■# > ■'e^" « .QX ' /« .^i'^r^:^ X ¥\ ^ •^ ■'1' x^ y imw i- '^'^' 1- ,^^''"^' -^>.' - *^iife' vCt ■.JV r^-'. .,-^.<;;..- .^^ ^-^'f ^. ..M^' \^.^ \-:-' , m- c'-../-v. •-•t>^ \0<;:'<.ls<;;i«;:>C>:V.:::.:r.:>::::::':::::^ii;:::«r,>C><>::::-C.:::-Cl;:-':":=<:>0=C The Second Edition, corrected hy the Author* 7MS><;:>i:;>r;.:::M;.:::<>o-<:>-;::>':><><>«::"''-;:»<:"-:;:>=:::><>c:::=-cu:<> LONDON: PRINTED FOR B. LAW AND SON, AND F. JOLLIE, CARLISLE* 1793. p ■M-4::r.'0<>«.'>i!:^i::>«:;><>e: 5>'";;>o>r»-a:'ji*:>«: ■><><>iS><>':tr»<:»M::::i.i;:>i:>*>u::;w;:::!«::5^i::;:!<:9<;;'<>c>K;>';!>::">c>i:::>'ir, :::»o<><:■<>•:::■•'<::"':::-<::K■.>■l>■:;::^::;v.>i::>c;>^l;;l■■::::^>;::>l;:>fti^!^:^ THE S P I R I T O F GENERAL HISTORY, ^c. PRELIMINARY LECTURE. The Ufe and 'Advantages of Hiftory .-—^How it JJjould be Ji tidied, — The Hijiory of modern Na-^ tions more ufefuly than that of the ancient World. — Knowledge of the lattery neceffary to the Study of the former. — Sketch of ihe Hijiory of ancient Nations y i^c, ^ I ^HE hiftory of mankind, is an inexhauftible -*■ fource of rational entertainment, and ufe- fui inflrudlion. The rife, progrefs and decline of nations, with the caufes which produced them ; the advances of fociety from barbarifm to civilization, from rude and favage, to gentle and refined manners ; the eflablifhment of laws and liberty, or of defpotifm and flavery ; the A 2 pernicious (4) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. t « pernicious effedls of vice, and the happy confe- quences of \irtue; thefe, fo very interefting to thofe who wifh, by a proper condud: to be ufe- ful in life, are placed by the Hiftorian full in our view. A defire to emerge from ignorance, and to enlarge the fphere of his knowledge, by an ac- quaintance with what he does not know, is natural toman. Hiftory gratifies this defire: fo that, whether curiofity, or a real thirft for knowledge, excites us to perufe the hiftory of pafl tranfaclions, the mind cannot fail to receive improvement and pleafure. However, there is this difference between one who reads hiftory merely to gratify curiofity, and another who reads it for inftrudlion ; that the former does- indeed receive pleafure in fuch gratification, but not that knowledge which might be obtain- ed to inform and rectify the mind ; whereas the latter, by being inftructed, enjoys a permanent delight, and treafures up in his memory, juft maxims for the right condud: of life. We may read many pages in a day, run over the tranf- actions of a century, inlefs time than we could travel a mile,boalt that we have devoured many volumes, and yet be totally unacquainted with men and things. The man who can mention by name, the nations which have appeared and aded with applaufe on the theatre of this world- can Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (5) can afcertain the date of their rife, the periods iOf their progrefs and decline, the conquerors, who have been the fcourges of mankind, and filled the earth with the calamities of war, may be admired for his hiftorical knowledge : but, to know the rife and fall of nations, the exploits of warriors, when fuch or fuch a battle was fought, by whom gained, and the number of the wounded and flain in each army; when the/ renowned cities of antiquity were founded, by whom taken and deftroyed • to be able to give an account of thefe things, and be ignorant of the caufes which produced them, or not to think them worth attending to, is to read hiflory to no good purpofe. The philofopher and politician read the me- moirs of nations, and of individuals with a dif- ferent view : they cultivate an acquaintance with the hiftory of mankind, not to gratify an idle curiofity, but to enrich the mind with ufeful knowledge. Scenes of violence give them dif- guft rather than pleafure; but to know that thefe were the effeds of ambition, of pride and revenge, working in the mind, inftruds them in the knowledge of the human heart. A tran- sient glance at the defcription of a battle, or a fiege, is enough to them, whilft they carefully attend the hiftorian in his delineation of the charadlers of nations and eminent men; in his A 3 invef^ (6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. invefligation of the caufes of events ; in his tra- cing the beginning of laws and government, of civilization, manners, arts and fciences. As the knowledge of men and things, affords an inftrudiive entertainment to the rational mind ; and as none would wifh to continue in the ignorance of his infant ftate, fo various me- thods have been employed at different times, and by different perfons, to convey ufeful knowledge to mankind ; ahd of thefe, one of the moil important, is History. « Hiftory, (to "quote the words of an elegant writer) that *' faithful and true witnefs has been unfolded to us ; ages and generations lapfed and gone, pafs in review, and leffons of infbruclion are forcibly inculcated, by a fair and impartial ** difclofure of the effedts, which an adherence " to redlitude and virtue, or a negled: of them, ** produced on the affairs of men. The pencil ** of hiftory has delineated, not only men in " groups, but feledling diftinguiihed individu- ** als, has drawn them in their juft proportions, *' and enlivening them with the colours of na- " ture, has exhibited a collecflion of flriking " portraits, for our entertainment and inftruc- *' tion. In contemplating the charadlers of *^ nations, or of eminent perfcns, we feem to " walk in a large gallery of family pidures, and *' take delight in comparing the various features " of Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. fy) " of the extenfive kindred, as they refemble or " differ from one another,-* we find in them, ^' though long ago, carried down the tide of *' time, pleafing and inftrudive companions, "f Were I to give a definition of hiflory, it "would be in the words of an ancient hiftorian, as quoted by a noble author ; ' Hiflory is phi- lofophy, teaching hy examples, how to condud: ourfelves in every lituation of private or public life ;'X or, hiftory is a faithful reprefentation of what has been adted on the great theatre of this world, and a true defcription of the charadiers of the adlors. According to this definition, hiftory fliould be ftudied with a philofophical turn of mind. We ihould habituate ourfelves to a careful examination of the characters of nations or individuals, as defcribed by the hif- torian, and the chain of events he relates. By a proper attention to this, we improve in the mofk ufeful parts of knowledge, and in time become qualified to fill the various departments of life with propriety and ufefulnefs. In a word, by carefully obferving, and retaining in mind, the great revolutions, avhich, in the courfe of providence, have taken place in nations, and the progrefs offociety amidft thefe revolutions; A 4 by Ovid's Met. Lib. 2. f See Hunter's Biograph. Left, t Dion. Hal. quoted by BolI» in Left, on Hill. (8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. by a jufl inveftigation of the many, and even oppolite caufes, which often concur in produ- cnig one efiedl:, or one caufe, from which fome- timcs many eftedls follow ; by a near obferva- tioh of the characters of thofe, who have made a figure in fociety, what were their views in adins in fuch or fuch a manner, and the nature of the paflions, which led them on to avflion ; it is by purfuing fome fuch method like this, that any real advantage can be obtained from the labours of the hiftorian. Though hiftory may be confidered as the fchool for princes, and for thofe diftinguiihed characlers, whom providence has deftined to be at the head of nations ; yet thofe who tread the private walks of life, fhould, would they wifhto be ufeful m their ftation, not negled: to replen- ifh their minds with the knowledge which may be obtained from this fource. For, were an acquaintance with the hiftory of paft ages, and with the lives of thofe who have gone before us, attended with only this advantage, that wifdom may be learned by the example and experience of others; it would indeed be a very import- ant One. We muftoft,en find ourfelves, efpeci- ally when beginning to acl: in the world, in fituations new to us, and very different from any thing we have experienced before : thofe, therefore, who are uninformed how others have aded Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (9} adled in fuch or fuch circumftances, muft pof- fefs uncommon judgment and caution, not to be liable to fall into errors, and fometimes into fuch errors, as may have an unhappy influence upon their future condudl. There are examples upon record to prove, that the ftudy of hiftory may fupply the want of experience. Cicero informs us, " That Lu- cullus, a famous Roman, being appointed gene- ral, to carry on the war againft Mithridates, king of Pontus, went from Rome ignorant of the military art ; yet by fpending the time of his journey and voyage, partly by putting quef- tions to men of knowledge, and partly by read- ing the hiftory of former adlions, he came into Afii with fuch a character, and performed fuch exploits, as obliged the great Mithridates to confefs, that he had found him to be an abler general, than any of thofe concerning whom he had read." " A man (fays Frederick the Great) who does not think he dropt from the clouds, or does not date the origin of the world from the day of his nativity, ought naturally to be curious of being acquainted with the tranfadtions of different ages and countries. If he is indifferent to the fate of fo many other nations, that have been the fport £)f fortune, he will be pleafed, at lead, with the Jliftory of the country he lives in, and with the relation (10) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. relation of events, in which his anceflors were concerned.* To which let me add, that. if the hifiory of remote ages and diftant nations, is but little interefting to him, that of times near his own, and of nations on the fame continent ; na- tions with which his own is connected, fliould artrad his notice. But, the great improvements and extenfion of commerce, by uniting the mofl diftant nations, render an acquaintance with the cufloms, and manners of every people, and with the prcdudions of almoft every part of the w^orld, highly necefTary and beneficial to the inhabitants of Britain. '' If an Englifhman, (continues the royal author) has no knowledge of thofe kings that filled the throne of Perfia ; if his memory is embarralTed with that infinite number of popes that ruled the church, vv^e are ready to excufe him ; but we fliall hardly have the fame indulgence for him, if he is a ftranger to the origin of parliaments, to the cufloms of his country, and to the different lines of kings who have reigned in England.** As the hiftory of our native country is more interefting to us, than that of other nations, fo is alfo a knowledge of the modern hifiory of the world, (efpecially of Europe) of much greater importance, than that of ancient times. In little * Mem. Brands Lect. L MODERN HISTORY. (ii) little more than tv/o centuries ago, thofe fur- prifingly great revolutions happened, which have efFe&d an almofl univerfal change in the nations of modern Europe : a falutary change of the fentiments of Chriflians ; a change which has given a different tone to national manners, produced juft notions of the rights and liberties of men, and great improvements in commerce and manufac1;ures. But modern hiftory is llu- died with much greater advantage, v/hen we have an acquaintance withthe (late of mankind in early times. Our knowledge of the revolu- tions which affeded the anciT^nt kingdoms of the world, of the governments and laws, cuftoms and m.anners which prevailed in the early pe- riods of fociety, efpecially among the Greeks and Romans, (like the knowledge of one branch of fcience being preparatory to another) renders the ftudy of the hiflory of mo4ern fociety more eafy, pleafant and improving. Such knowledge prepares the mind to receive infbrudiion from reading, either the modern general hiftory of all nations, or that of any particular nation in the detail. For, ancient and modern hiflory fhew us, that men in all ages and countries, have been, and are much the fame ; that tlie fame caufes, have for the mod part, uniformly produced the fame effecfts, to the advantage, or difadvantage of individuals or nations. A general (1 2 ) MODERN HISTORY. Lec t. L general idea of hillory, opens and expands the mind, removes prejudices, and convinces us, how ill-founded and extravagant thofe notions are, which mofl people entertain of the fuperior grandeur, wifdom, and refinement of their own times, and of the country in which they live. Having faid thus much of hiftory, and of the advantages which may be derived from the pro- per ftudy of it ; let me caution my readers a- gainfl a too implicit faith in all that a hiflorian relates ; more efpecially, when he endeavours to drefs what is probably fabulous in the garb of truth, and would make ficlion pafs for reality. Where the hiftorian has no authentic monu- ments and records of the early periods of foci- ety to direct: him in his refearches, he mull depend upon uncertain tradition, or give his own conjedlures inltead of true hifbory. There is fuch a thing as national vanity. A predelic- tion for one's country is a prejudice common to all men ; hence we are fond to draw our an- ceftors in bright colours, give a remote anti- quity to our country, and reprefent its ancient inhabitants, as wife, valiant, learned and po- lifhed. But it is an undeniable truth, that there was a time, when the anceilors of the modern nations of Europe, who at prefent boaft of the perfecftion of their wiidom, legiOation, and re- fined manners, were only a gang of banditti, altogether Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (13) altogether barbarous in their difpofitions, and • uncivilized in their manners. As we lliould be cautious how we receive for truth thofe parts of hiftory which are colledled from the rubbiih of fidtion, and unfupported by authentic records ; fo neither fhould we adopt every fentiment and refledion of the hiftorian;, as unprejudiced and juft. ^ We, who fee only * the outfide of things, (it not being our prero- * gative to examine the heart) mufl of ne- * ceflity infer the principles of adion from the * actions themfeives ; and yet, there is no rule * of judgment more erroneous ; becaufe experi- * ence alTures us, that many, perhaps the greater * part of our actions, are not the refult of defign^ * are not founded on principle, but are produ- * ced by a concourfe of incidents we could not * forefee, and proceed from pallions kindled at * the moment. 't Moreover, when we fit down to write, whe- ther of ages pad, or of the prefent, it is with a bias upon the mind, which we naturally endea- vour to communicate to our readers. All men have their favourite periods, caufes and charac- ters, which of courfe, they flrive to embelliih, fupport, and recommend. They, on the other hand, are equally fubjedt to antipathies ; under • the f Letters to a Young Nobleman. (I.) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L the influence of which, they as readily ftrive to depreciate, to expofe, and to cenfure what they diilike. The partizans of fadlion think juftice, virtue, knowledge, anci good fenfe, centre in their party ; but will fcarcely allow any of thefe good qualities to belong to thofe of a different one. As men write and fpeak, fo they read and hear, under the influence of 'pafiion and preju- dice. When the hiftorian's opinions coincide with our own, we allow him to be right, when they differ, we, without fcruple, pronounce him miliaken. It is indeed true, pre-polTefllons we will always have ; it is impofllble to divefh the mind of prejudice,- but when thefe are on the fide of virtue and truth, the fentiments and refledlions of an hiftorian, will be no farther" afTented to by us, than as they appear to be virtuous and true. I would, in thefe ledlures, endeavour to en- tertain and inflrud: my readers, with what I chufe to call, (if the expreflion is proper) the fpirit of modern hiftory, from the time of Charlemagne, emperor of the wefl, near the end of the year of our Lord eight hundred, (almoft contemporary with whom was Egbert, King of the Weft Saxons, who united the petty kingdoms of the Heptarchy) to the beginning of the prefent century. To give an account of vidlories won or loft, of cities befieged and taken, of Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (15) of the names and number of thofe that fell in fuch or fuch a battle, does not enter into my plan. Minute details of this kind may be acceptable to the favage difpolition, and un- feeling temper of a vulgar mind ; but can, I am fure, 'afford no pleafure to the feelings of a hu- mane and tender heart ; no profit to thofe who read for inftrudlion. I would rather mark the progrefs of civilization, of governments and laws, of commerce, arts and fciences ; chiefly, the feveral changes in the manners of mankind, from their rude and barbarous ftate, to the re- fined polifh they have now received. An effect cannot be produced without a caufe. Has the feudal fyftem given place to a more free and unreftrained pofTelTion of pro- perty ? Are the rights of mankind much better known and attended to than they once were ? Are governments and laws more propitious to civil and religious liberty, than they were in barbarous ages ? And has the manners of foci- cty been progreflive in improvement ? Thefc changes are indeed owing to the natural ad- vances of fociety from ignorance to knowledge, and from barbarifm to civilization. But thofe changes could not have been, had not caufes cxifted to produce them. Thefe caufes fhall be inveftigated, and the following truth evinced, that (i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L that when fociety is ripe for a change, there h a caufe at hand to bring it about. The hiftory of mankind, from the beginning of the world to the prefent time, is a chain confining of many links. To ftrike off one, would be to difcompofe the whole. There is an intimate connection between ancient and modern hiflory. Thefe two parts make up the whole And though any part of hiftory may be the fubje6l of our ftudy, yet unlefs we vievr it in connection with the other parts, it cannot be ftudied with that advantage, it otherwife would. I Ihall, in the fequel of this ledure> point out the conned:ion, by giving fuch a fketch of the hiftory of ancient nations, as may- be fufficient to anfwer this purpofe. The Bible affords the only true account of the origin of the human race. Mofes informs us, in the book of Genefts, that there was a time, when all the inhabitants of this world were only one man and one woman. That the poftdeluvian generations of our fpecies de- fcended from Noah's three fons : and that im- mediately upon the confuiion of tongues, meil feparated from the plains of Shinar; thofe of the fame language continuing together, and making choice of thofe parts of the earth, as l^eft fuited their way of life, Hiftory Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (17) Hiilory and tradition agree in reprefenting men to have been in a favagre flate. That there Was a time, when fcattered over this earthj they had no bond of conne(5lion, but every indivi- dual was furrounded with wants and danglers, which depended folely upon himfelf to provide for, and guard againft. Laws, governments, and arts were then unknovv'n. The ftronger took from the weaker the food he had pro* cured from the chace, or by fiiliing; and he could not have redrefs for the injury done him. The American tribes, the Hottentots, and the natives of New-Holland, are in a ftate nearly refembling this defcription. A flate mofl humiliating to mankind* But as man is naturally focial, having fome- thincr inherent in him which attradls him to his kind, this liate muft have been of fhort duration. For, (as an ingenious author obferves) ** The earlieft and latefl accounts collected from every quarter of the earth, reprefent mankind as alFembled in troops and companies ; and the individual not alone, fhunnino- thofe of his fpecies, but always joined by aiTcclion to one party, while he is poflibly oppofed to another ; employed in the exercifc of recolleilion and foreiight; inclined to communicate his own fentiments, and to be made acquainted with B thofc (18) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L thofe of others."! A propenfity to alTocfate with men like himfelf, a kn^e of danger, and a defire of afliftance and protedticn ; love for a fe- male to whom he conneds himfelf, and chiU dren, the fruit of that conne6tion, impel him to form a more extended union with his fpecies^ The fame wants, and a perfuafion of that mu- tual affiftance, which can be given and recei- ved, unite individuals in fociety ; and the more fenfible they are of the advantages of fuch an union, the more defirous they are to make it clofe and extenfive. The firft eiTays towards fuch focial conned:ions and engagements, by which men bound themfelves one to ano- ther, were conform.able to the knowledge and feeling of their then fituation. Laws to re- train violence, government and regular police were unknown in the firft ftages of fociety. Then, in a certain fenfe, (if I may be allowed a fcripture exprefTion) " every one did what was right in his own eyes." But without en^ gagements, and cuftoms to fupply the want of laws; without fome kind of government, even hoards of favages could not fublift. To unite fmall> fcattered and independent tribes into one large fociety, to ered: kingdoms, build cities, and civilize m.en, is the work of time. Eefore this could be accompliflied, an unioa X Fcrgufon's EfTay, Civ. Soc, Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (19) union between the fexes by marriage, muft have been eflablifhedj the neceifary and ufeful arts of life invented, and fome progrefs made in agri- culture. Men who live by hunting and filhing, or who are employed in the feeding of cattle, iove to roam from place to place. Free and unconfined, they ftay no longer upon a fpot of ground, then till they have exhaufled the game, or their cattle have eaten up the palturage. In this llage of fociety, every tribe is a band of robbers, who plunder and carry off their neighbour's cattle wherever they can find them. Homer's heroes were men of this complexion, who, to revenge the rape of Helen, made a prey of the cattle, the flaves, and the v/omen, w^hich were found in the nations around them. ' A * Tartar on his horfe, is an animal of prey, who ' only inquires where cattle are to be found, and * how. far he muft go to polTefs them. The * monk who had fallen under the difpleafure * of Mango Chan made his peace, by promiiing, * thai: the Pope, and the Chriftian Princes, * fhould make a furrender of all their herds."* A fpirit of plunder brought our ancedors from the forefrs of Germany into the fertile provin- ces of Italy ; and the flime fpirit, more perhaps, than their refpccl for the crofs, led them m Alia to fliare in the fpoils of the eaflern and Saracen empires. B 2 As * Ruhruquisf quoted by Fergufon. (20) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L As the Egyptians were, very probably, the firft civilized nation, among whom laws and government took their rife, I would, in ihewing the connection of ancient with modern hiflory, begin with them. Egyptians. — The Egyptians were a nation, as early as the time of Abraham, who lived in the lixth century after the deluge. Commerce and agriculture had made confiderable progrefs in that country, in the days of Jacob, and Jofeph ; the latter of whom,' as appears from fcripturc, effected an important alteration in Egypt, by changing the nature of landed property, and by an increafe of the kingly power. Egypt is happily iituated as to climate, and the annual overflowing of the Nile, fupplies the want of rain, and fertilizes the ground. f The caufe of the inundations of the Nile, which was un- known to the ancients, is now found to be the rains, which fall in great abundance in Upper Ethiopia, during our lummer m.onths, and a part of autumn. Egypt exhibits tvvo beautiful appearances in the courfe of one year. In our fummcr, the country appears one immenfe flicet of water, with cities, towns, and villages riling above the furface ,• in our winter, it is a beautiful and extenfive plain, covered v» ith cattle, corn and hufbandmen ; \\ ith trees, fhrubs and flovvcrs, perfuming the air with the moft fragrant fmell. The t See Ovid. Met. Lib. i. Tab. 7. Vide Eruce's Travelg. Lect. L MODERN HISTORY. (21) The ancient chronology of Egypt is evident- ly fabulous. The Egyptian prielts, cither from ignorance or vanity, gave v/rong information to thofe who applied to them. According to them, the reigns of their ancient 'kings were by much too long; they have reprefented thofe dynaflies, which were only colateral, as paffing in fuccefTion. However, this we know from what is faid of the Egyptians in the Bible, that their kings were named Pharaoh for feveral centuries. Many fables are related of Ifis, Oiiris, and Trifmegiftus or Mercury, whom the Egyptians worlhipped as gods. Mcnes, whom Mofes calls Mizraim, the grandfon of Noah, is faid to have been the firfl: king of Egypt, (that country having been very proba- bly firfl peopled by one of the defcendants of Ham,) and that in the interval betv/een him and Sefoftris, who was a great conqueror, happened the conquefc of Egypt by the flicpherd kings, fuppofed to have been the Cannanires that fled from Joiliua. Hiftorians inform us, that there was in the palace of Ofymandias an Egyptian king, a library, thought to be the moft ancient in the world, and upon the gate which led to it, were thefe words, " The phyfic of the foul." But by whom that library was colleclcd, what were the manufcripts which compofed it, we are not informed. It is not known by whom the B 3 . lake (22) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L lake Moeris, dug to receive the waters of the Nile, was made; nor what king or kings reign- ed in Egypt, when the pyramids v.ere built. But thofc ftupenduous edifices, whether they -were intended for fepulchral monuments, or for fome other purpofe religious or civil, are a lad- ing proof of the fuperftition and vanity of the ancient Egyptians. Travellers who have viiited Egypt, and given an account of the antiquities of that country, (efpeciallya minute defcripticn of the pyramids) are divided in opinion as to the kind of materials of which they are com- pofed. A late celebrated traveller thinks, the pyramids were originally a mafs of rock cut into their prefent form by human labour and art.* This conjecture is, perhaps, m.ore fanciful than folid. It is miore probable, that the pyramids were built of materials calcined by fire : perhaps the earth dug out of the lake M(sris. That part of the hiftory of Egypt, which Herodotus has given us, though it may be partly true, is not wholly to be depended on, becaufc not drawn from authentic records, nor from his own knowledge and obfervation, but from in- formation given him by the priefts of that country. For inftance, that grave but credul- pus hidorian, tells us an abfurd ftory of Pfam- meticus * Vide Bruce's Travels, LxcT. I. MODERN HISTORY. (:^3) mcticas one of the kings of Egypt, who, being dcfirous to know what nation was the moft an- cient ordered two children to be nurfed in fuch a manner, that it ihould be impoflible for them to learn words by imitation. At two years of age both at once cried out bee cos ^ which in the Phry- gian tongue, fignifies bread. From that time the Egyptians yielded the claim of antiquity to the Phrygians. * If the flory were true, it is probable they imitated the hae of the flieep in t-he firfl word they articulated. Children learn words by imitation : they have the power of .imitation, and it is by repeated ad:s of it, that ihcy acquire the habit of fpeech. '' Goropius *' Becanus, (fiys a latehiflorianj from the fame ** ftory, endeavours to prove, that high Dutch **• was the ^rft language, becaufe becker in that *^ language fignifies a baker, § In the reign of Pfammeticus (about 670 years before Chrifl,) the hiftory oi Egypt was diveft- cd of obfcurity and fable. That king encou- raged commerce, by opening the ports of Egypt to foreigners. The Egyptians had already made confiderable progrefs in agriculture. But com- merce tends more than agriculture to increafc the wealth of nations, fince without it, the fur- plus of the commodities of a country would be of little value to the inhabitants. His fon Necho B4 (who * Herodotus. J Abbe Milot. (24) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. (who was probably that Necho mentioned in fcripturc, by whom Jofiah was killed,! and who had alfo the name of Pharaoh j attempted to cut a canal between the Nile and the Red-fea, for the convenience of commerce; but abandoned thedelign, after having loft many men in the at- tempt. There is a feafon for every thing. The art of cutting canals has been referved to be one or the many improvements of modern times. Amaiis dethroned Apries, Necho's fon. This king is celebrated, for having promoted com- merce, and invited learned men into his king- dom. Among thofe who vilited his court, were Pythagoras and Solon. The Athenian wanted to be inftrudled in the Egyptian laws, and the Samian fage travelled to learn wifdom. Amafis was fucceeded by his fon Pfammeticus, in whofe reign, Egypt was conquered by Cambyfes, the fon of Cyrus, who made it a province of the Perfian empire. Egypt continued under the dominion of the Perlians, till Alexander over- threw that monarchy. After his death (when his hereditary and acquired dominions were divided among his generals) it fell to the fliare of Ptolemy i^agus, whofe pofteiity reigned in Egypt, till the time of Auguftus, Vvho having defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the battl<^ J 2 Kings, chap, xxiii Lect. L modern history. (25) battle of Allium, (31 years before Chrift) made it a Roman province. Medes and Ferjians. — The Medes and Perfians (I would pafs by the hiilory of other Aliatic na- tions) were dillindl kingdoms^ but united under Cyrus. They (particularly the Perfians) were very ancient. Mention is made of Elam or Perlia, as early as the days of Abraham; but its power and fplendour were not confpicuous till the days of Cyrus. That great man was educated according to the ftridt and excellent manner of the Perfians, who paid the greatefb attention to the education of their children. He polFelTed thofe natural and acquired qualifications, which render a perfon fit to govern ; and, had he not in- dulged a too ftrong propenfity forconquefl, might have made his fubjedls truly profperous and happy. It is not the king who grafps at an extenfive territory, that is a blefling to his peo- ple ; but he who cultivates the arts of peace, eflabliflies good laws, and makes his fubjeds honeft and indufcrious. The information given us of Cyrus hy pro- fane authors, leaves the mind in uncertainty. Ctefias, Herodotus, and Xenophon, almoft con- temporary hiflorians, give contradidory ac- counts of him. Ail wx know of him is, that he was the fon of Cambyfes, king of Perfia, and of Mandane, the daughter of Aiiyages^ king of the (26) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. the Medcs ; that he fucceeded to the crown of both kingdoms ; that he defeated the Babylo- nians, took Babylon, and put an end to, that monarchy ; that he permitted the Jews, by a decree, to return to their native land, and that, by his conquefts, he laid the foundation of a great empire. Of the real charader of Cyrus, we may fay, he underftood the art of war, and made improvements in the arms and difcipline of his foldiers : he was ambitious and thirfted for power, which impelled him to make war on his neighbours, and to feize, by force of arms, what he had no jufl title to : he was the fcourge and deflrdyer of the human race, as all con- querors, who wanted to extend their dominion by force of arms, have been. Cambyfes, his fon and fuccelTor was a com- pound of folly and madnefs, a monfler in human fliape; he was not only unfit to reign; but did not even deferve to live. Nor were any of the kings that fat on the throne of Perfia, poflerior to Cyrus, attentive to fecure and promote the happinefs of their fubjedis. Intoxicated with an unjuft idea of power, alfeding more than a royal magnificence, living in all the fplendour of Afiatic luxury, they indulged, without reflraint, the moft abominable pafTions. As polygamy was allowed among the Perfians, their kings carried it to the mofl wicked excefs : they not only Lect. T. modern history. (27) only had many wives, but even married their own iiilers : they were guilty of incefl, would have divine honour? paid them, and with the m.oil wanton cruelty, fported with the lives of their fabjedLS. Whilil: they indulged themfelves in effeminate and vicious pleafurc, the fatrapae, or viceroys, who had the care of the provinces, likefome modern governors, pillaged the inha- bitants to enrich themfelves ; and like them too, were themfelves pillaged, when they returned to court. The Perlians were often at war with the Greeks, but could make no imprefiion on them, as long; as 'thev continued virtuous and united. Men under the influence of virtuous principles, and animated with a love of liberty, are always an overmatch for thofe who would cnflave them. Darius Codomannus, whom Alexander the Great conquered, feems to have been one of the befi: of the Periian kings, and deferving of a better fate, than to be deprived of his crown and life. But the duration of that, empire^was, in the courfe of providence, come to an end ,- therefore, the ram, which Daniel faw in the vifion, pufhing weftward, and northward, and fouthward, could not ftand before the he- goat. Alexander, the fon of Philip of Mace- don, fired with ambition for glory, and delirous to fulfil his father's intention, of making war upon Perlia, (but the inflrument of providence, though (28) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. though he did not know it,) marched into Alia with a fmall, but brave army; and 331 years before Chrifl:, after two fucccfsful battles, en- tirely fubverted that unweildy monarchy, in lefs time than a foreign enemy could, in thefe days, make himfelf mafler of one county in this ifland. The Perlian empire fubfifted about 209 years. Ofthehiftoryofancient nations, that of Greece and Rome is mod interefling. With it, the moderns fliould be properly acquainted. Here we have light todirecl us in our inquiries, which the hifrory of the reft of the ancient world, (that of the Jews excepted) does not afford. The hiftory of the Greeks and Romans, prefcnts us with true heroes and patriots ; with celebrated philofophers, wife legifiators and flatefmen; with men of the moft exalted genius in the arts and fciences. In reading their hiftory, we be- hold and admire the noble efforts of liberty, and the great atchievments, which men, fired with an ardent love of their country, have performed. And while we read and admire, we catch the kindred fiame. Greeks, — The ancient Greeks were like other barbarians, favage in their way of living, rude and uncultivated in their manners ; without laws and government. A colony from Egypt, was the firil: means which contributed to their civili- zation. The leaders of that colony, were thought by Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (29) by the favage inhabitants of Greece,/to be fome- thing more than human : when dead, they were deified and worfhipped as gods. Cecrops, an Egyptian, founded Athens, and by the intro- duction of laws and marriage, civilized the fa- vages. He eftablifhed the council of Areopagus, (about 1532 year* before Chrifl:) a court of juf- tice by whom caufes were tried, and of whom it is faid, that they never pafled an unjuft fen^ tence. Danaus another Egyptian, and Cadmus n Phoenician brought arts into Greece. They taught the Greeks to cultivate the vine, to melt and work metals, and what was much more valuable, to write the alphabet. Triptolemu* inftruclcd them in agriculture. The petty frates of Greece, fenlible , of the advantages of connection, formed an union, limilar to that of the flates of Holland. Tv/elvc ftates fent twice a-year twelve deputies to Ther- mopylae. That national congrefs was called the council of the Amphydtons, and became cele- brated in Greece. The Theban and Trojan wars ; the expedition of the A.rgonauts ; (fo called from the fliip Argo in which they failed) the cxpulfion and return of the Heraclida*, and the laws compofed by Minos, king of Crete, happened during the dark periods of Greece. Thofc ages v/cre barbarous, and (30) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L and the hiflory of them, is fo blended with fable, that it is impolTible to come at the truth. A true knowledge of the manners and cufioms of men in the firft llages of fociety, is not to be obtained from uninformed hiflorians; but from modern travellers and navigators, who having minutely obfcrved thofe nations that are itill in a ftate of barbarifm, wc may juRly conclude from their information, that the nations of an- tiquity were once, what the Tartar and Indian are now ; natural Iv rude, unimproved by culture and education. But the Greeks by degrees became civilized, acquired juft notions of liberty, and while vir- tuous and unambitious of power, moil zealous defenders of it. Sparta and Athens were at the head of the Greek republics ; the one famed for the feverity of her manners ,• the other more refined, eloquent, and a greater proficient in the arts and fciences. Lycurgus of Sparta, and Solon of Athens, compofcd each a body of lawg for their countrymen : to keep alive and increafe in the Spartans, a love of liberty and virtue, of military glory and a contempt of death, were what Lycurgus aimed at in his laws. The lavvS of Solon were Icfs perfect, but fuch as he thought mod fuitable to the difpoiition and free manners of the Athenians. The Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (3 r } , The Greeks were happy as long as they were virtuous. Love for their country, and an ab- horrence of flavery, enabled them to perform the mofl: heroic adlions. The battles of Mara- thon and Salamis, are a proof, how much fu- perior free men are to flaves. A handful of men under the condudl of a Miltiades, a Themif- tocles, and an Ariftides, defeated the numerous armies and fleets of the mighty monarchs of Perfia. When the Greeks loft their virtue, and became fond oT power, they ceafed to be happy, and became an eafy prey to their enemies. Sparta and Athens had the fame views : each wanted to be pofTeiTed of the fuperiority of Greece: they quarrelled, turned their arms againft each other, which at laft proved the ruin of both. The kings of Perfia, when they found they could not conquer them by force of arms, went another way to work ; they bribed their orators, fomented their animofities, and by alTifting the weakeft, kept alive their quarrels. Philip of Macedon^ an ambitious, politic and warlike prince, quarrelled with the Greeks, de- feated them in the battle of Cheronea, and de- prived Greece of her liberties. From that time, they no longer felt the glow, nor tailed the fweets, of liberty. They were fubmiflive to Alexander and his fuccelTors : for, though the flame of liberty fometimes burfl out, yet it was foon (32) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L foon extinguifhed ; nor could they ever dif- engage themfelvcs from the yoke laid upon them. When the Roman arms carried con- queft every where, they felt their force and fubmitted* But Greece, though conquered, enjoyed peace and liberty under the Roman government,- {he cultivated the arts and fci- ences. Athens was the fchool in which the Romans perfedled their Itudies, and poliflied their manners. Thus, the conquered Greeks inflruded and refined the conquerors of the world. From the fate of the Greeks, who be- came a prey, firft to the Macedonians, and then to the Romans, w^e fee the danger fmall independent flate-s are in of being overpowered and enflaved by more powerful and ambitious neighbours; and that, when virtue and a jufl: fenfc of liberty glow in the breaft, a handful of m.en can make a fuccefsful Hand againfl: the encroachments of a multitude ; but that the reverfe is the cafe, when a nation does not fight to be virtuous and free. Romans, — The ancient Romans, fo celebra- ted in hiflory, were, in the firft period of their fociety, rude and barbarous. Romulus, the founder of the Roman name and nation, was the captain of a band of banditti, that lived by plunder. His delign in building a city, very probably was, to proted; him from his favagc neighbours. LixT. I. MODERN HISTORY, (23) neighbours, and to make depredations on them with the greater fecurity.* Numa, by ellab- liHiing a body of laws, which he pretended were did:ated to him by a divinity ; and, by endeavouring to give them a ta(te for religion, made the Romans lay afide fomething of their former favage ferocity. But under their kings, (who had the name without the autihority which ihould be annexed to it) a period of 144 years, and for a long time after confuls were eflabiilhed, the Romans Ihewed that barbarous rulHcity fo oppofite to the manners of a polifhed nation* It w'as their intercourfe with Alia, and parti- cularly with Greece, that gave them a tafbe for civilization and refinement. But the Romans, like other nations, more eafily imitated the vices than the virtues of their more polilned neighbours. Man is an imitative creature; but from being blind to his true happinefs, or from fome other caufe, he is more ealily indu- ced to follow a vicious than a virtuous ex- ample. Of all the nations of antiquity, the Romans were the mofl: warlike, and the bed acquainted with the military art, as it was pradti fed in early time's. They were all foldiers: in the camp, as in a fchdol, they were, at a very early period of life, inltru^fted in the ufe of arms^ J C and * A. C. 753. (3-4) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L and in thofe military virtues which infure con- quell. The Romans v/ere almoft always en- gaged in war. From Romulus to Auguflus Csefar, the temple of Janus, the emblem of peace, was (if I miftake not) but twace Ihut ^ nor was there any refpite from hoftilities, du- 1*1 ng the reigns of the emperors. So that, what with foreign wars, and what with domeftic quarrels, the ancient Romans may be faid, nevfjr to have tailed the fweets of peace. The moll of the wars in which the Romans were engtiged were unjufl, being undertaken to fa- tiate their ambition and thirft of conqueft. The nations of Italy yielded, one after another, to the fuperior prowefs of their arms ; but they could not lit down contented with this. They carried their arms abroad, and the conquefl: of one nation, but wheted their appetite for the conquefl of another.- No ancient nation, whofe hiflory has come down to us, ever rofe to that pitch of grandeur the Romans did. Providence had defiined them the diminion of the world. The means by which they rofe to fupciiority in the fcale of nations, were a love of country and of liberty i their preference of virtuous poverty to unjufl riches ; a ilric^l adherence to frugality, juflicc, and religion, and the mod excellent military difcipline. The Romans, as long as they cul- tivated thefe virtues, were invincible. To them Lect. I; modern history. {3s) them every thing fubmitted ; but when the contrary vices found a way to their hearts, their grandeur, as a nation, began to decline, fo that though vicflory attended them for a while, yet the relaxation of the national fpirit ftill in- creafed ; till at laft they became an eafy con- quefl to a hardy race of northern barbarians. The fate of one nation may be that of ano- ther ; fimilar caufes produce fimilar effedts ; and the different faces, which different fo- cieties put on in fucceflion, are only a round of the fame events. If the Romans attained to extenfive empire by bravery, by temperance^ by an ardent love of country, of liberty, and of truth ; if, when effeminacy and luxury got poffeflion of their hearts ; if, when a regard to private intereft and pleafure prevailed over that of their country and freedom, they fell a prey to the ambition and enterprifing genius of a Sylla, of a Julius Casfar, and of an Ocfavius, 4ind at laft were fwallowed up by incorrupt barbarians from the banks of the Danube and Elbe : then their fate may ferve as a light to warn others, not to ftrike upon the fame rocks ; and lliould infpire every one, efpecially men of characf?:er and influence in any ccur.'try, to ftudy with at- tention the remarkable changes of manners, of legiflation and government, which are exhibit- ed in hiftory: that, by juft reflec^lions upon their caufes and confequences, they may be C 2 enabled (36) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L enabled to condud thenifelves {o, as to prevent their own country from ever arriving at fuch a flate, as has never faikd to prove the ruin of others. Continuation Of the Preliminary Ledlure^ Rdiigmf, Legijlation, Governments, Manners ^ Arts^. Sciences y ^c, of the Ancients, nnHE religion, legiflation, and governments, -^ of ancient nations; their cuftoms and manners, the arts and fciences by which many in early times have immortalh:ed their names to pofierity, fhould particularly fix our atten^ tion when we read their hiftory; to become acquainted with thefe things is the molt valu- able information wc can obtain from the ftudy of antiquity. Neither extenfive dominion nor ' renov/n in war, can render a nation truly great; but, wife laws, a juft and mild government^ pure manners, and fuch a fenfe of religion, as engages men to the right difcharge of the duties of private and focial life. Arts and fciences bemg the efforts of genius, can be brought to no degree of pcrfedlion in the rude and uncivi- lized periods of fociety; but arts and fciences are cultivated to no good purpofe, when they arc Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (37) are not applied to promote the real advantage of mankind. Societies could not fubfift without laws and government. Men were foon feniible that, only anarchy and confuiion proceed from felf- iih principles uncontrouled ; therefore, they bound themfelves to each other by mutual en- gagements, made laws, and fubmitted to fome form of government, as foon as an union took place. In the infancy of fcciety laws were rude and imperfedt Length of time, cxtenfive knowledge, and experience arc requifite to bring them to perfetliiion ; and their energy is ftrong or weak in proportion to the progrefs civilization has made. Vvhilfl: a nation con- tinues barbarous, the laws are but ill obeyed ,- for, though the weak fubmit to them, the man of power will not. Prompted by his pafTions, and pofTeirmg the means of refinance, he breaks through them as often as he thinks it to his advantage fo to do : hence national happinefs is found in the eftablifhment of jufb and e(|uit- able lavv's, which treat all men alike, and pay no regard to their accidental rank or iituation. The mofl ancient form of government was probably the patriarchal, /. e. the father, as the head of a family, governed, and thofc who lived under his infpe(5lion yielded him obedi- ence ; but as many inconveniences attended it, fb thefe would foon be felt. Quarrels between C 3 families. (2^) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L families, or clans, would arife ; thefe would be decided by force, and diforder and calamity would be the confequence. The experience of thofe evils, would fuggefl" to men a remedy for them, and the bed", in their opinion, would be to refer their differences to the decifion of that perfon among them, the moft refpecfted for his age and wifdom. As fociety advanced, men would unite for mutual defence, that they might, by an union of flrength, the more eafily repel any hoftile attack; and he who gave the moil iignal proofs of fuperior courage, Vvould acquire the greateft influence in the affociarion. When a family, or tribe, became too numerous for the place it occupied, the youth would be fent out in quefb of new fettlements, and one would be chofen to conduct the expedition. The leader of the enterprife, if fuccefsful, would have the chief direction in the partition of lands, in making laws, and in fettling the form of go- vernment ; but the companions of his toils and vidlories, would not yield up their liberty to one, fo as not to referve to themfelves, fome fliare in the government. — They would ftill retain their right of judging in thofe matters, Vvhich were to be determined by the whole fociety.* The tyranny of a defpot, whofe wijl is a law, was for a long time unknown in the world. Govtrnment'ajid laws of the Egyptians. — Govern- ment and laws began in the eaft. Confiderable progrefsj * Vide Caefar de Bell Gal. Tacit, de Mor. Germ. L^cT. h MODERN HISTORY. (39) progrefs had been made by the eaflcrn nations, in civilization and manners, before the inhabi- tants of Europe had begun to emerge from bar- barifm. Egypt, and other nations ofthceaft, were governed by kings as early as the days of Abraham Jofeph extended the authority of the Egyptian kings, and diminiflied the liberty of the people ; but the kings of Egypt were not dcfpots : the laws to which they wer^ fubjeded, regulated the manner in which they were to govern : the virtues the king ihould pradtice, the vices he iliould avoid, weredefcribed by the. ■chief pried, every morning, in a difcourfe, to which he was obliged to attend. When the reigning prince died, the people, according to a cuftom eflabliihed in Egypt, fat as judges upon his dead body: any might accufe him; if the accufations brought againil him were proved, his dead body was deprived of the rites of bu- rial ; if his condud:, upon the whole, was found to have been fuch as a kind's fliould be, he re- ceived an honourable and magnificent funeral. The fear of being difgracefuUy treated, when dead, made their kings pay a flridt regard to the duties of their office. So ftrongly convinced were the Egyptians, that the happinefs of a nation depends upon the right adminidration of juftice, that the judges of their fupreme tri« bunal, (which confifted of thirty) when inftal- led into their office, took an oath that they would C 4 ' not (40} MODERN HISTORY. Lec r. I. not obey the king, if he commanded them to pafs an unjufl fentence. Laws are the fource of many blefiings to fo- ciety ; without them, m^en would prey upon one another with impunity ; property and life would be daily expofed to the depredations of the robber, and the attacks of the aiTaffin. Were men under the influence of virtuous prin- ciples, there would be no need of laws; but, fincc the reverfe is the cafe, human laws are an evidence of human depravity. Egypt was bene- fited by laws, while no tra<:es of civil govern- ment were to be found amongit other nations/ Marriage is fuppofed to have been infiituted by Menes, the founder of that nation ; and, by the laws of Egypt, a brother and fifter were allow- ed to be joined in wedlock. This is contrary to found morals, and was a very great defeat in their law for the union of the fexes. All but the priefls were permitted to have two or more v/ives. Polygamy is neither agreeable to na- ture, nor to the interefls of fociety. Thofe na- tions which comply with the injunction of the Chriftian religion, that every man fnould have but one wife, and every woman but one hufband, are more populous than the nations, where the men are allowed a multiplicity of wives. Moreover, it is evident, from the pro- portion that females bear to males, that a man ihould have only one wife at a time. Adultery, ^moft L-cT. I. MODERN HISTORY. (41) n\o(l unfriendly tofociet-y, was feverely punifii-, ccl by the ancient Egyptians, llie man guilty of the crime of adultery, received a thoufand lafnes ; and the woman, that Ihe might be known as an adultrefs, had her nofe cut off. — Cowardice was punifned with marks of infamy. A falfe accufer had the fame puniHiment in- fiided on him, the accufed would have fuftered, had the crimes laid to his charge been proved. Not only the murderer, but the perfon who could have prevented the murder, and did not, were punifned with death. The parent who murdered his own child, was obliged to hold the dead body, three days and three nights, in his arms, furrounded with a guard : the effect thi^s would have upon his natural feelings, and the difgrace to v/hich he would be expofed, they thought would be the fevereftpunilliment, — The Egyptians were of opinion, that the pro- perty, not the perfon of the debtor, were liable to difcharge the debts he had contradled : they were unacquainted with the punifhments of debtors, v^ hich men in latter tinaes have inven^ ted. We are told, that a king of Egypt, found out a method to fecure honefty and fair dealing in commerce : it was this, he ordered the debt- or to pledge the dead body of his father with the creditor; and if he did not redeem it, he, when dead, was. deprived of burial. By the laws of Egypt, idlenefs and mifcondud were fe- vcrelv (42) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. verely punilhed. Every perfon was obliged once a year, to give an account of the employ- ment he followed, and how he fubfiiled. He who was found to live an idle life, or to fubfift by difnoneft means, to the detriment of the com- munity, was put to death. Idlenefs is indeed the peft of fociety, and the parent of many vices ; but to punifli it with death, was not proportion- ing the punifhment to the crime. This was a fevere law ; and Solon, who, no doubt, received it from the Egyptians, made it one of that code of laws, which he framed for the Athenian com- monwealth. There was a diflincflion of ranks among the Egyptians ; and children were obliged by law, to learn and follow the employm^ent of their fathers. This they thought would prevent that dillmdlion from being deftroyed. This was a bad law. By it, genius was fettered, and a flrong bar oppofed to every attempt to arrive at perfection. The laws of the Egyptians were imperfecfh Of many inftances of their imper- fedlion which might be given, let one fuffice.— Diodorus Siculus tells us, " That among that people, thieves had a chief, with whom the fto- len goods were depofited, and by applying to him, thofe who were robbed, might, upon de- fcribihg the goods taken from them, recover them again, by paying one fourth of the value.'* Probably^ Lec t. I. MODERN HISTORY. (43 ) Probably, this might be at firft a cullom, which afterwards pafTed into a law. Religion. — Religion is the firongeil' cement of fociety, and produdlive of happinefs to the individuals and nations that attend to it. Su- perftition debafes religion, and is the fource of many and great calamities. Though the idea of a Supreme Being, and the unity of God, might make a part of the ancient Egyptian re- ligion, yet it is certain, that from that country, the abfurd fables of Paganifm were derived, which difgraced the worfhip of the Heathens, and funk them into the extremes of impiety and vice. The Egyptians were remarkable for the bafe- nefs of their fuperftition, and the abfurdity of their worfhip. The Egyptian idolatry, proba- bly began with paying divine adoration to the heavenly bodies. This is the natural origin of ^11 idolatry. But there is no end of the religi- ous vagaries of the human mind; when not imprelTed with right notions of God, it goes from one abfurdity to another. The Egyptians worfliipped animal deities : their principal god was ApiSy or Sefqftris, whom a black bull with particular fpots reprefented. The cat, Inchnumeny dog, Ibis^ falcon and wolf, were alfo of the number of their deities. They were magnificently maintained ; people of the high- eft rank ferved them, oiid when they died they gave (44) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. gave them a pompous funeraL To hurt any of thofe creatures was thought a heinous crhne, and puniflicd with death. The Egyptians dif- fered in their religious opinions and rites. The crocodile Wi^ worfliipped in one province, and the inchnumcn, his enemy, in another. Here, the fhccp was the objedl of their fuperftition, and there, the .^oat. Hence fprang hatred, animofities and quarrels. The abfurdity of the Egyptian Vv'orfliip, is finely ridiculed by Juvenal the Roman fatyrifl. * The Egyptian pr lefts "were pofTefTed of great power ; they managed the fprings of govern- ment as they pleafed, and by means of fuperfli- tion, held the people in fubjeclion to them. — Their theology was of two kinds, fecret and popular: the latter, which confided only of impious abfurdities, they taught the people ; the former, * Quis nefcit, qualia demens Acgyptiis portcnta colat ? Crocodilon adorat Pars haec ; ilia pavet ferpentibus ibin. Illic cocruleos, heic pifcem fluminis, illic Oppida tota canem veneranter, nemo Dianam. Porrimi et caepe nefas violare, etfrangere morfu. O fan<5«:as genteis, quibus hcec nafcuntur in hortis Numina ! I anatis animallbus abftinet omnis Menfa , ncfas illic foetum jugulare capellas. — — ^ fummiis iitrinque Inde furor vulgo, quod numina vicinorum Odit uterque locu;, curn folos credat habendos Efle Dcos, quos ipfecolit. Juv. Sat. xiri. Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (±s) former, though mixed with fable, was more rational and pure. ' They affected myfleries, and promoted fuperflition, becaufe they found thefe to be ufeful to them. Prieilcraft has pre- vailed more or lefs in all ages; and human tra- ditions and abfurdities have contaminated both natural and revealed religion. Manners, — Religion has an influence on man- ners. While the religious principles of a nation are impure and favage, their manners will be of the fame complexion ; but: will become fimple and pure, as foon as they attain to juftand ration- al ideas of the Supreme Being, and of the worfnip fliited to his pure and fpiritual nature. The manners of the Egyptians refembled their reli-^ gion ; and the one had an qffe6l upon the other* Refpedl to parents and old age, gratitude for benefits received, a love of peace, and an attach- ment to ancient cufloms, v/ere the principal virtues, and what they were moit careful to in- culcate upon youth. Their vices were many ; nor could it be otherwifc, as the Egyptians were an effeminate and idle peaple. In Egypt, the men employed themfelves in fpinning, and the women managed the domeflic affairs, and the concerns abroad. The female, not the male children, were obliged to take care of their pa- rents. They held all foreigners in contempt ; and from a conceited ignorance, thought that nothing deferved their attention, but the pro- ductions (46) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L duclions of their own country. An evident proof, that the ancient Egyptians were flrangcrs to the proper methods of national improvennent and civihzation. It is by rcdifying prefenn inconveniences, by making alterations in the laws, abolilhiing old, and introducing new cuf- toms, that nations have emerged from, barbar-^ ifm, and the happinefs of fociety has been pro- moted. - Arts.— The arts tend to lelTen manual toil ; to procure both the necelTaries and conveni- ences of life ; and fo to render our prefent ftate more agreeable and happy. That the arts in the early periods of fociety, were but few and imperfedt, is what might be expedled. The real wants of men are not numerous, and as Ions as they continue fo, only thofe arts are cultiva- ted, by which they can be mofb eafily fupplied. It was not till nations had extended their con- nections by commerce, and acquired a tafte for the elegancies of life, that many of the arts, fo conducive to national wealth and pleafure, were found out. Thus, while the arts which promote diflipation and vice, are but of a mo- dern date, thofe which are necefTary to living, w^ere almofi: coeval with the creation of the world. Egypt was the birth-place of the arts. To that country we ow^e the invention of the plough, fo very necefTary in agriculture. The firft Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (47) firft ploughs ufed in tillage were all of wood. *^ A proof (fays Mr. Goguct) that the tilling of ground was introduced in light foils, fuch as that of Egypt.'* Prior to the invention of the plough, wooden fpades were ufed in hufbandry. In fome parts of Scotland, efpecially in the Highlands, a fpade is ftill ufed inftead of a plough. But this mult be owing, either to the poverty of the farmer, or to the ground being inacceflible to the plough. Iron, of fuch ge- neral ufe in all the arts, was, of all metals, the laft difcovered, and the laft employed in me- chanics. Want, a confcioufnefs of it, and in- duftry were the mother of the arts ; but in vain do we know our wants, had not the God of nature furniflied materials and invention wherewith to fupply them. Living in an age, in which the arts are brought to great perfec- tion, and enjoying the advantages they procure us, we pay little attention to the great efforts necefTary to their produclion : and yet, we are told, that there are parts of the world, the inhabitants of which ftill continue ignorant of the arts mcfl: ufeful and neceffary. There Jire nations, or rather tribes of favages, to whom bread, the moli: common food, is not known.— Fire, at leafb how to preferve and renew it, was long unknown in the world ; we fee, from the ■well-known fable of Prometheus, that the Heathens thought it came down from heaven. Magellan (4Sj MODERN HISTORY. Lect. 1: Magellan fays, that the people of the Marianne i Hands, thought it was an animal tha*t fed upon wood, and were afraid to come near it.* — Though Mexico and Peru abound with iron, yet the ufe of that metal was not known to the inhabitants, when the Spaniards came among them. The origin of the moil fimple and eafy art, if it contributes to relieve our wants, or to in- creafe our conveniences, be it the gift of nature, or the effevflof induftry^ is worthy ouradmiration. Chance has led to the difcovery of many arts. For, though neceflity fet men upon making at- tempts to fupply their wants, and thofe attempts have been moftly fuccefsful ; yet, without fortu- nate incidents, many things necelTary to life,* could not have been difcovered. The Egyptians Avere acquainted with the arts from a very early period of the world. Their linen yarn, (faid to have been of a very fine texture) and fine fluffs, mentioned in fcrip- ture, fhew them to have been well acquainted with the arts of fpinning and weaving. The pyramids, thofe enormous mafTes, v/hich have withflood the lapfe of tim.e, are a ftanding mo- nument of their fkill in architedure : but their tafte was bad. Neither defign, nor juil pro- portion, are to be found in thofe public works. What hiftorians and travellers have faid of the time * Abbe Millot. Lect. L modern history. (49) time when, and the perfons by whom, the pyramids were built, is only conjecture. Some think they were built before the flood ; others, that they were the work of the Ifraelites, whilft in bondage in Egypt. The moft probable conjecliure feems to be, that they are fepulchral monuments, in which the embalmed bodies of their kings, and great men, were laid. For the Egyptains believed, that the immortality of the foul continued no longer, than their bodies re- mained unconfumed. Sciences. — There is a clofe connedtion be- tween the arts and fciences ; they exift together, and the improvements, of the one, have a ten- dency to render the other more perfed:.— Where the arts flourifh, happy geniufes are Simulated to make refearches, and to promote knowledge. The divilion of land, the canals dug to receive the waters of the Nile, and their exad: admeafurement of the height of the waters, ihew the Egyptianstohave been acquainted with mechanics and geometry ; nor were they Gran- gers to aftronomy. They divided the zodiac into twelve figns, knew the motion of the hea- venly bodies, could calculate eclipfes, and aflign the caufes of them. They had fome notion of a plurality of worlds, and of the motion of the earth. The Egyptians ufed hieroglyphical or emblematical writing; that is, the figure of an objc<5l was made to reprefent the objed j and D this. (50) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L this, before the charaders of the alphabet were invented, was, very probably, the original me- thod of writing, ufed by all nations. Our letters came from the Romans, the Roman alphabet from the* Greeks; and the Greek characters, fome of which are of Hebrew original, came from the Phoenicians : hence, it is no improba- ble inference, that letters were not before the time of Mofes ; and that God himfelf gave them to that iegiflator upon mount Horeb. From the hiflory of the ancient Egyptians, come down to us,, we fee, they had a genius for invention, but carried nothing to perfedion ; they were grofsly fuperftitibus, and much wedded to ab- furd cudoms. The arts and fciences arrive at perfedlion by gradual improvements ; one has the honour of the invention, and another, that of improving it. Every thing, which relates to the ancient Greeks, is worthy our attention : they had^jufl ideas of the unalienable rights of men, and ma- ny were their generous and fuccefsful llruggles for liberty. Freedom operated in the laws of the feveral republics, influenced their manners and tafte, and was friendly to improvements in the arts and fciences. Sparta and Athens were the two Grecian re- publics that made the greateft figure; both v/ere courageous and enterprifing ; animated with a love of liberty, they performed the moft heroic Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. {51} heroic acflions ; and yet, the Spartans and Athe- nians were very dillimilar in their manners : this difTimilarity could not be the efrect of climate, but mult have heen owing to feme other caufe. Whatever Spartan manners were before Lacedemon was governed by the laws of Lycurgus, I am apt to think, that his laws, which that people obferved for near five hun- dred years, had great influence in forming their manners* v. Laws of Lycurgus — His laws being connecfted with good morals, he did, what very ^q'w legif- lators have done. Riches and poverty are the incentives to vice ; to procure the one, and avoid the other, are the caufe of much mifchief to fociety : thefe he banifhed from Sparta. The lands were equally divided among the citizens. Iron money was the only fpecie ufed; filver and gold were prohibited in Sparta. The arts which contribute to the luxuries of life, were difcou- raged. The Spartans were obliged to eat m public ; and their tables were furnifhed with homely fare. Simple food fatisfies hunger; delicacies provoke and debauch the appetite. Whilft eating, they were entertained with lelfons of temperance and fobriety. In this maimer were the Lacedemonians taught to be humble and contented ; to coniider rhcmfelves equal in rank; to defpife felfiflmefs, effeminacy, and pride ; and, being educated in common, to look D 2 upon (52) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L upon themfelves as the children of the ftate, not as the children of individuals. It was thus they were accufl:omed, from their infancy, to have a generous aifedtion for each other, and infpired with a noble ambition to excel. The old were attentive to commend thofe who were worthy of praife ; and to difcommend and corredl thofe that did wrong. That the Spartans might be habituated, from their infancy, to vigilance and danger, children w^re abliged to fteal their food ; and, if the theft was difcovered, they were punifhed for allowing themfelves to be detccfted. Every one is acquainted with the condud of a Spartan- boy, ** who having ftolen a young fox, concealed it under his robe ; but the creature, not liking its lituation, wanted to get away ; and the boy, rather than he fhould be difcovered to have ftolen it, patiently allow- ed the fox to gnaw^ his fide, till his entrails came out.*' Thus the power of cuftom renders things difficult and unnatural, natural and eafy ; and a fenfe of ihame is fuperior to the molt painful feelings. Spartan Manners, — The Spartans have been blamed for this, becaufe tending to encourage thievifh depredations : however, we do not find, though this was a part of the education of the children of that republic, that the Spartans, when grown up, were more addidled to ftealing than other nations. It was not to raife in them an Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (S3) an inclination to take another*s property, that they were taught fuch lefTons, but to make them bold and expert. Their minds were improved by a conftant habit of reafoning, in fnort and' apt fentences, for which they were famous. Thus, in modern times, a laconic fentence, is a fentence, fhort but exprefTive, The women, to render their bodies robuft and healthy, had their exercifes as well as the men. Thefe exercifes were not immodefl:. By the influence of the laws of Lycurgus, modefty was long preferved in Sparta. Debauchery, how- ever, at laft broke in» and deluged that republic; and the Spartan women became a difgrace to their fex. The Lacedemonian women had great power over the men. A Granger faid to the wife of Leonidas ; " You are the only wo- men that govern men.** " Yes,'* faid fhe, " and we are the only women who are the mothers of men." — Marriage was efteemed honourable in Sparta, and celebacy was defpifed. Among them, the names old maid and old bachelor were fcarcely known. A young man refufed to rife up at the approach of an illuftri- ous general, becaufe he never had been marri- ed. " You have no children, faid he, who may fnew me the fame refpefl, and rife up at my approach.'* The Spartans poflelTed great cou- rage, and acquired great military lame. They lived always in the camp, and marched againfl D 3 their f54) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L their enemies, with an ardour nothing couldcool. Yet by their law&, their wars were to be only de- fenfive. Spartan manners controuled their paf- Hons ; fo that as long as they were careful not to deviate from the laws of Lycurgiis, fo long were they the firfl: republic in Greece, and ac- quired the confidence and efteem of the Hates around them. I do nor pretend to fay, that Spartan manners were perfed:, nor would I hold them up as a model for modern nations to imitate. Perfec- tion is not attainable on earth, nor are any of the ancient kingdoms or republics a pattern to civilized and commercial nations. The auftere virtue of the Lacedemonians, fometimes degenerated into barbarity. Rigidly fevere, their hearts were not foftened by the milder virtues : parents were authorifed, by the laws of Sparta, to expofe, or put to death, their wxak children i and chis unnatural cruelty they often pradifed : with a veiw to accuftom their children to fuffer pain, they fcourged them fo unmercifully, as fometimes to occafion their death. The helots, or flaves, who cultivated their lands, were treated by their unfeeling ma- fters, with the mod favage cruelty. In a word; they feem, from the mpde of their education, to have contracted too great a degree of infenfibi- lity : thefe, I fay, were worthy of blame. But, though their humane feelings were not what the)? Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (55) they Ihould have been, they neverthelefs, de- ferve praife. The Spartans pofTeifed a greatnefs of foul, rarely to be met with in the nations of tnodern times. A citizen of that republic being i*eje6ted from being one of the council of three hundred ; faid, " He was happy that Sparta had found three hundred citizens better than him- felf.