m^ fSl.RIClE.4S ;■.-.:. r :.■;-.■- ; : ii :: |! :• '. :v 1 ; ;' ' : : :i: : ;i i;:ii:;"! ■'■ tibtavy of Che Cheotygiccd Seminary PRINCETON « NEW JERSEY •a®* PRESENTED BY William Brent on Greene, D.D. 3SSII ;;!! 1 FAC-SIMILE OF TITLE PAGE TYNDALE'S NEW TESTAMENT. OUR Sixty-Six Sacred Books: HOW THEY CAME TO US, AND WHAT THEY ARE. A POPULAR HAND-BOOK FOR COLLEGES, SUNDAY-SCHOOLS, NORMAL CLASSES AND STUDENTS, ON THE ORIGIN, AU- THORSHIP, PRESERVATION, CHARACTER AND DIVINE AUTHORITY OF THE CHRISTIAN SCRIPTURES. By EDWIN W. RICE, D. D. PHILADELPHIA : THE AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION, 1122 Chestnut Street. New York : 8 & 10 Bible House. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The members of a Bible Study Circle, composed of ad- vanced students and teachers, requested the author to give a series of lessons or studies upon the origin, authorship, preservation, character and divine authority of the books of the Bible. These lectures were afterward written out and issued in The Sunday-School World. The kindly recep- tion given to the studies, and the call for them by a wider circle of Bible students, has led the author to revise, en- large and adapt them to more general use. His hope is that they may lead to a more intelligent knowledge of our sacred books, and a more reverent faith in the Christian Scriptures. Edwin W. Rice. Philadelphia, October, 1891. [Copyright, 1891, by The American Sunday-School Union.] CHAPTER I. THE ANGLO-AMERICAN AND KING JAMES VERSIONS. Introduction, i. The three foremost nations of the world in: (i) literature and learning; (2) science and dis- covery; (3) commerce and wealth, are Christian. They are Great Britain, Germany and the United States of America. 2. Ask these three great nations for their greatest book in respect of:(i) its circulation and popularity; (2) its influence on their national life ; (3) its deep hold on the heart of the people, and they will unhesitatingly and unitedly answer, The Bible. 1 3. The educated Mongolian or Malayan is eager to know about this great book. The inquiring Asiatic mind bristles with questions. What kind of a book is that Bible? What is it about ? How did you get it ? Who wrote it ? How long ago was it written ? For whom was it made ? Has everyone in Christian lands a copy? Is it found in other languages ? In how many ? How was it written ? How preserved ? Who translated it into your Christian tongues? Why is' it not found in all languages? Even among Christians, thoughtful and wise, these and a hundred 1 Bible comes from the Greek Biblia, plural of Bib/ion, " little book," a diminutive of Biblos, " book." The Latin plural also, Biblia, is used by Chaucer in Canterbury Tales, and by Wyckliffe in the Preface to his translation, and as a title by Coverdale. (7) 8 THE ANGLO-AMERICAN AND other questions start up demanding intelligent answers. In fact, every Christian ought to have some knowledge of the history, the origin, contents, and purpose of the great- est book in Christendom. These questions are worthy of scholarly and clear answers. Let us address ourselves to them. We will trace the history of the book up the stream of time. Beginning with what is most familiar and best known we will proceed step by step to what is less known. 4. The Anglo-American Version. The latest English translation of the Bible is the Anglo-American or Re- vised Version, printed at Oxford and Cambridge, Eng- land, 1 881-1885. It is known as the Anglo-American or Revised Version to distinguish it from the Common Version frequently called also the Authorized Version, and the King James Version} 5. A revision of the Common Version was suggested by Prof. Selwyn in 1856, but not then approved by scholars. It was again urged by Bishops Wilberforce, Ellicott, Olli- vant, and others of England, in 1870, and a committee of 16 (8 from each house) was appointed by the Convoca- tion of Canterbury, with authority to invite other eminent Biblical scholars to join them in the revision. 2 A com- mittee of American scholars of all the leading Protestant bodies of America (as in Great Britain) was formed in 1871, to co-operate with the British committees in revis- 1 It is called the Common Version because it is the English transla- tion now most widely used by English-speaking people ; the Author- ized Version because it was supposed (but erroneously) to have been formally approved or authorized by royal authority, and King James Version because it was made during the reign of James I., King of England. 2 The Convocation of York declined to join in the revision, but many of the greatest scholars of England, Scotland and America were en- gaged in the work. KING JAMES VERSIONS. V ing the Common Version of the Bible of 1611. The whole number of scholars engaged upon the Revised Version was 101, of whom 67 were British, and 34 American. 1 6. The revision of the New Testament was completed in 1 88 1 and issued May 17 in England and May 20 in America. The Old Testament was finished and the entire revised Bible issued in May, 1885. The issue of the revised New Testa- ment in 1 88 1 awakened a profound interest among all Eng- lish-speaking peoples. "It is the literary event of this century," says Schaff. Millions of copies were sold in a few months. 2 More than twenty reprints at once appeared in the United States. For once popular interest in the newspapers was supplanted by that in the revised Scrip- tures. 3 The revised New Testament was sought by crowds at the bookstores and news stands ; it was hawked on the streets, and read on the cars, in the omnibus and in the stage coach. The entire text of the revised Testament was telegraphed to two daily newspapers in Chicago and printed complete in morning editions ! When the revised Old Testament was completed four years later the entire revised Bible was issued, but its advent awakened comparatively little interest. Public curiosity and excitement exhausted itself apparently upon the New Testament. 7. Why Revise the King James Version ? — (1) To remove obsolete words and phrases, as "let" in the sense of "hinder;" "ear" meaning "to plow;" "prevent" in 1 The active members (in 1879) were 79, namely, British 52, Amer- ican 27. See Bible Revision, Philadelphia, pp. 10-12. 2 Oxford had orders for a million of copies before publication ; Cambridge probably for as many more. Two million copies were sold in London. Nearly half a million were sold in New York and Phila- delphia, besides many American reprints published soon after its com- pletion. 3 See Schaff, Companion to Greek Testament, p. 403 flf. 10 THE ANGLO-AMERICAN AND the sense of "going before;" "carriages" meaning " baggage " or " luggage." (2) To give the meaning of the original with greater precision, to keep step with the progress of knowledge in the Greek and Hebrew of the original Scriptures. (3) To conform to a purer text now attained. More than 500 valuable MSS, a score of An- cient Versions, and writings of 100 Christian Fathers have been examined and collated, in order to perfect the origi- nal text of Scripture. 8. Will the Revision be Generally Accepted? — Time alone can definitely answer. It is widely used with the Common Version in Sunday-school lesson helps ; some prominent re- ligious journals use it instead of the Common Version, and eminent Biblical scholars constantly refer to it in criti- cal works. It has not, however, come into very general use among the people, nor among the churches. 1 9 . Objections to the Revised Version. — Three serious obsta- cles exist in the popular mind to its general introduction : (1) The omissions and changes in passages long familiar and of forms of expression deeply endeared to the Chris- tian heart. 2 (2) Printing the text in paragraphs, disre- garding the breaks of chapter and verse. Although the new arrangement is a gain in getting the sense of a passage, it hinders quick reference to a desired clause or verse. 1 The Baptist Convention at Saratoga, N. Y., 1883, agreed to adopt and circulate the Anglo-American revision with the American changes put into the text, along with the Bible Union Version. Some churches among the Baptists and Congregationalists use the Revised Version, and it is occasionally read from the pulpit in a few churches of other denominations. 2 One of the most serious omissions, to the common reader, is the doxology to the Lord's Prayer, Matt. 6 : 13. Among other changes are: " Every Scripture given by inspiration is profitable," etc., 2 Tim. 3: 16; "Ye search the Scriptures," John 5 : 39, and numerous texts in thePsalms and Prophets. KING JAMES VERSIONS. 11 Marking the chapters and verses in the margin does not overcome this objection ; for the eye misses the familiar breaks in the text and does not readily catch the verse or clause desired. (3) The omission of chapter headings and running head-lines at the top of each page. To satisfy the ordinary reader, these must be inserted. He will not accept the excuse that their insertion ?night lead the trans- lator into "the province of the commentator." The words added in the text (in italics) in the Revised and in previous Versions are often equivalent to a comment, and should be excluded by a strict application of that rule. The outlook for the new version to displace the old is not yet very promising. It has been sharply criticised by some able Biblical scholars in Great Britain and America. 10. It must be remembered, however, that the present "Authorized Version" was also criticised and was from thirty to fifty years in coming into popular and universal use ; but it finally displaced the popular Genevan Version and the Bishops' Bible, which had been favored by royal and by ecclesiastical authority. 11. American scholarship was tardily, though on the whole fairly, recognized in the work. Over 900 American suggestions in the New Testament were adopted by the British revisers. 1 1 Among the more important American renderings which the Eng- lish revisers were unwilling to adopt were : (1) " demon " or " demons" for " devil" or " devils" in such phrases as "to cast out devils." The Bible speaks of many evil spirits, but of only one devil; (2) "who" or "that" in place of "which" when applied to persons, and to substi- tute modern forms of speech for such archaic forms as " wot," "wist," "hale ; " (3) " hades" for "hell " when the Greek refers to the realm of the dead, using "hell " to apply only to the place of torment : a distinction the English revisers admitted in the book of Revelation ; (4) a more accurate designation of coins; (5) omit the title "Saint" and "Apostle " in the headings to New Testament books. See " Ap- 12 THE ANGLO-AMERICAN AND 12. Conservative Plan. — The principles guiding the re- visers were very conservative. They were to make " as few alterations as possible," as already stated. About 36,000 were made in the New Testament, but proportion- ately fewer in the Old Testament. They were to limit the "expression of such alterations to the language of the au- thorized or earlier versions." About 6,000 changes were made in the Greek text of the New Testament ; but com- paratively few changes in the Hebrew and Chaldaic text of the Old Testament. 1 The original text followed (He- brew and Greek) was to " be that for which the evidence is decidedly preponderating." No radical changes could be made under the rules adopted, nor could an essentially new translation be introduced under cover of revision. Even those who criticise the infelicitous English it occasionally uses, admit that the renderings generally represent the original more accurately than previous English versions. If this proves to be true, the Revision can afford to wait ; truth is stronger than prejudice and error, and will finally prevail. Let us now consider the translation upon which the Revised Version was based. 13. The King James or "Authorized Version." This version of the Bible was proposed by Dr. Reynolds, 2 of pendix " to Revised Testament, and Companion to Revised Version by A. Roberts, Am. ed., pp. 177 fif. Also Companion by Schaff. 