjnlcov aiQixrjg, Iloifiijv agvwv (Saailiy.ixjv ' Tovg aovg acpsXiig naldctg aysiQov, Alvsiv uyiwg, T^ivtiv adolwg, Axaxoig azofiuaiv Ilaldwv 7jyrjtogu Xgiaiov. StxaiXsv tt/mv, ytoys navSanuTmq natgog viplajov, Soqilag Tigvrttvi,, Szi'igiy^a novav Aioivoxage;, Bgotiag ysvEug ^wreg Irjaov, noip]v^ agoTijQ, Utsgov ovguviov JJavayovg noi^vrig ' AXitv [isgonoiv Tav (Tw^oiiiveav^ IlsXayovg xaxiag 'iX&vg uyvovg KvfiUTog fj^^^oi' Fraenum pullorum indocilium, Penna vohicrum non errantium, Verus clavus infantium, Pastor agnorum regalium, Tuos simplices. Pueros congrega, Ad sancte laudandum : Sincere canendum Ore innoxio Christum puerorum ducem. Rex sanctorum, Verbum, qui domas omnia, Patris altissimi, Sapientiae rector, Laborum sustentaculum, Aevo gaudens, Humani generis Servator Jesu, Pastor, arator, Clavus, fraenum, Penna coelestis Sanctissimi gregis. Piscator hominum, Qui salvi fiunf, Pelagi vitii Pisces castos Unda ex infesta ANCIENT HYMN. 227 'Hyov, ngo^draiv AoyiKwv notfiijV "Ayu tjyov BaaiXsv naldiov ocPEnucpoiV. "lyvia Xoiaiov, ^Odog oiQtxvla, Aoyoq uevaog, AloiV anXsTog, fpaig u'idiov, ^EUovg nriyi], '^Pmji]Q uQiTi]g' 2t[ivi} /5(0Tj) Oiov vuvovvTMV, Xqiote rr,(Tov, Fala ovQixviov Maaiwv yXvxfnwv Nvpcfvig yagiiav, 2ocf)iag t»j$ (T^? ix&Xi^o^nvov. Oi vrjTiiaxoi 'AtttXolg ai6p.a(nv 'AnTaXX6[j,n'oi, OrjXijg Xoyixyjg JIViV^iaTL 8qo(ti§ie New Testament-of Chr.st s first ;nd second coming, of his incarnation and passion, of the resur- rection, and of the end of the world, of the day of jud.mer.t, of the rewards of the just, and the punishment of the wicked ; and, above all, of the blessed Trinity, which is the principal article of the chris- tian faith."! c 1 ^ A In like manner Chrysostom in reminding his hearers of the lead- ing topics of religious discourse which all who frequent the house of God expect and demand, enumerates the followmg : " The nature of the soul, of the body, of immortality, of the kmgdom of heaven, ot hell and of future punishment-of the long-suffering of God, of re- pentance, baptism, and the pardon of sin-of the creation of the world above, and the world below-of the nature of men and of an- „els-evil spirits and of the wiles of Satan-of the constitution of christian society, of the true faith, and deadly heresies. With these and many other such like subjects must the christian minister be ac- quainted, and be prepared to speak on them as occasion may re- quire." ■ , • r r The following extract comprising a brief recapitulation ot some ot the leading facts in relation to the devotions of the primitive Chris- tians in social and public worship, may be acceptable to the common reader. " Under a conviction that social meetings held at the commence- ment and at the close of every day, would prove an admirable pre- paralion for the duties and trials of ordinary life, they adopted the practice of having morning and evening service daily in the church. The hours were fixed so as not to interfere with the routine of ordmary business. Long before daylight, they assembled and opened their meeting with the 63d Psalm, the exordium of which, ' O God, thou art my^God, early will I seek thee,' as well as the whole strain of that pious effusion, made it an appropriate commencement of the du- ties of every day. They then united in prayer, the burden of which was a supplication for the divine blessing and favor on the mem- hers of the household of faith, and for the extension of the Redeem- er's kingdom. This was followed by the reading of a short and ap- propriate passage of Scripture, after which they sang the 90th Psalm, so pathetically descriptive of the frailty and uncertainty of life, and then embodied their sentiments on this subject in a second prayer, in 248 OF HOMILIES. which they expressed their sense of dependence on the care of the Ahniorhty, and their gratitude for their common preservation during the previous night. Another portion of the Divine Word being read, the whole service — scarcely, if ever, exceeding the limits of an hour — was brought to a close by the singing of the 51st Psalm, and a corresponding prayer, in both of which they implored the divine mer- cy to pardon the sins of their past life, and the divine grace to help them amid the exigencies of their future course. " The evening service was conducted on the same plan as that of the antelucan meeting, only diversified, of course, by a set of psalms, and a strain of devotional sentiments appropriate to the change of time and circumstances. It began with the 141st Psalm, and a pray- er, in which, like the corresponding one in the morning oblation, the divine love was supplicated on the brethren, an extract from the Gos- pels or Epistles was read, and after this, as the evening meeting generally took place at the time of lighting candles, they sung a hymn in which they gave thanks both for natural and spiritual light, and then prayed a second time for a continuance of the bounty and grace of the Lord. Such were the pious habits of the primitive Chris- tians, that not content with the devotions of the family and the closet, they attended duly as the season returned, the celebration of morn- ing and evening service in the church. Nor was it only the more devout and zealous of them that pursued this daily routine of reli- gious observances. The place of worship was thronged with all ranks of the faithful as much during the morning and evening service, as during that of the Sabbath, and they would have afforded good rea- son to suspect the sincerity of their religious profession, who should in those days of christian simplicity and devotedness, have confined themselves to the hebdomadal ordinance of the sanctuary. Persons who from sickness, or travelling, or confinement in prison, were pre- vented from enjoying the privilege of repairing to the assembly of their brethren, carefully observed in private those hours of daily prayer ; and men, whose time was engrossed during the day with the labors of the field or the shop — with the speculations of commerce, or the offices of civil and judicial stations, ' rose early before day, and never engaged in any of their most necessary and ordinary worldly business, before they had consecrated the first-fruits of all their ac- tions and labors to God, by going to church, and presenting them- selves in the divine presence.' lord's day kept A3 A FESTIVAL. 249 " Bul the principal season of public worship among the primitive Christians was the first day of the week. From the time of the apos- tles, it was customary for the disciples of Christ, both in town and country, to meet in some common accessible place on tlie return of that day ; and while on other occasions, such as those we have de- scribed, it was left to every one to frequent the assemblies of the brellu'en as inclination dictated or convenience allowed, the sanction of apostolic example at once elevated attendance on the relig40us meetings of that period to the rank of a sacred duty, and an invalu- able privilege. The high and holy character the Christians of the primitive age attached to it, is sufficiently indicated by their styling it the Lord's Day ; and, from the glorious event of which it was the stated memorial, they hailed it as a weekly festival, on which no other senti- ment was becoming or lawful but that of unbounded spiritual joy. Hence fasting, wliich was so frequently practised in the ancient church, and was allowable on every other day, was strictly prohibited on this ; and even the most rigid of the primitive Christians, who sought to aim at more than ordinary heighlsof virtue by the practice of auster- ity and mortification, laid aside their habitual aspect of sorrow, as in- consistent with the joyful feelings that season inspired. With one ac- cord they dedicated it to the worship of their exalted Redeemer, and to meditation on things pertaining to the common salvation ; and the spiritual views with which they entered on its observance, the conge- nial tempers with which all repaired to the place of assembly, the common desire that animated every bosom to seek the Lord there, if haply they might find him, and to hold fellowship with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ, was at once an evidence and a means of the high-toned piety that distinguished them. Early on the Sat- urday, it was their practice to accomplish the duties of their house- hold, and fulfil the necessary demands of their business, so that no secular care might disturb the enjoyment of the sacred day, or im- pede the current of their spiritual affections ; and severe indeed was the indisposition, remote the situation, imperious the cause, that de- tained any from the scenes and occupations the first day of the week brought along with it. So long as heathenism retained the ascend- ant, and the disciples of the new and rival religion were at the mer- cy of their pagan masters, it was only during the night, or early in tlie morning, they could enjoy the privileges of the christian Sab- bath ; nor could they observe any regular order in their service, at 'S2 250 OF HOMILIES. a time when the voice of psalms was liable to betray the secret as- sembly,— and the ruthless soldier often dispersed the brethren in the middle of their devotions, or compelled them to leave a glowing ex- hortation unfinished. But the moment the sword of persecution was sheathed, and the religion of Jesus enjoyed the tolerant smiles of a heathen, or the paternal auspices of a Christian emperor, the Chris- tians resumed their much valued assemblies on the Lord's day, — es- tablished a certain order in the routine of their service, suited to the constitution and circumstances of the primitive church ; and such was the happy understanding among the brethren everywhere, that, with some trifling variations required in particular places, a beauti- ful uniformity in worship and discipline maybe said to have prevail- ed in all parts of the christian world. " Viewing the Lord's day as a spiritual festivity, a season on which their souls were speciallj' to magnify the Lord, and their spi- rits to rejoice in God their Saviour, they introduced the services of the day with psalmody, which was followed by select portions of the Prophets, the Gospels, and the Epistles ; the intervals between which were occupied by the faithful in private devotions. The men prayed with their heads bare, and the women were veiled, as became the modesty of their sex, both standing — a posture deemed the most decent, and suited to their e.xalted notions of the weekly solemnity — with their eyes lifted up to heaven, and their hands extended in the form of a cross, the better to keep them in remembrance of Him, whose death had opened up the way of access to the divine presence. The reading of the sacred volume constituted an important and in- dispensable part of the observance ; and the more effectually to im- press it on the memories of the audience, the lessons were always short, and of frequent recurrence. Besides the Scriptures, they were accustomed to read aloud several other books for the edifica- tion and interest of the people — such as treatises on the illustration of christian morals, by some pastor of eminent reputation and piety, or letters from foreign churches, containing an account of the state and progress of the gospel. This part of the service, — most neces- sary and valuable at a time when a large proportion of every con- gregation were unacquainted with letters, was performed at first by the presiding minister, but was afterwards devolved on an officer appointed for that object, who, when proceeding to the discharge of his duty, if it related to any part of the history of. Jesus, exclaimed ROUTINE OF SERVICE. 251 aloud to the people, ' Stand up — tlio gospels are going to be read ;' and then always commenced with, ' Thus saith the Lord.' They assumed this attitude, not only from a conviction that it was the most respectful posture in which to listen to the counsels of the King of kings, but with a view to keep alive the attention of the people— an object which, in some churches, was sought to be gained by the minister stopping in the middle of a scriptural quotation, and leaving the people to finish it aloud.* The discourses, founded for the .most part on the last portion of Scripture that was read, were short, plain, and extemporary exhortations, — designed chiefly to stir up the minds of the brethren by way of remembrance, and always prefaced by the salutation, ' Peace be unto you.' As they were very short — sometimes not extending to more than eight or ten minutes' dura- tion,—several of them were delivered at a diet, and the preacher was usually the pastor of the place, though he sometimes, at his discre- tion, invited a stranger, or one of his brethren, known to possess the talent of public speaking, to address the assembly. The close of the sermon by himself, which was always the last of the series, was the signal for the public prayers to commence. Previous to this solemn part of the service, however, a crier commanded infidels of any de- scription that might be present to withdraw, and the doors being clo- sed and guarded, the pastor proceeded to pronounce a prayer, the burden of which was made to bear a special reference to the cir- cumstances of the various classes who, in the primitive chi^rch, were not admitted to a full participation in the privileges of the faithful. First of all, he prayed in the name of the whole company of believers, for the catechumens — young persons, or recent converts from hea- thenism, who were passing through a preparatory course of instruc- tion in the doctrines and duties of Christianity, — that their under- standings might be enlightened — their hearts receive the truth in the love of it — and that they might be led to cultivate those holy habits of heart and life, by which they might adorn the doctrine of God their Saviour. Next he prayed for the penitents, who were under- going the discipline of the church, that they might receive deep and permanent impressions of the exceeding sinfulness of sin, — that they might be filled with godly sorrow, and might have grace, during the * Augustine, for instance, having introduced in one of his sermons these words of Paul — Tkc end of the commandment is charity, — stopped; and the whole people immediately cried out— out of a pure heart. 252 OF CATECHETICAL INSTRUCTION. appointed term of their probation, to bring forth fruits meet for repen- tance. In Hke manner, he made appropriate supplications for other descriptions of persons, each of whom left the church when the class to which he belonged had been commended to the God of all grace ; and then the brethren, reduced by these successive departures to an approved company of the faithful, proceeded to the holy service of communion."* — Jamieson, pp. 115 — 121. CHAPTER XIII. OF THE CATECHETICAL INSTRUCTIONS. No very clear distinction can be drawn between the homilies and catechetical lessons of the fathers. The terms are applied inter- changeably, in some instances, to the same productions. The cate- chetical lessons were familiar instructions given to candidates for baptism, or to persons who had just received that ordinance ; and varied very much according to the age, character, and circumstances of the catechumens. Sometimes they were of a doctrinal, and at others of a popular character ; and again, they were adapted more especially to the young ; just as the instructions of the missionary are necessarily qualified by the circumstances of the people to whom he goes, or the particular class whom he may chance to address. But in either case they are strictly catechetical. The nature of these instructions in the ancient church was greatly modified by the general introduction of infant baptism, in conse- * In the East, where multitudes of the Christians were Jews, who still re- tained a passionate attachment to the law of Moses, Saturday was long ob- served as a day of public worship, though not regarded by the Christians in the same light and of the same character with the first day of the week. — Wednesday and Friday began, at an early period, to be held as weekly fasts, ■which never terminated till three in the afternoon. A number of public fes- tivals were also introduced, in commernoraiion of tlie birth, ascension, and other events in the life of Christ, — some of which, Easter, for instance, can boast of a most venerable antiquity, and of universal observance. — See Routh's Reliquiae Sacrae, vol. iii. p. 236 ; and Nelson's Festivals. or CATECHETICAL INSTRUCTION. 25S quence of the corresponding change of tlie relations and institutions which attended tliis chanjre in the ordinance. The catechetical discourses of Cyril of Jerusalem, contain the most ancient and authentic summary of the doctrines of primitive Christianity. These the catechumens were expected to commit to memory and habitually to study as a compend of the Scriptures, and a substitute for them, to such as had not a Bible. Such was also the nature and interest of all subsequent formularies of this kind. They have a close analogy to the ancient symbols of the church, and were in many respects the same. The principal points of catechetical instruction, even when no catechism in form was used, was : 1. The Decalogue. The fathers in the church unitedly agreed in regarding this as essentially a summary of the Old Testament, and obligatory upon Christians. They were accordingly diligently taught this compend of the moral law. Pliny, in his famous epistle, has clearly declared how faithfully the primitive Christians observed this law, and the same is known from many authorities.^ Many of the fathers disagreed in the division of the law of the two tables, some making ten, others seven, etc. In regard to their dif- ferent views, see references.^ 2. The Si/mhoh.^ or Confessions of Faith, particularly that which is styled the Apostles' Creed. In relation to these which have been the subject of so much discussion, it may be sufficient briefly to re- mark, that from the earliest organization of the church, some confes- sion and rule of faith must evidently have been necessary.^ This rule of faith must have been derived from the teaching, either oral or written, of the apostles ; and may have been earlier than ihe writings of the New Testament in their present form. Luke 1: 1 — 4, Gal. 1: 11. As the preaching of the apostles preceded their written instructions, so an oral confession may have preceded a written one, comprising an epitome of the gospel.^ From such a source may- have sprung the great variety of forms which were known previous to the council of Nice. The various creeds and symbols which have been framed since that period, are only so many modifications of the apostles' creed.* For a notice of these creeds see reference.^ * The most ancient creed extant is that of Ircnaeus. This venerable document is here inserted for the gratification of the curious inquirer. " The church, though it be dispersed over all the world, from one end of 254 OF CATECHETICAL INSTRUCTION. 3. The Lorcfs Prayer comprised a part of the catechetical in- structions. This was used in baptism, and, after Gregory the Great, at the sacrament of the Lord's supper. It was regarded as a sum- mary of the proper topics of prayer. 4. While the secret mysteries of the church were continued, in- structions respecting the sacrament could not have been publicly given. But from the time when the introduction of infant baptism changed the style of catechetical instructions, they must have in- cluded the subjects of baptism, absolution, and the Lord's supper. the earth to the other, has received from the apostles and their disciples the belief in one God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, the sea, and all things in them : and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who was incarnate for our salvation : and in the Holy Ghost, who preached by the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advent {xdg slfvasig, adventum, Jnt. vet.), nativity of a virgin, passion, resurrection from the dead, and bod- ily ascension into heaven of the flesh of his beloved Son Christ Jesus our Lord, and his coming again from heaven in the glory of the Father, to restore (dpaxs In worldly things men observe greater caution, so that he is intrusted with divine things, to whom those of earth are not confided."! * Addi his etiam potest, ut requiratur quid causae sit, cum baptisma eccle- siae pro remissione peccatorum detur sccunduvi ecdesiae observanliam etiam parvulis dari baptlsmum. Homil. 8. in Levit. Opp. T. VI. p. 137. ed. Olerth. Ecclesia ab apostolis traditionem suscepit, etiam parvulis baptismum dare. Sciebant enim illi, quibus mysteriorum secreta commissa sunt divinorum, quia essent in omnibus genuinae sordes peccati, quae per aquam et spiritura ablui deberent: propter quas etiam corpus ipsum corpus peccati nominatur. —In Rom. L. V. c. 9. t Pro cujusque personae conditione ac dispositione, etiam aetate, cuncta- tio baptismi utilior est ; praecipue tamen circa parvulos. Quid enim neces- se est, sponsores etiam periculo ingeri ? Quia et ipsi, per mortalitatem des- tituere promissiones suas possunt, et proventu make indolis, falli. Ait qui- dem Dominus, " Nolite illos prohibere ad me venire." Veniant ergo, dum adolescant. Veniant, dum discunt;dum, quo veniant, docentur. Fiant christiani quum Christum nosse potuerint. Quid festinat innocens aetas ad remissionem peccatorum? Cautius agitur in secularibus ; ut cui substan- tia terrena non creditur, divina credatur.— I>e Baptisvw, c. 18. 264 OF BAPTISM. Whatever were the particular views of Tertullian on other reli- gious subjects, he is sufficiently explicit in opposing infant baptism as a prevailing custom. He flourished some years before Origen, and in less than one hundred years of the apostolic age. Within this brief period it appears, therefore, that the rite of infant baptism is observed with such superstitious care as to call forth from him these severe animadversions — and that too, without any intimation that his own church is peculiar in their observance of this rite, or that there, was any example in favor of the correction for which he pleads. Indeed, it deserves particular notice that Tertullian neither refers to the authority of Scripture, nor to the usage of the church in opposition to the baptism of infant children. Is it possible that this father of tradition could have overlooked so important a point had there been any authority, usage, or tradition, in favor of his own peculiar views ? Next in order, and at an age still nearer to the apostles lived Ire- naeus, bishop of Lyons. By some he is believed to have been born before the death of John the Evangelist, others, perhaps with great- er probability, assign this event to a period somewhat later. It is however agreed that he lived, in early life, in Asia Minor, and en- joyed the friendship, and received the instructions of Polycarp, the disciple of John. He therefore received apostolical instructions through the tradition of a single individual, the venerable martyr, Polycarp. What then does he say in relation to the subject before us ? — That Christ " came to save all persons through himself — all, I say, who through him are regenerated unto God ; infants, and little ones, and children, and youth, and the aged. Therefore, he passed through the several stages of life, being made an infant for infants, that he might sanctify infants ; and for little ones a little one, to sanc- tify them of that age."* The relevancy of this celebrated passage turns wholly on the meaning of the phrase— regenerated unto God. If in this expression, the author has reference to baptism., nothing can be plainer than that the passage relates to infant baptism. It is indeed a vexed passage. * Oinne3 venit per semetipsum salvare, omnes inquam, qui, per eum, re- nasmntur in Dcrim ; infantes, et parvulos, et piieros, et juvenes, et seniores. Ideo per omnem venit aetatem ; et infantibus, infans factus, sanctificans in- fantes; in parvulis, parvulus ; sanctificans hanc ipsam habentes aetatem. — Lib. 2. c. 39. (Lib. 2. c. 22. § 4.) INFANT BAPTISM. 265 But it has been shown by writers on this subject, that this form of expression, ?'C?Jcrsnm/?anrt^« xvqIov as sy- nonymous with S^v(n«(jTJjgi.ov, an allar. We are constrained, there- fore, to believe that a table was set apart for this sacred purpose, like that of the shew-bread, a mensa mystica, a table sacred to the purpose of celebrating the Lord's supper. 3. The following scriptural expressions are also employed in a sense partly literal and partly figurative, to denote the sacrament : bread, — the breaking of bread, Acts 2: 42. 20: 7 comp. 27: 35. Luke 24:^35 — the eating of bread, John 6: 23 — the Lord''s body, or his flesh, John 6: 53 — the cup of the Lord, 1 Cor. 10: 21 — the cup of the New Testament, Luke 22: 20. 1 Cor. 10: 21 — bJood. The custom o( breaking the bread, and of administering but one element, has been derived from the foregoing passages. 4. The new testament in my blood, Luke 22: 20. 1 Cor. 11: 25. It has, however, been disputed whether this phrase can, with propri- ety, be applied to the sacrament of the Lord's supper. 5. Communion, xoivwvia, communio. This is by far the most common appellation of the solemnity in question. It has been cur- rent in all ages, and among all parties. It has been used, both in a doctrinal and mystical sense ; and in an historical and ecclesiastical signification. In a doctrinal sense, it has been supposed to represent our recon- ciliation to God, and our union with him. Others have supposed it to represent our union and fellowship with Christ. This participa- tion with him, according to some, is through his presence in the ele- ments. Others understand by it the union of believers in spirit, with their spiritual head ; and others, again, the union of believers among themselves in the bonds of christian love. In an historical and ecclesiastical sense, communion denotes a participation in all the mysteries of the christian religion, and, of course, church-fellowship, with all its rites and privileges. Hence the term excommunication. In a liturgical sense it denotes, sometimes the partaking of the sa- crament, and sometimes the administration of it. 6. Agapae, a/dmui, or ayanj]. love feast, feast of heaven. The expression in Jude 12. 2 Pet. 2: 13, may refer either to the Lord's supper, or to the festival accompanying it. 7. Eucharist, Bvxaqidtia, a very ancient and general appellation. 294 OF THE lord's supper. founded on the scriptural expression svxctQKrtrjaag, Matt. 26: 27. Mark 14: 23. Luke 22: 19. 1 Cor. 11: 24. The name eucharist, thanks-giving, was applied to this ordinance, because gratitude for the divine mercy and grace is the chief requisite in those who par- take of it.'* 8. Evloyitt, celebratio laudis, benediciio, thanksgiving, synony- mous with the preceding, Matt. 26: 26. Mark 14: 22. 1 Cor. 10: 16. After the fifth century, this became the name for the consecrated bread which was set apart for the poor, and for the ministers of the church. 9. ngo(jq)OQa, ohlatio, oblation. The literal signification of this word is, a sacrificial offering, corresponding to the Hebrew nn:73 , and the Syriac corban. It finally became synonymous with n:3T , ■&v(jIu, a saa^ifice. It is applied to the elements used in celebrating the Lord's supper. The later Greek writers used the word uvaqjOQu, in a moral, rather than a literal sense, in allusion to the customary exhortation, sursum corda! " Lift up your hearts." The leading idea of the Latin, offertormm^ is a voluntary offering ; but it appears to have been applied especially to the consecrated bread.^ 10. Ovaia, sacrifice. This term is, with great propriety, used by early christian writers to denote the sacrifice of the body and blood of Christ, once offered for the sins of the world.^ Other epithets of a similar import are sacrificimn spiritvale, sanctum, mysiicum, ra- tionale, etc, but more frequently, d-vaiu uvaixf/ajog, the bloodless sa- crifice. After the seventh century, it began to be used to designate the mass, which was offered in the Roman Catholic church for the dead, and accordingly fell into disuse with the evangelical church. 11. Mvan'iQLov, myslerium, mystery. This, coupled with the ad- jectives, (pfjixTov qiQiy.Mdeg, cpQiy.wdeaxaTov, etc., awful, tremendoxis, is familiar phraseology with Chrysostom and Gregory Nazianzen ; but they seem to use it with reference to the ritual, rather than to any implied doctrine. The Lord's supper, as the last and most sol- emn rite of the secret discipline, was styled by Pseudo-Dionysius, rtXiTTtV TsXstbJv,'^ perfection of perfections. The name nvaxi]Qiov, which this ordinance received from its connection with the secret discipline, became the favorite phrase for setting forth the wonderful presence of the body and blood of Christ, which finally ended in the doctrine of transubstantiation.^ 12. MvaxaYMyitt, used by Cyril of Jerusalem and Theodoret, with NAMES OF THE SACRAMENT. 295 special reference to the secret discipline. After the termination of that system, it appears not to have been used by evangelical writers. 13. ^'vvu^ig, i. e. avvnymyi], congregation coeLus,conventus sacer, a solemn assembly. This phrase is of similar import with that of communion, with the additional idea of a solemn and public transac- tion. It indicates that this, in the primitive church, was the most important and solemn act of public worship. 14. 'lEQovQyltt, operatic sacra, sacred ministration. Supposed to have been derived from the expression, ministering the gospel of God, Rom. 15: 16 ; and used in the same general and figurative sense. 15. JsnovQ/la, public service, liturgy. This, and its kindred terms, as used in the New Testament, relates to the service of the priesthood ; and was, probably, used in the same sense by Chrysos- tom and Theodoret, etc. It became, however, the practice, both in the Eastern and Western churches, to apply this epithet to the sacra- ment of the Lord's supper. But in the Roman Catholic church, it finally gave place to the name mass. 16. Mass. This word has undergone a change from its simple origin and meaning, to another, more entirely ditierent in use and signification than any other. Passing by various theories respecting the origin of this word which have been advanced and refuted, it will be sufficient briefly to set forth its true etymology. The word is undoubtedly derived from the Latin missa, which stands for missio, or dimissio populi, with direct reference to the an- cient mode of dismissing the people at the close of religious worship. From being a participle, it has become a noun substantive, for missio like remissa, ae, for remissio, or offensa, ae, for offensio. By the secret discipline of the ancient church, none but believers were permitted to be present at the celebration of the Lord's supper. During a certain portion of religious worship all were allowed, in- discriminately, to attend. At the close of this part of the service, the catechumens and unbelievers of every description, were dismis- sed by the deacon who said, Ite ! missa est sc. ecclesia, Depart ! the assembly is dismissed. From this custom the religious service, which had just been concluded, was called missa catechumenorum. the service of the catechumens. Then followed the 7nissa Jidelium, the service of the faithful, or of believers. Hence the change from missa to mass, the latter being only a slight modification of the form- er word. 296 OF THE lord's supper. Protestants have uniformly rejected this term with abhorrence, be- cause of the abuses which, under this name, have been connected with the sacrament, both in ancient and modern times, whilst they have protested against the charge of a want of regard for the real missa or mass of the primitive church. The above is a brief summary of the author's remarks on the sub- ject of mass. The reader is referred to various authorities in the index.9 17. Sacramentum altaris, sacrament of the altar. This phrase is used in common by the Greek, Roman, and Lutheran churches. Bui the reformed church reject the phrase, because of their aversion to the word altar. But, without the addition of the word altar, that of sacrament alone has, very generally, been used to denote the ordinance in question, this being the principal rite of religious worship; and, by way of emphasis, denominated the sacrament. 18. Besides the foregoing appellations in common use, and having a peculiar signification, there are many others of less frequent oc- currence, and more general character, the knowledge of which may be of importance as conveying ideas respecting the nature, signifi- cancy, dignity, and efficacy of the ordinance which they describe. The most of these are derived from relations of the bread and the wine ; the body and blood of Christ. In this point of view the holy sacrament is represented as spiritual nourishment, the life and strength of the soul, etc. The terms body and blood, food and drink, bread and wine, were at first used in the same sense. Afterwards, in consequence of the prevailing custom of administering only one element, these terms were separated, and the ordinance was denoted by the appellations of body, food, bread, or blood, drink, wine, etc. The following are some of the expressions in question. 1. Corpus Christi, body of Christ. 2. Cibus Dei, s. Domini, food of God or the Lord. 3. Cibus coelestis, heavenly food. 4. Cibus angelorum, angels' food. 5. Cibus viatorum, mortalium, aegrotorum, food of travellers, mortals, the sick, etc. 6. Manna coelestis, heavenly manna. 7. Panis super substantialis, equivalent to living bread or bread in- deed. The expression " our daily bread," in our Lord's prayer^ was applied to the consecrated bread. Hence the expression above. NAMES OF THE SACRAMENT. 297 8. Panis Dei, s. Domini, bread of God. 9. Panis vitae, bread of life. 10. Pariis coelcstis, heavenly bread. 11. £(f6diov, viaticum, provisions for a journey. It was an ancient custom to administer the sacrament to the sick in the last stages of life, and also to put the sacred elements in the coffin of the deceased. Hence the appellation above. Death was, to the ancient Christian, a journey from this to the eternal world, and the sacrament fur- nished the needful provisions for that journey. But the custom of administerinff the sacrament to the <3ying, was finally abandoned. 12. Mfiixl^naiq, participation, communion, i. e. with samts or with Christ, etc. 13. 'Aq6di,3o,v, u()^a^o}v t?";? ntXlovfftjg 'Cmjg, pledge, pledge of eter- nal life, 2 Cor. 1: 22. 5: 6, and Eph. 1: 14. 14. fPuQuuxov u&ttvaaloig, avilSoTog zov fii] uno&avBiv, medicamen- turn, medicina corporis el mentis, purgalorium, amuletum, and other phrases, expressive of medicinal properties for the soul. 15. Sacramentum pads, the reconciling ordinance, a favorite ex- pression of Chrysostom. 16. The terms applied to baptism were often transferred to the Lord's supper, such as isQovgyla, (iv(jir,Qiov, already mentioned ; to Kftiig, i) L,wi], rj(jMTn'.>. 348 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. tions of heathenism. From various causes, ihen, partly arising from the peculiar circumstances of the times, partly traceable to the gen- eral corruption of human nature, the primitive Christians were ever and anon distressed with the discovery of offences committed by some of their body against the name or the principles of Jesus ; and accordingly, one branch of their manners that presents itself pre- eminently to our notice, throughout the whole of their history, is the mode of treatment they observed towards their erring or fallen brethren. That treatment was characterised by a rigor and an impartiality to which the discipline of succeeding ages has seldom furnished a parallel ; and indeed it is not wonderful, that they who adopted such extraordinary means to prevent the introduction of vicious or un- worthy men into the church, should have been equally anxious for the stern and unsparing exclusion of all who were afterwards found wanting in the requisite qualities of faith and holiness. Whatever other faults the primitive Christians fell into at different periods, at no time did they lay themselves open to the imputation of laxity. On the contrary, so much did a severe and inflexible virtue regulate the terms of membership, during the whole period within which they flourished, that no sin, whether of that scandalous description that outrages every feeling of decency, or of that milder character that implies only an inconsistency with the spirit of the gospel, was al- lowed to pass, without receiving a due measure of censure or con- demnation. Each successive age, though it added in many other respects to the religious observances of the preceding, transmitted the ancient discipline of the church unimpaired to posterity, and en- deavored to preserve the christian society as a sacred enclosure, within whose precincts nothing unclean or unholy was permitted to enter or continue. 2. Tenderness and sorroio for the offender. But however firm and vigorous the hand with which they wielded the reins of disci- pline, they always tempered the infliction with the affectionate spirit of christian love, and combined unqualified detestation of the sin with lively pily and concern for the sinner. While, in executing that painful duty, they knew no man after the flesh, — would have ad- dressed the language of reproof, — or passed the sentence of a long exile from the community of the faithful on their dearest earihly friend, if he deserved it, — they mourned over the fall of an erring RECAFITULATION. 349 disciple as much as if they had been suffering a personal or family bereavement. The day on which such a doom was sealed, was a season of universal and bitter lamentation. The aged considered themselves as having lost a son or a daughter— the young, as having been severed from a brother or sister. Every one felt that a tie had been broken, and that an event had occurred which could be consid- ered in no other light than as a dire and wide-spread calamity. Be- fore, however, they allowed matters to reach that painful extremity, they never failed to resort to every means, in private, of reproving and admonishing the brother whom they saw to be in fault ; and it was not till after they had tried all the arts of persuasion, and their repeated efforts had proved unavailing, that they brought the case under the notice of the church, and subjected the offender to that severe and impartial ordeal which few but the most daring and incor- rigible had the hardihood to abide. It is scarcely possible for us, who live in a slate of society so different, to conceive the tremen- dous effect of a sentence which cut off an obstinate offender from all connection with the church, and which, being solemnly pronounced in the name of God, seemed to anticipate the award of the judgment day. Looking upon the fallen disciple from that moment as an en- emy of Christ and a servant of the devil, the brethren avoided his presence as they would have fled from plague or pestilence. They were forbid to admit him to their house, to sit with him at table, or to render him any of the ordinary offices of life, — and the man who should have been detected in liis company, would have run the haz- ard of bringing his own character into suspicion, and of being thought a guilty partner of the other's sins. 3. Tremendous effects of excomvmnication. Few, but those in whom loog habits of secret wickedness had almost obliterated every religious feeling, could remain long undisturbed and tranquil in a state which, considered as forsaken by God as well as by man, was at- tended with such a tremendous load of present misery, — and which imagination associated with the terrors of a dark and unknown futu- rity. The hearts even of the most hardened, if they bore up for a while, through their corrupt nature, and the love of their sinful prac- tices, soon felt this unnatural boldness give way, and becoming alive to all the wretchedness of an e.xcommunicated state, — the un- happy sinners, like persons standing on the brink of despair, placed themselves again at the gate of the church, and implored, in the 350 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. most importunate and abject manner, to be delivered from a condi- tion which was more dreadful than death itself. From day to day they repaired to the cloisters, or the roofless area of the church, — for no nearer were they allowed to approach it, — and there they stood, in the most humble and penitent attitude, with downcast looks, and tears in their eyes, and smiting on their breasts ; or threw them- selves on the ground at the feet of the fliithful, as they entered to worship, begging an interest in their sympathies and their prayers, — confessing their sins, and crying out that they were as salt which had lost its savor, fit only to be trodden under foot. For weeks and months they often continued in this grovelling state, receiving from the passengers nothing but the silent expressions of their pity. Not a word was spoken, in the way either of encouragement or exhorta- tion ; for during these humiliating stations at the gate, the offenders were considered rather as candidates for penance than as actually penitents. When at last they had waited a sufficient length of time in this state of affliction, and the silent observers of their conduct were satisfied that their outward demonstrations of sorrow proceeded from a humble and contrite spirit, (he rulers of the church admitted them within the walls, and gave them the privilege of remaining to hear the reading of the Scriptures and the sermon. The appointed time for their continuance among the hearers being completed, they were advanced lo the third order of penitents^ whose privilege it was to wait until that part of the service when the prayers for particular classes were offered up, and to hear the petitions which the minister, with his hands on their heads, and themselves on their bended knees, addressed to God on their behalf, for his mercy to pardon and his grace to help them. In due time they were allowed to be present at the celebration of the communion, and the edifying services that accompanied it ; after witnessing which, and offering, at the same time, satisfactory proofs of that godly sorrow which is unto salvation, the term of penance ended. 4. Duration of hanisliment from the church. The duration of this unhappy banishment from the peace and communion of the church lasted for no fixed time, but was prolonged or shortened according to the nature of the crime, and the promisirjg character of the offen- der. The ordinary term was from two to five years. But in some cases of gross and aggravated sin, the sentence of excommunication extended to ten, twenty, and thirty years ; and even in some cases, RECAPITULATION. 351 though rarely, to the very close of life. During the whole progress of their probation, tlie penitents appeared in sackcloth and ashes, — the men were obliged to cut off their hair, and the women to veil them- selves, in token of sorrow. They were debarred from all the usual comforts and amusements of life, and obliged to observe frequent seasons of fasting,— an exercise which, in the ancient church, especially among the Christians of the East, was deemed an indis- pensable concomitant of prayer. 5. Solemn manner of restoring offenders. On the day appointed for their deliverance from this humiliating condition, they came into the church in a penitential garb of sackcloth, and with a trembling voice and copious tears, took their station on an elevated platform, ■where, in presence of the assembled congregation, they made a pub- lic confession of their sins, and throwing themselves down on the ground, they besought them to forgive the scandal and reproach they had brought on the christian name, and to give them the bene- fit and comfort of their intercessory prayers. The brethren, moved with the liveliest emotions, at beholding one, to whom they had often given the kiss of peace, in so distressing a situation, fell on their knees along with him, and the minister, in the same attitude of pros- tration, laying his hands on the head of the penitent, supplicated, with solemn fervor, the divine compassion on him, and then raising him, placed him in the ranks of the faithful at the table of the commu- nion. This severe and protracted discipline, through which offenders, in the primitive church, were required to pass, — though several out- ward ceremonies usually entered as elements into the observance, was reckoned essentially a discipline of the mind ; and it was as different from the bodily mortification, in which the votaries of Papal Rome comprise the whole duty of penitents, as the life-giving spirit is from the senseless form. Two grand and important objects were contemplated in its appointment, — the one to check every sin in the bud, and prevent the contagion of an evil example ; for so jealous were the good and holy Christians of primitive times, of the least dishonor being done to their heavenly Master, or the smallest re- proach being cast on his cause, that they lost no time in excluding from their society every one who refused compliance with the pre- cepts of the gospel, or was not adorned with the fruits of its genuine and consistent disciples : — the other was to afford penitents sufficient 352 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. time to prove the sincerity of their sorrow, and to satisfy the church of their well-founded claims to enjoy its clemency and be restored to its privileges. It was the more necessary to adopt those measures of precaution, that in the days of primitive Christianity, multitudes, who from the ranks of idolatry came over to Christianity, retained a strong predilection for their early indulgences and habits, and were the occasion, by their vices and their crimes, of doing injury to the cause they embraced, to an extent of which we can scarcely form any idea. Accordingly, those who, under the pressure of severe sickness, or in the immediate prospect of death, were absolved and admitted to peace and communion, were, in the event of their re- covery, required to place themselves again in that stage of their dis- cipline at which they had arrived when arrested by their indisposition, and to complete the course in due order, as if no inlerruption had occurred ; while, on the other hand, the sins of some were consid- ered as of so black a hue, and involving such enormous guilt, that a life-time appearing far too short a time to enable them to bring forth fruits meet for repentance, they were doomed by a law, as unalter- able as the laws of the Medes and Persians, to live and die under the ban of the church. In regard to those cases where penitents, in the progress of their trials, relapsed into sin, they were degraded to a lower rank, and obliged to enter on the task of probation anew, — an obligation, however, which, in such circumstances, was at once a punishment, and a favor granted to them as an act of grace, in the spirit of christian tenderness, — disposed to forbear a little longer with their weakness. But when a person who had gone through the routine of penitential observances, and was restored to the privileges of full communion, repeated his crime, or was convicted of another, the opportunity of again placing himself in the order of penitents was inflexibly denied, and no importunities or tears on his part, — no in- fluence nor intercession on that of others, could open the gates of the church, which thenceforth were for ever shut against him. 6. Impartiality of this discipline — story of Theodosius. Nor was the discipline of the primitive church less distinguished for its im- partiality than its rigor. Never was it known that the shield of pro- tection was thrown over the head of a relative or a friend; never did a timid or time-serving policy lead its rulers to shrink from visit- ing with merited punishment the perpetrator of wickedness in high places. Let the offender be who or what he might, — whether old or RECAriTULATlON. 353 yotmg, a male member of the community, or one belonging to the gentler sex ; whether invested with the sacred office, or moving in the himibler sphere of an ordinary brother ; whether a poor me- chanic, or a christian prince, — ail were equally amenable to the laws ; all were doomed indiscriminately to abide the consequences of violating them ; all required to submit to the same tedious and searching ordeal, as the indispensable terms of their restoration to christian society. The following historical anecdote, out of rnany similar ones that might be adduced, affords so interesting and re- markable a proof, with how steady and equal a hand the reins of ancient discipline were wielded, that we are confident our readers will excuse its insertion. The emperor Theodosius, who flourished about the year 370, was a prince whose character was adorned with many virtues, and who added to the other excellent qualities that distinguished him, — a firm and sincere attachment to the gospel of Christ. As the best of men, however, have their besetting sins, and their inherent faults, Theodosius inherited the infirmity of a keen and impetuous temper, which, on several occasions, hurried him to the inconsiderate adoption of measures which he afterwards found cause bitterly to lament. The most memorable of these occasions was the affiiir of Thcssalonica. In that city of Macedonia, some enactments of the emperor had given so great and universal dissatis- faction to the inhabitants, that they assembled in an uproar, threat- ening to set the imperial orders at defiance, and sufficiently indicat- ing their determined spirit of resistance by an attack upon the gar- rison, which was signalized by the massacre of the commanding offi- cer, and several of the soldiery. The intelligence of this untoward event so incensed Theodosius, that he forthwith issued his mandate for reducing the whole city to ashes ; and the bloody edict would have been carried into prompt execution by the military, who par- ticipated in the feelings of their monarch, and breathed revenge for the loss of their slaughtered comrades, had not some christian bish- ops, by their powerful and importunate intercession, prevailed on the emperor reluctantly to recal his orders. The prime minister, however, was implacable, and by his incessant representations to his imperial master, that so ill-timed clemency would produce the greatest detriment to the public service, and weaken the hands of government especially in the provinces, succeeded in inducing The- odosius to reissue his command for exterminating the Thessalonians 45 354 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. with fire and sword. Seldom have the annals of history been stained with so foul a deed of perfidy and baseness. Proclamation having been made, that on a set day, the civil authorities would treat the populace to an exhibition of their favorite frames, a vast concourse assembled, and the moment all eyes were rivelted to the spot, ex- pecting the spectacle to commence, bands of soldiers rushed furi- ously from all quarters on the defenceless crowd, slauglitering all without distinction of age, sex, or condition. So dreadful was the massacre, that within three hours, 7000 people were stretched life- less on the ground. Meanwhile a messenger had been posting night and day from the palace with a commission to stop the proceedings, the emperor having no sooner consented to the massacre than he relented ; but the deputy did not arrive till the unfortunate Thessa- lonica had become a city of the dead, and Theodosius had to sustain in the eyes of God and man the guilt of such unparalleled cruelty. Not long after, circumstances occurred that rendered it necessary for the emperor to repair to Milan, when the celebrated Ambrose, bishop of the place, wrote him a letter, in which he severely re- proached him for his base and horrible treatment of the Thessaloni- ans. Nothing is known of the reception given to this letter, or of any further correspondence that may have passed between them on the subject, till, on the Lord's day, the emperor proceeding to public worship, Ambrose met him at the gates of the church, and peremp- torily refused to admit him. This proceeding of Ambrose, extraor- dinary as it may appear to us, could not have been surprising nor unexpected to his sovereign, who was well aware that the austere discipline of the times doomed offenders of every description to wail in the area or the porticoes of the church, and beg the forgiveness and the prayers of the faithful, ere they were permitted to reach the lowest station of the penitents. Self-love, however, or a secret pride in his exalted station, might perhaps have led Theodosius to hope that the ordinary severity of the church would be relaxed in his fa- vor,— more especially, as the act imputed to him as a crime was jus- tified by many urgent considerations of state policy; and under this delusion, he made for the church, never dreaming, it would seem, that whatever demur the minister of Christ might make, he would have the boldness to arrest the progress of an emperor in presence of his courtiers, and of the whole congregation. But the fear of man was never known to have made Ambrose flinch from his duty ; and, RECAPITULATION. 