*' One of the Spartan kings being afked, tinder what government men could live with greateft fafety ? Anfwered, " Under that, where the people are neither rich nor poor ; where probity finds friends, and fraud finds none." Laws of the Athenians. — The principles and manners of the Athenians, were different from thofe of Sparta. They, more than any other of the Grecian flates, were animated with an ar- dent love of liberty. A defire to be free, would not allow them to fubmit to the kingly power. Royalty was abolifhed in Athens, and the chief power lodged in the hands of the people. No fociety can fubfilT: without laws. The Athe- nians were without a code ; Draco framed one, about 624 years before the birth of Chrifl. But his laws, which punifhed all crimes with deaths were fo very fevere, that they were found to be inconfiftent with the government and happinefs of a free people. Solon, a man eminent for his birth and know- ledge, compofed (about 6G years after Draco) a new code of laws for his countrymen, more D 4 conformable (56} MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L conformable to their manners and lituation. To enumerate them, might afford the reader but litile entertainment. Let it fuffice to fay, that his laws were imperfe(5t : he was defirous to pleafe all ranks in the ftate, therefore, the root of every evil was allowed to remain. But Solon was not to blame, if. what he faid were true, that his laws were accommodated to the circumPiances of the Athenians, and the belt they were capable of receiving. War was the fole employment of the Spartans. Every citizen was obliged to be a hero, or re- nounce his country. The Athenians cultivated learning, and the arts : they were obliged to bear arms, when the neceflities of the ftate re- quired it; but in time of peace, they might fol- low any purfuit their genius led them to. In Sparta, a love of poverty deflroyed thefprings of avarice ; in Athens, the hope of riches was an incitement to induftry : habituated to obedience from their infancy, the Spartans readily fub- mitted to the laws ; the Athenians were impa- tient of fubje^dlion ; an exceilive fondnefs of li- berty was in them producftive of licentioufnefs^ they defpifed the laws and the magiftrates, whofe power was too weak to keep them within due bounds. , If government has an influence upon manners, fo iPianners have an influence upon government. The fevere laws of Lycurgus, being fuited to the Lect. L modern history. (57) the aufterity of Spartan manners, made them conformable to them. The manners of the Athenians were of a milder cafl ; having a tafte for pleafure, and unliable for want of fixed principles, a bad fyflemof laws could not make them better. Such was the contrail, between thofe two ancient celebrated republics. Spartan feverity often degenerated into cruelty ; whilft the Athenians, humane, polite, gentle, and in- genious, diftinguilhed themfelves by glorious adions, and noble works. The people of Sparta treated the helots with great barbarity; the citizens of Athens behaved to their flaves with fo much humanity, that fervants in modern times, cannot be better treated, than they were. Fine Arts. — The fine arts were cultivated, and carried to great perfecftion in Greece. Liberty has an influence upon tafte; and when people have, by their induftry, acquired wealth, the luxuries of life are reliihed and fought after, and the fine arts are encouraged, as a means to dif- play and enjoy their riches. Pericles, a noble and celebrated Athenian, was the firit of the Greeks that patronized the fine arts ; and his countrymen continued for a long time after to excel m them. To the Greeks we are indebted for three of the orders of architecture, the Cor- inthian, the Doric, and the Ionic ; thefe are dill the flandard of good tafle in building. The Greeks produced excellent painters and fculp- tors. (58) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L tors. Phidias brought the art of ftatuary W perfection : Praxiteles made two exquifite ila- tues of Venus, which were much admired. He gave the people of Coos their choice of them at the fame price; who made choice of the leaft handfome, becaufe it was cloathed, and the other naked : a noble example of modefty. The Greek painters ufed only four colours in paint- ing ; black, white, red, yellow : they were ac- quainted with what is called the claro-ohjcuroy the clear obfcure in painting, w^hich makes the figure painted fwell to the eye. Yet it is pro- bable, that they were inferior in this art to a Raphael, and fome other modern painters. In Greece, ingenious arts were nobly rewarded: this was to artifts, the beft excitement to emu- lation to excel in their feveral profellions. Mufic, — The Greeks were fond of mufic : It had even an influence on their laws, and tended to give a foftnefs to their manners. All nations, whether barbarous or civilized, have felt the power of harmony, and fhewn, that a tafle for mufic is natural to man. Mulic foftens favage manners, infpires courage, the love of virtue, and animates to noble avflions. Mufic and poetry are twin fiflers : the bards in former tinies were both poets and mulicians ; they fang the atchievements of their hero in poetic flrains of their own compofmg. Ancient mufic was manly, nervous, fimple and majeftic ) proper to footh Lect. L modern history. (59) footh the paflions, and regulate the temper. The effeminate mufic of modern times was then unknown. The art of mufic, in fo high eflima- tion among the Greeks, was negledied by the Romans, who left it to their flaves. The lyre was the mufical inftrument ufed by the ancients ; at firfl' it had three firings. Timotheus increafed them to eleven, and more were afterwards added. The Greeks were acquainted with mufic in dif- ferent parts, performed together ; their mufical notes were eighteen, diftinguifhed by fo many particular characters : but the gamut, invented in the eleventh century, by Guy D'Rezzo, has rendered this art much more eafy. Poetry, — We excel in any art only in propor- tion as nature has endowed us with a genius for it. Men mufl be born poets, elfe they never can acquire the art by education. A lively ima- gination, an inventive fancy, and a correft tafte, are ne^effary to excel in poetry. The writings of Homer and other Greek poets, fhev/ them to have been poffeffed of thefe talents. Their language, flexible and fonorous, majeftic, graceful and flrong, was adapted to poetry. No language is fo well fuited as the Greek, to make the found an echo to the fenfe. Poetry is perhaps the firft of all' arts; the mofl favage nations have cultivated it. Men, by a kind of inftincSt, love to fing their pleafures and happinefs, the praifes of the divinity whom they (6o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. they adore, the adlions of the hero they admire, and whatever they would wifh to have imprelTed on the heart. The paffions, particularly the tender kind, greatly promote this piealing art. Every lover is a poet. But the humane feelings often infpire the poet's fong. We are told, that Homer's view in compofmg the Illiad was, to put an end to the difcord and animoiities which prevailed in the ftates of Greece in his time. The drama was invented in the time of Solon; for before that period, the Grecian plays did not deferve the name of dramatic performances. f ^fchylus, who was contemporary with Xerxes' invafion of Greece, was the father of tragedy ; he endeavoured, by terror and pity, to move the heart. Sophocles made tragedy more intereft- ing; his plots were regular, and his ftyle, lofty and nervous, was better fuited to that kind of writ- ing, than the liyle of yEfchylus. Euripides, who contended with Sophocles for the palm of vic- tory, introduced into his tragedies that philofo- phy, which is calculated to infpire the mind with a love of virtue. The province of comedy is to expofe vice by turning it into ridicule ; that, by expofing faulty characters upon the ftage, it may be a means to corred: thofe vices, which are not amenable f The firft tragedy was afted at Athens, on a moveable ftagc or waggon by Thefpis, ^^^ years before the birth of Chrift. Lkct. L modern history. (6i) amenable to human laws,* The ancient come- dy was very faulty in this; it expofed living charad:ers, by directly pointing at them, and turning them into ridicule. The ancient comic mufe, like a malicious fatyrift, befpattered equal- ly the virtuous and the vicious. It is a proof of the licentious manners of the Athenians, that they could be pleafed with the buffooneries of an Ariftophanes, w hile he endeavoured to turn Socrates into ridicule upon the rtage, as if he had been one of the worfl men in Athens. The middle comedy, as it is called, infulted a perfon with naming him, The new comedy defcribed manners, without pointing at any particular peribn. This is the comedy of modern times. " A mirror, (as Boileau fays,) in which one may fee the pidiureof himfelf, laugh at his own fol- lies, and in an agreeable manner learn to'corred: them." And yet it admits of a doubt, if ever any were perfuaded to corred: their faults by fee- ing them expofed upon. the ftage. The play- houfe is frequented tor amufement, not for in- flrudlion; and the picture of vice and folly fhewn upon the flage, is viewed by the audience, as belonging to others, and not to themfelves. Philofophy. — Time would fail, were we to enumerate the philofophers and hiftorians Greece * The firft comedy was afted at Athens upon a moveable fcafFold, 562 years before Chrift. 02) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, L Greece has produced. The works of a 1 hucy- dides and Xenophon, of a Plato and Ariflotle, will inform my learned reader, to what degree of perfedion the Greeks carried hiftory and philofophy. We would obferve, that the know- ledge of hiftory is one of the greatefl advan- tages we derive from an acquaintance with the Greeks; but the moderns cannot be much be- nefited by the ftudy of their philofophy. The different fedls of Grecian philofophers contra- dicted each other : their different fyflems, not founded in reafon and experiment, were only the whims of their own brain : their moral philofophy is not agreeable to truth, and the nature of man; not the refult of a proper ac- quaintance with the nature of good and evil. — Indeed, Socrates appears to have been the befl moral philofopherof all the Greeks; the oracle pronounced him the wifeft man of his time : he taught, (for we have none of his writings, nor did he commit any thing to writing) that the proper lludy of man, is to know himfelf ; that the end true philofophy has in view, is to promote public and private virtue; that the philofophy which does not do this, is unworthy the name. But Socrates appeared too foon in the world, as men were not in a capacity to re- ceive his wife inflrudlions. Had he appeared in thefe enlightened ages, he would have Ihone confpicuoufly as a Chriftian philofopher The Athenians Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (63) Athenians treated Socrates as a contemner of the gods of his country, an enemy to the repub- lic, and, to reward his fervices to his fellow- men, made him drink the juice of hemlock. — The Greeks were well fkilled in the military- art, as prac^lifed by the ancients ; their wars with the Periians, and frequent difputes among themfelves, m.ade them expert in the encamp- ' ments of armies, in the order of their battle, and in improvements in the arms and accou- trements of their foldiers : they were acquaint- ed with geometry, ailronomy, geography, me- dicine, and finance ; that is, the way to raife a revenue, and manage it properly ; a fcience of great importance to every government. Eloquence. — Eloquence flourifhes moil in po- pular governments : there the public fpeaker has the mofl proper incitements and opportu- nities to difplay his oratorial powers, and to ac- quire perfedcion in the art of fpeaking. The Athenian government was favourable to elo- quence. It could not fail to thrive in a city, where popular applaufe was the road to fame and to fortune. True eloquence is the art of convincing by reafon ; it interefts our pafTions, and perfuades, by fpeaking to the feelings and judgment of men. In Greece, oratory was taught like other fciences; the orator, not only declaimxd in the fchools, but early accu itemed himfeif to fpeak in public. The fophifts, who fet (64) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I. fet up to be public teachers, corrupted the Grecian eloquence. They wandered from the road of truth and nature, taught their fcholars to alter the appearance of things, to give the varnifh of truth to falfehood, to dazzle rather than con- vince their hearers, and to take either fide of the queftion. Pericles reflored true eloquence at Athens^ and Demofthenes carried it to perfedion. — Nature had not formed Demoilhenes an orator ; his voice was weak, his pronunciation defec- tive; he could not pronounce the letter R: thefe defeds occafioned his being hifTed the firlt time he attempted to fpeak in public. A co- median, to whom he lamented his misfortune, told him, he might take comfort, for his cafe was not defperate ; there was a remedy for his defedls, and a way to attain to the powers of ora- tory. The player made him rehearfe fome verfes, which he afterwards repeated with fuch grace and energy, that Demofthenes found they had a quite different effed:. This convinced the orator, that his fuccefs depended on adion. To acquire it, he built himfelf a little cell, where he ufed to pradlife for months together. To accuftom himfelf to thcnoife of a tumultu- ous affembly, he would fometimes declaim on the fea-fhore ; at other times, to help him to pronounce well^ he would fpeak with fmall ftones in his mouth, while walking or climbing up Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (65] up a hill. Perfeverance and ambition to excel, can overcome the greatell: difficulties. Demof- thenes, conquered nature, and, by the power of his eloquence, ruled the Athenians as he pleafed* The moft famous orators fell before him. Philip of Macedon ufed to fay, that he dreaded the thunder of Demofthenes' eloquence more than the fleets and armies of Greece. He bids fair to excel as an orator, who care- fully forms himfelf upon the ancients ; whereas, to neglect the imitation of Demofthenes and Cicero, thefe great m afters of oratory, is the fure way never to make a figure as a public fpeaker. Rome, from fmall beginnings, became mif- trcfs of the world. A few caufes contributed to advance the Romans to univerfal dominion ; they pofTcfTedan ambition of being the firft power in the world ; this ambition nothing could check ; they laid hold of every occafion to gratify it. They had the moft excellent mode of military difcipline ; the exercifes of their foldiers were fuchas to habituate them to toil, and render them invincible in the field of battle ; their military refources w^re inexhauftable. The eafe with which they repaired their great lofies, in the war with Hannibal, is a proof of this. They paid an exacl and ready obedience to the law^s. '* There is nothing (fays Montefquieu) fo pow- erful as a republic, where the laws are obeyed^ X -E not (66) MODERN HISTORY. Ltcr. L not from fear or rcafoning, but from paflion, as was the cafe in Rome and Sparta.'* For at that time, all the zeal which faction could infpire, was added to the prudence of an excel- lent government. A kind of cnthufiafm from father to fon, gave life to all their enterprifes. Roman manners continued a long time in-^- eorrupted. A love of probity, and a love of poverty, with an ambition of conquefl, kept them at a diftance. from thofe vices, which enervate the mind. In what are called the happy times of the republic, the Romans, it is true, were of unpoliihed manners, but they were not effeminate. And virtuous manners, without the polifh of refinement, are preferable to vicious manners with it. In the fpace of five hundred years from the building of Rome, there was only one divorce, and that too, upon account of barrennefs ; a ftrong proof of the very high elleem in which that people held conjugal fidelity. But time and circuinfiances change the manners of nations. The Romans having fubjugated Italy, carried their arms into the eafl; there they learned the vices of the effemi- nate Afiatics. Thefe vices imported into Rom.e, corrupted its ancient manners, and enflaved the conquerors of the world. The great men were firit infeded; and they, by their example, and to court the favour of the people, debauched them. The infedion fpread like Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (67) like wild-fire, and foon feized all ranks in the (late : the fatal confeqaences of which, were the mofl: licentious manners, civil wars, and the lofs 6f liberty. The change of Roman manners, from virtuous to vicious, occafioncd the fall of that famous republici and made thofe, who were once free, fu.bmit to flavcry. The ancient Romans were, for a long time, a ruftic and ignorant people, unacquainted with thofe improvements which promote the con- veniences and comforts of life. The city of Rome was not paved till five hundred and feventy-five years after it was founded. For five hundred years the Romans had no method to meafure time by. Scipio Nafica invented a water clock, by which the hours were meafured. A Greek, who came to Rome in the time of Hannibal, was the firft who pradlifed phylic and furgcry in that city. Ennius and Nevius were the firif Roman hiflorians ; they w rote in verfe ; their poetry, we may reafonably fuppofe, was barbarous, and their hillories uninterefiing. The Romans became enlightened by an in- tercourfe and acquaintance with the Greeks. Plautus and Terence refcued the Roman ftage from barbarity, and introduced the Grecian manner, of ac1:ing. Their plays, (particularly thofe of Terence) written in the true flylc and manner of comedy, were better adapted for re- prefentation, than thofe with which the Ro- E a mans (68) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L mans had been entertained. Polybius Die wed them how to write hiftory : they became ac- quainted with the philofophers of GreecCo From the fame quarter their bad tafte was correcfled, and their ruflic manners poliflied and refined. Cato the Elder, called alfo the Cenfor, who, from an apprehenfion of the con- fequences, difliked fuch improvements, got a law enaded, by which philofophers and teachers of rhetoric were banifhed from Rome. In this he w^as certainly miflaken. Learning is bene- ficial to a nation ; nor can men be called wife and happy, as long as they are ignorant. — The writings of Cicero, Virgil and Horace ; of Livy, Salluft and Tacitus, do more honour to the Roman name, than all the wars and con- quefts of ancient Rome. Learning, like reli- gion, or any other good thing, may be abufed i but learning, when dire(5led to its proper end^ viz. the inveftigation of truth, and to dilTemi- nate ufeful knowledge, is one of the greatefb bleffings of human life. The difference be- tween the man of learning, and the ignorant, may be faid to be as great, as that between a perfon endowed with reafon, and an idiot. " There is one thing very furprifmg to us,, (fays an ingenious WTiter *) which yet was very common at Rome. To fee the fame man st magiftrate^, * Abbe Mlllot- Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (69) magiflrate, a warrior, a judge, and a general ; an able pleader, and a ikilful politician; a flatefman, and a man of letters ; capable of fig- nalizinghimfelf, andof being ufeful in all thofe different employments. What wonderful menl Surely their education mufl have been very dif- ferent from ours ! How limited the circle in which our talents are confined!" In modern times, the perfon who adls well in one depart- ment of life, is highly commended ; but to fill feveral with advantage to the public, would make him be thought a kind of prodigy. L E C T U R E II, H(/Iory, Laws, Manners, Cujloms, Religion of the modern Nations of Europe, THEsera of modern hillory,mofl: interefting, begins near the end of the eighth century, when Charlemagne became emperor of the weft. For that warlike and fuccefsful prince, having fubdued the nations, who, upon the dovvnfal of the Roman empire, had polfelfed themfelves of Italy, and fettled there ; being mafter of France and Germany, the Low Countries, and a part of Spairt, was, on Chriflmas-day, 800, crowned emperor of Rome, by Pope Leo III. I will ihew in a few words, as neceflary to conned; the feve- E 3 ral (70) MODERN HISTOHY. Lect. II, ral periods of modern hiilory, rhe caufes of the decline of the Roman empire, and by whom the modern nations of Europe were founded. The fubverfion of the Roman empire by rude barbarians ; the glory and flrength of ancient Rome laid in the dufb ; the monuments of her greatnefs and learning deflroyed, claim our at- tention, as an event unparalleled in the revolu- tions of nations : caufes however exifted to pro- duce an effect fo furprifmg. Rome pofTelTed a very extenfive dominion in Europe, Alia, and Africa. The riches of all her provinces centered in that city ; her great wealth produced luxury, and the moft dilRpated manners ,- thefe extinguilhed that love of liberty which acftuated her citizens in the purer times of the republic. Her foldiers, v»'ho, in the time of the commonwealth, were obedient to their commanders, confcious of their importance in the ftruggles between the great men for power, became licentious, and the inftruments of de- fpotifm ; railing to the throne, or tumbling into the duf}-, -thofe who obtained, or forfeited their favour, it is impoffihle to endave a virtuous nation. Rome did not lofe her liberty, till flie had loft her virtue; and, being corrupted in her manners, Ihe made no attempt to regain it; but, amidll: fo many changes, quietly fabmitted to the em.pcror of the day. Rome had now and then emperors, thai \\ ere great men j they did what LrcT. II. MODERN HISTORY. (71} what they could to ftem the torrent of corruption and vice ; under them Rome feemed to get the better of her diflemper, but it was only for a moment ; her difcafe was of the moft inveterate kind. Corruption again appeared in its full ilrength ; llie grew weaker by frequent relapfes, till at laft her diilemper proved mortal. Conflantine, the firft Chriftian emperor, hav- ing taken a diflike to Rome, where, (as fome hiftorians fay) he was detefted for his many cruelties, refolved to build a new capital ; and, having made choice of the ancient Byzantium on the Thracian Bofphorus, made it a fecond Rome, gave it the name of Conftantinople, {i,e. the city of ConftantineJ and to it facrificed the interefls of the empire. That (^vcnt greatly contributed to the decline of the Roman power in the weft. For, by removing the feat of go- vernment to Conftantinople, though he fet up a barrier in the eaft, againft the incurfions of the barbarians on that fide, he left Italy without a proper defence. Rome fell when Conftantino- ple arofe; and the empire under Conftantine's fucceflbrs, being fplit into two, the eaftern and. weftern, became weak, by having loft that ener- gy, which would have proceeded from an union of all the parts. However that may be, it was in the time of Honorius, the fon of Theoddfius, (who began his reign in the weft, in the year of our Lord, E4 395) (72) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL 395) that the barbarians broke, like an inunda- tion, into Italy. liTuing from the forefts of the north, they, with wonderful rapidity, overfpread the fertile fouthern provinces of Europe. — Every thing gave way to their prowefs ; the moH: beautiful countries, and populous cities, were pillaged, burnt and laid wafte. The ty- rants and fcourges of the human race, fell be- neath their fword ; the ftrength and magnifi- cence of the Roman empire, the work and wonder of ages, was overturned, and out of its llupendous ruins arofe the modern nations of Europe. Revenge, and a thirft of conqueff, animated thofe favage warriors; before them refinance gave way : all was plundered, defola- ted and tmged with bood. Thefe emigrations, (which under Radagefus with his Goths, Alaric with his Vifigoths, Atilla with his Huns, Gen- feric with his Vandals, Odoacerwith his Heruli, and Theodoric with his Oftrogoths, lafled a whole century) fucceeded one another with amazing rapidity. The north at lafl: ceafed to pour out its myriads, but the poirefTions of the ancient Romans were no more. Scarcely do there remain any veftiges of their laws, man- ners, learning and arts. The Vifigoths pofTef- fed them.felves of Spain; the Franks of Gaul; the Saxons of Britain ; the Huns of Pannonia ; the Oftrogoths of Italy. From that period, new forms of government, new laws, languages, manners^ Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (73) manners, cuftoms, anddreiTes, were introduced into Europe. Countries, and their inhabitants received rqw names, and the face 0^ Europe was entirely changed. We have already mentioned the caufes which occaiioned the downfal of the Roman empire, after it had continued, in more or lefs fplendour, twelve hundred years. But if my readers wifh to be more perfecflly acquainted with the feve- ral caufes, which prepared, brought on, and haftened her fall, we would refer them to the authors mentioned in the note below, who have ailigned and defcribed them in the moft elo- quent and philofophical manner. * And, do they wifh, to know who they were, that fv/al- lowed up the Roman empire ? I would inform them that they were our fathers ; thofe from whom we are defcended. Europe is one im- menfe family, divided into many branches, but all fprung from the fame root. The anceftors of the Englifh, French, Spaniards, kalians^ and Germans, were Goths, Vifigoths, Saxons, Franks, Vandals, Huns ; all thefe people came from the fame ftorehoufe. The northern parts of Eu- rope brought them forth, and their anceflors came, in all probability, from ancient Scythia, or modern Afiatic Tartary. After having al- moft annihilated the weak and effeminate Ro- mans ; * PufFendorf, BofTuet, Montefquieu, Robertfon, Fergufon, Millot, Gibbon, (74) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. II. mans; after having deftroyed the monuments of their ancient grandeur, their rage abated, and they fettled in the countries they had conquered. Governments, — The firfl objed: which attracts our notice, is the form of government under v/hich thofe people lived, when they invaded the Roman empire. It was the fame as defcri- bed by Casfiir and Tacitus, f very unlike the regular and well adjufted governments of mo- dern nations. While they continued in their woods, and uncultivated forefts, fociety among them, w^as in its infant ftate. Without any bond of connection, families, feparate from, and independent of each other, were under no form of government. Did they plan a military ex- pedition ; or rather a plundering excuriion ? it ivas then they felt the necefTity of united ftrength. Thefe fcattered and wandering clans afiembled in a body ; and each of them were headed by independent chieftains ; but, the neceflity of their affairs requiring a captain,' invefled with fupreme authority, who might condud: the expe- dition, he was chofen in a tumultuous aiTembly, That chief, to whom they gave the title of king, pofTefTed a very limited authority : he had, as chief captain, a right to give his advice firfl", but no power to enforce obedience to it. The chief t See Cxfar de Bel. Gal. and Tacit, de Mor, Gerra. Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. {75) chief of each family or clan, confulted about, and determined thofe matters, which particu- larly belonged to their own tribe ; but national concerns were difcuiTed in an afTembly of the whole community. The primitive conllitution of thofe people, feems to have been a military democracy, in which, each member voluntarily proteded the Hate, and where each free man had a lliare in the government* The fruits of conqueft belonged to all ; they all had a right to any acquilition that might be made. Their king or chieftain, was only the firft citizen of the community : his power depended on his perfonal qualifications ; and the fucccflion to the crown, was neither hereditary, nor eledtive in the fame family. The fon, if he inherited the virtues and qualities of his father, fucceeded him without oppofitipn ; but if nature had de« nied him thefe, if profligate, or too young, the nearefl: relation, or the mofl: eminent perfon amongfh them, was raifed to the throne. This is nearly the idea, which Tacitus gives us of the government of the ancient Germans. From w hat we read of them, we fee that war was their fole delight. Among them, the mar- tial fpirit reigned in full vigour. Inhabiting a country, favage and uncultivated ; a country abounding with forefls, and covered with mo- ralTes ; expofed to a fevere climate, and difdain- ing to procure fubuilance from cultivating the ground ; (76) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL ground ; they fupported themfelves by depre- dations on their neighbours. In their opinion, the fword was their beft right to their neigh- bour's property ; and they exercifed it without remorfe, as a right nature gave them. Educa- ted, from their infancy, in the fatigues, hard- iliips, and perils of war, their bodies were liran- gers to pain, to licknefs, and difeafe. They fported with dangers, and met death with joy. Jealous of liberty, they relifled the attempts of ihofe who wiihed to enflave them» Though ftrongly attached to the chiefs of their own choice, yet they continued to enjoy freedom in this ftate of military fubjedlion. This military democracy continued without any alteration, as long as their wars were only mutual plundering excurfions ; but, when they took polTeflion of the provinces of the Roman empire, their go- vernment became ariftocratical. Having fixed themfelves there ; they, being equally afraid of the ancient inhabitants, as of new invaders, adopted a clofer union ; and, for the public fafety, facrificed a part of their rights, to pre- ferve the reft. From that time their leader was confidered as chief of the colony. To him was given the greateft Ihare of the conquered lands ; and each foldicr, in receiving a ftiare of the con- queft, according to his rank in the army, en- gaged himfelf to march againft the enemies of the community. The chiel officers had the moft Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (77) moft conliderable lots of land ; by which par- tition, a fmall number gained a moft dangerous afcendancy, and the public liberty received a mortal wound. The king, or chieftain, whofc fhare was moft conliderable, to reward paft fer- vices, and to attach to him new partizans, divi- ded his lands, and obliged thofe to whom he gave them, to repair to his ftandard, and afTift him in his wars, under the exprefs ftipulation of having his gifts taken from them. The nobles, or principal officers, followed his example, and appeared at the head of their numerous valfals. They foon alTumed the rights of fovereigns, in their feveral diftrids; difputed the authority of their chief, refufed to attend him, or took up arms againft him. Every idea of political fubje(ftion was loft ; the bond of connedlion be- tween the chief and principal members, was diflalved, and the intereft and happinefs of the whole, utterly negledled. A frightful anarchy was the confequence of that ariftocracy ; the people were endaved, trodden under foot, and juftice was no where adminiftered. Among the nobles, a thoufand jealoufxes fomented a thoufand wars ; nothing but inteftine commo- tions were to be feen; men butchered one ano- ther, and Europe, during that period, was a theatre of i he moft horrible carnage; it appeared to be inhabited only by wild beafts that devour- ed each other. Such was the feudal fyftem of our (7S) MODERN ^^ISTORY. Lect. IL our anceflors. Pity it is, that any vefligcs of it Ihould (till remain in a country which boalts her freedom ! Fi ance, — Clovis and his Franks conquered Gaul, (now France) and founded an almoft abfolute monarchy in that country. He had not, at firft, a more extenfive authority, than the other chiefs of the barbarians ; but the vic- tories he obtained over the Burgundians, whom he made tributary, and over the Vifigoths, •whom he fubdued, made him formidable. An excellent politician, he knew how to lurn every thing to his ov/n advantage. Having embra- ced Chriftianity, he fo managed matters re- fpedling religion, as to gain the bifhops and people. After his converiion, to which policy, more than a convi(5lion of the truth of Chrifti- anity, had contributed, his external deportment "Was marked with devotion. We are told, that he, in honour of St. Martin, forbad his foldiers to touch any thing in Touraine, but grafs and water.— He built many churches and monafbe- ries; but his ambition, increafed by fuccefs, degenerated into cruelty. However, the cru- elties which he exercifed upon thofe nobles •who had fmall eftates, and w horn he caufed to be murdered, ferved only to ftrengthen his au- thority ; and he died an abfolute monarch, tranfmitting his conquefts to his children, as an inheritance that could not be difputed. His defcendants> Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (79) defcendants/ deflltute of his political and war- like talents, could not fupport the French monarchy in the abfolute manner he had done. After his death, all went to confufion : his children, weak and cruel, quarreled with one another^ and ftained their hands with paternal blood ; hence, treafons, alTaflinations, with eve- ry other diforder, deluged France with crimes and' blood. Under fuch weak princes, the great men acquired more authority. The power of the mayors of the palace (a chief citiccr of the court) increafed; and they Toon paved their "vvay to the throne. Pepin Heriftel, mayor of Auflrafia, (now Normandy) by the aiTailination of Ebroin, who governed Neuflria, as a tyrant, found him.felf abfolute mafler of two kingdoms. He gained the aite(5lion of the nation by his wife and jufl conduct, quelled feveral rebel- lions, and obtained two vidlories in Germany. The monarchs of France had then only the ihadow of kingly pow^r. Confined to their palace, as in a prifon, they did nothing, and all W'as done in their name. The heroic qualities of Charles Martel, and his fuccefs againil the Saracens, increafed the grandeur and influence of his family ; and Pepin completed the revolu- tion, by taking from the race of Clovis, every vcftigc of royalty. Thus we fee, that kingdoms, like private property, have pafTed from one family to another ; a firiking proof of the fluc- tuation (go) Modern HISTORY. Lect.jl tuation and changes of human affairs, and that: the wifdom of man cannot fecure ail uninterrup- ted hereditary fucceilion. Spain^-^Spain, whilfl under the dominion of the Vandals, Suevi and Alains, exhibited only fcenes of carnage and deftruclion. The Vifi- goths drove them out, fixed themfelves in that country, and adopted the fame form of govern- ment as the other barbarians. The Vifigoth kings were generally weak, or vicious, or both ; confequently u nhappy . The throne was elective, and the power of the king very precarious. In thefe unfettled and contentious times, the peo- ple often revolted, and murdered their kings. The Vifigoths were very jealous of the privilege of chufmg their king. Suintila, monarch of all Spain, to fecure the fuccefTion in his own family, would alTociate his fon Richemire with him in the government, without confulting the incli- nation of the people ; but the attempt coft him his crown and life. After his death, thebilliops and nobles difpofed of the crown ; a council adjudged the right of eledion to belong to them; and by that the majority of the nation loft their moft important prerogatives. Wamba,- whom the nobles forced to accept of the crown, w^as depofed by a council of the clergy ; and Erviga, who poifoned him, eledted in his place. It was then that a furprifi ng revolution hap- pened in Spain. The debaucheries, cruelties, and Lect. 1L modern history. ( 8 1 ) and impieties of Witiza^ occafioned a civil war; he was dethroned, and his children exckided from the fucceflion. Roderic took poiTcflion of the throne, but the two fons of Witiza formed a party againfl him.- Oppas, Archbifliop of Seville, their uncle, and Count Julian, efpouf- ed their caufe.* They requefl adiftance from Muza, the Saracen governor of Africa. . The Saracens arrive in Spain, engage Roderic in the plains of Xeres, in Andalufia, defeat the Chriftians, kill the king, and transfer the king- dom from the Vifigoths to the Moors. Pela- gius, of the blood-royal of the Goths, with a few Chriftians, who had efcaped the fword of their conquerors, took refuge in the mountains of Afturia, and was crowned king of Oviedo. From the time of Pelagius, to that of Alphonfo 11. who reigned in the time of Charlemagne, the Chriftian princes were confined to a very narrow territory. The Moors (with whom F the * The caufe of" Count Julian's hatred of Roderic, is faid, by hlftorians, to have proceeded from a fenfe of the injury- done to his daughter Florinda, or Cava, whom the king ravifhed ; and that, to be revenged, he invited the Saracens intb Spain. But (fays Voltaire) it is not certain, that Roderic ravifhed Cava., Perhaps the adventure of Julian's daughter is partly copied from that of Lucretia ; and neither is the one nor the other properly authenticated. To call in the Africans, there appears no pretext of a ravifnment, which is, for the moft part, as difficult to prove, as to rommit. Volt. Elf. Sur. IJ Hilt. Gzn. (S2) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL the Chriflians had continual wars, and whom they fometimes defeated) polTelTed the mofl: cxtenfive and fertile provinces of Spain. Italy, — Odoacer, king of the Heruli, no fooner appeared in Italy, than he put an end to the empire of the weft. That country, once the miftrefs of nations, was defolated by the de- predations and cruelties of rapacious barbari- ans.— — The Oilrogoths, who came from the banks of the Danube, drove out the Heruli, feized upon Italy, after having deluged it with blood, and fixed the feat of their empire at Ravenna. Theodoric, their king, by a wdfe and mild government, endeavoured to make his new fubjeds forget their former calamities. He left them in pofTefllon of their laws, religion, government, and magiftrates ; referving to his Goths only the principal military employments. Although a barbarian, he fhewed himfelf a hu- mane and juft prince; he defervedly got the name of Theodoric the Great ; for though, as is allerted by fome, he could neither read nor write, he governed with all the prudence and judgment of a prince perfedlly well educated. He would not allow the children of the Goths to ftudy, becaufe, faid he, ** after ftanding in awe of the rod, they would tremble at the fight of a fword." Italy was happy under his go- vernment, which continued only fix years. — " It is not force, but juftice, tliat ought to hold the Lect. IL modern history. (83) the fceptre, (faid Theodoric to his fubjedts) you live in the fame empire, therefore be friends 3 let the Goths love the Romans as friends and neighbours, and let the Romans refpedl the Goths as their defenders." Amakifonta, his daughter, \\ ho, along with his power, inherit- ed the virtues and talents of her father, would fhare the throne with Theodat, her favourite; this fhe could not do without the confent of the great men. Upon this occafion, the Oflro- goths, like other barbarians, lliew^ed, that they were jealous of the right of eledling their king, of correcting the defects of birth, and repairing the errors of elections. 1 he perfidious and cruel Theodat put Amalafonta, his benefadlrefs, to death with his own hand, which caufed the Oftrogoths to fall into difcord and confuiion. Juftinian, emperor of Conftantinople, taking advantage of their w eak and diilracled ftate, fent the famous Belifarius into Italy, who put an end to the kingdom of the Oftrogoths, and led their king Vitiges in triumph. Totila revived their hopes, and facked unhappy Rome ; but being conquered by the eunuch Narfes, the Oftrogoths difappeared in Italy, and gave place to another race of barbarians, knov/n by the name of Lom- bards, or Longobards. Upon their entrance into Italy, they put all to fire and fword, and founded a kingdom, of which Paviaand Milan were the capitals. Alboin their king, who perifned by the F 2 treachery (S4) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, IL treachery of his wife Rofamond, by placing, in the principal conquered cities, the chief ofiicers of his army, under the name of Dukes, made their government ariftocratical. The cruelties of Clefis, his fuccelTor, infpired the Lomibard* with fuch an averfion to royalty, that they de- termined, after his death, not to chufc a king ; in confequence of which refolution, each of the Dukes, during the ten years the interregnum lafted, became fovercign of his city and diftrid:: but the fear of an attack from foreign enemies, induced the chiefs of the nation to alTemble, and call Antaric, the fon of Clefis, to the throne. It appears, that the fucceffion to the throne of that people, was hereditary ; but the prince was obliged to have his right confirmed by the na- tron, before he could afTume the reins of govern- ment. Some of the Lombard kings were great princes. Rothafis compofed a code of laws, and caufed them to be obferved in his dominions ; {the laws of the Lombards were once famous in Europe;) Grimoald reformed that code, and renounced Arianifm ; Luitprand, a great king, and a great warrior, put an end to the exarchat of Ravenna : he, in one of his laws, condemns the ridiculous cuftom of trial by fmgal combat, (though the pradice of duelling took its' rife among the Lombards ;) Afvolphus, who failed in his ffratagems againft the arms of Pepin ; and the unfortunate Didier, who being conquered by- Charlemagne, Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (85) Charlemagne, an end was put to the kingdom of the Lombards, after having continued more than two centuries. Great-Britain. — The Britains were of Celtic original, and, without doubt, came from Gaul. The Caledonii were the Aborigines^ or fir ft in- habitants of Scotland j ^nd the Pi(5ls, were pro- bably, the ancient inhabitants of England, but obliged by the Celtic Gauls to remove north- ward. The Scots, whether Scythian adventu- rers, or Melefians from Ireland, or of Gothic cxtracflion, conquered the Caledonii, and gave name to that country. The Phoenicians, the mofi: celebrated navigators of ancient times, are faid to have made trading voyages to the fouth- ern parts of Britain, long before the birth of our Saviour : but as there is no monument, nor hiftorical facfl to prove this, it is much more probable, that Britain was unknown to the Phoe- nicians and ancient Greeks. The Romans were not acquainted with it before the time of Julius Csefar. That famous captain having comjuer- ed the Celtic nations of Gaul and Germany, pafTed over into Britain, in hopes, by the con- queft of the ifland, to enrich himfelf and his army. He had feveral fkirmifhes with the in- habitants, but was obliged to return into France without having effedled his purpofe. The em- peror Claudius, came into Britain, and fubdu- cd part of it. It was then, that Caradtacus and F 3 Boadicia (86) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL Boadicia held out againfl the Romans, and ftopt the progrefs of their arms. The former was taken prifoner and carried to Rome, but, in Gonfideration of the noble fland he had made, was kindly ufed ; the latter, not willing to fur- vive the liberties of her country, put an end to her life. Julius Agricola, being fent into Britain by Domitian, not only made a con- quefl of it, but carried the Roman arms into Scotland ,- defeated Galgacus, king of the Cale- donii on the Grampian hills, and built forts be- tween the rivers Forth and Clyde, to curb their incuriions. To prevent the inhabitants of Scot- land from making inroads into England, Adrian caufed a wall, or mound of earth, to be ereded from Solway Frith to Tynemouth ; and Severus afterwards ordered it to be built of Hone. From the time that Britain became a province of the Roman empire, it was the nurfery of their army. The Roman lesions were ftationed in different parts of It; and it is faid, that Conftantine the Great was born in York. When the barbarians poured in upon Italy, the Roman legions were withdrawn from -Bri- tain, and the inhabitants regained their liberty.* Britain, abandoned by the Romans, became a prey to the Scots and Pidis, who reduced the Britons to the laft extremity. In vain did they implore aid of the Romans; that once powerful people • The Romans were poffefled of Britain about 400 years. Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (^7) people could now afford them none. Vortigern called the Anglo-Saxons to his affiftance. They came, and under the conducfl of Horfa and Hen- gifr, drove out the Picfls and Scots ; but pleafed with the country, and unwilling to return, they determined to fettle in it. With this view, they openly attacked the Britons, who, having de- pofed Vortigern, and eledled Vortimer, his fon, oppofed the Saxons ; but all their efforts were to no purpofe. In vain did prince Arthur, the hero of hfs time, defeat the Saxons in many battles. Vidcory, at laft declared for thefe fo- reigners, and the Britons were obliged to take refuge in Cornwall and Wales. The refl: of the ifland was divided into feven fmall kingdoms.* Chriftianity was baniihed, and idolatry returned,. There are no authentic records to prove, that the fame feudal fy ftcm prevailed among the Saxons, (as among other barbarians,) upon their fettlement in Britain. They had little to fear from foreign enemies, and nothing from the na- tural inhabitants: they preferved their primitive form of government, though, perhaps, it was not juft the fame in all the kmgdoms of the Hep- tarchy. Of this we can learn nothing from the F 4 Saxon * The Heptarchy was founded about the middle of the fifth century, and confiiled of feven kingdoms, viz. that ol Kent, SulTex, EfTex, Wcflex or Well Saxons, Mercia, Eaft AngHa, (fo called from the A.ngle3, a German tribe, who gave name tp England) and Northumberland. (88) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL Saxon annals ; all we know is that their laws, and other matters which concerned the public, were propofed, palTed, or rejeded, in a national aifembly.* But the Saxon Heptarchy, disjoint- ed and weak, made no figure among the nations of Europe. The princes of thefe petty king- doms became jealous of each other, quarreled about their boundaries, made war upon, and con- tinually laid wafte each other's territories. In fuch confufion and anarchy, there could be no fix- ed form of government. A democracy naturally changes to an ariftocracy, and this happened to them The nobles ufurped an unjuft jurifdiclion in their own eflates, and put to death, without appeal, thofe who offended them. The body of the nation were flaves, entirely dependent on, the nobility, and fuperior clergy. Thus Britain experienced the fame revolution, which had happened to the other countries of Europe : the government became lefs perfed:,and palfed from the many to a few. In carting a look upon the different kingdoms poffeffed by the barbarians, who divided the Roman empire among them, we are furprifed to fee the government, every where, undergo the fame revolutions and changes. Whence the caufe, that people fo fond of liberty, fo jealous of * The Saxon national affembly, was called Wittenagsmote^ that is, an affembly of wife men ; and from that legiflativc body, the Parliament of Britain, very probably took its rife. Lect.il modern history. (89) of that valuable equality they enjoyed^ \vhen in their woods and foreil"s, ihould allow thefe to be taken from them ? Why did they fuffer their chieftains, whofe fbandards they had followed of their own accord^ to become their mafters and tyrants ? That the Romans, Gauls, and Britons, fliould fubmit to their favage conquerors, is not at all furprifmg ; they yielded to the fbrongeft : but, that the Franks, the Goths, and the Saxons, fhould have parted with their liberty, and allow- ed their companions to enflave them, can be accounted for, only from the nature of things. While thefe barbarians continued in Germany, their m^anners were iimple and fevere. Thejr were equal in rank and fortune ,• to them luxury- was unknown j living a frugal life, their wants were few, and eafily fupplied. They had no defire for wealth, the parent of effeminacy and idlenefs ; for wealth, which corrupts both rich and poor, the one by polTeflion, and the other by covetoufnefs ; and, at length, fubjeds thofe who were once on an equality, to one ano- ther, Befides, though their clans were numer- ous, yet they did not form a large and compad: fociety : their tribes were divided into many families, diftin(rt from, and independent of each other; thefe could eafily aiTemble to deliberate the matters which concerned them. It is eafy to fee, that in fuch a fituation, it v/as not difficult to preferve their liberty ; but when they, being tranfplanted (90) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL tranfplanted into a pleafant and fertile foil, gave themfelves to luxury, and to thofe vices which attend her ; then, freedom was exchanged for flavery. They grew corrupted ; their enthufiafm for independence died away, and an ambition of domination feized their chiefs : fuch is the na- tural progrefs of things human. A nation, while poor, virtuous, and confined to a fmall extent of territory, can preferve its liberty. Who will attempt to rob it of fo valuable a privilege ? Who would do it ? But when effeminacy has unftrung the nerves of a people, when they are ambitious of an extenfive dominion ; and if a thirft for riches takes pofTellion of the heart, then each acquifition they make, is a ftep to- wards flavery, and their liberty lies at the mercy of him who would deftroy it, Thus, thefc haughty barbarians, by loiing their manly and auftere virtue, were, fome by degrees, and fome all at once, deprived of liberty, one of the great- eft and bell gifts beflowed upon mankind. Legijlation of the Barbarians, — The great end of legiflation fhould be, by affording protection to all, to fee u re the life, liberty, and property of each individual; to make men free, by an obedi- ence to juft laws; to employ, without eonffraint, for the good of the community, the wealth, the flrength, and even the life of all the members. To confine the will of men with their own con- fent i to make them ad in their feveral depart- ments Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (91) msnis for the advantage of the whole ; to oblige them to punifli themfelves ; to obey, not the commands of any perfon, but the authority of law ; to becofne, under an apparent fubjedlion, fo much the more free; as none is deprived of any part of his liberty, but that of doing hurt to others : fuchare the wonders legiflation produces. To it, men are indebted for juftice and liberty. But our anceftors had no idea of a legiflation of this fort. To them, the profperity and good order of fociety, were ima- ginary things. Revenge was their fole motive for the punifliment of crimes. The perfon offended, was he alone, who had a right to punifh him that committed the offence. Flowever heinous the crime might be, he could, if he thought proper, commute the punifhment for a pecuniary compenfation. In moil cafes, the judges, whether civil or criminal, were forced to allow the parties to decide their differences "with the fword. To give up to any man, as the minifter of law, the right of judging what fort of punifhment the aggreffor deferved, was, in the opinion of thefe haughty barons, a degradation of their honour. They knew no other tribunal than their fword. Miftaken notions of liberty produced thefe WTong ideas and falfe condudl. They were afraid, that by fubmiflion to laws, they might be enflaved by fome one of their equals. They were ftrangers to this truth; that he (92) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. II. he who fubmits willingly to juft laws, and be- comes dependent on that fociety, from which he receives fupport and happinefs, is free in the proper fenfe of the word. A prejudice, which arofe at firfc from ignorance, and was afterwards flrengthened by paiTion, was the fource of thofc diforders which afflicted Europe for feveral cen- turies. But it will be faid, our feudal anceftors were not without laws. Hiliorians fpeak of the faliquelaw, of the Saxon laws, and of the laws of the Lombards. True, they fpeak of them; but thefe laws did not deferve the name. Shall , we allow ourfelves to be impofed on by words ? To give the facred name of laws to barbarous maxims and cufloms, to abfurd prejudices, falfc traditions, foolifh and fuperflitious opinions, a difgrace to human reafon, would be a proof of our ignorance of the true interefls of fociety. The falique law was nothing but a flatute, which fixed the different fums of money to be given as a compenfation for different crimes. Theft, robbery, manflaughter, and even murder, were by that law, valued at a certain price ; fo that a perfon who had money, might commit as many crimes as he pleafed. What kind of check to wickednefs ! The jurifprudence of feudal times, fo far from being milJ and humane ; was, in my opinion, the moft cruel, and contrary to good government, that poflibly could be ; be- caufe, it gave occafion to the multiplication of crimes. Lect. it. modern history. (^2) crimes. Thefe laws abounded with abfurdities ! A wound upon the head was lefs feverely punifli- cd, than an injury done to a dead body. A greater price was fet upon the head of an arch- biiliop, than upon that of a king. In indecifive criminal caufes, the law allowed the perfon ac- cufed, to purge himfelf by oath; and he not only gave his oath, but was obliged to produce a certain number of witnelTes to fwear with him. We are told, that Gontran, king of Burgur^dy, entertained doubts of the legitimacy of Clotaire; to remove which, his mother Fredegonde, and three hundred witnefTes fwore, and alfo three bifliops, upon whofe oath the greateft flrefs was laid, that Clotaire was the fon of Chilperic. How abfurd fuch a proof in an affair of this kind 1 However, it removed every fufpicion. What can we think of the proofs of cold and hot water, of red-hot iron, which were called the judgment of God? Surely they are a flriking evidence of the folly and ignorance of barbarous times.* We fhall have occafion afterwards to take * The proof, by cold water, began with faying mafs : the perfon accufed received the communion ; the cold water wai bleffed and exorclfed, and then tlie accufed was thrown bound into it; if he fank to the bottom, he was deemed innocent; if he fwam on the furface. he was thought to be guilty. The judgment of God by hot water was, by making the accufed plunge his naked arm into a veiTel full of boiling water, from th^ bottom of which, he was to bring up a confec rated ring. The. (94) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. it take notice of the many evils, which this fuper-* flition, in union with the moft flupid ignorance, produced. The laws of the Saxons were no better; by thefe, a pecuniary fine was allowed as a compenfation for crimes. A perfon's life was fixed at a certain price, and his rank in fo- ciety determined the fum. By a law of Ethel- bert, an adulterer v/as obliged to make atone- ment to the injured party, by purchafing him another wife : in a word, the laws and cuftoms which then prevailed, in almoft the whole of Europe, were the fame. The laws of the Lom- bards were marked with fimiliar charadters of folly, fuperfiition, and ignorance. Luitprand was convinced of their abfurdit/; but, as the Lombards were much attached to them, he was obliged to tolerate an abufe he could not amend. In Spain, fuperftition introduced a mofl" cruel legiflation : hence thofe fanguinary laws, by which the Jews were obliged, under pain of death, to receive baptifm : hence that impious oath, the kings of Spain were forced to take when they mounted the throne, that they w^ould put The judge in prefence of the clergy and people, inclofed the perfon's arm in a bag, which he fealed with his own feal ; and if no fymptoms of burning appeared on his arm, three days after, he was reputed innocent. The third proof was, that of a red-hot bar of iron, which the accufed was obliged to carry in his hand, the length of nine paces. In this proof, to deceive, was more difficult than in that of the others; therefore, very few, if any, fubmitted to it. Volt. Lect. II. modern history. (95) put in force all the laws made againfi: that un- fortunace people. In fine, without being more particular, we may obferve, that a commentary upon the feveral codes of the anceftors of modern Europeans, would be a mad fevere fatire upon their manners, religion, and good fenfe* Manners of the Barbarians, — The government and laws of our anceftors, being of this com- plexion, we may eafily judge of the purity and mildnefs of their manners. They were favage in the period I am fpeaking of. Kings were then monfters of debauchery, cruelty, and fu- perftition; honefty and truth were banifhed from fociety ; humanity was not known or felt ; the wars of kmgs, the feuds of nobles, ftained every land with perfidies, treafons, afTafTmations and murders; a brutal ambition, a favage and cruel fuperftition, formed the character of that iron age. The annals of France prefent us with the cruelties of Clovis, the founder of the French nation ; with the fanguinary condudl of his four fons, all of w hom were ftained with the moft atrocious crimes : and that kingdom, un- der many of his fuccefTors, was nothing but a theatre of blood. A king of pure and mild manners, was then a kind of prodigy. Britain and Spain were afBicl:ed with continual civil wars, the caufe of the greateft evils to nations. Indeed, the reign of the Goths and Lombards in Italy, eafes the mind a little, after having been fatigued (96) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. 1 1, fatigued v/ith a detail of thefe cruelties. We are pleafed with the wifdom and humanity of Theo- doric in the government of his fubjeds ; and, we would have been more fo, had he not llained his hands with the innocent blood of Symma- chus and Boetius, two men, Vv ho, by their learn- ing and virtue, did honour to the age in which they lived. The annals of the Lombards, pre- fent us with wife and humane princes, who feem to have been acquainted with the valuable doc- trine of toleration. Though they themfelves were of the Arian communion, yet they allow- ed liberty of confcience to the Catholics. = Their laws in general, were lefs abfurd,and their manners of a milder cafl, than thofe of other barbarians. Whence the difference ? from this no doubt, that in Italy they found more abun- dant means of inilru6tion. Religion, — The Chriftian religion is pure, mild, and benevolent. The barbarians, who fettled in the Roman provinces, embraced this religion. Now, we ihould naturally imagine, that it would have foftened their favage man- ners; but the contrary happened. Thefe peo- ple were already infected with fuperftition in the extreme, which, uniting with the dod:rines and ceremonies of Chrillianity, produced a flrange mixture of devotion and folly, of cruel- ty and zeal. By the converfion of the barbari- ans, the clergy gained, but the Chriflian religion loft. Lect. II. IVIODERN HISTORY. loft. Though they changed the objedl of their worfiiip, they fiill retained the fame fpirit. The Druids among the Gauls and Britons, the priefls of Thor and Woden, among the Ger- mans and Scandinavians, exercifed an abfolute power over the minds of men. When thefe barbarians became Chriftians, they retained the fame veneration for the priefthood ; and the clergy, ftrangers to piety and virtue, by abufing that refpedt, favoured fuperftition, and increaf- cd it- Such of the barbarians, as were confe- crated to the fervice of the altar, brought their ignorance and prejudices to it. Befides, the fpirit of primitive Chriftianity v^as much chang- ed. The Chriflian emperors had enriched the church, ^nd granted her many privileges and irhmunities; thefe temporal advantages relaxed church difcipline, and the fall of the empire haltened its decline. The people, loaded with difbrefles, fought refuge in religion, gave them- felves up to her miniflers; and the clergy made ufe of this afcendancy, to increafe their power and wealth. Hence, the light of truth difap- peared, many prejudices fprang up, and the paf- lions, united to ignorance, perverted the fpirit of the gofpel. The donations of the barbarians to the church, increafed the evil. Many of thefe adventurers, polluted with crimes, and enriched by rapine, thought themfelves happy, if, by giving a part of their plunder to the clergy, they J Q couid (9S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. II. could obtain abfolution, which they believed in their power to bellow. And, as in thofe days^ money could procure the pardon of crimes com- mitted againfl: fociety, fo they imagined, that donations to the church, could purchafe the kingdom of heaven. Hence thofe mod addicted to rapine, violence and debauchery, were the mofl generous. Avarice, in their opinion, was the chief attribute of the Divinity. Such a flow of v/ealth lavifhed upon the clergy, rendered them fo powerful, as to make a king of France complain, " That the bifhops were kings." — Indeed, the bifhops became, by the union of their wealth with religion, the arbiters of kingdoms, difpofed of crowns, and regulated the affairs of Hate. It was necelTary to confult them, as the little knowledge then in Europe centred in them; and, as an oppofition took place between the interefts of the clergy and laity, fo this pro- duced a jealoufy, which was the caufe of many diforders. It was then, that the minifters of religion, had recourfe to artifice againft th^ir more powerful enemies, invented ftories to frighten them, employed fpiritual arms to de- fend their temporal polTefTions, and changed the mild language of charity into wicked impreca- tions. The benevolent religion of Jefus breath- ed only terror in the mouths of its miniflers. HarneiTed priefts defended their own territories by force of arms, or invaded thofe of others. T@ Lect. IL modern history. (99) To the thunder of the churchy the occaiion of many wars and revolutions, they joined alfo the ^ aid of thefword. They encouraged ignorance, and difcouraged knowledge, that they might reign over the minds of men with a more abfo- lute fway. They made a myftery of every thing; truth could not appear, and reafon was en (laved by fu perdition. Had the abufes which crept into religion^ been productive of no calamities ; had the fu- perflitious errors, which fo long infedted the modern nations of Europe, no dangerous influ- ence on fociety, we fhould have omited a detail, fo difgraceful, not only to religion, but to her minifters. Chriftianity confidered in its true point of view, is a pure and holy religion, wor- thy the veneration of all men ; its dodlrines are divine, its morality noble, perfect, and fublime^ The precept of univerfal charity or love, fo pro- per to procure and fecure the happinefs of man- kind, is itfelf, infinitely more valuable, than all the wifdom of philofophers. Its worfhip, not that which the imaginations of menhavedevifed, but that which its Divine Author has prefcri- bed, is fimple and pure, comes from the heart, and is conformable to reafon : its dodlrines, Avhich ignorance wrefts and defaces, exalt the foul and ennoble man. In a w^ord, to him who cultivates an acquaintance with the fpirit of the Chriftian religion, it appears grand and divine. G 2 It (lOo) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. It It is not this fpirit that afflidted the earth with many calamities ; no, it was a fpirit of fuperfti- tion, which foments crimes, by appealing re- morfe ; which, to the practice of the eflential duties af morality, fubftitutes a heap of vain ceremonies; which weakens truth, and era- dicate* every juft principal. From this im- pure, fourcc, flowed thofe evils under which modern nations were fo long weighed down^ and from which fome are not yet emancipated. Ignorance produced falfe piety; avarice, chi- cane, and rapine increafed, and brought on the ruin of manners. Intolerance and fanati- cifm united, overv/helmed Europe with confu- fion and diftrefs. Millions of human victims were butchered in the name of the God of peace; and a powder, calling itfelf fpiritual, was feen, overturning thrones, arming fubjedls againft their fovereigns, and creating many troubles to fociety. Let us purfue the thread of thefe calamities; to do fo, is painful to a heart not devoid of humanity ; but a regard to truth, im- pof es the tafk. Men fliould be made acquainted with the abufes, which religion, ill underftood^ has been, and may ftill be the caufe of. For- mer fcenes of defolation, will, we hope, never be renewed; yet they may happen. A fpirit of intolerance and fanaticifm is not yet wholly ex- tind: ; let us then always dread the re-kindling of a flame, which might again fet the world on fire. . It Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (loi) It was during the ninth century, that the eCcIefiaftical authority produced a fatal revolu- tion in civil fociety. The hillory of the modern nations of Europe prefents us with an abfurd mixture of things facred with things profane. The power of bifliops increafed with their wealth, and they infenlibly ufurped an authority which became fatal to princes. They fet them- felves above the laws, and when culpable, even kings durft not punifh them. England and France furnifli proofs of this. Biiliops were in the courts of princes, ^nd at the head of their councils ; they formed plots, intrigued, held the reins of government, and counterbalanced the royal authority. In Spain, the cradle of ccclefiaftical tyranny, councils of the clergy de- cided the moll: important national affairs, depofed kings, and obliged them to fubmit to the moil humiliating penance. The monks aded a no lefs confpicuous part. Miflaken notions 'of religion and the example of fome gre!it men, who embraced a monaftic life, were the caufe of their numerous increafe in the Chriitian world ; and fuperfliition reigned in the monafteries with abfolute fway. In thofe dark ages, v/itchcraft and enchantnient were popular do(flrines ; and the monks flrenohtened tliefe abfurd prejudices. Famine, peltilence, tem- pers, and ficknefs were attributed to evil fpirits. A gloomy terror feized the human mind ; and G 3 men (102) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL men willingly allowed thenifelves to be the dupes of cheats and knaves, who ruled them with a rod of iron. From thefe abufes, fprang an evil, which long afflicled fociety ; we mean the temporal power of the fee of Rome. Temporal power of ike Popes, — The bi^ops of Rome had, prior to this period, afiumed a fpiritual authority over the clergy: they were confulted in matters of religion, and their anfwers conlidered as oracles. Other Chriftian bifhops, formerly on a level, were obliged in the end to acknowledge them their iuperior. The popes, to incrcafe their power, fent miffionaries every where to found new churches. — Hiflory informs us, that Auftin, a monk, was fent by St. Gregory into Britain, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to the Romiifh faith ; St. Patrick founded the church of Ireland, and St. Boniface was the apoftle of Gremany. — As they received their m.ifTion from Romte, fo they did not fail to exalt the prerogatives of the holy fee, and to pcrfuade their converts of the fupremacy of its bifhops. Moreover, the popes were always ready to cajole thofe princes, whom they thought necelTary to the accom- plifhment of their am.bitious views. The pri- mitive bifiiops of Ren: e, had great influence over the inhabitants of that city ; their church was rich ; they were a father to the poor, and ad- miniflered comfort to the afflicted j but it was an Lect. it. modern history. (103) an influence, which their piety and benevolence procured them. They v/ere as yet without temporal power. They acknowledged them- felves fubje and other northern nations, were fond of, and Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (129) and cultivated the mufical art. In thofe daySj» every one who courted efleem, was at pains to be acquainted with vocal and inflrumencal mufic. To be ignorant of this art, was held difgraceful. The favourite mufical inftrument of our ancedors, and of all the nations of£uropc, was the harp. By the laws of Wales, the harp was one of three things necelTary to conflitute a gentleman ; and none but gentlemen w^re al- lowed to play on it. The king had his harper. They had other mufic al inftruments, particu- larly the fmall pipe and bagpipe, the flute and tabor. The power of mufic is amazingly great. A king of Norway and his courtiers, were, by the martial drains of a harper, roufed into fuch frantic rage, that, had they not been prevented, tl;iey would have fallen by mutual wounds.* The Anglo-Saxons are defcribed as remark- ably handfom,c, tall, and robufl. From the figure of their bodies, and their manner of liv- ing, we may fuppofe they enjoyed good health, and that many of them attained to a good old age. It is not fo eafv to form an eflimate of the en- dowments of their minds : their religion after h ey became Chriflians, was tinged with fuper- dition : they were dupes to the errors of the times. The martial fpirit, which the Saxons, who firft fettled in England, f)ofreired, degene^ rated in their poftenty. The Danes were -xllb X I renowned * See Heniy's Hift. Eng. V0I. i. (ijo) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL renowned for valour in war. The Saxons were of a focial difpofition ; this is frill inherent in their pofterity* They were credulous and full of curiofity; two weaknefles the Englifh are not yet divefted of. They were hofpitable; and who has not heard of Englifh hofpitality ; though fome complain that it is gone into dif- ufe. They had many vices ; but over thefe I would throw a veil. They were blunt in their addrefs ; but very refpecflful to the fair fex. A few obfervations from an ijigenious writer, fhall conclude this lecture. " The Anglo-Saxon matrons would rather have their virtues extolled, than their beauties admired. In vindicatioh of their fex*s honour, fhe, convicted of adultery, had her hair cut off, and then fhe was turned forth (with her clothes cut off to her girdle) from her hufband's houfe, in pre fence of her kindred, and was whipped from town to town, till fhe died ; no regard being paid to her fex, wealth, or beauty. Ker feducer was generally hanged on a tree. Thofe who were unnatural- ly lewd, were ftifled in mud, or covered with hurdles. The amufements of the Anglo-Saxon wornen, were fimple and heroic. They gave an ardour to the one fex, and were honourable to the other. Inftead of tambouring waiflcoats, they embroi- dered f^andards for their heroes. The fpinning wheel was preferred to the pillow and bobbins, and Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (131) and the culinary duties of the houfe, were thought more honourable, than to be fhut up in their chamber, manufacturing knotted fringe, and fprigged aprons. Four daughters of king Eduard the elder, were highly difunguiflied and praifed, for their afliduityand Ikill in fpin- ning, weaving, and needle work. It refleclis fliame on our boafted modern civi- lity, V. hen v.e read that the ancients were parti- cularly attentive to preferve the chaftity of young maidens. No illiberal jefts were fuffered to give a fhock to the grace of m.odefty. The nuptial benediction was received by the bride under a veil, to conceal her virgin blufhies : but the ceremony of the veil was difpenfed with, with refpect to a v. idow. Mothers yielded to the tender inflructions of nature in the nutrition of their children. The Saxon matron, a llranger to the falfe delicacy of latter times, nurfed v.nd fuckled her own young, if ihe was able to do it. They held it as a general lule, that a child, by fucking a ilrange nurfe, v/ould rather incline unto the nature of her, than unto the nature of its own father or miother. The origin of drinking healths, is placed in the time of the Anglo-Saxons. The old health, by hiitorians reported to have been drank by Rowcna, daughter or niece of Kengifb, to Voite- gern, king of the Britons, was after this faihion ; ihe came into the room where the king and the I 2 guefls (132) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL guefts were fitfing, and making a low obedience to him, Ihe faid, " Be of good health, lord king," then having drank, fhe prefented it on her knees to the king, who, being told the meaning of %vhat file faid, and the cuftom, took the cup> faying, *< I drink your health,''' and drank alfo. Drunkennefs was brought into Britain by the Danes, who were fuch immoderate topers in the reign of Edgar, and fo much did their bad example prevail with the Englifh, that he, by the advice of Dunflah, archbift:iop of Canter- bury, put down many ale-houfes, fuffering only one to be in a village, or fmall town. And, he alfo farther ordained, that pins or nails fliould be faftened in drinking cups or horns, at ftated diftances, and whofoever fhould drink beyond thefe marks at one draught, fhould be obnox- ious to fevere punifhment. The Danes, we are told, entertained the moft barbarous idea of their god ; to him they offer- ed human facrifices. And though the inftitu- tion of juries is generally afcribed to Alfred the Great ; yet fome fay, that trial by jury, took its rife from their religious notions. The Danes were voluptuous and effeminate. Their beds were conftrudlcd for indulgence, and their beautiful locks that were twilled round the hearts of the Britifh females, feemed to be their peculiar care. A young warrior going to be beheaded, begged of his executioner that his hair Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (133) hair might not be touched by a flave, or flained with his blood. And Harald Harfra- gre, /. e. fairlocks, made a vow to his miftrcfs to negledl his fine hair, till he had completed the conqueft of Norway, to gain her love. Their heroifm was fullied with vanity, and their diflipations were inadlive. The Danifli kings and heroes always carried a poet with them to battle, to immortalize their prowefs ; and they filled up their leifure hours with chefs, dice, and backgammon. The lafl game was invented about this period in Wales, and de- rives its name from back, little, and cammon, battle. As the Englifh are compounded of different nations, fo manly fortitude and valour are truly Britifh ; the Saxons budded upon the original flock, the gentler virtues; and the Danes in- grafted cruelty, intemperance and all the boi- flerous pafTions which agitate the moft violent tempers ; fo that the natives of this country derive intrepidity from the Britons, politenefs from the Saxons, and barbarity from the Danes.'* * 1 3 LECTURE * See Strutt on the manners and cufloms of the ancient Englifh. (134) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. III. LECTURE III. Charlemagne y Re volutions^ Governments^ Manners y — Religions y — CuJlomSy Sciences y — the Normans. ' I ^HERE is nothing flable on this globe; ^ change fucceeds change ; one revolution gives place to another. We may fay, there is a conftant ftruggle between the power which creates, and that which deftroys. The palllons of men have produced that variety of fcenes which we behold delineated in the writings of the liiftorian. Thefe, under whatever form they appear, wx mult carefully obferve, would we unfold the caufes of thofe events prefented to us in the annals of nations. At the commencement of the period wc would make the fubjedl of this leclure, we are prefented with three empires. That of the weft renewed under Charlemagne, who, poffefied of a vaft extent of country, exercifed all the autho- rity of the ancient emperors. -I he Greek empire, which, though weakened by revolts, and ihe fury of religious fanaticifm, dill fup- portea ir.'elf againlt the Bulgarians on the north, and the Saracens on the foath. Irene, a wo- man Lect. III. MODERN HISTOx^Y. (135J man famous for her talents and crimes, afcends the tottering throne of Conftantinoplc, and makes the nations from the Adriatic to the Bof- phorus yield her obedience. Haroun-al-Raf- chid, was emperor of the Saracens ; a man, who gave a luflre to the empire over which he preii- ded, it never had before. Bagdad his capital became the centre of learning, and the fine arts ; and the people of Aiia and Africa, hap- py under his government, called him the jufi\ the moft glorious title a king can have. The other ftates of Europe were yet in Embryo, re- fembling fpots on the body of the fan. The long and glorious reign of Charlemagne, at a time when barbarity prevailed in Europe, prefents us with a fight worthy of a more en- lightened age than that in which he lived. — His ambition and abilities enabled him to per- form adlions which have immortalized his name. Being, by the death of his brother Carloman, become mafter of a powerful kingdom, he, at the inftigation of the pope, puts an end to the kingdom of the Lombards; obliges feveral Italian princes to do him homage ; protects the fee of Rome, and carries his arms into Germany againft the Saxons. That war lailed thirty years. We admire the furprifing efforts of a brave and independent people to preferve their liberties. When we fee Charlemagne ordering 4500 Saxons to be ilain in his prefence, becaufe 1 4 they (136) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.IIL they would nor deliver up Witikind, their lead- er and defender; when we fee him, from a mif- taken zeal, forcing them to become Chriflians, find fubjedling them to cruel laws, humanity, revolts, and feized with horror, we forget his more amiable qualities, and abhor his memory, Witikind having received baptifm, continued faithful to Charlemagne ; but his countrymen, hot following his example, revolted from time to time. Many of the Saxons left their native country to feek refuge in more hofpitablc climes ; and carried with them a diflike to the Chriftian religion, and a hatred of their cruel conqueror. Some hiftorians blame the obfli- nacy of thofe barbarians, not confidering that, it is natural for man to flee from flavery, and the fury of intolerance. Let us call things by their right names. Hillory is an upright tri- bunal, before which, flattery is fllent, and the voire of truth alone is heard. Had the fame of Charlemagne arifen from no other caufe, than his vidorics over the Lombards, Saracens, and Saxons, he would have deferved to be ranked only among the defl:royers of the human race ; but he pofieflcd other qualities, which procured him the love of his fubjeds, and are worthy the ad- miration of pofl:erity. It is not in the midft of conquefl", that Char- lemagne appears a great man ; it is when we fee him employed in procuring happinefs to his Lect, IIL modern history. (137) his fubjeds ; extending his views to govern- ment, manners, religion, learning, and the arts. He appears the father of his people in thofe national alTemblies, which often met by his or- ders ; in which he propofed laws for' the public good, and allowed others the fame liberty. He was equally attentive to the welfare of every part of his vaft dominions, and of all ranks of men.. He endeavoured, as much as he could, to relieve and comfort the common people, who then groaned under an almoft univerfal opprefllon. With this view he repairs the highways, makes new ones, where there were none before, builds bridges, renders rivers navigable for the exten- fion of commerce, and meditates the noble de- iign of a communication between the ocean and > the Black Sea, by cutting a canal from the Rhine to the Danube. - The defign failed, be- caufe the art of cutting canals was then in its infancy ; but to conceive a deiign is fometimes as glorious as to carry it into execution. Charlemagne, unlike thofe conquerors, who only defolate the earth, wiflied to repair the dif- orders of war, of barbarity, and ignorance. Charlemiagne was no lefs amiable in private life. An affedionate hufband, a tender father, a fincere and generous friend. Hehimfelf fuper- in tended the education of his children, and took care that oeconomy and order fhould prevail in his houfe, as in the feveral departments of the ftate. (I3S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. III. ftate. His drefs was a model of fimplicity and real grandeur. " What fliame," faid he to feme of his nobility, whofe drefs he tho-jght more elegant than the occalion required, " learn to drefs as men ; be diftinguiilied for your merit, and not for your clothes ; leave to women the care of drefs, or referve your fine clothes for days of pomp and ceremony, lince they are only for fliow, and not for ufe." Upon fuch occa- iions, he appeared in all the pomp of real mag- nificence ; but in general his drefs was plain and modefl, and his table frugal. One excefs, for which he is blamed, was a too great defire of unlawful pleafure with women ; " An excefs . (fays an hiilorian) we are tempted to excufe in a prince, (though it is certainly inexcufable in any man) who governed by himfelf, and who fpent his life in the fatigues of war, and the cares cf government." " I fnall add only one word, * (fays the ingenious Montefquieu) but this one ^vord flievvs the great man. — He ordered the tggs in his poultry yard, and the ufelefs herbs in his gardens, to be fold ; and he divided among his fubjeds the wealth of the Lombards, and the immenfe treafures of the Huns, who liad plundered the world.