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BL 240 .D5 1833l» 
 
 Dick, Thomas, 1774-1857. 
 
 The Christian philosopher 
 
 LIBRrA.RY 
 
 BL 240 .D5 1833 
 Dick, Thomas, 1774-1857. 
 The Christian philosopher, 
 or. The connection of 
 
 The John IW. Krel)s Donation. 
 
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T MIC 
 
 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER ? 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE CONNECTION OF 
 
 SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 BY THOMAS DICK, 
 
 AUTHOR OF A VARIETT OF LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICA- 
 TIONS IN NICHOLSON'S PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, THE 
 ANNALS OP PHILOSOPHY, &C. &C 
 
 D. F. ROBINSON & CO. 
 1833. 
 
TO 
 
 DAVID BREWSTER, LL. D. 
 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of London ; Secretary to the 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the 
 Royal Irish Academy ; Member of the Royal Swedish 
 Academy of Sciences ; Honorary Associate of the Royal 
 Academy of Sciences at Lyons, &c. &c. 
 
 THIS VOLUME, 
 
 Intended to illustrate the connection of science and phi- 
 losophy with religion, and with the moral improvement of 
 mankind, is inscribed, as a testimony of respect for the ac- 
 quisitions which science has derived from his philosophical 
 discoveries and literary labours, by his most obedient, and 
 humble servant, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE ENGRAVING. 
 
 (Fronting the Title.) 
 
 The five figures on the upper part of the plate, marked 1 , 2, 8, 4, 
 &c. represent the planets Herschel, Saturn, Jupiter, the Earth and 
 Moon, in their relative sizes and proportions ; together with tele- 
 scopic views of the belts and rings of Saturn, and the belts of Jupiter. 
 The two figures immediately below, marked 5 and 6, are intended 
 to illustrate the description given of the eye. pp. 88 — 104. Fig. 5 
 represents a front view of the human eye. Fig. 6 represents a sec- 
 tion of it, exhibiting the three coats and the three humors of which it 
 is composed. Fig. 7 represents a rude view of the appearance 
 which the rings and moons of Saturn will exhibit, in certain cases, 
 as beheld from a point 20 or 30 degrees north from his equator — see 
 pp. 187, 188. The shade on the upper part of the rings represents 
 the shadow of the body of Saturn, as it appeals upon the rings about 
 midniffht. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THIS EDITION. 
 
 »oio« 
 
 The following pages were written under the impression 
 that the visible manifestations of the attributes of the Deity 
 are too frequently overlooked by Christians in their views 
 of the great objects of Religion, and in the worship they 
 offer to the Father of their spirits ; and are intended to 
 show, that the Teachers of Religion, in imparting instruc- 
 tion either to the old or to the young, ought to embrace a 
 wider range of illustration, in reference to Divine subjects, 
 than that to which they are usually confined. 
 
 Throughout the whole of the discussions contained in 
 this work, the Author has pursued his own train of thought ; 
 and, in so doing, he trusts that he has been enabled to ren- 
 der some of his illustrations more interesting to the young 
 and untutored mind than if he had adhered rigidly to the 
 sentiments of others, and to the technical language of 
 science. The sketches of the different sciences are not 
 mere extracts, or compilations, but are, for the most part, 
 original composition — in which it has been his main object 
 to embody as many facts as his limits would permit — in 
 order to excite the inquiring mind to further investigations 
 into the different departments of physical science. 
 
 It is presumed, that no Christian reader will for once 
 imagine, that the views ilhistrated in this v/ork are intended 
 to be substituted in place of the peculiar revelations of the 
 Bible. The object of the volume is to illustrate the har- 
 mony which subsists between the system of Nature and the 
 system of Revelation; and to show, that the maiiifesta 
 tions of God in the material universe ought to be blended 
 with our views of the facts and doctrines recorded in the 
 volume of Inspiration. 
 
 It is taken for granted, throughout the whole range of 
 the following illustrations, that the Scriptures contain a 
 
 1» 
 
X PREFACE- 
 
 Revelation from Heaven ; and, under a firm belief of this 
 important truth, the Author has embellished his work with 
 frequent quotations from the energetic and sublime lan- 
 guage of this Sacred Book. It would, therefore, be unfair 
 in any critic, who entertains doubts on this point, to find 
 fault with such quotations, or with the allusions to Bible- 
 phraseology which occur, unless they can be shown to be 
 introduced without judgment or discrimination. 
 
 The Author has carefully revised every portion of the 
 present edition, and introduced a variety of corrections and 
 modifications. He has likewise introduced additional mat- 
 ter, to the extent of between 40 and 50 pages, and also 
 several illustrative engravings. In its present form, the 
 Author trusts, that, independently of the moral reflections 
 it contains, it will be found to comprise popular descrip- 
 tions of a greater number of scientific facts than is to be 
 found in any other volume of the same size. 
 
 Various topics, originally intended to be illustrated, have 
 been unavoidably omitted. Some of these are stated in the 
 last paragraph of Chapter IV. the illustration of which, in 
 combination with other kindred topics, would fill a volume 
 of nearly the same size as the present. This subject (for 
 which the author has abundance of materials) will be pro- 
 secuted in another volume, under the title of The Philo- 
 sophy OF Religion ; and will comprise, among many 
 other subjects of discussion, illustrations of the moral rela- 
 tion of intelligent beings to their Creator, and to one an- 
 other^ — the physical and rational grounds of those moral 
 laws which the Deity has promulgated — the views which 
 science affords of the incessant energies of Creating Power, 
 and of the grand and multifarious objects over which 
 Divine Providence presides — the relation of science to a 
 future state, and of the aids which the discoveries of science 
 afford, for enabling us to form a conception of the perpetual 
 improvement of the celestial inhabitants in knowledge and 
 felicity. These subjects will be illustrated by a variety of 
 interesting details of facts, in relation to the system of 
 nature, the history of nations, and the moral state of Chris- 
 tian and general society. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 Introduction, . . . . . .17 
 
 Necessity of Revelation. Folly of discarding the Science of Nature 
 from Religion. Beneficial Effects which flow from the study of 
 the Works of God. 
 
 ^ CHAP. I. 
 
 OF THE NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY.. 
 
 Sect. 1. On the Relation of the Natural Attributes of the 
 
 Deity to Religion, . . . . .25 
 
 The Christian Religion founded on the Natural Attributes of God. 
 His Power as interesting a subject as his Mercy. — Illustrated in 
 two instances. Evils which arise from imperfect conceptions of 
 Divine Power. Defects in Religious Instructions on this subject. 
 Sources of Illustration. 
 
 Sect. 2. Illustrations of the Omnipotence of the Deity, . . 32 
 
 The material world exhibits a more striking display of this Perfec- 
 tion than the supernatural facts recorded in Scripture. Immense 
 quantity of Matter in the universe. Mode of acquiring the most 
 comprehensive conception of the bulk of the Earth — its variety of 
 scenery — its mass of solid matter. Magnitude of the bodies 
 which compose the Solar System. Magnitude and number of the 
 Stars. Procedure of the mind in acquiring the most impressive 
 conceptions of such august objects. Reflections. Rapid Motions 
 of the Celestial Bodies. How we acquire the ideas of relative 
 velocities — weight of the Earth — immense physical forces — 
 Grandeur of the motion of Saturn — immense number of bodies 
 impelled through the heavens — Reflections. Immense Spaces 
 which surround the Heavenhj Bodies — Reflections. Popular illus- 
 tration of the Motions of the Earth and Heavens. Extract from 
 Dr. Ridgley, with remai'ks. Universe intended to adumbrate the 
 Attributes of God, and to make a sublime impression on created 
 beings. Similar trains of thought suggested in the Scriptures. 
 Moral Effects of such contemplations. Humility. Folly of pride — 
 low rank of man in the scale of being. Reverence and Venera- 
 tio7i—-Rea.son why mankind feel so little veneration of God — 
 how it may be increased. The Deity unsearchable. Hope and 
 Confidence in the prospect of futurity — Resurrection — Scenes of 
 Eternity. 
 
 Si T. 3. On the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Deity, . . 61 
 Wisdom defined — Displayed in the Structure of the Solar Sys- 
 tem. Distance of the Sun. Rotation of the Planets — Principal 
 reason why such a motion exists. Wisdom displayed in other 
 Systems. Minute displays of this attribute cannot be traced in 
 the heavens. Wisdom, as displayed in the constitution of our 
 globe — adjustment of its solid parts to the necessities of the be- 
 ings whicJi inhabit it. Mountains, their uses — exist in other 
 
12 
 
 worlds. Diversity of color — argument for a plurality of worlds — 
 general color which prevails in the scene of nature — Water, its 
 use in the system of nature — its composition, evaporation — mo- 
 tion of the liquid element — its beneficial effects. The Atmos- 
 phere — its weight and pressure— its component parts — its various 
 properties — necessary to animal life, flame, sound, twilight — 
 wisdom displayed in its constitution. Expansion of water in the 
 act of freezmg. 
 
 Variety of Nature, . • . . • . • . *° 
 
 Vegetables — their number and variety. Animals — variety in 
 their organization. Eyes of insects — their exquisite mechanism. 
 Subterraneous Regions. Atmosphere. The Variety of Nature 
 affords a faint idea of the infinity of the Creator. Illustrated in 
 the number of animal parts and functions. Reflection. Variety 
 the foundation of our judgments. Beauty and sublimity of Na- 
 ture. Primeval state of our globe — other worlds. 
 
 Mechanism of Animated Beings, ...... 88 
 
 Stjiucture of the Human Eye — its coats, hvimors, muscles, 
 orbit, and motions. Wisdom displayed in its construction. 
 Light — its velocity, minuteness, colors, and adaptation to the 
 eye. Manner in which Vision is performed — exjDlained by 
 a figure, and an experiment—illustrated by the view from Salis- 
 fcury Cra2:s. Multitude of rays which flow from every object — 
 smallness'^of the image on the retina, illustrated by calculation — 
 what proportion of the solar light falls on our globe — Reflections. 
 Mechanism for viewing near and distant objects — contraction 
 and dilatation of the pupil — distance at which we see distinctly. 
 Summary view of adaptations in the structure of the eye. Eyes 
 of sviperior intelligences. Visual organs of the inferior animals. 
 Mechanism of the Bo7ies iWnstrsited — exemplified in the joints of 
 the fingers, the wrist, and the movements of which the head is 
 susceptible. Moral Reflections on the impropriety of overlooking 
 the Divine Wisdom in the system of nature. 
 
 Sect. 4. On the Goodness or Benevolence of the Deity, . . Ill 
 Benevolence of God in relation to Man — considered as a depraved 
 intelligence. Mercy displayed in the system of nature. Benevo- 
 lence as displayed towards the lower animals. Extract from 
 Dr. Paley. General Reflections. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 A CURSORY VIEW OF SOME OF THE SCIENCES WHICH ARE 
 RELATED TO RELIGION AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY. 
 
 Introduction. Extensive range of Theology. Bad effects of setting 
 ReUgion in opposition to Science. Harmony of the operations 
 of God in Nature and Revelation, . . . . ' . 117 
 
 Natural History, . . . . • • • • 120 
 
 Its extensive range. Outline of its principal objects — on the siu-- 
 face, and in the interior recesses of the earth — in the atmosphere — 
 the vegetable, mineral, and animal kingdoms— and in the region 
 of the" heavens. Description of the Banian Tree. Reflections. 
 Monkey Bread Tree. Splendor and felicity of insect life. In- 
 visible worlds — infinity of the universe. Religious tendency of 
 this Science. It affords a manifestation of the Deity, and expands 
 our conceptions of his operations — ennobles the human mind. 
 — Recommended by the Sacred writers. 
 
13 
 
 Geocrapht, ........ 134 
 
 Its object — Figure of the Earth — ^Proofs of its spherical form. Re- 
 lation which the discovery of the figure of the earth bears to the 
 plan of Providence. Magnitude and natural divisions of the 
 earth. General features of its surface. Mountains — their general 
 ranges, and the sublime scenes they exhibit. The Ocean — its 
 extent, depth, bottom, and motions. Rivers — their number, size, 
 and the quantity of water they pour into the ocean. How they 
 are supplied — their use in the system of nature. Artificial divi- 
 sion of the earth. Number and variety of its inhabitants. Num- 
 ber which has existed since the Creation — number at the resur- 
 rection, and the space they would occupy. Number which the 
 earth would contain — strictures on Malthus. Utility of the study 
 of Geography to Religion — to Directors of Missionary Societies — 
 to Private Christians. Grandeur of its physical objects — ^utility 
 of its moral facts. 
 Geology, . • ..... 157 
 
 Its object and connection with religion — an interesting subject of 
 inquiry. Materials which compose the crust of our globe. Vari- 
 ous geological phenomena. Organic remains — Mammoth, Tapir, 
 Elk, Megatherium, &c. Geological deductions not inconsistent 
 with the Mosaic History — Genesis i. 1, 2, explained. Short du- 
 ration of the earth in its present farm. The Deluge, and its 
 effects on the earth's strata. Marine shells, &c. Grand and 
 terrific objects which this science exhibits — illustrate the sublime 
 descriptions of the Deity recoi-ded in the Scvipiures. 
 Astronomy, . . . . . . .163 
 
 Its sublime objects. Apparent motions of the Sun — of the Moon. 
 Eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Apparent motion of the starry 
 heavens. Stars and jDlanets seen in the day-time, and with wliat 
 powers' of the telescope they may be distmguished. Apparent 
 revolution of the celestial vault indicates Almighty power. Stars 
 never shift their relative positions. Solar System. The Sun — 
 his size and probable destmation illustrated — his spots and atmos- 
 phere — different kind of rays emitted from his body — his distance 
 illustrated.. Mercury — his size, rotation, quantity of light and 
 heat, &c. Proportions of caloric on the different planets. Ve- 
 nus — her size, phases, mountains, transits, and general phenom- 
 ena. Original observations on, and mode by which her diurnal 
 rotation may be determined. Earth — proofs of its annual and 
 diurnal motions. The Moon — description of lier majestic moun- 
 tain scenery, luminous spots, celestial appearances, illuminating 
 power, superficial contents, &c. Mars — his distance, atmosphere, 
 luminous zone, &c. New Planets — Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and 
 Vesta — their anomalies, singularities, and probable origin. Me- 
 teoric Stones. Jupiter — his bulk, rotation, belts, and the appear- 
 ances of his moons. Saturn — his figure, belts, moons, and quan- 
 tity of light. His Rings, their dimensions, motion, and phenom- 
 ena — illustrated by a figure. Splendor of the firmament, as 
 viewed from this planet (see the engraving.) Herschel — his 
 distance, size, and quantity of light. Comets — their tails, velo- 
 city, orbits, size, and number. New Comet. Motion of the 
 solar system in absolute space — its destination — plurality of 
 worlds mtunated in Scriptiu-e. The Fixed Stars — their distance 
 illustrated — their arrangement, changes — moral reflections. Re- 
 lation of Astronomy to Religion — moral effects which its objects 
 have a tendency to produce — criminality of overlooking the 
 works of God, &c. 
 
14 
 
 Natural Philosophy, . . .... 201 
 
 Its objects and different departments. Mechanics — subjects it em- 
 braces, and its importance to the improvement of mankind. Hy- 
 drostatics — its leading principles and uses, illustrated by figures. 
 Pnevimatics — its principles, and the experiments by which they 
 are illustrated. Acoustics. Optics — leading facts and principles 
 of this science. Burning-glasses, &c. Electricity — its nature, 
 phenomena, effects, and agency in the system of nature. Gal- 
 vanism — its singular effects on metals, &c. and on the animal 
 system — various facts which it explains. Magnetism — its vari- 
 ous phenomena and effects. Relation of Natural Philosophy to 
 Religion — its inventions meliorate the condition of mankind — 
 illustrated in the case of the electric fluid — it undermines the in- 
 fluence of superstition — unfolds the incessant agency of God — 
 indifference to this subject unreasonable. 
 Chemistry, 219 
 
 Its objects, and present dignified station. General forms of mat- 
 ter — simple arid compound substances. Caloric — its soiirces and 
 properties. Oxygen, its properties and combinations — nitrous 
 oxide, its singular effects. Nitrogen, its effects on flame and 
 animal life. Hydrogen, its properties and uses. Carbon, its 
 nature, combinations, and antiseptic properties. Sulphm', its 
 origin, combinations, and properties. Phosphorus, history of its 
 discovery — how prepared — curious experiments with this sub- 
 stance — Phosphoric phenomena in the system of nature. Con- 
 nection of this science with Religion— it displays the wisdom 
 and benevolence of God, and the mode of his present and futvire 
 operations — miproves the condition of man — and carries forward 
 our views to a more glorious and auspicious era. 
 Anatomy and Physiology, 231 
 
 Their general object — human body, its different parts and divisions. 
 Bones, their number, form, and positions. Muscles, their nature, 
 use, and extraordinary strength. Heart and blood vessels, and 
 the circulation of the blood. Respiration — curious structure of 
 the lungs. Digestion. Perspiration. Sensation, and the sys- 
 tem of nerves. Summary. Moral reflections — this branch ot 
 study teaches us our dependance on a Superior Power — and ex- 
 cites to gratitude. 
 History, •. • • .• 241 
 
 Its objects, advantages, and connection with Religion. Connection 
 of the sciences and of the Divine dispensations with each other. 
 Concluding remarks. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 THE RELATION WHICH THE INVENTIONS OF ART BEAR TO 
 THE OBJECTS OF RELIGION. 
 
 Art of Printing, its origin, and beneficial effects — Dr. Church's Im- 
 provements in, 246 
 
 Art of Navigation— Mariner's Compass, its discovery and use, 249 
 The telescope, its invention, and the discoveries made by it — serves 
 instead of a celestial vehicle — Magnifying powers of Dr. Her- 
 
 schel's Telescopes, • 252 
 
 The Microscope, and the views it exhibits of the wisdom of God, 254 
 Steam Navigation, its utility in promoting the intercourse of man- 
 kind, and its relation to the objects of religion, . . .256 
 
15 
 
 Air Balloons, utility of, when arrived at perfection — proposed im- 
 provement in. History of their invention — Lunardi's ascent — 
 the Parachute, 258 
 
 Acoustic tunnels. Experiments on the Conveyance of sound. 
 M. Biot's remarkable experiment — Don Gautier's experiment 
 and suggestion. Conclusions in reference to the extensive con- 
 veyance of sound, 262 
 
 Practical remarks — utility of the arts in relation to the Millennial 
 era, 265 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 SCRIPTURAL FACTS ILLUSTRATED FROM THE SYSTEM OF 
 NATURE. 
 
 I. Science may frequently serve as a guide to the true interpreta- 
 tion of Scripture. Canon or rule for Scripture interpretation — 
 illustrated, 271 
 
 II. The Depravity of man illustrated, from a consideration of the 
 state of the interior strata of the earth. Volcanoes, and the ter- 
 rible ravages they produce. Earthquakes, and their dreadful 
 effects. Thunder-storms, tempests, and hurricanes. General 
 Reflections on this subject, 274 
 
 ni. The Resurrection illustrated. Transformations of Insects. 
 Indestructibility of matter — conclusions from this fact, . . 282 
 
 IV. General Conflagi-ation. Concluding reflections. Topics omit- 
 ted m this volume, 285 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 BENEFICIAL EFFECTS WHICH WOULD RESULT FROM CON- 
 NECTING SCIENCE WITH RELIGION. 
 
 I. The variety of topics would allure the attention of intelligent 
 minds to religious subjects. Principle of novelty intended by the 
 Creator to be gratified — illustrated in the variety which appears 
 
 in the earth, the heavens, and the Volume of Revelation, . 289 
 
 II. Science enables us to take an extensive survey of the empire of 
 God — illustrates many sublime passages of the Bible — qualifies us 
 for complying with several Divine Injunctions — danger of selfish- 
 ness and indifference in this respect. Our conceptions of God 
 depend on our views of the extent of his dominions, . . 293 
 
 ni. Science enlarges our views of the operations of Providence, in 
 relation to the past and present scenes of the world. The econo- 
 my of the inferior animals. The physical and moral economy of 
 the celestial worlds, 303 
 
 IV. Science, blended with Rehgion, would produce a general ex 
 pansion of mind, and liberality of views — in reference to the 
 opinions and actions of men, and to the works and the ways of 
 God, illustrated at large, 310 
 
 V. It would induce a spirit of jjiefy, and profound AMmz7%. Sources 
 of piety— illustrated by an example. Humility— illustrated by 
 the examples of Mr. Boyle, of Sir Isaac Newton, and of superior 
 intelligences. General conclusions, 317 
 
16 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Ko. I. Illustration of the rate of motion in the heavenly bodies, 
 
 on the supposition that the earth is at rest, . . . ,321 
 No. II. Experimental illustrations of the pressure of the Atmos- 
 phere, 323 
 
 No. III. On the means by which it may probably be ascertained 
 
 whether the Moon be a habitable world, .... 324 
 No. IV. Remarks on the late pretended discovery of a Lunar for- 
 tification, 326 
 
 No, V. On the ideas of Magnitude, Motion, and Duration, as ex- 
 pressed by numbers, 327 
 
 No. VI. On a Plurality of Worlds, 329 
 
 No. VII. On the first Inventor of Printing, .... 330 
 No. VIII. On Telescopes; with a brief notice of a ,\'(ewj Reflecting 
 
 Telescope constructed by the Author, 331 
 
 No. IX. On Steam Navigation, 334 
 
 No. X. Strictures on a certain sentiment respecting human re- 
 demption, 338 
 
 No. XI. Extract from Dr. Dwight, 343 
 
 No. XII. List of Popular Works on the different Sciences treated 
 of in this Volume, with Occasional Remarks, . . . 343 
 
THE 
 
 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 On the subject of religion, mankind have, in all ages, 
 been prone to run into extremes. While some have been 
 disposed to attach too much importance to the mere exer- 
 tions of the human intellect, and to imagine that man, by 
 the light of unassisted reason, is able to explore the path 
 to true wisdom and happiness, — the greater part of religion- 
 ists, on the other hand, have been disposed to treat scien- 
 tific knowledge, in its relation to religion, with a degree of 
 indifference bordering upon contempt. Both these disposi- 
 tions are equally foolish and preposterous. For he who 
 exalts human reason, as the only sure guide to wisdom and 
 felicity, forgets, that man, in his present state, is a de- 
 praved intelligence, and, consequently, liable to err ; and 
 that all those who have been left solely to its dictates, have 
 uniformly failed in attaining these desirable objects. During 
 a period of more than 5,800 years, the greater part of the 
 human race have been left solely to the guidance of their 
 rational powers, in order to grope their way to the Temple 
 of Knowledge, and the Portals of Immortality ; but what 
 has been the result of all their anxious researches 1 In- 
 stead of acquiring correct notions of the Great Author of 
 their existence, and of the nature of that homage which 
 is due to his perfections, " they have become vain in their 
 imaginations, and their foolish hearts have been darkened. 
 Professing themselves to be Avise, they have become fools ; 
 and have changed the glory of the Incorruptible God into 
 an image made like to corruptible man, and to four-footed 
 beasts, and creeping things." Instead of acquiring correct 
 views of the principles of moral action, and conducting 
 themselves according to the eternal rules of rectitude, 
 they have displayed the operation of the most diabolical 
 passions, indulged in continual warfare, and desolated the 
 
 2 
 
18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 earth with rapine and horrid carnage ; so that the history 
 of the world presents to our view, Uttle more than a series 
 of revolting details of the depravity of our species, and of 
 the wrongs which one tribe of human beings has wilfully 
 inflicted upon another. 
 
 This has been the case, not only among a few unculti- 
 vated hordes on the coasts of Africa, in the plains of Tarta- 
 ry, and the wilds of America, but even among those nations 
 which stood highest in the ranks of civilization, and of 
 science. — The ancient Greeks and Romans, who boasted 
 of their attainments in philosophy, and their progress in the 
 arts, entertained the most foolish, contradictory, and un- 
 worthy notions of the Object of Divine worship, of the 
 requirements of religion, and of the eternal destiny of man. 
 They adored a host of divinities characterized by impiety, 
 fraud, injustice, falsehood, lewdness, treachery, revenge, 
 murder, and every other vice which can debase the human 
 mind, instead of offering a tribute of rational homage to 
 that Supreme Intelligence who made, and who governs 
 the universe. Even their priests and philosophers indulged 
 in the most degrading and abominable practices, and en- 
 tertained the most irrational notions in regard to the origin 
 of the universe, and the moral government of the world. 
 Most of them denied a future state of retribution, and all 
 of them had their doubts respecting the reality of an im- 
 mortal existence : and as to the doctrine of a resurrection 
 from the dead, they never dreamed of such an event, and 
 scouted the idea, when proposed to them, as the climax of 
 absurdity. The glory to which their princes and generals 
 aspired, was, to spread death and destruction among their 
 fellow-men — to carry fire and sword, terror and dismay, 
 and all the engines of destruction through surrounding 
 nations — to fill their fields Avith heaps of slain — to plunder 
 the survivors of every earthly comfort, and to drag captive 
 kings at their chariot wheels — that they might enjoy the 
 splendor and the honours of a triumph. What has been 
 now stated, with regard to the most enlightened nations of 
 antiquity, will equally apply to the present inhabitants of 
 China, of Hindostan, of the Japanese Islands, of the Bir- 
 man Empire, and of every other civilized nation on which 
 the light of revelation has never shone — with this addi- 
 tional consideration. That they have enjoyed an additional 
 Dcriod of 1800 years for making further investigations; 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 and are, at this moment^ as far from the object of their 
 pursuit as when they first commenced their researches ; 
 and not only so, but some of these nations, in modern 
 times, have mingled with their abominable superstitions 
 and idolatries, many absurdities and horrid cruelties, which 
 were altogether unknown among the Greek and Roman 
 population. 
 
 Such are the melancholy results to which men have 
 been led, when left to the guidance of unassisted reason, 
 in the most interesting and important of all investigations. 
 They have wandered in the mazes of error and delusion ; 
 and their researches, instead of directing and expanding 
 our religious views, have tended only to bewilder the hu- 
 man mind, and to throw a deeper shade of intellectual 
 gloom over our apostate world. After a period of six thou- 
 sand years has been spent in anxious inquiries after the 
 path to true knowledge and happiness — Ignorance, Super- 
 stition, Idolatry, Vice and Misery, still continue to sway 
 their sceptre over the great majority of the human race ; 
 and, if we be allowed to reason from the past to the future, 
 we may rest assured, that while mankind are destitute of 
 a Guide superior to the glimmerings of depraved reason, 
 they would be no nearer the object of their pursuit, after 
 the lapse of sixty thousand years, than at the present mo 
 ment. It is only in connection with the discoveries of Re 
 velation that we can expect, that the efforts of human 
 reason and activity will be successful in abolishing the 
 reign of Ignorance and degrading Superstition — in illu- 
 minating the benighted tribes of the Pagan World — and in 
 causing " Righteousness, and Order, and Peace, to spring 
 forth before all the nations." Though the Christian Re- 
 ligion has never yet been fully understood and recognised, 
 in all its aspects and bearings, nor its requirements been 
 cordially complied with, by the great body of those who 
 profess to believe in its Divine origin, yet it is only in those 
 nations who have acknowledged its authority, and in some 
 measure, submitted to its dictates, that any thing approxi- 
 mating to just conceptions of the Supreme Intelligence, 
 and of his moral govermnent, is found to prevail. 
 
 But, on the other hand, though the light of nature is of 
 itself a feeble and insufficient guide to direct us in our 
 views of the Supreme Intelligence, and of our eternal des- 
 tination, yet it is a most dangerous and delusive error to 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 imagine, that Reason, and the study of the material world, 
 ought to be discarded from the science of religion. The 
 man who w^ould discard the efforts of the human intellect, 
 and the science of Nature from Religion, forgets — that He 
 who is the Author of human redemption, is also the Crea- 
 tor and Governor of the whole system of the material uni- 
 verse — that it is one end of that moral renovation which 
 the Gospel effects, to qualify us for contemplating aright 
 the displays of Divine Perfection w^hich the works of crea- 
 tion exhibit — that the visible works of God are the princi- 
 pal medium by which he displays the attributes of his na- 
 ture to intelligent beings — that the study and contempla- 
 tion of these works employ the faculties of intelligences of 
 a superior order* — that man, had he remained in primeval 
 innocence, w^ould have been chiefly employed in such con- 
 templations — that it is one main design of Divine Revela- 
 tion to illustrate the operations of Providence, and the 
 agency of God in the formation and preservation of all 
 thing,s — and that the Scriptures are full of sublime descrip- 
 tions of the visible creation, and of interesting references 
 to the various objects w^iich adorn the scenery of Nature. 
 Without the cultivation of our reasoning powers, and an 
 investigation of the laws and economy of Nature, w^e could 
 not appreciate many of the excellent characters, the inter 
 esting aspects, and the sublime references of revealed reli 
 .o^ion : we should lose the full evidence of those argmuent. 
 by which the existence of God and his attributes of Wis- 
 dom and Omnipotence are most powerfully demonstrated : 
 we should remain destitute of those sublime conceptions of 
 the perfections and agency of Jehovah which the grandeur 
 and immensity of his works are calculated to inspire : we 
 should never perceive, in its full force, the evidence of those 
 proofs on which the Divine authority of Revelation is found- 
 ed : w^e could not give a rational interpretation of the 
 spirit and meaning of many parts of the Sacred Oracles ; 
 nor could we comply with those positive commands of God 
 which enjoin us to contemplate the wonder of his power, 
 to "meditate on all his w^orks, and to talk of all his doings." 
 Notwithstanding these and many other considerations, 
 which sliow the folly of overlooking the visible manifesta- 
 tions of Deity in the exercises of Religion, it has long bee» 
 
 ♦Rev. iv. 11. XV. 3,&c. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 the practice of certain theologians to depreciate the wonder- 
 ful works of Jehovah, and to attempt to throw them into the 
 shade, as if they were unworthy of our serious contempla- 
 tion. In their view, to be a bad philosopher is the surest way 
 to become a good Christian, and, to expand the views of 
 the human mind, is to endanger Christianity, and to render 
 the design of religion abortive. They seem to consider it 
 as a most noble triumph to the Christian cause, to degrade 
 the nmterial world, and to trample under foot, not only the 
 earth, but the visible heavens, as an old, shattered, and 
 corrupted fabric, which no longer demands our study or ad- 
 miration. Their expressions, in a variety of instances, 
 would lead us almost to conclude, that they considered the 
 economy of Nature as set in opposition to the economy of 
 Redemption, and that it is not the same God that contrived 
 the s)^stem of Nature, who is also the " Author of eternal 
 salvation to all them that obey him." 
 
 It is, unquestionably, both foolish and impious, to over- 
 look or to undervalue any of the modes by which the Di- 
 vine Being has been pleased to make known his nature and 
 perfections to mankind. Since he has given a display of 
 his " Eternal Power and Godhead" in the grand theatre of 
 nature, which forms the subject of scientific investigation, 
 it was surely never intended, and would ill comport with 
 reverence for its adorable Author, that such magnificent 
 displays of his Power, Wisdom, and Beneficence, as the ma- 
 terial universe exhibits, should be treated, by his intelligent 
 offspring, with indifference or neglect. It becomes us to con- 
 template, with adoring gratitude, every ray of our Creator's 
 glory, whether as emanating from the light of Revelation, 
 or as reflected from the scenery of nature around us, or as 
 descending from those regions where stars unnumbered 
 shine, and planets and comets run their solemn rounds. 
 Instead of contrasting the one department of knowledge 
 with the other, with a view of depreciating the science of 
 nature, our duty is, to derive from both as much informa- 
 tion and instruction as they are calculated to afford ; to mark 
 the harmony of the revelations they respectively vmfold ; 
 and to use the revelations of nature for the purpose of con- 
 firming, and amplifying, and carrying forward our views of 
 the revelation contained in the Sacred Scriptures. 
 
 With regard to the revelation derived firom the Sacred 
 Records, it has been imagined by some, that it has httle or 
 
 2* 
 
22 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 no reference to the operations of the material system, and 
 that, therefore, the study of the visible works of God can be 
 of little importance in promoting- religious knowledge and 
 holy affections. In the sequel of this volume, I shall en- 
 deavor to show, that this sentiment is extremely fallacious, 
 and destitute of a foundation. But, in the mean time, 
 although it were taken for granted, it would form no argu- 
 ment against the combination of science with religion. For 
 it ought to be carefully remarked, that Divine Revelation 
 is chiefly intended to instruct us in the knowledge of those 
 truths which interest us as subjects of the moral administra- 
 tion of the Governor of the world, — or, in other words, as 
 apostate creatures, and as moral agents. Its grand object 
 is to develope the openings and bearings of the plan of Di- 
 vine Mercy ; to counteract those evil propensities and pas- 
 sions which sin has introduced ; to inculcate those holy 
 principles and moral laws which tend to unite mankind in 
 haiTnony and love ; and to produce those amiable tempers 
 and dispositions of mind, which alone can fit us for enjoy- 
 ing happiness either in this world, or in the world to come. 
 For this reason, doubtless, it is, that the moral attributes 
 of Deity are brought more prominently into view in the Sa- 
 cred Volume, than his natural perfections ; and that those 
 special arrangements of his Providence, which regard the 
 moral renovation of our species, are particularly detailed ; 
 while the immense extent of his universal kingdom, the 
 existence of other worlds, and their moral economy, are but 
 slightly hinted at, or veiled in obscurity. Of such a Re- 
 velation we stood in need ; and had it chiefly embraced sub- 
 jects of a very different nature, it would have failed in sup- 
 plying the remedies requisite for correcting the disorders 
 which sin has introduced among mankind. — But, suiely, it 
 was never intended, even in a religious point of view, that 
 the powers of the human mind, in their contemplations and 
 researches, should be bounded by the range of subjects com- 
 prised in that revelation which is purely, or chiefly of a 
 moral nature ; since the Almiglity has exhibited so magnifi- 
 cent a spectacle in the universe around us, and endowed us 
 with faculties adequate to the survey of a considerable por- 
 tion of its structure, and capable of deducing from it the 
 most noble and sublime^ results. To walk in the midst of 
 this " wide extended theatre," and to overlook, or to gaze 
 with indifference on those striking marks of Divine Om- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 nipotence and skill, which eveiy where appear, is to over- 
 look the Creator himself, and to contemn the most illustri- 
 ous displays he has given of his eternal power and glory. 
 That man's religious devotions are much to be suspected, 
 whatever show of piety he may affect, who derives no as- 
 sistance, in attempting to form some adequate conceptions 
 of the object of his worship, from the sublime discoveries of 
 astronomical science ; from those myriads of suns and sys- 
 tems which form but a small portion of the Creator's im- 
 mense empire !* The professing Christian, whose devo- 
 tional exercises are not invigorated, and whose conceptions 
 of Deity are not expanded by a contemplation of the magni- 
 tude and variety of his works, may be considered as equally 
 a stranger to the more elevated strains of piety, and to the 
 noble emotions excited by a perception of the beautiful and 
 the sublime. 
 
 " The works of the Lord," says an inspired writer, " are 
 great, and are sought out by all those who have pleasure 
 therein." They all bear the stamp of Infinite Perfection, 
 and serve as so many sensible mediums to exalt and ex- 
 pand our conceptions of him, whose invisible glories they 
 represent and adumbrate. When contemplated in connec- 
 tion with the prospects opened by Divine Revelation, they 
 tend to excite the most ardent desires after that state of 
 enlarged vision, where the plans and operations of Deity 
 will be more clearly unfolded — and to prepare us for bear 
 ing a part in the immortal hymn of the church triumphant : 
 — "Great and maiTellous are thy works, Lord God Al- 
 mighty, just and true are thy ways, thou King of Saints." 
 The most illustrious characters that have adorned our race 
 in ail ages, have been struck with the beauty and magnifi- 
 cence of the visible creation, and have devoted a certain 
 portion of their time and attention in investigating its ad- 
 mirable economy and arrangement : and there can be no 
 question, that a portion of our thoughts devoted to the study 
 of the wondrous works of the Most High, must ultimately 
 
 * As some readers seem to have mistaken the Author's meaning, in this 
 and similar passages, it may be proper to state, that his meaning is not — 
 that a knowledge of natural science is essential to genuine piety ; but, that 
 the person loho has an oppm'tunily of making himself acquainted with the 
 science of nature and of contemplating the wonders of the heavens in their 
 true light, and who does not find his views of the Creator expanded, and 
 his religious emotions elevated by such studies, has reason to call in ques- 
 tion the nature and the sincerity of his devotional feelings. 
 
24 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 be conducive to the improvement of our intellectual powers, 
 to our advancement in the Christian hfe, and to our pre- 
 paration for the exalted employments of the eternal world. 
 In fine, since the researches of modern times have greatly 
 enlarged our views of the System of Universal Nature, and 
 of the vast extent to which the operations of the Creator 
 are carried on in the distant regions of space, — since the 
 late discoveries of Naturalists and Experimental Pliiloso- 
 phers, Avith respect to the constitution of the atmosphere, 
 water, light, heat, the gases, the electric, galvanic, and 
 magnetic fluids, and the economy and instincts of animated 
 beings, have opened to our view a bright display of Divine 
 Wisdom, in the contrivance and arrangement of the differ- 
 ent parts of our terrestrial habitation, — since improve- 
 ments in the useful arts have kept pace with the progress 
 of science, and have been applied to many beneficial pur- 
 poses, which have ultimately a bearing on the interests and 
 the progress of religion — since a general desire to propa- 
 gate the truths of Christianity in Heathen lands now ani- 
 mates the mass of the religious world — since the nations 
 of both Continents are now aroused to burst asunder the 
 shackles of despotism, and to inquire after rational liberty 
 and mental improvement, — and since all these discoveries, 
 inventions, and movements, and the energies of the human 
 mind, from which they spring, are under the direction and 
 control of that Omnipotent Being who made, and who 
 governs the world — they ought to be considered as parts of 
 those Providential arrangements, in the progress of which 
 He will ultimately accomphsh the illumination of our be- 
 nighted race, and make the cause of righteousness and 
 truth to triumph among all nations. And, therefore, the 
 enlightened Christian ought thankfully to appreciate every 
 exhibition, and every discovery by which his conceptions 
 of the attributes of God, and of the grandeur of his works, 
 may be directed and enlarged, in order that he maybe 
 qualified to " speak of the honor of his majesty, and talk of 
 his power ; to make known to the sons of men his mighty 
 acts, and the glorious majesty of his kingdom." 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF THE NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY, WITH 
 
 PARTICULAR ILLUSTRATIONS OF HIS 
 
 OMNIPOTENCE AND WISDOM. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 On the Relation of the JVatural Attributes of Deity to 
 
 Religion. 
 
 A FIRM conviction of the existence of God, and a compe- 
 tent knowledge of his natural perfections, lie at the founda- 
 tion of all religion, both natural and revealed. In propor- 
 tion as our views of the perfections of Deity are limited and 
 obscure, in a similar proportion will be our conceptions of all 
 the relations in which he stands to his creatures, of every part 
 of his providential procedure, and of all the doctrines and re- 
 quirements of revealed religion. 
 
 By the natural or essential attributes of God, we under- 
 stand such perfections as the following : — His Eternity, Om- 
 nipresence, Infinite Knowledge, Infinite Wisdom, Omnipo- 
 tence, and Boundless Beneficence. These are the characters 
 and attributes of Deity, which, we must suppose, form the 
 chief subjects of contemplation to angels, and to all other 
 pure intelligences — and, in investigating the displays of which, 
 the sons of Adam would have been chiefly employed, had 
 they continued in primeval innocence. These attributes form 
 the ground work of all those gracious relations in which the 
 God of salvation stands to his redeemed people in the econo- 
 my of redemption — they lie at the foundation of the whole 
 Christian superstructure — and were they not recognized as 
 the corner stones of that sacred edifice, the whole system of 
 the Scripture Revelation would remain a baseless fabric. 
 The full display of these perfections will be exhibited in the 
 future world — the contemplation of this display will form one 
 
26 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 of the sublime employments " of the saints in light" — and to 
 prepare us for engaging in such noble exercises, is one of the 
 chief designs of the salvation proclaimed in the Gospel. 
 
 The Christrian Revelation ought not to be considered as 
 superseding the Religion of Nature, but as carrying it for- 
 ward to perfection. It introduces the Deity to us under new 
 relations, corresponding to the degraded state into which we 
 have fallen. It is superadded to our natural relations to God, 
 and takes it for granted, that these natural relations must for 
 ever subsist. It is true, indeed, that the essential attributes 
 of God, and the principles of Natural Religion, cannot be ful- 
 ly discovered without the light of Revelation, as appears from 
 the past experience of mankind in every generation ; but it is 
 equally true, that, when discovered by the aid of this celestial 
 light, they are of the utmost importance in the Christian sys- 
 tem, and are as essentially connected with it, as the founda- 
 tion of a building is with the superstructure. Many profes- 
 sed Christians, however, seem to think, and to act, as if the 
 Christian Revelation had annulled the natural relations which 
 subsist between man and the Deity ; and hence the zealous 
 outcry against every discussion from the pulpit, that has not a 
 direct relation to what are termed the doctrines of grace. But 
 nothing, surely, can be more absurd than to carry out such a 
 principle to all its legitimate consequences. Can God ever 
 cease to be Omnipotent, or can man ever cease to be depend- 
 ent for existence on his infinite power ] Can the Divine 
 Being ever cease to be Omnipresent and Om.niscient, or can 
 man ever cease to be the object of his knowledge and super- 
 intendence? Can Infinite Wisdom ever be detached from 
 the Almighty, or can man ever be in a situation where he will 
 not experience the effects of his wise arrangements 1 Can 
 Goodness ever fail of being an attribute of Jehovah, or can 
 any sentient or intelligent beings exist that do not experience 
 the effects of his bounty? In short, can the relation of Crea- 
 ture and of Creator ever cease between the human race, m 
 whatever moral or physical situation they may be placed, and 
 that Almighty Being, " who giveth to all, life and breath, and 
 all things?" If none of these things can possibly happen, 
 then the relations to which we refer must be eternal and un- 
 changeable, and must form the basis of all the other relations 
 in which we can possibly stand to the Divine Being, either 
 as apostate or as redeemed creatures ; and, therefore, they 
 ought to be exhibited as subjects for our frequent and serious 
 contemplation, as religious and moral agents. But, unless 
 we make such topics a distinct subject of attention, and en^^ 
 
NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OP THE DEITY. 27 
 
 deavour to acquire a clear and comprehensive conception of 
 our natural relations to God, we can never form a clear con- 
 ception of those new and interesting relations into which we 
 have been brought by the mediation of Jesus Christ. 
 
 If man had continued in his primitive state of integrity, he 
 would have been for ever exercised in tracing the Power, the 
 Beneficence, and other attributes of Deity, in the visible 
 creation alone. Now that his fallen state has rendered ad- 
 ditional revelations necessary, in order to secure his happi- 
 ness, — is he completely to throw aside those contemplations 
 and exercises which constituted his chief employment, while 
 he remained a pure moral intelligence ? Surely not. One 
 great end of his moral renovation, by means of the Gospel, 
 must be, to enable him to resume his primitive exercises, and 
 to qualify him for more enlarged views and contemplations of 
 a similar nature, in that future world, where the physical and 
 moral impediments which now obstruct his progress will be 
 completely removed. 
 
 It appears highly unreasonable, and indicates a selfish dis- 
 position of mind, to magnify one class of the Divine attributes 
 at the expense of another ; to extol, for example, the mercy 
 of God, and neglect to celebrate his Power and Wisdom — 
 those glorious perfections, the display of which, at the forma- 
 tion of our globe, excited the rapture and admiration of angels, 
 and of innocent man. All the attributes of God are equal,, 
 because all of them are infinite ; and, therefore, to talk of 
 darling attributes in the Divine Nature, as some have done, 
 is inconsistent with reason, unwarranted by Scripture, and 
 tends to exhibit a distorted view of the Divine character. 
 The Divine mercy ought to be celebrated with rapture by 
 every individual of our fallen race ; but with no less rapture 
 should we extol the Divine Omnipotence ; for the designs of 
 mercy cannot be accomplished without the intervention of In 
 finite Power. All that we hope for, in consequence of the 
 promises of God, and of the redemption accomplished by 
 Jesus Christ, must be founded on the conception we form of 
 the operations of Omnipotence. — An example or two may not 
 be unnecessary for illustrating this position. 
 
 We are warranted, by the sacred oracles, to entertain the 
 hope, that these mortal bodies of ours, after they have moul- 
 dered in the dust, been dissolved into their primary elementa- 
 ry parts, and become the prey of devouring reptiles, during a 
 lapse of generations or of centuries, — shall spring forth from 
 the tomb to new life and beauty, and be arrayed in more 
 glorious forms than they now wear ; yea, that all the inhabit- 
 
28 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 ants of our globe, from Adam to the end of time, though the 
 bodies of thousands of them have been devoured by canni- 
 bals, have become the food of fishes and of beasts of prey, and 
 have been burnt to cinders, and their ashes scattered by the 
 winds, over the different regions of sea and land, — shall be 
 reanimated by the voice of the Son of God, and shall appear, 
 each in his proper person and identical body, before God, the 
 Judge of all. Now, the firmness of our hope of so astonish- 
 ing an event, which seems to contradict all experience, and 
 appears involved in such a mass of difficulties and apparent 
 contradictions, must be in proportion to the sentiments we 
 entertain of the Divine Intelligence, Wisdom, and Omnipo- 
 tence. And where are we to find the most striking visible 
 displays of these perfections, except in the actual operations 
 of the Creator, within the range of our view in the material 
 world t 
 
 Again, we are informed, in the same Divine records, that, 
 at some future period, the earth on which we now dwell shall 
 be wrapt up in devouring flames, and its present form and 
 constitutiou for ever destroyed ; and its redeemed inhabitants, 
 after being released from the grave, shall be transported to a 
 more glorious region ; and that " new heavens and a new 
 earth shall appear, wherein dwelleth righteousness." The 
 divine mercy having given to the faithful the promise of these 
 astonishing revolutions, and most magnificent events, our 
 hopes of their being fully realized must rest on the infinite 
 wisdom and omnipotence of Jehovah ; and, consequently, if 
 our views of these perfections be limited and obscure, our 
 hope, in relation to our future destiny, will be proportionably 
 feeble and languid ; and will scarcely perform its office " as 
 an anchor to the soul both sure and steadfast." It is not 
 merely by telling a person that God is All-wise, and All-pow- 
 erful, that a full conviction of the accomplishment of such 
 grand events will be produced. He must be made to see 
 with his own eyes what the Almighty has already done, and 
 what he is now doing in all the regions of universal nature 
 which lie open to our inspection ; and this cannot be effected 
 without directing his contemplations to those displays of in- 
 telligence and power which are exhibited in the structure, the 
 economy, and the revolutions of the material world. 
 
 If the propriety of these sentiments be admitted, it will fol- 
 low that the more we are accustomed to contemplate the won- 
 ders of Divine intelligence and power, in the objects with which 
 we are surrounded, the more deeply shall we be impressed 
 with a conviction, and a confident hope, that all the purposes 
 
NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITF. 29 
 
 of divine mercy will ultimately be accomplished in our eter- 
 nal felicity. It will also follow, that, in proportion as the mind 
 acquires a clear, an extensive, and a reverential view of the 
 essential attributes of the Deity, and of those truths in con- 
 nection with them, which are objects of contemplation com- 
 mon to all holy beings, in a similar proportion will it be im- 
 pressed, and its attention arrested, by every other divine sub- 
 ject connected with them. And it is, doubtless, owing to the 
 want of such clear and impressive conceptions of the essen- 
 tial character of Jehovah, and of the first truths of religion, that 
 the bulk of mankind are so little impressed and influenced by 
 the leading doctrines and duties connected with the plan of the 
 Gospel salvation, and that they entertain so many vague and 
 untenable notions respecting the character and the objects of 
 a superintending Providence. How often, for example, have 
 we witnessed expressions of the foolish and limited notions 
 which are frequently entertained respecting the operations of 
 Omnipotence? When it has been asserted that the earth 
 with all its load of continents and oceans, is in rapid mo- 
 tion through the voids of space — that the sun is ten hundred 
 thousand times larger than the terraqueous globe — and that 
 millions of such globes are dispersed throughout the immen- 
 sity of nature — some who have viewed themselves as enlight- 
 ened Christians, have exclaimed at the impossibility of such 
 facts, as if they were beyond the limits of Divine Power, and 
 as if such representations were intended to turn away the mind 
 from God and rehgion ; while, at the same time, they have 
 yielded a firm assent to all the vulgar notions respecting 
 omens, apparitions, and hobgoblins, and to the supposed ex- 
 traordinary powers of the professors of divination and witch- 
 craft. How can such persons assent, with intelligence and 
 rational conviction, to the dictates of Revelation respecting 
 the energies of Omnipotence which will be exerted at "the con- 
 summation of all things," and in those arrangements which 
 are to succeed the dissolution of our sublunary system ] A 
 firm belief in the Almighty Power and unsearchable wisdom 
 of God, as displayed in the constitution and movements of the 
 material world, is of the utmost importance, to confirm our 
 faith, and enliven our hopes, of such grand and interesting 
 events. 
 
 Notwithstanding the considerations now stated, which plain- 
 ly evince the connection of the natural perfections of God 
 with the objects of the Christian Revelation, it appears some- 
 what strange, that, when certain religious instructors happen 
 to come in contact with this topic, they seem as if they were 
 
 3 
 
so THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 beginning to tread upon forbidden ground ; and, as if it were 
 unsuitable to their office as Christian teachers, to bring for- 
 ward the stupendous works of the Almighty to illustrate his 
 nature and attributes. Instead of expatiating on the numerous 
 sources of illustration, of which the subject admits, till the 
 minds of their hearers are thoroughly affected with a view of 
 the essential glory of Jehovah — they despatch the subject 
 with two or three vague propositions, which, though logically 
 true, make no impression upon the heart ; as if they believed 
 that such contemplations were suited only to carnal men, and 
 mere philosophers ; and as if they were afraid, lest the sancti- 
 ty of the pulpit should be polluted by particular descriptions of 
 those operations of the Deity which are perceived through the 
 medium of the corporeal senses. We do not mean to insinu- 
 ate, that the essential attributes of God, and the illustrations of 
 them derived from the material world, should form the sole, 
 or the chief topics of discussion, in the business of religious 
 instruction — but, if the Scriptures frequently direct our atten- 
 tion to these subjects — if they lie at the foundation of all ac- 
 curate and extensive views of the Christian Revelation — if 
 they be the chief subjects of contemplation to angels, and all 
 other pure intelligences, in every region of the universe — and 
 if they have a tendency to expand the minds of professed 
 Christians, to correct their vague and erroneous concep- 
 tions, and to promote their conformity to the moral character 
 of God — we cannot find out the shadow of a reason, why such 
 topics should be almost, if not altogether, overlooked, in the 
 writings and the discourses of those who profess to instruct 
 mankind in the knowledge of God, and the duties of his wor- 
 ship. 
 
 We are informed by our Saviour himself, that "this is life 
 eternal, to know thee the living and true God," as well as 
 " Jesus Christ whom he hath sent." The knowledge of God, 
 in the sense here intended, must include in it the knowledge 
 of the natural and essential attributes of the Deity, or those 
 properties of his nature by which he is distinguished from all 
 "the idols of the nations." Such are, his Self-existence, his 
 All-perfect knowledge, his Omnipresence, his Infinite Wis- 
 dom, his Boundless Goodness, and Almighty Power — attri- 
 butes, which, as we have just now seen, lie at the foundation 
 of all the other characters and relations of Deity revealed in 
 the Scriptures. The acquisition of just and comprehensive 
 conceptions of these perfections, must, therefore, lie at the 
 foundation of all profound veneration of the Divine Being, and 
 of all that is valuable in religion. Destitute of such concep- 
 
NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY. 31 
 
 ions, we can neither feel that habitual humility, and that 
 reverence of the majesty of Jehovah which his essential glory- 
 is calculated to inspire, nor pay him that tribute of adoration 
 and gratitude which is due to his name. Devoid of such 
 views, we cannot exercise that cordial acquiescence in the 
 plan of his redemption, in the arrangements of his providence, 
 and in the requirements of his law, which the Scriptures en- 
 join. Yet, how often do we find persons who pretend to 
 speculate about the mysteries of the Gospel, displaying, — by 
 their flippancy of speech respecting the eternal councils of the 
 Majesty of Heaven — by their dogmatical assertions respect- 
 ing the divine character, and the dispensations of providence — 
 and by their pertinacious opinions respecting the laws by 
 which God must regulate his own actions — that they have 
 never felt impressive emotions of the grandeur of that Being, 
 whose " operations are unsearchable, and his ways past find- 
 ing out 1" Thouq;h they do not call in question his immen- 
 sity and power, his wisdom and goodness, as so many ab- 
 stract properties of his nature, yet, the unbecoming familiarity 
 with which they approach this august Being, and talk about 
 him, shows that they have never associated in their minds, the 
 stupendous displays which have been given of these perfec- 
 tions, in the works of his hands ; and that their religion (if it 
 may be so called) consists merely in a farrago of abstract 
 opinions, or in an empty name. 
 
 If, then, it be admitted, that it is essentially requisite, as the 
 foundation of religion, to have the mind deeply impressed with 
 a clear and comprehensive view of the natural perfections of 
 the Deity, it will follow, that the ministers of religion, and all 
 others whose province it is to communicate religious instruc- 
 tion, ought frequently to dwell, with particularity, on those 
 proofs and illustrations which tend to convey the most de- 
 finite and impressive conceptions of the glory of that Being 
 whom we profess to adore. But from what sources are such 
 illustrations to be derived ? Is it from abstract reasonings 
 and metaphysical distinctions and definitions, or from a sur- 
 vey of those objects and movements which lie open to the in- 
 spection of every observer 1 There can be no difficulty in 
 coming to a decision on this point. We might affirm, with the 
 schoolmen, that " God is a Being whose centre is every where, 
 and his circumference no where ;" that " he comprehends in- 
 finite duration in every moment ;" and that " infinite space 
 may be considered as the sensorium of the Godhead ;" but 
 such fanciful illustrations, when strictly analyzed, will be 
 found to consist merely of ivords without ideas. We might 
 
32 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 also affirm with truth, that God is a ]>cing of infinite perfec- 
 tion, glory and blessedness — that he is without all bounds or 
 limits, either actual or possible — that he is possessed of power 
 sufficient to perform all things which do not imply a contra- 
 diction — that he is independent and self-sufficient — that his 
 wisdom is unerring, and that he infinitely exceeds all other 
 beings. But these, and other expressions of a similar kind, 
 are mere technical terms, which convey no adequate, nor even 
 tolerable notion of what they import. Beings, constituted 
 like man, whose rational spirits are connected with an organi- 
 cal structure, and who derive all their knowledge through the 
 medium of corporeal organs, can derive their clearest and 
 most affecting notions of the Divinity, chiefly through the 
 same medium, namely, by contemplating the effects of his per- 
 fections, as displayed through the ample range of the visible 
 creation. And, to this source of illustration, the inspired 
 writers uniformly direct our views — " Lift up your eyes on 
 high, and behold ! who hath created these orbs ? who bringeth 
 forth their host by number, and calleth them all by their 
 names ? The everlasting God, the Lord, by the greatness of 
 his might, for that he is strong in power." — " He hath made 
 the earth by his power ; he hath establish"d the world by his 
 wisdom ; he hath stretched out the heavens by his under- 
 standing." — These writers do not perplex our minds by a 
 multitude of technical terms and subtle reasonings ; but lead 
 us directly to the source whence our most ample conceptions 
 of Deity are to be derived, that, from a steady and enlightened 
 contemplation of the effects, we may learn the greatness of 
 the Cause ; and their example, in this respect, ought, doubtless, 
 to be a pattern for every rehgious instructor. 
 
 SECTION IL 
 
 Illustrations of the Omnipotence of the Deity. 
 
 In order to elucidate more distinctly what has been now 
 stated, I shall select a few illustrations of some of the Natural 
 attributes of the Deity. And, in the first place, I shall offer a 
 few considerations which have a tendency to direct, and to 
 amplify our conceptions of Divine Power. 
 
 Omnipotence is that attribute of the Divine Being, by which 
 he can accomplish every thing that does not imply a contra- 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 33 
 
 diction — however far it may transcend the comprehension of 
 finite minds. By his power the vast system of universal 
 nature was called from nothing into existence, and is continu- 
 ally supported, in all its movements, from age to age. — In 
 elucidating this perfection of God, we might derive some strik- 
 ing illustrations from the records of his dispensations towards 
 man, in the early ages of the world — when he overwhelmed 
 the earth with the deluge, which covered the tops of the 
 highest mountains, and swept the crowded population of the 
 ancient world into a watery grave — when he demolished 
 Sodom and Gomorrah, and the cities around them, with fire 
 from heaven — when he slew all the first-born of Egypt, and 
 turned their rivers into blood — when he divided the Red Sea, 
 and the waters of Jordan before the tribes of Israel — when he 
 made the earth to open its jaws and swallow up Korah and all 
 his company — and when he caused Mount Sinai to smoke and 
 tremble at his presence. But, these and similar events, how- 
 ever awful, astonishing, and worthy of remembrance, were 
 only transitory exertions of divine power, and are not calcula- 
 ted, and were never intended, to impress the mind in so pow- 
 erful a manner as those displays of Omnipotence which are 
 exhibited in the ordinary movements of the material universe. 
 We have no hesitation in asserting, that, with regard to this 
 attribute of the Divinity, there is a more grand and impressive 
 display in the Works of Nature, than in all the events recorded 
 in the Sacred History. Nor ought this remark to be consi- 
 dered as throwing the least reflection on the fullness and 
 sufficiency of the Scripture revelation ; for that revelation as 
 having a special reference to a moral economy, has for its 
 object, to give a more particular display of the moral than of 
 the natural perfections of God. The miracles to which we 
 have now referred, and every other supernatural fact recorded 
 in the Bible were not intended so much to display the plenitude 
 of the power of Deity, as to bear testimony to the Divine 
 mission of particular messengers, and to confirm the truths 
 they declared. It wTts not, for example, merely to display the 
 energies of Almighty powv?r, that the waters of the Red Sea 
 were dried up before the thousands of Israel, but to give a 
 solemn and striking attestation to all concerned, that the Most 
 High God had taken this people under his peculiar protection 
 — that he had appointed Moses as their leader and legislator — 
 and that they were bound to receive and obey the statutes he 
 delivered. The most appropriate and impressive illustrations 
 of Omnipotence, are those which are taken from the jjermanent 
 operations of Deity, which are visible every moment in the 
 
 3* 
 
34 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 universe around us ; or, in other words, those which are de- 
 rived from a detail of the facts which have been observed in 
 the material world, respecting magnitude and motion. 
 
 In the first place, the immense quantity of matter contained 
 in the universe, presents a most striking display of Almighty 
 power. 
 
 In endeavouring to form a definite notion on this subject, the 
 mind is bewildered in its conceptions, and is at a loss where to 
 begin or to end its excursions. In order to form something 
 approximating to a well defined idea we must pursue a train of 
 thought commencing with those magnitudes which the mind 
 can easily grasp, proceeding through all the intermediate gra- 
 dations of magnitude, and fixing the attention on every portion 
 of the chain, till we arrive at the object or magnitude of which 
 we wish to form a conception. We must endeavour, in the 
 first place, to form a conception of the bulk of the world in 
 which we dwell, which, though only a point in comparison of 
 the whole material universe, is in reality, a most astonishing 
 magnitude, which the mind cannot grasp, without a laborious 
 effort. We can form some definite idea of those protuberate 
 masses we denominate hills, which arise above the surface of 
 our plains ; but were we transported to the mountainous 
 scenery of Switzerland, to the stupendous range of the Andes 
 in South America, or to the Himmalayan mountains in India, 
 where masses of earth and rocks, in every variety of shape, 
 extend several hundreds of miles in different directions, and 
 rear their projecting summits beyond the region of the clouds 
 — we should find some difficulty in forming an adequate con- 
 ception of the objects of our contemplation. For, (to use the 
 words of one who had been a spectator of such scenes,) 
 " Amidst those trackless regions of intense silence and soli- 
 tude, we cannot contemplate, but with feelings of awe and 
 admiration, the enormous masses of variegated matter which 
 lie around, beneath, and above us. The mind labours, as it 
 were, to form a definite idea of those objects of oppressive 
 grandeur, and feels unable to grasp the august objects which 
 compose the surrounding scene." But what are all these 
 mountainous masses, however variegated and sublime, when 
 compared with the bulk of the whole earth 1 Were they 
 hurled from their basis, and precipitated into the vast Pacific 
 Ocean, they would all disappear in a moment, except perhaps 
 a few projecting tops, which, like a number of small islands, 
 might be seen rising a few fathoms above the surface of the 
 waters. 
 
 The earth is a globe whose diameter is nearly 8,000 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITT. 35 
 
 miles, and its circumference about 25,000, and, consequently, 
 its surface contains nearly two hundred millions of square 
 miles — a magnitude too great for the mind to take in at one 
 conception. In order to form a tolerable conception of the 
 whole, we must endeavour to take a leisurely survey of its 
 different parts. Were we to take our station on the top of a 
 mountain, of a moderate size, and survey the surrounding 
 landscape, we should perceive an extent of view stretching 40 
 miles in every direction, forming a circle SO miles in diameter^ 
 and 250 in circumference, and comprehending an area of 
 5,000 square miles. In such a situation the terrestial scene 
 around and beneath us, consisting of hills and plains, towns 
 and villages, rivers and lakes — would form one of the largest 
 objects which the eye, and even the imagination, can steadily 
 grasp at one time. But such an object, grand and extensive 
 as it is, forms no more than the forty thousandth part of the 
 terraqueous globe ; so that before w^e can acquire an adequate 
 conception of the magnitude of our own world, we must con- 
 ceive 40,000 landscapes of a similar extent, to pass in review 
 before us : and w ere a scene, of the magnitude now stated, to 
 pass before us every hour, till all the diversified scenery of the 
 earth were brought under our view, and were 12 hours a-day 
 allotted for the observation, it would require 9 years and 48 
 days before the whole surface of the globe could be contem- 
 plated, even in this general and rapid manner. But, such a 
 variety of successive landscapes passing before the eye, even 
 although it were possible to be realized, would convey only a 
 very vague and imperfect conception of the scenery of our 
 world ; for objects at the distance of 40 miles cannot be dis- 
 tinctly perceived ; the only view which would be satisfactory 
 would be, that which is comprehended within the range of 3 
 or 4 miles from the spectator. 
 
 Again, I have already stated, that the surface of the earth 
 contains nearly 200,000,000 of square miles. — Now, were a 
 nerson to set out on a minute survey of the terraqueous globe, 
 and to travel till he passed along every square mile on its sur- 
 face, and to continue his route without intermission, at the rate 
 of 30 miles every day, it would require 18,264 years before he 
 could finish his tour, and complete the survey of " this nuge 
 rotundity on which we tread :" so that, had he commenced his 
 excursion on the day in which Adam was created, and continu- 
 ed it to the present hour, he would not have accomplished one- 
 third part of this vast tour. 
 
 In estimating the size and extent of the earth, we ought also 
 to take into consideration, the vast variety of objects with 
 
S6 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 which it is diversified, and the numerous animated heings with 
 which it is stored ; — the great divisions of land and water, the 
 continents, seas, and islands, into which it is distributed ; the 
 lofty ranges of mountains which rear their heads to the clouds ; 
 the unfathomed abysses of the ocean ; its vast subterraneous 
 caverns and burning mountains ; and the lakes, rivers, and 
 stately forests with which it is so magnificently adorned ; — the 
 many millions of animals, of every size and form, from the 
 elephant to the mite, which traverse its surface ; the numerous 
 tribes of fishes, from the enormous whale to the diminutive 
 shrimp, which " play" in the mighty ocean ; the asrial tribes 
 which sport in the regions above us, and the vast mass of the 
 surrounding atmosphere, which encloses the earth and all its 
 inhabitants as " with a swaddling band." The immense va- 
 riety of beings with which our terrestrial habitation is furnish- 
 ed, conspires, with every other consideration, to exalt our 
 conceptions to that power by which our globe, and all that it 
 contains, were brought into existence. 
 
 The preceding illustrations, however, exhibit the vast extent 
 of the earth, considered only as a mere superficies. But we 
 know that the earth is a solid globe, whose specific gravity is 
 nearly five times denser than water, or about twice as dense as 
 the mass of earth and rocks which compose its surface. 
 Though we cannot dig into its bowels beyond a mile in per- 
 pendicular depth, to explore its hidden wonders, yet we may 
 easily conceive what a vast and indescribable mass of matter 
 must be contained between the two opposite portions of its 
 external circumference, reaching SOOO miles in every direc- 
 tion. The solid contents of this ponderous ball is no less than 
 263,858,149,120 cubical miles — a mass of material substance 
 of which we can form but a very faint and imperfect conception — 
 in proportion to which all the lofty mountains which rise above 
 its surface, are less than a few grains of sand, when compared 
 with the largest artificial globe. Were the earth a hollow 
 sphere, surrounded merely with an external shell of earth and 
 water, 10 miles thick, its internal cavity would be sufficient tb 
 contain a quantity of materials one hundred and thirty-three 
 times greater than the whole mass of continents, islands, and 
 oceans, on its surface, and the foundations on which they are 
 supported. We have the strongest reasons, however, to con- 
 clude, that the earth, in its general structure, is one solid mass, 
 from the surface to the centre, excepting perhaps, a few ca- 
 verns scattered, here and there, amidst its subterraneous re- 
 cesses : and that its density gradually increases from its 
 surface to its central regions. What an enormous mass of 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 37 
 
 materials, then, is comprehended within the limits of that globe 
 on which we tread ! The mind labours, as it were, to com- 
 prehend the mighty idea, and after all its exertion, feels itself 
 unable to take in such an astonishing magnitude at one com- 
 prehensive grasp. How great must be the power of that 
 Being who commanded it to spring from nothing into exist- 
 ence, who " measureth the ocean in the hollow of his hand, 
 who weigheth the mountains in scales, and hangeth the earth 
 upon nothing !" 
 
 It is essentially requisite, before proceeding to the survey 
 of objects and magnitudes of a superior order, that we should 
 {endeavour, by such a train of thought as the preceding, to form 
 Borne tolerable and clear conception of the bulk of the globe 
 we inhabit ; for it is the only body we can use as a standard 
 of comparison to guide the mind in its conceptions, when it 
 roams abroad to other regions of material existence. And, 
 from what has been now stated it appears, that we have no 
 adequate conception of a magnitude of so vast an extent ; or, 
 at least, that the mind cannot, in any one instant, form to itself 
 a distinct and comprehensive idea of it, in any measure corres- 
 pondmg to the reality. 
 
 Hitherto, then, we have fixed only on a determinate magni- 
 tude — on a scale of a few inches, as it were, in order to assist 
 us in our measurement and conception of magnitudes still 
 more august and astonishing. When we contemplate, by the 
 light of science, those magnificent globes which float around 
 us, in the concave of the sky, the earth with all its sublime 
 scenery, stupendous as it is, dwindles into an inconsiderable 
 ball. If we pass from our globe to some of the other bodies 
 of the planetary system, we shall find that one of these stu- 
 pendous orbs is more than 900 times the size of our world, 
 and encircled with a ring 200,000 miles in diameter, which 
 would nearly reach from the earth to the moon, and would en- 
 close within its vast circumference, several hundreds of 
 worlds as large as ours. Another of these planetary bodies, 
 which appears to the vulgar eye only as a brilliant speck on the 
 Vault of heaven, is found to be of such a size, that it would re- 
 quire 1,400 globes of the bulk of the earth to form one equal 
 to it in dimensions. The whole of the bodies which compose 
 the solar system, (without taking the sun and the comets into 
 account,) contain a mass of matter 2,500 times greater than 
 that of the earth. The sun himself is 520 times larger than 
 all the planetary globes taken together ; and one million, three 
 hundred thousand times larger than the terraqueous globe. 
 This is one of the most glorious and magnificent visible ob- 
 
38 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 jects, which either the eye, or the imagination, can contem- 
 plate ; especially when we consider, what perpetual, and 
 incomprehensible, and powerful influence he exerts, what 
 warmth, and beauty, and activity, he diffuses, not only on 
 the globe we inhabit, but over the more extensive regions of 
 surrounding worlds. His energy extends to the utmost limits 
 of the planetary system — to the planet Herschel, which re- 
 volves at the distance of 1,800 millions of miles from his sur- 
 face, and there he dispenses light, and colour, and comfort, to 
 all the beings connected with that far-distant orb, and to all 
 the moons which roll around it. 
 
