PRINCETON, N. J. Shelf. Division DT32 Section ,M2I Number m H ■ "WW THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES / BY J. P/MAHAFFY fellow etc. of trinity college, dublin ; hon. fellow of queen's college, oxford ; knight of the order of the redeemer ; author of 'prolegomena to ancient history'; 'kant's philosophy for english readers ' ' social life in greece from homer to menander ' ; ' rambles and studies in greece'; 'greek life and thought from alexander to the roman conquest'; 'a history of classical greek literature': ' the greek world under roman sway,' etc. Hotrtiou MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1895 All rights reserved Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/empireofptolemieOOmaha AMICO dft'acomo Humbrogo PROFESSORI ROMANO DE PTOLEMAEIS ANTE ALIOS OPTIME MERITO HUNC LIBRUM D D D DOCTRINA EIUS SAGACITATE BENEVOLENTIA CUMULATUS AUCTOR PREFACE I have explained at the opening of the following book what need there was for a renewed attempt to write the history of Ptolemaic Egypt. But no intelligent reader will require to be reminded that in a constantly growing subject, where new discoveries are frequent, and are even to be expected in every year of the near future, finality is not to be expected. Though it is, therefore, a humble, it is still an useful task to chronicle what has been discovered for the benefit of those who take interest in this period, even if it be certain that in a few years another book, or a new edition of this, will both amend and enlarge much that is here contained. I have called it the Empire of the Ptolemies, to emphasize the fact that this dynasty were not mere kings of Egypt — indeed the very notion of a defined kingdom as the domain of a sovran was a notion foreign to the old world — but that they ruled over a composite Empire, and were suzerain lords over local dynasts and kings. Instead of stuffing my pages full of isolated references to classical and post-classical authors, of which the best example may be found in Cless's articles on the Ptolemies in Pauly's Encyclopaedia, I have rather striven to cite in VI 11 THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES full such evidence as is not easily accessible ; hence the extant Ptolemaic inscriptions, which are important, will be found textually in this volume. The cartouches and coins are added for the convenience of travellers and others who may wish to identify Ptolemaic work in Egypt and else- where. A general inquiry into the sources, primary, secondary and otherwise, of this history is an interesting task, but so full of complications and of controversies, that after considerable labour I have desisted from the hope of giving it in this volume, the size of which it must have unduly increased. Meanwhile I can refer the curious reader to the excellent and learned summary in Prof. C. Wachsmuth's Einleitung in das Studium des alten Geschichte (1895) pp. 579 sq., where the literature of the subject up to last year is reviewed. As regards the chronology, we are confronted at the outset with the difficulty that Olympiad years do not correspond with Julian, and so the accession, say of Philadelphus, seems to be more strictly within 285-4 (November to November) than 285 B.C. This difference in the commencement of the years affects most of the dates. But as the whole scale is only approximate, and as in hardly any cases can we fix the date closer than the year, I regard it sufficient to give the approximate time, simply with a view to the sequence of events. It is for this purpose that there is given a practical chronology, however imperfect, at the end of the Preface. Such col- lateral events as influenced the course of affairs in Egypt, or hindered interference, are given as bearing upon the PREFACE ix subject. I have also felt constrained to add, at the end of the book, a few notes containing information either overlooked in the text, or accruing from recent discoveries, while the sheets were going through the press. Even now, since these additional notes were printed, new ideas have occurred to me, and I do not yet know how far my most recent observation — that Egyptian crown-princes did not marry as such, but waited till their accession to do so — may carry us. But when a child has come to the birth, a speedy delivery is the safest and best. The index has been prepared for me with much care by my friend Mr. J. E. Healy, and will be found a great help through a book full of intricate details, and necessarily containing some repetitions. No teacher of any experience will blame me for these repetitions, seeing that I had no object to gain in changing the original form in which the book was composed. It consists of lectures delivered to my History class in the University of Dublin, without the many digressions suggested by intelligent questions from my hearers, and with the passages given in full (from translations) which the class read in the original texts. There are many interesting problems for which I have yet found no solution. What was the origin of the pro- verbial 'seven wonders of the world,' which Diodorus knows, but concerning which we have only a late and worthless tract ? What is the real history of the translation known as the LXX and what is its age ? What are we to understand by the joint government of X THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES a king and queen so estranged that each would seek to thwart the other in every detail of the administration ? How far does the observation, that we only know of one crown-prince with a wife (Soter II.) account for the divorce of that wife after his accession, and for other apparent heartlessnesses in Ptolemaic history? Is the hereditary title recognised in the princesses, which no doubt led to their marriages with their reigning brothers, a relic of Pharaonic ideas, or a mere imitation of the successful experiment of Philadelphus ? Some day a catalogue of these problems may be set by some Academy for a special essay, and then we may attain to some satisfactory replies regarding most of them. But we may have long to wait before such another prize-essay is published as that of Giacomo Lumbroso, which marks one of the epochs in Ptolemaic studies. Yet even as I write, there are before me the proofs of Mr. Grenfell's Appendix III to our joint edition of the Revenue Papyrus — an appendix which marks another epoch in the explanation of the Ptolemaic coinage. A few proper names (Polyperchon, Arrabaeus, Trogo- dyte, etc.) have been altered from their usual form on the ground of better authority for the new form. With regard to the rest, the current forms are not changed where they have become ordinary English words, or where the modern spelling did not affect the pronunciation. In lesser known names I have taken the frequent liberty of preserving the Greek forms ; but without any desire to defend this inconsistency, or to impugn any