** Charlemagne's efforts to banifli ignorance, and introduce knov» ledge, form a very brilliant part of his reign. Study (not for amufement but inllru'ftion) was his daily occupation. In the camp^, Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (139 J camp, as in the court, he had Hated hours for the cultivation of his mind ; and, by an ac- quaintance with letters, eafed himfelf of the fatigues of war, and the cares of government. He was fond of the company and converfation of learned men, invited them from all parts of Europe, and had an academy in his palace, of which he was a member. He eltablifhed fchools in cathedrals and abbeys, in which fcholars were intruded in the knowledge of the fcriptures, in arithmetic, grammar, and church mulic. This was doing a great deal, at a time when even the dignified clergy could not fubfcribe their own name; and when the qualifications of a priefl: were to be able to read the gojpel and the Lord's prayer. Alcuin (who has been already mentioned) w^as the companion and favourite of Charle- magne. This learned Engliihman became his preceptor, and was enriched by him with many favours. Indeed, the emperor's generofity to men of letters knew no bounds. Perfuaded that genius thrives beft when encouraged, he did all he could to cherifh it. As ignorance every where prevailed, fo this great man faw the neceffity of protecting and encouraging a clafs of men, who could employ their talents for the public good. He knew that it is eafier to govern the enlightened, than the ignorant; that (140) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. III. that times of ignorance are times of barbarity; and that from this caufe, the world in general becomes as dangerous to live in as in the wilds of Africa. His ardent love of learning, and his generous efforts to diifufe and increafe it, de- ferve our hearty acknowledgements. But our humanity condemns his blind zeal, which, by blunting his natural feelings, prompted him to deftroy thoufands of Saxons, for no other crime, but becaufe they wifhed to be free. The philofopher and Chriftian reproach him juftly for his fuperftitious attachment to the fee of Rome, and the clergy ; an attachment which became fatal to his fucceflbrs, and, perhaps, gave birth to that fpiritual tyranny, under which Europe has fo long groaned ; an attach- ment vv^hich engaged him in theological dif- putes, unworthy of his charadler. Charles ap- pears great in the national aifemblies of his do- minions, and in inquiring out the means to make his people happy ; but we are difgufted to fee him in the council of Frankfort, in the midft of three hundred bifhops, and two of the pope's legates, arguing with them, and determining matters of fairh. The difpute about image w^orfnip, and the carolin books written by him on that cccaficn, {hew him to have been guilty of meanhefles, and influenced by the prejudices of the times: F^gotijm never was, nor will be, the charader of real greatnefs. While Lect. hi, modern history. (141) While Charlemagne employed himfelf in in- ferior objedls, he did not negled: what might contribute to his glory. Abfolute mafier of a very large extent of country, he wiihed for a title fupericr to that of king, or patrician, which indicated a kind of dependence on the emperors of Conftantinople. An opportunity offered to gratify his ambition. The pope re- quefts his afuftance againfc the Lombards — Charles grants his requeft, delivers him from his enemies, and Leo IIL to reward this, pro- claims him emperor and Auguftus. The pope had no right to make an emperor ; but Charles, the founder of the new weifern empire, deferved the title, which was univerfally acknowledged. The emprefs Irene fent immediately ambafTa- dors to him with propofals of marriage ; but a revolution, which happened foon after at Con- fVantinople, prevented the match from taking place. Yet Nicephorus, who dethroned Irene, made a treaty with Charles, and gave him the title of Auguftus. The fame of Charlemagne reached Afia. — The famous Haroun-al-Raichid, the enlighten- ed caliph of the Saracens, courts his friendfhip, and compliments him with valuable prefents, by the hands of his ambaifadors. — Flattered with the refpedl of foreign monarchs, admired by Grangers, delivered from the Normans, ^be,- loved by his fubjcds, and feared by his enemies, Charles (142) MODERN HISTORY. Lsct. III. Charles had attained to the fummit of human greatnefs, and, in the opinion of fome, to the grcateft pofTible happincfs ; but peifecl happi- nefs cannot be enjoyed on earth. The lofs of Rotrude, the daughter of his afFedlion, and the death of his two fons, Pepin and Charles, im- bittered the laft days of his life. He aflbciated his fon Louis with him in the empire, one year before his death. The ceremony was magnifi- cent ; and Charles forfeeing, by a kind of pro- phetic fpirit, the ufurpations of the church, laid the imperial crown upon the altar, and ordered the prince his fon to take it from thence, and place it upon his head, to remind him he held it of GOD. An important lelTon, but foon forgotten. — " Love your people as your chil- dren, (faid he to the prince;) chufe governors and judges, who, having the fear,of God in their hearts, will abhor corruption; and be ycu your- felfirreproveable before men." - Charles died at Aix-Ia-Chapelle, and the glory of the weftern empire may be faid to have died "with him. The fuperior genius of Charlemagne gave animation to that vaft body, and harmony and order prevailed through the whole. Under Louis the Meek, this harmony decreafcd, the empire received fevere (hocks, it tottered, and fell to pieces under his fucceflbrs. If the reader wifhes to know what Vv^cre the caufes of this re- volution Lect. in. MODERN HISTORY. (143) volution, the hifcory of Charles' poilerity will inform him. Louis inherited the power, but not the abili- ties, of his father. He was a weak and fcrupu- lous prince, who neglected the duties of a throne for the devotion of a cloifter. His reign, from beginning to end, was a tilTue of faults and mifcondud:. He difgraced his father's minif- ters, treated his fillers with cruelty^ and dif- membered the empire. The confequence of which was, the pope increafed his power, the clergy afpired to an exemption from civil autho- rity, and they would have a ihare of the govern- ment. His fons rebelled againd him, and, being favoured by pope Gregory IV. were fuccefsful. The unhappy father, betrayed by his troops, w^as obliged to furrender himfelf to his children. Nay, this was not all ; he was obliged, after hearing a lift of his crimes read, to fubmit to be clothed in a penitential drefs, and then fhut up in a cell, without one domeftic to attend him. Fiis three fons quarreled, and their dif- fenfions foon reftorcd him to his throne. — Louis, weak and fuperftitious, w^ould not re- fume the reins of government, till he received abfoiution from the hands of the biftiops. He received it, and their crime remained unpunifh- cd. The fatigue to which he was expofed in quelling a civil war, with feme other caufes, brought on a languilhing diftcmper, of which he (144) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL he died; The weak abilities and indifcrcet devotion of this prince, were the caufe of many- troubles to his family, and of revolts in his kingdom. The Normans, Saracens, and Bri- tons braved his authority. He was the fport of the clergy, of the pope, of his wife, and the vidim of his children. The reign of a pufilla- nimous prince is the caufe of many evils to his fubjedls; the reign of a tyrant is, perhaps, better; at leaft, the evils of his government arc not of fo long continuance. The other fuccelTors of Charlemagne were equally weak princes, as 'deftitute of good condud: as Louis had been, and therefore equal- ly unfortunate. Charles the Simple, the laft of the race of Charles the Great that reigned in France, by difmembering his kingdom in fa- vour of Rollo, the Norman, greatly irritated his fubjedts. — Charles* inability to govern, was every day more evident, and made him ftill more contemptible, From contempt, the French proceeded to revolt, w hich ended at laft to the difadvantage of Charles, and paved the v/ay for Hugh Capet to the throne. After the death of Louis, the German em- pire left the houfe of Charlemagne, and became elevflive. The German lords alTembled at Worms, eledted Conrad, Duke of Franc onia, to the imperial crown. His reign was unfortu- nate, rather owing to the nature of the feudal fyflem. Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (145) fyftem, than to the inability of Conrad for go- vernment. After his death, the principal nobi* lity, clergy, and deputies of the cities, eleded Henry the Fowler. The empire was afflided with many evils; and Henry, like a wife prince, wiflied to remedy them by good laws. Troops of adventurers unemployed, traverfed Europe, and committed depredations wherever they came : with them Germany was much infefted. Henry, to make thofe bold adventurers good ibldiers, publilhed a general pardon ro all that would enter into his fervice. They crowded to his ilandard, and Henry formed them, by difcipline, into excellent troops. He tried next to put an end to feudal anarchy, by obliging the inferior valTals to furnifh troops, and pro- vifion for their fubfiftence. He built cities, rc-eftablifhed thofe which were gone to decay ; and, after the example of Charlemagne, created marquifes to defend the frontiers from the in- curfions of the barbarians. This wife and pru- dent prince did all he could to annihilate confu- lion, and to introduce order and happinefs. He died in Thuringia, whilfl: on his march to Italy with an army, to quell the civil wars, which prevailed in that country, and to receive the imperial crown from the hands of the pope. — Before his death, he afiembled the German princes, who elected his fon Otho, furnamcd the Great. K When (146) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL When the family of Charlemagne loft its , power, the fertile country of Italy became the prey of petty tyrants. Lombardy, and fomc other provinces, felt the horrors of civil war ; the reft were defolated by the Huns and Sara- cens. The German princes often attempted to poftefs themfelves of the crown of Italy, but were difappointed. They could neither reftore order, nor defend the crown they had feized. The popes of thofe days were a fcandal, not only to the chriftian religion, but to human nature. They got into the papal chair by un- fair means, and when in it, governed defpo- tically by their miftrefles. Churches were pillaged and deftroyed; letters gave place to ignorance, and fociety degenerated into its for- mer favage ftate. — The hiftory of Italy in the tenth century prefents this difagreeable pidture; a picture that may pleafe the unfeeling heart, but from which the feniible and humane, turn away with difguft. Venice, — To contemplate the peaceful pro- grefs of the republic of Venice, amidft" thofc convulfions which fliook Europe, muft give pleafure to every feniible mind. Thefe happy Iflanders emerged from obfcurity, and formed a regular and well conftrudled government, not at once, by violent agitations, and convulfive motions ; but bV an uniform police, and an inde- fatigable induftry. While they feared the houfc of Lect. in. MODERN HISTORY. (147) of Pepin, they aifedled to depend upon Con« flantinople; but when that family was no longer formidable, they threw off their dependerice, and erafcd the names of the eaftern emperors from their decrees. Every veftige of fubjec- tion to a foreign power being removed, they gave more flrength and confiftency to their government. They were fenlible of the difad- vantages of a democracy; that it verges to violence and anarchy ; that in its moil: perfect flate, public deliberations are flow, and defti- tute of that quicknefs of difpatch, which is fometimes the falvation of a flate ; that the fe- crets of government are not properly kept ; that deferving men are expofed to bafe ingratitude and envy ; and that the human pafllons, even the bad ones, are more predominant under a demo- cratical, than under an abfolute governments Convinced of thefe truths, the Venetians at firft conftrudted their government partly demo- cratical, and partly an ariflocracy. By this mixture, the nobles became connedied with one another, and the lower orders in the flate were preferved from being hurt by the higher : being confidcred as belonging to the republic, and not to the nobles, the common people were treated as freemen, not as (laves. Having fettled the internal government of the fbate, from whence the glory and happinefs of a nation do fpring; having cftablillied rules of police and good or- K ^ ' der^ (I4S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL der, which are ftill the admiration of politicians; thefe wife republicans redoubled their induftry^ increafed their marine, and extended their com- merce. They became the carriers of Europe^ exported in their veflels European commodities into the eafl, and brought back into Italy_, the producftions of Alia. A government fo wife, and a commerce fo extenfive, procured them the refpecfh of their neighbours, gave new vigour to the Hate, and increafed their opulence. Spain, during this period, was only a theatre of bloody wars, between the Chriftians and Moors ; the former of whom, by the valour of their kings, gained upon the latter, grew in Hrength, and w ent on re-conquering what they had lofl. — The famenefs of the hiftory of Spain> during thefe conflidls, tires the reader. Battles fought, cities befiegedand taken, human blood fpilt, afford no pleafing entertainment. A ray of virtue, like a gleam of funfhine in a dark and gloomy day, fometimes breaks out amidfl thefe horrors, and chears the mind. An intrepidity fuperior to perils and dangers, a conllancy which furmounts the greateft obflacles, were the qualities common to the Moors and Chrif- tians. The fpirit of chivalry which reigned paramount in Spain, performed the mod fur- prifing feats of arms. The Chriflians felt an 'invincible deteftation for the yoke of Mahomet; this added energy to their courage, enabled them to Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. ( 149) to perform prodigies of valour, and to extend, the boundaries of their poflefiions. The Normans, — The Normans came from Scandinavia, and increafed the calamities v/ith which Europe was afflided during this period. Their religion, the worft kind of heathcnifm, made them barbarous and fanguinary. Odin, or Wodin, the fupremeobjed of their worfhip, was according to them, the God of terror, the author of devaftation, the father of flaughter; and they rendered him a worfliip conformable to thefe terrible attributes. To him they facrifi- >ced human vidlims, and thought that the effu- fion of the warrior*s blood, was what pleafed him beft. The reward thby expeded to enjoy after death, was to be admitted into his palace, and there for ever to quaff liquor out of the ikulls of their enemies. This belief animated them with a frantic enthufiafm., which braved fatigue, dangers, and death. ** Our warriors, defirous of death, (fays one of their poets) go in queft of it, and meet it with joy. When mortally wounded in battle, they fall, laugh, and die.*' To ftem the torrent of thofe barbarians, courage, difcipline, union, and virtue were neceflary ; but diforder, difcord, and vice pre- vailed in chriftian Europe. The Normans made voyages every where in queft of plunder, and continued their piratical devaftations for a long time. The general con- K 3 fufion (I50) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. HI. fufion which prevailed in Europe was favour- able to them, and afforded them an opportunity of making a fettlement in France. Rollo, one of their chieftains, a prince vrorthy to be the founder of a Hate, after having annoyed the maritime provinces of Europe, landed in France, took Rouen, fortified himfelf there, extended his conquefts, and became fo formidable, that Charles the Simple offered him his daughter in marriage, with Neuffria, which, from that timiC, was called Normandy, after the name of its new inhabitants. Rollo alfo obtained Bretagne, did homage to Charles the Simple, for thefc two provinces, embraced the chriftian religion, became the legiflator and civilizer of his fub- jeds, and fliewed himfelf worthy to fill a throne. ne caujes of revolutions — The empire of Char- lemagne fell, and by its fall changed the face of Europe. Two powerful kingdoms, and many independent ftates arofe out of its ruins. What were the caufes of this revolution? The very great extent of Charlemagne's empire contribu- ted to its fall. A machine compofed of many pieces, cannot long fubfift, unlefs a perfon who is perfectly well acquainted with all its parts, their life and proper place, direds its motion. In un- skilful hands, this complicated machine moves wrong, falls afunder, and lofes its effed. Juft fo the government of a wide extended empire. While the empire of Charlemagne was animated by Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (151} by the a(R:ivity, prudence and ikill of that great man, all went right ; but in the hands of! his unfkilful and weak fuccelTors^all went wrono-. The governors of diilant provinces eafily forget that they enjoy a delegated authority. It is not difficult to attach to their interefl the troops under their command, and to fecure the affec- tion of thofe they govern by indulgence and affability. With fuch incitements to fhake off the yoke, they conceive the delign. The voice of duty is not heard amidft the tumult of ambi- tion, and the powerful attradion of command- ing others. If, yielding to this attraction, one rebels, many foon imitate his example. The machine, difcompofed by thefe violent concuf- fions, totters and falls in peices, and every one is eager to feize a part of the wreck. Thus, when a fiate has arrived at a certain pitch of greatnefs, every fl:ep taken to increafe it^ is a ftep towards its ruin. The inability of Charlemagne's fucceffors for government, may be affigned as the fecond caufe. The more extenfive a ffate is, the more does the government of that ftate verge towards defpotifm. An authority abfolute and indepen- dent of law, often degenerates into tyranny: hence thofe acts of injuftice committed by the fovereign, which offend the fubjeds ; hence their dcteftation of, and their attempts to free them- felves from a fevere yoke. The exceflive power K 4 o£ (152) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. III. of defpotifm perfuades the fovereign to under- take enterprifes which create general difcontent, and bring difgrace upon himfelf. An abfolutc power renders him effeminate and inactive ; ef- feminacy and inaction expofe him to the con- tempt of his fubjedls, to revolts and feditions. Charlemagne's defcendants were all weak prin- ces, confequently, a revolution could not but happen. Again, The Normans gave a fatal blow to the empire of Charlemagne. That great man knew how to check their ravages ; but under Louis the Meek^ they plundered wherever they came, and carri- ed away an immenfe booty. Under Charles the Bald, their audacity increafed, they pillaged and burnt every part of the empire, nor were proper means ufed to punifh thofe daring in- vaders. Inllead of expelling them by force of arms, tneir departure was bought with money; they went away only for a nioment ; this dan- gerous means invited them to return in greater numbers, and with an increafed thirft for plun- der. Thefe continued calamities begot in the minds of men a hatred of government, and a contempt of thofe who governed : and the peo- ple made hafte to fnatch the fceptre from the hands of m.afters who could not defend them. Governments, — Government felt great changes in the empire of Chailemagne. During the reign of thai great man, an almoft 2:)erfe(fl mo- narch ial Lect. IIL modern history. (153) narchial government exifted. National affairs were regulated in affemblies, of which he was preiident. Inveited with abfolute power, his edicts did not acquire the force of laws, but by the approbation of the majority. The legifla- tive power was lodged v/ith the people, united to a chief. But thefe alTemblies being laid alide, and the prince invefled with the whole executive power, the authority became one, and the fo- vereign was the fountain from whence all infe- rior powers ilTued. The government changed under Louis the Meek, and an oligarchy, (or a government where a few bear rule according to their paiTions or interefts) was introduced. Un- der Charlemagne's fucceffors, the royal autho- rity was deflroyed, and the rights of the people not known. Then the feudal fyftem, an unna- tural form of government, made its appearance, and introduced anarchy into the kingdoms of Europe. Anarchy produced violence, private wars became frequent, the feudal barons, each attended with their valfals, decided their dif- putes in the field, fingle combat was allowed, and put under certain regulations. In this ab- furd fyftem of government, the fupreme autho- rity was in the hands of a few ufurpers, who had fubaltern ufurpers under them ; flavery became general, and every patriotic and virtuous prin- ciple was loft in the wild uproar. Europe ex- hibited a theatre of bloody wars ; men knew nothing (154) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL nothing but the fcience of attack and defence ; the adminiflrationof juilice was neglecfhed, and crimes remained unpunifhed. Government, in the empire of Conflantinople, was equally weak, unflablc, and tyrannical. The right of beftow- ing the crown was ufurped in turn, by the foU diers, by the people, and by the fenate ; and crimes of the deepeft dye were the moft com- mon titles of fucceflion* Were we to contraft the government under w^hich wc live, with that of the feudal fyilem, v/hil(l in its vigour in Europe, we would feel our happinefs. In that iron age, a chief, under the title of emperor, king, duke, was the fuperior of many fubaltern fovereigns, called his vaflals; and dukes, counts, barons, paid him a mock homage. They, ab- folute in their own domains, exercifed an arbi- trary power over thofe, who immediately de- pended on them. Every lord was fovereign in his own fief; the people were flaves. Thefc petty tyrants, living in fortified caflles, made Continual war upon one another. The land was laid wafte, flaves and cattle were carried off; all was plunder that came in their way. Thcfe feudal lords claimed, as one of their rights, the liberty of robbing on the highway in their own territories, and that they were entitled to a ranfom from all travellers. They eftab-, lifhcd the molt ridiculous, barbarous, and in- tiecent cufboms. Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (155) Legijlation. — Charlemagne and Alfred ufed great exertions to revive a fpirit of legiflation, but they fucceeded only in part. Ignorance and barbarity were too deeply rooted. What they did this way, was undone foon after their death; darknefs again covered the face of Europe ; and the capitularies of the one, and the wife regulations of the other, had but a tranfitory elfecfl. Nothing can be more abfurd than the legiflation, which reigned in Europe in the period we are fpeaking of. The clergy- had arrogated to themfelves the right of trying all caufes, under a pretext that the civil rights of men have a connexion with religion. An oath was ufed in all contrads, and as an oath is an appeal to God, they pretended that all covenants and agreements among men were to be judged of by the clergy. Hence, their deciiion with rc- fped: to divorce, was fupreme ; and aiTemblies of bifhops were employed in almoft nothing elfe, but in feparating hufband and wife, upon the moft frivolous pretexts. In thofe times marri- age was a precarious flate, and a wife was in continual fear of lofiing her huiband. The clergy, exempted from civil jurifdidion, were of fcandalous manners ; nay, the hope of impu- nity, or of a flight punifliment, often tempted them to commit the moft heinous crimes. Manners in the lotb and nth centuries. — We may eafily imagine that the planners of our * ieudal (156) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.III. feudal anceflors werc neither civilized nor pure. Scandalous vices, plots, and treafons among the clergy; injullice, ufurpation, tyranny, debauch- cry, in the nobility ; ferocity and fear, the vices of a flavifh mind, in the people; fuch were the manners of Europe. The manners of the Greek empire were no better, if not worfe ; for, to the abovementioned vices, the Greeks added all the horrors of fanaticifm.- Humanity and juftice feem to have taken up their abode among the Mahometans in Bagdad, where thefe virtues continued for a long time. DifTolute manners v/ere the neceffary confequence of the feudal government : the warlike fpirit of the times laid the foundation. The feudal lords, continually at war with each other, lived only by plunder and rapine. We fee from hiftory, that divorces, robberies, rapes, and every kind pf libertinifm, w^re very common in thofe de- plorable times ; and it was the prime nobility and clergy, who afforded an example of thefe fhocking diforders. A perufal of the acfls of the councils of that period, lliew the difTolutenefs of manners, which then prevailed. The men- tion of fome fadls, the confequence of favagc manners, is enough to m.ake the blood run cold. A terrible famine afRided France in the reign of Robert ; and then, not only were dead bodies dug out of their graves to fervc for food, but men hunted men like wild beafts to Lect.III. modern history. (157) to devour them. A butcher of Tournus fold human flefh. There was found with a vidlualler near Ma^on, forty-eight human heads, the bodies of which had been ufed for food.* O horrible 1 in this time of violence and debauchery, a great fhow of devotion appeared in Europe. The clergy taught, that crimes were atoned for, not by repentance and amendment of life, but by donations to the church ; and that he who gave moft, was the fmcereft penitent. In confe- quence of this falfe dodlrine, monafleries were founded, churches built, pilgrimages under- taken, relics eagerly fought after, and the very menace of excommunication was as terrible to the mod enlightened, as to the moft ignorant. Religion in the tenth and eleventh centuries, — The Chriftian religion expelled idolatry by little and little from every part of Europe; but the divine dodtrines and pure precepts of revelation, were foon corrupted by the paflions and prejudices of men. Very few in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, deferved the name of Chriftians ; the generality, though called by this name, were as abfurd and fuperftitious in their devotion, as favage and wicked in their lives, as their Hea- then anceflors. Chriftianity acknowledged two chiefs ; the patriarch of Contontinople govern- ed the Chriftians of the eaft, and the pope of Rome reigned ftill more defpotical ly over thofc in the weft. The * Voltaire. (I5S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL The difpute about images, between thofc called image-breakers and the monks, filled the eaflern church with animofities, feditions, and blood. The two parties, as their power pre- vailed, excommunicated, imprifoned, baniflied, and put to death thofe who were of oppofitc fentiments. A theological war was kindled in the weft. Gochefcales, a monk, impugned the dodlrine of predeftination. He was cited to appear before a council of the clergy ; he came, and Hincmar, bifhop of Rheims, ordered him to be cruelly beaten, though he difavowed the confequences his perfecutors imputed to him. Another monk, Pafcafius Rathbertus, fpoke of the real prefence in terms too ftrong. Two other monks, Rabanus and Ratramnus oppofed his aflertions. The laft were certainly right; but the controverfy gave rife to many indecent ^nd frivolous queftions ; and (fuch is the weak- nefs of the human mind) produced hatred and perfecution. The reign of ignorance is favour- able toerror; owing to this caufe, crowds of er* rors crept into religion, and disfigured its beauty. Men could neither read nor write. The clergy, who poireffed the little learning there was, grafped all, fet themfelves above fecular jurif- didlion, andedabliflieda jurifprudence defbruc- tive to civil law. The mofi: fcandalous vices tarnifhed the See of Rome. Two infamous proftitutes governed the popes, difpofed of church Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (159) church preferments as they plcafed, and by their extravagance, deftroyed the fand:ity of an oath, and broke every fecial tie. The popes and bifliops eftabliilied a fyflem of ecclelialtical domination j and weak, fuperftitious, and igno- rant kings, favoured their po\yer, and fubmit- ted to it. During this period of intelled:ual darknefs fome enlightened minds appeared. They were accufed of herefy, becaufe their better know- ledge revolted againft the abfurd fuperftitions of the church of Rome. Their enemies, to render them odious, gave them the name of Manichees, imputing to them the moft unna- tural fentiments and crimes; but their only- crime feems to have been, an attempt to think for themfeives, and an oppoiition to what they conceived to be contrary to the Chriftian reli- gion. Of thefe, the council of Orleans con- demned thirteen, and the bifhops ordered them to be burnt in the prefence of Robert, king of France, and his wife Conftance. Berenger, archdeacon of Angers, oppofed the doftrineof the real prefence of Jefus Chrift in the holy facrament of the fupper. He reafoned in this manner; the bread ufed in this facra- ment, will, if eaten after confecration, in too large 4 quantity, caufe indigeftion, therefore it is flill properly bread : the confecrated liquor, if drank too freely, will occalion intoxication, therefore f i6o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL therefore it continues v/ine ftill. Whitenefs and roundnefs are qualities which cannot exili, without a fubftance to which they belong; but thefe qualities belong to bread, not to flefh and blood ; therefore the bread continues the fame after confecration. — Thefe reafons are founded in truth, and by them Berenger brought many over to his opinion.— rLanfranc, archbiiliop of Canterbury, attacked him with very pitiful ar- guments; but he was foon oppofed by more powerful adverfaries. Summoned before the tri- bunal of Rome, which made kings tremble, he was threatened with death, if he did not recant. Overcome with fear, he abjured his fentiments; but as ready to confefs as deny, he retradled ten times, and died in the belief that, tranfubftanti- ation is an unreafonable and unfcriptural doc- trine. But Berenger*s opinions did not even perfuade thofe who believed them to be right, to feparate from the weftern church. The ignorance which prevailed in the tenth and eleventh centuries, ftrengthened popular fuperflitions. Of this many proofs might be adduced. An Italian noblemian was put to death for an attempt to debauch Mary of Arra- gon, wife of the emperor Otho III. His wi- dow, we are told, offered to prove his innocence, which fhe did, by holding in her hands, with- out being burnt, a red-hot bar of iron, as long as they pleafed ; and that this being deemed a fufficient Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (i6i) firfficient proof, the ernprcfs was burnt alive.-— This abfurd ftory was believed like gofpel thenj, and for a long time after. So was alfo that of Cunegonda, the wife of the emperor Henry, who is faid to have walked barefooted, over nine red-hot plough fhears, without receiving the leafl: damage. The well known ftory of Peter Aldobrandin, a monk of Pavia, is a ftriking example of the ignorance and credulity which then prevailed. The monks of Vailombreufe accufed their bifhop of many crimes, and to prove the truth of their accufation, defired to fubmit to the judgment of God by fire. Their requeft being granted, Peter Aldobrandin, one of thofe monks, prefented himfelf in his facer- dotal veflments with a crucifix in his hand, be- fore a large pile of wood all on fire. He enter- ed barefooted, and enveloped in flames, walked flowly through the fire to the other fide, without receiving any damage in his perfon or clothes. Nay, we are told, that this faiamandric Aldo- brandin afked hov/ long they would chufe he fhould flay in the fire^ and that he turned back to take up his cloak. Credat Judeus Appella. Peter's walking through the fire "was only the tricks of harlequin, which ferved at once to Ihew, the impudence of the ador, and the llu- pidity of the fpec^ators. The ridiculous cuftoms which prevailed in the well during this period, defaced all that is X L venerable fi62) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Ut venerable and grand in the Chriftian religion- It was then that the feaft of fools, and affes, was celebrated in many churches. On the day of celebration, a perfon, called bifhop of fools, drefled in canonicals, was conducted into the middle of the church, riding upon an afs. Whether this was to do honour to, or meant in I'idicule of our Saviour's riding into Jerufalem upon an afs, is not certain. Thefe extravagant feafts were accompanied with dancing in the church, eating and drinking upon the altar, and adling the mofl obfcene farces. Miraculous events were very plenty in thofe days. A Ger- man faint marched before Otho and his army, when they went to attack the kingdom of France. Otho, however, notwithftanding the prcdidlion and alliftance of his faint, was beaten, and obliged to fiy. It was then that St. Francis fought for his countrymen, and put their enemies to flight. Did the Alphonfoes in Spain triumph over the Moors ? Their prudence and valour were not the caufe; they conquered, bccaufe St. James put himfelf at the head of the Chrif- tian army, and was feen mounted upon a white horfe. A farther detail of thofe extravagances^ would but fatigue and difguft the reader. Sciences in the lolb a?id iitb centuries ,-^\gno^ ranee is the enemy of knowledge. While men have no defire to emancipate themfelves from her flavery, they defpife and oppofe all that tends to enlighten Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (163) enlighten the mind. The celebrated Gerbert founded a mathematical fchooi at Rheims, iri which he himfelf taught the elements of that fcience. He received his knowledge of mathe- matics from the Arabians in Spain. After his death, he was treated as a forcerer. He was faid to have made a compadt with the devil, from whofe clutches he had much difficulty to extri- cate himfelf. An accufation of this kind is a Ilrong proof, how greatly fuperior he was to the age in which he lived. The exalted ftation of life to which he arofe, the extent of his knowledge in aftronomy and mathematics, the inftruments he invented for improvement in thefe fciences, were fufficient, in that dark age, to make him be thought a necromancer. The fcholaflic me- thod of reafoning, which perplexes and con- founds divine and human fciences, then took place. Eloquence was only vain declamation^ made up of cold allegories, dillonant images, huddled together in the moft diforderly manner. Archite(5lure, fculpture, and painting were yet in a rude flate. The Gothic tafle flill prevailed, and the works of that kind which now remain, though bold and majeflic, are incorred:, with- out order and true tadc. The Turkifh fcymi* tar dellroyed fcience in the eaft. Conftanti- hople, Spain, and Grand Cairo, were the only places, where fome veftiges of fcientifical know- ledge ftill remained ; and Avicenna was the lo z Arabian fi64) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, IIL Arabian of thofe times, mod celebrated for his learning and ikili in phylic. Hiftory of nations not yet mentioned. — The hif- tory of the northern ftates of Europe, prior to the tenth century, affords little information re- fpeCling their forms of government and man- ners. But this we know, that in Ruffia, Den- mark, Sweden, Poland, Elungary, and Bohemia, fociety had not made the fame progrefs as in the more fouthern kingdoms of Europe. The annals of thofe nations are more certain in the period above-mentioned. They began then to acquire a more (table form of government, and to be connected with the other kingdoms of Eu- rope. In the eleventh century they emerged a lit- tle from their former oblcurity. Poland received the Chrillian religion. Otho the Great erecled it into a kingdom in favour of Boleflaus I. who^ by a wife condu(ft, increafed the profperity of his fubjedts, and made them formidable to their neighbours. He conquered Moravia and Sile- lia, which were loft by the mifcondu6l of his fon^ Miciflaus II. After the death of Micifiaus, the Polanders banilhed his widow, and the young Calimir I. who, iliaring in his mother's difgrace, took refuge in the abbey of Clugny, in France, where he affumed the monkifh ha- bit. Cafimir was recalled fome years after by his fubjedts, and fhewed himfelf a no lefs great king than he had been a virtuous monk. Boleflaus Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (165) Boleflaus II. Cafimir*s fon, obliged the Ruflians to become tributary, recovered Moravia and Silefia, and generoufly afforded protection to the king of Bohemia. Then Poland was at its highefl pitch of national glory. But the luflre of this kingdom is eclipfed in a moment, and BoleHaus himfelf experiences a forrowful rcverfe of fortune. A difference arofe between him and a biiliop of Cracovia. The bifliop excom- municates the king ; and Boleflaus, in a rage, goes to the church, and kills the prelate at the foot of the altar. The famous Gregory VII. who made kings and their fubjecls tremble, was then in the papal chair. The murder of a minifter of the church kindles his vengeance, and with the thunder of Rome, he i^rikes both- the-king and the people. Hildebrand depofcs Boleflaus, and takes from Poland the title of kingdom. The unfortunate king, profcribed by his fubjeds, is obliged to difguife himfelf, and feek his fafety in flight. The fury of the priefts purfues him every where, and the duke of Bohemia, whom he had generoufly aOifted in his misfortunes, re- fufes to give him any protediion. A fugitive, wandering from place to place, he is obliged to fubmit to the meancfl employments, till, at laff, a band of murderers put an end to his life and forrows. Poland was made a duchy, loft its fplendour, and ceafed to make a figure among the nations of Europe. In thofe days of the L 3 church's (i66) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Ill, churches power, to quarrel with the clergy was the moft difagreeable bufinefs a crowned head could be engaged in. The title of kingdom, which Poland loft, was given by the emperor to Bohemia. Wratiflaus, its firft king, fubdued Moravia, Silefia, and a part of Poland. Hungary emerges from the darknefs of heathcnifm. Geifa, who embraced Chriftianity, foftcns the favage manners of his fubjedls by v/ife laws; and Stephen his fonj^ who trode in his fteps, obtains from the pope, the title of the apoftle of Hungary. Ruffia about the fame time becomes Chriftian, accord- ing to the worfhip of the Greek church.- Uladimir marries a Greek, embraces her re^ ligicn, and the dukes of Ruflia begin to be con- nedled with the other princes of Europe, Henry I. king of France, takes to wife a Ruflian princefs. Navigation and commerce continued to in- creafe the wealth and pow er of the republic of Venice, during the eleventh century. She ex- tended her trade on all fides ; her fleets brought from Egypt the commodities of Afia, which were diftributed through Europe. The mer- chants of Venice were then richer than kings. The victories obtained by the Venetians over the Hungarians, fliew the rapid increafe of their power. It was during this period, that the paimatians refolved^ after a free and general deli« Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (167? deliberation, to fubmit to the Venetians, who then made a confpicuous figure among the firft kingdoms of Europe. The Genoefe, after having been for a long time the fiaves of tyrants, break their chains, banifh thofe that opprefled them, eled a doge, eitablifli a fenate, form a marine, and fee themfelves, in a few years, in a fituation to difpute with the Venetians, the em- pire of the fea, and to fnare with them in the advantages of commerce. Revolutions, — Germany, during the eleventh <:entury, was much weakened by the defire of its emperors to keep pofTeflion of Italy. The quarrels between the priefthood and the empire, were the caufe of revolts, which iliook the throne, and put an end to all authority. The revolution in the family of Pepin, which took place in France, in favour of Hugh Capet, fprang from the difmemberment of the provin- ces, when Charles the Fat was depofed. His fucceflbrs had loft the greateft part of their dominions ; only Rheims and fome other cities remained in their polTelTion. A power fo weak, could not hold for a length of time, the reins of a feudal government, which fliould have had a chief more powerful than his valTals. It was not in their power to ftop foreign invafions, to prevent the diforders of civil war, and caufe their authority to be refpedted by their fubjecls. This want of power, the fource of many evils, L 4 expofed (1 68) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL expofed them to the nation's hatred and con- tempt. Difcontent became general. A revo- lution was working for fome time, and when it happened, it was reafonable to think it would be in favour of Hugh, one of the mod powerful barons in France, and who, by his fignalfer- vices, had endeared himfelf to the people. — The clergy, a formidable body, haftened the revolution. Charles of Lorrain, the lawful heir of Louis V. imprifoned a debauched prieft. This the clergy confidered as an infult done to their order, and, in the. fpirit of revenge, alienated the affedlions of the nation from him. They point to Hugh Capet as the alone fupport of the flate, and lend their affiflance to place him on the throne. Hence, the gratitude of Hugh and his fon to the minifters of the church. Caufes alfo exifted to produce a revolution in England, in favour of WiUiam of Normandy. The Engliih, who had often had flrangers to be their kings, as the Saxons and Danes, might be lefs averfe to the defigns of William, than they otherwife would. Harold was not of the Sax- on line of kings ; he had feized on the throne, in prejudice of the lawful heir; and, though the right of fucceilion was not then properly known nor defined, yet many would be convin- ced in their own minds, that Edgar Atheling's right was much better founded, than that of Harold. This would make them averfe to his. govern- Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (169) government ; and^ fince they were too weak to place the proper heir on the throne, to favour the Norman's pretenfions rather than his. — Some of the great barons, whofe right to the crown of England was as good as Harold's, might be offended at the preference ; and, fince they could not reign themfelves, might favour a revolution in behalf of a foreigner. William's expedition was fandlioned by the pope ; and, in thofe days of ignorance and credulity, the approbation or difapprobation of his holinefs had a powerful effedt upon the minds of men. Harold, v/ith the pope's anathemas on his back, would be deferted by many of his fubjeds, as one devoted to deflrucflicn ; while William, attended with the bleiling of Rome, would be coniidered as a favourite of heaven. The fpirit of the times, the warlike genius of William, and the courage of his troops, contributed greatly to the Norman revolution. But the principal caufe (which is not improper to men- tion even in hiftory) was, the interpofition of providence wifely diredting human affairs. — National changes and revolutions happen not by chance: they take place by the appoint- ment of the Almighty Governor of this world; fo that while men appear to have the dirediion of fuch events, they are really conducted by an inviiible hand. The time for a revolution, in the courfe of providence, was come; therefore, tlarold (170) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. f;, Harold was defeated and flain, and William af- cended the throne of England. LECTURE IV. -o- ^ketch of the Hlftory of Eaftern Nations y — Maho-^ mety bis ReligioUy his Progrefsy and that of his SucceJforSy Laws, — Manners y — ArtSy — Chi^ valry, China. — -TT is probable to fuppofe, that the ^ Chinefe are of Egyptian original. At leaft, (if we may credit what travellers fay) there is a flriking refemblance between the in- iubitants of China, and the ancient Egyptians. J3e that as it may, the Chinefe nation fecms to be of great antiquity, lince the arts are faid to liave flouriflied among them, prior to the times of which we have any certain knowledge. But it admits of doubt, if the Chinefe nation is fo very ancient, as they would have us believe. The origin of all nations, as defcribed by hiflorians, (the writers of the facrcd books only excepted) is partly blended with fable. The Chinefe, as their charad:er is defcribed in Anfon's voyage, do not appear to deferve the praife beftowed ypon them by fome modern authors. — Though a vcffel I.ECT. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (171) a vefTel of the fize of the Centurion, had never been ken in their feas, yet the Chincfe paid no attention to fuch an objed:. Thole who have had dealings with them, reprefent them as a cowardly people, of a knavifli difpofition, ready to pradlife the tricks of chicane and impolition.* The Chinefe empire has not felt thofe revoluti- ons which have fo often convulfed other nations. This may, in part, be owing to the great re- venue of the emperor, who is not tempted, from a fcanty income, to change the conftitu- tion; and partly from the people having no defire to enjoy a more free form of government. Their knowledge, from the difficulty of learn- ing the characters of their language, is very limited ; they are conftantly employed in ao-ri- culture and commerce, have a ftrong attachment to ancient cufloms, and obliged to a frequent attendance upon religious ceremonies ; this leaves them no time to think of an alteration in the form of their government. They obey without reludlance, fo their prefent conftitution be preferved to them. The Chinefe are a rich people. The commodities of their country, having now found their way into every part of the world, bring them gold and fiiver in abund- ance. But, attached to ancient cufloms, wealth has not affeded the manners of the Chinefe, in the way it has done the manners of |he Europeans. Con- • See Mlllot. (172) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.TV. Confucius, a Chinefe philofopher, is faid to have fiouriihed long before the Chriftian a^ra, and that his defcendants flill fublift in China. He \^as a great man. Moral philofophy was his favourite ftudy, and the maxims attributed to him (if really his) are wholly practical. — Thefe are fome of them. " He is only a phi- « lofopher, who has a profound knowledge of " men and things ; who examines and yields to *^ reafon, always walking in the paths of truth *^ and juftice. There is a celeftial reafon, and *^ there is a worldly fupplement to it. Celefliai <^ reafon is the portion of the faint; the i j^)ple- " ment is that of the fage. The wife min is *' his own fevered cenfurer ; he is hi^ own "judge, his own witnefs and accufer. — Charity ** is a rational and conftant affediion, which ** engages us to confult and promote the good i' of mankind, being part of the whole united *^ to our fellow men, and partaking equally of " their profperity and adverfity." Ltdia. — The Indians are of great antiquity. A chain of mountains divides Hindoltan from Tartary on the north ; from China on the eail ; and from Perfia on the weft; the reft of the country is furrounded by the fea. India, on this fide the Ganges, was long under the domi- nion of the Perfians. Alexander the Great pufhed his conquefls as far as that country. The Greeks^ before the time of Alexander, travelled into Lect. iV. MODERN HISTORY. (173) into India in quefl of knowledge. Pythagoras was inflrudted by the Indian Gymnofophifts, From them he received the dodcrine of the Iran fmig rat ion of fouls : a dod:rine which had always prevailed in India. It is alfo faid, that from the Gymnofophiils he received the cele^ brated Theorm, viz. the three angles of a triw angle are equal to two rights ones. — Philpay was their mofl celebrated writer; he wrote moral fables. The theology of the Brachmans is a good proof, that the Indian religion, like all others, was originally founded on primary truths, known to all men, which are the fub- ftance of natural religion. Superflition intro- duced a cuftom among the Indians ; a cuftom which Hill continues ; a cuftom at which na- ture ihudders. When a hufband dies, one of his wives (for polygamy is law^ful in that coun- try) has the privilege of being burnt upon his funeral pile. His wives, encouraged by the Bramans, contend for the honour ; and Ihe who dies in this manner, is thought to have the greatefl: aftedion for him : — a ftrange proof of conjugal love 1 No abfurdities or cruelties are impoffible to an over-heated imagination. European wives may think themfelves happy, that no fuch proof of their alfedtion to a decea- fed hufband is required of them. Before the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Europeans knew India only by name. The Ara- (174) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. iVa Arabians, who traded with the inhabitants of that country, fold its productions at Conftan- tinople and Alexandria, and the Franks brought them from thence into Europe. The Venetians aftewards became the merchants of Europe, and brought from Alexandria the merchandize of the eaft. But when the Portuguefe difcover- cd a palTage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, and when navigation was rendered eafy by the difcovery of the loadllone, and the ma- riner's compafs ; the Europeans brought into their feveral countries, Indian commodities in much greater abundance, and at an ealier rate. — But more of this in the fequel. Perfia, — The Perfians were always an ingeni- ous people. The famous Lockman, who taught morality by way of fable or allegory, was a Perfian. The tenets of Zoroafter, fo well known, ftill fubfift in Perfia. Noufhirvan, or Cofroes the Greats had, about the end of the (ixth century, extended the Per- fian empire into Arabia, fpread terror through the eafl, taken the city of Antioch, and obliged Juftinian, the Greek emperor, to make peace, by paying a large fum of money, and to promife a yearly fubfidy. The children of Cofroes the Great, unworthy of fuch a father, defolated Perfia by civil wars and murders. Mahomet y i^c. — Whilrl: an inundation of bar- barians was fpread ing terror and death through Europe^ Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (i7j| Europe, Mahomet was laying, in the deferts of Arabia, the foundations of a new religion, which ftill fubfifts, and of the future power of the Saracens. The revolution in religion which Mahomet produced in Arabia, and the effedt it had on other kingdoms, deferve an attentive confide ration. For a man, by the mere ftrength of natural abilities, (without education, wealth, or friends) to unite favage hordes, fcattered over an exteniive country, to animate them with one fpirit, and make them all purfue the fame end ; to bring them to fubmit to his religion, autho- rity, and laws ; to work them up to adl fo con- fpicuous a part on the theatre of this world ; to overturn the ancient religion and throne of Peifia, a talk the Roman arms could never ac- complilh; to deprive the emperors of Con- flantinople of the richeft provinces of Aiia, and of almoft the whole of Africa ; to become mailers of Spain, threaten the red* of Europe with flavery, and to form, in lefs than a century, the moft exteniive empire that ever exiited : J fay, for a man without education, friends, or wealth, to do this, flrikes the mind with allo- niihment, and we are curious to inquire into the caufes of this great event. The Arabians were unknown to other na- tions. Divided by families, or by feparate and independent hordes, they fometimes united for the purpofe of a plundering excurfion, the only rcfourcc (176) MODERN HISTORY. Lrcr.IV* refource of thofe Arabs m ho lived upon the frontiers. To tend their flocks was the chief employment of thofe who lived in the interior parts of the country. Without .a fixed abode, they tranfported their moveable houfes from place to place upon carts. Cities, or large towns, were built in thofe parts of Arabia bordering on the fea, or in the neighbourhood of the Roman provinces. In them, the pro- duce of the ground, their flocks, and plunder were watchfully kept. The Arabians, who lived in thofe large towns, were under no check, fave the authority of fome of the richefl: among them. Without fixed laws, certain principles, and lawful fubordination, they gave themfelves up to the indulgence of every excefs* Their manners were horridly licentious. Every fen- timent of candour, humanity, and modefliy, was crafed from their hearts. Their religion was the mofl: ftupid idolatry, compounded of the worfl: tenets of the different feels w ith which Afia abounded. The Arabians believed tticm- felves to be the defcendants of Abraham ; they ufed circumcifion, wafhing, purifications, and counted the flefh of certain animals unclean. — They imagined that the Supreme Being has three daughters, eternal as himfelf, and they worfhip- ped a crowd of inferior idols. The temple of their principal idol was in Mecca, where the famous Itone Baathra was kepj. Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (177) kept, which (if we may credit fome hiflorians) became black when a perfon lofl his innocence. They w^ent in pilgrimage to Mecca from every parr of Arabia. It was the holy city by v/ay of eminence. The refort of pilgrims increafed the wealth and confequence of the inhabitants, who were refpecled as the molt conliderable tribe in Arabia. Birth of Mahomet.— The tribe of the Koraf- chites held the firil rank in Mecca. Mahomet, defcended from a younger branch of this fa- mily, was born in the year five hundred and feventy-one, of the Chriftian sera. His parents dying almoft as foon as he was born, Aboutaleb, his uncle by the father's fide, brought him up. From his uncle he went to live with a fhop- keeper in Mecca, and foon gained the confi- dence of his mafler. He having failed, Ma- homet was fold a flave to an Ifhmaelitifh merchant, who fent him on his employ into Syria. There, while Mahomet was attending to the affairs of his employer, he had an opportu- nity to fee, to fludy, and compare the manner in which the Romans lived; their legiflation, government, manners, and chiefly their religion* In the country where Mahomet then was, the law and the gofpel, or Judaifm and Chriftianity, were blended together. He compared the two religions ; and, ftruck with the great reputation of Mofes and Jefus Chrili, forms the projed of M becoming fiySJ MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I?. becoming the author of a new religion, which might enlighten and polifh his countrymen. — He foon emancipates himfelf from fiavery^ enters into the employ of Cadigah, a rich widow, and marries her. His circumftances changed from poverty to opulence, he the more eagerly purfues his fcheme, his marriage furnifhes him with the necelTary affiftance, and he becomes the head of a new fed. To bring his projedt to bear, he affeds a folitary life, performs many a6ls of charity, retires fometimes into the defert, and returns with an air of ailonifliment im- prefTed on his countenance. By this conducl:> he procures admirers, fpeaks of the revelations he was favoured with, and brings over his wife Cadigah to believe them to be true. The fame of Mahomet and his revelations foon fpreads through Mecca: crowds go to hear the new prophet, and the number of his followers daily increafes. The fundamental do6trines of Mahomet's new religion, are thefe; to believe the unity of God ; that he is eternal, infinite, wife, and good, the creator of the world, the fupporter and friend of man; to love and pray to him feven times a day, to think continually of him, and to honour him by religious ceremonies. To obferve the laws of fociety, which promote and fecure our own and our neighbour's happi- nefs ; to love all men, to fupporc the poor, and be Lect.IV. modern history. (179) be merciful to all, not excepting that part of the animal creation which is ufeful to man; fuch are thfe docftrines Mahomet taught. He adapted the moral part of his religion to the fenfual appetites of the Arabians. Living in a warm climate, the love of unlawful pleafure with the female fex, was their predominant pafTion. Mahomet allowed his followers the ufe of four wives, and of flaves, as many as they chofe. He, in quality of prophet, allowed himfelf fifteen. Though barbaroufly intolerant^ he took care not to difcover this fpirit at the commencement of his miflion ; knowing that inhumanity would render him odious, and en- tirely fruilrate his views. Convinced that men need external figns to remind them of their duty, Mahomet inflituted the particular ceremonies of circumciiion, pil- grimage to Mecca, and frequent ablutions ; and declared, that God bound the faithful to the performance ^f thefe. He acknowledged Abraham, Mofes, and Jefus Chrift, to have been great prophets, the two firft of whom had given laws, adapted only to the Jews ; that the blelTed Jefus, infinitely greater, wifer, and more the objevfl of God's love, had comprehended the whole earth in his miffion ; but that Chriftians having become corrupted, God had chofen Mahomet his laft: prophet, to rertore truth and M 2 virtUQ (i8o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. virtue to the earth. To the faithful, he pro- mifed thofe taken captive in war, and a paradifc, his fenfual imagination had filled with all forts of pleafures, particularly the enjoyment of beautiful women: a dodirine, which, with that of fatalifm, was calculated to infpire his fol- lowers with an enthufiafm fuperior to dangers and death. In a word, Mahomet faid, that the angel Gabriel interpreted to him the will of God, brought thefe laws to him from heaven, and the book in which they were written. This is the fpirit of Mahomet's religion, and the fubftance of the Alcoran. The Arabian impoftor, to gain the affedlion of the virtuous, wifely incorporated Chriftian morality into his fyilem ; and to pK'^afe the vulgar, always attach- ed to fuperftition, he allowed many errors of their ancient worfhip ftill to remain. Indeed, the Alcoran abounds in confufion, abfurditics, and contradictions, with innumerable religious, po- litical, hiftorical, and chronologR:al errors ; but the poetry is fublime, and this work is efteemed the mafter-piece, and model of the Arabian language. The new prophet, however, found oppofers ; a formidable cabal fet themfelves againfb him ; authorit:y endeavoured to bring him to an ac- count, and to punifh him as a cheat and fediti- ous perfon. Perfecuted in Mecca, he flies to Medina^ Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (i8i) Medina,* where his famiticifm fpread with amazing rapidity. The inhabitants of Medina foon become profelytes to his doctrine, proclaim him their chief, and acknowledge fubje(5lion to no other. He puts himfelf at the head of his followers, determined to flied the laft drop of their blood in his caufe ; he marches to Mecca, which opens her gates, and fubmits to him as her fovereign. From thence he traverfes Arabia, reduces to his obedience, the Arabian hordes, till then divided from, and independent of each other, and becomes their king and pried. Having reduced all Arabia, Mahomet turns his arms againft the Romans, defeats them, and takes from them the provinces tliey had been in pofTelTion of for feveral centuries. After hav- ing performed many wonderful exploits, he dies at Medina, leaving his country united by his religion, polilhed by his laws, and formidable to its neighbours. Finding himfelf dying, he convenes his friends, and recommends three things to be always obferved by his followers ; to be frequent in prayer, to extirpate idolatry from Arabia, and to beftow upon every profe- lyte, all the privileges of muiTulmen. This ad- vice was refpedled as the command of heaven. M 3 Abubeker, * From Mahomet's flight, which happened A. D. 622, in the 44th year of his age, and i oth of his minillry, the Maho- metans compute their time, and the sera is called in Arabic, Hegiraj u s. flight. (1 82) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. Abubeker^ Omar, Ali, and Caled, were the 5 four captains, whom Mahomet called the fword of God. Ali was married to Fatima, his daugh- ter by Cadigah, and he intended him for his fuccefTor. But the preference i^ given to Abu- beker, who takes the title of caliph, or the prophet's vicar. Abubeker marches to the cen- tre of Arabia, quells a revolt, palTes into Pale- ftine, defeats the army of Heraclius the Greek emperor, takes Jerufalem, advances to Damaf- cus, in two years fubdues the greateft part of Syria; and, having obtained a great reputation for wifdom and moderation, dies poor. Omar, who fucceded him, completes the re- duction of Syri'-i, finifhes the conqueft of Chaldea and Mefopotamia in one campaign, deftroys the Perlian empire in the fpace of two years ; whilft Amrou, one of his generals, conquers Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia. * Othman * The conquefl of Egypt by the Saracens was attended with one misfortune, which every lover of learning cannot but la- ment ; and that is, the deftruflion of the library of Alexandria. This famous library was founded by the firft Ptolemies, and was fo much enlarged and improved by their futfceffors, that it amounted to the number of feven hundred thoufand volumes, it confided of two parts, one in that quarter called Bruchion, containing four hundred thoufand volumes, and the other with- in the Serapeum, containing three hundred thoufand volumes. It happened, that while Julius Csefar was making war upon ;he inhabitants of Alexandria, the library in Bruchion, toge- ther Leg T. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (183} Othman, his fucceffor, completes the con- quefl of Perfia; and Mohavia, his relation and friend, pofTefles himfelf of the weftern part of Africa, defolates the i (lands in. the Archipelago, feizes upon Rhodes, palfes into Sicily, and car* ries alarm to the very centre of Italy. Not with- M 4 ftanding tlierAvith other buildings, was burnt, and the four hundred thoufand volumes which were kept therein, were all burnt. But this lofs was, in fome meafure, repaired by the Pergamean library, confifting of two hundred thoufand yolumes, which Antony prefented to Cleopatra, and by the addition of other books afterwards, fo that this latter library, was reckoned as numerous and as famous as the other ever was, and it came to the fame fatal end, this being alfo deftroyed by fire. John the Grammarian, a famous philofopher of Alexandria, being in great favour with Amrou, the Saracen general, aflced of him the royal library. Amrou replied, that it was not in his power to give it him, without leave firft obtained from the emperor of the faithful. Amrou therefore wrote to Omar, and acquainted him with John's petition, to which the caliph returned this anfwer ; that if what was x:ontained in thofe books was agreeable to the book of God, or the Koran, the Koran was fuihcient without them ; but if it was repugnant to the Koran, it was no ways ufeful ; and therefore he command- ed them to be deftroyed. Ararou in obedience to the caliph*s commands, ordered them to be diftributed among the baths of the city, and to be burnt in warming them, whereof thierc were no fewer at -that time in Alexandria than four thoufand: and yet there pafTed fix months before the books were all con- fumed ; which fufficiently evinces hov/ great their number was, and what an ineftimable lofs, not only Egypt, but all the learned world hath fuftalncd. Neivton's Df/, Proph. voU L o^avOfp* 389. (1 84) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. Handing the great fuccefs of his arms, the caliph is murdered by a furious mob, flirred up by the partizans of Abbas and Ali. All takes poffef- fion of the throne, but is foon afTailinated ; and Mohavia II. being raifed to the califat, unites Armenia and Natolia to his dominions, carries his arms to the very walls of Conllantinople ; and at laft, becoming a prey to jealoufy, fullics his glory by fliedding torrents of human blood. In the reign of Valid I. the Arabians, under the conduct of Mufa, conquer Spain, pafs the Py- rennecs, and penetrate into the heart of France. Solymanpurfues his father's projed:s : he orders one of his generals to befiege Conftantinople, another to march to Paris, and then the two ar- mies to join at Rome,- but death would not allow him to fee the completion of thofe vafl deiigns. Mahomet's more immediate fucceiTors were all warriors ; they took pleafure in ^var, and knew how to make it. 7 he Arabians, difciples of poverty and toil, panting for war» and eager for prey, furm.ounted every obitacle in the firit tranfport of enthufiafm. Warmed with a lively faith, perfuaded that the MOST HIGH had given them the earth for a poiTeUion, but that they muft merit it by their valour, they attack- ed their enemies with a fury nothing could re- lift. Terror and defolation marched before them. In a battle with the Romans, feeing their ge- 3ierai taken prifoner, they fled : a captain flops them. Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (185) them, and cries, " Have you forgotten, that to turn your back on the enemy, is to offend God and his prophet? What though Derar be a prifoner? God lives and fees you.'* Anioiated with thefe words, the Saracens return to the charge, and cut the Romans in pieces. One of their generals thus harangues them before a battle ; '^ MulTuhTien, think that paradife is be- fore you; the devil and hell behind you.'