355 heedless of every consideration, but that of fidelity to the cause and the honor of his heavenly Master, he planted himself on the thresh- old of the church, and vowed, that neither bribes nor menaces would induce him to admit, into the temple of the God of peace, a royal criminal, red witli the blood of thousands, who were his brethren, — all of them by the ties of a common nature, — many of them by the bonds of a common faith. Theodosius, thus suddenly put on his self-defence, took refuge in the history of David, who was also a sovereign ; and who, though he had combined the guilt of adultery with that of murder, was yet pardoned and restored to favor by God himself, on the confession of his sins. " You have resembled David in his crime," replied the inflexible Ambrose, " resemble him also in his repentance." Self-convicted and abashed, the em[)eror aban- doned all further attempts ; and, returning to his palace, during eight months continued in a slate of excommunication from christian fellowship, bearing all the ignominy, and stooping to all the humili- ating acts required of those who underwent the discipline of the church. As the first annual season of communion approached, the anxiety of the emperor to participate in the holy rite became extreme. Often, in the paroxysms of his grief, did he say to the counsellor, who had advised the Draconic edict against the Thessalonians, " Servants and beggars have liberty to join in worship and commu- nion, but to me the church doors, and consequently the gates of heaven, are closed ; for so the Lord hath decreed, ' Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven.' " At length it was agreed between the prince and his favorite, that the latter should seek an interview with Ambrose, and endeavor to gain him over to employ a privilege of his order, — that of abridging, in certain cir- cumstances, the period appointed for the duration of church disci- pline. The eagerness of his royal master could not wait his return, and, meeting him on his way, he was greeted with the unwelcome intelligence, that the faithful bishop considered it a violation of his duty, to remit any part of the just censures of the church ; and that nothing but submission to the shame and degradation of a public confession of his sins could accomplish the object which was dearest to the heart of the royal penitent. On an appointed day, accord- ingly, Theodosius appeared in the church of Milan, clothed in sack- cloth ; and, acknowledging the heinousness of hi.5 offence, the just sentence by which he forfeited the communion of the faithful, and 356 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. the profound sorrow he now felt for having authorized so gross an outrage on the laws of heaven, and the rights of humanity, was re- ceived, with the unanimous consent of the whole congregation, once more info the bosom of christian society. Nothing can afford a bet- ter test of the simplicity and godly sincerity of the christian emperor> than his readiness to assume, in presence of his people, an attitude so humiliating. How deep must have been his repentance towards God,— how strong his faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, — and how many plausible reasons of personal honor and public expediency must he have had to encounter, ere he could bring himself, in face of a crowded assembly, to say, as he entered, " My soul cleaveth unto the dust ; quicken thou me, according to thy word ;" and ere he could throw himself prostrate on the ground, to implore the pardon of God and the forgiveness of his fellow men ! And if this extraor- dinary history affords an illustrious example of genuine repentance, it exhibits, in no less memorable a light, the strictness and impartial- ity of primitive discipline. What minister would have dared to im- pose,— what prince would have submitted to undergo, a course of public penitence, so humiliating and so painful, if it had not been the established practice of the church to let no offenders escape with impunity. ^ 8. Of Councils.''? Ori^in of ecclesiastical councils. Roman Catholic writers derive their authority for ecclesiastical councils from the example of the church at Jerusalem, as recorded in Acts xv. They regard that as the first ecclesiastical council ; and from the deliberations and de- cisions of that body, they deduce the several conclusions following. 1. That the appropriate mode of settling questions relating to re- ligious subjects is by council. 2. That the laity should be excluded from such councils ; and yet the whole church took part in the deliberations at Jerusalem, Acts 15: 22, 23. 3. That the duty devolves upon the successor of St. Peter to pre- side in such councils. 4. That the results of such councils are to be communicated throughout the churches. * From Siegel's Handbuch, vol. IV. pp. 406—425. OF COUNCILS. 357 5. From the expression, " It seemed good to the Holy Ghost and to us," Acts 15: 28, they infer the infallibility of these decrees of councils. 6. From the authoritative command of this council, they assert the duty of unreserved submission to the synodical decrees. In answer to these arrogant pretensions it is sufficient to say, that no council is known to have been held for near one hundred and fifty years after this time. They then began to be held in Greece and Asia Minor. But they were only provincial synods, local and limited in their jurisdiction ; though bishops and presbyters of other provinces were allowed to have a seat in them. These councils made no appeal whatever to divine authority or apostolic usage in vindication of their right of jurisdiction over the churches. They were composed only of the clergy, of whom merely the bishops are distinctly mentioned. They deliberated respecting the important affairs of the church, oltiora quaeque ; and prepared themselves for the public deliberations by watching and fasting. All this is fairly inferred from the incidental mention of these councils by Tertullian, who is the earliest writer that takes notice of them, De Jejunio, c. 13, written near the end of the second century. The passage is given in the note below.* About the middle of the third century, Firmilian, bishop of Caesa- vea, wrote to Cyprian an epistle in which he takes occasion to say that " the bishop, and elders annually assembled to deliberate upon ecclesiastical matters committed to their charge, that the most im- portant of these might be adjusted by mutual consultation," which confirms the account of Tertullian relative to this subject. An ecclesiastical council may be defined to be a synod, com- posed of a number of representatives from several independent christian communities, convened together to deliberate and decide upon matters relating to the welfare of the church. * Aguntur praeter ea per Graccias ilia certis in locis concilia ex univer- sis ecclesiis, per quae et altiora quaeque in commune tractantur et ipsa repre- sentatio totius nominis christian! magna celcbratione vencratur. Et lioc quam dignum fide auspicante congregari undique ad Christum? Vide quam bonum et jucundum habitare fratres in ununi ! Hoc tu psallere non facile nosti, nisi quo tempore cum compluribus coenas. Conventus autem isti stationibus prius et jejunalionibus operari, dolere cum dolentibus et ita de- mum congaudere gaudentibus nonint. 358 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. Such councils began to be held in Asia Minor, and the neighbor- ing province of Thrace, towards the latter part of the second cen- tury; particularly from the year 160, to 173.^ We know not in- deed the particular reasons for which these councils were held, but we have every reason to suppose that the occasions were wholly incidental and temporary. As soon as any connection began to be formed between diiferent independent churches, they might natu- rally be expected to form associations of this kind, to deliberate up- on their common interests. Such a confederation was first formed among those very churches which were the first to unite in council. The clergy, again, who were most in harmony with one another might be expected soonest to form associations for mutual delibera- tion ; and such harmony of views it is well known prevailed espe- cially among the clergy of those provinces. In such communities, where all had severally a right to bear a j)art in such deliberations, the council must, of necessity, have been composed of representa- tives from each. It is impossible that all could have convened collec- tively in council ; as the representatives of their respective churches, the bishops and presbyters would of course be chiefly selected. In this manner, what was at first done by common consent would, in time, become an established usage, and a right confirmed by com- mon consent. The deacons may have remained at home, or they might have attended in council as members themselves of the clergy, or as amanuenses of the bishops. No mention is made of them in the accounts of these early councils. It is therefore to be presumed that their attendance or non-atlendance was a matter of no special interest. Such being the state of things, the crafty bishops would easily have seen that, by constant and uniform attendance in council, they acquired increasing consideration and respect. Such councils being frequently held, the primate, or metropolitan bishop would of course have the prerogative of convening and presiding over them. The political form of government which prevailed in the Gre- cian states, no doubt had an influence in shaping the administration of their ecclesiastical afiairs. The famous council of the Amphyc- tions were accustomed to assemble semi-annually from all the Gre- cian states. Something like this, we may easily suppose, would have obtained in the administration of their church government. In the absence of direct historical testimony to this eflect, it is at least OF COUNCILS. 359 remarkable that both the council of Nice, and the Apostolical Con- stitutions direct that ecclesiastical councils be held semi-annually, and at the same seasons of the year when the Amphyctionic coun- cil were wont lo convene."^ The council of Nice only conformed to the established usage in settling upon these stated seasons for the convening of their body. This circumstance would show, beyond doubt, the influence of their political institutions in their ecclesiasti- cal affairs, did not the letter of Firmilian above quoted, speak of their councils as being held annually, j9er singulos annos. These councils of the Grecian states must, for a considerable length of time, have been circumscribed within very narrow limits. Tertullian knew nothing of them. Towards the beginning of the third century they began to be better known. The controversy be- tween the Eastern and Western church relating to Easter, threw the whole christian world, with the exception perhaps of Africa, into com- motion, and brought them together in opposing councils. Such coun- cils were now held at Caesarea, or Aelia, and at Home ; in Pontus, and France ; in proconsular Asia, in Mesopotamia, and probably in Achaia. Within the third century, councils began also to be held in Africa. But without pursuing the history of these councils further, we will confine our attention to the following inquires relating to them. 1. What was the extent of their jurisdiction ? 2. What was their peculiar organization .'' 3. Who were appropriately the constituent members of them ? 1. What ivas the extent of their jurisdiction 7 At first they were, without doubt, proviiicial synods. This conclusion is fully implied from the fact, that nothing is said relating to this subject. Had their jurisdiction extended beyond the limits of their own provinces, it must have been mentioned. The synods of Asia Minor must be understood, therefore, to have been restricted to their own provin- cial limits ; such as that of Hierapolis in Phrygia, which was chiefly- inhabited by the Montanists. Those of Anchiolus were probably limi- ted in their jurisdiction to Thrace, but if not, they were only an ex- ception to the prevailing custom. The councils which were held in many places respecting the controversy on the subject of Easter, were assuredly provincial synods. Such were also the synods which were held in Arabia in the third century, A. D. 243 and 246. The same is true also of the synod of Rome held by Cornelius in the 360 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. year 251 ; and of the synod of Antioch, A. D. 252 against the Nova- tians, and again at Rome, A. D. 260. Three provincial synods were also held at Antioch, from the year 264 to 269, against Paul of Samosata. Still it is not to be presumed that all these were organi- zed on precisely the same principles ; the clergy from neighboring provinces may have had a seat and a voice in some of them. Men of great weight of cliaracter, and whose counsels were highly res- pected, were particularly desired to attend from other places, and the convening of the council was, at times, delayed in order to se- cure their attendance. Origen, in this capacity, attended the coun- cil in Arabia, and, by his learning and talents, settled the point in dispute to the satisfaction of the council. The bishops of Antioch also were so much embarrassed by the learning of Paul of Samosata, whom they would convict of heresy, that they invited the attendance of certain bishops from the Grecian provinces in Asia, including Palestine and Egypt. The metropolitan of Alexandria excused himself by reason of his great age ;■* but many bishops from those provinces attended the council, — Firmilian from Cappadocia, Greg- ory and Athenodorus from Pontus, Heienus of Tarsus, Nicomas of Iconium ; and the archbishops Hymenaeus of Jerusalem, and Theo- tecnus of Caesarea, together with the bishop Maximus, from Arabia. Paul, however, by his talents withstood them all ; and the council dispersed without gaining any advantage over him.^ Foreigners, in like manner, attended both the second and third councils which were held for the same purpose. In the last council, a presbyter, Mal- chion, bore a conspicuous part, and was the principal agent in put- ting an end to the discussion. About the same period of time other councils were held which were sometimes more and at others less than provincial synods. The council of Iconium, A. D. 235, consisted of bishops from Phry- gia, Galatia, Cilicia, and other neighboring provinces. Another council was also held in opposition to this in a neighboring town, Synnada, of which we know only that it had litde or no influence against the first at Iconium. But this is sufficient to show that no established system of ecclesiastical jurisdiction at this time prevailed, even in the states of Greece, where such councils were first held. In Africa, there was much less of system in these matters than in the Grecian states. Cyprian informs that he thought it necessary to convene a council of many of the clergy, to deliberate respecting OF COUNCILS. 361 ihe common cjood, in wliich council many topics were proposed and discussed. But he adds, " I am aware that some will never change their minds, nor give over a cherished purpose ; but however har- monious their colleagues may be, they will persist in the support of their own peculiar views. Under these circumstances it is not my business to attempt, by constraint, to give laws to any one ; but, in the administration of the church, to leave to every one to the free- dom of his own choice who must answer unto God for his conduct." Ep. 72. The first ecclesiastical council of Africa cannot be said to have been either provincial or general. Under Galba this country had been divided into three provinces. Constantino divided it into six. And yet it appears from Cyprian, Ep. 45, that the former division of Galba was still observed in the organization of the council, and that one even of these provinces was not represented ; but for what reason does not appear. All, however, by common consent ap- pear to have accorded to Cyprian at Carthage the right of conven- ing a general council at his pleasure. This is the more pro- bable from the ftict that in the year 255, several bishops who appar- ently composed a provincial synod, appealed to him for the settle- ment of certain subjects of discussion among them. The other councils in Africa were, for the most part, provincial in their character. Such was the council which was held before the time of Cyprian, the date of which is not distinctly known. So also were the councils held by Cyprian in the years 249, 251, 252, 255 and 256. From all which it appears, that most of the councils which were held in Africa were limited in their jurisdiction, and provincial in their character. Some, however, were more general ; and such was generally the character of the councils which were held in that country after the third century. 2. What was the appropriate organization of the regular provin- cial synods ? In general, the ecclesiastic within the province, whether bishop, metropolitan, or patriarch, presided in these coun- cils. The popular character of these assemblies would indeed have permitted any one to be elevated to the office of moderator. But the gradations of the priesthood, and the jealousy of the several or- ders were such that none but he that was highest in official rank could have been placed in the chair to the mutual satisfaction of all 40 362 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. classes. The presbyters would have claimed precedence of the deacons, the bishops of the presbyters ; and so on until none should be found to dispute the claim with the higliest dignitary of the pro- vince. The greatest number of the members of the council would also come from the diocese of the highest functionary, which cir- cumstance would give him the strongest party in the election. And there are many other ways in which this seat might have been se- cured to him. The results or decrees, of the councils were usually published in the name of the moderator. There are some instances in which the names of the attending bishops accompany the decree. Such, how- ever, was not the usual custom. The metropolitans were jealous of their rights, and strove earnestly for a controling influence in the councils. For the same reason they insisted that the result should be published under the sanction of their authority, and in their name. They usually had the address to cause their own opinions to prevail ; and few had the independence to dispute them. Thus the metro- politan of Alexandria had the influence to cause his synod to banish Origen, A. D. 230. Cornelius effected the excommunication of three bishops at Rome, A. D. 251, in the same arbitrary manner. By such strides did the principal ecclesiastics advance their spiritual hierarchy ; and so tamely did the subordinate members of their coun- cils suffer the most esteemed men in the church to suffer unjustly under this spiritual despotism. The councils were merely the or- gan of the metropolitan to execute his arbitrary decrees. 3. Who were appropriately members of these councils ? This in- quiry is involved in much darkness and uncertainty. There is how- ever satisfactory evidence that bishops and presbyters were entitled to bear a part in the deliberations of these assemblies. The letter of Firmilian, in the middle of the third century, makes distinct mention of presbyters, seniores. Origen, as a presbyter, attended the coun- cil of Arabia ; and Malchion acted in the same capacity in the three councils of Antioch. Besides, there were very many churches un- der the care of presbyters, which, if represented at all in council as they evidently were, must send presbyters as their delegates. Whether the laity were permitted to take a part in the delibera- tions of these councils as constituent members of them is an interest- ing and important inquiry. This is discussed at length by Walch, p. 121. He is clearly of opinion that the laity of the place where , OF COUNCILS. 363 the council was held had this right. Others are of opinion that, in the absence of their bishops, laymen of the province where the coun- cil was held were delegated to attend in their place. And yet it seems most probable that the laity did not enjoy the right of acting as members oj these councils. One may indeed presume that, as representatives of the churches to which they belonged, they would be entitled to a place in the council ; but on this point history is si- lent. Had they exercised this right, it must have been a circum- stance of such interest to the clergy that we can hardly suppose that it would have been passed over in silence, especially in the earliest periods of the history of ecclesiastical councils. Party spirit would, at times, have appeared among them, and their influence mani- fested itself on one side or tlie other. It seems, therefore, that care was taken that the deliberations of the council should not be dis- turbed by the presence of the laity. The councils were usually held in the churches, or in buildings adjacent, and belonging to them ; and were open to the attendance of any as spectators. A scribe or recorder is first mentioned as having attended the se- cond council of Antioch agarnst Paul of Samosata. They are also mentioned by Eusebius, 7. 29. Such clerks became common in the fourth century, who recorded at length the discussions and debates of the council. We close this view of the early ecclesiastical councils by recapit- ulating the conclusions to which it has conducted us. These councils were not formed after the model of that at Jerusa- lem which is described in Acts xv ; but took their origin and char- acter from the peculiar circumstances of the church in those primi- tive times. They were first held in the Grecian states ; and the political or- ganization of these states probably had much influence in the forma- tion of their peculiar constitution and organization. They were convened at the call of the metropolitan, who also acted as the presiding oflicer of the assembly, and exercised a con- troling influence over their deliberations and decisions. The several orders of the clergy, bishops, jnesbyters, and dea- cons, were regular members of these councils ; but the laity were not entitled to a seat in them. They were unknown in Africa in the time of TerluUian ; but soon 364 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. . after his deaih they became common, not only in Africa, but also in Spain, France, and Italy. Their organization, however, was less regular and systematic than in the Grecian states. Both in the Eastern and Western churches they were, for the most part, merely provincial synods, fficumenical councils were of a later date under the christian emperors. The practical effect of these councils, from the beginning, was to give increasing consideration and influence to the clergy ; which continually increased until it finally ended in the full establishment of the ecclesiastical hierarchy.* * For ihe sake of illustrating the manner in which these ancient councils were held, we have transcribed the followinj^ record of the third council of Carthage, held A. U. 25(3 ; or rather it is but an abstract of the debates of that council, for it was attended by no less than eight3r-seven bishops, who were convened to decide whether or not baj)tism administered by heretics should be regarded as valid. It is found in Cyprian's Works, p. 32i), ed. Baluz. Cum in unum Cartliagine convenissent Kalendis episcopi plurimi ex provincia Africa, Numidia et Mauritania, cum presbyteris et diaconis prae- sente etiamplehis maxima parte et lectae essent literae Jubajani aJ Cyprianum factae, item Cypriani ad Jubajanum rescriptae de haereticis baptizandis, quid- que postmodum Cypriano Jubajanus idem rescripserit, Cyprianus dixit : Aud- distis coliegae dilectissimi, quid mihi Jubanus Coepiscopus noster scripserit, consulens mediucritatem nostrum de illicito et profano Haercticorum baptis- mo, et quid ego ei rescripserem, censens scilicet, quod semel atque iterum et saepe censuimus haereticos ad ecclesiam venientes ecclesia baptismo bap- tizari et sanctificari oportere. Item lectae sint nobis et aliae Jubajani literae, quibus pro sua sincera et religiosa devotione ad epistolam nostram rescribens non tantum consensit, sed etiam instructum se esse confessus, gratias egit. Superest, ut de hac re singuli quid sentiamus,proferamus,neminem judican- tes, aut a jure communionis aliquem, si diversum senserit, amoventes. Ne- que enim quisquam nostrum episcopum se esse constituit, aut tryannico tfer- rore ad obsequendi necessitatem collegas suos adigit, quando habeat omnis episcopus pro licentia libertatis et potestatis suae arbitrium proprium, tum- que judicari ab alio non possit, quam nee ipse potest altcrum judicare. Sed exspectemus universi judicium Domini Jesu Christi, qui unus et solus habet potestatem et praeponendi nos in ecclcsiae suae gubernatione et de actu nos- tro judicandi. Caecilius a Bilta dixit : Ego unum baptisma in ecclesia solum scio et extra ecclesiam nullum. Hie erit unum, ubi spes vera et fides vera. Castus a Sicca dixit: Qui contemta veritate praesumit consuetudinem se- qui, et circa fratres invidus est et malignus, quibus Veritas revelatur, aut cir- ca Deum ingratus, cujus inspiratione ecclesia ejus ijistrtiitur . Zosimus a Tarassa dixit : Revelatione facta veritatis cedat error veri- OF COUNCILS. 365 After the conversion of Constantinc, the councils of the church fell under the influence of the Byzantine emperors ; and at a still later period they submitted to the presidency and dictation of the bishop of Rome. The celebrated council of Nicaea, A. D. 325, is distinguished as having been the first which pronounced a decision respecting a chris- tian doctrine, or article of religious faith ; as well as the first over which a temporal prince presided. It is also usually reckoned as the first general council ; but it was, in fact, a council of only the Oriental church ; the Spanish bishop Hosius, and two Roman pres- byters, were the only ecclesiastics from the West by whom it was attended. All the particulars respecting this remarkable and impor- tant council are given by the authors who are mentioned in the in- dex.6 The number of oecumenical or general councils is variously reck- oned by different churches. The orthodox Greek church enumerates seven, namely : tati, quia et Petrus, qui prius circumcidebat, cessit Paulo veritalem prae- dicanti. Pudencianus a CuccuU dixit : Novitas episcopatus effecit fratres dilectissi- mi, ut sustinercm, quid niajoros judicarent. Num haereses nihil habere nee posse nianifestnm est. Atque ifa, si qui ex eis vencrint baptizari, acquissi- me statutum est. \\.em ?L\\ns Lucius ab Avizl a A\x\i: Secundum motum animi mei et Spiritus Sancti,cum sit unus Deus, et unus Christus, et una Spes, et unus Spiritus, et una ccclesia, unum debet esse baptisma. Victor ab Octavo dixit: Quod et ipsi scitis non olim sum episcopus con- stitutus et ideo expectabam praecessorum consilium. Hoc itaque existimo , ut, quicunque ex haeresi venerint, baptizcntur. J^atilis ab Oea dixit : Tain ego praesens, quum Pompejus Sabratensis, quam etiam Dioga Leptimagnensis, qui mihi niandaverunt, corpore quidem absen- tes, spiritu pracsentes, censemus, quod et coUegae nostri, quod haeretici comniunicationem habere non possunt nisi ecclesiastico baptismo baptizati fuerint. — Non oportet episcopos, qui vocantur ad Synodum, negligere. — Sed abire et docere et doceri ad eccorrectionem ecclesiae et reliquoruni. Si quis autem neglexerit, is se ipsum accusabit, praeterquam si propter intem- periem et aegritudinem non venerit.) Cyprianus Carthagine dixit : Meam sententiam plenissime exprimit epis- tola,quae ad Jubajanum, collegam nostrum scripta est, haereticos secundum evangelium et apostolicam contcstationem et advorsarios Christi et anti- christos appellatos, quando ad ecclcsiam venerint, unico ecclesiae baptismo baptizandos esse,ut possint fieri de adversariis amici et de antichrislis cliris- tiani. 366 DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. A. D The First of Nicaea .... 325 The First of Constantinople 381 Ephesus .....' 431 Chalcedon ..... 451 The Second of Constantinople . 553 The Third of Constantinople 680 The Second of Nicaea 787 The church of Rome recognizes eighteen general councils, sanc- tioned by the pope, of which the council of Trent is the last. But Romish writers are not quite agreed upon this subject. A list set up in the Vatican, by command of Sixtus V, enumerates the following : AD The First of Nicaea 325 The First of Constantinople 381 The First of Ephesus 431 Chalcedon 451 The Second of Constantinople 553 The Third of Constantinople 680 The Second of Nicaea 787 The Fourth of Constantinople 869 The First Lateran 1122 The Second Lateran . 1139 The Third Lateran . . 1179 The Fourth Lateran . 1215 The First of Lyons . 1245 The Second of Lyons 1274 Vienne ..... 1311 Florence .... 1439 The Fifth Lateran . 1512 Trent 1545 It appears from this list that the councils of Pisa, A. D. 1409, of Constance, A. D. 1414, and of Basle, A. D. 1431, which are com- monly regarded as general councils, are not recognized as such at Rome. Protestants, for the most part, recognize four general councils, namely : CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. 367 A. D. Nicaea ....... 325 Constantinople ...... 381 Ephesus 431 Chalcedon 451 Some receive also The Second of Constantinople . . . 553 The Third of Constantinople . . . 680 CHAPTER XVTII. DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL CHARACTER OF THE PRIiMITIVE CHRISTIANS. This interesting portion of Christian Antiquities is passed in si- lence, by Augusli, Rheinwald and Siegel. But it is indispensable in order to form a just estimate of the character of the primitive Christians, and of the true spirit of their religion. The following compilations are accordingly made from Jamieson, to whom frequent reference has been made in the progress of this work ; and from an article by Prof Stowe in the Biblical Repository for July, 1840. These representations, however, should be under- stood as relating to the earliest periods of the church, antecedent to the sad declensions which soon overshadowed the cloudless light in which Christianity arose upon the world. § 1. Of their mode of Life. Among the primitive disciples, Christianity made no essential dif- ference in their relations to society and the external world, more than it does among their followers in the present day. Apart from the faith they had embraced, and the altered estimate it led them to form of the scenes and the pleasures of the world, their new views occasioned no change in their rank, their profession, or their outwarcf circumstances in life. In general, they lived like other men around 368 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. them — speaking the same language, partaking of the same fare, ob- serving the same intervals of labor and repose, and in everything that was honorable, pure, and of good report, conforming to the rules and the habits which custom had established. The mechanic wrought at his trade, the husbandman prosecuted the labors of the field, the merchant repaired to his shop, the soldier continued in the ranks, — men went, from day to day, and from place to place, obeying the calls of business and friendship as before ; and instead of separating from their former acquaintances, or withdrawing into solitude from the avocations to which they had been bred, and by which they lived, they gave no symptoms, in any of these respects, of a change of habits, except that, being furnished with higher motives, they attend- ed with an activity, a diligence, and fidelity greater than ever, to all the claims of society and the offices of life. In the earliest times, indeed, when persecutions were frequent and severe, there were many Christians, male and female, married and unmarried, who, justly persuaded that nothing should come in competition with their fidelity to Christ, and fearing, at the same time, their own inability to remain steadfast and immoveable amid the fiery trials by which they were assailed, resolved on abandoning for a time their place and possessions in the world, and fleeing to distant mountains and inaccessible deserts, where they spent their time in the service of God, and continued, at a distance from temptations to apostasy, the exer- cises of meditation and prayer. But when peace was restored, and the profession of Christianity was no longer proscribed and danger- ous, this measure of prudence was no longer resorted to, — those who had found it expedient, for the preservation of their christian fideli- ty, to take such a step, quitted their temporary retirement : and al- though there were some who having come, through habit, to prefer a solitary life, remained in their adopted habitations in the wilder- ness, the great majority of these voluntary exiles returned to the cir- cle of their families and friends, and mingled as before in the wont- ed scenes and activities of life. Indeed, it was no part of the creed of the primitive Christians, that on embracing the religion of Jesus, they were required to give up all concern in the secular busi- ness, or to become dead to the comforts and innocent enjoyments of the world. " We are no Brahmins," says Tertullian, Apol. c. 42, " we are no Hindoo Fakiers, we are not eremites or hermits, who flee from life. DRESS AND FURNITURE. 369 We are well aware of the obligalions we owe to God, our Creator and Lord. We reject the enjoyment of none of his gifts ; we sock only to preserve the requisite moderation, and to avoid abuses. We do not live in this world without participating in your markets, your baths, your public houses, your workshops, your auctions, and every- thing which pertains to the commerce of life. We engage with you in navigation, in military service, in agriculture, in trade. We en- gage with you in manufactures, and devote our labor to vour bene- fit." § 2. Of their Dress and Furniture. Nothing may appear more purely a matter of indifference, than the choice of the fashion and color of dress ; and yet, in the circum- stances of the primitive Christians, articles of that nature did acquire such an importance in their eyes, that they gradually fell into a style of clothing peculiar to themselves. Not that they affected any singu- larities in their personal appearance — for their habiliments were made and worn in the ordinary fashion of the time and place, — and Chris- tians, whether they were found in the high, the middle, or the lower ranks, were accustomed to equi[) themselves in a manner suitable to the decencies of the state or profession to which they belonged. But, looking to the moral influence of dress, desirous of avoiding every- thing that might minister to vanity, or lead the wearer to forget, in attending to the outward man, the ornajnent of a meek and quiet spirit, they studiously rejected all finery as unbecoming the humility of their character, and confined themselves to a suit of apparel, re- markable not so much for the plainness of the material, as for the absence of all superfluous ornament. Everything gaudy or sumptu- ous, that partook of the costly stuffs, or the crimsoned dyes that suit- ed the luxurious taste of the times, was discountenanced by the spir- itually minded followers of Christ ; and, though many of them were entitled by birth or otherwise to appear in the flowing folds of the graceful toga, yet, even that favorite garb, while it was retained for the valuable privileges it conferred, was looked upon as too gay and splendid for ordinary use, and was by most, if not by all Christians, laid aside for the common pallium or cloak, to which the preference was given on account of the air of greater modesty and gravity tiiat was supposed to belong to it. Moreover, among the Christians of the 47 370 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. East, the custom early prevailed of wearing garments of no other color than while, — in order that they might carry about with them a perpetual memorial of the purity of character that became their pro- fession ; and there were others in various parts of the world, who thought it their duty to carry the imitation of Christ to the extent of wearing the meanest and most common attire of one in the form of a servant. But neither of these extravagances met with very general countenance ; and the greater part contented themselves with a dress, free from all approach to gaudiness and pomp, betraying no symploms of an anxious and elaborate decoration of the person, and conspicuous only for its neat and cleanly appearance. The same simplicity and plainness reigned throughout the domes- tic establishment of the Christians. Most of the primitive disciples, indeed, were in circumstances that offered no temptations to indulge in the splendor or variety of ornamental furniture. Their inventory of goods embraced only a few simple articles of use, which their per- sonal and family wants required, and it may be supposed, therefore, that there was nothing remarkable in the absence from their houses, of all traces of pomp and elegance, which they neither possessed the means, nor entertained the hope of acquiring. But even those of their number, who were persons of rank and opulence, amply provi- ded with resources to gratify a taste for ornament, chose to content themselves with such things as were recommended by their utility rather than their elegance, and calculated to answer the purposes of necessity and comfort, rather than to gratify the lust of the eye and the pride of life. Seats and cabinets, finished with the costly veneer- ing of tortoise-shell, and couches ornamented with the rich embroid- eries of Babylon ; — vessels of gold and silver, the numberless statues and other graceful accompaniments, of all sizes and forms, which adorned the chambers, the porticoes, and gardens of the rich, and indicated the epicurean taste that distinguished the age, disappeared from the houses of the Christians as inconsistent with a humble and mortified life ; and however refined and exquisite the taste which, through education and the habits of society, any of them had acquir- ed, they learned to subject it to the higher principle of denying them- selves to everything that tended too much to captivate the senses, and increase their love to a world, the fashion whereof they thought was soon to pass away. This indiscriminate rejection of the elegan- cies of life, has frequently exposed the memory of the primitive DIET AND MODE OF TAKING THEIU MEALS. 371 Christians to the sneer of the infidel, and the unmeasured indigna- tion of the enthusiastic admirer of the arts; and, perhaps, in some instances, there may be a foundation for the charge, that they mani- fested an uncalled-for severity in their too great and unqualified con- tempt of pleasures, which become sinful only when indulged to a criminal excess. But to a people on whose minds the doctrines of Christianity had burst with all the force and vividness of a new and important discovery, and among whom the impression almost univer- sally prevailed, that the years of the world were about to close, it was natural to regard with jealousy and treat with neglect all the forms of earthly pomp and beauty, that tended to supplant their de- sires for the objects and glories of that better world on which liieir hearts were fixed. Although the indifference and superiority to the world which Christianity requires, lies solely in the state and affec- tions of the mind, and this spiritual habit may be cultivated in the most opposite circumstances of affluence or poverty, it was natural that the Christians, in the first ardor of their faith and hope, should overlook this distinction, and consider that their safety consisted in the complete abandonment of luxuries and pleasures, the thought of which was so ready to come in competition with concern for their souls. § 3. Of THEIR Diet and mode of taking their Meals. The tables of the primitive Christians were distinguished by the greatest frugality and temperance. Their grand principle was to eat and drink in order to satisfy the cravings of nature, and invigo- rate their bodies for a renewal of their necessary labors ; and while, on the one hand, they knew nothing of the austere and painful ab- stinence, which after-ages of ignorance and superstition came to practise and extol as highly meritorious, they were equally careful, on the other hand, to check the indulgence of a nice and fastidious taste in the gratification of the palate. There was nothing, indeed, which they seem to have been more solicitous to avoid than any im- itation of the excessive luxury and epicurean habits of their contem- poraries ; and justly accounting all excess, whether in eating or in drinking, as incompatible with the maintenance of purity, and atten- tion to spiritual duties, they inflexibly adhered to the rule of abstain- ing from everything that tended to inflame the passions, or to engen- 372 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. der any hankering after the pleasures of sense. On no species of food did they lay an interdict, except on things strangled, and on blood, according to the council of the apostles, which, for naany ages, con- tinued in force among the Christians, — and such high seasoned viands as were heating to the frame. Those of the East, indeed, who, living in a warmer climate, were always distinguished by their habits of austerity and abstinence beyond Christians in other places, preferred the flesh offish or fowl to the grosser and more succulent flesh of quadrupeds. Many of them even lived wholly on a diet consisting of preparations of milk, or of vegetables, or such light fruit as figs and dates. Wine was freely admitted to the tables of the primitive Christians— their notions of propriety, however, forbid- ding the use of it to women and young people. But even by the other sex it was drank sparingly ; and though chiefly the weak wine of the country, was always, according to the practice of the ancients, diluted with water. To have continued long indulging in such a luxury, or to have been discovered smelling the flavor of the wine- cup, — to have made sumptuous pre])arations for the table, — to have betrayed much anxiety about the cookery, or produced a great vari- ety of viands and spicery at their entertainments, would, in those early days of Christianity, have brought discredit, if not ruin, on the religious character of the individual. And yet there were no auste- rities then in vogue among the Christians. Looking upon all the creatures of God as good for food, they deemed themselves at per- fect liberty to make use of them as suited their convenience and their taste, at such times and in such a measure as temper, constitu- tion, or age, required ; and they never dreamed of imposing any limits to the enjoyment of the comforts of life, beyond what reason and religion prescribed. But justly accounting an ill regulated and luxurious appetite as the source of innumerable evils, and placing their highest ambition and pleasure in the attainment of spiritual ex- cellence, they practised the greatest abstemiousness, confining them- selves to the plainest and simplest fare ; in many instances taking only one meal, in none more than two a-day, and then never carry- ing their indulgence in the pleasures of the table further than that temperate use of them which was necessary to repair the bodily vigor, and which left the mind free and ready, as occasion offered, to engage in prayer or other exercises of religion. The object they proposed to themselves by the practice of such singular moderation DIET AND MODE OF TAKING THEIR MEALS. 373 was that of mortifying the senses, and enabling them to wield with a firmer hand the reins of discipline over the motions and appetites of their corrupt nature ; and that they entertained not the most dis- tant idea of making a vain and Pharisaic parade of their abstinence, or were accustomed to regard it in no other light than as simply a means of promoting the great end of their moral and religious im- provement, is evident from the following, out of innumerable anec- dotes, by which we might illustrate this branch of their customs. Among the martyrs that fell during the violent persecution of the Christians at Lyons, was a young man of the name of Alcibiades, distinguished for the exalted piety of his character, and who had for years accustomed himself to a small and sordid diet. When thrown into the dungeons, he continued the same habits of living, which, though long custom had rendered them easy to himself, gave offence, it seems, to several of his fellow-prisoners, who found it impossible to conform to his standard of abstinence. At length one of the con- fessors, undertaking seriously to remonstrate with him on the impro- priety of refusing to enjoy the gifts of a bountiful Providence, and thereby creating jealousy in the minds of others, Alcibiades listened in a christian spirit to the friendly admonition, and from that mo- ment, laying aside all singularity, indiscriminately partook of what- ever was provided for himself and his brethren in distress. Thus admirably did the primitive Christians observe the golden mean, by avoiding equally the extremes of sordid penury and luxurious grati- fication of the senses. Their frugal diet acquired a relish from their previous labors ; and while they never denied to themselves any of the good things of life, as far as was consistent with the ends of so- briety and religion, they considered it their duty always to keep within the bounds of that " temperance which is a fruit of the Spirit." The manner in which they conducted their repasts was itself an effectual preservative of temperance, while, at the same time, it was eminently characteristic of the piety and spirituality of the primitive age. — When dinner had been served, and the family had taken their seats at the table, the master of the household, with a grave and solemn voice, and in a prayer of considerable length, acknow- ledged their dependence on the care of their common Father, ex- pressed their gratitude for the past tokens of his bounty, and invoked him to bless, for their health and comfort, the provisions of which 374 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. they were about to partake. During the progress of the meal, some member of the family in houses of the lower class, or some hired reader, in tliose of the richer orders, entertained the company with select portions of the Scriptures ; for so strong and insatiable was their appetite for spiritual food, that they could not rest satisfied and happy without providing suitable refreshment for the soul at the same time that they were enjoying the comforts of the body. The viands being removed, the ftxmily circle was drawn more closely together, — for now were unfolded, and put into the hands of all, the precious scrolls in which, in those days, the Scriptures were written. Previ- ous to this, however, each was expected to put himself in an attitude of becoming reverence ; the hands were carefully washed, that not a stain might fall on the Sacred Volume, and, while the men re- mained with their heads bare, the women covered themselves with a veil, as a token of respect for the Book of God. The head of the family then read aloud a few passages, both from the Old and the New Testament, accompanying them with some plain and simple admonitions of his own, or recalling to the memory of his audience the public exhortations which, on the preceding Sabbath, had been founded on them in the church ; or he taught the younger branches of the house to repeat after him the beautiful prayer which was dic- tated by the lips of the Saviour ; and told them, in simple phrase, of the love which God bears to the young, and of the blessedness of remembering their Creator in the days of their youth. These read- ings and exhortations were always short, and diversified, at inter- vals, by sacred music, — of which the primitive Christians were pas- sionately fond. Sometimes one, distinguished by taste and talents for spiritual songs, sung some favorite piece of sacred melody ; at other times, the shrill voices of the women and the children were blended in full chorus with the deeper tones of the men, — till, as the hour set apart for refreshment drew towards a close, the venerable parent, whose look and attitude called for momentary silence, gave thanks to the Giver of all good, for the enjoyment of their natural and spiritual comforts, and prayed that his presence and his blessing might be with them during the succeeding period of labor and duty. Thus, among the primitive Christians, their ordinary refreshments were sanctified with the Word of God and with prayer ; and thus were the words of eternal truth interwoven, in the most agreeable and captivating manner, with the habits and the pleasures of every- day life. DAILY DEVOTIONS. 