 Here the imagination begins to be overpowered and bewil- 
 dered in its conceptions of magnitude, when it has advanced 
 scarcely a single step in its excursions through the materia' 
 world : For it is highly probable that all the matter contained 
 within the limits of the solar system, incomprehensible as its 
 magnitude appears, bears a smaller proportion to the whole 
 mass of the material universe, than a single grain of sand to all 
 the particles of matter contained in the body of the sun and his 
 attending planets. 
 
 If we extend our views from the solar system to the starry 
 heavens, we have to penetrate, in our imagination, a space 
 which the swiftest ball that was ever projected, though in per- 
 petual motion, would not traverse in ten hundred thousand 
 years. In those trackless regions of immensity, we behold an 
 assemblage of resplendent globes, similar to the sun in size, 
 and in glory, and, doubtless, accompanied with a retinue of 
 worlds, revolving, like our own, around their attractive influ- 
 ence. The immense distance at which the nearest stars are 
 known to be placed, proves that they are bodies of a prodigi- 
 ous size, not inferior to our sun, and that they shine, not by 
 reflected rays, but by their own native light. But bodies en- 
 circled with such refulgent splendour, would be of little use in 
 the economy of Jehovah's empire, unless surrounding world-! 
 were cheered by their benign influence, and enlightened by 
 their beams. Every star is, therefore, with good reason, con- 
 cluded to be a sun, no less spacious than ours, surrounded by 
 a host of planetary globes, which revolve around it as a cen- 
 tre, and derive from it light, and heat, and comfort. Nearly 
 a thousand of these luminaries may be seen in a clear v/inter 
 night, by the naked eye ; so that a mass of matter equal to a 
 thousand solar systems, or to thirteen hundred and iiventy mil- 
 lions of globes of the size of the earth, may be perceived, by 
 every common observer, in the canopy of heaven. But all the 
 celestial orbs which are perceived by the unassisted sight, do 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 39 
 
 not form the eighty thousandth part of those which may be 
 descried by the help of optical instruments. The telescope 
 has enabled us to descry, in certain spaces of the heavens, 
 thousand of stars where the naked eye could scarcely discern 
 twenty. The late celebrated astronomer, Dr. Herschel, has 
 informed us, that, in the most crowded parts of the Milky-way, 
 when exploring that region with his best glasses, he has had 
 fields of view which contained no less than 588 stars, and 
 these were continued for many minutes : so that " in one quar- 
 ter of an hour's time there passed no less than one hundred 
 and sixteen thousand stars through the field of view of his 
 telescope." 
 
 It has been computed, that nearly one hundred millions of 
 stars might be perceived by the most perfect instruments, 
 were all the regions of the sky thoroughly explored. And 
 yet, all this vast assemblage of suns and worlds, when com- 
 pared with what lies beyond the utmost boundaries of human 
 vision, in the immeasurable spaces of creation, may be no 
 more than as the smallest particle of vapour to the immense 
 ocean. Immeasurable regions of space lie beyond the ut- 
 most limits of mortal view, into which even imagination itself 
 can scarcely penetrate, and which are, doubtless, replenished 
 with the operations of Divine Wisdom and Omnipotence. 
 For, it cannot be supposed, that a being so diminutive as 
 man, whose stature scarcely exceeds six feet — who vanishes 
 from the sight at the distance of a league — whose whole 
 habitation is invisible from the nearest star — whose powers of 
 vision are so imperfect, and whose mental faculties are so 
 limited — it cannot be supposed that man, who " dwells in tab- 
 ernacles of clay, who is crushed before the moth," and chain- 
 ed down, by the force of gravitation, to the surface of a small 
 planet, — should be able to descry the utmost boundaries of 
 the empire of Him who fills immensity, and dwells in " light 
 unapproachable." That portion of his dominions, however, 
 which lies within the range of our view, presents such a 
 scene of magnificence and grandeur, as must fill the mind of 
 every reflecting person with astonishment and reverence, and 
 constrain him to exclaim, " Great is our Lord, and of great 
 power, his understanding is infinite." " When I consider the 
 heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars which 
 thou hast ordained, — what is man that thou art mindful of 
 him !" " I have heard of thee by hearing of the ear ;" I have 
 hstened to subtle disquisions on thy character and perfec- 
 tions, and have been but little affected, " but now mine eye 
 
40 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 seeth thee ; wherefore I humble myself, and repent in dust 
 and ashes." 
 
 In order to feel the full force of the impression made by such 
 contemplations, the mind must pause at every step, in its ex- 
 cursions through the boundless regions of material existence : 
 for it its not by a mere attention to the figures and numbers 
 by which the magnitudes of the great bodies of the universe 
 are expressed, that we arrive at the most distinct and ample 
 conceptions of objects so grand and overwhelming. The mind, 
 in its intellectual range, must dwell on every individual scene 
 it contemplates, and on the various objects of which it is com- 
 posed. It must add scene to scene, magnitude to magni- 
 tude, and compare smaller objects with greater — a range of 
 mountains with the whole earth, the earth with the planet 
 Jupiter, Jupiter with the sun, the sun with a thousand stars, 
 a thousand stars with 80 millions, and 80 millions with all the 
 boundless extent which lies beyond the limits of mortal vision; 
 and, at every step of this mental process, sufficient time must 
 be allowed for the imagination to expatiate on the objects 
 before it, till the ideas approximate, as near as possible, to the 
 reality. In order to form a comprehensive conception of the 
 extent of the terraqueous globe, the mind must dwell on an 
 extensive landscape, and the objects with which it is adorned ; 
 it must endeavour to survey the many thousands of diversified 
 landscapes which the earth exhibits — the hills and plains, the 
 lakes and rivers, and mountains, which stretch in endless 
 variety over its surface — it must dive into the vast caverns of 
 the ocean — penetrate into the subterraneous regions of the 
 globe, and wing its way amidst clouds and tempests, through 
 the surrounding atmosphere. It must next extend its flight 
 through the most expansive regions of the solar system, 
 realizing, in imagination, those magnificent scenes which can 
 be described neither by the naked eye, nor by the telescope ; 
 and comparing the extent of our sublunary world, with the 
 more magnificent globes that roll around us. Leaving the sun 
 and all his attendant planets behind, till they have diminished 
 to the size of a small twinkling star, it must next wing its way 
 to the starry regions, and pass from one system of worlds to 
 another, from one Nebulae* to another, from one region of 
 Nebulae to another, till it arrive at the utmost boundaries of 
 creation which human genius has explored. It must also 
 endeavor to extend its flight beyond all that is visible by the 
 best telescopes, and expatiate at large in that boundless ex- 
 
 * For an account of the J^ebulce, see Ch. II. Art. Astronomy, 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 41 
 
 paDse into which no human eye has yet penetrated, and which 
 is, doubtless, replenished with other worlds, and systems, and 
 firmaments, where the operations of infinite power and benefi- 
 cence are displayed in endless variety, throughout the illimit- 
 able regions of space. 
 
 Here, then, with reverence, let us pause, and wonder! 
 Over all this vast assemblage of material existence, God pre- 
 sides. Amidst the diversified objects and intelligences it 
 contains, he is eternally and essentially present. By his un- 
 erring wisdom, all its complicated movements are directed. 
 By his Almighty fiat, it emerged from nothing into existence, 
 and is continually supported from age to age. " He spake 
 
 AND IT WAS DONE ; HE COMMANDED AND IT STOOD FAST." 
 
 *' By the word of the Lord were the heavens made, and all 
 the host of them by the spirit of his mouth." What an aston- 
 ishing display of Divine power is here exhibited to our view ! 
 How far transcending all finite comprehension must be the 
 energies of Him who only " spake, and it was done ;" who 
 only gave the command, and this mighty system of the uni- 
 verse, with all its magnificence, started into being ! The in- 
 finite ease with which this vast fabric was reared, leads us 
 irresistibly to conclude, that there are powers and energies in 
 the Divine mind which have never yet been exerted, and 
 which may unfold themselves to intelhgent beings, in the pro- 
 duction of still more astonishing and magnificent effects, dur- 
 ing an endless succession of existence. That man who is 
 not impressed with a venerable and overwhelming sense of 
 the power and majesty of Jehovah, by such comtemplationsj 
 must have a mind incapable of ardent religious emotions, and 
 unqualified for appreciating the grandeur of that Being "whose 
 kingdom ruleth over all." And shall such ennobling views be 
 completely withheld from a Christian audience ? Shall it be 
 considered as a matter of mere indifference, whether their views 
 of the Creator's works be limited to the sphere of a few miles 
 around them, or extended to ten thousand worlds ? — whether 
 they shall be left to view the operations of the Almighty 
 throughout eternity past and to come, as confined to a small 
 globe placed in the immensity of space, with a number of bril- 
 liant studs fixed in the arch of heaven, at a few miles distance ; 
 or, as extending through the boundless dimensions of space? — 
 whether they shall be left to entertain no higher idea of the 
 Divine majesty than what may be due to one of the superior 
 orders of the seraphim or cherubim, — or, whether they shall be 
 directed to form the most august conceptions of the King eter- 
 nal, immortal, and invisible, corresponding to the displays he 
 
 4 
 
42 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 has given of his glory in his visible works 1 If it be not, both 
 reason and piety require, that such illustrations of the Divine 
 perfections should occasionally be exhibited to their view. 
 
 In the next place, the rapid motions of the great bodies of 
 the universe, no less than their magnitudes, display the Intinite 
 Power of the Creator. 
 
 We can acquire accurate ideas of the relative velocities of 
 moving bodies, only by comparing the motions, with which 
 we are familiar, with one another, and with those which lie 
 beyond the general range of our minute inspection. We can 
 acquire a pretty accurate conception of the velocity of a ship, 
 impelled by the wind — of a steam-boat — of a race horse — of 
 a bird darting through the air — of an arrow flying from a bow 
 — and of the clouds when impelled by a stormy wind. The 
 velocity of a ship is from 8 to 12 miles an hour — of a race 
 horse, from 20 to 30 miles — of a bird, say from 50 to 60 miles, 
 and of the clouds, in a violent hurricane, from 80 to 100 miles 
 an hour. The motion of a ball from a loaded cannon is in- 
 comparably swifter than any of the motions now stated ; but 
 of the velocity of such a body we have a less accurate idea ; 
 because, its rapidity being so great, we cannot trace it distinct- 
 ly by the eye through its whole range, from the mouth of the 
 cannon to the object against which it is impelled. By experi- 
 ments, it has been found, that its rate of motion is from 4S0 
 to 800 miles in an hour, but it is retarded every moment, by 
 the resistance of the air and the attraction of the earth. This 
 velocity, however, great as it is, bears no sensible proportion 
 to the rate of motion which is found among the celestial orbs. 
 That such enormous masses of matter should move at all, is 
 wonderful ; but when we consider the amazing velocity with 
 which they are impelled, we are lost in astonishment. The 
 planet Jupiter, in describing his circuit round the sun, moves 
 at the rate of 29,000 miles an hour. The planet Venus, one 
 of the nearest and most brilliant of the celestial bodies, and 
 about the same size as the earth, is found to move through the 
 spaces of the firmament at the rate of 76,000 miles an hour ; 
 and the planet Mercury, with a velocity of no less than 150,000 
 miles an hour, or 1750 miles in a minute — a motion two hun- 
 dred times swifter than that of a cannon ball. 
 
 These velocities will appear still more astonishing, if we 
 consider the magnitude of the bodies which are thus impelled, 
 and the immense forces which are requisite to carry them 
 along in their courses. However rapidly a ball flies from the 
 mouth of a cannon, it is the flight of a body only a few inches 
 in diameter ; but one of the bodies, whose motion has been 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 43 
 
 just now stated, is eighty-nine thousand miles in diameter, and 
 would comprehend, within its vast circumference, more than 
 a thousand globes as large as the earth. Could we contem- 
 plate such motions, from a fixed point, at the distance of only 
 a few hundreds of miles from the bodies thus impelled — it 
 would raise our admiration to its highest pitch, it would over- 
 whelm all our faculties, and, in our present state, would pro- 
 duce an impression of awe, and even of terror, beyond the 
 power of language to express. The earth contains a mass of 
 matter equal in weight to at least 2,200,000,000,000,000,000,- 
 000 tons, supposing its mean density to be only about 2J 
 times greater than water. To move this ponderous mass a 
 single inch beyond its position, were it iixed in a quiescent 
 state, would require a mechanical force almost beyond the 
 power of numbers to express. The physical force of all the 
 myriads of intelligences within the bounds of the planetary 
 system, though their powers were far superior to those of 
 man, would be altogether inadequate to the production of such 
 a motion. How much more must be the force requisite to 
 impel it with a velocity one hundred and forty times swifter 
 than a cannon ball, or 68,000 miles an hour, the actual rate of 
 its motion, m its course round the sun ! But whatever de- 
 gree of mechanical power would be requisite to produce such 
 a stupendous effect, it would require a force one hundred and 
 fifty times greater to impel the planet Jupiter, in his actual 
 course, through the heavens ! Even the planet Saturn, one of 
 the slowest moving bodies of our system, a globe 900 times 
 larger than the earth, is impelled through the regions of space 
 at the rate of 22,000 miles an hour, carrying along with him 
 two stupendous rings, and seven moons larger than ours, 
 through his whole course round the central luminary. Were 
 we placed within a thousand miles of this stupendous globe, 
 (a station which superior beings may occasionally occupy,) 
 where its hemisphere, encompassed by its magnificent rings, 
 would fill the whole extent of our vision — the view of such a 
 ponderous and glorious object, flying with such amazing velo- 
 city before us, would infinitely exceed every idea of grandeur 
 we can derive from terrestrial scenes, and overwhelm our 
 powers with astonishment and awe. Under such an emo- 
 tion, we could only exclaim, " Great and Marvellous are 
 THY WORKS, Lord God Almighty !" The ideas o{ strength 
 and power implied in the impulsion of such enormous masses 
 of matter, through the illimitable tracts of space, are forced 
 upon the mind with irresistible energy, far surpassing what 
 any abstract propositions or reasonings can convey ; and con- 
 
44 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 strain us to exclaim, " Who is a strong Lord like unto thee ! 
 Thy right hand is become glorious in power ! the Lord God 
 omnipotent reigneth !" 
 
 If we consider the immense number of bodies thus impelled 
 through the vast spaces of the universe — the rapidity with 
 which the comets, when near the sun, are carried through the 
 regions they traverse, — if we consider the high probability, if 
 not absolute certainty, that the sun, with all his attendant 
 planets and comets, is impelled with a still greater degree of 
 velocity towards some distant region of space, or around some 
 wide circumference — that all the thousands of systems of that 
 nebulae to which the sun belongs, are moving in a similar man- 
 ner — that all the nebulse in the heavens are moving around 
 some magnificent central body — in short, that all the suns and 
 worlds in the universe are in rapid and perpetual motion, as 
 constituent portions of one grand and boundless empire, of 
 which Jehovah is the Sovereign — and, if we consider still 
 farther, that all these mighty movements have been going on, 
 without intermission, during the course of many centuries, 
 and some of them, perhaps, for myriads of ages before the 
 foundations of our world were laid — it is impossible for the 
 human mind to form any adequate idea of the stupendous 
 forces which are in incessant operation throughout the un- 
 limited empire of the Almighty. To estimate such mechani- 
 cal force, even in a single instance, completely baffles the 
 mathematician's skill, and sets the power of numbers at de- 
 fiance. " Language," and figures, and comparisons, are 
 " lost in wonders so sublime," and the mind, overpowered 
 \vith such reflections, is irresistibly led upwards, to search for 
 the cause in that Omnipotent Being who upholds the pil- 
 lars of the universe — the thunder of whose power none can 
 comprehend. While contemplating such august objects, how 
 emphatic and impressive appears the language of the sacred 
 oracles, " Canst thou by searching find out God 1 Canst thou 
 find out the Almighty to perfection 1 Great things doth he 
 which we cannot comprehend. Thine, Lord, is the great- 
 ness, and the glory, and the majesty ; for all that is in heaven 
 and earth is thine. Among the gods there is none like unto 
 thee, Lord, neither are there any works like unto thy works. 
 Thou art great, and dost wondrous things, thou art God alone. 
 Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the everlasting 
 God, the Lord, the Creator of all things, fainteth not, neither 
 is weary? there is no searching of his understanding. Let all 
 the earth fear the Lord, let all the inhabitants of the world 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 45 
 
 stand in awe of him ; for, he spake, and it was done ; he com- 
 manded, and it stood fast." 
 
 Again, the immense spaces which surround the heavenly 
 bodies, and in which they perform their revokitions, tend to 
 expand our conceptions on this subject, and to illustrate the 
 magnificence of the Divine operations. In whatever point of 
 view we contemplate the scenery of the heavens, an idea of 
 grandeur irresistibly bursts upon the mind ; and, if empty 
 space can, in any sense, be considered as an object of sub- 
 limity, nothing can fill the mind with a grander idea of mag- 
 nitude and extension, than the amplitude of the scale on which 
 planetary systems are constructed. Around the body of the 
 sun there is allotted a cubical space, 3,600 millions of miles in 
 diameter, in which eleven planetary globes revolve — every one 
 being separated from another, by intervals of many millions of 
 miles. The space which surrounds the utmost limits of our 
 system, extending in every direction, to the nearest fixed stars, 
 IS, at least, 40,000,000,000,000 miles in diameter ; and, it is 
 highly probable, that every star is surrounded by a space of 
 equal, or even of greater extent. A body impelled with the 
 greatest velocity which art can produce, — a cannon ball, for 
 instance, would require twenty years to pass through the space 
 that intervenes between the earth and the sun, and four mil- 
 lions, seven hundred thousand years, ere it could reach the 
 nearest star. Though the stars seem to be crowded together in 
 clusters, and some of them almost to touch one another, yet the 
 distance between any two stars which seem to make the near- 
 est approach, is such as neither words can express, nor ima- 
 gination fathom. These immense spaces are as unfathomable 
 on the one hand, as the magnitude of the bodies which move 
 in them, and their prodigious velocities, are incomprehensible 
 on the other ; and they form a part of those magniticent pro- 
 portions according to which the fabric of universal nature was 
 arranged — all corresponding to the majesty of that infinite and 
 incomprehensible Being, " who measures the ocean in the 
 hollow of his hand, and meteth out the heavens with a span." 
 How wonderful that bodies at such prodigious distances should 
 exert a mutual influence on one another ! that the moon at the 
 distance of 240,000 miles should raise tides in the ocean, and 
 currents in the atmosphere ! that the sun, at the distance of 
 ninety-five millions of miles, should raise the vapors, move the 
 ocean, direct the course of the winds, fructify the earth, and 
 distribute light, and heat, and color, through every region of the 
 globe ; yea, that his attractive influence, and fructifying ener- 
 gy, should extend even to the planet Herschel, at the distance 
 
 4* 
 
46 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 of eighteen hundred milUons of miles ! So that, in every point 
 of view in which the universe is contemplated, we perceive the 
 same grand scale of operation by which the Almighty has ar- 
 ranged the provinces of his universal kingdom. 
 
 We would now ask, in the name of all that is sacred, whe- 
 ther such magnificent manifestations of Deity ought to be 
 considered as irrelevant in the business of religion, and 
 whether they ought to be thrown completely into the shade, in 
 the discussions which take place in religious topics, in " the 
 assemblies of the saints ?" If religion consists in the intellec- 
 tual apprehension of the perfections of God, and in the moral 
 effects produced by such an apprehension — if all the rays of 
 glory emitted by the luminaries of heaven, are only so man) 
 reflections of the grandeur of Him who dwells in light unap 
 proachable — if they have a tendency to assist the mind in 
 forming its conceptions of that ineffable Being, whose uncre- 
 ated glory cannot be directly contemplated — and if they are 
 calculated to produce a sublime and awful impression on all 
 created intelligences, — shall we rest contented with a less 
 glorious idea of God than his works are calculated to afford 1 
 Shall we disregard the works of the Lord, and contemn " the 
 operations of his hands," and that, too, in the face of all the 
 invitations on this subject, addressed to us from heaven 1 For 
 thus saith Jehovah : " Lift up your eyes on high, and behold, 
 who hath created these things, who bringeth forth their host 
 by number. — I, the Lord, who maketh all things, who stretch- 
 eth forth the heavens alone, and spread abroad the earth by 
 himself; all their host have I commanded." And, if, at the 
 command of God, we lift up our eyes to the " firmament of 
 his power," surely we ought to do it, not with a brute "uncon- 
 scious gaze," not with the vacant stare of a savage, not as if 
 we were still enveloped with the mists and prejudices of the 
 dark ages — but as surrounded by that blaze of light which 
 modern science has thrown upon the scenery of the sky, in or- 
 der that we may contemplate, with fixed attention, all that 
 enlightened reason, aided by the nicest observations, has ascer- 
 tained respecting the magnificence of the celestial orbs. To 
 overlook the subHme discoveries of modern times, to despise 
 tliem, or to call in question their reality, as some religionists 
 have done, because they bring to our ears such astonishing re- 
 ports of the " eternal power" and majesty of Jehovah — is to 
 act as if we were afraid lest the Deity should be represented 
 as more grand and magnificent than he really is, and as if we 
 would be better pleased to pay him a less share of homage and 
 adoration than i^ due to his name. 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 47 
 
 Perhaps some may be disposed to insinuate, that the views 
 now stated are above the level of ordinary comprehension, and 
 founded too much on scientific considerations, to be stated in 
 detail to a common audience. To any insinuations of this 
 kind, it may be replied, that such illustrations as those to which 
 we have referred, are more easily comprehended than many 
 of those abstract discussions to which they are frequently ac- 
 customed ; since they are definite and tangible, being derived 
 from those objects which strike the senses and the imagina- 
 tion. Any person of common understanding may be made to 
 comprehend the leading ideas of extended space, magnitude, 
 and motion, which have been stated above, provided the des- 
 criptions be sufficiently simple, clear and well defined ; and 
 should they be at a loss to comprehend the principles on which 
 the conclusions rest, or the mode by which the magnificence 
 of the works of God has been ascertained, an occasional re- 
 ference to such topics would excite them to inquiry and inves- 
 tigation, and to the exercise of their powers of observation 
 and reasoning on such subjects — which are too frequently 
 directed to far less important objects. The following illustra- 
 tion, however, stands clear of every objection of this kind, and 
 is level to the comprehension of every man of common sense. 
 — Either the earth moves round its axis once in twenty-four 
 hours — or, the sun, moon, planets, comets, stars, and the 
 whole frame of the universe move around the earth, in the 
 same time. There is no alternative, or third opinion, that 
 can be formed on this point. If the earth revolve on its axis 
 every 24 hours, to produce the alternate succession of day 
 and night, the portions of its surface about the equator must 
 move at the rate of more than a thousand miles an hour, since 
 the earth is more than twenty-four thousand miles in circum- 
 ference. This view of the fact, when attentively considered, 
 furnishes a most sublime and astonishing idea. That a globe 
 of so vast dimensions, with all its load of mountains, conti- 
 nents, and oceans, comprising within its circumference a mass 
 of two hundred and sixty-four thousand million of cubical 
 miles, should whirl around with so amazing velocity, gives us a 
 most august and impressive conception of the greatness of that 
 Power which first set it in motion, and continues the rapid 
 whirl from age to age ! Though the huge masses of the Alpine 
 mountains were in a moment detached from their foundations, 
 carried aloft through the regions of the air, and tossed into the 
 Mediterranean sea, it would convey no idea of a force equal 
 to that which is every moment exerted, if the earth revolve on 
 'ts axis. But should the motion of our earth be called in 
 
48 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 question, or denied, the idea of force, or power, will be inde- 
 finitely increased. For, in this case, it must necessarily be 
 admitted, that the heavens, with all the innumerable host of 
 stars, have a diurnal motion around the globe ; which motion 
 must be inconceivably more rapid than that of the earth, on 
 the supposition of its motion. For, in proportion as the ce- 
 lestial bodies are distant from the earth, in the same proportion 
 would be the rapidity of their movements. The sun, on this 
 supposition, would move at the rate of 414,000 miles in u 
 minute ; the nearest stars, at the rate of fourteen hundred mil- 
 lions of miles in a second : and the most distant luminaries, 
 with a degree of swiftness which no numbers could express.* 
 Such velocities, too, would be the rate of motion, not merely 
 of a single globe like the earth, but of all the ten thousand 
 times ten thousand spacious globes that exist within the boun- 
 daries of creation. This view conveys an idea of power, still 
 more august and overwhelming than any of the views already 
 stated, and we dare not presume to assert, that such a degree 
 of physical force is beyond the limits of infinite perfection ; 
 but on the supposition it existed, it would confound all our 
 ideas of the wisdom and intelligence of the Divine mind, and 
 would appear altogether inconsistent with the character which 
 the scripture gives us of the Deity as " the only wdse God." 
 For, it would exhibit a stupendous system of means altogether 
 disproportioned to the end intended — namely, to produce the 
 alternate succession of day and night to the inhabitants of our 
 globe, which is more beautifully and harmoniously affected 
 by a simple rotation on its axis, as is the case with the other 
 globes which compose the planetary system. Such considera- 
 tions, however, show us, that, on whatever hypothesis, whether 
 on the vulgar or the scientific, or in whatever other point of 
 view, the frame of nature may be contemplated, the mind is 
 irresistibly impressed with ideas of power, grandeur and magni- 
 ficence. And, therefore, when an inquiring mind is directed 
 to contemplate the works of God, on any hypothesis it may 
 choose, it has a tendency to rouse reflection, and to stimulate 
 the exercise of the moral and intellectual faculties, on objects 
 which are worthy of the dignity of immortal minds. 
 
 VVe may now be, in some measure, prepared to decide, 
 whether illustrations of the onmipotence of the Deity, derived 
 from the system of the material world, or those vague and me- 
 taphysical disquisitions which are generally given in theologi- 
 cal systems, be most calculated to impress the mind, and to 
 
 + See Appendix, No, 1. 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 49 
 
 inspire it with reverence and adoration. The following is a 
 description given of this attribute of God, by a well known 
 systematic writer, who has generally been considered as a judi- 
 cious and orthodox divine : — 
 
 " God is almighty. Rev. i. 18, chap. iv. 8. This will evi- 
 dently appear, in that, if he be infinite in all his other perfec- 
 tions, he must be so in power : thus, if he be omniscient, he 
 knows what is possible or expedient to be done ; and if he be 
 an infinite sovereign, he wills whatever shall come to pass. 
 Now this knowledge would be insignificant, and his power 
 inefficacious, were he not infinite in power, or almighty. Again, 
 this might be argued from his justice, either in rewarding or 
 punishing ; for if he were not infinite in power, he could do 
 neither of these, at least so far as to render him the object of 
 that desire or fear, which is agreeable to the nature of these 
 perfections ; neither could infinite faithfulness accomplish all 
 the promises which he hath made, so as to excite that trust, 
 and dependence which is a part of religious worship ; nor 
 could he say without limitation, as he does, / have spoken it, 1 
 will also bring it to pass ; 1 have purposed it^ I will also do it ; 
 Isa. xlvi. 11. — But since power is visible in, and demonstra- 
 ted by its effect, and infinite power, by those effects -wiiich 
 cannot be produced by a creature, we may observe the al- 
 mighty power of God in all his works, both of nature and grace : 
 thus his eternal power is understood, as the apostle says. By 
 the things that are made, Rom. i. 20, not that there was an 
 eternal production of things, but the exerting this power in 
 time, proves it to be infinite and truly divine ; for no creature 
 can produce the smallest particle of matter out of nothing, 
 much less furnish the various species of creatures, with those 
 endowments in which they excel one another, and set forth 
 their Creator's glory. And the glory of his power is no less 
 visible in the works of providence, whereby he upholds all 
 things, disposes of them according to his pleasure, and brings 
 about events which only he who has an almighty arm can ef- 
 fect." — Uidgleifs Bodij of Divinitij, p. 39. 
 
 This is the whole that Dr. Ridgley judges it necessary to 
 state, in illustration of the attribute of Omnipotence, except 
 what he says in relation to its operation " in the work of grace," 
 in "the propagation and success of the Gospel," &c. subjects, 
 to which the idea of power, or physical energy, does not pro- 
 perly apply. Such, however, are the meagre and abstract dis- 
 quisitions generally given by most systematic writers. There 
 is a continual play on the term " Infinite," which, to most 
 minds, conveys no idea at all, unless it be associated >vith 
 
50 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 ample conceptions of motion, magnitude, and extension ; and 
 it is constantly applied to subjects to which it was never in- 
 tended to apply, such as " infinite faithfulness, infinite justice, 
 infinite truth," &c. an application of the term which is never 
 sanctioned by Scripture, and which has a tendency to intro- 
 duce confusion into our conceptions of the perfections of God. 
 Granting that the statements and reasonings in such an extract 
 as the above were unquestionable, yet what impression can 
 they make upon the mind ? Would an ignorant person feel 
 his conceptions of the Divinity much enlarged, or his moral 
 powers aroused by such vague and general statements 1 And, 
 if not, it appears somewhat unaccountable, that those sources 
 of illustration, which would convey the most ample and defi- 
 nite views of the " eternal power" and glory of God, should be 
 studiously concealed from the view. Vague descriptions and 
 general views of any object will never be efTectual in awaken- 
 ing the attention, and arresting the faculties of the mind. The 
 heart will always remain unimpressed, and the understanding 
 will never be thoroughly excited in its exercise, unless the 
 intellect have presented before it a well-defined and interesting 
 object, and be enabled to survey it in its various aspects ; and 
 this object must always have a relation to the material world, 
 whether it be viewed in connection with religion, or with any 
 other subject. 
 
 Thus I have endeavoured, in the preceding sketches, to pre- 
 sent a few detached illustrations of the omnipotence and gran- 
 deur of the Deity, as displayed in the vast magnitude of the 
 material universe — the stupendous velocities of the celestial 
 bodies — and in the immeasurable regions of space which sur- 
 round them, and in which their motions are performed. Such 
 a magnificent spectacle as the fabric of the universe presents — 
 so majestic, God-like, and overwhelming, to beings who dwell 
 " in tabernacles of clay" — was surely never intended to be 
 overlooked, or to be gazed at with indifference, by creatures 
 endowed with reason and intelligence, and destined to an im- 
 mortal existence. In forming a vmiverse composed of so 
 many immense systems and worlds, and replenished with 
 such a variety of sensitive and intelligent existences, the Crea- 
 tor, doubtless, intended that it should make a sublime and 
 reverential impression on the minds of all the intellectual be- 
 ings to whom it might be displayed, and that it should convey 
 some palpable idea of the infinite glories of his nature, in so 
 far as material objects can be supposed to adumbrate the 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 
 
 5l 
 
 perfections of a spiritual and uncreated Essence. Dwelling iii 
 *' light inaccessible" to mortals, and for ever veiled from the 
 highest created being, by the pure spirituality and immensity 
 of his nature, there is no conceivable mode by which the in- 
 finite grandeur of Deity could be exhibited to finite intelli- 
 gences, but through the medium of those magnificient opera- 
 tions which are incessantly going forward throughout the 
 boundless regions of space. Concealed from the gaze of all 
 the " principalities and powers" in heaven, in the unfathoma- 
 ble depths of his Essence, he displays his presence in the 
 universe he has created, and the glory of his power, by 
 launching magnificent worlds into existence, by adorning them 
 with diversified splendors, by peopling them with various ranks 
 of intelligent existence, and by impelling them in their move- 
 ments through the illimitable tracts of creation. 
 
 It will readily be admitted by every enlightened Christian, 
 that it must be a highly desirable attainment, to acquire the 
 most glorious idea of the Divine Being which the limited ca- 
 pacity of our minds is capable of receiving. This is one of 
 the grand difficulties in religion. The idea of a Being purely 
 IMMATERIAL, yet pervading infinite space, and possessed of 
 no sensible quahties, confounds and bewilders the human in- 
 tellect, so that its conceptions, on the one hand, are apt to 
 verge towards extravagancy, while, on the other, they are apt 
 to degenerate into something approaching to inanity. Mere 
 abstract ideas and reasonings respecting infinity, eternity, 
 and absolute perfection, however sublime we may conceive 
 them to be, completely fail in arresting the understanding, and 
 affecting the heart ; our conceptions become vague, empty, 
 and confused, for want of a material vehicle to give them or- 
 der, stability, and expansion. Something of the nature of vast 
 extension, of splendid and variegated objects, and of mighty 
 movements, is absolutely necessary, in order to convey to 
 spirits dwelling in bodies of clay, a definite conception of the 
 invisible glories of the Eternal Mind ; and, therefore, in the 
 immense variety of material existence with which the universe 
 is adorned, we find every requisite assistance of this kmd to 
 direct and expand our views of the great object of our adora- 
 tion. When the mind is perplexed and overwhelmed with its 
 conceptions, when it labors, as it were, to form some well- 
 defined conceptions of an Infinite Being, it here finds some 
 tangible objects on which to fix, some sensible substratum for 
 its thoughts to rest upon for a little, while it attempts to pene- 
 trate, in its excursions, into those distant regions which eye 
 hath not seen, and to connect the whole of its mental survey 
 
52 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 with the energies of the " King, Eternal, Immortal, and In- 
 visible." 
 
 To such a train of thought we are uniformly directed in the 
 sacred oracles, where Jehovah is represented as describing 
 himself by the effects which his power and wisdom have pro- 
 duced. — " Israel shall be saved in the Lord with an everlast- 
 ing salvation. For thus saith Jehovah that created the hea- 
 vens ; God himself thai formed the earth and made it ; he 
 hath established it, he created it not in vain, he formed it to 
 be inhabited ; I am the Lord, and there is none else." " I 
 have made the earth and created man upon it, my hands have 
 stretched out the heavens, and all their host have I command- 
 ed." " Hearken unto me, Israel : I am the first, 1 also am 
 the last. Mine hand also hath laid the foundation of the 
 earth, and my right hand hath spanned the heavens : when I 
 call unto them, they stand up together." " Who hath mea- 
 sureth the waters in the hollow of his hand, and meted out 
 heaven with the span, and weighed the mountains in scales ? 
 He who sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants 
 thereof, are as grasshoppers ; that stretched out the heavens 
 as a curtain, that fainteth not, neither is weary." " The Lord 
 made the heavens, the heaven of heavens, with all their 
 hosts ; honor and majesty are before him, and his kingdom 
 ruleth over all."* Such sublime descriptions of Jehovah, and 
 references to his material works, are reiterated in every por- 
 tion of the sacred volume ; and the import and sublimity of 
 such expressions cannot be fully appreciated, unless we take 
 into view all the magnificent objects which science has unveil- 
 ed in the distant regions of creation. 
 
 This subject is calculated, not merely to overpower the in- 
 tellect with ideas of sublimity and grandeur, but also to pro- 
 duce a deep moral impression upon the heart ; and a Christian 
 ohilosopher would be deficient in his duty, were he to overlook 
 tnis tendency of the objects of his contemplation. 
 
 One important moral effect which this subject has a natural 
 tendency to produce, is, profound humility. What an in- 
 significant being does man appear, when he compares himself 
 with the magnificence of creation, and with the myriads of 
 exalted intelligences with which it is peopled ! What are all 
 the honors and splendors of this earthly ball, of which mortals 
 are so proud, when placed in competition with the resplendent 
 glories of the skies? Such a display as the Almighty has 
 given of himself, in the magnitude and variety of his works* 
 
 * Isa. xlv. 18, 12. xlviii. 12, 13. xl. 12, 22, &c. 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 53 
 
 was evidently intended "to stain the pride" of all human 
 grandeur, that " no flesh should glory in his presence." Yet, 
 there is no disposition that appears so prominent among puny 
 mortals, as pride, ambition, and vain-glory — the very opposite 
 of humility, and of all those tempers which become those 
 " who dwell in tabernacles of clay, and whose foundation is in 
 th-edust.-' Even without taking into account the state of man 
 as a depraved intelligence, what is there in his situation that 
 should inspire him v/ith " lofty looks," and induce him to look 
 down on his fellow-men wth supercilious contempt ? He 
 derived his origin from the dust, he is allied with the beasts 
 that perish, and he is fast hastening to the grave, where his 
 carcass will become the food for noisome reptiles. He is 
 every moment dependant on a Superior Being for every pulse 
 that beats, and every breath he draws, and for ail that he pos- 
 sesses ; he is dependant even on the meanest of his species 
 for his accommodations and comforts. He holds every enjoy- 
 ment on the most precarious tenure, — his friends may be 
 snatched in a moment from his embrace ; his riches may take 
 to themselves wings and fly away ; and his health and beauty 
 may be blasted in an hour, by a breath of wind. Hunger and 
 thirst, cold and heat, poverty and disgrace, sorrow and disap- 
 pointment, pain and disease, mingle themselves with all his 
 pursuits and enjoyments. — His knowledge is circumscribed 
 within the narrowest limits, his errors and follies are glaring 
 and innumerable ; and he stands as an almost undistinguish- 
 able atom, amidst the immensity of God's work's. Still, with 
 all these powerful inducements to the exercise of humility, 
 man dares to be proud and arrogant. 
 
 Man, proud Man, 
 
 Dressed in a little brief authority, 
 
 Plays such fantastic tricks before high Heaven 
 
 As inake the angels weep." 
 
 How affecting to contemplate the warrior, flushed with dia- 
 bolical pride, pursuing his conquests through heaps of slain, 
 in order to obtain possession of *' a poor pitiable speck of 
 perishing earth ;' exclaiming in his rage, " I will pursue, I 
 will overtake, I will divide the spoil, my lust shall be satisfied 
 upon them, I will draw my sword, my hand shall destroy 
 them" — to behold the man of rank glorying in his wealth, 
 and his empty titles, and looking around upon the inferior 
 orders of his fellow-mortals as the worms of the dust — 
 to behold the man of ambition pushing his M^ay through bribery, 
 and treachery, and slaughter, to gain possession of a throne, 
 that he may look down with proud pre-eminence upon his 
 
 5 
 
54 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 fellows — to behold the haughty airs of the noble dame, inflated 
 with the idea of her beauty, and her high birth, as she struts 
 along, surveying the ignoble crowd as if they were the dust 
 beneath her feet — to behold the smatterer in learning, puffed 
 up with a vain conceit of his superficial acquirements, when 
 he has scarcely entered the porch of knowledge — in fine, to 
 behold all ranks from the highest to the lowest, big with an 
 idea of their own importance, and fired with pride and re- 
 venge at the least provocation, whether imaginary or real ! 
 How inconsistent the manifestations of such tempers, with 
 the many humiliating circumstances of our present condition, 
 and with the low rank which we hold in the scale of UniversaJ 
 Being ] 
 
 It is not improbable, that there are in the universe, intelli- 
 gences of a superior order, in whose breasts pride never found 
 a place — to whom this globe of ours, and all its inhabitants, 
 appear as inconsiderable as a drop of water filled with micro- 
 scopic animalcule, does to the proud lords of this earthly re- 
 gion. There is at least one Being to whom this sentiment is 
 applicable, in its utmost extent : — *' Before Him all nations 
 are as a drop of a bucket, and the inhabitants of the earth as 
 grasshoppers ; yea, they are as nothing, and are counted to 
 him less than nothing and vanity." Could we wing our way, 
 with the swifness of a seraph, from sun to sun, and from 
 world to world, till we had surveyed all the systems visible to 
 the naked eye, which are only as a mere speck in the map of 
 the universe — could we, at the same time, contemplate the 
 glorious landscapes and scenes of grandeur they exhibit — 
 could we also mingle with the pure and exalted intelligences 
 which people those resplendent abodes, and behold their hum- 
 ble and ardent adorations of their Almighty IMaker, their 
 benign and condescending deportment towards one another ; 
 " each esteeming another better than himself," and all united 
 in the bonds of the purest affection, without one haughty or 
 discordant feeling — what indignation and astonishment would 
 seize us, on our return to this obscure corner of creation, to 
 behold beings enveloped in the mist of ignorance, immersed 
 in depravity and wickedness, liable to a thousand accidents, 
 exposed to the ravages of the earthquake, the volcano, and 
 the storm ; yet proud as Lucifer, and glorying in their shame ! 
 We should be apt to view them, as we now do those bedlam- 
 ites, who fancy themselves to be kings, surrounded by their 
 nobles, while they are chained to the walls of a noisome dun- 
 geon. " Sure pride was never made for man." How abhor- 
 rent, then, must it appear in the eyes of superior beings, who 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 55 
 
 have taken an expansive range through the field of creation ? 
 How abhorrent it is in the sight of the Almighty, and how 
 amiable is the opposite virtue, we learn from his word : — 
 " Every one that is proud in heart is an abomination to the 
 Lord." — "God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace to the 
 humble." — " Thus saith the High and Lofty One, who in- 
 habiteth eternity, I dwell in the high and holy place ; with 
 him also that is of an humble and contrite spirit ; to revive 
 (he spirit of the humble, and the heart of the contrite ones." — 
 While, therefore, we contemplate the omnipotence of God, in 
 the immensity of creation, let us learn to cultivate humility 
 and self-abasement. This was one of the lessons which the 
 pious Psalmist deduced from his survey of the nocturnal 
 heavens. When he beheld the moon walking in the bright- 
 ness, and the innumerable host of stars, overpowered with a 
 sense of his own insignificance, and the greatness of divine 
 condescension, he exclaimed, " Lord ! what is man, that 
 thou art mindful of him, or the son of man, that thou shouldst 
 visit him !" 
 
 Again, this subject is also calculated to inspire us with 
 •lEVERENCE and VENERATION of God. Profound veneration 
 of the Divine Being lies at the foundation of ail religious wor- 
 ship and obedience. But, in order to venerate God aright, 
 we must know him ; and, in order to acquire the true know- 
 ledge of him, we must contemplate him through the medium 
 of those works and dispensations, by which he displays the 
 glories of his nature to the inhabitants of our world. I have 
 already exhibited a few specimens of the stupendous opera- 
 tions of his power, in that portion of the system of the uni- 
 verse which lies open to our inspection ; and there is surely, 
 no mind in which the least spark of piety exists, but must 
 feel strong emotions of reverence and awe, at the thought 
 of that Almighty and Incomprehensible Being, who impels the 
 huge masses of the planetary globes, with so amazing a rapid- 
 ity through the sky, and who has diversified the voids of space 
 with so vast an assemblage of magnificent vvorlds. Even 
 those manifestations of Deity which are confined to the globe 
 we inhabit, when attentively considered, are calculated to 
 rouse, even the unthinking mind, to astonishment and awe. 
 The lofty mountains, and expansive plains, the mass of water 
 in the mighty ocean, the thunders roiling along the sky, the 
 lightnings flashing from cloud to cloud, the hurricane and the 
 tempest, the volcano vomiting rivers of fire, and the earth- 
 quake shaking kingdoms, and leveling cities with the ground 
 — all proclaim the JMajesty of Him, by whom the elements of 
 
56 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 nature are arranged and directed, and seem to address the 
 sons of men in language like this : " The Lord reigneth, he 
 IS clothed with majesty ; at his wrath the earth trembles ; a 
 tire goeth before him, and burneth up his enemies." — " Let 
 all the earth fear the Lord, let all the inhabitants of the world 
 stand in awe of him." 
 
 There is one reason, among others, why the bulk of man- 
 kind feel so little veneration of God, and that is, that they 
 tieldom contemplate, with fixed attention, " the operations of 
 his hands." If we wish to cherish this sublime sentiment in 
 our hearts, we must familiarize our minds to frequent excur- 
 sions over all those scenes of Creation and Providence, which 
 the volume of nature, and the volume of inspiration unfold to 
 view. We must endeavour to assist our conceptions to the 
 grandeur of these objects, by every discovery which has been, 
 or may yet be made, and by every mode of illustration by 
 which a sublime and comprehensive idea of the particular 
 object of contemplation may be obtained. — If we would wish 
 to acquire some definite, though imperfect conception of the 
 physical extent of the universe, our minds might be assisted 
 by such illustrations as the following : — Light flies from the 
 sun with a velocity of nearly tw o hundred thousand miles in a 
 moment of time, or, about 1,400,000 times swifter than the 
 motion of a cannon ball : Suppose that one of the highest 
 order of intelligences is endowed with a power of rapid mo- 
 tion superior to that of light, and with a corresponding degree 
 of intellectual energy ; that he has been flying without inter- 
 mission, from one province of creation to another, for six 
 thousand years, and will continue the same rapid course for a 
 thousand millions of years to come ; it is highly probable, if 
 not absolutely certain, that, at the end of this vast tour, he 
 would have advanced no farther than " the suburbs of crea- 
 tion" — and that all the magnificent systems of material and 
 intellectual beings he had surveyed, during his rapid flight, 
 and for such a length of ages, bear no more proportion to the 
 whole Empire of Omnipotence, than the smallest grain of 
 .sand does to all the particles of matter of the same size con- 
 tained in ten thousand worlds. Nor need we entertain the 
 least fear, that the idea of the extent of the Creator's power, 
 conveyed by such a representation, exceeds the bounds of 
 reality. On the other hand, it must fall almost infinitely short 
 of it. For, as the poet has justly observed— 
 
 " Can man conceive beyond what God can do ?" 
 
 Were a seraph, in prosecuting the tour of creation in the 
 manner now stated, ever to arrive at a hmit beyond wliich no. 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY, 67 
 
 farther displays of the Divinity could be perceived, the thought 
 would overwhelm his faculties v/ith unutterable anguish and 
 horror : he would feel, that he had now, in some measure, 
 comprehended all the plans and operations of Omnipotence, 
 and that no farther manifestation of the Divine glory remained 
 to be explored. But we may rest assured, that this can never 
 happen in the case of any created inteUigence. We have 
 every reason to believe, both from the nature, of an Infinite 
 Being, and from the vast extent of creation already explored, 
 that the immense mass of material existence, and the endless 
 variety of sensitive and intellectual beings with which the uni- 
 verse is replenished, are intended by Jehovah, to present to 
 his rational offspring, a shadow, an emblem, or a representa- 
 tion, (in so far as finite extended existence can be a repre- 
 sentation,) of the Infinite Perfections of his nature, which 
 would otherwise have remained for ever impalpable to all 
 subordinate intelligences. 
 
 In this manner, then, might w^e occasionally exercise our 
 minds on the grand and diversified objects which the universe 
 exhibits ; and, in proportion as we enlarge the sphere of our 
 contemplations, in a similar proportion will our views of God 
 himself be extended, and a corresponding sentiment of vene- 
 ration impressed upon the mind. For the soul of man can- 
 not venerate a mere abstract being, that was never manifested 
 through a sensible medium, however many lofty terms may 
 be used to describe his perfections. It venerates that Ineffa- 
 ble Being, who conceals himself behind the scenes of Crea- 
 tion, through the medium of the visible displays he exhibits of 
 his Power, Wisdom, and Beneficence, in the Economy of 
 Nature, and in the Records of Revelation. Before the uni- 
 verse was formed, Jehovah existed alone, possessed of every 
 attribute which he now displays. But, had only one solitary 
 intelligence been created, and placed in the infinite void, 
 without a material substratum beneath and around him, he 
 could never have been animated with a sentiment of profound 
 veneration for his Creator ; because no objects existed to ex- 
 cite it, or to show, that his Invisible Maker was invested with 
 those attributes which he is now known to possess. Accor- 
 dingly, we find, in the sacred writings, that, when a sentiment 
 of reverence is demanded from the sons of men, those sensi- 
 ble objects which are calculated to excite the emotion, are 
 uniformly exhibited. " Fear ye not me ? saith the Lord. — 
 Will ye not tremble at my presence ? who have placed the 
 sand for the bound of the sea, by a perpetual decree, that it 
 cannot pass it ; and though the waves thereof toss themselves, 
 
 5* 
 
58 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHEH. 
 
 yet they cannot prevail ; though they roar, yet can they nxDt 
 pass over it." " Who would not fear thee, O King of nations ? 
 Thou art the true God, and an everlasting King. — Thou hast 
 made the earth by thy power, thou hast established the world 
 by thy wisdom, thou hast stretched out the heavens by thy dis- 
 cretion. When thou utterest thy voice there is a noise of 
 waters in the heavens, thou causest the vapours to ascend 
 from the ends of the earth, thou makest lightnings with rain, 
 and bringest forth the winds out of thy treasures."* 
 
 But, however enlarged and venerable conceptions of God 
 we may derive from the manifestations of his power, they 
 must fall infinitely short of what is due to a being of bound- 
 less perfection. For there may be attributes in the Divine 
 Essence, of which we cannot possibly form the least concep- 
 tion — attributes which cannot be shadowed forth or represent- 
 ed by any portion of the material or intellectual world yet dis- 
 covered by us, or by all the mighty achievements by which hu- 
 man redemption was effected — attributes which have not been 
 yet displayed, in their effects, to the highest orders of intelli- 
 gent existence. And, therefore, as that excellent philosopher 
 and divine, the honorable Mr. Boyle, has well observed — 
 '• Our ideas of God, however so great, will rather express the 
 greatness of our veneration, than the Immensity of his Perfec- 
 tions ; and the notions worthy of the most intelligent men, 
 are far short of being worthy the incomprehensible God — the 
 brightest idea we can frame of God being infinitely inferior, 
 and no more than a Parhelion'\ in respect of the sun ; for 
 though that meteor is splendid, and resembles the sun, yet it 
 resides in a cloud, and is not only much beneath the sun in 
 distance, but inferior in bigness and splendor." 
 
 In short, were we habitually to cherish that profound ven- 
 eration of God which his works are calculated to inspire, 
 with what humility would we approach the presence of this 
 August Being ! with what emotions of awe would we present 
 our adorations ! and with what reverence would we talk of 
 his inscrutable purposes, and incomprehensible operations ! 
 W^e would not talk about him, as some writers have done, with 
 the same ease and indifference, as a mathematician would talk 
 
 * Jerem. x. 7 — 13. 
 
 t A Parhelion or J\Iock-Sun, is a meteor in the form of a very bright 
 light appearing on one side of the sun, and somewhat resembling the ap- 
 pearance of that kiminary. This phenomenon is supposed to be produced 
 by the refraction and reflection of the sun's rays from a watery cloud. — 
 Sometimes three or four of these parhelia, all of them bearing a certain re- 
 semblance to the real sun, have been seen at one time 
 
OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 59 
 
 about the properties of a triangle, or a philosopher about the 
 effects of a mechanical engine ; nor would we treat, with a 
 spirit of levity, any of the solemn declarations of his Mord, 
 or the mighty movements of his providence. We would be 
 ever ready to join with ardor in the sublime devotions of the 
 inspired writers, " Great and marvellous, are thy works. Lord 
 God Almighty, just and true are thy ways, thou King of 
 saints. Who would not fear thee, O Lord, and glorify thy 
 name? Let all the earth fear the Lord, let all the inhabitants 
 of the world stand in awe of him." 
 
 Lastly, the views we have taken of the omnipotence and 
 grandeur of the Deity are calculated to inspire us with hope 
 and CONFIDENCE in the prospect of that eternal existence u'hich 
 lies before us. The period of our existence in this terrestrial 
 scene will soon terminate, and those bodies through which we 
 now hold a correspondence with the visible creation, crumbled 
 into dust. The gradual decay, and the ultimate dissolution 
 of human bodies, present a scene at which reason stands 
 aghast ; and, on a cursory survey of the chambers of the 
 dead, it is apt to exclaim, in the language of despair, " Can 
 these dry bones live ]" A thousand difficulties crowd upon the 
 mind which appear repugnant to the idea, that " beauty shall 
 again spring oat of the ashes, and life out of the dust." But, 
 when we look abroad to the displays of Divine power and in- 
 telligence, in the wide expanse of Creation^ we perceive that 
 
 "Almighty God 
 
 Has done much more ; nor is his arm impaired 
 Through length of days. — And wliat he can, he will ; 
 His faithfulness stands bound to see it done." 
 
 We perceive that he has created systems in such vast pro- 
 fusion, that no man can number them. The Avorlds every 
 moment under his superintendence and direction, are unques- 
 tionably far more numerous than all the human beings who 
 have hitherto existed, or will yet exist till the close of time. 
 And, if he has not only arranged the general features of each 
 of these worlds, and established the physical laws, by which 
 its economy is regulated, but has also arranged the diversified 
 circumstances, and directs the minutest movements of the 
 myriads of sensitive and intellectual existences it contains, we 
 ought never, for a moment, to doubt, that the minutest parti- 
 cles of every human body, however widely separated from 
 each other, and mingled with other extraneous substances, are 
 known to him whose presence pervades all space ; and that 
 all the atoms requisite for the construction of the Resurrection- 
 body will be re-assembkd foy this purpose " by the eaergy o€ 
 
60 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 that mighty power, whereby he is able to subdue all things to 
 himself." If we suppose that a number of human beings, 
 amounting to three hundred thousand millions, shall start from 
 the grave into new life, at the general resurrection, and that 
 the atoms of each of these bodies are just now under the 
 special superintendence of the Almighty — and that, at least 
 an equal number of worlds are under his particular care and 
 direction — the exertion of power and intelligence, in the for- 
 mer case, cannot be supposed to be greater that what is requi- 
 site in the latter. To a Being possessed of infinite power, 
 conjoined with boundless Intelligence, the superintendence of 
 countless atoms, and of countless worlds, is equally easy, 
 where no contradiction is implied. For as the poet has well 
 observed, — 
 
 " He summons into being, with like ease, 
 A wliole creation, and a single grain." 
 
 And since this subject tends to strengthen our hope of a re- 
 surrection from the dead, it is also calculated to inspire us with 
 confidence in the prospect of those eternal scenes which will 
 burst upon the view, at the dissolution of all terrestrial things. 
 Beyond the period fixed for the conflagration of this world, "a 
 wide and unbounded prospect lies before us ;" and though, at 
 present, " shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it," yet the 
 boundless magnificence of the Divine empire which science 
 has unfolded, throws a radiance over the scenes of futurity, 
 which is fraught with consolation in the view of " the wreck of 
 matter and the crush of worlds." It Opens to us a prospect 
 of perpetual improvement in knowledge and felicity ; it pre- 
 sents a field in which the hunsan faculties may be for ever ex- 
 panding, for ever contemplating new scenes of grandeur rising 
 to the view, in boundless perspective, through an interminable 
 succession of existence. It convinces us that the happiness of 
 the eternal state will not consist in an unvaried repetition of 
 the same perception and enjoyments, but that new displays of 
 the Creator's glory will be continually bursting on the aston- 
 ished mind, world without end. And as we know the same 
 beneficence and care which are displayed in the arrangement 
 of systems of worlds, are also displayed in supporting and 
 providing for the smallest microscopic emimalculse, we have no 
 reason to harbor the least fear, lest we should be overlooked in 
 the immensity of creation, or lost amidst the multiplicity of 
 those works among which the Deity is incessantly employed ; 
 for, as he is Omnipresent and Omniscient, his care and influ- 
 ence must extend to every creature he has formed. There- 
 
WISDOM OF THE DEITT. 61 
 
 fore, though " the elements shall melt with fervent heat, and 
 the earth, and all the works therein be dissolved, yet, we, ac- 
 cording to his promise, look for new heavens and a new earth, 
 wherein dwelleth righteousness." 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 On the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Deitf. 
 
 In surveying the system of nature with a Christian and a 
 Philosophic eye, it may be considered in different points of 
 view. It may be viewed either as displaying the power and 
 magnificence of the Deity, in the immense quantity of m.atc- 
 rials of which it is composed, and in the august machinery and 
 movements by which its economy is directed ; — or, as mani- 
 festing his Wisdom, in the nice adaptation of every minute 
 circumstance to the end it was intended to accomplish ; — or 
 as illustrating his unbounded beneficence in the provision 
 which is made for the accommodation and happiness of the 
 numerous tribes of sentient and intelligent beings it contains. 
 Having, in the preceding section, endeavored to exhibit some 
 of those objects which evince the Omnipotence of Deity, and 
 the pious emotions they are calculated to excite, I shall now 
 offer a few popular illustrations of Divine Wisdom, as display- 
 ed in the arrangements of the material world — which shall 
 chiefly be confined to those objects which are most prominent 
 and obvious to the vulgar eye. 
 
 Wisdom is that perfection of an intelligent agent, by which 
 he is enabled to select and employ the most proper means in 
 order to accomplish a good and important end. It includes the 
 idea of knowledge or intelligence, but may be distinguished 
 from it. Knowledge is opposed to ignorance, wisdom ii op- 
 posed to folly or error in conduct. As applied to God, it may 
 be considered as comprehending the operations of his Omni- 
 science and benevolence, or, in other words, his knowledge to 
 discern, and his disposition to choose those means and ends 
 which are calculated to promote the order and the happiness 
 of the universe. 
 
 The Wisdom of God is, doubtless, displayed in every ar 
 rangement he has made throughout all the provinces of his 
 immense and eternal kingdom, however far they may be re- 
 moved from the sphere of human observation. But it is only 
 
G2 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 in those parts of the system of nature which he open to our 
 particular investigation, that the traces of this perfection can 
 be distinctly perceived. The Heavens declare the glory of 
 God's "Wisdom, as well as of his Power. The planetary sys- 
 tem — that portion of the heavens with which we are best ac- 
 quainted — displays both the magnificence and the skill of its 
 Divine Author, — in the magnitudes, distances, revolutions, 
 j)roportions, and uses of the various globes of which it is com- 
 posed, and in the diversified apparatus by which light and 
 darkness are alternately distributed. The sun, an immense 
 luminous world, by tar the largest body in the system, is placed 
 in the centre. No other position would have suited tor an 
 equable distribution of illumination and heat through the dif- 
 ferent parts of the system. Around him, at different distances, 
 eleven primary planets revolve, accompanied with eighteen 
 secondaries, or moons, — all in majestic order and harmony, 
 no one interrupting the movements of another, but invariably 
 keeping the paths prescribed them, and performing their revo- 
 lutions in their appointed times. To all these revolving 
 globes, the sun dispenses motion, light, heat, fertility, and 
 other unceasing energies, for the comfort and happiness of 
 their respective inhabitants — without which, perpetual sterility, 
 eternal winter, and eternal night, would reign over every re- 
 gion of our globe, and throuohout surrounding worlds. 
 
 The distance at which the heavenly bodies, particularly the 
 sun, are placed from the earth, is a manifest evidence of Di- 
 vine Wisdom. If the sun were much nearer us than he is at 
 present, the earth, as now constituted, would be wasted and 
 parched with excessive heat ; the waters would be tuj'ned into 
 vapor, and the rivers, seas, and oceans, would soon disappear, 
 leavino; nothing; behind them but frio;htful barren dells and 
 gloomy caverns ; vegetation would completely cease, and the 
 tribes of animated nature languish and die. On the other 
 hand, were the sun much farther distant than he now is, or 
 were his bidk, or the influence of his rays, diminished one half 
 of what they now are, the land and the ocean would soon be- 
 come one frozen mass, and universal desolation and sterility 
 would overspread the fair face of nature, and, instead of a 
 pleasant and comfortable abode, our globe would become a 
 frightful desert, a state of misery and perpetual punishment.* 
 
 * It forms no objection to these remarks, that caloric, or the matter of 
 heat, does not altogether dejiend upon the direct influence of the solar rays. 
 The substance of caloric may be cliiefly connected with the constitution 
 of the globe wc inhabit. But still, it is quite certain, that the earth, c* 
 presently consliluted, would suffer effects most disastrous to sentient bein^j 
 
WISDOM OF THE DEITY. 63 
 
 But he» ein is the wisdom of God displayed, that he has formed 
 the siui of such a determinate size, and placed it at such a 
 convenient distance, as not to annoy, but to refresh and cheer 
 us, and to enliven the soil with its genial influence ; so that 
 we plainly perceive, to use the language of the prophet, that 
 " He hath established the world by his wisdom, and stretched 
 out the heavens by his understanding." 
 
 The rotation of the several planetary globes around their 
 axis, to produce the alternate succession of day and night, 
 strikingly demonstrates the wisdom and benevolence of their 
 great Author. Were the earth and the other planetary worlds 
 destitute of a diurnal motion, only one half of their surfaces 
 could be inhabited, and the other half would remain a dark and 
 cheerless desert. The sun would be the only heavenly orb 
 which would be recognized by the inhabitants of each respect- 
 ive world, as existing in the universe, and that scene of gran- 
 deur which night unfolds in the boundless expanse of the sky, 
 would be for ever veiled from their view. For, it appears to 
 be one grand design of the Creator, in giving these bodies a 
 diurnal motion, not only to cheer their inhabitants with light 
 and warmth, and the gay colouring produced by the solar 
 rays ; but also to open to them a prospect of other portions of 
 his vast dommions, which are dispersed in endless variety 
 throughout the illimitable regions of space ; in order that they 
 may acquire a more sublime impression of the glory of his 
 kingdom, and of his eternal Power and Godhead. But, v^ere 
 perpetual day to irradiate the planets, it would throw an eter- 
 nal and impenetrable veil over the glories of the sky, behind 
 which, the magnificent operations of Jehovah's power would 
 be, in a great measure, concealed. It is this circumstance 
 which we should consider as the principal reason why a rota- 
 tory motion has been impressed on the planetary globes ; and 
 not merely that a curtain of darkness might be thrown around 
 their mhabitants, during the repose of sleep, as in the world in 
 which we dwell. For, in some of the other planetary worlds 
 belonging to our system, the intelligent beings with which they 
 are peopled, may stand in no need of that nocturnal repose 
 which is necessary for man ; their physical powers may be in- 
 capable of being impaired, and their mental energies may be 
 
 were it removed mncli nearer to, or much farther from the ceniral kmiinary. 
 Those planets which are removed several hundreds of millions of miles 
 farther from the sun than our globe, may possibly experience a des-ree of 
 heat much greater than ours ; but, in this case, the constitution of the solid 
 parts of these globes, and of their surrounding atmospheres, must be very 
 liifTerent from what obtains in tlie physical arrangements of our globe. 
 
64 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 in perpetual exercise. And in some of those bodies which 
 are surrounded with an assemblage of rings and moons, as the 
 planet Saturn, the diversified grandeur of their celestial phe- 
 nomena, in the absence of the sun, may present a scene of 
 conten)plation and enjoyment, far more interesting than all 
 the splendours of their noon-day. Besides, had the planets 
 no motion round their axis, and were both their hemispheres 
 supposed to be peopled with inhabitants, their physical state 
 and enjoyments would be as opposite to each other, as if they 
 lived under the government of two distinct independent be- 
 ings. While the one class was basking under the splendors 
 of perpetual day, the other would be involved in all the horrors 
 of an everlasting night. While the one hemisphere would be 
 parched with excessive heat, the other would be bound in the 
 fetters of eternal ice ; and, in such a globe as ours, the mo- 
 tion of the tides, the ascent of the vapors, the currents of the 
 atmosphere, the course of the winds, the benign influences of 
 the rains and dews, and a thousand other movements which 
 produce so many salutary and beneficial effects would be 
 completely deranged. Hence we find that in all the planetary 
 bodies on which observations can conveniently be made, a 
 rotatory motion actually exists, in the secondary, as well as in 
 the primary planets, and even in the sun himself, the centra, 
 and the mover of the whole : in which an-angement of the Al- 
 mighty Creator, the evidences of wisdom and design are 
 strikingly apparent. 
 
 This amazing scene of Divine workmanship and skill, 
 which the planetary system exhibits, we have reason to be- 
 lieve, is multiplied, and diversified, to an indefinite extent, 
 throughout all the other systems of creation, displaying to the 
 intelligences of every region, " the manifold wisdom of -God." 
 For there can be no question, that every star we now behold, 
 either by the naked eye, or by the help of a telescope, is the 
 centre of a system of planetary worlds, where the agency of 
 God, and his unsearchable wisdom, may be endlessly varied, 
 and, perhaps, more strikingly displayed than even in the sys- 
 tem to which we belong. These vast globes of light could 
 never have been designed merely to shed a few glimmering 
 rays on our far distant world ; for the ten thousandth part of 
 them has never yet been seen by the inhabitants of the earth, 
 since the Mosaic creation, except by a few astronomers of 
 the past and the present age ; and the light of many of them, 
 in all pro!)al)ility, has never yet reached us ; aud perhaps 
 never will, till the period of " the consummation of all terres- 
 trial things." They were not made in vain ; for such a sup- 
 
THE WISDOM OF THE DEITY. 65 
 
 position would be inconsistent with every idea we can form of 
 the attributes of a Being of infinite perfection. They were 
 not intended merely to diversify the voids of infinite space 
 with a useless splendor, which has no relation to intellectual 
 natures ; for this would give us a most distorted and inconsist- 
 ent idea of the character of Him who is " the only wise God ;" 
 and we are told, by an authority which cannot be questioned, 
 that " by his wisdom he made the heavens, and stretched them 
 out by his understanding." The only rational conclusion, 
 therefore, which can be deduced, is, that they are destined to 
 distribute illumination and splendor, vivifying influence, and 
 happiness, among incalculable numbers of intelhgent beings, 
 of various degrees of physical, moral, and intellectual excel- 
 lence. And, wherever the Creator has exerted his Almighty 
 energies in the production of sensitive and intellectual natures, 
 we may rest assured, that there also, his infinite wisdom and 
 intelligence, in an endless variety of arrangements, contriv- 
 ances, and adaptations, are unceasingly displayed. 
 
 But, after all, whatever evidences of contrivance and design 
 the celestial globes may exhibit, it is not in the heavens that 
 the most striking displays of Divine ?mc/o?n can be traced by 
 the inhabitants of our world. It is only a few general relations 
 and adaptations that can be distinctly perceived among the orbs 
 of the firmament ; though, in so far as we are able to trace the 
 purposes which they subserve, the marks of beauty, order, and 
 design, are uniformly apparent. But we are placed at too 
 great a distance from the orbs of heaven, to be able to inves- 
 tigate the particular arrangements which enter into the physi- 
 cal and moral economy of the celestial worlds. Were we 
 transported to the surface of the planet Jupiter, and had an 
 opportunity of surveying, at leisure, the regions of that vast 
 globe, and the tribes of sensitive and intellectual existence 
 which compose its population — of contemplating the relations 
 of its moons to the pleasure and comfort of its inhabitants — 
 the constitution of its atmosphere as to its reflective and re- 
 fractive powers, in producing a degree of illumination to com- 
 pensate for the great distance of that planet from the sun — its 
 adaptation to the functions of animal life — the construction of 
 the visual organs of its inhabitants, and the degree of sensi- 
 bihty they possess corresponding to the quantity of light re- 
 ceived from the sun — the temperature of the surface and atmo- 
 sphere of this globe corresponding to its distance from the cen- 
 tral source of heat, and to the physical constitution of sensi- 
 tive beings — in short, could we investigate the relations which 
 inanimate nature, in all its varieties and sublimities, bears to 
 
 6 
 
66 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 the necessities -and the hapi)iQess of the animated existences 
 that traverse its diiferent regions, we should, doubtless, behold 
 a scene of Divine ^Visdoni and intelligence, far more admira- 
 ble and astonishing than even that which is exhibited in our 
 sublunary world. — But since it is impossible for us to investi- 
 gate the economy of other worlds, while we are chained down 
 to this terrestrial sphere, we must direct our attention to those 
 arrangements and contrivances in the constitution of our own 
 globe, which lie open to our particular inspection, in order lo 
 perceive more distinctly the benevolent designs of Him " in 
 whom we live and move, and have our being." And here an 
 attentive observer will find, in almost every object, when min- 
 utely examined, a display of goodness and intelligence, which 
 will constrain him to exclaim, " the depth of the riches both 
 of the wisdom and the knowledge of God." 
 
 Wisdom, considered as consisting in contrivance, or the se- 
 lection of the most proper means in order to accomplish an 
 important end, may be exemplified and illustrated in a variety 
 of familiar objects in the scene of nature. 
 