* A muflulman condemned by Mahomet, appealed to Omar: Omar being told his grievance, and that he had appealed to him for redrefs, draws his fabre, cuts off his head, and exclaims, ** This he deferves who has the rafhnefs to ap- peal from the fentence of the prophet." When to natural courage, daily exercifed by poverty, dangers and fatigue, a paflion, as ftrong as that of fanaticifm, is joined, the people, under the influ- ence of thefe, muff perform wonders and be triumphant. The Arabians (by nature brave) were all warriors. Upon them, foreign armies could make no impreffion. Before the religion of Mahomet had united them, they were the caufe of uneafmefs to the Roman emperors and fenatc. But how much more formidable when, joining difcipline to enthufiafm, they were com- manded by captains, heroes by birth ; by cap- tains, born amidft the noife of arms ? " We bring you, faid they, paradife or hell. Tou muff embrace iflamifm, or p^^y tribute, or tali under fr 86) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. under the ftroke of our fcymitars : and the Sa^ racens kept their word. Under the firfl caliphs, their manners were ferocious, breathing only war and zeal for religion ; of every thing elfe, they were wholly ignorant. Under the lail princes of the Ommiadas, their manners took a fofter turn, their courage became lefs barbaii- ous, though no lefs intrepid. Under the Abaf- lidae, their m.anners were highly civilized, the fciences and fine arts appeared among them, while the reft of the world was involved in the darknefs of ignorance and bigotry. Another caufe v/hich contributed to the fur- prifing fuccefs of the Arabians, was the weak- nefs of thofe againft whom they direcfted their attacks. They found upon their entrance into Aiia, the Romans and Perfians, once two cele- brated nations, exhaufted by their long wars with one another. The peace concluded betweea Heraclius ard the cruel Siroes afforded repofe to the two empires, only from foreign attacks; they were ftill rent by domeftic commotions. The family of Cofroes tore in pieces the king- dom of Perfia by their cruel difputes. Thefc circumftances were favourable to the Saracens. They attacked Perfia, and, in three campaigns, conquered that empire. The Roman empire was ftill in a weaker ftate. The difmemberment of the weft, had given a r terrible blow to the caft. The efforts of the Greeks Lect.1V. modern history. (187) Greeks to retain the wreck of Italy exhaufted the ftate. The inability of the emperors of Con- ftantinople for government, the many bloody revolutions v/liich fliook the throne, the de- bauchery of the court, the feditious factions of the circus; theological quarrels, the caufe of hatred and difunion, a general corruption of manners ; in a word, that fatal madnefs of tak- ing the monkifh habit, whereby many fubjeds became of no iife for the defence of their coun- try; all thefe caufes did naturally facilitate the triumphs of mulTulmen, , Opinion of Mahomet and his religmi. — To fay, with the Greek monks and their copiers, that Mahomet was nothing but a cheat, an ignorant and barbarous wretch, who, with the fabre in his hand, propagated a religion, abfurd in its dodrines, and licentious in its morals, would be to view truth through the medium of igno- rance and the fpirit of party. To alTert on the other hand, that Mahomet's aftonilhingprogrefs was the effed; of perfuafion, and of the power of his genius ; that it was the caliphs, his fuc- ceiTors, who extended Mahometifm by force of arms, would be to deny the truth, and refill: the evidence of hiftorical facfts. Let us attend to truth, and not be warped by the bias of falfe- hood. Ambition fuggefted to Mahomet the projed of uniting the Arabian tribes under his domi- nion ; (J 88) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. nion; and, as religion adls mofl powerfully upon men, his genius made choice of it as the mofi: certain and effedlual means. He forefaw the obftacles which would oppofe his intentions, but he knew how to furmount them. The dangers in(eparable from fuch an cnterprife did not intimidate him. He purfued his end with a conftancy and pliantnefs which force fuccefs. At firfl he aded the part of an impofcor. He often feparated himfelf from the company and converfation of men, afFeded great aufterities, was profufely charitable, faid he was infpired of heaven, fell into trances, &c. Some have thought, he might at laft believe as true, the falfehoods his imagination had forged. A warm imagination foon fubjeCls the judgment, fo as to be diredled by it. That might happen to Mahomet, which has happened to many other cnthuiiafts, who extenuated by corporal aufteri- ties, have firmly believed, as true, what had no cxillence but in their difordered brain. The anfwer he gave to his relations and friends, who preiTed him to renounce his entcrprifc, becaufc of the danger which threatened him from the magiftratcs of Mecca, would induce one to believe this was his cafe, " Were you to come faid he, with the fun on one lide and the moon on the other, I would not betray the confidence Cod has placed in me." His firmnefs upon all cccalions, that tone of infpiration fo powerful over Lect.IV. modern history. (189) over minds addidted to fuperftition, the perfe- cution he fufFered ; all tlitCc warmed the ima- gination ,and increafed the number of his pro- felytcs. They increafed with an amazing ra- pidity. His fame foon fpread through Arabia ; crowds came from all parts to hear the new prophet ; and being arrived at Medina, in which his enemies obliged him to take fhelter, he was furprifed to find there a number to whom his docflrine was agreeable. So far indeed, we can- not fay that his progrefs was owing to the force of arms ; artful perfuafion mufl have wrought upon their credulous minds. But when Maho- met found himfelf fufRciently powerful, he de- clared to his followers, that he was efpecially fent from heaven, to convert the Arabians ; and that the only means to turn them from idolatry, was to march againft them fword in hand. When, in the firfl battle, in which he was vic- torious, he conftrained his prifoners to embrace the new religion, and put to death, thofe who refufed to fubmit; then it was fanaticifm, which, armed with the fword, propagated Mahometifm, and compelled men to embrace it. Hence Ma- homet, who began by being ambitious, a cheat, and an enthufiafl, ended with being a tyrant to all thofe who refufed to believe his impious re- veries. This is too often the condue^t of the human mind. The religion of Mahopet, though infinite- (190) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV, ly inferior to the religion of Je/us Chrifly is much fuperior, to the grofs errors and flupid idolatry which prevailed in Arabia before his time* It teaches the unity of God, the precept of almfgiving, and forgivenefs of in- juries. It is faid, Mahomet could not have made fo many profelytes, had he not allowed them the free indulgence of their paflions. This aflertion is perhaps unjufl. The Mahometan religion is auflere in comparifon of that licen- tioufnefs to which the Arabs were addicfled. Mahomet enjoined his difciples the exercife of frequent prayer, ablutions, alms, and failing, the prohibition of wine, and of that crime {o contrary to nature ; a crime common among the Arabians: all this was a yoke too heavy for a people accuftomed to indulge their brutal paf* fions without controul. It is, we think, more reafonable to believe, that Mahomet could not have gained the affections of his countrymen, and brought them to adopt a new religion, but by propoiing a law more pure and noble, than that they had before ; and by affediing an ex- ternal fandity which fails not to captivate little minds. We may conclude that, when a perfon forms a great delign, and to accomplifh it, has the courage to take every proper ftep that may fecure fuccefs ; when he can join patience to prudence, and lay hold of every favourable cir- cumftance; when, after having found out what IS Lect.IV. modern history. (191) is mod: capable to imprefs the minds of men in general, he can make the particular character, manners, and different forms of worfhip of his country, bow to his fyflem, and at lafl: become an abfolute monarch, without any right to be fo ; let us conclude, that this man is neither fo ignorant, nor fo barbarous, as we are apt to believe. But though there are fome good things in the Mahometan religion, there are many bad ; and though its founder mui be allowed to have been a great man, ftill he v/is an impoflor, and his religion an impoflurc. The mulTulman empire was at its highefl pitch of glory in the ninth century. Haroun-al- Rafchid, to the magnificence of his illuftrious predecefTors, joined the focial virtues, and a mod amiable condud:. He applied himfelf to polifh the manners of his fubjccls, and by his own example and authority, to give them a tafte for the arts and fciences. He invited learned men from every part of the eafl to his court, cherifhed their genius by rewards, and caufed the mofl va- luable writings of antiquity to be tranflated into Arabic : he took the greatefl: delight in poetry : he was often feen to fhed tears when reading: the works of celebrated poets. The Arabians are Iavi{h in their eulogiums upon his reign, which they call the reign of wonders and magnificence. They tell us, his minifters, generals, courtiers, and judges, were formed upon his example. Bagdad, (193) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. Bagdad, the metropolis of the Saracen empire, was the centre of knowledge, from whence it fpread through his extenfive dominions. This illufcrious caliph was no lefs brave than learned. His expeditions againft the Turks, the fuccefs of his armsagainfl the emperor Niccphorus, his acTtivity in quelling feditions, fhew that he knew liow to join the talents of a hero, to the wifdom of a philofopher. We fhall defcribe only one feature of his condudl as a king. A woman complained to j him, that his jToldiers in their march had damaged her lands, Haroun ^^^^ ^"^ ridian to be meafured accordhig: ta^ ^"^ north, rules of geometry. The fame (fays '9^^^ h^^G was done by the order of Louis XiV. neif^^^^ ^^ centuries after. "ants Chemiftry and medicine were cultivated W/ the Arabians. — Chemiflry, fo very ufeful to the natural philofopher, phylician, and manufacflu- rer, has of late been brought, by the refearches of learned and ingenious men, to great perfec- tion; but without the Arabians, the Europeans would have been ignorant of chemical procefTes. To them we are indebted for thofe medical remedies which operate more gently, and have a more falutary effect, than the medicines ufed by the phyiicians of Greece and Rome — Algebra is of Arabian extradlion ; and many other arts were introduced into Europe by the fame people. — Clocks and watches, made at Bagdad, were brought into Europe. Silks from Damafcus, and other fine fluffs manufadtured in Afia, were bought by the Europeans at an exorbitant price. Cutlery ware, particularly wrought fieel, came from the fame quarter. But though the i^ uro- peans w^ere for feveral centuries ignorant of the fcienccs, and though moft of the arts were in- vented in the eaft ; yet it is in the weft that they have received a degree of perfec^tion un- known to the ancients. The Europeans of this enlightened age excel in every art and Icience. N 4 And (200) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV, And it is an obfervation founded in truth, that a greater extent of genius, more ftudy and labour arc required to bring an art to perfection, than to invent it. Climate has an influence on the manners of fociety in every ftage, from rudenefs to refine- ment. The feveral nations of Gaul in Casfar*s time were different from each other in their manners, language and laws : and the Gauls differed in this refped: from the Germans. — When the barbarous anceflors of the prefent European nations ceafed to roam from place to place, and acquired permanent fettlements, their manners, in progrefs of time, refembled the nature of the climate they inhabited. Climate gives vigour to, or enervates the paflions ; fo that, according to the temperature of a country, is the tone of the virtues or vices of the inha- bitants. The national character and manners of the Englifh, Scotch, and Irifh, are elfentially different. The natives of Cumberland are, in thefe refped:s, unlike the inhabitants of Kent ; this may be accounted for from difference of cli- mat'^. The fame difference is vifible between thofe who inhabit the different climates of Eu- rope ; by his manners you may eaiily diftinguifh a Spaniard from a Ruflian or Swede. The for- mer, though proud, is humane, generous, temper- ate, his vices partake of the enervating heat of his climate ; while the virtues and vices of the latter Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (201) latter are rough, boiflerous, and hardy, like the piercing colds, and inclement fkies of the north. As the manners of the European nations have always been diflimilar to each other, fo alfo in this refpect are the manners of the inhabitants of the ead different from thofe of the weft. And the difference is ftill more remarkable in the Chinefe and Indians, than in the northern inhabitants of Afia. Thefe nations have always been of foft and effeminate manners, the confe- quence of climate, which neither time nor ex- ternal revolutions could change. In general, people who live in hot climates have received from nature, manners more foft and gentle than thofe born in the cold and variable climates of Europe. The nature of their climate difpofes them to abflain from ftrong liquors and animal food ; which inflame the blood, and often incite to adls of cruelty. Arabian manners, in the time of Mahomet, were agreeable to the nature of their climate, and to the kind of life the Arabians led. — That impodor made the joys of his paradife purely fenfual : pleafant gardens, purling ftreams, fliady bowers, and the enjoyment of beautiful women, were the rewards he promifed his followers. A proof, that the torrid zone enervates the Arabians', forms the complexion of their man- ners, and particularly inclines them to the love of women. Voltaire compares their manners with (220) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. with thofe of the ancient Hebrews, and fcruplcs not (though \veare,apt to beheve that enemy of revelation did it to difcredit the fcripturesj to give the Arabians the preference. The people of Arabia^ though theyprofefs Mahometifm, have always been divided into feparate hordes or clans; often at war with each other, always in a ftate of hoftility with the refl" of the world. This muft make them bold and enterprifing, fearlefs of danger; but unjuft, thievifh, and cruel. The manners of robbers are ignorant, rude, and barbarous ; and fuch were the man- ners of the Arabians, when Mahomet affumed amortg them the charadler of a prophet. We difcover in Mahomet and his fuccelTors, while propagating his religion with the fword, manners refembling thofe of heroic times. — Mahomet, Abubeker, and Omar, refemble the heroes in Homer's Illiad. In reading the hiflory of the Saracens, we fee their e^enerals challens-.e to finglc combat thofe of the enemy ; wc fee them advance to meet their antagonift, while the two armies continue quietly to view the light; they defy one another, they invoke God before they engage. It is probable (fays an ingenious writer) that the account of the warlike Amazons in Homer and Herodotus is not fabulous, The women of an Arabian tribe were warriors, and fought in the armies of A.bubeker and Omar. That there was Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (203) was a kingdom of Amazons, is incredible ; /. e, women who lived without men. But in countries where the inhabitants lead a pafloral life, it is not at all furpriling, that women, trained from their infancy in the fame manner as men, fhould, upon occaiion, fight like them. Penthelilea, at the fiege of Troy, and Camillus, ■ the ally of Turnus, were heroines early inilrutfled in the vSt of arms, who took pleafure in martial ex- crcifes. At the iiege of Damafcus, an Arabian woman avenged the death of her hufband, flain by her lide, and with an arrow, pierced the commander of the city.* TafTo, in his Jerufaleynme hiberata^ and Arioflo, in his Orlando Furiofoy introduce female warri- ors. The times of chivalry, prefent us with more than one example of women, who diflin- guifhed themfelves in the field of battle. To us of modern times, fuch accounts feem incre- dible ; efpecially fince the ufe of artillery and fmall arms prevent the combatants from fhevv- ing their agility and perfonal courage. But even in modern times, there have been exam- ples of this kind. The maid, under the ftrong impulfe of a pallion, has difguifed her fex, and accoutred as a fojdier, has fhared in the dangers of war for the man Ihe loved.* The Saracen heroes refemble thofe of Homer, in the fpeeches they delivered at the head of their f See Richardfon's Efiay on the Manners of Eaftera Natipos. (204) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.1V, their armies, when about to engage in lingle combat, or when making treaties of peace ; but greatly fuperior to them in religious enthufiafm. Convinced of the truth of the Alcoran, that it was lawful to propagate their religion with the fword; and that thofe who died m battle, were im.mediately admitted to the joys of Mahomet's paradife ; they bore down all oppofition, and were every where victorious. Indeed, the fol- dier, whofe mind is impreffed with religion, who is perfuaded that the Deity approves, afllfts, and if he falls, will make him happy, behaves nobly in the day of battle. A ll:ranger to fear, he polTefles a cool determined courage. We have already mentioned fome inflances of the effecfl:, which thisperfuafion,ad:ing upon the minds of the Arabians, produced. The daughter of He- raclius, was taken in Damafcus, by Kaled, the Saracen general, and fent by him to her father without ranfom. Being afked why he did fo? he replied, " Becaufe 1 hope foon to take both the daughter and father in Conflantinople.*' — When Omar came to befiege Jerufalem, he brought his provilion, with a bottle of w-ater, and a wooden trencher, upon his camel. Hav- ing feen fome of his army drelTed in lilks taken from the enemy, he ordered them to be dragged through the mud, with their faces towards the earth, and their clothes to be torn in pieces. To mention only one example more. When the caliph Mohavia, who died in the iixtieth year Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (^05) year of the Hegira, was ready to expire, having fecured the throne of the caliphs, till then elec- tive, to his fon Yefud, he faid, " Great God, if I have eflablifhed mv fon on the throne, be- caufe I think him worthy of it j I befeech thee to fupport him on it; but if he fliall fhew him- felf unworthy to reign, 1 befeech tliee caft him headlong from it." Is it furprifing that every obftacle gave v/ay to people who could fpeak and acft in this man- ner ? no, it is agreeable to the nature of things. Thefe infbances mark the charader of heroes. — They were fanatics ; but fanatics who pofTelTed magnanimity and greatnefs of foul. Let us admire true greatnefs of foul in whomfoever it appears, and whatever may be the caufe which produces it. And, fince the manners and cuf- toms of other nations ^nd former times, were fo different from our own, let this convince us, that the fcenery of this world is continually Ihifting ; that we ought to be upon our guard againft contracting a habit of judging of men and things, by the cuftoms and manners of our own time and country. The cuftoms and manners of ancient times, were different from thofe of the middle ages, and thofe of the mid- dle ages diflimilar to thofe of the prefent time; but the cuftoms and manners of either ancient or modern times are refpedable, only as they are founded in virtue, and have a tendency to humanize (2o6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV; humanize the heart. The rude manners of the barbarian, when tindlured with virtue, claim cilcem ; but poh'fhed manners, fuilied with vice, excite deteliation. That there are various orders of fupernatural beings, is, and always has been, a popular doc- trine in the eaft. Their peris refemble the fairies of the Europeans, of whofe exifrence the belief is not yet obliterated. Genii differ little from the giants of the middle ages. They be- lieved that there w^re beings, whom they fup- pofed to be the caufe of happinefs or mifery to man ; hence they wifhed to procure their favour, and fome pretended to have this power. This- belief gave rife to charms, to talifmans, and to the whole armour of oiTenfive and defenfive en- chantment. The Arabians and other eaftern nations, believed the machinary of angels ; with them every month was fuppofed to be under the guardianihip of a particular angel ; nay, that every day had a ruling angel ; and is not the dodrine of being born under fuch a planet fimilar to this ? * Chivalry, or knight errantry, fo intimately connedlcd with enchantment, was not unknowa in * Thoiigli tHe doctrine of apparitions, fo firmly believed by the vulgar, may be a good deal owing to ignorance and- Aiperllition ; yet as it may be traced from a natural perfuafion that there is a communication between the vifible and invifiblc worlds, fo we are apt to think, that philofophy and religion wll£ never be able wholly to eradicate it. L£CT. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (207) in the eail. For the knights of hoftile armies to challenge one another to fingle combat, was common among the Tartars, the Perfians, and ihe Arabians. They had a feftival not unlike the ancient gallantry of Valantine's day in Europe. Aftrology, divination, interpretation of dreams, were with them fafnionable ftudies. The marriage, chiefly of perfons of rank among them, was attended with lingular fplendour and ceremony. Their attention to the fair fex feems to have been cpndudled with fuch principles of fenfibi- lity, as would hardly be expedied from tliat fiercenefs of temper, for which they have betn charaAerifed : yet the great lines in the manners of .thofe people may in fome meafure account' for it. They led a pafloral life ; and a paftoral life is ever favourable to love. Many circum- fiances, peculiar to their roving habits, would frequently produce fuch lituations, as might greatly heighten that elegant regard to the fex, which difcinguiflics refined afiedtion from brutal impulfe. Many tribes often' encamped together on the fame plain ; the young men of one, fall irv love with the damfels of another. In the midft of their courtiliip, the heads of the tribes order the tents to be flruck ; one goes to the right, another to the left. The lovers are fepa- rated, perhaps never more to meet, and thefc reparations have often proved fatal. Dying for love f208) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV, love is confidcred among us as a mere poetical figure, but in eaftern countries it is fomerhing more. Add to this, that the military ideas "which prevailed in Arabia, feem alfo to have been peculiarly calculated to promote a roman- tic attention to the fair fex. The nations of the eaft, particularly the Perlians, appear to have been fond of mufic. And amidft ail the vices and bad qualities of the Arabians, Perfians, and Tartars, they have been ever diilinguifhed for generofity and hofpitality. They have no word to exprefs avarice fimply by itfelf ; and fo high is their idea of the rights of hofpitality, that if the murderer of their deareft friend had, even by chance, eaten or drank under their roof, that alone obliterated every former crime, and they were bound, not only to forgive, but to pro ted: him. * Feudal Jyfl em, — The feudal fyflem, or military government, which prevailed in Europe, it isr probable, v/as originally from the eaft ; at leafb, the government which has fubiifted in Tartary, India, Perfia, and Arabia, from the moft early accounts, down to the prefent time, can hardly be defined by any other defcription. In read- ing the ancient and modern hiftory of thofe countries, we fee a great king to whom a num- ber of princes pay homage.; every deviation from this fyftem is merely temporary and acci- dental See Richardfon's Differ. &c. Lect. IV. MODERN MiSTORY. (logj dental. The caliphs were paramount fovereigns, having under them feudatory princes. In Hin- dofian, the Great Mogul is confidered by the Subahs, Nabobs, and other fubordinate chiefs, as lord paramount of the empire. Under the Turkifh government, there are remarkable traces of the feudal fyftem. Military liefs, un- der different titles, are beftowed with exprefs condition of maintaining bodies of men. And, if it is true, that the florehoufe of nations^ whence millions of barbarians have ilTued into thd more cultivated parts of the earth, appears to have been Tartary : if Goths, Vifigoths, &c* were originally the inhabitants of that immenfe tradl, extending from 53°, to 130° » eaft longi- tude, and from 39°, to 80°, north latitude, then they only continued in the kingdoms of Europe into which they emigrated, the cufloms, manners, and mode of government they had been ufed to in the countries from whence they came. The incidents of the feudal fyftem, the nature of property, with the different kinds of tenures and fervitude under a military government, belong to the lawyer to treat of. Let it be our talk to fhew its influence upon fociety. 'J he original intention of the feudal fyftem, and its true fpirit, were national defence and domeftic independence : and, whilft it conti- nued in its purity, was an effedlual barrier to O defpotifm^ (2IO) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. defpotifm, and tended to promote the freedom of the fubjed. The power of the fovereigii was checked by the power of the barons, as their power was reprefTcd by that of their retainers and valTals. Women, in the rude and unculivated ftate of fociety, were not of that importance they fbould have been. When the chiefs of tribes coUedted their retainers, and committed depredations on their neighbours, the women could have no property; for, as they had not (hared in the toils and dangers of the expedition, no part of the booty belonged to them. But when the barbarians ceafed to rove from place to place, and fettled themfelves in the Roman provinces, from that moment, women ■were to improve in advantages : they became polTeiTed of lands by portion or inheritance, and thefe endowments raifed their value in the eyes of the men. Women, whom nature has form- ed to be proper companions to men, and who are highly valuable upon account of their natural attraftions, have in every ftage of fociety been cfteemed, not in proportion to their merit, but to the wealth they polfcfs. ' When the feudal fyftem took root in Europe, wom.en, upon account of their riches and pro- perty, became of more importance in fociety than they had formerly been. 1 he .condudt of the paen was ro them more diflant and relpect^ ful. Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. f2ii) ful. The heart felt new fentiments of dignity and meannefs. Men, having acquired per- manent fettlements, became more domeflic. Lefs employed abroad, the fair fex engroffed more of their time and regard. They approach- ed them with greater reverence, and courted them with an affiduity more tender and anxious. Women became fenfiblc of their influence, learn- ed to be more vain, more gay, and more allur- ing ; endeavoured to fet off their beauty by the ornaments of drcfs, and grew Itudious to pleafc and to conquer. They loft a good deal of their former intrepidity, and began to affecft a delicacy, even a weaknefs. Their education was more attended to ; a finer fenfe of beauty arofe; their employments were more feminine than they had been ; they were more fecluded from obfervation ; fentiment and feeling were more indulged ; a greater referve accompanied the commerce of the fexes ; a greater fenfe of modefty operated, and the alarm at what was contrary to it fooner taken. Gallantry, in all its modes, and in all its charms, began to unfold itfelf In a word, the feudal fyftem, the charac- teriftics of which were arms, gallantry, and de- votion, produced the inftitutions of chivalry. Chriftianity did not abolifh thefe. To love God and the ladies was the firft hf['on of chivalry, and the knight, while he fought, was animated with fentiments of religion and love. * O 2 Chivalry » • See Stuart on Society. Millar's Dlftmdllon of Ranks. (212) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. Chivalry.-^Tht inftitutions of chivalry were coeval with the feudal alTociation. The feudal barons had ^ number of retainers ; they confti- tuted their glory and ftrength. They fought their battles, and confequently were entitled to the honours of chivalry. Every perfon free born might afpire to knighthood, and by attending upon his lord, he learnt the knightly virtues, simulation, the company of the ladies, of whom he feledled one as the objedl of his love, enflam- ed his paflion for war, infufed into his mind a zeal for religion, and inftrucfled him in the art of the mofl refpecftful gallantry. The candidate for knighthood, prefented him- felf in the church, confefTed his fins, and abfo- lution was given him ; ht heard mafs, watched his arms all night, placed his fword on the altar, which was returned him by the prieil, w^ho gave him his benediction. The facrament was ad- miniftered to him, and having bathed, was dref- fed in rich robes, and his fpurs and fword put on. He then appeared before his chief, and receiving a blov/ on the neck, was dubbed a Jcnight. The whole was concluded with feaft- ing and rejoicing. The warrior promoted to the honour of knighthood, was admitted to the table and con- verfation of his fovereign. He was permitted to wear gold, fur, and filk. He was diftinguiflied in his order by the device on his arms, and the peculiarities Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (2T3J peculiarities of his blazonry. His privileges were, in courts of law, and'when a prifoner of War, not to receive unworthy treatment; /. e^ he was treated as a knight. His promife might be relied on : it was thought difhonourable for a knight to faliify his word. He appeared in the field on horfeback attended with anefquire; and if he had many knights in his train, he was allowed a banner or ftandard. Great honours were paid to his remains. When he died, his funeral was folemn and ceremonious ; and his fword, fhield, and other articles of his armour and drefs, were objeds of refpedlful veneration. • A knight v/as to confult and defend the glory of the ftate ; but the approbation of his fair one Simulated his valour. For her he fought and conquered; to her he confecrated his trophies; ihe kindled the fire of ambition in his breaft, and his courage and fplendid feats of arms, proclaimed her beauty and perfeflion. The women felt their dominion. They boaft- cd of the prowefs of their knights, and while rivalfliip for beauty prevailed, each knight was 'defirous to maintain the honour, fuperior beauty, and reputation of the damfel he made choice of, againfl all competitors. The knight in com- , pany of the ladies, acquired the graces of ex- ternal behaviour, and improved his fenlibility and tehdernefs. He lludied an elegance of manners. Politenefs became a habitual virtue O 3 which (2 14) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV. which attended him to the field of battle, and checked his paffions in the ardour of vidlory. It was thus the knights conducfled themfelves in the pure ages of chivalry, when honour was in- feparable from virtue. In thofe days to utter a falfehood, was an offence, an ignominy which could not be wiped out. The guilty were degraded from the honour of knighthood, a punifhment to them more cruel than death. But in the impure period of chivalry, when knights w^re ftained with meannefs, they ftill laid claim to probity of chara(5ler, and appealed to their fwords to fupport their pretenfions. Chivalry run its career in Europe, and then fell into difufe. In the impure ftate of the feudal fyftem, and towards its decline, knight- hood became an engine of interefl in the hands of a fuperior. Great fees were demanded of thofe made knights, and if valTals negledled to take this honour, their eftates were deftrained. The knights of honour loft their conlideration ; their number greatly increafed, and they be- came venal, felling their fervices to the higheft bidder. They fought for pecuniary rewards, and not for honour. Chivalry was worn out. The military and regular eftablifhments, which the defedls of the feudal fyftem pointed out, fuperfeded its ufes and advantages. Hence (as an ingenious author obferves ; " It did not die, as fome have landed, by the ridicule of the author LficT. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (215) author of Don Quixot, but of old age, defpon* dence and debility/* * One dellrudiive confequence of the feudal government was the fyftem of private war fo univerfally prevalent in the middle ages. The quarrels of nobles (to repeat what has been be- fore obferved) were decided by the fword, not by law. They met in the field, revenge anima- ted them, they fought and bled ; but the quarrel was not ended. Thefe feuds defcended from fa- ther to fon, and were, for many generations, the caufe of mutual depredation and flaughter. — " From the opprefTions and cruelties of the feudal fyftem, fprang the liberty we now enjoy. The encroachments of the kings and nobles gave rife to ftruggles, which, in Britain, paved the way to the freedom of the fubjedl, and at length fecured to Englifhmen their natural rights. Some traces of that fyftem ftill remain, and by thefe the manners of the prefent age arc in fome degree influenced. The feudal alTociation is broken ; but the nobles, fenfible of the importance of their property and rank, would keep the lower orders dependent on them. The common peo- ple are not now the flaves of haughty barons as formerly ; yet, being furrounded with the fplen- dour of rank and wealth, they look up to them with fubmiflion, reverence, and refpedt. Thefe O 4 external * Stuart on Soc. Memoires fur L'Ancienne Chevalrie par M. de la Ciirne de Ste. Palaye. (2i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. external appendages dazzle, and their depen- dents 'are more flruck with them, than with what is truly valuable. I^ECTURE V. The Cru/ades, — Co/ifequences of them t-^- Event s ^—^ Revolutions y Governments , — Legiflation^~^~ Manners y-— Religion ^ — Religious Orders, Cnijades. — 'TpHE crufades, or holy wars, were -*- an event, which ftrikingly dif- played the charadler of the Europeans in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Superltition and a wrong diredied zeal were the caufe of thole cruel wars, and Chriflians, under the im- pulfe of a religious frenzy, violated all laws, human and divine. The hiftory of mankind, before that period, prefents us with nothing fimilar to it. Canaan, or the holy land, was much refpedlcd in thofe days, as being the country in which our blelfed Saviour was born, preached, wrought miracles, and died for the fins of the world. In the middle ages, Chrif- tians frequently went from every part of Europe in pilgrimage to Judea, to vilit the fepulchre of Jefus Chrift, the place where he was born, and .every other, rendered famous by his prefence and Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (217) and miracles ; or by thofe of his apoftles. To go in pilgrimage to the holy land, once in their life at leafl, was, they thought, the moft proper means to conciliate the favour of God. The Turks were then in polTeflion of Canaan, and the Chriftians had hitherto beheld with indif- ference, the religion of Mahomet planted in the land of Chrift's nativity. This indifference was changed in a moment into a moft ardent zeal, — The fury of fanaticifm feizes the inhabi- tants of Europe, they breathe revenge, and long to difpolTefs the infidels of a country for which they had fo great a refped. Peter the Hermit, an obfcure and illiterate perfon, becomes the foul of this furprifing revolution. This pilgrim of Amiens, whofe zeal had prompted him to vilit Jerufalem, had been mil- treated by the Turks. Upon his return to Rome, Peter pa- thetically defcribes the profanation of the holy land, the indignities offered to pilgrims, and the extortions they were obliged to fubmit to. Ur- ban II. was then pope ; and he, like fome of his predecefTors, anxioufly wifhed to devife means to arm the Chriftian world againft the Maho- metans. Finding Peter a proper perfon to fe- cond his defigns, he fent him from province to province to preach a crufade, to communicate his zeal, and perfuade Chriftians to take up the crofs againft the infidels. Peter, difagrecable in his perfon, remarkable in his drefs, tra\^erfed Italy, (2 1 8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. Italy, Germany, and France, with a rope for a girdle, and a crucifix in his hand. He every where exhorted the people to take up arms againft the Mahometans, and march to the re- lief of Jerufalem. His vehement geftures, flrong voice, and lamentable ftory, produced a wonderful effed. The contagion infers all, and they loudly demand to be conduced into the caft. All ranks are feized with the fame fran- tic zeal; princes, barons, bifhops, monks, old men, women and children. Urban II. over- joyed to hear of his mifiionary's fuccefs, haftens to improve it, and in a council aflembled at Clermont, in Auvergne, propofes, under the name of Crujadey a league to deliver the holy city out of the hands of infidels. // is the will of God I It is the will God! was the general cry ; the expedition is agreed on with one con- fent, and dignified with all the pomp of reli- gion. The pope is chofen head of the enter- prife ; and a crofs of red cloth is made the badge of thofe who were willing to fight at the diftance of a thouland leagues, with people whom they fcarcely knew by name. The cru- faders had a plenary indulgence granted them, and the promife of heaven to thofe, who might fall in the attempt to recover the holy land. The nobles willingly ranged themfelves under the banner of the crofs. Independent, reftlefs, fond of diffipation and war, funk in debauchery, ig- norant Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (219) norant and fuperftitious, a penance which con- lirted in plunder and blood, was fuited to their tafte, and they were glad to purchafe heaven on fuch eafy terms. Thofe not willing to pay their debts, took up the crofs, to efcape from their creditors, becaufe the crufaders were not to be molefted upon any pretext whatever. Some in- lifted with the hope of making their fortune, or of acquiring fame by their exploits. But a miftaken devotion, a love of novelty, and a de- lire to fhare in fo very fmgular an enterprife, induced the mofl part to become crufaders. The popes beheld the crufaders as men devoted to their interefl:, by whom they would be en- abled to terrify kings, and make them bow be- fore them, Thefe emigrations were not difa- greeable to the princes of Europe, as by them they got rid of many powerful and refllefs valTals who continually braved their authority. The clergy, who let flip no opportunity to increafe their own influence, greatly favoured the cru- fades. Nor was zeal the alone principal of this frenzy ; many particular motives, in union with the romantic fpirit of the age, contributed to perfuade the Europeans to leave their country to feek graves in Afia. Europe (as Anna Com- nena expreffes itj feemed to be torn up by the roots to overwhelm Afia. Whatever the motives of the crufaders might. be, their number foon amounted to four hundred thoufand. (220) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.V. thoufand. Thefe were divided into three divi- fions ; the firfl: divifion, about eighty thoufand crufaders> moftly rabble, was conducted by Peter the Hermit. In their march, they fell up- on, and put to the fword, the Jews in Germa- ny, and continuing their route through Hun- gary and Greece, pillaged the Chriftians wher- ever they came. Debauchery, and the attacks of the inhabitants of the countries through which they pafTed, thinned their number, fo that their army, by the time they arrived at the ftraits of Conftantinople, was reduced almofl to nothing. The fecond divifion, marching with lefs con- fufion than the firft, penetrated into Afia, was fuccefsful in fome fkirmifhes, and finifhed its career, by yielding to the arms of Solyman in the plains of Nice. The third divifion was condu6led by power- ful princes, well verfed in the military art. — Robert duke of Normandy; Hugh count of Vermandois, brother to Philip king of France; Baldwin earl of Flanders; Euftace de Bou- logne ; Godfrey de Bouillon, duke of lower Lorrain; Herpin, vifcount de Bourges; old Raymond, count de Thouloufe; followed by- many of the nobles of Europe, and warlike troops, arrived in Greece, where they were re- inforced by Bohemond, duke of Calabria, who brought with him a body of thofe Normans, fo f^m.ous for their noble exploits. Alexis Com- nenusj Lect.V. modern history. (221) ftenus, emperor of Conflantinople, alarmed at thefe emigrations, haflened to rid himfelf of thofe dangerous and infolent guefls. He flat- tered, carefled, and furnifhed them with boats to tranfport them to the oppoiite fhore. Being arrived in Alia, they proved fuperior to the courage and adlivity of Solyman; pofTeiTed themfelves of Bithynia, Cilicia, and Syria, from which countries they expelled the Sultans who reigned there. But misfortunes and fatigue had, by this time, greatly diminished the army of the crufaders. At lafl: they arrived before the walls of Jerufalem, and began that liege, fo famous, upon account of the many heroic adtions per- formed by the beliegers and the befieged, hy the great number of princes there prefent, and by Taflb's immortal poem. The city is taken by alTault, after a iiege of fix weeks, and the con- querors, under the impulfe of a brutal fury, butcher without pity, all who are not Chriflians. The moft hidden retreats cannot conceal, from their favage ferocity, trembling mothers and their innocent child ren ,- their fwords fpare none, and ftreams of blood. deluge the flreets. After this horrible carnage, the Chriilians repair to the fepulchre of Jefus Chrift, where falling down upon their knees, they rend the air with groans and lamentations. Godfrey of Bouillon was elecTted king of Jeru- falem ; Raymond was made count of EdefTa ; and Antioch, the mofl confiderable conquefl of the (222) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. the crufaders, was ereded into a principality by Bohemond. The other chiefs of the crufade, returned to Europe. The Turks, foon after their departure, infulted the walls of Jerufalem. Godfrey valiantly repelled their attacks ; but his reign, which continued only one year, did not give him time to fecure the (lability of his in- fant kingdom. In vain did Baldwin his fuccef- for, implore alliilance from Europe ,- the cour- age of the knights of St. John fupported him upon a tottering throne. This monaftic order, partly religious and partly military, gave birth to others. The knights Templar and Teutonic, were formed after the fame model, and adopted the fame rules. The three orders, with that fervour which animates neweflablifhments, per- formed many heroic actions ; the Saracens fled before them, they proteded the pilgrims, ex- tended the boundaries of the Chriftians polTef- fions in Alia, and ftrengthened the throne of Jerufalem. But envy and difcord foon divided them, hatred armed them again ft each other> and confufion precipitated the holy city to the brink of ruin. In this unhappy fituation, the Chriftians of Afia folicited from Europe, a new crufade. * Second * The firft crufade happened in 1 095. Henry IV. being- then emperor of Germany, Wilb'am Rufus, king of England, Philip I. king of France, Alphonfo VI. king of Caflilc, Peter king of Arragon, Henry count of Portugal, Malcolni III. king of Scotland, Alexis Comnenus erop. C. P. Mo-R^- hader caliph, Urban II. pope. Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (223) Second Crujade, — Pope Eugene III. pitched upon his old mafter, St. Bernard, as a fit perfon to perfuade the weftern world once more to take up the crofs. He could not have made choice of a more proper inftrument. The people re- verenced him as a faint of the firft order. From his cell he gave refponfes, which in thofe days were thought equal to oracles. He was the arbi- ter of kings, the foul of councils, and turned the minds of the people which way he pleafed. We fay, Eugene III. fixed uponhim to colled: princes and their fubje6ts under the banner of the crofs. Bernard, by his fermons, kindled the fire of en- thufiafm. — Louis VII. received the crofs from his hands. Many of his nobles, three biihops, and Eleanora his queen, received the badge of the crofs wdth the fame ardour. From France, Bernard goes to Germany, and perfuades the emperor, Conrad III. to become a crufader. — He declares that he has authority from God, to promife them vidory. The fanie of his mira- cles and predidlions, removing all doubt of fuccefs, every one would Ihare in the expedi- tion, fo that in many towns none were to be ^^txi but women and children. Bernard was invited to become chief of the crufade, but he wifely declined an honour, which he knew would ex- pofe him to ridicule. The fame caufes which contributed to the ruin of the firft crufade, w ere the deftrudion of the fecond. Conrad, after having (2H) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. having loft an army of eighty thoufand men, returned to Europe almoft alone. Louis VII. with a no lefs numerous army, was ftill more unfortunate than Conrad. Difhonoured by his wife, beaten by the Saracens, he brought back to France, only fome of his courtiers. A thou- fand ruined families proved the falfehood of St. Bernard's predictions, and uttered loud com- plaints againft him. To thefe he made no an- fwer; but comparing himfelf to Mofes, faid, he refembled that legiflator, who, though he promifed to condudt the Ifraelites into a hap- py land, faw the firft generation periih in the defert. nird Crufade, — Thefe unfortunate expedi- tions brought no relief to the Chriftians of Alia, who, more divided than ever, were in imminent danger of being driven from Jerufalem. The Turks were determined to difpofTefs the Chrif- tians of the holy city. With Noradin at their head, they began to put their defign in execu- tion ; and Saladin, his fuccelTor, accompliihed it. Saladin had, in a fhort time, conquer- ed Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and- Mefopotamia. Jn pofTefHon of thefe countries, he determined upon the conqueft of Jerufalem, rent by the violence of fadlion. Guy de Luiignan, then king of Jerufalem, alTembled the Chriftians, marched againft Saladin, who, having drawn the Chriftian army into ^ narrow pafs, obliged Guy Lect. v. modern history. (225) Guy and his troops to furrender prifoners of war. From the field of battle he marched to Jerufalem, which opened her gates to the con- queror, and put an end to that little kingdom, after it had exifted near a century. The vi(5l:ories of the brave and generous Salad in, filled Europe with alarm and trouble ; and the news of Jerufalem being taken proved fatal to Urban III. who died of grief. The Chrifiian princes, eager to recover the holy land, fufpended their j)articular quarrels, and prepare a third crufade. Frederick Earbarofia, one of the greateft emperors that ever reigned in Germany, a wife politician, well acquaint- ed with the art of war, and whofe arms had been often fuccefsful, marched by land at the head of a hundred and fifty thoufand warriors. — Philip Auguflus, one of the greateft kings France had feen fince the days of Charlemagne, went by fea, followed by a well-appointed army. Richard Coeur-de-Lion, king of England, the hero of the crufade, marched at the head of the Englifli nobility, and a chofen body of troops. Frederick was obliged to fight the Greeks, "who, afraid of the crufaders, .had m.ade an alli- ance with Saladin. Fie opened a palTage into Thrace, though oppofed by the emperor Ifaac An- gelus, and twice defeated the fultan of Iconium; but having bathed while hot, in the river Cyd- nus, he dicd^ and his victories became of no $ P confequence^ (2^6] MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. confequence. The arrival of Philip revived the hopes of the crufaders. He defeated the Saracens, took feveral towns, and laid liege to Acre. Richard haftened to fecond his efforts -y he had been neceflarily detained in Sicily, and during his flay, had regulated the affairs of that ifland. In his paffage to the Archipelago, a florm and want of provisions obliged him to touch at Cyprus. He requefted refrediments foi his troops from Ifaac, king of that ifland, who had the inhumanity to deny him. Richard, provoked at his refufal, lands his troops, defeats Ifaac, puts him and his family in irons, and caufes himfelf to be crowned king of the whole ifland. Having performed this achievement, he continued his route to the holy land, where he arrived, covered with glory. Philip, jealous of Richard's fuperior talents for war, feigns ficknefs and returns to France, having promifed with an oath not to moleft his rival's territories during his abfence. Richard, mafter of the field of honour, difplayed the mofl: heroic cou- rage, took the city Acre, defeated Saladin's generals in many battles, engaged Saladin him- felf, and had the honour to difarm him. In the midfl of thefe fucceffes, he was informed, that Philip Auguftus, in contempt of his oath, had taken advantage of his abfence to feize part of Normandy, and had even excited his brother to rebel. This news induced him to conclude a truce LEct. V^ MODERN HISTORY. ^227) ^ truce with Saladin, by which the ChriftianiS of Paleftine were to enjoy peace i but he was obh'ged to allow the fultan to remain in pofTef- fion of Jerufalem, and to give up the end of the crufadei Fourth Crufade, — Though the crufades had hitherto been the caufe of the lofs of much human blood, though they had ended unfortu-^ riately ; yet this did not cool the ardour of the Chriftians, nor perfuade them to relinquifh their rafh defign. The popes were too much interefted to allow this epidemical madnefs to fubfide. Innocent III alfembled another army of cmfaders, compofed of French and Italians, with Baldwin, earl of Flanders, at their head* Being joined by the Venetians, they arrived in the neighbourhood of Conflantinople, and encamped without the walls. Divifion and tumult reigned in the city. Ifaac Angelus had jufl then loft his liberty and life by the treachery of his brother Alexis. Ifaac's fon had a party % and the crufaders offer him their dangerous afliilance. The young Alexis, hated by the Greeks, for having introduced the Latins, w^as murdered by a fadion. Alexis Ducas, furna- med Murtzulphus, one of his relations formed a confpiracy againft him, put the father and {on to death, and afTumed the purple. Then the crufaders, under a pretence of avenging their death, entered the city without reiiftance, put P 2 the t22S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. the inhabitants to the fv/ord, and abandoned themfelves to every excefs of fury and rapine. — Thus Conftantinople was pillaged, and its inha- bitants flain by the Chriftians, who left Europe with an intention to fight only with the enemies of Chriftianity.* Baldwin was made emperor of Conflanti- nople ; a Venetian was chofen to fill the patri- archal chair, and the other crufaders divided the empire among them. Peloponnefus, the ifland of Candia, and feveral- cities of Phrygia^ fell to the fliare of the Venetians. Some of the imperial family of the Comneni, not difliearten- ed by this wreck of the Greek empire, founded- two fmall kingdoms, one at Nice in Bithynia^ and the other at Trebifond, between the fea and mount Caucafus. The pope, who, by this, be- came the head of the eaflern church, eafily forgave the crufaders their negled: of going to deliver Jerufalem from the Mahometans. Fifih Crii/ade. — Chriftians did not always alTume the badge of thecrofs to fight againft in- fidels. The madnefs of bigotry, and a perfe- euting fpirit, produced the fifth cl-ufade for the deftrudlion '* As a trait of the charailer of the French, it is obferv-ed, that the crufaders of that nation danced with women in the church, called St. Sophia, whilll one of the proftitutes, who followed Baldwin's army, fang a fong fuitable to her pro- fjsilion. Voltaire, Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (229) deftrudion of Chrillians, Oppodtion to er- rors in do6i:rine, to the pride and ambition of the clergy, had rendered many in the fouthern provinces of France obnoxious to the church of Rome. They refufed to acknowledge, as minifters of the religion of the humble Jefus, men who were deftitute of humility, meeknefs, and felf-denial. Thefe witnefTes for the truth were called (by a general name) Albigenfes. — Innocent III. alarmed at their principles and oppoiition to the clergy, determined to extir- pate them. A crufade was preached againll: them, and a formidable army raifed, the com- mand of which was o-i ven to Simon de Montfort. The pope, at the fame time, eflablifned the court of inquilition, which, in the name of the God of peace, has exercifed for feveral centuries the moft fhocking cruelties. Of all the unjuft tribunals eflablifhed upon earth, the inquifition is the moft iniquitous. This tribunal allows fufpicions to be good proof, the appearance of a crime to be really a crime, fuilains the evi- dence of the mofb infamous informer, and, without mercy, commits thoufands of unfortu- nate vidlims to the flames. The power of this infernal tribunal is now much lefs than it once was ; and we may indulge the hope, that the time is not diftant, when it will be totally annihilated. The innocent Albigenfes, pur- fued by their enemies, fell by the fvvords of the P 3 crufaders. (230) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V, crufaders, or expired in the midfi: of flames kindled by the inquiiition. The brutal Montr fort pillaged and deflroyed many cities, butch- ered the inhabitants, while the priefts who at- tended him, were the firfl: to fet fire to the towns and villages. Raymond, count of Thouloufe, fovereign of Languedoc, was excommunicated for attempting to aflifl: his fubjeds; and, to fave his life, obliged to humble himfelf before a haughty legate, and fubmit to the mofl: igno- minious penance. But all the cruelties Rome could inflid:, did not wholly extirpate the Albi- genfes ,• they continued till the reformation, and became a part of the Proteftants. Sixth Cru/ade.'—No fooner was the crufade againft the Albigenfes finifhed, than Innocent III. refumed the projedi: of delivering the holy land. Andrew, king of Hungary, and John de Brienne, titular kingof Jerufalem, accompanied by Cardinal Julian, the pope's legate, marched at the head of an army of crufaders. But, in- Head of going to Palcfline, they direcfted their . inarch to Egypt. Succefs at firft attended their arms. The Saracens, often vanquifhed, were obliged to betake themfelves to the mountains, and leave the Chriftians malfers of the level country. The two generals of the crufade, before they would pufli their advantages any farther, wifhed to take every proper precaution; t>ut the legate, with the authority of a mailer, took Lect. v. modern history. (231) took the command of the army upon himfelf, obliged the generals to adl according to his orders, and, fupported by the knights templar, conduced the army between two branches of the Nile- Thus hemmed in, the Saracens opened the fluices, and inundated the Chriftian camp ; and they, in fo dangerous a fituation, thought them.felves happy to come to an agreement with the fultan, who allowed them to return with difgrace to Europe. Seventh and laft Crufade, — Europe was heartily tired of wearing the badge of the crcfs. The people were almofl recovered from the epide- mical difeafe of crufading. In the general fermentation which difturbed Europe, princes durft not leave their dominions. The popes, violently irritated againft the emperors, .thought no more of the holy land, Crufades feemed to be at an end, when Louis IX. (commonly called St. Louis} king of France, undertook the feventh and lafc. This prince, a model for men and kings, attacked with a fevere fit of ficknefs, thought he heard a voice, which told him he would recover, and that he muft undertake aa expedition againft the infidels. He made a vow to do fo, and immediately, upon his reco- very, prepared for a crufade. His mother, wife, and council, oppofed him all they could ; but the circumftances of his kingdom, the in- Sereft of his family, and the danger attending fo P 4 ram. (232) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V, rafli an entcrprife, were not fiifficient to divert him from his dcfign. He was told that a rafh vow is not bmding, and that the firft duty of a king is to confiiit the happinefs of his people. Ihis falutary advice made no impreffion on Louis. After three years preparation, he fet out, at- tended by Margaret of Proven by removing ont LfecT. V. MODERN HISTORY. (239) out of the way, thofe members who were Continually raiiing difturbances, and commit- ting ad:s of cruelty, enabled the well-difpofed, who remained, to cultivate the arts^of peace, to promote civilization, and refinement of man- ners. Some of thofe who returned to Europe, brought from the eaft, a tafle for the arts and fciences. The finG buildings they had fecn at Conflantinople, and in Afia, executed in the Grecian tade, furnifhed them with the idea of introducing the imitation of them into the wefl:, where the Gothic manner of building prevailed; an archited:ure without proportion, order, or beauty, in which ftrength, and permanency were only aimed at by the builder. The cru- faders brought from the eafl fome of the writ- ings of the ancients ; this was favourable to learning in thofe dark ages, as it gave the Euro- peans a tafte for the finifhed compoiitions of the Greeks, and raifed in them a defire to become acquainted with thofe mafters of poetry, hiftory, and eloquence. The crufades were alfo favour- able to commerce, as an intercourfe was chen opened between the call and wefl, which has continued ever fmce. The European merch- ants attended the armies of the crufaders, fold them the commodities of Europe and Afia, brought Afiatic commodities into Europe, and, from the gain they made, found it would be greatly (240) MODERN HISTORY. Lect: Y. greatly to their advantage to carry on a trade with the nations of Afia. f Dviring the period of the crufades, fome eflablirnments, advantageous, both to princes and the people, were formed in Europe ; thefe were corporations and municipal governments. They were advantageous to princes, by weaken- ing the power of overgrown vafTals, who dQ{- pifed the royal authority ; they were advanta- b;cous to the people in the liberty they obtained^ "\\ hich foftened oppreffion. Thefe corporations and municipal governments, were affociations of citizens for mutual defence. They had the privilege of chuiing their own magiftrates, of governing themfelves, and taking up arms, on condition, that they furnifhed the fovereign in time of war v/ith a certain number of men, and paying him fome quit-rents, as an acknow- ledgement of his fuperiority over them. 1 hefe privileges were purchafed with money, and the crufades helped to promote their eftablifliment. For the feudal lords, who engaged in the holy War, having need of money, fold the above- mentioned privileges to the inhabitants of cer- tain ■f From the crufades was derived the invention of coats of arms, or armorial bearings. By thefe the chiefs of the cru- fade were diflinguiflied under heavy iron armour, which entirely covered their bodies ; from hence fprang heraldry, which has been attended to and cultivated as a fcience, when iludies much more valuable were entirely negledled. Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (^41) tain cities within their jiirifdidlioii. The clergy- Were much againft thefe immunities being be-* flowed upon the lower ranks of fociety, whom they wanted to keep in a flate of flavery. • Strange ! that the minifters of the Chriflian re- ligion fhould have been fo averfe to the civil and religious rights of mankind. Liberty is the parent of happinefs. In barbarous times pride and fuperilition foftered idlenefs and flavery. — Arts and manufacflv^res, nay commerce, were held difgraceful in the age of feudal feverity ; but when liberty flept forth, and men began to know and claim their natural rights, new fenti- ments infpired new ideas, the foul exerted cou- rage, and full play was given to the exercife of her faculties. The cru fades were unfortunate, and this was owing to thofe who engaged in them. They were filled with fuperftitious fervour, they were bent on conquefl ; but their views clafhing with each other, and being prone to ads of cruelty, prevented them from having that fuccefs which might have been expedled. Robbery and blood- fhed marked their footfteps in the countries through which they marched; their barbarous paffions never fubfided ; they Were drenched in blood every time they went in the fervour of devotion, to worihip at the holy fepulchre. — > Had the crufaders behaved themfelves hke fol- diers, who knew how to make war, had they (242) MODERN HISTORY, Lect. Y, condudled their affairs with (kill and pru- dence, it is probable that Afia might have beea conquered ; but acting in the manner they did, their enterprifes ferved only to depopulal;e Europe, to flrengthen the hands of the Roman pontiffs, and to bring ruin upon themfelves. — Becaufe fuperftition and barbarity were tne fprings which fet them in motion, and becaufe they were deftitute of real religion, virtue, and prudence. Events in the twelfth & thirteenth Centuries. — In the period under review, the event next in im- portance to the crufades, is the unchriftian and fanguinary quarrels of the popes and German emperors. The emperors wifhed to keep pof- fefHon of Italy, and the right of prefenting to church benefices, both of which were very dif- agreeable to the popes, who made ufe of every means in their power to prevent them. Gre- gory VII. the moft haughty prielt that ever fat in the papal chair, determined to exalt his power above all prmces ; and as the emperors of Ger- many were the moft likely to oppofe him, he Urained every nerve to bring them to fubmit to the holy fee. Hence, the ftruggles between Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and this pope, in which the latter, by the power of fuperftition and intrigue, was an overmatch for the former. Gregory died» but his fuccelfors followed his plan, and harraffed Henry wuth fuch unrelenting feveritya Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (243) ftverity, that, that hero, who had fo ftrongly oppofed the encroachrnents of Rome, over- whelmed with misfortunes, was obliged to take refuge in Liege, where his unnatural fon would fcarce allow him any fupport while living, and refufed him Chriflian burial when dead, becaufe he died under the pope's anathema. The quarrel ftill continued during the reigns of feveral emperors and popes, whofe names are mentioned in the hiflories of thofe times. It was then that the guelphs and gihelins, or the partizans of the emperors and popes, were in a ftate of perpetual hoflility with each other, and fpread the horrors of civil war from the coafts ot Africa, to the fliores of the Baltic. Henry V. Conrad III. duke of Suabia, Frederick 1. his nephew, Henry VI. and Frederick II. flood forth in defence of their rights, which the popes would have wrefted from them. Innocent IV. the quondafjz friend of Frederick II. mounted the papal chair, and from that moment became his mofl implacable enemy. He excommuni- cated him, and did all he could to ftir up Ger- many and Italy to rebellion againft the emperor; but Frederick obliged him to take refuge in. France. There Innocent IV. afTembled the famous council of Lyons, which, after a mock trial, pronounced Frederick's depolition, and publifhed a crufade againft him. When Fre- derick was informed of this, (being then at Tu- Qj2 (rin (244) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. T. rin) taking the imperial crown in his hand ;. « The pope, and council, (fays he) have not yet 1!aken this from me ; and before I am deprived of it', much human blood fhall be fpilt.*' He immediately wrote to the princes of Germany ^^ and of the reft of Europe, to convince them that the confequences of the pope's conducT:,. would be detrimental to them all ; he fent his fon Conrad into Germany, and marched himfelf to the fouth of Italy. Frederick was obHgedy not only to defend himfelf againft the public attacks of his enemies, but to be upon his guard againft traitors and aftaffins, who were privately hired to take away his life. However, grief or poifon deprived him of life, and he left the empire, at his death, in as great confufion, as it had been in at his birth. He was, (even by the confeflion of his enemies) the moft enlight- . ened prince of the age, of great courage and generofity, prudent, magnificent, and learned^ the friend and protedor of the arts. Innocent IV. who did all he could to ruin the family of Suabia, returned in hafte to Italy ,in- vited William of Holland to ufurp the imperial crown, and fent his troops into Sicily. Wil- ' liam loft his life in a battle with the Frifians. Conrad, the worthy fon of Frederick, did, by his courage, for fomctime prevent the downfal of his family ; but poifon foon put an end to his life and triumphs, leaving a fon almoft in his cradle. Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (245) cradle. Innocent longed to extinguiih thac race; but death put an end to his days and crimes. Alexander IV. and after him Urban IV. offered young Conrad in's dominions to fe- veral princes. At laft Charles of Anjou, bro^ ther to Louis IX. accepted them, and made a rapid conqueft of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. Conrad was taken prifoner, and he, with his friend the duke of Auftria, lofl their lives by the hands of the public executioner. Thus periihed the illuHrious houfe of Suabia. The confulion of anarchy prevailed in Ger- many and Italy. Many emperors appeared at the fame time. Richard, brother to the king of England, and Alphonfo of Caflile, were chofen emperors by different parties, but en- joyed only a vain title. The ravages of war continued, the country was laid wafte, and the cities burnt with fire. Fatigued with thefe ca- lamities, the elecftors united tochufe an emperor, and without one difTenting voice, their choice fell upon Rodolph, count of Hapfburgh. England, — England aclied a confpicuous part during the twelfth and thirteenth cehturies. Henry I. who deprived his elder brother Robert of the crown of England, and then of the duchy of Normandy, difplayed talents which fhewed him to be one of the greatefl kings of the age. A valfal of the king of France, he endeavoured tQ weaken him as much as poiTible ; and Louis, 0.3 i» (246) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. in revenge, proteded the fon of the unfortunate Robert, and ftirred up the Normans to rebel. Befides, the clergy, with Anfelnn, archbiihop of Canterbury, at their head, oppofed Henry in the right of invefliture, and the pope threat- ened to excommunicate him. Surrounded wiih difficulties, Henry by his prudence and courage, • boldly faced all his enemies. He came to an agreement with the pope, without relmquifhing his rights, or demeaning his dig-. nity i quelled the rebels ; beat Louis the Fat ; and engaged the emperor to enter France with an arrhy. Succefsful in all his enterprifes, Henry might have flattered himfelf with the enjoyment of happinefs;' but a lliipwreck, in which his two hopeful fons, one of his daugh- ters, ami feveral of the Englifh nobility, perifh- cd, overwhelmed him at once with grief and forrow. However, his adiive genius did not lea e him; he baffled the efforts of Louis and Robert's fon i and, by marrying his daughter Matilda, the emperor's widow, to Geoffery Plantag- net, the heir of Maine and Anjou, fecured ihefe two provinces to his fuccclTors. After his death, Stephen, who became king of England, in prejudice of Matilda's right, Ihewed himfelf worthy of a crown. After him the family of Plantagenet mounted the throne. Henry IL the fon of Matilda and Geofrery, already duke of Noniiandy, Anjou, and Maine, , polief- Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (247} pofleflbr of Guienne and Poitou, in right of his wife Eleonora, whom Louis the Youno- had divorced, became, by the union of England with his other eftates, one of the mofl powerful princes of Europe. His wars with France, attended with no great lofs to either lide ; the conqueft of Ireland by Strongbow and others j his quarrel with Thomas Becket, the haughty archbifhop of Canterbury, whom Henry had raifed from the duft to an eminent rank, and who, in return, difturbed the reign of his bene- facftor ; the confequences of the death of that prelate ; the rebellion of his fons, the perfidy of his wife Eleonora; thefe, 1 fay, were the events of the ftormy reign of the unfortunate Henry Plantagenet, which broke his heart, and hurried him to his grave. Richard I. fucceeded his father Henry II. Richard had the qualities of a hero, and was fond of glory acquired by military exploits; but it is not fo certain that he poflelTed thofe qualities which make a good king. His thirfl for glory fent him a crufading to the holy land, where he performed the moft heroic adtions. — Philip of France, whofe luftre was eclipfed by Richard, returned in a pet to Europe, and, con- trary to his oath, attacked his d^miinions. — Irritated at Philip's perfidious condud, Richard was obliged to leave the field of laurels, and return to puni(h him. Delivered from cap- QL.4- tivity (24S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. tivity in Germany, he found in France an unnatural brother taking part with his encjny. He obliged his brother John to return to his duty, forgave him, and carried on war with Philip, without materially affcding the domi- nions of either king. The death of Richard, •who w^as flaih by a knight at the fiegc of Cha- lons, freed Philip from a formidable rival. f Arthur, duke of Bretagne, difputed the crown of England with John his uncle ; but the for- tune of war being on the fide of the latter, he feized upon Bretagne, put Arthur in irons, and murdered him with his own hand. Arthur's mother prefented a petition to the French houfe of peers, figned by the barons of that duchy. • The king of England was fummoned to appear as a vaffal of France, before his peers ; and upon his refufal, was fentenccd to lofe all that he pofTeiTed upon the continent. Philip made -j- Some woollen broad-clothes were manufactured in Eng- land, in the reign of |lichard. It is pleafing to trace tlic progrefs of liberty in Britain ; an inftance of which we have in the oppofition the inhabitants of London, headed by one William Fitzolborn, made to an opprefPive tax impofcd by Richard, which fell wholly on the poor. Fitzofborn was a brave man ; but being defeated, took refuge in a church, from whence he was dragged, and put to death with feveral who had jpined him. Thefe may be confidered as the firll facrifice to that love of liberty, and ftrong defire to prefervc the unalienable rights of man, which have always adluated ?he body of the Enghfh nation. Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (249) made haile to reap the fmits of his vaiEil*s crime, by depriving him of Normandy, Poitou, Maine, Anjou, and Tourraine ; only Guienne remained to the m.ifguided and impious John, vho, by his unjuft exadlions, mifgovernment, and contempt of religion, ilirred up againll: him, the nobihty, clergy, and common peoDle. Moreover, he embroiled himfelf with the pope. Innocent III. \^ho declared the throne vacant, forbade his fubjecis to obey him, and gave his kingdom to Philip Auguftus, who readily ac- cepted the gift. The revolt of the Welch, the murmurs of the people, the confpiracy of the ba- rons, and feditious cries of the clergy, united againft John, and drove him to defpair. In this crifis. Innocent III. ever attentive to his ov^^n in- terefts, propofed to John to become a vallal of the holy fee, and declare his kingdom feudatory of Rome. John fubmitted, delivered his crown to the legate, and received it five days after, at the fame time promifmg that he would hold it of the pope. By this meanncfs, John prefcrved his dominions ; and to be revenged of Philip, form- ed a powerful league againft him. England, Germiany, and the Low Countries, immediately took up arms againft France. Ferrand, earl of Flanders, Euftace de Boulogne, and many other lords, all vaftals of Philip, joined the emperor OrhoIV. To that the kingdom of France appear- jgd to be in imminent danger from fo powerful a con- (250) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. a confederacy. But Philip, by employing his great abilities, made a noble (land agamft all his enemies. He fent his fon into Anjou to oppofe king John, and he him felf marched into Flan- ders againft Otho, whom he met at Bouvines. There was fought that famous battle, in which Philip difplayed all the talents of a great captain, and defeated an army ten times more numerous than his own : this vidlory broke the league. — Otho returned w ith difgrace to his own domini- ons. Flanders was conquered, his vaflals humb- led, John thought himfelf happy to obtain a truce, and Philip was covered with glory. In the mean time John, who came over to England, found nothing there but hatred and contempt. The barons rebelled, took up arms, loudly demanded the reftitution of thofe privi- leges the nation had enjoyed under the Saxon kings, and obliged him to grant the Great Char- ter of the liberties of England. In granting to his fubjedls, by this charter, their natural rights, John thought his dignity degraded, never con- fidering that he w^as guilty of a real meannefs in fubmittingtothepopeof Rome. He complained heavily of the atfront put upon him by the grant of Magna Charla^ and requeited that the pope, his new fovereign, would redrefs his wrongs. Innocent III. excommunicated the barons, and John, with the afliflance of a body of Braban- fons, carried fire and fword through the land, leavinccj Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (251) leaving, wherever he came, marks of his rage and cruelty. In this extremity, the barons fearing the total lofs of liberty, life, and property, had recourfe to a defperate remedy ; they invited into England, Louis, the fon and heir of Philip. The French prince made hafte to take polTelTion of Britain ; but the death of John, changed the flate of aifairs. The nation, though it hated the father becaufe of his crimes, would not puniih his innocent fon. All turned in a very fhort time in favour of the lawful heir, and Louis re- quefted permiUion to return home. England has often felt llrange revolutions. As long as the great Pembroke governed m the name of Henry ill. a minor, tranquillity pre- vailed in the church and ftate; but after his death, there was a great change, and divifions increafed more than ever. The minifters of Henry committed the moft flagrant ads of in- juftice, this oflfended the nation, and the king, by w^ay of atonement, punifhed them ; but def- titute of talents for government, he entrufled his power with an ambitious wife, who defolated the nation by her rapines, and by her imperious condud:, ftirred up the nobles to rebel. His fub- jecls took up arms, complaining of the violation of the Great Charter ; the famous Simon iMont- fort» earl of Leicefter, put himfelf at their nead, and civil v/ar threw the whole kingdom into a flame. Henry was macie prifoner with all his family. (252) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. family. Leicefter governed in the king*s name, and by his reformation of the kingdom, pro- moted private and public happinefs. However, Henry's fon having by an artful ftratagem, made his efcape from prifon, gave battle to the earl, and put an end to his power and life. Edward fet his father at liberty, reinflated him in his authority, alTifled him m the affairs of govern- ment, and enabled him to fpend the remainder of his days in an undifturbed repofe. France. — Louis VI . pofTeiTed wifdom to plan, with courage and adivity to execute his deiigns. He fpent his life in oppoling his vafFals, gave the firft blow to feudal anarchy, increafed the liberty of the common people, formed muni- cipal governments, and laid the foundation of the power of his fuccelfors. The Abbe Suger, a great ilatefman, feconded his views, fupported them after his death, and fupplied the incapa- city of Louis VII. He made himfelf odious by his cruelties in Champ*agne, and the malTacrc of Vitri, at which humanity fhudders, A prey to violent remorfe, he believed the only way to expiate his crimes would be to join the crufadc for the recovery of the holy land. In Paleflinc he behaved inglorioufly, from whence he re- turned with difgrace; and by the divorce of an unfaithful wife, who'brought a fixth part of his dominions to Henry Pkntagenet, he gave a terrible Lect. v. modern history. (253) terrible blow to France. With his Ton Philip Auguflus the reader is already acquainted. Louis VIII. the fon and ruccelTor of Philip, preferved to France the fuperiority his father had obtained ; happy would it have been for himfelf and his people, had he not given way to blind zeal, which induced him to take up arms againft the innocent Albigenfes. After his death, Blanche of Callile wifely governed during the minority of Louis IX. This prince began his reign, by beating the Englifh at Taillebourg, and by a difplay of great vir- tues.