375 § 4. Of their daily Devotions. Instead of consuming their leisure hours in vacant idleness, or de- riving their chief amusement from boisterous merriment, the recital of tales of superstition, or the chanting of the profane songs of the heathen, they passed their hours of repose in rational and enlivening pursuits, found pleasure in enlarging their religious knowledge, and entertainment in songs that were dedicated to the praise of God. These formed their pastime in private, and their favorite recreations at their family and friendly meetings. With their minds full of the inspiring influence of these, they returned with fresh ardor to their scenes of toil ; and to gratify their taste by a renewal of these, they longed for release from labor, far more than to appease their appe- tite with the provisions of the table. So far were these sacred occu- pations from being regarded as mere matters of routine by the primi- tive Christians, — so much were the sentiments and the melody of the sacred songs engraven on their memories and dear to their hearts, that after they had left the family group and repaired to their re- spective employments, they were wont to cheer themselves in pri- vate, amid the various processes of labor, with repeating the songs of Zion. Young women sitting at their distaff, and matrons going about the duties of their liousehold, were constantly humming some spiritual airs. And Jerome relates of the place where he lived, that one could not go into the field without hearing the ploughman at his hallelujahs, the mower at his hymns, and the vine-dresser singing the Psalms of David. But it was not merely at noon, and in time of their meals, that the primitive Christians read the Word of God and sang praises to his name. At an early hour in the morning the family was assembled, when a portion of Scripture was read from the Old Testament, which was followed by a hymn and a prayer, in which thanks were offered up to the Almighty for preserving them during the silent watches of the night, and for his goodness in permitting them to meet in health of body and soundness of mind ; and, at the same time, his grace was implored to defend them amid the dangers and temptations of the day, — to make them faithful to every duty, and enable them, in all respects, to walk worthy of their christian vocation. During the day, they had, like the Jews, stated seasons, at the third, sixth, and 376 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. ninth hours, corresponding respectively to nine, twelve, and three o'clock, according to our computation, when those who had com- mand of their lime, were wont to retire for a little to engage in the exercises of devotion. In the evening, before retiring to rest, the family again assembled, when the same form of worship was ob- served as in the morning, with this difference, that the service was considerably protracted beyond the period which could be conve- niently allotted to it in the commencement of the day. Besides all these frequent observances, they were in the habit of rising at mid- night to engage in prayer and the singing of Psalms, — a practice of venerable antiquity, and which, as Dr. Cave justly supposes, " took its origin from the first times of persecution, when not daring to meet together in the day, they were forced to keep their religious assemblies in the night." While the Christians, in their family capacity, observed these periodical seasons of devotion, they laid hold of many opportunities, both stated and occasional, of praying in private. In addition to the secret supplications which every morning and evening they ad- dressed to the throne of grace, they were accustomed, on every proper and convenient occasion, to begin and terminate all their actions with prayer, — either audible or silent, according to circum- stances. On receiving any personal or domestic token of the divine goodness, when engaged in any important undertaking, such as sowing their seed, or reaping their harvest, — laying the foundation of a house or taking possession of it, — placing a web in the loom, or putting on a new suit of clothes, — entering on a journey, or going into a bath, — forming a new relation, or parting with a friend, — mingling with company, — at the beginning or closing of a letter, — they indulged in the aspirations of prayer : and so much did they familiarize themselves with its spirit and its sentiments, that they seemed to have cultivated the habit of constant mental intercourse with their heavenly Father. Prayer, indeed, was the grand ele- ment that pervaded the life of the primitive Christians ; for that spiritual exercise, being not so much a separate and formal act, as a habit and frame of mind, and consisting of all the various elements of praise and thankfulness, confidence and hope, obedience and love, so these principles of a new nature, being established in their minds, and diffusing a sanctified influence over the whole tenor of their walk and conversation., gave vigor to their faith, stability to their vir- DAILY DEVOTIONS. 377 tue, and fed, like a perpetual spring, all the streams of christian ac- tivity and excellence, for which they were so remarkable. The epistle to Diognetus, written early in the second century,* contains tlic followini^ description of Christians : " They are not dis- tinguished from other men by their place of residence, their language or manners. Though they live in cities of the Greeks and barbari- ans, each where his lot is cast, and in clothing, food, and mode of life, follow the customs qf their country, yet they are distinguished by a wonderful and universally astonishing walk and conversation. They dwell in their own native land, but as foreigners ; they take part in everything as citizens, they endure everything as foreigners. Every foreign land is to them as their native country, and their na- tive country as a foreign land. They live in the flesh but not after the flesh. They dwell on the earth, but they live in heaven ; they obey the e.xisting laws, but by their life elevate themselves above the laws. They love all men, and are persecuted, misunderstood, and condemned by all. They are slain and made alive ; they are poor and make many rich ; they suffer want in everything and possess abundance in everything ; they are cursed and they bless. In one word, what the soul is in the body, that Christians are in the world. As the soul is diffused through all the members of the body, so the Christians are spread through all the cities of the world. The soul indeed dwells in the body, but it is not of the body ; so Christians dwell in the world, but they are not of the world. The invisible soul is shut up in the visible body ; and so men know Christians as inhabitants of the world, but their life is hid with Christ in God. The flesh hales and fights the soul, though the soul does no injury to the flesh, but only prevents its giving itself up to its lusts ; so also the world hates Christians ; they do it no harm, but only set themselves against its lusts. The soul loves its hating flesh, and so Christians love those by whom they are hated. The soul is shut up in the body, and yet it is that by which the body is held together ; and Christians are held to their post in the world, and it is they who hold the world together. The immortal soul dwells in the mortal body, and Christians dwell as strangers in the corruptible world, and await the unchangeable life in heaven. So important a part has God en- trusted to them, which they dare not forsake." * Neander, K G. 1. — By Professor Stowe. 48 378 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. ^ 5. Religious Education of their Children. There is not among the many interesting traits of christian char- acter with which the history of the early Christians abounds, one that stands out more frequently in beautiful and prominent relief, than the tender solicitude and the winning arts which they employed to imbue the susceptible minds of the young with the knowledge and the faith of the Scripture. While they were fondled on the knee, and still watched by the careful eyes of their nurse, the first words they were taught to lisp and articulate were the sacred names of God and the Saviour. And the whole range of nursery knowledge and amusement was comprised in narratives and pictures, illustrating episodes in the life of the holy child, or parables the most simple and interesting in the ministry of Christ. As their minds expanded, they were taught, along with the grand doctrines of Scripture, which, according to the approved fashion of those days, were rendered fa- miliar by apposite similitudes from nature, the Proverbs of Solomon, and those passages of the sacred volume which relate particularly to the economy of life. Religion, in short, was the grand basis of education, the only sub- ject which, during the first years of life, they allowed their children to be taught ; and in order to present it to their minds with the greater attractions, and entwine it with their earliest and purest as- sociations, they adopted the happy expedient of wedding it to the graces of poetry, and rendering it more memorable by the melody of numbers. From the earliest period of christian antiquity, there were authors who, like Watts in modern times, "condescended to lay aside the scholar, the philosopher, and the wit, to write little poems of devotion, adapted to the wants and capacities of children," and these, set to well-known and favorite airs, borrowed from the profaner songs of the heathen, were sung by the Christians at their family concerts, which enlivened their meals, and by which alone the still and peaceful tranquility of their homes was ever broken. Ere long, their children were taught common, and frequently short- hand writing, in lines taken from the Psalms, or in words of senten- tious brevity, in which the leading doctrines of the gospel were stated ; and at a later period, when the progress of toleration allow- ed christian seminaries to be erected, the school books in use con- SIGN OF THE CROSS. 379 sisted chiefly of passages of the Bible versified, and of the poetical pieces which illustrated or enforced the great subjects of faith and duty. The most celebrated of these were compositions of the two Apollinares, grammarians of high reputation in Syria — the elder of whom, in imitation of Homer, wrote the Antiquities of the Jews in heroic verse, down to the reign of Saul, while the first of the sacred story he described in such metrical forms as corresponded to the verses of the Greek Tragedians, and the lyrical ballads of Pindar. The department undertaken by his son, was that of reducing the history of the evangelists and the epistles of Paul into the form and style of Plato's dialogues; and with so much taste and elegance were both of these works compiled, that on their first appearance they took their place among the most esteemed productions of the Fathers. Besides these, there was a collection of miscellaneous poems on sacred subjects, and in all sorts of verse, by the famous Gregory Nazianzen, in very extensive circulation. By means of these, and of many other evangelical books which have long ago be- come the prey of time, the christian youth were introduced to the elements of pure and urtdefiled religion, and their taste for know- ledge and the beauties of learning created and formed by works in which salvation was held up as the one thing needful, and no achievements described, no characters lauded, but such as were adorned with the fruits of righteousness. Thus did the pious care of the primitive Christians intermingle religion with all the pursuits and recreations of the young, and never allow them to engage in the study of science, or to plunge into the business of the world, until they had been first taught to view everything in the spirit and by the principles of the Word of God. § 6. Sign of the Cross. There was no feature of their private manners more remarkable, than the frequency with which they made use of the sign of the cross. With minds filled as theirs were, with lively faith in the grand doctrine of redemption, and making it, as they did almost ev- ery moment, the subject of their meditations, and the theme of their gratitude, it is not wonderful, that they should have devised some concise mode of recalling it to their memories, or of expressing to each other by some mutual token, the principles and hopes they held 380 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. in common. Accordingly, the sign of the cross naturally suggested itself as an appropriate emblem, and so early was its introduction among the daily observances of the Christians, that the most ancient of the Fathers, whose writings have descended to our times, speak of it as in their days a venerable practice, which, though it would be in vain to seek any scriptural authority for its use, tradition had au- thorized, and faith observed. Although, however, we have no au- thentic account of its introduction, we can guess at its origin. It was a beautiful custom of those who lived while the ministry of Christ was recent, and who were suddenly brought from the depths of de- spair at his death, to indescribable joy at his resurrection, to break off in the middle of conversation, and salute one another with the words, " Christ is risen." The practice was peculiar to the contem- poraries of the Saviour ; and it is not improbable, that when time, by removing them farther from that spirit-stirring event, had brought the interesting custom into disuse, his followers, in the next age, sought to substitute in its place that, which in every variety of time and circumstance, forms the chief subject of interest in the history and religion of Jesus, and on which, as the grand foundation, the whole superstructure of christian doctrine rests. Accordingly, the cross was used by the primitive Christians as an epitome of all that is most interesting and important in their faith ; and its sign, where the word could not be conveniently nor safely uttered, represented their reliance on that event which is at once the most ignominious and the most glorious part of Christianity. It was used by them at all times, and to consecrate the most common actions of life— when rising out of bed, or retiring to rest — when sitting at table, lighting a lamp, or dressing themselves — on every occasion, as they wished the influence of religion to pervade the whole course of their life, they made the sign of the cross the visible emblem of their faith. The mode in which this was done was various : The most common was by drawing the hand rapidly across the forehead, or by merely tracing the sign in air ; in some cases, it was worn close to the bo- som, in gold, silver, or bronze medals, suspended by a concealed chain from the neck ; in others, it was engraven on the arms or some other part of the body by a colored drawing, made by pricking the skin with a needle, and borne as a perpetual memorial of the love of Christ. In times of persecution, it served as the watchword of the christian party. Hastily described by the finger, it was the SIGN OF THE CROSS. 381 secret but well-known signal by wbich Christians recognized each other in the presence of their heathen enemies ; by which the per- secuted sought an asylum, or strangers threw themselves on the hos- pitality of their brethren ; and nothing aj)|)eared to the pagan ob- server more strange and inexplicable, than the ready and open- hearted manner in which, by this concerted means, foreign Chris- tians were received by those whom they had never previously seen or heard of, — were welcomed into their homes, and entertained, with the kindness usually bestowed only on relations and friends. More- over, to the sacred form of the cross were ascribed peculiar powers of protecting from evil ; and hence it was frequently resorted to as a secret talisman, to disarm the vengeance of a frowning magistrate, or counteract the odious presence and example of an offerer of sa- crifice. It was the only outward means of defending themselves, which the martyrs were wont to employ, when summoned to the Eoman tribunals on account of their faiih. It was by signing him- self with the cross, that Origen, when compelled to stand at the threshold of the temple of Serapis, and give palm-branches, as the Egyptian priests were in the habit of doing, to them that went to perform the sacred rites of the idol, fortified his courage, and stood uncontaminated amid the concourse of profane idolaters. But, per- haps, the most remarkable instance on record of the use of this sign by the primitive Christians, and of the sense they entertained of its potent virtues, occurs in the reign of Diocletian, when that timorous and superstitious prince, in his anxiety to ascertain the events of his Eastern campaign, slew a number of victims, that, from their livers, the augurs might prognosticate the fortunes of the war. During the course of the sacrifice, some christian officers, who were officially present, put the immortal sign on their foreheads, and forthwith, as the historian relates, the rites were disturbed. The priests, ignorant of the cause, searched in vain for the usual marks on the entrails of the beasts. Once and again the sacrifice was repeated with a simi- lar result, when, at length, the chief of the soothsayers observing a Christian signing himself with the cross, exclaimed, " It is the pre- sence of profane persons that has interrupted the rites." Thus com- mon was the use, and thus high the reputed efficacy of this sign among the primitive Christians. But it was not in the outward form, but solely in the divine qualities of Him whose name and merits it symbolized, that the believers of the first ages conceived its charm 3^ CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. and its virtues to reside. It was used by them " merely as a mode of expressing, by means perceptible to tlie senses, the purely chris- tian idea, that all the actions of Christians, as well as the whole course of their life, must be sanctified by faith in the crucified Re- deemer, and by dependance upon him, and that this faith is the most powerful means of conquering all evil, and preserving oneself against it. It was not till after times, that men began to confound the idea and the token which represented it, and that they attributed the ef- fects of faith in the crucified Redeemer, to the outward signs to which they ascribed a supernatural and preservative power." ^ 7. Their deportment in the Business and Recreations of Life. As we have already seen. Christians mingled in the ordinary bu- siness of life ; they were engaged in the various occupations and trades of the people around them ; and in all the forms of business they were intimately associated with their heathen neighbors. But they were careful, not only to preserve a scrupulous honesty in all their dealings, they would immediately abandon trade or profession, however lucrative it might be, or however necessary to the support of their families, if it were seen that the occupation was in any re- spect an immoral one, or that it encouraged their heathen neighbors in the practice of sin, or was in any way inconsistent with the pre- cepts of Christianity. In an age when all the forms and business of society were so closely connected with pagan idolatry, when so many arts and trades centered in the idol worship, and lived on the vices of men, vast multitudes of Christians must have been thrown out of employment and reduced to extreme poverty, by the consci- entious abandonment of trades, the only ones which they could prac- tise, and on which their livelihood depended. They must find some other mode of living, or consent even to pauperism, rather than vio- late the precepts of the religion they professed. The church under- took the support of such men and their families, rather than let them continue in a doubtful calling; and they were willing to be poor and live like paupers, rather than neglect the slightest admonitions of conscience. On this point Teriullian gives ample directions. If those are converted who were makers of idols, they must pursue some other branch of their trade, repair houses, plaster walls, line THEIR DEPORTMENT. ' 383 cisterns, coat columns. He who can carve a Mercury can put to- gether a chest of drawers ; there are few temples to be built, but many houses; few Mercuries to be gilded, but many sandals and slippers. If schoolmasters, they must even relinquish their calling rather than teach the adventures of the heathen gods, consecrate the first payment of each scholar to Minerva, or keep holidays in honor of Flora. If cattle merchants, they are to buy for the shambles but not for the altar. If hucksters, they are at least not to deal in in- cense. In an African church a stage actor was converted to Christianity, and having no other means of living, he instructed boys for the stage. Cyprian (Epist. 61) wrote that this must not be tolerated. "If he is poor and needy, let him come among the rest who are supported by the church, and let him be content with a poorer and more inno- cent maintenance. But he must not imagine that he deserves wa- ges for ceasing from sin, for in this he is doing service not to us but to himself. Seek, then, by all means in your power, to turn him from this bad and disgraceful life, to the way of innocence and hope of eternal life ; and that he be content with a more sparing, but yet a more wholesome diet, which the church will provide for him. And if your church is not able to do tliis, send him to us, and we will provide him with necessary food and clothing ; that he may not teach others who are out of the church destructive things, but may himself within the church learn the things which pertain to salvation." All dissipating amusements were strictly prohibited, and the Chris- tian was exhorted on all occasions to demean himself with a gravity and sobriety becoming a soldier of Jesus Christ and a priest of the most high God. From most of the amuserhents of their heathen neighbors they conscientiously abstained ; and the weak and the vain who suffered themselves to be betrayed into them, were promptly and severely rebuked. "The christian lady (says Tertullian, de Cult. II. 11,) visits not the heathen plays, and the noisy amusements of their feast days, but she goes out to visit the sick, to partake of the sacrament, or to hear the word of God." It seems that some weaker brethren and sisters could scarcely relinquish the amusements and gratifications to which they had been accustomed in early life, and endeavored to justify themselves, as Christians now do who are fond of the same irregularities. They 384 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. said that the gifts of God were good and might be used for our law- ful pleasure, that plays and dances were nowhere expressly forbid- den in Scripture, that it was right to dance, for David danced before the ark ; that it could not be wrong to visit chariot races and horse races, for Elijah went to heaven in a chariot and with horses of fire, and the apostle Paul drew many of his illustrations from the race- course and the circus. Respecting such subterfuges, Tertullian exclaims : " 0 how wise does human folly deem itself in arguing, especially when it fears to love some worldly pleasure. Everything is indeed the gift of God, but we must consider to what end the things of God are given, and use them in accordance with their original design, or we commit sin. True, we nowhere find in Scripture an express verbal prohibition of theatres and plays ; but we find there the general principles of which this prohibition is the necessary consequence." In respect to the argument from Paul's illustrations, he remarks : " It were better they had never known the Scriptures than to pervert, to the defence of vice, those words and examples which were given to excite us to evangelical virtue ; for these things are written to raise our zeal the higher for useful things, since the heathen mani- fest so great zeal for things of no use. Tell me, what should be our desire, other than that of the apostle, to depart and be with Christ? There is thy joy whither thy desire tends. Art thou so ungrateful as to overlook or be dissatisfied with the many and great joys which the Lord hath already given thee ? For what is more joyful than reconciliation with God, thy Father and Lord, than the revelation of the truth, the escaping from error, the forgiveness of so many sins .•' What greater joy than the declining of the vain joys of the world, than the true freedom, the pure conscience, the innocent life, the fearlessness of death ? * * * These are the amusements, these are the plays of the Christian, which men cannot pay for with money. And what kind of joy is that which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor the heart of man conceived .^" (Neander K. § I. 447 — 50.) § 8. Their jiutual Love and Concord. Among the various features in the character of the primitive Christians, there is none that so eminently claims our admiration as their mutual love. All the details transmitted to us of their social MUTUAL LOVE AND CONCORD. 385 intercourse, and of their public conduct, bespeak the lively opera- tion of this christian spirit. And when we read of the delightful harmony and concord that reigned in their assemblies, their ready disposition to render to every one his due, — the high condescending to those of low degree, — the poor giving the tribute of their respect to those whom Providence had placed in a more exalted station, — and all vying, with amiable rivalry, to promote each other's happi- ness and welAire, we perceive the strong grounds of the proverbial observation of the heathen, " Behold how these Christians love one another !" Not only when they were small in numbers, and, meet- ing together almost daily, were well known to each other, did this admirable affection prevail among them, but, how widely soever they might be separated, the ardor of their love suffered no diminu- tion ; and, forgetting every other distinction in that of being the fol- lowers and friends of the Saviour, they sympathized in each other's joys and sorrows. Whatever blessing one of their number had re- ceived, was a subject of lively gratitude to all ; and whaffever calami- ty had befallen a single member, spread a gloom over the whole community. Bound to each other by ties infinitely holier and dear- er than any that belong to the world, they looked upon themselves as members of the same common family. Every time that they met, either in their own houses or in their public assemblies, they interchanged the kiss, as a badge of fellowship, and token of the warmest affection. Though totally unconnected by ties of consan- guinity, they addressed each other, according to their respective age and sex, by the name of father, mother, brother, sister. Though naturally separated by distinction of rank and diversity of color, no- thing could cool the ardor or prevent the reciprocities of their mu- tual love. The knowledge of the simple fact, that any one was a follower of Jesus, changed him at once from a stranger into a friend ; creating a union between them not to be described by the cold selfish friendship of the world ; and to them belongs the peculiar distinc- tion of realizing a state of society which many philosophers had of- ten delighted to picture to their fanc}', and wished for in vain, — the idea of a community united by no other bond than the golden chain of universal love. 49 386 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. § 9. Of THEIR Benevolence. 1. Their care of the poor. One very remarkable way in which this love manifested itself, was in the care they took of their poorer brethren. Among them, as in every association of men, the needy and destitute were found. The duty of providing for these was not left to the gratuities of private individuals, whose situation gave them opportunities of ascertaining, and whose benevolence prompted them to relieve, their necessities. It devolved on the whole commu- nity of believers, who regarded it not as a burden, but a privilege, to minister to the wants of those who bore the image of Christ ; and by their unwearied attentions to the discharge of this labor of love, they made the light of their liberality and benevolence so shine, as to command the admiration even of the cold and selfish heathens around them. As duly as the Sabbath returned, and as soon as they had brought their sacred duties to a close, the lists of the poor, the aged, the widow, and the orphans, were produced for considera- tion ; and, as if each had been hastening to bring forth the fruits of faith, and to prove the sincerity of that love they had just professed to their Saviour by the abundance of their liberality to his people, they set themselves to the grateful task, with a zeal and enthusiasm, whose fresh and unabated vigor betrayed no symptoms of their hav- ing already been engaged in a lengthened service. The custom was for every one in turn to bring under public notice the case of a brother or sister, of whose necessitous circumstances he had any knowledge, and forthwith a donation was ordered out of the funds of the church, which the voluntary contributions of the faithful supplied. No strong or heart-stirring appeals were necessary to reach the hid- den source of their sympathies; no cold calculations of prudence regulated the distribution of their public alms ; no fears of doubtful propriety suggested delay for the consideration of the claim ; no petty jealousies as to the preference of one recommendation to another were allowed to freeze the gonial current of their charity. By whomsoever the case was recommended, or in whatever circum- stances the claim was made, the hand of benevolence had answered the call almost before the heart found words to express its sympa- thy, and \viih a unanimity surpassed only by their boundless love, they dealt out their supplies from the treasury of the church, when- OF THEIR BENEVOLENCE. 387 ever there was an object to receive, or a known necessity to require it. Where the poor in one place were numerous, and the brethren were unable from their hmited means to aflbrd them adequate sup- port, they applied to some richer church in the neighborhood, and never was it known in those days of active benevolence, that the ap- peal was fruitlessly made, or coldly received. Though they had poor of their own to maintain, neighboring and foreign churches were always ready to transmit contributions in aid of the Christians in distant parts, and many and splendid are the instances on record of ministers and people, on intelligence of any pressing emergency, hastening with their treasures for the relief of those whom they had never seen, but with whom they were united by the strong ties of the same faith and hopes. Thus, when a multitude of christian men and women in Numidia had been taken captive by a horde of neigh- boring barbarians, and wlien the churches to which they belonged were unable to raise the sum demanded for their ransom, they sent deputies to the church that was planted in the metropolis of North Africa, and no sooner had Cyprian, who then was at the head of it, heard a statement of the distressing case, than he commenced a sub- scription in behalf of the unfortunate slaves, and never relaxed his indefatigable efforts, till he had collected a sum equal to nearly $4000, which he fowarded to the Numidian churches, together with a letter full of christian sympathy and tenderness. 2, Their allentions to the sick. But the primitive Christians were not content with conveying their eleemosynary aid through the pub- lic channels of ihe church. To them it appeared a sacred duty to countenance the poor with their presence and their purse in their own homes, where they could make more minute inquiries into their wants, and tender them the comforts of christian sympathy and counsel, which, by the brethren both of high and low degree, were more highly prized than even the open-handed benevolence that ministered to their temporal necessities. This pious office was more especially delegated to the female members of the community, as it was thought, both from the delicate nature of the embassy, and from the jealous spirit of ancient society, they possessed facilities of access to the domestic privacy of all classes, denied to their breth- ren of the other sex. And exemplary was the prudence and fidelity with which they discharged their trust. Every moment they could spare from the prior claims of their own household, the christian 388 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. matrons devoted to those errands of mercy ; and while they listened to the widow's tale of other days, and her traits of the friend who had gone to his rest, — or saw the aged in their hut of poverty, bending under the weight of years, — or sat by the bedside of the afflicted, and those that were ready to die, — or found, as was fre- quently the case, the helpless babe, which the frigid heart of a pagan mother had exposed and forsaken in the lonely path, they provided for the wants of each, and administered appropriate comforts both for the body and the soul. But these were light and easy attentions compared wiih the duties which their charitable mission frequently imposed on them. In those days there were no public institutions for the reception of the poor, and for the medical treatment of the diseased, and as there were few or none among the heathen in private life, who ever thought of entering the abodes of poverty and sickness, and helping their neighbors, — such was the cold and un- feeling selfishness of the heathen world, — the Christians were never without objects, in every form of human wretchedness, towards whom their benevolence was required. Indeed it is almost incred- ible to what offices the ardor of their christian spirit led them to condescend. They, though all of them were women moving amid the comforts of domestic life, and some of them ladies of the highest rank never inured to any kind of labor, scrupled not to perform the meanest and most servile offices, that usually devolved on the lowest menial. Not only did they sit by the bedside of the sick, conversing with and comforting them, but with their own hands prepared their victuals, and fed them — administered cordials and medicine — brought them changes of clothing — made their beds — dressed the most repulsive and putrefying ulcers — exposed themselves to the contagion of malignant distempers — swaddled the bodies of the dead, and, in short, acted in the character at once of the physi- cian, the nurse, and the ambassador of God. Their purse and their experience were always ready, and the most exhausting and dangerous services were freely rendered by these christian wo- men. In process of time, however, as the christian society extended its limits, and the victims of poverty and sickness became propor- tionally more numerous, the voluntary services of the matrons were found inadequate to overtake the immense field, and hence, besides the deacons and deaconesses who, at a very early period of the church, were appointed to superintend the interests of the poor, a OF THEIR BENEVOLENCE. 389 new class of office-bearers arose, under the name of Parabolani, whose province it was to visit and wait on the sick in mahgnant and pestilential diseases. These, whose number became afterwards very great — Alexandria alone, in the time of Thcodosius, boasting of six hundred,— took charge of the sick and the dying, under circumstan- ces in which, while it was most desirable they should have every at- tention paid to them, prudence forbade mothers and mistresses of families to repair to them ; and thus, while the heathen allowed, their poor and their sick to pine in wretchedness and to die before their eyes, uncared for, there was not in the first ages a solitary individual of the christian poor, who did not enjoy all the comforts of a tem- poral and spiritual nature that his situation required. It was not, however, only to the poor of their own churches that the benevolence of the primitive Christians showed itself. Never, perhaps, was the clear and lively principle of their character more strikingly exemplified than in the appearance of any of those calami- ties— famine or pestilence — with which the ancient world was so frequently visited. In the accounts that have reached us of those terrible catastrophes, mention is invariably made of a sad corruption of morals accompanying them, — the heathen became desperate and reckless amid the fearful ravages made in their ranks, their sensi- bilities were deadened, and a most unnatural and cold-blooded in- difference shown to the claims of their nearest relatives and friends. In the midst of all these disorders, the benevolence of the Christians exhibited an extraordinary contrast to the unfeeling selfishness of their heathen neighbors. Thus, for instance, during the plague that so long and severely afflicted Carthage in the time of Cyprian, he and the rest of the Christians were indefatigable in their exertions for the relief of the afflicted ; and while the heathen abandoned the sick and dying to their fate, — while the highways were strewed with corpses which no one had the courage or the public spirit to bury, and the hardened survivors were intent only on pilfering the clothes and the chests of the dead, the Christians were constantly facing the danger, busy on the streets or in the houses, distributing money or articles of food and clothing, and doing all in their power to alleviate the pangs of the sufferers, and soothe the last moments of the dying. Nor was their benevolence confined to the sick mem- bers of their own community, — they extended their attentions indis- criminately to all ; and, while the heathen stood aloof and careless, 390 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. parents deserting their children, and children trampling on the un- biiried corpses of their parents, the Christians were assiduously em- ployed in the pious labor of interring them, — the rich contributing their money, and the poor their labor, to clear the houses and the streets from the effluvia of the mouldering relics of mortality, and adopt the most prudent precautions to free the city from the further ravages of the pestilence. In like manner, when the Roman empire, especially that part of it that lay in the east, was overtaken, in the reign of Gallienus, by the simultaneous calamities of plague, famine, and earthquake, the calm fortitude and unswerving resignation of the Christians, — their inde- fatigable benevolence towards all who were seized by the dreaded sickness, and the kind sympathising attentions they bestowed on them, at the risk of their own lives, were very strikingly exemplified in Alexandria, thechief seat of the disasters. In a letterof Dionysius, who was then pastor of the church in that city, a most impressive account is given, of which we subjoin a translation : — That pesti- lence appeared to the heathen as the most dreadful of all things, — as that which left tliein no hope ; not so, however, did it seem to us, but only a peculiar and practical trial. The greater part of our peo- ple, in the abundance of their brotherly love, did not spare them- selves ; and, mutually attending to each other, they cheerfully visited the sick without fear, and ministered to them for the sake of Christ. Many of them died, after their care had restored others from the plague to health. The best among our brethren, priests and dea- cons, and some who were celebrated among ilic laity, died in this manner; and such a death, the fruit of great piety and strong faith, is hardly inferior to martyrdom. Many who took the bodies of their christian brethren into their hands and bosoms, closed their mouth and eyes, and buried them with every attention, soon followed them in death. But with the heathen matters stood quite differently ; at the first symptom of sickness, they drove a man from their society, they tore themselves away from their dearest connections, they threw the half dead into the streets, and left thousands unburied, — endeav- oring by all the means in their power to escape contagion, which, notwithstanding all their contrivances, it was very difficult for them to aiccomplish. 3. Their charities to those who were persecuted for righteousness' sake. The benevolence of the primitive Christians being thus readi- OF THEIR BENEVOLENCE. 391 ly, and on all occasions exerted in the cause of suffering hunnanity, it need not surprise us that the most frequent and distinguished ob- jects of it were the sufferers for righteousness' sake. Many of these were immured in prisons, and no sooner did Fame spread abroad the sad intelligence that one of them was lying in the dungeons of a city, than the Christians of the place flocked in crowds to the doors of the cell, begging admission. Patiently did they bear the caprice and rebuffs of the surly guards and jailors ; anxiously did they resort to every means of conciliation, by persuasions, entreaties, and bribes; — often, when all proved fruitless, did they lie for days and nights together outside the walls of a dungeon, praying for the deliverence or for the happy and triumphant exit of the imprisoned confessor. If admitted, as they sometimes were, these Christians, most of whom were always women, carried v.'ith them beds, materials of food, clothing, and fuel, — they kissed their chains, washed their feet, and rendered them all the most tender and endearing ofliccs they could think of Witness the well known case of the impostor Peregrinus. This person, who lived in the second century, had been obliged to flee from his native country, Armenia, on account of some great crime, and having settled in Judea, became acquainted with the principles of the Gospel, appeared an illustrious penitent, and made public profession of the faith. His fame as a Christian spread far and wide, and when his religious tenets brought him the distinction of imprisonment, the Christians, deeply afflicted at his fate, made ex- traordinary efforts to procure his release. These, however, proving unsuccessful, they strove to mitigate the evils of confinement by loading him with every attention. At break of day, numbers of old women, widows, and orphans, were seen surrounding the walls of the prison, their hands filled with every delicacy, and even with large sums of money, which the liberality of foreign Christians had sent to ihem for their support. But many of the sufferers for the cause of religion, instead of be- ing thrown into prison, were sent to labor, like slaves, in distant and unwholesome mines. Thither the benevolence of their brethren fol- lowed them, and never were contributions more frequently and lib- erally made by the Christians, than when they were destined for the relief of the mutilated martyrs, who labored amid the darkness and noxious vapors of these subterranean dungeons. Nay, many even undertook long and toilsome pilgrimages, in order to comfort and 392 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. support those victims of oppression with their christian sympathy ; and, in the performance of these pious journeys, encountered perils, amid which, nothing but benevolence of the purest and most exalted character could have preserved their resolution firm and unshaken. A party of Christians, for instance, set out from Egypt in the depth of winter, to visit their brethren in the mines of Cilicia. Some of them, when the object of their journey became public, were arrested on their arrival at Cesarea, and had their eyes pulled out, and their feet dislocated. Others shared a worse fate at Ascalon, being burnt or beheaded. Various companies, who successively went from dif- ferent quarters, on the benevolent errand of expressing their sympa- thy with the interesting miners, prosecuted their undertaking amid similar dangers. But nothing could repress the ardent wish to pour the balm of consolation into the hearts of men, who were suffering the worst species of slavery for the sake of the truth. And highly were those honored who lived to tell the tale that they had seen the martyrs in the mines, — to describe how they toiled, and wrought, and bore the chain, — and to carry, above all, the glad tidings of the fortitude, the patience, resignation, and christian joy with which they endured their hard lot. 4. Their love for the souls of men. This was another manifesta- tion of the benevolence of the primitive Christians, that deserves a particular notice. It was a remarkable feature of their charac- ter, and though inseparable from the anxiety they displayed on every occasion to promote the best interests of men, it yet occupied exclu- sively the minds of some of them, and gave rise to exertions which nothing but interests of eternal moment could have originated. Not to speak of those who dedicated themselves to the preaching of the Gospel, there were many in private life, who expended everything they could spare from the bare support of life on the purchase of Bi- bles, and on every suitable occasion, distributed them to the poor, — a gift, the value of which cannot be estimated, without taking into consideration the scarcity and the immense price which in those days a single copy of the Scriptures cost. But besides this excel- lent species of charity, which many of the wealthier Christians de- vised for themselves, there were others, who volunturily submitted to the most extraordinary sacrifices, with the generous view of bring- ing men from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan unto God. One man, for instance, is recorded to have sold himself into OF THEIR BENEVOLENCE. 393 the family of a hcallien actor, and continued for years cheerfully per- forming the most servile offices, till having heen the honored instru- ment of converting the husband and wife, and whole family to Chris- tianity, he received from the grateful converts the reward of his lib- erty. And not long after, during a visit to Sparta, the same individ- ual learning that the governor of that city had fallen into dangerous errors, offered himself again as a slave, and continued for two years in ttiat humble and ignominious situation, when his zealous efforts for the conversion of his master being crowned with fresh success, he was treated no longer as a servant, but a brother beloved in the Lord. Time would fail us " to enumerate all the various channels through which the benevolence of the primitive Christians flowed. Some dedicated themselves to the task of searching out desolate or- phans, helpless widows, unfortunate tradesmen, and heathen found- lings— in those times the most numerous class of unfortunates. Some carried their charity so far as to sit on the highways, or hire persons whose office was to perambulate the fields, for the purpose of direct- ing wanderers, and especially benighted travellers, into the way; while others delighted to lead the blind, to succor the bruised, and to carry home such as were lame, maimed, and unable to walk. Various were the sources whence the Christians drew the ample means necessary to enable them to prosecute so extensive a system of benevolence. The most steady and available fund was the com- mon treasury of the church, which was supplied every Sabbath by the voluntary 'contributions of the faithful, and out of which there was a weekly distribution of alms to multitudes of widows, orphans, and old people, who were stated pensioners on her bounty. In cases of great or public calamity, fasts were appointed, which by the sav- ing efTected in the daily expenses of all, even of the poor, were an approved and certain means of raising an extraordinary collection, and when that was found insufficient to meet the emergency, it not unfrequently happened that the pastors sold or melted the gold and silver plate that had been presented to their churches for sacred pur- poses. Many persons too, were in the habit of observing in private, quarterly, monthly, or weekly fasts, on which occasions, they either took little food or none at all, and transmitted the amount of their daily expenditure to the funds of the church, while others voluntarily bound themselves to set aside a tenth part of their income for the 50 394 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. use of the poor, and placed it, in like manner, in the church's trea- sury. Besides, there were many wealtliy individuals who, on their conversion to Cliristianity, from a spirit of ardent gratitude to the Saviour, sold their estates, and betaking themselves to manual labor or to the preaching of the Word, devoted the price of their properly to benevolent purposes. Others, who gave up their patrimony to objects of christian benevolence, chose to retain the management in their own hands ; as for example, a rich merchant who with part of his money built a spacious house, and with the rest of it entertained all strangers travelling in his neighborhood, took charge of the sick, supported the aged and infirm, gave slated alms to the poor, and on every Saturday and Sabbath caused several tables to be furnished for the refreshment of all who needed his bounty. § 10. TiiEiK Hospitality and mode of Salutation. It is impossible to speak in terms of less admiration of the hospi- tality exercised in that age towards christian strangers. The follow- ers of Christ, how widely soever they were scattered throughout the world, were then united as one great family, and agreeing, as they did, in the happiest spirit of concord, to regard any local varieties of custom as matters of indifference, kept up a constant and friendly correspondence with all the branches of the church universal, so that whenever any of them went abroad, either on their own private af- fairs, or on missions connected with the state and progress of reli- gion, they were received with open arms by the Clwistians of the place as brethren. Go under whatever name they might, and travel to the remotest places, among people of foreign manners and an un- known tongue, the pilgrims of the faith were sure, whenever they met with a Christian, to find a friend, whose house would be thrown open for their reception, whose table would be spread for their en- tertainment, and who would welcome them with a warmer heart and a kindlier smile, than they were often met with by their kinsmen and acquaintance at home. In the eyes of the unconverted, it seemed an inexplicable mystery, that men, who, as Jews, had felt a contempt for all other people, and, as Gentiles, would not enjoy the hearth in common with strangers, should be on terms of the closest friendship with Christians, indiscriminately of every color and of every name ; and they looked upon it as accomplished by some se- HOSriTALITY AND MODE OF SALUTATION. 