Warficid Librar> THE ^ MECHANICAL CONCEPTION OF NATURE. GEORGE MACLOSKIE, Esq., D.Sc, LL.D., Professor of Biology in Princeton College, U.S.A. BEING A PAPER READ BEFORE THE VICTORIA IXSTITUTE. AUTHOR'S COPY. THE Warfield Library DEC 18 1925 imkx. St^^ ^<^4> MECHANICAL CONCEPTION OF NATURE. GEOEGE MACLOSKIE, Esq., D.Sc, LL.D., &c. Professor of Biology in Princeton College, U.S.A. BEING A PAPER READ BEFORE THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. AUTHOR'S COPY. THE MECHANICAL* CONCEPTION OF NATURE. By George Macloskie, D.Sc, LL.D., Professor of Biology in Priuceton College, U.S.A. MATTER and energy, which are distinct from and constantly acting upon each other, constitute, aloug with their various transformations, the stock-in-trade of physical science. The scientific investigator may not feel bound to go back of them, so as to ask whence they come and who gave them their qualities ; he has not to philoso- phize, but oniy to speculate about them, testing his specula- tions by observations of phenomena. He may speculate about matter having been at first in the shape of scattered atoms, subject to the pull of gravitation, this pull being " energy of position," and as the atoms came together into molecules, and ultimately into worlds, the energy of position was transformed into other forms of energy. The leading generalization of science is that neither matter nor energy is alterable as to the total amount in existence. But this is qualified by the facts that whilst matter is constantly collecting into masses, all kinds of * In this paper the word "Mechanical" is understood as having the meaning of " Pliysical and Chemical." — Ed. VICTORIA INSTITUTE TRAKSACTIOXS. A- 2 PROF. G. MACLOSKIE, D.SC, LL.D., ON energy are changing into light or heat, and light and heat are behig dissipated into space, with a tendency in the end to equaHze the temperature of the universe. While energy is changing from one form to another, as while heat is passing between objects of unequal temperature, it may be made to do work which is measurable in units. A machine is a con- trivance for getting some kind of motion or work out of it in the course of its transformations ; and the mechanical con- ception of nature signifies that all the physical movements and phenomena of the universe have been derived from the interaction of the matter and energy which are its constituent factors. This theory may be held in a theistic or an atheistical sense. The atheist may hold that the physical world is the only world, and that nothing else exists. The theist may hold that even admittitig all that the mechanical theory asserts, there are ethical and orderly phenomena in nature, not coming under the measurable categories of matter or energy, yet proving that there is close to us an extra- physical world, with extra-physical beings, and that there is a God before all and over all. Though energy is indestructible, its constant dissipation is a continual loss for all practical purposes. Fifty years ago scientitic men supposed that the world had been going on at the present rate from everlasting. Lyell admired the " sublime " view of the past history of our globe being an eternal round of similar cycles of geological formations, never beginning and never to end; and this was the scientific view of cosmogony taught in the text-books and encyclopaedias. But it is now omitted as belonging to ex])loded science ; since it was shown by Thomson that our universe probably had a beginning, and with equal probability is moving towards its conclusion. This depends on the puzzling fact that whilst many processes in nature can be reversed, by calling in new energy from the environment, the mechanism of nature as a wliole is not reversible. If a plant has its starch converted into sugar which is dissipated through the sap, it is able to reconvert the sugar and collect it again as starch. But why tlie cosmos is not a reversible machine we cannot tell. Clerk Maxwell somewhere suggests that as heat is only the general or average result of molecular movements, an inability to controvert the individual molecules puts the recovery of the general result beyond our reach. But liow does it come that the process is never reversed THE MECHANICAL CONCEPTION OP NATURE. 6 in nature, which has control over all the molecnles ? Why do we never see the dust ot" the graveyard come together into skin and flesh, and the bones reassemble, " bone to his bone," and the life and warmth return, so as to present us the living rnan, and the old becoming young again, reversing the process down to the ovum, and back through several generations ? and why does our sun not receive back all the heat that it has scattered over space ? This inverse process, though never observed, is, scientifically speaking, as easily conceivable as is the ordinary course. The considerations which apply to the entire universe are with proper limitations applicable to any part, as to our earth or to the microcosm ot our body. The earth and our body are, in whole or in part, machines at work, and a great deal more, and the task of science is to watch movements, transformations, and developments, and to formulate them into '• laws of nature." These laws appear to be absolutely uniform in their action, to amount in fact merely to transformatitnis of energy. The objection taken to physical law in general and to the uniformity of nature, as being only working hypotheses and incapable of demonstra- tion, is, we think, misleading. The uniform action of natural molecules and forces is the basis of all science and of all animal movements, and has never been known to play us false ; so that the unchangeable behaviour of the laws of nature is as well established as human experience can establish anything. But a unifonnitarian theory, holding that the sum total of activities in a particular place, as on the surface of the earth, has been the same at all times, is no part of science ; such an assumption was helpful to Sir Charles Lyell, and within limits had an element ot truth in it, but