- He kept his vaflals within the bounds of duty, checked the ufurpations of the clergy, put a ftop to the haralTments of the great, gave vigour to the laws, formed a police, eftablifh- cd courts of juftice to proted: the innocent and punifh the guilty ; that wife legiflation, which every where prevailed through his extenlive dominions, rendered him the delight of hi& fubjeds and the oracle of kings. Such were the traits of the reign of this great king. Blame- able only in this, that his virtues were of a fuper- flitiou5 complexion, and perfuaded him to take- up the crofs to his own great lofs and that of ther nation. Scotland. — Scotland in this period was not of much weight in the fcale of European nations. Confined to the northern parts of Britain; hav- ing no pofTeflions on the Continent, the Scots concerned f254) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. concerned themfelves very little with foreign affairs, nor did they take a part in the troubles which agitated Europe, any farther, than from their connediion with the French, to make now and then an excurfion into England in their favour, when the two nations were at war. The turbulent and refradory difpofition of the Scotch feudal lords, the unfriendly terms upon which they lived with the Englilh, cut out for the kings of Scotland fufficient work at home. The fpirit of the times would no doubt induce fome of the Scotch to engage in the crufades ; but as no perfon of note is mentioned (though there might be fome obfcure adventurers) they either could not afford the expence of fuch an expedition ; or, what is more probable, fuper- flition had not power to perfuade them to engage in that mad enterprife. Malcolm III. (nicknamed Canmore*} thefon of Duncan, whom Macbeth murdered, was con- temporary with William the Conqueror. His wife was Margaret, the filler of Edgar Atheling. He is called by way of eminence, the Legiflator • of Scotland. Indeed, he feems to have been a magnanimous and wife prince ; one who had courage to face his enemies in the field, and knew how to govern and dired: the affairs of his kingdom. It is faid he introduced the feudal fyflem into Scotland. It is very probable that thi^ * /'. e. Greathead, Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. ^255) this fy ftcm prevailed in Scotland prior to his time; but Malcolm might make fome altera- tions and improvements in it. He and one of his fons were treacheroufly flain ; but when, or where, is not certainly known, David, the Ton (though not the immediate fuccefTor) of Malcolm, is the next king of Scotland worthy of notice. In whatever point of view we examine his charader and condud:, we difcover qualities which made him equal, if not fuperior, to any prince of the age. He ftood up for the rights of his niece Matilda, and, in the competition between her and Stephen of Blois, for the crown of England, conducted himfelf with fteadinefs and moderation towards both. To him Henry II. was much indebted, as by his means he afcended the Englifh throne. He was too liberal to churchmen, and by build- ing abbeys and monaflcries, increafed fuperfti- tion and idlenefs : but this was the tafle of the times. It is faid, that by the afiiHance of learned men, whom he invited from all parts, he compofed a code of laws for the better go- vernment of his kingdom. After his death, and the fuccellion of feveral kings, the crown of Scotland came to Alexander III. who, dying without ilTue, the right of fucceflion was long dif- puted between Baliol and Bruce, both grand fons, by their mothers, of David, earl of Huntingdon, brother to Malcom IV. This difpute was the caufc (256) MODERN HISTORY. Ucr. V. caufe of long and fore troubles to the inhabitants of Scotland* Spain, PortugaL — During the period under review, the Chriftian kings of Spain were al- mofl: all heroes. Sancho Ramire died glori- oufly in the field of battle, after having greatly- enlarged the kingdom of Arragon ; and his fon Peter I. joined the little province ofHuefcato his dominions. Alphonfo, his fuccellbr, ren- dered himfelf famous by his bold enterprifes, heroic anions, and continued fuccefs. The death of the celebrated Roderick, fur- named the Cid, fufpended for a little the fuccefs of the Chriftians of Caftile. In the reign of Alphonfo VI. the king of Morocco invaded Spain with a powerful army, and vanquifhed him in the battle of Velcz, in which he loft his only fon. However the adlive genius of Al- phonfo enabled him to repair his lolTes, and towards the end of his reign, he obtained new triumphs over the Moors. After his deaths Caftile and Arragon were for fome time united. Henry of Burgundy, who fucceeded Alphonfo Vll. being dead, the regency was entruftcd with the countefs Therefa, who, giving herfelf up to the indulgence of pleafure, left the government in the hands of contemptible favourites. The na- tion murmured, and young Alphonfo attempt- ed to take the government from his mother. Offended at her fon, fhe, contrary to mater- pal Lect. v. modern history. f257) hal affcd:ion, invited her nephew, the king of Caflile, to feize upon Portugal* He accepted llierefa's invitation; but the young prince marched againft him, defeated him, and they were afterwards reconciled by the; mediation of the Arragonians. Then the three Alphonfoes joined their forces againfl: the Moors, and at- tacked them on all fides. But ttiQ death of Alphonfo the Fighter, who was (lain in battle, favcd the Moors, and created trouble to the Chriftians. He, by a whimfical will, bequeath- ed his dominions to the knights Templar, who came to take polTeflion of them ; but Alphonfo of Caftile oppofed them, as having the befl: title in right of his mother. Then Navarre bellow- cd her crow^n upon Don Garcia, of the race of her anicent kings, and Arragon called Ramire from the cloifter. This monk foon incurred the hatred and contempt of his fubjed:s. They obliged him to abdicate the throne, and chofe in his place Raymond his fon-in-Iaw, count of Barcelona, and Montpellier, and fovereign of a part of Proven5e. Vidory and conquefl attended Alphonfo of Portugal. The concjueror, in one day, of fi^'e Mooriih kings, his foldiers proclaimed him king, and the pope confirmed his title, not^ withftanding the oppolition of Caftile. He afterwards took the city, Lifbon, and made it the capital of his kingdom. , t R In (25S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. In Caflile, Alphonfo IX. the fuccelTor of Sancho, whofe reign is not worthy of notice, won the famous battle of Murandal, in which, (according to the Spaniih hifloriansj the Moors were totally defeated, leaving two hundred thoufand dead upon the field Alphonfo X. (though not the immediate fuccefTor of Alphon- fo IX.) called the Wife, was a fkilful aftrono- jner. He (it is faid) found fault with God in the government of the world ; thought he could inftrud his creator how to govern it better, whilfl: at the fame time he wanted wifdom for the right government of his own kingdom. — To him an offer of the imperial crown was- made, at the very moment his fubjecls intended to depofe him. In Arragon, Berenger procured the eftecm and love of his fubjecfts ; Peter II. was killed at Muret, in defence of his friend the Count dc Thouloufe, perfecuted by the crufaders ; and James L furnamed the Warrior, made himfelf illuftrious by the conqueft of Minorca, Majorca, Jvica, and the fertile kingdom of Valencia. Sancho I. who fucceeded his father Alphonfo^ the firft king of Portugal, triumphed over the Moors, built cities, equipped fleets, and increafed population. — Alphonfo II. enlarged the boun- daries of his kingdom. The incapacity of Sancho II. loft him the throne, to whom his brother Alphonfo J II. fucceeded, who con- ciliated LitcT. V. MODERN HISTORY. (259J ciliated the afFedlions of the nation, by his fuc- cefs in war, and by his wife government. The Moors, in fpite of all their eiforts, were every day lofling part of their dominions ; and the rivallhip of the two nations kept Spaih in a Continual flate of war. Kingdoms of the North in^ Poland felt the the 1 2th and iph Cent. J calamities brought upon her by the unfortunate reign of Bdleflaus IL That kingdom, divided among many petty fo-. vereigns, was expofed to the horrors of anarchy, and fijnk into obfcurity, while the inhabitants were expofed to all the calamities infeparable from oppreiTion and want of good government. — The hiftory of RuHia, in this period, prefents us with nothing, but fome excurfions into Po- land and Bulgaria, and an irruption of the Tartars, who forced the Ruflians to fubmir to the conqueror's yoke. — ^ — Bohemia was blelTed with wife kings, and noble actions ; but thefe events were only of a domeftic nature, and not blended with the affairs of the reft of Europe.-— The Swedes became gradually more civilized* Chriftianity took root among them. St. Eric collecfted the ancient laws into a code, and added new ones. The Goths and Swedes coalefced, fo as to become one people, and Sweden was enlarged by the conqueft of Fin- land. R 2 The {26o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.V. The hiftory of modern Denmark began with Waldemar I. a great king. He united into one the different parts of the kingdom, enlarged it by new conqueds, obliged the Rugians to fub- mit, conquered the Vandals, who continually infelled the frontiers, and laid the foundations of Copenhagen and Dantzick. Canute II. his fon, added Livonia and Efthonia to his king-' dom. Waldemar II. by the conquefl of Pome- rania, Mecklenburg, Courland, and all the fouthern coafl of the Baltic, farther enlarged the boundaries of Denmark. Count Schwerin, a Danifh nobleman, at his departure for the holy land, recommended to him the care of his wife till his return; the king debauched her in his abfence, which was the caufe of his ruin. The count, upon his return to Denmark, ftirred up the whole kingdom to rebel. Pomerania, Mecklenburg, and the duchy of Holftein fhook off the yoke; Dantzick became a republic, and the Teutonic knights poffeffed themfelves of Prufliaand Livonia. In Hungary, Stephen IL the conqueror of the Bulgarians and Greeks, obliged the Venetians to furrender Croatia. Bela, though a cruel uncle deprived him of fight, governed with w4fdom and prudence. Andrew II. famous on account of his expedition to the Loly land, and ffill more fo for that memorable law, which gave liberty to the Hungarians to withftand their Lect. v. modern history, (261) their prince when he attempted to violate their privileges; Bela IV. the darling of his people, who had the misfortune to fee his country laid waftc, the cities and villages burnt, and more than a million of his fubjedls mafTacrcd by five hundred thoufand Tartars from the heart of Alia. Venue, — The republic of Venice was at the fummit of her glory in the thirteenth century. Her wars with the Hungarians whom fhe de- feated ; the pofTeflion of Dalmatia, which the Greek emperors could not take from her; the protedion llie gave the popes ; her fuccefs againft the emperors of Germany ; the honour of taking Conflantinople, which fhe fhared with the French crufaders ; the acquiiition of Candia» and other iflands in the Archipelago ; all thefe made this republic one of the moft powerful ftates in Europe. — The Genoefe alfo made a figure in the fame period: they formed fettle- ^ ments in the Black Sea, conquered the ifland of Coriica, and, after a long ftruggle, divided Sardinia with xh^ Pifans. Hans Towns. — Whilit anarchy prevailed in Germany, Hamburgh, Lubeck, and feveral other cities, entered into a wife afTociation, to keep off from themfelves the confufion around them, to give mutual affiftance, and for the increafe of trade. After this union, which rendered them formidable to their neighbours, R 3 they (262) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. they regulated their internal govjernment, ex- tended their commerce^ increafed their marine, acquired the empire of the north feas, and rivalled the moil powerful kingdoms. About the fame time, Lucca, Pifa, and Florence in Itab/, formed a fimilar confederacy, gave them- felves to trade and commerce, and thereby be- came wealthy and powerful. Empire of Conjlantinoplc^-T'ht Greek empire felt great revolutions during this period. Alexis Comnenus procured, by the exercife of great talents, the enjoyment of tranquillity to his do- minions. John Calo, his fuccefibr, defeated the Turks and Hungarians feveral times. Mrcnuel Comnenus procured the hatred of the crufaders by his cunning, and the love of the Greeks by his liberality. Alexis II. was murdered by hi§ uncle Andronicus, who ufurped the throne; and he, in his turn, was put to death by Ifaac Angelus. Ifaac 's defeat by Frederick, whom he attempted to (lop on his march to the holy- land, changed the affecftions of the people ; and his brother Alexis laying hold bi the opportu- nity, dethroned him, fhut him up in prifon, and put out his eyes. It was then that the French crufaders, in conjuntflion with the Venetians;, took poiTelTion of Conliantinople. The Greeks prefervcd only fome remains of their empire. Theodore lafcaris crowned at Nice, recom- mended himfelf, by his refpedable qualities, to the Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (263) the Latins and Turks. John Ducas, his fon-in- law andTucceiTor, fccured the Afiatic provinces, drove the French from Romania, and feized on Adrianople. And Michael Paleologus, the mur- derer of young John Lafcaris, drove away the Tartars, repulfed the Turks, and took advan- tage of the misfortunes of the houfe of Suabia, to put an end to the mock empire of the Latins in the eaft. Tuiks, — The crufaders at firfl difcomfited the Turks, and obliged thern to take refuge in the mountains of Taurus and Armenia; but having foon returned, fultan Sanguin threaten- ed the kingx'om of Jerufalem, Noradin, his fon, pofTefTed hifnfelf of the cities Edeffa, Anti- och, and Damafcus, and brought Syria, Mefo- ptitamia, and Cilicia, under the dominion of the Turks. While he attacked Paleftine, his generals made a conquefb of Egypt. Saladin, who fucceeded to his- dominions by marrying his widow, defeated the Chriftians, became maflcr of Jerufalem, and in the midfl 01 his victories, difplayed a moft humane and generous difpolicion. Attacked by the moft formidable cru fade that had ever appeared in Judea, h^ broke and difperfed it almoft without nght-'^g. In a word, the great Saladm, maftero^an ex- tenfive empire, beloved by his fi;-fjjed:s, and dreaded by his enemies, ended iiis days pcace- ^Xji crowned with honours and triumphs. — Rf Hi? (264) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. His children quarrelled among thcmfelves ; at the faiTic time a numerous army of Tartars, led by the famous Gengifkan, fell upon the Turkiflv provinces ; the Mamalucks took polTeflion of Egypt, and the empire of the fultans feemed to ]bc annihilated. Revolutions in Governments in^ — The king- the 12th and i^th Centuries, J doms of Eu- rope feit many alterations in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In Germany, the confti- tution was wholly changed. Under the Othoes it was a real monarchy. The executive pov/er was altogether in the emperors; the German barons were the real fubjeds, free, but not in- dependent. The long quarrels between Rome and the empire, put an end to this harmony. — The great valTals taking advantage of the gene- ral confulion fliook off all dependence; the bifhops and abbots became fovereign princes ; fo that the emperors of Germany after this re- volution, were, and are at prefent,only the chief of many fovereigns, decorated with pompous titles, but havmg only the Hiadow of power. A contrary revolution took place in France, Eouis V[. by his activity and fiimnefs, confider- ably weakened the ariftocratical power, and PhiUp A'aguftus completed the revolution. — • Many lord s\liena ted their lands, and the crown W^as a gainer by it. The conqueft of the moft valuable provinces the Englilh polTcfred in France^ Lect. V% MODERN HISTORY. (265) France, afforded Philip the means to humble other valFals. By the crufade againft the Albi- genfes, the counts of Thouloufe loil their power; and the vid:ory of Eouvines diminifhed that oT the earls of Flanders. — Philip took advantage of all thefe events to ftrengthen his authority, and by giving pay to his troops, rendered it lefs precarious. Louis IX. perfedled the work, by introducing order and regularity into all the departments of the ftate ; from that time France, being freed from feudal anarchy, made a confpicuous figure among the firft powers of Europe. The government in England underwent a very different revolution. Under the tw^o Wil- liams a mofldefpotic government prevailed. — Under th^ two firfb Henries and Richard, it was more mild, but not lefs vigorous. The inabi- lity, tyranny, and misforturies of John Lackland, furnifhed the Englifli nation with an opportu- nity to throw off the odious yoke of defpotifm. The barons laid claim to their ancient privileges. Liberty, that noble pafiion, was kindled in every heart. The Englifh obtained the Great Char- ter, that facred depoiitory of their liberties ; and in the reign of Henry III. they laid the foundation of that wife form of government, equally removed from the confiilion of arifto- 4:racy^ and the defpotifm of monarchy. Though (266) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. Though the feudal government was ftill in vigour in Spain, yet the monarchical form was infeniibly gaining ground, fo that a revolution would foon happen. The power of the popes was confiderably en- larged during that period. The crufades, che anarchy which prevailed in Germany, and the inftitution of the mendicant orders, were the three caufes which concurred to the increafe of the fee of Rome. By means of thefe three. Innocent III. who knew how to ufe them to his own advantage, reigned with an abfolute authority over the weft, and with his thunder/ flruck crowned heads to the ground, whenever they ad:ed contrary to his pleafure. Lazvs in the 12th and lyh Centuries. — What moft claims our attention, is the regeneration of laws which took place in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The favage and barbar- ous cuftoms of the feudal times began to give place to a more reafonable and perfect jurifpru- dence. — St. Eric compofed a code of laws for Sweden. The ftates of Arragon made Ifatutes which defined the prerogative of their kings, and the rights of the people. Alphonfo X. king of Caftile, publillied judicious regulations, known by the name of Las Partidas, In Eng- land thofe famous affemblies called Parliament began. Several cities in Germany and Italy made laws for their better government In France, ^: JLect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (267) France, Louis IX. made regulations, by which the weak were fafe from opprcflion, appointed magifrrates to fludy and explain the laws, and tribunals to put them in execution. Juflinian's code, found by Warner, introduced this reform into all the kingdoms of Europe. This man, ad- miring the wifdom of that excellent collection, conceived the defign of givmg public ledures upon civil law. Seconded by the emperor Lothaire, he fet up a fchool at Bologna, which foon became celebrated through Europe. — Many other fchools were foon formed upon the plan of that at Bologna, and jurifprudence became a favourite ftudy. Manners ip. the i lib and \i^th Centuries, — The manners of European nations vifibly altered for the better, in the courfe of the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries. Savage manners gave place to civilization, and inhumanity to feniibiiity. — OpprelTion v< as detefted and innocence protec- ted. Even war was carried orv with lefs cruel- ty, and the miferies infeparable from it, great- ly alleviated. In every kingdom there were numbers of knights errant, who, animated with courage, humanity, gallantry, a love of juftice, honour and devotion, performed prodigies of valour in defence of the fair fex. This tended to polifh manners, and gave them a. milder caft. Gallantry was efteemed the mod anriiablc quality a kmght could poITefs. — Each knight made (268) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V, made choice of a lady to whom all his fervices were devoted. By protecting innocence, and doing juftice to thofe who were wronged, vio- lence and opprcflion feniibly decreafed. The mofl fcrupulous adherence to truth, became the diftinguifhing c ha racier i (lie of a man of honour. Religion in the i2th and ipb Centuries. — The kingdoms of Europe were ftill Roman Catholic, and the popes of Rome adled defpotically in fpiritual matters. The darknefs of fuperilition and ignorance ftill covered the Chriftian world, though not to that degree it had formerly done. Some rays of light broke out amidfl the gloom, and the right of private judgment, in matters of religion, w^as claimed by a few, in oppoiition to an implicit faith in do(5lrines, which they thought were unreafonablc, unfcriptural, and abfurd. The hiftorians of thofe times ftigma- tized all who maintained doclrines oppofite to the credenda of the church of Rome, w4th the name of Manichees, and imputed to them all forts of crimes. But it may by obferved, that moft of thofe hiftorians were monks, who, fee- ing things through a wrong medium, wrote under the influence of a blind zeal. Popular reports, fimple appearances, are all the proofs thefe credulous and fanatic hiftorians advance, -rr-The principal oppofers of Romiih tyranny, were Lect. V- MODERN HISTORY. (269) were the Albigenfes, with whofe principles the reader is already acquainted, Peter Bruys, in France, taught dodlrines con- trary to thofe of the church of Rome. He may be faid to have been the founder of the Baptifts; at lead, he feems to have been the firfl who - broached that dodlrine which diflinguifhes them from other Proteftants. With him, *' Baptifm is an ufelefs ceremony, when admi- niftered before the age of puberty, the mafs a vain and ridiculous worfhip, purgatory the in- vention of priefts for their own intereft, the crofs an abominable lign." The firfl tenet is not adopted by the generality of Proteftants ; but the others are conformable to found reafon, and the purity of religion. Peter Bruys is faid, not to have conducted himfelf properly in announ- cing thefe doctrines. This perhaps may be true, or perhaps it is only a flander caft upon his memory by his enemies. Be that as it may, he was burnt for his opinions, and is certainly entitled to the name martyr. Reigning errors are difficult to remove, and, when an attempt is made to put an end to them, it^lhould be done without violence and outrage ; for however well meant our intentions may be, yet if we put them improperly in execution, we, upon the whole, do more evil than good. However, he who oppofes prevailing errors, is fure to have his good evil fpoken of bv the generality. Arnold f 270) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. Arnold of Brefcia was a fuperior characfler to Peter Bruys. Learned above thofe of his time, a man of piety, bold, eloquent, he preached againft the prevailing doctrines, and againft the clergy. Monks, priefts, bifliops, popes, were painted by him in their true colours. The miniflers of Jefus Chrift, he faid, fliould be poor and humble, and not grafp at the wealth of this world. His preaching affedled his hearers, and ftirred them up againft the clergy, whofe property they pillaged, and did violence to their perfons. This was a wrong way to bring about a reformation. Arnold, protecfted by the emperor Frederick I. haftened to Rome, and, with the populace on his fide, drove the clergy from the Vatican. But falling into the hands of pope Adrian II. he caufed him to be burnt in 1155, ^^^ ^^s allies thrown into the Tyber. Religious orders, — The twelfth and thirteenth centuries may be called the aera of monks, and of monadic inflitutions in Europe. Befides the three orders of knights called Hofpitaller, temp- lar, and Teutonic, to which the crufadcs gave birth, Spain produced three others upon the fame plan, that of Calatrava, that of St. lago or St. James, and that of Alcantara. John de Matha in France, and Peter Nolafquc in Spain, inftituted two other very refpedable orders, the bafis of which is humanity. Thefe two Lect. v. modern history, (271) , two men, commiferating the miferies of Chrif- tians kept in captivity by the Moors, dedicated their time to the toilfome but laudable employ- ment of collecfting alms from the charitable, and then laid them out in the ranfom of thofe unhappy perfons, who, not having wherewith to purchafe their redemption, were in danger, either to abjure the religion of their fathers, or to experience all the horrors of captivity. — Thefe two inftitutions are called the order of the Trinity, and the order of Mercy, the mem- bers of which are ftill attached to the generous maxims of their founders, and therefore deferve to furvive the extindlion of every other religious order, the time of which, in all probablity, is not far off. In this period, the order of Ciftercian monks made a confpicuous figure, and became celebra- ted by the genius and eloquence of Bernard its reftorer. The monks of this order were very ufeful to France. — Having a tafte for agricul- ture, they applied themfelves to the cultivation of the ground, which, from being barren and wade, was, by their improvement, covered with grafs, vines, and corn. — The order of Clugny, fallen into obfcurity, was revived in the fame age, by the great virtues of its patron the abbot Peter de Mont Boiffien In a word, the four orders of mendicants, which have made fo much noife in the world, were then inftituted. V The (272) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. The minor brothers, or Francifcans, lince divi- ded into many inferior orders, all of w horn claim the honour of having Francis AfTifa for their founder; the brother preachers, or Dominicans, founded by Dominic k Gufman, author of the inquifition ; the Auguflins and Carmelites. — Thefe monks incrcafed prodigioufly, gained the confidence of the people, became the favourites of princes, and were fupported by the popes, whofe fpies and knights errant they have been. Sciences in the 12 lb and lyb Centuries, — The frequent journies of the inhabitants of Europe into the eafi: in the time of the crufades, gave birth to geography, then fcarcely known. Curi- ofity led Mark Paul, a Venetian, as far as China, and the relation of his travels, publifhed by him^ contributed to enlarge mens ideas of the know- ledge of our globe. Navigation alfo, and com- merce made confiderable progrefs. Univerfities were founded in different parts of Europe. — That of Paris became famous, by the reputation of William Champeaux, of Peter Abelard, the conftant lover of the tender Heloife, and of Peter Lombard. Notwithflanding the ignorance of true philofophy which then prevailed, England produced a Roger Bacon, a man much fuperior to the age in which he lived ; a man acquaint- ed with mechanics, optics, aflronomy, and che- miftry ; and who is faid to have been the in- ventor of burning glaifcSi of the telefcope, and gunpowder^ Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (275) gunpowder. He was accufed of magic, beraufe his genius enabled him to foar above the igno- rance of his time. TarturSy Gengijkan, — Before we conclude this led:ure, we would fay a few w^ords concerning the Tartars and Gengifkan. The Tartars are the defcendants of the ancient Scythians, and inhabit that immenfe trad: of country, extend- ing from China to the North Pole ; but diftin- guifhed by different names, as Ufbec Tartars, Mogul Tartars, &c. Nature has endowed them with a high relifh for liberty, and a wan- dering life. They confider cities as prilbns, and thofe who live in them as flaves. Their wandering and unfettled life, their continual expofure to the inclemency of the weather, brace their nerves, make them a hardy race, and are favourable to population. They are flrangers to many difeafes w^hich afflid: more civilized nations. Aliatic Tartary is that large refervoir, from whence ilTued thofe mul- titudes of favage warriors, who overwhelmed Europe. The Tartars are divided into diflincft hordes, each of which has a chief; and feveral hordes unite under one Kan. Their religion is the grolTeft kind of idolatry ; they pay divine ado- ration to one of their own fpecies, whom they call Lamas their virtues are few, and their- ' S Tices (274) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. vices fuch as are incident to people in a rude and favage ftate. GafTerkan, chief of the Mogul Tartars, and grandfather of the famous Gengifkan, about the beginning of the thirteenth century, fubjeded many neighbouring hordes to a ftate of vaflalage, and founded a kind of monarchy, which hi& grandfon, Gengis, extended over a great part of the world. Between the country of the Mogul Tartars ^nd China is a kingdom, faid to have been the dominions of Prefter John» fo famous in the ancient hiftories of the crufades, fabuloufly re- ported to have been a C hriftian prince, and king of Ethiopia. Prefter John was a Tartar prince ; Gengiflian attacked, vanquifhed, and deprived him of his dominions. This conqueror's pro- per name was Temugin : he aflumed that of Gengifkan, or great Kan, upon account of his vidlories and conquefts. A prophet,, it is faid, predided to him, that he would be the fove- reign of many kingdoms. Gengis was a legif- lator as well as a conqueror. In an aflembly of Tartars, he declared that there is but one God; that none ftiould be hurt on account of his reli- gion. He prohibited adultery upon pain of death, but allowed polygamy. He eftabliftied a moft fevere military difcipline. As the Tar- tar laws were publiftied in their aflemblies by word of mouth, and not written, he enabled one Iect. v. modern history. (275) 5ne which tended to infpire his foldiers with the moft heroic courage ; it was, that the fol- dier, who, in the day of battle, being called to the aflillance of his fellow foldiers, refufed to aflifl them, fhbuld be punifhed with death. The conquefts of Gengifkan were fo furprif- ingly rapid, that they appear like the fidtions of romance. From the extremity of the eaft he carried war and conquefl into Perfia and India ; the greateft part of China fubmitted to his power. The caliph of Bagdad, ftripped of his dominions, and held in fubjedion by fultan Mahomet, invited Gengis to his afliftance. He came and marched againft Mahomet. Euro- pean battles, particularly thofe of modern times, are but fkirmifhes, when compared with thofe of Afia. Mahomet, with an army of four hun- dred thoufand combatants, engaged Gengifkan^ who, with his four fons, were at the head of feven hundred thoufand troops. Gengis remain- ed mafter of the field of battle, and took the city Otrar, in Perfia, near which it was f oughts Cannon were not then known, he employed the battering ram in the fiege. It might perhaps afford the reader but little entertainment to attend Gengifkan in his con- quefts ; let it fufhce to obferve, that his vidlori- ous arms, like an overflowing flood, carried all before them wherever they came ; but he con- quered only to deftroy. His empire, which JS 2 extended (276) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V. extended from Ruflia to China, W2is an immenfc defert, without cities or cultivated lands. The farmer who cultivates his farm, the man who promotes trade and manufactures, are much more refpedable characflers than thofe who have been conquerors, and nothiner more. Gengifkan on his return from his cooquefls, halted at the city Toncat, in the centre of his vaft empire; thither his vidtorious generals, and tributary princes, brought him the treafures of Alia. In the plains of Toncat, he celebra- ted a triumph for his vicflories over fo many nations, in which appeared a mixture of Tartaric barbarity, and Aliatic luxury. The Kans, the companions of his vidlories, and their vafTals, appeared in chariots of the ancient Scythian make, but covered with fine cloth, and adorned with the gold and jewels of the vanquifhed na- tions. There Gengifkan received the homage of five hundred ambalTadors from the countries he had conquered. From thence he went to conquer the kingdom of Tangut, but a mortal diftemper prevented him from executing his defign, and he died in 1230 of the Chriftian aera. Hiftorians relate that feveral perfons were killed upon his tomb ; and, that this barbarous cuflom is flill attended to at the death of his fuccefTors who reign in Tartary. If this is true, it was probably the captives who were facrificed to Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (277) to his manes. Homer tells us that Achilles caufed feveral Trojans to be put to death upon Patroclus* tomb. The Tartars, from admira- tion of Gengifkan, imagined that his father was a fupernatural being. If he had a fupernatural being for his father, he mufl have been one of the infernal race. The monks who travelled into Tartary, fay, that Gengiflcan was a defpot. Their affertion does not feem probable ; lince the feudal fyflem (till prevails in that country. Thofe who at- tended him in his wars, were the companions and gainers of his vidlories, but not his fiaves. Defpotifm cannot prevail where a fpirit of in- . dependence reigns. The empire of the Mogul Tartars eftabliihed by Gengifkan and his Ions, was weakened on all fides by Tamerlane, about a hundred and fifty years after. Hence it may be obferved, that empire gained by rapid con- queft, has never been of any long duration. Another conqueror arifes, who flrips the fuccef- fors of the former of their dominions; or the conquered nations caft off the yoke. Talents for conqueft and government are feldom uni- ted in the fame perfon. The Tartars have no written laws, either civil or religious. Igno- rant and favage they are fbill deftitute of the means which have brought fociety in Europe to its prefent flate of perfedtion. The Tartars of the thirteenth century conquered, in about the S 3 Ipacc (27S) MODERN HISTORY* Leg t. VI, fpace of twenty-four years, half our globe, This is the whole of their hiftory we are ac- quainted with. LECTURE VI. Revolutions in Kingdoms^ — Governments^ — Legif-^ lationy — Manners y — Cujloms^ — Reiigiony The general Spirit of Europe ; — Sciences ^ — Arts, — in the fourteenth and fifteenth Centuries. WERE hiftory only anobje(5lofcuriofity,it would be much inferior to other literary produdlions, nor would it deferve the attention of thofe who read for inftrudlion and improve- ment. With what does the hiftory of nations prefent us ? It exhibits to the reader's view an extenfive fcene of human weaknefTes and im- perfedlions, of faults, crimes, and misfortunes, all owing to the fituations, circumftances, and pafiions of men ; amidft which we difcover fome virtues, fome qualities truly amiable, feme worthy ac5tions, fome fortunate fuccefs ; as in a rural fcene we difcover lome fertile fpots inter- fperfed among rocks, precipices, and barren ground. Hitherto the hiftory of Europe has prefented a pic^ture of the baleful efteds of law- jels jpower, of liiperftition, of favage manners, and Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (279) and abfurd cuftoms. On one fide we have fccn three fourths of the human race bowed down lender the moft abjeci and fhameful flavery, trodden under foot, their lives and properties a prey to a fet of mifcreants ; on the other fide, a few tyrants, a difgrace to humanity, opprefTrng their fellow men, and rendering their exiftence a tilFue of calamities. One can fcarcely con- ceive how the human race Ibould have allowed themfelves for fo many ages to be treated in fo unworthy a manner; 'that they ihould not, from a fenfe of their natural rights, and a defire to re- claim them, have emancipated themfelves from thofe evils, in comparing the prefent rtate of Europe, with what it was in the middle ages, we are tempted to believe that the hillorians of thofe times have written a bitter invedive in- ilcad of a true hiftory ; that from a mifanthro- pical turn of mind, they dipt their pen in gall, to blacken our anceftors in the eyes of their po- flerity. However, the joint teftimony of fo many witnefTes will not allow us to call in quef- tion the truth of what they relate. As long as Europe was held in the fangs of ignorance and fuperitition, it was a theatre on which almoft nothing appeared but violence and crimes, vices and misfortunes. But in proportion as light penetrated that darknefs, order has fucceeded to confulion; the evils which afflided mankind Juve decreafed ; thofe convullive motions which S 4 ihook (28o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, VL fliook nations, have been lefs frequent; political and religious frauds have not been able fo eafily to impofe on men ; arbitrary power has not fo exrenfive an empire; manners are become gra- dually civilized, and men have breathed a purer air. As human knowledge increafed, the evils which fo long opprelTed men have diminifhed. In vain would fome attempt to difprove this ; the hiftory of the nations of Europe fhews the falfehood of their paradoxes. True indeed, weak, corrupted, or wicked men, abufe the power of the human mind ; but when thefe arc under proper diredion, and when knowledge is ufed to its proper end, the peace, profperity, and happinefs of nations, are the confequence. Should we defirethe abfence of the fun, becaufe that beneficent luminary, who revives and em- belUfhes nature, iomet mes raifes noxious ex- halations which fpread mortality and pefli- lence over fome parts of this globe ? We flould alwcjysdiltinguifb the abufe of things from the things themfeh es, and never allow ourfelvcs to be impoied on by the fpecious reafoning of any. . Revohit tons in kingdoms in the \ — The fall of \^th and ic^th centuries. J the Greek em- pire was the mofl" important revolution in the period under review. lo unfold the caufes wMch at length brought it about, let us rake a v^ew of ancient Rom.e. Attend the progrels of that ctlebraied republic, examine all tht re- fources Lect. VL MODERN HISTORY. (28f) Xources of her government, and weigh her in the balance of truth, without being warped by thofe prejudices which the want of a thorough knowledge of her hillory is apt to produce. We fee Rome continually verging from anarchy to defpotifm, from defpotifm to anarchy, and • from that to flavery. The Romans, whofe wif- dom is fo much extolled, had a very imperfedh government. They feem to have been entirely unacquainted with that happy balance of power, which can be maintained only by a right adjuft- ment of each order in the ftate, and by a wife combination of the different bodies, fo as to conduce to the general welfare of the fociety. Behold Rome under Romulus, her firft king; the Romans were then a troop of robbers with- out laws, manners, and arts. The religion which Numa introduced into Rome, loftened a little the ferocity of his fubjeds ; but there were no fixed laws, no ftable form of government. Hoftilius, being a warrior, paid no regard to legiflation; nor did Tarquin I. Servius, a wife prince, fenfible of the confuiion which had hitherto prevailed, endeavoured to introduce order into the ftate, and entrufted the authority with a fmall number of men, who compofed the fenate. Tarquin the Proud deftroyed the edifice his father-in-law had raifed, and, know- ing no law but his own imperious will, alike tyrannized over the fenate and the people. The revolutiou (2S2) MODERN HISTORY, Lect. VI. revolution brought about by Brutus, did indeed put an end to the defpotifm of monarchy, but did not reflore liberty to the people. The Patricians feized the authority, and made the yoke of the people more heavy. The firft age of the Roman republic (fo much admired by fome) was not the age of liberty to all ranks in the Hate. What was the condition of the Ple- beians, that is, the body of the nation? Offices and honours were the exclufive privilege of the nobility. The mofl of the Roman territories were their property. The Patricians increafed ufury, and by that fhameful means, got all the money into their own hands. The fituation of moil of the citizens was then bad. They were dragged from their houfes, treated with indig- nity, fhut up in prifon, beaten with rods ; flaves could not be w^orfe treated. The people op-, prefled by tyrants, durffc do juftice to themfelves, and retreated to mount Aventine. Memmius brought them back to the city, tribunes were created to proted them, and the people found fome relief in this inftitution ; but the body of the nation was no lefs unhappy. There could be no tranquillity in a ftate, where every thing was arbitrarily determined, as at Rome. Vio- lence and intrigue every where prevailed, and diforder naturally followed this anarchy. In this horrible confulion, the Romans bethought themfelves to feek for a form ot government iix the Lect. VI MODERN HISTORY. (283) the laws of Athens. Decemvirs were created, and to them was entrufted the digeftion and execution of thefe laws. The reader knows the refult of this inftitution : he knows the pride, the debauchery, the crimes of Appius, and his coliegues. The Romans were foon forced to put an end to this odious magiftracy, and re- turn again to confuls and tribunes. But were they more tranquil and happy? From that time the tribunes oppofed the fenate, and the fenate oppofed the tribunes. There could be no proper equilibrium between two powers almoft equal; but blind, unjuft, enraged againft each other, and capable not only of their mutual de- flrudlion, but of that of the (late. The annals ©f the Roman republic for the four firft centu- ries prefent us with a people, who, animated by their magiftrates, profcribed and baniflied the moft illuftrious fenators ; with fenators, who pillaged and tortured the moil innocent citizens, overturned the tribunals, tore the confular robes, and drenched the tribunitian chair in blood; we fee Patricians, with clubs in ther hands, dri- ving before them the people, who would have oppofed their injuliicej and plebeians pouring fhowers of ftones upon thofe refpeclable Patri- cians who would have checked their fury. Is this a pidlure of a wife and tranquil govern- ment ? Their external profperity produced do- xneftic diforder. The fenators, to put an end to (284) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. to the fadlions v/hich reigned in Rome, fent the citizens abroad, and kindled thofe wars which got the Romans fuch an immenfe extent of ter- ritory. But this expedient produced another evil. In their wars, at a diftance from the capital^and with powerful enemies, the Romans were obliged to fend numerous armies, and allow them to be long under the command of generals, to whom they gave an unlimited au- thority. Thefe chiefs having for many years, tafted the fweets of independence, and the pleafure of commanding ; upon their return to Rome, would not obey the laws, but behaved like imperious mafters. Such was Sylla, who firft fet the fatal example. Such were Pompey, and CralTus who imitated him Such was Caefar, who, more fkilful, m^^re active, and in greater favour with his troops, finifned the flavery of the Roman nation. The fuccelTors of Auguftus were moflly cruel, cowardly, in- fatuated tyrants. The happy reign of the \n^ tonini did but fufpend for a moment, the evils ■which afflidled the Romans. After them they grew v/orfe. A military government took place, and revolutions w^ere very frequent. The em- perors fupported themfelves on the throne by violence, perfidy, and all forts of crimes. Con- fiantine transferred the feat of empire to Con- ftantinople, and planted there all the defeds of the Roman government ^ and the Greeks, tia- turallv Lect. VL MODERN HISTORY. (285) turally vain, inconftant, and factious, incfeafed them. Superflition gave rife to new troubles and misfortunes; fo that nothing could be {ccn in Conflantinople, but fcenes of confuiion and cruelty. Is it furprifing, that an empire with fuch a defedlive coniiitution, ihould at laft have been overturned by an able fultan, at the head of a nation blindly devoted to his will, trained to war from their infancy, animated with the fervour of religion, and the hopes of the mofl glorious conquefts ? If there is any thing fur- prifing in this revolution, it is, that the Greek empire, confidering its imperfed:ions, fhould have fublifted fo long. The only human means which preferved the eaflern empire for fo many- centuries, was the iituation of Conflantinople, The barbarians, who difmembered the Roman empire, ifTuing from the northern extremities of Europe, could eafily penetrate into the wef- tern provinces, by the way Poland and Germany. They had no fea to pafs, and the^ overpowered the Roman legions with their number. But thefe barbarians, having no fhips, and being entire flrangers to the art of navigation, could not enter the eaflern empire, the greateft part of which, was compofed of the iflands in the Archipelago and Levant. They would have been oblis^ed to crofs the Adriatic Guluh^ be- fore they could block up Condantinopie ; but they had no fleet. It is no t at all furp rifnig, that the (2S6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL the eafbern empire efcaped the firft irruption of the barbarians, fo fatal to the Roman power in the weft. The Turks faw the neceffity of at- tacking the Greeks by fea. The Genoefe fur- nifhed them with fhips for hire, and Amurath L feizcd on Adrianople. His fon Bajazet, laid fiege to Conilantinople, and the empire would then infallibly have been overturned by the Othmans, had not the Chriftians made a diver- fion in Hungary, and had not the vidrorious arms of 'Jamerlane overwhelmed Bajazet with misfortunes in Alia. The Othman family foon got the better of this difaller. Amurath II. made the Greeks tributary to him, and Maho- met II. his fucceflbr, put an end to their em- pire. * While the Turks were fixing the feat of their empire at Conftantinople, Ferdinand and Ifa- bella put an end to the power of the Arabians in Spain. That part of Europe had been, for the fpace of eight hundred years, a theatre of bloody wars between two nations, equally animated with a love of glory, and with a zeal for religion. Accuftomed to daily hoftilities, almoft every citizen * Conftantlne VIII. ftruggled againft his unhappy deftlny with all the intrepidity of a great king. Betrayed byhis fubjedls, deferted by Europe, he defended Conftantinople, againft the fuperior fortune of the invincible Mahomet II. and, with arms in his hands, finifhed his life and reign upon the walls of that city. The Greek empire ended in him, in the year I455» after having lafted above twelve centuries. Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (287) citizen was a hero. In the animofity which reigned between the Chriflians and Moors, cun- ning and perfidy, ftratagem and valour, cruel, humane and heroic actions, were alternately difplayed, as any of thefe appeared convenient for the defeat of their enemy. What could be the caufe of the fall of the Moors in Spain ? Were they lefs courageous than the Spaniards ? This cannot be faid confiftent with the truth of hiftory. The Chriftian annals of Spain prefent us with Moors, who, in deeds of valour, equal- led a Roderick, a Sancho, an Alphonfo. Their general, as well as particular wars, furnifhed heroes worthy our admiration. The Moors were equal to the Spaniards in valour, and fur- palTed them in knowledge and invention. We know that the glory of the refurred:ion of fcience in the Weft belongs to the Moors. They m- vented and cultivated feveral fciences highly ufeful to' mankind ; fo that learned and ingeni- ous men, of latter times, have only improved upon their invention. If they were not ac- quainted with painting and fculpture, it was not from a defedl of genius, but becaufe their religion forbade them the exercife of the fine arts. The fame cannot be faid of their archi- ted:ure ; the remains of the Moorifh edifices in Spain, ftiew a boldnefs of defign, a variety of invention, and a fublimity of tafte, which ftrike with admiration and pleafure. Their poetry, though (288) MODERN HISTORY. Lec t. VI. though gigantic and incoherent, abounds with many Rallies of genius, and with paflages truly fublime. It is evident that the Moors were fuperior to the Spaniards in knowledge and induftry, and that they were not interior to them in courage. Whence the reafon then, that the Moors funk beneath the Chrifiians? Various caufes may be afligned. The domi- nions of the Moors in Spain, were more divided than thofe of the Chriftians. Almoft each city had a particular fovereign, whereas the king- doms of the Spanifh Chriftians were compofed of one, two, or more provinces. The energy which refults from a whole is lofl, when it is divided into parts. Difunion continually pre- vailed among the Moorifh princes. Though the Spanifli kings often quarrelled with one another, yet they always united againft the common enemy. The Saracens did not ad: in this manner. Blinded by their mutual animo- lities, they fought againfl the Chriftians, and againft themfelves, at the fame time. Ferdi- nand invefted Granada, and, reduced it to great extremity ; yet in this unhappy fituation, the uncle and the nephew turned their arms againfl each other, chufing rather to perifli in the ruin of their country, than to agree for a moment. Another caufe of the fall of the Arabians was, there were among them, a great number of Chriftians. Thefe were fo many domeftic ene- mies. Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (289) mies, labouring continually for the deftrudlori of their mafters, and always ready to open the gates of the Moorifh cities to the Spaniards; and the confequence of this was concealed trea- fons, or open rebellions. The Spaniards more wife, would allow very few muifulmen in their dominions. The Arabians, however, .lOt- withflianding thefe difadvaniages, difputea the ground for a long time. The revolution which the powTrofthe popes experienced w as a more important one. Their authority about the beginning of the fourteenth century knew no bounds. To judge by the fplendour and magnificence of the Romiih pontiffs, it does not appear that their power had hitherto fuffered the leaft diminution- The proud and ambitious Boniface Vlll. had the boldnefs, (or rather impudence) to declare that kings were fubjedl to him, even in temipo- rals. He adorned his cap with a fecond crown, and Benedid XII. over-topped it with a thirds When Caelefline V. entered Rome, two kings held his afs's bridle. Joan, queen of Naples,- was obliged to plead her caufe before the court of Avignon, and the pope pronounced arbitra- rily refpedling her pretenlions to that crown. Did the kings of England and France come to an agreement ? They fubmitted to the cenfures of Rome, if either fhould infringe any of the articles. Nay, the emperor of Lonltaniinople, t T thf^ f^90) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. YL the only Chriftian prince who had not hither- to acknowledged the fupremacy of the pontiffs, came to Florence, and humbled himfelf before Eugene IV. Paul II. a man fond of fhow and parade, conferred new honours on the cardinals, by which he placed them on a level wish Icings^ The popes claimed a right to nominate to all benefices, and in conferring them, confultcd neither with princes, nor with their fubjeds j they fent ccclefiallics into all the kingdoms of Europe, who feized on livings of every defcrip- tion, often before the death of the incumbents Their legates went every where to diRributc indulgences, to exa(fl the tenths, and to impo- verifli Hates b^ unjuft impofts, under the name of colledlions. However, notwithftanding this appearance of power, the real authority of the popes was fenfibly diminifhing. Princes begart to feel the heavy yoke, and had the courage to Ihake it off. Rodolph rejected the pope's in- vitation to come to Rome to receive the impe- rial crown from him, and his refufal did not, in his opinion, make him one iota lefs a legal em- peror. The Germanic body, a little while after, determined in a national afTcmbly, that the cere- mony of crowning by the pope, adds nothing to the jufl rights of a prince. — Peter III. king ot Arragon, oppofed the thunder of Rome, and Peter IV. turned it into ridicule. The pope excommunicated Alphonfo of Portugal for having: Lzcr. VL MODERN HISTORY. (291) having divorced his wife. He defpifed the anathemas of Rome, and his fubjeds did not ceafe to obey him. Philip the Fair, of France, firmly oppofed the enormous pretenfions of Boniface VI J I. and declared his crown and the French nation, independent of the fee of Rome^ Charles V. prohibited, under fevere penalties, an application to Rome to obtain church livings in France. Louis XI. wduld not even allow the legates to exercife their function, or bring any decree of the holy fee into his kingdom, without the confent of the piince* In this pe- riod, even the univerfities of Europe oppofed the exceflive pretenfions of Rome. The doc- tors of the univerfity of Paris wrote a letter to Clement VII. the boldnefs and freedom of "which occafioned his death. The divines of Oxford publicly undertook the defence of John Wickliff, the moft bold and formidable ene- my of the popes in thofe days. — — Councils humbled the pride of the Romilh pontiffs, and gave a check to their defpotifm. The members of the council of Conftance called themfelves the reformers of popes, and exerci- fed the right of judging and punifliing them. The council of Bale formally decreed that, ge- neral alfemblies of the church are fuperior to the bilhop of Rome, and that they have a right to deprive him of his dignity, when unworchy f)f it^ In a word, the wcftern church in the T 2 four-=^ (292) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL fourteenth century received new ideas and feii- timents of the power of popes, who had over- leaped every boundary of moderation and juf- tice. Many caufes contributed to effed: this revo- lution* The exorbitant power grafped by the popes, was one of the chief caufes of their lof- ing it. It is common for men to fubmit to the yoke to a certain degree; but when their chains become too heavy, they turn furious and break them. Reafonable creatures were long blind, but at kit they opened their eyes. Every fenfible perfon at the court of Rome faw the approach of her downfal. The pope intended to fend a legate into England, to demand mo- ney for his luxury: " Holy father, (faid a car- dinal to him) w^e treat Chriftian kingdoms as- the prophet Balaam treated his afs. I am afraid they will imitate her; fhe,by the feverity of blows, brayed mofl horribly, and fo will they." Clement V. tranflated the papal chair from Rome to Avignon, this was a fecond caufe of the decreafe of the power of his holinefs. Moft people are more attached to words than things, Rome was confidered as the natural feat of re- ligion. When the popes ceafed to refide in that city, Chriftians no longer felt for them the fame veneration. Beiides, while the popes continued in Avignon, they were obliged to fubmit to the afcend- Le^t. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (293) afcendency of thofe around them; becaufe that city was without defence, and furrounded with the territories of kings, or independent powers, who governed even to the very gates. Ceryole, the captain of a band of adventurers, marched flreigh: to Avignon, demanded a large contribu- tion from the pope and his court, obliged him to ^ive him abfolution, and admit him to his table. The celebrated Du Guefclin, in his march to Spain with a body of troops, demanded a con- tribution from the pope. The pontiffs who refided in Avignon, were Frenchmen by birth. Eager to procure wealth and honours to their relations, it is not at all furprifing that they were pliant and cringing to the will of thofe kings, upon whom their relations depended for riches and preferment. The great fchifm in the wefl, was a third caufe of the decline of the papal power. By the elecl:ion of two popes at the fame time, the dignity of the popedom was divided, and Europe, in confequence of this, came to have lefs refpedt for men, whole right was not abfolutely certain. Moreover, each pope, to ftrengthen his party, made humbling conceflions to gain kings to his fide; this diminiihed his power, and princes fold their fubmiflion, and that of their fubjedts, to either, at a very high price. Permanent tribunals were eftablifhed in the fourteenth century, in almoft all the kingdoms T3 <5f (294) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL of Europe ; this was a caufe which had but lately exifted. To them the ftate having given in charge to watch for the prefervation of the rights of the prince, and the privileges of the people, they narrowly obferved every move- ment of the court of Rome, and quickly gave the alarm, when fhe attemped in the lead to violate thofe privileges, the prefervation of ^"which was committed to their care. In a word, the revival of learning in the wefl, (to which the taking of Conflantinople contri- buted) the increafe of civil and religious know- ledge, gave the mortal blow to the enormous ■ebufes which had crept into the church of Rome in the ages of ignorance, and increafed the power of the popes. Then learned and pious men had the boldnefs to remove the veil which co- vered fo many impoftures, to follow the chain of traditions, and fhew their falfehood, to ftudy the writings, and examine the docflrines of the primitive church, to find out the limits of civil and religious power, and in part to deftroy the ufurpations of both. The downfal of the popc*£ authority drew after it that of the clergy. — Excommunications became lefs frequent. Fewer caufes were brought to the tribunals of the clergy ; bifhops were excluded from civil courts, and confined within a fpiritual circle; the clergy were fubjedl to the laws, became members of civil fociety, and crimes, by whom- foever Lict. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (295) foever committed, did no longer efcape merited punifliment. Governments. — Little or no alteration took place in the government of the German empire in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The golden bull of Charles IV, which was conform- able to the fpirit of the times, introduced almoft nothing new ; it only more precifely afcertain- cd and fixed the general adminiflration, fuch as it was in the time of Rodolph, and fince ; and this form of government continued without al- moft any change till the reign of Charles V. The Englifh government felt many revolu- tions in the period under review ; but the pro- grefs of thefe was different from what happened to other kingdoms. In England, the changes in government increafed the liberty of the peo- ple, and diminifhed the power of the crown ; whereas in France, and other European ftates, alterations in government enlarged the preroga- tives of the prince, and narrowed the rights of the fubjed:. The ftates general, or parliament of England, as confiftingofthe nobility and fuperior clergy, were powerful before the reign of Ed- ward I. but that prince, by calling to parliament the deputies of the people, weakened their au- thority, and made the body of the nation of more confequence than it formerly had been. By this Edward fucceeded in his views, the power of the nobles was diminifhed, and he governed with T4 lef^ (296) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL lefs contradidion. The oppofition of the barons to his father, convinced Edward, that they might thwart him, and render his reign uneafy ; that, therefore, the way to fecure his own power would be, to increafe the power of the commons of England, fo as to become a coun- terbalance to that of the nobility : and thus, what the king meant only for himfelf, was fa- vourable to the liberties of the people. But under his fon Edward II. the new members of parliament became more formidable to the king than the old had been. Then the Houfe of Commons began to eftablifh its authority upon a folid foundation, and, by a firm and uni-r form conducft, rendered the Englifh parliament more powerful than it had hitherto been. Edward II. a weak prince, allowed himfelf to be governed by contemptible favourites. This provoked the nation, and the parliament, for th^ firft time, tried its fovereign according to law, obliged him to abdicate his dignity, and prefcribed to the regents* the form of adminif- tration they muft adhere to.—- — Edward III. "wholly taken up with war, minded not the in-. creafe of the power of parliament; and the Englifh, enchanted with the glorious exploits of their hero, which refleded honour on them- felv^s, denied him nothing. But under Edward's grandfon, the parliament taking advantage of the inability of the king, and ihe abjed ftate of the Lept.VL modern history. (297} the nation, depofed Richard IL and of its own authority delivered the fceptre to Henry of Lancafter, with limitations which rendered him dependent on the laws. The Englifh nation, during the fhort reign of Henry V. was fo deeply engaged in war with France, and fo dazzled with the fuccefs of their hero, that neither king nor parliament thought of attend- ing to their own immediate concerns. Upon the acceffion of Henry VI. to the throne, the whole kingdom was overturned by the troubles which the factions of the white and red rofes were the caufe of. The people became partizansin the difpute, incrcafed the calamities by their con- ducft, alternately crowned the princes of thefe two rival houfes, and obliged the new monarch to furrender a part of his prerogatives. In this manner was formed the prefent fy ftem of Eng- lifh liberty ; a fyflem which has coft the people many ftruggles and much blood. The French government alfo experienced many changes. In that country, the people, prior to that time, were flaves, and the citizens had no fhare in the government. Philip the Fair admitted the deputies of cities to lit and vote in the national alfembly ; this was a coun- terpoife to the power of the nobles. The French national alfembly, or flates general, re- gulated the important affairs of the kingdom, reformed abufes hurtful to the good order and welfare (29?) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. welfare of the whole, difplaced thofe who had acfled badly in the public departments of the flate, and fixed the taxes for the fupport of go- vernment. This happy progrefs was interrupt- ed under the weak reigns of the children of Philip the Fair, and more fo under the reign of Philip of Valois. The troubles, imprudence, and misfortunes of John the Good, plunged France again into her former confulion ; depri- ved the monarch of all his authority, and took from the people the invaluable privilege of re- gulating the taxes. Charles V. furnamed the Wife, was a pattern to kings, and the reftorer of the kingdom. His profound knowledge of men and things, enabled him always to make choice of the moft juft and extenfive meafures for the government of his kingdom. He ufed to fay, " That kings are happy, only as they have power and inclination to do good.** Under the feeble reign of Charles VI. confufion pre- vailed more than ever. Charles VII. adopted his grandfather's plan; and, notwithflanding the mediocrity of his talents, and the continual wars which agitated his reign, governed wifely, and fuccefsfully for the happinefs of his people. Louis XL taking advantage of the fortunate circumftances Vvhich united large provinces to his crown, made ufe of artificial politics to render his authority abfolute. However, none but the kw, who carpe near the throne, felt the- arbitrary Lect. VL modern history. (295^) arbitrary power of this prince. The people - were governed with juftice, and confequently happy. The yoke of the nobles, (thofe fubal- tern tyrants) fo very weighty to a great part of the nation, was broken by Louis. Under him the kingdom was peaceable and tranquil, the throne recovered its authority, and the people, protected by the laws, were fafe from oppreifion. We do not pretend to fay, that the affedtion of Louis XL for his fubjedls, was the caufe of thofe happy changes ; no, he had the foul of a tyrant, and tyrants are not capable of fuch fine feelings; but finding the freedom of the lower ranks in the flate to be connected with his own interefts, he procured happinefs to others, at the fame time, that his views were wholly felfifh. From thefe changes in the French vConftitution, the reader will no doubt fee, that the late revolu- tion in that country has not only brought back the government to what it once was, but reflo- red to the people thofe rights they are juftly . entitled to ; and if the new conflitution, is an improvement upon the ancient form of govern- ment, (as it certainly is) fo much the better. Few, if any alterations took place in the Scotch government during the period under review. For, though the troubles occafioned by the competition of the Bruces and Baliols, and the alliffance given by the two Edwards of England to the latter, might fufpend the exer- (300) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL cife of government, yet there was no material alteration. The feudal fyftem prevailed then in Scotland, and for a long time after ; confe- quently the Scotch kings of the line of Bruce, and thofe of the houfe of Stuart, were either unable, or unwilling to make the inferior ranks free, and thereby to break the power of the nobility. The Scotch parliament (fimilar to the ftates general of France) was compofed of noblemen, gentlemen, and others, who held lands of the crown, by military fervice. This tenure, however fmall the quantity of land, entitled the polTeiTor to fit and vote in parliament. The parliament of Scotland had very extenfive pri^ vileges. It not only enabled laws, regulated the important affairs of the kingdom, kept the nation's purfe, took account of the expenditure of money granted for the ufe of government, and armed the people ; but the king had not a negative voice upon the proceedings of parlia- ment, nor could he make war or peace, without its confent. From this extenfive power of the^ national afiembly of Scotland, their form of government feems to have been arifl:ocraticaI ; and with fo limited a power, it is furprifing that the monarch did not increafe the privileges of the people, and by fo doing, increafe his own. Perhaps he found other ways and means to humble his overgrown fubjedts, and no doubt thought thefe fufficient, without having recourfc to any other. Cafimir Lect.VI. modern history. (3cr) Cafimir did in Poland, what Edward I. had done in England, and Philip the Fair in France. At firft the general diet of the Polifti nations was compofed of the prime nobility. To it he called the inferior barons, or fmall nobility ; but an uniformity in the fuffrages being afterwards made requiiite to form a decree, filled thefe afTemblies with confufion and riot. Nothinor more flrongly marks the different charadters of nations, than the oppofite effeds which flow from the fame principle. In France, the ad- mifllon of the third order in the flate increafed the power of the prince, in England, enlarged the power of the people, and in Poland, produ- ced only the confuiion of anarchy. But Poland has at lafl adopted a form of government fimilar to that of the mofl: enlightened and liberal na- tions. A revolution favourable to the rights of men has taken place in that kingdom, the con- fequences of which, it is to be hoped, \vill be, the fecurity and increafe of national happinefs. We grow wife by degrees, fee the errors of our forefathers, and have courage to redii fy them. The republic of Venice in this period prefents us with a remarkable revolution. The princi- ple of the government had been democratical ; but this democracy had infenlibly degenerated into an ariflocracy; moderate enough till the fourteenth century. All the citizens w^ere eligible to employments in the ftate, might take (302) MODERN HISTORY. Lt^T, Vh take a part in the mofl important affairs, and confirm, by their votes, the head of the republic. — The Doge Gradenigo got a law palTed, by which only a certain number of chofen families were admitted into the Great Council; from that time thefe families became the fole depo- fitories of government, and the reft of the noble Venetian families were ranked in the clafs of fubjecfts. Thus the wreck of the republic was formed into an abfol ute oligarchy, which brought all the authority into the hands of a few power- ful citizens. ' LegrJIalion in the i^th and i^tb Centuries, — Lc- giflation continued to rlourifh. In Caflile, a very dangerous and abfurd claufe v/as cut off from the valfaPs oath of fidelity to his lord 5 that he mufl be faithful to him, even againfl: his king. In Arragon, torture was not to be ap- plied to any citizen, fo as by it to extort a con- feflion from him. In Portugal, king Dionyiius prohibited the clergy to carry money to Rome. In Bohemia, John ordered an account of all property bought and fold, all contracts made between individuals, to be regiflered in the public archives ; a law wifely calculated to put a (lop to avarice and chicane. The French tongue had been the language ufed in all the courts of juflice \xf England, from William the Conqueror to Edward III. This prince pro- fcribed it, and ordered, that for the future all pleadings LecT. VI. MODERN HISTORY, (303; pleadings fhould be in the Englifh language j that the judges (hould exj.-rers themfelves in the vulgar tongue, becaufe a fentence which alfeds the life or property of a citizen, fhould be pro- nounced in a language every one understands . — In France, wife laws changed the face of the nation. The French abridged the minority of their kings, made the royal domain unalienable, and regiftered all the fentences of their courts of jullice. By this, jurilprudence became fix- ed; the judges found in thefe records a fure light to dired: their fteps; the lawyers invariable principles of law; and the citizens wherew.ch to dired; their condudl. Manners in the i^th and i c^ih Centuries, — It is no eafy tafk to catch and precifely define the prevailing manners of this period. We may obferve in general, that the bulk of mankind \xi Europe, being ftupificd with flavcry, were Haves to all kinds of vice. Poifon was com- monly ufed as the indrument of revenge; fo were frequent and terrible rebellions. The Levellers in England, the Lollards in Germany, and t"he Jacket-boys in France, were guilty of mod fhocking outrages. The people called by thefe names, where the peafantry, who, being treated worfe than bcafts by their inhuman and cruel mafters, became furious lions, tearing in pieces all that came in their way. We fee, in the nobility, a mixture of gallantry, fmcerity, valour (304) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL valour, and devotion. All the orders of chi- valry were confecrated to love, to fome faint, and to aims. During thefe two centuries duels became very frequent. Kings and princes fent challenges to one another in the face of Europe. The nobles imitated them ; and it was almoil always in honour of fome lady. Many women ofthofedays diftmguifhed themfelves by teats of arms. Joan of Arc, or the maid of Orleans, Joan of Blois, Margaret of Montfort, Margaret of Anjou, Mary of Molina, Ifabella of Lorram; tht fe heroines appeared m the field of bacile, and often determined the fuccefs of the day. Ciiftoms, — An author of the fourteenth century complains, that frugal fimplic cy had given place to luxury ; he laments the times of Fre- derick BarbarofTa, and Frederick 11. when in Milan, the capital of Lombardy» the moft wealthy citizens had hot vid:uals in their fami- lies, only three times a- week. Wine was uled but by very few, and in fmall quantities ; a wax candle was then unknown, and even a common candle was thought a luxury. The beil citizeiis made pieces of lighted wood fupply the place of candles. Shirts and fhifts were made of ferge, and many of the lower people had none. — The father, who, upon the day of his daugh- ter s marriage, could give her five pounds, was thought a rich man — Things are wonderfully char.ged, adds the fame author. At prefent all LficT.VI. MODERN HISTORY. (305) all ranks wear linen; women are dreffed in lilken fluffs; nay, fome of them adorn them- felves with gold and filver. The comj^laints of this author inform us of the cufloms of the period under review. Table linen was then Very rare in England ; wine was fold only by apothecaries as a cordial. All the private houfes in London and Paris were of wood; cities were unpaved ; chimnies were not then invented ; the family fat together in a large room, round a large fire placed in the middle, with a hole at the top to let out the fmoke. However, the lords of fiefs, the prelates and monks, lived in all the magnificence the times would allow. Religions, — Chrlflianity and Mahometanifm were the two religions in Europe in this period* Heathenifm had difappeared fome time before. The religion of Mahomet was once very near being extinguifhed. There were in Egypt, upon the coaft of Africa, and in the little kingdom of Grenada, Mahometans who were diflenters from Mahomet. Gengillcan had abolifhed the califat, and profcribed the religion of Mahomet throughout the eafl. The vidlories of the 1 urks revived it in Afia, with them it came into Eu- rope, and appeared with the family of Othman upon the throne of Conliantinople. Tamerlane and his fons, zealous Mahometans, gave it new luftre in the eaft ; and MahometanUm prevailed U froiu {2o6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. \t from the Ganges to the Gulph of Venice. In the mean time a fchifm broke out in Perfia, which was the caufe of great revolutions. Ifh- mael Sophi called himfelf a defcendant of All, the prophet's fon-in-law, declared the law of Mahomet corrupted, and that he was fcnt by God to reftore it to its original purity. The changes he propofed were confonant to reafon; to fame parts of the Alcoran, which appeared too fevere, he gave a favouiable in- terpretation ; rejeded the abfurdities of the followers of Omar, and profcribed thofe tradi- tions which forbid Mahometans the enjoyment of innocent pleafures. He fupported his doc- trine by an agreeable exterior, by a natural elo- quence, by a mild behaviour, and auftere man- ners : his reputation foon fpread through Afia, Tamerlane faw, liftened to him, conceived a high veneration for him, and prefented him with thirty thoufand flaves, colledied from different countries. Ifhmael, feeing himfelf mafter of the defliny of thefe unfortunates, broke their chains, gave them their liberty, and endeavour- ed to make them happy. Thefe Grangers paid him an implicit obedience, and attached them- felves to his future fortune. Ifhmael wanted only favourable circumflances to pufli his am- bition. Thefe did not offer under Tamerlane*s immediate fucceifors, he therefore contented himfelf with having given birth to a new fed:« This Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. fjdy} This fedl made no viable advance under his Ton Guines; but Seih Eidar adopted his grandfa- ther's defigns, fupported them with the fame talents, re-animat^d the profelytes of Sophi, and formed a kind of dominion in Ardevill, his native country. This fed: increafed, and its tenets foon extended to the extremities of Perfia. The famous UiTum CafTam gave his daughter in marriage to Eidar, who lived in Ardevill with- out pomp, without any external marks of dif- tindlion, and made ufe of his influence at court to protect the unhappy. 7'he extindion of the male line of Ulfum C aflam gave the Sophi an undoubted right to the throne of Perfia ; but Ruftan took pofTeffion of it, profcribed the fedt of the Sophi, and aflaflinated its chief. Two of his fons, then in their cradle, were faved among the Turks ; and the third was carried into the mountains of Armenia, from whence he foon glorioufly ilTued forth to avenge the blood of his father, and to place the fed: of his grandfather upon the throne of Perfia. In this period, ChrilHanity alfo prefents the reader with a fcene of trouble. The eaftern church difappeared with the Greek empire ; and the clergy chofe rather to fubmit to the Turkilh yoke, than to that of Rome. The Horm, which fr>on burfl: upon the weflern church, began to gather in the fifteenth century. In England, under the reign of Edward HI. U 2 John (3o8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. John WicklifF, a dodor of divinity in the uni- verfity of Oxford, had the boldnefs to form the defign of deftroying the overgrown power of the clergy. Ihofe who preceded him in the fame road, had made too much ufe of vain declamation and blind Xeal. WicklifF formed a connedled fyftem, and maintained it by un- anfwerable logical arguments. He faid, " Why does the biihop of Rome arrogate to himfelf a power over his brethren? Though he be cal- led head of the churchy yet, agreeably to fcrip- ture and reafon, he has no power over his coU legues in the miniftry of the gofpel. What right have prelates to excommunicate the faith- ful ? They fhould be fure that God has repro- bated a man, before they excommunicate him. The power of the minifters of religion is only precarious ; nor Ihould they retain it any longer than they are virtuous. The fupport given to paflors is purely alms. The faithful may, and ought to retire, when paftors behave unworthy of their office." Chiefly, Wickliff was much offended with the magnificence and pride of the popes and bifnops. " Should the miniffers of a poor and humble mafter," faid he " have gold and fiWer, flaves, caftles, temporal power, w hich they exercife like tyrants? Thefe horrid abufes are imputed both to thofe who commit, and to thofe who tolerate them. Princes, by taking from the clergy thefe ufurpations, would but ad Lect. VL modern history. (309) adt conformably to the intentions of the Divine Legiflator.*' He alfo attacked the monaflic orders, becaufe they robbed fociety of the facred duties of its members, and plunged a part of future generations in the gulph of celibacy.