1 Of the nearly 6,000 changes made in the Greek New Testament text, and over 36,000 changes in the English New Testament of the Authorized Version, the great majority are of trivial or minor im- portance, and would not be noticed by the common reader. Of the 179,914 words in the Revised New Testament 154,526 are retained from the " Authorized Version." See R. Wendell, Revised New Testament. 2 Dr. Reynolds was a Puritan and President of Corpus Christi Col- lege, Oxford. He was stoutly opposed by Bishop Bancroft, but James I. was vain, and aped Solomon for wisdom. KING JAMES VERSIONS. 13 Oxford, and ordered by James I., in 1604. The king ap- pointed fifty-four translators (probably suggested by the universities) ; but the work was delayed for three years, and the list we have gives only forty-seven scholars cer- tainly known to have entered upon the work. They were divided into six companies. Each company was assigned a portion of the Bible (including the Apocrypha) to trans- late ; two companies meeting at Westminster, two at Ox- ford and two at Cambridge. 1 14. Principle of the Version of 161 1. — This translation was to conform to the Hebrew and Greek texts; but the then current Bishops' Version "was to be as little altered as the truth of the original will admit." The older versions, as Tyndale's, Coverdale's, Whitchurch's and the Genevan, might also be used when they agreed " better with the text than the Bishops' Bible. " 15. King James' Version a Revision. — In fact, therefore, the King James Version was a revision, rather than an en- tirely new translation. This is also implied by the title-page in our common Bibles. 2 When the scholars appointed by King James had completed their revision or translation, six of their number (some say twelve) met to review the work and correct the printer's proofs. It was issued in a black-letter folio volume by R. Barker, with a fulsome dedication to 1 The first company at Westminster had the books of the Old Testa- ment to 2 Kings ; the second company had the Epistles of the New Testament. The first company at Oxford had the prophetical books from Isaiah to Malachi ; the second had the four Gospels, Acts and Revelation. The first company at Cambridge had the other Old Testa- ment books, and the second had the Old Testament Apochryphal books. 1 " The Holy Bible, translated out of the original tongues ; and with the former translations diligently compared and revised." Some English Bibles add, "By his majesty's special command." "Appointed to be read in churches." 14 THE ANGLO-AMERICAN AND the king and a pedantic preface written by Dr. Miles Smith, giving the reasons for the work and the principles guiding those who did it. 1 6. Why called "Authorized Version" — The King James Version is popularly, though not accurately, called the "Authorized Version." On the title-page as now printed in England is a notice, "Appointed to be read in churches." But this was not on the first edition of the New Testament of 1611, nor on several editions of the Bible issued in the first five years after the issue of the King James Version, The most diligent search of officials and scholars has failed to find any evidence that the version was ever publicly sanctioned in 161 1 by convocation, privy council, parliament or by the king. It gained the title possibly because the work was ordered by the king. The version (for it was not a new translation) gradually dis- placed the existing versions (the Bishops' and the Genevan), and won its way to popular acceptance by its superior merits. But the contest was a long one. The King James Version was attacked for lack of fidelity to the Hebrew and Greek text. Romanists likewise accused it of misrepre- senting Scripture to favor Protestantism. Arminians charged it with a Calvinistic bias, Puritans with a leaning to the Church of England, and others with favoring mo- narchical notions. (See 1 Pet. 2 : 13.) 1 7. For more than twenty years after the issue of the King James Version the Genevan Version was widely, if not generally, used in private and public worship. Though no edition of the Bishops' Bible was issued after 1608, the New Testament of the Bishops' Version appeared in at least five editions from 1608 to 161 8. Editions of the Genevan Version of the New Testament and of the Bible continued mm. ; : n^ r wmm &?•<& • s« ^ICvT THE HOLY BIBLE. C onioning the Old Tef lament. A2iJ> TUE KSHT. ■Nttrlv Tran/fclr/tut ' efltit Onpjnjl, lenruej & ipith tkr/i'rmsrlrjn/l'dlicnt duiQtnlly cfnAared ani rruifcJ hyhit M "itJlicsjJieriatlComenitmmli *y{j^nr.ws. utrm/ijr Cfurcncr.- jbarkeryfiinlrrij tlie%\ar jm m . . . :;>V I k' r f*ft KING JAMES VERSIONS. 17 to be issued freely up to 1644. Texts for sermons were chosen from the Genevan or other versions than the so- called Authorized Version, even by bishops and those high in authority, for many years after 161 1. Even as late as 1653 parliament considered a bill for the appointment of a committee to revise the King James Version. This project failed, as parliament soon after dissolved. The house of Stuarts was restored to the rule of England, and the version of 161 1 was left to win its way over all previous versions and to remain the popular English version since that period. 18. Changes in the Version of 161 1. — Comparing a com- mon English Bible of now with a copy of the first issue of 161 1, marked differences are at once seen. Not only is a difference seen in the forms of the letters and in the spell- ing of many words, but in the readings of numerous pas- sages. 1 After the folio edition of 161 1, the King James Version appeared in an octavo form in 161 2, and in an edition omitting the apocryphal books in 1629. The errors of the earlier issues were corrected in editions of 161 6, but especially of 1629 and 1638. 2 Bishop Lloyd's edition, of London 1701, was the first that gave chronological dates in the margin, based chiefly upon the chronology of Ussher. 1 For instances of this, see Scrivener's Preface to the Cambridge Paragraph Bible. Even the folio edition of 1613 differs from that of 161 1 in over four hundred places. 3 The errors of some editions gave them celebrity, as the " Vinegar Bible" (a splendid and costly one), Oxford, 1717, so called from a misprint of vinegar for vineyard in heading of Luke 20. The "Wicked Bible" (8vo. 1631) was so called from the omission of " not " in the seventh commandment, and Laud fined the king's printers ^300 for their carelessness in printing it. A copy of the " Wicked Bible " is in the Lenox Library, New York. There is a German Bible, 1731, with a similar blunder. The "Breeches Bible" was so called from the reading of a Genevan edition, " made them- selves breeches," Gen. 3 : 7. 18 THE ANGLO-AMERICAN AND KING JAMES VERSIONS. Additional marginal references were inserted by Dr. Paris in 1762, and by Dr. Blayney in 1769. 19. No Standard Edition of the King James Version. — The Committee on Versions (1851-56) of the American Bible Society found twenty-four thousand variations in six different editions of the Authorized Version, and recom- mended improvements, which were adopted, including re- visions of the chapter headings. So great was the popular opposition to these changes, that the society was compelled to discontinue issuing the amended edition and return to the old issues, with all their variations and imperfections. This, however, shows how strong a hold the Bible has upon the popular heart. We have therefore no standard edition of the "Authorized Version " of the English Bible. The King James Version of the English Bible belongs to the golden age of English literature, the age of Shakespeare and Milton and the greatest of English classics. It pos- sesses the strength of the Saxon, the grace of the Norman French, and the dignity of the Latin, harmoniously mingled into vigorous and perspicuous English. CHAPTER II. EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. i. The Common Version a Growth. — Our common Eng- lish Bible, the King James or so-called "Authorized Ver- sion," is the outgrowth of many preceding versions, and the fruit of more than two centuries of labor by many eminent Biblical scholars. 2. The Douai Version. — The great eagerness of the people for the Bible in their own tongue compelled the Romanists to issue a version, as they state, " specially for the discovery of the corruptions of divers late translations and for clearing the controversies in religion of these days." 1 The New Testament was published at Rheims, 1582. The Old Testament was translated about the same time, but was not published until 1609-10 at Douai or Douay, and the Douai Bible complete at Rouen, 1633-35. The work is believed to owe its origin to William Allen, one of the founders of the college at Douai. The transla- tion is from the Latin Vulgate, and was made by Gregory Martin and three or four other English scholars. Modern editions of the Douai Version differ widely from the orig- inal version. Cardinal Wiseman says, " To call the Roman Catholic version now in use the version of Rheims and Douai is an abuse of terms. It has been altered and mod- 1 From title-page, Rhemish New Testament, 1582. 2 (19) 20 EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. ified till scarcely any verse remains as it was originally published." 1 The Roman Church has never been friendly to vernacular translations of the Bible, and hence the Douai Version has had a comparatively small circulation. Though it may have contributed some minor improvements to the King James Version, it is not in the line of succession of that version. The next link immediately back of the King James Version is the Bishops' Bible. 3. The Bishops' Bible was prepared by Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, and ten or fifteen men of learn- ing, most of whom were bishops ; hence its title Bishops' Bible. It was completed, and a copy presented to Queen Elizabeth, in 1568. Parker issued a revised edition in 1572. This version is also sometimes called Parker's Bible. 4. Why Made. — The Genevan Version (see p. 21) with brief explanatory notes had become the Bible of the com- mon people, having displaced the Great Bible of Cranmer, used by the clergy and in the church services. As the Great Bible was not as accurate a translation as the Genevan, and could not regain its former popularity, a new version was attempted which would be more acceptable to royalists than the Calvinistic and republican ideas reflected in some of the comments of the version by the Puritan reformers of Geneva. 5. The Bishops' Bible was completed in about three years. The rules laid down by Parker were conservative and simple : (1) To follow the common English translation used in the churches, except where it varied from the orig- inal ; (2) to use chapter and verse divisions as in Pagninus and Munster; (3) to make no "bitter notes;" (4) to change indelicate words to "more convenient terms." It 1 Wiseman's Essays, vol. i. pp. 73-75. EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. 21 contained marginal notes, references and brief comments explanatory of the text. 1 6. Several editions of the Bishops' Bible were issued ; the last in 1608. In 15 71 Convocation ordered that every archbishop and bishop should have a copy of this version, " of the largest volume," placed in his hall or dining-room for the use of servants or strangers, and also a copy in every cathedral, and if possible in every church. This was clearly at that time the so-called "Authorized Version." It supplanted the Great Bible, but the Genevan held its place with the people. 7. The Genevan Version was made by English reform- ers who found a refuge in Geneva from the persecution of Queen Mary, and was published in 1560. 8. Genevan New Testament, 1557. — Three years earlier a translation of the New Testament into English was made at Geneva by William Whittingham (aided perhaps by others), who had married Calvin's sister. 9. The Genevan Bible was a distinct work, begun in 1558 and completed in 1560. The translation was the joint work of a company of learned men, among whom were Coverdale, Knox, Whittingham, Goodman and Cole. But the translation of the New Testament in the Genevan Bible was a careful revision of the Genevan New Testament of 1557. 