 The earth on which we tread, was evidently intended by the 
 Creator to support man and other animals, along with their 
 habitations, and to furnish those vegetable productions which 
 are necessary for their subsistence ; and, accordingly, he has 
 given it that exact degree of consistency which is requisite 
 for these purposes. Were it much harder than it now is ; 
 were it, for example, as dense as a rock, it would be incapable 
 of cultivation, and vegetables could not be produced from its 
 surface. Were it softer, it would be insufficient to support us, 
 and we should sink at every step, like a person walking in a 
 quagmire. Had this circumstance not been attended to in its 
 formation, the earth would have been rendered useless as a 
 habitable world, for all those animated beings which now trav- 
 erse its surface. The exact adjustment of the solid parts of 
 our globe to the nature and necessities of the beings which 
 inhabit it, is, therefore, an instance, and an evidence of Wis- 
 dom. 
 
 The dipersitij of surface which it every where presents, in 
 the mountains and vales with which it is variegated, indicates 
 the same benevolent contrivance and design. If the earth 
 were divested of its mountains, and its surface every where 
 uniformly smooth, there woidd be no rivers, springs, or foun- 
 tains ; for water can flow only from a higher to a lower place; 
 the vegetable tribes would droop and languish; man and other 
 animals would be deprived of what is necessary for their exis- 
 tence and comfort ; we should be destitute of many useful 
 
MOUNTAINS. 67 
 
 stones, minerals, plants, and trees, which are now produced 
 on the surface, and in the interior of mountains ; the sea itself 
 would become a stagnant marsh, or overflow the land ; and the 
 whole surface of nature in our terrestrial sphere, would present 
 an unvaried scene of dull uniformity. Those picturesque and 
 sublime scenes which fire the imagination of the poet, and which 
 render mountainous districts so pleasing to the philosophic tra- 
 veller, would be completely withdrawn ; and all around, when 
 compared with such diversified landscapes, would appear as 
 fatiguing to the eye as the vast solitudes of the Arabian de- 
 serts, or the dull monotony of the ocean. But in consequence 
 of the admirable distribution of hills and mountains over the 
 surface of our globe, a variety of useful and ornamental effects 
 is produced. Their lofty summits are destined by providence 
 to arrest the vapors which float in the regions of the air ; their 
 internal cavities form so many spacious basins for the recep- 
 tion of waters distilled from the clouds ; they are the original 
 sources of springs and rivers, which water and fertilize the 
 earth ; they form immense magazines, in which are deposited 
 stones, metals, and minerals, which are of so essential service 
 in the arts that promote the comfort of human life ; they serve 
 for the production of a vast variety of herbs and trees ; they 
 arrest the progress of storms and tempests ; they afford shel- 
 ter and entertainm^ent to various animals which minister to the 
 wants of mankind : In a word, they adorn and embelUsh the 
 face of nature — they form thousands of sublime and beautiful 
 landscapes, and afford from their summits the most delightful 
 orospects of the plains below. All these circumstances de- 
 monstrate the consummate wisdom of the Great Architect of 
 lature, and lead us to conclude, that mountains, so far from 
 ■)eing rude excrescences of nature, as some have asserted, 
 ^brrn an essential part in the constitution, not only of our globe. 
 Out of all habitable worlds. And this conclusion is confirmed, 
 so far as our observation extends, with regard to the moon, and 
 several of the planetary bodies which belong to our system, 
 whose surfaces are found to be diversified by sublime ramifi- 
 cations of mountain scenery ; which circumstance forms one 
 collateral proof, among many others, that they are the abodes 
 of sentient and intellectual beings. 
 
 Again, the coloring which is spread over the face of nature 
 indicates the wisdom of the Deity. It is essential to the pre- 
 sent mode of our existence, and it was evidently intended by 
 the Creator, that we should be enabled easily to recognize the 
 forms and properties of the various objects with which we are 
 surrounded. But were the obje.cts of nature destitute of color, 
 
68 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 or were the same unvaried hue spread over the face of crea- 
 tion, we should be destitute of all the entertainments of vision, 
 and be at a loss to distinguish one object from another. We 
 should be unable to distinguish rugged precipices from fruitful 
 hills ; naked rocks from human habitations ; the trees from 
 the hills that bear them, and the tilled from the untilled lands. 
 " We should hesitate to pronounce whether an adjacent en- 
 closure contain a piece of pasturage, a plot of arable land, or a 
 field of corn ; and it would require a little journey, and a mi- 
 nute investigation, to determine such a point. We could not 
 determine whether the first person we met were a soldier in 
 his regimentals, or a swain in his Sunday suit ; a bride in her 
 ornaments, or a widow in her weeds." Such would have 
 been the aspect of nature, and such the inconveniences to 
 which we should have been subjected, had God allowed us 
 light, without the distinction of colors. We could have dis- 
 tinguished objects only by intricate trains of reasoning, and by 
 circimistances of time, place, and relative position. And, to 
 what delays and perplexities should we have been reduced, 
 had we been obliged every moment to distinguish one thing 
 from another by reasoning ! Our whole life must then have 
 been employed, rather in study than in action ; and, after all, 
 we must have remained in eternal uncertainty as to many 
 things, which are now quite obvious to every one as soon as 
 he opens his eyes. We could neither have communicated our 
 thoughts by writing, nor have derived instruction from others 
 through the medium of books : so that we should now have 
 been almost as ignorant of the transactions of past ages, as 
 we are of the events which are passing in the planetary 
 worlds ; and, consequently, we could never have enjoyed a 
 written revelation from heaven, nor any other infallible guide 
 to direct us in the path to happiness, if the Almighty had not 
 distinguished the rays of light, and painted the objects around 
 us with a diversity of colors, — so essentially connected are the 
 minutest, and the most magnificent works of Deity. But 
 now, in the present constitution of things, color characterizes 
 the class to which every individual belongs, and indicates, 
 upon the first inspection, its respective quality. Every object 
 wears its peculiar livery, and has a distinguishing mark by 
 which it is characterized. 
 
 The different hues which are spread over the scenery of the 
 world, are also highly ornamental to the face of nature, and 
 afford a variety of pleasures to the eye and the imagination. 
 It is this circumstance which adds a charm to the fields, the 
 valleys, and the hills, the lofty moimtain, the winding rivor^ 
 
COLORS. 69 
 
 and the expansive lake ; and which gives a splendor and 
 sublimity to the capacious vault of heaven. Color is, there- 
 fore, an essential requisite to every world inhabited by sensi- 
 tive beings ; and we know, that provision has been made for 
 diffusing it throughout all the globes which may exist in the 
 distant regions which our telescopes have penetrated ; for the 
 hght which radiates from the most distant stars is capable of 
 being separated into the prismatic colors, similar to those 
 which are produced by the solar rays ; which furnishes a pre- 
 sumptive proof that they are intended to accomplish designs 
 m their respective spheres analogous to those which light sub- 
 serves in our terrestrial habitation, — or, in other words, that 
 they are destined to convey to the minds of sentient beings, 
 impressions of light and color, and, consequently, beings sus- 
 ceptible of such impressions must reside within the sphere, or 
 more immediate influence of these far distant orbs. 
 
 The same benev6lent design is apparent in the general color 
 which prevails throughout the scent of sublunanj nature. Had 
 the fields been clothed with hues of a deep red, or a brilliant 
 white, the eye would have been dazzled with the splendor of 
 their aspect. Had a dark-blue, or a black color generally 
 prevailed, it would have cast a universal gloom over the face 
 of nature. But an agreeable green holds the medium between 
 these two extremes, equally remote from a dismal gloom and 
 excessive splendor, and bears such a relation to the structure 
 of the eye, that it refreshes, instead of tiring it, and supports, 
 instead of diminishing its force. At the same time, though 
 one general color prevails over the landscape of the earth, it is 
 diversified by an admirable variety of shades, so that every 
 individual object in the vegetable world can be accurately dis- 
 tinguished from another ; thus producing a beautiful and varie- 
 gated appearance over the whole scenery of nature. " Who 
 sees not in all these things, that the hand of the Lord hath 
 wrought this ?"' 
 
 If from the earth we turn our attention to the waters, we 
 shall perceive similar traces of the exquisite wisdom and skill 
 of the Author of nature. Water is one of the most essential 
 elementary parts in the constitution of our globe, without which 
 the various tribes of beings which now people it could not exist. 
 It supplies a necessary beverage to man, and to all the animals 
 that people the earth and the air. It forms a solvent for a 
 great variety of solid bodies ; it is the element in which an 
 infinitude of organized beings pass their existence ; it acts an 
 important part in conveying life and nourishment to all the 
 tribes of the vegetable kingdom, and gives salubrity to the 
 
 6* 
 
70 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 atmospherical regions. Collected in immense masses in the 
 basins of the sea, it serves as a vehicle for ships, and as a me- 
 dium of communication between people of the most distant 
 lands. Carried along with a progressive motion over the beds 
 of streams and of rivers, it gives a brisk impulse to the air, 
 and prevents the unwholesome stagnation of vapors ; it re- 
 ceives the filth of populous cities, and rids them of a thousand 
 nuisances. By its impulsion it becomes the mover of a mul- 
 titude of machines ; and, wheii rarified into steam, it is trans 
 formed into one of the most powerful and useful agents under 
 the dominion of man. All which beneficial effects entirely 
 depend on the exact degree of density, or specific gravity, 
 which the Creator has given to its constituent parts. Had it 
 been much more rarified than it is, it would have been alto- 
 gether unfit to answer the purposes now specified ; the whole 
 face of the earth would have been a dry and barren waste ; 
 vegetable nature could not have been nourished ; our floating 
 edifices could not have been supported ; the lightest bodies 
 would have sunk, and all regular intercourse with distant 
 nations would have been prevented. On the other hand, had 
 its parts been much denser than they are ; for example, had 
 they been of the consistency of a thin jelly, similar disastrous 
 effects would have inevitably followed ; no ships could have 
 ploughed the ocean ; no refreshing beverage would have been 
 supplied to the animal tribes ; the absorbent vessels of trees, 
 herbs and flowers, would have been unable to imbibe the 
 moisture requisite for their nourishment ; and we should thus 
 have been deprived of all the beneficial effects we now derive 
 from the use of that liquid element, and of all the diversified 
 scenery of the vegetable world. But the configuration and 
 consistency of its parts are so nicely adjusted to the constitu- 
 tion of the other elements, and to the wants of the sensitive 
 and vegetable tribes, as exactly to subserve the ends intended 
 111 the system of nature. 
 
 Water has been ascertained to be a compound body formed 
 by the union of two different kinds of air — oxygen and hydro- 
 gen. It has the property of becoming, in certain cases, much 
 lighter than air ; though, in its natural liquid state, it is 800 
 times heavier than that fluid ; and has also the property of 
 afterwards resuming its natural weight. Were it not for this 
 property evaporation could not be produced ; and, conse- 
 quently, no clouds, rain, nor dew, could be formed, to water 
 and fertilize the different regions of the earth. But, in con- 
 sequence of this wonderful property, the ocean becomes an 
 inexhaustible cistern to our world. From its expansive sur 
 
WATERS. 
 
 71 
 
 face are exhaled those vapors which supply the rivers, and 
 nourish the vegetable productions of every land. " The air 
 and the sun," says an elegant writer, " constitute the mighty 
 engine which works without intermission to raise the liquid 
 treasures ; while the clouds serve as so many aqueducts to 
 convey them along the atmosphere, and distribute them, at 
 seasonable periods, and in regular proportions, through all the 
 regions of the globe." 
 
 Notwithstanding the properties now stated, motion was still 
 requisite^ to ensure all the advantages we now derive from the 
 liquid element. Had the whole mass of waters been in a 
 stagnant state, a thousand inconveniences and disastrous 
 consequences would have inevitably ensued. But the All 
 Wise Creator has impressed upon its various masses a circu- 
 lating motion, which preserves its purity, and widely extends 
 its beneficial influence. The rill^s pour their liquid stores into 
 the rivers ; the rivers roll their watery treasures into the 
 ocean ; the waters of the ocean, by a libratory motion, roll 
 backwards and forwards every twelve hours, and, by means of 
 currents, and the force of winds, are kept in constant agitation. 
 By the solar heat, a portion of these waters is carried up into 
 the atmosphere, and, in the form of clouds, is conveyed by the 
 winds over various regions ; till, at last, it descends in rain 
 and dew, to supply the sprii;gs " which run among the hills." 
 So that there is a constant motion and circulation of the watery 
 element, that it may serve as an agent for carrying forward the 
 various processes of nature, and for ministering to the wants 
 of man and beast. 
 
 In fine, were the waters in a state of perpetual stagnation, 
 the filth of populous cities would be accumulated to a most 
 unwholesome degree ; the air would be filled with putrid ex- 
 halations, and the vegetable tribes would languish and die. 
 Were they deprived of the property of being evaporated, (in 
 which state they occupy a space 1400 times greater than in 
 their liquid state,) rain and dew could never be produced, and 
 the earth would be turned into " a dry and parched wilder- 
 ness ;" neither grass nor corn could be sufficiently dried to 
 lay up for use ; our clothes^ when washed, could never he dried ; 
 and a variety of common operations, which now conduce to 
 our convenience and comfort, could never be carried on. 
 But the infinite wisdom of the Creator, foreseeing all the 
 effects which can possibly arise from these principles of na- 
 ture, has effectually provided against such disasters, by arrang- 
 ing all things, in number, weight, and measure, to subserve the 
 
72 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 beneficial ends for which they were ordained. " He causetfo 
 the vapors to ascend from the ends of the earth ; he sendeth 
 the springs into the valleys, which run among the hills. They 
 give drink to every beast of the field ; the wild asses quench 
 their thirst. By them the fowls of heaven are refreshed, which 
 sing among the branches. He watereth the hills from his 
 chambers, and the earth is satisfied with the fruit of his 
 works." 
 
 Let us now attend to the atmosphere, in the constitution of 
 which the wisdom of God is no less conspicuous than in the 
 other departments of nature. 
 
 The atmosphere is one of the most essential appendages to 
 the globe we inhabit, and exhibits a most striking scene of 
 Divine skill and omnipotence. The term atmosphere is ap- 
 plied to the whole mass of fluids, consisting of air, vapors, 
 electric fluid, and other matters, which surround the earth to a 
 certain height. This mass of fluid matter gravitates to the 
 earth, revolves with it in its diurnal rotation, and is carried 
 along with it in its course rouncl the sun every year. It has 
 been computed to extend about 45 miles above the earth's 
 surface, and it presses on the earth with a force proportioned 
 to its height and density. From experiments made by the 
 barometer, it has been ascertained, that it presses with a 
 weight of about 15 pounds on every square inch of the earth's 
 surface ; and, therefore, its pressure on the body of a middle- 
 sized man, is equal to about 32,000 lbs. or 14 tons avoirdu- 
 pois, a pressure which would be insupportable, and even fatal, 
 were it not equal in every part, and counterbalanced by the 
 spring of the air within us. The pressure of the whole atmos- 
 phere upon the earth, is computed to be equivalent to that of 
 a globe of lead 60 miles in diameter, or about 5,000,000,000,- 
 000,000 tons ; that is, the whole mass of air which surrounds 
 the globe, compresses the earth with a force or power equal 
 to that of jive thousand millions of millions of tons.* This 
 amazing pressure is, however, essentially necessary for the 
 preservation of the present constitution of our globe, and of 
 the animated beings which dwell on its surface. It prevents 
 the heat of the sun from converting water, and all other fluids 
 on the face of the earth, into vapor ; and preserves the ves- 
 sels of all organized beings in due tone and vigor. Were the 
 atmospherical pressure entirely removed, the elastic fluids 
 contained in the finer vessels of men and other animals, would 
 
 * See Appendix, No. IL 
 
I ATMOSPHERE. To 
 
 inevitably burst them, and life would become extinct;* and 
 , most of the substances on the face of the earth, particularly 
 liquids, would be dissipated into vapor. 
 
 The atmosphere is now ascertained to be a compound sub- 
 stance, formed of two very different ingredients, termed oxy- 
 gen and nitrogen gas. Of 100 measures of atmospheric air, 
 21 are oxygen, and 79 nitrogen. The one, namely, oxygen, 
 is the principle of combustion, and the vehicle of heat, and is 
 absolutely necessary for the support of animal life, and is the 
 most powerful and energetic agent in nature. The other, is 
 altogether incapable of supporting either flame or animal life. 
 Were we to breathe oxygen air, without any mixture or alloy, 
 our animal spirits would be raised, and the fluids in our bodies 
 would circulate with greater rapidity ; but we should soon in- 
 fallibly perish by the rapid and unnatural accumulation of 
 ': heat in the animal frame. If the nitrogen were extracted 
 from the air, and the whole atmosphere contained nothing but 
 : oxygen, or vital air, combustion would not proceed in that 
 I gradual manner which it now does, but with the most dreadful 
 and irresistible rapidity : not only wood and coals, and other 
 substances now used for fuel, but even stones, iron, and other 
 metallic substances, would blaze with a rapidity which would 
 carry destruction through the whole expanse of nature. If 
 even the proportions of the two airs were materially altered, a 
 variety of pernicious effects would instantly be produced. If 
 the oxygen were less in quantity than it now is, fire would lose 
 its strength, candles would not diffuse a sufficient light, and 
 animals would perform their vital functions with the utmost 
 difficulty and pain. On the other hand, were the nitrogen 
 diminished, and the oxygen increased, the air taken in by res- 
 piration would be more stimulent, and the circulation of the 
 animal fluids would become accelerated ; but the tone of the 
 
 * The necessity of the atmospherical pressure, for the comfort and pre- 
 icrvation of animal life, might be illustrated by the effects experienced by 
 ihose who have ascended to the summits of very high mountains, or who 
 have been carried to a great height above the surface of the earth in 
 balloons. Acosta, in his relation of a Journey among the mountains of 
 Peru, states, that " he and his companions were 'sm-prised with such 
 extreme pangs of straining and vomitmg, not without casting up of blood 
 too, and with so violent a distemper, that they would undoubtedly have 
 died had they remained two or three hours longer in that elevated situa- 
 tion." Count Zambeccari, and his companions, who ascended in a 
 balloon, on the 7th of November, 1783, to a great height, found their 
 hands and feet so swelled, that it was necessary for a surgeon to make 
 incisions in the skin. In both the cases now stated, the persons ascended 
 to so great a height, that the pressure of the atmosphere was not suftcierUi 
 to counterbalance the pressure of the fluids of the body. 
 
74 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 vessels thus stimulated to increased action, would be destroy- 
 ed, by too great an excitement, and the body would inevitably 
 waste and decay. Again, were the oxygen completely ex- 
 tracted from the atmosphere, and nothing but nitrogen remain- 
 ed, fire and flame would be extinguished, and instant destruc- 
 tion would be carried throughout all the departments of vege- 
 table and animated nature. For a lighted taper will not burn 
 for a single moment in nitrogen gas, and if an animal be 
 plunged into it, it is instantly suffocated. 
 
 Again, not only the extraction of any one of the component 
 parts of the atmosphere, or the alteration of their respective 
 proportions, but even the slightest increase or diminution of 
 their specific gravihj, would be attended with the most dis- 
 astrous effects. The nitrogen is found to be a little lighter 
 than common air, which enables it to rise towards the higher 
 regions of the atmosphere. In breathing, the air which is 
 evolved from the lungs, at every expiration, consists chiefly of 
 nitrogen, which is entirely unfit to be breathed again, and 
 therefore rises above our heads before the next inspiration. — 
 Now, had nitrogen, instead of being a little lighter, been a 
 slight degree heavier than common air, or of the same specific 
 gravity, it would have accumulated on the surface of the earth, 
 and particularly in our apartments, to such a degree as to have 
 produced diseases, pestilence, and death, in rapid succession. 
 But being a little lighter than the surrounding air, it flies up- 
 wards, and we never breathe it again, till it enter into new and 
 salutary combinations. Such is the benevolent skill which 
 the Author of Nature has displayed, for promoting the com- 
 fort and preservation of every thing that lives.* 
 
 Farther, were the air colored, or were its particles much 
 larger than they are, we could never obtain a distinct view of 
 
 * The necessity of atmospherical air for the support of hfe, was stri- 
 kingly exemplified in the fate of the unhappy men who died in the Black- 
 hole of Calcutta. On the 20th of June, 1756, about 8 o'clock in the 
 evening, 146 men were forced, at the point of the bayonet, into a dungeon 
 only 18 feet square. They had been but a few minutes confined in this 
 infernal prison, before every one fell into a perspiration so profuse, that no 
 idea can be formed of it. "This brought on a raging thirst, the most diffi- 
 cult respiration, and an outrageous delirium. Such was the horror of 
 their situation, that every insult that could be devised against the guard 
 without, and all the opprobrious names that the Viceroy and his officers 
 could be loaded with, were repeated, to provoke the guard to fire upon 
 them, and terminate their sufferings. Before 1 1 o'clock the same evening, 
 one-third of the men were dead ; and before 6 next morning, only 23 came 
 out alive, but most of them in a high putrid fever. All these dreadful 
 effects were occasioned by the want of atmospheric air, and by their 
 breathing a superabundant quantity of the nitrogen emitted from thc« 
 lungs. 
 
ATMOSPHERE. 75 
 
 any other object. The exhalations which rise from the earth, 
 being rendered visible, would disfigure the rich landscape of 
 the universe, and render life disagreeable. But the Almighty, 
 by rendering the air invisible, has enabled us not only to take 
 a delightful and distinct survey of the objects that surround 
 us, but has veiled from our view the gross humors incessant- 
 ly perspired from animal bodies, the filth exhaled from 
 kitchens, streets, and sewers, and every other object that 
 would excite disgust. Again, ivere the different portions of 
 the atmosphere completely stationary, and not susceptible of 
 agitation, all nature would soon be thrown into confusion. 
 The vapors which are exhaled from the sea by the heat of the 
 sun would be suspended, and remain for ever fixed over those 
 places from whence they arose. For want of this agitation of 
 the air, which now scatters and disperses the clouds over 
 every region, the sun would constantly scorch some districts, 
 and be for ever hid from others ; the balance of nature would 
 be destroyed ; navigation would be useless, and we could no 
 longer enjoy the productions of different climates. In fine, 
 were the atmosphere capable of being frozen, or converted 
 into a solid mass, as all other fluids are, (and we know no 
 reason why it should not be subject to congelation, but the 
 will of the Creator,) the lives of every animal in the air, the 
 waters, and the earth, would, in a few moments, be complete- 
 ly extinguished. But the admirable adjustment of every cir- 
 cumstance, in relation to this useful element, produces all the 
 beneficial effects which we now experience, and strikingly de- 
 monstrates, that the Intelligent Contriver of all things is 
 " wonderful in counsel, and excellent in working." 
 
 From the instances now stated, we may plainly perceive, 
 that if the Almighty had not a particular regard to the happi- 
 ness of his intelligent offspring, and to the comfort of every 
 animated existence ; or, if he wished to inflict summary pun- 
 ishment on a wicked world, he could easily effect, by a very 
 slight change in the constitution of the atmos})here, the entire 
 destruction of the human race, and the entire conflagration of 
 the great globe they inhabit, — throughout all its elementary re- 
 gions. He has only to extract one of its constituent parts, 
 and the grand catastrophe is at once accomplished. With 
 what a striking propriety and emphasis, then, do the inspired 
 writers declare, that, " In Him we live, and move, and have 
 our being ;" and that " in His hand is the soul of every living 
 thing, and the breath of all mankind !" 
 
 A great variety of other admirable properties is possessed 
 by the atmosphere, of which I shall briefly notice only the fol- 
 
76 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 lowing : — It is the vehicle of smells^ by which we become ac- 
 quainted with the qualities of the food which is set before us, 
 and learn to avoid those places which are damp, unwholesome, 
 and dangerous. It is the medium of sounds, by means of 
 which knowledge is conveyed to our minds. Its undulations, 
 like so many couriers, run for ever backwards and forwards, 
 to convey our thoughts to others, and theirs to us ; and to 
 bring news of transactions which frequently occur at a consi- 
 derable distance. A few strokes on a large bell, through the 
 ministration of the air, will convey signals of distress, or of 
 joy, in a quarter of a minute, to the population of a city con- 
 taining a hundred thousand inhabitants. So that the air may 
 be considered as the conveyer of the thoughts of mankind, 
 which are the cement of society. It transmits to our ears ah 
 the harmonies of music, and expresses every passion of the 
 soul : it swells the notes of the nightingale, and distributes 
 alike to every ear the pleasures v/hich arise from the harmo- 
 nious sounds of a concert. It produces the blue color of the 
 sky, and is the cause of the morning and the evening twilight^ 
 by its property of bending the rays of light, and reflecting thent 
 in all directions. It forms an essential requisite for carrying 
 on all the processes of the vegetable kingdom, and serves foi 
 the production of clouds, rain, and dew, which nourish and 
 fertilize the earth. In short, it would be impossible to enume- 
 rate all the advantages we derive from this noble appendage 
 to our world. Were the earth divested of its atmosphere, or 
 were only two or three of its properties changed or destroyed, 
 it would be left altogether untit for the habitation of sentient 
 beings. Were it divested of its undulating quality, we should 
 be deprived of all the advantages of speech and conversation 
 — of all the melody of the feathered songsters, and of all the 
 pleasures of music ; and, like the deaf and dumb, we could 
 have no power of communicating our thoughts but by visible 
 signs. IVere it deprived of its reflective powers, the sun 
 would appear in one part of the sky of a dazzling brightness, 
 while all around would appear as dark as midnight, and the 
 stars would be visible at noon-day. Were it deprived of its 
 refractive powers, instead of the gradual approach of the day 
 and the night which we now experience, at sunrise, we should 
 be transported all at once from midnight darkness to the splen- 
 dor of noon-day : and, at sun-set, should make a sudden tran- 
 sition from the splendors of day to all the horrors of midnight, 
 which would bewilder the traveller in his journey, and strike 
 the creation with am.azement. In line, were the oxygen of 
 the atmosphere completely extracted, destruction would seize 
 
EXPANSION OF WATER IN FREEZING. 77 
 
 on all the tribes of the living world, throughout every region 
 of earth, air, and sea. 
 
 Omitting at present the consideration of an indefinite va- 
 riety of other particulars, which suggest themselves on this 
 subject, I shall just notice one circumstance more, which has 
 a relation both to the waters and to the atmosphere. It is a 
 well known law of nature, that all bodies are expanded by heat, 
 and contracted by cold. There is only one exception to this 
 law which exists in the economy of our globe, and that is, the 
 expansion of wafer, in the act of freezing, — While the parts 
 of every other body are reduced in bulk, and their specific gravity 
 increased by the application of cold ; water, on the contrary, 
 when congealed into ice, is increased in bulk, and becomes of 
 a less specific gravity than the surrounding water, and, there- 
 fore, swims upon its surface. Now, had the case been other- 
 wise ; had water, when deprived of a portion of its heat, fol- 
 lowed the general law of nature, and, like all other bodies, be- 
 come specifically heavier than it was before, the present con- 
 stitution of nature would have been materially deranged, and 
 many of our present comforts, and even our very existence, 
 would have been endangered. At whatever time the tempera- 
 ture of the atmosphere became reduced to 32" of the common 
 thermometer, or to what is called the freezing point, the water 
 on the surface of our rivers and lakes would have been con- 
 verted into a layer of ice ; this layer would have sunk to ihe 
 bottom as it froze ; another layer of ice would have been im- 
 mediately produced, which would also have sunk to the former 
 layer, and so on in succession, till, in the course of time, all 
 our rivers from the surface to the bottom, and every other por- 
 tion of water, capable of being frozen, would have been con- 
 verted into solid masses of ice, which all the heat of summer 
 co\ild never have melted. We should have been deprived oi 
 most of the advantages we now derive from the liquid ele- 
 ment, and, in a short time, the face of nature would have been 
 transformed into a frozen chaos. But in the existing consti- 
 tution of things, all such dismal effects are prevented, in con- 
 sequence of the Creator having subjected the waters to a law 
 contrary to that of other fluids, by means of which the frozeii 
 water swims upon the surface, and prevents the cold from 
 penetrating to any great depth in the subjacent fluid ; and 
 when the heat of the atmosphere is increased, it is exposed to 
 its genial influence, and is quickly changed into its former 
 liquid state. How admirably, then, does this exception to the 
 general law of nature display the infinite intelligence of the 
 Great Contriver of all things^ and his provideatial care for the 
 
 T 
 
78 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 comfort of his creatures, when he arranged and established 
 the economy of nature ! 
 
 VARIETY OF NATURE. 
 
 As a striking evidence of Divine Intelligence, we may next 
 consider the immense variety lohich the Creator has introduced 
 into every department of the material world. 
 
 In every region on the surface of the globe, an endless multi- 
 plicity of objects, all differing from one another in shape, color, 
 and motion, present themselves to the view of the beholder. 
 Mountains covered with forests, hills clothed with verdure, 
 spacious plains adorned with vineyards, orchards, and wav- 
 ing grain ; naked rocks, abrupt precipices, extended vales, 
 deep dells, meandering rivers, roaring cataracts, brooks and 
 rills ; lakes and gulfs, bays and promontories, seas and oceans, 
 caverns and grottoes — meet the eye of the student of Nature, 
 in every country, with a variety which is at once beautiful and 
 majestic. Nothing can exceed the variety of the vegetable 
 kingdom, which pervades all climates, and almost every por- 
 tion of the dry land, and of the bed of the ocean. The im- 
 mense collections of Natural History which are to be seen in 
 the Museum at Paris, show, that botanists are already ac- 
 quainted with nearly fifty-six thousand different species of 
 olants.* And yet, it is probable, that these form but a very 
 small portion of what actually exists, and that several hundreds 
 of thousands of species remains to be explored by the indus- 
 try of future ages. For, by far the greater part of the vegeta- 
 ble world still remains to be surveyed by the scientific botanist. 
 Of the numerous tribes of vegetable nature which flourish in 
 the interior of Africa and America, in the innnense islands of 
 New Holland, New Guinea, Borneo, Summatra, Java, Cey- 
 lon, Madagascar, and Japan ; in the vast regions of Tartary, 
 Thibet, Siberia, and the Burman empire ; in the Phillippines, 
 the Moluccas, the Ladrones, the Carolinas, the Marquesas, 
 the Society, the Georgian, and in thousands of other Islands 
 which are scattered over the Indian and Pacific oceans — little 
 or nothing is known by the naturalists of Europe, and yet it is 
 a tact which admits of no dispute, that every country hitherto 
 explored, produces a variety of species of plants peculiar to 
 itself; and those districts in Europe which have been fre- 
 quently surveyed, present to every succeeding explorer a new 
 field of investigation, and reward his industry with new dis- 
 coveries of the beauties and varieties of the vegetable king- 
 dom. It has been conjectured by some Naturalists, on the 
 
 * Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, Julyj 1822, p. 48. 
 
VARIETY OF NATURE. 79 
 
 ground of a multitude of observations, that " there is not a 
 square league of earth, but what presents some one plant pe- 
 culiar to itself, or, at least, which thrives there better, or ap- 
 pears more beautiful than in any other part of the world." 
 This would make the number of species of vegetables to 
 amount to as many millions as there are of square leagues on 
 the surface of the earth. 
 
 Now, every one of these specie-s of plants differs from ano- 
 ther, in its size, structure, form, flowers, leaves, fruits, mode 
 of propagation, color, medicinal virtues, nutritious qualities, 
 internal vessels, and the odors it exhales. They are of all 
 sizes, from the microscopic mushroom, invisible to the naked 
 eye, to the sturdy oak, and the cedar of Lebanon,and from the 
 slender willow to the Banian tree, under whose shade 7000 
 persons may find ample room to repose. A thousand different 
 shades of color distinguish the different species. Every one 
 wears its peculiar livery, and is distinguished by its own native 
 hues; and many of their inherent beauties can be distinguished 
 only by the help of the microscope. Some grow upright, 
 others creep along in a serpentine form. Some flourish for 
 ages, others wither and decay in a few months ; some spring 
 up in moist, others in dry soils ; some turn towards the sun, 
 others shrink and contract when we approach to touch them. 
 Not only are the different species of plants and flowers dis- 
 tinguished from each other, by their different forms, but even 
 the different individuals of the same species. In a bed of 
 tulips or carnations, for example, there is scarcely a flower in 
 which some difference may not be observed in its structure, 
 j size, or assemblage of colors ; nor can any two flowers be 
 I found in which the shape and shades are exactly similar. Of 
 I ail the hundred thousand millions of plant.s trees, herbs, and 
 I flowers, with which our globe is variegated, there are not, per- 
 1 haps, two individuals precisely alike, in every point of view in 
 which they may be contemplated ; yea, there is not, perhaps, 
 a single leaf in the forest, when minutely examined, that will 
 not be found to differ, in certain aspects, from its fellows. 
 
 ISuch is the wonderful and infinite diversity with which the 
 Creator has adorned the vegetable kingdom. 
 His wisdom is also evidently displayed in this vast profusion 
 ,; of vegetable nature — in adaptilig eacn plant to the soil and sit- 
 j uation in which it is destined to flourish — in furnishing it with 
 ' those vessels by which it absorbs the air and moisture on which 
 it feeds — and in adapting it to the nature and necessities of 
 '■ animated beings. As the earth teems with animated exist- 
 ence, and as the different tribes of animals depend chiefly on 
 
80 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 the productions of the vegetable kingdom for their subsist- 
 ence, so there is an abundance and a variety of plants adapted 
 to the peculiar constitutions of every individual species. This 
 circumstance demonstrates, that there is a pre-contrived rela- 
 tion and fitness between the internal constitution of the ani- 
 mal, and the mature of the j)}ants which aflbrd it nourishment ; 
 and shows us, that the animal and vegetable kingdoms are the 
 workmanship of one and the same Almighty Being, and that, 
 in his arrangements with regard to the one, he had in view the 
 necessities of the other. 
 
 When we direct our attention to the tribes of animated na- 
 ture, we behold a scene no less variegated and astonishing. 
 Above fifty thousand species of animals have been detected 
 and described by Naturalists, besides several thousands of 
 species which the naked eye cannot discern, and which people 
 the invisible regions of the waters and the air. And, as the 
 greater part of the globe has never yet been thoroughly ex- 
 plored, several hundreds, if not thousands, of species unknown 
 to the scientific world, may exist in the depths of the ocean, 
 and in the unexplored regions of the land. All these species 
 differ from one another in color, size, and shape ; in the inter- 
 nal structure of their bodies, in the number of their sensitive 
 organs, limbs, feet, joints, claws, wings, and fins ; in their 
 dispositions, faculties, movements, and modes of subsistence. 
 They are of all sizes, from the mite and the gnat, up to the 
 elephant and the whale, and from the mite downwards to those 
 invisible animaculae, a hundred thousand of which would 
 not equal a grain of sand. Some fly through the atmos- 
 phere, some glide through the waters, others traverse the solid 
 land. Some walk on two, some on four, some on twenty, and 
 some on a hundred feet. Some have eyes furnished with two, 
 some with eight, some with a hundred, and some with eight 
 thousand distinct transparent globes, for the purpose of vision.* 
 
 * The eyes of beetles, silk-worms, fi'ies, and several other kinds of 
 insects, are among the most curious and wonderful productions of the God 
 of Nature. On th-e head of a fly are two large protuberances, one on each 
 side ; these constitute its organs of vision. Tiie whole surface of these 
 protuberances is covered with a multitude of small hemispheres placed with 
 the utmost regularity in rows, crossing each other in a kind of lattice work. 
 These little hemispheres have each of them a minute transparent convex 
 lens in the middle, each of which has a distinct branch of the optic nerve 
 ministering to it; so that the different lenses may be considered as so many 
 distinct eyes, Mr. Leeuwenhoek counted 6236 in the two eyes of a silk 
 worm, when in its Jiy stale ; 3180 in each eye of the beetle ; and 8000 in 
 the two eyes of a common fly. Mr. Hook reckoned 14,000 in the eyes of a 
 drone fly ; and, in one of the eyes of a dragonfly, there have been reckoned 
 13,500 of these lenses, and, consequently, in both eyes, 27,000, every dj®-. 
 
' VARIETY OF NATURE. 81 
 
 Our astonishment at the variety which appears in the animal 
 kingdom is still farther increased when we consider not only 
 the diversities which are apparent in their external aspect, but 
 also in their internal structure and organization. When we 
 reflect on the thousands of movements, adjustments, adapta- 
 tions, and compensations, which are requisite in order to the 
 construction of an animal system, for enabling it to form its 
 intended functions ; — when we consider, that every species of 
 animals has a system of organization peculiar to itself, con- 
 sisting of bones, joints, blood vesseJs, and muscular motions, 
 differing in a variety of respects from those of any other spe- 
 cies, and exactly adapted to its various necessities and modes 
 of existence ; and when we consider, still farther, the incom- 
 prehensibly delicate contrivances, and exquisite borings, pol- 
 ishings, claspings, and adaptations, which enter into the or- 
 ganization of an animated being ten thousand times less than 
 a mite ; and that the different species of these animals are 
 likewise all differently organized from one another, — we can- 
 not but be struck with reverence and astonishment, at the In- 
 telligence of that Incomprehensible Being who arranged the 
 organs of all the tribes of animated nature, who " breathed 
 into them the breath of life," and who continually upholds 
 them in all their movements ! 
 
 Could we descend into the subterraneous apartments of the 
 globe, and penetrate into those unknown recesses which he 
 towards its centre, we should, doubtless, behold a variegated 
 scene of wonders, even in those dark and impenetrable re- 
 gions. But all the labor and industry of man have not hith- 
 erto enabled him to penetrate farther into the bowels of the 
 earth than the six thousandth part of its diameter ; so that 
 we must remain for ever ignorant of the immense caverns 
 and masses of matter that may exists and of the processes 
 that may be going on about its central regions. In those re 
 
 of which is capable of forming a distinct iiYiage of any object, m the same 
 manner as a common convex glass ; so that there are 27,000 images fonried 
 on the retina of this little animal. Mr. Leeuwenhoek having prepared the 
 eye of a fly for the purpose, placed it a little farther from his microscope 
 than when he would examine an object, so as to leave a proper local dis- 
 tance between it and the lens of his microscope ; and then looked through 
 both, in the manner of a telescope, at the steeple of the church, which was 
 299 feet high, and 750 feet distant, and could plainly see through every 
 little lens, the whole steeple inverted, though not larger than the point of 
 a fine needle : and then directing it to a neighbouring house, saw through 
 many of these little hemispheres, not only the front of the house, but also 
 the doors and windows, and could discern distinctly, whether the windows 
 were open or sliut. Such an exquisite piece of Divine mechanism tran- 
 scends all human comprehension. 
 
 7* 
 
82 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 gions, however, near the surface, which lie within the sphere 
 of human inspection, we perceive a variety analogous to that 
 which is displayed in the other departments of nature. Here 
 we find substances of various kinds formed into strata, or lay- 
 ers, of different depths — earths, sand, gravel, marl, clay, sand- 
 stone, free-stone, marble, lime-stone, fossils, coals, peat, and 
 similar materials. In these strata are found metals and mine- 
 rals of various descriptions — salt, nitrate of potash, ammonia, 
 sulphur, bitum.en, platina, gold, silver, mercury, iron, lead, tin, 
 copper, zinc, nickel, manganeze, cobalt, antimony, the dia- 
 mond, rubies, sapphires, jaspers, emeralds, and a countless 
 variety of other substances, of incalculable benefit to man- 
 kind. Some of these substances are so essentially requisite 
 for the comfort of man, that, without them, he would soon 
 degenerate into the savage state, and be deprived of all those 
 arts which extend his knowledge, and which cheer and embel- 
 lish the abodes of civilized life. 
 
 If we turn our eyes upward to the regions of the atmos- 
 phere, we may also behold a spectacle of variegated magni- 
 ficence. Sometimes the sky is covered with sable clouds, or 
 obscured with mists ; at other times it is tinged with a variety 
 of hues, by the rays of the rising or the setting sun. Some- 
 times it presents a pure azure, at other times it is diversified 
 with strata of dappled clouds. At one time we behold the 
 rainbow rearing its majestic arch, adorned with all the colors 
 of light; at another, the Aurora Borealis illuminating the sky 
 with its fantastic corruscations. At one time we behold the 
 fiery meteor sweeping through the air ; at another, we per 
 ceive the forked lightning darting from the clouds, and hea. 
 the thunders rolling through the sky. Sometimes the vault o 
 heaven appears like a boundless desert, and at other timee 
 adorned with an innumerable host of stars, and with the moor 
 " v/alking in brightness." In short, whether we direct our 
 view to the vegetable or the animal tribes, to the atmosphere, 
 the ocean, the mountains, the plains, or the subterranean re- 
 cesses of the globe, we behold a scene of beauty, order and 
 variety, which astonishes and enraptures the contemplative 
 mind, and constrains us to join in the devout exclamations of 
 the Psalmist, " Hoiv manifold are tJuj works^ O Lord ! In wis- 
 dom hast thou made them all, the earth is full of thy riches ; 
 so is the great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping, in- 
 numerahhj both small and great beasts." 
 
 This countless variety of objects which appears throughout 
 every department of our sublunary system, not only displays 
 the depths af Divine wisdonirbut also presents us with a faint 
 
VARIETY OF NATURE 83 
 
 idea of the infinity of the Creator, and of the immense multipli- 
 city of ideas and conceptions which must have existed in the 
 Eternal Mind, when the fabric of our globe, and its numerous 
 tribes of inhabitants were arranged and brought into existence. 
 And, if every other world which floats in the immensity of 
 space, be diversified with a similar variety of existence, alto- 
 gether different from ours, (as we have reason to beheve, from 
 the variety we already perceive, and from the boundless plans 
 and conceptions of the Creator,) the human mind is lost 
 and confounded, when it attempts to form an idea of those 
 endlessly diversified plans, conceptions, and views, which 
 must have existed during an eternity past, in the Divine mind. 
 When we would attempt to enter into the conception of so 
 vast and varied operations, we feel our own littleness, and the 
 narrow limits of our feeble powers, and can only exclaim, with 
 the Apostle Paul, " the depth of the riches both of the wis- 
 dom and knowledge of God i how unsearchable are his coun- 
 cils, and his ways of creation and providence past finding out " 
 
 This characteristic of variety, which is stamped on all the 
 works of Omnipotence^ is, doubtless, intended to gratify the 
 principle of curiosity, and the love of novelty, which are im- 
 planted in the human breast ; and thus to excite rational be- 
 ings to the study and investigation of the works of the Crea- 
 tor ; that therein they may behold the glory of the Divine 
 character, and be stimulated to the exercise of love, admira- 
 tion, and reverence. For, as the records of revelation, and 
 the dispensations of Providence, display to us the various as- 
 pects of the moral character of Deity, so, the diversified phe- 
 nomena, and the multiplicity of objects and operations which 
 the scenery of nature exhibits, present to us a specimen of the 
 ideas, as it were, of the Eternal Mind, in so far as they can be 
 adumbrated by material objects, and exhibited to mortals, 
 through the medium of corporeal organs. 
 
 To convey an adequate conception of the mimher of these 
 ideas, as exhibited on the globe in which we live, 'would baffle 
 the arithmetician's skill, and set his numbers at defiance. — 
 We may, however, assist our conceptions a little, by confining 
 our attention to one department of nature ; for example, the 
 Animal Kingdom. The number of the different species of 
 animals, taking into account those which are hitherto undis- 
 covered, and those which are invisible to the naked eye, can- 
 not be estimated at less than 300,000. In a human body 
 there are reckoned about 446 muscles, in each of which, ac- 
 cording to anatomists, there are at least 10 several intentions, 
 or due qualifications to be observed — its proper figure, its just 
 
84 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 magnitude, the right disposition of its several ends, upper and 
 lower, the position of the whole, the insertion of its proper 
 nerves, veins, arteries, &c. so that in the muscular system 
 alone, there are 4,460 several ends or aims to be attended to. 
 The bones are reckoned to be in number about 245, and the 
 distinct scopes or intentions of each of these are above 40 ; in 
 all, about 9,800 ; so that the system of bones and muscles 
 alone, without taking any other parts into consideration, 
 amounts to above 14^000 different intentions or adaptations. 
 If now, we suppose, that all the species of animals above sta- 
 ted, are differently constructed, and, taken one wdth another, 
 contain at an average, a system of bones and muscles as nu- 
 merous as in the human body — the number of species must 
 be multiplied by the number of different aims or adaptations, 
 and the product will amount to 4,200,000,000. If we were 
 next to attend to the many thousands of blood vessels in an 
 animal body, and the numerous ligaments, membranes, hu- 
 mors, and fluids of various descriptions — the skin, with its 
 millions of pores, aird every other part of an organical system, 
 with the aims and intentions of each, we should have another 
 sum of many hundreds of millions to be multiplied by the for- 
 mer product, in order to express the diversified ideas which 
 enter into the construction of the animal world. And, if we 
 still farther consider, that of the hundreds of millions of indi- 
 viduals belonging to each species,, no two individuals exactly 
 resemble each other — that all the myriads of vegetables with 
 which the earth is covered, are distinguished from each other, 
 by some one characteristic or another, and that every grain of 
 sand contained in the mountains, and in the bed of the ocean, 
 as shown by the microscope, discovers a different form and 
 configuration from another — we are here presented with an 
 imao-e of the infinitij of the conceptions of Him in whose in- 
 comprehensible mind they all existed, during countless ages,, 
 before the universe was formed. 
 
 To overlook this amazing scene of Divine Intelligence, or 
 to consider it as beneath our notice, as some have done — if it 
 be not the characteristic of impiety, is at least, the mark of a 
 weali and undiscriminating mind. The man who disregards 
 the visible displays of Infinite wisdom, or who neglects to in- 
 vestigate them, when opportunity offers, acts as if he consider- 
 ed huuself already possessed of a sufficient portion of intelli- 
 gence, and stood in no need of sensible assistances to direct 
 his conceptions of the Creator. Pride, and false conceptions 
 of the nature and design of true religion, frequently lie at the 
 foundation of all that mdifference and neglect with which the 
 
I VARIETY OF NATURE. 85 
 
 I visible works of God are treated, by those who make preten- 
 j sions to a high degree of spiritual attainments. The truly 
 pious man will trace, with wonder and delight, the footsteps 
 of his Father and his God, wherever they appear in the varie- 
 gated scene of creation around him, and will be filled with 
 sorrow, and contrition of heart, that, amidst his excursions 
 and solitary walks, he has so often disregarded '* the works of 
 the Lord, and the operation of his hands." 
 
 In line, the variety v.hich appears on the face of nature, not 
 only enlarges our conceptions of Infinite Wisdom, but is also 
 the foundation of all our discriminations and judgm.ents as 
 rational beings, and is of the most essential utility in the 
 affairs of human society. Such is the variety of which the 
 i features of the human countenance are susceptible, that it is 
 I probable that no two individuals, of ail the millions of the race 
 ; of Adam, that have existed since the beginning of time, would 
 , be found to resemble each other. Yv e know no two human 
 j beings presently existing, however similar to each other, but 
 I may be distinguished either by their stature, their forms, or 
 ' the features of their faces ; and on the ground of this dissimi- 
 larity, the various wheels of the machine of society move on- 
 ward, without clashing or confusion. Had it been otherwise 
 — had the faces of men, and their organs of speech been cast 
 exactly in the same mould, as would have been the case, had 
 the world been framed according to the Epicurean system, by 
 blind chance directing a concourse of atoms, it might have 
 been as difficult to distinguish one human countenance from 
 another, as to distinguish the eggs laid by the same hen, or 
 the drops of water which trickle from the same orifice ; and, 
 consequently, society would have been thrown into a state of 
 universal anarchy and confusion. Friends would not have 
 been distinguished from enemies, villains from the good and 
 honest, fathers from sons, the culprit from the innocent per- 
 son, nor the branches of the same family from one another. 
 And what a scene of perpetual confusion and disturbance 
 would thus have been created ! Frauds* thefts, robberies, 
 murders, assassinations, forgeries, and injustice of all kinds, 
 might have been daily committed without the least possibility 
 of detection. — Nay, were even the variety of tones in the 
 human voice, peculiar to each person, to cease, and the hand- 
 writing of all men to become perfectly uniform, a multitude 
 of distressing deceptions and perplexities would be produced 
 in the domestic, civil, and commercial transactions of man- 
 kind. But the All-wise and Beneficent Creator has prevented 
 all such evils and inconveniences, by the character of variety 
 
86 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 which he has impressed on the human species ; and on all his 
 works. By the pecahar features of his countenance every 
 man may be distinguished in the hght : by the tones of his 
 voice he may be recognized in the dark, or when he is sepa- 
 rated from his fellows by an impenetrable partition ; and his 
 hand-writing can attest his existence and individuality, when 
 continents and oceans interpose between him and his rela- 
 tions, and be a witness of his sentiments and purposes to 
 future oenerations. 
 
 Thus, I have taken a very cursory view of some evidences 
 of Divine Wisdom, which appear in the general constitution 
 of the earth, the waters, and the afmospliere, and in the char- 
 acteristic of variety, which is impressed on all the objects of 
 the visible creation. When these and other admirable arrange- 
 ments, in our sublunary system, are seriously contemplated, 
 every rational and pious mind will be disposed to exclaim 
 with the Psalmist — " There is none like unto thee, Lord, 
 neither are there any works like unto thy works." — " Thou 
 art great, and dost wondrous things, thou art God alone." — 
 " O that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, and for 
 his wonderful works towards the children of men !" 
 
 When we consider not only the utilitij, but the heanty and 
 grandeur of the wise arrangements of nature, what reason 
 have we to admire and adore the goodness of the great Author 
 of our existence ! ^Vere all the diversities of shape and 
 color, of mountains and vales, of rivers and lakes, of light and 
 shade, which now embellish the various landscapes of the 
 world, to disappear, and were one unvaried scene perpetually 
 to present itself to the eye, how dull and wearisome, and un- 
 interesting would the aspect of the universe appear to an 
 intelligent mind ! Although the variegated beauties which 
 adorn the surface of our globe, and the vault of heaven, are 
 not essential to our existence, as sensitive beings, yet, were 
 they completely withdrawn, and nothing presented to the eye, 
 but a boundless expanse of barren sands, the mind would re- 
 coil upon itself, its activity would be destroyed, its powers 
 would be confined, as it were, to a prison, and it would roam 
 in vain amidst the surrounding waste, in search of enjoyment. 
 Even the luxuries of a palace, were it possible to procure 
 them amidst such a scene of desolation, would become stale 
 and insipid, and would leave the rational soul, almost desti- 
 tute of ideas and of mental energy, to the tiresome round of a 
 
PRIMEVAL STATE OF NATURE. 87 
 
 cheerless existence. But in the actual state of the world we 
 live in, there is no landscape in nature, from the Icebergs of 
 Greenland to the verdant scenes of the Torrid Zone, in which 
 objects, either of sublimity or of beauty, in boundless variety, 
 are not presented to the view ; in order to stimulate the mind 
 to activity, to gratify its desire of novelty, and to elevate its 
 conceptions of the Beneficent Creator. 
 
 And, if the present constitution of our world displays so 
 evident marks of beauty and benevolent design, now that it is 
 inhabited by an assemblage of depraved intelligences, and 
 its physical aspect deforined, in consequence of " the wicked- 
 ness of man" — what transporting beauties and sublimities 
 must it have presented, when it appeared fresh from the hand 
 of its Almighty Maker, and when all things were pronounced 
 by him to l)e verij good ? After a deluge of waters has swept 
 many of its primeval beauties, and has broken and deranged 
 even its subterraneous strata, this terrestrial world still pre- 
 sents to the eye a striking scene of beauty, order, and benefi- 
 cence. But we have the strongest reason to believe, that, 
 before sin had disfigured the aspect of this lower world, all 
 was " beauty -to the eye, and music to the ear" — that " im- 
 mortality breathed in the w^inds, flowed in the rivers," and ex- 
 haled from every plant and flower. No storms disturbed the 
 tranquillity of nature, nor created the least alarm in the breasts 
 of its holy inhabitants. No earthquakes shook the ground, 
 nor rent the foundations of nature. No volcanoes vomited 
 iheir rivers of lava, nor overwhelmed the plains with deluges 
 of fire. — No barren deserts of heath and sand disfigured the 
 rich landscape of the world — no tempests nor hurricanes 
 tossed the ocean, nor scorching heats, nor piercing colds, nor 
 pestilence, nor disease, annoyed the human frame. — In the 
 paradisaical state of the world, we may reasonably suppose, 
 that all the elements of nature contributed directly to the 
 pleasure and enjoyment of man, and of the other tribes of ani- 
 mated nature ; and that they were not subjected, as they now 
 are, to the operation of those natural agents v.hich so frequent- 
 ly spread destruction and ruin among the abodes of men. To 
 suppose the contrary to have happened, would be inconsist- 
 ent with the state of pure and happy mtelligences, and with 
 the benignity of the Creator ; and would imply, that God was 
 either unwilling, or unable to remove such physical evils. 
 But we cannot suppose it beyond the limits of Infinite Wis- 
 dom and Omnipotence, to create and arrange a world entirely 
 free from those evils and inconveniences which now flow from 
 the operation of certain physical agents ; without, at the sam<* 
 
88 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 time, supposing that his power and intelhgcnce are confined 
 within certain bounds, beyond which they cannot pass. And, 
 therefore, if, in the existing constitution of things, the harmony 
 of nature is occasionally disturbed, and its beauty defaced, by 
 earthquakes, storms, and tempests — we must remember, that 
 the inhabitants of the earth are now a depraved race of mor- 
 tals, no longer adorned with primeval purity and innocence ; 
 and that the physical economy of our globe has undergone a 
 certain derangement, corresponding to the moral state of its 
 present occupants. — But since this earth, even in its present 
 state of degradation and derangement, presents to the view of 
 every beholder so many objects of beauty and magnificence, 
 and so numerous traces of Divine Beneficence — we may 
 reasonably conclude, that scenes of Divine Wisdom and 
 Goodness, far more glorious and transporting, must be dis- 
 played in those worlds where moral evil has never shed its 
 malign influence, and where the inhabitants — superior to dis- 
 ease and death — bask for ever in the regions of immortality. 
 And, therefore, however admirable the displays of Divine Wis- 
 dom may appear in the sublunary scene around us, they must 
 be considered as inferior to these which are exhibited in many 
 other provinces of Jehovah's empire, in so far as they are 
 blended with those physical derangements which indicate his 
 displeasure against the sins of men. 
 
 Were we now to direct our attention to the mechanism of 
 animated beings, and to consider the numberless contrivances 
 and adaptations in their organical structure and functions, a 
 thousand instances of exquisite wisdom and design, still more 
 striking and admirable, would crowd upon our view. For, 
 although the general fabric of the world, and the immense 
 variety of objects it contains, are evident proofs of a Wise and 
 Intelligent Contriver, yet it is chiefiy in the minute and delicate 
 contrivances of organical structures, their adaptation to the 
 purposes of life, motion, and enjoyment, and their relation and 
 correspondence to the surrounding elements, that the consum- 
 mate skill of the Great Architect of nature is most strikingly 
 perceived. But as it forms no part of my present plan to en- 
 ter on so extensive a ticld of illustration, on which volumes 
 miirht be v/ritten, i shall content myself with merely stating 
 an example or two. My first exaiaple shall be taken from 
 
 THE STRUCTURK OF THE HUMAN EYE. 
 
 The eye is one of the nicest pieces of mechanism which the 
 human undcrstandiisg can conteuiplate ; but as it requires 'a 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 89 
 
 «t knowledge of its anatomical structure, and of the principles 
 of optics, to enable us to appreciate its admirable functions, 
 I shall confine myself to a few general descriptions and re- 
 marks. 
 
 The eye is nearly Of a globular form. It consists chiefly of 
 three coats, and three humours. The first or outer coat, is 
 termed Sclerotica ; it is every where white and opaque, and is 
 joined at its anterior edge to another which has more convexity 
 than any other part of the globe of the eye, and, being exceed- 
 ingly transparent, is called the Cornea, These two parts are 
 perfectly different in their structure, and are supposed, by some 
 anatomists, to be as distinct from each other as the glass of 
 a watch is from the case into which it is fixed. — Next within 
 this coat is that called the Choroides^ on account of its being 
 furnished with a great number of vessels. It serves, as it were, 
 , for a lining to the other, and is joined with that part of the eye 
 termed iris. The iris is an opaque membrane like the cho- 
 roides, but of different colors in different eyes, as grey, black, 
 or hazel. It is composed of two sets of muscular fibres, the 
 one of a circular form, which contracts the hole in the middle, 
 called the pupil, when the light is too strong for the eye ; and 
 the other of radial fibres, tends every where from the circum- 
 ference of the iris towards the middle of the pupil ; which 
 fibres, by their contractions, dilate and enlarge the pupil, when 
 the light is weak, in order to let in more of its rays. — The 
 third coat is called the retina upon which are painted the ima- 
 ges of all visible objects, by the rays of light which flow from 
 them. It spreads like net-work all over the inside of the cho- 
 roides, and is_ nothing more than a fine expansion of the optic 
 nerve ; by which nerve the impressions of visible objects are 
 i conveyed to the brain. 
 
 I The inside of the globe of the eye, within these tunics or 
 coats, is filled with three humors, called the aqueous, the crys- 
 I talline, and the vitreous. The aqueous humour hes at the fore- 
 I part of the eye, and occupies all the space between the crys- 
 i talline and the prominent cornea. It has the same specific 
 ! gravity and refractive power as water, and seems chiefly 
 '; of use to prevent the crystalline from being easily bruised by 
 i rubbing, or by a blow — and perhaps it serves for the crystal- 
 j line humour to move forward in, while we view near objects ; 
 ' and backward, for remoter objects ; without which, or some 
 other, mechanism, effecting the same purpose we could 
 not, according to the laws of optics, perceive objects dis- 
 ; tinctly, when placed at different distances. — Behind the aque- 
 1 ous lies the crystalUm humour, which is shaped like a double 
 ; S 
 
90 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 convex glass, and is a little more convex on the back, than 
 on the fore-part. This humour is transparent like crystal, 
 is nearly of the consistence of hard jelly, and converges the 
 rays which pass through it, from visible objects, to its focus 
 at the bottom, or back part of the eye. — The vitreous humour 
 lies behind the crystalhne, and fills up the greatest part of the 
 orb of the eye, giving it a globular shape. It is nearly of the 
 consistence of the white of an egg, and very transparent ; its 
 fore-part is concave, for the crystalline humour to lodge in, and 
 its back part being convex, the retina is spread over it. It 
 serves as a medium to keep the crystalline humour and the 
 retina at due distance. From what has now been stated, 
 it is obvious, that the images of external objects are depicted 
 in the retina, in an inverted position, in the same mamier 
 as the images formed by a common convex lens ; but how 
 the mind, in this case, perceives objects erect, is a question, 
 about which the learned have divided in their opinions.* 
 
 The ball of the eye, as now described, is situated in a bony 
 cavity, called its orbit, composed by the junction of seven dif- 
 ferent bones, hollowed out at their edges. This cavity is in 
 all the vacant spaces filled with a loose fat, which serves as a 
 proper medium for the eye to rest in, and as a socket in which 
 it may move. It is sheltered by the eye-brows, which are 
 provided with hair, to prevent the descending sweat of the 
 forehead from running, down into it. As a still farther protec- 
 tion to this delicate organ, it is furnished with the eye-lid, 
 which like a curtain, is drawn over it with inconceivable swift- 
 ness, for its security, on the approach of danger. It also 
 serves to wipe it from superfluous moisture, and to cover it 
 during sleep. In the upper part of its orbit, it is furnished 
 with a gland, to supply it with water sufficient to wash off dust, 
 and to keep its outer surface moist, without which the cornea 
 would be less transparent, and the rays of light would be dis- 
 turbed in their passage ; and the superfluous water is convey- 
 ed to the nose through a perforation in the bone. 
 
 For the purpose of enabling the eye to move in its socket, 
 six muscles are provided. These are admirably contrived to 
 move it in every direction, upwards or downwards, to the right, 
 or to the left, or in whatever direction the occasion may re- 
 quire ; and thus we are spared the trouble of turning our heads 
 continually towards the objects we wish to inspect. If we 
 
 + An idea of tlie relative positions of the coats and humours described 
 above, may be obtained by a simple inspection of the Plate, Fig. 6. — Fig. 
 5, represents a front vieiv of the human eye, as it appears in its natural 
 state, and exiiibits the relative positions of the Cornea, Iris, and Pupil, 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 91 
 
 want to look upward, one of these muscles lifts up the orb of 
 the eye ; if we would cast our eyes to the ground, another 
 muscle pulls them down. A third muscle moves the globe 
 outwards towards the temples, and a fourth draws it towards 
 the nose. A fifth, which shdes within a cartilaginous ring, 
 like a cord over a pulley, and is fastened to the globe of the 
 eye in two points, makes it roll about at pleasure. A sixth lies 
 under the eye, and is designed to temper and restrain, within 
 proper bounds, the action of the rest, to keep it steadily fixed 
 on the object it beholds, and to prevent those frightful contor- 
 tions Avhich otherwise might take place. By these, and a 
 multitude of other mechanical contrivances, all acting in har- 
 monious combination, the eye, as a natural telescope and mi- 
 croscope, is made to advance, to recede, to move to the right, 
 and to the left, and in every other direction ; and to view near 
 and distant objects with equal distinctness ; so that a single 
 eye, by the variety of positions it may assume, performs the 
 office of a thousand.* 
 
 The utility of these several movements, and the pain and 
 inconvenience which would be suffered, were any of them 
 wanting, can scarcely be conceived, by any one whose eyes 
 have always remained in a sound state. We are so much ac- 
 customed to the regular exercise of our visual organs, that we 
 seldom reflect on the numerous delicate springs which must be 
 set in action, before the functions of vision can, with ease, be 
 performed. But were any one of the muscular organs, now 
 described, to fail in its functions, we should soon experience 
 so many inconveniences, as would throw a gloom on all the 
 other comforts of life ; and convince us, how much we are in- 
 debted, every moment, to the provident care and goodness of 
 our Beneficent Creator, for thousands of enjoyments which 
 we seldom think of, and for Avhich we are never sufficiently 
 grateful. — " With much compassion, as well as astonishment, 
 at the goodness of our loving Creator," says Dr. Nieuwentyt, 
 " have I considered the sad state of a certain gentleman, who, 
 as to the rest, was in pretty good health, but only wanted the 
 use of those two little muscles that serve to lift up the eyelid, 
 and so had almost lost the use of his sight — being forced, as 
 long as this defect lasted, to shove up his eyelids every mo- 
 ment, with his o^Yn hands. "t 
 
 How admirable, then, is the formation of the eye, and how 
 
 ♦ Flies and other insects, whose eyes are immoveable, have several thou- 
 sands of distinct globes in each eye. See note page SO. 
 t Nieuwentyt's Religious Philosopher, vol. 1. p. 232. 
 
92 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 grateful ought we to feel at the consideration, that we are per- 
 mitted to enjoy all the transporting pleasures of vision, without 
 the least perplexity or effort on our part ! If the loss of action 
 in a single muscle produces so many distressing sensa- 
 tions and efforts, what would be the consequence if all the 
 muscles of the eye were wanting or deranged? And, is it man 
 that governs these nice and intricate movements ? Or is it the 
 eye itself, as a self-directing machine, that thus turns around, 
 seasonably and significantly, towards every visible object 1 
 Man knows neither the organs of vision, nor the functions 
 they ought to perform. The eye is only an unconscious ma- 
 chine, in the hands of a Superior Intelligence, as a watch, or 
 a steam engine, is in the hands of a mechanic. It is God 
 alone who constantly performs its movements, according to 
 certain laws, which he has submitted to our inclinations and, 
 desires ; ^^fo7^ in him we live and move.''^ — We are desirous to 
 see certain objects around us : this is all the share we have 
 in the operations of our eyes ; and without perplexing our 
 understanding, without the least care or management, in re-< 
 gard to any of the functions, we can, in a few moments, take 
 a survey of the beauties and sublimities of an extensive land- 
 scape, and of the glories of the vault of heaven. Thus, the 
 Divine Being operates not only in this, but in a thousand dif- 
 ferent ways, in the various senses and contrivances which be- 
 long to our animal system ; and yet, thoughtless and ungrate- 
 ful man often inquires, in the language of doubt and hesitation, 
 " Where is God my Maker ?" — He is in us, and around us, 
 directing every movement in our animal frame to act in har- 
 mony with the surrounding elements, and to minister to our 
 enjoyments ; and it is only when his exquisite operations are 
 deranged by external violence, that we feel inconvenience oi 
 pain. 
 
 Such are only a few general outlines of the structure of the 
 eye : for no notice has been taken of the numerous minute 
 veins, arteries, nerves, lymphatics, glands, and many other 
 particulars which are connected with this organ. But, all this 
 delicate and complicated apparatus, in the structure of the eye, 
 would have been of no use whatever for the purpose of vision, 
 had not a distinct substance been created to act upon it, 
 exactly adapted to its nature and functions. . In order that the 
 eye might serve as the medium of our perceptions of visible 
 objects, light was formed, and made to travel from its source 
 at the rate of 195,000 miles in a second of time. This prodi- 
 gious velocity of light is, doubtless, essential to the nature of 
 vision. ; since it actually exists, and since we find that it radi- 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 93 
 
 ates with the same swiftness from the most distant visible 
 star, as from the smi which enhghtens our system. To abate 
 the force of this amazing velocity, its particles have been 
 formed almost infinitely small — a circumstance which alone 
 prevents this delightful visitant from becoming the most tre- 
 mendous and destructive element in nature. Dr. Nieuwentyt 
 has computed, that, in one second of time, there flows 418,- 
 680,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000* 
 particles of light out of a burning candle, which number con- 
 tains at least 6,337,242,000,000 l;imes the number of grains of 
 sand in the whole earth, supposing every cubic inch of the 
 earth to contain a milUon of grains. It has been justly re- 
 marked, by Mr. Ferguson and other authors, that " if the 
 particles of light were so large, that a million of them, were 
 equal in bulk to an ordinary grain of sand, we durst no more 
 open our eyes to the light, than suffer sand to be shot point 
 blank against them, from the mouth of a cannon.'* It may 
 also be remarked, that the property which all bodies possess, 
 of reflecting light, is essential to the purpose of vision, without 
 which, the splendid and variegated scene of nature would be 
 changed into a dreadful gloom ; and were the rays of light of 
 one uniform color, and not compounded of various hues, one 
 object could not be distinguished from another, and the beauti- 
 ful aspect of our globe would instantly disappear. 
 
 Thus we see, that the eye is adapted to light, and. light to the 
 eye ; and in this admirable adaptation the wisdom of the 
 Creator is strikingly displayed. For light has no effect upon 
 the ear, or upon any other organ of sensation : so as to pro- 
 duce a perception of visible objects ; as, on the other hand, the 
 undulations of the air have no effect upon the eye, so as to pro- 
 duce the sensation of souncL The eye did not produce the 
 light, nor did the light form the eye ; they are perfectly distinct 
 from each other, yet so nicely adapted in every particular 
 that had any one quality or circumstance been wanting in 
 either, the functions of vision could not have been performed 
 in the manner in which they now operate ; which strikingly 
 demonstrates, that one and the same Intelhgent Being, pos- 
 sessed of a wisdom beyond our comprehension, formed the 
 curious structure of the eye, and endued the rays of light with 
 those properties of color, motion, and minuteness, which are 
 calculated, through the medium of this organ, to produce, in 
 sentient beings, the ideas of visible objects. And, surely, he 
 never intended that such exquisite skill and contrivance should 
 
 * See Appendix, No. V. 
 8* 
 
94 
 
 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 be altogether overlooked by rational beings, for whose pleasure 
 and enjoyment all this benevolent care is exercised. 
 
 MANNER IN WHICH VISION IS PERFORMED. 
 
 Let us now attend a little to the manner in which vision is 
 performed, by the medium of light acting on the organs of 
 sight. If we take a common convex glass — a reading glass for 
 example — and hold it at some distance from a candle or a 
 window sash, placing a piece of white paper behind the glass, 
 at the distance of its focus, the image of the candle or sash will 
 be painted on the paper, in an inverted position. This expe- 
 riment may be performed, with a better effect, by darkening a 
 room, and placing the convex glass in a hole cut out of the 
 window shutter, when the rays of light flowing from the objects 
 without, and passing through the glass, will form a picture of 
 the objects opposite the window, on the white paper, adorned 
 with the most beautiful colors. In a manner similar to this, 
 are the images of external objects depicted on the back part of 
 the inner coat or membrane of the eye. The rays of light, 
 proceeding in all directions, from surrounding objects, and 
 failing on the eye, are transmitted through the pupil ; and be- 
 ing refracted by the different humours, (particularly by the 
 crystalline humour, which acts the part of a convex lens,) they 
 converge to a focus on the retina, where the images of visible 
 objects are painted in an mverted position ; and, by means of 
 the optic nerve, these images are conveyed to the mind. 
 