it very often led him astray. Most of the attacks on Christianity that profess to be based on the doctrine of uniformity of nature, really involve uniformitarianism. The general outcome of scientific discovery has been not only to verify the uniform action of natural law, but to bring larger provinces of nature into the realm of mechanism ; so that every new discovery becomes a contiibution towards the mechanical theory. At the outset the search was random, often after what we now deem impossibilities. But though it never alighted on perpetual motion, or the elixir of life, or the philosopher's stone, it was not lost labour. One class of phenomena after another came to be understood relatively to their conditions and physical causes. The astrologers 4 PROF. G. MACLOSKIE, D.SC, LL.D., ON sought for the horoscopes of their pati'ons, with exalted faitli as to the superiority of the heavenly bodies above everythiug terrestrial. But to the surprise and disgust of some of them, their labours proved that the planets are not very different from the earth, and that celestial movements are mechanical ; and they Avere compelled to settle down to observations and mathematics, as commonplace astronomers. When Newton investigated the forces that drive the machine, and Laplace finished off his Mecanique Celeste with his nebular theory, regarding the early development of the solar system as through a kind of physico-chemical embryology, and when their successors ascertained that gravitation-bonds and spec- troscopic lines annex the movements and matter of distant stars to our system, the conquest of mechanism over the heavens was complete. At the same time the dreams of the alchemists by a singular metamorphosis grew into the science of chemistry. And chemistry has reduced all terrestrial things, living and dead, to the SAvay of its molecular and atomic sovereignty. The stimuhis given to inductive research by the writings of Francis Bacon, and by the establishment of the Philoso- phical Society in the time of the Enghsh Commonwealth, sent many inquirers to examine the minerals and rocks and the old puzzle of the fossils. There was a good deal of groping in the dark, and many theories arose to stir up con- troversy and at length to rock the cradle of infant geology. . The sharp discussions attracted the public, who always enjoy seeing learned men set by the ears; the young science that excited so much controversy and feeling grew in favour, thriving on its difficulties ; and when Lyell worked it out on the mechanical plan, discovering as Whewell has aptly said, " a new set of physical powers which we may call geological chjn amies," men came to see that God's way ot form- ing the stratified and other rocks of the earth's crust was by the employment of nature's machinery. If for the moment we regard our world as devoid of living things, it is presented to us as mechanical throughout ; its rocks, minerals, and chemical processes; its waters and meteorology ; and the skies overhead with planets and suns. This starts the question whether such a world can bear testi- mony to God. Is the Psalmist justified when he declares that the heavens declare His glory ? may we not suppose the order to be merely a result ? What need is there of final causes where the efficient causes suffice ? llecent writers on Theism THE MECHANICAL CONCEPTION OP NATURE. O show a tendency to confine their arguments to the organic world, omitting the confessedly mechanical, which is by far the larger part of the universe ; as if they supposed that a dead world is not sufficient to prove a living and intelligent God. But the order of the cosmos, the original characters and harmonies of the many millions and millions of atoms, and their relation to energy, their capacities for contmuiug in extraordinary yet definite and well regulated ways, all point to the necessity of going beyond them for their com- mon origin. If the question of their origin does not properly belong to physical science, it certainly has an important place in philosophy and in the region of human faith, and thus has a claim on the attention of every man, and we can- not rest till we reach some unifying hypothesis, like that of the Divine Personality. Behind this hypothesis we cannot go, since all genetic lines when traced backward lead to it as the ultimate cause. The order of the universe may have been envoived according to Laplace's theory ; but why were the molecules so constituted and so situated as to come , naturally into this order? here the wisdom and will and power of the Author are all shown. So strong is this argu- ment that all who reject it are compelled either to fall back on something which involves greater difficulties, or to evade the issue by pleading Agnosticism. The mechanical theory does not dispense with the argument for theism, any more than the successful working of a machine negatives its pro- duction by an inventor and its control by a superintendent. Even when it works imperfectly we may not in a dysteleo- logical way argue from its defects that it had no inventor. Hence it does not exhaust the case to declare that a steam engine has a complete explanation of its going in its own mechanism, the fuel and water included, so that if these had all come together by accident it could still go, and if by similar accident rails were on the road, it could guide itself without having a horse in advance, not to pull it, but to direct its course, as (Jide Lyell) the inventor of the locomo- tive at first proposed. Yet most surely the perfection of the mechanism would not debar us from endeavoming to find its inventor and director. It is objected that we should see the finger marks of the engmeer in his work, and in rectifying its aberrations. But nobody has ever detected the finger marks by which our own mind governs our brain and our bodily organism ; and it is improbable that God is more clumsy in His methods than is the spirit of man. A 2 6 PEOF. G. MACLOSKIE, D.SC, LL.D., ON Francis E. Abbot condemns the application of the term machine, to