10. Popular Merits of the Genevan Bible. — (1) The translation was from the best original texts then known. (2) Its form was a neat quarto instead of the clumsy folio. 1 Some of the comments are curious : Rom. 1 1 : 8 reads, " the spirit of remorse ;" the comment is, " pricking and unquietness of conscience." Isa. 66 : 3 reads, " he that killeth a sheep for me knetcheth a dog ; " the note explains, "that is, cutteth off a dog's neck;" a much-needed note ! 22 EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. (3) Explanatory notes on hard texts (Swiss in doctrine and politics) were given in the margin. (4) The type was clear Roman in place of the unsightly black letter formerly used. (5) The text was broken into chapters and verses after Stephens' Greek Testament (155 1) and Pagninus' Latin (1528), but adding numerals at the beginning of each verse. (6) Chapter headings, references and (in Henry's edition, 1578) a Bible dictionary of value. 11. A careful revision was made by L. Tomson, in 1576, and the Genevan was the first Bible printed in Scotland, 1579. It was the first complete English translation of the Bible direct from the Hebrew and Greek} The comments were lucid, vigorous, sometimes dogmatic, but generally practical. It quickly gained a wide popularity. At the accession of the Roman Catholic Mary, the public use of the English Bible was forbidden in churches ; all copies that could be found were burnt (with an army of martyrs), and not a single Bible was printed in England during her five years' rule. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, the Bible was again freely read. Not less than 130 editions of the Genevan Bible were printed, over 90 of them before 161 1. It retained its popularity for a generation after the King James Version appeared. 2 12. The Great Bible (1539) was edited by Miles Cover- dale under direction of Thomas Crumwell. Paris was 1 The Old Testament shows that Coverdale's Great Bible was care- fully consulted, and the New Testament that Tyndale's Version was followed. It is nicknamed the " Breeches Bible," from its rendering " made themselves breeches," Gen. 3 : 7. 2 Yet the King James editions of 161 2-1 3 had a title-page the fac- simile of the Genevan (heart-shaped oval with twelve tribes and twelve apostles in margin), and other editions copied the form and style of the Bishops' Bible in order to supplant more easily these popular versions. Eadie, Hist., vol. ii. p. 291. FACSIMILE (REDUCED) OK TITLE PAGE OF THE GREAT RIIJLE. EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. 25 famous for the excellence of its paper and type. Cover- dale went thither to have it printed. But the work was in- terrupted by order of the Inquisition and many sheets seized. Most of these were recovered, and, with types, presses and men, brought to England, where the work was issued in 1539. It has an elaborately engraved title-page designed by Hans Holbein, the most famous wood-en- graver of his day. 1 From its large size, 14 x 9 inches, this work was called The Great Bible. A second edition in 1540 had a preface by Cranmer, from which it has been in- accurately called Cranmer 1 s Bible. It is likewise called Whit ec hit r cti s or Whitchurch' s Bible, after the name of the printer. The version is mainly a careful revision of Cover- dale' s Bible of 1535, and is of special interest because the Psalter and the Scripture selections in the communion ser- vice of the English Church Prayer-book are from the Great Bible. It remained the "Authorized Version " for twenty- eight years; indeed, strictly it is the only "Authorized Version," for neither the Bishops' nor the King James Ver- sion ever had formal royal approbation or authority. 2 13. Coverdale' 's Bible, 1535, which the Great Bible closely resembled, was based largely upon the Latin Vul- gate and German Versions, as the title to his New Testa- ment honestly states. 3 The German versions used were doubtless Luther's and the Zurich ; Pagninus and the Latin Vulgate, and Tyndale, probably make up the "five inter- preters" Coverdale says he followed. The chief merit of 1 A fac- simile of the title-page is given from Moulton's History of the English Bible. 2 See Eadie, Hist. Eng. Bible, vol. i. p. 383. ■ " P.iblia— the Bible : that is the Holy Scripture of the Olde and N«we Testament faithfully and truly translated out of Douche and Latyn in to Englishe MDXXXV." 26 EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. his version is its pure, strong English idiom, sometimes quaint withal, but generally musical. Some of the most rhythmical and familiar passages in the Psalms come to us from Coverdale's Version. He also edited a New Testa- ment, 1538, with the Latin and English side by side. 14. Matthew'' s Bible, 1537, which was issued soon after Coverdale's, and before the Great Bible, was the reputed work of Thomas Matthew. But this was clearly an as- sumed name, and it is almost certain that the real author was John Rogers the martyr. Rogers was a friend of Tyn- dale, and the translation is substantially the version of Tyndale except from Ezra to Malachi, which is almost identical with Coverdale's, 1535. 15. Taverner's Bible, 1539, * s a comparatively unimpor- tant revision of Matthew's Bible, the chief difference in the Old Testament consisting in the omission or abridg- ment of the notes. In the New Testament changes were made in the text also, some of them valuable ; but his ver- sion is of unequal merit. As a scholar Richard Taverner was capricious. 16. Tyndale's New Testament Version, 1526. — When a learned papist declared with some zeal to William Tyn- dale, "We were better be without God's law than the pope's," Tyndale replied, " If God spare my life, ere many years I will cause a ploughboy to know more of the Scripture than thou doest." Though he died a martyr, 1536, he was able to fulfill his declaration. But he was compelled to leave England in 1524 and completed his translation in exile. 17. Tyndale 1 s New Testament, IS 26, was the first Eng- lish version made directly from the Greek, (since Wyc- liflfe's version was from the Latin Vulgate), and the first o «o J2 X? cr C9 O **• C? *= <* a £* P> cf tv* «-r «-t 3 o 2= — >5 ^r^.^*3 cr^ J5 •ar_ «= w p a -« o ^=.*» o *^ •* S 1 ^ & Ji o CT S «-» #*> ^r. cs CT « £v* «> C P w^ n »t "> «— s tft £ 3 S.<£ ft § ~ ?*g"* 5§ . 5 §«5.& y* f. ^ o- €^2 p P o p *> B. ««r*» C P o «»-# S <.« «> p J* O 0> *» £' £> p -^ o;<* P ^ P *** 5 •^ ^ C» 0) p o 7 cr — — op •*» • « rf ** °, o ^— *^ — *^.r> o*2.vfp ca . «- P. «> >* i±^> P ' T3§ P p «5Nd c> ^ &v> p > a 5 — < a H 73 ~* ^t ^ p s*^ o — s ^ ^ o ^ ^2^ • ~ EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. 33 Ml > o Z -2 X rt O m God. 22. Anglo-Saxon Versions. — Most ? 43 "c of the translations of portions of the E % Bible, earlier than Wycliffe' s, were Er mere paraphrases, sometimes failing to give the correct sense of Scrip- ture. Such a paraphrase of the w_o Gospels and the Acts in English, h s but written in the Saxon characters, | v was made in the latter half of the * x twelfth century by Orme or Ormun, 3£ from God. a. .5 2 3 S c £ o si rt and is called the "Ormulum." Several interlinear versions (Vul- gate of Jerome and the Vernacular) were made in the tenth and eleventh centuries, a part of one known as the "Rush worth Gloss" being I now in the Bodleian library. These t. .£ interlinear versions were probably made for the use of priests who did not understand the Latin. King Alfred made a translation of the Ten Commandments, portions of the Gospels, and he projected a translation of the Psalter, but his death prevented its completion. The Venerable Bede C/5 g >^ O W <- ■*-> o — ►J 4) 2 S> w 34 EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. (672-755) completed a translation of the Gospel of John into the vernacular and wrote commentaries on most of the books of the Bible. His Church History was among the first books printed in Germany (1474). The earliest Anglo-Saxon paraphrases of portions of the Bible were in verse, by Guthloe, Aldhelm, and the most noted one by Caedmon, about 680. The Christian Scriptures were re- puted to have been introduced into England by the Monk Augustin, about 596, who used copies of the Old Latin Version, from which the earlier Anglo-Saxon trans- lations were made. 23. Language of English Bible. — (1) In many paragraphs of the common English Version 39 words in 40 are of Anglo-Saxon derivation. (2) In the story of Joseph (Gen. 42 : 21-29), there are only 7 words beside proper names which are not Anglo- Saxon. (3) In the parable of the Sower (Matt. 13, etc.), of 106 different words, only 3 are not Anglo-Saxon. (4) The Lord's Prayer (Matt. 6 : 9-13) has 65 words (" forever " one word), 59 are of Anglo-Saxon and 6 are of Latin derivation. (5) In John 11 : 32-36, 70 words in 72 are of Anglo- Saxon origin. In Milton's " Paradise Lost," Book IV: 639, etc., of 90 words only 74 are Anglo-Saxon. In the famous passage of Shakespeare, " To be or not to be," of 81 words 13 are not Anglo-Saxon. This shows the great comparative strength of the English Bible in words of Anglo-Saxon origin. 24. Leading Facts about English Bibles. (1) First complete Bible in English (by *Wycliffe)yh?w ; the Latin, 1382. EARLY ENGLISH VERSIONS. 35 (2) First complete New Testament in English (by Tyn- dale) from the Greek, 1526. (3) First printed English Bible, complete (Coverdale's), *535- (4) First English Testament divided into verses (Gene- van), 1557. (5) First English Bible divided into verses (Genevan), 1560. (6) First English Bible, translated complete from the original languages, Greek and Hebrew (the Genevan Ver- sion), 1560. (7) Cost of early English Bibles : two arches of the Lon- don bridge, built in the thirteenth century, are reported to have cost ^25 ; a written copy of the Bible cost ^30. A laborer's wages was \\d. a day and board ; hence the cost of a Bible would be equal to a laborer's wages for about fifteen years. It was perilous for common people to read or to own a Bible. For example, in 1429, Marjery Back- ster was indicted for asking her maid to hear her husband read the Bible by night. In 1514-1519, John Stevenson was arrested for teaching the Ten Commandments, and Thomas Collins had his father arrested for the same offence. Robert Pope informed against his wife, son and father for hearing the Gospel of Matthew read to them. CHAPTER III. MODERN VERSIONS OTHER THAN ENGLISH. i. Next to a knowledge of our own versions, all English- speaking peoples should gain some knowledge of the Ger- man versions of the Bible. While the Common Version of the English Bible is the growth of centuries, the mature fruit of successive generations of Biblical scholars from WycklifTe to the King James revisers, the German version bears largely the impress of one mind and one genius — Mar- tin Luther. There were earlier versions in German, but the great version, the one version and the only popular one that is truly German, is that made by the great reformer. 2. Earlier German Versions. — Passing the Gothic ver- sion of the fourth century, there was a translation of the Bible made in the fourteenth century, by some unknown scholars, 1 from the Latin Vulgate. No less than seventeen editions of it were printed between 1462 and 1522 — four- teen of them in High German and three or four in Low German dialect. Most of these were issued of folio size, in two volumes, with wood engravings. The Archbishop of Mainz in i486 forbade the printing of sacred and learned books, especially the German Bible, on the ground that the German language was incapable of correctly rep- 1 Some have ascribed the earlier German version to the Waldenses (Keller, Haupt), but it may have sprung from a love of the word within the Romish Church (Jostes, Schaff and others). In the Munich Library are twenty-one written copies of the Gospels and Epistles in early German versions. (36) MODERN VERSIONS OTHER THAN ENGLISH. 37 resenting religious ideas and the profound sense of Greek and Latin works ! 