395 cret token, — the watchword of a deep and wide-spread conspiracy, — when they saw the hand of fellowship given, and the rites of hos- pitality performed hy such people to foreigners, whose person and character had been previously unknown to them. The heathen knew nothing of those inward feelings, that brotherly love, that fel- lowship of the Spirit, which created between the Christians spiritual ties, independent alike of the natural and political boundaries of the earth, and one manifestation of which was their pleasure and fheir readiness to open their doors, and render every hospitable attention to those of the same faith from all quarters of the world. The way was for a traveller, on arriving at any town, to seek out the church, in or about which liberal accommodation was always provi- ded, both for the temporal and spiritual comforts of the wayfaring man. But it was seldom that the burden of lodging him was allowed to be borne by the common funds of the church, — for no sooner was the news of his arrival spread abroad, than the members vied with each other, which should have the privilege of entertaining the christian stranger at their homes ; and whatever was his rank or calling, he soon found himself domiciled with brethren, whose cir- cumstances were similar to his own. A minister was entertained by one of his own order ; a mechanic by one of the same craft or sta- tion ; and even the poorest would have been readier, and have count- ed it a greater honor, to share his hut and his crust with a disciple like himself, than to have sat at table with the emperor of Rome. In course of time, however, this generous and open-hearted hospitali- ty was abused. Persons unworthy to enjoy it — spies and impostors, under the assumed name of Christians, — introduced themselves to the brethren in distant places, and by misrepresenting afterwards what had been told them in the unsuspecting confidence of brother- hood, and circulating calumnies prejudicial both to individuals and to the body of Christians at large, threatened to bring on the church a variety of evils, — not the least of which would have been, that of putting an end to the ancient kindly intercourse with christian stran- gers, had not a plan been happily devised, and introduced into uni- versal practice, by which travellers were known at once to be good men and true. The plan was this : every one on setting out on a journey, was furnished by the minister of. the church to which he belonged with a letter of credence to the spiritual rulers of the place where he meant to sojourn, the presentation of which having satis- 396 CHARACTER OF THE TKIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. fied them as to his christian character, was instantly followed by a welcome invitation to partake of the hospitality of the church or the brethren. To prevent forgeries, these letters were folded in a par- ticular form, which procured them the name of lUerae formatae, be- sides containing some secret marks within, by which the Christians of foreign parts knew them to be genuine. By these testimonials, slightly varied in external appearance according to their several pur- poses,— such, for instance, as their certifying the bearer's claim merely to the common entertainment of Christians, or his right to participate in all the privileges of the church, or his being sent on some embassy pertaining to the common faith, Christians were ad- mitted to the fellowship of their brethren in all parts of the world, — were treated by the family that received them as one of themselves, had their feet washed by the wife on their first arrival, and at their departure were an.xiously and tenderly committed to the divine care, in a prayer by the master of the house. This last was a never-fail- ing part of the hospitality of the times ; and to liave betrayed any symptoms of preferring the temporal good cheer of the friendly host to his parting benediction, would have been a death-blow to the fur- ther credit of the stranger. In the general intercourse of society, the primitive Christians, act- ing according to the rules of Scripture, were careful to render to all their dues ; honor to whom honor is due, tribute to whom tribute, and to practise everything that is just, honest, and of good report. Their salutations to one another were made by imprinting on each other's cheek a kiss, — the token of love — the emblem of brother- hood ; and this, except in times of trouble and persecution, when they hastily recognised each other by the secret sign of the cross, was the constant, and the only form observed by Christians when they met together. It was practised in their private houses, at their public meetings, and, indeed, on all suitable occasions, though it was considered better and more prudent to dispense with it on the public streets, to avoid giving unnecessary offence to their heathen fellow- citizens. Whenever they met their pastor, they were accustomed, from the earliest times, to bow their heads to receive his blessing, — a ceremony which, in later times, when increased respect was paid to the clerical order, was accompanied with kissing his hands and embracing his feet. rATlENCli UNDER INJURIES. 397 § 11. Their patience under Injuries. Let the reader place himself, by an eflurt of imagination, in the state of society in which tlie Christians lived ; let him figure to his mind an humble, unobtrusive, and peaceable, but somewhat peculiar class of people, surrounded on all sides by multitudes knowing little or nothing of them or their principles, and from the little they knew, feeling a sovereign contempt for both, which the heathen were al- lowed with impunity to take every opportunity of expressing, by jostling thertf on the streets — pointing to them with the finger of ridi- cule— addressing them by cant terms of reproach, and persecuting them by a thousand petty annoyances in every-day life, and he will form some idea of the severe ordeal to which the patience of the primitive Christians was daily subjected. But inured as they were to calumny and reproach, and taught to expect these as the inheri- tance in this life of all who will live godly in Christ Jesus, they bore them with meekness, and sought deliverance from the malice of their enemies by no other weapons than that of exemplifying the ex- cellence of their principles by the dignified and holy propriety of their lives. Their property, their liberty, and even their lives, they freely surrendered, rather than lose that peace of mind which they found in the performance of christian duty, or sutler those principles to be violated, which they valued more highly than their dearest pos- sessions. Some of them, indeed, from a mistaken interpretation of several passages of Scripture, carried their views of christian obedi- ence so far, as when smote upon the one cheek, to turn the other, and when robbed of their coat, to give the cloak also. But the great majority of them more wisely considering these as proverbial forms of speech designed to inculcate a general spirit of patience and for- bearance, scrupled not to defend themselves from violence and ra- pine whensoever assailed ; to avail themselves of the protection and redress of their wrongs, which the laws of their country afforded, and to assert, as Paul did before them, wiien occasion required, the rights of citizenship against the arbitrary procedure of the magis- trates themselves. In matters of dispute, however, between one another, the Christians seldom or never resorted to the tribunals of the heathen deputies, but were in the habit of submitting their sub- jects of contention to the arbitration of some of their christian breth- 398 CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. ren. From the earliest times, this office of arbiter was, by common consent, devolved on the pastors of the church ; and hence, as the degree of respect and veneration in which the sacred order was held increased rather than diminished in the succeeding centuries, and as such unbounded contidence was placed in their christian wis- dom and impartiality, that all parties were disposed cheerfully to ac- quiesce in the awards of the spiritual judges, — one constant source of employment to the bishops of the primitive church was the deter- mination of secular causes referred to them by the members of their flock. Ambrose and Augustine have both left it upon record, that they devoted the early part of every day to hearing and con- sidering the disputed points on which they were requested to sit in judgment. Such being the popular influence of the christian minis- ters ; and the good effects of the prudence, mildness, and integrity, that characterized their arbitrations being so manifest, the power was legally conferred on them, after the establishment of Christianity, of deciding all secular and other causes, with the exception of crim- inal cases alone, wliich, as more immediately affecting the peace and tranquility of the state, the emperors reserved to themselves and their deputies. We close this rapid sketch of the social manners of the primitive Christians, with the high tribute paid to their public and civic virtues by two of their contemporaries, whose e.xalted rank and strong pre- dilections for heathenism give a weight to their testimony which none of the christian apologists, however faithful and honest, possess. The emperor Julian, in a letter to Arsacius, high priest of Galatia, among other things relating to the Christians, lakes occasion to dwell upon it as a well known fact, that the Christians were preeminent in their attentions to the sick, the infirm, and the aged, — in their hos- pitality to strangers, in their peaceable deportment to others, and their pious care of the dead; and presses home on his illustrious correspondent, that there was no hope of paganism regaining the as- cendency, except by its adherents, especially the priests, imitating the virtues of the Christians, in abstaining from the theatre, the tav- ern, and all scandalous pursuits and pleasures, — in a diligent atten- tion to business, charity to the indigent, and a hospitable entertain- ment of the friendless and the stranger. The emperor Severus pas- sed, perhaps, a higher eulogy than even this of Julian, on the social manners of the Christians. Observing the excellence of their con- OF CHRISTIAN MARRIAGES. 399 duct, as citizens, soldiers, and servants, and their fidelity in every departnnent of public and private life, he inquired into their princi- ples ; and having been informed that one grand rule of theirs was, " Not to do to others what they would not have done to themselves," he was so charmed with it, that at ail public executions he ordered it to be proclaimed aloud by a herald, and caused it to be inscribed, in legible characters, on the walls of his palace, and on all public buildings, that in every street, and on every occasion, his subjects might not be without so excellent a monitor to regulate their social manners. CHAPTER XIX. § 1. Of Christian Marriage. The laws of christian marriage seem, at first view, to be derived from the Mosaic regulations on this subject, and yet it is remarkable that, until the sixth or seventh century, the marriages of the early Christians were regulated rather by the Roman than by the Mosaic laws. But all this was only the natural result of the peculiar circum- stances under which the christian community was formed. Converts from the Jews might be expected to adhere to the Jewish rites, whilst those from the Gentiles would conform to the Roman laws and customs. For this reason the marriages of the christian church were of a mixed character, in which the influence of the Roman law was, at first, predominant. By this law, as well as by the law of Christ, polygamy was strictly forbidden.- In many other respects, it was also so far conformed to the law of God, that many of the early fathers scrupled not to borrow from it some of the most impor- tant marriage ceremonies ; and objected to the adoption of heathen customs, in this respect, only so far as they militated against the spirit of Christianity."' Much controversy prevailed in the ancient church on the subject of second marriages, particularly with the Novatians and Montanists, who denounced such marriages as unlawful. This opinion was also 400 OF MAERIAGE. upheld by many councils.'' A concession in favor of second mar- riages was afterwards made to the laity, but refused to the clergy.^ The law of celibacy finally rendered this rule nugatory with respect to the priesthood. The celibacy of the clergy was gradually established. It was at first partially adopted in compliance with the advice of zealous leaders of the church, who judged it expedient, or supposed it to tend to the promotion of piety ; afterwards it was represented as a moral duty, and was enforced by the decrees of councils ; and at last it was enjoined and established by the papal authority of Hildebrand in the eleventh century. The constrained celibacy of the clergy, therefore, does not come within the range of christian antiquities ; and the whole question belongs rather to a history of the opinions and doctrines of the church, than to a survey of its institutions and practices. The state claimed the right of regulating the laws of marriage ; the church at the same time possessing a subordinate or concurrent jurisdiction. This concurrence, however, was chiefly of a negative and passive character, and was the occasion of continual discord between church and state. For the first five centuries the church had no farther concern with the laws of marriage than to censure them, as occasion required, and to restrict the observance of them, by her discipline and authority. The laws of the stale and the regu- lations of the church, on this subject, were first made to harmonize under the emperor Justinian. Under the dynasty of Charles, the sanction of the church was fully established while the law still origi- nated with the state.^ In the middle ages, from the tenth to the six- teenth centuries, the church possessed a preponderating influence in these matters ; but even then, her claim to an exclusive jurisdiction was neither asserted nor allowed. To assert this prerogative was regarded as a direct attack upon the state.'^ In protestant states it is regarded as a civil institution, established in conformity with the law of God, and appropriately solemnized by the rites of religion. The regulations in relation to prohibited marriages were, in the lapse of time, gradually assimilated to the law of Moses ; but these have never been strictly observed in the christian church. The canonists have very carefully specified the several degrees of con- sanguinity and affinity within w^hich marriage could not lawfully be contracted. They were thirteen in number, whilst under the Mo- OF DIVORCE. 401 saic economy they were seventeen, or according to others nineteen. The prohibited grades, in the ancient church, are comprised in the following lines : Nata, soror, ncptis, matcrtcra fratris et uxor Et patrui conjux, mater, privigna, noverca Uxorisque soror, privigni nata, nurusque Atque soror patris ; conjungi lege vetantur. Whether it is lawful to marry a brotlier's wife, or a wife's sister, was a question much controverted in the church. The general sense of the church was against such connections, as appears from the dis- pensation which was made in such cases in favor of the clergy. This point has been discussed at length by Schlegel.^'^ Mixed marriages between the Jews and Gentiles were strictly prohibited by the law of Moses. This prohibition is not repeated in the New Testament in regard to the marriage of Christians with idolaters. The apostle Paul, however, decidedly objects to such connections as inexpedient, 1 Cor. vii. 2 Cor. 6: 14 — 18. The early fathers denounced them as dangerous and immoral ;^ and they were, at a later period, positively prohibited by the decrees of councils and the laws of the empire.^'' By these regulations it was unlawful for Christians to marry either Jews, pagans, Mohammedans or heretics.^' If, however, such marriages had already been contracted, they ap- pear not to have been annulled upon the conversion of either party to Christianity. There are indeed examples of the violation of these rules, as in the case of Monica, the mother of Augustine, and Clotil- dis, the wife of Clovis, both of whom were instrumental in the con- version of their husbands.i^ § 2. Of Divorce. On this subject it is sufficient to say that the church, with few ex- ceptions, has uniformly adhered to the rules laid down by our Lord and his apostles, Mark 10: 2, 12. Luke 16: 18. Matt. 5: 31,32. 19: 2—10. 1 Cor. 7: 10, 11. Rom. 7: 2, 3. But under the term adul- tery the primitive church included idolatry and apostasy from the Christian faith,^ to which may be added witchcraft and other magical arts. The laws of Constantine, Honorius, Theodosius the younger, Valentinian the Third, Anastasius, and Justinian, also favor this con- struction.- The canonists enumerate twelve causes of divorce, 51 402 OF MARRIAGE. which are also regarded as suitable reasons for not assuming the marriage vow, imjjedimenta quae matrimonium conlrahendum impedi- unt et contractuin dirimunl. The same causes which are a bar to assuming the marriage covenant dissolve it. These causes are set forth in the following lines : Error, conditio, votum, cognatio, crimen, Cnltus disparitas, vis, ordo, ligamen, bonestas, Si sis adfinis ; si forte coire nequibis (al negabis) The reader is directed, in the index, to a full explanation of these terms.3 The error relates to a mistake in regard to the parties, as in the case of Leah and Rachel, conditio to the marriage of freemen with those who are in bondage, cognatio to prohibit degrees of consan- guinity, votum and ordo relate to the marriage of monastics, ligamen to cases of bigamy, honestas to prohibited connections between per- sons already related by marriage. '^ 3. Marriage Eites and Ceremonies. It vv^as a rule of the primitive church that the parties who were about to be united in marriage, both male and female, should signify their intentions to their pastor, that the connection might be formed with his approbation. The church were expected, in this manner, not only to take cognizance of the proposed marriage, but to deter- mine whether it was duly authorized by the principles of the chris- tian religion. The marriage was indeed valid in law without this ecclesiastical sanction ; but it was open to censure from the church, and was followed by the imposition of penance, or the sentence of excommunication.* This notice originally answered the purpose of a public procla- mation in the church. No satisfactory indication of the modern cus- * UgsTtEi, ds toiq yctfioiitn xal xaig yotfiovaatg ixsTci yvojfAtjg tov iniaxo- nov ji)v ivoitriv noifia&at,, 'iva o yayog y xaxu KvQtov, xai (it] y.ax ini— &vfilav. Ignat. Ej). ad. Polycarp. ii. 5. — Unde sufiicianius ad enarrandam felicitatem ejus matrimonii, quod ecclesia conciliat, et confirmat oblatio, et obsignat benedictio, Angeli renuntiant. pater rato habet ? Nam nee in ter- ris filii sine consensu patrum rite ct jusle nubont. Tertull. ad Ihor. lib. ii. c. 8, 9. — Occultae conjunctiones, id est, non prius apud ecclesiam professae, juxta moechiam et fornicationem judicari periclitantur. Tertull. De Pudi- cit. c. 4.^ MARIUAGE KITES AND CE KEAIONIES. 403 torn of publishing the banns appears in the history of the church un- til the twelfth century, when it was required by the authority of eccle- siastical councils.^ According to the rules of the Romish churcii, this publishment should be made on three market days. In some countries the banns were published three limes; in others, twice ; and in others, once. The intentions of marriage were sometimes posted upon the doors or other parts of the church ; sometimes pub- lished at the close of the sermon or before singing. The word banns, according io Du Cange, means a public notice or proclama- tion. It is worthy of notice that no distinct account of the mode of sol- emnizing marriage, nor any prescribed form for this purpose is found in any of the early ecclesiastical writers, although they have many allusions to particular marriage rites and ceremonies. It appears that the propriety or necessity of religious exercises in solemnizing the marriage covenant, was not recognized by the civil law until the ninth century ; but that such religious rites were required by the church as early as the second century.* The rites of marriage in the ancient Greek church were essen- tially three : the sponsalia — the espousals, the investing with a crown, and the laying off of the crown. 1. The ceremony of the espousals was as follows : the priest, af- ter crossing himself three times upon the breast, presents the bridal pair, standing in the body of the house, each with a lighted wax can- dle, and then proceeds to the altar, where he offers incense from a cruciformed censer, after which the larger collect is sung with the responses and doxologies. Then follows the ceremony of presenting the ring. With a gol- den ring the priest makes a sign of the cross upon the head of the bridegroom, and then places it upon a finger of his right hand, thrice repeating these words : " This servant of the Lord espouses this handmaid of the Lord, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, both now and forever, world without end, Amen." In like manner, and with the same form of words, he presents the * Cum ipsum conjugium velamine sacerdotali et benedictione sanctificari oporteat, quoinodo potest conjugium dici ubi nonest fidei concodia? Jimbros., Ep. 70. — Etiamsi nostrae ahsolutac sit polestatis quainlibet puellam in con- jugium tradere, tradi a nobis Cbristianam nisi Christiano iion posse. .'Jrigus- tin., Ep. 234, ad Rusticum. — Jtov—if(jta? xakth'; xai ^i fyojv iv?.oyi(^ir t?/V otiot'oiav Tov awoiy.talov avarpyytiv x r /..^ 404 OF MARRIAGE. bride a silver ring. The grooms-man then changes the rings, whilst the priest, in a long prayer, sets forth the import of the rings. After which the whole is closed with a prescribed form of prayer. These espousals usually took place some time previous to the consumma- tion of the marriage. According to some authorities two years usu- ally intervened between the espousals and the marriage. 2. The act of crowning the parlies was appropriately the initiatory rite in solemnizing the marriage covenant. The preliminaries of this were the same as those of the espousals, with 4he exception that in this instance the 128th psalm was sung with the responses and doxologies. After this a discourse was delivered setting forth the importance and responsibilities of the marriage relation. Then va- rious interrogaiions, relating to the marriage covenant and the un- married state, were presented : next followed the larger collects, va- ried according to circumstances ; after which a long prayer was of- fered, in three parts, each of which was announced in the customary form by the deacon, tou kvqIov dsi'i&tofiEv. After this, the priest sets the nuptial crowns, which have been lying on the altar, first upon the head of the bridegroom and then upon that of the bride, saying, " This servant of the Lord hereby crowns this handmaid of the Lord? in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, world without end, Amen." This ceremony is followed by prayers, doxologies, and the reading of the Scriptures, particularly Eph. 5: 20 — 33 and John 2: 1 — 11, and the alternate prayers of the priest and the deacon. The whole is concluded by the assembly, repeat- ing the Lord's prayer with the cu.stomary responses ; and the usual form of benediction. During these solemnities the priest presents to the newly married couple a glass of wine, of which each drinks three times, and then the glass is immediately broken, to denote the transitory nature of all earthly things. The minister then joins the hands of the parties, and leads them three times around in a circle, whilst the whole assembly unite in singing a nuptial song, the grooms-man meanwhile accompanying the married couple with his hands resting upon their heads, which are still adorned with the crown. 3. The laying off of the croion. Upon the eighth day, the mar- ried pair present themselves again in the church, when the minister, with appropriate prayer, lays oft' the nuptial crown, and dismisses REMARKS UPON THE MARRIAGE RITES. 405 them with his benediction, offered in a prescribed form of words. This ceremony however was not uniformly observed. In all these rites the reader will observe a studied analogy to those of baptism. The second and third marriage was solemnized in much the same manner, the ceremonies being abridged, and the prayer of penance substituted in the place of the nuptial prayer. The church thus treated these as just occasions for discipline, and refused altogether to sanction a fourth marriage, but regarded it as a criminal offence. § 4. Remarks upon the marriage Rites and Ceremonies of the Ancient Church. In the works of early ecclesiastical writers, especially in those of Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Augustine, Jerome, Basil, and Chrysostom, we find many allusions to particular rites and ceremo- nies, but no entire, or general account of them. In the former part of the seventh century, a writer attempted to enumerate the mar- riage ceremonies which the church had recognized as innocent and convenient, or symbolical. ^ We possess also an oflicial account of the ceremonies used in the Roman church, A. D. 860, from the pen of the pope Nicolas I.* * Morem quern sancta Romana suscepit antiquitus et hactenus in hujus- modi conjunctionibus tenet ecclesia, vobis monstrare stiidebimus. Nostra- tes siquidem tarn mares qnam t'eininae non ligaturam auream, vol argenteam, aut ex quolibet nietallo composilain, quando niiptialia focdera contrahunt, in capita dcf'erunt. Sed post sponsalia, quae f'uturaruni sunt nuptiarum promissa foedera, quaecunque consensu eorum, qui haec contrahunt, et eo- rum, in quorum potentate sunt, cclebraiitur, et poslquam arrhis sponsani sibi sponsus per digltum fidei a se annulo insignitum desponderit, dotemque utri- que placitam sponsus ei cura scripto pactum hoc continente coram invilatis ab utroque parte tradiderit ; aut mox, aut apto tempore, ne videhcet ante tempus lege definitum tale quid fieri praesumatur, ambo ad nuptialia foedera perducuntur. £t primum in ecclesia Domini cum oblationibus, quas offerre debent Deo per sacerdotis manuni, statuuntur, sicque demum benedictio- nem et velamen coeleste suscipiunt. . . . Verumtamen velamen illud non suscipit, qui ad secundas nuptias migrat. Post haec autem de ecclesia egres- si coronas in capitibus gestant quae in ecclesia ipsa sunt solitae reservari. Et ita festis nuptialibus celebratis ad ducendam individuam vitam Domino disponente de cetero diriguntur. . . . Tanta solet arctare quosdam rernm in- opia, ut ad haec praeparanda nullum his suft'ragetur auxilium : ac per hoc 406 OF BIARRIAGE. To proceed however with our general remarks. 1. The office of grooms-man, or attendant of the bridegroom, is of high antiquity ; common alike to the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. He is desig- nated by the names natjawfjcfog, vvpqnymyog, vvijq,n'T)'ic, etc. He had various duties to perform in connection with the nuptial con- tract and dowry, such as the following, — to accompany the parties to the church at their marriage, — to act as sponsor for them in their vows, — to assist in the marriage ceremonies, — to accompany them to the house of the bridegroom, — to preside over, and direct the fes- tivities of the occasion, etc.^ 2. The use of the ring, in the rites both of espousal and of mar- riage is very ancient. It is mentioned both by TertuUian,"^ and Clement of Alexandria ;"* the latter of whom says, " It was given her not as an ornament, but as a seal, to signify the woman's duty in preserving the goods of her husband, because the care of the house belongs to her." Isodorus Hispalensis says, " that it was presented by the husband either as a pledge of mutual affection, or rather as a token of the union of their hearts in love."^ 3. The crowning of the married pair with garlands, was a mar- riage rite peculiar to many nations professing different forms of re- ligion. Tertullian inveighs against it with all the zeal of a gloomy Montanist f but it is spoken of with approbation by the fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries, from whom it appears that the friends and attendants of the bridal pair were adorned in the same manner.''' These chaplets were usually made of myrtle, olive, amarinlh, rose- mary, and evergreens intermingled with cypress and vervain. The crown, appropriately so called, was made of olive, myrtle, and rose- mary, variegated with flowers, and sometimes with gold and silver, pearls, precious stones, etc. These crowns were constructed in the form of a pyramid, or tower. Both the bride, and the bridegroom were crowned in this manner, together with the grooms-man, and the brides-maid. The bride fre- sufficiat, secundum leges, solus eorum consensus, de quorum conjunctioni- bus agitur. Qui consensus, si solus in nuptiis forte defuerit, cetera omnia etiam cum ipso coitu ceiebrata frustantur. . . . Haec sunt praeter alia, quae ad memoriam non occurrunt, pacta conjugiorum solemnia. Peccatum au- tem esse, si haec cuncta in nuptiali foedere non interveniant, non dicimus, quemadmodurn Graecos vos adstruere dicitis.— iNicol. /. Rcspons. ad Con- sulta Buls''ir. c. 3. REMARKS UPON THE MARRIAGE RITKS. 407 quently appeared in church tlius attired on the day when proclama- tion of the banns was made. Chaplets were not worn by tiie parties in case of second marriage, nor by those who had been guilty of impropriety before marriage. In the Greek church the chaplets were imposed by the ofliciating minister at the altar. In the Western church it was customary for the parties to present themselves thus attired. 4. The wearing of a veil by the bride, was borrowed from the Romans.* It was also conformable to the example of Rebecca, Gen. x.xiv. From this marriage rite arose the custom oi taking the veil in the Catholic church. By this act, the nun devotes herself to perpetual virginity as the spouse of Christ, the bridegroom of the church. 5. It appears to have been customary also to spread a robe over the bridegroom and bride,^ called vitta nuplialis, pallium jugale, etc., and made of a mixture of while and red colors. t 6. Torches and lamps were in use on such occasions both among the Jews and pagan nations.^ No mention is made of them in the church previous to the time of Constantine, though they may have been in use at an earlier date. 7. All the marriage rites and ceremonies indicate that the day was observed as a festive occasion, while measures were carefully taken to guard against all excesses and improprieties of conduct. These festivities were celebrated by nuptial processions, going out to meet the bridegroom and conducting him home, — by nuptial songs, and music, ^'^ and marriage feasts. These festivals are fre- quently the subject of bitter animadversion by the fathers, especially * Tertull. De Veland. Virg. lib. xvii. c. 11. — The velamen nuptiale, of which Ambrose {Ep. 70) says, " Conjugium velamine saccrdotali sanctificari oportel," is usually regarded as " signuin pudoris et verecundiae." Accord- ing to Isidor. Hispal. {^Dc Off. EccL ii. c. 19) it is rather " signum humilita- tis et subjectionis erga maritum." He says, Feminae, dum niaritantur, ve- lantur, ut noverintper hoc se viris esse subjectas et humiles. t Qoud nubentes post benedictionem vitta irivicern quasi uno vinculo cop- ulantur, videlicet ideo fit, ne compagern conjugalis unitatis disruinpant. Ac eadem vitta candido purpureoque colore periniscetur ; candor quippe est ad niunditiein vitae, purpura ad sanguinis posleritatein adhibetur, ut hoc signo et continentia et lex conlincndi ab utrisque ad teitipus admoneantur, et post hoc reddendum debitum non negetur. — Isidor. Hispal. (/e 0^". £ccL lib. ii.c.l9. 408 FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES. by Chrysostom,'! and often called for the interposition of the au- thority of the church. It appears, however, that the efforts of the church were, not to abolish these convivial entertainments and fes- tivities, but to restrain them within the bounds of decency and good order.^2 The clergy were expected to refrain from attending them.i^* 8. In connection with these festivities, it was customary to distri- bute alms to the poor, and instead of the old Roman custom of scat- tering about nuts, to throw out pieces of money to the children, and to the poor. CHAPTER XX. FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES.^ § 1. Treatment of the Dead. The early Christians were distinguished by their care for the dead, and their sympathy with the afflicted. Their funeral solem- nities they celebrated with gravity and propriety, with the intent of showing due respect for the deceased, and of administering conso- lation to survivors. These funeral services were performed as a public religious duty.- This is one of the three points for which they were commended by the apostate Julian.^ The christian church manifested, from the beginning, a decided preference for the custom of hurying the dead,"* for which they had the example of Jews, Gen. 3: 9. 23: 19. Deut. 24: 6. Matt. 19: 28, etc. But the custom of burning the dead at that time prevailed throughout the Roman empire, to which they were zealously oppos- * Presbyteri, diaconi, sub-diaconia vel deinceps, quibus ducendi uxores licentia modo non est etiam aliarum niiptiarum evitent convivia, nee his coetibus miscantur ubi amatoria cannntur et turpia, aut obsceni motus cor- porum cboreis et saltationibus efferuntur, ne auditus etobtuilus sacris minis- teriis deputati turpium spectaculorum atque verboruin contagione polluan- tur.— Conil. Agath. c. 39. TREATMENT OF THE DEAD. 409 ed.* They had at first, no separate burying places ; nor would their circumstances admit of any such design. The public burial places, according to both Jewish and Roman laws, were on the out- side of cities,5 Matt. 26:60. Luke 7: 12. John 11: 30. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries an open space around the church was appropriated for the burial of princes, bishops, and other clergy, and afterwards of those wiio died in the communion of the church. This, like everything which was appropriated to the service of. the church, was formally consecrated. The first instance of this kind occurred in the sixth century.^ In the ninth century began the cus- tom of interring the dead within the walls of the church. Burial places were styled Koi^iiTt]Qia, places of repose, cemeteries, denoting hereby, not only that the dead rest from their earthly la- bors and sorrows ; but pointing out the hope of a future resurrec- tion.7 The grave yard was also styled the Lord^s ground, because it enjoyed the immunities of the church, or more properly perhaps, because of the sacred communion which those who sleep in the Lord were supposed to hold with him. The church did not approve of the custom of interring the dead * The Romans, in ancient times, used to bury tlieir dead. The dictator Cornelius Sylla is supposed to have been the first among them whose corpse was burnt, and that was done in compliance with his own desire. After- wards this practice became general, especially among the higher orders ; and continued to prevail until the fourth century of the Christian era. Cic. De LeiriT. ii. c. 25 ; Virg. Mti. vi. 177 ;— Plin. Hist. J^'ut. vii. c. 54, " ipsum cremare apud Romanos non fait veteris instituti, terra condiebantur ;"'— conf. Plutarch. Fit. Kiimae ; Stobaei, Serw.. 122 ; Macrob. Saturn, vii. c. 7; Cod. Theodos. lib. ix. tit 6, leg. 6.— The first Roman emperor whose corpse was interred was Commodus, as we learn from Xlphilinus. The early Chris- tians protested against the custom of burning the bodies of the dead, and ad- vocated inhumation,— a practice which was always observed in the christian church.— Corpus omne, sive arescit in pulverem, sive in humorem solvitur, vel in cinerem comprimitur, vel in nidorem tenuatur, subducitur nobis ; sed Deo, elenientorum custodi, reservatur. Nee, ut creditis, ullum damnum sepulturae tiinemus, sed veterem et meliorem consuetudinem humandi fre- quentamus. Minuc. Fel. Odav. c. 34.- Ego magis ridebo vulgus, tunc quo- que cum ipsos defunctos atrocissime exurit, quos post modum gulosissime nutrit, iisdem ignibus et promercns et ofFendens. O pietatem de crudelitate ludentem ! Tertull. De Resurr. c. 1 . Conf. TertuU. De Jlnima, c. 51 ; Lac- tant. Instit. Dir. lib. vi. c. 12 ; Oug. contr. Cels. hh. vVn.; Augustin. Z)c. Civ. Dei, lib. i. c. 13 ; Euseb. Hist. Eccl. lib. 4. c. 16 ; v. 1. 52 410 FUNERAL KITES AND CEREMONIES. in family graves and private sepulchres. It was supposed to be in- vidious, and encourage the pride of distinction. Like the Greeks and Ronoans, Christians erected ntionuments and marked them with inscriptions, jlxXoig, tilulis, in memory of their friends.^ Their luxury and extravagance in these matters are se- verely censured by Basil the Great, Chrysostom and others. Frus- ira struimt homines preiiosa sepulcra^ quasi ea animae, nee solius corporis^ receptacula essenL Ambrose De Bono Mortis. Tlie funeral solemnities of the Romans were held by night.^ Those of Christians, on the other hand, were solemnized by day, but with lighted tapers. In times of persecution, the Christians were of- ten compelled to bury their dead by night, and with all possible se- crecy. But under Constantine and his sons, christian funerals were attended by day, and, at times, with great pomp. Probably they en- acted laws on this subject in favor of christian burials, for the apos- tate Julian was compelled to issue a positive decree to restore the nocturnal celebration of funeral rites.* The Jews, and the Eastern nations generally were accustomed to bury very soon after death. The nature of the climate might direct to this custom ; but the principal reason probably was, that by the speedy removal of the corpse, they might avoid ceremonial pollu- tion. The custom of the Greeks and Romans corresponded in this respect with that of the Oriental nations. The early Christians also conformed to the custom of the country, in the early removal of the corpse, but they utterly discarded the idea that any ceremonial pol- lution could be contracted by contact with the dead. On the con- trary, they fearlessly exposed themselves to contagion by their faith- ful offices to those who had died of malignant diseases as well as by administering to their necessities in sickness.^^ The corpse, after being removed from the house, was usually kept for a day or more in the church, and from this originally arose the custom of keeping * Efferri cognovimus cadavera niortuornin per confertam popnli freqnen- tiam el per maximam insistentium densitatem : quod quidem oculos homi- num infaustis infestat adspectibus. Qui eiiim dies est bene auspicatus a fu- nere ? aut quomodo ad Deos et templa venietur ? Ideoque quoniam et do- lor inexsequiis secretum amat, et diem functis nihil interest, utriim per noc- tes an per dies efFerantur, liberari convenit totius populi adspectus, ut dolor esse in faneribus, non pompa exequiarum, nee ostentatio videatur. Cod. The- odos. lib. ix. tit 17, 1, Ft. AFFECTION FOR THE DYING. 411 vigils for ihe dead.^^ The funeral was sometimes delayed for sev- eral days, § 2. Affection for the Dying. The greatest attention was bestowed by the early Christians upon the dying, and the highest respect entertained for their final counsels, instructions, and prayers. Their exhortations to surviving friends,^ and their prayers in their behalf, were treasured up with pious care.^ Their will in regard to the disposal of their effects, and the appro- priation of them for objects of charity and benevolence, were reli- giously observed.3 The sign of the cross was administersd to them.^ The bishop and the several orders of the clergy, as well as relatives and friends, sought to offer them consolation. Prayers were offered in the church for them.-' Friends pressed around them to give, and receive the parting kiss, and the last embrace.*' To such as were restored to christian fellowship in their dying moments, the sacra- ment was administered. This was afterwards united with the cere- mony of extreme unction. Friends and relatives closed the eyes and mouth of the dying'^ — a becoming rite which all nations have observed. But to the early Christians this was an emblem of the peaceful slumber of the de- ceased, from which he was expected to awake at the resurrection of the just.^ The body was then washed and clothed in a garment usually of white linen, but sometimes made of more costly materials and ornamented with gold, precious stones, etc.^ The corpse was laid out in its best attire ; and in addition to these rites it was fre- quently anointed and embalmed. Christians, contrary to the custom of the Jews, deposited the body in a coffin. This custom they observed in common with many hea- then nations. The corpse was exposed to view for some time before interment either at home, or in the streets, or more frequently in the church.io During this time it was attended by the nearest relatives and friends, whose duty it was to perform these last offices of affec- tion for the dead. The wailings of mourning women were, on no account, allowed as was customary among the Jews and many pa- gan nations. Such lamentations were exceedingly incongruous to the Christian who regarded death as no loss, but unspeakable gain. The office of sexton was of very early date, and held in high re- pute, as an honorable occupation. 412 FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES. § 3. Funeral Solemnities. The body was borne on a bier in solemn procession to the burial place, and followed by the relatives and friends of the deceased as mourners, among whom the clergy and some others were reckoned. Besides these many others, as spectators, joined in the procession. These processions were sometimes so thronged as to occasion seri- ous accidents, and even the loss of ViCeA It was the duty of the acolyths to conduct the procession. The bier was borne sometimes on the shoulder, and sometimes by the hands. The nearest rela- tions or persons of rank and distinction were the bearers. Even the bishops and clergy often officiated in this capacity. The tolling of bells at funerals was introduced in the eighth and ninth centuries. This office is expressed in the following distich, which was inscribed upon the church bell : Laudo Deum verum ; plcbem voco ; coiigrcsso clerum, Dcfunctos plvru ; niiubuni fugo ; festaque honoro. Previous to the use of bells the trumpet and wooden clappers were used for similar purposes. Palms and olive branches were carried in funeral processions for the first time in the fourth century, in imitation of Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The cypress was rejected because it was a symbol of mourning. The carrying of burning lamps and tapers was earlier and more general. This was a festive representation of the triumph of the deceased over death, and of his union with Christ, as in the festival of the Lamb in the Apocalypse.^ The Christians repudiated the custom of crowning the corpse and the coffin with garlands, as savoring of idolatry .3 But it was usual with them to strew flowers upon the grave.'* Psalms and hymns were sung while the corpse was kept, while it was carried in procession, and around the grave. Notices of this custom are found in several authors.^ These anthems were alto- gether of a joyful character. But Bingham has well remarked that " we cannot e.xpect to find much of this in the first ages, while the Christians were in a state of persecution ; but as soon as their peace- able times were come, we find it in every writer. The author of the Apostolical Constitutions (lib. vi. c. 30) gives this direction, that FUNERAL SOLEMNITIES. 413 they should carry forth their dead with singing, if they were faithful. ' For precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints.' and again it is said, ' Return to thy rest, O my soul, for the Lord hath rewarded thee. And the memory of the just shall be blessed : and the souls of the just are in the hand of the Lord.' These, pro- bably, were some of the versicles which made up their psalmody on such occasions. For Chrysostom, speaking of this matter, not only tells us ihe reason of their psalmody, but also what particular psalms or portions of them they made use of for this solemnity. ' What mean our hymns ?' says he ; ' do we not glorify God and give him thanks, that he hath crowned him that is departed, that he hath de- livered him from trouble, that he hath set him free from all fear ? Consider what thou singest at that time ; Turn again unto thy rest, O my soul, for the Lord hath rewarded thee. And again, I will fear no evil, because thou art with me. And again. Thou art my refuge from the affliction which compasselh me about. Consider what these psalms mean. If thou believest the things which thou sayest to be true, why dost thou weep and lament, and make a mere pa- geantry and mock of thy singing ? If thou believest them not to be true, why dost thou play the hypocrite, so much as to sing.?' (Chry- sost. Horn. 4 in Hehr.) He speaks this against those who used ex- cessive mourning at funerals, showing them the incongruity of that with this psalmody of the church." (Book xxiii. c. 3.) Funeral prayers also constituted an appro|)riate part of the burial- service of the dead. Funeral orations, loyoi iniy.r,8sioi^ irrnucpict, were also delivered, commemorative of the deceased. Several of these are still extant, as that of Eusebius at the funeral of Constantine ; those of Ambrose on the deaths of Theodosius and Valentinian, and of his own brother Satyrus ; those of Gregory, and of Nazianzum upon his father, his brother Caesarius, and his sister Gorgonia. The sacrament of the Lord's supper was administered at funerals and often at the grave itself ^ By this rite, it was intimated that the communion of saints was still perpetuated between the living and the dead. It was a favorite idea that both still continued members of the same mystical body one and the same on earth and in heaven. This mode of celebrating the supper was also an honorable testimo- ny to the faith of the deceased, and of his consistent christian pro- fession in life. The Roman Catholic superstition of offerings and 414 FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES. masses for the dead took its vise from this ancient usage of the church. Some time previous to the sixth and seventh centuries, it became customary to administer the elements to the dead — to depo- sits a portion of the elements in the coffin — to give a parting kiss of charity, and to conclude the funeral solemnities whh an entertain- ment similar to the agapae. Of these usages the first mentioned were speedily abolished,''' and the last was gradually discontinued. It was universally customary with Christians to deposite the corpse in the grave, as in modern times, facing the east ; and in the same attitude as at the present day. The reasons for this are given in the following extract : Christiani solent sepelire. 1. Supinos, quia mors nostra proprie non est mors, sed brevis quidam somnus. 2. Vultu ad coelum coiiverso, quia solo in coelo spes nostra fundata est. 3. Versus orientem, argumento sperandae et exoptandae resurrectionis.^ The burial service was concluded, like all other religious solem- nities, with the Lord's prayer and the benediction. § 4. Mourners. Death was regarded by the early Christians not as an afflictive but joyful event. All immoderate grief or mourning was accordingly inconsistent, in their view, with christian faith and hope.* For this reason they severely reproved the Jewish and Roman custom of hir- ing women to make lamentations for the dead.^ It must not be sup- posed, however, that they either condemned the exercise of natural affection, or affected a stoical indifference. On the contrary, there are many passages of ancient authors in which the right and power of nature in this respect are recognized, and a becoming sorrow, occasioned by the death of friends, is justified, both on principles of reason, and by reference to examples in Scripture.t * Fratres nostri non lugendi accersione Dominica de saeculo liberati, cum sciamus, non eosomitti, sed praemitti, recedentes praecedere,ut proficiscen- tes et navigantes, desiderari eos debere, non plangi ; nee accipiendas lieic atras vcstes, quando illi ibi indumenta alba jam sumserint : occasionem non dancJam esse gentilibus, ut nos merito et jure reprehendant, quod quos vive- re apud Ueum dicimus ut exstinctos et perdilos lugeamus, et fidem, quam sermone et voce depromimus, cordis et pectoris testimonio reprobemur. — Cifprian, Dc Mortal. Omnibus Christianis prohibitum defunctos Acre. — Condi Talct. 1)1. f Non omnis inlidelitatis aut infirmitatis est fletus ; alius est naturae do- OF MOURNERS. 415 In conformity with their views of death, Christians also utterly discarded the Jewish badges of mourning — sackcloth and ashes, and garments rent. Some of the fathers severely censure the Roman custom of wearing black.- Augustine especially is peculiarly severe on this point. " Why," says he, " should we disfigure ourselves with black, unless we would imitate unbelieving nations, not only in their wailing for the dead, but also in their mourning apparel ! Be assured these are foreign and unlawful usages ; but if lawful, they are not becoming."-' Black however was, from the beginning, the customary mourning habit in the Greek church, and the use of it soon became general. No precise rules were made respecting the duration of mourning for the dead. This matter was left to custom and the feeling of the parlies concerned. " The heathen had a custom of repeating their mourning on the third, seventh, and ninth day, which was particu- larly called the Novendiale ; and some added the twentieth, thirti- lor, alia est tristitia in diffidentia, et plurimum refert, desiderare, quod habu- eris, et lugere, quod arniseris . . . Fecerunt et fletum magnum sui, cum Pa- triarchae sepelirentur. Lacrymae ergo pietatis indices, non illices sunt do- loris. Lacryniatus sum ergo, fateor, et ego, sed lacrymatus est et Dominus ; ille alienum, ego IVatrem. — Jlmbrvs. Orat. in obit. Fralris. — Quorum nos vita propter amicitiae solatia de lectabat, unde fieri potest, ut eorum mors nul- lam nobis ingerat moestitudinem ? Quam qui prohibet, prohibeat, si potest, arnica, colloquia, interdicat amicalem societatem, vel intercidat adfectum omnium humanaruni necessitudinum, vincula mentis immiti stupore disrum- pat, aut sic eis utendum esse censeat, ut nulla ex eis animum dulcedo per- fundat. Quod si fieri nullo modo potest, etiam hoc, quo pacto futurum est, ut ejus nobis amara mors non sit, cujus dulcis est vita? Hinc enim est luc- tus quidem [al. quidam] humano corde quasi vulnus aut ulcus, cui sanando adhibentur ofEciosae consolationes. Non enim propterea non est, quod sane- tur; quoniam quanto est animus melior, tanto in eo citius faciliusque sana- tur. — Autrustin. De Civ. Dei, lib. xix. c. 8. — Premebam oculos ejus [sc. matris], et confluebat in praecordia mea moestitudo ingens, et transfluebat in lacriinas, ibidemque oculi mei violcnto animi imperio resorbebant fontem suuni usque ad siccitatem, et in tali luctamine valde male mihi erat. Turn vero ubi efflavit extremum spiritum, puer Adeodatus exclamavit in plane- turn, atque ab omnibus nobis coercitus tacuit. Hoc modo etiam meum quiddam puerile, quod labebatur in fletus, juvenili voce cordis cogrcebatur et tacebat. Neque enim decere arbitrabamur, funus illud questibus lacri- raosis gemitibusque celebrare, quia his plerumque solet deplorari qusedam miseria morientium, aut quasi omnimoda exstinctio. At ilia nee misere moriebatur, nee omnino moriebatur. — Augustin. Confess, lib. ix. c. 12, — Conf. Chrysost. Horn. 29, Dc Dormient. ; Horn. 61, in Johann. 416 FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES. eth, and fortieth, not without a superstitious opinion of those parti- cular days, wherein they used to sacrifice to their manes with milk, and wine, and garlands, and flowers, as the Roman antiquities inform us. Something of this superstition, abating the sacrifice, was still remaining among the ignorant Christians in St. Austin's time ; for he speaks of some who observed a novendial in relation to their dead (Quaest. 127 in Gen.^) which he thinks they ought to be forbidden, because it was only an heathen custom. He does not seem to inti- mate that they kept it exactly as the heathen did ; but rather that they were superstitious in their observation of nine days of mourning, which was without example in Scripture. There was another way of continuing the funeral offices for three days together, which was allowed among Christians, because it had nothing in it but the same worship of God repeated. Then Euodius writing to St. Austin {Euodii, Ep. 258 i7tler Ep. August.,) and giving him an account of the funeral of a very pious young man, who had been his votary, says that he had given him honorable obsequies, worthy of so great a soul : for he continued to sing hymns to God for three days together at his grave, and on the third day offered the sacraments of redemption. The author of the ConsiUuiions [Const. Apost. lib. viii. c. 42) takes notice of the repetition of the funeral office on the third day, and the ninth day, and the fortieth day, giving peculiar reasons for each of them : — ' Let the third day be observed for the dead with psalms, and lessons, and prayers, because Christ on the third day rose again from the dead ; and let the ninth day be ob- served in remembrance of the living and the dead ; and also the fortieth day, according to the ancient manner of the Israelites mourning for Moses forty days ; and finally let the anniversary day be observed in commemoration of the deceased.' " On the anniversary days of commemorating the dead, they were used to make a common feast or entertainment, inviting both the clergy and people, but especially the poor and needy, the widows and orphans, that it might not only be a memorial of rest to the dead, but an odor of sweet smell to themselves in the sight of God, as the author under the name of Origen words it. St. Chrysostom says (Chri/sost. Horn. 47 in 1 Ep. ad Cor.) that they were more tenacious of this custom, than they were of some others of greater importance. — But this often degenerated into great abuses. {Aug' de Morihus Eccles. c. 34; Ep. 64 ad Aurelium.y — Bingham, An- tiq. book 23, chap. 3. PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD. 417 § 5. Prayers for the Dead. Our author appears to have omitted tliis peculiarity of the early Christians. But it is discussed at length by Riddle, who has brought many authorities to illustrate the senliments and practice of the fa- thers on this subject, some of which are ji;iven below, with the result of his investigation of this subject. TertuJlian (died, 220), in his treatise on the Soldier's Chaplet, speaks of prayer for the dead as a custom of the church at the time of his writing that treatise, which was probably not long after the year 200 : " We make anniversary oblations for the dead, for their birthdays," meaning, the days of their death.