 The following figure will perhaps more distinctly illustrate 
 
 this point. Let a, 6, c, x, y, represent the globe of the eye^ 
 and A, B, C, an object at a certain distance from it. Now, it 
 is well known that every point of a visible object sends out rays 
 of light in all directions ; and, therefore, a certain portion of 
 the rays which flow from the object ABC, will fall upon the 
 cornea^ between x and y, and, passing through the aqueous 
 humour, w, n, a!id the crystalline humour, o,p, and the vitreous 
 humour^ D E, will be converged to a focus on the retina, and 
 
WONDERS OP VISION. 95 
 
 paint a distinct picture, a b c, of the object A B C, in an inver- 
 ted position. The rays from the point A of the object, after 
 being refracted by the different humours, will be brought to a 
 point at a ; those from B, will be converged at b ; and those 
 from C, at c ; and, of course, the intermediate rays between 
 A B, and B C, will be formed between a 6, and b c, and the 
 object will become visible by means of its image or represen- 
 tation being painted on the retina, in all the colors and propor- 
 tions which belong to it. If we take a bullock's eye, and cut 
 off the three coats from the back part, and put a piece of thin 
 white paper over that part, and hold the eye towards the win- 
 dow, or any bright object, we shall see the image of the object 
 depicted upon the paper, and in an inverted position, as stated 
 above. 
 
 In order that we may more distinctly perceive the wonders 
 of vision, and the numerous circumstances on which it de- 
 pends, let us suppose ourselves placed on an eminence, which 
 commands a view of a variegated and extensive landscape. 
 Let us suppose ourselves stationed on Arthur's seat, or on the 
 top of Salisbury Crags, in the vicinity of Edinburgh. Turning 
 our face to the north-west, the city, with its castles, spires, and 
 stately edifices, presents itself to our view. Beyond it, on the 
 north and west, a beautiful country, adorned with villas, plan- 
 tations, and fertile fields, stretches as far as the eye can reach, 
 till the view is bounded by the castle of Sterling, at the distance 
 of more than thirty miles. On the right hand, we behold the 
 port of Leith, the shipping in the roads, the coast of Fife, the 
 isles of Inchkeith and of May, and the Frith of Forth, gradu- 
 ally losing itself in the German ocean. If we suppose the 
 length of this landscape to be forty miles, and its breadth 
 twenty-five, it will, of course, comprehend an area of a thou- 
 sand square miles. 
 
 The first circumstance which strikes the mind, is the immense 
 imdtitude of rays of reflected light which flow, in all directions, 
 from the myriads of objects which compose the surrounding 
 scene. In order to form a rude idea of this infinity of radia- 
 tions, I fix my attention on a single object. I direct my eye 
 to Nelson's monument, on the Calton hill. From the parapet 
 at the top, a thousand different points send forth a thousand 
 different cones of rays, which, entering my eye, render the dif- 
 ferent parts of it distinctly visible, besides myriads of rays from 
 the same points, which flow in every other direction through 
 the open spaces of the atmosphere which surround them. 
 How many thousands of millions, then, of different radiations, 
 must be issuing forth every moment from the whole mass of 
 
96 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 the monument ! And if one object pours forth such a flood 
 of rays, how immense must be the number of radiations 
 which are issuing from all the objects which compose this 
 extensive landscape ! Myriads of rays, from myriads of ob- 
 jects, must be crossing each other in an infinity of directions, 
 so that the mind is confounded at the apparent confusion which 
 seems to exist in this immensity of radiations ; yet every ray 
 passes forward in the crowd, in the most perfect order, and 
 without being blended or confused with any other ray, produces 
 its specific effect on every eye that is open to receive it. But 
 this is not all : these millions of rays which flow from the 
 minutest points of the surrounding scene, before they can pro- 
 duce the sensation of vision, and form a picture of the land- 
 scape on the retina, must be compressed into a space little 
 more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter, before they can 
 enter the pupil of the eye ; yet they all pass through this small 
 aperture without the least confusion, and paint the images of 
 their respective objects in exactly the same order in wnich 
 these objects are arranged. Another circumstance demands 
 attention. The rays which proceed from the objects before 
 me, are not all directed to the spot where I stand, but are dif- 
 fused throughout every point of the surrounding space, ready 
 to produce the same effect, wherever sentient beings are pre- 
 sent to receive them. Were the whole inhabitants of Edin- 
 burgh placed on the sloping ^declivity of Arthur's seat, and 
 along the top of Salisbury Crags, and were millions of other 
 spectators suspended in the surrounding atmosphere, similar 
 sensations would be produced, and a scene similar to that 
 which I now behold, would be depicted in every eye. Amidst 
 the infinity of cones of light, crossing each other in aninrinity 
 of directions, no confusion would ensue, but every spectator, 
 whose eyes were in a sound state, would obtain a conect view 
 of the scene before him ; and hence it happens, that, when- 
 ever I shift my position to the right hand or to the left, other 
 streams of light enter my eye, and produce the same effect. 
 
 Let me now attend to another circumstance, no less admi- 
 rable than the preceding, and that is, the distinct impression 
 which I have of the sha{)e, color, and motion, of the multipli- 
 citv of objects I am now contemplating, and the small space 
 within which their images are depicted at the bottom of my 
 eye. Could a painter, after a long series of ingenious efforts, 
 delineate the extensive landscape now before me, on a piece 
 of paper not exceeding the size of a silver sixpence, so that 
 every object might be as distinctly seen, in its proper shape 
 and color, as it now appears when I survey the scene around 
 
WONDERS OF VISION. 97 
 
 me, he would be incomparably superior to all the masters of 
 his art that ever went before him. This effect, which tar 
 transcends the utmost efforts of human genius, is accom- 
 plished in a moment, in millions of instances, by the hand of 
 nature, or, in other words, by " the finger of God." All the 
 objects I am now surveying, comprehending an extent of a 
 thousand square miles, are accurately delineated in the bottom 
 of my eye, on a space less them half an inch in diameter. How 
 delicate, then, must be the strokes of that Divine pencil, which 
 has formed such a picture ! I turn iny eyes to the castle of 
 Edinburgh, which appears one of the most conspicuous ob- 
 jects in my field of view. Supposing that portion of it which 
 strikes my eye to be 500 feet long, and 90 in height, I find, by 
 calculation, that it occupies only the six hundred thousandth 
 part of the whole landscape, and, consequently, fills in my eye 
 no more than the twelve hundred thousandth part of an inch. 
 I next direct my eye towards the Frith of Forth, and perceive 
 a steamboat sailing between Queensferry and Newhaven, I 
 distinctly trace its motion for the space of 40 minutes, at the 
 end of which it reaches the chain pier at Newhaven, having 
 passed over a space of five miles in length, which is but the 
 eighth part of the lineal extent of the landscape in that direc- 
 tion ; and, consequently, occupies, in the picture formed on 
 my retina, a lineal space of only one-sixteenth of an inch in 
 'extent. And, if the boat be reckoned about 88 feet in length, 
 its image is only the three hundredth part of this extent ; and 
 of course, fills a space in the eye of only the four thousand 
 eight hundredth part of a lineal inch. Yet, my perception of 
 the motion of the vessel could be produced only by a corres- 
 ponding motion of its image in my eye ; that is, by the gra- 
 dual motion of a point one 4,800th of an inch in diameter, 
 over a space one sixteenth of an inch in length. Flow incon- 
 ceivably fine and accurate, then, must be the impression of 
 those strokes which the rays of light, from visible objects, pro- 
 duce on the retina of the eye ! The mind is lost in. wonder 
 when it attempts to trace so exquisite and admirable an effect. 
 I take a reflecting telescope, and, through it, view some of 
 the distant parts of the landscape. My wonder is still in- 
 creased, when I consider the new directions into which the 
 rays of light are bent — the crossings and recrossings, the re- 
 fractions, and reflections, that take place between the mirrors 
 and the lenses of the instrument, and the successive images 
 that are formed — so that, instead of a scene of confusion, 
 which, previous to experience, might have been expected from 
 ^he numerous additional bendings and intersections of the rays 
 
98 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 — I now perceive hundreds of objects, with the most perfect 
 distinctness, which were before invisible. Rays of hght from 
 distant and minute objects, which a moment before made no 
 sensible impression on my eye, being collected and variously 
 modified by the telescope, now paint a vivid representation of 
 their objects, in their true figures, colors, and positions. 
 
 From a consideration of the innumerable modifications of 
 the rays of light, and of the immense variety of effects they 
 produce in every region of the earth — I am led to investigate 
 ichat proportion of the solar light falis upon our globe, in order 
 to produce so diversified a scene of sublimity and beauty. 
 Supposing the sun's rays to be chiefly confined, in their effects, 
 within the limits of the planetary system, since they diverge in 
 every direction, they must fill a cubical space 3,600,000,000 
 miles in diameter ; which, consequently, will contain about 
 24,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 of cubical miles, so 
 that an eye, placed in any point of this vast space, would re- 
 ceive a distinct impression from the solar rays. The solidity 
 of the earth is about 264,000,000,000 cubical miles, and, 
 therefore, it receives only the 90:00 0,000,1 '00,0: io,uuu th parts of the light 
 which fills the sphere of the solar system. So that the light 
 which cheers all the inhabitants of the world, and unveils such 
 a variety of beautiful and magnificent objects, is nothing more 
 than a single stream of celestial radiance out of ninety thou- 
 sand billions of similar streams, which the great source of 
 light is every moment diffusing throughout the surrounding 
 worlds. But the solar rays are not confined within the bounds 
 of the planetary system ; their influence extends, in every di- 
 rection, as far as the nearest stars, filling a cubical space at 
 least 40,000,000,000,000 miles in diameter, and which con- 
 tains 33,500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,- 
 000, or thirty-three thousand, five hundred sextillions of cubi- 
 cal miles. And, were we to institute comparisons and calcu- 
 lations, with respect to the possible variety of effects they 
 might produce throughout this immense region, whole pages 
 might be filled with figures, cyphers, and computations. We 
 might compute how many globes similar to the earth, or any of 
 the larger planets, might be contained within this vast space, 
 allowing several hundreds of cubical miles of empty space 
 around each globe — how many myriads of refractions and re- 
 flections the rays of light would suffer, in regard to the pecu- 
 liar objects connected with every one of these globes — hov/ 
 many eyes of sentient beings might be affected by the diver- 
 sities of color, shape, and motion which would thus be pro- 
 duced — and what a variety of shades of light and color, and 
 
WONDERS OF VISION. 99 
 
 what a diversity of scenery would be produced, according to 
 the distances of the respective globes from the central lumi- 
 nary. After what we have just now stated, however, we may 
 rest satisfied, with joining in the pious exclamation of one who 
 had just jfinished a devout survey of the structure of the hu- 
 man frame : " Marvellous are thy works, and that my soul 
 knoweth right well. How precious are thy thoughts unto me, 
 
 God !" (or, aa the words might be rendered,) " How pre- 
 cious are thy wonderful contrivances concerning me, O God ! 
 how great is the sum of them ! If I should count them, they 
 are more in number than the sand." In what direction soever 
 
 1 turn mine eyes ; whatever portion of thy works I investi- 
 gate, " /a»i sh7/ ^(;i7/i f/iee."* Thine infinity and unsearch- 
 able wisdom are impressed on every object, so that I feel my- 
 self every moment encompassed by thine immensity, and am 
 irresistibly led to wonder and adore. 
 
 I shall now conclude these reflections on vision, with two or 
 three additional remarks. It is worthy of notice, in the first 
 place, that the eye has the power of adapting itself to objects 
 placed at different distances. By means of some delicate 
 pieces of mechanism, not hitherto satisfactorily explained, it 
 can perceive, with distinctness, a large object, at the distance 
 of six miles, and the next moment it can adjust itself to the 
 distinct perception of an object at the distance of six inches ; 
 so that it acts the part both of a telescope and a microscope, 
 and can be instantaneouslij adjusted to perform either as the 
 one instrument, or as the other. This necessarily supposes a 
 corresponding alteration in the state of the organ, every time 
 we lift our eye from a near, to look at a distant object. Either 
 the cornea is somewhat flattened, or the crystalline humour is 
 pushed backwards, or both these chcinges, in combination with 
 others, may concur in causing the rays from distant objects to 
 unite exactly on the retina, without which, distinct vision can- 
 not be produced. This contrivance, in whatever kind of me- 
 chanism it may consist, is one which art would vainly attempt 
 to imitate. We can see objects that are near us, with a mi- 
 croscope, and those that are distant, with a telescope ; but we 
 would in vain attempt to see distant objects with the former, 
 or those that are only a few inches from us, with the latter, 
 without a variety of changes being made in the apertures and 
 positions of the glasses belonging to the respective instru- 
 ments. In this respect, therefore, as well as in every other, 
 the eye is an optical instrument, incomparably superior to any 
 
 * Psalm cxxxix. 14, 17, 18, 
 
100 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 instrument or imitation that art can produce ; and, were it not 
 for the pecuhar property now described, it would be ahnost 
 unfit for the purpose of vision, notwithstanding all the other 
 delicate contrivances which enter into its construction. If it 
 were adjusted only for the distinct perception of distant ob- 
 jects, every object within the limits of an ordinary apartment 
 would appear a mass of confusion ; and were it adjusted solely 
 for viewing objects within the limits of a few feet or inches, 
 the glories of the heavens, and the beautiful landscape of the 
 earth, would be veiled from our sight, as if they were envelop- 
 ed in a mist. 
 
 Another circumstance worthy of attention, is, the power 
 which the j^npil of the eye possesses of contracting or enlarg- 
 ing the aperture or hole through which the light is admitted. 
 When the light is too weak, the pupil is enlarged ; when it is 
 too strong, it is again contracted. Accordingly, we find, that 
 when we enter a darksome apartment, though, at first, nothing 
 can be accurately distinguished, yet, in the course of a minute 
 or two, when the pupil has had time to dilate, we can perceive 
 most objects with considerable distinctness. And, on the 
 other hand, when we pass from a dark room to an apartment 
 lighted up with a number of lustres, we feel uneasy at the 
 sudden glare, till the pupil has contracted itself, and excluded 
 a portion of the superfluous rays. Were it not for this pro- 
 perty, we should, for the most part, either be surrounded with 
 a disagreeable gloom, or oppressed with an excessive splen- 
 dor. It is for this reason, that we are unable to look upon the 
 sun %\ithout being dazzled, and are under the necessity of 
 closing the eye-lids, or of turning away the head, when a 
 strong light suddenly succeeds to darkness. 
 
 Again, it may not be improper to observe, how wisely the 
 Author of Nature has fixed the distance at which we ordina- 
 rily see near objects most distinctly. This distance is gener- 
 ally from five to eight inches from the eye. But had the eye 
 been formed for distinct vision, at the distance of only one 
 inch, the object would have obstructed the light, and room 
 would have been wanting for the performance of many neces- 
 sary operations, which require the hand to intervene between 
 the eye and the object. And had the limits of distinct vision 
 for near objects been beyond two or three feet, sufficient light 
 would not have been afforded for the inspection of minute ob- 
 jects, and we could neither have written a letter, nor have read 
 a book, with the same convenience and ease we are now ena- 
 bled to do. 
 
 From the preceding descriptions and remarks, it will evi 
 
WONDERS OF VISION. 101 
 
 dently appear, with what admirable skill the different parts of 
 the organs of vision are constructed, and how nicely they are 
 adapted to the several ends they were intended to subserve. — 
 Were any one of these parts wanting, or obstructed in its 
 functions, vision would either be impeded, ^r rendered painful 
 and distressing, or completely destroyed. If any of the hu- 
 mors of the eye were wanting — if they were less transparent 
 — if they were of a different refractive power — or if they were 
 of a greater or less convexity than they now are, however 
 minute the alteration might be, vision would inevitably be 
 obstructed, and every object would appear confused and in- 
 distinct. If the retina, on which the images of objects are 
 painted, were fiat, instead of being concave, while objects in 
 the middle of the view appeared distinct, every object towards 
 the sides would appear dim and confused. If the cornea 
 were as opaque as the sclerotica, to v/hich it is joined, or if 
 the retina were not connected with the optic nerve, no visible 
 object could possibly be perceived. If one of the six mus- 
 cles of the eye were wanting, or impeded in its functions, we 
 could not turn it to the right ; if a second were deficient, we 
 could not turn it to the letl; ; if a third, we could not lift it up- 
 wards ; if a fourth, we could not move it downwards ; and if 
 it were deprived of the other two muscles, it would be apt to 
 roll about in frightfiil contortions. If the eyes were placed in 
 any other part of the body than the head — if they were much 
 more prominent than they now are — if they were not sur- 
 rounded by the bony socket in which they* are lodged — and if 
 they were not frequently covered by the eye-lid — they would 
 be exposed to a thousand accidents from which they are now 
 protected. If they wanted moisture, and if they were not fre- 
 quently wiped by the eye-lids, they would become less trans- 
 parent, and more liable to be inflamed ; and if they were not 
 sheltered by the eye-brows, the sweat and moisture of the 
 forehead would frequently annoy them. Were the light which 
 acts upon them devoid of color — were it not reflected from 
 objects in every direction — were its motion less swift, or its 
 particles much larger than they now are — in short, were any 
 one circumstance connected with the structure of this organ, 
 and with the modification of the rays of light materially dif- 
 ferent from its present arrangement, we should either be subject- 
 ed to the hourly recurrence of a thousand painful sensations, 
 or be altogether deprived of the entertainments of vision. 
 
 How admirable an organ, then, is the eye, and how nicely 
 adapted to unveil to our view the glories of the universe ! 
 Without the application of any skill or laborious efforts, on our 
 
 9 
 
102 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 part, it turns in every direction, transports us to every sur- 
 rounding object, depicts the nicest shades and colors on its 
 dehcate membranes, and 
 
 " Takes in, at once, the landscape of the world 
 
 *3t a small inlet, lohidi a grain might close, 
 
 And half creates the wond'rous world we see." — Young. 
 
 — How strikingly does it display, in every part of its structure 
 and adaptations, the marks of benevolent design, and of In- 
 linite Intelligence ! However common it is to open our eyes, 
 and to behold, in an instant, the beauties of an extensive land- 
 scape, and however little we may be accustomed to admire 
 this wonderiui effect, — there is not a doctrine in Religion, nor 
 a fact recorded in Revelation, more mysterious and incompre- 
 hensible. An excellent French writer has well observed — 
 " The sight of a tree and of the sun, which God shows me, is 
 as real and as. immediate a revelation as that v>hich led Moses 
 towards the burning bush. The only difierence between both 
 these actions of God on Moses and me, is, that the first is out 
 of the common order and economy ; whereas the other is oc- 
 casioned by the sequel and connection of those laws which 
 God has established for the regulation both of man and na- 
 ture." 
 
 If, then, the eye of man (who is a depraved inhabitant of a 
 world lying partly in ruins) is an organ so admirably fitted for 
 extending our pro'spects of the visible creation — we may rea- 
 sonably conclude, that organized beings, of superior intelli- 
 gence and moral pitrity, possess the sense of vision in a much 
 greater degree of perfection than man, in his present state of 
 degradation — and that they may be enabled, by their natural 
 organs, to penetrate into regions of the universe far beyond 
 what man, by the aid of artificial helps, vviil ever be able to 
 descry. It may not be altogether extravagant, nor even be- 
 yond the reality of existing facts, to suppose, that there are 
 intelligences in the regions of Jupiter or Saturn, whose visual 
 organs are in so perfect a state, that they can descry the 
 mountains of our moon, and the. continents, islands, and 
 oceans which diversify our globe, and are able to delineate a 
 map of its surface, to mark the period of its diurnal rotation, 
 and even to distinguish its cities, rivers, and volcanoes. It is 
 quite evident, that it must be equally easy to Divine Wisdom 
 and Omnipotence, to form organs with powers of vision far 
 surpassing \vhat I have now supposed, as to form an organ in 
 which the magnificent scene ot" heaven and earth is depicted, 
 in a moment, within the compass of half an inch. There are 
 animals whose range of vision is circumscribed within the 
 
VISUAL ORGANS OF ANIMALS. 103 
 
 limits of a few feet or inches ; and, had we never perceived 
 objects through an organ in the same state of perfection as that 
 with which we are furnished, we could have formed as little 
 conception of the sublimity and extent of our present range of 
 sight, as we can now do of those powers of vision, which 
 would enable us to descry the inhabitants of distant worlds. — 
 The invention of the telescope shows, that the penetrating 
 power of the eye may be indefinitely increased ; and, since 
 the art of man can extend the limits of natural vision, it is 
 easy to conceive, that, in the hand of Omnipotence, a slight 
 modification of the human feye might enable it, with the utniost 
 distinctness, to penetrate into regions to which the imagma- 
 tion can set no bounds. And, therefore, it is not unreasona- 
 ble to believe, that, in the future v/orkl, this will be one pro- 
 perty, among others, of the resurredion-hodij^ that it will be 
 furnished with organs of vision, far superior to the present, in 
 order to qualify its intelligent inhabitant for taking an ample 
 survey of the " riches and glory" of the empire of God. 
 
 I have dwelt somewhat particularly on the functions of the 
 eye, in order to show, that it is only when we take a minute 
 inspection of the operations of the Creator, that his Infinite 
 Wisdom and Intelligence are most distinctly perceived. The 
 greater part of Christians will readily admit, that the Wisdom 
 of God is manifested in every object, but few of them take the 
 trouble to inquire, in what jjarticidar contrivances and adapta- 
 tions this wisdom is displayed ; and, therefore, rest satisfied 
 with vague and general views, which seldom produce any deep 
 impression on the mind. " The works of the Lord," which 
 are " great" and admirable, " must he sought out by all those 
 who have pleasure therein ;" and the more minutely they are 
 inspected, the more exquisite and admirable do all his arrange- 
 ments appear. 
 
 Were we to enter into an mvestigation of the visual organs 
 of the lower animals, and to consider the numerous varieties 
 which occur in their structure, position and movements, and 
 how nicely the peculiar organization of the eye is adapted to 
 the general structure of the animal, and to its various necessi- 
 ties and modes of existence — the operation of the same inscru- 
 table Wisdom and Intelligence would meet our eye at every 
 step. Birds, for example, which procure their food by their 
 beak, have the power of seeing distinctly at a very small dis- 
 tance ; and, as their rapid motion through the air renders it 
 necessary that they should descry objects at a considerable 
 distance, they have two pecidiar mechanical contrivances, 
 connected with their organs of vision, for producing both these 
 
104 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 effects. One of these contrivances consists in a flexible rim^ 
 formed of bone, which surrounds the broadest part of the eye, 
 and, by occasionally pressing upon its orb, shortens its focal 
 distance, and thus enables it to inspect very near objects. — 
 The other consists of a peculiar muscle, which draws back, as 
 occasion requires, the crystalline humour, by which means it 
 can take a distinct view of a distant landscape ; and can pass 
 from the sight of a very near, to the sight of a distant object, 
 with rapidity and ease. In fishes, which live in a medium of a 
 different refractive power trom that of air, the crystalline hu- 
 mour has a greater degree of convexity, and more nearly ap- 
 proaches to a globular form than that of land animals — which 
 conformation is essentially requisite to distinctness of vision 
 in the watery element. A fish, of course, cannot see distinctly 
 in air, nor a quadruped under water ; and every person who 
 has dived into the water with his eyes open, knows, that, 
 though he may perceive the general forms and " colors of ob- 
 jects, his vision is obscure and indistinct. In hares and rab- 
 bits the eyes are very convex and prominent, so that they can 
 see nearly quite round them ; whereas, in dogs, which pursue 
 these animals, the visual organs are placed more in the front 
 of the head, to look rather before, than behind them. Some 
 animals, as cats and oivls, which pursue their prey in the dark, 
 have the pupil of their eye so formed as to be capable of great 
 expansion, so that a few rays of light may make a lively im- 
 pression on their retina ; while the eagle, which is able to look 
 directly at the sun, has its pupil capable of being contracted 
 almost to a point. Insects, such as the beetle, the fly, and the 
 butterfly, whose eyes are incapable of motion, have several 
 thousands of small transparent globes set in a convex hemis- 
 phere, every one of which is capable of forming an image of an 
 object ; so that they are enabled to view the objects around 
 them without moving their heads. But, it would be beyond 
 the limits of my plan to prosecute this subject any farther : 
 enough has already been stated, to show, that the eyes of men 
 and other animals are master-pieces of art, which far transcend 
 the human understanding ; and that they demonstrate the con- 
 summate wisdom of Him, who planned and constructed the 
 organical functions of the various tribes of animated existence. 
 
 I shall now conclude this branch of my subject, by present- 
 ing an instance or two of the meclianism of the bones, and the 
 movements it is fitted to produce. 
 
 The bones of the human frame are articulated, or connected 
 together in different ways, but most frequently in the following 
 manner. — Either, 1. a bone with a round head is articulated 
 
mechanisjm of the bones. 105 
 
 with a cavity, and plays in it as a ball in a socket ; or, 2. they 
 are connected together by a hinge-like articulation, which en- 
 ables a bone to move up or down, backwards or forwards, like 
 a door upon its hinges. An idea of these two motions, and 
 the purposes they serve, may be obtained, by considering the 
 construction of the pedestal of a telescope, and the joints on 
 which it moves. One of the joints is of the nature of a hinge, 
 by which a vertical motion, or a motion upwards and down- 
 wards is produced. A horizontal motion, or a motion towards 
 the right hand or the left, is produced by a pivot moving in a 
 socket ; so that, by these two motions, the telescope can be 
 made to point in any direction. Such is the nature of the ar- 
 ticulations of the bones, and the movements they produce ; and 
 wherever one or other of these motions, or both of them com- 
 bined, are requisite for the comfort and convenience of the in- 
 dividual, such a power of motion is uniformly found to exist. 
 If the movement of a joint in every direction Avould, in any 
 particular case, be found inconvenient, the hinge-like articu- 
 lation is fixed upon ; but if a motion, in every direction, is 
 required for the convenient use of particular members, and for 
 the variety of evolutions which a sentient being may have oc- 
 casion to make, the bail and socket articulation is combined 
 with the former. 
 
 For example, let any person, for a moment, consider the 
 joints of his fingers, and compare them with the joint at his 
 wrist, where the hand is connected with the fore arm. If he 
 hold the back of his hand upwards, he will find that he can 
 move his fingers upwards or downwards ; but he cannot turn 
 them to the right hand, or to the left, so as to make them de- 
 scribe a circular motion. He will also find that his ivrist is 
 capable of a similar movement, so that the hand may be bent 
 in a vertical direction. But, in addition to this motion, it is 
 also capable of being turned in a horizontal direction, or from 
 one side to another. In the former case, we have an example 
 of the hinge articulation ; in the latter, it is combined with an 
 articulation which produces nearly the same effect as a pivot 
 moving in a socket. Now, had the joints of the fingers been 
 capable of the same motions as the wrist, the hand would have 
 lost its firmness, and been incapable of performing a variety 
 of mechanical operations which require objects to be held 
 with a steady grasp. On the other hand, if the joint of the 
 wrist had been formed in the same manner as the joints of the 
 fingers, and confined to a vertical motion, the hand would have 
 been incapable of one out of a hundred varied movements, 
 which it can now perform with the greatest ease. In this 
 
 9* 
 
106 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 case, we could not have bored a hole with a gimblet, cut dowii 
 corn with a sickle, digged the earth with a spade, sewed clothes 
 with a needle, tossed up a ball, or turned up the palm of the 
 hand, for any of the useful purposes for which that motion was 
 ordained. In short, without the rotatory motion of the wrist, 
 the greater part of the operations connected with gardening, 
 agriculture, cookery, washing, spinning, weaving, painting, 
 carving, engraving, building, and other mechanical arts, could 
 not be performed ; and such of them as could be effected, 
 would be accomplished only with the greatest inconvenience 
 and labor. Any person may convince himself of this, by hold- 
 ing his hand in a horizontal position, and preventing his wrist- 
 joint from turning round, and then by trying what operations 
 he can easily perform without the rotatory motion ; and he 
 will soon perceive with what exquisite skill the numerous 
 movements of our animal frames have been contrived by the 
 great Author of our existence. In each hand there are 27 
 bones, all of which are essential to the different motions we 
 wish to perform. Every finger is composed of three bones, 
 connected together by articulations, muscles, and ligaments. 
 If, instead of three, each finger were composed of only one 
 bone, it would be quite impossible for us to grasp a single 
 object. 
 
 The same admirable contrivance may be perceived in the 
 movements of which the Head is susceptible. It was requi- 
 site, in order to our convenience and comfort, that we should 
 be enabled to move our head backwards or forwards — to look 
 up towards the heavens, or downwards to the ground. It was 
 also expedient, that it should have a power of turning to the 
 right, or to the left, so as to take in a considerable portion of 
 a circle, without being under the necessity of turning round 
 the whole body. Accordingly we find, that both these mo- 
 tions are provided for, in the manner in which the head is 
 connected with the t^erieftrce. The head rests upon the up- 
 permost of these bones, to which it is connected by a hinge 
 joint, similar to those in the fingers, which allows it to move 
 backward and forward ; and, by means of a round, longish 
 process, or projection, which moves in a socket, it is enabled 
 to move horizontally, as upon an axis. Had the first motion 
 been wanting, we could not have looked up to the zenith, 
 without laying flat on our back ; nor could we have looked to 
 the ground, without placing our bodies in a prone position ; 
 and, in such a case, we could never have seen our own feet, 
 unless when they were bent considerably forward. Had the 
 second motion been wanting, we could have looked to no- 
 
MECHANISM OF THE BONES. 107 
 
 thing, except the objects directly before us, ^v•ithout the trouble 
 of turning round the whole body, either to the right, or to the 
 left. But in the construction of our corporeal system, every 
 thing is so arranged and adapted to another, as at once to 
 contribute to ease, and facility of motion, in all the varied 
 operations and movements we have occasion to perform ; 
 which circumstance forcibly demonstrates both the benevo- 
 lent intentions, and the admirable wisdom of Him " whose 
 hands have made and fashioned us," and who " breathed into 
 our nostrils the breath of life." 
 
 The above are only two or three out of a hundred of 
 similar instances, which might be produced to show the 
 benevolent care which has been exercised in arranging and 
 articulating the system of bones, of which the prop-work of 
 the human frame is composed. Were we to enter into an 
 investigation of the actions and uses of the various muscles, 
 the wonderful system of veins and arteries, the action of the 
 heart, stomach, and bowels ; the process of respiration, and 
 insensible perspiration, and the system of nerves, glands, 
 lymphatics, and lacteals — a thousand instances of Divine 
 wisdom and beneficence would crowd upon our view, which 
 could not fail to excite the pious and contemplative mind to 
 join in the devotions of the " sweet singer of Israel," " I will 
 praise thee ; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made ; mar- 
 vellous are thy works, and that my soul knoweth right well." 
 — But as I intended to present only a few specimens of the 
 Wisdom of God, as displayed in the construction of the mate- 
 rial world, I shall conclude this department of my subject 
 with a single reflection.* 
 
 How foolish and ungraisful is it for rational heinp;s to over- 
 look the wise and benevolent arrangements of the Creator, in 
 the material universe ! How many thousands of human 
 beings pass their existence without once reflecting on the 
 numerous evidences of divine Wisdom and Beneficence, 
 which appear around them, or feeling the least spark of gra- 
 titude for their preservation and comforts, to that Being " in 
 whose hand their breath is, and whose are all their ways !" 
 Yea, how many are there who consider themselves as stand- 
 ing high in the ranks of the Christian profession, who afiect 
 
 * Those who wish to prosecute this subject, particularly that part of i* 
 which relates to the contrivances of Divine Wisdom, which appear in the 
 animal system, will find ample gratification in Nieuwentyt's " Religious 
 Philosopher," Vol. 1. and Dr. Paley's " Natural Theology." A variety 
 of useftd remarks on this subject will also be found in Ray's " Wisdom of 
 God in the Creation," Derham's " Physico-Theology," and Bonnet's 
 " Contemplation of Nature." 
 
108 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 to look down, with a certain degree of contempt, on the study 
 of the material works of God, as if it were too gross a subject 
 for their spiritual attainments ! They profess to trace the 
 wisdom of God in the Scriptures, and to feel gratitude for his 
 pardoning mercy ; but they seldom feel that gratitude which 
 they ought to do for those admirable arrangements in their 
 own bodies, and the elements around them, by which their 
 lives are preserved, and their happiness promoted ; and even 
 seem to insinuate, that they have little or nothing to do with 
 the contrivances of the God of Nature. They leave it to the 
 genius of inhdel philosophers to trace the articulations of the 
 bones, the branchings of the veins and arteries, the properties 
 of light, and the composition of the atmosphere, while they 
 profess to feast their minds on more sublime and spiritual en- 
 tertainments. But, surely, such astonishing displays of the 
 wisdom and benignity of the Most High, as creation exhibits, 
 were never intended to be treated by his intelligent offspring 
 with apathy or indifference ; and to do so, must indicate a 
 certain degree of base ingratitude towards Him whose inces- 
 sant energy sustains the whole assemblage of sentient and 
 intelligent beings, and who displays himself, in their construc- 
 tion and preservation, to be " wonderful in counsel, and ex- 
 cellent in working." Shall we imagine, that, because God 
 stands in the gracious relation of our Redeemer, he has ceased 
 to stand in the relation of our Creator and Preserver? 0- 
 shall we consider those subjects as unworthy of our attention, 
 which are the theme of the praises of the heavenly host ? — 
 Rev. iv. 11. Can we suppose that the Almighty displayed 
 his infinite wisdom in the curious organization of the human 
 eye, that man — the only being in this world who is endowed 
 with faculties capable of appreciating its structure, and for 
 whose use and entertainment it was intended — should over- 
 look such a wonderful piece of Divine workmanship, and feel 
 no gratitude for the bestowment of so admirable a gift ? Shall 
 we extol the ingenuity displayed in a clock or a watch, in a 
 chess-player, or steam engine, and shall we feel no sentiment 
 of admiration at the view of millions of instances of Divine 
 mechanism, which infinitely transcend the powers of the human 
 understanding ? To act in this manner, as too many are dis- 
 posed to do, is unworthy of man^ both as a Christian and as 
 an intelligent agent. Such was not the conduct of the inspired 
 writers ; their spirituality of views did not lead them to neglect 
 the contemplation of any of the worlds of God. " I will me- 
 ditate on all thy works," says the Psalmist, " and talk of all 
 thy doings ; I will utter abundantly the memory of thy great 
 
MORAL REFLECTIONS. 109 
 
 goodness, and speak of all thy wondrous works." Accord- 
 ingly we find, that the wonders of the human frame, the eco- 
 nomy of the animal and the vegetable tribes, the scenery of 
 the " dry land," and of the " mighty deep," and the glories 
 of the heavens, were the frequent subjects of their devout 
 contemplation. They considered them in relation to the un- 
 ceasing agency of God, by whom they were formed and ar- 
 ranged, and as declaring his Wisdom, Goodness, and Omnipo- 
 tence ; and, with this view, ought all the scenes of the visible 
 creation to be investigated by his intelligent creatures. 
 
 We have reason to beheve, that it is owing, in part, to want 
 of attention to the Divine wisdom and beneficence, as exhibit- 
 ed in the construction of the visible world, that many profess- 
 ed Christians entertain so vague and confused ideas respect- 
 ing the wisdom and goodness of Deity, as displayed in the 
 economy of Uedomption. The terms. Wisdom, Goodness, 
 and Beneficence, in their mouths, become words almost with- 
 out meaning, to which no precise or definite ideas are attach- 
 ed ; because they have never considered the instances and the 
 evidences of these attributes, as displayed in the material 
 creation. And, if our minds have not been impressed with a 
 sense of the wisdom and beneficence of God, in those objects 
 which are presented to the external senses, we cannot be sup- 
 posed to have luminious and distinct ideas of those spiritual 
 objects and arrangements which are removed beyond the 
 sphere of our corporeal organs. — For all our ideas, in relation 
 to Religion and its objects, are primarily derived from the in- 
 timations we receive of external objects, through the medium 
 of our senses ; and, consequently, the more clearly we per- 
 ceive the agency of God, in his visible operations, the more 
 shall we be quaiilied to perceive the wisdom and harmony of 
 his dispensations, as recorded in the volume of inspiration. 
 
 We live in a world, ail the arrangements of which are the 
 effects of inlinite wisdom. We are surrounded with vvonders 
 on every hand ; and, therefore, we cease to admire, or to fix 
 our attention on any one of the wonders daily performed by 
 God. We have never been accustomed to contemplate, or 
 to inhabit a world where benevolence and wisdom are not 
 displayed ; and, therefore, we are apt to imagine, that the cir- 
 cumstances of our terrestrial existence could not have been 
 much otherwise than they actually are. We behold the sun 
 in the morning, ascending from the east — a thousand shining 
 globes are seen in the canopy of the sky, when he has disap- 
 peared in the west. We open our eye-lids, and the myriads 
 of objects which compose an extensive landscape, are, in a 
 
110 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 moment, painted on our retina, — we wish to move our bodies, 
 and, in an instant, the joints and muscles of our hands and 
 feet perform their several functions. We spread out our wet 
 clothes to dry, and in a few hours the moisture is evaporated. 
 We behold the fields drenched with rain, and in a few days it 
 disappears, and is dispersed through the surrounding atmo- 
 sphere, to be again embodied into clouds. These are all com- 
 mon operations, and, therefore, thoughtless and ungrateful man 
 seldom considers the obhgations he is under to the Author of 
 his existence, for the numerous enjo;yTnents which flow from 
 these wise arrangements > But were the globe we inhabit, and 
 all its appendages to remain in their present state — and were 
 only the principle of evaporation and the refractive and refect- 
 ive iwoperties of the air to be destroyed — we should soon 
 feel, by the universal gloom which would ensue, and by a 
 thousand other inconveniences we should suffer, what a mi- 
 serable world was allotted for our abode. We should most 
 sensibly perceive the wisdom and goodness we had formerly 
 overlooked, and would most ardently implore the restoration 
 of those arrangements for which we were never sufficiently 
 grateful. And why should we not now — while we enjoy so 
 many comforts flowing from the plans of infinite Wisdom — 
 have our attention directed to the benevolent contrivances 
 within us, and around us, in order that grateful emotions may 
 be hourly arising in our hearts, to the Father of our spirits ? 
 For the essence of true religion consists chiefly in gratiinde 
 to the God of our life, and the Author of our salvation ; and 
 every pleasing sensation we feel from the harmonies and the 
 beauties of nature, ought to inspire us with this sacred emotion. 
 " Hearken unto this, man ! stand still, and consider the won- 
 derful works of God. Contemplate the balancings of the clouds 
 the wondrous works of Him who is perfect in knowledge." 
 " He hath made the earth by his power, he hath established the 
 world by his wisdom. When he uttereth his voice, there is a 
 noise of waters in the heavens ; he causeth the vapours to as- 
 cend from the ends of the earth, and bringeth the winds out of 
 his treasures." While it is shameful for man to be inattentive to 
 the wonders which surround him,whatcan be more pleasing and 
 congenial to a rational and devout mind, than contemplations on 
 the works of the Most High ? "What can be more gratifying,-' 
 says Sturm, "than to contemplate, in the heavens, in the earth, 
 in the water, in the night and day, and, indeed, throughout all 
 nature, the proofs which they afford of the wisdom, the purity, 
 and the goodness of our great Creator and Preserver ! What 
 can be more delightful than to recognize, in the whole crea- 
 
BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY. Ill 
 
 tion, in all the natural world, in every thing we see, traces of 
 the ever-working providence, and tender mercy of the great 
 Father of all !» 
 
 —soloes 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 On the Goodness, or Benevolence of the Deity. 
 
 The Benevolence of God is that perfection of his nature, 
 by which he communicates happiness to the various ranks of 
 sensitive and intelHgent existence. 
 
 The system of Nature, in all its parts, exhibits an unbound- 
 ed display of this attribute of the Divine Mind, both in rela- 
 tion to man, and in relation to the subordinate tribes of anima- 
 ted existence. In relation to Man — the mpcgniiicence and 
 glory of the heavens — the variegated coloring which is spread 
 over the scene of nature — the beautiful flowers, shrubs, and 
 trees, with which the earth is adorned, which not only delight 
 the eye, but perfume the air with their delicious odors — the 
 various kinds of agreeable sounds that charm the ear — the 
 music of the feathered songsters, which till the groves with 
 their melody — the thousands of pleasant images which delight 
 the eye, in the natural embellishments of creation — the agree- 
 able feelings produced by the contact of almost every thing 
 we have occasion to touch — the pleasure attached to eating, 
 drinking, muscular motion and activity — the luxuriant profu- 
 sion, and rich variety of aliments which the earth atfords — and 
 the interchanges of thought and affection — all proclaim the 
 Benevolence of our Almighty Maker, and show that the com- 
 munication of happiness is one grand object of all his arrange- 
 ments. For these circumstances are not essentialhj requisite 
 to our existence. We might have lived, and breathed, and 
 walked, though every thing we touched had produced pain ; 
 though every thing we ate and drank had been bitter ; though 
 every movement of our hands and feet had been accompanied 
 with uneasiness and fatigue ; though every sound had been 
 as harsh as the saw of the carpenter ; though no birds had 
 warbled in the groves ; though no flowers had decked the 
 fields, or filled the air with their perfumes ; though one un- 
 varied scene of dull uniformity had prevailed, and beauty and 
 sublimity had been swept from the face of nature ; though the 
 earth had been covered with a mantle of black, and no radiant 
 orbs had appeared in our nocturnal sky. But what a misera- 
 
112 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 ble world should we then have inhabited, compared with that 
 which we now possess ! Life would have passed away with- 
 out enjoyment ; and pain would have overbalanced the plea- 
 sure of existence. Whereas, in the existing constitution of 
 things, all the objects around us, and every sense of which 
 we are possessed, when preserved in its natural vigor, have a 
 direct tendency to produce pleasing sensations, and to con- 
 tribute to our enjoyment : and it is chiefly when we indulge 
 in foolish and depraved passions, and commit immoral ac- 
 tions, that the benevolent intentions of the Deity are frus- 
 trated, and pain and misery produced. 
 
 If we consider, further, that the inexhaustable bounty of the 
 Creator, and the numerous pleasures we enjoy, are bestowed 
 upon a guilty race of men, the benevolence of the Deity will 
 appear in a still more striking point of view. Man has dared 
 to rebel against his Maker ; he is a depraved and ungrateful 
 creature. The great majority of our race have banished God 
 from their thoughts, trampled upon his laws, neglected to con- 
 template his Avorks, refused to pay him that tribute of rever- 
 ence and adoration which his perfections demand, have been 
 ungrateful for his favours, have blasphemed his name, and 
 have transferred to " four-footed beasts, and creeping things," 
 that homage which is due to him alone. It has been the chief 
 part of their employment, in all ages, to counteract the effects 
 of his Beneficence, by inflicting injustice, oppression, and tor- 
 ture, upon each other ; by maiming the human frame, burning 
 cities and villa2;es, turning fruitful fields into a wilderness, and 
 by every other act of violence, carrying death and destruction 
 through the world. And if icaier, air, and the light of heaven, 
 had been placed within the limits of their control, it is more 
 than probable, that whole nations would have been occasion- 
 ally deprived of these elements, so essential to human exis- 
 tence. Yet, notwithstanding the prevalence of such deprav- 
 ed dispositions, the streams of Divine benevolence towards 
 our apostate race, have never yet been interrupted. The 
 earth has never stopped in its career, and thrown nature into a 
 scene of confusion ; the light of heaven has never ceased to 
 illume the world ; the springs of water have never been dried 
 up, nor has the fertile soil ceased to enrich the plains with 
 golden harvests. God " hath not left himself without a wit- 
 ness," to his beneficence, in any age, in that he hath unceas- 
 ingly bestowed on the inhabitants of the world, " rain from 
 heaven, and fruitful seasons, filling their hearts with food and 
 gladness." This is one of the characters of Deity which 
 forms the most perfect contrast to the selfish and revengeful 
 
BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY. 113 
 
 liispositions of man, which as far transcends human benevo- 
 lence, as the heavens in extent surpass the earth — a character 
 calculated to excite our highest love and admiration, and which 
 we are called upon, in the Sacred Oracles, to imitate and re- 
 vere. " Be ye merciful, as your Father who is in heaven is 
 merciful : for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the 
 good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust." " O 
 that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, and for his 
 wonderful works to the children of men." 
 
 From such considerations, we learn, even from the system 
 of nature, that mercy is an attribute of the Deity ; for ,if mercy 
 consists in bestowing favors on those who are unworthy, or 
 who merit punishment, the greatest sinners in all ages have 
 shared in it, and every individual of the human race, now ex- 
 isting, enjoys a certain portion of those comforts which flow 
 from the benevolent arrangements which the Creator has es- 
 tablished. " He maketh the sun to rise on the evil and on the 
 good." Though the nations in ancient times, as well as at 
 present, " walked in their own way," indulging in impiety, 
 falsehood, lewdness, war, devastations, revenge, abominable 
 idolatries, and every other violation of his law, he still support- 
 ed the functions of their animal frames, and caused the influ- 
 ence of the sun, the rains, and the dews, to descend upon 
 their fields, that they might be refreshed with his bounty, and 
 filled " with food and gladness." If mercy were not an es- 
 sential attribute of the Deity, he would have cut them down 
 in the midst of their first transgressions, shattered to pieces 
 the globe on which they dwelt, and buried them in eternal ob- 
 livion. But whether Divine mercy will extend to the final for- 
 giveness of sin, and the communication of eternal happiness 
 to such beings,, can be learned only from the discoveries of 
 revelation. 
 
 In relation to the inferior animals — the immense multitud-e 
 of living creatures with which the earth is replenished, is a 
 striking evidence of the vast profusion of Divine Benefi- 
 cence. More than a hundred thousand species of animated 
 beings are dispersed through ihe different regions of the air, 
 the water, and the earth, besides myriads which are invisible 
 to the unassisted eye. To estimate the number of individuals 
 belonging to any one species is beyond the power of mane — 
 What countless myiiads of herrings, for example, are contained 
 in a single shoal, which is frequently more than six miles long 
 and three miles broad ! To estimate the number of individu- 
 als in all the different species would, therefore, be as impossi- 
 ^\e as to count the grains of sand in the Arabian deserts. — 
 
 10 
 
114 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 There is not a single spot, in any region of the globe, but 
 what teems with animated beings. Yet, all this vast assem- 
 blage of sensitive existence is amply provided for by the 
 bountiful Creator. " These all wait upon him, and he giveth 
 them their meat in due season." They enjoy not only life, 
 but also a hapjnj existence. The sportive motions, and gesti- 
 culations of all the anin-ial tribes — the birds skimming through 
 the air, warbling in the groves, and perching on the trees — the 
 beasts of the field, bounding in the forests, and through the lawns 
 — the fishes sporting in the waters — the reptiles wriggling in 
 the dust, and the winged insects, by a thousand wanton mazes 
 — all declare that they are rejoicmg in their existence, and in 
 the exercise ot those powers with which the Creator has fur- 
 nished them. So that wherever we turn our eyes, we evident- 
 ly perceive, that " the earth is full of the goodness of the 
 Lord," and that " his tender mercies are over all his works." 
 
 This subject is boundless — but it would be inconsistent with 
 the hmited plan of this work, to enter into a.ny particular details. 
 And it is the less necessary, when we consider, that every in- 
 stance of Divine Wisdom is, at the same time, an instance of 
 benevolence ; for it is the ultimate object of all the wise contri- 
 vances in the system of Nature, that happiness may be com- 
 municated to the various ranks of sensitive and intelligent ex- 
 istence. Goodness chooses the end, and wisdom selects the 
 most proper means for its accomplishment ; so that these two 
 attributes must always be considered in simultaneous opera- 
 tion. And, therefore, the instances I have already specified, 
 of the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Creator, may also be 
 considered, as exemplifications of Divine Benevolence. — I 
 shall, therefore, conclude this topic with the following extract 
 from Dr. Paley : — 
 
 " Contrivance proves design ; and the prominent tendency 
 of the contrivance, indicates the disposition of the designer. 
 The world abounds with contrivances ; and all the contrivan- 
 ces we are acquainted with, are directed to beneficial purposes. 
 Evil, no doubt, exists ; but it is never, that we can perceive, 
 the object of contrivance. Teeth are contrived to eat, not to 
 ache ; their aching now and then, is incidental to the contri- 
 vance, perhaps inseparable from it : or even, if you will, let it 
 be called a defect in the contrivance, but it is not the object of 
 it. This is a distinction which well deserves to be attended 
 to. In describing implements of husbandry, you will hardly 
 say of a sickle, that it is made to cut the reaper's fingers, 
 though from the construction of the instrument, and the man- 
 ner of using it, this miscliief often happens. Bat if you had 
 
BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY. 115 
 
 occasion to describe instruments of torture or execution, this, 
 you would saj, is to extend the sinews ; this to dislocate the 
 joints ; this to break the bones ; this to scorch the soles of the 
 feet. Here pain and misery are the very objects of the contri- 
 vance. Now nothing of this sort is to be found in the works 
 of nature. We never discover a train of contrivance to bring 
 about an evil purpose. No anatomist ever discovered a sys- 
 tem of organization calculated to produce pain and disease ; 
 or, in explaining the parts of the human body, ever said, this is 
 to irritate ; this to inflame ; this duct is to convey the gravel 
 io the kidneys ; this gland to secrete the humor which forms 
 ihe gout. If, by chance, he come at a part of which he knows 
 not the use, the most he can say is, that it is useless ; no one 
 ever suspects that it is put there to incommode, to annoy, or 
 torment. Since, then, G-od hath called forth his consummate 
 wisdom to contrive and provide for our happiness, and the 
 world appears to have been constituted with this design at 
 first, so long as this constitution is upheld by him, we must, in 
 reason, suppose the same design to continue."— Pa/e?/'5 JWo- 
 ral Philosophy, Book II. Chap. 5. 
 
 Thus, I have endeavored, in this and the preceding section, 
 to exhibit a few specimens of the Wisdom and Goodness of 
 God, in the system of nature. These might have been multi- 
 plied to an indefinite extent, but the instances adduced, I pre- 
 sume, are sufficient to show, that the economy of the material 
 world is not altogether a barren subject, to a pious and con- 
 templative mind. Every intelligent believer in Revelation, 
 will readily admit, that it would be a highly desirable object, to 
 induce upon the mass of Christians such a habit of devout at- 
 tention to the visible works of creation, as would lead them, in 
 their social and solitary walks, to recognize the agency of God, 
 in every object they behold ; to raise their thoughts to Him as 
 the Great First Cause, and to expand their hearts with emo- 
 tions of gratitude. How very different must be the senti- 
 ments and the piety of the man who looks on the scene of 
 wisdom and magnificence around him, with a " brute uncon- 
 scious gaze," as thousands of professed Christians do — and 
 the grateful and pious emotions of him who recognizes the be- 
 nevolent agency of God, in the motions of his fingers, and his 
 eye-balls ; in the pulsation of his heart ; in the picture of ex- 
 ternal objects, every moment formed on his retina ; in the re- 
 flection of the rays of light, and the diversified colors they pro- 
 duce ; in the drying of his clothes ; in the constitution of the 
 atmosphere ; in the beauty and magnificence of the earth and 
 the heavens ; and in every other object that meets his eye, in 
 
116 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 the expanse of nature ! The numberless astonishing instances 
 of Divine agency, which every where present themselves to 
 our view in the scene around us, seem evidently intended to 
 arrest the mind to a consideration of an " ever-present Dei- 
 ty ;" and I envy not the sentiments or the feelings of that man 
 who imagines, that he stands in no need of such sensible me- 
 diums, to impress his mind with a sense of the benevolent care 
 and omnipresence of God. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CONTAINING A CURSORY VIEW OF SOME OF THE SCIENCES 
 
 WHICH ARE RELATED TO RELIGION AND 
 
 CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY. 
 
 Theology has generally been viewed as a study of a very 
 limited range : and, hence, when it has been admitted into the 
 circle of the sciences, a much smaller space has been allotted 
 for its discussion, than has been devoted to almost any other 
 department of human knowledge. When considered, how- 
 ever, in its most extensive sense — in its relations to the Divine 
 Being — to his past and present dispensations towards the hu- 
 man race — to the present circumstances, and the future des- 
 tiny of man — and to the physical and moral condition of all 
 the sentient and intelligent beings of which we have any inti- 
 mation — it ought to be viewed as the most varied and com- 
 prehensive of all the sciences ; as embracing, within its ex- 
 tensive grasp, all the other departments of useful knowledge, 
 both human and divine. As it has God for its object, it must 
 include a knowledge of the universe he has formed — of the 
 movements which are continually going on throughout the 
 wide extent of his empire, in so far as they lie open to our in- 
 spection — of the attributes which appear to be displayed in all 
 his operations — of the moral laws he has framed for the regu- 
 lation of holy intelhgences — of the merciful arrangements he 
 has made for the restoration of fallen man — of the plans by 
 which the knowledge of his will is to be circulated and exten- 
 ded in the world in which we live — of the means by which 
 truth, and moral purity, and order, are to be promoted among 
 our apostate race, in order to their restoration to the happiness 
 they have lost — together with all those diversified ramifications 
 of knowledge, which have either a more remote, or a more im- 
 mediate bearing on the grand object now specified. Like the 
 lines which proceed from the circumference to the centre of 
 
 10* 
 
118 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 an immense circle — all the moral* arts and sciences which 
 have been invented by men — every department of human 
 knowledge, however far it may, at first sight, appear to be re- 
 moved from religion — may be considered as having a direct 
 bearing on Theology, as the grand central point, and as hav- 
 ing a certain tendency to promote its important objects. 
 
 It is much to be regretted, that Theology has so seldom 
 been contemplated in this point of view — and that the sciences 
 have been considered rather as so many independent branches 
 of secular knowledge, than as subservient to the elucidation 
 of the facts and doctrines of religion, and to the accomplish- 
 ment of its benevolent designs. Hence, it has happened, 
 that Philosophy and ReHgion, instead of marching hand in hand 
 to the portals of immortality, have frequently set themselves in 
 hostile array ; and combats have ensued equally injurious to 
 the interests of both parties. The Philosopher has occasion- 
 ally been disposed to investigate the economy of nature, 
 without a reference to the attributes of that Almighty Being 
 who presides over its movements, as if the universe were a 
 .'•clf-moving and independent machine ; and has, not unfre- 
 quently taken occasion, from certain obscure and insolated 
 facts, to throw out insinuations hostile to the truth and the 
 character of the Christian Revelation. The Theologian, on 
 the other hand, in the heat of his intemperate zeal against 
 the infidel philosopher, has, ungardedly, been led to declaim 
 against the study of science, as if it were unfriendly to reli- 
 gion — has, in effect, set the works of God in opposition to 
 his word — has confounded the foolish theories of speculafive 
 minds with the rational study of the works of Deity — and has 
 thus prevented the mass of mankind from expanding their 
 minds, by the contemplation of the beauties and sublimities of 
 nature. 
 
 It is now high time that a complete reconciliation were 
 effected between these contending parties. Religion ought 
 never to disdain to derive her supports and illustrations from 
 the researches of science ; for the investigations of philoso- 
 phy into the economy of Nature, from whatever motives they 
 may be undertaken, are nothing else than an inquiry into the 
 plans and operations of the Eternal Mind. And Philosophy 
 ought always to consider it as her highest honor, to walk as an 
 
 * The epithet inoral is here used in its application to arts, because there 
 are certain arts which must be considered as having an immoral tendency, 
 such as, the art of war, the art of boxing, of gambUug, &c. &c. and which, 
 therefore, cannot have a direct tendency to promote the objects of reli 
 gion. 
 
INTRODUCTION OF THE SCIENCES. 119 
 
 handmaid in the train of that rehgion which points out the 
 path to the regions of eternal bhss. By their mutual aid, and 
 the subserviency of the one to the other, the moral and intel- 
 lectual improvement of man will be promoted, and the bene- 
 volent purposes of God, in the kingdom of providence, grad- 
 ually accomplished. But when set in opposition to each other, 
 the human mind is bewildered and retarded in its progress, and 
 the Deity is apt to be considered as set in opposition to him- 
 self — as proclaiming one system of doctrines from the econo- 
 my of revelation, and another, and an opposite system, from 
 the economy of nature. But if the Christian Revelation, and 
 the system of the material world derived their origin from the 
 same Almighty Being, the most complete harmony must sub- 
 sist between the revelations they respectively unfold ; and the 
 apparent inconsistencies which occur, must be owning chiefly 
 to the circumstances of our present station in the universe, 
 and to the obscure and limited views we are obliged to take of 
 some of the grand and diversified objects they embrace. And, 
 therefore, we have reason to believe that, when the system of 
 nature shall be more extensively explored, and the leading 
 objects of revelation contemplated in a clearer light, without 
 being tinged with the false coloring of party opinions and 
 contracted views, and when rational inquirers shall conduct 
 their researches with a greater degree of reverence, humility, 
 and Christian temper — the beauty and harmony of all the 
 plans and revelations of the Deity, in reference both to the 
 physical and the moral world, will be more distinctly perceived 
 and appreciated. 
 
 In the following cursory sketches, it forms no part of my 
 plan to trace even an outline of the different sciences which are 
 connected with religion, much less to enter into any particular 
 details, in relation to their facts and principles. It would be 
 comparatively easy to fill up the remaining sheets of this vol- 
 ume with skeletons of the different sciences ; but such mea- 
 gre details as behooved to be brought forward, could not be 
 interesting to the general reader, and would fail in accomplish- 
 ing the object proposed. My design simply is, to select some 
 leading facts, or general truths, in relation to some of the phy- 
 sical sciences, for the purpose of showing their connection 
 with the objects of religion and the interests of rational piety. 
 At the same time, such definite descriptions will be given as 
 will enable common readers to appreciate the objects and 
 bearings of the different branches of knowledge which may be 
 presented to their view. 
 
120 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER, 
 
 '^he first science* I shall notice is, that of 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 This science, taken in its most comprehensive sense, in- 
 cludes a knowledge and description of all the known facts in 
 the material universe. 
 
 It is to be regretted, that most books published under the 
 title of A^atural History^ to which common readers have ac- 
 cess, contain nothing more than a general description of ani- 
 mals, as if this science were confined merely to one class of 
 beings ; whereas there is an infinite variety of other objects 
 seldom noticed, which would appear no less interesting, and, 
 in some instances, much more novel and gratifying to the gene- 
 ral reader, and to the youthful mind. All the diversified forms 
 of matter, whether existing on the surfiice or in the bowels of 
 the earth, in the ocean, the atmosphere, or in the heavens, 
 form the legitimate objects of this department of the science 
 of nature. 
 
 Were we, therefore, to sketch a comprehensive outline of 
 the subjects of Natural History, we might, in the first place, 
 take a cursory survey of the globe we inhabit, in reference to 
 its magnitude, figure, motions, and general arrangements — the 
 form, relations, and extent of its continents — the numerous 
 islands which diversify the surface of the ocean — the magni 
 tude, the direction, and the extent of its rivers, and the quan- 
 tity of water they pour into the ocean — the direction, elevation, 
 and extent of the different ranges of mountains which rise from 
 its surface — the plains, morasses, lakes, forests, dells, and 
 sandy deserts, which diversify its aspect — the extent, the mo- 
 tions, the color, and the different aspects of the ocean, and the 
 facts which have been ascertained respecting its saitness, its 
 depth, its bottom, and its different currents. We might next 
 take a more particular view of some of the most remarkable 
 objects on its surface, and give a detail of the facts which are 
 known respecting the history of volcanoes — their number — 
 the countries in which they are situated — the awful pheno- 
 mena they exhibit — and the devastations they have produced : 
 
 * The term science, in its most general and extensive sense, signifies 
 knowledge, particularly that species of knowledge which is acquired by the 
 exertion of the human faculties. In a more restricted sense, it denotes, a 
 systematic species of knowledge, which consists of rule and order, such as 
 Mathematics, Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, &c. — In the discussions 
 contained in this work, it is used in its most general sense, as denoting the 
 various departments of human knowledge, in which sense, history, both* 
 natural, civil, and sacred, may be termed scietice. 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 121 
 
 the history of earthquakes, then- phenomena and effects, and 
 the countries most subject to their ravages — basahic and 
 rocky wonders, natural bridges, precipices, cataracts, ice 
 islands, icebergs, glaciers, whirlpools, mineral wells, recipro- 
 cating fountains, boiling springs, sulphuric mountains, bitu- 
 minous lakes, volcanic islands — the various aspects of nature 
 ni the different zones, and the contrasts presented between 
 the verdant scenes of tropical climes, and the icy cliffs of the 
 polar regions. We would next take a survey of the subter- 
 raneous wonders which lie beneath the surface of the earth — - 
 the immense chasms and caverns which wind in various direc- 
 tions among the interior strata of our globe — such as the 
 Great Kentucky cavern, and the grotto of Antiparos — the 
 mines of salt, coal, copper, lead, diamond, iron, quicksilver, 
 tin, gold, and silver — ^the substances which compose the vari- 
 ous strata, the fossil bones, shells, and petrifactions which are 
 embedded in the different layers, and the bendings and dis- 
 ruptions which appear to have taken place in the substances 
 which compose the exterior crust of the earth. We might 
 next survey the atmosphere with which the earth is environed, 
 and give a detail of the facts which have been ascertained 
 respecting its specific gravity and pressure, the elementary 
 principles of which it is compounded, its refractive and reflect- 
 ive powers, and the phenomena which result from its various 
 properties and modifications — the meteors which appear in its 
 different regions — thunder and lightning, winds, hail, rain, 
 clouds, rainbows ; parhelias or mock-suns, meteoric stones, 
 the aurora borealis, luminous arches, ignes fatui, the mirage, 
 the fata morgana, hurricanes, monsoons, whirlwinds and wa- 
 terspouts, sounds and echoes. 
 
 In prosecuting our survey of sublunary nature, we would 
 next advert to the various orders of the vegetable tribes — their 
 anatomical structure — the circulation of their juices — the food 
 by which they are nourished — the influence of light and air 
 on their growth and motions — their male and female organs — 
 their periods of longevity — their modes of propagation — their 
 diseases and dissolution — their orders, genera, and species — 
 their immense variety— their influence on the salubrity of the 
 atmosphere — the relation which their roots, leaves, and fruits 
 bear to the wants of man and other animals, in supplying food, 
 clothing, and materials for constructing habitations — the gums 
 and resinous substances they exude — the odors they exhale — 
 the variety of colors they exhibit — the vast diversity of forms 
 in which they appear — and the beauty and variety which thev 
 spread over the whole face of nature 
 
123 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 The mineral kingdom would next require to be surveyed. 
 We would inquire into the facts which have been ascertained 
 respecting the earthijy saline, injiammahh, and metallic sub- 
 stances which are found on the surface and in the bowels of 
 the earth — their specific and distinguishing characters — the 
 elementary principles, or simple substances, of which they are 
 composed — the regions of the earth where the respective 
 minerals most frequently abound — and the ends which they 
 are designed to accomplish in the constitution of the globe. 
 We would consider, more particularly, the various metals, 
 such as iron, copper, lead, tin, gold, silver, bismuth, zinc, &c. 
 in reference to the substances with which they are united in 
 their native ores — the changes produced upon them by the 
 action of oxygen and the different acids — their combustibility 
 — their combination with phosphorus, sulphur, and carbon ; 
 and various compounds into which they may be formed — their 
 important uses in the arts which minister to the comfort and 
 embellishment of human life — their relation to the multifarious 
 necessities of man — and the wisdom and goodness of the 
 Creator, as displayed in their arrangement in the bowels of 
 the earth, and in the admirable properties of which they are 
 possessed. In these details, the natural history o? Iron would 
 hold a prominent place. In point of tdilify, it claims the high- 
 est rank in the class of metals, and is intrinsically more valua 
 ble than gold and silver, and all the diamonds of the East. — 
 There is scarcely a mineral substance in the whole compass 
 of nature, which affords a more striking instance of the bene- 
 ficial and harmonious adaptq,tion of things in the universal sys- 
 tem. We would, therefore, consider it in reference to its vast 
 abundance in all parts of the world — the numerous substances 
 into which it enters into combination — its magnetical property 
 — its capability of being fused and welded — the numerous 
 useful utensils it has been the means of producing — its agency 
 in carrying forward improvements in art and science, in the 
 civilization of barbarous tribes, and in promoting the progress 
 of the human mind ; and the aids which it affords to the Chris- 
 tian missionary in heathen lands. 
 
 Having surveyed the inanimate parts of the terraqueous 
 globe, and its appendages, we might next direct our attention 
 to the animated tribes with which it is peopled. Beginning 
 at JVIan, the head of the animal creation, we would detail the 
 principal facts which have been ascertained respecting his 
 structure and organical functions — the muscular movements 
 of the human body, the system of bones, nerves, veins, and 
 arteries ; the process of respiration ; and the organs of vision* 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 1Z6 
 
 hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling, by which he holds a 
 correspondence with the material world — the moditications 
 which appear in his corporeal frame and in his mental facul- 
 ties, during the periods of infancy, puberty, manhood, and old 
 age — the causes and phenomena of sleep and dreaming — the 
 varieties of the human race, in respect of color, stature, and 
 features — the deviations from the ordinary course of nature, 
 which occasionally occur, in the case of monsters, dwarfs, and 
 giants — the moral and intellectual faculties — and those distin- 
 guishing characteristics which prove the superiority of man 
 over the other tribes of animated nature. 
 
 The inferior ranks of the animal creation would next demand 
 our attention. We would take a survey of the numerous tribes 
 of Quadrupeds, Birds, Fishes, Serpents, Lizards, and Insects, 
 in reference to the characteristic marks by which the diilerent 
 species are distinguished, — their food, and habitations — the 
 different modes in which they display their architective faculty, 
 in constructing places of abode for shelter and protection — 
 the clothing with which they are furnished — their sagacity in 
 finding out the proper means for subsistence and self-preser- 
 vation — their hostilities — their artifices in catching their prey, 
 and escaping their enemies — their modes of propagation — 
 their transformations from one state and form to another — 
 their migrations to different countries and climates — their 
 various instincts — their care in rearing and protecting their 
 young — their passions, mental characters, and social disposi- 
 tions — their language, or modes of communication with each 
 other — their capacities for instruction and improvement — 
 their different powers of loco-motion — the adaptation of ali 
 their organs to the purposes for which they seem intended — 
 the indications they give of being possessed of moral disposi- 
 i tions and rational powers — their ditlerent periods of longevity, 
 I and the ends which they are intended to subserve in the system 
 I of nature. Along with these details, certain views might be 
 i exhibited of the various forms of sensitive life, and modes of 
 I existence, v/hich obtain in those numerous species of animals 
 I which are invisible to the naked eye, and which tiie microscope 
 discovers in almost every department of nature. 
 ] Having surveyed the objects which compose our sublunary 
 I system, we would next direct our view to the regions of the 
 I sky, and contemplate the facts which have been discovered 
 I in relation to the celestial orbs. We would first attend to the 
 apparent motion of the sun, the different points of the horizon 
 at which he seems to rise and set, and the different degrees of 
 : elevation to which he arrives, at different seasons of the year. 
 
124 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 — the different aspects he presents as viewed from different 
 parts of the earth's surface, and the different lengths of days 
 and nights in different parts of the world. We would next 
 attend to the varied phases of the moon — the direct and re- 
 trograde motions of the planets — the apparent diurnal motion 
 of the whole celestial sphere, from east to west — and the dif- 
 ferent clusters of stars which are seen in our nocturnal sky, 
 at different seasons of the year. We would next consider the 
 deductions which science has made, respecting the order and 
 arrangement of the planets which compose the solar system 
 — their distances from the sun, and from the earth — their 
 magnitudes — the periods of their diurnal and annual revolu- 
 tions — the secondary planets, or moons, which accompany 
 them — their eclipses — the various phenomena which their 
 surfaces present when viewed through telescopes — the phy- 
 sical influence which some of them produce on the surface of 
 our globe — and the singular appearance of those bodies called 
 Comets, which occasionally visit this part of our system. We 
 would, in the next place, extend our views to the starry re- 
 gions, and consider the number of stars which present them- 
 selves to the naked eye — the immensely greater numbers 
 which are discovered by telescopes — the systems into which 
 they appear to be arranged — the facts which have been ascer- 
 tained respecting neio stars — double and treble stars — stars 
 once visible, which have now disappeared from the heavens — 
 variable stars, whose lustre is increased and diminished at 
 different periods of time — and the structure and position of 
 the many hundreds of JVcbuhe, or starry systems, which ap- 
 pear to be dispersed throughout the immensity of creation. 
 