other rule on the subject. Provided the reader is not misled, con- PREFACE xi sistency is not important, and inconsistency quite ex- cusable. As regards the accentuation of Greek, I have avoided doing so where our originals (on stone or papyrus) have no accents ; when I quote from literary texts, handed down to us accentuated, the accents found in the MSS. have been retained. One serious disadvantage under which the historian of later Hellenism suffers may be noted in conclusion. In every university the student of classical Greek subjects finds many highly-trained colleagues to assist and criticise him. But in the later epochs of Greek life it is not yet so, and he must work well-nigh alone, were it not for the broad sympathy of those who come to the subject almost as a novelty. Hence, though I have received most valuable aid from several of my younger colleagues, it is not easy to find, even in so great an array of scholars as we possess, any specialist to sift and correct the many statements made, and conjectures hazarded, upon this wide and intricate field of study. In a few more years of discovery and criticism we may expect this epoch to be as carefully surveyed and dissected as the older epochs of Greek history have been. But as yet the writer on Ptolemaic history feels himself in some sort a pioneer, who is liable to be baulked by unex- pected obstacles, misled by ardent expectations, diverted from his path by false informations. Yet are all these risks and dangers unable to outweigh the intense interest of penetrating a country either unexplored or imperfectly described by former travellers. b CONTENTS PAGE Chronology ....... xvii CHAPTER I Introduction. Alexander the Great and Egypt . i CHAPTER II Ptolemy I. Satrap (322-307 b.c.) . . . -19 CHAPTER III Ptolemy I. (Soter), King 305-285 b.c. . . -59 CHAPTER IV Ptolemy II. (Philadelphia), King 285-247 b.c. . .112 CHAPTER V Ptolemy II. {continued) . . . . .156 xiv THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES CHAPTER VI PAGE Ptolemy III. (Euergetes), King 247-222 b.c. . . 193 CHAPTER VII Ptolemy IV. (Philopator), 222-205 b.c. . . 243 CHAPTER VIII Ptolemy V. (Epiphanes), 205-182 b.c. . . . 289 CHAPTER IX Ptolemy VI. (Eupator), 182 b.c. — Ptolemy VII. (Philo- metor), 182-146 b.c. — Ptolemy VIII. (Philopator Neos), T46 B.C. . . . . . . .328 CHAPTER X Ptolemy IX. (Euergetes II. or Physkon), 146-1 17 b.c. . 377 CHAPTER XI Cleopatra III. and her Sons Philometor, Soter II. (or Lathyrus) and Ptolemy Alexander (1 17-81 b.c.) . 405 CHAPTER XII Berenike III. and Ptolemy XII. (Alexander IT.), 81 b.c, Ptolemy XIII. (Auletes), 81-52 b.c. . . . 425 CONTENTS xv CHAPTER XIII PAGE Cleopatra (VI.), her Brothers, and her Son Caesarion, B.C. 5I-3O . . . . . . .445 Additional Notes and Illustrations . . 487 Index ........ 499 CHRONOLOGY Note. — I regret that after much labour we have not yet been able to fix the closer dates {i.e. the months) of the accession of the various kings. Even the year is often uncertain. But I hope ere long to be able to say something more definite on this question. n.c. 332 Alexander III. of Macedon (the Great) conquers Egypt. 331 Visit to the oasis of Anion. Submission of Cyrene. 331-0 Alexandria founded (winter). 330 Cleomenes practically Satrap of Egypt. Ptolemy marries Artakama, daughter of Artabazus. 323 (Summer). Death of Alexander. Philip Arridaeus nominal king. Ptolemy Satrap. Intimacy with Lais. 322 Transference of Alexander's body to Egypt. Ptolemy's alliance with the kings of Cyprus. 322-1 Subjugation of Cyrene by means of Ophelas. 321 Invasion of Egypt by Perdikkas. His defeat and death. The division of Triparadeisus. Ptolemy's marriage with Eurydike, daughter of Antipater. 320 Ptolemy occupies Cyprus and Syria. 319 His alliance with Casander. Proclamation of Polyperchon. 317 Alexander IV. (Aegus) nominal king. Ptolemy marries Berenike. Restoration of the cella at Luxor in Alexander's name. 316 Seleukos flies from Antigonus. Arrives in Egypt. (?) Birth of Berenike's daughter Arsinoe. 315 War of Ptolemy (and Seleukos) against Antigonus. Antigonus seizes Cyprus, and the Philistine coast. 314-3 Reconquest of Cyprus by Ptolemy and revolt of Cyrene (?). Meet- ing at Ekregma. xviii THE EMPIRE OE THE PTOLEMIES B.C. 312 Demetrius defeated at Gaza. Seleukos returns to Babylon. Antigonus recovers Syria and Palestine. 311 Death of Alexander IV. (but his name appears as king till 305)- 310 Peace between Antigonus and Ptolemy. Death of Roxane (Alexander the Great's widow). Grant of land to the temples of Pe and Tep in Alexander Aegus' name, but the titles of the young king are left blank, as he was probably already dead. Ptolemy declares the freedom of the Greeks, and so obtains practical possession of the coasts of Cilicia and Lycia. 309 He visits the Cyclades, and puts garrisons into Corinth and Sikyon. Death of Alexander the Great's sister Cleopatra, and of his bastard son Herakles. 308 Birth of Berenike's son Ptolemy (afterwards king). 308-7 Demetrius retakes Corinth and Sikyon. Ophelas murdered by Agathocles. Ptolemy recovers Cyrene and sends Magas to govern it. 307 Ptolemy marries his daughter Theoxena to Agathocles. He visits Megara. 306 Defeat of Ptolemy at Cyprus by Demetrius, who takes the island. Arrival of Demetrius the Phalerean in Egypt. 306-5 Invasion of Egypt by Antigonus. Its failure. 305 (November). Ptolemy assumes the title of king. Siege of Rhodes by Demetrius. (?) Assumption of the title Soter by Ptolemy. 302 New alliance against Antigonus. The campaign of Antigonus against Lysimachus in Asia Minor. Ptolemy re-occupies Syria and Palestine, but again evacuates them. 301 Battle of Ipsus. 300 Lysimachus marries Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy and of Bere- nike. His son Agathocles marries Lysandra, daughter of Ptolemy and of Eurydike. 299 Pyrrhus a hostage in Egypt. 295 (?) Ptolemy recovers Cyprus from Demetrius. The foundation of the Museum and Library at Alexandria about this time. CHRONOLOGY xix B.C. 295 Pyrrhus returns to Epirus as king. 294 Demetrius Poliorketes king of Macedonia. 290 Probable time of Ptolemy's composition of his history of Alex- ander's campaigns. 289 Begging petition of Demochares (from Athens). 288 Great armaments of Demetrius in Greece. 285-4 Ptolemy practically abdicates by associating his younger son Ptolemy in the royalty. Eurydike and her children leave Egypt. She marries her daughter Ptolemais to Demetrius. 283 Death of Demetrius Poliorketes (Droysen). Death of Ptolemy Soter. 281 Battle of Korupedion. Death of Lysimachus. Death of Seleukos I. and accession of Antiochus I. (Soter). 280 Pyrrhus lands in Italy. Ptolemy visits Pithom. 278 Antigonus (Gonatas) defeats the Gauls near Lysimacheia, and becomes definitively king of Macedon. 277 Pyrrhus in Sicily. (?) Second marriage of Ptolemy to Arsinoe IT. 275 Pyrrhus returns to Italy. 274 Pyrrhus returns to Epirus. 