the cosmos, suggesting in its place the term organism, which he makes to be a machine and something more, the addition being that internal ends arc provided for. We think that when regarded in this light, the term organism equally misses the mark ; the physical world includes all organic nature as well as inorganic, and is higher than the highest of organisms, as the whole exceeds its greatest part. But here we meet the fact that there is a great deal of mechanical structure in the human as in any other organism, and that the diathesis of the contemporary scientific mind is to make us entirely mechanical. Living things dwell on a mechanical earth, are subject to gravitation, heat and cold, contain lime and carbon and much water, and thus have much community with their environment. For a long time it was supposed that the souls of plants and animals lifted them in a semi-miraculous way above natural laws, that their parts and powers were somehow created by the " vital force " within. Mental phenomena were supposed to have no connec- tion with the body, save that of locality. Another class of thinkers were bold enough to turn all the forms and functions of the body into machinery ; to regard our frame as a large hydraulic machine with its accompani- ments. Geometrical figures and algebraic formulse were invented and applied to all organisms ; to explain the parts of flowers, the arrangements of leaves, the forms of shells, the vertebrae of animals, the action of the heart, the affinities or homologies between distinct species. These speculations, though many of them now seem ridiculous, sustained the interest of students, and fostered research. The discovery of the embryological method of investigation, and of the method of representing heat by its mechanical equivalent, introduced a new order of work both in morphology and physiology. We have found that the plant manufactures food and stores up energy which it has got from the sunshine, a process that is probably mechanical, or at least physical, though it is not yet fully understood. The activities of our body are as completely explained by the food which we consume as is the work of a steam-engine by the coal and water which are its food. It is in this way ascertained that the daily food of an able-bodied man will give as much energy as, if converted into its weight-equivalent, Avould raise his body about nine miles high ; this energy is used partly to keep up his tem- perature, replacing loss by radiation and evaporation, part of THE MECHANICAL CONCEPTION OF NATURE. 7 it for moving the organs of his body, part of it in external work. We can, therefore, compare him economically with the efRciency of a steam-engine ; it is only particular kinds of fuel that you can give to him ; but a loaf of bread and a pound of beef will give you more work if used as food by man. than if you had applied them to heat the boiler of a small steam-engine. It is found that the activity of muscles and nerves is dependent on a supply of blood containing nutritious matter; that electrical phenomena are observed; and that the muscular activity probably depends on a series of explosions with oxidations, which may be compared to the action of a set of minute gas-engines. The sense-organs and nerves resemble very closely a system of telegraph wires with their terminal key-boards. The semicircular canals and organ of corti in the ear, though not yet fully explained, have a correlation with the wave-lengths of sound ; and the eye includes in itself a whole system of optics, its lens giving fine exercise in determining focal lengths, with chromatic and circular aberrations and corrections, and the retina, with its rods and changing visual colours, suggesting that it must be an instantaneous photographic camera. The victory of the mechanical theory over these organs is only partial ; but all the same it is significant. As might be expected, theory at this part has run ahead of discovery. Some people venture to assert the mechanical (or at least chemical) evolution of life from dead matter. In ancient times it was the sceptics, like Lucretius, who denied spontaneous generation. Christian teachers were rather dis- posed to favour the idea of worms growing spontaneously within human beings, of frogs being within trunks of trees and rocks, of reptiles coming from the slime of the Nile. They have latterly come to oppose this doctrine, and the most ad- vanced scientific investigators agree with them in their oppo- sition. Professor Tyndall, when before the British Associa- tion he threshed to death the theory of spontaneous genera- tion, wound up with a parting prayer or scientific hope that after all, life may have arisen spontaneously in early geo- logical times. This would help him against the theists who are continually tormenting liim with their notions of the necessarily supernatural origin of life. Mechanism has not yet explained how life began, anymore than how matter and energy began. So the theory is not entirely successful. But though life may have been of supernatural origin, its subsequent working and progress may be purely mechanical. A 3 8 PROP. G. MACLOSKIE, D.SC, LL.J)., ON Mr. Darwin's theory of the origin of species "was an at- tempt assuming some simple vegetable and animal forms as a starting point, to derive from them in a mechanical way all the forms and functions of existing vegetable and animal life. Without going into details on this subject, whilst acknow- ledging both the strength and weakness of Darwin's theory, and that it assumes many factors which are not known to be mechanical, we have to face the fact that it has convinced the biologists, securing the general, though not the imiversal, assent of the only men who are able to deal with its argu- ments, many of whom would be glad enough to subvert it, if they only knew how. Though not entirely mechanical, it has unquestionably been a great gain for the mechanical con- ception of nature, just because the existence of many thousands of distinct species was formerly the chief argument