 All the particulars now stated, and many others which 
 might have been specified — considered simply as facts which 
 exist in the system of Nature — form the appropriate and legi- 
 timate objects of Natural History, and demand the serious 
 attention of every rational intelligence, that wishes to trace 
 the perfections and agency of the Almighty Creator. To in- 
 vestigate the causes of the diversified phenomena which the 
 material world exhibits, and the principles and modes by 
 which many of the facts now alluded to are ascertained, is the 
 peculiar province of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the 
 Mathematical Sciences, 
 
 Amidst so vast a variety of objects as Natural History 
 presents, it is dithcult to fix on any particular facts, as speci- 
 mens of the interesting nature of this department of know- 
 ledge, without going beyond the limits to which I am neces- 
 sarily canfined in this volume. I shall content myself with a 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 125 
 
 i (description of two objects, which have a reference chiefly to 
 j the vegetable kingdom. The first of these is 
 
 The Banian Tree. — " This tree, which is also called the 
 
 i Burr tree, or the Indian Fig, is one of the most curious and 
 
 I beautiful of Nature's productions, in the genial climate of 
 
 I India, where she sports with the greatest variety and profu- 
 
 , sion. Each tree is in itself a grove ; and some of them are 
 
 : of an aniazing size and extent, and, contrary to m.ost other 
 
 animal and vegetable productions, seem to be exempted from 
 
 decay. Every branch from the main body, throws out its 
 
 own roots : at first, in small tender fibres, several yards from 
 
 the ground ; these continually grow thicker, until, by a gra- 
 
 • dual descent, they reach the surface, and there, striking in, 
 
 ! they increase to large trunks, and become parent trees, shoot- 
 
 , ing out new branches from the tops. These, in time, suspend 
 
 I their roots, and receiving nourishment from the earth, swell 
 
 I into trunks, and shoot forth other branches ; thus continuing 
 
 I in a state of progression, so long as the earth, the first parent 
 
 ' of them all, contributes her sustenance. A Banian tree, with 
 
 many trunks, forms the most beautiful walks, vistas, and cool 
 
 recesses, that can be imagined. The leaves are large, soft, 
 
 ■ and of a lively green ; the fruit is a small fig, when ripe, of a 
 
 bright scarlet, affording sustenance to monkeys, squirrels, 
 
 peacocks, and birds of various kinds, which dwell among the 
 
 branches. 
 
 " The Hindoos are peculiarly fond of the Banian tree ; 
 they consider its long duration, its outstretching arms, and its 
 overshadowing beneficence, as emblems of the Deity, and 
 almost pay it divine honors. The Brahmins, who thus ' find 
 a fane in every sacred grove,' spend much of their time in 
 religious solitude, under the shade of the Banian tree ; they 
 plant it near their temples or pagodas ^ and in those villages 
 where there is no structure erected for public worship, they 
 iplace an image under one of these trees, and there perform a 
 morning and evening sacrifice. The natives of all castes 
 Irmd tribes are fond of recreating in the cool recesses, beau- 
 jtiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbrageous canopy, im- 
 Ipervious to the hottest beams of a tropical sun. These are 
 the trees under whfch a sect of naked philosophers, called 
 Gymnosophists assembled in Arrian's days, and this historian 
 of Ancient Greece presents a true picture of the modera 
 Hindoos. '■ In winter,' he says, ' the Gymnosophists enjoy 
 the benefit of the sun's rays in the open air ; and in summer, 
 when the heat becomes excessive, they pass their time in cool 
 and moist places, under las'ge trees, which, according to tlie 
 
 11 
 
126 THE CHRISTIAN PHItOSOFHER. 
 
 accounts of Ncarchus, cover a circumference of five acreSf 
 and extend their branches so far, that ten thoasand men may 
 easily find shelter under them.' 
 
 " On the banks of the river Narbuddy, in the province of 
 Guzzerat, is a Banian tree, supposed, by some persons, to be 
 the one described by Nearchus, and certainly not inferior to 
 it. It is distinguished by the name of Cubbeer Burr, which 
 was given it in honor of a famous saint. High floods have, at 
 various times, swept away a considerable part of this extraor- 
 dinary tree ; but what still remains, is nearly two thousand feet 
 in circumference measured round the principal stems ; the 
 overhanging branches, not yet struck down, cover a much lar 
 ger space ; and under it grow a number of custard-apple and 
 other fruit trees. The large trunks of this single tree amount 
 to three hundred and fifiy ; and the smaller ones exceed three 
 thousand ; every one of these is constantly sending forth bran- 
 ches and hanging roots,' to form other trunks, and become the 
 parents of a future progeny. The Cubbeer Burr is famed 
 throughout Hindostan, not only on account of its great extent, 
 but also of its surpassing beauty. The Indian armies general- 
 ly encamp around it ; and at stated seasons, solemn Jatarras, 
 or Hindoo festivals, to which thousands of votaries repair, from 
 every part of the Mogul empire, are there celebrated. It is 
 said that seven thousand persons find ample room to repose 
 under its shade. It has long been the custom of the British 
 residents in India, on their hunting and shooting parties, to 
 form extensive encampments, and spend weeks together, un- 
 der this delightful and magnificent pavilion, which aflbrds a 
 shelter to all travellers, particularly to the religious tribes of 
 the Hindoos. It is generally filled with greenwood pigeons, 
 doves, peacocks, and a variety of feathered songsters — with 
 monkeys which both divert the spectator, by their antic tricks, 
 and interest him by the paternal affection they display to their 
 young ofisprmg, in teaching them to select their food, and to 
 exert themselves in jumping from bough to bough, — and is 
 shaded by bats of a large size, many of them measuring up- 
 wards of six feet, from the extremity of one wing to the other. 
 This tree affords not only shelter, but sustenance, to all its in- 
 habitants, being covered amid its bright foliage, with small figs, 
 of a rich scarlet, on which they all regale with as much delight 
 as the lords of creation on their more costly fare, in their par- 
 ties of pleasure." — See EncycJopcedia Britannica^ Art. Ficus, 
 
 This tree, which is doubtless, one of the most singular and 
 magnificent objects in the vegetable kingdom, appears to be a 
 world in miniature, in which thousands both of human beings, 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 127 
 
 and of the inferior tribes that traverse the earth and the air, 
 may find ample accommodation and subsistence. What a 
 striking contrast does it present to the forests of trees, or 
 mushrooms, which are perceived by the help of the microscope, 
 in a piece of mouldiness — every plant of which is several hun- 
 dreds of times smaller than the point of a fine needle ! Yet both 
 are the effects of the agency of the same All- wise and Omni- 
 potent Being. And what an immense variety of gradations 
 is to be found in the vegetable world, between these two ex- 
 tremes — every part of the vast interval being filled up with 
 fiower--;, herbs, shrubs, and trees of every color, f^rm, and 
 size, and in such vast multitudes and profusion that no man 
 can number them ! 
 
 An object, which "approximates in a certain degree to the 
 one now described, is mentioned in " Staunton's. Account of 
 Macartney's Embassy to China," p. 70. It is called by Bo- 
 tanists, Adansonia, and is also known by the name of the 
 JMonheij Bread Tree, and was discovered in the island of St. 
 Jago. " The circumference, or girth of the base, was 56 feet, 
 which soon divided into two vast branches, the one in a per- 
 pendicular direction, whose periphery, or girth, was 42 feet, 
 the other 26. Another, of the same species, stood near it, 
 whose single trunk, girthing only 38 feet, was scarcely noti- 
 ced." 
 
 The only other specimen I shall exhibit to the reader has 
 a relation both to the animal and to the vegetable kingdom. 
 It is well known that the examination of flowers', and vegeta- 
 bles of every description, by the microscope, opens a new and 
 interesting field of wonders to the inquiring naturalist. Sir 
 John Hill has given the following curious account of what ap- 
 peared on his examining a carnation : 
 
 " The principal fiower in an elegant bouquet was a carna- 
 tion : the fragrance of this led me to enjoy it frequently and 
 near. The sense of smelhng was not the only one affected 
 on these occasions : while that was satiated with the powerful 
 sweet, the ear was constantly attacked by an extremely soft, 
 but agreeable murmuring sound. It was easy to know that 
 some animal within the covert must be the musician, and that 
 the little noise must come from some little creature, suited to 
 produce it. I instantly distended the lower part of the flower, 
 and placing it in a full light, could discover troops of little in- 
 sects frisking, with wild jollity, among the narrow pedestals 
 that supported its leaves, and the little threads that occupied 
 its centre. What a fragrant world for their habitation ! What a 
 perfect security from all annoyance, m the dusky husk that 
 
128 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 surrounded the scene of action ! Adapting a microscope to 
 take in, at one view, the whole base of the flower, I gave my- 
 self an opportunity of contemplating what they were about, 
 and this for many days together, without giving them the least 
 disturbance. Thus, I could discover their economy, their 
 passions, and their enjoyments. The microscope, on this oc- 
 casion, had given what nature seemed to have denied to the 
 objects of contemplation. The base of the flower extended 
 itself under its influence, to a vast plain ; the slender stems of 
 the leaves became trunks of so many stately cedars ; the 
 threads in the middle seemed columns of massy structure, sup- 
 porting at the top their several ornaments ; and the narrow 
 spaces between were enlarged in walks, parterres, and terra- 
 ces. On the pohshed bottoms of these, brighter than Parian 
 marble, walked in pairs, alone, or in larger companies, the 
 winged inhabitants : these, from little dusky flies, for such only 
 the naked eye would have shown them, were raised to glo- 
 rious glittering animals, stained with living purple, and with a 
 glossy gold, that would have made all the labors of the loom 
 contemptible in the comparison. — I could, at leisure, as they 
 walked together, admire their elegant limbs, their velvet shoul- 
 ders, and their silken wings ; their backs vying with the em- 
 pyrean in its blue ; and their eyes, each formed of a thousand 
 others, out-glittering the little planes on a brilliant ; above de- 
 scription, and too great almost for admiration. I could observe 
 them here singling out their favorite females ; courting them 
 with the music of their buzzing wings, ^vith little songs, formed 
 for their little organs, leading them from walk to walk, among 
 the perfumed shades, and pointing out to their taste, the drop 
 of liquid nectar, just bursting from some vein within the living 
 trunk — here were the perfumed groves, the more than mystic 
 shades of the poet's fancy realized. Here the happy lovers 
 spent their days in joyful dalliance, or in the triumph of their 
 little hearts, skipped after one another, from stem to stem» 
 among the painted trees, or winged their short flight to the 
 close shadow of some broader leaf, to revel undisturbed in the 
 heights of ail felicity." 
 
 This picture of the splendor and felicity of insect hfe, may, 
 to certain readers, appear somewhat overcharged. But those 
 who have been much in the habit of contemplating the beau- 
 ties of the animal and vegetable world, through microscopes, 
 can easily enter into all the views which are here described. 
 I have selected this example, for the purpose of illustrating the 
 unbounded goodness of the Creator, in the vast profusion of 
 enjoyment he has communicated, even to the lowest tribes o£ 
 
NATURAL HISTORT. 1S9 
 
 animal existence, and as a specimen of those invisible worlds 
 which exist beyond the range of our natural vision. For it 
 appears that there is a gradation of worlds downwards, as well 
 as upwards. However small our globe may appear when com- 
 pared with the sun, and with the immensity of starry systems 
 which lie dispersed through the infinity of space, there are 
 worlds iiiled with myriads of living beings, which, in point of 
 size and extent, bear as small a proportion to the earth, as the 
 earth bears to the vast assemblage of the celestial worlds. A 
 single flower, a leaf, or a drop of water may appear as large 
 . and as diversified in its structure, to some of the beings which 
 inhabit it, as the whole earth appears to the view of man ; and 
 a thousand scenes of magnificence and beauty maybe presen- 
 ted to their sight, of which no distinct conception can be 
 formed by the human mind. The many thousands of trans- 
 parent globes, of which their eyes are composed, may magnify 
 and multiply the objects around them without end, so that an 
 object scarcely visible to the eye of man, may appear to them 
 as a vast extended universe. 
 
 " Having examined," says St. Pierre, " one day, by a mi- 
 croscope, the flowers of thyme, I distinguished in them, with 
 equal surprise and dehght, superb flagons with a long neck, 
 of a substance resembling the amethyst, from the gullets of 
 which seemed to flow ingots of liquid gold. I have never 
 made observations of the corolla, simply of the smallest 
 flower, without finding it composed of an admirable substance, 
 half transparent, studded with brilliants, and shining in the 
 most lively colors. The beings which live under a reflex thus 
 enriched, must have ideas very diflerent from ours, of light, 
 and of the other phenomena of nature. A drop of dew, fil- 
 tering in the capillary and transparent tubes of a plant, pre- 
 sents'to them thousands of cascades ; the same drop fixed as 
 a wave on the extremity of one of its prickles, an ocean with- 
 out a shore ; evaporated into air, a vast aerial sea. — It is cre- 
 dible, then, from analogy, that there are animals feeding on 
 the leaves of plants like the cattle in our meadows, and on 
 our mountains, which repose under the shades of a down im- 
 perceptible to the naked eye, and which, from goblets formed 
 like so many suns, quaff" nectar of the color of gold and 
 silver." 
 
 Thus it appears, that the universe extends to infinity on 
 either hand ; and that whenever matter exists, from the pon- 
 derous globes of heaven down to the invisible atom, there the 
 Almighty Creator has prepared habitations for countless or- 
 ders of existence, from the seraph to the animalcula, in order 
 
 11* 
 
130 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 to demonstrate his boundless beneficence, and the infinite va- 
 riety of modes by which he can diffuse happiness through the 
 universal system. 
 
 " How sweet to muse upon His skill displayed ! 
 ' Infinite skill ! in all that he has made ; 
 To trace in nature's most minute design 
 The signature and stamp of Power Divine ; 
 Contrivance exquisite, expressed ^vith ease, 
 Where unassisted sight no beauty sees ; • 
 
 The shapely limb and lubricated joint, 
 Within the small dimensions of a point ; 
 Muscle and nerve miraculously spun, 
 His mighty work who speaks, and it is done 
 Th' invisible in things scarce seen revealed ; 
 To whom an atom is an ample field !" — Cowper,'s Retirement. 
 
 With regard to the religions tendency of the study of Na" 
 tural History, it may be remarked — that^ as all the objects 
 which it embraces are the n'orkmanship of God — the deline- 
 ations and descriptions of the Natural Historian, must be con- 
 sidered as " The history of the operations of the Creator ;'' 
 or, in other words, so far as the science extend^^., " The his- 
 tory of the Creator himself:" for the marks of his incessant 
 agency, his power, wisdom, and beneficence are impressed 
 on every object, however minute, throughout the three king- 
 doms of nature^ and throughout every region of earth, air, 
 and sky. As the Deity is invisible to mortal eyes, and can- 
 not be directly contemplated by finite minds, without some 
 material medium of communication — there are but two me- 
 diums with which we are acquainted, by which we can attain 
 a knowledge of his nature and perfections. These are, either 
 the facts which have occurred in the course of his providen- 
 tial dispensations towards our race, since the commencement 
 of time, and the moral truths connected with them — or, the 
 facts which are displayed in the economy of nature. The 
 first class of facts is recorded in the Sacred History, and in 
 the Annals of Nations ; the second class is exhibited in the 
 diversified objects and motions which appear throughout the 
 system of the visible universe. The one may be termed the 
 Moral History, and the other, the JSTatural History of the 
 operations of the Creator. It is obviously incumbent on every 
 rational being, to contemplate the Creator through both these 
 mediums ; for each of them conveys its distinct and peculiar 
 revelations ; andyConsequently, our perception of Deity through 
 the one medium, does not supersede the necessity of our con- 
 templating him through the other. While^ therefore, it is our 
 duty to contemplate the perfections^ the providence, and the 
 agency of God» as displayed in the Scripture Revelation, it kj 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 131 
 
 also incumbent upon us, to trace his attributes in the System 
 of Nature, in order that we may be enabled to contemplate 
 the eternal Jehovah, in every variety of aspect, m which he 
 has been pleased to exhibit himself, in the universe he has 
 formed. 
 
 The visible creation may be considered as a permanent and 
 sensible manifestation of Deity ; intended every moment to 
 present to our view, the unceasing energies of Him " in whom 
 we live and move," And if the train of our thoughts were 
 directed in its proper channel, we would perceive God in every 
 object, and in every movement : we would behold him oper- 
 ating in the whirlwind, and in the storm ; in the subterraneous 
 cavern, and in the depths of the ocean ; in the gentle rain, 
 and the refreshing breeze ; in the rainbow, the fiery meteor, 
 and the lightning's flash ; in the splendors of the sun, and the 
 majestic movements of the heavens ; in the frisking of the 
 lambs, the songs of birds, and the buzz of insects ; in the 
 circulation of our blood, the movements of our joints, the mo- 
 tion of our eyeballs, and in the rays of light which are conti- 
 nually darting from surrounding objects, for the purposes of 
 A^ision. For these, and ten thousand other agencies in the 
 systems of nature, are nothing else but the voice of Deity, 
 proclaiming to the sons of men, in silent but emphatic lan- 
 guage, " Stand still, and consider the wonderful works of 
 God." 
 
 If, then, it be admitted, that the study of Nature is the study 
 of the Creator — to overlook the grand and beautiful scenery 
 with which we are surrounded, or to undervalue any thing 
 which Infinite Wisdom has formed, is to overlook and con- 
 temn the Creator himself. Whatever God has thought pro- 
 per to create, and to present to our view in the visible world, 
 it becomes man to study and contemplate, that, from thence, 
 he may derive motives to excite him to the exercise of rever- 
 ence and adoration, of gratitude and praise. In so far as any 
 individual is unacquainted with the various facts of the his- 
 tory of nature, in so far does he remain ignorant of the mani- 
 festations of Deity ; for every object, on the theatre of the 
 universe, exhibits his character and designs in a different point 
 of view. He who sees God only as he displays himself in his 
 operations on the earth, but has never contemplated the firma- 
 ment with the eye of reason, must be unacquainted with those 
 amazing energies of eternal Power, which are displayed in 
 the stupendous fabric and movements of the orbs of heaven. 
 He who sees God only in the general appearances of nature, 
 but neglects to penetrate into his minute operations, must re- 
 
132 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 main ignorant of those astonishing manifestations of Divine 
 wisdom and skill which appear in the contrivances, adapta- 
 tions, and functions of the animal and the vegetable king- 
 doms. For, the more we know of the work, the more ac- 
 curate and comprehensive will be our views of the Intelligence 
 by whom it was designed ; and the farther we carry our inves- 
 tigations of the works of God, the more admirable and asto- 
 nishing will his plans and perfections appear. 
 
 In short, a devout contemplation of the works of nature tends 
 to ennoble the human soul, and to dignify and exalt the affec- 
 tions. It inspires the mind with a relish of the beauty, the 
 harmony, and order which subsist in the universe around us — 
 it elevates the soul to the love and admiration of that Being 
 who is the author of our comforts, and of all that is sublime and 
 benificent in creation, and excites us to joint with all holy 
 beings in the chorus of praise to the God and Father of all. 
 For they 
 
 "Whom Nature's works can charm, with God himself 
 Hold converse, grow familiar day by day 
 With his conceptions, act upon his plan, 
 And form to his the relish of their souls." 
 
 The man who surveys the vast field of nature, witn the eye 
 of reason and devotion, will not only gain a more comprehen- 
 sive view of that illimitable power which organized the uni- 
 verse, but will tind his sources of enjoyment continually in- 
 creased, and will feel an ardent desire after that glorious world, 
 where the veil which now hides from our sight some of the 
 grandest manifestations of Deity will be withdrawn, and the 
 wonders of Omnipotence be displayed in all their splendor and 
 perfection. 
 
 In conformity with these sentiments, we find the inspired 
 writers, in numerous instances, calling our attention to the 
 wonders of creating power and wisdom. In one of the first 
 speeches in which the Almighty is introduced as addressing 
 the sons of men, and the longest one in the Bible,* our atten- 
 tion is exclusively directed to the subjects of Natural History ; 
 — the whole address having a reference to the economy of 
 Divine Wisdom in the arrangement of the world at its first 
 creation — the wonders of the ocean, and of light and darkness 
 — the phenomena of thunder and lightning, rain, hail, snow^ 
 frost, and other meteors in the atmosphere — the intellectual 
 faculties of man, and the economy and instincts of quadrupeds^ 
 birds, fishes, and other tribes of animated existence. Indeed, 
 
 * Job, chap, xxxviii. xxxix..xl. xli^ 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. ' 133 
 
 the greater part of the sublime descriptions contained in the 
 book of Job has a direct reference ta the agency of God in 
 the material creation, and to the course of his providence in 
 relation to the different characters of men ; and the reasonings 
 of the different speakers in that sacred drama proceed on the 
 supposition that their auditors were intimately acquainted with 
 the varied appearances of nature, and their tendency to exhibit 
 the character and perfections of the Omnipotent Creator. — 
 We find the Psalmist, in the 104th Psalm, employed in a de- 
 vout description of similar objects, from the contemplation of 
 which his mind is raised to adoring views of their Almighty 
 Author — and, from the whole of his survey, he deduces the 
 following conclusions : — " How manifold are thy works, 
 Lord ! Ill wisdom thou hast made them all ! The earth is full 
 of thy riches ; so is this great and wide sea, wherein are things 
 , creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts. The 
 Glory of the Lord shall endure for ever ; the Lord shall 
 rejoice in all his works.* I will sing unto the Lord as long 
 as I live ; I will sing praises to my God, while I have my 
 being." 
 
 But in order to enter into the spirit of such sublime reflec- 
 tions, we must not content ourselves with a superficial and 
 cursory view of the objects and operations of nature, — we 
 must not think it sufficient to acquiesce in such vague propo- 
 sitions as these — " The glory of God is seen in every blade of 
 grass, and every drop of water ; all nature is full of wonders, 
 from the dust of the earth to the stars of the firmament." We 
 must study the works of creation with ardor, survey them with 
 minute attention, aud endeavour to acquire a specific and com- 
 prehensive knowledge of the Creator's designs. We must 
 endeavour to acquire a knowledge of the particular modes, 
 circumstances, contexture, configurations, adaptations, struc- 
 ture, functions, and relations of those objects in which bene- 
 volence and design conspicuously appear — in the animal and 
 the vegetable world, in the ocean, the atmosphere, and the hea- 
 
 * The glory of the Lord in this passage, denotes the display of his per- 
 fections in the material universe : and the declaration of the inspired wri- 
 ter plainly intimates, that tliis display will continue for ever, and will re- 
 main as an object of unceasing contemplation to all intelligences, and as an 
 eternal monument of his Power and Wisdom. For, although the earth 
 and the aerial heavens will be changed at the close of that dispensation of 
 Providence which respects our world, yet the general frame of the uni- 
 verse, in its other parts, will remain substantially the same ; and not only 
 so, but will in all probability be perpetually increasing in magnitude and 
 grandeur. And the change which will be effected in respect to the terra- 
 queous globe and its appendages will be suclv, that Jehovali will have rea- 
 son to " rejoice" in this, as well as m all l\is other works. 
 
134 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 veils ; that the mind may be enabled to draw the conclusion 
 with full conviction and intelligence — " Li ivisdom thou hast 
 made them all.''^ The pointed interrogatories which Jehovah 
 addressed to Job, evidently imply, that Job had previously ac- 
 quired an intimate acquaintance with the works of nature. It 
 seems to be taken for granted, as a matter of course, that he 
 made himself acquainted with the general range of facts in the 
 visible creation ; and the intention of the several questions 
 presented to his consideration evidently was to impress him 
 with a sense of his own impotency, and to lead him to the in- 
 vestigation of the Avonders of Creating Power which he had 
 formerly overlooked. — The conclusion which the Psalmist 
 draws respecting the Wisdom displayed throughout all the 
 works of God, plainly intimates, tha.t he had made the different 
 parts of nature the subject of minute examination, and of deep 
 reflection ; otherwise he could not have rationally deduced his 
 conclusion, or felt those emotions which filled his mind with 
 the pious rapture so beautifully expressed in that hymn of praise 
 to the Creator of the world. 
 
 We have, therefore, reason to believe, from these and other 
 instances, that pious men, " in the days of old," were much 
 more accustomed than modern Christians to contemplate and 
 admire the visible v/orks of the Lord — and it is surely much 
 to be regretted, that we who enjoy so many superior means of 
 information, and who have access to the brilliant discoveries 
 of later and more enlightened times, should manifest so much 
 disregard to " the works of Jehovah and the operations of his 
 hands." To enable the common mass of Christians to enter 
 into the spirit of this delightful study and Christian duty, 
 should, therefore, be one object of those periodical and other 
 religious works which are put into their hands ; so that they 
 may be enabled, with vigor and intelligence, to form the pious 
 resolution of Asaph, " I will meditate on all thy works, 
 Lord ! and talk of thy doings." " I will utter abundantly the 
 memory of thy great goodness, and tell of thy wondrous 
 works."* 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The next department of knowledge I shall notice is the 
 science of Geography. 
 
 The object of this science is, to describe the world we 
 
 * A select list of popular works on Natural History, and the other 
 sciences, noticed in the following sketches, will be found in the Jlp" 
 pendix. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 135 
 
 inhabit,* in reference to the continents, islands, mountains, 
 oceans, seas, rivers, empires, and kingdoms with which it is 
 diversified, together with the manners, customs, and reHgion 
 of the different tribes which people its surface. 
 
 In order to form an accurate conception of the relative posi- 
 tions of objects on the surface of the earth, and to enter with 
 intelligence on the study of this subject, it is requisite, first of 
 all, to have an accurate idea of itsji<iure and magnitude. For 
 a long series of ages it was supposed by the bulk of man- 
 kind, that the surface of the earth v/as nearly a plane, indefi- 
 nitely extended, and bounded on all sides by the sky. Lac- 
 tantius, and several of the fathers of the Christian church, 
 strenuously argued that the earth was extended infinitely do wn- 
 Avards, and established upon several foundations. The an- 
 cient philosopher Heraclitus is said to have believed that the 
 earth was of the shape of a skitf or canoe, very much hol- 
 lowed ; and the philosopher Leucippus supposed it to be of 
 the form of a cylinder or a drum. It is only within the period 
 of the last three hundred years that the true figure of the 
 earth has been accurately ascertained. This figure is now 
 found to be that of an oblate spheroid, nearly approaching to 
 the shape of a globe or sphere. — To have asserted this opin- 
 ion several ages ago would have been consi.dered as a heresy 
 in religion, and would have subjected its abettors to the ana- 
 themas of the church, and even to the peril of their lives. — 
 Historians inform us that the learned Spigelius, bishop of Up- 
 sal, in Sweden, suffered martydom at the stake, in defence of 
 the doctrine of the ^intipodes ; and we knov/ that, for assert- 
 ing the motion of the earth, the celebrated philosopher Gali- 
 leo was immured in a dungeon, and condemned by an assem- 
 blv of Cardinals to all the horrors of perpetual imprisonment. 
 The doctrine he maintained, and which is now universally re- 
 ceived by every one acquainted with the subject, was declared 
 by those arrogant ecclesiastics to be " a proposition absurd 
 in its very nature, false in philosophy, heretical in religion, and 
 contrary to the Holy Scriptures." Such are some of the hor- 
 rible and pernicious consequences which f^ow from ignorance 
 of the phenomena of nature, and of those laws by which the 
 Almighty governs the universe he has formed ; and which 
 prove it to be a Christian duty for every rational being to study 
 the order and economy of the visible world. 
 
 That the earth is nearly of a globular figure, is proved by 
 the following considerations : 1. When we stand on the sea 
 shore, while the sea is perfectly calm, we perceive that the 
 surface of the water is not auite plain, but convex or rounded; 
 
136 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 and if we are on one side of an arm of the sea, as the Frith 
 of Forth, and, with your eyes near the water, look towards 
 the opposite coast, we shall plainly see the water elevated be- 
 tween our eyes and the opposite shore, so as to prevent our 
 seeing the land near the edge of the water. The same expe- 
 riment may be made on any portion of still water, of a mile 
 or two in extent, when its convexity will be perceived by the 
 eye. A little boat, for instance, may be perceived by a man 
 who is any height above the water, but if he stoops down, and 
 lays his eye near the surface, he will find that the fluid appears 
 to rise, and intercept the view of the boat. 2. If we take our 
 •station oh the sea-shore, and view the ships leaving the coast, 
 in any direction — as they retire from our view, we may perceive 
 the masts and rigging of the vessels when the hulls are out of 
 sight, and, as it were, sunk in the water. On the other hand, 
 when a ship is approaching the shore, the first part of her that 
 is seen is the topmast ; as she approaches nearer, the sails 
 become visible, and, last of all, the hull comes gradually into 
 view.* The reason of such appearances obviously is that the 
 round or convex surface of the water interposes between our 
 eye and the body of the ship, when she has reached a certain 
 distance, while, at the same time, the sails and topmast, from 
 their greater elevation, may be >still in view. To the same 
 cause it is owing, that the higher the eye is placed, the more 
 extensive is the prospect ; and hence it is common for sailors 
 to climb to the tops of masts, in order to discover land or ships 
 at a distance. The contrary of all this would take place, if 
 the earth and waters were an extended plane. When a ship 
 came within view, the hull would first make its appearance, 
 being the largest object, next the sails, and, last of all, the top- 
 mast. These considerations, which hold true in all parts of 
 the world, prove to a certainty, that the mass of the ocean is 
 of a globular form ; and if the ocean be a portion of a sphere 
 it follows that the land also is of the same general figure ; for 
 no portion of the earth's surface is elevated above four or five 
 miles above the level of the ocean. 3. That the earth is 
 round from north to south, appears from the following circum- 
 stance : — When we travel a considerable distance from north 
 to south, or from south to north, a number of new stars suc- 
 cessively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to which we are 
 advancing, and many of those in the oj)posite quarter gradually 
 
 * In order to make such observatioirto advantage, the observer's eye 
 should be, as near as possible, on a level ivith the sea, and he should use a 
 telescope to enable him to perceive more distinctly the upper part of the 
 vessel. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 137 
 
 disappear, which would not happen if the earth were a plane 
 in that direction. 4. That the earth is round, from east to 
 west, appears from actual experiment ; for many navigators, 
 by sailing in a westerly direction, have gone quite round it, 
 from east to west ; and, were it not for the frozen seas within 
 the polar regions which interrupt navigation in those direc- 
 tions, it would, long ere now, have been circumnavigated from 
 north to south. 5. All those proofs are confirmed and illus- 
 trated by echpses of the moon, which present an ocular de- 
 monstration of the earth's rotundity. An eclipse of the moon 
 is caused by the intervention of the body of the earth between 
 the sun and the moon ; in which case, the shadow of the 
 earth falls upon the moon. This shadow is found in all cases, 
 and in every position of the earth, to be of a circular ligure : 
 which incontrovertibly proves, that the whole mass of land 
 and water, of which the earth is composed, is nearly of a glo- 
 bular form. The mountains and vales which diversify its sur- 
 face detract little or nothing from its globular shape ; for they 
 bear no more proportion to its whole bulk than a few grains of 
 sand to a common terrestrial globe ; the highest mountains on 
 its surface being litth; more than the two thousandth part of 
 its diameter. Some of the mountains on the surface of the 
 moon are higher than those on the earth, and yet that body ap- 
 pears both to the naked eye, and through telescopes, of a 
 spherical figure. 
 
 To some readers, the discovery of the true figure of the 
 earth may appear as a matter of very trivial importance in re- 
 ligion. I hesitate not, however, to affirm that it constitutes a 
 most important fact in the history of Divine Providence. Had 
 not this discovery been made, it is probable, that the vast con- 
 tinent of America might yet have remained undiscovered ; for 
 Columbus, who first discovered that new world, had learned, 
 contrary to the general opinion of the times, that the earth 
 was of a spherical figure ; and, from the maps then existing, 
 be began to conjecture, that the nearest way of sailing to the 
 East Indies, would be to sail westward. And although he 
 missed the object of his research, he was the means of laying 
 open to view a vast and unknown region of the earth, des- 
 tined, in due time, to receive from the Eastern world, the 
 blessings of knowledge, civihzation, and religion. On the 
 knowledge of the spherical figure of the earth, the art of navi- 
 gation, in a great measure depends ; and all the voyages of 
 discovery, which have been made in later years, were under- 
 taken in consequence of the knowledge of this fact. Had 
 mankind remained unacquainted with this discovery, the cir- 
 
 12 
 
138 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 cumnavigation of the globe would never have been attempted, 
 — vast portions of the habitable world would have remained 
 unknown and unexplored — no regular intercourse would have 
 been maintained between the various tribes of the human race, 
 and, consequently, the blessings of Divine Revelation could 
 never have been communicated to the greater part of the Gen- 
 tile world. Besides, the knowledge of the true figure and 
 magnitude of our sublunary world forms the ground-work of 
 all the sublime discoveries which have hitherto been made in 
 the regions of the firmament. For its diameter forms the 
 base line of those triangles by which the distances and magni- 
 tudes of the celestial globes have been determined ; without a 
 knowledge of the extent of which, the important results which 
 have been deduced respecting the system of the universe, 
 could not have been ascertained, and, consequently, our views 
 of the grandeur and omnipotence of the Deity, and of the mag- 
 nificence and extent of his dominions, must have been much 
 more circumscribed than they now are. Such is the intimate 
 connection that subsists between every part of the chain of 
 Divine dispensations, that if any one link had been either bro- 
 ken or dissolved, the state of things, in the moral and intellec- 
 tual world, would have been very different from what it now 
 is ; and the plans of Providence, for accomplishing the renova- 
 tion and improvement of mankind, would have been either par- 
 tially or totally frustrated. 
 
 With regard to the magnitude of the earth — I have already 
 stated the mode by which we may acquire the most accurate 
 and comprehensive conception of this particular, in the course 
 of the illustrations which were given of the Omnipotence of 
 Deity, (pp. 34 — 38.) It is necessary here only to remark — 
 that, according to the latest computations, the diameter of the 
 earth is about 7,930 miles, and its circumference 24,912 miles ; 
 and, consequently, the vvhole surface of the land ai>d water it 
 contains, comprehends an area of 197,552,160 miles. The 
 proportion of land and water on its surface cannot be very ac- 
 curately ascertained ; but it is quite evident, from an inspec- 
 tion of a map of the world, that the water occupies at least 
 two-thirds of its surface, and, of course, the land cannot oc- 
 cupy more than one-third. Supposing it to be only one-fourth 
 of the earth's surflice, it will contain 49,387,040 square miles, 
 which is considerably more than what is stated in most of our 
 late systems of Geography; in some of which the extent of 
 the land is rated at 39 millions, and in othefs, so low as 30 
 millions of square miles — the former of which statements be- 
 ing less than one-iifth, and the latter less than one-sixth of 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 139 
 
 the surface of the globe. But, it is quite obvious that the ex- 
 tent of the land cannot be less than one-fourth of the area of 
 the globe, and must, therefore, comprehend at least 50 milHons 
 of square miles. And if a large Arctic contin nt, eleven hun- 
 dred leagues in length, exist around the North Pole, as some 
 French philosophers infer, from Captain Parry's late discove- 
 ries* — the quantity of land on the terraqueous globe will be 
 much greater than what has been now stated. 
 
 General Divisions of the Earth. — The surface of 
 the earth is divided, from north to south, by two bands of 
 earth, and two of water. The first band of earth is the an- 
 cient or Eastern Continent, comprehending Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa ; the greatest length of which is found to be in a line 
 beginning on the east point of the northern part of Tartary, 
 and extending from thence to the Cape of Good Hope, which 
 measures about 10,000 miles, in a direction nearly from 
 North-east to South-west ; but if measured according to the 
 meridians, or from north to south, it extends only 7,500 miles, 
 from the northermost cape in Lapland to the Cape of Good 
 Hope. This vast body of land contains about 36 milhons of 
 square miles, forming nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of 
 the globe. The other band of earth is, v/hat is commonly 
 called the New Continent, which comprehends North and 
 South America.^ Its greatest length lies in a line beginning 
 at the mouth of the river Plata, passing through the island of 
 Jamaica, and terminating beyond Hudson's Bay ; and it 
 measures about 8,000 miles. This body of land contains 
 about 14 millions of square miles, or somewhat more than a 
 third of the old continent. 
 
 It may not be improper here to remark, that the two lines 
 now mentioned, which measure the greatest lengths of the 
 two continents, divide them int0 two equal parts, so that an 
 equal portion of land lies on each side of these hues, and that 
 each of these lines has an incHnation of about 30 degrees to 
 the equator, but in opposite directions ; that of the old conti- 
 nent extending from the north-east to the south-west ; and 
 that of the new continent, from the north-west to the south- 
 east; and that they both terminate at the same degree of 
 northern and southern latitude. It may also be noticed, that 
 the old and new continents are almost opposite to each other, 
 and that the old is more extensive to the north of the equator, 
 and the new more extensive to the south. The centre of the 
 old continent is in the 17th degree of north latitude, and the 
 
 * See Monthly Magazine, April, 1823, p. 259. 
 
140 THE CHRISTIA> PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 centre of the new, in the 17th degree of south latitude; so 
 that they seem to be made to counterbalance each other, 
 in order to preserve the equability of the diurnal rotation of 
 the earth. There is also a singular connection between the 
 two continents, namely, that if they were divided into two 
 parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, were it not for 
 the two small necks of land called the isthmuses of Suez and 
 Panama.* 
 
 Between the two continents now mentioned, lie two im- 
 mense bands of water, termed the Pacific and the Atlantic 
 oceans, whose greatest length is likewise in a direction from 
 north to south. 
 
 Besides the two bands of earth to which I have adverted, 
 many extensive portions of land are dispersed through the 
 ocean, which covers the remaining part of the earth's surface ; 
 particularly the extensive regions of New Holland, which 
 occupy a space nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and 
 the Arctic continent, which probably exist within the Northern 
 Polar regions, and which some French writers propose to 
 designate by the name of Boreasia, is in all probability, ol 
 equal extent. There are also the extensive islands of New 
 Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Sumatra, Japan, Great Britain, 
 'Nev/ Zealand, Ceylon, Iceland, Cuba, Java, and thousands of 
 others, of difierent dimensions, scattered through the Pacific, 
 the Indian, and the Atlantic oceans, and which form a very 
 considerable portion of the habitable regions of the globe. 
 
 General Features of the Earth's Surface. — In 
 taking a general survey of the external features of the earthy 
 the most prominent objects that strike the eye are those huge 
 elevations which rise above the level of its general surface, 
 termed Hills and Mountains. These are distributed in 
 various forms and sizes, through every portion of the conti- 
 nents and islands ; and running into immense chains, form a 
 sort of connecting band to the other portion of the earth's sur- 
 face. The largest mountains are generally formed into im- 
 mense chains, which extend, in nearly the same direction, foi 
 several hundreds, and even thousands of miles. It has been 
 observed by some philosophers, that the most lofty mountains 
 form two immense ridges, or belts, which, with some inter- 
 ruptions, extend around the whole globe, in nearly the same 
 direction. One of these ridges lies between the 45th and 55th 
 degree of North latitude. Beginning on the western shores 
 of France and Spain, it extends eastward, including the Alps 
 
 * See BufFon's Natural History, vol. 1. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 141 
 
 and the Pyrenees, in Europe, the Urahan and Altaic moun- 
 tains, in Asia — extending from thence to the shores of Kams- 
 chatka, and, after a short interruption from the sea, they rise 
 again on the western coast of America, and terminate at 
 Canada, near the eastern shore. It is supposed that the chain 
 is continued completely round the globe, through the space 
 that is covered by the Atlantic ocean, and that the Azores, 
 and other islands in that direction, are the only summits that 
 are visible, till we come to the British isles. The other ridge 
 runs along the Southern hemisphere, betw^een the 50th and 
 30th degrees of South latitude, of which detached portions are 
 found in the mountains of Tucuman, and of Paraguay, in 
 South America, — of Monomotpa and Caffraria, in Africa ; in 
 New Holland, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Friend- 
 ly, the Society, and other islands in the Pacific ocean. From 
 these ridges flows a variety of ramifications, in both hemi- 
 spheres, towards the Equator, and the Poles, which altogether 
 present a magnificent scenery, which diversifies and enlivens 
 the surface of our globe. 
 
 The highest mountains in the world, according to some late 
 accounts published in the " Transactions of the Asiatic Socie- 
 ty," are the Himalaija chain, north of Bengal, on the borders 
 of Thibet. The highest mountain in this range is stated to be 
 about 27,000 feet, or a little more than five miles in a per- 
 pendicular height, and is visible at the distance of 230 miles. 
 Nineteen different mountains in this chain are stated to be 
 above four miles in perpendicular elevation. Next to the 
 Himalayas, are the Andes, in South America, which extend 
 more than 4000 miles in length, from the province of Quito 
 to the straits of Magellan. The highest summit of the Andes, 
 is Chimborazo, which is said to be 20,600 feet, or nearly 
 four miles, above the level of the sea. The highest mountains 
 in Europe, are the Alps, which run through Switzerland and 
 the north of Italy, — the Pyrenees, which separate France from 
 Spain, antl the Dofrafeld, which divide Norway from Sweden. 
 The most elevated ridges in xisia, are Mount Taurus, Imaus, 
 Caucasus, Ararat, the Uralian, Altaian, and the mountains of 
 Japan — in Africa, Mount Atlas, and the mountains of the Moon. 
 Some of the mountains in these ranges, are found to contain im- 
 mense caverns or perforations, of more than two miles in cir- 
 cumference, reaching from their summits to an immeasurable 
 depth into the bowels of the earth. From these dreadful open- 
 ings are frequently thrown up, to an immense height, torrents 
 of fire and smoke, rivers of melted metals, clouds of ashes, and 
 cinders, and sometimes red-hot stones and enormous rocks, to 
 
 12* 
 
142 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 the distance of several miles, accompanied with thunders, light- 
 nings, darkness, and horrid subterraneous sounds — producing 
 the most terrible devastations through all the surrounding dis- 
 tricts. The most noted mountains of this kind in Europe, 
 are mount Hecla, in Iceland ; Etna, in Sicily ; and Vesuvius, 
 near the city of Naples, in Italy. Numbers of volcanoes are 
 also to be found in South America, in Africa, in the islands of 
 the Indian ocean, and in the Empire of Japan.* 
 
 "^ ' . who live in Great Britain, where the highest mountam 
 is little more than three quarters of a mile in perpendicular 
 elevation, can form no adequate idea of the magnificence and 
 awful sublimity of the mountain scenery in some of the coun- 
 tries now mentioned ; especially when the volcano is belching 
 forth its flames with a raging noise, and spreading terror and 
 desolation around its base. From the tops of the lofty ridges 
 of the Andes, the most grand and novel scenes sometimes 
 b'jrst upon the eye of the astonished traveller. He beholds 
 the upper surface of the clouds far below him, covering the 
 subjacent plain, and surrounding, like a vast sea, the foot of 
 the mountain ; while the place on which he stands appears 
 like an island in the midst of the ocean. He sees the 
 lightnings issuing from the clouds, and hears the noise of 
 the tempest, and the thunders rolling far beneath his feet, 
 while all is serene around him, and the blue vault of heaven 
 appears without a cloud. At other times, he contemplates 
 the most sublime and extensive prospects — mountains ranged 
 around him, covered with eternal snows, and surrounding like 
 a vast amphitheatre, the plains below — rivers winding from 
 their sources towards the ocean — cataracts dashing headlong 
 over tremendous cliffs — enormous rocks detached from their 
 bases, and rolling down the declivity of the mountains with a 
 noise louder than thunder — frightful precipices impending 
 over his head — unfathomable caverns yawning from below — 
 and the distant volcano sending forth its bellowings, with its 
 top enveloped in the fire and smoke. — Those who have stu- 
 died nature on a grand scale, have always been struck with ad- 
 miration and astonishment at the sublime and awful exhibition 
 of wonders which mountainous regions exhibit ; and, perhaps, 
 there is no terrestrial scene which presents, at one view, so 
 many objects of oyerpowering magnitude and grandeur, and 
 which inspires the mind with so impressive an idea of the 
 power of that Almighty Being, who " weigheth the mountains 
 in scales, and taketh up the isles as a very little thing." 
 
 "^ A more particular description of the phenomena of these terrific ob- 
 jects will be found in Chap. iv. Sect. 2 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 143 
 
 The Ocean. — The ocean surrounds the earth on all sides, 
 and penetrates into the interior parts of different countries ; 
 sometimes by large openings, and frequently by small straits. 
 Could the eye take in this immense sheet of waters at one 
 view, it would appear the most august object under the whole 
 heavens. It occupies a space on the surface of the globe at 
 least three times greater than that which is occupied by the 
 land ; comprehending an extent of 148 millions of square 
 miles. Though the ocean, strickly speaking, is but one im- 
 mense body of waters extending in different directions, yet 
 different names have been appropriated to different portions of 
 its surface. That portion of its waters which rolls between 
 the western coast of America and the eastern of Asia, is call- 
 ed the Pacific ocean ; and that portion which separates Europe 
 and Africa from America, the Atlantic ocean. Other portions 
 are termed the JYorthern^ Southern, and Indian oceans. When 
 its waters penetrate into the land, they form what are called 
 gulfs, and mediterranean seas. But without following it 
 through all its windings and divisions, I shall simply state a 
 few general facts. 
 
 With regard to the Depth of this body of water, no cer- 
 tain conclusions have yet been formed. Beyond a certain 
 depth, it has hitherto been found unfathomable. We know, in 
 general, that the depth of the sea increases gradually as we 
 leave the shore ; but we have reason to believe that this in- 
 crease of depth continues only to a certain distance. The 
 numerous islands scattered every where through the ocean, 
 demonstrate, that the bottom of the waters, so far from uni- 
 formly sinking, sometimes rises into lofty mountains. It is 
 highly probable, that the depth of the sea is somewhat in pro- 
 portion to the elevation of the land ; for there is some reason 
 to conclude, that the present bed of the ocean formed the in- 
 habited part of the ancient world, previous to the general De- 
 luge, and that we are now occupying the bed of the former 
 ocean ; and, if so, its greatest depth will exceed four or five 
 miles ; for there is no mountain that rises higher above the level 
 of the sea. But the sea has never been actually sounded to a 
 greater depth than a mile and 6Q feet. Along the coast its 
 depth has always been found proportioned to the height of the 
 shore ; where the coast is high and mountainous, the sea that 
 iwashes it is deep ; but where the coast is low, the water is 
 shallow. To calculate the quantity of water it contains, we 
 must therefore suppose a medium depth. If we reckon its 
 average depth at two miles, it will contain 296 millions of cu- 
 bical miles of water. We shall have a more specific idea of 
 
144 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 this enormous mass of water, if we consider, that it is suffi- 
 cient to cover the whole globe, to the height of more than 
 eight thousand feet ; and if this water were reduced to one 
 spherical mass, it would form a globe of more than SOO miles 
 in diameter. 
 
 With regard to its Bottom — As the sea covers so great a part 
 of the globe, we should, no doubt, by exploring its interior re- 
 cesses, discover a vast number of interesting objects. So far 
 as the bed of the ocean has been explored, it is found to bear 
 a great resemblance to the surface of the dry land ; being, 
 like it, full of plains, caverns, rocks, and mountains, some of 
 which are abrupt and almost perpendicular, while others rise 
 with a gentle acclivity, and sometimes tower above the water, 
 and form islands. The materials, too, which compose the 
 bottom of the sea, are the same which form the basis of the 
 dry land. It also resembles the land in another remarkable 
 particular ; — many fresh springs, and even rivers, rise out of 
 it ; an instance of which appears near Goa, on the western 
 coast of Hindostan, and in the Mediterranean sea, not far from 
 Marseilles. The sea sometimes assumes different colors. 
 The materials which compose its bottom, cause it to reflect 
 different hues in different places ; and its appearance is also 
 affected by the winds and by the sun, while the clouds that 
 pass over it communicate all their varied and fleeting colors. 
 When the sun shines, it is green ; when he gleams through a 
 fog, it is yellow ; near the poles, it is black ; while in the tor- 
 rid zone, its color is often brown ; and, on certain occasions, 
 it assumes a luminous appearance, as if sparkling with fire. 
 
 The ocean has three kinds of motions. The first is that 
 undulation which is produced by the wind, and which is en- 
 tirely conlined to its surface. It is now ascertained that this 
 motion can be destroyed, and its surface rendered smooth by 
 throwing oil upon its waves. The second motion is, that con- 
 tinual tendency which the whole water in the sea has towards 
 the west, which is greater near the equator than towards the 
 poles. It begins on the west side of America, where it is 
 moderate ; but as the waters advance westward, their motion 
 is accelerated ; and, after having traversed the globe, they re- 
 turn, and strike with great violence on the eastern shore of 
 America. Being stopped by that continent, they rush, with 
 impetuosity, into the Gulf of Mexico, thence they proceed 
 along the coast of North America, till they come to the south 
 side of the great bank of Newtoundland, when they turn off 
 and run down through the Western Isles. This motion is most 
 probably owing to the diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 145 
 
 which is m a direction contrary to the motion of the sea. The 
 third motion of the sea is the tide, which is a regular swell of 
 the ocean every 12| hours.. The motion is now ascertained 
 to be owing; to the attractive influence of the moon, and also 
 partly to that of the sun. There is always a flux and reflux at 
 the same time, in two parts of the globe, and these are opposite 
 to each other ; so that when our Antipodes have high water 
 we have the same. When the attractive powers of the sun 
 and moon act in the same direction, which happens at the time 
 of new and full moon, we have the highest or sprang tides ; 
 but when their attraction is opposed to each othej-, which hap- 
 pens at the quarters, we have the lowest, or neap tides. 
 
 Such is the ocean, — a most stupendous scene of Omnipo- 
 tence, which forms the most magnificent feature of the globe 
 we inhabit. When we stand on the sea-shore, and cast our 
 eyes over the expanse of its waters, till the sky and the waves 
 seem to mingle, all that the eye can take in at one survey, is 
 but an inconsiderable sped', less than the hundred thousandth 
 part of the whole of this vast abyss. If every drop of water 
 can be divided into 26 millions of distinct parts, as some phi- 
 losophers have demonstrated,* what an immense assemblage 
 of watery particles must be contained in the unfathomable ca- 
 verns of the ocean ! Here the powers of calculation are com- 
 pletely set at defiance ; and an image of infinity, immensity, 
 and endless duration is presented to the mind. This mighty 
 expanse of waters is the grand reservoir of nature, and the 
 source of evaporation, which enriches the earth with fertility 
 and verdure. Every cloud which floats in the atmosphere, 
 and every fountain, and rivulet, and flowing stream are indebt- 
 ed to this inexhaustible source for those watery treasures 
 which they distribute through every region of the land. In 
 fine, whether we consider the ocean as rearing its tremendous 
 billows in the midst of the tempest, or as stretched out into a 
 smooth expanse — whether we consider its immeasurable ex- 
 tent, its mighty movements, or the innumerable beings which 
 glide through its rolling waves — we cannot but be struck with 
 astonishment at the grandeur of that Omnipotent Being who 
 holds it waters " in the hollow of his hand," and who has said 
 to its foaming surges, " Hitherto shalt thou come, and no far- 
 ther, and here shall thy proud waves be stayed." 
 
 Rivers. — The next feature of the earth's surface which may 
 be noticed, is, the rivers with which it is indented in every 
 
 * The demonstration of this proposition may be seen in Nieuwentyt'3 
 Rel. Philosopher, voi. iii. p. 852. 
 
146 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 direction. — These are exceedingly numerous, aiid seem to form 
 as essential a part in the constitution of our globe, as the moun- 
 tains from which they flow, and as the ocean to which they di- 
 rect their course. It is reckoned, that in the old continent, 
 there are about 430 rivers which fall directly into the ocean, 
 or into the Mediterranean and the Black seas ; but in the new 
 continent, there are only about 145 rivers known, which fall 
 directiv into the sea. In this enumeration, however, only the 
 great rivers are included, such as the Thames, the Danube, 
 the "VVolga, and the Rhone. Besides these, there are many 
 thousands of streams of smaller dimensions, which, rising 
 from the mountains, wind in every direction, till they fall into 
 the large rivers, or are carried into the ocean. The largest 
 rivers in Europe are — the Yf olga, which, rising in the northern 
 parts of Russia, runs a course of 1700 miles, till it falls into 
 the Caspian sea — the Danube, whose course is 1300 miles, 
 from the mountains in Switzerland to the Black sea — and the 
 Don, which runs a course of 1200 miles. The greatest rivers 
 in Asia are — the Hoanho, in China, whose course is 2400 
 miles — the Boorhampooter, the Euphrates, and the Ganges. 
 The longest river in x\frica, is the Nile, the course of which is 
 estimated at 2000 miles. In the continent of America, the ri- 
 vers appear to be formed on the grandest scale, both as to the 
 length of their course, and the vast body of waters which they 
 pour into the ocean. -The Amazon, the largest river in 
 the world, runs a course of above 3000 miles across the 
 continent of South America, till it falls into the xltlantic 
 ocean, where it discharges a body of waters 150 miles in 
 breadth. Next to this is the river St. Lawrence, which is 
 more than 2400 miles from its mouth through the lake of 
 Ontario to the lake Alempigo and the Assiniboils ; and the 
 rivers La Plata and Mississippi, each of whose courses is not 
 less than 2000 miles. 
 
 When we consider the number and the magnitude of these 
 majestic streams, it is evident that an enormous mass of wa- 
 ter is continually pouring into the ocean, from every direction. 
 From observations which have been made on the river Po, 
 which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 
 miles long, and 120 broad, it is found, that it moves at the 
 rate of four miles an hour, is 1000 feet broad, and 10 feet in 
 depth, and consequently, supplies the sea with 5068 millions 
 of cubical feet of water in a day, or a cubical mile in 29 days. 
 On the supposition that the quantity of water which the sea re- 
 ceives from the great rivers in all countries, is proportional to 
 the extent and surface of these countries, it will follow, that the 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 147 
 
 \ quantity of waters carried to the sea by all the other rivers on 
 I the globe, is 1083 times greater than that furnished by the Po, 
 I (supposing the land, as formerly stated, to contain about 49 
 I millions of square miles,) and will supply the ocean with 
 13,630 cubical miles of water in a year. Now, reckoning the 
 I ocean, as formerly, to contain 296 millions of cubical miles of 
 water, this last number, divided by the former, will give a quo- 
 tient of 21,716. Hence it appears, that, were the ocean com- 
 pletely drained of its waters, it would require more than twenty 
 thousand years* before its caverns could be again completely 
 filled by all the rivers in the world running into it at their pre- 
 sent rate. 
 
 Here, tv/o questions will naturally occur — Whence do the 
 i rivers receive so constant a supply of waters 1 and why has 
 not the ocean long ago overflowed the world ? since so prodi- 
 I gious a mass of water is continually flowing into its abyss. 
 j This was a difficulty which long puzzled philosophers ; but it 
 [ is now satisfactorily solved from a consideration of the effects 
 I of evaporation. By the heat of the sun the particles of water 
 are drawn up into the atmosphere from the surface of the 
 ocean, and float in the air in the form of clouds or vapor. 
 These vapors are carried, by the winds, over the surface of the 
 land, and are again condensed into water on the tops and the 
 sides of mountains, which, gliding down into their crevices and 
 caverns, at length break out into springs, a number of which 
 meeting in one common valley becomes a river ; and many 
 of these united together at length form such streams as the 
 Tay, the Thames, the Danube, and the Rhine. That evapo- 
 ration is sufficient to account for this effect, has been demon- 
 strated by many experiments and calculations. It is found 
 that, from the surface of the Mediterranean sea, which con- 
 tains 762,000 square miles, there are drawn up into the air, 
 every day, by evaporation, 5280 millions of tons of water, 
 while the rivers which flow into it yield only 1827 millions of 
 tons in the same tmie ; so that there is raised in vapor from 
 the Mediterranean nekrly three times the quantity of water 
 which is poured into it by all its rivers. One third of this falls 
 into the sea before it reaches the land ; another part falls on 
 the low lands, for the nourishment of plants ; and the other 
 third part is quite sufficient to supply the sources of all the 
 
 * BufFon makes this result to be 812 years, in which he is foUoAred by 
 Goldsmith, and most subsequent writers ; but he proceeds on the false as- 
 sumption, that the ocean covers only half the surface of the globe, and that 
 it contains only 85 millions of square miles, and he estimates the average 
 depth of the ocean to be only 4^10 yards, or one fourth of a mile. 
 
148 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 rivers which run into the sea. This is in full conformity to 
 what was long ago stated by an inspired Naturalist : " All the 
 rivers run into the sea, and yet the sea is not full ; unto the 
 place from whence the rivers came, thither do they return 
 again," but, before they regain their former place, they make 
 a circuit over our heads through the regions of the atmosphere. 
 
 Such are the varied movements and transtbrmations which 
 are incessantly going on in the rivers, the ocean, and the at- 
 mosphere, in order to preserve the balance of nature, and to 
 supply the necessities of the animal and the vegetable tribes ; 
 all under the agency and direction of Him who " formed the 
 sea and the dry land," and who has arranged all things in num- 
 ber,- weight, and measure, to subserve the purposes of his will. 
 
 Rivers serve many important purposes in the economy of 
 our globe. They carry off the redundant waters which fall in 
 rains, or which ooze from the springs, which might otherwise 
 settle into stagnant pools ; they supply to the seas the loss of 
 waters occasioned by their daily evaporation ; they cool the 
 air and give it a gentle circulation ; they fertilize the countries 
 through which they floAv ; their waters afford a wholesome 
 drink, and the fishes they contain, a delicious food for the nour- 
 ishment of man : they facilitate commerce, by conveying the 
 productions of nature and art from the inland countries to the 
 sea ; they form mechanical powers for driving machinery of 
 ditferent kinds ; they enliven and diversify the scenery of the 
 countries through which they pass ; and the cataracts which 
 they frequently form among the mountains, present us with 
 scenes the most picturesque and sublime ; so that every part 
 of the constitution of nature is rendered subservient both to 
 utility and to pleasure. 
 
 Waving the consideration of other particulars,! skill simply 
 state some of the artificial divisions of the earth, and two or 
 three tacts respecting its inhabitants. 
 
 The land has generally been divided into four parts, Eu- 
 rope, Asia, Atnca, and America, to which has been lately 
 added the division called Australasia, which comprehends 
 New Holland, New Guinea, New Zealand, Yan Dieman's 
 land, and several other islands in the Pacific ocean. Europe 
 comprehends the following countries, Norway, Sweden, Den- 
 mark, Russia, Prussia, Germany, Austria, Turkey, Italy 
 Switzerland, France, Holland, or the Netherlands, Spain, 
 Portugal, and Great Britain and Ireland, together with the 
 islands of Sicily, Malta, Candia, Corsica, Sardinia, Majorca, 
 Minorca, Ivica, Zealand, Funen, Gothland, Iceland, and seve- 
 ral others of smaller note. — .isia, the largest and most popu- 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 149 
 
 lous division of the ancient continent, contains the Empires of 
 China and Japan, Chinese Taitary, Thibet, Hindostan, or 
 British India, the Birman Empire, Persia, Arabia, Turkey in 
 Asia, Siberia, Independent Tartary, and a variety of territories 
 inhabited by tribes with which we are very imperfectly acquaint- 
 ed ; together with the immense islands of Borneo, Sumatra, 
 Java, Ceylon, Segalien, the Phillippines, and thousands of 
 others of smaller dimensions. It was in Asia where the human 
 race was first planted ; it became the .lursery of the world after 
 the universal deluge, and it was the scene in which the most me- 
 morable transactions recorded in the sacred history took place. 
 But its inhabitants are now immersed in Mahometan and Pa- 
 gan darkness ; and the Christian religion, except in a few in- 
 sulated spots, is almost unknown among its vast population. 
 It is the richest and most fruitful part of the world, and pro- 
 duces cotton, silks, spices, tea, coffee, gold, silver, pearls, dia- 
 monds and precious stones : but despotism, in its worst forms, 
 reigns uncontrolled, over every part of this immense regio'n. 
 Africa comprehends the following kingdoms, — Morocco, 
 Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Egypt, Zaara, Negroland, Guinea, 
 Nubia, Abyssinia, Caffraria, Dahomy, Benin, Congo, Angola, 
 and various other territories. By far the greater part of Afri- 
 ca remains hitherto unexplored, and, consequently, we are pos- 
 sessed of a very slender portion of information respecting the 
 numerous tribes that may inhabit it. This quarter of the 
 world, which once contained several flourishing kingdoms and 
 estates, is now reduced to a general state of barbarism. . That 
 most abominable trafirc, the slave trade, is carried on to an 
 unlimited extent on its eastern coasts, by a set of European 
 ruthans, whose villanies are a disgrace to human nature. Its 
 most striking features are those immense deserts, near its 
 I northern parts, which comprise nearly one third of its surface. 
 I The deserts of Zaara are 1500 miles long, and 800 broad. 
 I America is divided into North and South. It remained \m- 
 j known to the inhabitants of the Eastern Hemisphere till the 
 lyear 1492, when it was discovered by Columbus, who first 
 jlanded on Guanahani, or Cat Island, one of the Bahama isles. 
 j North America comprehends the following countries : The 
 lUnited States, New and Old Mexico, Upper and Lower 
 j Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Labrador. South 
 'America comprehends the immense districts called Terra Fir- 
 , ma, Peru, Guiana, Amazonia, Paraguay, Brazil, Chili, and 
 Patagonia. — Between N. and S. America lie the islands of 
 Cuba, St. Domingo, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, known by the 
 iname of the West Indies. Besides these, there are connected 
 
 13 
 
150 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 with America, the Bahama, and Carribbee islands, Newfound- 
 land, Cape Breton, Tobago, Trinidad, Terra del Fuego, &c. 
 America is distniguished by its numerous and extensive lakes, 
 which resemble large inland seas. Its rivers, also, form one of 
 its grand and distinguishing features, being the largest on the 
 globe. It is likewise diversified with lofty and extensive 
 ranges of mountains. When first discovered it was almost 
 wholly covered with immense forests, and thinly peopled with 
 a number of savage tribes. Its mingled population of Abori- 
 gines and Europeans, is now making rapid advances in know- 
 fedge, civilization, and commerce. 
 
 In regard to the human inhahitants that occupy the difier- 
 ent regions now specified — they have been divided by some 
 geographers into the six following classes — 1. The dwarfish 
 inhabitants of the polar regions ; as the Laplanders, the 
 Greenlanders, and the Esquimaux. — 2. The fiat-nosed olive- 
 colored tawny race ; as the Tartars, the Chinese, and the 
 Japanese. — 3. The blacks of Asia wdth European features. 
 Of this description are the Hindoos, the Birmans, and the in- 
 habitants of the islands in the Indian ocean. — 4. The woolly- 
 haired negroes of Africa, distinguished by their black color, 
 their flat noses, and their thick hps. — 5. The copper-colored 
 native Americans, distinguished likewise by their black hair, 
 small black eyes, high cheek bones, and flat noses. — 6. The 
 sixth variety is the white European nations, as the British, the 
 French, the Italians, and the Germans. 
 
 The number of inhabitants which people the earth at one 
 tim.e may be estimated to amount to at least eight hundred 
 rniUions ; of which 500 millions may be assigned to Asia ; 
 SO millions to Africa; 70 millions to America; and 150 
 millions to Europe. — With regard to their religion, they may 
 be estimated as follows : 
 
 . Pagans, . . 490,000,000 
 
 Mahometans, . . 130,000,000 
 
 Roman Catholics, . 100,000,000 
 
 Protestants, . . . 43,000,000 
 
 Greeks and Arminians, 30,000,000 
 
 Jews, .... 7,000,000 
 
 800,000,000 
 
 From this estimate it appears, that there are more than 4 
 Pagans and Mahometans to 1 Christian, and only one Pro- 
 testant to 17 of all the other denominations. Although all 
 the Roman Catholics, Greeks, and Protestants were reckon- 
 ed true Christians, there still remain more than 620 milHons 
 of our fellow men ignorant of the true God, and of his will as 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 151 
 
 levealed in the Sacred Scriptures ; which shows what a vast 
 field of exertion still lies open to Christian benevolence, be- 
 fore the blessings of civilization, mental improvement, rational 
 liberty, and Christianity be fully communicated to the Pagan 
 and Mahometan world. 
 
 If we suppose that the earth, at an average, has always 
 been as populous as it is now, and that it contains 800 mil- 
 lions of inhabitants, as above stated, and if we reckon 32 
 years for a generation, at the end of which period the whole 
 human race is renewed ; it will follow, that 145 thousand 
 millions of human beings have existed on the earth since the 
 present system of our globe commenced, reckoning 5829 
 years from Adam to the present time.* And, consequently, 
 if mankind had never died, there would have been 182 times 
 the present number of the earth's inhabitants now in exist- 
 ence. It follows from this statement, that 25 miUions of 
 mankind die every year, 2853 every hour, and 47 every 
 minute, and that at least an equal number, during these pe- 
 riods, are emerging from non-existence to the stage of life ; 
 so that almost every moment, a rational and immortal being 
 is ushered into the world, and another is transported to the 
 invisible state. Whether, therefore, we contemplate the 
 world of matter, or the world of mind, we percerv^e incessant 
 changes and revolutions going on, which are gradually carry- 
 ing forward the earth and its inhabitants to some important 
 consummation. — If we suppose, that, before the close of time, 
 as many human beings will be brought into existence, as have 
 already existed, during the by-past ages of the world, there 
 will, of course, be found at the general resurrection, 
 290,000,000,000 of mankind. Yast as such an assemblage 
 would be, the whole of the human beings here supposed, al- 
 lowing '6 square feet for every individual, could be assembled 
 within the space of 62,400 square miles, or on a tract of land 
 not much larger than that of England, which contains, ac- 
 cording to the most accurate calculation, above 50,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 * This calculation proceeds on the supposition, that only 4004 years 
 elapsed between the Mosaic Creation and the birth of Christ, according 
 to the Hebrew Chronology. But Dr. Hales, in his late work on Scripture 
 Chronology, has proved, almost to a demonstration, that, from the Crea- 
 tion to the birtli of Christ are to be reckoned 5411 years ; and this com- 
 putation nearly agrees with the Samaritan and Septuagint Chi'onology, 
 and witl\ that of Josephus. According to this computation, 7235 years 
 are to be reckoned from the Creation to the present time : and, conse- 
 quently, 220 thousand millions of human beings will have existed since 
 the Creation, which is mure than 226 times the number of inhabitants 
 presently existing. 
 