273 Ptolemy sends an embassy to Rome. His second visit to Pithom. The Romans reply with an embassy to Alexandria. 271 Ptolemy Soter deified. 269 First coinage of silver at Rome. 266 The Canephorus (priestess) of Arsinoe Philadelphia estab- lished (?). 265 Beginning of the Chremonidean War (?). 264 The eponymous priests of the gods Adelphi first mentioned. First Punic War. Third visit to Pithom, and religious endowments. 263 Time of Second Syrian War (?). Eumenes succeeds to the throne of Pergamum. 262 The airdfjioipa on wine and fruits settled on the deified Arsinoe. Death of Antiochus Soter (king of Syria) and accession of his son Antiochus II. (Theos). 260 Progress of the Chremonidean War. 258 Athens subdued by Antigonus. Defeat of Ptolemy's fleet at Kos (?). The Revenue Papyrus. Death of Magas. Demetrius the Fair at Cyrene. Ptolemy III. (crown prince) declared lord of Cyrene. Change in the formula of the king's dates. XX THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES B.C. 256 Reclaiming of the lake Moeris in progress. 255 Ptolemy II. visits the lake Moeris, and (probably) re-names the district as the Arsinoite no me. 251 Aratus frees Sikyon. 250 Aratus goes to Egypt. Arsaces founds the Parthian monarchy, and revolts from the Seleukids. 247 Egyptian victory at Andros. Death of Ptolemy Philadelphia, accession and marriage of Ptolemy III. 246 Third Syrian War. Accession of Seleukos II. Kallinikos. Ptolemy captures Seleukeia on the Orontes, and Antioch. 245 Ptolemy recalled from the East by domestic troubles. 241 End of the First Punic War. Accession of Attalus I. at Per- gamum. 239 Death of Antigonus Gonatas. 238 Synod of Canopus. Ptolemy III. and his queen Berenike II. deified as gods Euergetae. 237 Great temple of Edfu founded. 229 Death of Demetrius the Aetolian (king of Macedon). 228 First Roman embassy to Greece. 226 Accession of Seleukos III. Keraunos. 223 Great earthquake at Rhodes (?). 222-1 Battle of Sellasia. Cleomenes flies to Egypt. Death of Euergetes I. and accession of Ptolemy IV. (Philo- pator). Death of Antigonus Doson (of Macedon), and accession of Philip V. 221-0 Accession of Antiochus III. (the Great, of Syria). Hannibal in Spain. Fourth Syrian War. 219 Antiochus recovers Palestine from Egypt. 218 Hannibal crosses the Alps. 217 Battle of Raphia and defeat of Antiochus III. Peace between Egypt and Syria. 216 Battle of Cannae. Decius Magius escapes from the Carthaginians, first to Cyrene and then to Egypt. 214 Treaty of Hannibal with Philip V. 213 (?) Insurrection of the natives in Egypt. Marriage of Ptolemy IV. to his sister, Arsinoe III. They are deified as gods Philopatores. CHRONOLOGY xxi B.C. 211 Scopas praetor of Aetolia. 210 Birth of Ptolemy V. His mother imprisoned, and after some time murdered by Sosibius and Agathocles. 209 Ptolemy V. associated in the crown. 205 Accession of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes. 202 Battle of Zama. 201 Roman embassy to Egypt. Battle of Chios between the Rhodians, etc. and Philip. 200 Embassy of Ptolemy to offer assistance to Rome against Philip. 198 Battle of Panion. Scopas defeated by Antiochus III. Betrothal of Ptolemy V. to Cleopatra I. (of Syria). 197 Battle of Cynoscephalae. Accession of Eumenes II. at Per- gamum. 196-5 Anacleteria and divine honours to Ptolemy V. (Rosetta stone and decree of Memphis). 194 Death of Eratosthenes. Apollonius Rhodius chief librarian at Alexandria. 193 Marriage of Ptolemy Epiphanes and Cleopatra I. at Raphia. 192 Antiochus invades Greece. 191 Embassy of Ptolemy with gifts of money to Rome. 190 Battle of Magnesia. Antiochus III. defeated by the Romans. 189 Insurrection in Upper Egypt. 188 Manlius in Asia Minor. 187 Embassy from Egypt to Achaian League (?). Death of Antiochus III. and accession of Seleukos IV. (Philo- pator). 186 The concessions of the king's 9th year (Rosetta stone) renewed. 184 The insurrection subdued. 182 Death of Ptolemy and accession of Ptolemy VI. (Eupator). 182-1 Accession of Ptolemy VII. (Philometor). 179 Death of Philip V. and accession of Perseus in Macedonia. 175 Accession of Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes). 174 Death of Cleopatra I. 173 Marriage of Ptolemy VII. to his sister Cleopatra II. Embassy from Rome to Egypt. 171 Invasion of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. Ptolemy Philometor defeated near Mount Casius. Antiochus crowned king of Egypt (?). 170 Ptolemy Euergetes II. made king by the Alexandrians. xxii THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES B.C. 170 By Cleopatra II. 's mediation, Ptolemy Philometor returns and the two brothers reign conjointly. 170-69 Renewed invasion of Antiochus IV. 168 Battle of Pydna (June). Antiochus checked and sent home by the embassy of Popilius Laenas. 167 Revolt of Dionysius Petosiris. 165 Revolt at Panopolis subdued by Ptolemy Philometor (?). 164 Accession of Antiochus V. (Eupator). 163 Ptolemy Philometor exiled by his brother and flies to Rome. He is restored by the Senate, and Euergetes II. is sent to Cyrene. 162 Accession of Demetrius II. Soter in Syria. 161 Euergetes II. goes to Rome, to obtain new terms (?). 160 Visit of Ptolemy Philometor and his queen to Memphis. 159 Accession of Attains II. at Pergamum. 155 Embassy of the three philosophers (on the part of Athens) to Rome. 154 Euergetes II. conquered in Cyprus. Settlement of the war between the brothers. 151 Demetrius Soter endeavours to annex Cyprus. 150 Ptolemy Philometor gives his daughter Cleopatra in marriage to Alexander Bala at Ptolemais. 149 Third Punic War. 147 Demetrius Nicator claims the crown. Ptolemy gives him his daughter Cleopatra to wife, and is crowned king at Antioch. 146 Death of Philometor in battle. Accession and death of Ptolemy VIII. (Philopator Neos). Fall of Carthage, and of Corinth. Renewed accession of Ptolemy IX. (Euergetes II.) He marries the queen Cleopatra II. 145 Birth of his son Memphites. He issues a decree of Benevolences. 144-3(7) Euergetes II. marries his niece Cleopatra III. (Euergetis). 143 (?) Mission of Scipio Aemilianus to Egypt. 138 Death of Attalus II. (Philadelphus) and accession of Attains III. 137 Antiochus Sidetes king of Syria. 134 Slave war in Sicily. 133 Death of Attalus III. 132 War of the Romans with Aristonicus of Pergamum. 130-29 Ptolemy IX. exiled, and Cleopatra II. reigns. (Nevertheless he appears as king of Egypt in at least two documents of the year 129 B.C.) CHRONOLOGY xxiii B.C. 129 Aristonicus put to death. Death of Scipio Aemilianus. 127 Euergetes II. again recovers Egypt. 123 C. Gracchus tribune. 121 Death of C. Gracchus. 120 Accession of Mithradates VI. (Eupator) in Pontus. 117 Death of Ptolemy IX. His widow Cleopatra rules. 1 16-5 Association of Ptolemy X. (Lathyrus) with his mother Cleo- patra III. in the throne. Ptolemy X. marries his sister Selene. 115 Ptolemy X. visits Elephantine (stele of Aswan). 114 Ptolemy Alexander I. appointed king of Cyprus. 1 14-3 Cleopatra III. and Ptolemy Soter II. assume the title Philo- metores Soteres. 