on the other side. Assuming evolution of species to be true, the irreducible cases are, besides the origin of matter and energy, and the general order of the universe, the origin of vegetable and animal life, of sensation and intelligence in animals, and, furthermore, of self-consciousness and the moral faculty in man. We must also provisionally regard the origin of the human body as among the unreduced cases ; for although the evolution of man can be deductively obtained from the general theory, and finds partial confirmation in anatomy,* and although such a doctrine is readily reconcilable with the scripture narrative of man's creation, all attempts to find geological verifications have failed; so that, if man was evolved, the process must have been very rapid, or must have occurred in some region not yet explored ; and, indeed, it is hardly conceivable that such a being as Haeckel's Pithecan- thropus would be viable in the struggle for existence. The attempt to reduce mind to a mere synonym for the functions of the brain is based mainly on the relation between insanity and cerebral disease ; and is supported in some degree by the localization of functions. But Professor John Fiske's argu- ment appears to us conclusive, that our inability to turn thought into exact quantitative equivalents of mechanical force negatives its homology with merely physiological func- * At the same time Topinard shows that it is impossible to derive man from the Quadrumana, and that it will be necessary on the hypothesis of his evolution to start from the lower level of the Lemure. {L'Eomme da)is La Nature, ch. xxii.)^ THE MECHANICAL CONCEPTION OP NATUEE. U tions.* Bain's rejoinder tliat we cannot reduce to such equivalents a man's constitutional vigour fails, because this vigour is the complex result of the working of all the organs and tissues, and its component factors may be measurable. Whilst the weight of evidence appears to negative the purely physiological explanation of mind, we should not only be tolerant of, but encourage investigations that look in a different direction, as we are indebted to them for large ac- cessions to our knowledge of physiology. The eo-called " organic compounds " were atone time sup- posed to be obtainable only from living objects, but now- many of them can be artificially prepared, some to economic profit. The study of " physiological psychology," that is, of the functions of the brain from the physiological side, has already proved valuable. Ryder has shown that the calcifi- cation of bone is comparable with the calcifications around encysted trichinse, and is more of a physical process (depend- ing on the behaviour of calcareous salts in colloids), than exclusively vital. Biitschli has found the movements of liv- ing amoeba to be imitable by olive oil kept in moderately warm water, from which it is inferred that the movements of protoplasm are partly or exclusively physical. It is also now known that the non-coagulation of the blood sucked in by a leech is a physical phenomenon, which can be imitated b}"- keeping blood in vessels lined with oil. These attempts to approach the problem of life and of mind from the chemico- physical side mark the limits of the mechanical conception of nature as actually established. There has long time existed deep apprehension among Christians regarding the tendency of this kind of science. What we have now to face is not a remote risk, but a state of facts. If the mechanical theory means ruin to faith, then the deluge is upon us, only a few fragments (very important ones indeed) remaining to carry us to land. Now it must be conceded that mechanism has often been associated with atheistic materialism, and that atheists have welcomed such mechanical explanations as promised to explain the world without a God. The same consideration has led Christians to fight shy of Astronomy, Geology, Physiology, and recent advances in Biology, and to discountenance investigations and theories which promised to explain the world too well, lest science should explain away our God, and leave us ignoiant where to find Him. * Popular Science Monthly (New York), Sept., 189L 10 PROF. G. MACLOSKIE, D.SC, LL.D., ON Even those wlio are liberal enough to concede the consistency of mechanicisn] and theism, fear the effect of the new science on our faith in the Bible, and especially in the great miracle of the resurrection of Jesus Chi-ist ; a fear which has been intensified by attempts to account for all the miracles as natural occurrences or unfounded traditions. But whatever view may be held of the origin of mind, whether we regard it as a derivate under Divine direction from the material organism, or as a substance primitively created apart from matter, we are compelled by its actual phenomena to assign to it a certain measure of independent activity as to the moral quality though not as to the physiological quantivalence of cerebral action. We presume that the cerebration of the evil is as great quantitatively as that of the well disposed, and that the cerebration of an idiot involves as much expenditure of blood and brain-tissue as that of Newton ; but there are moral and intellectual scales by which brain-work must be weighed, independently of its chemico-physical value. In man as well as beast there is much of the mere machine or automaton ; and some have gone so far as to accord to the lower animals some measure of intelligence and will and often of " social virtues " which are found more liberally in ourselves. There is no special evidence of a soul in the lower animals any more than in plants ; but in consideration of man's moral endow- ments and aspirations, the science which has invented ether as a vehicle of light, regarding it as a specially active form of matter, ought not, even on a mechanical theory of mind, to reject the hypothesis of something that shall carry our personal identity, with our faith and our joys, into Heaven. This is a subject beyond the scope of inductive science; but there seems no ground for tear that our hopes of immortality are at stake, if we accept the mechanical concept in its entirety, Tne problem of miracles is frequently brought into the case, though not strictly pertinent. We do not think that any conceivable amount of evidence would convince us that a man rose from the dead at Jerusalem within the past year, or that we could be led to accept any of the mediaeval or modern so-called miracles in support of corrupt cults ; and pure cults make no claims to miracle-working. Thus in the ordinary course of nature we have no dispute with Agnostics as to the incredibility of miracles. The Bible-testimony for miracles is made to depend on the character of the Bible- THE MECHANICAL CONCEPTION OP NATURE. 