152 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 Our world is capable of sustaining a much greater number 
 of inhabitants than has ever yet existed upon it at any one 
 time. And since we are informed in the Sacred Oracles, that' 
 God '• created it not in vain, but formed it to be inhabited," 
 we have reason to believe, that, in future ages, when the phy- 
 sical and moral energies of mankind shall be fully exerted, 
 and when Peace shall wave her olive branch over the nations, 
 the earth will be much more populous than it has ever been, 
 and those immense deserts, where ravenous animals now roam 
 undisturbed, will be transformed into scenes of fertility and 
 beauty. If it be admitted, that the produce of 12 acres of 
 land is sufficient to maintain a family consisting of six per- 
 sons, and if we reckon only one-tpurtii of the surface of the 
 •jiobe capable of cultivation, it can be proved, that the earth 
 could afford sustenance for 16,000 millions of inhabitants, or 
 fwenty times the number that is presently supposed to exist. 
 So that we have no reason to fear that the world will be over- 
 stocked with inhabilants for many ages to come; or that a 
 period may soon arrive when the increase of population will 
 surpass the means of subsistence, as some of the disciples of 
 Blaithus have lately insinuated. To suppose, as some of 
 these gentlemen seem to do, that wars and diseases, poverty 
 and pestilence, are necessary evils, in order to prevent the 
 increase of the human race beyond the means of subsistence 
 which nature can afford — while the immense regions of New 
 Holland, New Guinea, Borneo, and the greater part of Africa 
 and America are almost destitute of inhabitants — is both an 
 msult on the dignity of human nature, and a reflection on the 
 wisdom and beneficence of Divine Providence. The Creator 
 is benevolent and bountiful, and " his tender mercies are over 
 all his works :" but man, by his tyranny, ambition, and self- 
 ishness, has counteracted the streams of Divine beneficence, 
 and introduced into the social state, poverty, disorder, and 
 misery, with all their attendant train of evils ; and it is not 
 before such demoralizing principles be in some measure era- 
 dicated, and the principles of Christian benevolence brought 
 into active operation, that the social state of man will be 
 greatly meliorated, and the bounties of heaven fully enjoyed 
 by the human race. If, in the present deranged state of the 
 social and political world, it be found difficult, in any parti- 
 cular country, to find sustenance for its inhabitants, emigra- 
 tion is the obvious and natural remedy ; and the rapid emi- 
 grations which are now taking place to the Cape of Good 
 Hope, New Holland, Van Dieman's Land, and America, are, 
 doubtless, a part of those arrangements of Providence, by 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 153 
 
 which the Creator will accomplish his designs, in peophng the 
 desolate wastes of our globe, and promoting the progress o* 
 knowledge, and of the true rehgion among the scattered tribes 
 of mankind. 
 
 With that branch of knowledge to which I have now ad- 
 verted, every mdividual of the human race ought to be in 
 some measure acquainted. For it is unworthy of the dignity 
 of a rational being, to stalk abroad on the surface of the earth, 
 and enjoy the bounty of his Creator, without considering the 
 nature and extent of his sublunary habitation, the variety of 
 august objects it contains, the relation in which he stands to 
 other tribes of intelligent agents, and the wonderful machinery 
 which is in constant operation for supplying his wants, and for 
 producing the revolutions of day and night, spring and autumn, 
 summer and winter. — In a religious point of view, Geography 
 is a science of peculiar interest. For " the salvation of God," 
 which Christianity unfolds, is destined to be proclaimed in 
 every land, in order that men of all nations, and kindreds, and 
 tongues may participate in its blessings. But, without ex- 
 ploring every region of the earth, and the numerous islands 
 which are scattered over the surface of the ocean, and open- 
 ing up a regular intercourse with the different tribes of human 
 beings which dwell upon its surface, we can never carry into 
 efiect the purpose of God, by " making known his salvation 
 to the ends of the earth." — As God has ordained, that " all 
 flesh shall see the salvation" he has accomplished, and that 
 human beings shall be the agents for carrying his designs into 
 eftect — so, we may rest assured, that he has ordained every 
 mean reciuisite for accomplishing this end ; and, consequent- 
 ly, that it is his will that men should study the figure and 
 magnitude of the earth, and all those arts by which they may 
 be enabled to traverse and explore the different regions of land 
 and water, which compose the terraqueous globe — and that it 
 is also his will, that every one who feels an interest in the 
 present and eternal happiness of his fellow-men, should make 
 himself acquainted with the result of all the discoveries in this 
 science that have been, or may yet be made, in order to stimu- 
 late his activity, in conveying to the wretched sons of Adam, 
 wherever they may be found, " the unsearchable riches of 
 Christ." 
 
 To the Missionary, and the Directors of Bible and Mis- 
 sionary Societies, a minute and comprehensive knowledge of 
 this science, and of all the facts connected with it, is essen- 
 13* 
 
154 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 tially requisite ; without which they would often grope in ifit- 
 dark, and spend their money in vain, and " their labour for that 
 which doth not profit." They must be intimately acquainted 
 with the extensive field of operation which lies before them, 
 and with the physical, the moral, and the political state of the 
 different tribes to which they intend to send the message of 
 salvation ; otherwise their exertions will be made at random, 
 and their schemes be conducted without judgment or discri- 
 mination. To attempt to direct the movements of Missionary 
 Societies, without an intimate knowledge of this subject, is as 
 foolish and absurd as it would be for a land-surveyor to lay 
 down plans tor the improvement of a gentleman's estate, be- 
 fore he had surveyed the premises, and made himself ac- 
 quainted with the objects upon them, in their various aspects, 
 positions, and bearings. If all those who direct and support 
 the operations of such societies, were familarly acquainted 
 with the different fields for missionary exertions, and with the 
 peculiar state and character of the diversified tribes of the 
 heathen world, so far as they are known, injudicious schemes 
 might be frustrated before they are carried into oflTect, and the 
 funds of such institutions preserved from being wasted to no 
 purpose. In this view, it is the duty of every Christian, to 
 mark the progress and the results of the various geographical 
 expeditions \vhich are now going forward in quest of disco- 
 veries, in connection with the moral and political movements 
 which are presently agitating the nations : for every navigator, 
 who ploughs the ocean in search of new islands and conti- 
 nents, and every traveller who explores the interior of unknown 
 countries, should be considered as so many pioneers, sent be- 
 forehand, by Divine Providence, to prepare the way for the 
 labors of the missionary, and for the combined exertions of 
 Christian benevolence.* 
 
 * On this subject, the Author feels great pleasure in referring his read- 
 ers to a small volume, lately published, by James Douglas, Esq. of Cavers, 
 entitled, " Hints on Missions," — a work which deserves the attentive 
 perusal, both of the philosopher, the politician, and the Christian, and par- 
 ticularly of the Directors of Missionary Societies ; and which is charac- 
 terized by a spirit of enlightened philanthropy, and « condensation of 
 thought, which has seldom been equalled in the discussion of such topics. 
 It concentrates, as it were, into a focus, the light which has been reflected 
 from hundreds of volumes ; and the original hints it suggests, claim the 
 serious consideration of the superintendents of missionary schemes ; with- 
 out an attention to some of which, the beneficial effects resulting from such 
 undertakings v/ill be few and unimportant. — Should this note happen to 
 strike the eye of the worthy Author, it is submitted, with all due deference, 
 whether a more extensive circulation of the substance of this volume, in a 
 less expensive form, and with a few modifications, to bring it witliiii the 
 
GEOGRAPHF. 155 
 
 But even to every private Christian, Geography is an inter- 
 esting branch of study, without some knowledge of which his 
 prayers and his Christian sympathies cannot be judiciously 
 and extensively directed. We occasionally hear the ministers 
 of religion, at the commencement of public worship, on the 
 first day of the week, imploring the Divine blessing on their 
 brethren throughout the Christian church, who are commenc- 
 ing the same exercises ; and at the close of worship in the 
 afternoon, that the same blessing may seal the instructions 
 which have been delivered in all the churches of the saints ; 
 as if all the public religious services of the universal church 
 were, at that moment, drawing to a close. This is all very 
 well, so far as it goes : the expression of such benevolent 
 wishes is highly becoming and congenial to the spirit of 
 Christianity. But a very slight acquaintance with Geogra- 
 phical science will teach us, that, when we in this country are 
 commencing the religious services of the first day of the vreek, 
 our Christian brethren in the East Indies, who live under a 
 very different meridian, have finished theirs ; those in Russia, 
 Poland, Greece, Palestine, and on the banks of the Caspian 
 sea, have performed one half of their public religious worship 
 and instructions ; and those in New Holland and Van Die- 
 man's Land have retired to rest, at the close of their Sabbath. 
 On the other hand, our friends in the West India Islands and 
 in America, at the close of our worship, are only about to com- 
 mence the public instructions of the Christian Sabbath. If, 
 then, it be submitted, that our prayers, in certain cases, ought 
 to be specific^ to have a reference to the particular cases and 
 relations of certain classes of individuals, there can be no valid 
 reason assigned, why they should not have a reference to the 
 geographical positions of the different portions of the Christian 
 Church, as well as to those who live on or near our ov/n meri- 
 dian : that, for example, in the beginning of our public devo- 
 tions, w^e might implore that the blessing of God may accom- 
 pany the instructions which have been delivered in the Eastern 
 parts ot'the world ; and at the close of worship, that the same 
 agency may direct in the exercises of those in the Western 
 hemisphere, who are about to enter on the sacred services of 
 that day. On the same principle, we may perceive the absur- 
 dity of those " concerts""^ for prayer in different places at the 
 
 range of thought possessed by general readers, wcKild not have a tendency 
 Lo promote its benevolent objects. 
 
 * The author does rot seem to mean, that it is ahsxird for Christians in 
 every part of the earth to assemble on the same day in their respective places 
 of devotion, to pray for a universal extension of chribtianity. This ubjtc- 
 
156 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 same hour, which were lately proposed, and attempted by a 
 certain portion of the religious world. Even within the limits 
 of Europe, this could not be attempted, with the prospect of 
 Christians joining in devotion at one and the same time ; for, 
 when it is six o'clock in one part of Europe, it is eight at 
 another, and five o'clock at a third place ; much less could 
 such a concert take place throughout Europe, Asia, and Ame- 
 rica. So that science, and a calm consideration of the nature 
 and relations of things, may teach us to preserve our devotional 
 fervor and zeal within the bounds of reason and propriety ; 
 and, at the same time, to direct our reflections, and our 
 Christian svmpathies, to take a wider range than that to which 
 they are usually confined. 
 
 Besides the considerations now suggested, a serious con- 
 templation of the physical objects and movements which this 
 science exhibits, has a tendency to excite pious and reverential 
 emotions. To contemplate this huge globe of land and water, 
 flying with rapidity through the voids of space, conveying its 
 vast population from one region to another, at the rate of fifteen 
 hundred thousand miles in a day, and whirling round its axis 
 at the same time, to produce the constant succession of day 
 and night, — to contemplate the lofty ridges of mountains that 
 stretch around it in every direction ; the flaming volcanoes ; 
 the roaring cataracts ; the numerous rivers, incessantly rolling 
 their watery treasures into the seas; the majestic ocean, and 
 its unfathomable caverns ; the vapors rising from its surface, 
 and replenishing the springs and rivers ; the avalanche hurling 
 down the mountain's side with a noise like thunder ; the luxu- 
 riant plains of the torrid zone ; the rugged cliffs and icebergs 
 of the polar regions ; and thousands of other objects of diver- 
 sified beauty and subhmity, — has an evident tendency to 
 expand the conceptions of the human mind, to increase its 
 sources of animal enjoyment, and to elevate the affections to 
 that All-Powerful Being who gave birth to all the sublimities of 
 Nature, and who incessantly superintends all its movements. 
 
 In fine, from the numerous moral facts, which Geography 
 unfolds, we learn the vast depth and extent of that moral de- 
 gradation into which the human race has fallen — the ferocious 
 tempers, and immoral practices, which are displayed in the 
 regions of Pagan idolatry — the horrid cruelties, the vile abo- 
 minations, that are daily perpetrated under the sanction of what 
 
 tion would lie with equal weight against the sabbath. His only objection 
 appears to be against the supposition, that christians, meeting in different 
 parts of the earth at the same hour of the day, are praying in all places at 
 the same moment. — dmencan Editor. 
 
GEOLOGY. 157 
 
 is termed religion — the wide extent of population, over which 
 the prince of darkness sways his sceptre — the difficidties which 
 require to be surmounted before the " Gospel of salvation'* car? 
 extend its full influence throughout the Pagan world — and the 
 vast energies which are requisite to accomplish this glorious 
 event. Ail these portions of information are calculated to 
 confirm and illustrate the Scriptural doctrine of the universal 
 depravity of man — to exercise the faith of the Christian, on 
 the promises of Jehovah, in reference to the conversion of the 
 benighted nations — to rouse his sympathies towards his • de- 
 graded brethren of mankind, to excite his intercession in then- 
 behalf, and to direct his benevolence and activity, in devising 
 and e^cecuting schemes for enlightening the people who are 
 sitting " in darkness, and in the shadow of death." 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 Another subject intimately related to the former, is, the 
 science of Geology. 
 
 This science has for its object, to investigate and describe 
 the internal siructure of the earth, the arrangement of the ma- 
 terials of which it is composed, the circumstances peculiar to 
 its original formation, the different states under which it has 
 existed, and the various changes which it appears to have un- 
 dergone, since the Almighty created the substance of which it 
 is composed. From a consideration of the vast quantity of 
 materials contained in the internal structure of our globe, and 
 of the limited extent to which men can carry their operations, 
 when they attempt to penetrate into its bowels, it is obvious, 
 that our knowledge of this subject must be very shallow and 
 imperfect.. The observations, however, which have been made 
 on the structure of our globe during the last half century, and 
 the conclusions deduced from them, are highly interesting, 
 both to the philosopher, and to the Christian. Before the 
 facts, on which this branch of Natural History is founded, 
 were accurately ascertained, a variety of objections to the Mo- 
 saic history of the creation were started by certain sceptical 
 philosophers, founded on partial and erroneous views of the 
 real structure and economy of the earth. But it is now found, 
 that the more accurately and minutely the system of nature is 
 explored, the more distinctly do we perceive the harmony that 
 subsists between the records of Revelation, and. the operations 
 of the Creator, in the material world. If both be admitted as 
 the effects of the agency of the same Almighty and Eternal 
 Being, they must, in the nature of things, completely har- 
 
158 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER, 
 
 moiiize, and can never be repugnant to each other — whethei 
 we be capable, in every instance, of perceiving their com- 
 plete coincidence, or not. If any facts could be produced in 
 the visible creation which directly contradict the records of 
 the Bible, it would form a proof, that the oracles which we 
 hold as Divine, were not dictated by the Creator and Go- 
 vernor of the universe. But, although some garbled facts 
 have been triumphantly exhibited in this view, it is now ascer- 
 tained, from the discoveries which have been lately made in 
 relation to the structure and formation of the earth, that the 
 truth of the facts detailed in Sacred History, rests on a solid 
 and immutable basis ; and that the Supreme Intelligence who 
 arranged the fabric of heaven and earth, and he alone, commu- 
 nicated to the inspired writers the doctrines, and the facts they 
 have recorded ; and, we have reason to believe, that as Geol- 
 ogists proceed in their researches and investigations, still 
 more sensible proofs of the authenticity of Revelation will be 
 brought to light. 
 
 Geology has, of late, become an interesting object of in- 
 quiry to the student of general science, and is now prosecuted 
 with ardor by many distinguished philosophers. The observa- 
 tions which have been made in various parts of the world, by 
 late navigators ; the facts which have been ascertained by 
 Pallas, Saussure, De Luc, Humboldt, and other intelligent 
 travellers ; and the discoveries which have been brought to 
 light by modern chemists and mineralogists, have all con- 
 spired to facihtate Geological inquiries, to render them more 
 enlightened and satisfactoiy, and to prepare the way for future 
 ages establishing a rational, scriptural, and substantial theory 
 of the earth. The man who engages in such inquiries has 
 always at hand a source of rational investigation and enjoy- 
 ment. The ground on which he treads — the aspect of the 
 surrounding country — the mines, the caves, and the quarries 
 which he explores — every new country in which he travels, 
 every mountain he climbs, and every new surface of the earth 
 that is laid open to his inspection, offer to him novel and in- 
 teresting stores of information. On descending into mines, 
 we are not only gratified by displays of human ingenuity, but 
 we also acquire views of the strata of the earth, and of the revo- 
 lutions it has undergone since the period of its formation. — 
 Our researches on the surface of the earth, amidst abrupt pre- 
 cipices and lofty mountains, introduce us to the grandest and 
 most sublime works of the Creator, and present to our view 
 the effects of stupendous forces, which have overturned moun- 
 tains, and rent the foundations of nature. " In the midst of 
 
GEOJOGY. 159 
 
 such scenes, the Geologist feels his mind invigorated ; the 
 magnitude of the appearances before him extinguishes all the 
 little and contracted notions he may have formed in the 
 closet ; and he learns, that it is only by visiting and studying 
 those stupendous works, that he can form an adequate con- 
 ception of the great relations of the crust of the globe, and of 
 its mode of formation."* 
 
 The upper crust, or surface of the earth, is found to be com- 
 posed of different strata, or beds placed one above another. 
 These strata, or layers, are very much mixed, and their direc- 
 tion, matter, thickness, and relative position, vary considerably 
 in different places. These strata are divided into seven 
 classes, as follows : — black earth, clay, sandy earth, mari, bog, 
 chalk, and scabeous or stony earth. The surface of the globe, 
 considered in relation to its inequalities, is divided into High- 
 land, Lowland, and the bottom of the sea. Highland com- 
 prises Alpine land, composed of mountain groups, or series of 
 mountain chains : Lowland comprises those extensive flat 
 tracts which are almost entirely destitute of small mountain 
 groups. To the bottom of the sea belong the flat, rocky bot- 
 tom, shoals, reefsv and islands. 
 
 At first sight, the solid mass of the earth appears to be a con- 
 fused assemblage of rocky masses, piled on each other without 
 regularity or order, where none of those admirable displays of 
 skill and contrivance are to be observed, which so powerfully 
 excite attention in the structure of animals and vegetables. 
 But, on a nearer and more intimate view, a variety of beautiful 
 arrangements has been traced by the industry of Geologists, 
 and the light of modern discoveries ; by which they have been 
 enabled to classify these a})parant irregularities of nature. 
 The materials of which the solid crust of the earth is composed, 
 have been arranged into the four following classes : — I. 
 Those rocks which contain neither any animal nor vegetable 
 remains themselves, nor are intermixed with rocks which do 
 contain them, and are therefore termed Primitive, or Primary 
 rocks ; the period of whose formation is considered as ante- 
 cedent to that of the creation of organic beings. These are 
 granite, gnesis, mica slate, and clay slate, which occur abun- 
 dantly in all regions of the globe, with quartz rock, serpentine, 
 granular limestone, &c. which occur more sparingly. — 2. 
 Rocks containing organic remains, or generally associated with 
 other rocks in which such substances are found, and which, as 
 having been formed posterior to the existence of organized 
 
 * Edinburgh Encyclop. Art. Minerdegy, 
 
160 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 beings, are termed Secondary, These are greywacke, sand- 
 stone, limestone, and gypsum of various kinds, slate clay, with 
 certain species of trap ; and they are found lying above the 
 primary or older rocks. — 3. Above these secondary rocks, beds 
 of gravel, sand, earth, and moss, are found, which have been 
 termed Alluvial rocks, or Formations. This class compre- 
 hends those rocky substances formed from previously existing 
 rocks, of which the materials have been broken down by the 
 agency of water and air ; they are therefore generally loose in 
 their texture, and are never covered with any real solid and 
 rocky secondary strata. — 4. Volcanic rocks ; under which 
 class are comprehended all those rocks, beds of lava, scoriae, 
 and other matter thrown out at certain points of the earth's 
 surface by the action of subterraneous fire. 
 
 " The phenomena of Geology show, that the original 
 formation of the rocks has been accompanied, in nearly all its 
 stages, by a process of waste, decay, and recomposition. The 
 rocks, as they were successively deposited, were acted upon 
 by air and water, heat, &c. broken into fragments, or worn 
 down into grains, out of which new strata were formed. Even 
 the newer secondary rocks, since their consolidation, have 
 been subject to great changes, of which very distinct monu- 
 ments remain. Thus, we have single mountains which, from 
 their structure, can be considered only as remnants of great 
 formations, or of great continents no longer in existence. 
 Mount Meisner, in Hesse, six miles long and three broad, 
 rises about ISOO feet above its base, and 2100 above' the sea, 
 overtopping all the neighbouring hills from 40 to 50 miles 
 round. The lowest part of the mountain consists of the same 
 shell, limestone, and sandstone, which exist in the adjacent 
 country. Above these are, first, a bed of sand, then a bed of 
 fossil wood, 100 feet thick at some points, and the whole is 
 covered by a mass of basalt, 500 feet in height. On consi- 
 dering these facts, it is impossible to avoid concluding, that 
 this niountain which now overtops the neighbouring country, 
 occupied at one time, the bottom of a cavity in the midst of 
 higher lands. The vast mass of fossil wood could not all 
 have grown there, but must have been transported by water 
 from a more elevated surflice, and lodged in what was then a 
 hollow. The basalt which covers the wood must also have 
 flowed in a current from a higher site ; but the soil over which 
 both the wood and the basalt passed, has been swept away, 
 leaving this mountain as a solitary memorial to attest its exist- 
 ence. Thus, also, on the side of Mount Jura next the Alps, 
 where no other mountain interposes, there are found vast 
 
GEOLOGY. 161 
 
 blocks of granite (some of 1000 cubic yards) at the height of 
 more than 2000 feet above the Lake of Geneva. These 
 blocks are foreign to the rocks among which they lie, and have 
 evidently come from the opposite chain of the Alps ; but the 
 land which constituted the inclined plane over which they 
 were rolled or transported, has been worn away, and the val- 
 ley of lower Switzerland, with its lakes, now occupies its place, 
 Transported masses of primitive rocks, of the same descrip- 
 tion, are found scattered over the north of Germany, which 
 Van Buch ascertained by their characters to belong to the. 
 mountains of Scandinavia ; and which, therefore, carry us 
 back to a period when an elevated continent, occupying the 
 basin of the Baltic, connected Saxony with Norway. — Supp. 
 to Eiicy. Brit. vol. 6. 
 
 The production of a bed for vegetation is effected by the 
 decomposition of rocks. This decomposition is effected by 
 the expansion of water in the pores or fissures of rocks, by 
 heat or congelation — by the solvent power of moisture — and 
 by electricity, which is known to be a powerful agent of de- 
 composition. As soon as the rock begins to be softened, the 
 seeds of lichens, which are constantly floating in the air, make 
 it their resting place. Their generations occupy it till a finely 
 divided earth is formed, which becomes capable of supporting 
 mosses and heath ; acted upon by light and heat, these plants 
 imbibe the dew, and convert constituent parts of the air into 
 nourishment. Their death and decay afford food for a more 
 perfect species of vegetable ; and, at length, a mould is form- 
 ed, in which even the trees of the forest can fix their roots?, 
 and which is capable of rewarding the labors of the cultivator. 
 The decomposition of rocks tends, to the renovation of soils, 
 as well as their cultivation. Finely divided matter is carried 
 by rivers from the higher districts to the low countnes, and 
 alluvial lands are usually extremely fertile. By these opera- 
 tions, the quantity of habitable surface is constantly increased : 
 precipitous cUtfs are generally made gentle slopes, lakes are 
 filled up, and islands are formed at the mouths of great river? ; 
 so that as the world grows older, its capacity for containing an 
 increased number of inhabitants is gradually enlarging. 
 
 Of all the memorials of the past history of our globe, Xh^ 
 most interesting are those myriads of remains of organized 
 bodies which exist in the interior of its outer crusts. In these, 
 we find traces of innumerable orders of beings existing under 
 different circumstances, succeeding one another at distant 
 epochs, and varying through multiphed changes of form, ** If 
 we examine the secondary rocks, beginning with the most 
 
 14 
 
162 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 ancient, the first organic remains which present themselves, are 
 those of aquatic plants and large reeds, but of species differ- 
 ent from ours. To these succeed madrepores, encrenities, 
 and other aquatic zoophites, living beings of the simplest 
 forms which remain attached to one spot, and partake, in some 
 degree, of the nature of vegetables. Posterior to these, are 
 ammonites, and other moUusci, still very simple in their forms, 
 and entirely different from any animals now known. After 
 these, some fishes appear ; and plants, consisting of bamboos 
 and ferns, increase, but still different from those which exist. 
 In the next period, along with an increasing number of extinct 
 species of shells and fishes, we meet with amphibious and 
 viviparous quadrupeds, such as crocodiles and tortoises, and 
 some reptiles, as serpents, which show, that dry land now ex- 
 isted. As we approach the newest of the solid rock forma- 
 tions, we find lamantins, phocae, and other cetaceous and 
 mammiferous sea animals, with some birds. And in the new- 
 est of these formations, we find the remains of herbiferous 
 land animals of extinct species, the paleotherium, anaplothe- 
 rium, &c. and of birds, with some fresh water shells. In the 
 lowest beds of loose soil, and in peat bogs, are found the re- 
 mains of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elk, &c. of 
 different species from those which now exist, but belonging to 
 the same genera. Lastly, the bones of the species which are 
 apparently the same with those now existing alive, are never 
 found except in the very latest alluvial depositions, or those 
 which are either formed in the sides of rivers, the bottoms of 
 ancient lakes and marshes now dried up, in peat beds, in the 
 fissures and caverns of certain rocks, or at small depths below 
 the present surface, in places where they may have been over- 
 whelmed by debris, or even buried by man. Human bones 
 are never found except among those of animal species now 
 living, and in situations which show, that they have been 
 comparatively speaking, recently deposited." — Supp. to Ency. 
 Brit. vol. 6. 
 
 More than thirty different species of animals have been 
 found embedded in the secondary strata — no living examples 
 of which are now to be found in any quarter of the globe. 
 Among the most remarkable of these are the following. — 1. 
 The JMammoth, which bears a certain resemblance to the 
 Elephant, but is much larger, and differs considerably in the 
 size and form of the tusks, jaws, and grinders. The fossil re- 
 mains of this animal are more abundant in Siberia than in 
 other countries ; there being scarcely a spot, from the river 
 Don to Kamtschatka, in which they have not been found. 
 
GEOLOGY. 16S 
 
 Not only single bones and perfect skeletons of this animal are 
 frequently to be met with ; but, in a late instance, the whole 
 animal was found preserved in ice. This animal was dis- 
 covered on the banks of the frozen ocean, near the mouth of 
 the river Jena, in 1799 ; and in 1805, Mr. Adams got it con- 
 veyed over a space of 7000 miles to Petersburgh, where it is 
 deposited in the Museum. The flesh, skin, and hair were 
 completely preserved, and even the eyes were entire. It was 
 provided with a long mane, and the body was covered with 
 hair. This hair was of different qualities. There were stiff 
 black bristles from 12 to 15 inches long, and these belonged 
 to the tail, mane, and ears. Other bristles were from 9 to 10 
 inches long, and of a brown color ; and besides these, there 
 was a coarse wool, from 3 to 5 inches long, of a pale yellow 
 color. This mammoth was a male : it measured 9 feet 4 
 inches in height, and was 16 feet 4 inches long, without inclu- 
 ding the tusks. The tusks, measuring along the curve, are 9 
 feet 6 inches ; and the two together weigh 360 lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois. The head alone without the tusks, weighs 414 lbs. 
 avoirdupois. The remains of this animal have been found 
 likewise in Iceland, Norway, Scotland, England, and in 
 many places through the continent onwards to the Arctic 
 ocean. 
 
 2. The Megatherium. A complete skeleton of this co- 
 lossal species was found in diluvial soil, near Buenos Ayres, 
 and sent to Madrid, The specimen is 14 feet long, and 7 
 Spanish feet in height. 
 
 3. The great Mastodon of the Ohio. This species ap- 
 pears to have been as tall as the elephant, but with longer and 
 thicker limbs. It had tusks like the elephant, and appears to 
 have lived on roots. Its remains abound in America, particu- 
 larly on the banks of the Ohio. 
 
 4. The Tapir, which also abounds in America. The 
 one named Gigantic Tapir, is about 18 feet long, and 12 feet 
 high. 
 
 5. The Irish Elk, or Elk of the Isle of Man. This gi- 
 gantic species, now apparently extinct, occurs in a fossil state, 
 in Ireland, Isle of Man, England, Germany, and France. The 
 most perfect specimen of this species, v/hich was found in the 
 Isle of Man, may be seen in the Museum of the University of 
 Edinburgh. It is 6 feet high, 9 feet long, and in height to 
 the tip of the right horn, 9 feet 7^ inches. An engraving of 
 this skeleton may be seen in vol. 6 of Supp. to Ency. Brit. 
 
 From a consideration of the phenomena above described. 
 Geologists have been led to conclude, " that rocks now buried 
 
t)-3 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 at a great depih, constituted, at one time, the surface of con 
 tinents, and the seat of organic Hfe ; and that many orders of 
 bemgs have been called into existence^ and afterwards de- 
 stroyed by great revolutions, which introduced new classes ol 
 mineral deposits, accompanied with new tribes of organic 
 beings." It has also been concluded by. some, that the 
 appearance of Man upon the face of the globe, is, geologi- 
 cally speaking, a very recent event ; before which the earth 
 had been inhabited thousand of years by various families of 
 plants and tribes of animals, which had been destroyed and 
 renewed in a long series of successions. Whether these 
 conclusions be necessary inferences from the phenomena of 
 organic remains and other geological facts, I shall not, at 
 present, stop to inquire. It is sufficient for the Christian 
 Philosopher to show, that, though they should be admitted in 
 their full extent, they are not inconsistent with the records of 
 Sacred History, as some divines have been disposed to main- 
 tain. Though it could be proved to a demonstration, that the 
 materials of which the present system of our globe is com- 
 posed, have existed for millions of years, it would not, in the 
 least, invalidate the Mosaic account of the arrangement of 
 our world. For Moses no where affirms, that the materials or 
 substance of the earth, were created, or brought from nothing 
 into existence, at the period when his history commences. 
 His language, on the contrary, evidently implies, that the 
 materials which enter into the constitution of our globe did 
 exist, at the epoch at which he commences his narration. 
 '' The earth was without form, and void ; and darkness tvas 
 upon the face of the deep." This passage plainly implies the 
 following things — 1. That the original atoms, or materials, 
 out of which the terraqueous globe, in its present state, was 
 formed, were then in existence, or, had been previously created. 
 How long they had been in existence is not stated. We may 
 suppose thein to have existed tor a year, a thousand years, or 
 a million of years, just as geological phenomena seem to war- 
 rant, without 111 the least invalidating the authority of the 
 Sacred Historian, who states nothing contrary to the truth of 
 either supposition. 2. That the materials of our globe, as 
 then existing, were in a chaotic state. Instead of that order 
 and beauty which we perceive on the face of nature, the whole 
 mass presented a scene of confusion and disorder — such a 
 scene, perhaps, as would be presented, were the earth stripped 
 of its verdure, were its strata universally disrupted, its moun- 
 tains hurled into the plains, and its rivers and seas, by some 
 terrible convulsion, to ibrsake their ancient channels. 3.. The- 
 
GEOLOGY. 165 
 
 passage seems to imply, that the whole, or the greater portion 
 of the earth, as it then existed, was covered with a deluge 
 of water : " Darkness covered the face of the cieep," or the 
 abyss. 
 
 Such was the state of the terrestrial system at the period 
 when Moses commences his narration ; no intimation being 
 given of the period of its duration in this condition ; and, 
 consequently, nothing asserted to militate against any geolo- 
 gical system which is founded on the facts which have been 
 discovered respecting the organic remains which are found in 
 the strata of our globe. It is a mistake into which too many 
 have been apt to fall, to suppose, that Moses begins his history 
 at the period when the first portions of material existence 
 were created out of nothing ; and that it was his design to 
 mark the precise epoch when the whole assemblage of created 
 beings throughout the universe was brought into existence. — 
 His primary, if not his sole intention evidently was, to detail 
 the progress of those arrangements by which the earth was 
 gradually reduced to that form and order in which we now 
 behold it, from the chaotic materials which previously existed. 
 And, as an emphatic and appropriate introduction to his narra- 
 tion, he states this important truth : " In the begining God 
 created the heaven and the earth." This passage, being of a 
 general and comprehensive nature, decides nothing with regard 
 to the period,, or precise epoch, at which the different bodies in 
 the universe were called into being ; but is evidently intended 
 to convey the following important truth, in opposion to all fan- 
 ciful, chimerical, and atheistical notions respectin^g the origin of 
 the world ; namely, " That, at what period soever, in the lapse 
 of duration, any object was brought into existence, it derived 
 that existence from the God of Israel, the self-existent and 
 Eternal Jehovah." "In the beginning God created the heaven 
 and the earth." As the language of the Sacred Historian, 
 therefore, decides nothing with regard to time — to limit the 
 creation of every portion of the material system within the 
 period of six thousand years, is to make an unnecessary con- 
 cession to the infidel philosopher, which may afterwards be 
 found inconsistent with certain facts which exist in the ma- 
 terial world. 
 
 But, whatever may be said with respect to the state and 
 duration of the earth prior to the period at which Moses com- 
 mences his narration, it is admitted by every geologist, that 
 our globe, as to its present form and arrangement,, has been, 
 comparatively, of but short duration. Cuvier, one of the 
 most enlightened geologists of the age, deduces, from certain 
 
 14* 
 
166 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 progressive changes on the earth's surface, as well as from the 
 concurrent traditions of many nations, that the first appearance 
 of man upon the face of the globe, or, at least, the renewal of 
 the human race after some great catastrophe, cannot be refer- 
 red to a period farther back than 5000, or 6000 years from the 
 present time. Geologists, too, of every description, however 
 different the systems or theories they have adopted, have all 
 been constrained, from the evidence of fact, to admit this con- 
 clusion, " That every part of the dry land icas once covered by 
 the ocean ;^^ thus confirming the scriptural accomit of that 
 stupendous event, the universal deluge. This event, from its 
 very nature, must have been accompanied with the most terri- 
 ble convulsions, both on the exterior surface, and in the inte- 
 rior strata of the globe. Accordingly we find, that traces of 
 this awful catastrophe exist in every region of the earth. Mr. 
 Parkinson describes the whole island of Great Britain, as 
 having, since its completion, " sufTered considerable distur- 
 bance from some prodigious and mysterious power. By this 
 power all the known strata, to the greatest depths that have 
 been explored, have been more or less broken and displaced, 
 and, in some places, have been so lifted, that some of the lowest 
 of them have been raised to the surface ; while portions of 
 others, to a very considerable depth and extent, have beec 
 entirely carried away." The whole of the Alpine region ir 
 Switzerland, and the North of Italy, considered as one mass 
 shows the most evident marks of dislocation. At the height 
 of 3500 feet above the level of the sea, M. Saussure met with 
 a chasm a hundred feet wide, and so deep that he saw no bot- 
 tom. All travellers on the Alps have regarded them with 
 horror. They mark the most evident convulsions, but show 
 no signs of having been occasioned by attrition. Mr. Towns- 
 end, speaking of the Pyrenees, which he personally inspected, 
 says, " What is most remarkable is, to see four enormous 
 chasms, almost perpendicular, which divided both mountains 
 and their valleys, and which appear as if they had just been 
 rent asunder." Throughout the ranges of the Andes, and in 
 every other mountainous region, similar chasms and disrup- 
 tions, indicating the former operation of some tremendous 
 power, are frequently observed by those who visit such scenes 
 of grandeur. — In some of the coal mines in our own country, 
 the coal is in some places lifted up, or thrown down several 
 hundreds of feet from the places it appears originally to have 
 occupied. " Two miles north of Newcastle," says Mr. Towns- 
 end, *^ one great dyke ov fault throws down ihe coal 540 feet 
 
GEOLOGY. 167 
 
 — at the distance of 3 miles, it is cut off and thrown down 
 again 240 feet." 
 
 An evidence of the effects which could be produced only 
 by a general deluge, is also afforded by those organic remains 
 to which I have already adverted, and particularly by those 
 immense quantities of marine shells^ which have been discov- 
 ered in situations so elevated, and in places so far removed from 
 the sea, as to prove that they were left there by a flood exten- 
 ing over the whole globe. At Touraine, in France, a hundred 
 miles from the sea, is a bed of shells stretching 9 leagues in 
 extent, and 20 feet in depth, and including shells not known 
 to belong to the neighbouring sea. Humboldt found sea shells 
 on the Andes at an elevation of 14,120 feet above the level of 
 the sea. The slaty mountain of La Bolca, near Verona, is 
 famous for petrifactions, among which are enumerated more 
 than one hundred species of fish, natives of Europe, Asia, 
 Africa, and America, here assembled in one place. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that the researches of Geology confirm 
 the fact of a universal deluge, and thus afford a sensible proof 
 of the credibility of the Sacred Historian, and, consequently, 
 of the truth of the doctrines of Divine Revelation. But, besides 
 the testimony u bich this science bears to the authenticity of 
 Scripture History, it exhibits some of the grandest objects in 
 the history of the physical operations of Divine Providence. 
 It presents to onr view, in a most impressive form, the majes- 
 tic agency of God, in convulsing and disarranging the struc- 
 ture of our globe, and which at first sprung from his hand in 
 perfect order and beauty. When we comtemplate the objects 
 which this science embraces, we seem to be standing on the 
 ruins of a former world. We behold " hills" which " have 
 melted like Max at the presence of the Lord." and " mountains" 
 which " have been carried into the midst of the sea." We 
 behold rocks of enormous size, which have been rent from 
 their foundations, and rolled from one continent to another — • 
 the most solid strata of the earth bent under the action of 
 some tremendous power, and dispersed in fragments through 
 the surrounding regions. We behold the summits of lofty 
 mountains, over w^hich the ocean had rolled its mighty billows 
 — confounding lands and seas in one universal devastation — 
 transporting plants and forests from one quarter of the world 
 to another, and spreading universal destruction among the 
 animated inhabitants of the water and the earth. When we 
 enter the wild and romantic scene of a mountainous country, 
 or descend into the subterraneous regions of the globe, we are 
 
168 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 every where struck with the vestiges of operations carried opj 
 by the powers of Nature^ upon a scale of prodigious magni- 
 tude, and with the exertion of forces, the stupendous nature 
 of which astonishes and overpowers the mind. Comtemplat- 
 mg such scenes of grandeur, we perceive the force and sub- 
 limity of those descrij^tions of Deity contained in the volume 
 of inspiration : " The Lord reigneth, he is clothed with majes- 
 ty ; in his hand are the deep places of the earth, the strength 
 of hills is his also. He removeth the mountains, and they 
 know not ; he overturneth them in his anger ; he shaketh the 
 earth out of her place, and the pillars thereof tremble. At his 
 presence the earth shook and trembled : the foundations also 
 of the hills moved, and were shaken, because he was wrath." 
 " Thou coveredst the earth with the deep, as with a garment ; 
 the waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they 
 fled; at the voice of thy thunder they hastened away." While 
 retracing such terrific displays of Omnipotence, we are natu- 
 rally led to inquire into the moral cause which induced the 
 Benevolent Creator to inflict upon the world such overwhelm- 
 ing desolations. For reason, as well as revelation, declares, 
 that a moral cause must have existed. Man must have viola- 
 ted the commands of his Maker, and frustrated the end of his 
 creation ; and to this conclusion the Sacred Historian bears 
 ample testimony. — " God saw that the wickedness of man was 
 great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts 
 of his heart was only evil continually : and Jehovah said, I 
 will destroy man whom I have created, from the face of the 
 earth, both man and beast, and the creeping thing, and the 
 fowls of the air." 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Another science which stands in an intimate relation to reli 
 gion, is Astronomy. 
 
 This sublime science teaches us the magnitudes and dis- 
 tances of the heavenly bodies, their arrangement, their various 
 motions and phenomena^ and the laws by which their move- 
 ments are regulated. It presents to our view objects the most 
 wonderful and sublime ; whether we consider the vast magni- 
 tude of the bodies about which it is conversant — their immense 
 number — the velocitij of their motions — the astonishing forces 
 requisite to impel them in their rapid career through the regions 
 of the sky — the vast spaces which surround them, and in which 
 they perform their revolutions — the magnificent circles they 
 describe — the splendor of their appearance — or the important 
 ends they are destined to serve in the grand system of the 
 
ASTRONOMY. 169 
 
 universe. Having adverted to this subject, when illustrating the 
 Omnipotence of the Deity, I shall here simply state a few 
 additional facts with respect to the general appearance of the 
 heavens, the bodies which compose the planetary system, and 
 the discoveries which have been made in the region of the 
 stars. 
 
 When we lift our eyes towards the sky, we perceive an ap- 
 parent hollow hemisphere, placed at an indefinite distance, and 
 surrounding the earth on every hand. In the day time, the 
 principal object which appears in the hemi.-sphere, is the sun- 
 In the morning, we see him rise above the dis\ant mountains^ 
 or from the extremity of the ocean ; he gradually ascends the 
 vault of heaven, and then declines, and disappears in the op- 
 posite quarter of the sky. In the northern parts of the globe, 
 where we reside, if, about the 21st of March, we place our- 
 selves on an open plain, with our face towards the south, the 
 sun will appear to rise on our left, or due east, about six in the 
 morning, and about the same hour in the evening, he will set 
 due west. In the month of June he rises to our left, but some- 
 w^hat behind us, in a direction towards the north-east, ascends 
 to a greater height at noon than in the month of March, and,, 
 after describing a large arc of the heavens, sets on our right, 
 and still behind us, in the north-western quarter of the sky. 
 In the month of December, if we stand in the same position, 
 we may observe, without turning ourselves, both his rising and 
 setting. He rises in the south-east, ascends to a small eleva- 
 tion at noon, and sets in the south-west, after having described 
 a very small arc of the heavens. Every day he appears to 
 move a little towards the eastj or contrary to his apparent di- 
 urnal motion ; for the stars which are seen to the eastward 
 of him, appear every succeeding day to make a nearer ap- 
 proach to the place in which he is seen. All the variety of 
 these successive changes is accomplished within the period of 
 365 days 6 hours, in which time he appears to have made a 
 complete revolution round the heavens from ivest to east. 
 
 The moon is the next object in the heavens which naturally 
 attracts our attention ; and she is found to go through similar 
 variations in the course of a month. When she first becomes 
 visible at new moon, she appears in the western part of the 
 heavens, in the form of a crescent, not far from the setting 
 sun. Every night she increases in size, and removes to a 
 greater distance from the sun, till, at last, she appears in the 
 eastern part of the horizon, just as the sun disappears in the 
 western ; at which time she presents a round full-enlightened 
 face. After this, she gradually moves farther and farther east- 
 
170 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 ward, and her enlightened part gradually decreases, till at last 
 she seems to approach the sun as nearly in the east as she did 
 in the west, and rises only a little before him in the morning, in 
 the form of a crescent. All these different changes may be 
 traced by attending to her apparent positions, from time to 
 time, with respect to the fixed stars. 
 
 A dark shadow is occasionally seen to move across the face 
 of the moon, which obscures her light, and gives her the ap- 
 pearance of tarnished copper. Sometimes this shadow 
 covers only a small portion of her surface ; at other times it 
 covers the whole of her disk for an hour or two, and its margin 
 always appears of the figure of a segment of a circle. This 
 phenomenon, which happens, at an average, about twice every 
 year, is termed an eclipse of the moon. It is produced by the 
 shadow of the earth falling upon the moon, when the sun, the 
 earth, and the moon, are nearly in a straight line : and can 
 happen only at the time of full moon. Sometimes the moon 
 appears to pass across the body of the sun, when her dark side 
 is turned towards the earth, covering his disk either in whole 
 or in part, and intercepting his rays from a certain portion of 
 the earth. This is called an eclipse of the swi, and can happen 
 only at the time of new moon. In a total eclipse of the sun, 
 which seldom happens, the darkness is so striking, that the 
 planets, and some of the larger stars, are distinctly seen, and 
 the inferior animals appear struck with terror. 
 
 Again, if, on a winter's evening, about six o'clock, we direct 
 our view to the eastern quarter of the sky, we shall perceive 
 certain stars just risen above the horizon ; if we view the same 
 stars about midnight, we shall find them at a considerable ele- 
 vation in the south, having apparently moved over a space 
 equal to one half of the whole hemisphere. On the next 
 morning, about six o'clock, the same stars will be seen setting 
 in the western part of the sky. If we turn our eyes towards 
 the north, we shall perceive a similar motion in these twinkling 
 orbs, but with this difference, that a very considerable number 
 of them neither rise nor set, but seem to move round an im- 
 moveable point, called the north pole. Near this point is 
 placed the pole star, which seems to have little or no apparent 
 motion, and which, in our latitude, appears elevated a little 
 more than half way between the northern part of our horizon 
 and the zenith or point above our heads. A person who has 
 directed his attention to the heavens for the first time, after 
 having made such observations, will naturally inquire — 
 Whence come those stars which begin to appear in the east ? 
 Whither have those gone, which have disappeared in the west I 
 
ASTRONOMY. 171 
 
 &nd. What becomes, during the day, of the stars which are 
 ' seen in the night ? — It will soon occur to a rational observer, 
 who is convinced of the roundness of the earth, that the stars 
 which rise above the eastern horizon come from another 
 hemisphere, which we are apt to imagine below us, and when 
 they set, return to that hemisphere again ; and, that the reason 
 why the stars are not seen in the day-time, is, not because they 
 are absent from our hemisphere, or have ceased to shine, but 
 because their light is obscured by the more vivid splendor of 
 the sun.* From such observations we are led to conclude, 
 that the globe on which we tread is suspended in empty space 
 — is surrounded on all sides by the celestial vault — and that 
 the whole sphere of the heavens has an apparent motion round 
 
 ^ This is put beyond all doubt, by the invention of the telescope ; by 
 which instrument, adapted to an equatorial motion, we are enabled to see 
 many of the stars even at noon-day. The Author of this work, about 
 eleven years ago, made a number of observations, by means of an Equa- 
 torial telescope, to determine the following particulars : — What stars and 
 planets may be conveniently seen in the day-time, when the sun is above 
 the horizon ? What degrees of magnifying power are requisite for distin- 
 guishing them? How near their conjunction with the sun they may be 
 seen ; — and, whether the diminution of the aperture of the telescape, or 
 the increase of magnifying power, conduces most to render a star or planet 
 visible in day-light. The results of several hundreds of observations on 
 these points, accompanied with some original deductions and remarks, are 
 inserted in " Nicholson's Philosophical Journal," for C>ctober, 1813, vol. 36, 
 p. 109 — 128. The following are some of the results which were deduced 
 from the observations : — That a star of the first magnitude may be dis- 
 tinguished at any time of the day, with a magnifying power of 30 times, 
 but that a higher magnifying power is preferable — That most of the stars 
 of the second magnitude may be seen with a power of 100 : and with a 
 power of 60 times, when the sun is not much more than two hours above 
 the horizon — That the planet Jupiter, when not within 30 or 40 degrees of 
 the sun, may be seen with a power of 15 times ; — and that Venus may, in 
 most instances, be seen with a power of from 7 to 100 times, and upAvards 
 — That Jupiter can scarcely be distinguished in the day-time, when within 
 26 degrees of the sun ; but that Venus may be distinctly perceived near 
 her superior conjunction, when only 1 degree and 27 minutes from the sun's 
 margin ; and, consequently, may be visible at the time of that conjunction, 
 when her geocentric latitude ec^uals or exceeds 1 degree 43 minutes — That 
 she may be perceived, like a line, slender crescent, within 35 hours after 
 passing her inferior conjunction, &c. &c. One practical purpose to which 
 such observations on Venus, at the time of her superior conjunction, may 
 be applied, is, to determine the difference (if any) between her polar ai.d 
 equatorial diameters. For, it is only at that conjunction that she presents' 
 to the earth a full enlightened hemisphere ; and in no other position can the 
 measure of both diameters be taken, except when she makes a transit 
 across the suns disk. As the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, are found 
 to be spheriods, it is highly probable that Venus is of a similar figure ; but 
 this point has never yet been ascertained by actual observation. See also 
 " The Edinburgh Philos. Journal," No. 5, for July 1820, p. 191 ; and No. 
 !3, for Julv, 1822—" The Scots Mag." for Feb. 1814, p. 84.— "Monthly 
 Mag." Feb. 1814, and August 1820, p. 62, 
 
172 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 the earth every twenty-four hours. Whether this motion be 
 real, or only apparent, must be determined by other consider- 
 ations. 
 
 Such general views of the nocturnal heavens, which every 
 common observer may take, have a tendency to expand the 
 mind, and to elevate it to the contemplation of an Invisible 
 Power, by which such mighty movements are conducted. 
 Whether we consider the vast concave, with all its radiant 
 orbs, moving in majestic grandeur around our globe, or the 
 earth itself whirling round its inhabitants in an opposite direc- 
 tion — an idea of sublimity, and of Almighty energy, irresistibly 
 forces itself upon the mind, which throws completely into the 
 shade the mightiest efforts of human power. The most pow- 
 ertul mechanical engines that were ever constructed by the 
 agency of man, can scarcely afford us the least assistance in 
 forming a conception of that incomprehensible Power, which, 
 with unceasing energy, communicates motion to revolving 
 worlds. And ytU such is the apathy with which the heavens 
 are viewed by the greater part of mankind, that there are 
 thousands who have occasionally gazed at the stars, for the 
 space of fifty years, who are still ignorant of the fact, that they 
 perform an apparent diurnal revolution round our globe. 
 
 .Again, if we contemplate the heavens with some attention, 
 for a number of successive nights, we shall fmd, that by far 
 the greater part of the stars never vary their positions with 
 respect to each other. If we observe two stars at a certain 
 apparent distance from each other, either north or south, or in 
 any other direction, they will appear at the same distance, and 
 m the same relative position to each other, the next evening, 
 the next month, and the next year. The stars, for instance, 
 which form the sword and belt of Orion, present to our eye the 
 same figure and relative aspect, during the whole period they 
 are visible in winter, and from one year to another ; and the 
 same is the case with all the fixed stars in the firmament. On 
 examming the sky a little more minutely, however, we per- 
 ceive certain bodies which regularly shift their positions. 
 Sometimes they appear to move towards the east, sometimes 
 towards the west, and at other times seem to remain in a sta- 
 tionary position, 'i he^e bodies have obtained the name ot 
 planets, or wandering stars ; and, in our latitude, are most 
 frequently seen, either in the eastern and western, or in the 
 southern pa^is of the heavens. Ten of these planetary orbs 
 have been discovered ; six of ^hieh are, for the most part, 
 invisible to the naked eye. By a careful examination of the 
 motions of these bodies, and their different aspects, astrono 
 
 
ASTROI^OMY. i7S 
 
 imers have determined, that they all move round the sun as the 
 •centre of their motions, and form^ along with the earth and 
 several smaller globes, one grand and harmonious system^ 
 This assemblage of planetary bodies js generally termed the 
 Solar System, of which I shall now eiTdeavor to exhibit a brief 
 outline. 
 
 THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 Of this system, the sun is the centre and the animating 
 principle, and by far the largest body that exists within its 
 limits. The first thing that strikes the mind when contem- 
 plating this glorious orb, is its astonishing magnitude. This 
 vast globe is found to be about 880,000 miles in diameter, and, 
 consequently, contains a mass of matter equal to thirteen 
 hundred thousand globes of the size of the earth. Were its 
 central parts placed adjacent to the surface of the earth,, its 
 circumference would reach two hundred thousand miles beyoyd 
 the moon's orbit, on every side, filling a cubical space of 
 681,472,000,000,000,000 miles. If it would require 18,000 
 years to traverse every square mile on the earth's surface, at 
 the rate of 30 miles a-day, (see p. 35,) it would require more 
 than two thousand millions of years to pass over every part of the 
 sun's surface, at the same rate. Even at the rate of 90 miles 
 a-day it would require more than 80 years to go round its cir- 
 cumference. Of a body so vast in its dimensions, the human 
 mind, with all its efforts, can form no adequate conception. It 
 appears an extensive universe in itself; and, although no other 
 body existed within the range of infinite space, this globe alone 
 would afford a powerful demonstration of the Omnipotence of 
 the Creator. Were the sun a hollow sphere, surrounded by 
 an external shell, and a luminous atmosphere ; were this shell 
 perforated with several hundreds of openings into the internal 
 part ; v/ere a globe as large as the earth placed at its centre, 
 and another globe as large as the moon, and at the same 
 distance from the centre as the moon is from us, to re- 
 j volve round the central globe, — it would present to the view 
 I a universe as splendid and glorious as that which now appears 
 I to the vulgar eye, — a universe as large and extensive as the 
 I whole creation was conceived to be, by our ancestors, in the 
 1 infancy of astronomy. And who can tell, but that Almighty 
 I Being, who has not left a drop of water in a stagnant pool 
 i without its inhabitants, has arranged a number of worlds withiw. 
 the capacious circuit v{^ the sun, and peopled them with intelli- 
 ' ;gent beings in the first stages of their existence, to remain 
 afeere for a certain period, till Aey be prepared for being trans- 
 it 
 
174 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 ported to a more expansive sphere of existence ? It is easy to 
 conceive, that enjoyments as exquisite, and a range of thoughts 
 as ample as have ever yet been experienced by the majority of 
 the inhabitants of our world, might be afforded to myriads of 
 beings thus placed at the centre of this magnificent luminary. 
 This supposition is, at least, as probable as that of the cele- 
 brated Dr. Herschel, who supposed that the exterior surface 
 of the sun was peopled with inhabitants. For, if this were the 
 case, the range ofvie,w of these inhabitants would be confined 
 within the limits of two or three hundred miles, and no celes- 
 tial body, but an immense blaze of light, would be visible in 
 their hemisphere. Such is the variety which appears among 
 the works of God, and such is the diversity of situations in 
 which sensitive beings are placed, that we dare not pronounce 
 it impossible that both these suppositions maybe realized. 
 
 Though the sun seems to perform a daily circuit around our 
 globe, he may be said, in this respect, to be fixed and immova- 
 ble. This motion is not real, but only apparent, and is owing 
 to the globe on which we^ are placed, moving round its axis 
 from west to east ; just as the objects on the bank of a river 
 seem to move in a contrary direction, when we are sailing 
 along its stream in a steam-boat. The only motion which is 
 found to exist in the sun is, a motion of rotation, like that ot' a 
 globe or ball twirled round a pivot or axis, which is performed in 
 the space of 25 days and 10 hours. This motion has been as- 
 certained by means of a variety of dark spots which are discov- 
 ered by the telescope on the sun's disk ; which first appear on 
 his eastern limb, and, after a period of about thirteen days, dis- 
 appear on his western, and, after a similar period, re-appear on 
 his eastern edge. These spots are various, both in number, 
 in magnitude, and in shape : sometimes 40 or 50, and some- 
 times only one or two are visible, and at other times the sun 
 appears entirely without spots. Most of them have a very 
 dark nucleus, or central part, surrounded by an umbra, or 
 fainter shade. Some of the spots are as large as would cover 
 the whole continent of Europe, Asia, and Africa, others have 
 been observed of the size of the whole surface of the earth ; 
 and one was seen, in the year 1779, which was computed to 
 be more than fifty thousand miles in diameter. 
 
 With regard to the nature of this globe — it appears highly 
 probable, from the observations of Dr. Herschel, that the sun 
 is a solid and opaque body, surrounded with luminous clouds 
 which float in the solar atmosphere, and that the dark nucleus 
 of the spots is the opaque body of the sun appearing through 
 occasional openings in this atmosphere. The height of the 
 
 li^ii 
 
ASTRONOMY.- 175 
 
 atmosphere, he computes to be not less than 1843, nor more 
 than 2765 miles, consisting of two regions ; that nearest the 
 sun being opaque, and probably resembling the clouds of our 
 earth ; the outermost emitting vast quantities of light, and 
 forming the apparent luminous globe we behold. 
 
 The sun is the grand source of light and heat, both to the 
 earth and to all the other planetary bodies. The heat he dif- 
 fuses animates every part of our sublunary system, and all 
 that variety of coloring which adorns the terrestrial landscape, 
 is produced by his rays. It has been lately discovered, that 
 the rays of light, and the rays of heat, or ccdoric, are distinct 
 from each other ; for, it can be demonstrated, that some rays 
 from the sun produce heat, which have no power of commu- 
 nicating light or color. The greatest heat is found in the red 
 rays, the least in the violet rays ; and in a space beyond the 
 red rays, where there is no light, the temperature is greatest. 
 The rays of the sun have also been found to produce different 
 chemical effects. The white muriate of silver is blackened 
 in the violet ray, in the space of 15 seconds, though the red 
 will not produce the same effect in less than 20 minutes. 
 Phosphorus is kindled in the vicinity of the red ray, and ex- 
 tinguished in the vicinity of the violet. The solar light, there- 
 fore, consists of three different orders of rays, one producing 
 color^ a second producing heat, and a third chemical effects. 
 Euler has computed that the hght of the sun is equal to 6500 
 candles at a foot distance, while the moon would be as one 
 candle at 7^ feet; Venus at 421 feet ; and Jupiter at 1320 
 feet. — That this immense luminary appears so small to our 
 eyes, is owing to its vast distance, which is no less than 
 ninety-five millions of miles. Some faint idea of this distance 
 may be obtained, by considering, that a steam boat moving at 
 the rate of 200 miles a-day, would require Umpteen hundred 
 years before it could traverse the space which intervenes be- 
 tween us and the sun. 
 
 "Hail sacred source of inexhausted light! 
 
 Prodigious instance of creating might ! 
 
 His distance man's imagination foils ; 
 
 Numbers will scarce avail to count the miles. 
 
 As swift as thought he darts his radiance round 
 
 To distant worlds, his system's utmost bound." — Browk. 
 
 The Planet Mercury. — Mercury is the nearest planet 
 to the sun that has yet been discovered. He is about 37 mil- 
 lions of miles distant from the sun, and revolves around him in 
 88 days. His diameter is about 3200 miles. Before the 
 discovery of the four new planets, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and 
 
176 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 Vesta, iii the begiiiiiiiig of the present century, this globe was 
 considered as the smallest primary planet in the system. Hi& 
 surlace, however, contains above 32 millions of square miles, 
 which is not much less than all the habitable parts of our globe.. 
 On account of his nearness to the sun, he is seldom seen by 
 the naked eye ; being always near that quarter of the heavens 
 where the sun appears ; and therefore,, few discoveries have 
 been made on his surface, by the telescope. M. Schroeter 
 concludes, from certain observations, that this planet revolves 
 round its axis in 24 hours and five minutes. The sun will 
 appear 'to an inhabitant of Mercury seven times larger than to 
 an iniiabita.nt of the earth ; and, if the degree of heat be in 
 proportion to a planet's nearness to the sun, the heat in this 
 planet will be seven times greater than on the surface of our 
 globe ; and, consequently, were the earth placed in the same 
 position, all the water on its surface would boil, and soon be 
 turned into vapor. But the All-wise Creator has, doubtless, 
 attempered the surface of this globe, and the constitution of 
 the beings that may occupy it, to the situation in which they 
 aie placed.* 
 
 Venus, the next planet in order from the sun, revolves- 
 around him in 224 days, at the distance of 68 millions of miles, 
 and its diameter is about seven thousand seven hundred miles, 
 or nearly the size of the earth ; and it turns round its axis in 
 the space of 23 hours and 20 minutes. This planet is the 
 most brilhant orb which appears in our nocturnal heavens, and 
 is usually distinguished by the name of the morning and eve- 
 ning star. When it approaches nearest to the earth, it is about 
 
 * From a variety of facts which have been observed in relation to the 
 production of caloric, it does not appear probable, that the degree of heat 
 on the surfaces of the different planets is inversely proportional to the 
 squares of their respective distances from the sun. It is more probable, 
 that it depends chiefly on the distribution of the substance of caloric on the 
 surfaces, and throughout the atmospheres of these bodies — in different 
 quantities, according to the different situations they occupy in the solar 
 system ; and that these different quantities of caloric are put into action 
 by the influence of the solaj- rays, so as to produce that degree of sensible 
 heat requisite for each respective planetary globe.. On this hypothesis — 
 which is corroborated by a great variety of facts and experiments — there 
 may be no aiore sensible heat felt on the surface of the planet Mercury, 
 than on the surface of Herschel, although one of these bodies is nearly 50 
 times nearer the sun than the other.. We have only to suppose that a 
 small quantity of caloric exists in Mercury, and a larger quantity in Her- 
 schel, proportionate to his distance from the centre of the system. On 
 this ground, we have no reason to believe, either that the planets nearest 
 the sun are parched with excessive heat, or that those that are most dis- 
 tant are exposed to all the rigors of insufferable cold, or that the different 
 degrees of temperature w^hich may be found in these bodies, render therui 
 imfit for being the abodes of sensitive and intellectual beings. 
 
ASTRONOMY. 177 
 
 27 millions of miles distant ; and, at its greatest distance, it is 
 no less than 163 millions of miles from the earth. Were the 
 whole of its enlightened surface turned towards the earth, 
 when it is nearest, it would exhibit a light and brilliancy, 
 twenty-live times greater than it generally does, and appear 
 like a small brilliant moon ; but, at that time, its dark hemi- 
 sphere is turned towards our globe. Both Yenus and Mer- 
 cury, when viewed by a telescope, appear to pass successively 
 through all the shapes and appearances of the moon ; some- 
 times assuming a gibbous phase, and at other times, the form 
 of a half-moon, or that of a crescent ; which proves, that they 
 are dark bodies in themselves, and derive their light from the 
 sun. The most distinct and beautiful views of Venus, espe- 
 cially when she appears as a crescent, are to be obtained in 
 the day time^ by means of an equatorial telescope. — From a 
 variety of observations which the author has made with this 
 instrument, it has been found that Yenus may be seen every 
 clear day without interruption, during a period of 583 days, 
 with the occasional exception of 13 days, in one case, and 
 only 3 days in another — a circumstance which cannot be 
 affirmed of any other celestial body, the sun only excepted.* 
 M. Schroeter affirms, that he has discovered mountains on the 
 surface of this globe, one of which is 10, another 11, and a 
 third 22 miles high. It appears also to be encompassed with 
 
 * See Edin. Phil. Journ. No. V. July, 1820, and No. XIII. July, 1822. 
 — I have found, from observation, that this planet may be seen in the day 
 time, when only 1" 43' from the sun's centre ; and, consequently, when 
 lis geocentric latitude at the lime of the superior conjunction exceeds that 
 quantity, it may be distinctly seen during the whole period of 583 days, 
 exceptiiig about 35 hours before and after its inferior conjunction. — It is 
 well known to astronomers, that there has been a difference of opinion 
 with respect to the period of the rotation of this planet. Cassini, from ob- 
 servations on a bright spot which advanced 20 degrees, in 24 hours, 34 
 minutes, determined the tmie of its rotation to be 23 hours and 20 minutes. 
 On the other hand, Bianchini, from similar observations, concluded, thai 
 its diurnal period was 24 days and 8 hours. The difficulty of deciding 
 between these two opinions, arises from the short time in which observa- 
 tions can be made on this planet, either before sun-rise, or after sun-set, 
 which prevents us from tracing, with accuracy, the progressive motion of 
 its spots for a sufficient length of time. And, although an observer should 
 mark the position of the spots, at the same hour, on two succeeding eve- 
 nings, and find they had moved forward about 20 degi-ees in 24 hours, he 
 would still be at a loss to determine, whether they had moved 20 degrees 
 in all, since the preceding observation, or had finished a revolution, and 20 
 degrees more. — In " Nicholson's Philosophical Journal," vol. 36, I endea- 
 voured to show how this point may be determined by observations made 
 on Venus in the day time, by which, in certain cases, the progressive mo- 
 tion of her spots might be traced, without interruption, for 12 hours or 
 more, which would completely settle the period of rotation. 
 
 15* 
 
178 THE CHRISTIAN PlIILOSOPriER. 
 
 an atmosphere, the densest part of which is about 16,000 feet 
 high. About twice in the course of a century, this planet 
 appears to pass, Uke a dark spot, across the sun's disk. This 
 is termed the transit of Venus. The last transit happened 
 June 3, 1769 ; the next will happen on December 8, 1874,. 
 which will be invisible in Europe. Another will happen on 
 the 6th December, 1882, which will be partly visible in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The Earth is the next planet in the system. It moves 
 round the sun in 365 days,. 5 hours, and 49 minutes, at the 
 distance of 95 millions of miles, and round its axis in 23 hours,. 
 66 minutes, 4 seconds. The former is called its anmial, and 
 the latter, its diurnal motion. That the earth is, in reality, a 
 moving body, is a fact which can no longer be called in ques- 
 tion ; it is indeed susceptible of the clearest demonstration. 
 But my limits will not permit to enter into a detail of the argu- 
 ments by which it is supported. I have already adverted to 
 one consideration, from which its diurnal rotation may be in- 
 ferred. (See pp. 47, 48.) Either the earth moves round 
 its axis every day, or the whole universe moves round it in the 
 same time. To suppose the latter case to be the fact, would 
 involve a reflection on the wisdom of its Almighty Author, and 
 would form the only exception that we know, to that beautiful 
 propoi'tion, harmony, and simplicity, which appear in all the 
 works of Nature. Were it possible to construct a machine as 
 large as the city of London, and to apply to it mechanical 
 powers sufficient to make it revolve on an axis, so as to carry 
 round a furnace for the purpose of roasting a joint of mutton, 
 suspended in the centre of its motion — while we might admire 
 the ingenuity and the energies displayed in its construction — 
 all mankind would unite in condemning it as a display of con« 
 summate folly. But such an extravagant piece of machinery 
 would not be half so preposterous as to suppose, that the vast 
 universe is daily revolving around our little globe, and that all 
 the planetary motions have an immediate respect to it. And 
 shall we dare to ascribe to Him who is " the only wise God," 
 contrivances which we would pronounce to be the perfection 
 of folly in mankind l It is recorded of the Astronomer Al- 
 phonsus, King of Castile, who lived in the 13th century, that, 
 after having studied the Ptolemaic System, which supposes the 
 earth at rest in the centre of the universe,^ he uttered the fol- 
 lowing impious sentence : " If I had been of God's privy 
 council, when he made the world, I would have advised him 
 better." So that false conceptions of the System of Nature, 
 lead to erroneous notions of that adorable Being who is pos- 
 
ASTRONOMY. 179 
 
 sess^d of infinite Perfection. We find that bodies much larger 
 than the earth have a similar rotation. The planet Jupiter, a 
 globe 295,000 miles in circumference, moves round his axis in 
 less than ten hours ; and all the other planetary bodies, on 
 which spots have been discovered, are found to have a diurnal 
 motion. Besides, it is found to be a universal law of nature, 
 that smaller globes revolve round laroer : but there is no ex- 
 ample in the universe, of a larger body revolving around a 
 smaller. The moon revolves around the earth, but she is 
 much smaller than the earth ; the moons which move around 
 Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, are all less than their primaries^ 
 and the planets which perform their revolutions around the sun 
 are much less than that central luminary. 
 
 With regard to the annual revolution of the earth, if such a 
 motion did not exist, the planetary system would present a 
 scene of inextricable confusion. The planets would some- 
 times move backwards, sometimes forwards, and, at other 
 times, remain stationary ; and would describe looped curves, 
 so anomalous and confused, that no man in his senses could 
 view the All-wise Creator as the author of so much confusion. 
 But, by considering the earth as revolving in an orbit between 
 Venus and Mars, (which all celestial observations completely 
 demonstrate,) all the apparent irregularities of the planetary 
 motions are completely solved and accounted for ; and the 
 Solar System presents a scene of beauty, harmony and gran- 
 deur, combined with a simplicity of design which characterizes 
 all the works of Omnipotence. 
 
 The Moon. — Next to the sun, the moon is to us the most 
 interesting of all the celestial orbs. She is the constant at- 
 tendant of the earth, and revolves around it, in 27 days, 8 
 hours ; but the period from one new or full moon to another, 
 is about 29 days, 12 hours. She is the nearest of all the 
 heavenly bodies ; being only about two hundred and forty 
 thousand miles distant from the earth. She is much smaller 
 than the earth ; being only 2,180 miles in diameter. Her sur- 
 face, when viewed with a telescope, presents an interesting 
 and a variegated aspect ; being diversified with mountains, 
 valleys, rocks, and plains, in every variety of form and posi- 
 tion. Some of these mountains form long and elevated ridges, 
 resembling the chains of the Alps and the Andes ; while 
 others, of a conical form, rise to a great height, from the mid- 
 dle of level plains, somewhat resembling the Peak of Tene- 
 rifFe. But the most singular feature of the moon, is, those cir- 
 cular ridges and cavities which diversify every portion of her 
 surface. A range of mountains of a circular form, rising 
 
ISO THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 three or four miles above the level of the adjacent district&v 
 surrounds, like a mighty rampart, an extensive plain ; and, in 
 the middle of this phiiu or cavity, an insulated conical hill 
 rises to a considerable elevation. Several hundreds of these 
 circular plains, most of vvhich are considerably below the level 
 of the surrounding country, may be perceived, wkh a good 
 telescope, on every region of the lunar surface. They are of 
 all dimensions, from two or three miles to forty miles in dia- 
 meter ; and, if they be adorned with verdure, they must pre- 
 sent to the view of a spectator, placed among them, a more 
 variegated, romantic, and sublime scenery than is to be found 
 on the surface of our globe. An idea of some of these scenes 
 may be acquired by 'conceiving a plain of about a hundred 
 miles in circumference, encircled with a range of mountains, 
 of various forms, three miles in perpendicular height, and hav- 
 ing a mountain near the centre, whose top reaches a mile and 
 a half above the level of the plain. From the top of this cen- 
 tral mountain, the whole plain, with aM its variety of objects, 
 would be distinctly visible ; and the view would appear to be 
 bounded on all sides by a lofty amphitheatre of mountains, in 
 every diversity of shape, rearing their summits to the sky. 
 From the summit of the circular ridge, the conical hill in the 
 centre, the opposite circular range, the plain below, and some 
 of the adjacent plains, which encompass the exterior ridge of 
 the mountains, would form another variety of view ; — and a 
 third variety would be obtained from the various aspects of the 
 central mountain, and the surrounding scenery, as viewed from 
 the plains below. 
 