3. Luther' s Version. — While Luther was held a willing prisoner in Wartburg Castle, he translated the New Testa- ment into German, and it was published in 1522. Its title was " Das Newe Testament Deutzsch. Wittemberg." It was illustrated with wood engravings by the famous Lucas Cranach, having one illustration at the beginning of each book and twenty-one in the book of Revelation. It was divided into chapters like the Latin Bible, and into para- graphs, but not into verses. The Pentateuch appeared in 1523, the Psalms in 1524, and the entire Bible (including the Apocrypha) in 1534. In translating the Old Testament, Luther formed a committee (Bible club) of his colleagues, Melanchthon, Justus Jonas and four others, who aided him in the work. Luther continued to amend and improve the version, issuing five successive revisions of it, the last in 1545. He retained a Latin form of title, Biblia, and the translation was issued in folio, with numerous engravings. 4. Merits of Luther } s Version. — The German Bible was received with great enthusiasm. A hundred thousand copies — an enormous number for that age — were sold be- tween 1534 and 15 74. 1 If his version did not form, it may be said to have reformed, unified and crystallized the German language. It gave it wings, and made it intelli- gible to the common people in all parts of Germany. It is the first great German classic. It brought one language out of many dialects — the language afterward of the golden era of German literature, the speech of Lessing, Herder, Goethe and Schiller. 2 1 See Schaff, Hist. Christ. C/i., vol. vi. p. 350. 2 Heinrich Heine, the poet, critic and German Voltaire, says of 38 MODERN VERSIONS OTHER THAN ENGLISH. 5. The original text of the New Testament, upon which Luther based his version, was the Greek text edited by Erasmus, 15 19. The Old Testament was translated from the Massoretic Hebrew text, edited by G. Ben Moseh, 1494 ; but the Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate were often consulted, and in the Apocrypha the latter was chiefly used as a basis. 1 6. Revisions of Luther's Version. — Besides Luther's own revisions of his version, there have been many others, the most important being an official revision ordered by the Eisenach German Evangelical Conference of 1863. This was completed and published at Halle in 1883, and is known as the Probebibel. The revision was made by a company of eminent Biblical scholars (eleven on the New Testament and twenty on the Old Testament), among whom were Tholuck, Riehm, Schlottmann, Dillmann, Delitzsch, Meyer, Dorner and Kostlin. The revision was extremely conservative, but was so sharply criticised thai the Eisenach Conference of 1886 recommitted it for final action. While German scholars are bold and independent in theology, they are conservative and timid in questions of translation affecting the laity. 7. The Roman Catholics, though stoutly opposed to giv- ing the people the Bible in the vernacular, were compelled Luther, " He created the German language. He did this by his trans lation of the Bible." — Hist, of Religion and Poetry in Germany, Lon don, vol. i. pp. 425, 427. 1 Luther omitted the famous text respecting the three heavenly wit nesses, 1 John 5:7, which appears first in the Frankfort edition of Luther's version (from Erasmus' Greek text of 1522), and is retainec in the revised version of Luther, 1883, but is placed in brackets. Th( most popular text of Luther's Bible is that by the Canstein Bibh Society. MODERN VERSIONS OTHER THAN ENGLISH. 39 by Luther's work to issue rival versions in self-defence. 1 The chief German versions by Romanists were by Emser, 1527, Dietenberger, 1534, and Eck, 1537. They are all from the Vulgate, and generally clumsy and stiff, lacking the purity of German idiom which is found in Luther's version. Dietenberger's revision has been revised by Ulen- berg, 1630, and re-revised by theologians of Mainz, 1662, and since been issued as the Catholic Bible used in Ger- many and by German Catholics. Among German versions or translations of the Bible made for scholars, that by De Wette, 1809, 4th ed. 1858, and that of Weizsacker, Tubin- gen, 1875, are the best. 8. Dutch Versions. — The first complete translation of the Bible into Dutch was made by Jacob Van Liesveldt, and issued in two volumes folio, Antwerp, 1526. The second edition cost the printer his head. The version was par- tially supplanted by Utenhove's version in 1556. These versions were not in the best idiomatic Dutch. The first was based on Luther's version and the Cologne Bible ; the second upon Luther's German and Olivetan's French version. 9. A new version was ordered by the Dutch synod in 15 7 1 ; but owing to troubles and divisions in affairs, and to the deaths of scholars, the work was twice interrupted and long delayed. It was again ordered by the famous Synod of Dort, 1618, which appointed three translators and four- teen revisers ; but the new order was not approved by the States General until 1624, and the work was begun in 1626 and was carried on at Leyden for eleven years. The new 1 Emser charged Luther with a thousand grammatical and heretical errors, four being in the Lord's Prayer; among them, that he added the doxology, which is not in the Latin Vulgate. 40 MODERN VERSIONS OTHER THAN ENGLISH. translation finally appeared in two editions — one with and one without marginal readings and references — in 1637. It is called the States' Bible ; and so superior was its merit that within fifteen years it gained unanimous popular favor and ecclesiastical approval. It is remarkable for its felicity of expression, and scholars regard it as one of the best of existing versions. 10. The General Synod appointed a committee of four- teen, in 1854, to revise the old translation, in view of the progress in Biblical criticism. The New Testament re- vision was completed and issued in 1867, but its reception was not hearty ; indeed it was so adverse that the Old Tes- tament part was indefinitely postponed. 11. French Versions. — Pierre, about 11 70, made a Bible History in French, and Gruars, in 1286-89, prepared a similar French Bible History. The first complete French version of the Bible was by Jean de Rely, a Roman Catho- lic, in 1487, based on the Vulgate and former partial ver- sions. There were twelve editions of this version issued. Another version was made by Lefevre d'Etaples, and issued in Antwerp, 1^30. Pierre Robert Olivetan with the aid of that version made another, corrected by Calvin, issued at the expense of the Waldenses in 1535, which is known as the first Protestant version. The evangelical pastors of Geneva appointed a company from the^.r own number (among them Beza) to issue a new version, which was completed in 1588. This version was revised by Mar- tin, Amsterdam, 1707, and by Ostervald, 1724. 12. Louis Segond issued a new version, Geneva, 1874, third ed. 1879, being a direct translation from Hebrew and Greek into French. This version is printed by the Oxford press (fifty thousand copies first edition), with prose text in MODERN VERSIONS OTHER THAN ENGLISH. 41 paragraphs and the poetry in verse form, the verses being noted in the margin. It also has brief notes and prefaces to the books, and is regarded as a decided improvement upon all previous French versions. The British and For- eign Bible Society, however, circulates the older versions by Martin and Ostervald, revised by the Bible Society of France. 13. Italian Versions. — There were several translations of the Bible into Italian before the Reformation, the more im- portant being that of Nicolo, Venice, 1471, and of Bruc- cioli from the original texts — New Testament, 1530, the entire Bible, Venice, 1532. The latter translator was in- dignant at the prohibition of the spread of the Bible among the people in the vernacular, but his version was put first in a Roman Catholic list of prohibited books. 14. The first Protestant version of the Bible complete in Italian appeared in Geneva, 1562, but was displaced by that of Deodati, made from the original texts, Geneva, 1607, in the Lucchese dialect and suited for the peasants. Another version by Martini, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Florence, made from a version of the Latin, was is- sued at Turin, 1776, and is circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society (New Testament, ed. 1813, the Bible, ed. 1 821), along with the versions of Deodati and others. 15. Spanish Versions. — The earliest known translation of the New Testament into Spanish is that of Francisco, issued at Antwerp, 1543, and by Juan Perez, Venice, 1556. The whole Bible was translated by Cassidoro Regno and pub- lished at Basel, 1569 ; was revised by Valera and issued at Amsterdam, 1602. Another version was made by San Miguel and published at Madrid, in 1794. This was in nineteen volumes, and had the Latin and Spanish texts and 3 42 MODERN VERSIONS OTHER THAN ENGLISH. a commentary by the translator. The British and Foreign Bible Society has distributed Valera's and San Miguel's versions (the text only) since 1828 until the present (1891). 16. Danish Versions. — The first complete Danish version of the Bible was edited under the name of C. Pederson in 1550, and has been often revised, a thorough revision being made in 1815 to 1824, which is still circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society along with a recent re- vision, and a special revision known as the Norwegian Bible, made by the Norwegian Bible Society and a commit- tee of revision appointed in 1871. Until the division of the kingdoms, in 181 4, the Norwegians used the ordinary Danish version. 17. A Swedish version was completed in 15 41 by Lau- rentius and Olaus Petri. This has been often revised and is still in use. 18. Besides the versions in the principal languages of Europe, there have been many versions and revisions made in other European languages and dialects, as the Welsh, Gaelic, Irish, Portuguese, Lap, Polish, Bohemian, Russ, Slavonic, Modern Greek and many others. Of these, and the two hundred to three hundred missionary translations, particular notice cannot here be given. 19. The modern Arabic version begun by Eli Smith, 1847, an d completed by his co-laborer, C. V. A. Van Dyck, 1866, is a monument of patient, persevering and profound scholarship. It is accounted one of the most faithful and finished of all modern missionary versions. CHAPTER IV. ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. i. One book of religion — the Bible — has been valued and loved by the learned and unlearned, by priest and people, for more than eighteen centuries. No other sacred book has been so deeply or so widely endeared to the human heart. There is no other book with a history like that of the Bible. In the early centuries of Christian- ity, translations of the Bible into the vernacular or common speech of the peoples were made and circulated wherever the gospel gained a foothold among a nation or a people. Several of the more important of these translations, or por- tions of them, have been preserved to our times, and are of value in establishing the early and often the true reading of the original copy of the Christian Scriptures. Some of these versions will now be briefly described. 2. The Armenian. — The gospel was introduced into Ar- menia from Cappadocia ; and the translations of the Bible into Armenian were probably made from Greek manuscripts obtained from some portion of Asia Minor. At first the Armenian disciples may have used Syriac copies of the Scriptures ; but early in the fourth century they had a writ- ten language, formed from an alphabet of thirty-six letters. The earliest version of the Scriptures in Armenian appears to have been made from the Peshito (Syriac). Later in (43) 44 ANCIENT VERSIONS OP THE BIBLE. that century (431 to 450) a new translation, direct from the Greek, was suggested by Miesrob and Moses Chorenen- sis, and was completed by two scholars, Joseph and Eznak, who went to Alexandria to perfect their knowledge of the Greek. The existing manuscripts of this version are not very ancient, but they contain the entire Bible. The best printed edition is by Zohrab, and is now issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. 