1 1 1 Jugurthine war. no Ptolemy Philometor Soter II. (Lathyrus) assumes sole power. 107-6 Ptolemy Lathyrus exiled and Alexander I. recalled to reign with his mother. 105 (?) Ptolemy Lathyrus makes war in Palestine. Invasions of the Cimbri into Italy. 104 Triumph of Marius over the Cimbri. 102 Second Servile war in Sicily. 100-99 Berenike III. appears as queen with Alexander I. but also with his mother. Saturninus tribune. 99 Lathyrus king of Cyprus. 96 Death of Ptolemy Apion, who bequeaths Cyrene to Rome. 92 First public transaction (by Sylla) between Rome and Parthia. 91 (?) Death of Cleopatra III. 90 Marsian or Social War. 88 Alexander I. is exiled, and slain. Soter II. (Lathyrus) returns from exile and again becomes king. Mithradates invades Asia Minor and massacres the Italians there. He finds Ptolemy Alexander II. at Kos, but the prince escapes to Rome. 87 Lucullus comes to Egypt to seek aid for Sylla. 86 Athens stormed by Sylla. 84 (?) Destruction of Thebes by Lathyrus. Peace between Sylla and Mithradates. 81 Death of Ptolemy X. Philometor Soter II. (Lathyrus). Accession of Ptolemy XII. Alexander II., who marries xxiv THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES li.C. 8 1 Berenike III. Philopator. Death of both queen and king in nineteen days. Accession of Ptolemy XIII. Neos Dionysus, Philopator (III.) and Philadelphus (II. Auletes). ' 80 Capture of Mitylene by the Romans. Caesar's first campaign. 79 Auletes marries Cleopatra V. Tryphaena. 78 Death of Sylla. 77 (?) Birth of Berenike IV. War of Rome against Cilician pirates. 75-4 Bithynia bequeathed to Rome. Cyrene occupied by the Romans. Second war with Mithradates. Selene and her two sons come from Syria to Rome. 72 The two sons of Selene and Antiochus Grypus leave Rome. Wars with Sertorius, Spartacus, and Mithradates in progress. 69-8 Birth of Cleopatra VI. Selene put to death by Tigranes. 67 Gabinian Law. Pompey subdues the pirates. 66 Manilian Law. Pompey against Mithradates. 65 Crassus proposes to reduce Egypt to a Roman province. 64 Betrothal of two infant Ptolemies to two daughters of Mithra- dates. Pompey in Syria. 63 Death of King Mithradates of Pontus. Auletes seeks recognition from Pompey. 60 (?) Diodorus Siculus visits Egypt. 59 Auletes recognised by Julius Caesar as consul. The temple of Edfu completed. 58 Auletes is expelled, and flies to Rome. Cyprus reduced to a province by Cato. Death of King Ptolemy of Cyprus. 57 Cleopatra V. Tryphaena remains queen at Alexandria. She dies and Berenike IV. her daughter assumes the throne. 56 Berenike marries Seleukos Kybiosaktes, and rejects him. She marries Archelaus of Komana. Cicero makes his speech pro rege Alexandrino. 55 Restoration of Auletes by Gabinius, with Antony commanding his cavalry. First meeting of Antony and Cleopatra. Rabirius over the finances of Egypt. 54 Cicero's speech pro Kabirio Postumo. Crassus invades Parthia. 51 Death of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes. Cleopatra VI. and her brother Ptolemy XIV. appointed to the throne by his will. CHRONOLOGY xxv B.C. 49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon. Cnaeus Pompey goes for levies to Egypt. 48 Battle of Pharsalia. Cleopatra driven out by her brother. She returns with an army to Pelusium. Pompey arrives at the camp of Ptolemy XIV. and is murdered. Arrival of Julius Caesar, who is besieged (with Cleopatra) in Alexandria. 47 Alexandrian War. Ptolemy XIV. drowned. Cleopatra ap- pointed queen with her younger brother Ptolemy XV. 46 (?) Cleopatra goes to Rome. Reform of the Calendar by Julius Caesar. 45 Death of Ptolemy XV. Cleopatra assumes her son Caesarion (Ptolemy XVI.) as co-regent. 44 Caesar assassinated. Cleopatra returns to Egypt. 43-2 Famine in Egypt. Triumvirate of Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus.1 42 Battle of Philippi. 41 Antony summons Cleopatra to Cilicia, and returns with her to Alexandria. 40 The Parthians invade Syria. Herod appointed king of Judaea. 38 Ventidius conquers the Parthians. Capture of Jerusalem by Sossius. Antony returns to Italy. 37-6 Antony returns to the East, and after his Parthian expedition rules at Alexandria with Cleopatra. War of Octavian and Antony against Sextus Pompey. Antony invades Armenia. 34-3 Triumph of Antony at Alexandria. He distributes Eastern provinces to her children. 31 Battle of Actium. 30 Death of Cleopatra VI., Ptolemy XVI. (Caesarion), and of Antony and his son Antyllus. Settlement of Egypt as an imperial province under Augustus. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION. ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND EGYPT r § i. There is something unsatisfactory in beginning a history with the mature state of a nation. As in biography so in history, we desire to go back to the cradle, and see the growth of social and of political life from their first rude commencements. There is, moreover, not a little difficulty in finding a later moment which will afford a real starting-point. Each condition of a nation is the result of what went before, and the human mind feels compelled to seek the causes for this, as for every other effect. In undertaking, however, to begin a special history of Egypt with the accession of the first Ptolemy, these objections lose most of their force. For, in the first place, several competent scholars have written the history of Egypt from its dawn till the conquest of Alexander, so that all the earlier stages can be studied in good books. These eminent men must B ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 2 THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES CHAP. also have felt some distinct break in the life of the nation, as their work appeared to them concluded when Egypt passed under Macedonian sway. In this impression they have but reproduced the unanimous feeling of Hellenistic writers, who imply or assert that with Alex- ander a new volume of the world's history had opened, and that the events even of the recent past belonged to a different age, and might be neglected as the decrepi- tude of a byegone civilisation. Polybius, for example, in his careful and philosophic history of the Greek world of his own century, though he inquires diligently into causes and appreciates traditions, finds no occasion, so far as we know him, to cite Xenophon or Thucy- dides more than once, Herodotus more than twice. In his mind the break with the past made by Alexander was complete. We are therefore fortified by a general con- sensus of opinion, when we assume for Egypt what was true of the rest of the nations about the Levant, and treat the Ptolemaic rule as a distinct epoch in the history of the valley of the Nile. § 2. That this epoch has hitherto been neglected is not strange. In spite of the great splendour and importance of the Ptolemies in the Hellenistic world, no systematic account of them had survived even in Pausanias' day.1 We know them through pompous hieroglyphics, which were not intended to instruct us, through panegyrics which were perhaps intended to mislead us, through episodes in the universal histories of Polybius and Diodorus. Recently we have added to these literary authorities a good many stray inscriptions, and a mass of papyrus fragments, which give us multitudinous isolated facts, seldom of public interest, 1 i. 6 us p.T) [xheiv '£tl ttjv (p7]jmrjv avr&p, Kal ol avyyev 6/nevoi tois ftacriXevcnv eirl avyypar) rjy^aeadai /mol ttjs arpancts, which means, I think, that the Jews would show him all the roads, and tell him the distances. 