* In another of his works the same author says, that it was the practice of a widow to pray for the soul of her deceased husband, desiring on his behalf present refreshment, or rest, and a part in the first resurrection ; and offering annually an oblation for him on the day of his falling asleep, i. e. his death. And elsewhere he represents a bereaved husband as praying for the soul of his deceased wife, and offering annual oblations for her.t Origen (d. 254) tells us, that Christians in his time " thought it right and useful to make mention of the saints in their public prayers, and to improve themselves by the commemoration of their worthies.| Cyprian (d. 258) affirms, that in his time it was the practice of Christians to offer oblations and sacrifices of commemoration for martyrs, on the anniversary days of their martyrdom, with thanks- giving ; and he refers also to the oblations and supplications, or deprecatory prayers, on behalf of other departed members of the * Oblationes pro defunctis, pro natalitiis, annua die facimus. — Tertull. De Corona M'ditis, c. 3. t Pro anima ejus oral, et refrigerium inleriiu adpostulat ei, et in prima resurrectione consortium, et ofFert annuls diebns dormitionis ejus — Id. De Monogamia, c. 10. — Jam repete apud Deum pro cujus spiritu postules, pro qua oblationes annuas reddas. — Eihort. ad Castit c. 11. — Tertullian held that every little offence of the faithful would be punished by delaying their resurrection. Modicum quodque delictum mora rosurrectionis luendum. — De Jlnivia, c. 58. I Meminisse sanctorum sivc in collectis solennibus, si\'e pro eo ut ex re- cordatione eorum proficiamus, aptum ct conveniens wideiar— Or ig. lib. ix. in Rom. 12. 53 418 FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES'. church.* In another place Cyprian says, " When we have departed hence, there is no place left for repentance, and no effect of satis- faction."t Arnohius, in his treatise against the heathen, written probably about the year 305, speaking of the prayers offered after the conse- cration of the elements in the Lord's supper, says that Christians prayed for pardon and peace, on behalf of the living and the dead.| Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), reports the prayer made after con- secration of the elements at the holy communion, in these words : — " We offer this sacrifice in memory of all those who have fallen asleep before us, first, patriarchs, prophets, apostles, and martyrs, that God by their prayers and intercessions may receive our suppli- cations ; and then we pray for our holy fathers and bishops, and all that have fallen asleep before us, believing that it is a great advan- tage to their souls to be prayed for, whilst the holy and tremendous sacrifice lies upon the altar." {Catech. Mystag. 5, n. 6.) The same writer furnishes evidence, that in his time many persons doubted the efficacy of prayer, as a means of procuring benefit to the dead. " I know many," he observes in the same book, " who say, what profit does the soul receive that goes out of this world, either with sins, or without sins, if you make mention of it in prayer .•'" Gregory of Nazianzum (d. 390), prayed, that God would receive the soul of his brother Caesarius. (Greg. Naz. Orat. 10.) Arch- bishop Usher quotes the following passage from this father, in testi- mony of his dissent from the opinion that the dead could be profited by the prayers of the living : " Then in vain shall one go about to relieve those that lament. Here men may have a remedy, but after- * Celebrentur hie a nobis oblationes et sacrificia ob eommemorationes eorum Cypr. Ep. '37, al. y2, ad Clcrum. — Sacrificia pro eis semper, ut me- ministis, oft'erimus. quoties niartyrum passioiies et dies anniversaria com- memoratione celebrainus. — 1//. 34, al. 3:^. — Men est quod pro dormitione ejus apnd vos fiat oblatio, aut deprccatio aliqna nomine ejus in ecclesia fre- quentetur. — Ep. tiU, a5. 1. t Quando isthinc excessurn fuerit, nullus jam locus poenitentiae est, nul- lus satisfactionis effeclus. — Cypr. ad Demetrimi, § 16. X Cur immaniter conventicula nostra dirui meruerint ? In quibus sum- mus oratur Deus, pax cunctis et venia postulatur, magistratibus, exercitibus, regibus, familiaribus, inimicis, adhuc vitam degentibus, et resolatis corporum vinctione. — Arnob. Adv. Gcntcs, lib. iv. PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD. 419 wards there is nothing but bonds, or all things are fast bound." (Greg. Naz. in Carm. de Rebus Suis.) It may be observed, that this passage proves only that Gregory esteemed prayer of no avail to those who may die in sin. In the wrhhigs of Avihrose (d. 397), we meet with prayers of that father, on behalf of the deceased Tlieodosius and Valentinian, and his own brother; and we find him giving instructions to a Christian not to weep for a deceased sister, but to make prayers and oblations for her. (Ambros. De Ohiiii Thcodosii ; De Obit. Valentin.; De Obilu Fratris ; Ep. 8, ad Faust.) The same author affirms, in an- other place, that " death is a haven of rest, and makes not our con- dition worse ; but according as it finds every man, so it reserves him to the judgment that is to come." {De Bono Mortis, c. 4.) Aerius appears to have been the first who publicly protested against the practice of praying for the dead ; which he did upon the ground of the uselessness of such prayers to those who were the subjects of them. His objections were met by Epiphanius, (d. 403,) who maintained (Haeres. 75), first, that prayer for the dead was useful, as testifying the faith and hope of the living, inasmuch as it showed their belief that the departed were still in being, and living with the Lord ; and secondly, as a further argument, that " the prayer which is made for them does profit, although it do not cut off all their sins; yet, forasmuch as whilst we are in the world we oftentimes slip, both unwillingly and with our will, it serves to signify that which is more perfect. For we make," continues he, " a me- morial both for the just and for sinners; for sinners, entreating the mercy of God; for the just, (both the fathers and patriarchs, the prophets, and apostles, and evangelists, and martyrs, and confessors ; bishops also, and authorities, and the whole order,) that we may serve our Lord Jesus Christ from the rank of ajl other men, by the honor that we do unto him, and that we may yield worship unto hira." Chrysostom (d. 407,) speaking of the death of the wicked, says, " They are not so much to be lamented, as succoured wath prayers, and supplications, and alms, and oblations. For these things were not designed in vain, neither is it without reason that we make men- tion of those that are deceased in the holy mysteries, interceding for them to the Lamb that is slain to take away the sins of the world ; but that some consolation may hence arise to them. Neither is it in 420 FUNERAL UITES AND CEREMONIES. vain tliat he who stands al the altar, when the trennenclous mysteries are celebrated, cries, ' We ofler unto thee for all those that are asleep in Christ, and all that make commemorations for them.' For if there were no commemorations made for them, these things would not be said. Let us not therefore grow weary in giving them our assistance, and offering prayers for them." Jerome (d. 420) says, " While vve are in this present world we may be able to help one another, either by our prayers or by our councils; but when we shall come before the judgment seat of Christ, neither Job, nor Daniel, nor Noah, can entreat for any one, but every one must bear his own burden." (Lib. iii. Comment, in Galat. c. 6.) On the whole, therefore, it appears, that from the time of Tertul- lian, at least, and probably from a still earlier date, the church was accustomed to offer prayers for the dead. Many teachers of the church during the third and fourth centuries sanctioned this super- stitious practice ; some of them encouraging a belief that the prayers of the living were a means of procuring certain imaginary benefits for those who had died in sin, as well as for those who had departed in the faith ; but others affirming that the dead could derive no bene- fit from the prayers of survivors. So that while it was the erroneous opinion that prayers and oblations ought to be made for the dead, and was the received and universal doctrine of the church, it was yet a question among christian doctors, on which they were allowed to differ, whether the dead received any profit from such prayers. The entire abandonment of a custom so much at variance with di- vine truth was reserved for that brighter period in the history of the church, in which " the Bible, the Bible alone," began (perhaps for the first lime since the commencement of the second century) to be recognized as the sole depositary of tlie principles of our religion, and the only unerring guide of christian practice. When the prayers of the early church were offered on behalf of persons supposed to have died in the faith, who were regarded as about to enter into happiness. Christians were understood to beseech God that he would receive those persons lo himself; — ihey gave thanks for their deliverance out of this sinful world ; — they petition- ed for the divine forgiveness of all remains of sin and imperfection in the departed ; — they intended to offer a tribute of respect and af- fectiou to the deceased, and to testify their own belief of the immor- CEMETERIES OF THE EARLY CHRISTIANS. 421 tality of tlic soul and a future life ;— and they sought to procure for their departed friends the hlessiiigs of an early share in the millen- nial reiffn of Christ upon earth (which was confidently expected by the early Christians), — as well as favor at the day of judgment, (when they supposed that all men would pass through a fire of pur- gation,)— and an augmentation of their reward and glory in the state of final blessedness. It is certain also, that prayers were offered for those who had died in sin, in the hope of mitigating their sufferings, or rendering their condemnation more tolerable. (Chrysost. Horn. 3, in Phil. ; Conf. Horn. 21, in Act. ; Horn. 32, in Mail. ; August. Enchirid, ad LaU' rent. c. 110; Paulin. Ej). 19; Athanas. Qaesl. ad Antioch.\x. 34; Prudent. Calhemerin. Carm. 5, De Cereo Paachuli.) § 6. Of the Cemeteries of the Early Christians, By far the greater number of the primitive Christians were buried in subterranean sepulchres. As, during the first three hundred years the sword of persecution was constantly impending over their heads, and dear-bought experience taught them, that their only safety lay either in withdrawing to uninhabited deserts, or sheltering them- selves in inaccessible hiding holes, multitudes who preferred the lat- ter alternative, died, and were interred in their places of retreat. These served at once as their home and their burying place ; and, as it was natural that they should wish to have the bodies of their de- parted brethren conveyed to the same peaceful and inviolable sanc- tuaries, it became, first from necessity, and afterwards from choice, the approved and invariable practice of the Christians to deposit their dead in deep and obscure caverns. These, owing to the vast mul- titudes who fell simultaneously in times of persecution, and to whom, except in some few cases, the rites of burial were not refused, evi- dently required to be of no ordinary magnitude ; and accordingly, — at what time is uncertain, but at an early period, — the charity of some wealthy friends of their body put them in possession of ceme- teries which remained ever after the common property of the believ- ers. Among the monuments of christian antiquity, none are more singular than these abodes of the dead ; and one feels at a loss whether most to admire their prodigious extent, the laborious indus- try that provided them, or the interesting recollections with which 422 FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES. they are associated. Like the Moorish caves in Spain, they were generally excavated at the base of a lonely hill, and the entrance so carefully concealed that no aperture appeared, and no traces were discernible — except by an experienced eye — of the ground having been penetrated, and of the vast dungeons that had been hollowed underneath. The descent was made by a ladder, the foot of which stood in a broad and spacious pathway, which extended like a street along the whole length of the place. This principal entrance open- ed, at intervals into smaller passages, which again led into a variety of chambers ; and on either side of them were several rows of nich- es, pierced in the wall, serving as catacombs, and filled with coffins. The chambers were painted, for the most part like the churches, with passages of history from the Old and New Testaments. In the centre of the largest street was an open square, large and commo- dious as a market-place, in which those who took refuge there, in those troublous times, were wont to congregate for worship ; and the comfort of which, as a place of abode, was greatly promoted by the liberal use which the Christians made of spices and perfumes on their dead. In the more distant of these cemeteries, whose remoteness rendered them less liable to be disturbed, there were small apertures left in the surface of the ground, through which a dim twilight was admitted ; but the others, where these were closed, were absolutely dark, and except by the aid of lights, impassable ; so that, on any sudden surprise, the refugees had only to extinguish their lamps to insure their safety from the invasion of their enemies. The depth of these vaults was sometimes so great, that two or three stories were ranged one above another ; and the whole aspect conveyed the im- pression of a city under ground. Many of them, however, never came to the knowledge of the en- emy ; and one was only discovered about three miles from Rome, so late as the end of the sixteenth century, the size and various apart- ments of which excited universal astonishment. Numbers still re- main, bearing the names of their respective founders, and af- fording, by their inscriptions, and the monuments of antiquity found in them, the most satisfactory proofs of their having been used as hiding-places by the Christians. From their habit of courting the obscurity of the catacombs, the Christians obtained, from their heathen contemporaries, the name of the " Light-hating Peonle ;" and to their religious familiarity with these abodes of the dead, the PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 423 reflecting reader will be disposed lo trace that general desire for martyrdom which, in the second and third centuries, astonished the authorities of Rome, and crowded the tribunals of all the provinces. Strange as that insensibility to suffering and death may seem, its ori- gin is naturally to be imputed to the strong influence of place, ope- rating on the minds of men who, by daily contact with the venerable remains of their ancestors, had overcome the instinctive dread of dissolution, and in whom vivid impressions of religion, and the hope of immortal glory, together with the extraordinary estimation in which the memory of the martyrs was held, had created a passion- ate longing for similar honors. CHAPTER XXI. OF SACRED SEASONS. FESTIVALS AND FASTS. <§, 1. Preliminary Remarks.^ The primitive church were not careful to prescribe a specific time or place for the celebration of their religious festivals. The apos- tles and their immediate successors proceeded on the principle that these should be observed at stated times, which might still be varied as circumstances should direct. These seasons were regarded as sacred, not for any peculiar sanctity belonging to the day, or hour, in which they were solemnized, in itself considered, but merely as being set apart from a common to a religious use.^ Some however have maintained, that these festive days should be observed as Tioly time? The reckoning of chronology by the christian era was introduced in the sixth century by Dionysius, a Roman abbot, and in the seventh and eighth centuries, was denominated the Dionysian era.^ Previ- ous to the introduction of this system of chronology, time was reck- oned, by the Jews from the creation of the world, by the Romans from the founding of Rome, or by consulships, or by the reign of their emperors. The calendar was revised by Julius Caesar forty- five years before Christ, and the year made to begin on the first of 424 OF SACRED SEASONS. January instead of the first of March. The Dionysian era began A. D. 531, but it has since been subject to certain modifications, of which the most important are the correction of the epact, and the reduction from the 25th of March to the 25th of December. It is not distinctly known when the reckoning of time by an eccle- siastical year began in the church. The Jews had a civil year which dated from the creation of the world, and began on the first day of the month Tisri, corresponding to the first half of September and styled n:'ii;r; wNh. Their ecclesiastical ov religious year hav- ing the same name began on the first of the month Nisan, corres- ponding with the latter part of March. The passover followed im- mediately, and all their festivals were reckoned from this date.^ From the authorities quoted in the above reference, it is probable that the ecclesiastical year in the christian church was adopted from the Jewish, and corresponded with it. In the fifth century the feast of the annunciation., March 25th, which also has an intimate relation to the 25th of December, was accounted the beginning of the eccle- siastical year, corresponding very nearly with the religious reckon- ing of the Jews. This became a fixed point for the church from which to date all their festivals, or as Chrysostom expresses it, it was nqfa- rrj y.al ql'Ca tmv iOQiMv tov Xqiotov. This feast, according to the council of Toletum, X. c. 1, was to be held on the 18th of Decem- ber, on the last sabbath of Christmas, as in Milan ; or on the 5th or 6th of January, as in the Ethiopian and Armenian churches respec- tively. In France it was observed on the 25th of March as late as the sixteenth century, and in England even down to the eighteenth century. The Western church generally may very naturally be supposed to date their ecclesiastical year from the advent of Christ, in imita- tion of the church at Rome. Between the seventh and ninth centu- ries this festival was extended to include six sabbath days. This number was afterwards reduced. The Eastern church, like the Western, celebrated the Advent for a series of days, but differed entirely from that church in the reck- oning of their religious year. This they began from the feast on the erection of the cross, crouch-mas-day, Sept. 14th.^ This mode of reckoning time, by ecclesiastical and civil years must have caused much confusion and inconvenience. And some important reasons must have led to the adoption of a system of chro- PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 425 nology so complicated and inconvenient. The primitive church were probfibl}' influenced in their adherence to this arrangement by their desire to embrace in their sncred seasons all the leading inci- dents of our Saviour''s life. The .lulian reckoning of time from the first of January they rejected because of its relation to pagan chro- nology. For many centuries this day was stigmatized by them as a day for fasting and penance, or as a day fit only to be observed by fools and hypochondriacs, the observance of which was forbidden by various ecclesiastical councils in the sixth and seventh centuries.''' The names of months and weeks, and the consequent division of time by them, the church in general derived from the Roman calen- dar. But they rejected the names of January and February as be- ing associated with paganism. For the same reason they rejected the reckoning by Calends, Nones, and Ides. They divided the year into fifty-two weeks, and gave to each a specific name as hehdomas magna, hebdomas aulhentica, muta, poenosa, luctuoso, crucis, indul- gentiae, jmschalis, pentecostalis, irinitalis, etc. They uniformly began the week on Sunday, which they styled the Lord^s day, xvqi— «x»/ rjfiiQa, and the weeks which followed were denominated. Advent, Epiphany, etc. They manifested the same zealous opposition to paganism by rejecting the Roman names of the days of the week, Monday, Tuesday, dies Lunae, Martis, etc. each being named af- ter some pagan god. Some ascetics retained Sunday, dies Solis, but only in a mystical sense relating to the sun of righteousness. But the names of the others they uniformly refused, and substituted in their place the appellations Feria prima, secunda, etc. for Mon- day, Tuesday, etc.* The festivals of the church are divided into the following classes : weekly and anmial; moveable and immoveable, i. e. fixed to a certain day of the month on which they always occur ; higher, middle and lower ; universal and particular ; ancient and modern ; civil and ec- clesiastical ; secular and religious. Even as early as the second * It is a little singular that our names of the days of tlie week had an ori- gin similar to that which was so obnoxious to the primitive church, as may lie seen by observing tiieir Saxon derivation. Siinnaclaeg, Sun's day; Mon- andaerr, Moon's diy ; Tuesdacg, day of Tuscio, i. e. Mars; Wodensdaeg, day of Woden, or Odm, a northern deity ; Tnrsdaeg, day of Thor, a deity an- swerinof to Jupiter ; Frijdaeg, day of Frigga, the Venus of the North ; Sae terdaeg, day of Sacter, i. e. Saturn.'* — Tr. 54 426 OF SACRED SEASONS. century the birth day of the emperor was celebrated in the church as a day of thanksgiving and prayer. Under Constantino the Great, these secular festivals became very numerous.^ It is worthy of re- mark that by the naiivUy, lu ytvs&lia, the church generally denoted not the natural birth but the death of the person commemorated by the festival, the deceased being supposed at death to he born to a neio andnobler state of being. The nativity however of our Lord, of John the Baptist, and of the Virgin Mary, is to be understood in its appropriate and obvious signification. All their religious festivals were observed by \he primitive church as a voluntary act., and never as an imperative duty. Their senti- ments on this subject are fully expressed by Socrates,^"^ and reca- pitulated by Nicephorus.il " Neither Paul nor the evangelists im- posed any yoke of bondage upon those who received instruction from them ; but they submitted the observance of the passover and of other festivals to the option of all. — So that neither the Lord Jesus, nor his apostles gave any law respecting these observances to en- force them by penalties and threatenings, as were the laws of Moses upon the Jews." For similar sentiments of the fathers see referen- ces.^^ There were, however, some who very early maintained a different opinion ; and in the fourth century various decrees of ec- clesiastical councils were passed enjoining the observance of feast- days as a duty.i3 But even then, these duties were required rather as a rule o( christian practice, \han as a doctrinal precept. The number of religious festivals was at first small. The most ancient rubrics mention only those of the Passion,[of Easier, and of Whitsunday, commemorative of ihe death and resurrection of Christ, and the descent of the Holy Spirit. Christmas was not observed as a sacred religious festival until the fourth century, when it became customary to observe saints' days ; among which, this was the most sacred. The earliest authorities on this [)oint, are Clemens of Alex- andria, Origen, and Jerome, as quoted above. From the council of Trent we learn that, for the first four hundred years, the festivals of the church were, L The Lord's day ; 2. that of the Passion ; 3. of the Resurrection ; 4. the Ascension ; 5. Pentecost ; 6. the Nativity and Baptism of Christ. i'* For later acts of councils, see references.!^ The object and end proposed in observing those sacred seasons, was to call to mind the benefits of the christian dispensation, — to excite Christians to holy living, — to offer thanks for providential PPxELIMINARy REMARKS. 427 mercies ; and to aid in the cultivation of the cliristian graces. These graces the primitive Christians sought pnriicularly to cultivate on such occasions. Freed from worldly cares, that they might devote themselves to the duties of religion, they joyfully celebrated their religious festivals. So carefully were they conscientiously to guard against all improper indulgences, and idolatrous customs on those days, that they sought the interposition of the civil authority to pro- tect them in the quiet observance of them, and to prohibit the, vain amusements and recreations which were inconsistent with the solem- nities of the occasion. It is an interesting characteristic of the discourses which were de- livered on these occasions, that they related to the most important topics of religion ; all the benefits of Christianity, and the whole sa- cred history were set forth ; the incarnation, the life and death of our Lord, and all the mysteries of the sacred Trinity, were particu- larly the topics of discourse. Even the Sabbath day, according to Eusebius, had a three-fold origin, iQug oiQ/rtg tyovau, emblematical of the sacred Trinity. So the three great feasts were supposed to embrace the three great principles of the christian religion, and were organized in accordance with the belief in a triune God. For the same reason, it became customary at a later period to celebrate each festival for three days only. Epiphanius, in one of his dis- courses on such an occasion, dwells upon the incarnation of Christ, God manifest in the flesh ; on his death, and baptism by water and the Holy Ghost ; the fall of Adam, and his restoration to eternal life ; the heavenly state, etc. In the references, the reader is direc- ted to this and other discourses of the fathers on these festivals. ^^ It is particularly striking to observe how differently christian and pagan festivals were celebrated. Philo the Jew mentions the fol- lowing, as common scandals which occur at such idolatrous festivals, — negligence, indolence, carousing, surfeiting, noisy mirth, sensuality, convivial meetings at unseasonable hours, the gratification of particu- lar lusts, inordinate excess, intemperance, self-inflicted ignominy ; sleeping on the day which invites peculiar watchfulness, in a word, every unnatural excess. Every virtue is derided, everything praise- worthy is condemned, and every unworthy deed commended.^''' Gregory Nazianzen, on the contrary, earnestly remonstrates against the celebration of Epiphany by ornamental decorations, music, or sweet odors, or any voluptuous enjoyment. Extravagant expendi- 428 OF SACRED SEASONS. lures in dress, feasting and carousing, and wanton excesses of every kind he condemns. " Let us leave all such," he adds," to the Gen- tiles and their gods, who, themselves devoted to every sensual pleas- ure, are fitly worshipped in the same way. But we who worship the incarnate Word, if we find pleasure in anything, let it be in meditating upon the divine law, and especially, in the recital of those things which liarmonize with the present occasion."'^ Constantine the Great enacted particular laws for the due observ- ance of those days,i9 which were again revised both by the elder and younger Theodosius.^o By those laws all theatrical exhibitions were forbidden, except on secular festivals commemorative of the birth or coronation of the emperor. Neither were they allowed in the interval between Easter and VVhitsunday.^i Courts of justice were also suspended on most of those days, and civil persecutions prohibited.-^ Among the positive duties required on such occasions were deeds of mercy and charity, attendance on public worship, not only of the house of worship, but of private dwellings, and the wear- ing of suitable apparel. The rich were to send presents of food to the poor, and prayers were to be offered by the congregation not kneeling, but standing. If any master proposed to manumit his slaves, this was also required to be done on those days.--^ Since the fourth century, it has been customary to celebrate joy- ful festivals by decorations with evergreens, by strewing of flowers, illuminations, and the burning of incense. It is uncertain whether the love feasts of the primitive church were a part of the sacrament or not. That they were celebrated in con- nection, is sufficiently evident.-"* At first they preceded the sacra- mental season, and were an ordinance introductory to this. It was afterwards made to follow that season. In the fourth century these feasts became the occasion of such excesses that the intervention of ecclesiastical councils was required to correct them. They were subsequently prohibited altogether, and discontinued in the sixth or seventh century .^^ See chap. XVI. § 13. The sacrament of the Lord's supper was celebrated on all reli- gious festivals, as the most important of the festivities of the occa- sion. § 2. Of the Sabbath. The primitive church observed both the Jewish and the christian sabbath. The Jewish converts considered the abrogation of the cere- OF THE SABBATH. 429 monial law, and of the sabbath, to relate only to their exemption from its burdensome rites ; and religiously observed the day as holy. Converts from paganism, on the contrary, contemplated Cliristianity as a dispensation altogether new, and the religion of the Jews as to- tally abrogated. The resurrection of Christ was to them a fixed point, the beginning of this new dispensation, the new passover from bondage to freedom, from death to life. This great event they re- fused to commemorate on the same day which the Jews observed for another end, and for this purpose they selected the first day of the week. The import of the christian sabbath they accounted more significant and important than that of the Jewish. The one com- memorated the completio7i of the work of creation ; the other, the beginning of a nobler work by the great Creator himself, who was light and life to all. The silence of the writers of the New Testament relative to the christian sabbath, is no matter of surprise. It is in strict accordance with that law of liberty which is the basis of the christian dispensa- tion. But there are A'arious passages which evidently refer to this institution. The divine Word, by whom all things were made, is styled Light and Life, with evident reference to the work of creation. To this we may add Acts 20: 7. 1 Cor. 16: 2. Mark 16: 2, 9. John 20: 19, 26, and especially Rev. 1: 10. The author of the epistle of St. Barnabas introduces the Lord as saying, ' The sabbaths which you now keep are not acceptable to me ; but those which I have made, when, resting from all things, I shall begin the eighth day, that is, the beginning of the other world.' " For which cause," he adds, " we observe the eighth day with glad- ness, in which Jesus rose from the dead, and, having manifested himself to his disciples, ascended into heaven."- Justin Martyr, who lived in the fore part of the second century, says that they, Christians, neither celebrated the Jewish festivals, nor observed their sabbaths, nor practised circumcision.^ In another place he says that they, both those who lived in the city and they who lived in the country, were all accustomed to meet on the day which is denominated Sunday, for the reading of the Scriptures, prayer, exhortation, and communion. See chap. XVI. § 4. The assembly meet on Sunday, because this is the first day on which God, having changed the darkness, and the elements, to crxoTog xal X7jv uhjv JiJBTKTag, created the world : and because Jesus our Lord on this day arose from the dead. 430 OF SACRED SEASONS. Pliny asserts that they^ the Christians, were wont to meet on a cer- tain day, stato die, and sing hymns to Christ as God.^ Ignatius, in the first century, exhorts the Magnesians, c. 9, no longer to sabbatize, i. e. obseroe the Jeioish sabbaths, but to keep the Lord's day. Other authorities are quoted from Tertullian,*' Clemens Alexandrinus,'^ and Cyprian,^ from all which it must be admitted that the observance of the Christian sabbath had already become uni- versal in the second century, as a usage enforced by common con- sent and the authority of tradition, agreeably to the declaration of Augustine.^ Athanasius, however, in the beginning of the third century, ex- pressly declared that the Lord changed the sabbath into the Lord's day, and adds, " We observe the Lord's day because of the resur- rection.'*^ The account which Eusebius gives of this subject is, that the Logos, the Word, in the New Testament, transferred the sabbath of the Lord God unto this day, i. e. to the christian sabbath, as the true image of divine rest, and the first day of light, when the Saviour, bursting the bars of death, completed a work more excellent than that of the six days of creation, and entered the gates of heaven, to enjoy his glorious rest. " This day," he observes, " Christians throughout the world celebrate, in strict obedience to the spiritual law. Like the Jews they offer the morning and evening sacrifice, with incense of sweeter odor ;" referring to their confessions, suppli- cations, and prayers, and the melody of their psalms and hymns and spiritual songs. The day, he also says, was universally observed as strictly as the Jewish sabbath, whilst all feasting, drunkenness, and recreation, was rebuked as a profanation of the sacred day. — Com- menl. in Ps. 91. The Jewish Christians, while they observed the seventh day as the sabbath, did not omit the Jirst day in commemoration of the re- surrection. This would probably have been a forfeiture of the chris- tian name. But the exhortations which were given •dgainst jtidaizing and sabbatizing, are directed apparently against an undue care in keeping the Jewish sabbath.'' This was uniformly censured as prejudicial to the freedom of christian worship ; but no specific limi- tations were set to those things which might bo done consistently with christian liberty and a good conscience in celebration of the Jewish sabbath. Neither did the decrees of councils and of empe- rors, relating to the observance of Sunday, interfere with the usages OF THE SABBATH. 431 relating to the Jewish sabbath.'- It was even styled by Gregory Nazianzen the kindred of the christian sabbalh.^'^ Both were ob- served as joyful festivals, on which it was forbidden to fast, with the exception of Easter eve, commemorative of that night when our Lord lay entombed in the sepulchre. The rules relating to the observance of Saturday, or the .lewish snbbath, were chiefly of a negative and prohibitory character. Fast- ing and kneeling in prayer were forbidden, as on the sabbath. La- bor was not prohibited, which is the more remarkable inasmuch as it was suspended even on other festivals. ^^ Neander erroneously asserts that the communion was administered on this day.!** But public worship was held, and the mysteries celebrated, as on the Lord's day. To this remark, however, the church at Rome and Alexandria are an exception. It was at a later period observed as an evening festival preparatory to the Lord's day, and was solem- nized by vespers and vigils. This is the true import of the religious observance of Saturday. It was prejHwatory to the Lord's day, designed to lead on and rightly introduce this great day of our Lord. But the Roman and the Oriental churches differed essentially in their observance of the day. The former kept it as afasi,^'^ the latter as afesf.ivalJ^ The Lord's day, however, was uniformly regarded as more sa- cred than Saturday, And after the fourth century was thus honored not only in the church, but also in the state. Ignatius says that all who loved the Lord kept the Lord's day as the queen of days, a re- viving, life-giving day, best of all our days. Such epithets abound in the ancient homilies of the fathers. But the appropriate name of the day was the Lord''s day. The name of Sunday, die solis, was rejected, because of its relation to idolatry; and when at length it was received into use, it was only in a metaphorical sense, in rela- tion to Christ as the Light of the World and the Sun of Righteous- ness.13 It is also worthy of note that the first day was very gene- rally called the eighth day. The heretical sects of the day are severely censured by the fathers for their disregard of the sabbath. And yet it does not appear that any one absolutely neglected the day. It would seem rather that they were less scrupulous in the two cardinal points by which, in the view of the primitive Christians, the day was desecrated— /as/iwg', and kneeling in prayer. To fast in token of sorrow on this glad day, 432 OF SACRED SEASONS. and to knee! whilst commemorating the day when our Lord arose, was a violent impropriety, which failed not to awaken the sore dis- pleasure of the church, and call forth the anathemas of her councils. It is not distinctly known whether these sects allowed labor to be performed on the Lord's day or not. ^ 3. General, View of the sacred Seasons, and of the Period OF THE three GREAT FESTIVALS. The most ancient of all the festivals of the church is that of Eas- ter, in memory of our Lord's resurrection. The high antiquity and importance of this festival is sufficiently evident from the fact that the ecclesiastical year began with it, and that originally it was commem- orative both of the death and resurrection of our Lord. It is known in the oldest writings extant as naaxa avacndai^ov, feast of the re- surrection. After this, the most ancient feast is that of Whitsunday, commem- orative of the descent of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. It is really a continuation and conclusion of the festival above men- tioned. The entire period of seven weeks between Easter and Whitsunday was one continued festival, styled the Pentecost, during which time it was not allowed either to kneel in prayer or to fast. The present Whitsunday is probably of no higher antiquity than the Ascension feast, which some writers, confounding the feast with the fact which it commemorates, assert to be of apostolic origin. It was coeval with the martyr feasts, in honor of saints, of which we have no knowledge earlier than the second, third, and fourth centuries. The earliest of these festivals of which we have any record is that in memory of Polycarp, as related by Eusebius, who copies the epistle, sent by the church over which Polycarp presided, to the sis- ter churches. In this epistle it is said, " The Lord grant that we may, with joy and gladness, celebrate the birth-day of his martyrdom, both in memory of those who have heretofore undergone and been victorious in this glorious conflict, and also for the instruction and preparation of such as shall hereafter be exercised therein." ^ The Greek church, as early as the fourth century, celebrated the feast of All Saints. The institution of Christmas as a festival was at a period subse- quent to that above mentioned, and dates no farther back than the GENERAL VIEW. 433 fourth century. After the introduction of this feast, which became the occasion of many others, the festivals of the churcli began to be reduced to system and method, not in the order of antiquity, but ac- cording to their desij^n and end ; so that towards the end of the fourth century tlic sacred seasons were arranged in three great cycles, set- ting furth in chronological order the leading incidents of our Saviour's life. The three high feasts were thus intended specifically to com- prehend and to honor the most momentous events of the same. These festivals were also preceded by preparatory fasts. Before Christmas and Easier, both the Latin and Greek churches agreed in keeping the advent and quadragesimal fasts, though they differed in regard to the time during which these ought to continue. The entire period between Easter and Whitsunday was a continued festi- val, in which it was unlawful to fast, but even this did not prevent the Greek church from observing a short fast before this day. The following extract from Chrysostom will illustrate the views of the fathers on this subject. " In six days God executed all his work, and rested on the seventh. So in these last days the divine Logos who, to save that which was lost, in mercy became flesh, appointed festi- vals corresponding to the days of the creation. The first is the na- tivity in the flesh ; the second, epiphany ; the third, the day of his passion ; the fourth, the day of his glorious resurrection ; the fifth, his reception into heaven ; the sixth, the descent of the Holy Ghost ; the seventh, the great day of general resurrection, which has no suc- cession nor end. For that is an eternal festival, or perpetual sab- bath, and rest for the people of God, to be celebrated with great joy and gladness, by those that shall be heirs of such things as eye hath not seen nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, — which God has prepared for them that love him."- The last men- tioned is, evidently, not a feast of the church, but the same as the eternal sabbath, and the heavenly hallelujah, of hich the writers of that day so frequently speak. The Greek church, according to the annalist Michael Glycas, ob- served six principal feasts ; first, the birth ; second, the baptism ; third, the death ; fourth, the resurrection ; fifth, the ascension of Christ, and sixth, the descent of the Holy Ghost. These had a. mys- tical relation to the six days of creation, and were emblematical of the new creation by Christ. Two of these were uniformly celebrated in connection, constituting a threefold division. 55 434 OF SACRED SEASONS. § 4. Of Christmas, the Festival of Christ's Nativity.^ This festival begins with the advent on the last of November, and continues until epiphany, January 6th. But both the Latin and Greek church, since the latter end of the fourth century have agreed in observing the 25ih of December more particularly. The advent is preliminary and preparatory to this, and the epiphany closes this sacred festival in honor of the incarnate Saviour. Many, misled by the term uqn^tg, advent, as it ocv-urs in the earliest of the fathers, have supposed that the advent, as a festival, was of apostolic origin ; whereas the first authentic mention is in the council of Mascon, c. 3, A. D. 582. In regard to the nativity, it appears from an oration of Chrysostom on this occasion, in the year 386, that this festival had been introdu- ced ten years before, for the first time, into Antioch and Syria, and that others claimed for it a high antiquity, asserting that it was known from Thrace even unto Spain.^ Epiphany was observed at an earlier period ; his entrance upon his public ministry being an event of greater interest than that of his birth, Clemens Alexandrinus censures those who seek too anxiously the Saviour's birth.^ Epiphanius affirms that the birth of Christ occurred on the 6th of January ,4 which again Jerome denies.-^ Augustine recommends a suitable remembrance of the day, but does not honor it as a solemn festival. He expressly asserts that the church, by common consent, held it on the 25th of December.^ In- deed it may be confidently affirmed that in the third century, and the first half of ihe fourth, the church were not agreed, either in re- gard to the time, or reasons for observing this festival ; and that the Eastern and Western churches differed totally in their manner of celebrating it. About the end of the fourth century, it was finally agreed that Christmas and Epiphany should be observed as two dis- tinct festivals, the one, on the 25th of December ; the other, on the 6th of January." From that time, this arrangement has been very generally observed.* * The following- passage from Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromat, 1. i. p. 340, ab. 249, is almost the only genuine passage of an Anlc-Nicene writer which can be supposed to allude to any festival commemorative of the advent of our Lord. After giving a list of the Raman emperors till the death of Com- OF CHRISTMAS. 435 The reason for celebrating Christmas eve with so much solemnity was, that though neither the day nor the year of our Saviour's birth was known, it was received as an acknowledged truth that he was born i?i. the nightfi Accordingly whilst other vigils had fallen into disuse, or been exchanged for evening vespers, this was extended to continue through the whole night. But these waichings finally were discontinued, and instead of them, three services were read on that day. When the representatives of Adam and Eve on Christmas eve was first introduced is not known. It had a mysterial relation to the first and second Adam, and was a device of the fourth or fifth cen- tury .^ modus, A. D. 192, and stating what years of certain emperors the Saviour was either born, or baptized, or crucified, he sa)'s : " There are some who over curiously assign not only the year, but the day also of our Saviour's na- tivity, which they say was in the 28th year of Augustus, on the 25th of Fa- chon, (20;/t of May). And the followers of Basilides observe also the day of his hapfisvi as a festival, spending the whole previous night in readino- ■ and they say it was on the 15th year of Tiberias Caesar, on the 15th of Tybi (lOth of January), but some say it was on the 11th, (C't/i) of that month. Among those who nicely calculate the time of his passion, some say it was on the 16th year of Tiberias Caesar, the 25th of Phemenotii, {22d of March) ; others say, the 25th of Pharmulhi, {2lst of Jlpril) ; and others, that it was on the 19th of Pharmuthi, {IWi of .ipril), that the Saviour suffered. Nay, some of them say that he was born in Pharmuthi, the 24th or 25th day {Jlpril 2(itk or 2l5«)." The reasons for observing the 25th of December in commemoration of our Lord's advent, may have been various. Some may have honestly believed this to be the true day of his nativity, and others may have felt it desirable to have a christian festival at some other season of the year than the fifty or sixty days immediately succeeding the vernal equinox, into which all the older festivals were clustered. The designation of this day was first made about the middle of the fourth century. From the first institution of this festival many of the western nations seem to have transferred to it many of the follies which prevailed in the pao-an festivals at the same season, such as adorning fantastically the churches mingling puppet-shows and dramas with worship, universal feastino- and mer- ry-making, Christmas visits and salutations, Christmas presents and jocular- ity, and Christmas revelry and drunkenness. Christmas holidays have borne so close a resemblance, whenever they have IJeen observed, to the Roman Saturnalia, Sigillaria, etc., and to the Juel feast of the Goths, as to afford strong presumption of an unhappy alliance between them from the first. See Murdock's Mosheim, second ed. pp. 279, 280, from which the above note is taken.— Tr. 436 OF SACRED SEASONS. The death of the martyr Stephen was commemorated December 26th. The event evidently occurred in August, A. D. 36. But after the pretended discovery of his relics, il was commemorated on the 6th or 7th of January, and then again, was changed to Decem- ber 26lh as above mentioned. On the third of the Christmas festivals, was St. John's day ; and the fourth was celebrated in memory of the slaughter of the children of Bethlehem by Herod, styled Innoceni''s day. Authori- ties are given in the index to show that the entire interval between Christmas and Epiphany was observed as a continued festival.'" To show in what consideration this festival, commemorative of our Lord's nativity was held by the ancient church, a brief extract from Chrysostom is here inserted. After asserting that this is more venerable than any other relating to Christ, inasmuch as all others depended upon his incarnation, he adds : "But we do not give this festival the preference merely on this account ; but because the transaction on this day was, of all others, the most stupendous. For that Christ when once man should die, was a thing of course. But that when he was God he should be willing to become a man., is be- yond roeasure wonderful, and astonishing. Transported with this thought St. Paul in rapture exclaims, ' Without controversy great is the mystery of godliness, God was manifest in the flesh.' B^or this reason chiefly I love and venerate this day, and commend it to your consideration that I may make you partakers of the same sentiments. I therefore pray and beseech you, Come with all diligence and alac- rity, every man first purifying his own house, to see our Lord wrap- ped in swaddling clothes and lying in a manger ! Tremendous thought! Oh sight of wonder!"'' "I am not now astonished," exclaims another, " at the creation of the world, at the heavens, at the earth, at the succession of days and seasons ; but I wonder to see God enclosed in the womb of a virgin, the Omnipotent Iain in a manger, the eternal Word clothed with flesh !"'- § 5. Easter, or the Festival which cobimemouates the Death AND Resurrection of our Lord. This great event is a cardinal point in the christian system on which depend our faith and hope. So important was the doctrine of Christ's resurrection in the view of the primitive church that, not EASTER. 437 only was an annual festival set apart to commemorate it ; but the Lord's day was made a weekly memorial of the same event. This festival was therefore celebrated with great solemnity. It was sty- led by Gregory Nazianzen, . II Hutchinson's Collection of papers, pp. Ill, JIS 452 SACRED SEASONS OF THE PURITANS. jurisdiction of Massachusetts, as a means of preserving social order among them, and even their very existence. The next year, a majority of the inhabitants tliere assumed a like relation ; and thence, religious observances of dissenters prevailed among them. From Maine we turn to New Hampshire. This colony was, at first, under Episcopal control. Dover and Portsmouth, both settled in 1623, appear to have been so influenced. The latter place soon had a church of conformists. But the occupation of Exeter by John Wheelwright and company, and of Hampton by Stephen Batchelor and associates, in 1638, introduced the Puritan forms there, as they had been at Dover in 1633, and were subsequently at Portsmouth about 1641. So that New Hampshire, as to the part claimed by Massachusetts, and also, to the other part not so claimed, had thrown off, by the last date, Episcopal conformity and adopted the Congregational order. Such a change was accelerated by the dis- tractions of England, and the consequent temporary invalidation of Mason's claims. When New Hampshire resumed the powers of a colony, in 1679,* they retained their prevailing attachment to the fasts and thanksgivings of the non-conformists. When their Assem- bly were about to meet in 1680, a public fast was observed to ask for a blessing on their proceedings. At the same time, however, while their charter allowed freedom of conscience to all Protestant denominations, it particularly required, that encouragement should be given to Episcopalians.! The stamp, thus put on the public sentiment of the preceding por- tions of New England, has never been effaced. Though the most of them have been changed from colonies to independent states, they still preserve the religious customs of their fathers. No relinquishment of fasts and thanksgivings was made in Ver- mont or in Maine, when they assumed State privileges. With re- gard to the former of these two Slates,J they began to observe such days in 1778, and have not since faltered in so doing. 