11 revelation, with wliicli tliey stand or fall. The believer in the mechanical theory of the physical woild may be justified in acknowledging on appropriate evidence the existence of an / extra-physical world, with hosts of spiritual inhabitants, as Avell as in God, the Author and Governor of all : and that there may be, not physical, but equally effective means of communication between that world and our minds. Now if we have sufficient evidence in the pure and holy teaching of scripture, that it is a revelation from God, and that His !Son came down to redeem us from our sin, then the absence of miracles might prove a difficulty, evidence of their occurrence is admissible, and they may be consistent with and confirma- tory of the religion with which they are associated. They are the suitable accompaniments of a unique manifestation of the Divine love ; and we do not know whether they were accomplished by reversing, specially diverting, or expediting natural processes, or by supplementing them with other laws, or by pre-appointed combinations at the outset of the world. The Bible that records them warns us against strange miracles, and honours the laws of nature b}'- designating them as " the ordinances of heaven." These laws and forces are \ all God's appointed instruments, which He uses according to, and not in violation of their proper character, for the execu- tion of His purposes. It still remains true that the more perfectly we establish the mechanical mode of vicAving things the less prominence is given to their Maker. The old arguments of natural theology are said for this reason to have lost their vigour, and hence the exeellency of the cosmic system becomes a hind- rance to faith. This, however, is only apparently the case, for the mechanism requires the explanation which was once spent upon its products. Once we tried our hands on explaining how a watch was made ; now we are asked to account for the machine that makes watches, and that is always improving on the quality of its products, which it does according to natural selection by producing them in large numbers and of different qualities, and then securing the destruction of all but the best. In the childhood of science we investigated particular objects ; now we consider not the teleology of organs, but of the underlying dynamical ^■ principles which produce them and regulate their develop- ment. Many attempts have been made to banish from science the consideration of teleology, or purpose in nature. Investigators 12 PROP. G, MACLOSKIE, B.SC, LL.D., ON were afraid to employ teleological language, and whenever they drifted into it, they soon backed out, apologising for its momentary use. Their shyness has often prejudiced their work, for as Gassendi said long ago (Avith the case of Harvey's teleological work on the circulation of the blood fresh in his mind), " the final cause often leads to the discovery of tlie efficient cause." Now, however, the advance of the mecha- nical view is forcing teleology upon our attention ; for if the universe is a machine, it is by the same reasoning known to be a complexity of sub-machines, every one of which has its own purpose to serve. Hence we find Sachs, who has done more than any other man to apply ^ihe mechanical theory in botany, and who is not hide-bound by theology, pleading for tlie right to use the word purpose, calling it " a word which many fanatics of the theory of descent would, if possible, banish from our language," and adding that the whole of physiology is taken up with such questions. (Sachs' Lectures on the Physiology of Plants, Lect. I.) Huxley has made the dis- covery that physiological phenomena can be expressed in the language of teleology. (Huxley on The Crayfish, p. 137.) And though, like Sachs, he falls short of the theistic siguifi- cancy of this, he has more recently stated (in the chapter he contributes to the Life of Charles Darivin), that whilst Darwin- ism abolishes the commoner and coarser forms of teleology, it really reconciles teleology and morphology. In this sen- tence he adopts (perhaps unwittingly) the beautiful expres- sion by which Asa Gray showed at once his Darwinism and his faith, viz., " Let us recognise Darwin's great service to natural science in bringing back to it Teleology, so that instead of Morphology versus Teleology, we shall have Morphology wedded to Teleology." (Asa Gray, Letter in Xature, June 4, 1874.) Weismann argues in his Studies of Descent, that the mechanical conception of nature favours teleology, thus, " The harmony of the universe, and of that part of it which we call organic nature cannot be explained by chance. Mechanism and Teleology do not exclude each other, but are rather in mutual agreement. Without Teleo- logy there could be no mechanism, but only a confusion of crude forces; without mechanism there could be no Teleo- logy, for how could the latter otherwise effect its purpose ? " And quoting Von Hartman he says that, "the most complete mechanism conceivable is likewise the most completely con- ceivable Teleology " ; and adds Von Baer's definition of the laws of Nature, as " the permanent expression of the will of THE MECHANICAL CONCEPTION OP NATURE. 