2 Arrian iii. I. s THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES CHAP. sacrificed to Apis and the other gods, and assured the priests of his favour and support.1 If the Jewish authori- ties were to help him in his campaigns through Asia with their knowledge of distances, their correspondents in remote cities, their exceptional geographical knowledge, the Egyptian priests were to serve him in another way ; they were to secure to him without disturbance the supplies of provisions and money which in that favoured country seemed unlimited, even in troublous times and under the grossest misgovernment. Some six millions — the Ptolemies raised the figure to seven and a half — of hard-working fellahs were trained by hereditary oppression to work for their masters, and pay taxes out of all proportion to the size of the country. This safe and certain source of revenue was at the moment of great importance to the new king, who had not yet seized the great hoards of treasure at Susa and Persepolis. His own treasury was at the lowest ebb, though his conquests may have already obtained for him considerable pecuniary credit.2 § 7. But we are only concerned with Alexander so far as we can explain through his acts more clearly the policy of his successor in the sovranty of Egypt. We hear that he appointed two Egyptians, Peteesis and Doloaspis, no?7iarchs of the provinces, of which he created for this purpose but two, probably Upper and Lower Egypt. Doloaspis, who presently obtained the whole management, has' a name which hardly seems to be Egyptian, Peteesis, on the other hand, was the name of several native officials of importance in later generations. There were several 1 With these ceremonies he combined a gymnic and musical contest among artists brought from Greece. Arrian loc. cit. 2 The Egyptian priests also supplied him with a sentimental dignity which will come before the reader presently. I ALEXANDER 9 Greeks and Macedonian grandees also appointed for mili- tary purposes, and to look after the treasury.1 Of these one only, Cleomenes, maintained his importance for some years. He was indeed the chief adviser of the king at the founding of Alexandria, if pseudo-Callisthenes,2 here apparently well-informed, is to be trusted; but in the sequel, and when no longer under Alexander's eye, he earned a reputation for dishonesty and injustice. But, of course, all these appointments were merely provisional, pending a reconstruction of the Persian Empire.3 § 8. Two acts only of the king were plainly intended as declarations of a deliberate policy. He had no time to visit Upper Egypt, but took care to send a detachment of troops under Apollonides as far as Elephantine,4 to exhibit his authority. He himself, having made his peace with 1 B. Niese Hellenisj?ius i, p. 87 gives a good summary of the details. I can make nothing of Suidas' note on fiaaiXetoL ircudes e^aKiepe. /cat ofrv irap "Allluovcl twotq 7-77 yvdb/xr] iar^Wero, ws /cat ra avrov drpeKiarepov eicrSfxeyos t) (prjcrojv re I ALEXANDER i5 of mind as from policy desired to claim a superhuman origin, it still remains for us to inquire why he chose the difficult and dangerous journey to the far oasis in order to obtain his desire. § 11. It is hardly necessary to insist upon the strong attraction which difficulties presented to the royal adventurer. No feature in his character has been more consistently attested by history and by legend.1 The sober ground of his choice lay in the fact that this oracle of Amon, regarded with awe by the Egyptians as a sanctum of their religion protected by nature from all profane con- tact, was also the only one in Egypt which the Greeks for centuries back had known and consulted.2 Possibly the Greeks of Naukratis, and those of Cyrene, had something 1 Cf. Arrian's account of the journey with its marvels, iii. 3. 2 Pausanias (ix. 16, 1) tells us that Pindar (who alludes to this god : Aids "Ap-ficovos defjiidXois, Pyth. iv. 28) had written an ode for the Libyan priests of Amon, of which he saw a copy on a triangular stele at the temple of Amon at Boeotian Thebes beside an altar erected in honour of the god by the first Ptolemy. Pindar had also set up a statue of the god there, probably to commemorate his liberal treatment by the Libyans. Lysander was said by Ephorus to have visited this remote oracle (Plut. Lys. 25) in connexion with his attempts to bribe other oracles of the Greek world, and Pausanias (iii. 18, 3) says he saw an old temple of Amon at Sparta. He found the same thing at Elis (v. 15, 11). Plutarch tells us {Kimon 18) that Kimon sent a secret inquiry to the oasis from Cyprus, and that the god replied to his envoys that Kimon had died during their journey. If these notices are all from late writers, we can show early familiarity with the oracle at Athens from Aristophanes {Birds 619, 716), where it is classed with Dodona and Delphi. These refer- ences, which are not an exhaustive list, are sufficient to prove the high and general reputation of this temple of Amon in the Greek world. In addition to our ancient authorities for this passage in Alexander's history (Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus, Curtius, Justin), there are special articles on the oracle by Parthey (Berlin Abhand. for 1862) and Bliimner (Budingen Program, 1868). 