3. The Gothic. — The Goths, in their old home about Mcesia, were early led to accept Christianity. Their sec- ond bishop, Ulphilas (Ulfilas or Wulfilas), 348 A. d., though an Arian, translated the Bible (except I., II. Sam. and I., II. Kings) from Greek into Gothic. The gospels are placed in the "western " order, that is, Matthew, John, Luke, Mark. Seven manuscripts containing portions of this version have been preserved ; but they are fragmentary, large gaps occurring and missing leaves in both the Old and New Testament portions. The best-printed editions are: A. Uppstrom, Upsala, 1854-1868, and E. Bernhardt, Halle, 1875, — tne latter being the Gothic and Greek, with critical notes. 4. The Coptic or Egyptian Versions. — Little has been definitely known of these ancient Coptic translations until recently. Three are known. in three different dialects: (1) The Memphitic or Bahiric dialect of lower Egypt. This translation belongs to the second century. There are in the various libraries of Europe twenty-eight manuscript copies of the Gospels in the Memphitic dialect, seventeen copies of the Pauline and catholic Epistles and the Acts (the Acts follow instead of precede the Epistles), and ten of the book of Revelation. This translation is regarded as of great importance, because it is believed to indicate ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. 45 the text current at Alexandria, free from many corruptions prevailing in the second century. (2) The Thebaic or Sa- hidic version, in the dialect of upper Egypt, also exists in manuscripts, but only in a very fragmentary form. 1 The best-printed edition of the Thebaic translation is by C. G. Woide, completed by Ford, Oxford, 1799. (3) The Bash- muric or Eleaarchian translation, probably belonging to the third century, of which only fragments of John's Gos- pel and of the Pauline Epistles have been found. This version is based upon the Thebaic, the Bashmuric being a modification of the Thebaic dialect, and the Bashmuric translation is chiefly useful in texts where the Thebaic is wanting. 5. An Ethiopic version was early made for use in Abys- sinia, probably in the fourth century. The manuscript copies of this version are not very ancient ; but the Ethi- opic has now given place to a later dialect, the Amharic, iiito which the Bible has been translated. 6. The Syriac Versions. — The Syriac or Aramaean be- longs to the Semitic family of languages, and is older than the patriarch Jacob. It is copious, flexible and dignified, and the Old and New Testaments were translated into that tongue and used in public worship from the second century downward. 1 These ancient Coptic translations show that the hooks then in- cluded in the New Testament were the same as now, except the Apoc- alypse. The order, however, was different ; the four Gospels were first, but usually in this order — John, Matthew, Mark, Luke; then came the Pauline Epistles, including that to the Hebrews, next the catholic or general epistles, and lastly Acts. In some of the manu- scripts the book of Revelation appears at the end ; but there are lec- tionaries or Scripture service lessons between the book of Acts and the book of Revelation. This would indicate that Revelation was not admitted to the New Testament in the opinion of those who made the 46 ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. 7. There are four versions in Syriac : — (1) The Peshito {Pe-shit '-to) y (or Peshitto, Peschito, or Peshitta), meaning "simple " or faithful, so called from the character of the version. In its present form it belongs to the third or fourth ceniury. It has been known to scholars for over three centuries. 1 (2) The Curetorian is a fragment of the Gospels, but now generally conceded to be the earliest of all versions in Syriac. It was found in a convent in the desert, seventy miles northwest of Cairo, in 1842, and published, with an English translation by Dr. Cureton, in 1858, and with three added leaves (1871) by J. R. Crow- foot in Greek, London, 1870-72. (3) The Philoxenian or Harklean was a Syriac version made in the fifth century by Xenias or Philoxenus, a heretical bishop of eastern Syria. It was carefully revised by Thomas of Harkel or Heraclea, 616, who compared it with some ancient Greek copies. The best existing manuscript of this version is from Mardin, and belongs to the Protestant College at Beirut. (4) The Jerusalem Syriac is an evangelistary, or selections from the Gospels, found in five existing manuscripts in the Vatican at Rome. The version belongs to the fifth century. 8. The Latin. — The ancient versions of the Bible in Latin may be classed in two groups: — (1) Old Latin; (2) The Vulgate, by Jerome, in its varied recensions. The Old Latin translation was known to the Latin fathers, as Tertullian, Cyprian, the two Hilarys, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Pelagius and others. It dates back to the mid- translation, or else that it belonged to a second canon, as we know was the case for a time with some of the shorter epistles. 1 The best printed edition in England is by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and by Bagster. A better American edition is by Dr. J. Perkins, Oroomiah, 1841, and New York, 1874; also a literal trans- lation from the Syriac Peshito, by Dr. Murdock, New York, 1857. ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE, 47 die or latter half of the second century. It was made from the Septuagint, in the Old Testament, and is in the rough Latin of the second century, which lacks classic pol- ish, yet is not without vigor and terseness of expression. 9. Fragments of the Old Latin translations are still extant, and indicate three variant types of the text — an African, a European, and one of the character which Augustine commends as the Itala. Whether all these forms are based upon one African translation or on different in- dependent translations is an unsettled question. This much seems to be generally agreed by the best critics, that the earliest form of the Old Latin version is of north Afri- can origin. From thirty to forty manuscripts of portions of the Old Latin version are known to be in existence. A carefully-edited and printed edition of these Old Latin versions, in a satisfactory form for general use among scholars, is a thing desired. 10. The Vulgate. — Jerome, one of the most learned men of hi c .ime, urged by the Roman bishop Damasus, about 383 a.d., undertook a thorough revision of the Old Latin ver- sions, that he might make a Vulgate (Vulgata) or Latin text of the Bible which would be universally accepted by Latin-speaking peoples. His work of revising the Old Latin versions led Jerome to undertake a new and more faithful translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew. He spent about twenty years (385 to 405) at Bethlehem, the town in which our Saviour was born, in these labors. 1 Jerome's version was not at first regarded with favor; but after some years its superior merit brought it into general 1 At Bethlehem, in the crypt under the Church of the Nativity, is a room called the •• Chapel of St Jerome,' 1 in which this great man is said to have pursued his studies and work of translating the Bible. 48 ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. use. For years it raised a howl of indignation. Jerome was irritated by the attacks of the ignorant priests, whom he calls bipedes asellos, " two-legged donkeys." Long after Jerome's death his version was accepted, and iooo years later was counted superior to the original text ! The Latin Bible which came thus into use as Jerome's version was in fact a composite work. The Old Testament, excepting the Psalms, was from his new translation made from the He- brew. The Psalms were his revision of the Old Latin, based not upon the original Hebrew but upon the Septua- gint. 1 The Apocrypha was also from the Old Latin trans- lation, excepting the two books of Judith and Tobit, which were from Jerome's new version. The New Testament books were revised from the Old Latin version. The text became so corrupt that Charlemagne about 802 directed Alcuin to collate the copies and revise the Latin text. 11. The Council of Trent, 1546, decreed what books were to be received as canonical, and that the text of the Latin edition was authentic. But the question at once arose, Which Latin text, and which edition of it, is the authentic one ? Pope Sixtus V. issued a revised edition of the Vulgate text in 1590, which he decreed to be the au- thoritative edition, and threatened excommunication against any who used any other. Sixtus died that year. So many errors, however, were pointed out in the Sixtine edition that Bellarmin proposed to issue a corrected edition in Six- tus' name, and this pious fraud was actually undertaken, and in the new edition all the principal blunders in the 1 It was called the Roman Psalter, while Jerome's new translation was known as the Gallican Psalter. The former was retained in the Latin Bibles until Pius V., 1566, when it was displaced by the Gallican Psalter. ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. 49 former edition were charged to the printers ! Clement VIII. had the new edition of the Latin text prepared with greater care and issued in 1592, in the face of the threat- ened anathema of his predecessor, Sixtus V. 1 This Clem- entine text is the standard Roman Catholic Bible, taking precedence in that church of the Hebrew and Greek origi- nal texts in questions of doctrine and life. A critical edi- tion of Jerome's Latin version is wanting, though the materials for it are abundant. 12. The Septuagint, or Greek version of the Old Testa- ment, was made by Hellenistic Jews of Alexandria, be- tween 285 and 247 B.C. According to Jewish tradition, it was made by seventy or seventy-two elders (hence its title ; Septuaginta, or seventy) sent from Jerusalem ; but great obscurity rests upon the real time and history of its origin. 2 It is also very difficult now to ascertain precisely what was the reading of the original Septuagint, but it is assumed that the text we have is in the main that current in the days o f our Lord. From this version Jesus quotes, and so do the apostles. It was the accepted Scriptures of the dis- persed Jews, and is the basis of the Greek used by early Christian writers. The Septuagint is in the main faithful to the Hebrew text, although it cannot be said to be minutely accurate, judged by the Hebrew now current, and some- 1 These are known as the Sixtine or Clementine Latin texts. 2 The importance of this translation is apparent not merely from its great antiquity, which, between conflicting Hebrew readings, indicates the one then current, but also from the fact that of 290 direct quota- tions from the Old Testament in the New, the great majority agree bet- ter with the Septuagint than with the Hebrew. More exactly, accord- ing to Turpie, 90 quotations agree with the Septuagint, of which 53 also agree with the Hebrew ; 10 agree with the Hebrew but not with the Septuagint ; 175 differ from both, but these generally are nearer to the Septuagint than to the Hebrew. 50 ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. times gives a paraphrase rather than a close translation of the Hebrew text. It was freely used by the early Christian fathers. The current text of the Greek Scriptures had be- come corrupted from frequent copying during several centuries. In order to attain a better text, Origen (184- 254) edited a tetrapla, or fourfold text, and later on his hexapla, or sixfold Bible text. In the first he arranged in parallel columns the Hebrew, the SeptuagiHt and three other Greek versions made in the second century by Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion. In the latter he added three anonymous Greek translations, numbered fifth, sixth and seventh, all in parallel columns in order to show the true reading and meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures. 1 13. The Targums is the general term for the Chaldee or Aramaic versions and paraphrases of portions of the Old Testament. Eight are now extant, of which three are upon the Pentateuch, two on Esther, and others upon the prophets, poetical books and other portions of the Old Testament. These are generally very free translations, and often diffuse paraphrases. The so-called Targum ®f Onke- los on the Pentateuch and of Jerushalmi in its first form are the most literal versions. These works were a growth from oral traditions and teachings, and of great interest to Old Testament students. The earliest historic instance of a targum is when Ezra read the law to the returned exiles, and the scribes were compelled to "give the sense and 1 Aquila was a Jewish proselyte of Pontus, who made a Greek ver- sion of the Hebrew Scriptures, 117-138 A.D., to use in discussions with the Christians, because the Septuagint version was used against the Jews. Theodotion made a revision of the Greek version of the Old Testament about the same period as the work by Aquila, and his ver- sion is retained in Greek Bibles. The version by Symmachus, an Ebionite disciple, was made somewhat later. ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. 51 cause them to understand the reading," Neh. 8 : 8 From these interpretations the targums grew. Their present written form does not date earlier than the second century of our era. They were written in the later Hebrew dialect, the Aramaic. CHAPTER V. ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE. i. How Written. — The oldest existing copies of the books of the New Testament, in their original Greek, are written upon fine vellum, made from the skins of very young calves. Some are written upon parchment, made from the skins of sheep or goats. The Sinaitic MS. is made of fine skins of antelopes. The leaves of this MS. are so large that the skin of one antelope would make only two leaves. As the MS. in its present fragmentary state has 346? leaves, and, adding the 43 previously discovered, 389^ leaves, it must have required 195 antelopes to make the vellum on which it is written ! The Vatican MS. is written upon vellum admired by all who have seen it, for the beauty of its finish and texture. It is supposed that earlier copies of the New Testament books were written upon less durable papyrus, and hence have perished. The manuscript copies of the New Testa- ment are older than any existing written copies of the Old Testament in Hebrew; but the oldest MSS. of the New Testament contain the whole or large portions of the Old Testament in Greek. 2. Classes. — These ancient MSS. of the New Testament may be classified : I. By their contents, as (1) those containing the whole (52) ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE. 53 of the New Testament ; (2) copies containing portions only ; (3) those having church lessons. II. By their supposed age, as (1) those of the fourth cen- tury (the oldest now known); (2) of the fifth century ; (3) of the sixth century, and so on. Or, III. By the style of the writing, as, (1) Uncials, that is those written in capitals ; (2) Cursives, that is, those writ- ten in a running hand. More recently they have also been classified by critical scholars according to their genealogical origin, or the source from which the text of each MS. was derived. Thus MSS. of the New Testament are divided into Alexandrian, Western and Neutral groups, to which may be added the Syrian and pre-Syrian, or the versions before 250 a. d. 3. The number of uncial MSS. of the New Testament now known is about ninety, and of cursives is between one thousand and two thousand. Scrivener, Intro. 3d ed. (1883), s l S" 2 A' Moses' Prophetic Song Deut. 32 : 1-43. Moses' Blessing Deut. 33 : 2-29. Joshua to the Sun. Josh. 10 : 12, 13. Song of Deborah and Barak Judg. 5 : 2-2 1. Samson's Riddle Song Judg. 15 : 16. Hannah's Magnificat 1 Sam. 2 : 1-10. David's Song of the Bow. . . .2 Sam. 1 : 19-27. David's Song over Abner 2 Sam. 3 : 33, 34. David's Deliverance 2 Sam. 22 : 2-51 (cf. Ps. 18). David's Last Words 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7. David's Thanksgiving 1 Chron. 16 : 8-36. 1 See Reuss, Hebrew Poetry, Herzog's Enc, HEBREW POETRY AND POETICAL BOOKS. 115 Hczekiah's Song Isa. 38 : 10-20. Jonah's Prayer Song Jonah 2 : 2-9. Habakkuk's Prayer Song Hab. 3 : 2-19. There are four original songs in the New Testament cast in the spirit of Hebrew poetry : Magnificat Luke 1 : 46-55. Benedictus Luke 1 : 68-80. Gloria in Excelsis Luke 2 : 14. Nunc Dimittis Luke 2 : 29-33. 8. The Psalms. — The book of Psalms in the Hebrew Bible was the first of the K'-ihubim, or " Writings." The Psalms, Proverbs and Job were regarded as pre-eminently poetical books, and the Massorites distinguished them by a peculiar accentuation. The Psalms were called " Sepher T'helim," or " Book of Praises." The Greeks called it " Psalmos" from which the English "Psalms" is derived. 9. Groups of Psalms. — The Psalms are counted as one book, but in the Hebrew Bible are divided into five collec- tions, rather inaptly termed "books" in the Revised English Version. The end of each of the first four "books" is indicated by a doxology. The books are: (I.) Ps. 1-41 ; (II.) Ps. 42-72; (III.) Ps. 73-89; (IV.) Ps. 90-106; (V.) Ps. 107-150. The topics of the Psalms have been compared to an oratorio in five parts : (1) Decline of man ; (2) Revival ; (3) Plaintive complaint ; (4) Response to the complaint ; (5) Final thanksgiving and triumph. This five-fold division of the Psalms is very ancient, but when or by whom it was made is uncertain. Some ascribe it to Nehemiah or his time ; it certainly is two or 116 HEBREW POETRY AND POETICAL BOOKS. three centuries older than the Christian era. The division appears in the Septuagint. Why it was made is not clear. Some conjecture that it was in accord with the supposed chronological order of the Psalms, or was an arrangement according to authors, topics, or for liturgical use. The col- lection could not have been completed before the time of Ezra. About fifty Psalms are quoted in the New Testament. 10. Authors. — The titles or inscriptions of the Psalms are not by the original authors, but belong to an early age. They are attached to 101 psalms. The 49 not having titles, the Talmud calls " Orphan Psalms." According to these titles, 73 psalms are ascribed to David, 1 12 to Asaph one of David's singers, 12 to the sons of Korah 2 a priestly family of singers of David's time, 2 (7 2d and 127th) to Solomon, 1 (90th) to Moses, and 1 (89th) to Ethan. The other 49 are anonymous. But the Septuagint assigns the 127th to Jeremiah, the 146th to Haggai, and the 147th to Zechariah. It is worthy of note that the great Hallel songs, Ps. 115-118, and the famous alphabetic hymn, the 119th, are among the anonymous songs. 11. Classification of Songs. — The most ancient classification, aside from the division into five collections, is also found in the titles. The meaning of these is obscure. Some are termed Shir, a solo for the voice ; Mizmor, song of praise accompanied with an instrument ; Maschil, ode or didactic song ; Michtam, a catch-word poem (Delitzsch) ; Shiggaion, an excited ode ; Thephillah, a prayer-song; Shir jedidoth, 1 The Septuagint ascribes 85 psalms to David. The New Testament cites Pss. 2 and 95 as his. This reduces the number by anonymous writers to 34. But Delitzsch thinks only 50 can be defended as David's from internal evidence. 2 If, however, Ps. 88 is ascribed to Hernan, as some render the title, then only 1 1 were by the sons of Korah. HEBREW POETRY AND POETICAL BOOK 117 a song of loves ; Shir hamma 'a loth, a song of ascent or pilgrim songs ; Kinah, dirge or elegy. Modern groups are based upon the contents, as seven (some say eight) penitential(6th, 25th, 32d [38th], 51st, 102c!, 130th, 143d), seven imprecatory psalms (35th, 52c!, 58th, 59th, 69th, 109th, 137th), pilgrim songs, psalms of thanksgiving, of adoration, of faith and hope, Messianic psalms, and historic psalms. Some psalms have parallelisms or longer stanzas, each beginning with an initial letter corresponding to the twenty- two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. There are seven of these alphabetic psalms and five other alphabetic poems in the Old Testament. Some psalms are choral, as 24th, 115th, 135th ; some gradational, as 121st, 124th. Of the psalms ascribed to David, several have Chaldaic or Aramaic forms that betray a later author. 12. Proverbs. — The Hebrew title to this book is Mishk Sh'Iomo, " Proverbs of Solomon," so called from the in- troductory words. The Hebrew word for proverbs is used in a variety of meanings, as pithy saying, parable, aphorism or maxim, and for more extended illustration. (See Micah 2:4; Hab. 2 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 10 : 12; Prov. 1:1; Eccles. 1 2 : 9 ; and Num. 23 : 7-10.) The soul of a proverb is brevity and great wisdom. It condenses the result of a life of wise observation and varied experience into a few words, a single parallelism. With Orientals it was and is popular, because easily remembered. Secular literature has several collec- tions of proverbs, as the " Sayings of the Seven Wise Men of Greece,'* the " Golden Songs ascribed to Pythagoras," and Arabic proverbs. But the Proverbs of the Bible are unequalled in wit and wisdom. They abound in polished and sparkling gems of wisdom, bearing the stamp of in- 118 HEBREW POETRY AND POETICAL BOOKS. spiration (Prov. 1:7). The Proverbs are divided into seven parts: (1) chap. 1 : 1-6; (2) 1 : 7 to chap, g; (3) chaps. 10 to 22 : 16; (4) 22 : 17 to chap. 24; (5) chaps. 25 to 29 ; (6) chap. 30 to 31 : 9 ; (7) chap. 31 : 10-31. 13. Authors of Proverbs. — The Proverbs are ascribed to Solomon, 1 and it is clear he wrote or compiled the most of them. Yet there were several other authors of the latter portion, as the men of Hezekiah, Agur, Lemuel. (See Prov. 1 : 1 ; 10 : 1 ; 25 : 1 ; 30 : 1 ; 31 : 1.) 14. The date of the complete collection is certainly not older than Hezekiah, though the greater portion was in ex- istence from the time of Solomon. 15. The Structure is that of poetic parallelisms, in lines of single, double, triple or more couplets. The sense or thought is usually either synonymous or antithetic in these couplets. For example — " Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, And the man that getteth understanding" (3 : 13), is synonymous in thought. " A wise son maketh a glad father: But a foolish son is the heaviness [grief] of his mother" (10: 1), is an antithetic parallelism. " As a bird that wandereth from her nest, So is a man that wandereth from his place " (27 : 8), is an instance of simple comparison. " Wine is a mocker, strong drink a brawler; And whosoever erreth [reeleth] thereby is not wise " (20 : 1), 1 There is a Jewish tradition that Solomon composed the Song of Songs in his youth, Proverbs in mature manhood, and Ecclesiastes in his old age. HEBREW POETRY AND POETICAL BOOKS. 119 is an example of amplification of thought, containing a reason for the warning. (See also 3:3, 27 : 10.) The book of Proverbs is the storehouse whence all Chris tians and some heathen peoples have drawn practical \vi dom, and it teaches that the true source of wisdom is Je- hovah. 16. Job. — This book is so named not as indicating the author, but the hero. Author. — The book itself does not indicate the author. The Jews and early Christian writers ascribed it to Moses. He was well fitted to write such a work, and in Midian would be wont to meditate on such a theme. The contents in the main indicate that it was written before the priest- hood, ceremonial worship and law were instituted. Some say the writer was Job. Later scholars ascribe it to the age of Solomon, chiefly on the ground that the artistic structure presupposes higher training than the Mosaic period, and that there are some Aramaisms and allusions to the Mosaic law. Advanced critics would assign it to the exilic age, depending mainly on the linguistic peculiarities to support their view. Proofs from recent discoveries have appeared of an exceeding high state of art and knowledge existing in Assyria and in Egypt earlier than the Mosaic era, weak- ening the argument for a late origin. The Aramaisms may be accounted for on the view that the book was written in Edom, Arabia or the Euphrates valley, and the supposed allusions to the Mosaic law are obscure, probably only co- incidences of thought. The language fits the eastern re- gion. Compare Moabite Stone inscription. The date of the book depends upon the authorship. 