4. Mode of their appoinlment. In Plymouth colony this was done by the civil authority .§ The practice there was embodied in a law * Belknap's New Hampshire, Vol. 1. p. 177. t Farmer's Belknap, p. 88. I Letter from Hon. Charles K. Williams. § Winslow's Relation in Mass. Hist. Collections, IstSer. Vol. VH J. p. 275. FASTS AND THANKSGIVINGS. 453 of 1637 — " that it be in the power of the governor and assistants to command solemn daies of humiliation by fasting,' and also for thanks- giving as occasion shall be offered."* When depnties became a part of the General Court, they sometimes acted with the other branch of government in the designation of these seasons. Such times were also proposed and observed by the churches, either sin- gly or collectively, as circumstances seemed to indicate. They were so continued by church and slate in Plymouth colony till the arrival of the second charter of Massachusetts in 1692, when the former was incorporated with the latter colony. The mode of Plymouth, as just described, did not materially dif- fer from that of Massachusetts. Here, with respect to a fast at the choice of ministers for the Salem church in 1629, Mr. Gott informs us, that it was ordered by governor Endicott.^f While the General Court was solely composed of magistrates till 1634, the governor, as their head and through their advice, did exercise like power. Sub- sequent to this, until the arrival of the second charter in 1692, he did not entirely lay aside such a practice. Besides, the council in their own name, even while there were chief magistrates, issued procla- mations. The first printed document of this class, in the Massachu- setts archives, is of the following tenor. I " At a Council held at Boston September 8lh, 1670. The council taking into their serious consideration the low estate of the churches of God throughout the world, and the increase of sin and evil amongst ourselves, God's hand following us for the same. Do, therefore, appoint the two and twen- tieth of this instant September, to be a day of public humiliation throughout this jurisdiction, and do commend the same to the sever- al churches, elders, ministers and people, solemnly to keep it ac- cordingly ; hereby prohibiting all servile work on that day. By the Council, Edward Rawson, Secret.'''' The term Council, as used here and elsewhere, included the name of the governor. In the same collection is a manuscript proclama- tion for thanksgiving in 1671, and similar papers for two fasts of 1675 and 1677, issued by such a body. The first printed proclama- tion for a thanksgiving to be found in the like depository, is of April * MS. Plymouth Colony Records. t Letter from Mr. Charles Gott to governor Bradford. t Massachusetts Archives. Ecclesieistical, Vol. I. p. 17. 454 SACRED SEASONS OF THE PORITaNS. 23, 1691, and is headed, " By the Governor and Council."* But, however, fasts and thanl. 8. c. 9, 10, 11: Cbrysost. torn. ii. p. 57: Concil. Miievit. c. 32. 8. Cyprian Ep. 33, (al ,38.) G, (al. 14.) 4G, (al 49.) 24, (al 29.) 55, (al 59.) : Basil. M. ep.3l9: Epiplian. baer. 57. § 1. G9. § 3 : Cbrys- ost. (ie sacerd. lib. iii. c. 15. 9. Enseb. e. b. lib. vi. c. 43—7. c. 28, 30: Concil. Illiber. c. 36: Concil. Arlet. I : Concil. Tolet. I : Concil. Bracar II : Concil. Nic. c. II. § 9. Different orders of Preshylers, p. 106. 1. Concil. Neocaesar. c. 13: 2. Antiocben. c. 8. 3. Socrat. bist. eccl. lib, vi. c. 9 : 4. Sozomen. b. e. lib. viii. c. 12. 5. Ep. 4. ad Rustic. 6. Orat. 20: Concil. Cbalcedon. c. 14: Leon. M. ep. ad Don. etc. 7. Codin. de Offiic. M. Eccl. § 10. Of the Deacons, p. 107. 1. Casp. Ziegler de Diaconis et Diaconissis veteris ecclesiae. Viteb 1678. 4 : Jo. Pbil. Odeleini Dissert, do Diaconissis primitivae ecclesiae. Lips. 1700. 4 : Delia origine della dignita Arcidia- ' conale. S. Sarnelli Lettere Eccles. 1716. Lett, xxv: J. P. Kress Erlauternng des Arcbidiaconal-Wessens nnd der geistl. Send- Gericbte. Helinst. 1725.4: J. G. Pertscben's : Vom Ursprung der Arcbidiaconen, Arcbidiaconal-Gerichte, biscbofl OfRcialen und Vicarien. Hiidesh. 1743. 8. 2. De Rebus Cbristianis ante Const. M. p. 118. coll. p. 139. 3. Comment, in b. e, 4. Vgl. Hienrick's Ep. ad Tirnotb. p. 15. p. 55 — 57. 5. Ignatius Ep. ad Trail. § 2. ad Smyrn. § 8. Magnes. § 9, 6. Polycarp ad Phil. § 5- 484 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 7. Ziegler. de Diaconis, Tliotnassin, Binterin, etc. 8. Uh. ii. c. 44. c. 30 : 9. Concil Nic. c. 18. 10. Concil. Canliag. IV. c. 37. 11. Conip. Euseb. Ii. e. lib. vi. c. 43 : Sozomen. Eccl. hist. lib. vii. 19: Justin Novell. III. c. 1. 123. c. 13: Concil Neocaesar. c. 15. 12. Concil. Tuion.I. c. 12: Agatli. c. IG, 17 : Tolet. IV. c. 89: Arelat. III. c. 1 : Bracar. III. c. 5: Isidore. Hisp. lib. ii. c. 12. 13. Constitiit. Apost. viii. c. 28: Concil. Nic. c. 18: Arelat. I. c. 15: Ancyra. c. 2 : Hieron. Ep. 85. ad Evagr. 14. Constitut. Apost. viii. c. 28. 15. Apol. I. (al II.) § 6.5. p. 220. ed. Oberth. 16. Constitut. Apost. viii. c. 18. 17. Cyprian. Ep.9. (al 16.) p. 37: Hieron. Comment, in Ezekiel. xviii. 18. August. Quaest. 5. et N. T. quaest. 6. 19. Constit. Apost. ii. c. 57 : Hieron. ep. 57 : Concil. Vasense. II. c. 2. 20. Sozom. h. e. lib. vii. c. 19. 21. Constitut. Apost. viii. c. 5, 6, 10 : Clirysost. Horn. xvii. in Ileb. ix : Horn. ii. in 1 Cor. 22. Comment, in Ephes. c. iv. 23. Tertullian. de Bapts. c. 17: Cyrill Hieros. Catech. 17. § 17: Hier. contr. Lucif. c. 4 : Concil. Illiberit. c. 77. 24. Constitut. Apost. ii. c. 44: 25. Epiph. Haeres. 85. § 5. § 11. 0/ .Archdeacons, p. 113. Of the Archdeacon. 1. Theodoret. h. e. lib. i. c. 26. 2. Concil. Agath. c. 23. 3. Hier. Comment. Ezech. 48. Opp. tom. v. 479. 4. Photii Bibl. cod. 182. tom. i. p. 127 : cod. 225, 226. 5. Concil. Aurel. IV. c. 26 : Chalced. act. 10. 6. Hincmar. Rhem. Capit. ad Gunthar et Odelph. 7. Decret. Gratiani. 25. c. 1 : Gregor. Decret. lib. i. tit. xxiv. c. 1 : Concil. Tolet. VIII. 8. Vgl. Lampert. Hist. Metens. lib. iv. c.95: Concil Lateran. P. xxiv. c. 4: Harduin. tom. vi. P. ii. p. 1798. 9. Concil. Turon. c. 8 : Concil. Salman, c. 7: Pellicia. tom. i. p. 41. § 12. Of Deaconesses. Of Deaconesses, p. 115. I. Plinii Epist. lib. x. ep. 96. (al 97): Lncian. Samosat. de morte Peregrin. § 12: Libanii. Orat. 16. p. 452. 9. Tertull. de veland. Virgin, c. 9: Conslit. Apost. lib. iii. c. 1 : Ba- sil. ]M. c. 24 : Sozom. h. e. lib. vii. c. 16. Codex. Tbeod. lib. xvi. tit. ii. 1. 27. 3. Sozom. h. e. lib. viii. c. 9: Concil. Chalcedon c. 14. (al 15.) 4. Tertull. de veland. Virgin, c 9. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 485 5. Constit. Apost. lib. vi. c. 18 : Epiphaniiis. ex[)OS. ful. c. 21 : Justin. Nov. vi. c. 6: I5interiiii. S. 435 — 7. 6. Clemens Alex. Strom. 7. 395. 7. Constit. Apost. lib. viii. c. 19: Coiicil. Cliaiccd. c. 15 : Tiiillan. c. 14. c. 40. 8. Conc.il. Nic. c. 19: Laodic. c. 11. 9. Iliier. xc. ,S 3. 10. Constit. Apost. lib. iii. c. 15, IG: Epiph. exposit. fid. c. 21 : Jus- tin. Nov. vi. c. 6. etc. n. Constit. Apost. lil). vii. c. 28. lib. ii. c. 26, 57, 58. c. 3. 7. 12. Bai.samon Comment, in Concil Clialced. c. 15. 13. Jo Morin. de sacr. ordinat. P. II. p. 502. CHAPTER VI. INFERIOR OFFICERS OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Of Subdeacons, p. 119. 1. Canon Apost. c. 42, 43 : Constit. Apost. lib. viii. c. 21 : Ignatius ep. ad Act. c. 2. p. 96 : Hal)ert. Archierat. p. 49. 2. Baumgarten Erlaut. d. ch. Aiterth. S. 123: Constit. Apost. lib, viii. c. 21. 3. Basil M. ep. can. 51 : Concil. Carth. IV. c. 5. 4. Concil. Trident. Sess. xxiii. c. 2. 5. Const. Apost. viii. c. 11 : Concil. Laodic. 21, 22, 25: Euseb. h. e. lib. Ixxx. c. 4 : Cyprian, ep. 24. (29.) § 2. Leclores or Readers, p. 120. 1. Just. INlar. Apol. 1. § 67. 2. De praescript. haer. c. 41. 3. Comp. Const. Apost. lib. viii. c. 22. 4. Sozomen, h. c. lib. v. c. 2 ; Socrat. h. c. lib. iii. c. 1 ; Greg. Naz. orat. invec. 1. Opp. tom. i. p. 58. § 3. Of Acolyths, p. 121. 1. Euseb. h. c. lib. vi. 43. Vet. Const. M. lib. iii. c. 8 ; Concil. Car- tliag. 4. c. 6 ; Cyprian ep. 7, 34, 52, 59, 77, etc. 2. Concil. Carthag. 4. c. 6. § 4. Exorcists. 1. Binterim. I. B. I. tli. S. 301. S. 308. 2. Bingham B. HI. c. 4. Origcn. Cont. Cels. lib. rii. p. 334; Socrat. Iii). iv. c. 27 ; Tertul. Apol. c. 23; Minuc. Octav. p. 83; Justin. Apol. 1. p. 45 ; Iren. lib. ii. c. 56 ; Cypr. ad Donat. p. 4 ; Ar- nob. Contr. Gent. lib. i. 3. Primitive Christianity, chap. 8. p. 235. 486 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. § 5. Of Singers or Precentors. 1. Sclgel II. 202. Gesaiig; Aiigustin. ep. 119. c. 18; Plin. epist. lib. X. ep. 9G ; Tertiill. Apolog. c. 39 ; Tlieodoret h. c. lib, iv c. 26. 2. Ignatii. ep. ad Antioch, § 12 ; Canon. Apost. c. 43, 69 ; Constit. Apost. lib. iii. c. 11 ; Liturg. S. Marci in Fabrici. cod.; Pseud, epigr. N. T. part iii. p. 288 ; Ephraim Syr. Serni.93. Justin, Nov. iii. c. 1. 3. Conoil. Laodir;. c. 1,5, 59, 17; Rat. div. offic. lib. ii. c. 1. c. 3. 5. Archaoiogisc-iiiiturgisches Lebrbuch des Gregorianischen Kir- chen Gesanges Von J. Antony ; Gregor. Tur. de niir. S. Martini, lib, i. c. 33. § 6. Ostarii, or Doorkeepers, p. 125. 1. Alcuiniis De.div. opp. p. 269 : Stat. can. cler. torn. iii. Canis, p. 398. 2. Binterini S. 311. § 7. Of the lower servants of the church, and the clergy, p. 125. a) Copiatae, sextons. 1. Epipban. exf)osit. fid. c. 21. 2. Hieron. De sept ordin. eccl. 3. Augiistin. c. Crescent, lib. iii. c.21. 4. Justin Novell. 43, 59. 5. Cod. Justin lib. i. tit. 2, I. 4. xi. tit. 17 : Cod. Theodos. vi. tit. 33, 1. 1. b) Parabolani, p. 126. 1. Socrat. h. c. lib. vii. c. 22. 2. Cod. Theodos. lib. xvi. tit. 2. ], 42, 43: Cod. Justin, lib. i. tit. 3, I. 18, Coll. constitut. eccl. lib. i. tit. 3, 1. 18,Concil. Chalced. Act. 1. c) Sacrista, p. 126. 1. Du Cange. Medicae Latinitatis; Durandi ration, div. of. lib. ii. c. 1. n. 14. 8') Parafrenarii, p. 126. 1. Ceremon. Rom. lib. i. Sec. 2: Mabillon. Mus. Ital. torn. ii. p. 534, § 8, Occasional officers of the church, p. 127. a) Catecliists. 1. J. H. Krause de Catecbetis priniitivae ecclesiae. Li[)s. 1704. 4. J. D. Heilrnan de scholis priscorum Cbristianoruin theologicis Goettiiig. 1774. 4. 2. Euseb. h. e. 6. c. 3. H. E. T. Guerike De schola quae Alexan- drae floruit, catechetica. Of the Capellani. 1. Vit. Constant. M. lib. iv. c. 56, .57. Sozorn. h. e. lib. i. c. 8. 2. Pellicia p. 62 — 66. Thoinassin. disc. eccl. P. I. lib. ii, "c, 92. Glossar. man. torn. ii. 146. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES, 487 Hermencutai. 1. E. A. Trominan, Dissert, de Hermeneutis. vet. ecclesiae Altitorf. 1747. 4. INotarii. 1. Euseb. h. e. lib. vi. c. 26 : Socrat. h. e. lib. vi. c. 5— 7.c. 2 : Sozo- tnen h. e. lib. vii. c. 41 — 48. c. 27. 2. Teitiillian ad. Scapiil. c 4 : Cyjirian ep. 12. 3. EiLseb. h. e. lib. vii. c. 29: Socrat. b. e. lib. ii. c. 30: Concil. Eph. Act. 1. Concil. Cbalcefl. Act 1. 4. Leon. M. ep. 10, 15, 23: Giegor. M. ep. lib. i. ep. 10, 34. 5. Goar. ad Codin. p. 5, 12. Aprocrisiarii. 1. Hineman Rlietnensis, ad proceres regni c. 12. Dii Cange Glossar. A. E. Klaiising de Syniellis. 1. Justin Nov. G. c. 1. 79. c. 1 : Leon. M. ep. 37, .58, 78 : Procop. de bello. vand. lib. i. c. 5. Syncelli. 1. S. Cedreni hist. i>. 53G, 193. 602, 624: Goari Praefat. ad Georg. SynH'llum Edit. Niebiihr, vol. ii. p. .5.5 — 57. 2. Capitul. Caroli M. lib. v. c. 174: Concil. Paris, A. D. 829. c. 20, 21 : Concil. London, A. D. 1102. c. 1. CHAPTER V. OF APPOINTMENT TO ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES. § 1. Election by lot, p. 131. L Natalis Alendri Dissert, de nsii sortiiim in sacris electionibus, et de jure plebis in sacrornm ministrorwin eleclione. Jo. Petr. de Ludevvigde sorte snfTrag. eccl. S. Observat. torn. iv. Observ. 13. Fr. Guil. Curstedt Dissert, de ininistrorum eccl. apud veteres Christianos ope sortiiionis designatione. 1751. 4. § 2. Election by the church colleclively, p. 131. 1. De Itnper. Sumrna. potest, circa Sacra c. 10. § 3, 4. 2. Neander Kirch. Gesch. L 301, 308. 3. Neander Kirch. Gesch. 353, seq. 4. E|>ist. 52. p. 120. 5. Comment, in Luc. lib. viii. c. 17. 6. Lampridius Vit. Alcxandri Severi.. 7. Paulin. Vit. Ambros. Riifin. h. e. lib. ii. c. 11 : Theodoret. h. e. lib. iv. c. 6, 7. Sozomen h. e. 6. c. 24. 8. Sulphic. Sev. Vet. S. Martini. 9. Theodoret. h. e. lib. i. c. 7. 10. Socrat. h. e. 6. c. 2. 11. August. Epist. 110. 12. Theodoret h. e. lib. ii. c. 31, 32. 488 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 13. c. 22. Compare Cyprian quoted above. Ilieron. ep. 4. ad Rustic. Hieron. Coinnieiit in Ezech. 10. c. 23: Possed. Vit. Augustini. c. 21 : Siricii ep. 1. ad Hemer. c. 10. 14. Coiicii. Aretat. A. D. 452. c. 54 : Barcin, c. 3 : Philostorg. li. e. 9. c. 13 : Greg. Naz. orat. 21. 15. Ambrose de dignit. sacei'dot. c. 5: Augustin. ep. 110. § 3. Elections by Reprtsenlalive.s and vitervenlors, p. 135. 1. De Sacerdot. lib. iii. c. 15. 2. Nov. 24. ad calnm. Cod. Tlicodos. 3. Leo. d. Gr. Epist. 89. 4. Bk. iv. c. 2. § 11. Concil. Nic. c. 4. 5. Syiurnaciuis ep. 5. c. 6. Gregor. d. Gr. ep. lib. ix. ep. 16. 6. Justinian 6. Novell. 123. c. 1. 137. c. 2: Cod. Justin, lib. i. tit. 3. de epis. c. 1. 42. 7. Concil. Tolet. 12. A. D. 681. Gregor. Naz. orat. 21. 8. Tlioinassini. eccl. discipl. part ii. lib. ii. c. 1 — 42. 9. Concil. Nicen. II. A. D. 787, c. 2 : Cecum. VIII. A. D. 871. c. 22. §. 4. Unusual foi-ms of elections, ]). 137. 1. Horn. Quis dives salvus, in Euseb. lib. iii. c. 23. 2. Euseb. 1). e. lib. vi. c. 11, 29: Sozomen b. e. lib. ii. c. 17: Sul- phic. Sev. Vit. S. Martini c. 7: Cyprian ep. 34. (al. 39), 33. (al. 38), 35. (al. 40.) 3. S. Gregor. Nyssen. Vit. Gregor. Thau mat : Opp. torn. iii. p. 561-2. 4. Socrat. b.e. lib. i. c. 19. Theodor. 1. c. 23 : Rufin. h. e. lib. 1. c. 9. 5. Sozomen h. e. lib. ii. c. 17. c. 20—28. c. 2 : Theodoret 4. c. 26. Socrat. 7. c. 46: August, ep. 110. Possid. Vit. Aug. c. 8: Gra- tian. in. c. 12. c. 7. qu. I. 6. Sozomen h. e. lib. ii. c. 17. § 5. Church patronage, p. 138. 1. Lud. Thomassini de discipl. eccl. part ii. lib. i. c. 29 — 32. Edit. Mogtint. tom. iv. p. 150 sqq : J. H. Boelimer jus eccl. Protest, torn. iii. p. 462 sqq : Chr. \V. Kindleiien Ueber den Ursprung, Nutzen und die Missbrauche des Kirchen-Patronats. Berlin, 1775. 8: Geschichte des Patronatrecbtes in den K. Teutscli- land. 1806. 8. 2. Concil. Arans. 1. c. 10. Concil. Arelat. II. c. 36. Justiniani Nov. 123. c. 18, A. D. 541. Nov. 57. c. 2. A. D. 555. 3. Compare Paulin. Epist. 32. carm. 12. 24. 4. Chrysost. Horn. 18. in Act. Apost. of)|). tom ix. p. 174. ed. Franc. 5. Comp. Boehmer tom. iii. p. 475 : Stillingfleet, Unreasonableness of Separation. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 489 CHAPTER \l. RANK, PRIVILEGES AND MANNERS OF THE CLERGY. § 1. Rank of the clergy, p. 140. 1. Codex Thoo.los. lib. xvi. I. 10. 53. l)es, 1. 14. 2. Codex Theodop. lib. ii. lir. i. I. 10. lib. xvi. tit. viii. 1. 1. 3. E|)ist. ad Arsaciimi Pontif. Galat. ep. 49, opp. j). 430. 4. De Vit. Constant. M. lib. i. c. 4. vgl. lib. 4. c. 24. 5. Zosim. hist. lilt. 4. c. 36: J. A. Bosii Exerc. post, de Pontificate. M. Iinperat. Roman, jiraeciptie Cbristiaiioriitn : S. Graeviiis. Tliesaiir. Antiq. Rom. tom. v, p. 271. G. Sozom. b. e. lib. vii c. 25. Tiieodor. 5. c. 17. Rufin. 11. c. 18. vgl. Socrat. lib. vii. c. 13 : Synes. ep. 58. 7. Orat. 17. p. 271. 8. Horn. 4. de verb. Jes. Horn. 15. in 2 Cor. 9. De dignitate sacerdotale. 10. Deer. Grat. part T. distinct 9G. e. 9: part ii. caus. 9. quaest. ii. iii. Ph. Rovenii res[)ubl. chr. Antv. 4. p. 1, 2, 52. § 2. Immunities, Rights, and Privileges of the Priesthood, p. 149. 1. Cod. Theodos. lib. xvi. tit. ii. 1. 1, 2, 8, 10, 12: tit. i — ii : tit. vi. 15, .3G, 39, 13 : tit. i. x : Cod. Justin, lib, i. tit, iii. 1. 7, 8, 25 : Novell. 12, 79, 83, 123. item. : Gothofredus : Ritter : Planck's Gesch. der. Kirchl. Ge«sellschafts-Verfassiing, Th. i. 1. 289. 2. Euseb. h. e. lib, x, c. 7 : Augiistin. Ep, G8: Collat, Carthag. cl, iii. c. 21G, 3. Codex Tlieodos. lib. xvi. tit, ii, 1, 1,2 : lib, xii. tit, i. 1. 75: lib. xvi. tit. viii. 1. 3, 4 : Symmach. lib. x. ep. 54, 4. Codex Theodos. lib, ii. tit. xvi. 1. 1.5,21,24: lib. xv, tit, iii, 1.6: Codex Justin. lib. i. tit. ii. 1, 7. 11. 5. Codex Justin, lib. i. tit. ii. 1.7 : Nov. Justin, xxxi, c, 5. 6. Nov. Justin. 131. c. 5. Cod. Justin. Iii). x. tit. xviii. 7. Athanas, Apol. 2 : Sozomen, h. e. lib. ii, c, 24: Theodor, b. e. lib. iv. c. 7 : Auguslin. Sertn. 49: Cod. Tlieodos. lib. ii. tit. i : tit. xxiv. lib, xvi. tit, ii : Binghatn, bk. v. c. 3. 8. Cod. Justin, lib. ix. tit. xli. 1. tit. iii : Cod. Theodos. lil). ii. tit. xxxix. 9. Cod. Justin. Iii). i. tit. iii : Nov. Justin, cxxiii. c, 7 : Concil. Carthag, 5, c, 1 : Concil, Tribiir c, 21 : Cod, can, Afric, c. 59. 10. Cod. Theodos. lib. xvi. tit, xii : xxiii, 11: Novel. Valent. xii. ad Cod, Theod. Nov. Justin. 86. c. 1 : Ambrose, ep. 32. 11. Cod. Theodos. lil). ii. tit. i. 12. Concil. Sardic. c. 8 : Ambrose, De ofRc. mini^t. lib. ii. 2D : Au- gust. Ej). 153: Bingham, bk. ii. c. 7, 8 : Thoniassin. Discipl. ec- cles, P. 2. lib. iii. c. 87, 9.5, 96 : II. M. Helmstreit. Histor. juris- dictionis eccl. Dissert, 3:. Fred. Wallers, Lehrbuch des K. Rechts, S. 328. 62 490 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. § 3. Costume of the Clergy, p, 144. 1. Beat. Rlienaniis, Ar^imi. ad Tertull. de Pallio: Ferrarius, De re vestiar. lib. iv. c. 18 : Bona. Rer. Litiirg. lib. i. c. 5 : Baliizius, Not. ad Cone. Gall. Narbon. p. 2(> : Tliomassini, Discipl. eccles. P. 1. lib. ii. c. 45: Aug. Krazen, De amiq. Liiiirg. Viiulob. 2. Pelliccia, De Clir. eccl. polit. P. 1. p. 120. 3. Hist. eccl. lib. ii. c. 23 : v. c. 24 : Epiphan. haeres. 29. n. 4 : 78. n. 14: Hieron. De Scriptor. eccl. c. 45: J. F. Cotta. De lamina pontific. 4. Abdias, Babyl. lib. viii. c. 2: Comp. Deyling, Observat. sacr. P. 2. p. 613. 5. Gregor. Naz. Opp. toni. ii. p. 78. 6. Baronii Annal. ad A. D. 401. 7. Paedag. lib. iii. c. 11 : 620 ed. Oberth. 8. Cone. Laodic. c. 22,23 : J. Lipsii Elect, lib. ii. c. 10 : Cone. Car- tag, iv. c. 41 : Narbon. c. 12 : Bracar. i. c. 27 : Tolet. iv. c. 28 : 9. Ezech. c. 44 : Contra Pelag. lib. 1 : Ep. iii. ad Heliod. Ep. 127 ad Rabiol. 10. Baronii Annal. A. D. 260. n. 6. 11. Opp. Leonis ed Qnesnel. toni. ii. p. 133. 12. De Missa, lib. ii. c. 14 : Opp. torn. iii. p. 918. 13. Gregor. Naz. Somn. Atlian. Opp. toin.ii. p. 78 : Chrysost. Homil, 82 al. 83 in Math.: Honiil. .37 : De fil. prod. p. 313 : Sozom. h. e. lib. viii. c. 21 : Hieron. ep. ad Praesid. Ej). 3. ad Heliod. contr. Pelag. lib. i : Gregor. Turon. De glor. confess, c. 20. 14. Jus. Orient, torn. i. constit. 29 : Socrat. hist. eccl. lib. vi. c. 20, 15. S. A. Krazer. De Liturg. Aug. Vind. p. 278: Innocent, iii.de Sacrif. Miss. lib.), c. 65: Guil. Durandus, Ration div. Offic. lib. iii. c. 18 : Jo. Dallaeus, De cultibus Lalinorum relig. lib. viii. c. 14. p. 1074. 16. J. B. Thiers, Histoire des Perruqies Fr. Nicolai iieber der Gibrauch der falshen Haare und Perriuken in alien und neuern Tuiter. 17. Concil. Matiscon, c. 5. 18. Capitul. iii. Carol. M. CHAPTER Vn. OF THE REVENUE OF THE CHURCH, AND MAINTENANCE OF THE CLERGY, p. 148. 1, De Jejun. c. 17. 2. Apolog. <;. 39. 3. Can. Apost. c. 3. Cyprian, ep. 28. 34. 66 : Euseb. h. e. lib. v. c. 18. 4. Cyprian ep. i. Plin. Ep. lib. x. p. 114 : Cod. Theodos. lib. v. tit. 5: Adam's Antiq. 74 et 415. 5. Gelas. ej>. i. ar9. c. 5 : Gregor. Naz. Orat. 40. p. 655 : Gratiani Deer. c. 1. qii. 1. c. 8. 6. Concil. Trullan. ii. c. 23. 7. Hieron. quaest. hebr. in Gen. 23. 8. Pabls K. Recht. S. 344. 9. Bracar. I. c. 25. II. c. 7. Galesii ep. 1. al. 9. c. 27: Simplic. ep.3. ad Florent. : Gregor. M. Ep. lib. iii. ep. 11. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 491 10. Coiicil. Bracar. I. c. 25. 11. Gales, ep. I. c. 27. 12. Cod. Tlieodos. lib. xvi. tit. 2, 1. 4 : Cod. Justin, lib. i. tit. 2, I. I. 13. Euseb. h. e. lib. x. c. 6 : Euseb. Vit. Const, lib. iv. c. 28. 38. 39 : lib. iii. c. 21. 58 : Sozottieii h. e. HI), v. c. 5 : Theodos, h. e. lib, iv. c. 4 : Gieselei's Lehrb. de K. Gescii. I. B. 2. Ausg. S. 204 ■ —205. S. 308. 14. Cod, Theodos. lib, ix, tit, 17, I. 5 : Cod. Justin, lib. i. tit, 2, I, 12. 1.5, Cod. Theodos. lib, xvi. tit, 10,1. 19-21: Sozoin. h. e, lib. v.c,7, 16. 16. Cod. Theodos. lib, xvi. tit. 5, I. 52 : Socrat. h. c. lib, vii. c. 7. 17. Cod, Theodos, lib. v. tit. 3, I, 1 : Cod, Justin, lib. i. tit, 3, 1, 20; 53: Nov. 5, c. 4, 123, c, 42. 18. Euseb. Vit. Const. M. lib. ii, c, 36. 19. Irenaens, adv, haeres. lib. iv. 17, 18. 20. Chr, M, Pfaft: Irenaei A need. Frag. 21. Adv. haeres. lib. iv. c, 8. 13. 18. 22. Horn, 4, in Ep. ad Ephes. H. 14, in Act, : Horn, 74, in Matt. 23. Orat. 5. 24, In Ps, cxviii. et Matt, xxiv, 25. In Ps, cxivi. Serin, de temp, 166, 219, 26. Concil. 31atiscon, II. c. 5: Cabilon, II. c. 19 : Mogunt,c.3: Roth- omag, c, 7. 27. Capitul. Caroli M. A. D, 779, c. 7 : CapituI, Caroli de part, Saxon. A, D, 789, c, 17 : Capit. Francof. A, D. 779. c. 23. 28. Capit, VI. Ludov. A. D. 819. c.9, A. D. 823. c. 21 : Capit. A. D. 829. sect. i. c. 7, 10 : Walter's Leiirb. des K. R. S. 367—69, 461—69. 29. Can. Apost. c. 4 : Constit. A post, viii, c. 40, CHAPTER VIII. ORDINATION OF THE CLERGY, AND PUNISHMENT OF DELINQUENTS. § 1. Remarks, p. 152. 1. Fr. Hallierii de sacris electionibus et ordiiiationibus ex antique et novo usu, Roiiiae 1749, f. toin. i, ii, iii : Jo. Morini, Commenta- rius histor, ac dogriiaticus de sacris ecclesiae ordinationibus, se- cundum antiq, et recent. Latinos, Graecos, Syros etc. part i. ii. iii. Paris, 1655, f. Bruxell, 1689. Amstelod. 1695, f. : Jo. Fr. Mayer, JMuseum Ministr. eccles. part i, p. 140 seq, : II. Tour- nely, Praeiectiones iheol, de Sacramento ordinis. Paris. 1729, 8. : Forbiger, de nnineribus ecclesiat. aetate Apostolorum. dissert, i. Lips, 1776, 2, Selden, De Synedr. Heb, lib. ii. c. 7 : Vitringa, De Synagoga. Vet. lib. iii, part i, c, 15, § 2. Disqualifications and qualifications, p. 153, 1. Constitut. Apost. lib, iii. c. 9: Tertul. De Praescript liaer. De Bapt. c. 17: Epiphan. Haer. 79. n. 4. 69. n. 2. 492 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 2. Coiistit. Apost. lib. viii. c. 19: Cone. Clialcedon. c. 15: Triillan. c. 14, 40 : Sozoijien, li. e. lil). viii. c. 9. 3. Cone. Araus. c.26: Epaon. c. 21 : Aurel. II. c. 18. 4. Canon Apost. c. Gl : Cone. Neoeaesar. c. 8, 9 : Nicen. c. 2 : Illi- berit. e. 30: Origen Contr. Cels. lib. iii. p. 142. 5. Cone. Ancyr. e. 11. 6. Ep. xxiii. e. 6. comp. Ep. iv. c. 3. ii. c. 2: Thomassin, part ii. lib. c. 66: Ambros. Ep. 29: Codex Theodos. lib. xii. tit. i. 7. Coueil. Neocaes-ar. c. 12. 8. Innocent I. Ep. xxii. c. 4 : Cone. Illiberit. c. 51 : Cone. Nicen. c. 8: Cod. Canon. Afric. c. 48. al.47: 58. al. 57. 9. Novel. 123. c. 1 : 137. e. 2 : Canon Apost. c. 2§ : Tlieodoret, h. e. lib. i. e. 4 : Cone. Clialcedon, c. 2 : Biriirhani, book iv. c. 3. sec. xiv : Sebiokh's chr. kircbengesch. Tb. 32. S. 580. 10. Euseb. b. e. Ill), vi. e. 30: Ambros. Ep. 60: Tbeodoret, h. e. lib, ii. c. 26 : Socrat. h. e. lib. ii. e. 5 : Heiiiinaii, Rbeim. Vit. Reinig. 11. Ep. 30 : Siricius, Ep. 30 : 12. Cone. Neoeaesar. e. 11 : Agath. c. 17 : Tolet. iv. c. 19 : Arelat. iv. c. 1, 13. Basil M. Ep. .54 : Cone. Nic. c. 2, 6, 10 : Cone. Illiberit. c. 76: Neo- eaesar. c. 9: Ep. 68. al. 67. eoinp. E[).24 : Cave, Prim. Christ, p. 253 seq. : Martene, De Antiq. vit. part ii. p. 295. 14. Lainpridius, vit. Alex. Sever, c.45. 15. Nov. Constit. 137. e. 2. 16. Cone. Bracar. ii. c. 20. 17. Leo. M. Ep. 32 ad Rustic, c. 1. 18. Paulinus, Ep. 4. ad Sever. : Sozomen, h. e. lib. vi. c. 34 : Tbeo- doret. bist. vel- c. 3: Jerom, Ep. 61. ad Pammach : Ep. 110: Scbrockb's K. Gescb. Th. ii. S. 36: Binterini Denkwiirdigk. der Katbol. Kircbe. I. book ii. Th. S. .378—336. 19. Optat. Milev, De Schism. Donat. lib. ii. c. 22: Hieron. Comment. in Ezech. c. 44. § 3. Administration of the Rite, p. 158. 1. Cone. Nic. c. 19: Antioch, c. 9: Clialcedon, c. 2: Carthag. iii, c. 45 : iv. c. 3. 2. Chrysost. Horn, in 1 Ep. ad Tim. : Horn. 1 in Ep. ad Phil.: Hie- ron. Ep. 85. ad Evagr. : Epipbanius, Haeres. 85. n. 4 : Cotic. Sardic. c. 19: Hispal. ii. c. 5 : Athanas. Apol. c. Ar. 3. Gregor. Naz. Carm. De Vita sua : Socrates, b. e. lib, iv. c. 29. 4. Leo, M. Ep. 81. ad Dioscur. c. 1 : Gelas. Ep. ix. c. 11. 5. Cone. Laodic. c. 5 : Tbeodoret. h. e. c. 13. 6. Martene, part ii. p. 329: Cone. Barcinon. c. 3. 7. Const. Apost. lib. viii. c. 5 : Dionys. Areop. De Hier. Eccl. c. 5. § 5. Punishment of delinquents, p. 173. 1. Cyprian, Ep. 28.(al. 34.) 2. Cone. Nic. c. 8: Tolet. 1, o. 4 : Trull, c. 20: Chalced. c. 29. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 493 3. August. Ep. 3G. 4. Cone. Tolet. 1, e. 1, 3, 8: Ilcrdens, c. 1, 5: Arausiac. I. c. 24: Tauiinens, c. 8. 5. Socrates, h. e. lib. vi. c. D: Sozotnon, h. e. lib. viii. Synes. Ep. : Siegel, Haudbuch. Archaeol. Bd. iii. 82. C. Cone! Agath. c. 30, 41 : Epaon. c. 15 : Matiscon, c. 5. 7. Const. Apost. 27, 30, 51 : Cone. Neocaesar. c. 1 : Agath. c. 8, 42. CHAPTER IX. OF CHURCHES AND SACRED PLACES. § 1. JVames and History of Churches, p. 176. 1. Euseb, h. e. lib. vii. e. 22: Pliniiis, Ep. lib. xix. ep. 97: Pert- schens. K. Histoiie, Tb. i. S. 416. 2. Asseniani, Bibl, Or. torn. i. p. 387 : Enseb. h. e. lib. ii. e. 1 : Faber, De temj)lor. apiid Christian, antiq. duhia in Pott's Sylloge Conitnent. Theol. vol. iii. p. 334—37 : Schrockh's chr. K. Gesch. Th. iv. S. 17, IS. 3. Lainprid. Vit. Alex. Severi. e. 49 : Mosheini, De eccl. ante Con- stant. M. p. 463. 4. Euseb. h. e. lib. vii. c. 13. 5. Tertull. De idol. c. 7 : Adv. Valent. c. 3: De coron. mil. c. 3 : De piidic. c. 4 : Cyprian, ep. 55. 33 : Gregor. Thau mat. epist. can. c. 11 : Gregor. Naz. Vit. Gregor. Thaum. Opp. iii : Dio- nys. Al. ep. can. c. 2: Lactant. Instit. div. lib, v. c. 11 : De mot. persec. e. 12. 15 : Ambrose, in Epis. 4. etc. 6. Euseb. h. e. lib. viii. c. 2, 13. 7. Euseb, h. e. lib. x. c. 5. c. 2 : De Vit. Constant. M. lib. iii. c. 64, 65. 8. Soerat. h. e. lib. iv. c. 24 : Evagr. h, e. lib. i. c. 16: Cod. Theo- dos. 16. tit. X. 1. 16, 19, 25. 9. Ciampini, c. 2 — 22 : Euseb. Vit. Constant. M. lib. iii. c, 25 — 40, 41 — 58 : lib. iv, c. 57 — 60: Soerat. li. e. lib. i. c, 16 : ii. c. 16, 43: Sozom. h. e. lib. xi, c. 4, 26 : lib. iv. c. 26. 10. Euseb. h. e. lib. x. e, 3. 11. Gibbon's Rome, vol, iii, p. 42, N, Y. ed. 12. Muratori, Seriptor. rer. Italic, lorn. i. P. 2. p. 576 : Manso's Ge- sehichte des Ostgothischen Reichs in Italien, S. 137, 167, 396. § 2. Form, Site, and Position, p. 180. 1. Tertull. De bapt. c. 8. c. 12 : de Piulie. c. 13. 2. E. S.Cyprian, De ecelesia subtenanea: Chr. Sonntag de ecclesia subterran. 3. Cyril Hieros. mystag. Catech. 1. n.2: Grwgor. Naz, Orat. 40 : Hi- eron. Comment, in Amos 6: 14 ; Dionys. Areop. De Hierarch. Eccl. c. 3. 494 INDEX OF ATJTHOEITIES. § 3. Arrangement and constituent Parts, p. 181. J. Concil Tolet. 4. c. 18 : Isidor Hispal. Orig. lib. i. c. 3. 2. Eutiel). Ii. e. x. c. 4 : vii. c. 15. 3. Concil Laodic. c. 21. 4. Concil Laodic. c. 44. 5. Concil Laodic. c. 19, 44 : Concil Tiullan. c. 69. G. Ensel). Ii. e. x. c. 4, 5 : vii. c. 50 : Gregor. Naz. Sonni Anast. v. 4 : Constit. Apost. ii. c. 57. 7. Augiistiii. ep. 203: Athenas. Apol. ii. § 5. 0/theJVave, p. 183. 1. Cyprian, Ep. 33, 34. 2. Constit. Apost. lib. ii. c. 57: viii. c. 20 : Cyril, Hierosol. Pro Cat- ech. c. 8 : Euseb. ii. 17. 3. Constit. Ap. ii. c. 57: August, de civ. Dei, ii. c. 28: Cyril, llier. Pro Catech. c.8 : Chrysost. Horn. 74 in Math. : Steph. Duran- di, De Vit. eccl. lib. i. c. 18. 4. Constit. A p. ii. 57, 58. 5. Codinus, De offic. c. 17: Leo Allatins, De tempi. Graec. ep. § 5: Gretserns, in Codinuni, lib. iii. c. 12. 6. Paulin Not. op. 12: Concil Trull, c. 97: Leonis. Imp. Nov. 73. 7. Chrysost. Hom. HI. in Ep. ad Ephes.: Evagrius, h. e. vi. 21 : Paul. Nol. nat. Felic, HI. § 6. Of the N'arlhex or Porch, p. 185. 1. Tertull. De Orat. c. 11 : Euseb. h. e. x. c. 4 : Chrysostom, Horn. 52 in Math, in Ps. cxl. : Synes. ep. 121 : Pelicia, torn. i. p. 133. § 7. Of the outer Buildings, or Exedrae, p. 188. 1. Paul. Nol. ep. 12 : Cyril, Hieros. Catech. mystag. i. 2. ii. 1 : Si- don. Ep. iv. 15 : August. De civ. Dei, 22. 8 : Ambros. Ep. 33: Gregor. Turon. hist. 6. 11 : Justin, Novell. 58. 42: Concil. Trull, c. 59 : Cone. Constant, sub. Minna, Act. 1. 2. Theodoret, h. e. v. c. 18 : Sulpit. Sex. Dial. ii. c. 1 : Praef. ad Con- cil. Carthag. iii. iv. 3. Cod. Theodos. lib. xvi. tit. v. 1. 30 : Justin, Nov. 79. c. 3 : Du Cange, Comment, in Paul Silent, p. 594 : Gregor. ii. ep. ad Leon. Isaur. : Jo. Graetner, De incarcerat. clericor. cum et sine catena. 4. Euseb. h. e, vi. c. 20 : Augustin. De haeres, c. 80 : Bosil M. Ep. 82: Hieron. cat. script, eccl. c. 3, 75, 113: Comment, in Tit. c. 3. 5. Hospinian, De templis, lib. iii. c. 6: Lomeier, De Bibliothecis : J. M. Claudenii, D. de fortuna Bibl. : D. Augustini, En excidio Hipponcnsi. 6. Euseb. Vit. Const. M. lib. iv. c. 59 : Cod. Theodos. lib. ix. tit. xlv. 1.4. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 495 ^ 8. Church Towers, Btlls, and Organs, p. 190, 1. Calvoer, Rit. eccles. torn. ii. p. 143 — 44. 2. Tritlieni. irn Clii'onic. Hirsgav. 3. Bentcrim, S. 71. 4. Leo Ost. Ill), iii. c. 28 : Dc Locis Sanctis, p. 8 : Mirac. S. Cokim- biini, c. 2. 5. L. Clir. Sturm, Prodrom. Arcliitec. Encykl. der hiirgerl. Bau- kunst. Til. V. S. 262: Wiebeking's ^leoret. piakt. Baukuiide, Til. iv. S. 288. Of Bells. 6. Nicol. Ejrgers, Dissert, de origine ct nomine campanarum. Jen. 1G84: De campan. materia et forma. 1G85. 4: ilarald. Wallerii, Dissert, de campanis et piaecipuis earum iisibus. Holm. 1694. 8: P. Clir. Hilscber, De campanis templonim. Lips. 1692. 4 : J. B. Thiers, Trait*' de cloclies, etc. Paris, 1719. 12: Ilistorische Na- chricht von den Glocken, deren Uisprnng, Materie, Nuzzen nnd Missbraiich ; von Irenetis Montanus. Cliemnitz. 1726. 8 : Chr. W. J. Chrysander, Hist. Nacliricbt von Kirchen-Glocken. Rin- lein. 1755. 8. 7. Polydorus Vergil. De invent, rer. lib. vi. c. 11 : Centur. vi. c. 6: Hospiiiian. de orig. tempi, lib. ii. c. 26. 8. Baron. Annalcs A. D. 865. 9. Baron. Annales ad a. Iviii. n. 102. 10. Ed, Encycloped. Art. Bells. Of Organs. 11. G. E. Muller's Hist. phil. Sendschreiben von Orgeln, ihrem Ur- sj)runge und Gebr. in der Kirche Gottes. Dresden, 1748. 8: J. Ulr. Sponsel's Orgel-Historie. Nlirnberg, 1771. 8 : D. B. de Cel- les, Geschiclite der Orgeln. Aus dern Franzos. libers. Berlin, 1793. 4: Jos. Antony's Geschichtliche Darstellung der Entste- hung nnd Vervolkominnnng der Orgel. Miinster, 1832. 8. 12. Monaclius Sangallensis de Carol. M. lib. ii. c. 10: Canissii. Thesaur. menum. P. 3. p. 74. 13. Fischer's Geschichte der gr. Orgel in Breslau, S, 26. § 9, Of the Altar. 1. Godofr. Voigt, Thysiasteriologia, s. de altaribus vet. Christian. Ed. J. A. Fabricii. Hamb. 1709. 8 : Jo. Fabricii, D. de aris vet. chr. Helm. 1698. 4: J. F.Treiber, De situ altarium versus Ori- entem. Jen. 1668. 4 : S. Tli. Schoenland, Histor. Nachricht von Alfaren. Lips. 1716. 8: J. Ge. Geret, De vet. Christian, altari- bus. Onold. 1755. 4. 2. Arnobii. Disput. adv. gent. lib. vi. c. 1 : Lactant. instit. div. lib. ii. c. 2 : Origen, contr. Col. lib. viii. p. 389. 3. Opp. toni. V. p. 12, 50 : Serm. 310 : Hieron. contr. Vigilant. 4. Concil, Carthag. 4, al, 5, c, 14 in Justelli Bibl, jur. Can. vet. T. i. p. 370. 496 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. § JO. Of the Doors of the Church, p. 194. 1. Constit. Apost. lib, viii. c. 28 : Ignatii, ep. ad Antioch. c. 19. 2. Fiorillos Knnst-Gescliichte : Leibnitz, Scriptor. Rcr. Brunsvic. torn. i. p. 446—63: Schruckh's Kirch. Gesch. 21. 187—88. §11. Of the Windows of the Church, p. 195. 1. De Offic. lib. ii. c. 21« 2. Comment, in Jer. c. 7 : in Zech. c. 8 : Ep. 2. ari Nepot: Ep. 8. ad Demetr. : Ep. 12. ad Gaudent. 3. Horn. 81. in Math.: 51 in Math.: Horn. 60. ad Pop. Antioch. § 13. Veneration attached to sacred Places, and Pi^vilcges belonging to them, p. 197. 1. Jac. Lobhetii, Liber de religioso templorum cultu. Leod. 1641. 4 Jo. Fabricii, Dissert, de reverentia erga sacra. Helmst. 1706. 4 J. H. Boehmer, De sanctitate ecclesiarum. Halae, 1722. 4 Henr. Lynckeri, Dissert, de jurilxjs templorum. Francofurti, 1698. 4 : Jo. Moebii, "Aavloloyla, s. de Ebraeorum, Gentilinm et Christianorimi asyMs. Lips. 1673. 4 : Ge. Goetzii, Dissert, de Asylis. Jen. 1660. 4: Gust. Cartholm, De Asylis. Upsal, 1682. 8. 2. Paedaif. 1. 8. c. 11. p. 255: Comp. Cave, Prim. Christ. 285. 3. Prim. Christ. 156—7. 4. Justin. Novell. 133. c. 31. 5. Concil. Gangrense, c. 5, 6. C. Tertullian, De Orat. c. 11 : Euseb. h. e. x. c. 4: SeVv. 11. c. 38 : Chrysost. Horn. 52. in Math. : 72. in Joann. : 3. in Eph. 7. Chrysost. torn. iv. p. 847 : Cod. Theodos. lib. ix. tit. xlv. 1. 4. 8. Julian, Ep. 49. ad Arsac. p. 431 : Sozomen, h. e. lib. v. c. 16. 9. Ambros. ep. 33. : Prudent, hymn 2. in S. Laur. v. 519, 520 : Pau- lin. Nol. natal, vi. : Chrysost. Mom. 29. in apnd Cor. : Manas, tom. ii. p. 304 : Cassiodor. Hist. : tripart. lib. x. c. 30 : Dioiiys. Areop. de hier eccl. c. 2. § 4. § 14. Churches and Mtars, as Places of Refuge, p. 199. 1. Cod. Theodos. lib. ix. tit. xlv. 1. 1, 1. 16 : Cod. Justin, lib. i. tit. xii. 1. 1. : Socrat. h. e. lib. vi. c. 5 : Sozomen, h. e. lib. viii. c. 7. 2. Coleti Concil. tom. xi. p. 1463. 3. Homil. in Eutropiiim. tom. iv. p. 481. 4. Cod. Justin, i. 12. I. 2. 5. Cod. Justin, i. tit. xii. 1. 3: Cod. Theodos. lib, ix. tit. xlv. I. 4. 6. Justin. Nov. constit, xvii. c. 7. 7. Capitul Car. M. A. D. 789. c. 2 : Copit. ii. A. D. 803. c. 3, 8. Lud. Thomassiui discipl. eccl. P. 2. lib. irt. c. 100. toni.vi. p. 686. 9. Dunt Grcgor. lib. iii. tit. xlix. c. 6. 10. Cedreni, Hist. 523: Histor. Alex. Annae. Comn. lib. ii. : Nice- phor. Gregor. hist. lib. ix. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 497 CHAPTER X. PRAYE.RS AND PSALMODY OF THE CHURCH. § 1. Preliminary Remarks, p. 201. 1. Grotius, adnot. ad Rom. c. 8: 2G. 2. Corn}). Rosoiimuller. Ileiiiriflis, Wegsclieider, Hydetireich's Pas- toralln-iefen Pauli. Th. i. S. UG. 3. Apologet. c. 39. 4. Gregor. Nazianz. oqoi naxv/AiQug edit. Hocscliel. v. 142 : Chry- sost. Homil. 9. in e|). ad Coioss. § 2. The Doctrine of the Trinity implied in the Devotions of the Ancient Church, p. 203. 1. Adv. Praxearn. c. 31. 2. Jo. Henr. Maji, Synopsis Theologiae Judaicae, p. 29 — 56. 3. Cateches, xvi. c. 4 : Comi). Tertull. Adv. Prax. c. 3. 4. De Spiritii Sancto ad Amphil. c. 25 — 29. 5. Concil. Hippo, A. D. 397. c.21 : Carthag. A. D. 525: S. Fulgent. Riisp. ad Monimum. lib. ii. c. 5. edit. Basil. 1621. p. 328: Ba- sil M. De Spiritii Sancto ad Amphil. c. 12 : Ambrose, De S. S. lib. i. c. 3: 6, Bingham, vol. v. p. 71. § 3. Divine Worship paid to Christ, p. 205. 1. Euseb. h. e. lib. iv. c. 15. 2. Contra Celsum. lib. v. p. 233. lib. vii. p. 385. 3. Binghatn, bk. xiii. c. 2 : Jo. Fried. Cotta. De Gloria multus rell- giosi Christo asserta. Tubing. 1755. 4 : C. W. Thalemann, Je- sum Christum eodem quo Patrem modo colendum atque ado- randum. § 4. JVorship of Martyrs, Saints, and Angels, p. 20C. 1. Siegel, vol. ii. p. 261. 2. Radulphus Tungrensis. De canon, observat. propos. 17. p. 559. 3. Beliarmin. De Sanctorum beatitudine, lib. ii. c. 17 : Compare c. 3. 12. lib. i. 11—20: Eman. a Schelstrati. De Disciplina Arcani. 4. Bingham, bk. xiii. c. 3: Concil. Trident. Sess. 25 p. 231. P. 3. 221 — 362: Augsburg. Confess. Art. 9. p. 425 : Art. 21 : Apo- log. Art. 9 : Schmalkald. Art. 1.2: Jo. Dallaei, De cultu relig. lib. iii. c. 25 : Stilhngfleet's Defence of the discourse of idol. P. 1. c. 1 : Lib. Carolin. Caroli M. De iin[)io imaginum cuire. lib. iv. § 6. Brevity and Simplicity of the Prayers of the ancient Church, p. 210. 1. Arnobins, Disputat. adv. Gentes. lib. i. c. 58, 59. 63 498 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 2. S. Proeli, De trad. Missal, horn. 22 p.580: A. Neander, i. Th. 1821. 8. S. 329, 30 : Thom. Siiiitli, De statu Eccles. Gracae Hodier- no, p. 22.seq. : Heiiiccii Abbildiiiig, der alten und iieuen griech. Kirche, Th. Jii. S. 227 : Is. Diacoui Vit. Gregor. M. lib. ii. c. 17. § 7. Of the catholic Spirit of their JForship, p. 210. 1. Contra Celsum, lib. vii. p. 402. 2. Eiiseb. Oral, de Laudibiis Constant. M. p. 706 : Chrysost. Homil. in Job. p. 13. 3. Concil. Gerund, c. 10. A. D. 517 : Concil. Tolet. iv. c. 9. 3. A. D. 633. 4. Bk. 13. c. 5. 5. Spittler's Kirchengesch. S. 246: Huge's Gesch. des deutschen Kiichen-und Predigtwisens. Th. i. S. 254. § 9. Of the Lord's Prayer, p. 212. 1, J. A. Schmid, Oratio Dominica historice et dogmatice proposita. Hehiistad. 1723. 4: J. Ge. Walch, De usu orationis Doniinicae aptid veteres Christianos. Jenae, 1729. 4 : S. Walch, Miscellanea sacra. Amstelod. 1744. 4. ]). 58 — 80 : Jo. Ern. Ostermann, Com- mentatio de communi Christianorum precatione. Viteb. 1710. 4: Jo. Ge. Steinert, De pecnliari indole precutn Domini nostri, quarum in N. T. fit mentio. Ossit. 1817. 4. 2. Apol. i. p. 222, edit. Oberth. 3. Apol. i. p. 212—220. 4. Adv. Haeres. lib. v. c. 17. 5. Paedag. lib. iii. 6. De Oratione Dominica, c. 1 — 9. 7. De Orato Domin. p. 139 : Bingham, 13. c. 7. § 1 : Compare 0pp. edit. Oberth. tom. i. p. 366 — 388. 8. 0pp. edit. Oberth. tom. iii. p. 408—593. 9. Aiigiistin. Epist. 89. ad Hilar, p. 407 : Chrysostom. Horn. 42,276. 44. p. 288: Cyril, Hieros. Catech. mystag. v. p. 298. 10. Chrysost. Horn. 2. in 2 Cor. p. 740: Horn. 62. p. 934: Augustin. Serrn. 42: Walch. Miscellan. sacr. p. 69: Bingham, bk. 13. c. 7. § 9. 11. Tertuliian, De Oral. Dom. 371 : Gregor. Nyss. Horn. 10 in ep. ad Coloss. p. 1385. 12. Adv. Haer. iv. c. 18: Tertull. De Orat. c. 6: Cyprian, De Orat. Dom. p. 376 : Origen, De Orat. p. 523—36: Cyrill. Hierosol. Catech. mystag. v. c. 15. 13. Tertuliian. De Orat. c. 8 : Griesbnch. Comment, crit. in Gr. Mat- thaie textum, p. 71 : Pauliis. Comment, i. p. 576 : Kuinoel, in libros N. T. histor. vol. i. p. 181,2: M. Roediger, Synopsis. Evang. 1829. 8. p. 231 : Alexander Halisius. Summa. theol. P. 2. § 4 : Torbesii. a Corse. Instruct, histor. Theol. lib. i. c. 18 : 0pp. P. 2. Fol. p. 32, 33. 14. Constitut. Apostol. lib. vii. c. 24. p. 372 : Tertuliian. De Orat. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 499 c. 19 : Concil. Gerund. A. D. 517. c. 10 : Concil. Tolet. iv. A. D. C33. c. 9. 15. Constitiit. Apostol. lib. vii. c. 44. p. 385 : Chrysostom. Homil. 6. iu ep. ad Coloss. 16. Gregor. the Great, Epist. lib. ix. ep. 12 : Jerome, Dial, contra Pe- lag. lib. iii. c. 3: Justin. Apostol. i. p. 125 : Cyril of Jerusalem, Cateclies. mystag. v. c. 5: Augnstin. Epist. ad I'aulin. .50. p. 308. 17. Apost.Constitut. lil).viii, c.O. j). 3'.)7, !)3 : Clirysostom. torn. x. p. 435, ed. Bened. : p. 51(J, ed. Francofurt. 18. Apost. Constit. viii. c. 8: Goari Eurliolog. Gr. p. 397. 19. Apost. Constit. lib. viii. c. 9 — 1 1 : Cluysost. Horn. 8. in Ep. ad Cor. 20. Apost. Constit. c. 8. 9 : C'l'T^ostotn. Uoui. iu 2 Cor. p. (373. 21. Apost. Constit. c. 41. p. 423, 24. 22. Constit. lib. vii. c. 47, 48. p. 388, 9. 23. Constit. lib. vii. c. 36. p. 379, 80. § 10. Respo7ises — Amen, Hallelujah, Hosanna, etc. p. 218. 1. J. A. Schmidt, De insignioribus veterum Christianorum formulis. Ilelmst. 1696. 4: Jo. Ge. Walch, De formulis saliitandi apos- tolicis. Jen. 1739. 4 : S. ejusd. Miscellanea sarra. Ainatel. 1744.4. p. 436 seq. : Ge. Ermelii, De veterum Christianorum 5o|oAo/f« dissert, histor. Lipsiae, 1684. 4 : Ad. Recheuberg, De veterum Christianorum do^oloyln. Lips. 1684. 4: S. Syntagma Dissertat. Roterod. 1690. 8. 2. Hilar, on Ps. 65 : Chrysostom. Horn. 35. in 1 Cor. : Opj). torn. x. p. 325. 3. Apol. 1. § 65. 67 : Comp. Augustin. contra Pelag. : Serm. defer, iv. Opp. tom. vi. p. 446. 4. De Spectaculis. c. 25. 5. Constitut, Apost. lib. viii. c. 13 : Cyril. Hierosol. Cateches. 23 : mystag. v. jt. 331, 32 : Ambrose, in sacr. lib. iv. c. 10 : Augus- tin. Contra Faustum. lib. xii. c. 10: Jerome, Epist. 39 : Leon. M. Serm. 91. 6. Augustin. Ex. in Ev. S. Joan. : Serm. 151 de temp.: Isiodorus, Hispal. Orig. lib. vi. c. 17 : De div. off. 142: Gregor. Nyss. Trac- tat. de inscr. Psalmon. c. 7. 7. Gregor. M. Epist. lib. ix. ep. 12. p. 940. 8. Augustin. Epist. 119. ad Jan. c. 17. 86. ad Casul. : llieron. Prae- fat. in Ps. 50. 9. Werusdorf. de form vet. eccl. psalmod. Hallelujah, p. 21. 25. 27: Augustin. in Ps. 118. 10. Hist. eccl. lib. ii. c. 23. 11. Is. 51. 1. 123. 3: Virg. ^neid.l2. 777 : Comp. Bona, rer. liturg. lib. ii. c. 4. in Gavanti Thesaur. sacr. vit. 12. Epist. lib. vii. 12 : lib. ii. m. 13. Concil. Toletan. iv. c. 12. 14. Ad Guranti Thesaur. tom. i. p. 81. 15. Concil. i. can. 21 : Harduin. tom. iii. p. 352. 500 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 16. Tertullian. De praescript. liaeret. c. 41 : Clirysostom. Homil. 3. in ep. ad Coloss. : Optat. Milevit. de schisniate. Donat. lib. iii : Guraiite, Tliesaur. saci*. rit. torn. i. p. 77 : Atiibios. De dignat. sacerd. c. 5. 2. 17. Caivoer. rit. eccl. i. p. 472. 18. De Oiatioiie Dornin. 0})p. torn. i. p. 384. 19. Cateches. niystairog. v. § 4 : Ciirysost. Ilomil. 24. in 1 Cor. 10 : Tlieopliyiact. Conuiient. in Coloss. 3d. 0pp. ton), ii : Isidor, Pe- lus. Epist. lib. i. ep. 77. ad Diosciir. p. 23: Augustin. De vera relig. c. 3 : De bono perseverantiae. c. 13. § 11. Of the Psalmody of the Church, p. 221. 1. Aug. Jac. Rambach's Anthologie christlicher Gesange aus der alten nnd rriittiern Zeit. Tli. i — iii. 1817 — 19. 8: Joannis Bonae, De divina Psaltnodia ejusque caiisis, mysteriis et dis- cipiinis, deque variis ritibiis, oniniinii Ecciesiaruin in psallendis divinis officiis, tractatus liist. syrrd)ol. asceticus ; sive psalieiitis ecclesiae barmonia etc. Edit, nova, auctior et eniendatior. Colon. 1677. 8: Mart. Gerberti, De cantn et niusica sacra etc. Bias. 1774. 2 vol. 4: Job. Zach. Hilligeri, De psalrnorum, hyrnnorum atqne odarutn sacr. discrimine. Viteb, 1720. 4. S. Thesaur. nov. tbeol. 1720.8: Jo. Godofredi Baumanni, De hymnis et hymnopoeis vet. et rec. ecclesiae. Breniae, 1765. 8: J. Ge. Walcb, De hymnis ecclesiae apostolicae. Jenae, 1737. 4: S. Miscellanea sacra. Anistelod. 1744. 4. pag. 34. seq : Jo. Frickii, Orat. de sacra carrninnm divin. hymnodia: S. Melete- n)ata varia. Ubnae, 1756. 4 : Jo. Henr. a Seelen, De j^oesi chr. non. a tertio |)ost Chr. nat. saecnio demum, sed a j^rinio etiatn et seenndo deducenda. Lubecae, 1754. 8 : Friedr. Miinter, Ueber die alteste cbristliche Poesie : S. Dessen, OfFenbarnng Johannes, metrisch iibersetzt. Zweyte Ausg. Kopenhagen, 1806. 8. S. 17—54. 2. Constitut. Apost. lib. ii. c. 57: Socrat. h. e. lib. v. c. 22: Basil. Epist. 63: Sozomen, h. e. lib. v. c. 19: Dionys.Areopag.de Hierarch. eccl. c. 3. 3. Concil. Laodic. c. 17: Augustin. Serm. 10. de verbis Apost. opp. torn. X. p. 112. 4. Constitut. Apost. lib. viii. c. 37 : Iii). ii. c. .59 : Chrysostom. Com- ment, in Ps. Opp. tom. iii : Athanasius, Epist. ad Marcel, torn. i. p. 957 : De Virgin, p. 1057 : Cassian. Institut. lib. iii. c. 3. 5. Contra Celsunv lib. viii. c. 67: Edit. Oberth. tom. ii. p. 512, 13. 6. Lib. v. c. 28. § 12. Attitude and Gestures in Singing and Prayer, p. 222. 1. Joach. Hildebrand, De Precibus veterum Christianorum. Helmst. 1735.4: De invocatione et precibus. Ibid.: Rituale orantium. Ibid. 1740. 4: Abr. H. Deutchniann, Ritus antiqui precum. Vi- INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 501 teb. 1G95. 4: Jac. Tlioinasii, Dissert.de ritu vet. Christianorum precandi versus OrieiUein. Lips. 1670. 4 : Adami Rechenberg, De %HQ(xQtjin orantiiiin. Lips. 1688. 4: Clir. Christ. Sturm, De ritu veterutn sulilatis manibus precandi. Jeuae, 1761. 4 : Aug. Nath. Hiibner, Disseriat. de genuflexione, Ilitiae, 1711. 4: J. J. Ch-f-g. De crucis signaculo precuui ciiristiauarum coinite des- tiiiato. Lips. 1759.4: Godofr. Wegiier, De orationibus jacula- toriis. Regiomont. 1708. 4: J. Burger, De gestibus precantium vet. Christianorum. 1790. 8. 2. Tertullian, De Orat. c. 11— 2.3. ed. Obertli. torn. ii. p. 23—39. 3. Comp. Hug. Grotii adnotat. ad Math. 6: 5. 4. Tertullian. De Corona mil. c. 3: Concil. Nicaen. A. D. 325. c. 20. 5. De Orat. c. 31. ed. Oberih. toin, iii. p. 580. 6. Epist. 119. c. 15. 7. De Spirit, S. c. 27. 8. Augustin. 3. in Ps. 36: Jo.Cassian. De instit. rer. lib. ii. c. 12. 9. Apost. Constit. lib. viii, c. 9, 10: Hermae Pastor. P. 1. vrs. 1: Clemens Rom. 1 Ep. ad Cor. §48: Tertuli. ad Scapul. c. 4: Origen. De Orat. c. 31 : Euseh. h. e. lib, ii. c. 23: lib. v. c. 5: De vita Constant. M. lib. iv. c. 61 : Ciirysostom. Homil. 18. in 2d Epist. ad Cor. : Augustin. De civit. Dei. 22. c. 8 : Caesar. Arelat. Homil. 34: Prudent. Cethemer hymn ii. 10. Chrysostom. Homil. 28, 29: Constit. Apost. lib. viii. c. 6. 11. Socrat. h. e. lib. iii. c. 13. c. 37 : Theodoret. h. e. lib. v, c. 18, 19. 12. Origen, De Orat. c. 15 : Chrysostom. in Ps. 140 : Euseb. vit. Constant, lib. iv. c. 15. 13. Constitut. Apost. lib. vii. c. 44: Cyrill. Hierosol. Catcehes. Mys- tag. i. c. 2. 4. 9: Bingham, Antiq. vol. v. p. 275—80: Jerome. Comment, in Amos 6. 14. 14. Tertulhan. De Orat. e. 19: De Jejun. c. 10 : Cyprian. De Orat. Dom. p. 386 (ed. Oberth.) : Chrysostom. Horn. 4: De S. Anna. 15. Lib. ii. c. 59 : lib. viii. c. 34 : Jo. Cossian. De Institut. lib. iii. c. 2-4. CHAPTER XI. USE OF THE SCRIPTURES IN PUBLIC WORSHIP, p. 228. 1. Chr. Fr. Walch's kritische Untersuchung vom. Gebrauche der heligen Schrift unter den alten Christen in den drey ersten Jahrhiinderten. Leipzig, 1779. 8; J. A. Cramer, vom Gebrauch der heil. Schrift im xii. Jahrhundert. S. Fortsetzung von Bos- suet's Einleitung. Th. vi S. 81 ff: K. A. Credner, Ansehen u. Gebrauch der neutestam. Schriften en den beyden ersten Jahr- hunderten. S. Beytr. zur Eiideitung in die bililirchen Schriften. B. I. 1832. 8. S. 1 — 92: Jac. Usserii Historia dogmatica contro- versiae inter Orlhodoxos et Ponlificios de scripturis et sacris vernaculis. Ed. Henr. Wharton. Londini, 1690. 4: Chr. Kor- tholt Comment, de lectione biblioruiu in Unguis vulgo cognitis 502 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. iieque sacris publicis idiomate popular! peragnendis. Lips. 1692. 4 : Tob. Gottfr. He^eimair's Gescliichte des Bibelverbots. UIrn, 1783. 4: Nic. le Maire Sanctuaritim [)rofanis occhisum s. de sacrorum bibliorum probibitione in lingua vernacula tracta- tus. Herbipoi. 1662. 4: Jo. Fr. Mayer, Disput. contra Nic. le Maire sanctuarium profanis occhisum, lectionern S. S. Laicis concedendam esse. Gryjtliisw. 1667. edit. 2.1713. 4: Leand. van Ess, Ausxiige ans den heil. V'atern und anderen Lehrern der kathol. Kirche liber das norlliwendige und nlitzliche Bibel- lesen ? zur Aufmunterung der Katboliken. Leipzig, 1808. 8. Zweyte Ausgabe. Sulzbacli, 1816. 8: Gnii. Ern. Tentzel : de ritu Lectionuin sacrarum. Viteb. 1685. 4 : Jo. Andr. Scbmid, de primitivae ecclesiae lectionibus. Helinst. 1697. 4 : de Lec- tionariis utrinsque ecclesiae. ibid. 1703. 4. 2. Apolog. i. c. 67. p. 222. ed. Obertb. 3. Apologet. c. 39 : Ad Uxorern. lib. ii. c. 6 : De Anima. c. 9. 4. Tertullian de Praescript. haeret. c. 41 : Cyfirian Epist. 34, 33. 5. Apost. Conslitut. lib. ii. c. 25. c. .57 : Origeu Contr. Cels. iii. 45, 50 : Huetii Comment. Orig. in S. S. p. 8. 108 : Chrysost. Horn, in John : Horn. viii. in Ep. ad Ileb. : Honi. in Pentac. torn. iii. p. 85—88. 6. Apost. Constitut. lib. ii. c. 59. lib. viii c. 5. lib. v. c. 19 : Theodo- ret. h. e. lib. i. c. 7 : Concil. Land. c. 59 : Cartliag. iii. c. 47: Chalcedon, c. 13, 14 ; Tolet. i. c. 2 : Vasense, ii. c. 3 : Valen- tin, c. 1. etc. 7. Laodic.c. 59: Concil. Carthag. iii. c. 47 : Cyril of Jern.salem, Cat- eches. iv. c. 33: Rufini. Exposit. Symbol. Ap. c. 37, 38. 8. Euseb. h. e. lib. ii. c. 23 : Hieron. ep. ad Dardan. 0pp. torn. iii. p. 46: Gregor. Nyss. Orat. in simm ordin. 9. J. Miincher's Handbuch der clirist!. Dogmenesch Th. iii. S. 75.ff. 10. Mabillon de Liturg. Gal. lib. ii. p. 137 seq. 11. Euseb. h. e. vi. 14. iii. 25. iii. 3. iii. 16. iv. 23. iv 15 : August. Serm. xii. De Sanctis: De Divers. 45,63, 101—3, 109. § 2. The order in which the Scriptures ivere read, p. 230. 1. Athanas. Apolog. ii. contra Arain. p. 717 : Agust. in Ps. cxxxviii. p. 650: August. Serm. 143, 144. 2. Tertullian adv. Marc. lib. vi. c. 2. lib. v. c. 3 : De Praescript. haeret. c. 36 : Lenaeus haeres. lib. iii. c. 29. 3. Augiislin. Expos, in 1 John. torn. ix. 235. 4. Augustin. Serm. 139, 140, 194, 148. 5. Augustin. Tractat. vii. in Joan. torn. ix. p. 24 : Chrysostom Horn. 63. (66.) 6. Concil. Tolet. iv. c. 16. 7. Chrysost. Horn. 7. ad popul. Antioch : Augustin. Serm.71.de temp. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 503 § 3. Mode of designating the Divisions of the Scriptures, p. 231. 1. Hug's Einleit. in's N. T. The. i. S. 243, 266: Zacagni Collectun. momim. vet. eccl. Gr. et Lat. toiri. i. p. 401 : Gallandi Bibl. Patr. torn. x. § 4. Manner of reading the Scriptures, p. 232. 1. Confession, lib. x. c. 33. 2. Concil. Cartliag. iii. c. 4: Aiigustin. ep. 155 : De civit. Dei. 22. c. 8 : Chrysost. Horn, in Coloss. iii. p. 173. 3. Chrysost. Horn. iii. in 2 Thess. p. 381. 4. S. Gavanti Thesaiir. torn. i. p. 90 — 94. 5. Lib. ii. c. 57. 6. Serni. xxvi, ex. L. torn. viii. p. 174 : Selvaggli. Antiq. chn. instit. hb. ii. p. I. 7. Chrysost. Hotn. i. in Matt. p. 13. 8. Contra Vigil, c. 3 : Vgl, c. 4. § 5. Of the Psalter. 1. Concil. Tolet. vii. c. 10 : Concil. Nicaen. ii. : 2. Athauas. ad Marcell. torn. i. p. 959 : Arnbros. in Ps. Dav. praef. 0pp. p. 1270. 3. Concil. Tolosat. A. D. 1129. c. 12: Hard. torn. ii. P. ii. CHAPTER XII. 5 1. General Remarks, JVames, etc. p. 239. Of Homilies. Franc. Combefisii Bibliotheca Patrum concionatoria : h. e. anni totius evangelia, festa Dominica, sanctissimae Deiparae illustriorumqne Sanctorum solemnia, patrum symbolis, tractaiibus, panegyricis iis- que, qua novum ex vetustis MSS. codd. productis, qua recensitis, emendatirf, auctis, ad fontes compositis, e Graeco castigatis elegan- tiusque redditis, illustrata ac exornata latine. Paris, 1662. torn, i — viii. f. : L. Pelt et H. Rheinwald Bibl. concoinatoria. Vol. i. ii. Beaol, 1829 — 30. 8 : Bernh. Ferrarii libri thres de vet. Chr. con- cionibus. 3Iediol. 1621. Ultraj. 1692. Venet. 1731. 8: Joach. Hil- debraud Exercit. de veterum concionibus. Helms. 1661. 8 : Bernh. Eschenburg's Versuch einer Geschichte der bflentlichen Religions- Vortiage in der griechischen und lateiuischen Kirche von den Zei- ten Christi bis zur Reformation. Erster Hauptabschnitt von Christo ■ bisClirysostomusund Augustin. Jena. 1785. 8: H. Th. Tzschirner: de Claris ecclesiae veteris oratoribus. Commentat. i — ix. Lips. 1817—1821. 4. 1. S. Camp. Vitiinga de Synagogue, vet. p. 580 seq. 590 seq: Rhempherdus de decem. Gliosis, p. 226. 5114 INDEX OF ATJTHORITIES. 2. Apol. i. c, 67. p. 222. ed. Oberth. 3. Apologet. udr. gent. c. 39. 4. Lib. ii. c. 57. Comp. S. Coteler. a. a. O. n. 1 : J. L. Selvaggli An- tiq. clir. iiistitiit. lib. ii. p. 1. 5. Lib. ii. c. 58. lib. . c. 19. 6. S. Patr. Aoi)st. ed. Cot. edit. Arastelod. 1724. f. torn. 1. p. 621 seq. § 2. By lohom the Homilies loere delivered, p. 239. 1. Apolog. c. 67. ed. Obeilh. p. 222 : Rufin. hist. eccl. lib. . c. 2. Paulini Vita. 2. Ambrose, Tlieodor. h. e. iv. c. Q7. 3. Hoin. X. in 1 ep. ad Tim. p. 464. 4. Sozomen. hist. eccl. lib. viii. c. 27. 