1 6 THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES CHAP. to do with this curious fact. Either of them may have thought it worth while to undertake the journey of 180 miles from Paraetonium, which they could reach by sea, to obtain the trade with the whole series of oases, whose produce comes to that of Siwah by caravan from the south. At all events, this oracle had a recognised author- ity throughout the Hellenic world, which none of the shrines of Memphis or of Thebes, however splendid, had attained. It happened also that on his way westward, Alexander received the voluntary submission of Cyrene,1 which thus became legitimately a province of Egypt, and gave the Ptolemies that title to its sovranty, which was of great importance in the diplomatic disputes of the Hellenistic world. Upon his return from the oracle Alexander went to Memphis, whether by Alexandria or across the desert directly was a point upon which first-rate authorities, Aristobulus and Ptolemy, differed. From thence, having bridged the Nile and the various arms he required to cross, he brought his army to Phoenicia. § 12. We have now reviewed the historical incidents of Alexander's occupation of Egypt, giving stress to those which have been misunderstood, or required explanation, and to those which suggested to the Ptolemies the principles of their administration. Briefly; Alexander had asserted the dignity and credibility of the Egyptian religion, and his determination to support it, and receive support from it. He had refused to alter the local administration, and had even appointed some native officials to superintend it. On the other hand he had placed the control of the garrison and the central authority in the hands of Macedonians and Greeks, and had founded a 1 Diod. xvii. 49 ; Arrian omits this. I ALEXANDER 17 new capital, which could not but 'be a Hellenistic city, and a rallying point for all the Greek traders throughout the country. The port of Canopus was formally closed, and its business transferred to the new city. That of Naukratis found its way there of necessity, though the old site was not abandoned and furnished in after days several dis- tinguished authors to Greek literature.1 We hear little hereafter of the other great cities of the Delta — unless it be in the occasional national revolts : — Sais, which had for some time been the Egyptian capital, but which may now have been partly absorbed by Alex- andria ; farther off, Tanis and Bubastos, the former of which was certainly the scene of a convocation of priests in the third Ptolemy's time. Pelusium, as we now know, remained the port for Syrian merchandise.2 During the succeeding decade of Alexander's conquests, we hear of no disturbance in Egypt, beyond stray complaints of the misconduct of Cleomenes, which reached the ears of Alexander.3 But it is to be noted that on the death of his favourite Hephaestion, Alexander again applied to the oracle of Amon, as to the honours possible for his friend. Even 1 Philistus, Apollonius, Polycharmus, Charon, Lykeas, Staphylus in the Ptolemaic age ; Chaeremon, Athenaeus and Julius Pollux in the late Roman. 2 It is stated by Josephus {Antiqq. xi. 86) that Alexander settled in the Thebaid many Samaritans, whose quarrels with the Jews made them willing emigrants ; they had land-lots assigned to them, and the garrisoning of Upper Egypt. I do not believe this statement, though I have found in the Fayyum frequent mention, not only of Jews, but of a village called Samaria, in the middle of the third century B.C. But I do not believe that Samaritans were settled there till the new dynasty was established. This new evidence disposes of the extreme scepticism of Niese {Gesck. des Hell. i. 83 note), who thinks this whole Jewish episode in Josephus an invention of the second century B. c. 3 Arrian vii. 23. Aristotle Oecon. ii. p. 1352-3 gives various instances of Cleomenes' dishonesty to merchants and to tax-payers. C 18 THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES chap, i in his case, Alexander was ready to admit some admixture of divinity. The account of these things in Arrian's seventh book confirms the view above taken regarding Alexander's deliberate claims. Such then was the immediate preparation of the country for the rise of a new and glorious dynasty. CHAPTER II PTOLEMY I, SATRAP (3 2 2 -3 O 7 B.C.) §13. Among the extant historians none has thought it worth while to tell us whether the future King of Egypt was there attending upon Alexander, and what impressions he derived from his visit. In his own history of Alexander's campaigns, written perhaps forty years after, he seems not to have laid any stress upon this point ; and yet it is more than probable that he went to Egypt with Alexander, and was impressed with the richness and the security of this new province. For its fruitfulness was only equalled by its isolation, there being natural frontiers of desert, marsh, and water which bar out all easy access. We are not told that Ptolemy went with the king to the oracle of Amon, and from the discrepancy mentioned by Arrian regarding the miracles on the way and the route of Alexander's return,1 no safe conclusion can be drawn. Ptolemy, son of Lagos and Arsinoe,2 was some years older than the king, probably born in B.C. 367, but still 1 Above § 11. 2 For the year of his birth we have no better authority than the infer- ence from Lucian Macrob. 12. Suidas sub voc. Xaybs repeats the fable that when exposed by Lagos, who repudiated the paternity, the child was 20 THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES CHAP. young enough to have been one of his companions at Mieza during his education, and so intimate with him during the domestic quarrels at the court of Philip that he was exiled with other friends of the young prince, and only returned to court on Alexander's accession.1 These meagre facts are, however, sufficient to enable us to contradict the current legend,2 that Ptolemy was of mean extraction, a mere soldier of fortune, whose only claim to blue blood was a possible intimacy of his mother with King Philip of Macedon. That some indiscreet flatterer may in after days have sought to make him a half-brother of the great king is likely enough, but the fact of his being the young Alexander's playfellow shows clearly that he came from one of those high families in Macedon — we might almost call them feudal nobles — who furnished the f3ao-i\iKol 7rouSe9 or pages for the royal household. His very exile by Philip shows that his name must have had some importance at the court. On the other hand the historians never cite his noble origin as a cause of his popularity or position with the Macedonians, as they do in the case of Krateros, Perdikkas or Leon- natos. § 14. It has been inferred by E. Revillout from Egyptian inscriptions that he concealed his father's name, and called himself Ptolemy son of Ptolemy.3 We are further told that the LXX refused to translate the Hebrew word for the unclean hare in Leviticus with Aayws, as it would be a taken care of by an eagle. This fable was probably suggested by the eagle which figures on the coins of Ptolemy and his successors. An anecdote of Plutarch (de ira cohib. 9) also implies that Lagos was of mean birth. Both Ptolemaios and Arsinoe are very old Greek names, the former occurring in Homer. 1 Arrian iii. 6, 5. 2 Justin xiii. 4. 