— With refpedl to the dodlrines of the church of Rome, he maintained, " That the facrament of the holy fupper, contains neither the body nor blood of Jefus Chrift; that it is nothing but a pledge of his goodnefs and love, and a remem- brancer of the blelTings of the gofpel ; that con- fellion is an ufelefs ceremony ; that a (incere repentance is the only thing that can render us agreeable to the Supreme Being." WicklifF's tenets are conformable to reafon and religion. For a vvhile he durft broach them only in fecret ; but the univerfity having come over to his fenti- ments, he left Oxford to publifh his opinions through England. His eloquence, learning, and purity of morals, foon procured him a number of difciples. The clergy were alarmed, and the Englifh reformer was cited before the primate's formidable tribunal. Powerful pro- te(ftors ftood up for him; Edward III. gave him fecret fupport, and the duke of Lancafter, who governed during the minority of Richard II. proteded him openly. Thus, notwith- ftanding the thunder of the clergy, John Wick- iiff continued to preach, to fix his dodrines in England, and died in peace among his parifh- U J ioners (3IO) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. ioners of Lutterworth. Richard having afcend- ed the throne, yielded to the pope's folicita- tions; the bones of the venerable Wicklitf were dug up and burnt, and his followers profcribed and perfecuted. About the fame time, his opinions found their way into another part of Europe. A Bohemian gentleman, while ftu- dying at Oxford, read and relifhed WickhfF's books. Being returned to his own country, he fliewed them to John Hus, and Jerome of Prague, who immediately adopted the opinions of the Oxford dodlor. Thefe are the two illuf- trious friends who appeared before the council of Conftance, proteded, as they thought, by the emperor Sigifmond's fafe condud:; but the em- peror (contrary to truth, religion, and honour) broke his facred promife, and the council [en- tenced their bodies to the flames ; but their doclrines did not die with them. The barbar- ous Sigifmond ufed tortures and death to no purpofe, againfl the followers of Zifca. Thefe fentiments remained concealed in the minds of the Bohemians, and we fliall fee in the ne^t period, this germe fprouting up, unfolding icfelf, and producing a moft important revolution. A variety of abfurd Roman Catholic feiflaries fprang up in the period under review. For inftanc^e, the Flagellants, who imagined baptifm with water to be of no efhcacy, that flagellation is neceffary, which imprints upon the body the baptifm L^CT. VL MODERN HISTORY. f 3 1 1 ) baptifm of blood. In confequence of this mif. taken notion, thefe fanatics were fcen walking in proceflion, half naked, with a cat-o-nine tails in their hand, excoriating their bodies till the blood dreamed down; and this in the moft public places, with as much indecency as fury. Then a fedl of perfectionifts, called Begards, ap- peared, who, to be perfect, and live without fin, made ufe of the moft abfurd and indecent means. The Buchanites feem to have copied fome of their abfurdities. The Dutch Picard, who pretended to prove from the facred books, that all women ihould be in common; fome Francifcan monks, who boafted that St. Francis had brought from heaven to earth, a more per- fedl gofpel than that of Jefus Chrift; fome, who obftinately maintained, that their food, even when they made no ufe of it, belonged to the pope ; others, who made their falvation de- pend on a grey or black coat, on a gown more or lefs large, on a capuchin more or lefs point- ed. In thefe fools and madmen we have a proof, how far the human mind can carry its extravagances. They maintained their ridi- culous opinions with an obftinacy hardly con- ceivable. However, though more deferving of pity than punifhment, they were expofed to all the rage of perfecution ; fires were kindled in all the kingdoms of Europe, and thoufands were committed to the flames, for no other U4 fault (312) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. fault than having a diftempered brain. The affair of the capuchin was the death of many Cordeliers in Italy, Germany, and France ! Pope John XXII faid gravely, that ihedifeafe could be cured only by fire and fword. I'he mifer- able Jews felt alfo the fury of the times ; they were fliipped of their wealth, driven from the place of their abode, harrafled wherever they were found ; nay, often tortured to death, upon frivolous pretexts, and hear-fay rumours. To them was attributed the fudden death of princes; they were faid to be the caufe of epidemical difeafes ; that they ufed forcery and witchcraft; that they poifoned fountains and wells, ridicu- led the confecrated elements, and facrificed Chriftian children. Thefe abfurd calumnies were made a handle of to infiid every kind of cruelty upon the unfortunate Jews. The Jews were an induftrious people; they were thought to be rich, and the great men, both clergy and laity, ftirred up the people againfl: the dcfcend- ants of Abraham, that they might find their gain in their deftru6lion. The abolition of the order of knights templar was the mofl remarkable event in this period. Nine hundred knights were burnt at two judi- cial fittings ; the grand maflcr, and the brother of a fovereign prince, were confumed in the flames. The folemn judicial procedure carried on againfl this order, under the direciion of Philip Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (3 13) Philip the Fair, and pope Clement V. a crowd of witnelFes who became their accufers ; the confeflion of many of the accufed themfelves; all chefe circumftances joined together, feemed to prove the heinous crimes laid to their charge, and ferved as a pretext for the feverities inflict- ed on them. However, many reafons may be alledged in favour of their innocence. The knights Templar, like the free-mafons of mo- dern times, might have a form of initiation pe- culiar to the order, and it being partly military, and partly religious, their ceremonies would be ofthe fame complexion. The world was not ac- quainted with their ceremonies of admiffion. — And, when a fociety tranfadls all its affairs with very great fecrecy ; when it will not allow any to gain the lead knowledge of them till after becoming a member; thofe who wifh to know their fecrets, but cannot, are apt to load them with falfe imp^itations. The free-mafons are branded with holding impious and abfurd cere- monies and maxims ; but it is only by thofe who are ignorant of the plan upon which they pro- ceed. In the fame manner, the knights Templar had horrid impieties imputed to them. They were accufed of obliging candidates for admif- fion into their order, to abjure Chridianity ; to worfhip a gijfilded head, elevated on four feet ; to commit with others, and allow others to commit with them, that crime, the very men- tion (314) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. tion of which makes the blood run cold ; a crime, the elFedl of a heart defperately wicked. We need not doubt but that rich and powerful monks, were covetous, unjuft, given to fenfual pleafure; that they united in themfeives, the debauchery and cruelty of the warrior, and the monk's infatiable paflion for gain. But we can- not believe that, gentlemen would have entered into an order, where fuch fhocking infamies had pafTed into a law. The confeflion of fome of thofe unfortunate perfons proves nothing at all ; for it is well known that the fear of tor- ture, or the hope of life, have often forced the innocent to plead guilty ,- but it has alfo beeri fecn, that thofe who were guilty of this weaknefs, retraced in the moment of death. The grand mafter's declaration of the innocence of his or- der, was certainly of great weight, if we attend to the circumftances in which he made it. The judges would have had this venerable old man publicly to acknowledge himfelf guilty, on con- dition of pardon ; but John de Molay, and Guy, brother to the Dauphin of Auvergne, folemnly protelled the innocence of their order, and died, calling down the vengeance of heaven upon their unjufl judges. What is certain, is, that they fuifered the mod cruel tortures, and their fpoils -were divided among their perfecutors. Mod of the lands belonging to this order were given to the knights Hofpitaller, called then the knights of Lect.VI. modern history. (315) of Rhodes. The kings of Caftile and Arragon feized on what belonged to them in their domini- ons, and gave a part to the knights of Calatrava. Philip the Fairgot two hundred thoufand livres; and we may eaiily believe that the pope would not forget himfelf in the divifi^n. General fpirit of the \ ^th and 15/^ centuries,—* The fpirit of this period, was not that of found philofophy and religion. A narrow, fuperfti- tious, and abfurd turn of mind was not confined to the common people ; but men eminent for dignity, men diftinguifhed for knowledge, even whole focieties, ocherwife refpecflable for their underftandmg, were ftrongly tindiured with the prejudices of the times. The approach of a ftorm determined the great Edward to make peace, becaufe he confidered it to be the threat- ening of heaven. A prodigy of a fimilar nature prevented -Charles V. from loading his people with a rigorous and unjufl: tax. Philip the Long, wiflied to know if his wife was faithful to him, and if the prince were really his fon. He fent to confult a Flemifh woman, efteemed a pro- phetef*, and her anfwer quieted the king. A certain bifnop of thofe days, celebrated for his knowledge, faid gravely, that there were certain nuns fo familiarized with devils, that they faw and touched them without the lead fear. The parliament of Paris condemned the wife and daughter of a nobleman to be burnt, for having dealt (3i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. dealt in witchcraft. Pope John XXII. having difcovered a confpiracy againfi his life^ demand- ed of the countefs de Foix, a piece of a fnake, which wasfaid to be a fovereign antidote againfi poifon. We find in the letters of this pope, a de- tail of many kinds of witchcraft pradifed in his time, and in which he had the moil implicit faith.* * Sciences. — The bold and enterprifing genius of the Portuguefe made rapid progrefs in the fcience of navigation. They difcovered to Europe the ifland of Madeira, thofe of Cape Verd, and the Coall of Guinea; failing along the African (hore, they traverfed that immenfc continent which extends from the llraits of Gibraltar to beyond Zara ; they put an end to the prejudices which till then, had retarded the progrefs of navigation. Hitherto the mariner's compafs had not been ufed in voyages to the weft or fouth. The Europeans imagined that to the weft lay an ocean unfathomable, and with- out bounds ; or a planifphere, the extremity of which terminated in an endlefs precipice. They believed, that thofe who fail fouthwards arc obliged continually to afcend, till they arrive at the line; that beyond che line there is a rapid defcent, * The plillofopliy of the eighteenth century, and jull viewi of religion, have exploded the dodlrine of witches and witch- Crafty none but a few of the ignorant vulgar believe in it, and fqme fuch there always will be in the moli enlightened age. Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (317) defccnt, which at once hurries them into a tre- mendous ab) fs. With them, the torrid zone was uninhabitable, the feas almofl: dried up, or boil- ing with the heat of the fun. The reader'knows with what dexterity and perfevering induflry, Henry of Portugal overcame the prejudices of that unenlightened age. The progrefs of navigation increafed com- merce. Liibon became the richeft emporium in Europe. The Venetians, Genoefe, and Flo- rentires traded in the Levant, and the Hans- towns in the northern feas. England began to fhew a marine, and- her wool was already a coniiderable article of exportation. The towns in the Low Countries were famed for their ma- nufactures of cloths, camlets, and arras. The univerfities continued to flourifh. — Ox- ford was difiinguillied for theology, Bologna for civil law, Montpellier for medicine, and the univeriity of Paris, where all thefe fciences flourifhed, was efleemed the firft in Europe. — Hiflorians fay, that twenty thoufand ftu- dents, domeftic and foreign, have been in that univerfity at one time. The redor of the uni- veriity had the honours of a prince of the blood beflowed upon him ,- his deputies fat in the flates general, had a right to remonftrate in the king's prefence, and their oppofition was con- fidered of great importance. However, the fcience of theology, as taught in thefe univerfi- ties. (31 S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. tics, was very far from being ufeful. The mofl obfcure and puerile queftions employed the time of the graved dodors. Whether the Vir- gin Mary conceived our blelTcd Lord with or /w ithout original lin, was a queflion agitated by f the learned for half a century. It was made a : queflion, whether or not the blood uhich iffued from the fide of Jefus Chrifl, during his paflion, continued united to his divinity. The beatific vifion was alfo an objedl of difpute ; and John : XXII. was treated as a Heretic, by the univer- lit) of Paris, for having maintained that, the faints fhall not enjoy the immediate viiion of God till after the day of judgment. Jurifprudence fupported itfelf in Italy, by the talents of Durand and Francis Aretin; in England by thofe of Lyttleton and Horn, and in France by Cugniers and Raoul. Medicine made very little progrefs in this period. An Italian revived it a little about the end of the fifteenth century. Chemillry made a more rapid advance: Raymond Lully and Nicholas Flamel, were celebrated chemifts, and conlider- ably improved this fcience. MuUer, a Ger- man, tranflated the Almagefl of Ptolemy into Latin, and difpellcd in part, the darknefs which co^^ered the fcience of aftronomy. Tadics be- gan to be taught, and the military art was redu- ced to principles. Charles the Rafh, duke of Burgundy, brought about this revolution. AH the Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (319) the hiflorians of thofe days, dealt much in the marvellous, though we find in them, (this ex- cepted) feveral valuable qualities- While the fciences in general were fo very flow in their motion; while true natur/il philo- fophy was wholly unknown, and found moral philofophy buried under a heap of fuperftitious errors, the Belles-Lettres took, all at once, a rapid flight. The fages of Greece, who cultivated polite learning, terrified at the continual florms to which their country v;as expofed, by the ambition of princes, the fanaticifm of priefls, and the victories of the Turks, fought an afylum in Italy, where, in peace, they might purfue the pleafures of fludy. Thefe foreigners, who wiflied to gain efteem by being ufeful, opened fchools, taught the Greeek and Latin languages, and, by bringing their pupils acquainted with the writings of the great men of ancient Rome and Athens, gave birth to a tafle for polite lite- rature, which had been, for many centuries, un- known in Europe. Thefe fchools foon produ- ced many, who wrote with purity and elegance in the languages of Demofthenes and Cicero. But the Italians, befides cultivating the learned languages, applied themfelves alfo to polifli their own, and fome firfl- rate geniufl^es, carried it to a high degree of perfection : fuch were Dante, Francis Petrarch, and Boccace. France admired the learning and talle of Italy, and ufed fomc (320) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. fome efforts to tranfplant thefe into a French foil ; but her efforts were not fuccefsful ; the French language continued barbarous, notwith- Itanding the produdlions of fome Frenchmen of tafte. The fouth of France continued to cultivate the Provcngal tongue; Thouloufe was the centre of wit and genius ; and in that city was founded the firft academy in Europe, which became a model to many others. The induflry of Bury of Angerville, and the produdions of the poet Chaucer, revived a tafte for letters in England. Painting, fculpture, and architedlure, conti- nued to flourifh in Italv. Cimabue, who founded the fchool of Florence, made many ex- cellent painters, particularly Leonard de Vinci, who, himfelf, formed the greateft mafters in the art. Anthony de Meflina was the firft Italian that painted in oil ; and Bellin, who flole the fecret from him, laid the foundation of the Venetian fchool; and the two Van-Eiks did the fame honour to their country, by founding the Flemifh fchool. Tada, Pizani, Donato, were celebrated Italian fculptors. — Nicholas de Pifa adorned Florence with thofe famous quays, wafhedby the river, and ornamented with the flatues of thofe who had been benefactors, either to the city or architecft ; and Calendrio drew the plan of the palace of St. Mark in Venice. The mariner's compafs was found out about the Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (321/ the end of the thirteenth century, and to this very ufeful difcovery is owing, the aftonifhing pogrefs which Navigation and geography have made. With the compafs, and needle properly pointed, the mariner can explore his route, fail in unknown feas, and viiit the moft diftant parts of the globe. It was in the courfe of this period, that a filverfmith in Florence found out the art of engraving. To all thefe difco- veries we may add, the renewal of the art of engraving in flone, which had been loft for more than ten centuries; the invention of fpedlacles, the eftablifhment of pofts, of bills of exchange^ and above all, the invention of gunpowder, for which, Europe is indebted to Berthold Schuarti a German Cordelier. Tamerlane. — Tamerlane, or Timour, a' de- fcendant of Gengifkan, was born in Ufbec Tar- tary, 1357, of the Chriftian sera. He became a famous conqueror. Not born heir to a king- dom, nor himfelf a prince, he fubdued as many different nations as Alexander or Gengifkan. — * Having conquered Perfia and India, he, upon his return, attacked Syria, and took Damafcus, In the career of conqueft, the Greek emperor^ who had in vain made application to the Chrif- tian princes of Europe, requefted his affiftance againft Bajazet. And five Mahometan princes, whom Bajazet had ftripped of their dominions, made application to the Tartar at the fame time^ % X Tamer* (222) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI. Tamerlane granted their requeft ; but, con-* formable to the rights of nations, he fent am- balTadors to Bajazet, to defire him to raife the fiege of Conftantinople, and to do juftice ta thofe whom he had difpollelfed of their domi- nions. Bajazet received Tamerlane's propo-- fals with anger and contempt. The Tartar prince declared war, and marched againft the Turk. Bajazet having raifed the liege of Con- flantinople, fet out to meet Tamerlane. The two warriors met between Caefarea and Ancyra^ where was fought one of the moft memorable battles recorded in hiftory. Tamerlane's veterans, accuflomed to conquer j>- afteramofl obftinate difpute, defeated Bajazet's army : an army which had been vicftorious over the troops of the moft warlike European princes^ It is probable that the Tartars and Turks both, made ufe of artillery in this battle. Muftapha> Bajazet's eldeft fon was killed, fighting by his. fide, and he, with another of his fons, called Mufa, were taken prifoners. The Turkifh annals fay, that Tamerlane ihut up Bajazet in an iron cage, and that the Turk- ifti fultans never marry, becaufe the Tartar of- fered an indecency to Bajazet's wife.- Such- fables cannot be reconciled to that generofity, which even the Turks thcm.felves attribute ta Tamerlane. They relate, that the conqueror,, being at Burfa, in Bithynia, wrote a letter to- Solyma% Lect. VL modern history, (jij) Solyman, the Ton of Bajazet, in the ftyle of a true hero. ** I wpuld forget/' fays Tamerlane^ *' that I have been Bijazet's enemy. I will fave alive the father to his children, fo be that they wait the effecfl:s of my clemency. The Gonqueds I have made are enough for me, and the new favours of inconflant fortune do not tempt me/'— But not having received an an- fwer from Solyman, he made Mufa fultanj "receive/' faid he, " the heritage of thy father ; a royal foul knows how to conquer kingdoms^ and how to give them away." Tamerlane's conquefls were near as extenfive as thofe of Gengiikan. He miade Samarcand the feat of empire. There hs received the homage of many tributary Aliatic princes^ and ambaifadors from many fovereigns. To cele- brate his conquers, Tamerlane, in imitation of Gengifkan, gave a triumphant feaft, about the beginning of the, fifteenth century, in all the pomp of Barbaric magnificence. Every order ofperfons in his dominions, all artizans, each with the enfigns of their profellion, palTed in review before him. And ail the young men and maidens were joined together in marriage, according to their liking, the fame day^ Ta- merlane, died at an advanced age^ after a reign of thirty-fix years. Happier than Alexander in the duration of his life on earth, and in the number of his children; but inferior to the X 2 Macedonian (J24) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL Macedonian hero, in that Tamerlane deflroyed nnany cities, but built none. Tamerlane was a Heathen, but of tolerant principles; he allow- ed every one to worfhip God in his own way, wifely thinking, that none fhould be perfecuted for confcience fake. Tamerlane was illiterate, but gave his children a learned education. The famous Oulougbeg, who fucceeded him, found- ed an academy of fciences at Samarcand, caufed the dimenfions of the earth to be taken, and eompofcd aflronomical tables. At prefent Samarcand has loft its former grandeur, together with the fciences. The country of the Ulbec Tartars is again become barbarous and uncivili- zed. ne Turks, — The Turks did not conform themfelves to the religion and manners of the vanquifhed; they would not change Mahomet- anifm for Chriilianity, nor lay afide the laws and cuftoms to which they had been ufed in their conquells. In the diftribution of the conquer- ed lands, they attended to the feudal afibciation,, fo as to preferve military fervice; nor have they hitherto departed from this fyftem. The Greeks who live under the Turkifli government,, are in a ftate of opprefTion, but not altogether Haves. They enjoy their own religion and laws. But Greece, once the country of heroes^ of great men in every art and fcience, is become fearbarous under the military government of the Turks> Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (325) Turks, Co that, in qualifications and chara6ler, the modern Greeks are the very reverfe of the ancient. The Turks enjoy freedom under their mili- tary government, but freedom much inferior to that of Britons. There are among them no dif- tindion of ranks, but that which arifes from their employments. Their manners are fierce, haughty, and effeminate ; and their pride excef- five. To their ignorance mud be imiputed the contempt they entertain of other nations. The Turkifh fuitan is a defpot, but liable, upon a re- verfe of fortune, to be dethroned and butchered by an enraged foldiery. Fear is a greater check upon the Turkifli emperors, than the laws of the Alcoran. Abfolute in his feraglio, mafter of the lives of thofe who fill the departments of ftatc, he muft fubmit to the cuftoms of the empire. He cannot increafe the taxes, nor dare he touch the public money. A Turkifh fuitan, is an indo- lent, pampered, idle mortal. The cares of go- vernment devolve upon the Grand Vilier, or firft minifter of (late, and the bowftring, or banifh- ment, is often the reward of his labours. The Turks entertain a very high veneration for the race of Ochman. Many of the reigning erri- perors have been dethroned and put to death ; but there never was an example of the crown having pailed into another family : therefore, the internal conftitution has nothing to fear X 3 from (326) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL from a revolution in favour of a (Irano-er. The Othman empire was eftabliflied by flrength and rapine, and the quarrels of Chriflian prmce^ have hitherto contributed to fupport it. The Turks were long an uncivilized people, attach-* ed to fa ^ age cufroms ; but their manners, lince the commencement of the prefent century, have become more refined. Their commiercial intercourfe with the Englilh, French, and other European nations, has civilized the Turks, and refined their tafte. The Othman empire ap- pears to be on the decline. Surrounded with powerful neighbours, the emperor of Germany on one fide, and the emprefs of RufTia on the other; thefe have an eye to the fertile Turkifh provinces of Europe, and wifli to polfcfs them. With this view, they every now and then feek occafion to quarrel with the Porte, that they may, with greater fhew of ju (lice, feize her ter- ritories. Without doubt the Turkifh govern- ment has loft its energy, and her foldicrs feem deftitute of that martial courage, for which they were once famed. Probably the period may not be far diftant, when Conftantinople will be again in the pofTcfTion of the Chriffians. When a nation has loft that internal force, which preferves all the wheels of government in proper motion, her diffolution cannot be prevented, either by the warrior, or ftatefman. Wc Lect. VI. modern history. (327) We have already obferved, that thofe who left Conftantinople and took fhelter in the weft:, revived learning there, and gave the Europeans a tafte for the beauties of the Greek tongue. The (ludy of this language was introduced into England in i49f, by one William Grocyn, and taught publicly by him at Oxford. The in- creafe of commerce in the fifteenth century, tended to promote the civilization of fociety in Europe, particularly in Italy. The trade to the Eaft Indies, was then in the hands, of the Vene- tian^i, and of Cofmo Medicis, who Ihared it with them. While the nations of Europe continued unconnedted with each other, they were barbar- ous and ignorant ; but knowledge and refine- ment were the confequence of their commercial intercourfe. Of the many caufes which contributed to en- lighten and civilize mankind, the invention of printing has, perhaps, done moft this v/ay. — The art of printing was difcovered in the year 1440, at Strafburgh, by one John Gu teem berg, and brought to perfed:ion by one John Fault and Schelfer of Mentz. Laurence Kofler of Harlaem had already printed, by engraving entire pages on wood, after; the manner of the Chinefe; but Guttemberg invented cut metal types, which were made perfed by Peter Schelfer. William Caxton introduced into England, in J 474, the art of printing with metal X 4 types. (328) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL types. The invention of printing appeared . to the world fo extraordinary, that thofe who firfl: exhibited fpecimens of it, were thought to have done it by the power of magic. The vulgar, always ignorant, and who judge by what they fee, confider a perfon who has fnewa in^ genuity in any furprifing invention or difcovery, as having more art than his own. The art of printing is one of the greateft bleflings heaven has beftowed upon mankind. The liberty of theprefs is, to a free nation, the palladium of her liberties. By means of print- ing, every branch of ufeful knowledge is con- veyed to the public ; and we can procure, at a fmall expence, by the fame means, proper in- formation on any fubjedl, for the right improve- ment and conduct of life. More efpecially, the invention of printing has, by means of the fcripturcs, printed in the vulgar tongue, diffufed among Chriflians the knowledge of true reli- gion, unadulterated by the comments and tra- ditions of fallible men. It is faid, that printing may equally ferve as the vehicle of truth, or of error. True, this is an inconvenience, but an inconvenience greatly overbalanced by the ma- ny advantages refulting from it. Ignorance multiplies errors, whereas knowledge is the way to know and confute them. If wdth the affiftance of books we attain knowledge but by flow degrees; without thefe helps we would flill Lect. VL MODERN HISTORY. (329J flill have been unable to diftinguifh truth from error. The beft things may be abufed, nay- are often abu fed; but this is no conclufive argu- ment againll; their ufefulnefs. Since the inven- tion of printing, the principles of philofophy, of morals, and religion have been communicated to the world, a very great advantage to the caufe of humanity, and to the progrefs of true learning and fcience. The invention of gunpowder produced a great change in the military art. From the time of this invention, and that of mufquets, infantry became the moil ufeful part of an army, upon whom the fuccefs of a battle depended. Cavalry were no longer formidable ; the knights who fought on horfeback were not fo much diflinguiihed, nor could they do much execu- tion, cafed as they were in heavy iron armour. Befides, to reward the foldier of merit, orders of knighthood were eftablilhed in England, France, and Germany ; thefe orders proved the downfal of ancient chivalry. — To be the com- panions of thefe orders was flattering to human vanity, and by them, kings increafed their autho- rity. It could not be expeifled, after fo many ages of ignorance and barbarity, that the nations of Europe, could all at once, attain to extenfive knowledge of men and things, to rational, be- nevolent, and pure manners. Princes had not made (330) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL madeanyconfiderableprogrefsinpolitical know- ledge. They were perfidious and deceitful. They fported with things facred and prophane; treaties were converted by them into fnarcs to entrap their enemies, and they endeavoured to hurt under the difguife of friendfhip. They made ufe of poifon and aflafTmation to deflroy thofe whom they difliked. Strange ! that the human mind, with a higher degree of civiliza- tion than it had hitherto known, (hould have fubi^"ituted vices more refined, but no lefs per- nicious than the moft brutal. The reafon feems to be this, mens minds were not under the influence of found reafon : fenfibility, hu- manity, and benevolence, had not yet acquired the afcendency, and the manners of the public were formed upon thofe of the courts of princes, where often, the 'moft infamous means are thought juftifiable, to accomplifh what is judg- ed to be of advantage. The trade and manu failures of England made fome progrefs in the period under review. In proof of this we are told, that the Englifh had it in contemplation to make a navigation adl, ^s the moR proper means to fecure to them- felves the right of carrying their own merchan- dize. Richard II L encouraged commerce and manufadlures. To him the Englifh are indebt- ed for fome of their befl: laws, and particularly, for the appointment of confuls to fuperintend their Lect. VL modern history. (23 1 ) their •commerce in foreign countries. Henry VII. was the firft Englifh monarch, who did any thing towards the eR^blifhment of a ftanding arm.y, by the inflitution of what is called the yeomen of the guard. He gave the final blow to feudal tenures, by an acft palTed in his reign, called Mortmain adl ; by this acft, any perfon of landed property was enabled to fell or mort- gage his lands without the payment of any fine. The following obfervation lliall conclude this ledlure. Nations proceed by flow degrees from ignorance to knowledge, from rudenefs to refinement, and laws and government cannot be fettled in the midft of turbulency and dif- order, But when a people have been fortunate in their political eflablifhments, fo as thereby to fecure their rights, and fuccefsful in their purfuits of induftry, they fhould be careful of there h^/-fllnj^s, by a proper ufe of them. LECTURE (332) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII, LECTURE VII. A General View of the Sixteenth Century — Politi- cal Events — Reformation — Confequences of the Difcovtry of America — Governments — Legijla- tion — Manners — Navigation and Commerce — Sciences — Polite Literature — Pine Arts, General View, i^c. — HpHE fixtcenth century, -■- "Called, by way of emi* nence, Seculum Reformatuniy or the age of dif- covery, prefents the reader with events truly grand; with events hitherto unknown in any former age of the world. Europe, after long and violent convulfions, began to fettle, and the din of war to give place to the mild voice of peace. States enjoyed an internal tranquillity, the work of a more enlightened legillation. — Commerce, extended by navigation, united nations, and political views ftrengthened the union which interefl had formed. The manners of fociety vifibly refined, the fine arts were pro- greflive to perfedtion, and the fciences began to penetrate that thick covering, which igno- rance had thrown over them for near fifteen centuries. Such happy revolutions could not fail to produce an age, fruitful in great events. Hence Lect. VIT. modern history, (333) Hence the iixteenth century was, perhaps, the mod aflonifhing age of any that has exifled lince the creation of the world. When we at- tend to thofe princes who then reigned in Europe, we difcover names highly dignified, cither by the renown which they themfelves acquired, or by the condud: they obferved, or by the great revolutions of which they were the caufe. At Conftantinople we behold a Selim, who united Syria and Egypt to the Othman empire, and put an end to the reign of the Mamalucks, who had been in poffcfTion of the laft-mentioned kingdom fince the thirteenth century. After him we behold his fon, the great Solyman, who advanced as far as Vienna, was crowned king of Perfia in Bagdad, the city of the ancient caliphs, and fpread terror through Europe and Afia. We behold, at the fame time, Guiiavus Vafa in the north, who broke the Danifn yoke, under which the Swedes had long groaned, and who, being chofen king of Sweden, the avenger and deliverer of which he had been, rendered it flou- rifhing, civilized it, and, by one of the moft important and difficult revolutions, fixed the grandeur of his country. In Rulfia, John Bazilowitz, who refcued his country from bemg tributary to the Tartars, deferves to be ranked in the number of the greatefl princes ; becaufe, though a barbarian, and his fubjedls ftill more barbarouS;, (334) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. barbarous, he was the avenger of his country^ and from that moment Mufcovy began to figure among the kingdoms of Europe. In Spain, Germany, and Italy, we behold the famous Charles V. who, fovereign of thefe countries under different ti.les, fupported the burden of Europe, was always in adtion oi* negotiation checked the progrefs of the Turks, made kings, and at lall:, after having long troubled the repofe of Europe, abdicated his crowns iu favour of his fon Philip IL retired from the world, and fpent the remainder of his days in ad:s of religious devotion. In France, Francis I. the rival of Charles V« though lefs fortunate, was neverthlefs a great charadler* Glory attended his fteps. Great in misfortunes, he obtained the efteem of nations by* his bravery, and amiable qualities, and im^ mortalized his name by his love for the fine arts^ which he tranfplanted from Italy into France* Henry VIII. kingof England, notwithftandmg his cruelties and caprices, mud be ranked among the celebrated princes of the fixteenth century. During his reign, a memorable revo- lution took place in the genius, manners, and religion of the £nglifli, and Great Britain learned under him, to hold the balance of power between the fovereigns of Europe. At the name of pope Leo X. the intelligent reader will recal to mind an age celebrated tor the arts, and for Lect.YII. modern history. (33s7 for that great revolution, which, under him^ took place in the wcflern church. It was in the iixteendi century that Afia, Africa, and Europe experienced at the fame time, a change in the Chriftian and Mahometan religions. The fchifm of Omar and Ali was completed ; the Perfians acknowledging the fame God, and the fame prophet, fcparated from the Turks. A feparation alfo took place among. Chriflians, and the half of Europe fliook oif the galling yoke of the Romifli pontiffs. While the ant lent world was (haken with civil and religious commotions, a new m orld was dif- covered by the immortal Chriflopher Colum- bus; the Ihips and arms of Portugal cflablilhed an immenfe commerce between the Eaft Indies and Europe. Here, the powerful empire of Mexico was conquered by Fernando Cortcz, while Pizzaro, with a handfuLof foldiers, made himfelf mafler of Peru : " there, Albuquerque, notwithdanding. the oppolitiorv of the inhabi- tants, and the efforts of muffulmen, then in poffeffion of the trade of the ead, eftabliihed the power and commerce of Portugal in the IndieSo The number of extraordinary men which every where 2j)peared, particularly in Italy, gives us a very high idea of the age under review. But v/hat adonifnes Rill more, is, to fee the manners of men take a milder turn, and fociet/ become more civilized, notwithftanding the many f336) MODERN HISTORY. Lect* VII. n^any v/ars produced by ambition, and the bloody quarrels occafioned by religion. That happy genius which naade the arts flourifh in Rome, Naples, Florence, and Venice, diifufed light through, Europe, and gave a finer polifli to the manners of fociety. At the beginning of the fixteenth century, the cities of Italy were the moft fuperb in the world, beautified with the moft magnificent public and private buildings. That country was the centre of learning and tafle. The Ita- lian princes, and great men, loved and cherifhed the progrefs of the human mind. — —Innocent VIIL an old man, refpedlable for his virtues, died, and the infamous Borgia, known by the name of Alexander VI. made ufe of the moil w icked means to get into the pontifical chair. The empire, divided into feven electorates^ befides a number of ecclefiaflical and fecular principalities, w^as flill a refpedable body, not- withflanding the lofs of the north of Italy. — Frederick IV. chief of the houfe of Auflria, be- fides being emperor, pofTefTed confiderable do- minions.— Maximilian, his fon, became pof- fefTed of the rich eflates of the dukes of Burgun- dy ; but with all thefe advantages united in this houfe, thefe two princes performed nothing worthy of notice. The indolent Frederick fa- crificed every thing to timoroufnefs and a love of repofe. Maximilian, though bold, ambiti- OUSji Lect. VIL modern history. (337) bus, and delirous of glory, was vain and impru- dent, without oeconomy, and too inconftant in the profecution of his deligns. France was fubmiilive and tranquil. — The great fiefs annexed to the crown, the deftruclion of the feudal government, the eftablifliment of tribunals, the feverity of the laws againft op- preflion and opprefTors, the troops paid by the exchequer, and who knew no orders but thofe of the king, the right of fixing the taxes, which the king enjoyed; all thefe advantages would have made Charles VI 1 1, a \cry powerful fo- vereign, had he poffefTed the political abilities of his father. Spain was united under Ferdinand and Ifabella, The expulfion of the Moors, the pofTeflion of many iflands in the Mediterranean, the character of Ferdinand and Ifabella, made the Spanilh power very confiderable. Spain had her finances under proper regulation, her lieets were well equipped, her troops were numerous, and, owing to her long difputes with the Moors, were made perfed in the art of war. — Ferdinand I. the fon of Alphonfo the Magnanimous, reigned in Naples; a weak and vicious prince; defpifed by foreigners, who afpired to his throne, and abhorred by his fubjecls, who wiflied for a re- volution. Peter de Medicis reigned in Florence, and by his imperious conduct, increafed the jea- loufy and difguft of his fellow citizens. They Y fecretly (33 5 ) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL fecretly planned a change which might rellorc liberty to the republic, and they waited only a favourable opportunity to fhake off the yoke.— To the north of the ecclefiaflical ftate, many petty fovereignties were ufurped from the Sec of Rome. Herculus D'Ffte governed wifely in Modena and Ferrara ; Francis Gonzagua, cele- brated for his military talents, reigned in Man- tua ; a branch of the family of the Paleologi, formerly emperors of Conftantinople, pofTeffed the principality of Montferrat. The dukes of Savoy, by the acquilition of Piedmont, and flill more by their politics, had a good deal of in- fluence in the affairs of Europe. — Pifa was fub- jeA to Florence, and the Genoefe, obliged to yield to the yoke of Milan, had ceafed to be the rival of Venice. The duchy of Milan, by the ac- quifition of Genoa, and the ufurpation of Parma and Placentia, formed a confiderable power. Francis Sforza, the ba;ftard of a foldier of for- tune, had wrefled that fine country from the princes of the houfe of Orleans, defcended from the Vifconti, the lawful heir. Lodowick Sforza, a wicked and defigning man, then held the reins of government, which he had ufurped from young Galeas, his nephew. Venice beheld herfelf at the pinnacle of glory; and the means which contributed to raife her to the high rank fhe then held, were her commerce, the mofl extenlive of any nation ; her politics, which Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (339) which took advantage of all the movements of her neighbours ; her formidable armies, and chiefly her fleets, which alone were a match for the Othman naval power. — The Swifs, whom a noble enthuiiafm for liberty, had made perfedt in the military art, guarded the northern paffes of Italy, and their alliance was eagerly courted by the greatefl: princes of Europe. Eno;land was freed from the internal convuU fions, which the animofities of the houfes of York and Lancafler had been the caufe of.— Henry VJI. the firft of the family of Tudor, a wife and politic prince, after having, by his firm and prudent condudl, crufhed the many factions which difl:urbed the firfl: years of his reign, took advantage of the fucceeding calm to attend to the movements of his neighbours. Navarre and Scotland were united with France by inclination and interefb. John Albert, who dreaded an attack from Ferdinand of Spain, had nothing but the protection of France to depend on. James IV. of Scotland, too weak to with- fland the Englifh, was obliged to feek afrifl:ance from the fame quarter. It admits of a doubt, if Scotland's connedlion with France was the refult of found politics ? However that may be, one thing is fure, that the Scotch often aflifled the French, by making diverfions into England in their favour ; but it does not appear that the Scotch ever received any material afliftaace from Ya the (340j MODERN HISTORY. Lsct. VIL the French. — John IL king of Portugal, while his neighbours were hofiile to one another, was wholJy taken up with the care of making new difcoveries. John of Oldenburgh had then united the three kingdoms of the north; but Stephen Sture flilt preferved great authority in Sweden, and the troubles which he kept in continual motion, were the prefage of a near and glorious revolu- tion.— Ladiflaus Jagellon, king of Bohemia and Hungary, could neither repel the enemy, who continually laid wafte his frontiers, nor rule his fubjedls, who obeyed him with reludtance. Albert Jagellon, the fon of the great Caiimir, and the brother of Ladillaus, who reigned in Poland, was continually at blows with the Turks and Ruffians. Bajazet II. the unworthy fucceifor of the he- roes of the Othman family, w^as upon the throne of Conflantinople ; while his brother Zizim, more worthy of a fceptre, was wandering in Europe, the fport of the caprice of Chriftian princes. — The Tartars governed in Perfia, the Mamalucks in Egypt, and the reft of Africa was fubjed: to many fcherifs or princes, who ac- knowledged as their chief the emperor of Mo- rocco, under the title of Miramolin. Such was the lituation of Europe at the beginning of the fixteenth century. Let us now take a curfory ^iew of political events in their order. Political Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (341) Political events. — Italy firH: attracfcs our notice. ■ — Lodowick Sforza, who had ufurped a tyraa- jiical authority in Milan, wiflied to deprive young Galcas, his nephew, of his titles and life ; but dreading the vengeance o^ the king of Naples, v»hof€ daughter Galeas had married; afraid of the Medicis, conneCled with young ■Sforza ; (landing in awe of the dukes of Savoy, who wiflied to check his ambition, and that of Borgia, who had been eleded pope, by the name of Alexander VI. he, to get over all thefe difficulties fo oppofite to his criminal deiigns, refolved to kindle -war in Italy, and to ruin his enemies by a powerful king. In confe- quence of this refolution, he made choice of Charles VIII. king of France, and invited him to the conquefl of Naples, a kingdom wrefled from the houfe of Anjou,of which Charles was the lawful heir. Charles, dazzled with the idea of fo valuable a conqueft, prepared to put k in execution. He engaged Henry VII. with a fum of money not to traverfe his defigns ; and the imprudent Charles, with the fame view, yielded to ibe ambitious Ferdinand of Caftile, the provinces of Cerdagne and Rouffillon, while he contented himfelf with the promife of a man, who was never famed for keeping his word. Ten thoufand Swifs, taken into pay, increafed his army, which, by the time he arrived at Lyons, was very numerous, by the concourfe of Y 3 nobility. (342) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL nobility, who wifhed to fignalize their valour. Scarcely was Charles arrived in the Milanefe, when the barbarous Lodowick, certain of pro- tedlion, which difpelled his fears, deflroyed young Galeas by poifon, and wrefted the fceptre from his infant fon. The French king, intox- icated with his projedl, overlooked the crime perpetrated by his ally» and marched to Tufcany, were he defeated Peter de Medicis, and obliged him to take refuge in Venice. Charles advan- ced to Florence; the magiftrates opened the gates, the Medicis were profcribed, their pro- perty confifcated, their ftatues broken, and the republic feemed to revive. From Florence Charles made hafte to Rome, to punifh the pope who had declared againft him. The famous Borgia then filled the papal chair ; a man who had made himfelf fo infamous by his crimes, that he was not only unworthy to be pope, but even unfit to live. Caefar Borgia, his fon, as wicked, and flill more cunning than the father^ was the pontiff's delight. They did not fcru- pie to employ the mofl criminal means to fatisfy their ambition. Alexander VI. whofe debauch- eries fcandalized the Chriftian world, trembled at the approach of the king of France, and fhut himfelf up with his fon, and Zizim, the unfortunate fon of Mahomet, in thecaftle of Sc. Angelo. Charles entered Rome by the light of flambeaux, and the pope fought to divert the ilorm Lect. VIL modern history* (343) florm by negotiation. He engaged to deliver Zizim to Charles, the poiTeflion of whom might procure him the Othman empire. The ambiti- ous monarch liftened to thefe propofals, forgot the caufe of his refentment, made peace with the pope, and became his protedlor. Zizim died of poifon a few days after ; and Charles, fo far from fufpeding the pope as guilty of the crime, confirmed his ufurpations, they parted friends, and he continued his route to Naples. The cowardly and cruel Ferdinand I. died fuddenly. His fon Alphonfo, ftill weaker, and as wicked, having abdicated the crown in favour ©f Ferdinand II. lied into Sicily ; and Ferdinand retired into a neighbouring ifland, there to wait a more favourable moment. Charles finding no obfiacles, penetrated into the kingdom of Naples, and m.ade his entry into the capital, amidft the acclamations of a vaft concourfe of people. The Arragonian dominion ceafed, and the houfe of Anjou recovered its ancient rights. Unfortunately for Charles, he became intoxicated with pleafure. His courtiers and foU diers enervated with themildnefs of the climate, and with a concourfe of all kinds of pleafures, gave free reins Co licentioufnefs, infulted mo- deiiy, violated the privileges of the Neapolitans, and deftroyed the property of individuals. The inhabitants murmured in vain ; the French de- fpifed their juft complaints, and funk into a y 4 fatal (344) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL fatal fecurity. In the mean time, Alexander VI. the Venetians, the king of Caftile, Maximilian juft eledled emperor, and even Lodovvick Sforza himfelf, entered into a fecret league, agreed to attack Charles, and deprive him of the means of returning to France. The citizens of Naples, informed of this league, take up arms, and call young Ferdinand to the throne of his fathers. Charles received the news in the midft of an entertainment. Dividing his little army, he left four thou fan d men in the kingdom of Naples, under the command of Bourbon dc Montpenfier, and Stuart d'Aubigny, and he himfelf marched with the reft to the north of Italy. He filled Rome with terror, and obliged the Borgias to conceal themfelves in Orviette. Having reached Florence, where he wafted pre- cious time, he was informed that his couiin the duke of Orleans, having been defeated by Lodo- wick Sforza, was ftiut up in Novara, where he ran the rifk of being made prifoner. Charles* courage revives at this difagreeable news, he flies into Lombardy, and finds at Fornoua, a village in the neighbourhood of Placentia, his march oppofed by forty thoufand men. Perhaps French courage never fhone more illuftrioufly than on that celebrated day. Seven thoufand men attacked this numerous army, pierced their ranks, and the fuccefsful French beheld their timid enemies, who durft not purfuc them.. Lect.VIL modern history. (345) them. -The imprudence of Charles faved Lodowick Sforza ; for the French king being arrived upon the confines of Piedmont, again indulged himfelf in eafe and pleafure. About the time of Charles' precipitate retreat to France, Ferdinand of Naples, ailifted by the tfoops of Alexander VI. the Venetian fleet, and a few foldiers fcnt him by the king of Arragon, under the command of the great Gonzalva, re- covered his kingdom, beat Montpenfier, and obliged him, by a fliameful capitulation, to abandon the northern provinces. D'Aubigny, a greater general than Montpenfier, was not more fortunate, becaufe his enemies were fu- perior in number, and commanded by the greatefl captain of the age. Thus Ferdinand faw himfelf mailer of Naples, Lodowick kept Lombardy, the Venetians preferved the places which had come into their poiTefiion, and Alex- ander conceived thedeiign oferedling a princi- pality for his fon. Death deprived France of Charles VIII. and when he died, the wars in Italy feemed to be at ^n end. But the duke of Orleans, his couiin, who fucceeded by the name of Louis XIL purfued the fchemes of his predecefTor * George Amboife, his minifter, very defirous to obtain the popedom, perfuaded Louis to carry his arms into Italy. Louis began by fecuring the pope, whofe fon he loaded with prefents, and (34^) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. and gave him the duchy of Valentinois. The Venetians were in his intereft, and he obtained from Maximilian the inveilituredf the Milanefe. The city Milan was taken in the fpace of a month. Lodowick Sforza was forced to fly into Germany, from whence he foon returned to recover his eflates ; but being betrayed by the Swifs, he fell into the hands of Louis, who fhut him up in prifon, where he died, after ten years confinement. Parma, Placentia, and Genoa, fubmitted to France ; and the fuccefs of Louis was no lefs brilliant in Naples. He made a treaty with the king of Arragon ; and Frederick, whofucceededhisnephevv, Ferdinand of Naples, feeing himfelf deprived of his throne, retired into France, and fpent his time in the improve- ments of learning. The Spaniards and French did not continue long united after the conqueft of Naples. Am- bition divided them ; they took up arms, and carried on war againft each other with great fury. Then were difplayed the cunning of old Ferdinand of Arragon, the candour and open- nefs of Louis XI L the credulity and ambition of George Amboife, the great talents of Gon- zalva, of Anthony de Leva, and D'Aubigny. The French, vanquifhed at Cerignolcs, loft for ever the two Sicilies. Though Louis faw his troops beaten in Navarre and Roufiillon, and al- moft annihilated upon the frontiers of Naples ; yet Lect. VIL modern history. (347) yet fuch was his infatuation, that he fent a new army to attempt a fecond conqueft. But George Amboife, by flopping at Rome, in hopes to im- pofe on the conclave, that he might be chofen pope after the death of Alexander, rendered the efforts of Louis ufelefs, and loft to himfelf the triple crown. Cardinal Rovier, known by the name of Ju- lius II. was feated in the paple chair, and from the moment he became pope, formed the defign of ftripping Casfar Borgia of his poffeflions, ot forcing the Venetians to part with their ufurpa- tions, and to drive the Spaniards, French, and Germans, from Italy, where each domineered in their turn. Julius began with Borgia, whom he obliged to furrender the places he had con- quered, and then banifhed him. The Venetians refufed to reftore the cities they were in polTef- lionof, and Julius planned the defign of arming againft thefe republicans, the very people he in- tended to drive from Italy. He concerted the famous league of Cambray, and armed Germany, France, Spain, and Italy, againft Venice. Maxi- milian was to attack the republic in the north j Louis XII. mafter of the Milanefe, was to enter the Venetian ftates ; the fleets of Ferdinand were to lay wafte the Gulph, and Julius was to over- whelm them with the thunder of excommuni- cation. Venice, in the midft of fo numerous and powerful enemies, would not humble her- felf. (348) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL felf, fhe refufed the afliftance of Bajazer, would not liflen to the fecret offers of the pope, but determined to face them all. However, the ra- pid fuccefs of the French brought the republic to the very brink of dellruclion. Venice, feeing her ruin unavoidable, refolved to bow to the haughty pontiff, v»ho was the foul of the plot formed againfl her. Julius, already uneafy at the progrefsof the French, received the fubmif- lionof the republic, the reftitution of the cities, and withdrew from the league. Ferdinand was gained by the fame means ; and the Venetians being freed from two of their enemies, collected all their forces againll Louis and Maximilian, already weakened by the heat of the climate, and the exceffes of their foldiers. The generals of Louis were jealous and diffruflful of each other ; this was favourable to the Venetians. Victorious over Maximilian, they were openly fupported by the pope, and king of Spain, who declared war againft France. The republic joining her new allies, after recovering the greatcfi: part of what file had loft, attacked the French, and purfued the duke of Ferrara in the intereft of Louis, whom Julius widied to deprive of his poffeffions. There is not a more aftoniffiing characler in hiftory, than that of this pope : he marched at the head of armies, drew the plan of a campaign, ordered the difpofition of battle, was prefent at lieges, often took cities by affault, carried Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (349) carried in a litter, he direded the trenches, and entered the breach which his cannon had made^ D'Ars, Lautrec, and above all, the immortal Bayard, fignalizcd themfelves in the armies of France. Gafton de Foix, duke of Nemours, nephew to Louis XII. v/as victorious in the north of Italy ; but the death of that hero, flain in the career of vidtory, gave a check to the fuc- cefs of the French. Louis in a rage, would depofc the pope by a general council. He, in concert with Maximilian, called an affembly of bifliops at Pifa. Julius employed the extent of his' genius, convoked a council at Rome to excom- municate his enemies, perfuaded the inconftant Maximilian to difavow the convocation at Pifa, to recal his bifhops, acknowledge the authority of the council of Latran, and grant to the fon of Lodowick Sforza, the invefliture of Milan. The Swifs brought back young Sforza to Milan, and drove away the French. At the fame time^ Genoa threw off the yoke of Louis. The coun- cil of Pifa, obliged to fly from city to city, end- ed by a mock reprefentation at Lyons. How- ever, the council of Latran cited Louis to ap- pear before it, laid his kingdom under an inter- did:, and declared, that the king of Navarre, the ally of France, had forfeited his crown, Ferdinand, with the pope's bull in his hand, made hafte to fend the duke of Alva into Na- varre 5 and John Albert foon faw himfelf de- prived f350) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL prived of his kingdom, which never again re- turned to its lawful heir. All thefe ftorms were raifed by Julius II. One vidim flill remained to be puniilied, viz. Louis XII. but death put a period to the defigns of the furious old man. Julius, notwithflanding his dexterity, acflivity, talents, and the protection he gave to learning, has no claim to the refpcd: of poflerity. He pofTefTed the qualities of a fovereign ,• but his many intrigues, the wars he carried on in per- fon, and the fcandalous excefles in which he indulged himfelf, were highly unbecoming the head of the church, tie was not only a bad pope, but a bad man. Louis XII. was not more happy under the fucceflbr of Julius. Cardinal Julian de Medi- cis, who, under the name of Leo X. mounted St. Peter's chair, followed the defigns of hispre- deceffor. The Milanefe was once more taken from Louis ; Genoa fhook off the yoke for the third time ; the Swifs ravaged Burgundy, and carried alarm to the gates of Paris; the Englifh, conquerors at Guinegate, laid wafte the north- ern provinces ; John Albert attempted in vain to re-enter his kingdom ; James IV. of Scotland was flain, while making a diverfion in favour of his ally. Louis, with misfortunes on all fides, was forced to humble himfelf before his enemy. He difavowed the council of Pifa ; the Sforzas were confirmed in their pofleffions, Navarre remained LscT. VIL MODERN HISTORY. (351) remained to Ferdinand, and John Albert lofl his inheritance. To comfort himfelf in thefe revcrfes of fortune, Louis attached himfelf to his people, and ftudied to promote their hnppi- nefs. Guided by bad politics, this prince wa* the dupe of his allies and enemies. A predelic- tion for Italy, coll much human blood. His intimate connections with the Borgias, his feve- rity to Lodovvick Sforza, his cruelty to two Venetian fenators, becaufe they had the courage to defend a city intruded to their care, are fpots which tarnilh the virtues of Louis XIL But certainly this is one trait of a good prince, that he never taxed his people but from abfolute ne- ceflity, and that he chofe rather to renounce his conquefts, than keep them to the hurt of his fubjedls. When he died, France called him the father of his people^ and a general mourningjn- dicated the affecflionate regard of his fubjedls. Francis L who fucceeded his coufin Louis XIL married his daughter and took up his fchemes. This prince, the hero of the age, faw with in- dignation, the Milanefe wrefted from his pre- deceflbr. He marched immediately to Italy, obliged the duke of Savoy to open him a pafTage, defeated Maximilian who would have oppofed his march, and triumphed over the Italian troops which Sforza brought againfl: him. He then dircded his march to Milan, and engaged the Svvifs near Marignan, a little village in Lombar- dy. (3P) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL dy, where a defperate battle was fought, which continued two days. The Swifs, rather over- powered than vanquifhed, beat the Venetians in their retreat, and left the field of battle to Fran- cis, who entered Milan in triumph, the other cities followed the example of the capital; Sforza was obliged folemnly to abdicate the fovereign- ty, the Genoefe were again made fubjedl td France, pope Leo demanded peace, the cities taken from the Venetians were reftored, and Francis 1. was confidered as the firft king ill Europe. - ' England. — Henry VII. procured to England, by his prudent reign, a tranquillity fhe had been long a Granger to. But the intrigues of the duchefs dowager of Burgundy, a princefs of the houfe of York, and who mortally hated the hou fc of Lancafler, often difquieted Henry, and dif- turbed the peace of his kingdom. The reader knov/s the artifices fne made ufe of to ftir up competitors to Henry, firft Lambert Simncl, and then the adventurer Perkin Warbeck, a Jew by birth, born in a village in Flanders. — Ireland de-^ clared in his favour, and James IV. king of Scot- land, gave him to wife a relation of his own, the beautiful Catharine Gordon, daughter of the marquifsof Huntly. Aflifted by the Scotch, he ravaged Northumberland, gave alarm to the capital, was followed by a crowd of malccon- tents^and finifhed his career by abandoning his army^ Lect.VII. modern history. f353J army, when ready to engage the king's troops^ Henry, who difplayed much wifdom upon this occafion, facrificed the innocent earl of War- wick, the laft of the line of York, to the cruel politics of Ferdinand of Spain, who would not give his daughter Catharine to Arthur prince of Wales, but on Condition of the death of that nobleman. Arthur died a few months after his marriage, and Catharine became the wife of Henry's fecond fon, an union which was the caufe of many changes, and the means of intro- ducing the reformation into England. Henry VIII. who mounted the throne of his father, beheld the fouth of Europe on fire, and defolated by the animofities of Julius II. of Louis XII. Maximilian, and Ferdinand. This young king declared in favour of the emperor, went in perfon into Flanders, took Terrouane, and gained at Guinegate the battle of Spurs* He foon broke with his allies, made peace with Louis XII. to whom he gave his fifler in mar- riage, and continuing the fame union with Francis I. the two nations feemed to have for- gotten their former animofities and quarrels. Spain. — In the mean time Spain, by the dif- covery of the new world, was raifed to the pinnacle of glory. Chriftopher Columbus, a Genoefeby birth, after having been treated as a vifionary by his countrymen, defpifed byCharles VIII. king of France, driven out of England by X 7, Henry t354} MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL Henry VII. and amufed by Emmanuel of Por- tugal ; after having fpent eight years in folic ita- tions at the court of Ferdinand and Ifabella, had at laft the good fortune to obtain three fmall vefTels, with which, in the year 1492, he fet fail •from Palos, a fmall fea-port town in Andaluiia^ rendered famous by this expedition. The winds and the tempefts he had to ftruggle with during his voyage, the rocks aad fhoals he had to fear in unknown feas; the prejudices and terrors of thofe with whom he failed, which he was obliged to oppofe, and to which he was often in danger of being facrificed ; the admi- ration of his failors at the fight of Antipodes, hitherto treated as an abfurdity ; the terror of the American favages at thcnoife of the Spanifli artillery; all thefe are well known to the reader. — Upon the return of Columbus to Europe, envy and fuperftition were changed into fen- timents of admiration and refpedt. Portugal received him in triumph ; the cities of Spain fenr their magiftrates to meet him ; Ferdi- nand and Ifabella made him fit with them in the public ceremonies, declared him admiral of the weft, and perpetual viceroy of all the countries he might difcover. Decorated with high founding titles, Columbus was fnatched from the honours conferred on him, to go upoa a new expedition. Arriving at his colony, he found it almoft deftroyed. The unhappy In- dians^ Lect. VIL MODERN HISTORY. (355} dians had dared to affront their barbarous and cruel conquerors; and the Spaniards, driven from their city by thefavages, to whom defpair was inftead of arms, were obliged to take refuge in the mountains. Columbus having checked the impetuofity of the Indians, gained the good will of their Caciques by his virtues; and by punifhing thofe who opprelfed the in- habitants, reflored peace to the ifland, and fett- led a new colony. Columbus, indefatigable in his labours, determined to continue his difco- veries. He difcovered the iflands, called An- tilles, penetrated even to the Gulph of Mexico, and failed along the coaft which extends from Panama to the mouth of the river Oronooko. — Being returned to Spain, he found a numerous party, who, while they enjoyed his authority, exhibited againft him to the council of Ferdi- nand, the moft cruel and unjufl accufations.— He was loaded with the mod infamous calum- nies, and Fonfeca put himfelf at the head of thofe,' who being jealous of the glory of Colum- bus, did all they could to perfecute him. They were not content to reprefent him as a cruel governor, who by his feverities prevented the progrefs of difcpvery, as a tyrant, who opprelfed the Indians ; but they even went fo far, as to difpute the glory of his enterprifes. They gave out that he had been intruded by navi- gators, whofe memoirs he had copied; they Z 2 endeavoured {3S6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VII endeavoured to prove, that the new world had been found out long before. Americus Vefpu- tius, a Florentine, advanced to the continent dif- covered by Columbus, and had the affurance to boaft, that he was the firft who had landed there. This falfehood was favoured by the odious Fon- feca, and unjuft Europe gave the name America to the new world. The ungrateful Ferdinand fecretly fupported Fonfeca, and Ifabella, allow- ing herfelf to be furprifed, figned an order for his difgrace. A commiflioner, fent from Old Spain to Hifpainiola in the Weft Indies, judged Columbus, and condemned him to death ; but hot daring to execute the barbarous fen- tence, he loaded him with irons, and fent him home to Spain. Columbus vindicated his innocence, and confounded his enemies, yet neverthelefs, was deprived of his dignity of vice- roy. Difcouraged by fuch flagrant acts of in- juftice, he re-embarked for the weftern world; but the wicked machinations of his enemies^ purfued him to America, and would- not allow him to land in Hifpaniola ; fo that he, after a a year's fufFerings, was obliged to return to Spain, where envy and calumny did not ceafe to perfecute him to the grave. The death of Columbus filenced llander. Then men opened their eyes to his genius and abilities, and be- llowed upon him, when dead, the juft honour and praile, they refufed him while living. They gave Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (357) gave him a magnificent funeral, and paid kingly- honours to his remains ; a fmall reward for the important fervices he had done to mankind. — » Crowds of Spaniards profecuted the difcover- ies of Columbus, and formed new colonies. Ve- lafques fettled a colony in the ifland of Cuba ; NicuefTa fixed himfelf on the continent, near the Ihores of the Gulph of Darien; Pedrarias laid the foundations of the city Panama i Bova- dilla penetrated into Florida ; and Balbao fail- ' ing towards the fouth pole, traverfed the Pacific Ocean, and opened a route to future navigators to fail round the world. However let us not for- get to obferve, that the glory of thefe enterpri- fes was tarnifhed by the unheard of cruelties, which thefe navigators exercifed in the courfe of their difcoveries. When we refled: upon the evils, the aurijacrafames* has occafioned ,- upon the barbarity and ferocity of the Spaniards, and the new and excruciating tortures they invented to deprive the Indians of life, we lament a dif- covery, which, though perhaps advantageous upon the whole, has been the caufe of ftrength- ening the corruption, and ftifiing the feelings of the human mind. — Thofe parts of America, difcovered by the Spaniards, were fcon reduced to a defert, or contained only wretched inhabi- tants. In the midft of thefe horrors, Bartholo- piew de Las Cafas, one of thofe names, wh ich Z 3 the • The infatiable defire of gold. (358) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL the humane and fenfible part of naankind al- ways refpeds, had the generoiity to defend out- raged and fufFering humanity. It is plealing to read the pious exertions of that virtuous monk, by reprefentations, prayers, and tears, to fnatch the murderous weapon from the hands of his countrymen ; how he employed his time in voyages from the old world to the new, and from the new to the old, to make the voice of companion be heard in both ; that he had the noble courage to carry to the throne, the groans of the unhappy vidlims of Spanifh avarice ; that the hatred of the great, and the authority of miniflers of flate, could not cool his ardour for the rights of humanity ; and in a word, that he had the courage to publifh to the world, the tyrannical condu6l of the great men of Spain, towards the poor Indians. The pathetic cries of this orator of humanity, procured fome edicts in their favour, but cruelty and felfifli interefl eluded them. The unhappy Indians were not relieved ; but they had the pleafure to fee their favage opprclTors making war upon, and mu- tually deftroying each other. Thefe fcenes of hovror in America, and the continual emigra- tions which avarice occafioned, confiderabiy depopulated old Spain j and the expulfion of . the Moors, which happened at the fame time,' quite exhauded that country. Mendoza, arch- bilhop of Toledo, and the famous cardinal Ximenes, Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (359) ^vimenes, were the authors of that expullioii ; an expuldon marked with the mofi: unheard of cruelties. Then the court of inquifition was cflablifhe-d in Spain, and many thoufands of Moors were committed ro the flames by its ini- quitous judges : nay, even thofe, whofe fenfibi- Jity durft lament the vidlims facrificed to a bar- barous fuperftition, did themfelvcs feel the ef- fects of the inquifitor's diabolical rage. However, the Spanifh monarchy continued to increafe in power and importance by the ge- nius of Ferdinand and Ifabella. The recovery of Roulliilon and Cerdagne, the fubmiflion of the kingdom of Naples, the Spanifh arms tri- umphant in both hemifpheres, all thefe condu- ced to the profperity of the king and queen of Spain. But how uncertain is hum^an grandeur 1 All this fuccefs and apparent happinefs, was followed by the feverity of woe. Their only fondled in the flower of his age. Ifabella their daughter, who was married to the king of Portugal, died at an early period of life, with -her fon, who, if he had lived, would have uni- ted in his perfon, all the dominions of Spain. Joan, married to Philip of Auflria, loll: her fenfes; and Catharine, fcarcely married to Ar- thur, heir of the Englifli crown, lofl: her huf- band, and was married to his brother, which proved to her a fource of many calamities. The birth of Charles and Ferdinand, the fons Z 4 of (36o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. of Philip, was a counterpoife to all thefe mis- fortunes ; but Ifabella did not long furvive this joyful event. This princefs poiTelTed a gener- ous foul, and an exteniive genius; but her glory- was tarnilhed by a gloomy fuperftition, which caufed her to put to death thoufands of innocent vicl:ims. We would not enter into a detail of the troubles which the death of Ifabella occali- oned in Spain. Ferdinand was obliged to yield the regency of Caftile to Philip his fon-in-law; but his death foonmade the ambitious Ferdinand mafter of that kingdom, notwithfbanding the jufl preteniions of the weak Maximilian, who was paternal grandfather to the prince of Ailurias. Spain continued to flourifh by the abilities of old Ferdinand. The French were driven a third time from Naples by the great Gonzalva, and Anthony de Leva, the Venetians were defeated by Raymond de Cordonna, Navarre was con- quered by the duke of Alva, the city Oran, on the coaft of Africa, was taken by Ximenes, who earned alarm even to the capital of Morocco. However, in the midll: of all thefe profperities, Ferdinand died of a lingering diftemper; and Charles of Auftria faw himfelf, at the age of fixteen, mafter of his grandfather*s vaft polfef- fions, of the feventeen provinces of the Low Countries, of Franche Comte -, and he alfo had hopes of one day enjoy mg the eftates of the houfe of Auftria. He was then the moft pow- erful Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (361) erful prince in Europe. Francis L mailer of the duchy of Milan, already celebrated by the laurels he had gathered in the field of Marignan, was the only one who could enter into rivalfhip with him. Henry Vlil. king of England, and pope Leo X. feemed deftined to hold the balance between Charles and Francis. At this period, the interefl, of the principal nations of Europe was blended together, by the ambition of two rivals. Charles, detained in the Low Countries, intruded the government of Spain to Ximenes, who at the age of fourfcore, difplayed the vigour and abilities of a moft emi- nent flatefman. Ximenes was a clergyman of irreproachable morals, of an extenfive genius, and intrepid foul j an incorruptible minifter of flate, whom pofterity would have adorned with the title of a great man, had he not given the barbarous orders to reduce Navarre to a defert, fo it could not be preferved to Spain ; and if his perfecuting and fanguinary zeal had not condemned thoufands of unhappy muiTulmen to the flames, whofe only crime was their unwil- lingnefs to renounce the religion they had re- ceived from their fathers. Charles, after the treaty of Noyon, whicfi. feemed to unite him for ever with France, went into Spain, and made the nation confer on him the authority, which, by law, belonged to his mother. The confidence which he placed m {362) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. in the Flemings, excited a revolt among the Spaniards, but he had the dexterity to quell it by promifcs, which he determined never to perform. Whilft engaged in thefe matters, Charles received the news of the death Maxi- milian. Maximilian, who had always been involved in the troubles of Europe, left the empire in great confulion. The reformation was rapidly fpreading in Germany. Frederick of Saxony had publicly declared himfelf the protector of Luther, arid of the reformed dodtrines. Religious difputes agitated the minds of men. The reformers wifhed to fhew ftill more clearly to the world, the errors and antichriflian fpirit of the church of Rome; the Roman Catholics were enraged againft what they con- lidered as innovations, and a fpirit of free, inquiry was diffufing itfelf through Europe. In thefc difficult circumflances, the eledlors aiTembled to chufe a chief. In vain did Fran- cis I. intrigue to obtain the imperial crown ; it was conferred upon Charles of Spain, This preference of his rival enraged the French king, he was eagerly defirous of revenge, and, with this view, fought to engage Henry VIII. in his quarrel. But Charles, who forfaw his enemy's deligns, w^ent into England, and by fine pro- mifes to cardinal Wolfey, brought over Henry to his interefts. Having fecured the king of England^ Iect. VII. modern history. (36:^) England, the emperor palTed into Germany to be crowned. Obliged to manage pope Leo, fo as to keep him in his intercfts, he condemned Luther and the reformation ; but by this pro- fcription, the princes who favoured that re- former, were turned againfl: him. in the mean time, the government of Spain being intruded to Adrian, Charles' preceptor, a weak man, all the diforders of licentioufnefs and revolt broke out in that country. The Frfed, and all feemed to unite to augment his glory and power. But domeftic misfor- tune difturbed his happinefs. Catharine of Arragon, his aunt, married to Henry VIII. of England, from political views, lofl her hufband's afFecflion, and became difagreeable to him. — The charms of Ann Bullen captivated that laf- civious prince, and he fought for a pretext to difTolve the marriage with Catharine, that he might marry her maid of honour. Scruples of confcience furnifhed him with one, and he fhud- dered to think, that he had lived eighteen years in inceft with his brother's widovv. Wolfey, to revenge himfelf of Charles, who had fported with his ambition, flattered Henry's pretended remorfe. The theological fchools, which Hen- ry confulted, determined, that a marriage con- tracted with a brother's widow, ought to be dif- folved. Clement, before whofe tribunal the affair was carried, being unfriendly with Charles, appeared to favour Henry ; but the pope, hav- ing been reconciled to the emperor, changed his fentiments, and deferred from time to time to Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (369) to give judgment. The delays of Rome pro« voked Henry, who ordered an Enghfh fynod, in which Cranmer prefided, to dilTolve the mar- riage, contraded another with Ann BuUen, and publifhed it to the world. — Clement, influenced by the emperor, (truck him with the thunder of the Vatican. From that time Henry broke off all communication with Rome, declared himfelf fupreme head of the church of England, changed the form of worfhip, gave new com- mifHons to the bifhops, fuppreffed the monas- teries, and ordered all relics to be burnt.