5. Populii Vita Agust. c. 5: Chrystost. Horn, in 2 Tit. x. in 1 Tim. iii. 6. Concil. Vasens. ii. c. 2. A. D. 529: S. Gregor. M. Praefat. ad lib. xl. Hom. in Evangel, ad Secund. und Jo. Diaconi Vit. : Gregor. M. lib. ii. c. 18 : Euseb. e. h. lib. vi. c. 19 : Euseb. Vit. Constit. lib. iv. c. 29—34. 8, Apost. Constit. lib. iii. c. 9. 9. De Praescript. c. 41 : De Bapt. c. 17 : De Veland. Virgin, c. 9. § 3. Frequency of Sermons, p. 241. 1. Gaudentius Tract, v. : Augustin Tr. in Ps. 86. 2. Apost. Constit. lib. ii. c. 57 : Concil. Laodic. c. 19 : Concil. Au- relian. c. 3 : Augustin. Serm. 237 : De Tern. Serm. 49. 3. Basil. M. in hexaem. Hom. 2,9: Chryost. Hom. x. in Gen: Hom. 9. et 10. ad Antiochen : Socrat. h. e. lib. v. c. 21. § 4. Length of the Sennons, p. 242. 1. Homil. Ixiii. p. 605. 2. Bingham. Vol. vi. p. 513. § 5. Place of the Preacher, p. 242. 1. Socrates h. e. lib. vi. c. 5 : Sozomen h. e. lib. c. 5 : August, de civit. Dec. lib. xxii. c. 8 : Ep. 225, 253. § 6. Mode of Delivery, p. 243. 1. Agust. S. Hom. L. Serm. 26: Serm. de Diversis: Serm. 49 : De Cateohiz. rudibus. c. 13: Euseb. de Vita. Constit. lib. iv. c. 33. 2. Hom. iii.de incomprehens. totn. viii. p. 407 : Hom. iii. in 1 Thess. p. 381. 3. Gregr. Naz. Orat. 2 : 0pp. torn. i. ed. Colon, p. 46 : Caesarius Arelatensis. Horn. xii. 4. Cyprian de Vit. Caesarii, c. 12. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 505 5. Ferrarlns de concion. Rit. p. 287 scq. : Bingham, Vol. vi. pp. 525, 526. 6. Eiiseh. h. e. lil>. vii. c. 30 : Chrysost. ITom. xxx. in Acts Apost.: Gregor. Njiz. Orat. 32. p. 510 : Angiistin. Horn. l. : Serm. 25. Serm. dc Temp. 45: Doctr. clir, vi. 24—26. 7. Socrat. Ii. e. Ml), c. 4: Sozomen. li. e. lib. viii. c. 27: Gregor. Naz. Orat. 32. p. 528. 8. Eiiseb. h. e. lil). vii. c. 36. § 7. Conslruclion of a Sermon, p. 244. 1. Serm. 121. Conip. Tractat. 15. in .Toann. : Tractat. 36, 40. 2. Aiisriistiii er Aristea. Anistelod. 1705. 4. p. 370 seqq.: J. A. Stark's Gescliiclite der Tanfe iind der Taiifgesinn- ten. Loipz. 1789. 8: Chr. F. Ei-senlolir's liistorische Bemerkun- ^en liher die Tanfe. Tliliingei) 1804. 8 : J. F. Th. Zimriiermann CornmeMt. de haptismi origine et necessitiidine, nee rion de for- niulis bapt. Goectiog. 1816. 8: Willi. Sclienck's Taiifbnch fiir cUristliclie Religions-Verwandte ; oder Unterrieht uher alle Ge- genstande, welche die Taiiniaiidliiiig sowobl in kirehlicher als anch biirgerlicber Hinsict betreffen u. s. w. Weimar 1803. 8. Fr. Brenner's geschicbtliche Darstellung der Venichtung der Taufe von Christns bis auf unsere Zeiten. Banjberg 1818. 8. 2. Clemens Ale.x. Paedag lib. i. c. 6 : Justin Mart. Apoi. 3. c. 61 : Ter- tuilian De Ba]). c. 5, 7, 16. 3. Cyriil. Hieros. Procatecb.§16: Gregor. Naz. nrat. 40. Joh. Damasc. DeFideOrth. iv. 19. Optat. Mil. lib.v. p. 80: Justin Mart.Apol. 2. c. 61 — 67 : Tertnllian De Bajit. torn. ii. p. 40—57. ed. Oberth. Advr. Prax.26: Const. Apost. lib. ii. c. 7. lib. c. 9—1 J, 16, 17, 18. lib. 7. c. 22. lib. c. 32. Gregor. Naz. Ejg to uyiov ^amianu Orat. Cyriil. Hieros. Catecb. Mystag. I. et IL § 2. Historical Sketch, p. 256. 1. Tractat. 5. in Joann. c. 5. 2. De Spir. S. lib i. c. 3: comp. Cyprian, epist. 83. ad Jubaj. 3. Cyriil. Hieros. Catech. Algst. 2. Ambrose Chrysost. Horn. 6. in Co- loss. Serm. 10. 4. Comp. Petr. Zornii, Historia Encbaristiae Infantum. Chr. E. Weismann, De praepestera Encbaristiae rediictione. 5. TertnlL De Bapt. c. 15. Cyprian Ep. 7, 3. ad Jubaj. de nnitate eccl. ]). 112. 6. De Baptism,-c. 15. comp. De Praeseript: Haer. c. 14. c. 37. De Pudicit. c. 19, 40. 7. Concil. Arelat. 1. c. 8. Cone. Nic. c. 8. 19: Cone. Trull, c. &5: Cone. Constant. 1. c. 7. Cone. Laodic. c. 7. 8. 8. OptatnsMilevit De scbismat. Doiiat. lii). i.e. ii. c. 10. v. c. 3, 7, 8: Augnstin De Bapt, contr. Donat. lib. iv. c. 19. 1. c. 3. Fulgen- tius Rusp. De Fide, c. 29. § 3. Infant baptism, \>. 258. 3. W. Wall : Thehistory of Infant-Baptism. In two Parts. Edit. III. London 1720. 8. P. I. P. II. (als P. III. ist zu betrachteB : INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 507 WilU Wall, Defence of the History of Infant-Baptisni, ngainst the reflections of Gale and others. Lond. 1720. 8:) Dasselbe Werk iatcinisch. Historia l)ai>lisriii infantum Guil. Wallii. Ex Ana;lico hitiiie vertit noiiniillis etiain ohservatiotiihiis et vindiciis nuxit I. L. Schlosser. IJreinac 174^. 4: Jo. Go. VValch. Historia Paedobaptisini qiialiior prionmi saecidorimi. Jenae 173'J. 4. S. Ejiistl, Miscelian. sacr. Ainstelod. 1744. 4. p. 487—509: Marq. Giidii de Chnicis, sen Grabatariis vet. eccl. : Mich. Screiber. de dilatione baptistni. Regiom, 170G. 4 : A. F. Biisching de pro- crastinatioiie baptisnii apud vet. ejusque caiisis. Hal. 1747. 4; 2. Archaeolowie p. 314. 3. Apol. 2. p|). G2, 94. Dial. c. Tryph. pp. 315, 2G2. 4. Lib. i. vision. 3. c. 3. lil>. iii. Siinii. 9, n. 16. 5. Ep. 1. ad Corimh. n. 17. 6 Concil. Carthag. 3. c. 5. Decret. cod. eccl. Afric. c. 18. 7. Gregor, Naz. Oral. 40. De Bapt. 8. Adv. Maricon lib. v. c. 10. 9. Horn. 40. in Cor. 10. Haeres 28. c. 6. 11. Concil. Colon. A. D. 1281. c. 4: Cone. Laod. A. D. 1287. c. 2: Cone. Turin. A. D. 1310, c. 114. 12. Ep. 69. ad Magn. 13. Const, apost. lib. viii. c. 32: Cone. Illiber. c. 37, 29 : Araus. 1. c. 15, etc. 14. Tiinoth. Alex. Respons. c. 3: Cassian. Collat. lib. vii. c. 30. 15. Cyprian Ep. 76. Angiistin. De adult.: Conj. lil). i. Confess, lib. iv. c. 4: Cyril of Alexandria in Joann. 11: Ftilgeiitius, De Bapt. Aeth. c. 8 : Euseb. eccl. hist. lib. vi. c. 43: Concil. Neo. Caesar. c. 12. 16. Bingham, bk. ii. c. 5. § 2. 17. S. Gregor. Tnron. Hist. Franc, lib. vi. c. 17 : S. Caroli. M. Capi tul. iii. A. D. 769: Concil. Toletan. 4. c. 56. 18. Concil. Cat thag. 4. c. 6. Leo. M. Ep. 90, 92 : ad Rustic, Gregor. IL Ep. 1. ad Bonif 19. Const, apost. lib. riii. c. 32. Tertull. De Idolat. c. 2 : De Spectac, c. 22 : adv. Hertnog. c. 7. 20. Cone, IHiber. c. 62 : Cone. Carthag. 3. c. 35 : Cyprian Ep, 61 : Augiistin De Civ. Dei. II. 14. 21. Cone. Arelat. 1. c. 4: Hieron. Vit. Hilar, c. 13. 22. Cone. Laodic. c. .36 : Cone. Trull, c. 61 : Chrysost, Horn, 13, in Ep. ad Eph, : Horn. 8 in Ep. ad Coloss, : Horn 6 adv, Jud, : Cone. Tolet, 1, c. 17. 23. Bingham, bk, ii. c. 5. § 6. 9. § 4. jWnislers of Baplism, p. 269. 1. Clemens Alex. Hypoth. lib. v. : Nicephorus, h. e. lib. ii. c. 3. 2. Ep. ad Smyr. 3. De Bapt. c. 17. 4l Lib. iii. c. 2. Comp. also Jerome Dial: adv. Lucif, c, 4. Synod. 508 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES Roman. ad Gall. Ei)isc. c. 7. ed. Hard.: Concil. Hispal. 2, A. D. 619. 5. Justin Martyr, apol. ]. c. G7. G. Hieroii. advr. Pelag. lib. i. § 5. Times of Baptism, p. 273. 1. Natalis Alexandri Dissert, de baptisiiii snlettinis tempore. S. Tlie- saiir. tlieol. Venet. 1702. 4 : Du baptismate pascl)ali etc. liber. ex Omiphrii Paiivinii Veron. commeutariis : cum coroliariis Joh. Marc. Suaresii. Romae, 155G. 4. 2. De Bapt. c. 19. 3. Leo M. Epist. 4. ad Sicil. Ep.: Siricius Ep. ad Ilemmer. c. 2 : Socrat. e. li. lil). i. c. 5 : Aiiibros. de Myst. Pasclial. c. 5: Au- gustiu Serm. De Temp. IGO. 4. Concil. Antissiodor, A. D. 578. c. 18: Concil. Maliscon 2. c. 3: Geiasius Epist. 9. 5. Euseb. Vit. Constant, lib. iv. c. 22. comp. c. 57: Gregor. Naz. Orat. 42. Gregor. Nyss. Orat. 4 : Socrat. e. h. lib. vii. p. 5 : Cy- rill Hierosol. Procatech.c. 15. 6. Op|). torn. ii. p. 367 seq. 7. De Bapt. c. 19. comp. also Basil. M. : Horn. 13, Exiiortat. ad Bapt. Chrysostom Iloni. in Act.: Augustin De Quadrages. Serin. 6. § 6. Place of Baptism, p. 273. 1. J. II. Wedderkanip : de baptisteris. Heimst. 1703. 8: Paid Pacia- ndi de sacris Christianorum balneis. Venet. 1750. ed. 2. Rotn. 1758. 4. 2. Apolog. 1. c. 61. 3. Horn. 9, 19. 4. De Bapt. c. 4. 5. Gesta S. Marcelli in Surii Vit. S. d. 16. 6. Eccl. Hist. lib. x. c. 4. De Vit. S. Const, lib. iii. c. 50. 7. Catecb. Mystag. i. ii. : ii. i. 8. De Init. c'2, 5. De Sacram. lib. iii. c. 2. Ep. 33. 9. De Civ. Dei, lib. 22. c. 8. 10. Duranli Kit, Eccl. lib. i. c. 19. § 7. Element of Baptism, ]>. 274. 1. Tertull. De Bapt. c. 3, 4, 5 : Andiros. De Initlat. mystar. c. 4: De Sacr. lib. iii. c. II : Cyprian De Bapt. cbr. c. 4 : Basil M. in Ps, 23: Gregor. Naz. Orat. 40 : Cbrysost. Hom. 35. in John 5. Horn, in Acts: Augustin Ep. 23. ad Bonif. Tract, ii. in John : Cyrill. Hieros. Cateoh. 3. c. 5 : Job. Dramas. De Fide. ortb. lil). 2. c. 9. 2. Tertull. De BajJt. c. 4: Cyprian Ep. 70: Constit. apost. Iii). 7. c. 43: Dyonis. Aness. De Heir. cat. 3. Aml)ros. De Sacr. 1. c. 5. 2. c. 5 : Basil M. De Spir. S. c. 27 : Augustin. De ]]apt. iii. 10. V. 2. vi. 25. § 8. Mode and Form of Baptism, p. 275. I. Heur. Pontuni Dissertatt. de rilu uiersionis in sacro bapt. Tra- INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 509 jecti 1705. 4 : Jo. Gill, the ancient mode of baptizing by Inri- mersion, etc. Lond. 172(3. 8. G. Ge. Zultner, de mersione in ba|ilisiiio ajiostolica lai-j^^a perfusione iii'-tauraiida. Aitd. 1720, 1725.4: Jo. ]}ailliolini dissert, de baptisnio per adspersionem legitime aihninisiriito. liavniae 1557. 4. 2. Brenner's Gescliichtl. Darstelhing der Verriclitiing dcrTaufe, etc. 1818. S. 1-70. 3. Muratori. Liturg. Rom. Vet. tom. ii. 4. Adv. Prav. c. 2, G. De Coron. 31 il. c. 3. 5. De Spiritu Sancto. c. 27. 6. Advr. Lucif. c. 4. Comment, in Ep. Epb. 4. 7. De Sacr. 2. c. 7. 8. Cyrill. Hieros. Catecli. Mystag. 2. c. 4 : Gregor. Nyss. in De Bapt. Cbr. Allianas. De Parabol. Ser. Quaest. 94: Leo, iMag. Ep. ad Episc. Sic. c. 3. 9. Gregor. 3Iag. Ep. lib. i. ep. 41. 10. Cone. Toletan. 4. c. 5. 11. Ambros. Ser. 20 : Cyrill. Hieros. Cateeb. Mystag. 2, 2 : Cbrysos- tom Mom. C. E[). ad Coloss. Ep. 1. ad Iniiocinit : Atbanas. Ep. ad Orthodox Com|). Vass. De 13api. Disspiitat. 12. Leo Allat. Eccl. Occid. et Orient. Con. lib. iii. c. 12, § 4: Alex. De Sto'irdza. Consideratione.s siir la doctrine et I'esprit de I'eg- lise Orthodoxe : Act. et Scri|)t. Tlieol. Wertemberget Patriarch Constant. Jerom. p. 63. p. 21^8: Metrophan. Crito|)uii Confess. c. 7. p. 86. Comp. Christ. Angeli. enchiriel de statu hodiern. Graceor. c. 24. 13. Ep. 76. ed. Oberth. vol. i. p. 279, 280. 14. Jo. Ciampini monument. Vet. part ii. : Mal)illon. Mus. Ital. tom. i. Brenner's Geschichll. Darstell. S. 14 — 16. 15. Walafr. Strabo. de rebii.s eccl. c. 26. 16. Jo. Gerhard, Loc. Thcol, tom. ix. p. 146. 17. Sumina. p. 3. quaest. G6. art. 7. ]&. De Bapt. lib. vi. c. 25. 19. Apol. 1. c. 61. 20. De Bapt. c. 13. Adv. Praxeam. c. 26. 21. Ep. 73. ad Jnbaj. Opp. tom. i. ed. Oberth. p. 233. 22. Apost. Const, lib. iii. c. 16. Canon, c. 49: Comp. Bingham, bk. ii. c. 3. 23. Am!)rose De Sacrament, lib. c. ult. 24. Bingham, bk. ii. c. 3. § 3. § 9. Rites connected icith Baptism, p. 278. 1. Ambrose De Sacrament, lib. ii. c. 2. De Initiat. c. 2: Aiigustin. De Synd)olo ad Catech. lib. ii. c. 1 : Hicron. Com. in Amos, 6, 14: Gregor. Naz. Orat. 40. De Bapt. j). ()70, ed. Par. Chrysost. Horn. 6. in E[). ad Colo.-s. : Horn, ad pop. Ant. p. 2'i7. Const, apost. lib. viii. c. 41: Justin Martyr Apol, L c. 61, apol. 11, p, 93. Bingham, bk, ii. c. 7, § 6 : Jos. Vieccomitis, Do Ritibns Bapt. lib. ii. c. 27. 2. Mart. Chladenii dissert, dc abrenuntiationc baptismali. Viteb. 510 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 1713 4: Th. Stolle. De origine Exorcismi in bapt. Jenae, 1735. 4: Jo. Clir. Weriisdorf. De vera ratione exoicismorum eccl. veteris. Viteb. 1749. 4: J. M. KrafFt's aiisfiihrliche His- torie voin Exorrismo. Hamburg. 1750. 8. 3. Henke's All. Gescb. tier cbr. Kircbe, i. 97: Stark's Gesch. des ersten Jabr. toin. iii. S. 203: Sc^brockh's cbr. Kircbengiscb. torn. iv. S. 25 : Optatus Milevit De Scbisni Donat. lib. xxiv. c. 6 : Basil M. De Spiritu Sancto. c. 27 : Gregor. Naz. Oral. 40, 4. Augustin. De Fide, ad Catecbumen. 2. 1. 5. Cbryst. Floin. ad Baptiz. : Concil. Constant. Sub. Menn. act. 5. 6. Cyril). Hieros. Catecb. Mystag. i. § 2 : Pseudo Dionys. De Hier- arcb. Eccl. c. 2: Gregor. Naz. Orat. 40: Ambrose, De Initial. c. 2 : De Myster. c. 3: Hieron. in Amos 6: 14. 7. Apost. Constit. lib. vii. c. 41 : Tertuil. De Cor. Mil. c. 3 : Cy- prian Ep. vii. De Lapsis : Jerome, Com. in Matl, xxv. 8. Assemani Codex. Liturg. lib. ii. c. 1. § 1 — 5. 9. Apost. Constit lib. iii. c. 17 : Cy|)rian. Ad Demet. De Unitate. Eccl. : Cyprian. Ep. 1. al Iviii. : Hieron. Ep. cxiii. : Augustin. Serin. De Temp. 101 : Assemani cod. Liturg. lib. i. p. 43. 10. Pseudo Ambrosius. De Sacram. lib. i. c. 2 : Justin Respons. ad Ortbodox. Quaest. 137: Apost. Constit. lib. ii. c. 22. Ceremonies after Baptism, p. 281. 11. Cyprian, Ep. 64 al 59.: Augustin. contra. Ep. Pel. iv. c. 8 : Clirysost. Ser. 50. Util. Leg. Scri|)t. 12. Concil. Araus. c. 2 : Innocent I. Ep. ad Decent. Eugub. Brenner. S. 97. 13. Cyrill. Hieros. Catecb. Mystag. vi. § 8 : Euseb. Vit. Const. 4. 62: Socrat. h. e. 5. 8 : Sozomen, b. e. 7. 8 : Gregor. Naz. Orat. 39: Paladins. Vit. Cbrysost. c. 9 : Jerome, Ep. 57, 78, 128. August. Serm. 232. 14. Gregor. Orat. 40 : Baron. Annal. 401 : Ainbros. De Laps. Virg. Sacr. c. 5: Gregor. Turon. Hist. Franc, lib. v. c. 2. 15. Augustin. (Caesar Arelat.) Serm. 160. De Temp. : Assemani, Cod. Lit. lib. ii. p. 42: Mabilion. Mus. Ital. toin. i. Sacram. Gallic. § 10. Of Sponsors, p. 284. 1. De Bapt. c. 8. 2. Ep. 23. ad Bonif. : De Peccator. merit, lib. i. c. 34 : Serm. 116 : De temp. 163: De Temp, de Bapt. lib.iv. c. 21. 3. Augustin. Serm. 116: De Tem. tom. x. p. 304 : Epist. 23 ad Bonif. 4. De Hier. Eccl. c. 2. 5. Horn, in Ps. 6. Hen. Cyrop. lil). i. c. 6 : Tlieopbrast. Etbic. c. 12. 7. De Hierarcb. Eccl. 8. Serm. 163. De Temp.: Comp. 116. De Temp.; De Bapt. lib. iv. c. 24: Ep. ad Bonif. De Peccator. merit, lib. i. c. 34. 9. Bingham, bk. xi. c. 8. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. '^'** 10. Angustin. 116. De Temp. torn. x. p. 852. II nionvs Areop. llicrarcli. eccl. c. 2. .. 12. A.^Sn EP a.lBonif.23: Vit. Epipl.. c^8: Opp. torn. n. p.324. 13. CuMC. Amissidor. c. 25. 14. Cone. Mogunt. c. 55. § 11. JVames given at Baptism, p. 287. 1. D. Mart. Lutl.er's Naluncn-BUchlein. 1537 : Neu e.jin mi^ Arv- ineik. voM Godofr. Wegener. L.ps. 1674. 8 : Jo. Herir. btnss, Den^-inum n.utatione sacra. Goth. 1735. 4 : II. A. Me.nder , De non.inibus et cognorninihus Gernianorum ct a .oru.n popu- loriun septentr. vet. S. Miscell. Lips. ten. v.. p. 1 «.«'l- Cata- Incrus no.ninn.n pr. in Goldasti Antiq. Alenjann. torn. ". p.92seq. 2 Baron. Annal. A. D. 259. 3. Soc. eecl. hist, hk vn. c, 21 4 Cyril H"^>"«- P'-catech. and Catech. 3: Gregor. Nyss. Orat. .n cos. qui differ. Bapt. : Angustin. Confess?, lib. ix. CHAPTER XV. OF CONFIRMATION, p. 288. 1 Godofr. Wegener, De confirmatione Ca techumenorum in vet. ' eccl Rc-ion.. 1692. 4 : Chr. M. Pfaff, De initiations, exp.al.one, benedictrone et confinnatione Catechnmenoruni. Tubnig. 17-^^. 4 • Frid Spanhemii Dissert, de ritu impositionis manuuni in vet. ec"cl. S. Opp. torn. ii. p. 871 seq. : Lnc. Ilolstenii Dissert. ... De forma et n.inistro sacramen.i Confi.-.naiionis apud G.-aecos Ron.. 1666. 8 : S. Jo. Morini Opp. posth. Pans. 1/03. 4 : Henr. Benzelii De sac.-amento Confirmationis Ron.anens.um. b. feyn- taa Dissert t. ii. 1745. 4 : Cin-. M. Pfaft; Disse.-t. de confinna- tione Catechumen, in ecclesiis Aug. Conf. usitata .temque de confirn.at.Anslicana. Tubing. 1723.4 : F.-. Brenner s gesch.cht- liche Darstollung der Ve.richtung der Firmung, von Chr.stus bis auf unsere Zeiten, mit bestandiger Rucksicht auf Deutsch- land und besonders auf Franken. Bamberg u. Wurzb. 1820. 8. 2 Hist. eccl. lib. iii. c. 23. 3. De Bapt. c. 7. 8 : De Resu.Tec. earn, c 8. . ^. _ ^„ , 4. Sent. Episcoporum, 87 : De Haereticis baplizandis: Opp. 74. ad Stei)h. , ... .. .r, 5 Cyrili. Hieros. Catech. Mystag. 3. 1 : Const. Apost. lib. vn. c. 43. 44 • Oi.tat. Milen. de Schism. Donat. lib. .v. 6. Bingham, bk. ii. c. 1. sU. 2 : Gennad. De Dogmat. : Jo. Dalleus. lib. iii. c. 13 : Eccles. c. 52. ^ ^ . . ,.. o« 7. Chrysost. Horn. 18. in Acts: Augustin. De Tr.nit. l.b. xv. c. 26: Com]). Cyprian, Ep. 73. ad Jubaj. 8. Cone, liliber. c. 38. 77 : Cone. Carthag. ii. c 3 : m. c. 36 : iv. c. 36 : Cone. Tolet. i. c. 20. 9. Ed. Martene. De Antiq. Eccl. Rit. lib. i. c 2. art. 4 : Assemani, Cod. Liturg. Eccl. Uuivers. lib, iii. 512 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 10. Lib. iii. p.. 17 : vii. c. 22. 44. 45. 11. Catech. Mysta^. 3. 12. Innocent. E|). 1. ad Decent, c.3: Martin Biucliaren. c. 52 : Cone, Constant, i. c. 7. \ CHAPTER XVI. OF THK lord's SUPPER. § 1. JVames and ^Appellations, p. 299. 1. Suiceri Ohservatt. sacr. p. 91 : Casauboni Exercit. 16. ad Baronii. annal. p. 450 seq. : Jo. Gerhardi Loc. theol, torn. x. p. 3. 2. Ad uxor. lib. ii. c. 4. 3. Jo. Gerbaid. Loc. theol. torn. x. j). 4, 5 : Corpus juris eccl. Saxon. S. 13G, 137. 4. Justin Martyr, Apol. i. c. 65, 66. p. 220 : Iren. adv. liaeres. lib. iv. c. -34 : Clem. Al. paedag. lib. ii. c. 2. p, 178. 5. Constitut. Apost, lib. viii. c. 13. 6. Cbr. Mattli. Pfaff. notae in Irenaei fragmenta anecdota. Hagae, 1715. 8. p. 128. 7. De ilierarch. eccl. c.3. 8. Jo. Gerhard, x. p. 8. 9. Bona, Rer. liturg. lib. ii. c. 1. p. 2. ed. Colon.: J. Steph. Duranti. Do Rit. eccl. cath. lil). xxi. 1 : Gerhard. Loc. Theol. x. p. 10: Isidor. Ilispal. etyniol. lib. vi. c. 19: Guil. Durandi Ration, div. off. lib. iv. c. 1. § 2. Accounts given in the J^civ Testament, p. 298, 1. Matth. de la Roque, Histoire meniorabie et interessante de 1' Eu- charistie. Ed. nouv. Anisterd. 1737. 8 : Rud. Hospiniani His- toriae sarraineutariae. P. 1, 2. Genev. 1681. f. : Dav. Blonde), De Eucharistia vet. eccl. 1640. 4 : J. A. Quenstedt, De s. Eu- charistiae in primitiva eccl. usitata. 1715.8: Fr. Brenner's Geschiclitliche Darslellung der V^errichtung und Ausspendung der Eucharistic, von Christus bis auf unsere 2eitea u. s. w. Batnberg. 1824. 8. 2. Efiiphanius, Haeres. 70. 3. Hotn. 83 in INIath. 4. De Doctrina Christ, lib. ii. c. 9: J. Fr. Biiddeus, Inst, theol. Dogin. p. .369 : Gerhard. Loc. Tlieol. toni. x. p. 387 : Witsius, On Cov- enant, lib. ii. c. 10. 5. Gerhard, toiii. x. p. 393: J. S. Baumgarten. Dissert, de Juda sa- crae. coenae. conviva. Hal. 1744. 4 : Guil. Saldini Otior. theol. lib. ii. exercit. viii. p. 376. 6. c. 41. p. 106—108: c. 117. p. 300, ed. Oberth. § 3. Testimovy of pagan Writers, p. 300. L De Morte Perigrini. Opj). torn. viii. 272 ed Bipont. INDEX OF AtJTHOHITIES. 513 2. Contra Celsum. lib. i. c. 1. 3. Chr. Kortolt. Pagaiius Obtrectator. Lnbec. 1703. 4. lib. ii. c. 9 : lib. iii. c. 9: G. Fr. Gtidii, Paganus Chiistianorum laudator et fainor. Lips. 1740. p. 17, 18 ; J. H. Boehrner, Diss. xii. De Ju- ris eccles. autiqui : Dissertat. iv. De Coitionibus Cbristianorum, adcapiondurn cibuin: Stuckii Antiq. convivial. 1. i. c, 31 : Dal- laeus, De Cult, relig. lib. iii. c. x. § 4. Testimony of the Apostolical Fcdhers, p. 300. 1. Adv. Haer. lib. iv. c. 18. c. 17. 2. Munsclier, ii. 380 : Irenaei Fragmenta Anecdota : M. PfafF. Hag. Com. 1715. 8 : Fragment. 2. pp. 26—28 : Innaeus, Adv. Haeres. lib. i. c. 13 : V. c. 2. 3. Paedag. lib. ii. 4. Horn, in Exod. H, 13. 5. De Corona Militis. c. 3: De Resurrectione Carnis. c. 1 : Comp. Apologet. c. 39. 6. Ep. 63. ad Caecilium De Sacrament. Domini calicis. 0pp. ed. Oberth. torn. i. p. 185—96 : De Oral. Domini, p. 147. ed. Brem. : De Lapsis, p. 132 : Ep. 75 : De bono patient, p. 216 : Ep. 58. p. 125. 7. Cyrill. Uieros. Catech. Mystag. v. c. 18 : Ambros. De sacr. lib.iv. c. 5: De Init, c, 9: Augustin. c. Faust, xii. c. 10 : Hieron. Ep. 62, etc. 8. Lib. ii. c.28, 57: lib. iii. c. 10 : lib. v. c. 19. 9. Lib. vii. c. 25 : lib. viii. c. 12 — 15. § 5. Times of Celebration, p. 304. 1. Serm. 8. in Ps. 118. 2. Ep. 118. ad Jan. c. 5—7. 3. Ad Uxor. lib. ii. c. 4. 4. Amalarius, De divin. Offic. lib, iv. c. 30. 5. Canones Apost. : Hieronymiis contra Vigilant, c. 4, 7 : Innocent III. De Myster. Miss. lib. ii. c.21. 6. See chap. i. §1: Comp. J. H. Boemer, Dissert. 12. juris eccl. ant. : Dissert, i. De stato Cbristianorum die. p. 5 — 35. 7. Ad Nation, lib. i. c. 13. 8. Apol. i. c. 67. 9. Advr. Haeres. lib. iv. c. 34. 10. Tertullian. De Jcjun. c. 14 : De Idol. c. 7 : Cyprian. Ep. 54 : Am- bros. Ep. 14 : Marcell. sor. : Augustin. Ep. 1 18. ad Januar. c. 2: ibid. c. 3: Chrysostom. Horn. 3. in Ep. ad Eph. torn. v. p. 886. ed. Francof. : see also p. 633. § 6. Place of Celebration, p. 306. I. Balthas. Bebelii, Exercit. de aris et niensis eucharisticis veterum. Argentor. 1666. 4 : Jo. Fabricii, De aris vet. Christian. Hclmst. 1698. 4 : Godofr. Voigtii, Thysiasteriologia, s. de altaribus vet. Chr. Edit. : J. A. Fabricii. Hamb. 1709. 8. 65 514 INDEX OP ATTTHORITIES. 2. Concil. Epaon. c. 26. 3. De Schismat. Donat. lib. vi. c. 1 seq. 4. Victor. De Persec. Vandal, lib. i: Isidor. Peliis. lib. i. Ep. 123: Pallad. Hist. Laus. Tlieod. i. 31. § 7. Ministers of the Lord's Supper, p. 307. 1. Hugonis Grotii, De administratione S. Coeiiae, ubi pastores non sunt, et an semper cominiinicandiim sit per symbola? 1638: S. H. Grotii, Opp. theol. torn. iv. p. 505 seq. : Dionys. Petavii, Diatribe de |)otestate consecrandi et sacrificandi sacerdotibus a Deo concessa. Paris. 1640. S. de Thool. dogniat. torn. iv. ed. Clerici p. 206 seq. : Jo. Harduini, Dissert, de potestate conse- crandi. S. Opp. sel. J). 300 seq. : Henr. Dodwelli, De jure Lai- coruin sacerdotali, etc. Lend. 1685. 4: Jo. Ge. Walch, De S. Coena a Laicis administranda. Jen. 1747. 4, 2. Apol. i. C.65. p. 220. 3. Ep. ad Smyrn. 4. Lib. viii. c. 13. 5. Catech. Mystag. cat. 5 : Pseudo Dionys. Areop. De Hier. Eccl. c. 8. 6. Gregor. M. Ep. lib. viii. ep. 35 : Surii Vit. SS. a. d. 26. Mart. c. 33. 7. Diatr. De synod, epist. synod. Illyr. S. : Petr. De Maria Dissertat. Sel. torn. iv. p. 336. 4. ed. Bamberg. 8. Constitut. Apost. lib. viii. 13: Cone. Tolet. i. c. 14 : Ambro- sius, De ofRc. lib. i. c. 41 : Hieron. Ad Evagr. ep. 85. 9. Cone. Arelat. c. 15: Cone. Nic. c. 18 : Hieron. Dialog, contr. Lucif. Epist. 85: Angustin. Quaest. v. et N. T. c. 46. 10. Litiirgia S. Baseiii by Renaiidot : Liturg. Orient, torn. i. P. 1. p. 26 : torn. ii. p. 1, 47 : Gavanti Tliesaur. toni. i. p. 136 : Augustin. Ep. 118. Ad Januar. c. vi : Socrat. h. e. lib. v. c. 21. 11. Duranti. De rit. cath. lib, ii. c. 28 : Cyrill. Catech. Mystag. v. § 2. Const. Apost. lib. viii. c. 11. § 8. Of Communicants, p. 308. 1. Jo. Fechtii, Tractat. de excommunicatione ecclesiastica. 1712. 4 J. F. Meyer, De Eucharistia infantibus olim data. Lips. 1673. 4 Petr. Zornii, Historia Eucharistiae infantum. Berol. 1737. 8 Chr. Eberh. Weissmann, De praepostera Eucharistiae infantum in Eccl. reductione. Tul)iiig. 1744. 4 : Jo. Andr. Gleich, De S. Eucharistia nioribuniiis et niortnis olim data. Viteb. 1690. 4 : J. A. Schmidt, De Eucharistia Mortuorum. Jenae, 1695. 4 : Cf Ejusd. Decas Dissertat. iiistor. iheol. Dissert, i. 2. Bk. viii. c. 11, 12. 3. Canones Apost. c. x. p. 443. ed. Cotel. : Comp. can. 7 : Cone. An- tioch. c. 2. 4. Horn. 3. in Ep. ad Eph. : Caesarius Arelat. serm. 5. 5. Cone. Agath. c. 44 : Cone. Aurelian. i. c. 28. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 515 6. Cyprian. Ep. 64. p. 158, 161. ed. Brem.: De Lapsis, p. 132. ed. Bretn. : Constitiit. Apost. lib. viii. c. 12,13: Dionys. Areop. De Hieiarch. Eccl. c. 7. § 11. 7. Angiistin. Ep. 23. ad Boiiif. epist. lOG: Contra duas Epist. Peiag. lib. i. C.22: Serin. 8. Do Verb. Apost. : Comp.Bingliain, bk. 15. c. 4. § 7. 8. Al. Atotirdza, Considerat. sur la doctrine et I'esprit de I'Eglise Orthodoxe, 1816. 9. Clirysostntn. Horn. 40. in Cor. : Concil. Carlhag. iii. c.6: Antis- sidor. c. 12: Trull, c. 83 : Cod. African, c. 18. 10. Cyprian. Epii. 5: Grogor. Naz. Orat. VJ. § II. Philost. Hist. Eccl. lib. ii, c. 3. 11. Tertull. Ad uxor. lib. ii. c. 5: Concil. Cartb. iii. c. 41 : Augus- tin. Epist. 118. ad Jaiiuar. c. 5, 6: Pascbas. Ratbert. De cor- pore et sanguine Domini, c. 20, 12. Concil. Antissidor. c. 36. 42. 13. Caesar Arletan serm. 152. al. 229. 14. Constit. Apost. lib. viii. c. 12. 15. Constit. Apost. lib. viii. c. 12: lib. ii..57: Auguslin. De Serm.Dom. in Monte, lib. ii. c. 5 : Basil IM. De Spiritu Sancto, c. 27. 16. Constitut. Apost. viii. c. 13. 17. Cone. Laodic. c. 19. c. 44 : Trullan. c.69: Cyprian, ep. 52. 68. 72. 18. Psendo-Ambros. De Sacrani. lib. iv. c. 5 : Augustin. contr. Faust. lib. xii. c. 10. Serm. De Verb. Apost. c. 29 : Euseb. h. e. 7: 9 ; conip. 6: 43. 19. Const. Apost. lib, viii. c. 14, 15. 20. Basnage, I'Histoire de I'Eglisse, lib, xvii, c, 1, 3: J. F, Cotta, Sup- plem, ad Jo, Gerhard, Loc, Tbeol. torn. x. 459 seq, p, 463. § 9. Of the Elements, p. 314. 1. J. Fr. Budeus, De Symbolis Eucliaristicis. — Parerga Hist. Theol. : J. G. Hermann, Historia concertationum de pane azymo et fer- mentato in Coena Domini : Kortholt, C. Dissertat. de Hostiis s. placentnlis orbicularibus, niitn varus sit Panis ? J. A. Schmidt, De 01)lalis Eucharisticis quae Hostiae vocari solent : J. A. Schmidt, Dissert.de fatis calicis Eucbaristici in Ecclesia Romana a ConcilioConstantiensi ad nostra usque Tempora : L. T. Spit- tier, Geschichte des Kelche in Abendmahle. 2. Bochart, Hieroz. P. 1. lib. ii. c. 12 : Buxtorf. Dissert, de Coena Domini, Tbcs. 20. 3. Cyprian. Ep. 63. ad Caecileum de sacramento Domini Calicis, Augustin. De Doctr. Christi, lib. iv, c. 21. 4. Iren, adv, Haeres. lib. iv. c. 57 : Cone. Carthag. 3. c. 24. 5. Bellarmin.De Sacram. Eiichar. lib. iv. c. 10 : Cone. Bracar. 3. (al. 4.) i. c. 1 : Cone. Tribur. c. 19: Cone. Trull. 2. c. 32. 6. Jac. Goari. Eucholog. Gr. ad missam. Chrysost. n. 167: Arcudii, Concord, lib. iii. c. 39: Tbom. Aquin. Summa, part iii. Quaest. 83, art. 6: Bona, Rer. Liturg. lib. ii. c. 9. §. 4. 516 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. § 10. Consecration of the Elements, p. 317. 1. Micrologus, c. 12 : Berno, De missa. c. 1 : Steph. Durantus, De Rit. eccl. cath. lib. ii, c. 18 — 28 : Giiil. Diirandus, Ration, div. Offic. lih, iv. c. 35, 36 : Chr. M. Pfaff, Dissert, de consecratione vet. eucharistica.: J. Fr. Cotta. Ad Gerhardi, Loc. Tiieol. torn. x. p. 264. 2. Steph. Diiranti, De elevationeetostensione Eucharistiae: S. Ejiisd. De ritil). eccl. eathol. lib. ii. c. 40. p. 673 seq. : Carol, de Lith. de adoratione panis conseciati et interdictione sacri calicis in Eucharistia. Suobac. 1753. 8. § 11. Distribution of the Elements, p. 317. 1. J. Ge. Calixti, Liber de comnmnione sub utraque specie, etc. Helmst. 1642. 8 : J. A. Schniid, De fatis calicis cucliaristici. Helnistad. 1708. 4 : L. Tb. Spittler's Geschicbte des Kelchs im Abendmahl. Leriigo, 1780. 8 : Chr. Sonntag, De intinctione pa- nis eucbaristici in viiuitii. Altb. 1635. 4: Jo. Vogt, Historia fis- tulae eucbaristicae. Brem. 1740. ed. 2. 1771. 8: Jo. Cbr. Koe- cber, Historia fistularurn eucbarislicaruni. Osnabr. 1741. 4 : S. M. C . . . de ritu vet. formulae adplicativae individualis in S. Coena. Lubec. 1741. 4. 2. Cone. Laodic. c. 19, 44. 3. Tertull. De Spectac. c. 25 : Euseb. h. e. 6. 43: Cyrill. Hieros. Catecb. Mystag. 5. § 18 : Anibros. De Sacram. lib. iv. c. 5. De Init. c. 9 : August. Contra Faust, lib. xii. c. 10. 4. Bona, Rer. Lit. lib. ii. c. 17. 5. Muratorii, Antiq. Ital. Med. Revi. torn. iv. p. 178. 6. Tertull. De Orat. c. 14. Ad Uxor. ii. c. 5 : Cyprian, De Laps. c. 7 : Basil M. Ep. 289 : Hieron. Ep. 05: Cone. Caesaraugust. c. 3 : Cone. Tolet. 1. c. 14 : Tolet. 11. c. 11. § 12. Accompanying Rites. 1. Psalmody at the Sacrament, p. 323. 1. Lib. viii. c. 13. Hieron. Ep. 28 : Cyrill. Hieros. Catech. Mystag. 5. §17. 2. Hieron. Ep. 28. ad Lucin. : Tertull. De Jejun. c. 13: Augustin. Tract, in Ps. 133 : Cotel. Ad Const, apost. 8. c. 13 : Chrysost. in Ps. 144. torn. iii. p. 516. 2. Kiss of Charity, p. 323. 3. Petr. Miiller, De osculo sancto. Jon. 1675. 1701. 4: De osculis Cbristianorum vet. Dissert, in Tob. Pfanneri Observat. eccles. torn. ii. diss. 3 : J. Gotlfr. Lange, Voni Friedens-Kuss der alten Christen. Leipz. 1747. 4. 4. Apost. Const, viii. c. 11 : Origan, Comment, in Ep. ad Rom. lib. X. c. 33: Tertull. ad Uxor. lib. ii. c. 4: Clemens. Alex. Paedag. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 517 lib. iii. c. 11 : Athenagoras, Legal, c. 32 : Amalarii, De eccl. offic. lib. iii. C.37. 3. Incense and Sign of the Cross, p. 324. 5. De Spir. S. ad Amphil. c. 27. 6. Demeristr. quod Cliristiis. sit. Deus, c. 9. 7. Tract. 118, in Joan. 8. Lib. viii. c, 12. § 13. Of the Agapae, p. 325. Jo. Hilberti, Disput. de Agapis : C. S. Schurtzfleisch, (J. F. Creitlov.) De veter. Agaparum ritu : J. A. Muratori, De Agapis suhlatis, in Anecdot. Graee. : J. H. Boehmeri, De Coitionib. Christianoriim ad capiendum cibiim, in Dissertatt. Juris Ecclesiast. Antiquiss. : Quis- torp, De Aga|)is nascentis Ecclesiae : J. Moeriin, De Agapis vett. Christian. : G. Scblegel De Agajtis aetate Aj)ostolorum : J. Th. Fr. Dresclier, De veter. Christ. Aga[)is Comment. 1. Justin Martyr, Apol. 1. c. 67 : Hieronym. Comment, in 1 Cor. xi. Ciwysost. Horn. 27 in 1. Cor. 2. Clem. Alex. Paed. lib. ii. c. 1 : Augustin. E)). 64 : contr. Faust. lib. XX. c. 21 : Confess, lib. vi. c. 2 : Chrysost. Horn. 27 in 1 Cor. 11 : Greg. Naz. Praecept. ad Virgin. 3. Augustin. Ep. 64. ad Aurel. : Cone. Laod. cir. A. D. .364, c. 28: Cone. Carthag. A. D. 397 : Cone. Aurel. ii. c. 12 : Cone. Trul- lan. c. 74. 4. Justin Martyr, Apol. ii : see also 1 Cor. xii. 5. Cyprian. Ep. de Spectac. : Tertull. DeCoron. c. 3: Socrat. Hist. Eccl. lib. V. c.22. 6. Justin Mart. Apol. ii : Origen. in Ep. ad Rom. 16: 16. 7. Clem. Alex. Paedagog. ii. 1, 2. 8. Tertull. Apol. c. 39. 9. Justin 3Iart. Apol. ii. c. 97. 10. Cyprian. De Lapsis. 11. Chrysostom, Ad 1 Cor. xi. Hom. 54, and Horn. 22 on the text Oportet haereses esse. 12. Acts 20: 7 : Tertull. Ad Uxor. lib. ii: Cyprian. De Orat. Domini. 13. Cone. Aurelian. ii. A. D. 535 : Cone. Trullan. A. D. 692. 14. Theodoret. Hist. Eccl. lib. iii. c. 15: Evang, Verit. viii. p. 633— 4, ed. Schultz. CHAPTER XVII. OF THE DISCIPLINE OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH. § Origin of Penance, p. 3.32. 1. S. Flugge's Beytrag zur Gesch. der Rel. und Theol. Th. ii. 1798. 8. S. 3 — 248 : J. Chr. Ernesti, De antique Excommunicationis ritu. Viteb. S. a. 4 : Krause, De Lapsis primae ecclesiae. Lips. 1706. 4 : Chr. F. Quell, De Excommunicationis originc inanii- qua ecclesia. Lips. 1759. 4. 518 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 2. De Peonitentia, c. 8. 3. D. Gratz, Disquisit. in Past. Hermas. 4. P. III. Simil. G— 8, 5. P. III. Sitnil. G: Coinp. Bellarmin, P. I. 1820.4. p. 9 : De Scrip- tor, eccl. p. 27. 6. Coinp. Neander, Geist. des Tertuliianus. Berlin, 1825. 8. p. 220. 7. Epist. 10, 13, 25, 46, 48, 54, etc. 8. Stromal, lib. ii. c. 13. 9. Biblioth. torn. i. p. 216: Vgl. pp.350, 351. § 3. Subjects of Penance, p. 337. 1. Cyprian, Epist. 52, 31. 2. Cyjirian, Epist. 55, 67 : Pfanner, Observat. eccl. P. 1. Obs. 3. 3. Angustin. De Baptism, contr. Donalist. lib. vii. c. 2: Concil. Are- lat. i. c. 13. § 4. Different Classes of Penitents, p. 338. J. Concil. Ancyran. c. 4 — 6, 9: Coucil. Nicaen. c. 11 — 14: Concil. Laodic. c. 2, 19. 2. De Poenit. c, 9 : De Pud. c. 13 : Basil, can. 22: Ambros. ad Virg. Laps. c. 8 : Eiiseb. h. e. lib. v. c. 28 : Socrat. h. e. lib.i ii. c. 13. 3. Can. 75 : Concil. Nic. c. 11, 12. 4. Chr. Beger. p. 40. 5. Concil. Laodic. c. 19: Concil. Nice. 11. 6. Concil, Nic. c 11 : Concil. Aiicyr. c. 4. § 5. Duties of Penitents, p. 340. 1. Ep. xlvi. p. 107. Comp. De Lapsis p. 325, 326. 2 Concil. Toletan. iii. c. 12: Concil. Agath. c. 15. Ambros. ad Virg. Laps. c. 8. 3. Sozom, h. e. lib. vii. c. 16: Hieron. in Joel, c. ii. : Ambros. De Poenit. lib. ii. c. 40 : Concil. Arelat. c. 21. 4. Concil. Carthag. iv. c. 82. 5. Carthag. iv. c. 81. § 6. Readmission of Penitents, p. 342. 1. Concil. Nic. c. 12: Ancyr. c. 5 : Herd. c. 5 : Chalced. c. 16. 2. Chrysost. Hom. xiv. in 2 Cor. p. 644: Concil. llliberit. c. 3, 5, 14 : Albaspinaei, Observat. lib. ii. c. 30. 3. Concil. Nic. c. 13: Concil. Carthag. ii. c. 3, 4 : iv. c. 76 — 79: Pertschen's Vers, einer Kirchenliist. des iv. Jahr. Th. ii. S. 322. 4. Concil. Carthag. iv. c. 68: Aurelian. iii. c. 6: Agath. c. 43: To- letan. i. c. 2, etc. : A post. Can. c. 3 seq. 5. Concil. llliberit. c. 53 : Arelat. i. c. 16, 17 : Nic. c. 5 : Sardic. c. 13. 6. Concil. Caesaraug. c. 5 : Carthag. ii. c. 7 . 7. Concil. Tolet. i. c. 11 : Theodoret. Hist. Eccl. lib. iv. c. 9 : Au gijstin. contr. Petil. lib. iii. c. 38. 8. A post. Constit. lib. ii. c. 26 : Agustin. De Bapt. iii. c. 16 : De Pec- cator. merit, et rem. lib. ii. c. 26. 9. Hieron. Comment, in Matt. xvi. : Cyrill. Alex. Joann. 20. lib. 12. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 519 10. Basil, M. Ep. G3. 0pp. torn. iii. p. 96 : Athanas. Ep. .-.d Marcell. De Interpr. Psalm, totn. i. p. 975. § 7. Private Penance, p. 344. 1. Gabriel Albaspinaeus, Observat. Eccl. lil). ii. c. 26 : Basil. M. in Ps. 37: 8 : Chrysost. Horn. xxxi. in Ep. ad Hel). : Socrat. Hist. Eccl. lib. V. c. 19 : Sozotn. Hist. Eccl. vii. 16 : Biiigliam, Antiq. bk. xviii. c. 3. §11: Scliroeck, Kirchensgeschichte, iv. 318 — 321. § 8. Of Councils, 356. 1. Ziegler's Vers, einer kritisch pragmat. Darstelliing des Urspnings der Kirchensynoden und der Aiisbihiung der Synodalverf. in den ersten drei Jahrli. in llenke's neiiern Magaz. f iir Religions. Philos. bd. i. St. i. p. 125 : Schrcickh ThI. iii. p. 143—149. ThI. V. p. Ill : Schone's Gescbiclitsforschnngen 1 r. bd. p. 307 — 372. 3 r. bd. p. 340—378 : Freitniitliige Gedanken iider Syno- den der alten nnd neuesten Zeit. In der Jenaer Opposition- scbr. i. 4. p. 505. ff. : J. Cp. Greiling liber die Urverfass. der apost. Christensetn. oder bibl. Winke fiir die evang. Synoden. Halberst. 1819. 8: K. H. Sack de optima ecclesiae christ. con- stitutione. In sein. Commentatt. nd hist. eccl. Bonn. 1822. 8 : Bretschneider und R. J. Meyer, ob die Kircbenverfass. z. Z. der App. e. detnokrat. od. e. aristokrat. od. vvelche sonst gewesen sei 11. In Allg. Khz. 1833. Nr. 103—100, 182. vergl. Schlatter ebendas. 1834. Nr. 47 : G. B. Schtdtze Darstell. der Form des Kirclipnregiments im apost. Zeitalter u. In Allg. Kirchenzeit. 1833. Nr. 94. ff. vergl. Nr. 148. 2. Enseb. v. 10. 3. Can. Apost. iii.: Concil. Nic. v. 4. Euseb. vii. 27. 5. Eiiseb. vii. 28. 6. Tillemont, Hist, du Concile fficumeniqne de Nicee, in his Me- moires: Natalis Alexandri Dissertationes de Nicoeni Concilii convocatione, and De Praeside Nicoeni Concilii: in Thesaur. Theol. Venet. 1702. CHAPTER XVIII. DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL CHARACTER OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS, p. 367. Neander'sDenkweurdigkeiten and Kirch. Gesch. : G. Arnold's Kirch, und Ketzer, Gesch. : Fleury, Moeurs des Chretiens: Cave's Prim. Christianity: Lives of the Fathers : Lord Hade's Christian Antqui- ties: Ryan's Effects of Religion on Mankind: Burton's Lectures on Eccles. Hist. : King's Primitive Christianity. 520 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. CHAPTER XIX. ON MARRIAGE. § 1 . Of the Laws of Christian Marriage, p. 399. 1. Th. Sancliez, De sacramento matrimonii, torn, i — iii. 1592. f. : Gisbert, Histoire sur le sacr. du Mariage, depiiis Jesus Christ jusqiies -k nous. vol. i — iii. 1725. 4 : Jo. Geriiard, Loci theol. ed. Cotta. torn, xv, xvi : C. F. Staeudlin's Gesch. der Vorstell. u. Leiiren von der Elie. 1826. 8. 2. Socrat. hist. eccl. lib, iv. c. 26. al. 27 : Staudlin's Gescii. der Ehe S. 100. 114, etc. : Cod. L. L. lib. v. tit. v : Dig. iib.i. 13, 1.2. 3. Tertull. Apolog. c. 6 : De Idol. c. 16 : De Corona Mil. c. 13 : De Pudic. c. 4 : Optat. Atnbros. epist. 24. ep. 70: Milev. De Schism. Donat. I. 16 : Clemens Alex. Paedag. lib. iii. c. 2 : Au- gust. Epist. 234 : De Fide et oper. c. 19 : De civit. Die. lib. xv, xvi. 4. Cone. Nic. c. 8 : Ancyra, c. 19 : Laodic. c. 1 : Neo-Caesar. c. 3 : Constit. Apost. lib. iii. c. 2 : Atheiiag. Legat. : Theophil. Art. ad Antol. lib. iii : Irenaeiis, Adv. Haer. li!). iii. c. 19. 5. Tertull. De Monog. c. 11: Ad Uxor. Iib.i. c. 7: De Poenit. C.9: Origen, Horn. 17. in Luc. : Ambros. De Offic.lib. i.e. 50 : Hieron. Ep. 2. 11.33. 6. Capitul. Reg. Fr.lib. vi. C.408: vii. c. 179: Capit. 11. Karlom. A. D. 743. c. 3. c. 10. xxxv. q. 6: G. W. Boehmer, Ueber die Ehe-Gesetze im Zeitalter Karl's d. Gr. Goetengen, 1826. 8. 7. Wilhelm Occum. Tractatus de jurisdictione Imperatoris in causis matrimonalibus: Goldastus. tom. ii. p. 21 — 24. 8. Krit. und systemat. Darstellung der Verboten Grade der Ver- wandschaft: Schwagerschaft. Hannover, 1802 bes. S. 350 — 524 : Comp. Jo. Gerhard, Loc. theol. tom. xv. p. 332. 9. Tertull. Ad Uxor. lib. ii. c. 2—9 : De Coron. Mil. c. 13: Cyprian. Ad Quirin. lib. iii. c. 62 : Ambrosius, De Abrahame, Iib.i. c. 9 : Ep. lib. ix. ep. 70: De Fide et Oper. c. xix : Hieron. in Jovin. lib. i. c. 10. 10. Cone. Chalcedon. c. 14: Arelat. i. c. 11 : Illiberit, c. 15, 16, 17: Aurelian. ii. e. 18 : Cod. Justin, lib. i. tit. ix. 1.6 : Cod. Theo- dos. lib. iii. tit. vii. I. 2 : lib. xvi. tit. viii. I. 6. 11. Cone. Laodic. c. 10: Ebendas. e. 31 : Agath. c. 67: Chalcedon. c. 14. 12. Augustin. Confess, lib. ix. c. 9 : Gregor. Turon. hist. Fr. lib. ii. c. 28. § 2. Divorce, p. 401. 1. Herraae Pastor, lib. ii. mandat. iv : Jo. Gerhard, tom. xvi. p. 178, 79. INDEX OT AUTHORITIES. ^^* 2. Bingham, bk . xxii. c. 5 : Assemann's orient. Bibl. im. Ausz. S. 340, 52G. a Jo. Gerhard. Loc. th. xvi. p. 218—242. § 3. Marriage Rites and Ceremonies, p. 402. 1. Joach. Hildel.rancl, Dc nu,>tiis vet. Chr. 1G56. Eel. im 4 : Sam. Sclielvvi"- De aiiiifinitate consecrationis niiptialis. 10»J. 4 : i^nr. Konhnir, De necessitate consecr. n.ipt. 1690. 4: Jac. Emme- n.-h, De spo„salilM,s ot matritn. sacr. 1747. 8: Ch. W^Fk.|ges Gesch. der kirchl. Einsegnung u. Copulation der Ehe. -J. A. 1809. 8. 2. Tertull. Ad uxor. lib. ii. c. 2. 9 : De Monogram, c. 11. 3. Concil. Lateran. ii. A. D. 1139. c. 51 : iv. A. D. l2lo. c. 12. 4. Concil. Carthag.iv.c. 13: Gregor. Naz. ep. 57 : Chrysost. Horn. 18 in Gen. p. 549 : Basil. M. Horn. 7. in Heram. Opp. tom. i. p. 84 : Sericius Ep. 1. ad Himmer, c.4 : Gerhard. Loci. Theol. tom. XV. p. 394. § 4. General Remarks, p. 405. 1 Isidorus Hispalensis, De ecclesiasticis officiis. lib. ii. c. 19. 2 Du Cange, Glossa s. v. Arra nuptialis: Martene, De Antiq. eccl. fit P 2 p 606-8: Cone. Carthag. iv. c. 13: Cap.tul. Caroli. m' lib vii. c. 363 : Hildehrand De Nuptiis vet. Christian, p. 86. 3. Apoioget. c. 6 : De Idol. c. 16. vgl. Plinius, Hist. nat. xxxni. c. 1. 4. Paedag. lib. iii. c. 1 1 : Comp. Ambros. Ep. 34. ,o i^ 5. De Eccl. Oif. lib. ii. c. 19. 6. De Corona miht. c. 13-15. 7. Hildebiand. De nupt. p. 78 : Steinberg, Abhaudl. von den Hoch- zoit-Kranzen. 1764. 4 : p. 17seq. 8. Hildebrand, De Nui)tiis, p. 76, 77 : Calvoer. p. 106. 9. Chrvsost. Ho.n. iv. in ep. in Hebr.: Nicephor. h.e. hb. xvi.i. c 8. 10. Ambrose, serm. 25: Chrysostom. Horn. 41. in Act. Apost. : JNi- ceph. h. e. lib. 18. c. 8. 1 1. Hom. 12 in Ep. ad Coloss. 0[.p. tom. vi. p. 247-62 : Horn. 48 in Gen. p. 549 seq. : 56. p. 605 seq. 12. Concil. Laodic. c. 53. 13. Concil. Autissidor. c. 34 : Agath. c. 39 : Neo-Caesar. c. 7. CHAPTER XX. FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES. § 1. Treatment of the Dead, p. 408. 1 Joach. Hildebrand, De veteris ecclesiae, Martyrnm imprimis et et SS. Palnim, ars bene inoriendi, sive praxis circa monbumlos et de morieniinm virtiitihiis. Hrlmst. 1661. ed. 2. I'Y ,' Jac Gretseri, De Christianorum funcre libri tres. Ingolslart. 66 522 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 1611. 4 : Auch in Gretseri Oper. Ratisb. 1735. f. torn. v. p. 79 seq. : Onuphiii Panvinii, Libellus de ritu sepeliendi mortuoa apud veteres Christianos, et de eorum coemeteriis. Ed. J. Ge. Joch. Lips. 1717. 4: Antiqiiitatum circa funera, et ritus vet. Christianoriim qiiovis tempore in ecclesia observat. libri vi, auc- tore J. E. F. U. L. (i. e. Jo, Ern. Franzen, Ulza-Luneburgico). Cum Praefiit. Jo. Fabricii et Jo. Andr. Schmidii. LijiS. 1713.8 : Jo. Nicolai, Liber de bictu Christianoriim, sive de ritibus ad sepulturam pertinenlibus. Liigd.Bat. 1739. 8 : C.S. Senffii, Dis- sert, de cantionibus funebribus veterum. Lips. 1689. 4. 2. De ciira gerenda pro mortuis ad Pauli num. Opp. edit. Bened. Venet. 1731. b. torn. vi. p. 516— 532. 3. Jnliani, Inc. Ep. 49, ad Arsac. Opp. ed. Si)anhem. p. 429. 4. Job. Gerhard. Loc. Theol. torn. xvii. p. 85, 86. 5. Cicero, De Legib. lib. ii. c. 58: Cod. Theodos. lib. ix. tit. xvii. 1.6. Coucil. Bracar. c. 36. 6. Gregor. Turen. De Gloria. Confessor. 7. Chrysostom. Horn. 81. 8. Prudenliiis Peristeph. Hymn. 11 : Ilieron. Comment, in Math. 23. 9. Gothofredi, Observat. in Cod. Theodos. lib. ix. tit. 57. 1. 5. 10. Enseb. h. e. lib. vii. c. 22. 11. Franzen. Antiquit. funer. 1713. 8. p. 96 — 111. § 2. Jlffeciion for the Dying, p. 411. 1. Theodoret. h. e. lib. i. c. 18 : v. c. 25 : Gregor. Nyssen. Ecom. Ephraemi : August. Conf. ix. c. 11, 13. 2. Euseb. li. e. lib. iv. c. 15 : viii. c. 9 : De Vit. Constant. M. iv. c. 61 : Gregor. Nyssen. De Vita Gregor. Thaum. p. 311. 3. Gregor. Naz. torn. i. p. 173 : Balil M. ep. 84. 4. Ambros. in Ep. ad Thess. e. 4 : Athanas. Vit. S. Anthon. : Chrys. Hom. 55. in Math. c. 16 : Gregor. M. Homil. 38. in Evang. 5. Hildebrand, De Arte bene mor. p. 230 : De Precib. Vet. c. 28. 6. Euseb. h. e. vi. c. 3 : Chrysost. Ilonj. i : De Patient. Jobi. 7. Chrysost. Hom. i. De Pat. Jobi, etc. 8. Franzen. Antiq. Fun. p. 72. 9. Clemen. Alex. Paedag. 3. 8 : Euseb. h. e. lib. ii. c. 22. 16: De Vit. Constant, iv. c. 66. 10. Ambros. Orat. in Obit. Theodos. § 3. Funeral Solemnities, p. 412. 1. Gregor. Naz. Orat. 20. p. 371 : 2. Gregor. Nyssen. Vit. Macrin. torn. ii. p. 201 : Theodor. h. e. lib. v. c. 36. 3. Clemen. Alex. Paedag. lib. ii. c. 8. 4. Ambros. De Ob, Valent. c. 56 : Prudent. Hymn, pro exseq. 5. Chrysost. Hom. 30. De Dormient. torn. v. p. 380 : Hierar. Ep.27: Gregor. Naz. Orat. 10. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. ^^ 6. Cone. Carthag. iii. c. 29 : Possid. Vit August, c. 13. 7. Cone. Carthag. iii. c. 6 : Trull, c. 133. 8. Andr. Quenstedt. De Sepult. Vet. p. 13d. § 4. Mourners, p. 414. 1 Tertull. De Patient, c.7: Chrysost. Horn. 32 in Math : 61. in '• Johan.: 6. in Ep. ad Thess. : Hieron. Ep- 2o. ad ^aul. 2. Cyprian. Ser. de Mortal. : Chrysost. Horn. 09. ad Fop. 3. Ser. 2. De Consolat. IMort. CHAPTER XXI. SACRED SEASONS. § 1. Preliminary Remarks, p. 423. 1. Rud. Hospiniani festa Christianorum h. e de o'-'p^"^'!^;* Jj«|^"' cerernoniis et ritibus festorum ^-^^^^,^^1^^'^''^^^^^^^^^^^^ f. ed. Genev. 1669. 1675. f. : G. B. E.senschnnd s «- h-ju« der Sonn-und Festtage der Christen u. s. w. 1/93. 8 : Uebei den ettenU sprung und^lie erste Beschaffenheit der Feste, tasteu und Bitr.hnge u. s. w. Mlinchen 1804. 8 : J. G. Buh.ne s Un- e id.t Ube^. den Ursprung und die Benet.nung a er Sonn- Fest-und anderer Tuge durchs ganze Jahr Z-f^\}? J. 8 Die Festes des Herrn : bearbeitet von D. Rass und D. We.s Th. I. II. Mainz 1827. 8. 2. Ausg. 1S34. 8. 2. Clemens. Alex. Strom. 7. c. 7. 427 : Or.gen. Contra Ces g. c. 21 -23: Hieron. Comment, in Gal. 4: Augustm. Ep. 118, ad Jan. 3. GtS:::^^^ Cl^- .b . c. l sen. : Chr. Wildvogel Chronas- copia legalis de jure festorum, lb99. „ . t r..i1 4. G. Hamberger, De Epochae Christianae ortu et aucto.e . J. Guil Jani historia Aerae Dionysiae. 5. Jo. Chr. Fischer de anno. Hebr. Gust. Sommelu ^^ .«""''• Hfj-; ecclesiastico atque ci vili : Josephus Ant.q. i. c. 3. m. c. lU. ^ o . Anastasius in Meursii var. div. 6. Leonis AUatii de hebdomad. Gr. p. 1464. 7. Baumann De Calendis Januarii : Coned. Ant.s.dor, c. 1 : Turon. xi. c. 17, 23 : Tolet. iv. c. lO : Trullan. c.02. 8. Fiske's Manual, p. 630. .k vu ■ r . m-^-a] Cod 9. Euseb. Vit. Constant, lib. i. c. 48. m. c. 15. l.b. ,v c. 40 . vg 1. Cod. Theodos. lib. ii. tit. viii. 1. 2. lib. vi. tit. xxvk lib. xxv.. hb. xv. tit. Bin-iham, vol. ix. p. 11— 13. .. _ 10. Hist. eccL^lib. ; c. 22. p. 283. .11. H'st. eccl. hb xn c. 32. 12 Clemens Alex, stromal, vii. c. 7. torn. m. p. 427 : Ong. c. uels. vm. U. ^1^'"«^^J ^33. ^^ ,^ Horn. 1. De S. Pentec. torn. u. p. 458: Hieron. Comment, in Gal. 4. torn. iv. p. 270: Augustm. ep. 524 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 118, ad Januar. contra Adimant. c. 16: Hospinian de origine festor. c. 11. 13. Concil. llliber. c. 21 : Sardic. c. 11 : Gangrense. c. 5, 6: Laodic. c. 29. 14. Chemnitii exan). Concil. Trident, torn. iv. p. 263. 15. Can. A post. c. 70, 72 : Concil. Laodic. c. 37, 39 : Concil. Trullan. c. 81 : llliber. c. 49, 50 : Cod. Theodos. 16. tit. v. vi. ix. : tit. vi. 1.6. 16. Orat. De Domini nostri Jesu Christi Assumptione. Opp. ed. Patar. torn. ii. p. 286 : Gregor. Naz. Orat.l9: Ephraem Syrus. De Cruce Domini in Pascliate : Synesius Sermo. in Ps. 75. 17. Philo. Tractat. De Ciierul/im. Opp. vol. ii. p. 48. 18. Orat. 38, in Thoj)!!. p. 614, 615. 19. Euseb. De Vit. Const, lib. iv. c. 18—23. 20. Cod. Theodos. xv. tit. v. 1. 5. tit. v. 1. 2. 21. Cod. Justin, lib. iii. tit. xii. 1. 11. 22. " " lib. iii. tit. xii. 1. 7. 23. " " lib. ii. tit. viii. 1. 1. 24. Epist. Ignatii ad Smyrn. c. 8. 25. Concil. Carthag. iii. c. 29 : Tertullian apologet. c. 39 : Ad Mart. p. 156. De Baptismo, c. 9 : De Jejun. adv. Psycheios, c. 17 : Clem- ens Alex. Paedag. lib. ii. c. 1 : Chrysost. Horn. 27 in 1 Ep. ad Corinth.: August, ep. 116, ep. 233 : Socrat. h. e. 11. 43 : Bever- idge Pandect, canon, torn. i. p. 415: Concil. Carthag. iii. 391. c. 30 : Concil. Aurel. ii. c. 12 : Concil. Trull. §2. Of the Sabhath, 428. 1. C. A. E. Becker's Abhandlung vom Sahbate der Juden und Sonntage der Christen. Halle 1775. 4 : C. C. L. Franke Com- mentat. de diei Dominici apud veteres Christianos celebratione. Hal. 1826. 8. 2. Ep. St. Barab. c. 15. 3. Dial. c. Tryph. p. 34. 4. Apol. 1. p. 222. 5. Plan. ep. x. 96. 6. Tertullian Adv. Jud. c. 4, 5: De fuga persev. c. 14. Apol. c. 16. Ad nat. c. 13. De cor. mil. c. 3. 7. Stromat. v. p. 138. 8. Cyprian ep. 38. 9. Ai'.gustin. ep, 118 ad Jan. c. 1. 10. Opp. tom. i. p. 1060. 11. Ignat. ad Magnes. c. 10. 12. Concil. Nic. A. D. 325. 13. Opp. tom. iii. 312. 14. A post. Const, lib. vii. c. 23. ii. c. 49. viii. c. 33. 15. Euseb. Vit. Const, lib. iv. c. 18. 16. Gesch. d. Rel. und Kirche, bk. ii. S. 635 : Chrysost. de Resurr. Homil. 5. 17. Augustin. Epist. 36. al 86. ad Casulanum. § 31, 32. 18. Canon. Apost. 66. 19. Justin. M. Apol. 1. p. 225. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 525 § 3. General view of the Sacred Seasons, and of the three great Festivals, p. 432. 1. Lib. vi. e. 15 : Vgl. Constant. M. Oiat. ad Coetiim. Sanctor. c. 13. 2. Chrysost. in Ge. : Hamartoli Chronic, vit. Justin: Bingham, Vol. ix. p. 185. § 4. Of Christmas, p. 434. 1. J. G. Hasse, de rituuin circa Nat. Chr. prima origine ex Graeco- rum et Roman. Saturnaiibus. 1804. 4. : G. J. Planck variarnm de origine festi Nat. Chr. sententiarum epicrisis. 1796. 4. : Fr. Gedike, Uber den Ursprung der Weihnachts-Geschenke. S, Ber- lin. Monatsschr. 1784. Jan. S. 73. fF. : Fr. Schleiermacher's Weihnachts-Feyer ; ein Gespriich. 1806. 12, 2. 0pp. ii. p. 384 : 3. Strom, i. 349, 406. 4. Expos. Fidei. c. 22 : Haer. li. c. 29. 5. Comment, in Ezech. i. 6. Ep. 118, 119: Serm. 380. 7. Chryost. llom. 24,33: Cassian, Collat. x. c. 2 : Apost. Constit. lib. V. c. 13 : vii. c. 3: Krabbe, liber ursprung der Apost. Con- stitut. 1829. S. 163 seq. 228—232. 8. Jacob Edessen in Asseinani, Bibl. Or. tom. ii. p. 1636. 9. Ephraem Syrus, Serm. de Nativ. Chr. V. tom. ii. p. 417 — 419: Serm. 8. p. 424 : Serm. 12. p. 431 : Vgl. p. 324, 328. 10. Concil. Turon. ii. c. 18 : Constant. Porphyr. de cerem. eccl. By- zant. lib. i. c. 83. ed. Bonn. : tom. i. p. 381 : tom. ii. p. 360 : Ephraem Syrus, Opp. Syr. torn. ii. j). 396 seq. 11. Hom. 31. de Philogonio, tom. i. p. 39. 9. 12. Arnoldus Bonnerallis, Serm. De Nativ. in Opp. St. Cyprian. § 6. Whitsunday, p. 439. 1. Ad Tabiol. § 7. 2. Concil. Constant. A. D. 1094 : J. D. Winckler, de iis quae circa festum Pentec. sunt memorabilia. 3. Tertull. De Bapt. c. 19: Hieron. in Zach. 14: 8. 4. Concil. Agath. c. 18. 5. Durandus rat. div. off. vi. c. 107. § 7. Festivals to the memory of the Virgin Mary, p. 440. 1. J. A. Schmid, Prolusiones Marianae, Prol. i — x. 2. Combefisii Nov. Auctar Bibl. Patr. tom. i. p. 301. 3. Garante Thesaur. tom. ii. p. 24 — 26. 4. Angel. Rouha, De Praesentationis: Nicephor. Hist. 17. c. 28. 5. Binterim, v. bd. i. Th. S. 354—356 : Concil. Tolet. A. D. 659. c. 1 : Trull. 692. c. 52. 6. Concil. Basil, A. D. 1441. 526 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 7. Nicephor. Hist. 17. c. 18: Concil. Mogunt. A. D. 813. c. 36. 8. Binterirn, a. a. O. S. 450, 455. 9. Controv. torn. ii. lib. c. 16 : Binterirn, S. 516. § 8. Feast of the Martyrs, p. 441. 1. J. P. Schvvabe, de insigni veneratione quae obtinuit erga Mar- tyres in primitiva eccl. 1748. 4. 2. Serm. in Cyprian Mart. p. 129. 3. Gregor. Naz. Orat. 22. de Maccab. torn. i. p. 397: Augustin. Serm. de Divers. S. 300. torn. v. p. 1221. 4. Schroeckh's christl. Kircliengesch. Th. ix. S. 154 — 232 : Nean- der K. Gesch. ii. b. S. 712. § 9. St. John's Day, p. 442. 1. Augustin. Serm. in Nat. Dom. 2. Concil. Agath. c. 21 : Binterirn, S. 380. § 10. Apostle's Day, p. 442. 1. Apost. Constit. v. c. 20: 2. Sacranientar Leonis et Galesii. 3. Micrologus, c. 55: Durandus, 7, 10. 4. Concil. Tolos. A. D. 1229. c. 26. 5. Alcuinus. De div. offic. p. 87. 6. Karle de Gr. Capitul. ii. A. D. 805. c. 17. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF COUNCILS. A. D 215 240 2.-)! to " 256' 265 ■ 269 313 313 314 314 315 324 325 344 348 359 361 362 381 381 381 390 393 397 399 400 401 402 402 416 419 419 431 441 442 451 452 455 461 Africa, under Agrippinus. Africa, under Donatus. >• Africa, several under Cyprian. Antioch 1. Antioch 2. Rome, against the Donatists. Elvira, (al. 305, al. 324.) Ancyra, in Galatia. Aries I. Neocaesarea. Gangra, in Paphlagonia. Nicaea 1, (Gen. 1.) Sardica. Carthage 1. Ariniinum, or Rimini. Laodicea. Alexandria. Aquileia. Constantinople 1, (Gen. 2.) Saragossa. Carthage 2. Hippo. Carthage 3. Carthage 4. Toledo 1. Carthage 5. Turin. Milevi 1. Milevi 2. Carthage 6. Carthage 7. Ephesus, (Gen. 3.^ Orange 1. Vaison I. Chalcedon, (Gen. 4.) Aries 2. Aries 3. Tours 1. A. I). 465 Rome under Hilary. 494 Rome, under Gelasius. 499 Rome, under Symraachus. 506 Agde. 511 Orleans 1. 516 Tarragona. 517 Epone. 524 Lerida. 529 Orange 2. 529 Vaison 2. 531 Toledo 2. 533 Orleans 2. 538 Orleans 3. 553 Constantinople 2, (Gen. 5.) 561 Braga 1. 567 Tours 2. 572 Braga 3. 578 Auxerre. 581 Ma<;on 1. 585 Macon 2. 589 Narbonne. 589 Toledo 3. 590 Seville 1. 619 Seville 2. 633 Toledo 4. 636 Toledo 5. 638 Toledo 6. 646 Toledo 7. 653 Toledo 8. 655 Toledo 9. 656 Toledo 10. 670 Autun. 675 Toledo 11. 680 Constantinople 3, (Gen 61 681 Toledo 12. 692 Constantinople, Trullan, 787 Nicaea 2, (Gen. 7.) 788 Aix la Chapelle. 815 Mentz. 869 Constantinople 4. (Gen. 8.) CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. Our Savior born four years before the the Julian period ^. D. I Roman Emperors. vulgar era, and in the year 4709 of Crucified A. D. 34. Bishops, Eecl. Officers and Writers. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 Augustus, d. 14. Tiberius, d. 37. Caligula, d. 48. Claudius, d. 54. Nero, d. 68. Galba, d. 69. Vespasian, d. 79. Titus, d. 81. Domitian, d. 96. Nerva, d. 98. Trajan, d, 117. Hadrian, d. 138. Antoninus Pius, d. 161. Marcus Aurelius, philosopher, d. 180. Peter and Paul, martyrs at Rome. Shepherd, of Hermas. Clement, bishop of Rome. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, d. 116. Papias, B. of Hierapolis in Phrygia, Justin Martyr, d. 165. The Gnostics Marcion and Basilides. Cornelius, Bp. of Antioch. Polycarp, Bp. of Smyrna, d. 167. Montanus — The Montanists. Anicet, Bp. of Rome. Hegesippus, ecclesiastical historian. Celsus, Against the Christian reli- gion. Soter, Bp. of Rome. Claudius Apollinarius, Bp. of Hier- apolis. Melito, Bp. of Sardis. Bardesanes, the Gnostic. Eleutherus, Roman bishop. Dionysiiis, Bp. of Corinth. Theophilus, Bp. of Antioch. 177. Irenaeus, Bp. of Lyons, d. 202. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 529 Historical Events. 50. Presbyters {irQea^vrsQot = tniaxoTioi), an order for the management of church affairs.— Baptism by immersion.— Confession of belief made at baptism. 60. Deacons.— Deaconesses.— Meetings of Christians in private houses. — Daily meetings for divine service.