13 a creative principle." Charles Darwin's letter to Asa Gray, written in 1860, agrees with these views and with the stricter theology, though he knew it not. He wrote : " I am inclined to look at everything as resulting from designed laws — with the details left to the working out of what we call chance." The theologians say that under Divine Providence things '" fall out according to the nature of second causes, either necessarily, freely, or contingently." {West. Conf. Faith, v. 2 ; discussed in Cunningham's Reformers and Th. of Reformation, p. 493.) Darwin would save his use of the term chance, as only so relatively to our knowledge, and the theologians would explain that neither free will nor contingency is independent of the Divine bounding. The arithmetic of expectations and probabilities, as applied by actuaries to matters depending alike on free will and fortuity, seems to show that these things are somehow under law, though not in a fatalistic way, and that Darwin and the divines are at one with each other and with the truth : nor ought this argument to lose its value, if it appear that in later years Darwin's difficulties rather increased, for he was often be- wildered, so that he could not see his way. As to his chief difficulty, of there being too much misery in the Avorld, Bishop Temple has remarked that Darwinism itself has rather helped us to meet it, by showing that we are looking on a work not yet finished ; and besides this there is no evidence that misery was the end in view for any part of nature's machinery. W. Thistleton Dyer briefly gives the verdict in which all these witnesses are agreed, when he writes to the Duke of Argyll thus : " No scientific man is so foolish as to suppose that, however completely mechanical may be our conception of nature, he is in any way competent to account for its exis- tence. The real problem of all is only pushed farther back." (Dyer, Letter in Nature, Jan. 16, 1890.) The bearing of the mechanical conception of the universe may thus be summarised : 1. It is actually or provisionally established, save as to the origin of matter, of energy, of life, animal intelligence, and the body and soul of man. 2. It will not weaken, but rather fortify the evidence for design in nature, for theism, and for universal providence. Thus it is not materialistic, though it is accepted by some in a material- istic sense. 3. It will not invalidate the Divine claims of scripture : though it may favour naturalistic interpretations of the cosmogony, the deluge, and some other parts, in accord- ance with geological discoveries, and as suggested in the 14 TROF. G. MACLOSKIE^ D.SC, LL.D. Bible itself. 4. It will fortify the proper miracles of scripture, by showing that whilst incredible as part of the ordinary course of nature, they may be a unique case, bound to stand or fall along with the Divine character of redemptive revelation. 5. It will not weaken faith in personal immortality, or in the operations witliin us of Divine grace, or in the existence of an unseen spiritual world ; but it may favour the opinion that the human soul is derived from and dependent on some physical substratum. 6. Whilst recognising God's continued control over all parts of nature, we do not under- stand that His control involves any disturbancse of natural order or movements, nor that He is the only worker ; nor do we expect ever to understand how He is able to operate upon nature. We can operate upon our own bodily organism, and thence upon the external world ; but we caniiot tell how, except that we act in harmony with natural laws. The fact of the Divine intervention is equally credible, aad its mode must for ever remain equally inscrutable. JJauuxson and Sons, Printers in Ordinary to Her Majesty, St. Martin's Lane. OBJECT PAPER. CIjc Victoria Instiliiif, or 8, ADELPHI TERRACE, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. Correspondence (including communications from intending Members or Associates, &c.) to be addressed only to " The Secretary." THE PRIMARY OBJECTS. THIS SOCIETY has been founded for the purpose of promoting the following Objects, which will be admitted by all to be of high importance both to Religion and Science : — - First. — To investigate fully and impartially the most imi^oi-tant questions of Philosophy and Science, but more especially those that bear upon the great truths revealed in Holy Scripture. Second. — To associate Men of Science and Authors* who have already been engaged in such investigations, and all others who may be interested in them, in order to strengthen their eflbrts by association ; and by bringing together the results of such labours, after full discussion, in the printed Transactions of an Institution, to give greater force and influence to proofs and arguments which might be little known, or even disregarded, if put forward merely by individuals. Third.— To consider the mutual bearings of the various scientific conclusions ari'ived at in the several distinct branches into which Science is now divided, in order to get rid of contradictions and conflicting hypotheses, and thus promote the real advancement of true Science ; and to examine and discuss all supposed scientific results with reference to final causes, and the more comprehensive and fundamental principles of Philosophy proper, based upon faith in the existence of one Eternal God, Who in His wisdom created all things very good. Special advantages are secured to Country and Colonial Members and Associate;^ in the Journal of Transactions. THE JOURNAL OF TRANSACTIONS Contains the Papers read at the Meetings and the Discussions thereon. Before these are published in the Journal, both are finally submitted to their Authors for any revision, and MS. comments and supplementary remarks are added, which have been sent in by such British, American, and other Members to whom, as being specially qualified to contribute information upon the respective subjects, proof copies of the Papers had been submitted for consideration — the authors of Papers adding their final comments. These arrangements, which are found to add greatly to the value of the Journal, are carried out with a view to securing the special usefulness of the Journal to all, whether home or Non-resident Members or Associates ; these thus find in the Journal much valuable matter, and often much (contributed by men of learning in all parts of the world) in addition to that which had come before those actually present at the Meetings. (The Journal is sent post-free.) * The Society now consists of 1,200 Subscribers (about one-third of whom are Foreign Members); including Literary and Scientific Men and others favourable to the Objects. (Tne present average annual increase is upwards of a hiindred.) PTesident. Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S. Vice-Preside^nts. The Right Hon. Lord Halsbury, P.C, F.R.S., &c. Sir H. Barkly, K.C.B., G.C.M.G., F.R.S. Sir Joseph Fayrer, K.C.S.I., M.D., F.R.S W. Forsyth, Esq., Q.C., LL.D. W. H. Htjdleston, Esq., F.R.S., President of the Geological Society. Rev. Preb. R. Thornton, D.D. A. McArthur, Esq., M.P. The Council (24 Members). — Professor Alleynk-Nicholson, P.R.S.E. ; Revs. W. Akthur and Dr. Angus; Sir G. Buchanan, M.D., F.R.S.; The Bishop or WAKKriELD; J. Bateman, Esq., P.E.S.; Captain Creak, F.R.S.; His Excellency E. H. Gunning, P.R.S.E., F.R.C.S.E.; Surg.-Gen. Gordon, C.B. ; Dr. F. B. Hawkins, F.R.S. ; D. Howard, Esq., D.L., P.C.S. ; Professor E. Hull, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., &c. Trustees.— D. Howard, Esq., D.L. ; Rev. Dr. Wage; W. N. West, Esq. Hon. Auditors. — J. E. Wakefield, Esq. ; J. Allen, Esq. Honorary Treasurer. — William Nowell West, Esq.. F.R.Hist.Soc, &.c. Hon. Sec. and Editor of Journal. — Captain Francis W. H. Petrie, F.G.S., &c. Corresponding Members. Professor L. Pasteur, F.R.S. | Sir J. W. Dawson, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Dr. E. Naville. | Prof. Maspero. H. Rassam, Esq. | Prof. A. H. Sayce. H. M. Stanley, Esq. | Count D'Hulst. MEMBERSHIP. Intending Members and Associates are requested to address " The Secretary." The Annual Subscription for Members is Two Guineas., with Oiie Guinea Entiance Fee (See privileges). The Annual Subscription for Associates is 07ie Guinea, without Entrance Fee. (Both receive the Journal post free). In lieu of Annual Subscription, the payment of Twenty Guineas (without Entrance Fee) will constitute a Life Member, or Ten Guineas a Life Associate. The payment of a Donation of not less than Sixty Guineas qualities for the office of Vice-Patron, with all the privileges of a Life Member or Life Associate. [It is to be understood, that only such as are professedly Christians are entitled to become Members.^ *^* Subscriptions are payable to the "Victoria Institute's" credit at "Barclay's Bank," ], Pall Mall East, S.W., or may be remitted to the Secretary, at the Office. Cheques or Post Office Orders (on General Post Office) should be made payable to " Victoria Institute or order," and crossed " Barclay & Co." PRIVILEGES. Members — on election, are presented with the last published Volume of the Journal of the Transactions, and are entitled to a Copy of the Journal — either in the Quarterly Parts, or in the Annual (bound) Volume — for the years during which they may subscribe, and to a copy of any other documents or books which may be published under the auspices of the Society ; and, on application, to a copy of each of the twelve papers published in the " People's Edition." Also to the use of the Library (Books can be sent to the country), Reading and Writing Room, and to have any correspondence received and forwarded ; to introduce two Visitors at each Meeting, and, if they desire, to receive early proofs of any papers about to be read, in order that they may be the better able to place their opinions thereon before the Members (when unable to attend, they can do this in writing). The Council are chosen from among the Members, who alone are eligible to vote by ballot in determining any question at a General Meeting. Members are further privileged to obtain any of the One Guinea Volumes of the Transactions issued prior to their joining the Institute at half-price (half-a-guinea each), or any Quarterly Parts for past years at half- a-crown each. Members receiving the current year's Quarterly Journals can have them uniformly bound in cloth gilt at the year's end, free of cost. The Library, Reading and Writing Rooms are open, for the use of the Members, from ten till five (Saturdays till two). The Institute exchanges Transactions with the Royal Society and many other leading English and Foreign Scientific bodies, whose Transactions are therefore added to the Library. Associates— ARE entitled, to the Journal, in Quarterly Parts or in the Annual Volume, for the years during which they may subscribe ; to obtain the Journal for PAST years or copies of the 12 papers in the People's Edition at half price ; and to introduce one Visitor at each Meetiner. Members and Associates have the right to be present at all Meetings of the Society. The Meetings, of which due notice is given, are held at Adelphi Terrace, at Half- past Four o'clock on the afternoons of the First and Third Mondays of the Winter, Spring and Summer Months. < U «-r 00 c c ^ O ^ w > rt c c •< ^« H „ XJ p c c H lZi 5 ' — H C V) ^ l-H w H 2 O H j^ < <3* 1 - ^ C .■a o O i l-H < w 1 u > O o < H H iz; O (U o w in ^ •§ >> 1) Vi w pa O ^ + u o en r^'-^- P ►J >< 5 .<5 c o ^ -Si o o Ai o Ci 52 y Ph •S D -^^ ^ ;: CO 1) o t3 < u 1— 1 § ^ t o - § u > >-> '5! b -^ . o O w o H < S Pi -^ o 5 1 ^ 1 £ c« O c o o o *>5 •i 1 § ^^^ i ^ e:; ^ ^ ^ JOl JRNAL OF TRANSACTIONS VOL. XXII. 85. 86. 