3 Revillout Rev. Egypt, i. p. 11. II PTOLEMY I 21 reflection on the royal name.1 All the evidence to be had from Greek documents contradicts these inferences. Pausanias tells us more than once 2 that on votive offer- ings at Thebes in Boeotia and at Delphi, Ptolemy called himself merely 'the Macedonian,' though he was king. This, however, was the correct Greek fashion, and only shows an absence of needless boasting. We now know3 that he dedicated a gold cup at Delos with the inscription ITroAepuos Aayov MaKcSwv. The texts written in demotic and cited by Revillout, which are dated 'in the reign of Ptolemy son of Ptolemy,' are therefore not of the first, but of the second Ptolemy.4 There is also a Cyprian inscription (CIG 2613) ending — Iipa^ayo/xx? 8 ovofx ecr^ov cTri/cAees, ov irpiv €7r avSpoov OrjKaro AayeiSas Koipavos rjyefxova. But in reply to Revillout's two statements, unproven, and perhaps even leading to opposite conclusions — for if the name of Lagos had been indeed suppressed, why avoid an ordinary Greek word a generation later? — it is enough 1 The word is daavTrovs, used very frequently by Aristotle, and apparently for the rabbit. The hares of Egypt were noted by him as a small variety. 2 vi. 3, 1 ; x. 7, 8. 3 Bull. Corresp. Hell. {BCH) vi. 48. 4 I have published a Greek instance in the Petrie Papyj-i (11. xxiv). The Revenue Papyrus, col. 24, gives another distinct instance of the year 27 of the second Ptolemy. The theory of Revillout was refuted long since (Rh. Mus. vol. xxxviii. 1883) by Wiedemann, who, however, infers from the non- occurrence of the formula in demotic papers of the years 9 and 10 (of Ptolemy II.), before the marriage of Arsinoe II., and in the papers of the years 33 and 36 after her death, that it was first a precaution to secure the succession against any possible children, afterwards against any schemes, of the second queen. But this conclu- sion is not confirmed by more recent evidence. For we now put the marriage of Arsinoe II. earlier, and we have a date of the year 27 attesting the association of the prince. Cf. Addit. Notes p. 487. 22 THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES chap. to state that in the Encomium of Theocritus upon the second Ptolemy, his father is formally called AayctSas, or son of Lagos.1 Athenaeus (576 e) mentions a son of the first Ptolemy, called Lagos. I have also found in the papyri of the Fayyum 2 repeated mention of a village Zagis, side by side with Berenikis, Philadelphia, and other names in honour of the royal family. Theo- critus, moreover, does not think the title Lageidas incon- sistent with the assertion that both Alexander and Ptolemy were Herakleids, and became companions of the gods of Olympus on equal terms. Lagos therefore was no obstacle to this glorified genealogy. § 15. Secondly, we may infer that Ptolemy's appoint- ment to a place on the new king's staff was secured by the trifling adversity of his early banishment, not apparently by any early display of military genius. He was not among the original A.D.C., if so I may translate o-w/xaTo- <£vAa/6o$ alel, prjidioi 8e yoval, t£kvo. 8' otfwoT ioiKora irarpl, and that the insinuation was justified by the career of Keraunos, and by the fact that Cyprus seems to have been in revolt, possibly under another son of Eurydike. These conjectures I regard as mere guesses. 3S THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES CHAP. exclusion of Eurydike's older son, king of Egypt. Yet is this second marriage of Ptolemy passed by in silence by the historians who weary us with their confused accounts of resultless battles. Nor do they tell us one word of his internal policy, his successes in welding the diverse population of his kingdom into an organised and definite society. The restoration of the outer shrine of the great temple at Luxor, built by Tothmes III. and ruined by the Persians, took place during the nominal sovranty of Philip Arridaeus, and therefore quite early in Ptolemy's satrapy. His restoration of the inner cella was in the name of the boy-king Alexander.1 It is likely that even the latter restoration took place during the present interval of peace. For between the war of 315 B.C. and the young king's murder by Casander in 311 or 310 B.C., Ptolemy had but little leisure to think of temples in Upper Egypt. The statue found (I believe) in this shrine, and sup- posed to represent the unfortunate king, is most remark- able as one of the very rare examples of the mixture of a Greek type with Egyptian attributes. The statue is one of a grown youth, older than Alexander IV. lived to be, but we need not find any difficulty in this ; for the artist, who had never seen him, would probably avoid representing the reigning king as a child. Nor can we regard it as any- thing more than a conventional figure, though the gentle and melancholy expression would well suit the tragic fortunes of the ill-starred boy, a martyr to his greatness.2 1 Cf. Lepsius, Berlin Abh. for 1852, p. 463. 2 It is much to be regretted that we have no accurate account of the finding of this statue. M. Maspero, who gives a reproduction in his Archeologie egypt. accepts the current story which I have followed. But in Egypt I could find no clear evidence about the whole matter. The statue, which is of speckled Aswan granite, is about nine feet high, and may be seen in the museum now at Gizeh. II PTOLEMY I 39 § 26. When the war of 315 B.C. began, Antigonus was somewhat in the position of the great Alexander when he first reached Syria. On land he was quite superior to any adversary, but he suffered from the weakness of his fleet. Hence as Alexander had found the subjugation of Tyre essential, so Antigonus. Ptolemy indeed did not attempt to resist him on land. He had no confidence in his genius as against Antigonus. But he garrisoned Tyre strongly, as well as Joppa and Gaza, and though the latter two were easily taken by the invader, Tyre was a more serious affair, and cost a fifteen months' siege. Had the fleet of allies, with Seleukos as its commander, been more active, or stronger, even this success would have been impossible. But their fleet did not accomplish any serious diversion, and with the fall of Tyre Antigonus could easily obtain the supremacy by sea. For he had at the same time made interest at Cyprus and Rhodes to obtain timber, ships and shipwrights. Yet the fleet under Ptolemy's brother Menelaos did succeed in ousting him from Cyprus, and by friendly letters, and a counter declara- tion that he would free the Greeks, Ptolemy neutralised the bid of Antigonus in the same direction. The Greeks were mainly passive, and Casander persuaded Antigonus' general in the Peloponnesus to desert his master. This set free the fleet and army of Ptolemy, which was operating on the Greek coast under Polykleitos, who crossed at once to Cilicia, and finding that two officers of Antigonus, Perilaos and Theodotos, were coming from Caria along the coast with a fleet and an army, he laid wait for them, and destroyed their force, slaying one and taking the other prisoner. This brilliant success checked Antigonus.1 So 1 Diodorus xix. 64. Cf. also C. Wachsmuth, in Rh. Mus. for 1871, p. 469. 