— Daily instruction by prayer, sing- ing, and reading of the Old Testament.— E.xclusion of unworthy members from the church. — Love feast connected with the commu- nion. 70. Common care for the poor.— Contributions to other churches.— Church officers carry on their former occupations. — The Ebionites use unlea- vened bread in the supper. — Choice to church-offices usually by church-officers and the churches 80. Particular days selected for the worship of God.— The keeping of Sun- day.— Consecration to church offices by the laying on of hands. — The celebration of the Jewish sabbath by the Jewish Christians continued. — The yearly feasts of the Jews (passover and pcntccost) continue among the Jewish Christians. — One of the presbyters presides in the college of presbyters. 90. Country churches with their own officers. 100. Reading of the New Testament Scriptures in the churches. 110. The communion connected with the meetings for divine service, parti- cularly with those on Sunday. — Catechumens. — Preparation for bap- tism by fasting and prayer. — Growing importance of the president in the college of presbyters. 120. The celebration of marriages brought into connection with the church. — Heathen Christians begin to celebrate the yearly feasts, but with altered views. — Voluntary offerings {nqoaifooai) at the celebration of the communion. Traces of a separation of divine service into two parts. 130. In divine service the scriptures are explained and applied by the min- ister.— Then follows a simple celebration of the supper. — The dea- cons carry the elements to the absent members. 140. The Scriptures and church Fathers are read in divine service.— Episto- lary correspondence between churches (formatae). — Formula of bap- tism as generally prevalent mentioned in Justin Martyr. 150. During the persecutions the Christians hold their meetings in retired places. — Laying on of hands in baptism— Difference about the cele- bration of the passover between the oriental and occidental churches. — Infant baptism. — Those that have been regeneiated are incorpora- ted into the body of the church by baptism 160. First appearance of buildings appropriated to public worship. — Polycarp has a conference with Anicetus on the disagreement respecting the passover. — Images and pictures in the houses of Christians. — Week- ly or monthly collections in the meetings for public worship, for the poor and the sick. — Special fasts for the benefit of those in distress. — The use of the sign of the cross in all the actions and events of life. — Transfer of the ordinances of the Jewish Sabbath to Sunda}'. 170. Catechists.— Contest about the passover in Asia Minor.— Deaconesses, who are widows above sixty years old, receive the usual ordination. — In the Lord's supper the common bread, and wine mingled with wa- ter, were used. — Images of Christ among the heretics. — The deacon- esses are consulted in the celebration of marriage. The bride and bridegroom partake of the Lord's supper with each other, — Abrenun- tiatio at baptism and trine immersion. — More definite form given to the confessions made at baptism. — Easter eve and 'Whitsuntide favor- ite times for administering baptism in the whole church— Celebration of Easter night by vigils. — Festival of fifteen days from Easter to Whitsuntide. — Catholic epistle of Dionysius of Corinth. ii7 530 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, j3. D. I Roman Emperors. \ Bishops, Ecd. Officers and Wriierg. ItiO 190 200 210 220 230 Commodus, d. IU2. 240 250 Pertinax, d. 193. Septimius Severus, d. 211. Caracalla, d. 217. Macrimus, d. 218. Heliogabulus, d. 222. Alexander Severus, d. 235. Maximus the Thracian, d. 238, Gordianus HI. d. 244. Fliillip, tlie Arabian, d. I Decius Trajanus, d. 251. Trebonianus Gallus I. d. 253. Gallus Volusianus, d. 253. Pantaenus, Catechist in Alexandria. Tertullian at Carthage, d. 220. Victor, Bp. of Rome, d. 202. Clemens, Catechist in Alexandria. Caius, presbyter in Rome. Polycrates, Bp. of Ephesus. Zephyrinus, Bp. of Rome, d. 218. 203. Origen, Catechist in Alexan- dria. Demetrius, B. of Alexandria, d. 232. 223. Origen ordained presbyter at Caesarea. Hippolitus, bishop. Origen flees to Caesarea in Palestine. 233. Heraclus, Bp. of Alexandria. Julius Africanus. Dionysius, head of the catechetical school in Alexandria. Minucius Felix, a lawyer in Rome. 244. Gregory Thaumaturgus, Bp. of Neo-Caesarea, d. 270". Dionysius, B. of Alexandria, d. 2G5. 248. Cyprian, B. of Carthage, d. 258. Fabian, Bp. of Rome, d. 251. Cornelius, Bp. of Rome, d. 252. Novatian. Lucius, Bp. of Rome. Stephanus, Bp. of Rome, 253 — 257. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 531 Historical Events. 180. The christian custom of bunjivg tlie dead. Church festival in com- memoration of the dead iinniediately ailcr death and on its anniver- saries.— Among tlie Catholics the division of the form of worship into two parts is tiie universal custom. — Tertulhan opposed to inlant bap- tism.— The heretics on their entrance into the Catholic church are, in Asia Minor and North Africa, again baptized ; in Rome, they are treated as penitents. — In the oriental cliurch divine service on the sabbath, and no fasts — In the Romish church and other places of the West, fasts on the sabbath. — Attempts to determine the day of Christ's birtii. I'erliaps a celebration of it in Kgypt (j). — in the churches an altar and pulpit (pulpitum, suggestus). — The office of readers. — The performance of particular penances by the penitents. 190. Images of Christ among tiie heathen. — Symbolical rites in baptism. — Anointing atler baptism. — Use of milk and lioney. — Kiss of peace. — Tiie laying on of hands as a concluding act, regarded as particularly important. — Contest between the Cliristians of Asia Minor and of Rome respectinop the celebration of the passover. — \\)~ . Victor of Rome withdraws from the fellowship of the Christians of Asia Minor. — The college of the presbyters still exists in subordinate connection with the bishop. 200. Public discussions upon the baptism of heretics in North Africa. — Com- munion in private houses in North Africa. — The birth day of the martyrs celebrated. — A house of public worship in Edessa. 210. Introduction of Old Testament ideas of a particular priesthood into the christian church, — The clergy, as a body, called y.Xr^ooe, y.Xt;oty.ot, ordo, in distinction from the kuog, plebs. laid. — The catechumens. divided into classes by Origen. 220. Choice of bishop by the provincial bishops in connection with the adja- cent churches. — Tlie symbol of baptism, the rite of baptism, the Lord's prayer, and some church songs kept concealed from the catechumens. 230. Origen gave theological instruction in Cesarea in Palestine. — Hippoly- tus writes upon the disagreement of the East and VVest in respect to sabbatical fasts, and the contest about the passover. -Composed a. canon paschalis. — Opposers of infant bajitism in Egypt. — Candidates for baptism exorcised. Consecration of the water. — Houses of public worship become more frequent. — The clergy are not permitted to become guardians, or to engage in any worldly business. — The churches provide for the su|iport of their clergy. — Comparison of the christian clergy with the Jewish priests. Episcopus =Summus sa- cerdos, Presbyter! = Sacerdotes, Diaconi or Clerici (generally) = Le- vitae. 240. Infant communion in Africa, afterwards also in the East. — Clinic baptism. — The laying of hands on the newly baptized begins to be regarded as the appropriate act of none but the bishop. — Tlie commu- nion is extended to the sick and dying. — Frequent and large church- edifices. — Provincial synods common in Africa and proconsular Asia. The whole body of the clergy and the people participate in them. — Contests of the bishops and presbyters in Rome and Africa. — Subdea- cons. Acolyths. Exorcists. Ostiarii. — Doclores audentiuni in Af- rica.— Cyprian consults with the presbyters ujjon the aifairs of the church. Sometimes the advice of the whole church is asked. 250. Easter sabbath a common fast day in the church — Libelli pacis nume- rously distributed by the confessors. — The people take part in the elections to the ciiurch offices, particularly in the election of bishops and presbyters. — The bishop nominates the lower clergy. — Pope, title of illustrious bishops. — Synods in respect to penitents in Asia Minor. — Triumph of the Episcopal over the Presbyterial s^-stem. 532 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. Jl. D. [ Roman Emperors. Bishops, Eccl. Officers and Writers. 250 Valerian, d. 200. 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 Gallienus, d. 268. Claudius Gothicus, d. 270. Aurelianus, d. 275. Tacitus, d. 276. Auielius Frobus, d.2S2. Aurelius Carus, regent with Carinas, d. 283. Nuinerianus, d. 284. Diocletian with Maximian, from 286 to 305, regents for the emperors Galerius and Constantine Chlorus. 306. Constantius Chlorus, d. Constantine, Maxentius,iVlax- imianus, Galerius, Severus, and Maximin, rulers. 307. Severus d. succeeded by Licinius. Maximian, d. 311. Galerius d. 312. Maxentius d. 313. Maximinus d. Licinius, d. 324. Constantine sole emperor, d. 337. 330 Constantine II. d. 340. Constantius, d. 361. Conslans, d. 350. Firuulianus, Bp. of Caesarea in Cap- padocia, d. 269. 254. Origen d. Sixtus II. Bp. of Rome, d. 258. Dionysius, Bp. of Rome, d. 270. Sabellius. Paul of Samosata, Bp. of Antioch, 265—269. Commodianus. Felix, Bp. of Rome, d. 275. Mani, d. 277. Eutychianus, Bp. of Rome, d. 283. Methodius, Bp. of Tyre, Pierius and Theognostus in Alexan- dria. Caius, Bp. of Rome, d. 296. Pamphilius, Pres. in Caesarea. Marcellinus, Bp. of Rome, d. 304. Lucian and Dorotheus, Pres. in An- tioch. Peter, Bp. of Alexandria, d. 311. Marcellus, Bp. of Rome, d. 309. Arnobius, orator in Sicca. Eusebius, Bp. of Rome, 311. Melchiades, Bp. of Rome, d. 314. Lactantius. Alexander, Bp. of Alexandria. Sylvester, Bp. of Rome, d. 335. Arius in Alexandria, d. 336. Eusebius, Bp. of Caesarea in Pales- tine, d. 340. Eusebius, Bp. of Nicomedia. Eustalhius, Bp. Antioch. Alexander, Bp, of Constantinoole. Athanasius, Bp. of Alexandria, d. 373. Juvencus. Marcus, Bp. of Rome, d. 336. Julius I. Bp. Rome, d. 352. Macarius, Sea. et Jun. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 533 Historical Events. 250 Grrgory Thaumaturgus permits banquets to be introduced into the fes- tivals in honor of the martyrs.— 252. Infant baptism at the council of Carthage declared to be necessary. Anointing at baptism required by Cyprian. — 253. Stephen of Rome withdraws fellowship from the Christians of Asia Minor on account of the baptism of heretics. — Two councils in North Africa confirm the old African principles upon the subject of the baptism of heretics ; on this account Stephen excom- municates the North Africans. — The African synod in the autumn of 25(.), declare in favor of the customs of the African church. 2G0. The practice of cheering the preacher during the delivery of his ser- mon.— The Lord's supper has become more complicated and splendid. 270. Fixed formularies for the administration of this rite are formed. — Cata- logues of the members of the church and of Christians that have died are kept, 2S0. Infant baptism common among the Persian Christians. 290. Pamphilus establishes a theological school in Caesarea. — The church year begins with Easter festival. — Attempt to introduce images into the churches. 300. Peculiar dress of the clergy. — Beginning of sacred hermeneuticks. — Tiie beginnings of the school of Antioch. — 305. The council of Elvi- ra forbids images in churches. — The splendid church in Nicomedia destroyed. — The council at Elvira enjoins sabbatical fasts, censures the irregularities in the keeping of vigils, and limits the festival of Whitsuntide to one day. — In the Romish church the beginning of an eighty-four years' Easter cycle. — The council at Elvira determines the duration of the catechumenate. — The practice of sending conse- crated bread as a sign of church fellowship. — The subterranean vaults in Rome (catacombs) used for christian burial places. — Christian em- blems, pictures, carving on the coffins, and funeral lamps in the niches of the walls. 310. The council at Aries gives laws respecting the baptism of heretics. — Churches are solemnly dedicated to the worship of God. — The order of rural bishops in most places suppressed. — Regular division of the penitents into classes. — Easter cycle of nineteen years ; perhaps es- tablished by Eusebius of Caesarea. — Church in Tyre built by Paulinus. 320. Establishment of the canonical age for bishops and of seven as the number of Deacons. — Exclusion of such as had received clinic bap- tism from the rank of clergy. — Ecumenical synods. — Laws against taking those who have been penitents and neophytes into church of- fices.— Fixed regulations respecting the number and time of the pro- vincial synods. — Altars mostly of wood. — Constantine and his mother very active in building churches in Asia and Europe. — The church of St. Sophia built. — Several Basilicae are granted to the Christians. — 321. (in March and June) Decrees of Constantine in respect to the observance of Sunday. His orders respecting the army. Law for the religious observance of Friday. — 325. The Nicene council ordains a uniform celebration of the passover for the churches, and commits to the Alexandrians the calculation of Easter. — Celebration of a festi- val of the Ascension. — Four classes of catechumens. — Arius, a writer of sacred songs. — In the public worship, particular prayers for cate- cliumens, energumens, and penitents. 330. Arch-presbyters. Arch-deacons. Favorite division of churches into three parts — ante-temple, nave, and bema or sanctuary. — At the feast of Epiphany the celebration of the passover is announced. The ori- ental eighth of Whitsuntide a general martyr festival. — Supplications for the repose of the souls of the dead. — The pretended discovery of the cross in the Holy Land promoted the superstition about the use of the sign of the cross. 534 Jl.D.\ CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. Roman Emperors. Bishops, Eccl. Officers and Writers. 340 350 360 370 HGl. Constantius, d. Julian the Apostate, d. 3G3. Jovian, d. 3(J4. Valentinian I. in the West, d. 375. Valens in the East, d. 378. Gratian,d. 383. Valentinian 11. d. 392. Theodosius in the East. Julius Finn. Maternus. Gregorius, bp. of Ale.xandria. 342. Macedonius, bp. of Constanti- nople. Eusebius, bp. of Einesa, d. 360. Eeontius, bp. of Antioch. Hilarius, bp. of Pictavium, d. 368. Liberins, bp. of Rome, 352 — 55 and 58—06. Felix, bp. of Rome, 355 — 58. Cyrill, bp. of Jerusalem, d. 386. Zeno, bp, of Verona. Hilary, Dea. Luciferit. Aerius, Presb. in Sebaste. Ephraem the Syrian, dea. of Edessa, d. 378. Hieronymus Stridon, d. 420. Rufinus of A(]uileia, d. 410. Epiphanius, bp. of Constantia, d. 403. Damasus, bp. of Rome, d. 384. Optatus, bp. of Mileri. Basil, bp. of Caesarea in Cappado- cia, d. 379. Gregory bp. of Nyssa, d. after 394. Martin, bp. of Tours, d. after 400. Amphilochius, bp. of Iconium, d. after 31)4. Diodorus, bp. of Tarsus, d. about 390. Ambrose, bp. of Milan, d. 397. Philastrius, bp. of Brixia. Gregory Nazianzen, bp. of Constan- tinople, d. 391. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 535 Historical Events. 340. Bishops and emperors exert an important influence upon church elec- tions.—341. Decision upon the riglits of provincial synods. New re- strictions upon the country bishops.— 344. Decision upon the passage of the bishop through the diflercnt grades of the clergy. The instal- lation of country bishops prohibited. Images in many oriental churches. — 341. Decision in Antioch upon the celebration of the pass- over. — Festival of the Maccabees in Syria.— Anniversary festival in commemoration of the dedication of churches. — Celebration of the festival of the birth of Christ in Rome (on the 25th of December).— The ceremonies before and at baptism have become complicated. Anointing before and after baptism. The changing of the name at baptism is practised. The delaying of baptism a somewhat general fault particularly of the oriental churches. 350. Church singers. In the East the emperors are allowed to go into the bema. — Aerius urges to a reformation of life in the church, and is particularly opposed to distinction of rank in the church. — In Gangra Sunday fasts prohibited. — The heathen calends of January kept a- mong the Christians as a fast day. — Responsive singing introduced by the monks into the cimrch of Antioch. — Hilarius of Pictavium a wri- ter of hymns. — Liturgies are written (.'). Preparatory exorcism on the days previous to baptism by Cyril! of Jerusalem. — Aerius attack- ed the false notion of the elficacy of prayers for the dead. — A special burial service. — Solemnization of funerals. Joyoi irnruifiut, particu- larly in the East. 360. Itinerant presbyters appointed in the place of country bishops. — Theo- logical school at Edessa. — The teaching of heathen literature in chris- tian schools forbidden by Julian. He establishes a christian institu- tion afterwards among the heathen. — The office of oeconomus (stew- ard of tlie church). — Benevolent institutions of every kind proceeding from the church, in the cities and in the country, particularly in the East. — Western churches begin to lose their importance. — Altars built of stone. — Church laws for the celebration of Sunday, the sab- bath and the quadrigesima. — Julian celebrates Epiphany in Vienna. Martyr-festivals, with vigils, very frequent. Dies stationum (station- ary days) continue to be kept in Egypt, Asia Minor, Constantinople, and in other places. — Imperial pardons granted at Easter. — Council of Laodicea forbids the singing of Apocryphal psalms in the churches, and the holding of love-feasts in the churches. — Basilius, a promoter of responsive singing in the churches. — Ephraem composes church hymns. — The practice of carrying consecrated bread as though it possessed magical powers. — The composition of little doxologies by the anti-Arians is opposed in Cappadocia. — The office of copiatae. — The practice of crowning newly married people with wreaths, of veiling the bride, etc. retained. — The council of Laodicea forbids improper usages at weddings, and the celebration of marriage in the time of the quadrigesimal fasts. 370. Heathen temples are converted into christian churches. — During the great week in Cappadocia daily morning and evening service. — A lo- cal festival in Alexandaia in commemoration of the earthquakes. — Epiphany the time for baptism in the East. — Basil of Caesareaa zeal- ous liturgist. — Ambrose transfers responsive singing to the churches of the West, composes hymns for the church, and does away the love feasts. — The chapels of the martyrs are used for burying places in Cappadocia. — Christian family vaults. 536 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. Ji.D. Roman Emperors. 380 I Bishops, Eccl. Officers and Writers. 390 392. Theodosius sole emperor, d. 395. Division of the Empire. Western Rom. Eastern Rom. 400 410 Empire. Honorius, d. 423. Empire. Arcadius, d. 408. Empress Eu- docia. Theodosius II. d. 450. 414. Pulcheria Augusta. Didymus, president of the catecheti- cal school at Alexandria, d. 395. Jovian, monk in Rome. Apollinaris, bp. of Laodicea. Siricius, bp. of Rome, d. 398. Theophilus, bp. of Alexandria, d. 412. Johannes Chrysostom. 38G. Pres. in Antioch. 398. Bp. of Constanti- nople, d. 407. Asterius, bp. of Amasia. Severianus, bp. of Gabala, d. after 408. Augustine, bp. of Hippo, d. 430. Theodorus, bp. of Mopsvestia, d. 429. Palladius the Younger, bp. of Aspo- na, d. before 431. Severus Endelechius. Gaudenlius, bp. of Brixia. Anastasius I. bp. of Rome, d. 402. Sulpitius Severus, Presb. d. 420. Paulinus, bp, of Nola, d. 431. Innocent I. bp. of Rome, d. 417, Atticus, bp. of Constantinople. Prudentius. Vigilantius, Presb. in Barcelona, V^ictor of Antioch. Nilus the monk. Pelagius and Caelestius. Joannes Cassianus, d. after 432. Cyril, bp. of Alexandria, d. 444. Isidorus of Pelusium, d. about 440. Zosimus, bp. of Rome, d. 418. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 537 Historical Events. 380. Church fZ(5.zoi.— Christian poor-houses and hospitals in Italy.— The office of penitentiary presbyter abolished.— The Lateran and St. 1 e- ter's church in Rome.— Epiphanius opposed to having images in churches.— Baptisteries in or near the church.— 3!r<). Renewed order ofthe emperor in relation to the celebration of Sunday.— Disagree- ment of Rome and Alexandria as to the celebration ot Easter.— Dii- ferent practice in the oriental cliurches in respect to sabbath fasts. The Romish church warmly defends her own usage in respect to it.— - 3s(). The festival of Christ's birth celebrated in Syria on the 25th of December.— Decree of the Anti-Friscillians against partaking ofthe Lord's supper out ofthe church.— Complaints against theatrical sing- ing in the church.— :5dl . Decree of the ecumenical council respecting those that re-baptized heretics.— More fixed regulations respecting church reading.— Siricius of Rome forbids baptism in Epiphany.— Images of the cross very frequent. — Images of Christ are still oppo- sed.—In the Romish church even in espousals the blessing of the priest was necessary.— Tlieodosius revived the Roman law that bury rying places should be witliout the city. 390. Missions are promoted by Chrysostom — A mission institute at Con- stantinople for the Goths —3^8. State laws respecting the choice of monks to clerical offices, and respecting the appointment of country clergy. — Decrees ofthe western church in relation to the trial ofthe clergy —3iJ2 (and 3S!l). Laws ofthe empire to suspend ordinary busi- ness°eight days before and eight days after Easter —393. Evening commu'nion on Dies viridium.— In Antioch, on Good Friday, meet- ino-s for divine service in the churches ofthe martyrs.- The Donatists oppose the festival of Epiphany.— The birth day of Christ as deter- mined at Rome, generally adopted in the West.— The birth of John Baptist celebrated on the"'24th of June.— Heathen usages in the cele- bration of festivals.— 31)3. The reading of uncanonical books, saluta- tion by the reader, and the distribution ofthe eucharist to the dead forbidden.— The bishops alone confer confirmation— In Rome no her- etic may be re-baptized.— Repasts for the poor take the place ofthe old love feasts —The custom of employing mourning-women is intro- duced into the church —Alms are distributed in memory ofthe dead. — Images are allowed in the East. 40()._407. Defensors of tlie church established.— 40:^. Laws of the em- peror for the establishment of Episcopal jurisdiction.— 409. Laws giv- incr the bishops the oversight of the prisons.— Paulinus is active in building churches in JNola and Fundi— 401. Request of the Africans to the (Tmperor to restrain public amusements on Sunday. — Vigilan- tius opposes the vigils.— Celebration of the death of Theodosius in Constantinople— Innocent of Rome establishes the sabbatical fast by a law ofthe church.— Celebration ofthe anniversary ofthe ordination of bishops.— Family communion continues in many churches of the East and West.— Practice of vicarious baptism among the pseudo- Marcionites in Syria.— A pretended hymn of Christ among the Fris- cillianists.— Theburial ofthe dead the common custom.— Bishops in- terred in the churches.— Feasts at the graves of the dead, with many abuses accompanying. 410. 4Ui. Office ofthe parabolani in Constantinople.— 418. Increase of the parabolani to 600.— Paulinus favors the use of images in churches and baptisteries, particularly for the instruction of the country people. —In tiie East complaints of there being too many images in the churches —Representation ofthe sign of the cross in churches.— In- scriptions in and upon churches.— Contest in North Africa about the sabbatical fast. 68 538 CHBONOLOGICAL INDEX. 410 Roman Emperors. Bishops, Eccl, Officers and Writers. 420 Boniface 1. bp. of Rome, d. 422. Possidius, bp. of" Calama. Synesius, bp. of Ptolemais. Philostorgius, ecclesiastical writer. Coelestinus I. bp. of Roine, d. 432. Valentinian III. Vincentius of Lirinum, d. before 440. d.455. Nestorius, bp. of Constantinople, d. about 440. [457. Theodoret, bp. of Cyrus^^in Syria, d. N. B. The church history of Socrates extends from SOf) to 430 (continued by Theodoret to ,520) ; that of Sozomen from 323 to 423 ; that of Philostor- gius, an Arian bishop, from 300 to 425 ; that of Theodoret from 325 to 429; that of Evagrius continuator of Socrates and Theodoret from 431 to 593. 430 \ John,bp. of Antioch. Proclus, bp. of Constantinople, d. 446. Hilary, bp. of Aries, d. 449. Sixtus 111. bp. of Rome, d. 440. Peter Chrysolpgus, bp. of Ravenna, d. 458. Barsumas, bp. of Nisibis, to 489. 440 Ibas, bp. of Edessa, to 457. Leo 1. bp. of Rome, d. 461. Salvianus, presb. in Massilia. Socrates the historian. Sozomen the historian. Dioscurus, bp. of Alexandria. Proterius, bp. of Alexandria. Flavian, bp. of Constantinople. 450 Pulcheria, d. Symeon Stylitcs,d. 4(i0. Paschasinus, bp. of Lilybaeum. Maximus, bp. of Turin. Mamertus, bp. of Vienna. Gennadius, bp. of Constantinople. Timotheus Aelurus, bp. of Alexan- dria. Arnobius the Younger. Hilary, bp. of Rome, d. 468. Timotheus, bp. of Alexandria. Simplicius, bp. of Rome, d. 483. Peter the Fuller. Sidonius ApoHinaris,bp. of Clermont. Faustus of Rnegium, d. after 490. Acacius, bp. of Constantinople. Petrus the monk, bp. of Alexandria. Victor, bp. of Vita. Gennadius, presb. of Masillon, d. after 493. Vigilius.bp. of Tapsus. Macedonius, bp. of Constantinople. Felix HI. bp. of Rome, d. 492. Flavian, bp. of Antioch. 480 Gelasius, I. bp. of Rome, d.496. Anastasius II. bp. of Rome, d. 498. A Vitus, bp. of Vienna. 460 470 Pulcheria, d. 453. Marcian, died 457. , 457. Leo I. the Thracian. Ricimer, d. 472. Anthemius. 474. Leo II. 475. Romulus soon succeed- Augustus. ed bj' his fa- ther Zeno. The Western empire is divi- ded into several new states. 476. Odoaster, k. of Italy and Noricum. 481.Clovis,I. d. 511. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, 539 Historical Events. 410. Cynll improves the Easter-table of Theophilus. — Celebration of the Festum Stephani in North Africa; (Still earlier in the interior of Italy.) — In the oriental churches candles are lighted while the Gospels are read. — Theodosius II. diminishes the number of the copiatae. 420. In the East the people still take part in the church elections. — Votive offerings in the cliurches, particularly in the chapels of the martyrs. — 425. Theatrical exhibitions on Sunday and on the higli church festi- vals forbidden by the emperor. — In Egypt a separate celebration of the festival of Christ's birth. — Celebration of the feast of annuncia- tion. 430. Office of the Apocrisiarii. — The celebration of the Quadrigesimal fasts is still different in difl^erent ecclesiastical provinces. — JNo definite laws for the keeping of fasts yet fixed. — Prostration of the people on the exhibition of the elements of the supper (.') 440. 441. The appointment of deaconesses forbidden in the West. — Crosses upon the altar. — Altars richly ornamented. — Councils are held in the baptisteries. — Contentions about the Easier festival of the year 444. — The Romans take the side of the Alexandrians, — Festum cathedrae Petri in the Romish church. — Remains of heathen customs which be- came mingled in the Roman celebration of Christ's birth. — JNew con- test about the calculation of Easter. — Leo of Rome yields to the Alex- andrians.— Infant Baptism a common church ordinance. — The Trisa- gion Hymn is altered. 450. 451. The office of oeconoraus established by law. — The bishops have the spiritual oversight of the cloisters. — Church Lectionarii in the Gallic churches. 460. Canon Paschalis of 'Victorius Aquilanus introduced into Rome in 465. — Leo allows penitents the privilege of private confession previous to their being received again into the church. — 461. Council of Tours decrees that the bread be dipped in wine in the communion of the sick. Burial places in churches, particularly in those of the martyrs, are considered as peculiarly holy. — 46L>. The edict of 425 respecting the observance of Sunday made more strict. 470. Peter Fullo makes an addition to the Trisagion. — The North African church holds strictly to a particular form of prayer. — Parents sponsors for their own children. — Rogation days instituted at 'Vienna. 480. 48D. Destruction of the theological school at Edessa. — The festival of Peter and Paul celebrated at Constantinople with new splendor. — Ge- lasius of Rome active in behalf of liturgies. 540 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. Jl. D. j Roman Emperors. Bishops, Eccl. Officers and Writers. 490 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 4iJl. Anastasius emperor until 518. 518. Justin 1. to 527. 526. Atalaric, k.oftheOs- 527. Justinian tragoths. to 565. 534. Theodat k. of Ostrogs. 536. Vitiges,k. of Ostrogs. Totila, k. of Empress The- Ostrog. odora. 552.Tejas,k.of Ostrog. 558.Chlotar, k. of France. 565. Justin II. to 578. 578. Tiber II. 582.Mauritius. Synimaciius, bp. of Rome, d. 514. Boethius, d. 525. Epiphanius the hist'n of the church. Tlieodorus, historian of the church. Dionysius the Small. Caesarius, bp. of Aries, d. 542. Hormisdas bp. of Rome, d. 523. Philoxenus, bp. of Hierapolis. Fulgentius, bp. of Ruspe, d. 533. Procopius of Gaza. John of Cappadocia, bp. of Constan- tinople, d. 520: Epiphanius, bp. of Constantinople. John I. bp. of Rome, d. 526. Felix IV. hp. of Rome, d. 530. Boniface 11. bp. of Rome, d. 532. John II. bp. of Rome, d. 535. Agapet I.bp. of Rome, d. 536. Anthimus, bp. of Constantinople. Silverius, bp. of Rome. Vigilius, bp. of Rome, d. 555. Fulgentius, dea. at Carthage, d. be- fore 551 . Cosmas Indicopleustes. Aurelius Cassiodorus, d. after 562. Primasius, bp. of Adrumetum. Facundus, bp. of Hermiane, d. about 570. Junilius, African bp. Pelagius 1. bp. of Rome, d. 560. Procopius of Caesarea. John ill. bp. of Rome, d. 573. John Philoponus, d. after 610. Joannes Scholasticus, bp. of Const. d. 578. Benedict I. bp. of Rome, d. 578. Pelagius II. bp. of Rome, d. 590. Evagrius, the historian. Joannes Jejunator, bp. of Const. Leander, bp. of Hispalis. Gregory I. bp. of Rome, d. 604. Augustinus, in Britain. Cyriacus, bp. of Constantinople. Isidorus, bp. of Hispalis, d. 636. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 541 Historical Events, 490, A special office instituted in Constantinople for enrolling the catechu- mens in the church books. — Council of Agde orders, that on Palm- Sunday the catechumens shall publicly repeat the creed. — Consecra- tion of altars, 500. Romish bishops bear, by way of eminence, the title of pope. — Church ordinance respecting lay communion. — The division of divine service into two parts begins gradually to disappear. — Legends respecting im- ages of Christ not made with hands. — Celebration of Christmas eve. Ordinance respecting the celebration of Rogation days in Gaul. 510. In the Gallic and Romish churches frequent participation of Christians in the heathen celebration of New Year. — Decree of the council of Gironne respecting Rogations. — Easter-table of Dionysius E.xiguus. • — In the Gallic and Romish church the ecclesiastical year begins at Christmas. — 517. In the West, prohibitions of the appointment of deaconesses repeated. 520. The Benedictines have the charge of the education of youth. — Hundred deacons in Constantinople. — 524. Council of Valencia, passes a decree in relation to the reading of the gospels. — The Te Dcum appears in the rule of the Benedictines, — 527. The calculation of Dionysius re- specting Easter adopted at Rome. — Great activity in building church- es in the East, particularly in Constantinople. 52'J. In the West a decree for the education of the clergy. — Church order in respect to the oversight of prisons by the bishops. — In Palestine a combined cel- ebration of the baptism and birth of Christ at Epiphany festival, con- tinues. 530. Order in relation to the city church in Constantinople. — Rebuilding of the church of St. Sophia. — 538. Laws for the celebration of Sunday passed at the synod in Orleans. — Prohibition of marriage between bap- tized persons and their sponsors. 540. Order of the emperor respecting the installation of the clergy, and the evidence to be given by them of their agreement with the faith of the church. — Consecration of the sites of churches. — Canon of V'ictorius continues in Gaul. 550. Theological school at Nisibis flourishes. 560. Arch-subdeacons. — 502. Dedication of the church of St. Sophia. — In- stitution of a three days" fast in the Gallic church for the time of the celebration of the festival of the calends. — Prohibition of abuses in the Festum Cathedrae Petri. — The council of Braga forbids tombs in the inner area of churches, and the use of the burial service at the inter- ment of suicides. 570. In the church of St. Sophia, a vault for the prince. — Council of Braga forbids the practice of dipping bread in wine at the supper. — A festum circunirisionis on the first day of January. — 572. A law in the West concerning the visitation of the districts of the bishops. 580. — 585. A church order respecting the care of widows and orphans. — The council of Mascon enjoins the continuation of Easter festival to the pascha davsum. — The formula of distribution in the Romish church becomes longer. — A single immersion in baptism in the Span- ish church. — The council of Toledo requires the recitation of the creed in the liturgy of the supper. — The calculation of Easter accord- ing to Dionysius adopted in Spain. — The Romish quadrigesima=36 days. 590. The Romish church active in missions. — Gregory allows to the Anglo- Saxons the celebration of festivals with banquets, and establishes the litania scptiformis. — The Alexandrian calculation of Easter found in Gaul. — Contentions of Augustine with the ancient Britons about their reckoning of Easter. 542 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A.D. Roman Emperors. 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 6ti0 690 700 Chlotar II. k. of France. 602. Phocas. 610.Heraclius. 655.ClovisII. 656. Chlotar 111. Pepin. Constanline III. Pleraclionas. Constans II. 668. Constan- tine IV. 685. Justinian II. 695. Leontius. I Bishops, Eccl. Officers and Writers. Sabinian, bp. of Rome, d. 606. Thomas, bp. of Constantinople. Boniface III. bp. of Rome, d. 607. Boniface IV. bp. of Rome, d. 615. Sergius, bp. of Constantinople. Deusdedit, bp. of Rome, d. 618. Boniface V. bp. of Rome, d. 625. Honorius I. bp, of Rome, d. 638. Sophronius, bp. of Jerusalem. Pyrrhus,bp. of Constantinople. Severinus, bp. of Rome, d. 640. John IV. bp. of Rome, d. 642. Theodore, bp. of Rome, d. 649. Martin I. bp. of Rome, d. 655. Eugcnius I. bp. of Rome, d. 657. Vital ian 1. bp. of Rome, d. 672. Thomas, bp. of Constantinople. John, bp. of Constantinople. Theodore, bp. of Canterbury. Constantine, bp. of Constantinople. Adeodatus, bp. of Rome, d. 676. Donus I. bp, of Rome, d. ()78. Agalho, bp. of Rome, d. 682. Leo 11. bp. of Rome, d. 683. Benedict II. bp. of Rome, d. 685. John V. bp. of Rome, d. 686. Sonon, bp. of Rome, d. 687, Sergius I. bp. of Rome, d. 701. TJie venerable Bede, d. 735. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 543 Historical Events. 590. Gregory I. improves the church singing, establishes a school for sing- ers, gives a new form to tlie liturgy of the supper, is opposed to the worship of images, but not to their use in tlie churches. 600. The Roman I'anlheon becomes a christian church. — Continuation of the Easter table of Dionysius Exiguus. — Leander and Isidor active for the liturgy in tlie Spanish cliurch. 610. Feast of All Saints in the Romish church. 620. Bells are found in the West. — Fcstitm apparitionis .St. Michaelis ill Rome. — Monks and clergy not permitted to become sponsors. 630. First appearance of the bishop's Baculus and Annulus, — Council of Toledo enjoins fasts on the day of Christ's death ; prescribes concern- ing the consecration of wax candles for Easter. — Prescription of tlie council of Toledo respecting church hymns — The oriental church- teachers seek to justify scientifically the worship of images. 640. Deaconesses continue in the oriental church. — Feast of the transfigu- ration of Christ in tiie oriental church. 650. — 656. Festum unnuntiationis on the 25th of March instituted in Toledo. — Remains of the old custom of the TT^offyo^ot in the supper in the Greek church. 670. Heathen customs mingle themselves in the festivals of the Virgin. — Unleavened bread commonly used in the supper. 690. — 092. Council of Trullan forbids the reception of emoluments for the administration of the sacraments. — Council of Trullan against symbo- lical representations of Christ, and against crosses upon the floor of churches. — Council of Trullan requires the keeping of the sabbath as a fast ; brings to remembrance the after-celebration of Easter ; for- bids the missa pracsanctificat on the day of the annunciation to Mary ; condemns the remains of the heathen celebration of the calends, and the customs of St. John's day ; gives orders upon the spiritual rela- tion between the baptized person and the sponsors ; upon the J^nrovq- yia ru)v nQoi]yiaaiuvuiv, and confirms the decision of 381 respecting heretics. GENERAL INDEX. ^A^^a, pope, 76. "A^arov, advrov, 189. Abraxas, ti)ystical name, 35. Absolute or independent bishops, 86. Accampia, 148. Acolyths, their office, and duties, and ordination, 159. Aedituus, 126. AyuTxai, agapae, 293 : origin of the name and custom, 325 : mode of celebration, 325 : titne and place of celebration, 327 : abolition of the custom, 328. Age, canonical, of the clergy, 156. "dyiov, uyiaa^ia, ayiov, ayiuv, 182. "AyioL, title of Christians, 39, 40. Ay.£(ftt}.og, 86. Axoifxnol, 64. Ay.QOb)^ivot, 339. Album matricula. Altar of the church, names, cover- ing, material, etc. 192, 3. Amen, response, 218, 233. Avciy.aj.imi]ola, 190. Avaaiofjov, 117, 182. Anchorets, 64. Ancillae Dei, 65, 115. Angels of the church, bishops, 75. angels addressed in prayer, 206. Annuius sponsalitius, pronubus, pallatii, 82. Annunciation, festival of, 440. Ante-chambers of churches, 184. Ante-legomena, not read in public, 229. Antistae, 115. "^A^ioi, ava^Log, mode of taking a vote, 134. Apocrisiarii, 129. Apocryphal books,read in religious assemblies, 230. Apostles, 69 : title of bishops, 75 : seldom baptized, 274. Apostles' days, feast of, 442. Apostolical canons, date and ori- gin, 38, 39. Apostolical Constitutions, their au- thor, contents, date, and value, 36—38. Apostolical Constitutions describe the Lord's supper, 303. Anoia^tt^iivol, 64. A[»paritor, 121. Ap})ointments, ecclesiastical, 131 —137. Aichbishops, their title and rank, 84. Archdeacons, time and object of their appointment, 113 — 14 : qualifications, 113, 14 : their of- fices, ambition, and povirer, 114, 15. Archi-cantor, 124. Archpresbyters, their office and influence, 106. Ascetics, uaxTjzai, 63 : originated in Egypt, 62. Ark of Noah, name of church, 140. Armenian church, origin and pro- gress, 466. Assinaeii, Christians so called by their enemies, 45. Aspersion, baptism by it, 276 : term of reproach for Christians, 45. Attendamus, 112. Attitude in devotion, 222, 24. ''A&eoi, term of reproach for Chris- tians, 45. GENERAL INDEX. 545 Augustine, a catechumen, 52. AiiniiM tiioniciiiii, 143. AvioxiqxxXog, 86, Bakers, Cliiistiaiis so called by their enemies, 44. BaiKis of marriage, 403. Capiism, ceremonies after, 105: names of it, 255 : historical sketch,25(!: vviien iMstit(itetl,25G: Christian liajnism, when intro- duced, 257 : puhlicly adminis- tered, 257: in connection with the sacrament, 257: adminis- tered to the candidates naked, 257 : custom of re-haptizing, baptism of heretics, 258: infant baptism, 52, 258 — 6G : univer- sality of christian baptism, 259: views of German scholars, — Baumgarten-Crusius, Halm, De Welte, Neander, Rheinwald, Gieseler, and Siegel, 259, 60: testimony of the fatiiers, 261 — 66: Augustine and Cy|)rian,261: Origen, 262: Tertuliian, 263: Irenaeus, 264 : Justin Martyr, 266 : household baptism, 266 : baptism of the living for the dead, 267 : persons to whom baptism was not administered, 267 — 9: by whom administered, 269: preparation for adminis- tering it, 271 : by laymen, 271 : time of administering it, 271 : of bells, 269 : place of baptism, 273 ; elements for it, 274 : mode and form, 275 : form of words, 277 : preliminaries of baptism, catechetical instruction and cov- enant, 278 : exorcism, 279 : ceremonies after baptism : kiss of peace, chrism, clothing in white, burning tapers, washing of the feet, wearing of garlands, etc. 281: baptisteries, 188,273. Bama, ftitJiii'^bi, JDantiafiog, ^an- ■iKTfia, 255. Bedellus, a beadle, 121. 69 Bells, first used, 191: tolling of bells, 191, 412: baptism of them, 269. Hema of a church, 182. Benediction and consecration by presbyters, 105. Iho&uriToi, Christians so called by their enemies, 44: Christians de- nominateTp, legatus, congrega- tionis, 70, lA. 'idmai, private Christians, 45. IsQaxHov, 182. 'isQovQyla, 295. 'ifQwavvij, 100. » [272. Illuminations in time of baptism. Immersion, ba|)tism by it, 275: trine immersion, 275. Imposition of hands, in ordination, 159 : in baptism on catechu- mens, 280: in confirmation, 291. Imprisonment of clergy, 176. Incense at the Lord's supper, 324. Inci|)ientes, catechumens, 50. Independence of the hierarchy, and of the pope, how obtained, 88—9. GENERAL INDEX. 551 Indulgences, sale of, when intro- duced and how, 179. Infant baptism, see Baptism. Inferior and sii|)erior orders, not of apostolic ori^'in, 71. Inferior orders of clero^y, who are included in eacii, 72 — 3. Inferior orders of liisliops, 90 — 4. Insignia of ajiostles, 145. Intercessory bishops, intercessores, interventores, 93. IntercessorevS, interventores, inferi- or bishops, 93. Investiture of clergy, 159. Jerome's testimony to the equality of presbyters and bishops, 95 — 98 : on the virtues becoming a minister, 163 — 4 : avoiding sns- |)icions, 165: on studying the Scriptures, 169: on public min- istry, 171. Jews, Cin-istians so called in de- rision, 44. Sr. John's day, 442. Julian's dying expression, 44 : he commends the virtues of the Christians, 72, 399. Julian reckoning rejected by the early Christians, 425. Justin Martyr's account of the Lord's supper, 301. KavMV liyiog, 68. Knidloyoi, 68 : Ugarixog, 69. Kaii]xovfisvoi, catechumens, 46,49. Kiifja^ofisvot, /(i^a^O[iEvoi, 62. Kii^i^liuQxiiov, 189. Ki'jovy^tx, 237. KfjQVXfQ, 112. Kiss of peace, 281, 323, 385. KXi'iQog, clergy why so called, 66, KoifiirrjQiot, cemeteries, 409. KoifisTi]Qiov, 177. Koiv(x)vin, communion, right of the faithful, 60: sacrament, 293. Kneeling in prayer, 223, 428. Kqvnxal, oratories under ground, 180. KvqiaKov, VilT . KvQis iltriaov, 'Lord have mercy,' 219. Lady day, 440. Laity, o Xaoi, name of private Christians, 45, 47. Auoq tov Otov, title of Christians, 40. Lay-baptism, 271. Laymen, |)rivate Christians, 45 : called priests, 48 : divided into classes, 47 : not members of councils, 363. Lay monks, 63. AiiTovQylu, 295. Lent, 437. Levites, levitica dignitas, name of deacons, 110. Libraries connected with churches, 189. Lifting of the hands in prayer, 223. Li vings, plurality discountenanced, 158. yloyoL iuiTa(fia, 413. Lord's prayer, use of it not allowed to catechumens, 56: to the faith- ful, 59: theories respecting it, 212: not in use in the first cen- tury, 213: begins to be used in the second and third, 216 : dox- ology of it, 216 : repetitions of it, 217. Lord's supper, 292: scri[)tural ac- count, 298 : whether Christ and Judas partook of it, 299 : testi- mony of|)agan writers and apos- tolic fathers, 300: time of cele- bration, 304: place of celebra- tion, 306: by whom adminis- tered, 307 : who partook of it, 308 : preparatory exercises, 310: elements,114 : consecration and distribution of them, 317 : cele- brated at funerals, 413. Love feasts observed by early Christians, 30, 428. Lucian of Samosata, his testimo. ny conceruing the rules and 552 GENERAL INDEX. practices of the early church, 31. Lucian the martyr, anecdote of, 41. Magician, Christ so called by Lu- cian, 44. Magicians, Christians so called by enemies, 44. Moi&i]xal, title of Christians, 40. Mansionarii, 128. Maranatha, 333. Marriages solemnized by deacons, 105. Marriage, intentions of, posted up- on doors of church, 194. Marriages, christian, 399: second marriages, 399, 400 : marriages regulated by the laws of the state, 400: prohiliited marriages, 400 : marriage between Jews and Gentiles, 401 : rites and cereujonies of it, 402 : remarks upon marriage rites and cere- monies, 405: a festive occasion, 407: not under the direction of the church at first, 400 : second and third marriages censured by the church, 405. MnQTVQia, 208. Martyrdom, a passport to heaven, 55: called l)lood-l)aptism, 55. Martyr feasts, 432: celebration of them, 441. Mass, its derivation and significa- tion, 295. Master and disciples, division among primitive Christians, 45. Master and teacher, 70. Matricularii, 126. Matrini, 285. Maundy Thursday, 437. Medicamentum,medicina corporis, 297. MeixvTjfiivoi, members of the church, 58. Mensa, Dei, 292. Metatum, 143. Mnahinaig, 297. Mrjti^ig, 285. Metropolitan bishops, 85. Milk used in baptism, 280. Ministrae, 115. Ministers and magistrates, officers of the cluuch, 69. Missa catechinnenorum, missa fi- delium, 59: in pontificalibus, 105 : missa est, 112, 295. Mitre, bishop's badge, 82. Moderator of synods and councils, 81. Monastics, of female sex, not orig- inally a distinct order, 65: first known in the fifth century, 65. Monica, mother of Augustine, 52. Monks, 69, 64. Monuments to the memory of martyrs, in churches, 193. Mourning not allowed by the early Christians, 415. Names of Christians, 40: of mem- bers of the church, 58,59: of bishops, 74, 77, 90 : presbyters, 99: of deaconesses, 115: of Christians, 39, 43 : of catechu- mens, 50 : of monks, 63, 64 : of the clergy, 68, 69 : of singers, 123,4: of churches, 176, 7 : of the sanctuary, 182: of the sa- cramental table, 183, 193: of the font in a church, 186: of bap- tism, 255. Names of the Lord's supper, 292 — 7: of months and weeks, and days of the week, 425. Names of sponsors in baptism, 285 : given at baptism, 287. Na6g, 177, 180. Narthex of a church, 185. Nave, or main body of the church, 133: form and divisions, 184. Nazarenes, name of Christians, given by the Jews, 44. NeMTiTQai, inferiors, 45. Nestorians, compare their orders of clergy to those of the angels, 83. New-lights, name applied in de- rision to Christians, 45. GENERAL INDEX. 553 Nobilissimi, 100. Noise in time of sermon com- plained of, 244. Nonnae, nuns, G5. Notarii, 129. Notes taken of sermons, 244. Novitii, name of catechu mens, 50. Novendiale, 415. Nvfiq)u'/o}y6c, vvfi(pn'i7]g, 406. Nunneries, 65. Officials, officiales, 115. Officium, 68. 01 s'ffo), and ol t^ui, classification of Christians, 45. 01x01, Buailuoi, 190. Ohoq -d^tov, Exzhjcriag, 111. Oiy.ovofioi, stewards, 128. Optimates, 100. Orate, catechumeni, 112. Oratories, under ground, 180. Orders of clergy, in different churches, 73, 74. Order, whence derived, 68. Order of the altar, name of the clergy, 68. Ordination, of deaconesess, 117: of subdeacons, 120: remarks on, 1.52. 153: disqualifications, 153, 155 : qualifications, 156, 158: administration of the rite, 158, 159 : ordaining prayer, 160. Ordinary and extraordinary minis- ters of the church, 69. [72. Ordo sacerdotalis, ecclesiasticus, Oremus, 220. Organs, first used, 192. Ostiarii, 125. "Oar] dvvn^ig, explained at length, 213, 215. Overseers, 70. Pagan rites, supposed to be incor- porated with Christian rites, 32. Panis benedictus, 55 : supersub- stantialis, 296: Dei, vitae, coe- lestis, 297. Papa, name of pope, first assumed A. D. 384. 76, 90. 70 Parabolani, naQti^oXot, attendants upon the sick, 126, 389. I'arafrenarii, 12(5, JI(XQfhv^(poq, 406. Pastophoria of a church, 189. Pastors and teachers, 69 : shep- herd, 70. nursQsg, 285 : patres, patrini, pro- patres, 285. Patriarchs, an order of bishops, 86 : their prerogatives, 87 : name of bishops, 76. Patronage, church, secular, lay, and ecclesiastical, 138, 139. Patrons, of the church, 130. Pavements of the church, curious- ly wrought, 195. [219. Pax vobiscum, peace be with you, □""DSHS of the synagogue, 71, Pedel'liis, 121. Pericojjae, explained, 234, 235. Peristylia, 188. Penance, origin of, 332 : account of the fathers, 334 : subjects of, 337 : private, 344. Penitents, different classes, 338 : their duties, 340 : readmissioii to the church, 342, 351 : tender- ness felt for them, 348. Pestilence, at Alexandria, 390. Pictures, worship of, 236. Pillarists, monks, 64. iZiffio/, nidTtovjii, 58. JjKmaaviiQ, title of Christians, 40. Plautus, Christians called follow- ers of, 45. Illi]&og, TTOinvlov, private Chris- tians, 45. Pliny the younger, his letter to Trajan concerning Christians, 26. noifA£V8C, shepherd, 45, 69. Poor, care of them, 72, 126, 149, 386. Portico, of a church, 185. Potestas, 68. Praeses, praefectus, same as bish- ops, 74, 75. 554 GENERAL INDEX. Prayer, audible and silent, 201, 211 : no prescribed form of, 203 : earliest forms, 217: prayers of the ancient ciuircli, never chant- ed, 212 : preliminaries, 220 : at- titudes and gestures in, 222 : covering of the head, 224 : direc- tion towards the East, 181, 224 : before sermon by the preacher, 246: for penitents, 330 : daily, 375: private, 376 : Lord's, theo- ries respecting it, 212 : not in use in first century, 213 : begins to be used in the second and third centuries, 210 : doxology of, 216: taught, 254. Prayers, of the ancient church, and prescribed form, 213, note : fil- ial spirit of, 209: brevity and simplicity, 210 : catholic spirit and frequency of them, 211 : for the dead, 417 : account of the early fathers, 417, 420 : na- ture and design of them, 420, 421. Preaching, expository, 244 : with- out ornament, 245: with notes, 245 : extempore, 245. Presbytera, ngta^vjig, 107, 115. Presbyteri penitentiarii, confessa- rii,*105. Presbyters, administered baptism, 104 : difl^erent orders and clas- ses, 106: their ordination, 109. IlgfcrjivTfQOi, elders, 45,70, 74 : de- rivation of the term, 70 : con- nected with bishops, 71. Ilgsa^vTSQog, both a superior and teacher. 94 : apostolic ministers, 94 : supposed to denote the laity, 99. Presents, distributed at wedding, 408. Primae sedis 'episcopus, princeps sacerdotum, 85. Primates, primas urbis, castelii, pallatii, 85. Princeps sacerdotum, bishop, 77 : priucipes, 100. Ilgofdgoi, 98, Ugoiajonig, rulers, 45, 75, 98. JJgoa&ni, 112. Ilgovaoq, of a church, 185. Jlgonvlvt, 185. ngoq)TjTuov, 177. Prophesying, teaching, 238. Ilgoasv/rvigiov, 177. Ilgoanlaiovj^q, penitents,3 39. UgoataTai, 98. rigoffcfogu, 294, 301. JTgo(T(fb)Vi](Tsig, 10.5, 112. Ilgoxoijiiv, attention, 232. Prostration, in prayer, 223 : prayer at parting, 396. Protectors, defenders of the faith, 130. Prophets, in the apostolic age of the church, 09. ITgoJTOi, Tigbnivovieg, 85. JlgmTongfiT^VTsgoi, 100: Trgcatona- Tiag, 106. Psalmody, of church and prayer, 201, 202 : part of prayer, 221 : at the sacrament, 223. Psalms, few have come down to us, reasons, 222 : third division of the Scriptures, 228 : ancient psalms quoted, 225, 226. Psalter, explained, 234. Piieri, catechumens, .50. Punishments, of delinquent clergy- men, 173, 176. fhbiiia^og (jpa)Tic7|Ua, cfxaxiatsgiov^ 255, 272, 274. fpag^axov a&avaaiag, 297. fl'oTi^ofiEvoi, members of church, 58. ''l^aXiat xavovizol, 12-3. W/jCpiafia iptjcpog, 134, nOrsri 0N"1 , corresponding to iniaxonog, 70, 74. ri;\2Jn \Dc<-i , 424. ■^^■n , master, teacher, pastor, 70. Rank, of the clergy, unknown in the primitive church, 104 : de- rived from Jewish and pagan priesthood, 141. GENERAL INDEX. 555 Rationale, to Xoyiov, 83. Readers, jip[>oiiitmcnt an