—— Thofe of the reformation hoped this revolution would have been favourable to them j but the ca- pricious Henry, pafTionately fondof thedodrines of Rome, put to death, without diftindlion, thofe who adhered to the pope, and thofe who em- braced the reformed religion. His inexorable difpofition made all tremble, he overturned Ro- mifh altars, fhed the blood of virtuous men, fported with the laws, and obliged the nation to fubmit to his abfurd humours and arbitrary- commands. While fcenes of this kind were aded in Eng- land, Franv-is I. invited the fciences and fine arts into his kingdom ; gave them the moft generous encouragement, cultivated them him- felf, and enlightened France with the dawn of thofe happy days which followed. But thofe attempts of Francis, to promote the tafte and A a improve*. f37o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIL improvement of his fubje&, were fullied with a barbarous intolerance. He committed to the flames, thofe who, in matters of religion, at- tempted to think for themfelves. War was rekindled. The duke of Milan, contrary ta juflice and the rights of nations, caufed an am- baflador of Francis I. to be affailinated ; and the French king thought the time was come ta humble his rival. He imagined that Henry would take part with him. He had new mo- delled his army, and taken advantage of peace to replenifh his treafury. Charles was gone into Africa to fight the famous BarbarolTa. All thefe circumflances were favourable to Francis.. He drove the duke of Savoy from his domini- ons, becaufe he declared for the emperor, and the death of Sforza opened to him a palTage into Lombar penetrated {384) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII, penetrated iiito the Eaflern Ocean, traverfed fix thoufand leagues of coaft, failed to the Indies, and arrived at Calicut, where he made the name of the Portuguefe be refpedled ; Almeida pulhed his difcoveries fiill farther, and began that commerce which had enriched Egypt; Albuquerque difcovered the mod diftant ex- tremities of Afia, conquered Malabar, founded Goa, and fent the diamonds, pearls, indigo, and fpices of the eaft, to Lifbon. At the fame rime Alvarez de Cabrel, failing towards the wefl, landed in Brazil in South America, and founded there a colony, which is flill the moft powerful of any belonging to Portugal. In the reign of John III. the Portuguefe continuing their difcoveries, arrived at China, and made that empire known to Europe. The conquefl of the ifland of Hainan, in the centre of which they built Macao, the difcovery of Japan, which became a fource of prodigious com- merce, and the theatre of the zeal of Francis Xavier, raifed Portugal to the fummit of glory, and greatly increafed her wealth. The annals of Turkey, in this period, prefent the reader with the depolition of Bajazet, who had no abilities for government; with the cruel and vigorous reign of Selim his fon ; with the fhining vidtories of Solyman II. his war* with the houfe of Auftria, in Hungary, Ger- man/, Lect/VII. modern history. (385) many, and Africa, and his glorious expeditions! in Afia. The Reformation. — The ancient and modern hiftory of mankind does not prefent us with a more important revolution, than that which the reformation brought about in the beginning of the fixteenth century. Perhaps no revolu- tion has had fo marked and general an mflu- ence upon the induflry of nations, upon the go- vernment of kingdoms, the manners of men, the progrefs of fcience, and upon fociety in general. The reader is alteady acquainted with the exceflive power which the popes had ac- quired in things fpiritual and temporal. All Europe- bowed under the yoke of Rome, and trembled at the name of pontiff* Thofe, who from time to time had boldly attempted to withftand this formidable power, had all mif- carried. Emperors, kmgs, and nations, had in vain employed force, religion, and fcience^ to break their chains ; the pontiff's throne re- mained unfliaken, and his enemies, after un- availing attempts, were obliged to acknowledge themfelves the fiaves of the fee of Rome. An uninterrupted train of triumphs over the Chrif- tian world, feemed firmly to have eflabliflied the defpotifm of the popes. But there is an appoint- ed time for every thing. It was referved by Pro- vidence for an obfcure individual to (hake this formidable throne, to deprive the Romifh fo- X B b vereigit (^26) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIL vereign of one half of his empire, and difcom- pofe the other ; to roufe men from that deep fleep in which they were buried, and prefent them with the lamp of reafon and religion, with which they might fee the errors, impoftures, and ufurpations of the Latin church; and chiefly, that they might feel the mifery of their fervile condition. Luther was the authotj or rather inflrument, of this memorable revolution. Born at Eyfleben, in Saxony, of parents in a low ftation of life, he was put into a convent of Auguflin friars, where he foon diflinguilhed himfelf by his great application to ftudy, by his penetration, and chiefly, by an eafy and bold manner of exprefling himfelf. He wa$ made teacher of philofophy at Wittembcrg, and foon rofe to be profeflbr of theology in ths fame city, where he acquired great reputation. At that time Leo X. the patron of the arts and fciences, wanted to finifli the fuperb church of St. Peter, in Rome, and feeing his treafure ex- haufted, he opened a treafury of indulgences. They were fent from Rome to be fold in Ger- many ; and the Dominicans were charged with the fale of them. Never was there fo fcandal- ous an abufe of indulgences. They were fold publicly as mercantile ware, and with the greateft indecency in taverns and ale-houfes. They were proclaimed as heavenly favours, which of themfelves blotted out the mofl: hein- ous Lect. VII. modern history. (387J ous crimes.. This tended to the encouragement and incrcafe of all kinds of vice. The wicked were not deterred by any motive of fear from the commifTion of crimes. Hence we may eafily conceive how very dangerous fuch a doc- trine was to fociety, chiefly at a time, when the voice of confcience was flified by fuperftition^ and reafon and true religion almoft loft in a crowd of abfurd errors. Whether it was a de- teftation of this doctrine, and thefe abufes, or jealoufy, as fome fay, the Auguftin friars made choice of Luther to preach againfl indulgences^ and thofe who fold them. . The young monkj> poiTefTed of a lively imagination, and armed with the flambeau of reafon and fcripture, de- claimed with great flrength of eloquence againfk thofe pernicious maxims, pointed out the true principles of indulgences, cooled the zeal of the purchafers ; and emboldened by this fuccefsj^ his views went farther.; he difplayed and at- tacked the ufurpations and errors of the church of Rome : in a word, he tore off the veil which hid her vices from the eyes of the world, and the throne of the pontifl^s began to totten — Leo, who at firft defpifcd Luther, was a- larmed at the progrefs of that reformer, and fummoned him before his tribunal at Rome. Frederick of Saxony, who protecfled him, ob- tained the favour of having his caufe tried in Germany. Luther appeared at the diet of B b 3 Augfburgj (388) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. Augfburg, proteded by the emperor Charles' fafe conduct. Cardinal Cajetan, who was his judge, refufed to hear him, and would oblige him to retradl. Luther would not comply, appealed to a general council, retired fecretly from Augfburg, and returned into his own country, attended by many profelytes. Hitherto Leo had contented himfelf with threatnings ; but as the reformation increafed, he thundered out anathemas, and would punifh him, whom he confidered as the author. The condemna- tion of the pope denounced againft him, did but irritate Luther the more. Protedled bj his fovereign and countrymen, he renewed his appeal to a general council, treated the pope as Anti-Chrift, burnt the bull of excommunica- tion at Wittemberg, attacked the mofl valu- able dodtrines of the church of Rome, and fpoke with contempt of her moft folemn cere- monies. Charles V. at the requefl: of Leo> ordered the reformer to appear at the diet of Worms : Luther came, fpoke with a decent boldnefs, confelTed that his zeal might have carried him beyond the bounds of a wife mo- deration; but at the fame time refufed to retradt his opinions, unlefs they could convince him of their falfehood. Neither promifes nor threat- cnings could (hake his refolution. His firm- nefs alarmed the Romifh clergy ; and it was propofed to Charles to imitate Sigifmond, who^, not with- Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (389) notwithftanding the faith of a fafe condudl, de- livered John Hufs and Jerome of Prague to the flames. The emperor, not willing to ftain his charadler with fo odious a crime, permitted Luther to retire; but foon after, an edidt ap- peared in the name of Charles V. forbidding the princes of the empire to harbour him, and enjoining them to apprehend him, as foon as his fafe condudl fhould expire. The elecflor of Saxony, not daring to protecfl him openly, con- cealed him in a caftle, by which he was fecured from the fury of his enemies, had time to digeft his fyftem, and form a body of do6lrines. His firft attack was againft the dodrines of the church of Rome ; he admitted only two facra- ments, Baptifm and the Lord's Supper, confi- dering the reft as the invention of felf-intereft, and adopted by fuperftition. He rejected the invocation of faints, not only as ufelefs, but ido- latrous ; prayers for the dead he conlidered as a fnare to the faithful ; purgatory as an abfurdity invented by the avarice of the clergy ; and auricular confeiTion as a ridiculous ceremony. The doctrines o{ conjiibftantiation^ juftifying faiths and ' predcfcination, were his favourite tenets. From dodrines he pafted to the government of the church. He maintained that the pope has no authority beyond the diocefe of Rome; that the jurifdidion of bifhops is founded only in the choice which Chriftians make. He re- B b 3 prefented (390) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL prefented the mofl part of clerical diftincfhions as the effe(fl of a moft odious tyranny. He treatrd the opulence of ecclefiaftics as a crimi- nal ufurpation. He fhewed celebacy to be a fource of many abufes, and that religious vows which prevent marriage are contrary to the na^ ture of the gofpel. He opened the cloifters, caufed the priefts to marry, did himfelf take Catharine Bore, a nun, to be his wife, exhorted princes to feize the wealth of the clergy, to take part of it to themfelves, and with the reft, to found colleges and hofpitals, to promote national induftry, and repair the public highways. Thefe rational and praife^ worthy views engaged the eledtor of Saxony more than ever to protecfi: him. From this time Luther had the happinefs to fee his country embrace his doctrines, and adopt the reformation. From Saxony, his opinions palTed into Hefie, which country became alfo reformed, and a great part of the north of Ger- many. Multitudes of difciples feconded his efforts. Melanclhon, one of the fineft geni- ufTes of his time, was the chief fupport of the Lutheran reformtaion, and gave it immenfe refped: by his knowledge and moderation. — At the fame time, pious and zealous men fpread the reformed dodlrines through Europe. Bucer introduced them into the Imperial cities upon the Rhine; and Olaus into Sweden, his native country. What triumph for Luther, to fee the half Lect. VII. modern history. (391) half of Europe fhaking off the yoke of Rome; entire kingdoms adopting his opinions, a pow- erful party confulting him, and receiving his decifions with refped: ! How great the glory of this reformer, to have changed the world, enlightened the minds of men, reftored primi- tive Chriftianity, and the ufe of the fcriptures to all, and to die peaceably in the midft of his family, without fear, and without remorfe ? The charadler of the father of the reformation is excellently well drawn by a celebrated hiito- rian, and with it I lliall prefent the reader. Luther died in his native city of Eyfleben, of an inflammation in his flomach, in the fixty third year of his age. As that great reformer was the inflrument of providence in bringing about a very remarkable and happy revolution in religion, fo there is the moft ftriking oppofi- tion in his character as drawn by enemies and friends. The former, ihocked at his condu6l, and mad with rage to fee him overturn with a high hand, all the principles of their faith, and the objetfls of their veneration and love, have imputed to him, not only the imperfed:ions and ^ faults of a man, but the qualities of an infernal fiend. The latter, viewing him as the reflorei . of Chriftian liberty, and of the purity of the gofpel doclrine and worfhip, were fo imprefTcd •with grateful admiration, that they have afcrib- ed to him fomething more than human perfec- B b 4 tion. (292) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. tion, and ha-e viewed his adlions with almoft the fame veneration, that is due only to thofe of Jefus Chrift, the prophets and apoftles. " It ** is his own condudi, not the undiftinguifhing ** cenfure or the exaggerated praife of his con- *' temporaries, which ought to regulate the '^ opinions of the prefent age concerning him, •^ Zeal for what he regarded as truth, undaunted " intrepidity to maintain it, abilities both na-- *' tural and acquired to defend it, and unwearied ^' induflry to propagate it, are virtues which ♦' fhine fo confpicuoufly in every part of his be^ « haviour, that even his enemies muft allow him ** to have pofleiTed them in an eminent degree, ♦^ To thefe may be added with equal juftice, ** fuch purity and even auflerity of manners, as ** became one who alTumed the charader of a ** reformer ; fuch fandlity of life as fuited the *' doctrine which he delivered ; and fuch perfedt •' dilintcreftednefs as affords no flight prefump- ** tion of his fincerity. Superior to all felfifh *' conliderations, a ftranger to the elegancies of ** life, and defpifing its pleafures, he left the " honours and emoluments of the church to his ♦' dilciples, remaining fatisfied himfelf in his *' original ftate of profeflbr in the univeriity, ** and paftor of the town of Wittemberg, with ^' the moderate appointments annexed to thefe ♦* offices. His extraordinary qualities were al- <* laytd with no inconliderable mixture of hu- ^' man Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (393) " man frailty and human paflions. Thefe how- " ever, were of fuch a nature, that they cannot " be imputed to malevolence or corruption of ^ heart, but feem to ha^/e taken their rife from " the fame fource with many of his virtues. " His mind forcible and vehement in all its " operations, roufed by great objedis, or agita- " ted by violent paflions, broke out, on many " occafions, with an impetuofity which alio- nifhes men of feebler fpirits, or fuch, as are placed in a more tranquil fituation. By carry- ing fome praife-worthy difpofitions to excefs, " he bordered fometimes on what was culpable, " and was often betrayed into adions which ex- " pofed him to cenfure. His confidence that " his own opinions were well founded, ap- *^ proached to arrogance ; his courage in afl^ert- " ing them to rafhnefs ; his firmnefs in adher- " ing to them, to obllinacy ; and his zeal in con- " futing his adverfaries to rage and fcurrility. " Accuftomed himfelf to coniider every thing *' as fubordinate to truth, he expedled the fame *' deference for it from other men ; and without " making any allowances tor their timidity or " prejudices, he poured forth againft thofe, who " difippointed him in this particular, a torrent ** of invective mmglcd with contempt. Re- ^' gardlefs of any diftinclion of rank or charadlei ** when his dodlrines were attacked, he chaflifed *^ «iU his adverfaries. indifcriminatelv, with the " fame (394) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. ** fame rough hand ; neither the royal dignity " of Henry VIII. nor the eminent learning and *' abilities of Erafmus, fcreened them from the " fame grofs abufe with which he treated Tetzel *^ or Eccius. «' But thefc indecencies of which Luther was " guilty, muft not be imputed wholly to the '• violence of his temper. They ought to be ** charged in part on the manners of the age.— " Among a rude people, unacquainted with «' thofe maxims, which, by putting continual " reftraint on the paflions of individuals, have '* polifhed fociety, and rendered it agreeable, ** difputes of every kind were managed with ** heat, and ftrong emotions were uttered in «• their natural language, without referve or *' delicacy. At the fame time, the works of " learned men were all compofed in Latin, and *' they were not only authorized, by the exam- " pie of eminent writers in that language, to " ufe their antagonifts with the moft illiberal •* fcurrility; but, in a dead tongue, indecencies " of every kind appear lefs fhocking than in a ** living language, whofe idioms and phrafes ** feem grofs, becaufe they are familiar. In.pafTmg judgment upon the charadlers of men, we ought to try them by the princi- *' pies and maxims of their own age, not by ** thofe of another. For, although virtue and f* vice are at all times the fame, manners and " cuftoma Lect.VII. modern history. (395) *' cuftoms vary continually Some parts of " Luther's behaviour, which appear to us moft *' culpable, gave nodifguft to his contemporaries. '^ It was even by fome of thofe qualities, which " we are now apt to blame, that he was fitted «' for accomplifhing the great work which he ** undertook. To roufe mankind, when funk "in ignorance or fuperftition, and to encounter *' the rage of bigotry, armed with power, re- ** quired the utmofl: vehemence of zeal, and a " temper daring to excefs. A gentle call " would neither have reached, nor have excited " thofe to whom it was addrefied. A fpirit more " amiable, but lefs vigorous than Luther's, " would have (hrunk back from the dangers, " which he braved and furmounted. Tow^ards " the clofe of Luther's life, though without any ** perceptible declenfion of his zeal or abilities, " the infirmities of his temper increafed upon " him, fo that he grew daily more peevifh, " more irafcible, and more impatient of con- " tradi(5tion. Having lived to be witnefs of " his own amazing fuccefs ; to fee a great part *' of Europe embrace his - dodlrines ; and to " fhake the foundation of the papal throne, be- ** fore which the mightieft monarchs had trem- " bled, he difcovered, on fome occalions, fymp- ** toms of vanity and felf-applaufe. He muft f have been indeed more than man, if, upon 9f contemplating all that he actually accom- ''pliOiedp f396) MODERN HISTOHY. Lect. VII. " plifhed, he had never felt any fentiments of " this kind rifing in his bread.'* * It is natural to fuppofe that, when the Euro- pean Chriftians were emancipated from the fla- very of Rome, and found they might think for themfelves, that they would not be all of one mind, with regard to the fpeculative dodiirines of religion- If the fame ideas make different imprcffions on the human mind, and if no two perfons think precifely alike, nor fee objedls in the fame point of view, how much more is this the cafe with the opinions and fentiments of a multitude. This may account for the different fentiments of our reformers upon fome of the doclirines of Chriftianity, and for the different feds of Proteftants at the commencement of the reformation. But however divided the re- formed were among themfelves in matters of little moment, they all agreed to rejecl the au- thority of the pope. Zuinglius, minifter of Zurich, in Switzerland, though he embraced the reformation, rejected confubflantiation, de- nied the real prefence in the facrament, con- lidered the doctrine of juftifying faith to be a dangerous tenet, admitted the merit of good works which render us really ufeful to our fel- low men, and went fo far as to maintain that Socrates, Ariftides, Cato, and all the great men of antiquity, were not unworthy to enjoy the prefence * Robertfon's Hift. of Charles V. vol. Ill, odavo, p. 6^* Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (397) prefence of God. Predeftination appeared to him to be a docflrine contrary to reafon, reli- gion, and good morals. As to other matters, he agreed with Luther, and embraced his ideas of the hierarchy of the church. The greatefl part of Switzerland adopted the fyftem of this reformer. John Calvin born in the fouth of France,* appeared foon after, and may be ranked among the moft celebrated of the reformers. He agreed with Zuinglius in rejedling confubflan- tiation, and the real prefence, but differed from him as to the merit of good works. He main- tained, with Martin Luther, the dodlrines of juftification by faith, and predeftination; but differed from him in his ideas of church go- vernment, and was for a democracy, that is, that all Chriftian minifters are equal in rank and authority. He wrought a memorable re- volution in Geneva, where he was revered as an apoftle, and efteemed the founder of that re- public. In the opinion of fome, the death of Michael Servetus, who was burnt at Geneva for herefy, and in which Calvin had a principal liand, is an indelible ftain upon his name and memory. Every fenfible admirer of that re- former muft be forry that he fhould have given caufe to brand him with being of a perfecuting ^ fpirit. We of this enlightened age are con- vinced, *At Noyon, in the year 1509. ' (39-8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Vll vinced, that nothing can be more unjuft and impious, than to inBicl pains and penalties upon any for his opinions. — But this liberal and juft fentiment, fo confonant to reafon and the Chrirtian religion, did not prevail two hundred years ago. Then opinions confidered as hoflile to religion, were thought to merit corporal punifliment ; hence, the death of Servetus muft be imputed, rather to the errors of the time in which Calvin lived, than to Calvin himfelf. Lelius Socinus, and Fauftus his nephew^ adopted the religious opinions of Servetus, ex- tended them much farther, and publifhed them to the world. They profcnbed all religious myfteries, denied the atonement of Jefus Chrift for fm, and would make Chriftianity entirely fubjedl to the light of reafon. — They were the founders of the fedl called Socinians. The Anabaptifts, who appeared during the courfe of this period, would introduce into fo- ciety, a perfedl independence in fpiritual and temporal affairs. Their contempt of baptifm gave name to the fecfl, which was compofed of the lowef^ clafs of mankind. They faw w^ith indignation a fmall number enjoying the wealth and honours of this life, reaping the advantage of their labours, while they themfelves bore the burthen of fociety. Equality was their cry. — Twenty thoufand of thefe miftaken people^> armed with fire and fword, attempted to de- ftroj- Lect. VIL modern history, (sg^) ftroy thofe fubordinations which conftitute the harmony and happinefs of focicty. Fauftus and Muncer, Saxons by birth, who eftablifhed this confederacy in WeRphalia, were fucceeded by John of Leyden^ a taylor. John, contrary to his own principles, was naade king by his followers ; he took the city Munfler, laid wafle Germany, and was killed by thofe nobles, w hofc titles and honours he wifhed to annihilate. — Who could have thought that this mad fed: would have given birth to the ^lakers F Their principles and views were the fame ; that is, to eftablifh a natural equality^ But what differ- ence in their morals 1 Never was a fed: more an enemy to all violence, than that of the ^Lakei s ; patience, charity, and moderation, arc the amiable qualities they poiTefs. When we behold fo many reformers rife up in different countries, and almoft at the fame time, againft the church of Rome, it is natural toafk what were the motives \^hich animated them ? The prejudices of enemies, and the too great zeal of friends and admirers, conceal the truth, and render it difhcult to be known. — W^ere oar firfl reformers holy and pious m.en, influenced by the fole motive of rectifying the crying abufes which had crept into the Chrif- tian church, and was it their only wifli, to tftabliih among Chriflians, the gofpel in its primitive purity? This is what Proteftants afiert. (406) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.YIL alTert. Read the authors of the communion of the church of Rome; they reprefent the re- formers as monfters, whom a fpirit of pride and libertinifm ilirred up to deflroy all that is venerable in religion. Is the language of the one or the other, the language of truth ? Pallion and blind zeal fee only the extremes. We iliould judge according to truth, with reafon and candour ; not under the influence of animofity and prejudice. At leaft, let us fufpend our judgment, if we are afraid of being bialTed by either the one or the other. It is evident from the condud of the authors of the reformation, that their motives were good, that they ad:ed from conviction, and with fincerity. Friends to the mofi: important interefts of Chriftians, their only view was to difabufe men of error, bring them back to the true worfhip of God, and to that liberty *' wherewith Chrifl: has made us free." But our reformers were men, and therefore liable to the imperfedlions of hur^a- nity. It is pollible that fome vanity, humour, interefl, might be blended w^ith the zeal of Luther and Calvin. At fetting out, perhaps, they did not think to go fo far. Warmed with the fuccefs which attended their undertaking, it is pofTible that ambition might have fome fhare in their deligns. The monalHc life and cele- bacy were difagreeable to Luther ; this might be one motive to induce him to preach againft them. Lect. VIL modern history. f4or) them. However, they appear, from the whole of their charadler and condiid:, to have had abilities adequate to the work in which they engaged ; and Proteflants fliould always re- member them with admiration and gratitude. Calvin was of irreproachable morals, uniform in his profeflion and practice, well acquainted with the nature of an argument, and with the reafons proper to fupport it; fo that whatever fault fome may find with his opinions, they cannot but approve of thefe traits of his charac- ter.— Zuinglius, though of different fentiments, was pure and fincere in his intentions. His fyftem is thought, by many, to be more con- formable to reafon, and better adapted to gain thofe of a like temper and difpofition with him- felf. Melandlhon was a man of extenfivc knowledge, and of a moft refpedtable character. When we read his writings, we cannot but efleem them, and when we reflecl upon his life, we Cannot but love him. Many caufes united to effed: a furprifingly fuccefsful reformation in religion. Thefe were, the enormous abufes of the church of Rome, the agitation of the minds of men juft emerged from a ftate of barbarifm, the general utility of the dodlrines of the reformation, the revival of learning, the invention of printing, the intolerant fpirit which animated the partizans of Rome, the charader of the popes of that time, the C c writings (402) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. writings of Erafmus, in which he expofed the errors and impieties of his own church; all thefe contributed to the progrefs of the refor- mation, and were caufes, in the courfe of pro- vidence . to overturn the cololTus of papal power. Perfecution, the means made ufe of to crufh the reformation, had a quite contrary effed:.— Francis L Charles V. Henry Vlll. and his daughter Mary, by their bloody edidls and cruel feverities, made, perhaps, as may profelytes to the reformation, as the learning of Luther, the eloquence of Melan6i:hon, and the reafoning of Calvin. The human mind oppofes what- ever would violate the confciencc. The crown of martyrdom is glorious, and torments cannot intimidate him, who is convinced he fuffers in a good caufe. The votaries of the church of Rome gained very little by the council of Trent. The Proteftants had earneftly folicited a general council, but they would not abide by its decrees^ They faid, the pope had regulated all its deci- lions by his legates and intrigues ; that tempos ral matters and fecular interefts had been more attended to than the concerns of religion ; and the pidlure which father Paul, a Venetian, has drawn of the council of Trent, juftifies the complaints of the reformed againft that aiTem- bly. But thefe were only fecondary caufes ; the principal and leading caufe of the reforma- tion from popery, that caufe to which all the reft Lect. VIl. MODERN HISTORY. (403) reft may be reduced, was the fupreme diredlion of the Divine Being; and a convid:ion of this upon the mind, will induce Proteftants grate- fully to acknowledge and thankfully to enjoy this valuable blefling. Con/equences of the dijcovery ^1 — The difco- America and the Indies. } very of Ame- rica and the Indies opens a large field to a mind accuftomed to philofophical reflections. The merchant, who draws his wxalth from India or the new world, the adventurer, who has made his fortune in thofe countries, will not hefitate to aver, that the difcoveries of the Portuguefe and Columbus have been, and are, of the utmoft importance to Europe. But the philofopher, not biaffed by felf-intereft or prejudice, inquires if this difcovcry has been ufeful to Europe, and beneficial to the human race. He allows not himfelf to be (educed by the fpecious reafons of thofe, who boldly alTert, that it is to the dif- covery of America, and a way to the Eaft In- dies by the Cape of Good Hope, that Europe is indebted for her commerce and civilization. He doubts the truth of thefe bold affertions. — • We are informed from hiftory, that commerce and fecial intercourfe were rapidly increaling in Europe, before the difcoveries of the Spani- ards and Portuguefe. Without thefe difcover- ies, would Europe have been Icfs civilized, lefs flourifliing and happy, than flie is at prefent ? . Cc 2 Poflibly, (404) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIL Poflibly, the wealth of nations would not have been fo abundant ; but the wants of men would have been fewer than they are. An increafe of fpecie is favourable to luxury^ and luxury mul- tiplies our wants. Would there not have been a more equal proportion between the price of labour and that ef provifions ? Without thefe difcovcries, the refources in time of war would not have been fo abundant ; but would there not have been fewer caufes of war, and would not the real flrength of a nation have been greater, by being more united, and having no diftant pofTeffions to defend? It muft be ac- knowledged that, thepaffageby the way of the Cape of Good Hope, has been of great advan- tage to the general commerce of Europe. The Arabians, who traded to India, got but a part of the profit, the whole of which, the Europeans now enjoy. But has not this advantage been purchafed with the violation of humanity and juftice ? The people of Europe, to preferve pofreflions ufurped from the natural proprietors, have often put one another to the fword in Ame- rica, and in the fouth of Afia; and the unhap- py Indians have, in their turn, been pillaged and murdered by covetous and inhumane conquer- ors. Are not thefe difcoveries advantageous to the manufadlures of Europe? Would not the ffonfumption of European goods be much lefs, were there no American and Indian markets to go Lect. Vn. MODERN HISTORY. (405) go to ? By the feveral branches of trade and manufaulures, millions of people receive an honeft and comfortable livelihood ; indurtry and population are increafed, and thefe are the wealth of nations. The people of Europe are become more induftrious, and confequently more happy; for induflry procures, not only riches, but comfort. In this point of view, the difcovery of the new world and the Indies has been of utility to the human race. But when we refled: upon the violent and unjuft means employed by the Europeans to plant colonies in diftant lands; upon the cruelties and outrages which have been, and fl^ill are, inflided on the tinhappy people of thofe countries ; when as men, whom a fordid love of gain has not di- verted of the feelings of humanity, we ferioufly conlider the vile traffic in the human fpecies, which people, called Chrillians, carry on; how the miferable Africans, torn from their country, and moil tender cormedions, are reduced to flavery, and obliged, in the charadler and with ^the treatment of (laves, to cultivate lands, which their tyrannical mafters have ufurped, and un- juftly poflefs ; the heart bleeds, and we cannot help indulging a wifh, that Vafco de Gamaand Columbus had mifcarried in their defigns. Of what advantage is the wealth of the whole world, if to obtain it, the rights of humanity and juflice are trampled on ? May the people of C c 3 Europe, (4o6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VII, Europe, more humanej equitable, and enlight^ tntdy renounce the maxims of thofe cruel po- litics which have hitherto directed them, and reftore to the inh ibitants of every country in their pofTeflion, the 1 )/:red privileges they re^ ceived from nature ! The healing ai t, fit may be faid ) is much endebted to the Peruvian bark of South America. We grant, that this medicine has been often fuccefsfully ufed as a fpecific in diforders incident to the human body. But Europe is infedled with a moft loathfome dif- eafe, to which flie was a ft ranger before the difcovery of the new world, a difeafe, the efFedl of vicious embraces. Some of Columbus' failors were attacked with it, and by them the conta- gion was imported into Europe. This venom, which poifons the fprings of life, is the pro- duction of America, as the fmall-pox, another very great evil, made their way to us from Africa. In the ravages of the venerial difeafe, we fee the punifhment of unlawful pleafure. The countries of Europe will never be freed from it, until the inhabitants learn temperance and chaflity : a reformation devoutly to be wiflied. Was America known before Chriftopher Columbus? By what means was it peopled? are queftions, concerning which, various con- jed:ures and fyftems have been formed. The ancients guefled at the exigence of that hemif- phere. . The fyftem, which places the iun in the centre LicT.VII. MODERN HISTORY. (407) centre ot our world, was taught in many ancient fchools of philofophy ; and the learned reader knows, that this fyflem naturally leads us to fuppofe antipodes. This opinion had partizans in the time of St. Auguftin; for that father oppofed it with very bad arguments. This truth was condemned in the eighth century ; a proof that fome believed it even in thofe dark ages ; but it was no more than conjedlure. It is not probable that the ancient navigators, without the afliilance of the compafs, and who made only coailing voyages, durfl traverfe the immenfe ocean w^hich feparates the two hemif- pheres. — As to the Atlantic Illand mentioned by Plato, it was only a lively fiction of his own imagination. All the glory of this difcovery mufl" be afcribed to the knowledge, intrepidity, and emerprifing genius of Columbus, notwith- ftanding all that envy could invent to deprive him of it. Many writers have laboured to find out by what means America was firft peopled ; but their different fyftems do not afford that con- vidlion which lemoves all doubt. This is a problem which, perhaps, cannot be folved; or if it is capable of folution, nothing but true philofophy can do it. Governments, — Defpotifm and flavery were gradually introduced among the nations ot Europe. The very means made ufe of to pre- G c 4 fcrve f408) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. fcrve national liberty, often became the inflru- ment of its deftruclion. Under whatever fprm of government men live, they have always the jufleft reafons to dread the ufurpations of the executive power. If this power is hereditary, as in monarchies, every ambitious prince en- deavours to enlarge his prerogatives. If it h only for life, or a limited time, as in an elec- tive monarchy, or republic, the prince, the magiftrate, or families chofen to exercife the fupreme authority, feek rather to perpetuate than enlarge their power. Thus we have feen, during the courfe of this period, the houfe of Auftria infenfibly forging chains for Germany, and endeavouring to make the imperial power hereditary in that family. Maximilian, by the manner in which he divided the circles, paved the way to this fubje6lion. Charles V. his grandfon, whofe ideas were more comprehen-. live, carried on the work very rapidly, and, had not the reformation taken place, would have finifhed it. For, notwithftanding the efforts of the Proteflants, the emperor, by humbling the houfe of Saxony, and fowing lafting difcord among the different branches of that family, when he transferred the electorate to the young- er brother, undetermined the liberties of the Germanic body, and prepared thofe chains, -with which his fucceflbrs bound it, la Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (409) In France, though the bounds of the royal Authority were much enlarged, yet the external appearance of liberty was ftiil preferved. 7 he nobility (till enjoyed fome prerogative. By' uniting with the lower orders in the ftate, they could flop, or at leaft diminifh, the progrefs of defpotifm. But under Francis I. the nobility loll their power. He annihilated their rights; and this being done, it was not difficult to humble thofe of inferior rank. New regulations for raifing and maintaining the troops, brought the army to be fubjecl to the throne. The clergy were fubjedled by the abolition of the Pragmatic fandlion, becaufe the dignitaries of the Gallican church, were obliged to apply to the king for favours. The fale of employments, introduced in the reign of Francis L was a terrible blow to public liberty. And this prin- ciple of corruption, which infed:ed the whole mafs, being extended under the fuccelfors of Francis, deftroyed, in France, every idea of a popular government. The Englifh fcem to have forgotten the grand objedl of all their former flruggles. England loft its energy. Henry and Mary trampled upon the liberties of the people. The parlia- ment, hitherto the guardian of the nation*s rights, became the cowardly inftrument of the injuftice and cruelties of their mailers. Sweden, f4J0) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL Sweden, Spain, Florence, Milan, were in this period, nations blindly fubmiffive to their re- fpedlive monarchs. Liberty appeared to have taken refuge in Switzerland and Geneva. There was not any remarkable revolution in the fouth of Europe. Charles V. was indebted to his alliances for his great power : he knew how to maintain them. But who knows w here this ambitious prince would have ftopt, had not Francis I. Solyman, and Luther, lived in his time? Perhaps, political knowledge, which then began to increafe in Europe, might have been capable to check his ambition. The other powers felt the necefiity of a political balance. What would have become of the liberties of Europe, without the wife conducl of Henry VIIL and the Venetians after the battle of Pavia? Legijlation, — Legiflation was much improved in the iixteenth century. AlmofI: all the ftates of Europe introduced excellent regulations, which reformed old abufes. Particular hifto- ries contain a detail of the progrefs of jurifpru- dence in Germany. The ufeful laws which were made in England in the ftormy reign of Henry VIIL The wufe onionnances which appeared in France, tended to promote the happinefs of both nations ; though, in the latter kingdom, thefe could not heal the evil occa- iioned by the fale of employments. Anthony Duprat, by aboiifhing eledions^ the only way to furnifh Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (41 1 ) furmfli able and upright magiflrates to a nation, and thinking he could fell the right of judging caufes, was the author of the humiliation of the French nation. Manners. — Superficial minds, who view only particular facts, without attending to the chaia of events, alTert, that the manners of Europe, during the lixteenth century, were fevere, in- humane, and cruel. The bloody executions authorized by fuperftition, and the horrid cru- elties exercifed in America by the Spaniards, feem to jullify this idea. But let us not judge of mankind in general, by the barbarities of in- dividuals. The fierce conquerors of the new world were moftly adventurers, who, being kept within bounds in Europe by the laws, gave free fcope in diftant countries, to that cruel difpofition they could not indulge in their native land. They were mollly the dregs of the Spanilli nation. Is it not then unjuft to impute to a whole people the crime of a few indi- viduals? We would by no means lelTen the horror which thefe fcenes of cruelty naturally excite in the feeling and virtuous mind. None can juftify the avarice and barbarity of the Spanifh conquerors of Mexico and Peru ; the falfe and cruel policy of the court of Spain, who, to preferve thofe rich countries, put to death millions of innocent and defencelefs in- Jiabitants. Wc are filled with iudignatioii , when (412) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Vlf. when we read of the bloody effeds of fanaticifm and cruelty. But at the fame time, we cannot help obferving, that in the age of Columbus, a happy change took place in the minds and man- ners of men. It was in the fixteenth century, that barbarous wars became lefs frequent.— Treachery was lefs common, poifon was not fo much ufed, revolutions happened but feldom, and the influence of fuperlhtion much decreaf- ed. The facred throne of the pontiffs, which at its pleafure, turned the Chriflian world upfide down, was almoft annihilated. Indeed, the papal throne facrificed innocent vidlims in the following ages ; but, fince the time of the re- formation, it has no longer been a fan(ftuary, from whence fuperftition could brave the uni- ted efforts of light and reafon. Navigation and Commerce. — Navigation and commerce, which increafe the wealth of nations, were brought to a high degree of perfection in this period. The Phcsnicians and Carthageni^ ans among the ancients, and the Venetians among the moderns, never had fuch bold and celebrated navigators as Columbus, Balbao,Al- mieda, Sebaftian Cabot, Vafco de Gama, and Albuquerque. The many difcoveries made by thefe encerprifing men, promoted the extcnfion of commerce, and revived a fpirit of induftry in Europe. Seville and Lifbon became the emporiums of the world. Spain and Portugal pofreffed Lect.VII. modern history. (413) pofTefTed more money than all the other nations of Europe, Yet thefe two kingdoms have not ceafed to decline fince the difcovery of America and the Indies. Thefe are the caufes. The vices which attend too much wealth, corrupted all ranks, and enervated the national fpirit; dazzled with the heaps of gold w hich they drew from their mines, they negledled agriculture and induftry, the molt certain fources of the prolperity of kingdoms. Their riches have made them poor, while their indolence has en- riched other nations. Sciences y— Belles Lettres, — Fine Arts. — The fciences made rapid progrefs in the fixteenth century. Jurifprudence flourifhed, particularly in Italy and France. The fcience of anatomy was much improved. VefTaliuSi a Fleming, defcribed all the veflels, great and fmall, of the human body ; an Italian anatomifl made fome ufeful difcoveries in the organ of hearing, and Fallopius, of Modena, in the fyftem of gene- ration.— Mcdccine was much indebted to Lina- cer, who perfuaded cardinal Wolfcy, his friend, to build the firfl medical college that was in England. In Spain, the unfortunate Michael Servetus divined the circulation of the blood : Fernel and Sylvius, in France, gave medical lecflures, which were attended by feveral thou- fands : — In Italy, Roger Carpo difcovered the true fpeciiic for that terrible malady, which deflroys (414) MODERN HISTORY. Lfecr. VU, deflroys thefourccs of mankind ; and the famous Fracaftor was the moft celebrated phyfician in the iixteenth century.-^Chemiflry was alfo fuc^ cefsfully cultivatedi Paracelfus, of Switzerland^ did not improve this fcience by his experiments ; but the Flemifli Van Helmont made fome ufe- ful chemical difcoveries. Gefner, a German, cultivated natural hiftory* His treatife upon animals, though not equal to fome later productions of the feme kind, is not dellitute of merit. Fufchius, a Bavarian, made botany his fludy, and his hiftory of plants is ftill efteemed. Hernandez, a Spaniard,- who was both a natural hiftorian and botanifl, has defcribed the animals and plants peculiar to \America. Copernicus, of Thorn, in Poland, taught the true fyftem of aftronomy. Walter, a German, perceived the refradion of the rays of light ; Werner, determined the degrees of obliquity in the ecliptic ; and Francis Fernel^ durft meafure the earth.— Mathematics were not negledled. Commendin, an Italian, Tonftal, an Englifhman, and many others, were excellent mathematicians.- — — Guichardini, Machiavel, Bembo, and Sleidan, were hiftorians of the iix- teenth century, and their works ihew them to have been well acquainted with the nature of hiftorical compofition. Befides thefe, many eminent literary charadlers appeared in the fame period.— Julius Scaliger, Sir Thomas More, Eiafmus, Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (415) Erafmus, are names celebrated in the republic of letters ; names, with which the intelligent reader mufl be well acquainted. The Italian language was improved by many, chiefly by the immortal Ariofto. Letters we cultivated with amazing fuccefs in England, France, and Spain, not only by learned men» but by ladies of illuftrious rank. Italy was the feat of the fine arts in the lix- teenth century. Bramante drew the plan of St. Peter's church at Rome, Michael Angelo ereCled a cupola upon that magnificent edifice, the boldnefs and tafte of which furprife the fepeclator. That fublime artift built fuperb churches, fumptuous palaces, and laid out the mofl: enchanting gardens. All the cities of Italy were embellifhed by men of tafie and knowledge in the fine arts ; and artchitedure arrived at great perfection. The fame Michael Angelo gave to marble with his chiffel, fymmctry, beauty, and what form he pleafed, and revived the works of Praxiteles and Phidias ; whilfl another artift animated bronze, and made it receive the impreffion of the mofl: imperceptible features. The fixteenth century faw four celebrated Italian fchools for painting. Michael Angelo fhone at Florence. As perfect in the art of painting, as in thofeof artchited:ure and fculp- ture, he gave the canvafs a (trength of exprellion, a liveli- f4i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII. alivelinefs and enthufiafm, peculiar to himfelf. His fcholars imbibed his fpirit, and did honour to fo great a mafler. Titian and Tintoret fhone in the Venetian fchool, and Corregio in that of Lombard/. But Raphael made the Ro- man fchool flill more famous. His paintings ihew a corredtnefs of deiign, a richnefs of order, a juftnefs of expreflion, and an elevation of ideas, not to be found in the works of any other paint- er. He bore away the palm, and perhaps he remains without an equal in his art. He form- ed feveral great men, who became his rivals. Flanders had fome good artifts. Heemflcerke, John of Leyden, and Van Horley, are names, not unknown, in the hiftory of the fine arts. — Holben, the fcholar of Albert Durer, made himfelf celebrated in Germany. Invited to London, he enriched that city with many excel- lent pieces of painting. Henry VIII. was his patron and proteclor. Trorri Italy, a tafte for the fine arts, w^as deffufed through Europe. The artifts of that country were entertained, reward- ed, and honoured by many fovereigns ; and, by • their labours, the Gothic genius retired from the principal cities of Europe, and was replaced by that of Greece and Rome. LECTURE Lect.VIIL modern history. f4i7} LECTURE VIIL Religions e 51 s—Revolutmis in Kingdoms — Go^ Vfrnments — Legiflation — Mechanic Arts — -Sci^ ences — Philofopby — Polite Literature — Fine Arts, Religion.— T^ROy[l\\Q. middle of the fixteenth ^ to the beginning of the feven- teenth century, that is, from the death of Charles V. to that of Elizabeth, and Henry the Great, of France, fcenes of confuiion and blood agita- ted and defolated a great part of Europe. — — Religion was the pretext ; but it is wrong to impute to Chriftianity evils which were the confequence of the prejudices, pafTions, and interefls of men. A fpirit of frenzy, fury, and intolerance, feized all parties. The rage of fanaticifm was let loofe, and animated both Proteflants and Roman Catholics. Familiar- ized with the idea of civil and religious tole- ration, taught by experience how beneficial its efFeclsareto fociety, weof this enlightened age cannot conceive, how men could be capable of fuch excelTes, merely for fpeculative opi- nions. To fandcicn violent, bloody, and gene- ral perfecutions by public authority, appears to' tis incredible. Why were not the Chriflians of the fixteenth century perfuaded that religion $• Da mould (41 8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIII. fbould be a bond of union, and not an inftru- ment of difcord ? that it fhould banifh fupeifti- tion, difarm fanaticifm, and not excite men to butcher one another. Thefe truths, fo evidently clear to us, were far from being fo two centuries ago. The facred rights of confcience were not then underflood. The precious liberty of thinking for ourfelves, that liberty inhei ent in man, was altogether unknown. Chriftians had no idea of toleration ; they did not even under- ftand the word, at leafl: in the fenfe we do. What could be the caufe of this ? Let us try to give a proper anfwcr ta the queflion. Among the ancient Heathens, whofe gods were numerous and local, it does not appear that diverfity of fentiments concerning the ob- jedl of their worfhip, was ever the caufe of any animofity, much lefs of religious wars. By paying religious worfhip to one divinity, they" did not deny the exiftence and power of others, and the religious ceremonies of one country were not incompatable with thofe of another. Thus their difference of opinion in matters of religion did not produce a fpirit of difcord. — Mutual toleration and peace prevailed among the Pagans, notwithflanding the number of their gods, and the endlefs variety of their re- ligious ceremonies. But when the preachers of the gofpel announced to the world the Su- preme Being as the alone objed; of religious adoration. Lect. VITI. MODERN MISTORY. (419) i&doration, and prefcribed to men the form of worfhip mod: conformable to his nature and per- fedlions, all who em.braced this dodlrine, were to believe the worfliip of the Heathen abfurd and impious. Hence the firft Chriflians de- claimed againfl idolatry, and exhorted men to forfake the wordiip of thofe who were no gods, and to worfhip the Divine Being who made heaven and earth. But when Ghriflianity be- came, by the edidl of Conflantine, the religion of the Roman empire, though there were innu- merable converts, yet many were ftill attached to the ancient worfhip. The obftinacy of thofe who would not renounce Heathenifm, on the one hand, and the miftaken zeal of Chriflians ►on the other, engendered a fpirit of pcrfecution. ■ — The Heathen emperors had perfecuted the Chriftians, and the Chriflians, when invefted with power, became perfecutors in their turn ; inflead of profelyting thofe who were ftili Heathens, by mildnefs and perfualion, they armed againft them the fecular authority, and vvould force them to believe. Difputes arofe among Chriftians themfelves. — Controverfies concerning many articles of faith multiplied, and the fame feverities were employed againft heretics, that had been mlde ufe of againft infidels and idolaters* Each parry endeavoured to fecure the power of the civil m?giftratc, and Chriftians openly perfecuted D d 2 each (420) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIIL each other. To put an end to thefe fcm- dalous divilions, and to fatisfy their ambition, the bifhops of Rome pretended to infalHbility, which gave them a right to explain the articles of faith, and finally to determine all controver- fies. — However bold and unjufi: this preteniion might be, the popes knew how to improve, to their own advantage, the credulity of thofe who believed it. Perhaps they thought it neceflary to have a tribunal which might decide all reli- gious difputes: however that maybe, the re- medy was worfe than the difeafe. Indeed, religious wars originated from a diverfity of opinions among Chriftians, and a want of cha- rity. But what was the confequence of the . fupremacy of the popes ? Ignorance and a ne- glect of every duty and virtue. Chriftians were forced to fubmit to all that this pretended in- , fallible tribunal decreed. Doubt was conlider- cd as a crime, and vengeance was always fuf- pendedovQr the head of the unwary. Europe had borne, for feveral centuries, thia yoke of fpiritual defpotifm. None durft call in queftion the authority upon which it was founded. But when the reformation took place, the general opinion was, that thofe who were in poirciTion of the true religion, might employ 'force to extirpate error; * and as each fed: believed they were pofTelfed of the truth, fo * See the covenants called Natignal and Solemn League. Lect. VIII. MODERN HISTORY. (42 if fo all pretended to enjoy the privileges annexed to it. The Roman Catholics, who relied upon the decifions of an infallible judge, never doubt- ed but truth was on their lide, and oppofed the public authority to all innovators. The- Protellants, no lefs perfuaded of the truth of their docftrine, were as zealous to engage the princes of their party to punifh thofe who pre- fumed to oppofe the progrefs of their opinions, Thus feveral. of our reformers Ihewed too much of a perfecuting fpirit, and fometimes inflided upon their oppofers, the very fame kind of punifhment, the church of Rome had inflided upon thofe who withftood her ufurpa- tions. Lutheranifm made but flow progrefs after the death of its founder. The dodlrines and church difcipline of Calvin, got the afcendency among the reformed. Many powerful princes of Ger- many conformed to the worfnip of the apoitle of Geneva. England, Scotland, the Protertants in France, the Seven United Provinces, embraced Calvinifm, In England, Elizabeth, in adopting the dodrincs of Calvin, retained a good deal of the pageantry of the church of Rome, particu- larly a diflindion of ranks among the clergy ; becaufe (he was fond of pomp, and thought that the orders of archbilliop, bidiop, &c. in the church (fhe being the fupreme headj would make all her fubjeds more obedient. Hence D d 3 \vc (422) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII. we find in the church of England, alnQoft the fame hierarchy that there is in the church of Rome, and a great part of her ceremonies.- — — The zealous Proteflants deny that the queen was influenced by any human motive to intro- duce Calvinifm into her dominions. Convic- tion, and the force of truth, fay they, perfuaded her to embrace the reformation. This is the language of zeal without juft refledion; but hiftory indulges no fuch prejudices, it attends to truth, and judges by fadls. Hiftory thus re- prefents the celebrated Elizabeth. Born of a, marriage, believed by one half of Chriftians tp be unlawful, her right to the crown had been fet aiide by her father's edid:, and that edidl confirmed by the general affembly of the nation. Indeed Henry's lafl: will appeared to re-eftablifli it ; but the doubts concerning the legitimacy of her birth were not removed. In the reign of her brother, an audacious protedor had at- tempted to facrifice her to his ambition. Freed from this danger, fhe had been expofed to a greater under the fuperflitious Mary, whom bigotry and jealoufy prompted to maltreat Elizabeth. Wrongfully accufed, fhe had been confined in the Tower, where (he, more than once, ran the rifk of lofing her life. Jn this fitu- ation, fhe alleviated her di ft re lies by improving her mind with knowledge. The people, who ^puld not difcover in Mary any of thofe quali- ties Lect. VIII. MODERN HISTORY. (423) ties which fhone in Elizabeth, were greatly at- tached to her; but their love and attachment to Elizabeth ferved only to irritate her fifler the more againft hsr, and (he would certainly have fallen a facrifice to Mary's hatred, had not Philip, from political views, fufpended the bar- barous blow. The courfe of thefe misfortunes was ftopt by the death of Mary. Having afcended the throne of England, Elizabeth faw her fubjeds divided into two factions, enemies to each other. The Catholics, who governed in the council, and enjoyed the great offices of flate, appeared to be the moft powerful ; where- as the reformed, whom the tyranny and intole- rance of Mary had overwhelmed with diilrefs, were, to appearance, without real ftrength. — However, they were the moft numerous, and the nation in general inclined to the reforma- tion. Perhaps Elizabeth herfelf was indifferent with regard to the Roman Catholic or Protef- tant doc^lrines and worfliip; but it was necef- fary to determine for the one or the other. She conddered them only as for or againft her intereft as a fovereign. Her friends had been the fupport of the reformation, many of whom had been put to death ; her enemies had pro- moted and fupported popery. The Catholics had always denied the legitimacy of her birth, ;ind confequently doubted the validity of her title to the crown ; therefore her particular in- D d 4 tereft (424) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIIL tereft would influence her to deterirdne againfl Rome. So would aifo her charadcer. Of a haughty temper, Ihe faw, with indignation, crowned heads proflrate at the feet of the Ro- miih pontiff. Vindicflive, how could fhe forget the bulls of excommunication thundered againll )ier father ? Jealous of her authority, it gave laer pain to fee m her dominions numbers of e*|ccleliafl:ics obedient to the See of Rome. It has been faid that Elizabeth was inclined to deifm. If this be true, it was more natural to prefer a religion which has fewer myfteries, and is more agreeable to reafon. The intereft of the ftate v/as joined to all thefe confiderations. Elizabeth wifely reckoned a prudent oeconomy among the chief virtues of a fovereign. The immenfe wealth of the clergy, with which fhc might enrich her exchequer, would attradl her notice. Confidering population as the fource of the profperity of nations, and that the celi- bacy of the clergy diminifhes it, fhe would view tlu^ reformation, v^hich allows all to marry, in a favourable light. She would behold the cloi- fters, as the bane of fociety, of the flate, and of indiiftry. Tlicic reafons were fufficient to in- cline her to embrace the reformed religion.^:—. She did not, however, difcovcr her fentiments, till after the imperious PauliV. had contemptu- oufly rejeded her fubmiiTion, treated her birth as fpurioiis, ordered her to defccnd from the throncj Lect.VIII. modern history. (425) throne, and put her crown into his hands, that he might difpofe of it as he pleafed. The pope's impudence highly provoked Elizabeth, ifhe broke off all connexion with Rome, and publicly declared for the reformation. The Catholic religion was profcribed by the parlia- ment. The religious edifice of her filter was razed to the foundation, and taking the title of fupreme head of the church of England, flie planned and executed a particular form of reli- gion. She received the doclrines of Calvin, but retained a part of the ancient ceremonies,* convinced, no doubt, that external fplendour renders religion more auguft in the eyes of its votaries, and attaches them moi-e clofely to its maxims. Independence and a rigid aufi^erity were the characteriilics of Calvinifm in the fixteenth century. And the reafon of this might be; it was introduced by men, who were enemies to luxury, either from principle, or becaufe their fituation in life would not allow them to in- dulge it ; by men, who were enem.ies to clerical power, the feverity of which they had felt. — Convinced of the falfenefs of the dodrines au- thorized bv the church of Rome, and animated with zeal, the Calvinifis preached powerfully againfl: them ; nay, fo averfe were they to pope- ry, that in a tranfport of paflion, rather than true zeal, they robbed the churches of their ornaments. (4i6) MODERN HISTORY. LECT.Vill. ornaments, profcribed the liturgy, broke crof- fcsy tore the clerical robes, and deftroyed thofe diftinctions which the cuftoms of many ages had ellabliihed. The unbridled fury of the Calvinifiic reformers carried them by much too far, and its effedls mufl: ftill be lamented. Had they conducted themfelves as reafonable men, many noble piles of building, and fine pieces of painting, would ftill have remained. It was under this form that Calvinifm was introduced into Holland, Switzerland, Scotland, and France. In the two laft kingdoms the reformation was attended with many troubles, The French Proteftants, weary with fuffcring, and forced, by the molt cruel treatment, to come to ex- tremities, refolved to feize the firft opportunity to oppofe and flop their perfecutors. The fe- verities of the inquifition which cardinal dc Guife employed againfl them, without regard to age, fex, or rank ; the death of Anne du Bourg, a magiilrate, venerable for his know- ledge and integrity, who was treated as the vileft criminal, only becaufe he embraced the refor- mation, produced the famous confpiracy of Amboife, fo fatal to a thoufand Proteilant gen- tlemen who were charged with the execution of it, and which would have coft Conde his life, had not the death of Francis changed the face of affairs. At the commencement of the reign of Charles IX. the jealoufy which Catharine de Medicis Lect.VIII. modern history. (427) Medicis entertained of the Guifes was favour- able to the Proteflants. The conference of PoiiTy, in which Beza was fo greatly fuperior to cardinal de Guife in point of argument, pro- cured them liberty of confcience, and equal privileges with the Catholics ; but this only increafed the hatred of the Guifes, who fought their deftrud:ion. They had emilTaries in every part of the kingdom, who made the people be- lieve, that the Catholic religion was in danger under a weak government. The Conflable Montmorenci, the Marefhal de St. Andre, and Anthony of Navarre, a weak prince, were gained to their party. Thefe three lords form- ed a triumvirate, and folemnly engaged to de- fend the Catholic religion from its enemies, and the ennerprifes of the throne. From that mo- ment the minds of men wxre ftrongly agitated, hatred and difcord were kindled in every part of the kingdom, all tended to produce a civil war, and the two Guifes wanted only an oppor- tunity to force the Proteftants to take up arms. The malTacre of Hxty Proteftants at Vafli, by the partizans of the duke of Guife, produced the event fo much wifhed for by the fadlious. Conde, the protestor of the reformed, demand- ed of the court the punifhment of fo atrocious ^ crime ; but Catharine, who dreaded the hatred of the Catholics, refufed to do jultice. Conde, enraged at this refufal, took up arms and invited J>i5 (428) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII, his party to join him. The admiral Coligni haf- tencd to the prince; D'Andelot,and the cardinal deChatillon, the admiral's brother, came with the Protellants of La Beauce; the brave La Nouewasat the head of the Bretons, and Rohan condaclcd the reformxed of the fouthern pro- vinces. The Catholic army was commanded by the confiable and the duke of Guife ; and the firfl battle was fought in the plains of DreUx, with all the fury of religious fanaticifm. The cowardly alTalTination of the duke of Guife at Orleans, ftopt the progrefs of the Catholics. The peace of Moulins re do red to the Frotefiants their privileges, and the kingdom became tran- quil. The reformed, contented with the free exercife of their religion, behaved themfeives as peaceable citizens and faithful fubjeds, and requefted permiftion to go and retake Havre de Grace, which the Englifn had furprifed. But the fufpicious ambition of Catharine de Medicis, foon raifed new llorms. Jealous of Conde, as Ihe had been of Guife, fhe endeavoured to humble him by crufhing the Proteflants, whofe affedtion for this prince was very great. She began with depriving the Proteflants of their rights which had been lately rellored, and this was foon followed by bloody outrages. They demanded juftice, and v/ere refufed; and the violent treatment of the reformed^ ended in an open perfecution. The injuftice and perfidy of ^ the Lect.VIII. modern history. (429.) the court again obliged the Proteftants to have recourfe to arms. Conde and Coligni founded an alarm, and civil war commenced anew. A bloody battle fought near St. Denis, incrcafed the animoiity of the two parties. The perfidi- ous Catharine lulled the Proteftants alleep with the peace of Lon-Jumeau. Accufiomed to violate the moft facred oaths, fhe fent her guards to arreft Conde. The war was renewed, and torrents of blood flowed in France. The Calvinifts were much weakened by the lofs of Conde, who was killed in cold blood after the battle of Jarnac, and by their defeat at Mont- Contour. Coligni, at the head of the German troops, revived his party, and obliged Catha- rine, to receive the law from the Proteftants. From that time Catharine, who before had fliewn an, indifference to all religious feds, conceived an implacable hatred againft Calvin- ifm, and laid a plan to exterminate the Protef- tants, which ftie executed by means of the mofl horrid perfidy ever praclifed* The admiftion of Coligni into the council, and the marriage of the young king of Navarre with t^ie fifter ot Charles IX. removed all miftruft from the Proteftants. They believed the reconciliation fmcere, and continued in their fatal fecurity^ till the frightful maflacre of St. Bartholomew awakened them.* la it furprifing that the Pro- teftants> * The maflacre of the Proteftants at Paris happened o» St, Bartholomew's Day, 1572. (430) MODERN HISTORY. LEcx.VIIf, teftants, after this diabolical butchery, ihould defpair of fuccefs ? Montauban gave the fignal of revenge, Sancerre followed the example; and Rochelle, become the chief retreat of the Pro- teiiants, was defended with a courage, of which there are few examples. A treaty, favourable to the reformed, fufpended hoflilities. Charles IX. who died in the twenty-fourth year of his age, was fucceeded by Henry III. eledted king of Poland. No fooner was he feated on the throne than he attacked the Proteftants ; but having mifcarried in an attempt upon a town not flrongly fortified, he made peace with them. This peace was quickly broken by the French king, who having treacheroufly furprifed Mon- brun, chief of the Calvinifts in Dauphine, con- demned him to be hanged ,• put Henry of Guife at the head of his armies, and oppofed him to the Proteftants commanded by the king of Navarre ; became jealous of the duke of Ter- rain, and fuddenly put an end to hoflilities, by a peace, fhameful to himfelf, and honour- able to the reformed. Then the league was formed, and fanaticifm, animated with an un- bounded ambition, was carried to the greatefl: excefs. The refllefs fpirit of Catharine dc Medicis, the ambition of the Guifes, and the blind zeal of the Catholic clergy, forced the Calvinifts, much againft their will, to take up arms and make war. This is evident from a dedudliort Lect.VIII. modern history. (431) dedudlion of hillorical facls. Hence, the brave La Noue, defpairing of being able to reconcile his duty to his king with what he owed to the reformed religion and the Proteflants, fought death in the field of battle, but was prevented, in fpite of his heroic itiadnefs, from throw- ing his life away. Coligni, who lofl his va- luable and illuflrious life by the fwords of bafe aflaflins, direcTred the French councils by his wifdom, increafed the marine and commerce of France and laid down that political plan which Henry IV. brought to perfection. Rofni, Mornay, Florent Chretien, were Protefl^ants of great knowledge, and of the mofi: refpedlable character. — France never produced more virtu- ous men. The dodlrines and church difcipline of Cal- vin were introduced into Scotland, in oppofi- tion to the governing powers ; and this, as in France, was the caufe of confufion and trouble. The Scotch, defirous of religious liberty, con- ceived a very ftrong averfion to popery, and Cardinal Beaton's unjuft fentence executed up- on Hamilton and Wifhart, furniflied them with an opportunity to accompliih their wilhes. — They facrificed Beaton to their revenge, and credled the flandard of the reformation. Many of the nobility, who were enemies to the queen mother, Mary of Guife, then regent of Scot- land, joined them. John Knox, who had im- bibed (432) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIIL bibed the dodtrines and difcipline of Geneva; was fent for ; he returned to Scotland, and be- came head of the reformation. *- The queen regent endeavoured to prevent the reformation from taking place in Scotland, She fent for troops from France, but the par- liament obliged her to fend them home, fo that (he could not accomplifh her defigns. Pro- teftantifm gained ground, the Catholic religion was aboliflied, and the dodrines and difcipline of the Scotch kirk miodelled upon the Geneva plan.