 The Lunar mountains are of all sizes, from a furlong to five 
 miles in perpendicular elevation. Certain luminous spots, 
 which have been occasionally seeu on the dark side of the 
 moon^ seem to demonstrate that fire exists in this planet. Dr. 
 Herschel, and several other astronomers suppose, that they 
 are volcanoes in a state of eruption. It would be a more 
 pleasing idea, and perhaps as nearly corresponding to fact, to 
 suppose, that these phenomena are owing to some occasional 
 splendid illuminations, produced by the Lunar inhabitants, 
 during their long nights. Such a scene as the burning of Mos- 
 cow, the conflagration of an extensive forest, or the splendid 
 illumination of a large city with gas-lights, might present simi- 
 lar appearances to a spectator in the moon. — The bright spots 
 of the moon are the mountainous regions : the dark spots are 
 the plains, or more level parts of her surface. There may 
 probably be rivers or small lakes on this planet ; but there are 
 no seas or large collections of water. It appears highly 
 
ASTRONOMY. 181 
 
 probable, from the o])servations of Sehroeter, that the moon is^ 
 encompassed with an atmosphere ; but no clouds, rain, nor 
 snow seem to exist in it. The iUuminating power of the h^ht 
 derived from the moon, according to the experiments made by 
 Professor Leshe^is about the one hundred and Jiftij thousandth 
 •part of the illuminating power of the sun. According to the 
 experiments of M. Boguer, it is only as 1 to 300,000. 
 
 The Moon always presents the same face to us ; which 
 proves, that she revolves round her axis in the same time that 
 she revolves round the earth. As this orb derives its light 
 from the sun, and reflects a portion of it upon the earth, so the 
 earth performs the same office to the moon. A spectator on 
 the lunar surface would behold the earth, like a luminous orb,, 
 suspended in the vault of heaven, presenting a surface about 
 13 times larger than the moon does to us, and appearing some- 
 times gibbous, sometimes horned, and at other times with a 
 round full face. The light which the earth reflects upon the 
 dark side of the moon may be distinctly perceived by a com- 
 mon telescope, from three, to six or eight days after the 
 change. — The lunar sui-face contains about 15 millions of 
 square miles, and is, therefore, capable of containing a popula- 
 tion equal to that of our globe, allowing only about 53 inhabit- 
 ants to every square mile. That this planet is inhabited by 
 sensitive and intelligent beings, there is every reason to con- 
 clude, from a consideration of the sublime scenery with which 
 its surface is adorned, and of the general beneficence of the 
 Creator, who appears to have left no large portion of his ma- 
 terial creation without animated existences ; and it is highly 
 probable, that direct proofs of the moon's being inhabited may 
 hereafter be obtained, when all the varieties on her surface shall 
 have been more minutely explored.* 
 
 The Planet Mars. — Next to the earth and moon, the 
 planet Mars performs his revolution round the sun, in one 
 year and ten months, to the distance of 145 millions of miles. 
 His diameter is about 4,200 miles, and he is distinguished 
 from all the other planets, by his ruddy appearance, which is 
 owing to a dense atmosphere with which he is environed. 
 With a good telescope, his surface appears diversified by a va- 
 riety of spots ; by the motion of which it is found, that he turns 
 round his axis in 24 hours and 40 minutes. The inclination 
 of his axis to the plane of his orbit being about 28° 42^, the 
 days and nights, and the different seasons in this planet, will 
 bear a considerable resemblance to those we experience in owt 
 
 * See Appendix, No^IIL. 
 
1S2 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 terrestrial sphere.* At his nearest approach to the earth, his 
 distance from us is about 50 milUons of miles ; and, at his 
 o-reatest distance, he is about 240 millions of miles ; so that . 
 in the former case he appears nearly 25 times larger than in 
 the latter. To a spectator in this planet, our earth will appear, 
 alternately, as a morning and evening star, and will exhibit all 
 the phase's of the moon, just as Venus does to us, but with a 
 less deirree of apparent magnitude and splendor. xY luminous 
 zone has been observed about the poles of Mars, which is 
 subject to successive changes. Dr. Herschel supposes that 
 it is produced by the reflection of the sun's hght from his frozen 
 retnons, and that the melting of these masses of polar ice is the 
 cause of the variation in its magnitude and appearance. This 
 planet moves, in its orbit, at the rate of fifty-five thousand miles 
 an hour. 
 
 The new Planets. — Between the orbs of Mars and Ju- 
 piter, four planetary bodies have been lately discovered, ac- 
 companied with circumstances somewhat different from those 
 of the other bodies which compose our system. They are 
 named Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta. The planet Ceres 
 was discovered at Palermo, in Sicily, by M. Piazzi, on the 
 first day of the present century. It is of a ruddy color, and 
 appears about the size of a star of the 8th magnitude, and is 
 consequently invisible to the naked eye. It performs its revo- 
 lution in 4 years and 7 months, at the distance of 260 millions 
 of miles from the sun, and is reckoned, by some astronomers, 
 to be about 1624 miles in diameter, or about half the diameter 
 of Mercury. It appears to be surrounded with a large dense 
 atmosphere. — Pallas was discovered the following year, name- 
 ly, on the 28th of March, 1802, by Ur. Olbers of Bremen. 
 It is supposed to be about 2000 miles in diameter, or nearly 
 the size of the moon. It revolves about the sun in 4 years 
 and 7 months, or nearly in the same time as Ceres, at the dis- 
 tance of 266 millions of miles ; and is surrounded with a 
 nebulosity or atmosphere, above 400 miles in height, similar 
 to that of Ceres. The planet Juno was discovered on the 1st 
 September, 1804, by Mr. Harding of Bremen. Its' mean 
 distance from the sun is about 253 millions of miles ; its revo- 
 tion is completed in 4 years and 130 days, and its diameter is 
 computed to be about 1425 miles. It is free from the nebu- 
 
 + The inclination of the earth's axis to tlie eclip'ic, oi-, in other words, 
 to the plane of its annual orbit, is 23 degrees and 28 minutes, which is the 
 cause of the diversity of seasons, and of the different length of days and 
 nights. Were the axis of the earth perpendicular to its orbit, as is the case 
 with the planet Jupiter, there would be no diversity of seasons,, 
 
ASTRONOMY. 183 
 
 losity which siuTOunds Pallas, and is distinguished from all the 
 other planets by the great eccentricity of its orbit ; being, at 
 its least distance from the sun, only 189 millions of miles, and 
 at its greatest distance 316 millions. — Vesta was discovered 
 by Dr. Olbers on the 29th March, 1807. It appears like a 
 star of the 5th or 6th magnitude, and may sometimes be dis- 
 tinguished by the naked eye. Its light is more intense and 
 white than any of the other three, and it is not surrounded with 
 any nebulosity. It is distant from the sun about 225 millions 
 of miles, and completes its revolution in 3 years and 240 days. 
 Its diameter has not yet been accurately ascertained ; but 
 from the intensity of its light, and other circumstances, it is 
 concluded, that it exceeds in magnitude both Pallas and Juno. 
 These planetary globes present to our view a variety of 
 anomalies and singularities, which appear incompatible with 
 the regularity, proportion, and harmony which were formerly 
 supposed to characterize the arrangements of the solar sys- 
 tem. — They are bodies much smaller in size than the other 
 planets — they revolve nearly at the same dUtances from the sun, 
 and perform their revolutions in nearbj the same periods — their 
 orbits are much more eccentric^ and have a much greater degree 
 of inclination to the ecliptic, than those of the old planets — 
 and, what is altogether singular, (except in case of comets,) 
 their orbits cross each other ; so that theie is a possibiliiij that 
 two of these bodies might happen to interfere, and to strike 
 each other, in the course of then* revolutions. The orbit of 
 Ceres crosses the orbit of Pallas. Vesta may sometimes be 
 at a greater distance from the sun than either Ceres, Pallas or 
 Juno, although its mean distance is less than that of either of 
 them, by several millions of miles ; so that the orbit of \ esta 
 crosses the orbits of all the other three. From these and other 
 circumstances, it has, with a high degree of probability, been 
 concluded — that these four planets are the fragments of a large 
 celestial body which once revolved between Mars and Ju- 
 piter, and which had been burst asunder by some immense 
 irruptive force. This idea seems to have occurred to Dr. 
 Olbers after he had discovered the planet Pallas, and he ima- 
 gined that other fragments might possibly exist. He con- 
 cluded, that, if they all diverged from the same point, " they 
 ought to have two common points of reunion, or two nodes in 
 opposite regions of the heavens, through which all the plane- 
 tary fragments must sooner or later pass." One of these 
 nodes he found to be in the constellation Yirgo, and the other 
 in the Whale ; and it is a remarkable coincidence, that it was 
 in the latter of these regions that the planet Juno was dis€ov- 
 
184 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 ered by Mr. Harding. In order to detect the remaining frag- 
 ments (if any existecl) Dr. Olbers examined, three times every 
 year, all the small stars in Yirgo and the Whale ; and it was 
 actually in the constellation Yirgo, that he discovered the planet 
 Yesta. It is not unlikely that other fragments of a similar de- 
 scription may be discovered. Dr. Brewster attributes the fall 
 of meteoric stones* to the smaller fragments of these bodies 
 happening to come within the sphere of the earth's attraction. 
 His ingenious reasonings on this subject, and in support of 
 Dr. Olbers' hypothesis above stated, may be seen in Edin. 
 Eacy. vol. ii. p. 641, and in his " Supplementary chapters to 
 Ferguson's Astronomy." 
 
 The fact to which I have now adverted seem to unfold a new 
 scene in the history of the dispensations of the Almighty, and 
 to warrant the conclusion, that the earth is not the only globe 
 in the universe which is subject to physical changes and moral 
 revolutions. 
 
 The Planet Jupiter.— This planet is 490 millions of 
 miles distant from the sun, and performs its annual revolution 
 in nearly twelve of our years, moving at the rate of twenty- 
 nine thousand miles an hour. It is the largest planet in the 
 solar system ; being 89,000 miles in diameter, or about four- 
 teen hundred times larger than the earth. Its motion round 
 its axis is performed in nine hours and fifty-six minutes ; and, 
 therefore, the portions of its surface about the equator, move 
 at the rate 28,000 miles an hour, which is nearly twenty-seven 
 times swifter than the earth's diurnal rotation. The figure 
 of Jupiter is that of an oblate spheroid, the axis, or diameter 
 passing through the poles, being about 6000 miles shorter 
 than that passing through the equator. The Earth, Saturn, 
 
 * Meteoric stones, or, what are generally termed aerolites, are stones 
 which sometimes fall from the upper regions of the atmosphere, upon the 
 earth. The substance of which they are composed is, for the most part, 
 metallic ; but the ore of which they consist is not to be found i?i the same 
 constituent proportions in any terrestrial substances. Their fall is generally 
 preceded by a luminous appearance, a hissing noise, and a loud explosion ; 
 and, when 'found immediately after their descent, ar-e ahyays hot. Their 
 size differs from small fragments, of inconsiderable weight, to the most 
 ponderous masses. Some of the largest portions of these stones have been 
 found to weigh from 300 lbs. to several tons ; and they have often descend- 
 ed to the earth with a force sufficient to bury them many feet under the 
 soil- Some have supposed that these bodies are projected from volcanoes 
 in the moon ; others, that they proceed from volcanoes on the earth ; while 
 others imagine that they are generated in the regions of the atmosphei'e ; 
 but the true cause is, probably, not yet ascertained. In some instances, 
 these stontis have penetrated through the roofs of houses, and proved de- 
 structive to the mlxabitauls. 
 
ASTRONOMY, 185 
 
 and Mars, are also spheroids ; and it is highly probably that 
 Mercury, Venus, and Herschel are of a similar figure, though 
 the fact has not yet been ascertained by actual observation. — 
 When viewed with a telescope, several spots have been occa- 
 sionally discovered on the surface of this planet, by the mo- 
 tion of which, its rotation was determined. 
 
 But what chiefly distinguishes the surface of Jupiter is 
 several streaky appearances, or dusky strips, which extend 
 across his disk, in lines parallel to his equator. These are 
 generally termed his Belts. Three of these belts, or zones, 
 nearly equi-distant from each other, are most frequently ob- 
 served ; but they are not regular or constant in their appear- 
 ance.* Sometimes only one is to be seen, sometimes five, 
 and sometimes seven or eight have been distinctly visible; 
 and, in the latter case, two of them have been known to dis- 
 appear during the time of observation. On the 2Sth May, 
 1780, Dr. Herschel perceived "the lohole surface of Jupiter 
 covered with small curved belts, or rather hues, that were not 
 continuous across his disk." Though these belts are gener- 
 ally parallel to each other, yet they are not always so. Their 
 breadth is likewise variable; one belt having been observed to 
 grow narrow, while another in its neighborhood has increased 
 in breadth, as if the one had flowed into the other. The time 
 of their continuance is also uncertain; sometimes th^y remain 
 unchanged for several months, at other times, new belts have 
 been formed in an hour or two. What these belts or variable 
 appearances are it is difficult to determine. Some have regard- 
 ed them as strata of clouds floating in the atmosphere of Ju- 
 piter ; while others imagine, that they are the marks of great 
 physical revolutions which are perpetually changing the sur- 
 face of that planet. The former opinion appears the most 
 probable. But, whatever be the nature of these belts, the sud- 
 den changes to which they are occasionally subject, seem to 
 indicate the rapid operation of some powerful physical agency- 
 for some of them are more than five thousand miles in breadth ; 
 and since they have been known to disappear in the space o£ 
 an hour or two, and even during the time of a casual observa- 
 tion — agents more powerful than any with which we are ac- 
 quainted must have produced so extensive an effect. 
 
 Jupiter is attended by four satellites or moons, which present 
 
 * A representation of these belts, in the positions in ^hich they most 
 frequently appear, is exhibited in the engraving, Fig. 2. Fig. 1. represents 
 the double nng of Saturn, as it appears when viewed through a powerful 
 telescope — Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, represent Saturn, Jupit-er, Herschel, 
 the Earth suad Moon, in thdr relative sizes and proportions, 
 
 16 
 
186 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 a very beautiful appearance when viewed through a telescope. 
 The first moon, or that nearest the planet, it 230,000 miles 
 distant from its centre, and goes round it in 422 hours ; and 
 will appear from its surface, four times larger than ovu- moon 
 does to us. The second moon, being farther distant, will ap- 
 pear about the size of ours ; the third, somewhat less ; and 
 the fourth, which is a million of miles distant from Jupiter, and 
 takes sixteen days to go round him, will appear only about one 
 third the diameter of our moon. These moons suffer frequent 
 eclipses from passing through Jupiter's shadow, in the same 
 way as our moon is eclipsed by passing through the shadow of 
 the earth. By the eclipses of these moons, the motion of 
 light was ascertained ; and they are found to be of essential 
 use in determining the longitude of places on the surface of 
 our globe. This planet, if seen from its nearest moon, will 
 present a surface a thousand times as large as our moon does 
 to us, and will appear in the form of a crescent, a half-moon, 
 a gibbous phase, and a full-moon, in regular succession, every 
 42 hours. Jupiter's axis being nearly perpendicular to his 
 orbit, he has no sensible change of seasons, such as we expe 
 rience on the earth. Were we placed on the surface of this 
 planet, with the hmited powers of vision we now possess, our 
 earth and moon would entirely disappear, as if they were 
 blotted out from the map of creation ; and the inhabitants of 
 these regions must have much better eyes than ours, if they 
 know that there is such a globe as the earth in the universe. 
 
 The planet Saturn. — This planet is 900 millions of 
 miles distant from the sun, being nearly double the distance of 
 Jupiter. Its diameter is 79,000 miles, and, consequently, it 
 is more than nine hundred times the bulk of the earth. It 
 takes 29^ years to complete its revolution about the sun ; but 
 its diurnal motion is completed in ten hours and sixteen 
 minutes ; so that the year in this planet is nearly thirty times 
 the length of ours, while the day is shorter, by more than one 
 half. The year, therefore, contains about twenty-five thou- 
 sand one hundred and fifty days, or periods of its diurnal rota- 
 tion, which is equal to 10,759 of our days. Saturn is of a 
 .spheroidal figure, or somewhat of the shape of an orange ; his 
 equatorial being more than six thousand miles longer than his 
 polar diameter. His surface, like that of Jupiter, is diversified 
 with belts and dark spots. Dr. Herschel, at certain times, 
 perceived five belts on his surface, three of which were dark, 
 and two bright. The dark belts had a yellowish tinge, and 
 generally covered a larger zone of the disk of Saturn, than the 
 belts of Jupiter occupy upon his surface. On account of the 
 
ASTRONOMY. 187 
 
 great distance of this planet from the sun, the light it receives 
 from that luminary is only the ninetieth part of what we enjoy ; 
 but, by calculation, it is found, that this quantity is a thousand 
 times greater than the light which the full moon affords to 
 us. Besides, it is surrounded by no fewer than seven moons, 
 which supply it with light in the absence of the sun. Five of 
 these moons were discovered during the seventeenth century, 
 by Huygens and Cassini ; and the sixth and seventh were dis- 
 covered by Dr. Herschel, in 1789, soon after his iarge forty 
 feet reflecting telescope was constructed. These moons, and 
 also those which accompany Jupiter, are estimated to be not 
 less than the earth in magnitude, and are found, like our moon, 
 to revolve round their axis in the same time in which they 
 revolve about their respective primaries. 
 
 Rings of Saturn. — The most extraordinary circumstance 
 connected with this planet, is, the phenomenon of a double 
 ring, which surrounds its body, but nowhere touches it, being 
 thirty thousand miles distant from any part of the planet, and 
 is carried along with the planet in its circuit round the sun. 
 This is the most singular and astonishing object in the whole 
 range of the planetary system ; no other planet being found 
 environed with so wonderful an appendage ; and the planets 
 which may belong to other systems, being placed beyond the 
 reach of our observations, no idea can be formed of the pecu- 
 liar apparatus with which any of them may be furnished. This 
 double ring consists of two concentric rings, detached from 
 each other ; the innermost of which is nearly three times as 
 broad as the outermost. The outside diameter of the exterior 
 ring is 204,000 miles ; and, consequently, its circumference 
 will measure six hundred and fo7^ty thousand miles, or eighty 
 times the diameter of our globe. Its breadth is 7,200 miles, 
 or nearly the diameter of the earth. Were four hundred and 
 fifty globes, of the size of the earth, placed close to one 
 another, on a plane, this immense ring would enclose the whole 
 of them, together with all the interstices, or open spaces be- 
 tween the different globes. The outside diameter of the inner- 
 most ring is 184,000 miles, and its breadth twenty thousand 
 miles, or about 21 times broader than the diameter of the 
 earth. The dark space, or interval between the two rings, is 
 2,800 miles. The breadth of both the rings, including the 
 dark space between them, is thirty thousand miles, which is 
 equal to the distance of the innermost ring from the body of 
 Saturn. 
 
 The following figure represents a view of Saturn and his 
 rings, as they would appear, were our eye perpendicular to 
 
188 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 one of the planes of those rings ; but our eye is never s^ 
 much elevated above either plane, as to have the visual ray- 
 standing at right angles to it : it is never elevated more than 
 30 degrees above the planes of the rings. When we view 
 Saturn through a telescope^ we always see the ring at an 
 oblique angle, so that it appears of an oval form, the outward 
 
 circular rim being projected into an ellipsis more or less 
 oblong, according to the different degrees of obliquity with 
 which it is viewed, as will be seen in the figure of Saturn in 
 the copperplate engraving. 
 
 These rings cast a deep shadow upon the planet, which 
 proves that they are not shining /Zwtc^^, but composed of solid 
 matter. They appear to be possessed of a higher reflective 
 power than the surface of Saturn ; as the light reflected by 
 them is more brilliant than that of the planet. One obvious 
 use of this double ring is, to reflect hght upon the planet, in 
 the absence of the sun : what other purposes it may be intend- 
 ed to subserve, in the system of Saturn, is, at present, to us 
 unknown. The sun illuminates one side of it during fifteen 
 years, or one-half of the period of the planet's revolution ; and,, 
 during the next fifteen years, the other side is enlightened in 
 its tuni. Twice in the course of thirty years, there is a short. 
 
ASTRONOMY. 189 
 
 period, during which neither side is enhghtened, and when, of 
 course, it ceases to be visible ; — namely, at the time when the 
 sun ceases to shine on one side, and is about to shine on the 
 other. It revolves round its axis, and, consequently, around 
 Saturn, in ten hours and a half, which is at the rate of a thou- 
 sand miles in a minute, or fifty-eight times swifter than the 
 earth's equator. When viewed from the middle zone of the 
 planet, in the absence of the sun, the rings will appear like vast 
 luminous arches, extending along the canopy of heaven, from 
 the eastern to the -western horizon ; having an apparent 
 breadth equal to a hundred times the apparent diameter of our 
 moon, and will be seen darkened about the middle, by the 
 shadow of Saturn.* 
 
 There is no other planet in the solar system, whose firma- 
 ment will present such a variety of splendid and magnificent 
 objects, as that of Saturn. The various aspects of his seven 
 moons, one rising above the horizon, while another is setting, 
 and a third approaching to the meridian ; one entering into an 
 eclipse, and another emerging from it ; one appearing as a 
 crescent, and another with a gibbous phase ; and . some- 
 times the whole of them shining in the same hemisphere, in 
 one bright assemblage ; — the majestic motions of the rings, — 
 at one time illuminating the sky with their splendour, and 
 eclipsing the stars ; at another, casting a deep shade over cer- 
 tain regions of the planet, and unveiling to view the wonders 
 of the. starry firmament — are scenes worthy of the majesty of 
 the Divine Being to unfold, and of rational creatures to contem- 
 plate. Such magnificent displays of Wisdom and Omnipo- 
 tence, lead us to conclude that the numerous splendid objects 
 connected with this planet, were not created merely to shed 
 their lustre on naked rocks and barren sands ; but that an im- 
 mense population of intelligent beings is placed in those re- 
 gions, to enjoy the bounty, and to adore the perfections of 
 their great Creator. — The double ring of Saturn, when viewed 
 through a good telescope, generally appears hke a luminous 
 handle on each side of the planet, with a dark interval between 
 the interior edge of the ring, and the convex body of Saturn; 
 which is owing to its oblique position with respect to our line 
 of vision. When its outer edge is turned directly towards the 
 
 + See the Engraving, fig. 7, which represents a view of the appearance 
 wliich the rings and moons of Saturn will exhibit, in certain cases, about 
 midnight, when beheld from a point 20 or 30 degrees north from his equa- 
 tor. The shade on the upper part of the rings represents the shadow of 
 the body Saturn. The shadow will appear to move gradually to the west 
 Qs the morning approaches. 
 
 16* 
 
190 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 earth, it becomes invisible, or appears like a dark stripe across 
 the disk of the planet. This phenomenon happens once every 
 fit^een years. 
 
 The Planet Herschel. — This planet, which is also 
 known by the names of the Georgkim Sidus, and Uranus^ 
 was discovered by Dr. Herschel on the 13th March, 1781. 
 It is the most distant planet from the sun, that has yet been dis- 
 covered ; being removed at no less than 1800' millions of miles 
 from that luminary, which is nineteen times farther than the 
 earth is from the sun — a distance so great, that a cannon ball, 
 flying at the rate of 480 miles an hour, ^\^ould not reach it in 
 400 years. Its diameter is about 35,000 miles ; and, of 
 course, it is about eighty times larger than the earth. It ap- 
 pears like a star of the sixth magnitude ; but can seldom be 
 distinguished by the naked eye. It takes about S3 years and 
 a half to complete its revolution round the sun ; and, though it 
 is the slowest moving body in the system, it moves at the rate 
 of 15,000 miles an hour. As the degree of sensible heat in 
 any planet does not appear to depend altogether on its near- 
 ness to the sun, the temperature of this planet may be as mild 
 as that which obtains in the most genial climate of our globe.* 
 The diameter of the sun, as seen from Herschel, is little more 
 than the apparent diameter of Venus, as seen by the naked 
 eye ; and the light which it receives from that luminary, is 
 360 times less than what we experience ; yet this proportion 
 is found by calculation to be equal to the effect which would 
 be produced by 248 of our full moons ; and, in the absence of 
 the sun, there are six moons which reflect light upon this dis~ 
 tant planet, all of which were discovered likewise by Dr. Her- 
 schel. Small as the proportion of light is, which this planet 
 receives from the sun, it is easy to conceive, that beings simi- 
 lar to man, placed on the surface of this globe, with a slight 
 raodification of their organs of vision, might be made to per- 
 ceive objects with a clearness and distinctness even superior 
 to what we can do. We have only to suppose, that the Crea- 
 tor has formed their eyes with pupils capable of a much larger 
 expansion than ours ; and has endued their retina with a much 
 greater degree of nervous sensibility. At all events, we may 
 rest assured, that He who has placed sentient beings in any 
 region, has, by laws with which we are partly unacquainted,, 
 adapted the constitution of the inhabitant to the nature of the 
 habitation. 
 
 * See Note, page 176.. 
 
ASTRONOMT. 1^1 
 
 " Strange and amazing must the difference be, 
 'Twixt this dull planet and bright Mercury; 
 Yet reason says, nor can we doubt at all, 
 Millions of beings dwell on either ball, 
 With constitutions fitted for that spot 
 Where Providence, all- wise, has fixed their lot." 
 
 Baker's Universe. 
 
 The celestial globes which I have now described, are all 
 the planets which are at present known to belong to the solar 
 system. It is probable that other planetary bodies may yet 
 be discovered between the orbits of Saturn and Herschel, and 
 even far beyond the orbit of the latter ; and it is also not im- 
 probable that planets may exist in the immense interval of 37 
 millions of miles between Mercury and the Sun,* These (if 
 any exist) can be detected only by a series of day observa- 
 tions, made with equatorial telescopes ; as they could not be 
 supposed to be seen, after sun-set, on account of their proxi- 
 mity to the sun. Five primaryf planets, and eight secondarieSy 
 have been discovered within the last 42 years ; and, therefore, 
 we have no reason to conclude, that all the bodies belonging 
 to our system have yet been detected, till every region of the 
 heavens be more fully explored. 
 
 Comets. — Besides the planetary globes to which I have 
 now adverted, there is a class of celestial bodies which occa- 
 sionally appear in the heavens, to which the name of Comets 
 has been given. They are distinguished from the other ce-^ 
 lestial bodies, by their ruddy appearance, and by a long train 
 of light, called the tail^ which sometimes extends over a con- 
 siderable portion of the heavens, and which is so transparent, 
 that the stars may be seen through it. The tail is always di- 
 rected to that part of the heavens which is opposite to the sun, 
 and increases in size as it approaches him, and is again gra- 
 dually diminished, as the comet flies off to the more distant 
 regions of space. Their apparent magnitude is very different : 
 
 * The Author, some years ago, described a method by which the pla- 
 nets (if any) within the orbit of Mercury, may be discovered in the day- 
 time, by means of a simple conti'ivance for intercepting the solar rays, and 
 by the frequent application, by a number of observers, of powerful tele- 
 scopes, to a certain portion of the sky, in the vicinity of the sun. The de- 
 tails of this plan have not yet been published ; but the reader will see 
 them alluded to in No. V. of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, for 
 July, 1820, p. 191. 
 
 I A primary planet is that which revolves round the sun as a centre ; as 
 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. A secondary planet is one which revolves 
 round a primary planet as its centre; as the Moon, and the satellites of 
 Jupiter and Saturn. The prknary planets are distinguished from the 
 fixed stars, by the steadiness of their light ; not having a twinkling ap- 
 pearance, as the stars exhibit.. 
 
192 'THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 sometimes they appear only of the bigness of the fixed 
 stars ; at other times they equal the diameter of Venus ; and 
 sometimes they have appeared nearly as large as the Moon. 
 They traverse the heavens in all directions, and cross the 
 orbits of the planets. When examined through a telescope, 
 they appear to consist of a dark central nucleus, surrounded 
 by a dense atmosphere, or mass of vapors. They have been 
 ascertained to move in long narrow ellipses or ovals, around 
 the sun ; some of them, on their nearest approach to him, 
 having been within a million of miles of his centre ; and then 
 fly off to a region several thousands of miihons of miles dis- 
 tant. When near the sun, they move with* amazing velocity. 
 The velocity of the comet which appeared in 1680, according 
 to Sir Isaac Newton's calculation, was eight hundred and 
 eighty thousand miles an hour. They appear to be bodies of 
 no great density, and their size seldom exceeds that of the 
 moon. The length of the tails of some comets has been esti- 
 mated at fifty millions of miles. According to Dr. HerschePs 
 computations, the solid nucleus, or central part of the comet 
 which appeared in 1811, was only 428 miles in diameter ; but 
 the real diameter of the head, or nebulous portion of the comet, 
 he computed to be about 127 thousand miles. The length of 
 its tail he computed to be above one hundred millions of miles, 
 and its breadth nearly fifteen millions. It was nearest to the 
 earth on the 11th October, when its distance was 113 millions 
 of miles. The number of comets which have occasionally 
 been seen within the limits of our system^ since the com- 
 mencement of the Christian era, is about 500, of which the 
 paths or orbits of 98 have been calculated. 
 
 As these bodies cross the paths of the planets in every di- 
 rection, there is a possibility, that some of them might strike 
 against the earth in their approach to the sun ; and, were this 
 to happen, the consequences would be awful beyond descrip- 
 tion. But we may rest assured that that Almighty Being who 
 at first launched them into existence, directs all their motions, 
 however complicated ; and that the earth shall remain secure 
 against all such concussions from celestial agents, till the pur- 
 poses of his moral government in this world shall be fully ac- 
 complished. What regions these bodies visit, when they pass 
 beyond the limits of our view ; upon what errands they are 
 sent, when they again revisit the central parts of our system ; 
 what is the difference in their physical constitution, from that 
 of the sun and planets ; and what important ends they are 
 destined to accomplish, in the economy of the universe, are 
 inquiries which naturally arise in the mind, but which surpass 
 
ASTRONOMY 193 
 
 the limited powers of the human understanding at present 
 to determine. Of this, however, we may rest assured, that 
 they were not created in vain ; that they subserve purposes 
 worthy of the infinite Creator ; and that wherever he has ex- 
 erted his power, there also he manifests his Wisdom and Be 
 neficence.* 
 
 Such is a general outline of the leading facts connected 
 with that system of which we form a part. Though the ener- 
 gies of Divine Power had never been exerted beyond the 
 limits of this system, it would remain an eternal monument 
 of the Wisdom and Omnipotence of its Author. Independent 
 of the Sun, which is like a vast universe in itself, and of the 
 numerous comets which are continually traversing its distant 
 regions, it contains a mass of material existence, arranged in 
 the most beautiful order, two thousand five hundred times 
 larger than our globe. From late observations, there is the 
 strongest reason to conclude, that the sun, along with all this 
 vast assemblage of bodies, is carried through the regions of 
 the universe, towards some distant point of space, or around 
 some wide circumference, at the rate of more than sixty thou- 
 sand miles an hour ; and if so, it is highly probable, if not ab- 
 solutely certain, that we shall never again occupy that portion 
 of absolute space, through which we are this moment passing, 
 during all the succeeding ages of eternity. 
 
 Such a glorious system must have been brought into ex- 
 istence, to subserve purposes worthy of the Infinite Wisdom 
 and Benevolence of the Creator. To suppose that the dis- 
 tant globes, of which it is composed, with their magnificent 
 apparatus of Rings and Moons, were created merely for the 
 purpose of affording a few astronomers, in these latter times, 
 a peep of them through their glasses, would be inconsistent 
 with every principle of reason ; and would be charging Him 
 who is the source of Wisdom, with conduct which we would 
 pronounce to be folly in the sons of men. Since it appears, 
 so far as our observation extends, that matter exists solely for 
 the sake of sensitive and intelligent beings, and that the Crea- 
 
 * A comet has lately been discovered, whose periodical revolution .is 
 found to be only 3 years and 107 days. At its greatest distance from the 
 sun, it is within the orbit of Jupiter, and it possesses this peculiar advan- 
 tage for observation^, that it will become visible ten times in thirty-three 
 years. It was last seen in June, 1822, by the astronomers in the observa- 
 tory of Paramatta, New Holland, in positions veiy near to those Avhich 
 had been previously calculated by Mr. Enke. It is probable, that the 
 observations which may hereafter be made on this comet, w-ill lead to more 
 definite and accurate views of the nature and destination of these singular 
 bodies. 
 
194 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 tor made nothing in vain ; it is a conclusion to which we are 
 necessarily led/ that the planetary globes are inhabited by 
 various orders of intellectual beings, who participate m the 
 bounty, and celebrate the glory of their Creator. 
 
 When this idea is taken into consideration, it gives a striking 
 emphasis to such sublime declarations of the Sacred Volume 
 
 as these : '' AH nations before him are as nothing — He sit- 
 
 teth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof 
 are as grasshoppers — The nations are «.9 the drop of a bucket 
 
 All tTie inhabitants of the world are reputed as nothino- in 
 
 his sight ; and he doth according to his will in the army of 
 heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth^ — Thou hast 
 made heaven, and the heaven of heavens, with all their host ; 
 and thou preservest them all, and the host of heaven worship-- 
 pcth thee — When I consider thy heavens, what is man, that 
 thou art mindful of him!" If the race of Adam were the 
 principal intelligences in the universe of God, such passages 
 would be stripped of all their sublimity, would degenerate into 
 mere hyperboles, and be almost without meaning. If man 
 were the only rational being who inhabited the material 
 WORLD, as some arrogantly imagine, it would be no wonder at 
 all, that God should be " mindful of him ;" nor could " all the 
 inhabitants of this world," with any propriety, be compared to 
 " a drop of a bucket," and be " reputed as nothing in his 
 sight." — Such declarations would be contrary to fact, if this 
 supposition were admitted ; for it assumes that man holds the 
 principal station in the visible universe. The expressions 
 — " The heavens, the heaven of heavens," and " the host of 
 heaven worshipping God," would also, on this supposition, de- 
 generate into something approaching to mere inanity. These 
 expressions, if they signify any thing that is worthy of an In- 
 spired Teacher to communicate, evidently imply, that the 
 universe is vast and extensive, beyond the range of human 
 comprehension — that it is peopled with myriads of inhabitants 
 — that these inhabitants are possessed of intellectual natures, 
 capable of appreciating the perfections of their Creator — and 
 that they pay him a tribute of rational adoration. " The host 
 of heaven worshippeth thee." So that the language of Scrip- 
 ture is not only consistent with the doctrine of a plurality of 
 worlds, but evidently supposes their existence to all the extent 
 to which modern science can carry us. However vast the 
 universe now appears — however numerous the worlds and 
 systems of worlds, which may exist within its boundless range 
 — the language of Scripture is sufficiently comprehensive and 
 sublime, to express all the emotions which naturally arise ia 
 
ASTRONOMY. 195 
 
 the mind, when contemplating its structure — a characteristic 
 which will apply to no other book, or pretended revelation. 
 And this consideration shows not only the harmony which 
 subsists between the discoveries of Revelation and the dis- 
 coveries of Science, but also forms by itself, a strong pre- 
 sumptive evidence, that the Records of the Bible are authentic 
 and divine.* Vast as the Solar System, we have now been 
 contemplating, may appear, it is but a mere point in the map 
 of creation. To a spectator placed in one of the stars of the 
 seventh magnitude, not only the glories of this world, and the 
 more resplendent scenes of the planet Saturn, but even the 
 sun himself would entirely disappear, as if he were blotted out 
 of existence. " Were the sun," says Mr. Addison, " v/hich 
 enlightens this part of the creation, with all the host of the 
 planetary worlds that move about him, utterly extinguished 
 and annihilated, they would not be missed by an eye that could 
 take in the whole compass of nature, more than a grain of 
 sand upon the sea shore. The space they possess is so ex- 
 ceedingly little, in comparison of the whole, that it would 
 scarce make -a blank in creation." 
 
 The Fixed Stars. — When we pass from the planetary 
 system to other regions of creation, we have to traverse, in 
 imagination, a space so immense, that it has hitherto baffled 
 all the efforts of science to determine its extent. In these 
 remote and immeasurable spaces, are placed those immense 
 luminous bodies usually denominated the fxcd stars. The 
 nearest stars are, on good grounds, concluded to be at least 
 hventy billions of miles distant from our globe — a distance 
 through which light (the swiftest body in nature) could noi 
 travel in the space of three years ; and which a ball, moving 
 at the rate of 500 miles an hour, would not traverse in foui 
 milhons five hundred thousand years, or 750 times the period 
 which has elapsed since the Mosaic cr«ation. But how far 
 they may be placed beyond this distance, no astronomer will 
 pretend to determine. The following consideration will prove, 
 to those unacquainted with the mathematical principles of 
 astronomy, that the stars are placed at an immeasurable dis- 
 tance. When they are viewed through a telescope which 
 magnifies objects a thousand times, they appear no larger than 
 to the naked eye ; which circumstance shows, that though we 
 were placed at the thousandth part of the distance from them 
 at which we now are, they would still appear only as so many 
 shining points ; for we 'should still be distant from the nearest 
 
 * See Appendix, No. VL 
 
196 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 of them, twenty thousand millions of miles : or, in other words, 
 were we transported several thousands of millions of miles 
 from the spot we now occupy, though their numbers would 
 appear exceedingly increased, they would appear no larger 
 than they do from our present station ; and we behooved to 
 be carried forward thousands of millions of miles further in a 
 long succession, before their disks appeared to expand into 
 large circles, like the moon. Dr. Herschel viewed the stars 
 with telescopes, magnifying six thousand times, yet they still 
 appeared only as brilliant points, without any sensible disks, 
 or increase of diameter. This circumstance incontestibly 
 proves the two following things : — 1. That the stars are 
 luminous bodies, which shine by their own native light ; other- 
 wise they could not be perceived at such vast distances. 
 2. That they are bodies of an immense size, not inferior to 
 the sun ; and many of them, it is probable, far exceed that 
 luminary in bulk and splendor. 
 
 The stars, on account of the difference in their apparent 
 magnitudes, have been distributed into several classes or 
 orders. Those which appear largest are called stars of the 
 first magnitude ; next to those in lustre, stars of the second 
 magnitude, and so on to stars of the sixth magnitude, which 
 are the smallest that can be distinguished by the naked eye. 
 Stars of the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, &c. magnitudes, which cannot 
 be seen by the naked eye, are distinguished by the name of 
 telescopic stars. Not more than a thousand stars can be dis- 
 tinguished by the naked eye, in the clearest winter's night ; 
 but, by means of the telescope, millions have been discovered. 
 (See p. 39.)-7And, as it is probable, that, by far the greater 
 part lie beyond the reach of the best glasses which have been, 
 or ever will be constructed by man — the real number of the 
 stars may be presumed to be beyond all human calculation 
 or conception, and perhaps beyond the grasp of angelic com- 
 prehension. 
 
 In consequence of recent discoveries, we have now the 
 strongest reason to believe, that all the stars in the universe 
 are arranged into clusters, or groupes," which astronomers 
 distinguish by the name of NEBULiE or Starry Systems, 
 each nebula consisting of many thousands of stars. The 
 nearest nebula is that whitish space or zone, which is known by 
 the name of the Milky Way, to which our sun is supposed to 
 belong. It consists of many hundreds of thousands of stars. 
 When Dr. Herschel examined this region, with his powerful 
 telescopes, he found a portion of it only 15 degrees long and 
 2 broad, which contained 'fifty ikoushnd stars large enough to 
 
ASTRONOMY. 197 
 
 be distinctly counted ; and he suspected twice as many more, 
 which, for want of sufficient light in his telescope, he saw only 
 now and then. More than two thousand five hundred nebulae 
 have already been observed ; and, if each of them contain as 
 many stars as the Milky Way, several hundreds of millions of 
 stars must exist, even within that portion of the heavens which 
 lies open to our observation. 
 
 It appears, from numerous observations, that -uaWoMS changes 
 are occasionally taking place in the regions of the stars. 
 Several stars have appeared for a while in the heavens, and 
 then vanished from the sight. Some stars which were known 
 to the ancients, cannot now be discovered ; and stars are now 
 distinctly visible, which were to them unknown. A few stars 
 have gradually increased in brilliancy, while others have been 
 constantly diminishing in lustre. Certain stars, to the number 
 of 15, or upwards, are ascertained to have a periodical increase 
 and decrease of their lustre, sometimes appearing like stars of 
 the 1st or 2d magnitude, sometimes diminishing to the size of 
 the 4th or 5th magnitude, and sometimes altogether disappear- 
 ing to the naked eye. It also appears, that changes are taking 
 place among the nebulae — that several nebulae are formed by 
 the decomposition of larger nebulae, and that many nebulae of 
 this kind are at present detaching themselves from the nebulae 
 of the Milky Way. These changes seem to indicate, that 
 mighty movements and vast operations are continually going 
 on in the distant regions of creation, under the superintendence 
 of the Sovereign of the Universe, upon a scale of magnitude 
 and grandeur which overwhelms the human understanding. 
 
 To explore, more extensively, the region of the starry 
 firmament ; to mark the changes that are taking place ; to 
 ascertain all the changeable stars ; to determine the periodical 
 variations of their light ; the revolutions of double and triple 
 stars ; and the motions, and other phenomena peculiar to these 
 great bodies, will furnish employment for future enlightened 
 generations : and will, perhaps, form a part of the studies and 
 investigations of superior intelligences, in a higher sphere of 
 existence, during an indefinite lapse of ages. 
 
 If every one of these immense bodies be a Sun, equal or 
 superior to ours, and encircled with a host of planetary worlds, 
 as we have every reason to conclude, (see pp. 38, 64, 65,) 
 how vast must be the extent of Creation ! how numerous the 
 worlds and beings which exist within its boundless range ! and, 
 how great, beyond all human or angelic conception, must be 
 the Power and Intelligence of that glorious Being, who called 
 this system from nothing into existence, and continually super- 
 
 17 
 
198 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 intends all its movements ! The mind is bewildered and con 
 founded when it attempts to dwell on this subject ; it feels the 
 narrow limits of its present faculties ; it longs for the powers 
 of a seraph, to enable it to take a more expansive flight, into 
 those regions which " eye hath not seen ;" and, while destitute 
 of these, and chained down to this obscure corner of creation, 
 it can only exclaim, in the language of inspiration, " Who can 
 by searching find out God ? — Great is our Lord, and of great 
 power ; his understanding is infinite ! — Great and marvellous 
 are thy works. Lord God Almighty ! — Who can utter the 
 mighty acts of Jehovah, who can show forth all his praise !" 
 
 After what has been now stated in relation to the leading 
 facts of astronomy, it would be needless to spend time in 
 endeavouring to show its connexion with religion. It will be 
 at once admitted, that all the huge globes of luminous and 
 opaque matter, to which we have adverted, are the workman- 
 ship of Him " who is wonderful in counsel and excellent in 
 working ;" and form a part of the dominions of that august 
 Sovereign, " whose kingdom ruleth over all." And shall it 
 ever be insinuated, that this subject has no relation to the 
 great object of our adoration ? and that it is of no importance 
 in our views of the Divinity, whether we conceive his domi- 
 nions as circumscribed within the limits of little more than 
 25,000 miles, or as embracing an extent which comprehends 
 mnumerable worlds? The objects around us in this sublunary 
 sphere strikingly evince the superintendency, the wisdom and 
 benevolence of the Creator ; but this science demonstrates, 
 beyond all other departments of human knowledge, the Gran- 
 deur AND Magnificence of his operations : and raises the 
 mind to sublimer views of his attributes than can be acquired 
 by the contemplation of any other objects. A serious con- 
 templation of the sublime objects which Astronomy has ex- 
 plored, must, therefore, have a tendency to inspire us with 
 profound veneration of the Eternal Jehovah — to humble us in 
 the dust before his august presence — to excite admiration of 
 his condescension and grace in the work of redemption — to 
 show us the littleness of this world, and the insignificancy of 
 those riches and honors to which ambitious men aspire with 
 so much labor and anxiety of mind — to demonstrate the glory 
 and magnificence of God's universal kingdom — to convince 
 us of the infinite sources of varied felicity which he has in his 
 power to communicate to holy intelligences — to enliven our 
 hopes of the splendors of that " exceeding great and eternal 
 weight of glory" which will burst upon the spirits of good 
 men, when they pass from this region of mortality — and to 
 
ASTRONOMY, 199 
 
 induce us to aspire with more lively ardor after that heavenly 
 world, where the glories of the Deity, and the magnificence of 
 his works will be more clearly unfolded. 
 
 If, then, such be the effects which the objects of astronomy 
 have a tendency to produce on a devout and enlightened mind 
 — to call in question the propriety of exhibiting such views in 
 religious publications, or in the course of religious instruction, 
 would be an approach to impiety, and an attempt to cover with 
 a veil the most illustrious visible displays of Divine glory. — 
 It forms a striking evidence of the depravity of man, as well 
 as of his want of true taste, and of a discernment of what is 
 excellent, that the grandeur of the nocturnal heavens, and the 
 perfections of Deity they proclaim, are beheld with so much 
 apathy and indifference by the bulk of mankind. Though 
 " the heavens declare the glory of God," in the most solemn 
 and impressive language, adapted to the comprehension of 
 every kindred and every tribe, yet " a brutish man knoweth 
 not, neither doth a fool understand this." They can gaze upon 
 these resplendent orbs with as little emotion as the ox that 
 feeds on the grass, or as the horse that drags their carcasses 
 along in their chariots. They have even attempted to ridicule 
 the science of the heavens, to caricature those who have 
 devoted themselves to such studies, and to treat with an indif- 
 ference, mingled with contempt, the most august productions 
 of Omnipotence. Such persons must be considered as expos- 
 ing themselves to that Divine denunciation — " Because they 
 regard not the works of Jehovah, neither consider the opera- 
 tions of his hands, he will destroy them and not build them 
 up." If the structure of the heavens, and the immensity of 
 worlds and beings they contain, were intended by the Creator 
 to adumbrate, in some measure, his invisible perfections, and 
 to produce a sublime and awful impression on all created intel- 
 ligences, (see pp. 46, 54, 58,) it must imply a high degree of 
 disrespect to the Divinity wilfully to overlook these astonish- 
 ing scenes of Power and Intelligence. It is not a matter of 
 mere taste or caprice, whether or not we direct our thoughts to 
 such subjects, but an imperative duty to which we are 
 frequently directed in the word of God ; the ivilful neglect of 
 which, where there is an opportunity of attending to it, must 
 subject us to all that is included in the threatening now speci- 
 fied, if there be any meaning in language. 
 
 That the great body of professed Christians are absolute 
 strangers to the subhme sentiments which a serious contempla- 
 tion of the heavens inspires, must be owing, in part, to the 
 minds of Christian parents and teachers not having been 
 
200 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 directed to such subject, or to the views they entertain respect- 
 ing the relation of such contemplations to the objects of reli- 
 gion. In communicating religious instructions in reference to 
 the attributes of God, the heavens are seldom referred to, ex- 
 cept in such a vague and indefinite manner as can produce no 
 deep nor vivid impression on the mind ; and many pious per- 
 sons, whose views have been confined to a narrow range of 
 objects, have been disposed to declaim against such studies, 
 as if they had a tendency to engender pride and self-conceit, 
 and as if they were even dangerous to the interests of religion 
 and piety. How very different were the feelings and the con- 
 duct of the sacred writers ! They call upon every one of 
 God's intelligent offspring to "stand still, and consider the won- 
 drous works of the Most High ;" and describe the profound 
 emotions of piety which the contemplation of them produced 
 on their own minds : " Lift up your eyes on high and behold ! 
 Who hath created these things ! The heavens declare the 
 glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handy-work. — 
 When 1 consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the 
 moon and the stars which thou hast ordained — what is man 
 that thou art mindful of him, and the son of man that thou 
 visitest him ! Thou, even thou, art Lord alone ; thou hast 
 made heaven, and the heaven of heavens, with all their host, 
 and thou preservest them all ; and the hosts of heaven worship 
 thee. All the gods of the nations are idols ; but the Lord 
 MADE THE HEAVENS : Houor and Majesty are before him. — 
 Jehovah hath prepared his throne in the heavens ; and his 
 kingdom ruleth over all. Sing praises unto God, ye king- 
 doms of the earth, to him that rideth on the heaven of hea- 
 vens. Ascribe ye power to our God ; for his strength is in 
 the heavens. Praise him for his mighty acts, praise him ac- 
 cording to his excellent greatness." If we would enter, with 
 spirit, into such elevated strains of piety, we must content our- 
 selves with a passing and vacant stare at the orbs of heaven, 
 as if they were only so many brilhant studs fixed in the canopy 
 of the sky ; but must " consider" them, with fixed attention, in 
 all the lights in which revelation and science have exhibited 
 them to our view, if we wish to praise God for his mighty 
 works, and " according to his excellent greatness." And, for 
 this purpose, the conclusions deduced by those who have de- 
 voted themselves to celestial investigations, ought to be pre- 
 sented to the view of the intelligent Christian, that he may be 
 enabled to " speak of the glory of Jehovah's kingdom, and to 
 talk of his power." 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 201 
 
 Having, in the preceding sketches, considerably exceeded 
 the limits originally prescribed for this department of my sub- 
 ject, I am reluctantly compelled to despatch the remaining 
 sciences with a few brief notices. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 The object of JYatural Philosophy is, to observe and de- 
 scribe the phenomena of the material universe, with a view to 
 discover their causes, and the laws by which the Almighty di- 
 rects the movements of all bodies in heaven and on earth. — 
 It embraces an investigation of the laws of gravitation, by 
 which the planets are directed in their motions — the laws by 
 which water, air, light, and heat are regulated, and the effects 
 they produce in the various states in which they operate — the 
 nature of colors, sounds, electricity, galvanism, and magnet- 
 ism, and the laws of their operation — the causes which operate 
 in the production of thunder, lightning, luminous and fiery 
 meteors, hail, rain, snow, dew, and other atmospherical phe- 
 nomena. In short, it embraces all the objects of Natural His- 
 tory formerly alluded to, with a viev/ to ascertain the causes 
 of their varied appearances, and the principles that operate in 
 the changes to which they are subject ; or, in other words, 
 the laws by which the diversified phenomena of universal na- 
 ture are produced and regulated. One subordinate use of the 
 knowledge derived from this science, is, to enable us to con- 
 struct all those mechanical engines which facilitate human 
 labor, and increase the comforts of mankind, and all those in- 
 struments which tend to enlarge our views of the operations of 
 nature. A still higher and nobler use to which philosophy is 
 subservient, is, to demonstrate the Wisdom and Intelligence 
 of the Great First Cause of all things, and to enlarge our con- 
 ceptions of the admirable contrivance and design which appear 
 in the different departments of universal nature. In this view, 
 it may be considered as forming a branch of jYatural The- 
 ology, or, in other words, a branch of the religion of angels, 
 and of all other holy intelligences. 
 
 This department of Natural Science has generally been 
 divided into the following branches : 
 
 I. Mechanics. — This branch, considered in its most ex- 
 tensive range, includes an investigation of the general proper- 
 ties of matter ; such as solidity, extension, divisibility, motion, 
 attraction, and repulsion — the law s of gravitation, and of cen- 
 tral forces, as they appear to operate in the motions of the 
 celestial bodies ; and on the surface of our globe, in the phe- 
 nomena of falling bodies, the motions of projectiles, the vibra- 
 
 17* 
 
202 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 tion of pendulums, &c. — the theory of machines, the princi- 
 ples on which their energy depends ; the properties of the 
 mechanical powers — the lever, the wheel, and axle, the 'pulley, 
 the inclined plane, the wedge and the screw — and the effects 
 resulting from their various combinations. From the investi- 
 gations of philosophers on these subjects, we learn the laws 
 by which the great bodies of the universe are directed in their 
 motions ; the laws which bind together the different portions 
 of matter on the surface of the earth, and which regulate the 
 motions of animal, vegetable, and inanimate nature ; and the 
 principles on which cranes, mills, wheel-carriages, pile- 
 engines, threshing-machines, and other engines are con- 
 structed ; by means of which, man has been enabled to ac- 
 complish operations far beyond the limits of his own physical 
 powers. 
 
 Without a knowledge of the laws of motion, and assistance 
 from the combined effects of the mechanical powers, man 
 would be a very limited being, his enjoyments would be few, 
 and his active energies confined within a very narrow range. 
 In a savage state, ignorant of manufactures, agriculture, archi- 
 tecture, navigation, and the other arts which depend upon me- 
 chanical combinations, he is exposed, without shelter, to the 
 inclemencies of the season ; he is unable to transport himself 
 beyond seas and oceans, to visit other climes and other tribes 
 of his fellow-men ; he exists in the desert, comfortless and 
 unimproved ; the fertile soil, over which he roams, is covered 
 with thorns, and briers, and thickets, for the haunt of beasts of 
 prey ; his enjoyments are little superior to those of the lion, 
 the hysena, and the elephant, while he is much their inferior, in 
 point of agility and physical strength. But when Philosophy 
 has once demonstrated the principles of mechanics, and intro- 
 duced the practice of the useful xlrts, " the wilderness and the 
 solitary place are made glad, and the desert rejoices, and blos- 
 soms as the rose." Cities are founded, and gradually rise to 
 opulence and splendor ; palaces and temples are erected ; the 
 damp cavern, and the rush-built hut, are exchanged for the 
 warm and comfortable apartments of a substantial mansion ; 
 ships are built, and navigated across the ocean ; the treasures 
 of one country are conveyed to another ; an intercourse is 
 carried on between the most distant tribes of mankind ; com- 
 merce flourishes, and machinery of all kinds is erected, for 
 facilitating human labor, and promoting the enjoyments of man. 
 And when the principles and the practice of " pure and unde- 
 filed religion" accompany these physical and mechanical ope- 
 rations, love and affection diffuse their benign influence ; the 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 203 
 
 prospect brightens as years roll on, and man advances, with 
 pleasure and improvement, to the scene of his high destination. 
 
 II. Hydrostatics treats of the pressure and equilibrium of 
 fluids. From the experiments which have been made in this 
 branch of philosophy, the following important principles, 
 among many others, have been deduced : — 
 
 (1.) That the surface of all waters which have a communi- 
 cation ivhilst they are at rest, will he perfectly level. This 
 principle will be more clearly understood by an inspection of 
 the following figures. If water be poured into the tube A, 
 (Fig. 1.) it wiU run through the horizontal tube E, and rise in 
 the opposite tube B, to the same height at which it stands at A. 
 
 It is on this principle that water is now conveyed under ground, 
 through conduit pipes, and made to rise to the level of the 
 fountain whence it is drawn. The city of Edinburgh, a con- 
 siderable part of which is elevated above the level of the sur- 
 rounding country, is supplied with water from a reservoir on 
 the Pentland hills, several miles distant. The water is con- 
 veyed in leaden pipes down the declivity of the hill, along the 
 interjacent plain, and up to the entrance of the castle, whence 
 it is distributed to all parts of the city. If the point A repre- 
 sent the level of the reservoir, C D will represent the plain 
 along which the water is conveyed, and B the elevation to 
 which it rises on the castle hill. On the same principle, and 
 m a similar manner, the city of London is supplied with water 
 from the water-works at London Bridge. Had the ancients 
 been acquainted with this simple but important principle, it 
 would have saved them the labor and expense of rearing those 
 
204 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 stupendous works of art, the Aqueducts, which consisted of 
 numerous arches of a vast size, and sometimes piled one 
 above another. 
 
 Fig. 2. represents the syplion, the action of which depends 
 upon the pressure of the atmosphere. If this instrument be 
 filled with water, or any other liquid, and the shorter leg G, 
 plunged to the bottom of a cask, or other vessel, containing 
 the same liquid, the water will run out at the longer leg F, till 
 the vessel be emptied, in consequence of the atmospheric 
 pressure upon the surface of the liquid. On this principle, 
 water may be conveyed over a rising ground to any distance, 
 provided the perpendicular height of the syphon above the sur- 
 face of the water in the fountain, does not exceed 32 or 33 
 feet. On the same principle are constructed the fountain at 
 command, the cup of Tantalus, and other entertaining devices. 
 The same principle, too, enables us to account for springs 
 which are sometimes found on the tops of mountains, and for 
 the phenomena of intermitting springs, or those which flow 
 and stop by regular alternations. 
 
 (2.) Jlmj quantity of fluid, however small, may be made to 
 counterpoise any quantity, however large. This is what has 
 generally been termed the Hydrostatical Paradox ; and from 
 this principle it follows, that a given quantity of water may 
 exert a force several hundred times greater or less, according 
 to the manner in which it is employed. This force depends 
 on the height of the column of water, independent of its quan- 
 tity ; for its pressure depends on its perpendicular height. By 
 means of water conveyed through a very small perpendicular 
 tube, of great length, a very strong hogshead has been burst 
 to pieces, and the water scattered about with incredible force, 
 On this principle, the hydrostatic press, and other engines of 
 nnmense power have been constructed. 
 
 (3.) Every body which is heavier than water, or which sinks 
 in it, displaces so much of the water as is equal to the bulk of 
 the body immersed in the water. On this principle, the speci- 
 fic gravities, or comparative weight, of all bodies are deter- 
 mined. It appears to have been first ascertained by Archi- 
 medes, and, by means of it, he determined that the golden 
 crown of the King of Syracuse had been adulterated by the 
 workmen. From this principle we learn, among many other 
 things, the specific gravity of the human body ; and that four 
 pounds of cork will preserve a person weighing 135 pounds 
 from sinking, so that he may remain with his head completely 
 above water. 
 
 Hydraulics, which has sometimes been treated £is a distinct 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 205 
 
 department of mechanical philosophy, may be considered as a 
 branch of hydrostatics. It teaches us what relates to the mo- 
 tion of fluids, and how to estimate their velocity and force. 
 On the principle of this science, all machines worked by water 
 are constructed — as steam-engines, water-mills, common and 
 forcing pumps, syphons, fountains, and fire-engines. 
 
 III. Pneumatics. — This branch of philosophy treats of the 
 nature and properties of the atmosphere, and of their effects 
 on solid and fluid bodies. From this science we learn, that 
 air has weight, and presses on all sides, like other fluids ; that 
 the pressure of the atmosphere upon the top of a mountain, is 
 less than on the plain beneath ; that it presses upon our bodies 
 with a weight of several thousand pounds more at one time 
 than at another ; that air can be compressed into forty thou- 
 sand times less space than it naturally occupies ; that it is of an 
 elastic or expansive nature, and that the force of its spring is 
 equal to its weight ; that its elasticity is increased by heat ; 
 that it is necessary to the production of sound, the support of 
 flame and animal life, and the germination and growth of all 
 kinds of vegetables. 
 
 These positions are proved and illustrated by such experi- 
 ments as the following : — The general pressure of the atmos- 
 phere is proved by such experiments as those detailed in No. 
 II. of the Appendix. The following experiment proves that 
 air is compressible. If a glass tube, open at one end, and 
 closed at the other, be plunged with the open end downwards, 
 into a tumbler of water, the water will rise a little way in the 
 tube ; which shows, that the air which filled the tube is com- 
 pressed by the water into a smaller space. The elasticity of 
 air is proved by tying up a bladder, with a very small quantity 
 of air within it, and putting it under the receiver of an air 
 pump, when it will be seen gradually to inflate, till it becomes 
 of its full size. A similar effect would take place, by carrying 
 the bladder to the higher regions of the atmosphere. On the 
 compression and elasticity of the air, depends the construc- 
 tion of that dangerous and destructive instrument, the Air- 
 gun. 
 
 That it is capable of being rarified by heat, is proved by 
 holding to the fire a half-blown bladder, hghtly tied at the 
 neck, when it will dilate to nearly Its full size ; and if either a 
 full-blown bladder, or a thin glass bubble filled with air is held 
 to a strong fire, it will burst. The elasticity of the air is such, 
 that Mr. Boyle, by means of an air pump, caused it to dilate 
 till it occupied fourteen thousand times the space that it usu- 
 ally does. — That air is necessary to sound, flame, animal and 
 
206 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 vegetable life, is proved by the following experiments : — When 
 the receiver of an air-pump is exhausted of its air, a cat, a 
 mouse, or a bird, placed in it, expires in a few moments, in 
 the greatest agonies. A bell rung in the same situation pro- 
 duces no sound ; and a hghted candle is instantly extinguish- 
 ed. Similar experiments prove that air is necessary for the 
 flight of birds, the ascent of smoke and vapours, the explosion 
 of'gun-powder, and the growth of plants ; and that all bodies 
 descend equally swift in a place void of air ; a guinea and a 
 feather being found to fall to the bottom of an exhausted re- 
 ceiver at the same instant. ' 
 
 On the principles which this science has established, have 
 been constructed the air-pump, the barometer, the thermome- 
 ter, the diving-bell, the hygrometer, the condenser, and various 
 other instruments, which have contributed to the comfort of 
 human Ufe, and to the enlargement of our knowledge of the 
 constitution of nature. 
 
 IV. Acoustics. — This science treats of the nature, the 
 phenomena, and the laws of soimd, and the theory of musical 
 concord and harmony. From the experiments which have 
 been made on this subject, we learn, that air is essential to the 
 production of sound ; that it arises from vibrations in the air, 
 communicated to it by vibrations of the sounding body ; that 
 these vibrations, or aerial pulses, are propagated all around in 
 a spherical undulatory manner ; that their density decreases, 
 as the squares of the distances from the sounding body in- 
 crease ; that they are propagated together in great numbers 
 from different bodies, without disturbance or confusion, as is 
 evident from concerts of musical instruments ; that water, tim- 
 ber, and flannel, are also good conductors of sound ; that sound 
 travels at the rate of 1142 feet in a second, or about thirteen 
 miles in a minute ; that the softest whisper flies as fast as the 
 loudest thunder ; and that the utmost limits, within which the 
 loudest sounds, produced by artificial means, can be heard, is 
 180 or 200 miles ;* that sound striking against an obstacle, as 
 the wall of a house, may, like light, be reflected, and produce 
 another sound, which is called an echo ; and that, after it has 
 been reflected from several places, it may be collected into one 
 point or focus, where it wifl be more audible than in any other 
 
 * In the war between England and Holland, in 1672, the noise of the 
 euns was heard in those parts of Wales which were estimated to be two 
 hundred miles distant from the scene of action. But the sounds produced 
 by volcanoes have been heard at a much greater distance ; some instances 
 of which are stated in Chap. IV. Sect. 2. vSeveral other facts in relation 
 to sound, are detailed in Chap. III. Art. *icoustic Tunnels. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 207 
 
 place. On these principles, whispering galleries, speaking 
 trumpets, and other acoustic instruments are constructed. 
 
 V. Optics. — This branch of philosophy treats of vision, 
 light, and colors, and of the various phenomena of visible ob- 
 jects produced by the rays of light, reflected from mirrors, or 
 transmitted through lenses. From this science we learn, that 
 light flies at the rate of nearly twelve millions of miles every 
 minute — that it moves in straight lines — that its particles may 
 be several thousands of miles distant from each other — that 
 every visible body emits particles of light from its surface, in 
 all directions — that the particles of light are exceedingly small; 
 for a lighted candle will fill a cubical space of two miles every 
 way with its rays, before it has lost the least sensible part of its 
 substance ; and millions of rays, from a thousand objects, will 
 pass through a hole not larger than the point of a needle, and 
 convey to the mind an idea of the form, position, and color of 
 every individual object — that the intensity, or degree of light 
 decreases, as the square of the distance from the luminous 
 body increases ; that is, at two yards' distance from a candle, 
 we shall have only the fourth part of the light we should have 
 at the distance of one yard ; at three yards' distance, the ninth 
 part ; at four yards, the sixteenth part, and so on — that glass 
 lenses may be ground into the following forms ; plano-convex, 
 plano-concave, double convex, double concave, and meniscKS, that 
 is, convex on one side, and concave on the other — that specula, 
 or mirrors, may be ground into either a spherical, parabolical, or 
 cylindrical form — that, by means of such mirrors and lenses, 
 the rays of light may be so modified as to proceed either in a 
 diverging, converging, or parallel direction, and the images of 
 visible objects represented in a variety of new forms, positions, 
 and magnitudes — that every ray of white light may be stpara- 
 ted into seven primary colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 
 indigo, and violet — that the variegated coloring which appears 
 on the face of nature is not in the objects themselves, but in 
 the light which falls upon them — that the rainbow is produced 
 by the refraction and reflection of the solar rays in the drops 
 of falling rain — that the rays of light are refracted, or bent out 
 of their course, when they fall upon glass, water, and other 
 mediums — that the light of the sun may be collected into a 
 point or focus, and made to produce a heat more intense than 
 that of a furnace* — that the rays from visible objects, when 
 
 * This is produced by means of lenses, or mirrors of a large diameter, 
 called burning-glasses. By these instruments the hardest metals, on wliicii 
 common fires, and even glass-house furnaces could produce no effect, have 
 been melted in a few seconds. M. Villette, a Frenchman, nearly a cen 
 
208 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 reflected from a concave mirror, converge to a focus, and paint 
 an image of the objects before it, and that when they pass 
 through a convex glass, they depict an image behind it. 
 
 On these and other principles demonstrated by this science, 
 the Camera Obscura, the Magic Lantern, the Phantasmagoria, 
 the Kaleidoscope, the Heliostata, the Micrometer— Spectacles, 
 Opera-Glasses, Prisms, single, compound, lucernal, and solar 
 Microscopes, reflecting and refracting Telescopes, and other 
 optical instruments, have been constructed, by means of v^^hich 
 the natural powers of human vision have been wonderfully 
 increased, and our prospects into the works of God extended 
 far beyond what former ages could have conceived. 
 
 VI. Electricity. — This name has been given to a science 
 which explains and illustrates the operations of a very subtile 
 fluid called the electric fluid, which appears to pervade every 
 part of nature, and to be one of the chief agents employed in 
 producing many of the phenomena of the material world. If 
 a piece of amber, sealing wax, or sulphur, be rubbed with a 
 piece of flannel, it will acquire the power of attracting small bits 
 of paper, feathers, or other light substances. If a tube of glass, 
 two or three feet in length, and an inch or two in diameter, be 
 rubbed pretty hard, in a dark room, with a piece of dry woollen 
 cloth, besides attracting light substances, it will emit flashes of 
 fire, attended with a crackling noise. This luminous matter is 
 called electricity, or the electric fluid. If a large globe or cylin- 
 der of glass, be turned rapidly round, and made to rub against 
 a cushion, streams and large sparks of bluish flame will be 
 elicited, which will fly round the glass, attract light bodies, and 
 produce a pungent sensation if the hand be held to it. This 
 glass, with all its requisite apparatus, is called an electrical ma- 
 chine. It is found, that this fluid will pass along some bodies, 
 and not along others. The bodies over which it pass freely 
 
 tury ago constructed a mirror, three feet eleven inches in diameter, and 
 three feet two inches in focal distance, which melted copper ore in eight 
 seconds, iron ore in twenty-four seconds, a fish's tooth in thirty-two seconds, 
 east iron in sixteen seconds, a silver sixpence in seven seconds, and tin in 
 three seconds. This mirror condensed the solar rays 17,257 times, a de- 
 gree of heat which is about /our hundred and ninety times greater than com- 
 mon fire. Mr. Parker, of London, constructed a lens three feet in diame- 
 ter, and six feet eight inches focus, which weighed 212 pounds. It melted 
 twenty grains of gold in four seconds, and ten grains of platina in three 
 seconds. The power of burning glasses is, as the area of the lens directly, 
 and the square of the focus distance inversely— or, in other words, the broader 
 the mirror or lens, and the shorter the focal distance, the more intense is 
 the heat produced by such instruments. A globular decanter of water 
 makes a powerful burning-glass ; and house furniture has been set on fire 
 by incautiously exposing it to the rays of the sun. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 209 
 
 are water, and most other fluids, except oil and the aerial fluids ; 
 iron, copper, lead, and, in general all the metals, semi-metals, 
 and metallic ores ; which are, therefore, called conductors of 
 electricity. But it will not pass over glass, resin, wax, sulphur, 
 silk, baked woods, or dry woollen substances ; nor through air, 
 except by force, in sparks, to short distances. These bodies 
 are, therefore, called non-conductors. 
 