17. The Structure of Job. — It is a didactic, almost dra- matic, poem, in five parts. It might be counted a drama 120 HEBREW POETRY AND POETICAL BOOKS. of life, a tragedy with a happy and not a tragic end. The dramatis persona or characters are Jehovah, Satan, Job, Job's wife and his children, Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar and Elihu. The five parts are: (i) Prologue (chaps, i, 2); (2) Interviews with three friends (3-32) ; (3) with Elihu (32- 38); (4) with Jehovah (38-41;; (5) Job's submission (41,42). 18. The object of the book is not to solve the problem of evil, though it throws some side light upon it. It shows that all calamities do not come as judgments for sin. It teaches the doctrine of a future life. The main object is indicated by the prologue and the tart question of Satan, " Doth Job serve God for naught ? " The chief purpose of the book is to show that true religion does not spring from any form of selfishness. It also shows the rectitude of the divine government when the righteous are afflicted. Spe- cial trials do not imply special guilt. They may exhibit God's benevolent design toward the sufferer, and they are intended to beget submission to God's holy will. 19. Is the Book History ? — This is answered yes, strictly so, by Josephus, Jewish rabbins and early Christian writers. Some modern critics say decisively no, but a mere poetic creation. The more reverent, thoughtful scholars accept it as based on historical facts, embellished or draped by rich Oriental figures and inspired poetic descriptions. Job was an historic person (Ezek. 14: 14, 20; James 5: n), eminent for faith and piety. The trials were real, the Satanic influence, the losses, the complaints, the restoration, were all historical, we may well believe. The construction of the poem, the order and forms of the thought are wrought out by the inspired poet, so as to show how human history is related to the divine purposes, for the comfort and instruction of suffering humanity in all ages. HEBREW POETRY AND POETICAL BOOKS. 121 20. Ecclesiastes. — This is the seventh book following the Psalms in the Hebrew Scriptures, where it is called Kohe- leth. It is a didactic poem, teaching that to obey God is the summum bonum, the highest good. In a series of poetic soliloquies the writer depicts the vanities of earthly thing?, and the eternal verities above the sun. It represents a soul perplexed and tinged with scepticism, in the spirit of mod- erate Hebrew faith reaching out after Jehovah and eternal blessedness. ax. The author ; according to the general belief of Jews and Christians, was Solomon. It is not widely inconsistent with his age, knowledge, experience and language. The Aramaisms are not numerous, and he might acquire them from familiarity with foreign nations. Some modern scholars (as Ewald, Delitzsch and Ginsburg) suppose the author was of the exilic or post-exilic age, and personated Solomon. But Pusey, Tayler Lewis, Dean Milman and others maintain that it belongs'to the age of Solomon. It gives the impressions of one who has had a long life of broad observation and of great folly. It must be admitted that the arguments against its Solomonic authorship are weighty, but the difficulties in the way of the later theory are also great. 22. The Song 0/ Songs. — This is the Hebrew name of the fourth book after the Psalms. It means the most beautiful of songs, " which is Solomon's." It appears as a remark- able cantata in five parts : a drama celebrating the excel- lence and purity of true wedded love. 23. The author was almost universally conceded to be Solomon until the last century. This was based on the title to the book itself, the evident knowledge of Solomon, his reign and royalty. The linguistic forms found in it appear 8 122 HEBREW POETRY AND POETICAL BOOKS. also in the song of Deborah, in Job and in Amos. Those who deny that it was written by Solomon rely largely upon the internal and linguistic evidences to support their view. The book illustrates what is said of Solomon in i Kings, 4 : 33, and describes a regal state and glory which was true in the reign of Solomon. 24. The structure is variously defined. Some hold that it is an antiphonal song between two lovers, attended by a chorus ; the Shulamite a shepherdess, and a shepherd her royal lover; that it describes (1) mutual love, (2) lovers seeking and finding each other, (3) the marriage, (4) a separation and return, (5) praises of lovers and love. 25. Interpretations have been many, chiefly along three lines: (1) allegorical, full of fancies of every sort; (2) the literal, a poetic representation of pure love; (3) the typical, that it represents the Church and Christ as her spotless Husband. Whatever may be the spiritual lessons that it illustrates, it graphically shows the Hebrew idea of true bridal and conjugal love. It is aromatic with the fragrance of spring flowers, singing birds, and the charms of a sweet and strong love. It is fitting that one book of Scriptures should breathe the joy, peace and beauty that spring from domestic life of human love, a symbol and reflex of that divine love Christ has for His people. The prophecies, which are also poetry, must be treated under Prophetical Books. CHAPTER XII. PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 1. The Prophets were a large class of religious teachers among the Hebrews. Many of them were inspired to in- terpret and declare the will of God to the people. Prophet, in the popular sense, means a person inspired to fore- tell future events. This was not the chief work of the He- brew prophets ; but it was to act as divinely authorized teachers of religion and of spiritual truth. It also desig- nated one who recorded such teachings or prophecies. Moses was a prophet, and prophets existed from the earliest period. Later, the schools of the Hebrew prophets sprang up in the time of Samuel. They were a professional class. Many of this class were not divinely inspired or authorized, but were false prophets (Jer. 14: 14; 23 : 21 ; Ezek.13: 2; 22:28; Micah 9: 11). True prophets were often called from outside of the professional class to declare the word of the Lord and to interpret his dealings with the Hebrew and other nations. They were even authorized to denounce the professional prophets for false teachings. 2. The Great Work of the true prophets may be divided into five historical periods or crises: — (1) To unify the nation in the age of Samuel ; (2) To suppress Baal-worship and the worship of strange gods in the time of Elijah and Elisha ; (3) To teach that righteousness was required to re- (123) 124 PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. tain God's favor, under Amos and the shepherd prophets ; (4) That Israel was spared to secure a holy people for the Messiah, as in the age of Isaiah and his contemporaries; (5) That God wanted reformation of the heart, and not merely of outward national or personal manners, as in the age of Jeremiah to Malachi. The nation might be de- stroyed, but Jehovah still desired personal holiness and purity of heart. 3. Prophetical Books. — The great mass of the prophetic instructions to the Hebrew people has been lost. That which has been preserved may, however, contain the sub- stance of the divine messages for more than a thousand years. The books which the Hebrews called the " Earlier Prophets " have already been considered. There remain sixteen books, which they called the "Later Prophets" (excepting Daniel), 1 and that are pre-eminently prophetical books. The prophecies in these books, except Daniel, Jonah, Haggai and some of Malachi, are poetry or poetic in form. Portions of them are among the finest lyrics in the language, as the prayer of Habakkuk, the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the Messianic odes in the 5 2d and 53d chapters of Isaiah. 4. Division. — The sixteen prophetic books are divided into four Major or greater, and twelve Minor or lesser, prophets. The Major or greater, were not so called from any belief that they were greater in character or in impor- tance, but simply because the length of their recorded prophecies was greater than those called Minor or lesser. The prophetic books may also be grouped in periods, as — (1) Before the great captivity, Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, 1 Daniel was placed among the KHhubim, or " Writings," and in order ranked ninth after the Psalms. PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOS 125 Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Isaiah, Jeremiah and Habak- kuk. (2) During the captivity, Daniel, Ezekiel and Oba- diah (?). (3) After the captivity, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. It will be convenient briefly to notice the books in the order in which they are found in the English Bibles. 5. Isaiah. — The title means " Salvation of Jehovah." The prophecies recorded under his name rank second in quantity, being exceeded only by those of Jeremiah. The latter has about one-tenth more matter than Isaiah. Author. — Jewish and Christian tradition, the apocryphal Old Testament books, Ecclus. 48 : 24, 25, and Josephus, say the book was by the prophet Isaiah. The work is quoted in the New Testament as by Isaiah about 120 times, the quotations being about equally divided between the earlier and later prophecies. The style is conceded to be similar by all competent critics ; technical expressions and hymns are common to both and peculiar. But Ewald assigned the book to seven authors ; some modern critics to many more. Others say there were two, the first and a " pseudo " or " deutero " Isaiah. Against the unity of authorship, it is asserted that the writer of chapters 40 to 66 describes his own cities in ruin, and therefore lived after the Babylonian captivity, about 150 years after Isaiah's death; that he names the future deliverer, Cyrus, and so wrote post even- turn ; that prophets did not usually " project themselves into a distant future, filling their pages with details of that future." This proves too much. To say that Isaiah could not write prophecy which would prove to be true history, is to deny all prophecy. Who was the " great unknown? " This question is unsolved. There is no trace of him in Hebrew history or tradition. The book is conceded to be 126 PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. Scripture. It is the nature of prophecy to look into the future as if it were present. Surely the description of the servant of God who suffers and dies for the sins of his people as described in the 53d chapter, fits no other per- son in history as it does Jesus Christ. It is then, not very material to the divine character of this prophecy whether it was spoken 750 or 450 years before Christ. Whoever the author or authors, it was inspired of God and is of di- vine authority. The Structure. — It consists of a series of predictions expressed with an unction, pathos, holy rapture and poetic majesty unequalled in literature. The prophecies, which are poetry, are connected by narrative in prose. The con- tents centre about three leading topics, — redemption prom- ised, redemption provided, redemption accomplished. 6. Jeremiah. — These prophecies were spoken by the son of Hilkiah, of a priestly family of Anathoth, a small town about three miles northeast of Jerusalem. His prophecies extended over about forty years, and relate to the southern kingdom of Judah from the period of Josiah to Zedekiah (621 to about 585 b. a). The author of the book is held to be Jeremiah himself, though he dictated portions of it to Baruch the scribe, who wrote it out. (Jer. 36 : 4 ; 45 : 1.) The last chapter appears to be an appendix, probably by another prophetic author. The structure is simple and rugged. Jeremiah is a bold preacher of righteousness to a sinning people. Some have likened him to Dante proclaiming coming judgments, and to the Trojan Cassandra. He is the poet of desolation and sorrow, with here and there gleams of light amid the gen- eral blackness of the storm. Portions of the book were intended to instruct and comfort the Jewish captives at PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL HOOKS. 