40 THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES CHAP. it happened that at the end of the year Antigonus and Ptolemy met at a place called Ekregma, on the frontier between Palestine and Egypt, to discuss exchange or ransom of prisoners, but no further accommodation resulted. It must be remembered that all these rivals were old friends and comrades, who had served together in many campaigns. Personal hatreds among them are to be found, but they are exceptional ; their hostilities were those of conflicting interests. § 27. The following year was spent in campaigns on the coast of Asia Minor and Greece, in which Ptolemy was not active except with his fleet at Cyprus and the coast of Cilicia. The complete re-conquest of Cyprus was, however, almost contemporary with a revolt at Cyrene, stimulated no doubt by the proclamations of Greek liberty by Antigonus, and probably by more active propagandism. The revolt, which went so far as to besiege the Egyptian garrison in the Acropolis, was promptly put down by an Egyptian force. The ringleaders were carried in chains to Alexandria, and the government of Ophelas restored. The proceedings of Ptolemy at Cyprus were still more high- handed. He slew or deposed some of the local kings, destroyed the city of the Marieis, and transferred the inhabitants to Paphos. Nikokreon, king of Salamis, was made Strategus of the reconquered Cyprus.1 The position of this local king was made as dignified as possible. Cyprian coins of this date bear upon them the peculiar ensigns of a helmet, an aplustre, and a star. These probably indicate 2 that Nikokreon held the com- bined offices of strategus, admiral, and high -priest of the island — offices held by the same person according 1 Cf. Diod. xix. 79, both on Cyrene and Cyprus. 2 Cf. Poole's Coins of the Ptolemies p. xix. II PTOLEMY I 4i to a later Cyprian inscription.1 After some successful naval raids upon the Syrian coast, Ptolemy was persuaded by Seleukos to resume the occupation of Palestine, especially as Antigonus had his hands full in Asia Minor, and was only able to oppose the invasion by sending his son Demetrius with an army not superior to the Egyptian, except in the item of forty elephants, of which Ptolemy had none. As the second and third Ptolemies procured them easily enough from the southern coasts of the Red Sea, it is possible that the first Ptolemy had learned from Alexander to despise this auxiliary. Nor do we find him in any of his campaigns defeated by them ; Diodorus' authority is even most explicit in telling us how he repulsed or obviated their attacks. § 28. The armies met very deliberately to try the fortune of battle near Gaza early in 312 b.c. Diodorus relates the course of the conflict with great detail.2 To the contemporaries of Alexander, his authorities, both strategy and tactics had the highest interest. Ptolemy and Seleukos on one side, on the other the staff of the youthful Demetrius, Nearchus, Peithon and others, were fighting generals of great experience, brought up in continuous war under the greatest master of the art. Nevertheless, like Napoleon's generals, none of them seems to have possessed any originality, except perhaps Lysimachus and Eumenes. They are always imitating Alexander's dispositions. Here at Gaza, the Egyptian army,3 contending against an array of 1 CIG 2622 2,e\evK0v Bidvos tov crvyyevr) tov /3acriXews tov o~Tp iyKXrjpL&Tuiv KaTadieiXev els rets tCov ibiwv crrpaTOOTuiv ra^ets' airoSt.dpa.cnibvTWv 5' avroov irpbs tovs wepl rbv MeveXaov 8ta to tcls o\iroo~Keva.s ev AiyvirTi^ KaTaXeXocirevaL irapa Ilr. , yvovs dp.€TadeTovs optcls ipe(3i(3ao-ei> avrovs ds rets vavs /ecu 7rp6s ' ' AvTiyovov airto-TtCKev. 2 Ibid. 49 sq. 3 Ibid. 53 ; Appian Syr. 54 ; Justin xv. 2. ii PTOLEMY I 51 a Macedonian of rank, but was married to an Athenian lady descended from Miltiades, had thought the time was come, in or about 312 B.C., to make himself inde- pendent, and found again the old kingdom of Cyrene.1 Possibly Ptolemy may have endeavoured to counteract this revolt by policy rather than by arms, and his pro- clamation of freedom to all Greek cities may have been a bid for the support of a democratic party at Cyrene against Ophelas. He knew, of course, that he could deal with democracy there at any moment ; he could sow discord by means of bribes, and then appear as umpire when the sedition had become intolerable. To make an expedition against the forces of Ophelas, who was an experienced soldier, was another matter, and it is certain that the revolt was tolerated by Ptolemy without any attempt at punishing it for several years. But then, according to the historians, fortune again plays into his hands, and Agathocles of Syracuse, who had begun a war against the Carthaginians in Africa, sends to solicit, with the most tempting promises, the aid of Ophelas in sub- duing the Punic power. Agathocles was to claim no pos- sessions in Africa, and after the conquest Ophelas was to occupy all Carthage, and add it to the kingdom of Cyrene. We are told that this prospect gathered together from Greece a herd of adventurers, hoping to occupy new lands in the rich and highly cultivated territory now under Car- thage. After a long and very miserable march along the deserts of the Syrtes, Ophelas reached his ally with a diminished and disheartened force, only to find himself betrayed, and to lose his life at the hands of Agathocles. His army was at once absorbed into the ranks of the victor. Thus it came to pass that Ptolemy was able 1 Diod. xx. 40 sq. 52 THE EMPIRE OF THE PTOLEMIES CHAP. to re-occupy, in 307 B.C.,1 his outlying African province by sending a force under his stepson Magas, who re- mained regent or even king of Cyrene for fifty years to come.2 §34. Had this overthrow of Ophelas by the machina- tions of Agathocles taken place in the reign of Phil- adelphus, every one would have assumed that it was a deliberate stroke of policy on the part of the Egyptian diplomatists. They had ample means in their commercial relations with Agathocles to offer him inducements and rewards for his treachery, and indeed without some such negotiations his conduct seems pointless and even silly. Was it worth while to bring the veteran Ophelas with a large army into contact with his own, when any failure would have at once entailed the same results to Agathocles that overtook Ophelas ? Agathocles, an upstart, but a powerful and ambitious one, was anxiously seeking to win his place as a Hellenistic sovran, and one recognised in the diplomacy of their courts. The marriage of his daughter with Pyrrhus, and his naval operations at Corcyra, show this plainly enough. His own marriage to Theoxena, Ptolemy's stepdaughter, was a far more splendid alliance, and may have been the bribe offered by the Egyptian satrap for this very service.3 I cannot but conjecture therefore that this treacherous diversion 1 Or 308 ; we cannot fix the date accurately. Pausanias (i. 6, 8) says after five years of revolt. 2 Gercke (Alex. Stud, in Rh. Mtts. for 1887) has shown some reasons that the royalty of Magas did not commence till 300 B.C. at earliest. If this be so, he may not have been sent at once by Ptolemy to Cyrene, or else may have only been entitled