89. Annual Address bj' the President, Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart.. M.P., President of the Eojal Society. Speeches by Sir H. Barkly, K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir Eisdon Bennett, F.K.S., Sir F. L. McClintock, F.E.S., Mr. H. Eassam, &c. Note by the President on the one Origin of the Books of Eevelation, and of Nature. On Time and Space. By the Eev. W. Arthur. On the Names on the List of Thothmes III. at Karnac, their Geographical, Ethnographical, and Biblical Relations. By G. Maspero, with communications from Sir C. Wilson, K.C.B., F.E.S., Professor A. 11. Sayce, Eev. Canon Liddon, Mr. Le Page Eenoijf, Eev. Dr. Edersheim, Major C. R. Conder, Eev. H. G.Tomkins. Mapby the Author. On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor Duns, D.D., with remarks by Lord Grimthorpe, the Most Rev. the Bishop of Sydney, and others, and a note by Mr. T. Francis Rivers, F.L.S. On the late Professor Asa Gray. By the Editor. Note on the importance of Babylonian Excavations. By the Editor. On Human Foot-prints in Nicaragua. By Dr. D. G. Brinton. The Aborigines of Australia, their Ethnic Position and Relations, by J. Eraser, LL.D., F.R.S. (N.S.W.), with remarks by many travellers, also opinion of Prof. Max Mulleh. Oriental Entomology. By Eev. F. A. AValker, D.D., F.L.S. , remarks by several entomologists, including a note by Mr. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., on Mimicrj-. A Physical Theory of Moral Freedom. By Joseph John Murphy ; remarks by Sir J. Fayrbr, K.C.S.I., F.R.S. , the Hon. J. M. Gregory, LL.D., of Washington, &c. The Botanical Geography of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G. E. Post, D.D., M.D., with notes by Eastern Travellers. On Flint Arrow Heads of delicate structure. By the Et. Hon. Sir C. Murray, K.C.B, also a note on Cave Deposits. VOL. XXIII. Annual Address by Sir M. Monier-Williams, K.C.I.E., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., Bodeu Professor of Sanscrit in Oxford University. Speeches by the Bishop of Dunedin, Sir H. Barkly, K.C.B., G.C.M.G., Sir Eisdon Bennett, F.E.S., late Mr. H. W. Bristow, F.E.S., &c. On a few of the Contrasts between the Essential Doctrines ot Buddhism and of Christianity. By Sir M. Monibr- Williams, K.O.I.E., &c., &c. Coral Islands and Savage Myths. By H. B. Guppy, Esq., M.B. Discussion, &c., by Sn- G. G. Stokes, Bart, M.P., P.E.S., Captain W. J. L. Wharton, E.N., F.R.S., the Hydrographer to the Admii-alty, Mr. W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., Professor James Geikie, F.K.S., Mr. John Murray, of the Challengev Expedition, &c. On the Keeling Atoll. By Dr. Guppy^. 90. Colours in Nature. By Rev. F. A. Walker, D.D., F.L.S. On the Sciences of Language and of Ethnography. By Dr. Leitner, Ph.D., LL.D., D.O.L. Modern Science and ^Natural Religion. By Rev. 0. Godfrey Ashwin, M.A. Note on Science and Rehgion. By Captain F. Petrie, F.G.S. The Historical Results of the Excavations at Bubastis. By E. Naville, Ph.D. Remarks by Sir C. Newton, K.C.B., Dr. Reginald Stuart Poole, &c. i'l. Notes on the Ethnology and Ancient Chronology of China. By Surgeon-General Gordon, M.D., C.B. Remarks by Dr. Legge, Prof. Chinese, Oxford Univ., Dr. Bbal, Prof. Chinese, London Univ., &c. On Cuts on Bone as evidence of Man's Existence in remote ages. By Prof. T. McK. Hughes, F.R.S. Remarks by Prof. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., Prof. A. S. Woodward, F.G.S. , Rev. J. M. Mello, M.A., F.G.S., &c. The Butterflies and Moths of Africa. By W. F. Kirby, F.E.S. 5)2. The Fact(u's of Evolution in Language. By Mr. J, J. Murphy. Remarks by Professor Max MtJLLER. The Meaning and History of the Logos of Philosophy. By Rev. H. J. Clarke. The Dawn of Metallurgy. By Rev. J. Magens Mello, M.A., F.G.S. Remarks by Professor Sayce, Major Conder, Mr. J. Allen Brown, F.G.S., and others. VOL. XXIV.— 1890-91. 93. Annual Meeting. The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Tel, el Amarna. By the Rev. A. H. Sayce, M.A. , D.D., LL.D., Professor of Assyriolog3% Oxford University. Speeches by the Rt. Hon. Lord Halsbury, Lord High Cliancellor, Dr. Naville, Sir H. Barkly, K.C.B., F.R.S., &c.. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S., Sir J. Risdon Bennett, F.R.S., Captain E. W. Creak, R.N., F.R.S., and others. On the Cauaanites. By Major C. R. Conder,- R.E., D.C.L. 114. Instinct and Reason. By C. Collingwood, Esq., M.A., M.B., M.R.C.P. F.L.S., &c. Remarks by Professor Hull, F.R.S. , and others. The Science of Rectitude as Distinct from Expedience. By Rev. H. J. Clarke. God in Nature. By Professor E. Hull, D.C.L. , F.R.S. , Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland. Man's Place in Nature. A Note. By the Editor. 5)5. Land Tenure in Ancient Times in Palestine. By Rev. J. Neil, M.A. Remarks by tho Right Hon. Lord Halsbury, Lord High Chancellor, Mr. F. Seebohm, Mr. S. Bergheim, Dr. Chaplin, ana other Eastern Travellers. The Botany and Entomology of Iceland. By Rev. F. A. Walker, D.D., F.L.S. Remarks by Dr. J. Rae, F.R.S., Dr. G. Harley, F.B.S., Professor Logan Lobley, F.G.S., &c. Tho Origin of Man. An address thereon by Professor Rudolph Virchow. 9(i. The Disjiersal of Plants as illustrated by the Floi-a of the Keeling Islands. By H. B. Guppy, Esq., M.B. Remarks thereon by Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., Mr. John Murray (C/iaUeiir/er Exiiedition) and others. Sketch of the Geological History of Egvpt and the Nile Valley. By Professor E. Hull, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., with map. VOL. XXV. -1891-92. y?. The Monism, Pantheism, and Dualism of Brahmauical and Zoroastrian Philosophers. By Sir M. Monier Williams, K.C.LE., D.C.L. On the Post Glacial Period. By Professor W. Upham, Assistant State Geologist^ U.S.A. (a note). On Human Responsibility. By the Right Hon. Lord Grimthorpe. Remarks by Prebendary H. Wace, D.D., Principal of King's College, London. Chinese Chronology by Professor J. Legge, M.A., Oxford University. Remarks by Sir Thomas Wade, G.C.M.G., and others. The Garden of Eden, a oritioism on the views of certain modern writers. By Hormuzo Rassam, Esq. Remarks by Su- G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S., Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., Professor A. H. Sayce, D.D., Mr. T. Pinches, Major Conder, D.C.L., &c., M. Bertin, and others. With a map engraved by Mr. Stanford from the official surveys. Annual Meeting. Islam. By Rev. W. St. G. Tisdall, M.A. Remarks by Sir T. Ford, Major Condek, D.O.L. , Dean Goulbukn, Rev. Dr. Kcelle, Rev. H. Lansdell, D.D., M.R.A.S., Mr. Rassam, and other authorities.