127 Babylon, and later portions were warnings to foreign na- tions. 7. Lamentations, by the same prophet, were called Echoh ("How?") in Hebrew. It is composed of five pathetic elegies lamenting over the destruction of Judah and Jerusalem by the Chaldaeans. The five are parts of one great theme. The first two poems are alphabetic. They consist of twenty-two stanzas, each beginning with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The third chapter has sixty-six verses, the first three beginning with the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and the second three with the second letter, and so on to the end. The fourth chapter is ar- ranged similar to the first and second, except that the verses have two clauses each. 8. Ezekiel. — His name means " God strengthens." He was of a priestly family, and a prophet during the Baby- lonian exile. He lived in captivity at Tel-Abib, on the banks of the river Chebar, about two hundred miles north of Babylon. The book of his prophecy is diffuse, artistic, and abounds in allegory, symbols and obscurity. Its diffi- culties caused the Jews to declare that no one should read it until thirty years of age. Jerome called it "an ocean and labyrinth of the mysteries of God." But the difficul- ties are chiefly those of exposition. The methods of interpretation applied to Ezekiel may be designated as four: — (1) Allegorical, dangerous in ten- dency; (2) historical, essentially destructive; (3) symbolical, requires careful and guarded qualifications ; (4) typical, the more safe method. 1 9. Daniel is not placed among the prophetical books 1 See Stearns, Intro. Books of O. 7!, 1889. 128 PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. in the Hebrew Bible, but with the K l thubim, being the ninth book after the Psalms. Various reasons have been offered to explain this, but the real ground is not known. Author. — The book itself implies that it was written by Daniel, the prophet of the captivity. This is the testi- mony of i Mace, i : 54; 2 : 59, 60, confirmed by the book of Baruch and the references in the New Testament. Jo- sephus also states the current belief of his time that it was by Daniel, "one of the greatest of the prophets." {Jew. Wars, 6:2, 1; Antiq., 11 : 8, 5.) Some modern critics ascribe it to a pseudo Daniel of the Maccabaean age. They urge that it was not among prophetical books ; is written partly in Aramaic ; is not mentioned in Ecclus. 49, which notices some great prophets. But that also omits Ezra and Mordecai and the twelve Minor prophets (for 49 : 10 is regarded as spurious). Many of the historical difficulties have been removed by late discoveries in the Euphrates valley. The objection to Daniel as the author, sprang at first largely from a wish to get rid of the miracles and prophecies it contains. The testimony continues too strong for the severest criticism seriously to weaken. The unity of the book is generally conceded. In structure it is complex, partly history and partly prophecy. This may account for its position in the Hebrew Bible. Chapters 2 : 4 to 7 are in Aramaic ; the other por- tions in Hebrew. The introduction and the Aramaic por- tion are written in the third person. This may be ac- counted for by the change in the matter ; the former is his- tory, the latter prophetic vision. In interpreting the prophetical portion of the book, the first empire is generally agreed to be the Babylonian, but as to the other three, some combine the Medes and PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 129 Persians into one, while some divide them. Others regard the prophecy as covering a wide sweep of the world- empires before and after Christ. 10. The Minor Prophets. — These twelve books are counted one in the Hebrew Bible. The order there is the same as in English Bibles. The Septuagint changes the or- der of the first six thus, Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Oba- diah, Jonah. Among the twelve are the earliest and the latest of the prophetic books. They exhibit wide diversi- ties of style, thought and illustration. Here is the uncul- tured herdman Amos, the erratic, passionate Jonah, the finished and elegant poet Habakkuk, and the cultured and graceful Joel. ii. — Hosea means the same as Jehoshua, "salvation." Stanley calls him the Jeremiah of the northern kingdom (Is- rael). His prophetic work covered at least fifty (some say seventy) years. 1 His style is sententious and concise, his language original and often quaint. Of the several modes of interpretation, there are — (i) The literal or modified literal, that the prophet actually married a profligate woman, or one that became profligate ; (2) That it was a vision which the prophet describes; (3) That typically he states the relation of Israel to Jehovah as that of an unfaithful wife to a hus- band. There are several references to this book in the New Testament. See Matt. 2 : 15 ; 9 : 13 ; 12:7; Rom. 9 : 25, 26. 12. Joel is pure Hebrew, easy-flowing, elegant and clas- sical in style, having bold, sublime imagery, vividness and power of description, bearing the impress of high culture. All these point to an early period of the monarchy as its 1 See Pusey, Minor Prophets. 130 PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. date — not later than 800 B.C. Peter cites a prediction of Joel as fulfilled in the Pentecostal revival and gift of the Holy Spirit. Compare Joel 2 : 28-32 with Acts 2 : 16^21. 13. — Amos was aherdman of Tekoa, a small town about twelve miles south of Jerusalem. His name means " bur- den" or "burdensome." His style is in strong contrast with that of Joel, and yet it charms the reader by a cer- tain rugged simplicity and even sublimity and freshness, with imagery fragrant of the pasture and rural scenes. The date of the prophecies and of the book probably follows that of Joel (about 810 to 780 B.C.). An old tra- dition, not very trustworthy, declares that he died a mar- tyr's death. 14. Obadiah. — The smallest of the prophetic books re- minds the reader of the old feud between Jacob and Esau. It is a sweeping declaration of judgment against Edom for its unnatural conduct toward Judah in its day of misfortune. The date is uncertain. It turns on vs. 11-14. Someplace it in 889-884 B.C. ; others 606-588 B.C. or later. There is a strong resemblance in this book to Jer. 49 : 7-21, where there is a similar prophecy against Edom. 15. Jonah was of Gath-hepher, a town of northern Pal- estine between Nazareth and Tiberias. The book is a sim- ple, natural and graphic story, bearing the marks of true history unless the reader discards miracles. The miracle of the "great fish" (it does not say "whale") has been made the butt of ridicule by sceptics since the days of Julian the Apostate. As a type of Christ, the narrative of Jonah must include the miracle of the fish, and Christ him- self points to it as such a type. (Matt. 12 : 39-41 ; Luke 11 : 29-32.) The book reads like history. It may be de- PROPHECY AM) PROPHETICAL B00K9. 131 nied a historic character, but only " on the ground that all records of the supernatural are unhistoric." l 1 6. Micah was a prophet of the Mediterranean plains near Gath. He is generally assigned to a period between 758 and 698 B.C. ; but some, depending on internal evi- dence, regard this as rather too early, and would place him as contemporary with Isaiah. His style is bold, energetic, sometimes vehement and abrupt. He abounds in images, and his sudden transitions and conciseness make his mean- ing often obscure. He was counted a Messianic prophet, and his predictions are caught up and echoed in the Song of Zacharias (Luke 1:72, 73), and by the chief priests of Jerusalem (Matt. 2:5, 6). 17. Nahum is a poetic book of great sublimity and with a beautiful imagery. Says Professor Edwards, " In grandeur of style, in condensed energy, in elevation of sentiment and rapid transitions, and in a certain completeness of rep- resentation, Nahum stands, if not the first, yet near the first, of the Hebrew prophets." The writer was probably of Galilee, though some have thought he was from the valley of the Tigris. He gives a sublime picture of the invasion of foes and the desolation of Nineveh. 18. Habakkuk. — His name means " embracing." He was a Levite, but from whence he came and where he lived are unknown. The theme of the book is the overthrow of Judaea by the Chaldaeans, and then the overthrow of the Chaldaeans. The style is strong and the thoughts original. Ewald says that he " is master of a beautiful style, of pow- erful description, and an artistic power that enlivens and orders everything with charming effect." Of his eloquent 1 Prof. Barrows, Intro. Study of the Bible, London, p. 274. 132 PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. and sublime prayer-song (chapter 3), upon the majesty of Jehovah, Bishop Lowth says : " This anthem is unequalled in majesty and splendor of language and imagery." From this book Paul cites the famous text " the just shall live by his faith" (Hab. 2:4; Rom. 1:17), which was caught up by Luther and became the ringing watchword of the great Reformation. 19. — Zephaniah, according to the heading of the book, belonged to the period of the great revival under Josiah, 641-610 B.C. It has been called the great judgment hymn. That marvellous description beginning "The great day of Jehovah is near, . . . That day ... of wrath" (Zeph. 1 : 14, 15), furnished the keynote to that sublime Latin hymn ascribed to Thomas of Celano (1250), Dies tree, dies ilia, esteemed the grandest hymn of the middle ages — a hymn more frequently translated than any other, yet never equalled, and which brings before us, with thrilling power, the final judgment as an awful impending reality. 1 20. Haggai, a prophet of the restoration. His book is plain prose, in a series of four or five discourses. It re- lates to the repair of the Temple, 1 : 1-12; 2 : 10-20; to the glory of the second temple, 2 : 1-9, and Zerubbabel's triumph over his enemies, 2 : 20-23. The second chapter contains a distinct reference to Christ as the "desire of all nations;" or, "the desirable things of all nations." (Hag. 2:7.) 21. Zechariah is accounted the second in order and the greatest prophet of the restoration. The thought is essen- tially Messianic throughout the book. The theme is one, but under two (some say five or six; heads. The authorship 1 See Schafif, Dictionary of the Bible, p. 915. PROPHECY AND PROPHETICAL BOOKS. 133 has been sharply questioned, some ascribing it to Jeremiah, because of the passage in Matt. 27 : 9, 10; but lately this theory has been virtually abandoned. Others would sepa- rate the book into many sections of different ages ; but the authority and inspiration of the book are admitted by all reverent scholars. Testimony is strong in favor of the unity of authorship. The Septuagint credits it to Zechariah. Christ and the New Testament writers recognize but one author for it. The book has six specific references to Christ — Zech. 3:8; 6:12; 9:9; 11:12; 12:10; 13:7. 22. Malachi, meaning " my messenger," is the closing prophet of the Old Testament. The book " is broken up into Socratic aphorisms, abounds in ellipses, is crisp and terse." It is bold and denunciatory in its messages, yet consoles the believer by rich Messianic promises. It dis- tinctly foretells that Elijah will come as the forerunner of the Messiah. Should the forerunner not come, or fail in his mission, the prophet threatens that Jehovah will come and "smite the earth with a curse." And thus prophecy in the Old Testament closes with a terrific warning, await- ing the opening of the New Testament with an angelic song, the Gloria in Excdsis. * %* DATE DUE ; ^jj^'"^ , ™^p^**^^( m GAYLORD PRINTED IN U. S. A. • .-': . •■: ". ••■•..:..:..: •;::::: :• "■■-.: " : .;. ... • BS511 .R49 Our sixty-six sacred books : how they Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer Library 1 1012 00046 8506