* The Scotch reformers abhorred the creed and worfbip of the church of Rome, and their zeal for the deftrudion of both was ilrongly mark- ed. They were not only convinced of her errors in dodlrine, but thought her v. orfhip fo polluted, that every thing employed in it ought to be deftroyed. With this convidion, their zeal carried them much beyond the bounds of mo- deration, and made them adl as furious bigots, not as reformers. They paid no refpect to what was grand and venerable, nor did they diftin- guilh between what it elTential to religion, and what * Tlie reformation was not fully eftabllfhed in Scotland, till the reign of James VI. when the king, the noblhty, and' the reft of his fubjeds, entered into an agreement, called the National Covenant, by which they bound themfelves to extir- pate popery, and fettle the national reh'gion according to the reformed plan. Lect.VIII. modern history. (433) what is only an appendage : all went to wrecko To fancflify thofe violences, texts of fcripture were quoted, and the examples of men, under the Jewifh oeconomy, adduced. The condudt of Phineas, who killed a prince of Ifrael, and a Midianitifh woman, was produced as in point; that of the Ifraelites, who exterminated the inhabitants of Canaan ; Samuel, who hewed aii infidel king in pieces ; Jehu, who put to the fword the royal families of Ifrael and Judah. Hence, the Scotch reformers appear to have been perfuaded in good earneft, that it was their duty to exterminate, by whatever means they could, ail who, in matters of religion, thought differently from what they did ; that the moft meritorious adion in the fight of God, is, to flifle the voice of nature, level all ranks in fociety, and chiefly to deflroy churches, al- tars, paintings, &c. Taking the principles of Calvin in their moft rigid fenfe, they abolillied all ceremonies, confidered the moft innocent re- creations as criftiinal, and the leaft toleration of the rites of the church of Rome, as a horrid abomination. They aflumed an auftere and gloomy demeanour, fpoke in myftical terms, little accordant with the true fenfe of the doc- trines and precepts of Chriftianity ; and they, more than once, impofed upon the credulity of the vulgar, in a way fi milar to what the Catho- Ec lig (434) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.YIIL lie priefts had doncf But, in excufe for the condud: of the Scotch reformers, we may al- ledge the times in which they lived, thefe were dark compared with the prefent; Chriftians Were then deftitute of liberahty of fentiment ; and where this is wanting, grofs abufes and cruelties are committed under the name of re- formation. They were fo violently irritated againft the Catholic religion, that they thought . they could not do too much for its deftrudlion, and under the influence of paflion, ftopt at no- thing to gratify it : befides, thefe exceifes were committed by the mob, who, in all their pro-' ceedings, pay no attention to what is reafonable and juft. The Proteflant and Catholic churches were difturbed at the fame time, with difputes con- cerning predeftination and grace. Baius, a Roman Catholic divine, of Louvain, drew a dodrine from St. Auguftin's writings, which afcribes all to grace, and leaves nothing to hu- man -j- Some of the Scotch reformed clergy in the laft century, to gain popularity, endeavoured to perfuade their parifliioner* that they were often engaged in conflids with the devil, whom they always foiled. Some of them pretended to the gift of prophecy, and if their random predi6lions were, at any time, realized, the Ignorant vulgar were firmly perfuaded that, the fpirit of the prophets was fubje6l to them. — Probably they thought, that to guefs at future events, and to be haunted with the devil, were the high road to holy fame. Lect.VIIL modern history. (435 j man liberty. This dod:rine was condemned at Rome, and the difpute it gave rife to, produced at that time, no material confequence. On the other hand, Mohna, a Spanifh jefuit, formed a fyftcm which gave too much to liberty, and took all from grace. — The Dominicans eagerly embraced and defended Molina*s dod:rine. — Volumes upon volumes were written, and many congregations held at Rome to canvafs thefe obfcure points. The difputes were long, and managed with much heat and animofity. The pope, Paul V. put an end to thofe controver- fies, which are indeterminable, becaufe they concern obje(5ls inaccefTible to the human mind. The Calvinilts were divided upon the fame fubje(5l. James Arminius, a Dutch divine, a man of a mild and charitable turn of mind, could not digeft the dodrine of reprobation, as taught by Calvin. He was aware how dan- gerous it is to reprefent God as a tyrant, who takes pleafure in the mifery of his creatures. According to his principles, God is a tender father, who loves all men, and gives them, grace fufficient to condudl them to happinefs. Animated with the love of humanity, Arminius endeavoured to banifh intolerance from the church, and inculcated mutual love and for- bearance. He could not reconcile the idea of eternal punifhments to that of the divine mercy« E e a This5 (436) MODERN HISTORY. L^ct. VUL This fentiment of his was oppofed by many adverfaries. Gomar, liis principal enemy, pre- vailed, the dodrines of Arminius were con- demned, and thofe of Calvin adopted by the fynod of Dort. This fchifm of the Proteftants was at that time a matter which concerned only the church ; but the reader will fee in the fequel, that it became an affair of the ftate, and brought the republic of Holland to the very brink of ruin. Revolutions in empires. — The period, under review prefents the reader with great revolu- tions in Europe. The moft memorable is that which happened in the Low Countries. The hiftory of no nation or period can produce a more furpriling revolution than that, which gave birth to the republic of Holland. What is it a love of liberty and induflry cannot do? A people, weak and poor, fhook off the yoke of the moft powerful and richeft monarch then in the world. The principal caufe of this wonder- ful revolution, was the fuperftitious defpotifm of Philip II. king of Spain. That prince, who thirfted for the blood of Heretics, would ex- ercife the cruelties of the inquifition in Flan- ders, as in Spain. The reformed dodlrines had ' gained many profelytes in the Low Countries, and Philip wanted to difplay his gloomy and fanguinary zeal. Philip, with the approbation ©f pope Paul IV. ereded thirteen new bifliop- ricks Lect.VIII. modern history. (437) ricks in thofe provinces. This eredlion U'as made with a view to torment the confcience, dnd increafe the burdens of the people. Margaret, the natural daughter of Charles V. and widow of the duke of Parma, was governefs of the Low Countries, and had gained the love of all by her mild and equitable adminiftration. But though in appearance, inverted w^ith the chief power, the aded only an inferior part, being obliged to conform herfelf to the advice of cardinal Granvelle, whom Philip had intrud- ed with the whole authority. This inhumane and cruel minifter never diftinguiflied policy from perfidy, nor zeal from intolerance. He treated thofe of high rank with contempt, cramped induftry and commerce by abfurd cdi(fls, and punifhed the moft trifling faults, as if they had been the greateft crimes. The haughty inflexibility of that flranger irritated the Flemings. They complained, but the court of Spain, inflead of liftening to their complaints, fent fevere orders, which incrcafed the evil. They were ordered to obey the decrees of the council of Trent, and violence was made ufe of to put them in execution: this haftened the revolt. William of NafTau, prince of Orange, and count Egmond, two noblemen of illuftrious birth and merit, put themfelves at the head of the opprelTed. Granvelle thought to terrify the E e 3 malecon- (438) MODERN HISTORY. Legt.VIII, malecontents, by eflablifhing the inquifition in the principal cities of Flanders. The barbari- ties of that tribunal, the new bifhopricks, the attempts to force the confcience, vexations and punifhments, provoked the Proteftants to revolt. Seeing their requefls not complied with, they endeavoured to do jultice to themfelves In- Head of pacifying rhe Flemings by mild means, Philip followed his own inclination, and fent the duke of Alva into the Low Countries, with an army. The counts Egmond and Horn, who would not go with the prince of Orange into Germany, were foon arrelled. The favage duke of Alva, filled theprifons, eredled gibbets, fcaf- folds, and kindled fires, which fpread terror on all fides. Philip confulted the inquifition of Spain concerning thefe tranfadtions, and that tribunal determmed, that all the inhabitants of the Low Countries, a few excepted, were apof- tates, heretics, guilty of high treafon, particu- larly the nobles, who had prefented their re- quefts, and publifiied complaints againft the holy inquifition. Upon this fentence, Egmond and Horn were executed, and their blood ming- led with that of many other vidtims. Surely the Proteflants in the Low Countries could not but be enflamed with hatred againft the Catho- lic church, and monarchy, which fent the duke pf Aiva with his bloody tribunal, to commit fuch cruelties, to opprefs a free people with unjufl Lect.VIII. modern history. (439) unjufl impofitions, and to cover thefe violences with the cloak of religion. Who could believe that, during the five years the duke of Alva was governor of the Low Countries, eighteen thou- fand perfons were put to death for herefy ? Yet there is nothing more true : nay, that per- fccutor made his boaft of it i Requefens who fucceeded Alva, attempted in vain to pull down the ftatue of liberty, which the Flemings had erecfced ; in vain did he offer to redrefs their grievances, they would put no confidence in the promifes and clemency of a perfidious king. Perhaps Requefens, who pof- fefTed great talents and virtues, might have re- eftablifhed affairs, but his death haflened the revolution. Don John of Auflria, the con- queror of the Turks at Lepanto, was fent with full power to grant them all, but liberty of con- fcience. I zvill Jooner loje my crown, faid Philip, than grant them that. This new governor em- ployed at firfl: gentle means ; but the enthufiafm of liberty, and the love of revenge had entirely pofTeffed the minds of the Dutch. The prince of Orange took advantage of this difpofition to form the famous union of Utrecht, and to per- fect the revolution. He alTembled the ftates general at the Hague, who declared Philip 11. fallen from his right and authority, becaufe he had violated, contrary to his oath, the privileges of the people. '1 hus the revolt of the ^ts^n. E e 4 United (440) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIII. United Provinces was owing to the harlhnefs, and fuperflition of Granvelle, the fe verity of Philip, the rigours of the inquifition, and the cruelties of the duke of Alva. The genius of William of Orange, the military talents of his fon Maurice, and the aOiftance given by Eliza- beth, fixed its fuccefs. In a word, the liberties of Holland were eflablifhed upon an unfhaken foundation, by the conftancy, patience, intre- pidity, and induftry of the firft republicans. Upon the firft murmur which perfecution, mifery, and defpair, forced from the Flemings, they were accufed of infidelity and rebellion. The moft rigorous orders were ifTued againft them. According to the inquifition, it was necefTary to exterminate all who believed that God is not bread, that God is not wine, and who could not admit of feven facraments. — How was it poflible that people fo cruelly tor- mented for ridiculous and abfurd opinions, could love fo galling a yoke ? How could they believe that there was any proper connection be- tween them and their oppreflbrs ? It is not at all furprifing that tyrants fhould call thofe rebels who have the courage to break their chains. In them, ambition ftifies the voice of nature. But what furprifcs is, fomctimes to fee a gener- ous and free nation, approving of the excefTes of defpotifm, forty that any fliould enjoy liberty but themfelves, and even lending their afliftance to Lect.VIIL modern history. (441) to forge chains for their fellowmen.f People fometimes patiently fubmit to the yoke. They are often deflitute of that courage which en- ables them to die rather than be flaves. Therc is a time, when they obey and hate their tyrants. But when the evil is without remedy, when ijionfters devour their fubflance, take from them every portion of liberty, and leave them no- thing but flavery and chains : then they know hovi^ to exterminate their opprefTors. It is then that civil war, which difcovers hidden talents, and creates unknown refources, breaks out; then extraordinary men arife, and fhew them- felves worthy to command their fellow citizens, Doubtlefs •j- That the overthrow of defpotifin, and the ere£lion of a free conftitution, fhould alarm and enrage the defpots of Europe, hath nothing furprifing in it ; but that a people, who themfelves are free, fhould condemn the exertions of their neighbours to better their civil condition, cannot be fo eafily accounted for. The downfal of abfolute power in France, fhould, we think, be acceptable to all who enjoy the bleffings of Britiih liberty. That this is not fo, is evident, from the reception given to Mr. Burke's Letter on the French Revolu- tion. Though, in the judgment of difpafiionate men, and of thofe who are enemies to civil tyranny, that letter is only a tnalignant and abulive mifreprefentation of men and things*; yet, from its numerous admirers, we find, that many in Britain, befides the celebrated declarmer, look upon the emancipation of the French as a ivicked innovation. Does this proceed from an ignorance of the rights of mankind, or from a felfifli wifh, that other nations may not enjoy, to the fame extent/ Englilhracn do, the happinefs of a free conflltution ? (442) MODERN HISTORY, Lect.VIII. Doubtlefs this is a terrible remedy- It is a confufed and bloody sera, in which kingdoms receive violent concuflions. But it is fome- times a necefTary remedy, iince without it li- berty could not be obtained. Then a nation, forced to recover its imprefcriptible rights by a rupture of the focial contradt, performs pro- digies of valou r. Liberty itfelf can do wonders . Liberty triumphs over nature, makes the barren rock yield a plentiful harveft, covers the dreary walle with fmiles, enlightens the humble cot- tager, and gives him more knowledge and penetration than the proud flaves of a court. In vain did the Spaniards employ againft the Dutch, all the refources of war and art, all the wonders of patience and intrepidity ; the love .of liberty was an overmatch for all thefe, and they furmounted every obflacle. With one hand they built dykes to flop the fea, which forced them upon the Spaniards, and with the other they chafed away the Spaniards, who drove them towards the fea ; they built fhips, fome of which they loaded with merchandize, and armed others ; and difputed with Philip, at the dif- tance of two thoufand leagues from Europe, the empire of commerce and the polTefiion of the Indies. It is proper to obferve, that the Dutch, with- out the powerful afllllance fent them from England, would not, perhaps, have obtained inde-» I.ECT.VIII. MODERN HISTORY. (443) independence. Did Elizabeth, by aflifting the Dutch, violate the rights of nations? Ought Ihc to have taken part in that quarrel ? Had fhe a right to make herfelf a judge of the wrongs, which Philip might have committed ? The favourers of defpotifm will, no doubt, con- demn the queen of England. By the help of falfe reafoning, they may argue in this manner, that nations, being free and independent, though the actions of one may be unlawful, the others are obliged to fuffer them, when thefe actions do not hurt their perfedl rights. Upon this prin- ciple Elizabeth did wrong to aflift the Dutch in their revolt. Yet if we examine the quefiion in its true point of view, we will be forced to grant, that the conducl: of Elizabeth was not only conformable to found politics, and the moft facred laws of humanity, but that fhe did not violate the rights of nations. The authority of Philip over the Low Countries, was limited and regulated by fundamental laws. Did not that prince, by over-leaping the bounds pre- fcribed to him, govern, from that time, with- out iiny juft right and title ? Was the Helvetic nation obliged to obey him ? Should it have made no refinance to his unjuft and arbitrary proceedings ? Did not that prince, by viola- ting all the laws of the conflitution, break the contradt which bound the Flemings to him? The Dutch became free by the adl of their fo-- vcfeign. (444) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIIL vereigrij and could view him in no other light than an ufurper, who would opprefs, and did opprefs them. What is the eflential defign of fociety ? Is it not the common happinefs of all ? Is it not with this view, that each citizen fur- renders a part of his rights and liberty ? Should fociety make ufe of its authority to deliver up itfelf, and all its members, to the difcretion of a furious tyrant ? no, it ihould not. Nay, far- ther, if fociety opprefs a part of its members, it has loll its right by doing fo. Therefore, when fociety confers authority upon one, it is with this exprefs or tacit refervation, that the fo- vereign ihall ufe it for the fafety, and not for the ruin of his fubjedls. If he governs as a tyrant, he degrades himfelf, becomes a public enemy, whom the people may refill:, and from whom they may withdraw their obedience. Such were the principles upon which the ftates general of Holland, declared Philip fallen from his authority ever them. " Divine and human " laws," fay they, in that celebrated adl, " fo "often violated, with regard to us, place us " again in our natural ftate of liberty, and give " us a right to chufe a new prince, to govern us " according to our privileges, liberties, and " franchifes.'* The Dutch, by returning to the pofTeflion of their primitive rights, became an independent nation, who could contrad alliances with neighbour- Lect.VIIL modern history. (44S) neighbouring Hates. The queen of England then, by protedting that infant republic, made ufe of a right inherent in every free nation, or the fovereign who reprefents it. Defpots, and thofe whofc intereft it is to favour defpotifm, "will always cry rebellion, rebellion, when a nation is unwilling to be crufhed under an iron yoke, and has the courage to claim their natural rights ; and they will call that nation perfidious, who, moved by intereft, or motives of humanity, aiTifts it to maintain the generous ftruggle. — But thefe clamours cannot ftifle the voice of nature, nor ever eiface the principles of natural liberty; principles engraven in the human heart ; principles to which even tyrants them- felves are forced to render homage ; principles confecrated in the hiftory of Europe, by the example of the Sv/ifs and Dutch : in a word, principles, which the example of the North American ftates renders ftill more fenfible and evident. We have perhaps dwelt too long upon the revolution of the United Provinces ; but re- volutions which give freedom to nations, arc the moft interefting part of hiftory. In them we fee ftaves become freemen ; and by a change of mafters, liberty eftabliftied upon an immove- able foundation. Tyrants are enem.ies to the rights of mankind, they hate revolutions and rhofe who favour them. But muft fovereigns be (446) MODERN HISTORY. LEcf.VIIL be flattered, even when they treat their fubjecls^ as a defpicable herd, whofe lives and property are wholly theirs ? Muft we always carefs and fpeak refpeclfully of a powerful and unjuft man, who overleaps the barrier of laws, too \yt^k to reflrain him; or, who finds in the laws them- lelves, fure and terrible means to violate thofe rights he fhould defend? The revolution which happend in Portugal^ a province of Spain, was the effedl of ordinary caufes. The temerity of Sebaftian, who was fiain in the plains of Alcacar-Quivir, with many of the Portuguefe nobility, prepared that event. The inability of Cardinal Henry, who was in- capable to repair the misfortunes of the rtate, and decide the contefts, which the future fuccef- Hon to the crown, occafioned, haftened the re- volution; and it was at lafl accompliflied by the great fuperiority of Philip, and the talents of the duke of Alva. In vain did the Portuguefe, who were greatly averfe to the Spanifh yoke, de- termine in favour of Anthony, and crown him. Defeated by the duke of Alva in every battle^ they were forced to fubmit to the conqueror. How could they refift a monarch, who had the bcft generals and infantry in Europe? The frontiers of Portugal were in a defencelefs con- dition. The internal flate of the kingdom was too much negledled, ever lince the Portuguefe had fent colonies into diflant countries, and employed Lect.VIII. modern history. (447; employed themfelves in extending their com^ merce. But that revolution made no change- in the fyftem of Europe, it was fatal only to the Portuguefe, who felt all the rigours of def- potifm, under the tyrannical government of the Sanguinary Philip. Upon the death of Elizabeth, the crow^ns of England and Scotland were united in the perfon of James I. the fon of Mary Stuart. The lovely, but unfortunate Mary, the daughter of James V. king of Scotland, was contemporary with Elizabeth. Rivals in religion and beauty ; Mary was inferior to Elizabeth in all but the irreiifli- ble charms of a lovely perfon. Educated in the court of France, the Scotch queen imbibed a tafte and manners different from thofe of her own nation. Upon the death of her firft hufband, Francis II. ihe returned to Scotland, jufl when the reformation was introduced into that king- dom. Young, gay, and fond of pleafure, the auftere manners of the Scotch reformers were difagreeable to her. A bigotted Roman Catholic, Ihe could not be perfuaded to change her own and the nation's religion. She was married a fecond time to Henry- Stuart, Lord Darnley, a man of mean abilities. The weaknefs and fenfibility of Mary*s heart were the caufe of her misfortunes. She con- ceived a diflike to her hufband ; and David Riz- zio, an Italian mufician, became her favourite. Rizzio f448) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIIL Rizzio was murdered in the queen's prefence, and her hufband, at whofe inftigation the mur- der was committed, loft his life foon after; not, as was thought, without the knowledge and confent of his wife, as fhe married Bothwell, his fuppcfed murderer. The Scotch, offended at Mary's imprudent condueft, took up arms, and her party being worfted, fhe was forced to yield the crown to her fon, and name a regent. She named the earl of Murray, her natural brother. Convinc- ed that fhe had done wrong in parting with the reins of government, Mary endeavoured to obtain again poflelTion of the crown ; but being defeated, was obliged to fly into England. The Scottifh queen met at firft with an honourable re- ception from her relation, but was told foon af- ter, that being accufed by the public as thc^ murderer of her huft)and, it was neceflary to clear herfelf, and if innocent, Elizabeth would be her protecftrefs. Mary accufed the earl of Murray, and the earl of Murray accufed Mary. By whom lord Darnley was murdered, remains ftill unknown ; for after all that hiftorians have written to caft light upon it, that tranfadlion has not been cleared up to the fatisfadion of the world, Mary became Elizabeth's prifoner, and con- tinued fo till fhe loft her head. Several at-- tempts v/ere made to fet her at liberty, but they were Iect. VITI. MODERN HISTORY. (449) were all unfuccefsful, and brought ruin on thofe who engaged in them. At laft Mary, after eighteen years imprifonment, was tried, found guilty of plotting againil Elizabeth, condem- ned, and had her head fevered from her body, Feb. 28th, 1587. She met death with pious eompofure and fortitude, and behaved in the awful moment as one who w^as not afraid to die. Mary was forty five years of age at the time of her death; and yet (as a hiflorian obferves) when her coiffe fell oft, her hair was difcovered to be grey, the effetfl of grief and long confine- merit.* The death of Mary being an unjuft ex-. ercife of Elizabeth's prerogative, will ever be a liain in her chara&r. The Union of the two kingdoms had an influ- ence upon the fyflem of Europe, and the united ilrengthof both, made Great Britain a prepon- derating power. The firft caufe of this revolu- tion, mufl v/ithout doubt, be attributed to the right of fucceffion, which nature had given to James Stuart. However, the condudl of Eliza- beth helped greatly to bring it about. By con- fining the queen of Scotland in a long and hard captivity, flic deprived her of the means of in- flrudling her fon. It is very probable than Mary Stuart, had fhe enjoyed liberty, w^ould have educated him in the principles of her own tcligion. Had this been the cafe, he would F f not * See Rebertfon's hiftory of Mary, (450) MODERN HISTORY, Lect.VIIL not have been acceptable to the Englilh, who were attached to the reformation, and his reli- gion would have put infurmountable obftacles between him and the throne. But Elizabeth, by her great influence in the government of Scotland, and keeping Mary a prifonerin Eng- land, made thofe intrufted with the education of James, infpire him with fentiments conform- able to the principles of the reformed religion, and thus paved his way to the crown. The union of the three kingdoms was an event much wifhed for by the queen of England. But flie did not love the fon of Mary Stuart. She not only would not recognize him for her fuccefTor, but even refufed to give him afliflance to fup- prefs a confpiracy formed by fome Catholic lords, incited by the king of Spain. It appears that Elizabeth was the foul of the famous plot, contrived by the earl of Gowry, to feize the Scottifh king. It was only in her laft moments that (he named him to fucceed her in the throne of England. Hungary, during the courfe of this period, became a province of Auftria. While the great Solyman protected that kingdom, the princes of the houfe of Auflria attempted in vain to polTefs themfelves of it ; but after his death, his fucceflbrs, effeminate and debauched prin- ces, afforded but a feeble protection, and Hun- gary fell into the hands oi the Auftrians. Another Iect.VIIT. modern history. (451) Another caufe which contributed to deprive the Hungarians of liberty, was, the too great extend of their rights and privileges. An excefs pf li- berty is almoft always fatal to thofe who enjoy it, becaufe it rarely happens but they abufe it* This abufe produces difcord and fadlions. An ambitious and enterprifing neighbour forms a party, and finiflies with feizing their country, and reducing them to fervitude. Defpotifm was the caufe of the troubles which afflidled Ruflia. Borris fupported his ufurpation by the perpetration of great crimes. Having made himfelf odious to the nation, the Mufcovites fighed for a deliverer. A young adventurer, a Polander by birth, taking advan- tage of the general difcontent, alTumed the name of Demetrius, whom Borris had afTaflina- ted. With the afliflance of fome Polifh noble- men, he penetrated into RufTia, and formed a powerful party, who placed him on the throne. But fcarcely was his boldnefs crowned with fuccefs, when allowing himfelf to be blindly led by the Poland ers, he profcribed the Greek f eligion, introduced the worfliip of the church of Rome, aboliflied ancient cuftoms, conferred upon ftrangers all the employments of the ftate, and authorized their rapines and violence.; — Mofcow was filled with robbery and murder. The Ruflians, enraged at a tyranny more cruel thanthat from which they had been delivered,. F f 2 endeavoured f4?i) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII. endeavoured to fliake off fo oppreflive a yoke. With Zufki, their countryman at their head, they attacked the ufurper, broke into his palace, and the falfe Demetrius expired, pierced with many wounds. Zufki was rewarded with the crown, but another Demetrius foon appeared upon the Itage* Supported by Sigifmond, king of Po- land, he advanced to the capital with a formid- able army. Zufki implored the afliilance of Sweden, who zealoufly undertook his defence, and the narth was difturbed with the quarrel of an impodor. Defpotifm almoft always pro- duces bloody revolutions ; becaufe fovereigns, whafe will is the law, neceffarily turn tyrants^ sind force their fubje(^l:s to have recourfe to vio- lent means ; and thefe are moftly fatal to a na- tion, when it cannot improve them to llrength- en and fecure its liberty. To dethrone one tyrant and crown another,^ is only to increafc the public calamities. The imprudence of Sigifmond deprived him of Sweden. His fall is an im.portant lelTon to kings. It fliould teach them that the fceptre is not fecure in their hands, when they employ it to tyrannize over the confciences of their fubjed:s. The clofe of the lixteenth century prefents us with important changes in the royal flimilies of Europe. The Stuarts replaced the family of Tudor, who had governed England from the time Lect. VIIL MODERN HISTORY. (453) time of Henry VII. The branch of Valois, feated on the throne of France, from the reign of Philip VI. that is, during two centuries and a half, became extind in Henry III. and that of Bourbon fucceeded in the perfon of Henry IV. The pofterity of the Jagellons, after having reigned two hundred years, ended in Sigifmond II. and fince that time the throne of Poland has been eled:ive, and filled by different families. t Governments, — An abfolute government took place in all thedominionsof the houfe of Auftria. The Auftrian princes were endowed with a fpirit of defpotifm, and caufed it to be felt wherever they reigned. In Spain, Italy, and the Low Countries, Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, and in America, all bowed to the fovereign authority. England became almoft an abfolute monarchy under the government of Elizabeth. That prin- cefs was exceedingly jealous of her authority. The good oeconomy and moderation of her ex- penditure, was lefs owing to her affedlion for the people, than to her fear of being in the power of the Houfe of Commons, by aflving large fubfidies. The eredlion of the High Commiflion Court, which fhe invefled with F f 3 a tyran- •\ The Poles, fcnfible of the inconveniences of the feudal fyftem, have emancipated themfelves, are now a free. people, and will continue fo, if not prevented by their ambitious and defpotic neighbours. (454) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIII. a tyrannical power ; her fandion given to the arbitrary decrees of the Star Chamber; the monopohzing patents granted to her courtiers, fhew how defpotic (he was. Some Puritan members of parliament, durfi: complain of thefe vexations, but it was at the rifk of their life. She often told the Commons not to meddle with what did not concern them ; that affairs of flate and religion were above their comprehen- lion. She faid, that lince neither her commands, nor the example of their fellow members could put a flop to the folly, arrogance, and prefump- tion of fome of them, ihe would be obliged to have recourfe to another kind of corredtion. Who could believe that this language was pa- tiently received by a majority of the members? Nay more, it was maintained in parliament, that the royal authority ought not to be difpu- ted, nor examined, nor even limited ; that the fovereigns of England, being abfolute princes, were a kind of divinity ; that it was in vain to attempt to bind the queen by laws, or flatutes, fince ihe, in virtue of her difpenfing power, might break them whenever flie pleafed. — Thefe maxims were favourable to defpotifm. The majority of the Englifli nation had for- gotten, that the fovereignty refides originally in the people, and in each individual with regard to himfelf ; that it is the conveyance and re- ^inipn of all the rights of individuals in the perfoq Lect.VIII. modern history. (455) perfon of the fovereign, which conftitute him fuch, and really produce the fovereignty. — Therefore it is by no means true, that a go- vernment which refides wholly in the hands of one, has no other foundation than the will of that one. The eftablifhment of afove- reign authority is, without doubt, abfolutely necelTary for the good order, tranquillity and prefervation of mankind. But to fay, that God is the immediate fource of the fovereign power of kings, is a fentiment which has its foundation only in adulation and flattery. To aver, that fovereignty depends only on God, and is independent of all human agreement, is the way to make princes abfolute. The Puritans were the only people in England who had a jufl idea of liberty. They exerted themfelves vigor- oufly to elecft proper members of parliament, and in fupport of the rights of mankind, they did not fear to incur the indignation of Eliza- beth.— They continued to preferve the precious fpark of liberty they had kindled, which, ha- ving increafed in the two following reigns, con- fumed monarchy, and the church ; from vvhofe afhes the prefent conftitution arofe, better adapted to the happinefs of fociety. Elizabeth annihilated all the rights of the people, relating to government, except the article of fublidies. But that able princefs, in enflaving the nation, made its chains agreeable, iince, with them, ihe promoted England's glory and happinefs. F f 4 Every (456) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII, Every thing was overturned in France, under the government of the children of Henry il. chiefly under the lafl. The whole kingdom was in the fame fituation, as when the weak defcendants of Charlemagne divided their im- menfe dominions, into a multitude of principa- lities. Authority was no longer fubmitted to, violence decided all, and bigotry armed citizen againfl citizen, and neighbour againft neigh- bour. — ^From this anarchy, Henry IV. extradted a true monarchy ; perhaps there never was a more perfed: one, nor a better form of govern- ment, Henry was abfolute mafler of the executive part HDf government, and of the power of doing good to his fubjedts ; this fame king allembled the nation when laws were to be made, confulted with them, as with his family, and decreed nothing but with their confent. Perhaps, no king ever adled more conformably to this truth, than Henry did, that the fovereign power was intrufted with him, only for the fafety of the ftate, and the happinefs of the people ; that it was not allowed him to propofc to himfelf, m the adminiftration of public af- fairs, his own fatisfaclion and particular advan- tage; but that the whole of his views and conduct fnould be directed to promote the prolperity of the ftate, and render his fubjedls happy. Impreffed with thefe wife maxims, and by an invariable adherence to them, Henry IV. Lect.viii. modern history. (457) IV. quickly brought back order and plenty into his kingdom. Who can flievv fuch a reign in happier times, and under a better conflituted government ? A French author has beautifully defcribed the days of his youth, and the ftate of France in the reign of Henry. In reading the defcription, the golden age of the poets appears to the mindi and indeed, if ever that age exifted in France, it was when Henry IV. govern- ed that kingdom. " The idea I have of thofe " times, ftill affords me the mod agreeable plea- *f fure," fays the Abbe de Marolles. " I recall ** to mind the beauty of the fields. Methinks " they were more fertile, then they have been ^* fince ; that the meadows were more verdant, " and the trees more plentifully loaded with ** fruit. Nothing could be more pleafant than " the mufic of the feathered fongfters, the low- *^ ing of the cattle, and the fongs of the fliep- '' herds. The cattle roamed ^siidy in the paf- " ture, the hufbmdman fov/ed his fields, and " reaped his corn, without fear of being de- " privcd of the fruits of his labour. His coLtage *^ was neat, he had plenty of food, and flepr " without fear of bemg difturbed. The fniile «' of cheerfulnefs appeared in every counte- and fecretly to nourilh a cabal in that afTembly, that v/ould one day deftroy it ; to direcft all the movements of that cabal ; at laft to throw off the mafl<:, and employ the fanguinary indepen- dents to bring Charles to the fcaffcld ; to abolifh monarchy, diffipate the Peers, fubjedt the Commons, fubftituie the fanaticifm of the independents to liberty, afterwards dcftroy it> and under a new and fpecious title, to make himfelf the mbft abfolute monarch that ever appeared on the throne of England; when thcfe phenomena are attended to, we muft acknow- ledge Cromwell to have been the mofb cunning and flvilful confpirator to be found in the annals of nations. As a fovereign, hiftory reprefents him as a defpot, fimple, modeft, and wife ; re-efuablifhing that order he had deftroy- cd ; rendering England tranquil and happy ; preparing for his nation the empire of the feas, and cauling his alliance to be courted by all the powers of Europe. The revolution which raifed Charles IL to the throne of his anceftors was very acceptable to the Englifh. The paflions of men had fub- fided, and they could coolly refled on times pail* Lec t. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (49 1 ) pad. The horrors of civil war, and the anarchy infeparable from it; the abfolute power exercifed by Cromwell under the title of pro- tector ; the evils of a military government ; thefe induced the nation to revert to the ancient form. The Epifcopalians and Prcfbyterians joined in the invitation given to Charles to be king of Britain; but the independents, repub- licans in principle, were averfe to the reftora- tion. The commencement of his reis-n was that of a king who loves his people, and pro- motes their happinefs ; but an unbounded love of eafe and pleafure, foon led him aftray. — Hence the difgrace of lord Clarendon, one of the ablelt minifters of flate, that ever England could boaft of, and his becoming a penfioner of France to fupply his extravagances. The courtiers imitated the manners of their fove- reign, licentioufnefs prevailed, and things fac- red were treated with ridicule and contempt. ■ -Of intolerant principles, and guided by thofe who were enemies to liberty, he would have all conform to the worfhip of the church of England ; and the confcientious refufal of the dflenters expoled them to fevere treatment. — The minifters of his defporifm fmed, imprifon- ed, tortured, and put to death many, merely becaufe they w^ould think for themfelvcs, and worfliip God in their own way. — London was yiiited with two wtvy great calamities a few years (492)' MODERN HISTORY. Lect.IX. years after Charles afcended the throne. A pedilcnce carried off eighty feven thou fand of the inhabitants, and a fire dellroyed near two- thirds of the city. But thofe evils made no imprefiion on the king ; the intoxication of pleafure continued ; a French miftrefs, French manners and gold, bore the fway at court. James II. of England, and VII. of Scotland, fucceeded his brother Charles II. — While duke of York, the Commons had endeavoured to ex- clude him from the throne upon account of his religion ; but the bill of exclufion mifcarried in the Houfe of Lords. It is faid that Charles, to gratify the wifhes of his brother, and mif- treffes, died a Roman Catholic, though, during his reign, he had given evident proofs, that his principles were neither Catholic nor Protedant, but altogether libertine. — —James made open profefTion of the Catholic religion, and to his faith in the dodrines of Rome, he joined a fpirit of bigotry and furious zeal. Having formed a defign of reconciling his fubjecfts to the Catho- lic church, he began, as foon as he afcended the throne, to put it in execution. But James was not equal to the tafk His people had a very great averlion to Popery, and the tenor of his conduct was fuch, as to alarm and put them on their guard. He aded from the very fir 11, as if he had already gained his end. The pope's puncio, and jefuit priefts appeared publicly at court; Lect, IX. MODERN HISTORY. (493) court ; he irrprifoned feven bifhops, who would not acknowledge his difpenfing power ; depri- ved the city of London and other towns of their privileges, and overturned the laws with a high hand. His conduct was fo little marked with wifdom, that even the Papifts themfelves were offended at it. The pope, Innocent XL had no hopes of feeing the Catholic religion eftablifhed in Britain, by the enterprifes of James, there- fore would not grant a cardinal's hat to the jefuit Peters, the king's confelTor. The in- triguing and ambitious Peters, who wifhed, above all things, to be Primate of England, hurried on his mafter to his ruin. The open attempts of James to overturn the civil and re- ligious conftitutions, rouzed the nation to take meafures to prevent them. An aflbciation was entered into by thofe who wifhed well to their country, and a deputation fent to invite the prince of Orange. William accepted the in- vitation, got every thing ready for his expedi- tion, landed at Torbay, November 5th, 1688, and James, abandoned by all, abdicated the crown, and retired into France. The revolution was the epocha of liber- ty to England. The nation, reprefented by its parliament, obtained the hill of rights for the people, fixed the boundaries of the prerogatives of the crown, fo long contcfled; and having, prefcribed to the prince of Orange, the con- 0 ditions (494) MODERN HISTOHY. Lect.IX. ditlons upon which he was to reign, chofe him for king, in conjundlion with his wife Mary, daughter of James II. From that time this prince was known in Europe^ only by the name of William III. and the deliverer of the Britifh nation. James II. when duke of York, gave abundant proofs, in the war with the Dutch, of his great courage as a feaman, and fkill in na- val affairs. The royal navy of England was much improved by his and his brother's exten- live knowledge in naval architedlure. He knew the national interefl, and, had he not been bigotted to his religion, would have made a very good king. His abfurd and intolerant princi- ples perfuaded him to ad: diametrically oppofitc to his own interefl:. Well might the arch- bifliop of Rheims fay, Inhere is a maUy irho loft three kingdoms for a mafs, Turkey prefents the reader wdth fome bloody revolutions during the courfe of this period. — We behold Muftapha placed three times on the throne, and as often forced to exchange it for a prifon ; Ofman mafTacred by the JanifTaries "whofe powTr he attempted to diminifh; and Ibrahim ftrangled by a fentence of the Mufti. Mahomet IV. was fuccefsful in his wars againft the Chriflians, by the abilities of his grand vizier Kuperli. He took Candia from the Venetians, after a blockade of thirty years, and laid iiege to ^Vienna, but was forced to raife it, . by Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (49 d by John Sobiefki, king of Poland, and prince Charles of Lorrain. The mifcarriage of this enterprife, and the great lofs fuflained by the Turks, were fatal to Mahomet; he was de- throned, fnut up in prifon, and his brother Solyman IL chofen in his place. Thefe events were owing to natural caufes. A defpot can- not reign but by means of terror ; to imprefs the minds of men with this terror, he is obliged to have a numerous and warlike guard con- tinually around him, to be the fupport of his power. This guard, knowing that the defpot is indebted to them for every thing, become infolent, and upon the leafl: difcontent, deftroy him whom they were appointed to protecft. Governments. — The form of government in Germany was fixed by the treaty of Wefiphalia. Under the Othoes it was a real monarchy. — • Under the princes of the houfe of Suabia, the imperial authority was more curtailed in cer- tain particulars, and more dependent in many others. All was confounded under the unfor- tunate Frederick II. and his children. Their misfortunes produced a real anarchy. — The people loil their liberty, and the chief his power. The emperors of the houfe of AuHria purfued another line of conduc^t. They knev/ hov/ to bring back order by little and little^ and giv^e vigour to the autliority of the throne. The power of the head of the empire, in the hands (496) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX. hands of Charles V. was confiderably increafed, and that fkilful politician had chalked out a plan to his fuccelTors which mull have render- ed them abfolute. Ferdinand I. and his pof- terity, faithfully foIIo\\ ed that plan, and made large ftrides towards abfolute power, without finding any cbilacle; becaufe their mild go- vernment prevented the Germanic body from watching their defigns. Defpotifm became at laft fixed in Germany by the inflexible firmnefs of Ferdinand II. when the arms of Guftavus, and the politics of Richelieu, defiroyed, in a little time, the work of many ages, and pro- duced that form of government fixed by the treaty of Weflphalia. Since that time Ger- many is an alTembly of fovereigns and free cities, whom comm.on advantage hath united. The feveral members of the Germanic body are bound by general laws, and the emperor, who prefides, is only the executor of the will of the nation. Oxcnfliern, the minifler of Sweden, and D'Avaux, the French plenipotentiary, were the principal negotiators of that treaty. Deaf to the folicitations of the emper6r, they confulted only the interefls of the German flates. Their condudl was open and free. They employed none of thofe fubterfuges, none of thofe in- trigues, none of thofe deceptions, which too often decorate the name of politics. By this treaty. Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (497) treaty, the emperor, always eledlive, has no right to change the ancient laws, nor make new ones. This power belongs to the general diet, as well as that of declaring war, ordering and fixing the common taxes, and putting un- der the ban of the empire, or profcribing a rebellious prince. It w^as decreed, that for the future each prince, each free city, might, when they thought proper, make alliances, peace, and even war, providing that the intereft of the general afTociation was not hurt by thofe a6ls of fovereignty. By this treaty the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinift religions were allowed. Each flate might chufe that which it liked bed. None but the emperor and the three ecclefiaf- tical eledors were obliged to conform to the "worfliip of the church of Rome. The princes who had been deprived of their dominions "Were re-eflablifhed, the Palatinate of the Rhine was given to the fon of Frederick, late king of Bohemia, and an eighth elecftorate created in favour of Maximilian of Bavaria. Some bifhopricks WTre fecularized to content other Proteflant princes, and to reward the zeal they had Hiewn for the common caufe. The greateft part of Alface was ceded to France, and the Swede had Pomerania, with the duchies of Bremen and Verdcn. This famous treaty is ftill the foundation of the Germanic conftitu- tion, and the bafis of the rights of one part of Europe. I i In (49S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX. In France, the government received, during the feventeenth century, the form which it had till the late revolution; that is, the form of an abfoJute monarchy. The feudal adminiftration difappeared. The dates general ceafed, and with them vaniflied the fliadow of liberty, which thofe affemblies had preferved. Richelieu humbled the nobility, and deprived them of the power of tyrannizing over their valTals ; but at the fame time he took from the people the liberty to murmur and complain. He made Louis XIII. an abfolute monarch. — Mazarin, by adhering to Richelieu's plan, rivetted the chains of flavery, and enabled Louis XIV. to reign defpotically. There was no longer a counterpoife to the power of the crown, and the fubjedls of that vaft monarchy, were wholly at the mercy of an arbitrary fovereign. Unfeeling fouls, who, with competent and independent fortunes, live at a diftance from court and its numerous agents, may think this form of go- vernment the moft proper to obtain and pro- mote the happinefs of a nation, becaufe the general tranquillity is the refult; but perfons of more fenfibility, who ftill preferve fome energy of charadter, whether they are the vic- tims of tyranny, or only the witnefles of it, can fee nothing in fuch a government but flavery, fhame, the abafement of all the virtues, and the degradation of the human race. The tyrant's Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (499) tyrant's fvvord is continually fufpended over the head of each fubjedt. It mufl be the wiih of every friend to the rights of mankind, that the prefent revolution in France, in favour of li- berty, may triumph over all oppofition ; that the attempts of defpots to crufli it, may prove abortive; that ariftocratical oppofition may ceafc, the new laws have their proper operation, and that form of government befl calculated to promote and fecure the general happincfs, be fettled upon an immoveable foundation. In England, all was in confufion about the mijddle of the feventeenth century. The reader has feen monarchy fucceeded by a democracy, and democracy gave place to anarchy. All the rights of men, and all the parts of a good go- vernment were overturned, and the phantom of a republic raifed for a moment from the wreck of the throne and ilate. But.thefe convulfions, though terrible, were perhaps neceffary, as without them, Britons would not have been a free people ; at leafb, they were the means of producing one of the beft civil confiitutions which has yet been feen upon this earth. Religions — The peace of the church of Rome continued to be difturbed with vain fpecula- tions. The popes believed they had ftillcd the Itorm which the dilputcs concerning predefti- nation had raifed. This difpute feemed to be appeafed, when Janfenius, bifhop of Ypres, 1 i 2 revived (£00) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX. revived it, and his talents gave new ftrength to the dod:rincs of eledlion and reprobation. He ' had fludied the writings of St. AuguiHn with pe- culiar attention, and thought he had found in them wherewith to confute the opinions of Molina. The opponents of Janfenius objected to his fyflem, becaufe it rcprefents God as a fevere and rigorous being, whcfe clemency is confined to a fmall number of elcd:, while his juftice ftrikes without pity innumerable vic- tims. They objected, that all the divine pro- mifeswhichannouncepardon to men, were anni- hilated by his fyilem ; that he made men, as fo many miachines, fome of whom were hurried by their paflions to the commiflion of inevitable crimes, and to miferies they did not merit ; whilft others were exalted by grace to forced virtues, and to a happinefs of which they were not worthy ; that, were this the cafe, exhorta- tions to piety and virtue would be to no pur- pofe. Janfenius acknowledged the truth of fome of thcfe confequcnces, but, to juftify this rigorous deftiny of man, he had recourfe to original fin. It was with much precaution that Janfenius introduced his fyfliem. He forefaw that it would occafion a good deal of difturb- ance. When dying, he fubmitted his tenets to the fovereign decifion of the popes. The jefuits condemned his dodrine, loaded it with ana- themas, and fabricated five propofitions con- trary Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (501) trary to it ; this, they flattered themfelves, would deftroy the fyftem of Janfenius. The Janfenifls were upon their guard, and would not diredly contradid: this condemnation : they only faid, that the jefuits combated an imaginary beings that they had miftaken Janfenius, and therefore imputed errors to him, which were not to be found in his fyflem. Whatever the true caufe of this quarrel might be, it had afterwards ter- rible confequences in France. Thofe, who in England are called Methodiftsy feem to be, fome of them Janfenifls, and fome of them the dii'- ciples of Molina. In the midft of that fpiritual anarchy which prevailed in England in the period under review, a croud of religious fedls fprang up, with the principles and conduct of which the intelligent reader cannot be unacquainted. Ornitting an account of them in the detail, we fliall only mention that of the ^lakers, wHch, from much fanaticifm, the charai^erifti^ of its firil: appear- ance, became eminent ^or the moft auftere virtues. / George Fox, a^' Englifh mechanic, believed that Chriilia^'^y was disfigured in the tenets and condu^'c of every religious fed. He thought, he dif^overed in them all, avarice and pride dicf^ating imaginary principles to their credulity. The law of nature appeared to him to be grofly violated by their opinions and condud. The I i 3 pidlure (502) MODERN HISTORY, Lect. IX. pidlure of fociety ftruck him with horror. It was with much indignation he faw a few men in pofTeflion of all; wealthy without labour, proud of their rank and riches, infolent and tyrannical in the exercife of power, while the multitude were opprelTed with toil and poverty, cxpofed to reproach, trodden under foot by thofe tyrants, and at the fame time, flattering them with extravagant and unjuft titles. Hence he concluded, that vanity and impoflure reign upon the earth ; that here below there is nothing to be feen, but difputes, quarrels, lawfuits, per- fidies, murders, and wars, in which thoufands of men deliberately butcher one another. As Fox was born with a feeling heart, and a warm imagination, thefe numerous evils put his fen- libility in motion, and impelled him to feek for means to diminifh them. His brain was heated by degrees, and it was not long till he was fully perfuaded that heaven had fent him to reftore Chriftianity to its primitive purity, and revive the rights of nature. It was from the gofpel that he drew his fyllem. He would eftabliih a perfed equality among the ^uthful, and would not have any minifters of relig*i^n, properly fo called, becaufe, faid he, they arrogj^te a crimi- nal fuperiority over the confciences of men. Too peaceable to endeavour to overturu by force, the forms of government eftablilhed in the world I he only taught and enjoined his followers Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (503 ) followers to lliun human dignities with the fame care the ambitious ufe in fearch of them.-^ He was greatly offended with thofe vain titles mortals are fo fond of, as thinking that by them their exiftence is exalted ; with the general cuf- tom of fpeaking to one perfon, as if we were fpeaking to many ; with the pride of clothes, and the pomp of drefs : hence his averfion to lace, embroidery and buttons, which he thought were of no ufe. He forbade his difciples all kinds of oaths, and chiefly not to engage in war; he enjoined them the pracflice of a boundlefs charity, from a convidion, that this would de- ftroy the forrowful difparity to be found in the fortunes of men. With regard to external worfhip, George Fox would have only a fmall number of the faithful affemble together on certain days, that one of them fhould read a portion of the gofpel with an audible voice, and that being done, the whole alTembly fliould meditate in profound filence; or, that one Ihould (land up and deliver a religious fpcech, if moved thereto by an internal impulfe. Fox, by giving himfelf up to enthufiaflic r trating, and enterprifmg mind. By intenfc thinking, he foon difcovered, that the philofo- phy of his age, was nothing but a bundle of errors : that all the knowledo;e he had till then acquired was only a falfe light to mifguide him ; that an exceflive veneration for received opinions had retarded the progrefs of truth. He was convinced that hy blindly adopting another's opinions, we run the rifk of being the continual fport of illuiions, and the votary of falfehood. Having laid down this as a firft principle, he determined to call in queflion all the ideas he had received from the moment of his birth, and to bring them under a very fevere examination. He then eftabliflicd this leading principle, that we (512) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX. we are to believe nothing as true, but that which is evident; that is, we ought to fufpend our alTent to a propolition, till it is proved to be true. It is this philofophical doubt, which effecfled a revolution in the human mind. Wc fhall not follow Defcartes through the whole of his philofophical route. A detail of his opera- tions and errors is foreign to a work of this kind. We fhall only obferve, that every foul became imprefTed with the boldnefs of Defcar- tes; that occult qualities were profciibed, and replaced by the noble temerity of being willing togiveareafon for every thing; that his brilliant chimeras were not dangerous, becaufe he him- felf furnifhed arguments to confute them; for we are taught by him, not to rell: our belief up- on another's word, to defpife authorities, and give our alTent only to reafon and evidence. In Italy, Galileo did not, like Defcartes, give himfelf up to fublime conjedlures, and brilliant hypothefes, he did not content himfelf, like Bacon, to point out the route the philofopher fhould purfue. He himfelf fet the example. He went from one obfervation to another, con- tinually multiplied experiments, reafoned only from them, and fought out all the fecrets of nature. He alfo made the mod folid difcove- ries, and created (if the exprefiion is proper) experimental philofophy. But Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (513) But Sir Ifaac Newton was the firil who difco- vered, and demonflrated the great law of nature^ by which the feveral parts of matter tend to a centre, and all the heavenly bodies are kept in their courfes. The nature, properties, and ef- feds of light w^ere not rightly known before his time, thefe are fully defcribed and accounted for in his Optics, His natural philofophy is altogether true, and fuch as the world was not acquainted with before; and his mathematical principles, founded upon tTie calculation of in- finites, are, perhaps, the higheft effort of geo- metry. But very probably, England could not have boafted of a Newton, had not a Bacon, a Defcartes, a Galileo, and a Mercator gone be-i fore him. The difcoveries of this wonderful (I had almoft faid infpired) man, enlightened and animated many great geometricians and natural philofophers, who, adopting his princi- ples, and working upon his plan, carried the knowledge of nature to great perfedion ; of thefe, the miofl eminent were Bradley and HaU ley; the lafl of whom undertook a voyage, with a view to mark and afcertain the variations of the magnetic needle in all parts of our globe. But two of thefe fages did not receive the re- ward their ufeful labours and excellent difco- veries defcrved. Indead of receiving homage, honours, ftatues, and a pecuniary reward, they were a mark to perfecution, to hatred^ to envy, X Kk to (5 14) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX. to the fhafts of calumny. Defcartes had very near fallen a facrifice in Holland to the hatred and calumnies of Voetius, a famous Proteftant divine, and minifler of Utrecht. In his own country, he was almoft unknown, regarded with indifference by fome, attacked and oppofed by others, taken notice of by a few great men as a vain fpedtacle of curiolity, not known or ca- lumniated at court. — He was defpifed by his own family: his brother always fpokeofhim with difdain, faying, that being born a gentle- man, he had diihonoured himfelf by turning philofopher ; and he put in the number of un-^ fortunate days, that on which Defcartes was born, who had brought difgrace Upon his fami- ly by fuch a trade. But if Defcartes was defpi- fed in France, and perfecuted in Holland, he, at leafl, could reckon among his admirers and dif- ciples, the two moft celebrated princeiFes of his time, Elizabeth, the princefs Palatine, and Chriflina, queen of Sweden. Galileo experienced ftill greater misfortunes- He was obliged to deUft from being a teacher of mathematics, becaufe he made experiments which deftroyed old errors. When he was be- come more famous by his great difcoveries in aftronomy, the inquiiition took up arms againft him. He w^as confined in a dungeon, and loaded wdth irons; and he refcued himfelf from being burnt as a heretic, only by dif- avowing Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. f 5 1 j } avowing the truths he had difcovered. This necefTary and forced recantation did no^ alto- gether deliver him fronri the tyranny of the inquifition. He was fhut up in a ciiy, by vvay of perpetual imprifonment, where he was con- tinually furrounded with informers. Such has always been, and ever will be the d.fliny of thofe, w^ho rife above the ignorance of the age they live in. The cup of Socrates, the chains of Anaxagoras, the flight and poifoning of Ariilotle, the misfortunes of Hcraclitus, the enraged calumnies againft Gerbert, the plian- tive groans of Roger Bacon, the ftorm raifed againft: Peter Ramus, and the poignards which alTaflinated him, are fo many monuments pre- ferved in hift:ory, to prove, that the laft: of crimes a prejudiced world forgives, is that of announcing new truths. In an enlightened age, it might be thought, that men of genius would be lefs expofed to perfecution ;• but ex- perience proves the contrary, the fame fatality always attends them. If men of celebrated talents and virtues, fpeak and write out of the common way, they are fure to be calumniated and perfecuted by the ignorant, bigotted, and illiberal ; and thefe are the moft numerous^ and, perhaps, the moft: powerful part of fo- eiety. Sciences, — The fciences, enlightened by the flambeau of philofophy, took a fublime and ra- Kk 2 pid f5i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX. pid flight. Mathematics had been fuccefsfully cultivated and improved in the fixtecnth cen- tury; but the invention of logarithms, by- Napier of Merchiflon, the geometry of imagi- nary indivifiblcs by Cavalieri, the arithrnetical machine of Pafcal, the properties of the Cycloid explained by Roberval, the theory of tangents given by Fermat, that of equations by Ariot, the application of the algebraical analyfis, per- fedied by Defcartes, and his excellent theory of curves, gave to mathematics a degree of per- fedion, they had not hitherto attained. Aflronomy wajs enriched in the feventeenth century, with many fine difcoveries. — It was Galileo, who, with the airiflance of the telef- cope, which he had much improved, placed the fyftcm of Copernicus upon a folid foundation, and demonflrated the truth of it by a feries of obfervations ; it was he, who, direding the telefcope towards the heavenly bodies, difco- vered the fatellites of Jupiter, faw, in the milky- way, an aggregate of ftars, which had not been d i fling ui (lied before ; difcovered, and even meafured, the mountains in the moon, guelTed that in her are lakes and forefts, obferved me- teors there like thofe we fee in our hemifphere, and concluded, that die is a body of the fame nature and figure as our earth. This great man loft his fight, but his zeal did not in the lead abate. One of his difciples took up his labours. Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (^17) labours, profccuted them for ten ycvirs, and communicated to him the refult. — ^Galileo caufed to be inferted in his memoirs, the re- flexions, with which, the communicated obfer- vations of his difciple infpired him. In Ger- many, the great Kepler, iludied the route of the planets, fixed the form of their orbits, affigncd the laws of their revolutions, divined the rotation of the fun upon his axis, gueiied at his atlllon upon the planets, and that of the planets upon him, and faw in part the influence which this luminary has upon the flowing of the fea. At the fame time Kircher, perceived the fpots upon the fun's difk, and Sheiner fixed the time of his revolution around himfelf. — Alphonfo Borrelli, Peter GalTendi, Chriftopher Huygens, Caflini, and feveral other eminent men, made ufeful difcoveries and improvements in mathematics and aftronomy, in the century under reviews Galileo was alfo the reflorer of mechanics: he himfelf invented machines to demonflratc the laws of the acceleration of heavy bodies : he determined the curves which Bombs de~ fcribe, and fixed the movement of pendulums. Caftelli, his difciple, unfolded a foiid doctrine concerning the movement of running water. Torricelli ac(|uired immortal fame by his cele- br. ed experiment of a tube plunged into a vef- ■^J '-d. with quickfilver; an experiment Kk 3 which (Si8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.IX, which enabled him to arcertain the weight of the air, and gave birth to the barometer.- The air-pump, invented by Otto Guerick, a German, facilitated pneumatical experiments. Optics were much improved by Kepler, who found out the ufe of the retina, dcmonftrated the exiflence of thofe images painted on the lower part of the eye, and in what manner they are painted; explained the laws of re fraction, and by this affigned the caufes of clear or confu- fed vifion ; and contrived telefcopes much more perfc6l than thofe of Galileo.- At lafl the immortal Newton arofe, inveftigated the fcience of optics, and by his difcoveries, and manner of treating it^ brought it to its prefent perfedion. Two fundamental medical truths were difco- "vered in the feventeenth century, namely, the circulation of the bipod, and infenlible or im- perceptible tranfpiration. The firfl of thofe truths was revived by Hervey, who had the cou- rage to defpife the cries and reproaches of ig- norance and envy. His doctrine is true, and all phyficians have embraced it. The fecond was taught by Sancflorius, who had the patience to prove it by experiments made upon him- felf. Anatomy was alfo fuccefsfully cultivated, and lent its aid to promote improvements in furgery. Morals^ Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (519) Morals, — Morals had been hitherto nothing but an impenetrable chaos. Some fages under- took to remove the obfcurity under which they lay hid. Hobbes laid down a wrong principle. It is not true in fadl, that ajiale of nature is a Jiate ofzvar. However, among his many er- rors, we difcover fome great truths. Harring- ton in his OceanUy has traced the plan of a per- iod: republic, like that of Plato. The misfor- tunes and tragical end of Charles I. gave rife to one of the moft important queflions with regard to the rights of a king and thofe of the people. It was afked, have the people a right, in a lawful afTembly, to judge, depofe, and even condemn their monarchs? Saumaife under- took the caufe of kings, and defended it with very pitiful arguments. The famous Milton, w^ho took the part of the people, left the quef- tion in the fame obfcurity. Grotius was the writer, who illuminated the queftion, in whom does the public right refide? chiefly in his fa- mous treatife de jure belli et pads ;* and Puf- fendorf in his book de officio hominis et civis. f Locke has alfo difculTed the fame queftion; but the full inveftigation of the rights of man, what thefe rights are, and in whom they refide, was referved for the writers of the prefent cen- tury. Before Locke, the w^orld had but a con- K k 4 fufed * Of the right of peace and war. \ Of the duty of a man and a citizen. (520) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX. fufed knowledge of the ideas and operations of the human mind. This enlightened man re- moved the rubbifli ot the fchools, and in his efTay concerning human tinderjlandingy has de- fcribed the faculties, powers, perceptions, and operations of the mind, in a way perfedly con- formable to the nature and lituation of man. — This treatife abounds with truths, clearly ex- plained and fully proved ; with truths, without the knowledge of which, man mufl Hill have been ignorant of himfelf. Hijlory. -The antiquities of eccleliaftical hiflory were learnedly and critically fearched into by Morin, Sirmon, Bochart, and Dupin. — Civil hiftory was difentangled by VofTius, Mar- fham, Heinlius, and Meurlius ; Selden read the Grecian calendar upon the marbles of Paros, v/hich x^rundel brought to Oxford. Chrpno- logy was inveftigated by the jefuit Petau and archbifhop Ufher. Mariana Vv rote the hiflory cf Spain ; Mezeray and father Daniel that of France ; Clarendon, in his hiftory of the civil wars, left to England a monument of the misfor- tunes of Charles I. whofe confidant he had been ; Vv^areus gave a fliithful account of Ireland, his native country, and Strada painted the revolu- tions in Holland. Literature, — In Italy, that fine literary tafte, which had hitherto charadterifed its poetry, be- gan to decline. The affedation of Marini re- placed Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (521) placed the noble fimplicity of Taflb, However, TalToni's Rapeofthe Seal^ and the Court ofPar^ naffusy by Boccalini, are poenns conipofed in a truly claffical tafte. Spanifh literature alfo felt the falfe tafle which prevailed in Italy. The poetry of that country was only an allemblage of forced ima- ges, and uncommon expreflions. Louis de Gongora brought from Italy this vicious man- ner of writing. The dramatic compofitions of Lopez de Vega are very irregular, in which only fome parts are worthy our admiration. Profe was no lefs affeded with this general decline of tafle. — The Spanifh profe waiters produced fome romances, and nothing elfe. But the original and ingenious fatire of Michael Cer- vantes, fo well known by the name of Don ^iixoty is a compolition, in which ridicule is carried to perfecftion. In England, Waller cultivated poetry with fuccefs. Cowley is admired for the delicacy and fimplicity of his thoughts. — The fatires of Donn are full of the force and fire of Juvenal. — Den- ham compofed the poem oi Cooper HilL — Fair- fax tranflated Taffo, and Harrington Ariofto. — Ben Johnfon reformed the theatre, and Milton created his immortal poem of Paradije Loft,- — Dryden had a genius for every kind of poetry. His works are, at once, both natural and brilli- ant, full of humour, animated, vigorous, and bold. (522) MODERN HISTORY. Xect. IX. bold. No Englilh poet is, perhaps, equal to Dr)den, and he is furpafled by none of the ancients. His tranflation of Virgil is, in the ooinion of fome good judges, equal, if not fuperior, to Pope's tranflation of Homer. In France, the eflablifliment of the French academy by Richelieu, tended to fix the (land- ard of their hrsguage; though the firfl academi- cians did not much improve it. Balfac created profe,and bellowed upon itdignity and harmony. Voiture, notwithfunding his afi^edled ftyle, fof- tened the French language, by the addition of many graces : it was embellifhed by the unaf- fedted and delicate flyle of St. Evermond ; by the tranflations of D'Ablancourt, by the ro- mances of D'Urfe, and by the orations of Patru. Malherbe continued to polifh the French Poetry. Maynard fucceeded in madri- gal, that is, a fpecics of love fongs. — Racan's paftorals give us an idea of rural fimplicity ; the language is adapted to the fubjed:, and his thoughts are fimple and chafte. The efforts of Rotrou, and others, could not eflablifh the re- putation of the French drama. It was referved to the genius of Peter Corneille to open a route, to rufn all at once to the extremities of dramatic compofition, to confound his rivals, and en- chant the fpedlators. The Cid, the Horaiit, Cinnay and his other plays, fixed the fuperiority of the French theatre^ and covered Corneille with Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (523) with glory. Racine followed, fome of whofe tragedies are the beft the French have. Moliere excelled in comedy, and Boileau as a fatirift. Fine Arls. — Guido and Albano continued to form difciples in Italy ; and Salvator Rofa, and others, fupported the glory of the fine arts. The Flemilh fchool poiTelTed Rubens ; Van- dyke, the fcholar of Rubens, excelled as a por- trait painter; all his pidlures are mafterpieces ; Rembrant, the magic of whofe colours altonilTi thofe who view his paintings ; with many others, whofe names are famous in the hiftory of the fine arts. The French fchool for painting made a bril- liant figure in the feventeenth century. Vouet raifed its reputation, and formed fcholars fupe- rior to himfelf. Du Frefnoy, Mignard, Bour- don, Le Brun, Le Sueur, Poufiin, acquired great reputation in the art of painting, and difputed the palm with the moil celebrated Italian artifts. In Britain, Inigo Jones, a Dane, excelled as an architedl, and Sir Chriflopher Wren carried this art to perfedlion. Heriot's hofpital, in Edinburgh, is a fpecimen of the genius and tafte of the former ; and St. Paul's church, and the monument in London, are works, which perpetuate the memory of the latter, and fhew him to have been of great knowledge in archi- l^efture, — Great improvements continued to be made (524) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX. made in the art of engraving, fculpture, and architecture, in almoll: every country of Europe, during the feventeenth century, by the talents and labours of ingenious men. CONCLUSION. In thefe Ledlures we have given the fpirit of the general hiflory of fociety, as well religious as civil, for the fpace of ten centuries. Our aini has been, not to dwell upon the cominon topics of hiftory, but to bring the reader ac- quainted with the manners of mankind in the different flages of fociety; to point out to him the progrefs of the human mind, with the caufes which retarded, or promoted, the civi- lization of European nations. The arts which enlighten and humanize men, began to revive in the twelfth century ; but fuperflition flill prevented their grovv^th and good eiiefe. The Arabians helped to inftrudi: and retine a great part of the world ; and when it was no longer in their power Co do fo, the arts and fciences Jivere revived in the fifteenth and lixteenth cen- turies, and brought light and knowledge with them. Then men began to think and a6l like xeafonable creatures. It is much to be lament- ed, that war fhould have raged in every period, to the calamity and dellrucftion of the human race ; that an oppofition of interefls, ambition, and political intrigues Ihould have fet men at variance. Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (52^) variance, who ought to love one another. The ambition of a defpot, the intrigues of a cabinet, the hatred and envy of nations, have, even in civilized times, defolated the earth. May mortals no more feel the fcourge of war. — in this enlightened age, may religion and learning impart to the nations of Europe, a benevolent, virtuous, and humane mind. When right reafon has the afcendency in the human mind; when Chriftianity is properly known, and its precepts punctually attended to ; w hen the hu- man mind becomes impreiTed With juft fenti- ments of the rights of men, then, and not till then, will freedom and happinefs prevail, and every man will do to his neighbour, what he w^ould have his neighbour do to him. But alas ! at prefent, a few only, comparatively fpeaking, are enlightened, wife, and liberal ; the greatefl number are ftill ignorant, intolerant and foolifh. To rectify and improve the manners of foci- ety, and to increafe the happinefs of men, is much in the power of governments : and if they do not this, they deferve not the name. Vices indeed will be continually fpringing up, and private intereft will be counteracl:ing the public welfare. But if an enlightened and well regulated government undertakes to reform, and check vice; if laws, iimplc and impartial, are put in force with firmnefs and humanity; if thofc labours and purfuits which maintain and (526) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. 1X» and inflrud: the people, are properly encoura« ged ; if virtue and valuable talents meet uith jufl efteem ; if the members of a ftate be form* ed by a judicious and virtuous education, for the different departments they are to fill ; if youth is not wafted by thofe finful purfuits which bring ruin on a nation ; we may venture to affirm, that glory and happinefs will be the confequence, in whatever part of the world it fhall be put in execution. Hiftory, therefore, fhould teach men to en- deavour to remove thofe evils which are per- nicious to fociety ; to corred: the faults of go- vernment, and eftablifh public good upon a right foundation. It fhould teach legiflators^ llatefmen and judges, to enad good laws, and to put them vigoroufly and impartially in ex- ecution. It fhould teach the clergy to promote, by their dodlrine and example, the virtue and happinefs of Chriftians. It fhould teach all men, that perfedion is not to be found in this life ; that gqod and evil are blended together ; that we fhould patiently endure what we can- not cure ; and that we fhould conftantly attend to the difcharge of the focial duties, living in peace with, and doing good, to all. — We pro- mote our own welfare, when we confult the welfare of our neighbour. Afrer having made to pafs in review before the reader, the many tyrants who opprefled the earthy Lect.IX. modern history. (527) earth, the many madmen who laid it waile, the many fanatics who have been deceived -, it may be alked, of what advantage to mankind were the conquefls of Clovis, the cunning of Mahomet, the vi<5lories of Charlemagne, the invafion of William the Norman, the valour of Godfrey de Bouillon, the prudence of Rhodolph of Hapf- burgh, the politics of Charles V. the ambition of Philip II. and the genius of Richelieu. — Their empires, their triumphs, their conquefls, their politics ; thefe difappeared with them. The violent fhocks they gave the world have fcarcely left a trace behind. We contemplate with in- finitely more pleafure the difcoveries of Vafco de Gama and Columbus, the voyages of Ma- gellan and Drake; the great changes which the intrepidity of Luther and Calvin produced in the politics and religions of Europe ; the labours of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe, of Kepler and Galileo, the works of Bacon, Def- cartes, Newton and Locke ; the produdlions of TalTo, Shakefpear, Ben Johnfon, and Dryden, of Corneille, Raphael, and Michael Angelo. The ftudy of religious truths, of the fciences, arts, and Belles LettreSy have a more beneficial influence upon the mind, and produce more lafling effecfcs, than the mofl intimate acquaint- ance with the conquefls, politics, and intrigues of princes and flatefmen. FINIS. .5 ^; ^:"^: •:;>, -^-. ■ -.^^ ThelpS^of general history: in a Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer Library ^ ^ H i\ \- j^ 1012 00052 0686 f.'r ^'^ ^\-:.r^:m ^y^ V f\ ^\^'' ■ I * .1 z