 The following facts, among others, have been ascertained 
 respecting this wonderful agent: — That all bodies with which 
 we are acquainted, possess a greater or less share of this fluid 
 — that the quantity usually belonging to any body produces no 
 sensible eftects ; but when any surface becomes possessed of 
 more or less than its natural share, it exhibits certain appear- 
 ances, in the form of hght, sound, attraction, or repulsion, 
 which are ascribed to the power called electric — that there are 
 two different species of the electrical fluid, or, at least, two 
 diflerent modifications of the same general principle, termed 
 positive and negative electricity — that positive and negative 
 electricity always accompany each other ; for if a substance 
 acquire the one, the body with which it is rubbed acquires the 
 the other — that it moves with amazing rapidity ; having been 
 transmitted through wire of several miles in length, without 
 taking up any sensible space of time ; and, therefore, it is not 
 improbable, that were an insulated conducting substance ex- 
 tended from one continent to another, it might be made to fly 
 to the remotest regions of the earth in a few seconds of time 
 — that it has a power of suddenly contracting the muscles of 
 animals, or of giving a shock to the animal frame — that this 
 shock may be communicated, at the same instant, to a hun- 
 dred persons, or to an indefinite number who form a circle, by 
 joining their hands together — that it may be accumulated to 
 such a degree as to kill the largest animals — that vivid sparks 
 of this fluid, attended with a crackling noise, may be drawn 
 from diflferent parts of the human body, when the person is 
 insulated, or stands upon a stool supported by glass feet — that 
 electricity sets fire to gun-powder, spirits of wine, and other 
 inflammable substances — that it melts iron wire, and destroys 
 the polarity of the magnetic needle — that it augments the 
 natural evaporation of fluids, promotes the vegetation of plants, 
 and increases the insensible perspiration of animals ; and can 
 be drawn from the clouds by means of electrical kites, and 
 other elevated conductors. By means of the electrical power, 
 small models of machinery have been set in action : orreries 
 to represent the movements of the planets, have been put in 
 motion ; and small bells have been set a-ringing for a length 
 
 18 
 
310 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 of time ; and, in consequence of the knowledge we have ac- 
 quired of the mode of its operation in the system of nature, the 
 hghtnings of heaven have been arrested in their course, and 
 constrained to descend to the earth, without producing any 
 injurious effects. 
 
 From these, and a variety of other facts and experiments, 
 it is now fully ascertained, that lightning and electricity are 
 identical ; and that it is the prime agent in producing the awful 
 phenomena of a thunder-storm ; the lightning being the rapid 
 motion of vast masses of electric matter, and thunder the noise, 
 with its echoes, produced by the rapid motion of the lightning " 
 through the atmosphere. — There can be little doubt that, in 
 combination with steam, the gasses, and other agents, it also 
 produces many of the terrific phenomena of earthquakes, volca- 
 noes, whirlwinds, water-spouts, and hurricanes, and the sublime 
 coruscations of the aurora borealis. In the operations of this 
 powerful fluid we behold a striking display of the sovereignty 
 and majestic agency of God. In directing its energies, " his 
 way is in the whirlwind and the storm, and the clouds are the 
 dust of his feet ; the heavens are covered with sackcloth, the 
 mountains quake before him, the hills melt, the earth is burned 
 at his presence, the rocks are thrown down by him :" Neh. i. 
 3 — 6. It is easy to conceive, that, by a few slight modifica- 
 tions produced by the hand of Omnipotence, this powerful fluid 
 might become the agent of producing either the most awful 
 and tremendous, or the most glorious and transportmg scenes, 
 over every region of our globe. As it now operates, it is cal- 
 culated to inspire us rather with awe and terror than with 
 admiration and joy; and to lead our thoughts to a considera- 
 tion of the state of man as a depraved intelligence, and a rebel 
 against his Maker. 
 
 VII. Galvanism is intimately connected with electricity, 
 though it is generally considered as a branch of Chemistry. 
 It is only another mode of exciting electrical action. In elec- 
 tricity the effects are produced chiefly by mechanical action ; 
 but the effects of Galvanism are produced by the chemical 
 action of bodies upon each other. If we take a piece of zinc, 
 and place it under the tongue, and lay a piece of silver, as big 
 as a half-crown, above it ; by bringing the outer edges of these 
 pieces in contact, we shall immediately experience a peculiar 
 and disagreeable taste, hke that of copper. The same thing 
 may be noticed with a guinea and a piece of charcoal. If a 
 person, in the dark, put a slip of tinfoil upon one of his eyes, 
 and a piece of silver in his mouth, by causing these pieces to 
 communicate, a faint flash will appear before his eyes. If a 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 211 
 
 living frog or a fish, having a slip of tinfoil pasted upon its 
 back, be placed upon a piece of zinc, by forming a communi- 
 cation between the zinc and tinfoil, the spasms of the muscles 
 are excited. These and similar effects are produced by that 
 modification of electricity which has been termed Galvanism. 
 Three different conductors, or what is called a galvanic circle, 
 are requisite to produce such effects A piece of copper, a 
 piece of flannel, moistened with water or acid, and a piece of 
 zinc, laid upon one another, form a circle ; and if this circle 
 be repeated a number of times, a galvanic pile or battery may 
 be formed capable of giving a powerful shock. The most 
 common and convenient form, however, of a battery, is found 
 to be a trough of baked wood, three or four inches deep and 
 as many wide. In the sides are grooves, opposite to each 
 other, into each of which is placed a double metallic plate, of 
 zinc and copper soldered together, and the cells are then filled 
 either with salt and water, or with a solution of nitrous acid 
 and water. 
 
 By means of the galvanic agency, a variety of surprising 
 effects have been produced. Gunpowder, cotton, and other 
 inflammable substances, have been inflamed — charcoal has 
 been made to burn, with a most brilliant and beautiful white 
 flame — water has been decomposed into its elementary parts 
 — metals have been melted and set on fire — fragments of 
 diamond, charcoal, and plumbago, have been dispersed, as if 
 they had been evaporated — platina, the hardest and heaviest of 
 the metals, has been melted as readily as wax in the flame of 
 a candle — the sapphire, quartz, magnesia, lime, and the firmest 
 compounds in nature, have been made to enter into fusion. — 
 Its effects on the animal system are no less surprising. When 
 applied to a fowl or a rabbit, inmiediately after life is extinct, 
 it produces the most strange and violent convulsions on the 
 nervous and muscular system, as if the vital functions were 
 again revived ; and when applied to the human body after 
 death, the stimulus has produced the most horrible contortions 
 and grimaces in the muscles of the head and face ; and the 
 most rapid movements in the hands and feet. 
 
 The galvanic agency enables us to account for the follow- 
 ing among other facts : — Why porter has a different and more 
 pleasant taste, when drunk out of a pewter vessel, than out of 
 glass or earthen ware, — why a silver spoon is discolored when 
 used in eating eggs, — why the limbs of people, under amputa- 
 tion, are sometimes convulsed by the application of the instru- 
 ments, — why pure mercury is oxydized when amalgamated 
 with tin, — why works of metal, which are soldered together, 
 
212 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 soon tarnish in the places where the metals are joined, — and 
 why the copper sheathing of ships, when fastened with iron 
 nails, are soon corroded about the place of contact. In all 
 these cases a galvanic circle is formed, which produces the 
 effects. We have reason to believe, that, in combination with 
 the discoveries which modern chemistry is daily unfolding, the 
 agencies of this fluid will enable us to carry the arts forward 
 towards perfection, and to trace the secret causes of some of 
 the sublimest phenomena of nature. 
 
 VIII. Magnetism. — This department of philosophy de- 
 scribes the phenomena, and the properties of the loadstone, or 
 natural magnet. The natural magnet is a hard dark-colored 
 mineral body, and is usually found in iron mines. The follow- 
 ing are some of its characteristic properties : — 1. It attracts 
 iron and steel, and all substances which contain iron in its 
 metallic state. 2. If a magnet be suspended by a thread, or 
 nicely poised on a pivot, or placed on a piece of wood, and 
 set to float in a basin of water, one end will constantly point 
 nearly towards the north pole of the earth, and the other 
 towards the south ; and, hence, these parts of the magnet have 
 been called the Jiorth and south jjoles. 3. When the north 
 pole of one magnet is presented near to the south pole of 
 another, they will attract each other ; but if the north pole of 
 one be presented to the north pole of another, or a south pole 
 to a south, they will repel each other. 4. A magnet placed in 
 such a manner as to be entirely at liberty, inclines one of its 
 poles to the horizon, and of course elevates the other above it. 
 This property is called the dipping of the magnet. 5. Mag- 
 nets do not point directly north and south ; but in different 
 parts of the world with a different declination eastward or west- 
 ward of the north ; it is also different at the same place at 
 different times. In London, and in most places of Great 
 Britain, the magnetic needle, at present, points about 24 
 degrees to the west of the north. For more than 160 years 
 it has been gradually declining from the north to the west ; but 
 seems of late to have begun its declination to the eastward. 
 6. Any magnet may be made to communicate the properties 
 now mentioned, to any piece of iron or steel. For example, 
 by gently rubbing a penknife with a magnet, it will be immedi- 
 ately invested with the property of attracting needles, or small 
 pieces of iron or steel. 7. Heat weakens the power of a 
 magnet, and the gradual addition of weight increases the mag- 
 netic power. 8. The properties of the magnet are not affected 
 either by the presence or the absence of air ; and the magnetic 
 attraction is not in the least diminished by the interposition of 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHr. 21S 
 
 any bodies except iron. A magnet will equally affect the 
 needle of a pocket compass, when a thick board is placed 
 between them as when it is removed. — It has been lately dis- 
 covered, that the violet rays of the solar spectrum, when con- 
 densed with a convex glass, and made to pass along a piece 
 of steel, have the power of communicating to it the magnetic 
 virtue. 
 
 The cause which produces these singular properties of the 
 magnet, has hitherto remained a mystery ; but the knowledge 
 of the polarity of the magnet has been applied to a most im- 
 portant practical purpose. By means of it, man has now 
 acquired the dominion of the ocean, and has learned to trace 
 his course through the pathless deep to every region of the 
 globe. There can be little doubt that magnetism has an inti- 
 mate connexion with electricity, galvanism, light, heat, and 
 chemical action ; and the discoveries which have been lately 
 made, and the experiments which are now making by Mori- 
 chini. Oersted, Abraham, Hansteen, Barlow, Beaufoy, and 
 Scoresby, promise to throw some light on this mysterious 
 agent, and on the phenomena of nature with which it is con- 
 nected. 
 
 Such is a faint outline of some of the interesting subjects 
 whicn Natural Philosophy embraces. Its relation to Religion 
 will appear from the following considerations : — 
 
 1. Its researches have led to the invention of machines, 
 engines, and instruments of various kinds, which augment the 
 energies, increase the comforts, and promote the general 
 improvement of mankind ; and these objects are inseparably 
 connected with the propagation of Christianity through the 
 world. If we admit, that, in future ages, the religion of the 
 Bible \vill shed its benign influence over all nations — that the 
 external condition of the human race will then be prosperous 
 and greatly meliorated beyond what it has ever been — and, 
 that no miraculous interposition of Deity is to be expected to 
 bring about such desirable events — it will follow, that such 
 objects can be accomplished only in the ordinary course of 
 Providence, by rational investigations into the principles and 
 powers of Nature, and the application of the inventions of 
 science to the great objects of religion, and of human improve- 
 ment, as I shall endeavour briefly to illustrate in the following 
 chapter. As the destructive eflfects of many physical agents, 
 in the present constitution of our globe, are, doubtless, a con- 
 sequence of the sin and depravity of man ; we have reason 
 to beheve that, when the economy of nature shall be more 
 extensively and minutely investigated, and the minds of men 
 
 18* 
 
214 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 directed to apply their discoveries to philanthropic and religious 
 objects, they will be enabled to counteract, in a great measure, 
 those devastations and tatal effects which are now produced 
 by several of the powers of nature. The general happiness 
 of all ranks, which will be connected with the universal exten- 
 sion of Christianity, necessarily supposes, that this object will 
 be accomplished ; for, were a dread of destruction from the 
 elements of nature frequently to agitate the mind, as at present, 
 no permanent tranquillity would be enjoyed ; nor w^ould that 
 ancient prediction, in reference to this era, receive its full 
 accomplishment, that "there shall be nothing to hurt 07^ destroy 
 in all God's holy mountain, when the earth shall be full of the 
 knowledge of the Lord." And since miraculous interpositions 
 are not to be expected, to what quarter can we look for those 
 subordinate agencies by which this object is to be effected, 
 but to the discoveries and inventions of philosophical science ] 
 Science has already enabled us to remedy many of those 
 evils which are the accidental effects of the operation of physi- 
 cal agents. For example — the discoveries of the philosopher, 
 with respect to the nature of the electric fluid, have enabled 
 us to construct conductors for preserving buildings from the 
 stroke oUightning : and we have every reason to hope, that, 
 in the progress of electric, galvanic, and chemical science, 
 more complete thunder guards, applicable to all the situations 
 in which a person may be exposed, vvill be invented. Nay, 
 our increasing knowledge of the electric fluid, and of the che- 
 mical agents which concur in its operation, may enable us to 
 dissipate thunder-storms altogether, by disturbing the electri- 
 city of the clouds by means of a series of elevated artificial 
 conductors. This is not only possible, but has already been 
 in some degree effected. The celebrated Euler imforms us, 
 in his " Letters to a German Princess,'^ that he corresponded 
 with a Moravian priest, named Divisch, who assured him, 
 " that he had averted, during a whole summer, every thunder- 
 storm which threatened his own habitation and the neighbour- 
 hood, by means of a machine constructed ^n the principles of 
 electricity — that the machinery sensibly attracted the clouds, 
 and constrained them to descend quietly in a distillation, with- 
 out any but a very distant thunder clap." Euler assures us 
 that " the fact is undoubted, and confirmed by irresistable 
 proof." Yea, not only may the destructive effects of hghtning 
 be averted by the inventions of philosophy, but it.* agency may 
 be rendered subservient to human industry, and made to act 
 as a mechanical power. This effect, too, has been partially 
 accomplished. About the year 181 1, in the viffage of Philips- 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHT. 215 
 
 thai, in Eastern Prussia, an attempt was made to split an im- 
 mense stone into a multitude of pieces, by means of lightning. 
 A bar of iron, in the form of a conductor, was previously fixed 
 to the stone, and the experiment was attended with ihe most 
 complete success ; for, during the very first thunder-storm, 
 the lightning burst the stone without displacing it.* 
 
 It is, therefore, probable, that in the future ages of the world, 
 this terrific meteor, and other destructive agents, which now 
 produce so much alarm, and so many disastrous eflfects, may, 
 by the aid of philosophy, be brought under the control of man, 
 and be made to minister to his enjoyment. 
 
 The electric fluid has also been, in many instances, success- 
 fully applied in curing palsies, rheumatisms, spasms, obstruc- 
 tions, and inflammation ; and it is known to have a peculiar eflect 
 on the nervous system. Lightning has been known to restore 
 the blind to a temporary enjoyment of sight. Mr. Campbell 
 of Succoth, in Dumbartonshire, who had been blind for seve- 
 ral years, was led by his servant one evening through the 
 streets of Glasgow, during a terrible thunder-storm. The 
 lightning sometimes fluttered along the streets for a quarter of 
 a minute without ceasing. While this fluttering lasted, Mr. 
 C. saw the street distinctly, and the changes which had been 
 made in that part by taking down one of the city gates. When 
 the storm was over, his entire blindnes^ returned. — A still 
 more remarkable instance is stated, along with this, under the 
 article Thunder, in Dr. Gleig's Supp. to Ency. Brit, which was 
 written by the late Professor Rol3inson. It is also possible 
 that barren deserts might be enriched with fertility, and im- 
 mense portions of the desolate wastes of our globe prepared 
 for the support and accommodation of human beings, by ar- 
 resting the clouds, and drawing down their electrical virtue and 
 their watery treasures by means of an extended series of ele- 
 vated metallic conductors. What has been now stated is only 
 one instance, out of many, which might be adduced, of the 
 extensive and beneficial eflfects which may be produced, in 
 future ages, by the application of the discoveries of natural 
 science. 
 
 2. A knowledge of Natural Philosophy enables us to detect 
 pretended miracles, and to discriminate between those pheno- 
 mena which are produced by the powers of nature, and the 
 supposed effects of diabolical influence. It has been chiefly 
 owing to ignorance of the principles of natural science, that 
 mankind, in all ages, have been so easily imposed upon by pre- 
 
 * See Monthly Magazine, vol. 32, p. 162. 
 
216 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 tenders to supernatural powers. It is owing to the same 
 cause, that superstitious notions and vain alarms have spread 
 their influence so extensively among the lower ranks of the 
 population of every country. The pretended miracles by 
 which Pagan and Popish Priests endeavour to support the 
 authority of their respective religious systems, and every 
 species of degrading superstition, vanish into smoke, when 
 examined by the light of modern science ; and there can be no 
 question that an enlightened Missionary would, in many in- 
 stances, find the principles and the instruments of natural 
 philosophy important auxiliaries in undermining the fabric of 
 heathen idolatry and priestcraft. They tend to dissipate a 
 thousand idle terrors which haunt and agitate the human mind ; 
 to detect a thousand kinds of imposture by which it has been 
 held in cruel bondage ; and to prevent the perpetration of those 
 deeds of cruelty which have uniformly marked the reign of Su- 
 perstition.* Had our forefathers connected a knowledge of 
 this subject with their study of the Scriptures, they would not 
 have brought upon themselves that indelible disgrace which 
 now attaches to their memories, on account of their having 
 condemned and burned at the stake hundreds of unhappy wo- 
 men, accused of crimes of which they could not possibly have 
 been guilty. In New-England, towards the close of the 17th 
 century, the witchcraft phrensy rose so high, that the execu- 
 tion of witches became a calamity more dreadful than the 
 sword or the pestilence. Not only old women, but children of 
 ten years were put to death ; young girls were stripped naked, 
 and the marks of witchcraft searched for upon their bodies 
 with the most indecent curiosity ; and those spots of the 
 scurvy which age impresses upon the bodies of old men, were 
 taken for evident signs of infernal power. So that ignorance 
 of the laws and phenomena of nature has led even Christians 
 
 * Mr. Douglas, in his " Hints on Missions," formerly referred to, when 
 speaking of the faciUties which Christians now possess for extensive mis- 
 sionary exertions, suggests, that Natural Philosopliy might be an import- 
 ant auxiUary to Christian Missionaries. " All the ancient ' war weapons 
 of victory,' excepting miracles, are at their disposal ; and new instruments 
 of still greater potency, which the science of the latter days has been accu- 
 mulating for a universal revolution of the mind, are ready to be brought 
 into action, upon a scale of overpowering magnitude. Even the single re- 
 source which is lost may yet be recompensed by equivalents, and a substi- 
 tute, in many respects, may be found for miracles. The first effect of a 
 miracle is, to rouse the attention, and to overawe opposing prejudices ; 
 the second to afford a proof of the religion of which it is a sealing accom- 
 paniment. The first object might be gained by the natural magic of experi- 
 mental Philosophy : and as to the second, the difference in the proof from 
 miracles, Hes rather in its being more circuitous, than in its being less con- 
 clusive at the present day, than in the times of the Apostles." 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 217 
 
 to commit acts of injustice and horrid cruelty. For, let it be 
 remembered, that it was Christian magistrates and ministers, 
 under a pretended zeal for the honor of God, who sanctioned 
 such cruel and unrighteous decrees. This consideration, 
 viewed in connection with many others, tends to show, that 
 the Christian revelation, considered abstractly by itself, with- 
 out a reference to the visible system of the universe, is not 
 sufficient for all the purposes for which it was intended ; as, 
 on the other hand, the study of the works of nature is not suffi- 
 cient of itself to lead the mind to the true knowledge of God, 
 without the aid of the discoveries derived from the sacred ora- 
 cles. For, although the Bible has been in the hands of Pro- 
 testant Christians ever since the reformation, yet it is only 
 since the light of modern science began to diffiise its influence, 
 that the superstitions of the dark ages, and the vulgar notions 
 respecting witchcraft, necromancy, and other species of infer- 
 nal agency, began to vanish, even from the minds of Christian 
 teachers ; as is evident from the writing of many eminent 
 divines who flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries. 
 As the two revelations which God has given us throw a mutual 
 lustre on each other ; the one must always be considered as 
 incomplete without the other. Both are necessary in order 
 " to made the man of God perfect," and to enable him to pro- 
 secute, with inteUigence and success, the great objects of re- 
 ligion ; and the Christian minister who affects to despise the 
 aids of science in the cause of religion, has yet much to learn 
 with respect to some of the grand bearings of the Christian 
 system. 
 
 3. The investigations of natural philosophy unfold to us the 
 incessant agency of God, and the plans by which his wise and 
 benevolent designs in the system of nature are accomplished. 
 From the immeasurable globes of heaven, down to the mi- 
 nutest atoms, we perceive a regular chain of causes and ef- 
 fects, conspiring, in a thousand different modes, to accomplish 
 the purposes of infinite wisdom and goodness. The operation 
 of central forces, and of the law of gravitation on the earth 
 and in the heavens — the hydrostatical laws which regulate the 
 pressure and the motion of fluids — the chemical properties ot 
 the atmosphere, its undulatory, refractive, and reflective pow- 
 ers — the motion of the rays of light, and the infinite variety of 
 effects they produce — the process of evaporation — the agen- 
 cies of electricity and galvanism — the properties of the mag- 
 net, and the chemical action of acids and alkalies, and of the 
 minutest particles of matter upon each other — ought to be 
 viewed as so many modifications of the agency of Deity, and 
 
218 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 as manifestations of his Wisdom, in carrying forward those 
 plans which regard the interests of his universal kingdom ; 
 just as we consider the rise and fall of empires, the revolutions 
 of nations, and the circulation of the Scriptures in heathen 
 lands, as so many acts of his moral administration as the 
 Governor of mankind. For let it be carefully remembered, 
 that all these physical agencies have ultimately a moral and 
 intellectual bearing ; and are essentially connected with every 
 other part of God's providential procedure. Though we may 
 be apt to consider them as so many detached and insulated 
 pieces of machinery, with which we have little concern, or 
 may even disdain to notice their mode of operation ; yet, in the 
 All-comprehensive mind of Him who takes in, at one glance, 
 the whole chain of causes and effects, they are as essentially 
 connected with his ultimate purposes, and the eternal destiny 
 of man, as are the revelations of his word. — Were a single 
 principle or motion which now animates the system of nature 
 to cease — were the agencies of electricity, for example, or the 
 principle\)f evaporation to be destroyed — the physical consti- 
 tution of our globe would instantly be deranged ; nature would 
 be thrown into confusion ; and the sentient and intellectual 
 beings that now inhabit the earth would either be destroyed, or 
 plunged into an abyss of misery. If, therefore, we admit that 
 the moral agency of God is worthy of our contemplation, we 
 ought to consider his physical operations also as no less worthy 
 of our study and investigation ; since they form the ground- 
 work of all his other manifestations. 
 
 There is nothing, however, which so strikingly characterizes 
 the bulk of mankind, and even the great mass of the Christian 
 world, as that apathy and indifference with which they view 
 the wonders of creation which surround them. They can 
 look on all that is grand, and beautiful, and beneficent in na- 
 ture, without feeling the least sentiment of admiration, or of 
 gratitude to that Being who is incessantly operating within 
 them and around them ; and they are disposed to consider the 
 experiments of philosophers, by which the wonderful agency 
 of God is unveiled, as only so many toys and amusements for 
 the entertainment of children. They would prefer the paltry 
 entertainments of a card-table, of a ball-room, or of a gossiping 
 party, to the inspection of the nicest pieces of Divine mechan- 
 ism, and to the contemplation of the most august scene in na- 
 ture. However lightly some religionists may be disposed to 
 treat this subject, that spirit of indifference with which the 
 visible works of God are treated, must be considered as flow- 
 ing from the same depraved principle, which leads multitudes 
 
CHEMISTRY. 219 
 
 to reject the revelations of the Bible, and to trifle with their 
 everlasting interests. " Man," says RolHn, " lives in the 
 midst of a world of which he is the sovereign, as a stranger, 
 who looks with indifference upon all that passes in it, and as if 
 it was not his concern. The universe, in all its parts, declares 
 and points out its Author ; but, for the most part, to the deaf 
 and bhnd, who have neither ears to hear, nor eyes to see. 
 One of the greatest services that philosophy can do us, is to 
 awaken us from this drowsiness, and rouse us from this le- 
 thargy, which is a dishonor to humanity, and in a manner 
 reduces us below the beasts, whose stupidity is the conse- 
 quence of their nature, and not the effect of neglect or indif- 
 ference. It awakens our curiosity, it excites our attention, 
 and leads us as it were by the hand, through all the parts of 
 nature, to induce us to study and search out the wonderful 
 works of it." — Belles Lettres, vol. 4. 
 
 Since, therefore, the science of natural philosophy is con- 
 versant about the works of the Almighty, and its investigations 
 have a direct tendency to illustrate the perfections of his 
 nature, to unveil the plan of his operations, to unfold the laws 
 by which he governs the kingdom of universal nature, and to 
 display the order, symmetry, and proportion, which reign 
 throughout the whole — it would be needless to enter into any 
 further process of reasoning, to show that the study of it is 
 connected with the great objects of religion. Whatever 
 studies tend to raise our minds to the Supreme Ruler of all 
 worlds — to expand our views pf his infinite knowledge and 
 wisdom, to excite our gratitude and our admiration of the 
 beneficent designs which appear in all his arrangements — to 
 guard us against erroneous conceptions of his providential 
 procedure — and to furnish us with important auxiliaries for 
 extending the influence of his religion through the world — 
 must always be interesting to every Christian who wishes to 
 enlarge his intellectual views, and to make progress in the 
 knowledge of God. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 This science, which is intimately related to the preceding, 
 has for its object to ascertain the ingredients, or first princi- 
 ples, of which all matter is composed — to examine the com- 
 pounds formed by the combination of these ingredients — to 
 investigate those changes in natural bodies, which are not ac- 
 companied with sensible motion, and the nature of the power 
 which produces these combinations and changes. 
 
 Within the limits of the last half century, the empire of 
 
220 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 Chemistry has been wonderfully extended. From an obscure 
 and humble place among the objects of study, it has risen to a 
 high and dignified station among those sciences which improve 
 and adorn the human mind. No longer confined to the paltry 
 and mercenary object of searching for the philosopher's stone, 
 or of furnishing a little amusement, it now extends its sway 
 over all the arts which minister to the comfort and improve- 
 ment of social life, and over every species of animate and 
 inanimate matter, within the range of human investigation. 
 " The forms and appearances," (says Sir Humphry Davy,) 
 " of the beings and substances of the external world, are 
 almost infinitely various, and they are in a state of continued 
 alteration. Even the earth itself, throughout its whole sur- 
 face, undergoes modifications. Acted on by moisture and 
 air, it affords the food of plants ; an immense number of vege- 
 table productions arise from apparently the same materials ; 
 these become the substance of animals ; one species of ani- 
 mal matter is converted into another ; the most perfect and 
 beautiful of the forms of organized life ultimately decay, and 
 are resolved into inorganic aggregates ; and the same elemen- 
 tary substances, differently arranged, are contained in the inert 
 soil ; or bloom, and emit fragrance in the flower ; or become, 
 in animals, the active organs of mind and intelligence. In 
 artificial operations, changes of the same order occur : sub- 
 stances having the characters of earth, are converted into 
 metals ; clays and sands are united, so as to become porce- 
 lain ; earths and alkalies are combined into glass ; acrid and 
 corrosive matters are formed from tasteless substances ; 
 colors are fixed upon stuffs ; or changed, or made to disap- 
 pear ; and the productions of the vegetable, mineral, and ani- 
 mal kingdoms, are converted into new forms, and made sub- 
 servient to the purposes of civilized life. — To trace, in detail, 
 these diversified and complicated phenomena ; to arrange 
 them, and deduce general laws from their analogies, is the 
 business of chemistry." — Elements of Chemical Philosophy. 
 
 Chemists have arranged the general forms of matter into 
 the four following classes. The first class consists of Solids, 
 which form the principal parts of the globe, and which differ 
 from each other in hardness, color, opacity, transparency, 
 density, and other properties. The second class consists of 
 Fluids, such as water, oils, spirits, &c., whose parts possess 
 freedom of motion, and require great mechanical force to 
 make them occupy a smaller space. The third class com 
 prebends Elastic Fluids, or Gases, which exist freely in the 
 atmosphere ; but may be confined by solids and fluids, and 
 
CHEMISTRY. 221 
 
 their properties examined. Their parts are highly moveable, 
 compressible, and expansive ; they are all transparent ; they 
 present two or three varieties of color ; and they differ greatly 
 in density. The fourth class comprehends Ethereal Sub- 
 stances, which are known to us only in their states of motion, 
 when acting upon our organs of sense, and which are not sus- 
 ceptible of being confined. Such are the raijs of light, and 
 radiant heat, which are incessantly in motion, throughout the 
 spaces that intervene between our globe, and the sun and the 
 stars. — Chemists divide the substances in nature also into 
 Simple and Compound. Simple Substances are those 
 which have never yet been decomposed, nor formed by art. 
 Compound Substances are those which are formed bv the 
 union of two or more simple substances. The following are 
 all the simple substances, ^ith which we are at present ac- 
 quainted : Caloric, Light, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, 
 Hydrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus, the Metals, and some 
 of the Earths. — All that I propose, under this article, is, 
 simply to state some of the properties of two or three of these 
 simple substances. 
 
 Caloric, or elementary fire, is the name now given by 
 chemists to that element or property, which, combined with 
 various bodies, produces the sensation oHieat, while it is pass- 
 ing from one body to another. This substance appears to 
 pervade the whole system of nature. There are six different 
 sources, from whence Caloric may be procured. It may be 
 produced by combustion, in which process the oxygen gas of 
 the atmosphere is decomposed, and caloric, one of its com- 
 ponent parts, set at liberty — hy friction, or the rubbing of two 
 substances against each other — by jjercussion, as the striking 
 of steel against a piece of flint — by the mixture of two or more 
 substances ; as when sulphuric acid is poured upon water or 
 magnesia — by electricity and galvanism. The discharge of 
 an electric or galvanic battery, will produce a more intense 
 degree of heat than any other means whatever. But the prin- 
 cipal, and probably the original source of caloric, is the Sun, 
 which furnishes the earth with a regular supply for the support 
 and nourishment of the animal and vegetable tribes. From 
 this source it moves at the rate of 195,000 miles in a second 
 of time ; for it has been already stated, that the sun sends 
 forth rays of heat, which are distinct from those which produce 
 illumination, and which accompany them in their course 
 through the ethereal regions. 
 
 Caloric is the cause of fluidity, in all substances which are 
 capable of becoming fluid. A certain portion, or dose of it, 
 
 19 
 
222 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 reduces a solid body to the state of an incompressible fluid ; 
 a larger portion brings it to the state of an aeriform or gaseous 
 fluid. Thus, a certain portion of caloric reduces ice to a state 
 of water ; a larger portion converts it into steam or vapor. 
 There is reason to believe, that the hardest rocks, the densest 
 metals, and every solid substance on the face of the earth 
 might be converted into a fluid, and even into a gas, were 
 they submitted to the action of a very high temperature. This 
 substance is called sensible caloric, when it produces the sen- 
 sation of heal ; and latent caloric, when it forms an insensible 
 part of the substance of bodies. — All bodies are, in a greatci 
 or less degree, conductors of caloric. Metals and liquids are 
 good conductors of heat, but silk, cotton, wool, wood, &c. are 
 bad conductors of it. For example, if we put a short poker 
 into the fire at one end, it will soon become hot at the other ; 
 but this will not happen with a piece of wood of the same 
 length, and under the same circumstances. A person with a 
 silken purse, containing metal coin, may stand so near the 
 fire, as to make the metal almost too hot to touch, though the 
 temperature of the purse wdl apparently be scarce altered. 
 If a hand be put upon a hot body, part of the caloric leaves 
 the hot body and enters the hand, producing the sensation of 
 heat. On the contrary, if a hand be put on a cold body, as a 
 piece of iron, or another cold hand, part of the caloric con- 
 tained in the hand, leaves it to unite with the colder body, pro- 
 ducing the sensation of cold. In short, caloric is diff"used 
 throughout all bodies, and enters into every operation in 
 nature ; and were it not for the influence of this subtile fluid, 
 there is reason to believe, that the whole matter of the universe 
 would be condensed into a solid mass. 
 
 Oxygen is a very pure, subtile, and elastic substance, 
 generally diflfused throughout nature ; but is never found unless 
 in combination with other substances. It is one of the most 
 important agents in nature ; there being scarcely a single pro- 
 cess, whether natural or artificial, in which oxygen has not 
 some important share. When combined with caloric, it is 
 called oxygen gas, which forms one of the constituent parts of 
 the atmosphere. In this state, it forms the principle of com- 
 bustion ; producing the most rapid deflagration of all com- 
 bustible substances. If a lighted taper be let down into a jar 
 of oxygen gas, it burns with such splendor, that the eye can 
 scarcely bear the glare of light ; and, at the same time, pro- 
 duces a much greater heat than when burning in common air. 
 If a steel wire, or a thin file, having a sharp point, armed with 
 a bit of wood in inflammation, be introduced into a jar filled 
 
CHEMISTRY. S23 
 
 with this gas, the steel will take fire, and its combustion will 
 continue producing a most brilliant phenomenon. It has 
 been proved, by numerous experiments, that this gas is so 
 essential to combustion, that no substance will burn in common 
 air, which has been previously deprived of its oxygen. It is 
 also essential to the support of animal life ; so that man, and 
 all the inferior ranks of animated nature, may be said to 
 depend upon tb'^ fluid for their existence. Its basis gives the 
 acid character to all mineral and vegetable salts : and the 
 calcination of metals is altogether effected by their union with 
 oxygen. It constitutes the basis both of the atmosphere 
 which surrounds the earth, and of the water which forms its 
 rivers, seas, and oceans. It pervades the substance of all the 
 vegetable tribes, and enables them to perform their functions ; 
 and, in combination with the different metals, serves the most 
 important purposes in the useful arts. In the operation of 
 this elementary principle, we perceive a striking display of the 
 agency of the Creator, and of the admirable means which his 
 wisdom has contrived lor preserving, in due order, the system 
 of nature. And, as this wonderful substance is so essentially 
 necessary to animal and vegetable existence, every tliing is so 
 arranged as to produce a regular supply of it, notwithstanding 
 its incessant changes, and the multifarious combinations into 
 which it is continually entering. 
 
 One of the most extraordinary effects of oxygen appears, 
 when it is combined in a certain proportion with nitrogen, so 
 as to form the gaseous oxide of nitrogen, or what is commonly 
 called nitrous oxide. This gas consists of 63 parts nitrogen, 
 and 37 oxygen, by weight. When inhaled into the lungs, it 
 produces an extraordinary elevation of the animal spirits, a 
 propensity to leaping and running, involuntary fits of laughter, 
 a rapid flow of vivid ideas, and a thousand delightful emotions ; 
 without being accompanied with any subsequent feehngs of 
 debility. This circumstance shows what a variety of delight- 
 ful or pernicious effects might flow from the slightest change 
 in the constitution of the atmosphere, were the hand of the 
 Almighty to interpose in altering the proportion of its consti- 
 tuent parts : for atmospheric air is composed of 79 parts of 
 nitrogen, and 21 of oxygen, which is not a very different pro- 
 portion from the above. Another gas called nitric oxide, com- 
 posed of 56 parts oxygen, and 44 nitrogen, produces instant 
 suffocation in all animals that attempt to breathe it. One of 
 the most corrosive acids, the nitrous acid, or aquafortis, is com- 
 posed of 75 parts oxygen, and 25 parts nitrogen ; so that we 
 are every moment breathing a certain substance, which, in 
 
224 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 another combination, would produce the most dreadful pain, 
 and cause our immediate destruction. What a striking proof 
 does this afford, of the infinite comprehension of the Divine 
 mind, in foreseeing all the consequences of the elements of 
 nature, and in directing their numerous combinations in such 
 a manner as to promote the happiness of animated beings ! 
 
 Nitrogen, or azote, is a substance generally diffused 
 throughout nature, and particularly in animated bodies. It is 
 not to be found in a solid or liquid state, but, combined with 
 caloric, it forms nitrogen gas, which is one of the ingredients 
 of the atmosphere. It is incapable of supporting either flame 
 or animal life. This is proved by introducing an animal, or a 
 burning candle, into a vessel full of this gas : in which case, 
 the animal is suddenly suffocated, and the candle instantly ex- 
 tinguished. It is this gas which is expelled from the lungs at 
 every respiration, and, rising over our heads, soon enters into 
 new comlDinations. Though it is destructive to animal life, it 
 appears to be favorable to plants, which vegetate freely when 
 surrounded with nitrogen. 
 
 Hydrogen is another elementary substance, abundant in 
 nature, and, when united to caloric, forms Hydrogen Gas. It 
 is one of the constituent parts of water ; for it has been com- 
 pletely demonstrated by experiment, that water is composed 
 of 85 parts by weight of oxygen, and 15 of hydrogen, in every 
 hundred parts of the fluid. This gas was formerly known by 
 tjie name of inflammable air. It is distinguished among miners, 
 by the name of fire-clamp ; it abounds in coal-mines, and some- 
 times produces the most tremendous explosions. It is inca- 
 pable, by itself, of supporting combustion, and cannot be 
 breathed without the most imminent danger. It is the chief 
 constituent of oils, fats, spirits, ether, coals, and bitumen ; and 
 is supposed to be one of the agents which produce the ignes 
 fatui and the northern lights. It is the lightest of all ponderable 
 bodies ; being from twelve to fifteen times lighter than com- 
 mon air. A hundred cubic inches of it weigh about 2| grains. 
 On account of its great levity it is used for filling air-balloons. 
 In contact with atmospheric air, it burns with a pale blue color. 
 >\ hen mixed with oxygen gas, it may be exploded like gun- 
 powder, with a violent report. Carburetted hydrogen gas, 
 which is carbon dissolved in hydrogen, is that beautiful gas, 
 which is now employed in lighting our streets, shops, and 
 manufactories. 
 
 Carbon is another simple substance extensively diffused 
 throughout nature. It is found pure and solid only in the dia- 
 mond; but it may be procured in the sto.te of c/iarcoa/, b^ 
 
CHEMISTRY. 223 
 
 burning a piece of wood closely covered \vith sand, in a cruci- 
 ble. Carbon enters into the composition of bitumen and pit 
 coal, and of most animal, and some mineral substances ; and it 
 forms nearly the whole of the solid basis of all vegetables, 
 from the most delicate flower to the stately oak. It is also a 
 component part of sugar, and of all Jvinds of wax, oils, gums, 
 and resins. It combines with iron in various proportions, and 
 the results are, cast iron and steel. Black lead is a composi- 
 tion of nine parts of carbon to one of iron ; and is, therefore, 
 called a carburet of iron. Carbon is indestructible by age, 
 preserves its identity in all the combinations into which it en- 
 ters. — Carbonic acid gas is a combination of carbon and 
 oxygen. It is found in a state of combination with lime, 
 forming hmestone, marble, and chalk ; and may be separated 
 from them by heat, or by means of the mineral acids. This 
 gas, which was formerly called ^j^ecZ aiV, is found in mines, 
 caves, the bottoms of wells, wine cellars, brewers' vats, and 
 in the neighborhood of lime-kilns. It is known to miners by 
 the name of the choJie-damp, and too frequently runs on deadly 
 errands. It extinguishes flame and animal life. It is the 
 heaviest of all the gases ; being nearly twice the weight of 
 common air, and twenty times the weight of hydrogen. It 
 may, therefore, be poured from one vessel to another ; and if 
 a small quantity of it be poured upon a lighted taper, it will be 
 instantly extinguished. It is a powerful antiseptic, or pre- 
 server from putrefaction. Meat which has been sealed up in 
 it (says Mr. Parkes) has been known to have preserved its 
 texture and appearance for more than 20 years. There is no 
 substance of more importance in civilized life than the differ- 
 ent forms of Carbon. " In nature," says Sir H. Davy, " this 
 element is constantly active in an imp rtant series of opera- 
 tions. It is evolved in fermentation and combustion, in car- 
 bonic acid ; it is separated from oxygen in the organs of plants; 
 it is a principal element in animal structures ; and is found in 
 diflerent forms in almost all the products of organized beings." 
 Sulphur is a substance which has been known from the 
 earliest ages. It was used by the ancients in medicine, and 
 its fumes have, for more than 2000 years, been employed in 
 bleaching wool. It is found combined with many mineral 
 substances, as arsenic, antimony, copper, and most of the 
 metallic ores. It exists in many mineral waters, and in com- 
 bination with vegetable and animal matters, but is most abun- 
 dant in volcanic countries, particularly in the neighborhood of 
 Vesuvius, Etna, and Hecla, in Iceland. It is a solid, opaque, 
 combustible substance, of a pale yellow color, very brittle, and 
 
 19* 
 
226 THE CimtStlAN PHILOSOPHEitV 
 
 almost without taste or smell. Its specific gravity is nearly 
 twice that of water ; it is a non-conductor of electricity, and, 
 of course, becomes electric by friction. When heated to the 
 temperature of 170° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, it rises up 
 in the form of a fine powder, which is easily collected in a 
 proper vessel and is named the flowers of sulphur. It is 
 insoluble in water, but may be dissolved in oils, in spirit 
 of wine, and in hydrogen gas. When sulphur is heated to the 
 temperature of 302° in the open air, it takes fire spontaneously, 
 and burns with a pale blue flame, and emits a gieat quantity of 
 fumes of a strong suffocating odour. Wlien heated to the 
 temperature of 570°, it burns with a bright white flame, and 
 emits a vast quantity of fumes. When these fumes are col- 
 lected, they are found to consist entirely ot sulphur ic acid ; so 
 that sulphur, by combustion, is converted into an acid. It is 
 the base of several compound substances. It unites with 
 oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, the alkahes, the 
 metals, and some of the earths. This substance is of great 
 importance in medicine, as it is found to penetrate to the ex- 
 tremities of the most minute vessels, and to impregnate all the 
 secretions. It is also used in the arts, particularly in bleach- 
 ing and dying ; it forms a very large proportion of gun-pow- 
 der ; and one of its most common, but not least useful proper- 
 ties, is that of its combustibility, by which, with the help of a 
 tinder-box, light is almost instantaneously produced. As this 
 substance has not yet been decomposed, it is considered by 
 chemists, in the mean time, as one of the simple substances. 
 
 Phosphorus is another simple combustible substance, but 
 is never found in a pure state in nature. It is commonly 
 united to oxygen in a state of phosphoric acid, which is found 
 in different animal, vegetable, and mineral substances. It 
 was first discovered by Brandt, a chemist of Hamburgh, in the 
 year 16G7, and afterwards by the Honorable Mr. Boyle, in 
 1679. It was formerly obtained by a disgusting process ; but 
 it is now extracted from the bones of animals, by burning them, 
 and then reducing them to a fine powder, and afterwards pour- 
 ing sulphuric acid upon them. This substance, when pure, 
 resembles bees' wax, being of a clear, transparent, yellowish 
 color ; it is insoluble in water ; it may be cut with a knife, or 
 twisted to pieces with the fingers ; and it is about double the 
 specific gravity of water. Its most remarkable property is its 
 very strong attraction for oxygen, from which circumstance, 
 it,burns spontaneously in the open air at the temperature of 
 43° ; that is, it attracts the oxygen gas from the atmosphere, 
 and heat and flame are produced. It gradually consumes 
 
CHEMISTRY. 227 
 
 when exposed to the common temperature of air, emits a 
 whitish smoke, and is luminous in the dark ; for this reason it 
 is kept in phials of water ; and as the heat of the hand is suf- 
 iicient to inflame it, it-should seldom be handled except under 
 water. At the temperature of 99° it melts ; it evaporates at 
 219°, and boils at 554°. When heated to 148° it takes fire, 
 and burns with a very bright flame, and gives out a very large 
 quantity of white smoke, which is luminous in the dark ; at 
 the same time it emits an odor, which has some resemblance 
 to that of garlic ; and this smoke, when collected, is proved 
 to be an acid. It burns with the greatest splendor in oxygen 
 gas, and when taken internally, it is found to be poisonous. 
 If any light substance, capable of conducting heat, be placed 
 upon the surface of boiling water, and a bit of phosphorus be laid 
 upon it, the heat of the water will be sufficient to set the phos- 
 phorus on fire. If we write a few words on paper with a bit 
 of phosphorus fixed in a quill, when the writing is carried into 
 a dark room it will appear beautifully luminous. If a piece of 
 phosphorus, about the size of a pea, be dropped into a tumbler 
 of hot water, and a stream of oxygen gas forced directly upon 
 it, it will display the most brilliant combustion under water 
 that can be imagined. All experiments with phosphorus, 
 however, require to be performed with great caution. This 
 substance is used in making phosphoric match-bottles, phos- 
 phoric oil, phosphoric tapers, and various phosphoric fire- 
 Works. Phosphorized hydrogen gas is produced by bits of 
 phophorus remaining some hours in hydrogen gas. It is sup- 
 posed to be this gas which is often seen hovering on the sur- 
 face of burial grounds and marshes, known in Scotland by the 
 name oi" spunkie^ and in England by that of will-o-the-wisp. 
 
 Some animals, as the gloiv-worm and the fir e-fy, and fish in 
 a putrescent state, exhibit phosphorescent qualities. M. Peron 
 describes a singular instance of this kind in an animal which 
 he calls the pyrosoma atlanticum^ which he observed in his 
 voyage from Europe to the Isle of France. The darkness 
 was intense when it was first discovered ; and all at once, 
 there appeared at some distance, as it were a vast sheet of 
 phosphorus floating on the waves, which occupied a great 
 space before the vessel. When the vessel had passed through 
 this inflamed part of the sea, it was found, that this prodigious 
 light was occasioned by an immense number of small animals, 
 which swam at different depths, and appeared to assume vari- 
 ous forms. Those which were deepest looked like great red 
 hot cannon balls, while those on the surface resembled cylin- 
 ders of red hot iron. Some of them were caught, and were 
 
223 THE CHRISTIAN PHlLOSOPHfiH. 
 
 found to vary in size from 3 to 7 inches. All the exterior 
 surface of the animal was bristled with thick long tubercles, 
 shining like so many diamonds ; and these seemed to be the 
 principal seat of its wonderful phosphorescence. 
 
 Such is a brief description of the principal elementary sub- 
 stances, which, in a thousand diversified forms, pervade the 
 system of nature, and produce all that variety which we behold 
 in the atmosphere, the waters, the earth, and the various pro- 
 cesses of the arts. It is probable that some of these sub- 
 stances are compounds, though they have not yet been 
 decomposed. Yea, it is possible, and not at all improbable, 
 that there are but two, or at most three elementary sub- 
 stances in nature, the various modifications of which produce 
 all the beauties and sublimities in the universe. Perhaps 
 caloric, oxygen, and hydrogen, may ultimately be found to 
 constitute all the elementaiy principles of nature. — Without 
 prosecuting this subject farther, I shall conclude this article 
 with a few cursory reflections, tending to illustrate its con- 
 nexion with religion. 
 
 The remarks which I have already thrown out in reference 
 to Natural Philosophy, will equally apply to the science of 
 Chemistry ; and, therefore, do not require to be repeated. In 
 addition to these, the following observations may be stated : — 
 
 1. This science displays, in a striking point of view, the 
 wisdom and goodness of God, in producing, by the most simple 
 means, the most astonishing and l>enevolent effects. All the 
 varied phenomena we perceive, throughout the whole system 
 of sublunary nature» are produced by a combination of six or 
 seven simple substances. I formerly adverted to the infinite 
 variety which exists in the vegetable kingdom, (see pp. 78 — 
 79.) About fifty-six thousand different species of plants have 
 already been discovered by botanists. All these, from the 
 humble shrub to the cedar of Lebanon, which adorn the sur- 
 face of the globe, in every clime, with such a diversity of 
 forms, shades, and colors, are the result of the combinations 
 of " four or five natural substances — caloric, light, water, air, 
 and carbon." " When we consider," says Mr. Parkes, " that 
 the many thousand tribes of vegetables are not only all formed 
 from a few simple substances, but that they all enjoy the same 
 sun, vegetate in the same medium, and are supplied with the 
 same nutriment, we cannot but be struck with the rich econo- 
 my of Nature, and are almost induced to doubt the evidence 
 of those senses with which the God of nature has furnished us. 
 That it should be possible so to modify and intermingle a few 
 simple substances, and thence produce all the variety of form^ 
 
CHEMISTRY. 229 
 
 color, odor, &c. which are observable in the different families 
 of vegetables, is a phenomenon too astonishing for our com- 
 prehension. Nothing short of Omnipotence could have 
 provided such a paradise for man." — Chemical Catechism, 
 chap. 9. 
 
 " Soft roll your incense, herbs, and frixits, and flowers, 
 
 In mingled clouds to Him, whose sun exalts, 
 
 Whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints." 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 What an admirable view is here opened up of the economy of 
 Divine wisdom, and of the beneficent care which has been 
 taken to secure the comfort and happiness of every living 
 creature : and how ungrateful a disposition must it indicate in 
 rational beings to overlook such benevolent arrangements ! 
 It is highly probable, that in all other worlds disposed through- 
 out the universe, an infinite diversity of scenery exists, and 
 that no one globe or system exactly resembles another ; and 
 yet, it is probable, that the primary elements of matter, or the 
 few simple substances of which our world is composed, may be 
 of the same nature as those which form the constituent parts of 
 every other system ; and may give birth to all the variety which 
 exists throughout the wide extent of creation, and to all the 
 changes and revolutions through which the difierent systems 
 may pass, during every period of infinite duration. 
 
 2. From this science we have every reason to conclude, 
 that matter is indestrcutible. In the various changes that take 
 place in material substances, the particles of matter are not 
 destroyed, but only assume new forms, and enter into new 
 combinations. When a piece of wood, for example, is burned 
 to ashes, none of its principles are destroyed ; the elementary 
 substances of which it was composed, are only separated from 
 one another, and formed into new compounds. Carbon, as 
 already stated, appears to be indestructible by age, and to pre- 
 serve its essential properties, in every mode of its existence. 
 That Being, indeed, who created matter at first, may reduce it 
 to nothing when he pleases ; but it is highly improbable that 
 his power will ever be interposed to produce this effect ; or that 
 any particle of matter which now exists, will ever be annihi- 
 lated, into whatever new or varied combinations it may enter. 
 W'hen any particular world, or assemblage of material exist- 
 ence, has remained in its original state for a certain period of 
 duration, and accomplished all the ends it was intended to 
 subserve, in that state, the materials of which it is composed, 
 will, in all probability, be employed for erecting a new system, 
 and establishing a new series of events, in which new scenes, 
 
230 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 and new beauties and sublimities will arise from new and vari- 
 ed combinations. For the Creator docs nothing in vain. 
 But to annihilate, and again to create, would be operating in 
 vain ; and we uniformly find, that in all the arrangements ot 
 Deity, in the present state of things, Nature is frugal and 
 economical in all her proceedings ; so that there is no process, 
 when thoroughly investigated, that appears unnecessary or su- 
 perfluous. 
 
 From the fact, that matter appears to be indestructible, we 
 may learn, that the Creator may, with the self-same materials 
 which now exist around us, new-model and arrange the globe 
 we inhabit, after the general conflagration, so as to make a 
 more glorious world to arise out of its ashes ; purified from 
 those physical evils which now exist ; and fitted for the ac- 
 commodation either of renovated men, or of other pure intel- 
 ligences. From the same fact, combined with the considera- 
 tion of the infinite diversity of effects which the simple 
 substances of nature are capjible of producing, we may be 
 enabled to form a conception of the ease with which the Crea- 
 tor may new-model our bodies, after they have been dissolved 
 in the dust ; and how, from the same original atoms, he may 
 construct and adorn them with more glorious forms, and more 
 delightful and exquisite senses than they now possess. 
 
 In short, the rapid progress which chemical science is now 
 making, promises, ere long, to introduce improvements among 
 the human race, which will expand their views of the agency of 
 God, counteract many physical evils, and promote, to an ex- 
 tent which has never yet been experienced, their social and 
 domestic enjoyment. The late discoveries of Chemistry tend 
 to convince us, that the properties and powers of natural sub- 
 stances are only beginning to be discovered. Who could 
 have imagined, a century ago, that an invisible substance is 
 contained in a piece of coal, capable of producing the most 
 beautiful and splendid illumination — that this substance may 
 be conveyed, in a few moments, through pipes of several miles 
 in length — and that a city, containing several hundred thou- 
 sands of inhabitants, maybe instantly lighted up by it, without 
 the aid of either wax, oil, or tallow I Who could have imagin- 
 ed, that one of the ingredients of the air we breathe is the 
 principle of combustion — that a rod of iron may be made to 
 burn in it with a brilliancy that dazzles the eyes — that a piece 
 of charcoal may be made to bm-n with a white and splendid 
 light, which is inferior only to the solar rays — and that the dia- 
 mond is nothing more than carbon in a crystallized state, and 
 differs only in a shght degree from a bit of common charcoal? 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 231 
 
 Who could have surmised, that a substance would be disco- 
 vered, of such a degree of levity, as would have power suth- 
 cieiit to buoy up a number of men to the upper parts of the 
 atmosphere, and enable them to swim, in safety, above the 
 regions of the clouds 1 These are only specimens of still more 
 brilliant discoveries which will, doubtless, be brought to light 
 by the researches of future generations. We have reason to 
 believe, that the investigations of this science will, in due time, 
 enable us to counteract most of the diseases incident to the 
 human frame ; and to prevent many of those fatal accidents to 
 which mankind are now exposed. Davy's safety lamp has al- 
 ready preserved many individuals from destruction, when 
 working in coal mines ; and thousands, in after ages, will be 
 indebted to this discovery, for security from the dreadful explo- 
 sions of hydrogen gas. And, we trust, that the period is not 
 far distant, when specific antidotes to the diseases peculiar to 
 the different trades and occupa,tions in which mankind are em- 
 ploved will be discovered ; and the health and vigour of the 
 mass of society be preserved unimpaired, amidst all the pro- 
 cesses in which they may be engaged. — In fine, the rapid pro- 
 gress of chemical discovery carries forward our views to a 
 period, when man, having thoroughly explored the powers of 
 nature, and subjected them, in some measure, to his control, 
 will be enabled to ward off most of those physical evils Avith 
 which he is now annoyed, and to raise himself, in some degree, 
 to the dignity and happiness he enjoyed before moral evil had 
 shed its baleful influence on our terrestrial system. Such a 
 period corresponds to many of the descriptions contained in 
 the Sacred Oracles of the millennial state of the church ; when 
 social, domestic, moral, and intellectual improvement shall be 
 carried to the utmost perfection which our sublunary station 
 will permit ; when wars shall cease ; when the knowledge of 
 Jehovah shall cover the earth ; when every man shall sit under 
 his vine and fig-tree, without being exposed to the least alarm ; 
 and when there shall be nothing to hurt nor destroy throughout 
 the church of the living God. And, therefore, we ought to 
 consider the various discoveries and improvements now going- 
 forward in this, and other departments of science as preparing 
 the way for the introduction of this long-expected and auspi- 
 cious era. 
 
 ANAT031Y AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 The general object of both these sciences is to investigate 
 and describe the structure and economy of the animal frame. 
 Anatomij dissects dead bodies, Physiology investigates the 
 
232 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 functions of those that are living. The former examines the 
 fluids, muscles, viscera, and all the other parts of the human 
 body, in a state of rest ; the latter considers them in a state of 
 action. 
 
 The parts of the human body have been distinguished into 
 two different kinds — soHds and fluids. The solid parts are 
 bones, cartilages, ligaments, muscles, teiidons, membranes, 
 nerves, arteries, veins, hair, nails, and ducts, or fine tubular 
 ' vessels of various kinds. Of these solid parts, the following • 
 compound organs consist ; the brain and cerebellum ; the 
 hmgs ; the heart ; the stomach ; the liver ; the spleen ; the 
 pancreas ; the glands ; the kidneys ; the intestines ; the mesen- 
 tery ; the larynx ; and the organs of sense — the eyes, ears, 
 nose, and tongue. The fluid parts are, the saliva, or spittle, 
 phlegm, serum, the chyle, blood, bile, milk, lympha, urine, the 
 pancreatic juice, and the aqueous humour of the eyes. The 
 human body is divided into three great cavities — the head ; 
 the thorax, or breast ; and the abdomen, or belly. The head 
 is formed of the bones of the cranium, and encloses the brain 
 and cerebellum. The thorax is composed of the vertebrae of 
 the back, the sternum, and true ribs ; and contains the heart, 
 the pericardium, the breast, and the lungs. The abdomen is 
 separated from the thorax by means of the diaphragm, which 
 is a fleshy and membranous substance, composed, for the most 
 part, of muscular fibres. This cavity is formed by the lumbar 
 vertebrae, the os sacrum, the ossa innominata, the false ribs, the 
 peritonaeum, and a variety of muscles. It encloses the stom- 
 ach, intestines, omentum, or caul, the liver, pancreas, spleen, 
 kidneys, and urinary bladder. — Without attempting any tech- 
 nical description of these different parts, which could convey 
 no accurate ideas to a general reader, I shall merely state 
 two or three facts in relation to the system of bones, muscles, 
 and blood-vessels, as specimens of the wonderful structure of 
 our bodily frame. 
 
 The Bones may be regarded as the prop-work or basis on 
 which the human body is constructed. They bear the same rela- 
 tion to the animal system, as the wood-work to a building. They 
 give shape and firmness to the body ; they support its various 
 parts, and prevent it from sinking by its own weight; they serve 
 as levers for the muscles to act upon, and to defend the brain, 
 the heart, the lungs, and other vital parts from external injury. 
 Of the bones, some are hollow, and filled with marrow; others 
 are solid throughout ; some are very small ; others very large; 
 some are round, and others //ai; some are plane, and others 
 conve.i' or concave ; — and all these several forms are re(iuisite 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 for the situations they occupy, and the respective functions 
 they have to perform. — The 5pme, or back-bone, consists of 
 24 vertebrae, or small bones, connected together by cartilages, 
 articulations, and ligaments ; of which 7 belong to the neck, 
 12 to the back, and 5 to the loins. In the centre of each ver- 
 tebra there is a hole for the lodgment and continuation of the 
 spinal marrow, which extends from the brain to the rump. — 
 From these vertebrae the arched bones called ribs proceed ; 
 and seven of them join the breast-bone on each side, where 
 they terminate in cartilages, and form the cavity of the thorax 
 or chest. The five lower ribs, with a number of muscles, 
 form the cavity of the abdomen, as above stated. The spine 
 is one of the most admirable mechanical contrivances in the 
 human frame. Had it consisted of only three or four bones, 
 or had the holes in each bone, not exactly corresponded, and 
 fitted into each other, the spinal marrow would have been 
 bruised, and life endangered at every bending of the body. — 
 The skull is composed of 10 bones, and about 51 are reckon- 
 ed to belong to the face, the orbits of the eyes, and the jaws 
 in which the teeth are fixed. There are seldom more than 16 
 teeth in each jaw, or 32 in all. — The number of bones in a 
 human body is generally estimated at about 245 ; of which 
 there are reckoned, in the skull, head, and face, 61 ; in the 
 trunk, 64 ; in the arms, and hands, 60 ; in the legs, and ket, 
 60. The bones are provided with ligaments or hinges, which 
 bind and fasten them together, and prevent them from being 
 displaced by any violent motion ; and, that the ligaments may 
 work smoothly into one another, the joints are separated by 
 cartilages or gristles, and provided with a gland for the secre- 
 tion of oil or mucus, which is constantly exuding into the joints ; 
 so that every requisite is provided by our Benevolent Creator, 
 to prevent pain, and to promote facility of motion. " In con- 
 sidering the joints," says Dr. Paley, " there is nothing, perhaps, 
 which ought to move our gratitude more than the reflection, 
 flow well they wear. A limb shall swing upon its hinge, or play 
 in its socket many hundred times in an hour, for 60 years to- 
 gether, without diminution of agiUty ; which is a long time tor 
 any thing to last ; for any thing so much worked as the joints 
 are." 
 
 The Muscular System. — A mttsc/e is a bundle of fleshy, 
 and sometimes of tendinous fibres. The fleshy fibres com- 
 pose the body of the muscle ; and the tendinous fibres the ex- 
 tremities. Some muscles are long and round ; some plain 
 and circular ; some are spiral, and some have straight fibres. 
 Some are double, having a tendon running through the body 
 
 20 
 
234 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 from head to tail ; some have two or more tendinous hranches 
 running through, with various rows and orders of fibres. All 
 these, and several other varieties, are essentially requisite foi 
 the respective offices they have to perform in the animal sys- 
 tem. The muscles constitute the fleshy part of the human 
 body, and give it that varied and beautiful form we observe over 
 all its surface. But their principal design is to serve as the 
 organs of motion. They are inserted, by strong tendinous 
 extremities, into the different bones of which the skeleton is 
 composed ; and, by their contraction and distention, give rise 
 to all the movements of the body. The muscles, therefore, 
 may be considered as so many cords attached 'to the bones ; 
 and the Author of Nature has fixed them according to the 
 most perfect principles of mechanism, so as to produce the 
 fittest motions in the parts for the movement of which they are 
 intended. 
 
 One of the most wonderful properties of the muscles is, the 
 extraordinarij force they exerf, although they are composed of 
 such slender threads or fibres. The following facts, in rela- 
 tion to this point, are demonstrated by the celebrated BoreUi, 
 in his work, " De Motu Animalium.''^ When a man lifts up 
 with his teeth a weight of 200 pounds, with a rope fastened to 
 the jaw-teeth, the muscles named Temporalis and JMassefer, 
 with which people chew, and which perform this work, exert a 
 force of above 15,0001bs. weight. If any one hanging his arm 
 directly downwards lifts a weight of 20 pounds, with the third 
 or last joint of his thumb, the muscle which bend the thumb 
 and bears that weight, exerts a force of about three thousand 
 pounds. When a man standing upon his feet, leaps or springs 
 upwards to the height of two feet, if the weight of such a man 
 be 150 pounds, the muscles employed in that action will exert 
 a force 2000 times greater ; that is to say, a force of about 
 three hundred thousand founds. The heart., at each pulse or 
 contraction, by which it protrudes the blood out of the arteries 
 into the veins, exerts a force of above a hundred thousand 
 pounds. Who can contemplate this amazing strength of the 
 muscular system, without admiration of the power and wisdom 
 of the Creator, who has thus endued a bundle of threads, each 
 of them smaller than a hair, with such an astonishing degree 
 of mechanical force ! There have been reckoned about 446 
 muscles in the human body, which have been dissected and 
 distinctly described ; every one of which is essential to the 
 performance of some one motion or other, which contributes 
 to our ease and enjoyment; and, in most instances, a great 
 number of them is required to perform their different functions 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 235 
 
 at the same time. It has been calculated, that about a hun- 
 dred muscles are employed eveiy time we breathe. — " Breath- 
 ing with ease," says Dr. Paley, " is a blessing of every mo- 
 ment ; yet, of all others, it is that which we possess with the 
 least consciousness. A man in an asthma is the only man 
 who knows how to estimate it." 
 
 The Heart and Blood-vessels. — The heart is a hollow 
 muscular organ, of a conical shape, and consists of four dis- 
 tinct cavities. The two largest are called ventricles^ and the 
 two smallest, auricles. The ventricles send out the blood to 
 the arteries ; the auricles receive it from the veins. The heart 
 is enclosed in the pericardium, a membranous bag, which con- 
 tains a quantity of water, or lymph. This water lubricates 
 the heart, and facilitates all its motions. The heart is the 
 general reservoir of the blood. When the heart contracts, the 
 blood is propelled from the right ventricle into the lungs, 
 through the pulmonary arteries, which, like all the other arte- 
 ries, are furnished with valves that play easily forward, but ad- 
 mit not the blood to return toward the heart. The blood, 
 after circulating through the lungs, and having there been re- 
 vivitied by coming in contact with the air, and imbibing a por- 
 tion of its oxygen, returns into the left auricle of the heart, by 
 the pulmonary vein. At the same mstant, the left ventricle 
 drives the blood into the aorta, a large artery which sends off 
 branches to supply the head and arms. Another large branch 
 of the aorta descends along the inside of the back-bone, and 
 detaches numerous ramifications to nourish the bowels, and 
 mferior extremities. After serving the most remote extremi- 
 ties of the body, the arteries are converted into veins, which, 
 in their return to the heart, gradually unite into larger branches, 
 till the whole terminate in one great trunk, called the vena 
 cava, which discharges itself into the right auricle of the 
 heart, and completes the circulation. Each ventricle of the 
 heart is reckoned to contain about one ounce, or two table- 
 spoonsfull of blood. The heart contracts 4000 times every 
 hour ; and, consequently, there passes through it 250 pounds 
 of blood in one hour. And if the mass of blood in a human 
 body be reckoned at an average of twenty-five pounds, it will 
 follow that the whole mass of blood passes through the heart, 
 and, consequently, through the thousands of ramifications of 
 the veins and arteries /our /ee>i times every hour, or, about once 
 every four minutes. We may acquire a rude idea of the force 
 with which the blood is impelled from the heart, by consider- 
 ing the velocity with which water issues from a syringe, or 
 tVom the pipe of a fire-engine. Could we behold these rapid 
 
236 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 motions incessantly going on within us, it would overpower 
 our minds with astonishment, and even with terror. We 
 should be apt to feel alarmed on making the smallest exertion, 
 lest the parts of this delicate machine should be broken or 
 deranged, and its functions interrupted. The arteries, into 
 which the blood is forced, branch in every direction through 
 the body, like the roots and branches of a tree ; running 
 through the substance " of the bones, and every part of the 
 animal frame, till they are lost in such fine tubes as to be 
 wholly invisible. In the parts where the arteries are lost to 
 the sight, the veins take their rise ; and in their commence- 
 ment, are also imperceptible. 
 
 Respiration. — The organs of respiration are the luiigs. 
 They are divided into five lobes ; three of which lie on the 
 right, and two on the left side of the thorax. The sub- 
 stance of the lungs is chiefly composed of infinite ramifica- 
 tions of the thrachea, or windpipe, which, after gradually be- 
 coming more and more minute, terminate in little cells, or 
 vesicles, which have a free communication with one another. 
 At each inspiration, these pipes and cells are filled with air, 
 which is again discharged by expiration. In this manner, a 
 circulation of air, which is necessary to the existence of men 
 and other animals, is constantly kept up as long as life re- 
 mains. The air cells of the lungs open into the windpipe, 
 by which they communicate with the external atmosphere. 
 The whole internal structure of the lungs is lined by a transpa- 
 rent membrane^ estimated at only the thousandth part of an 
 inch in thickness ; but whose surface, from its various con- 
 volutions, measures fifteen square feet, which is equal to the 
 external surface of the body. On this thin and extensive 
 membrane, innumerable veins and arteries are distributed, 
 some of them finer than hairs ; and through these vessels all 
 the blood of the system is successively propelled, by a most 
 curious and admirable mechanism. It has been computed, 
 that the lungs, on an average, contain about 280 cubic inches, 
 or about five English quarts of air. At each inspiration, about 
 forty cubic inches of air are received into the lungs, and the 
 same quantity discharged at each expiration. On the suppo- 
 sition, that 20 respirations take place in a minute, it will fol- 
 low, that, in one minute, we inhale 800 cubic inches ; in an 
 hour 48,000 ; and in a day, one million, one hundred and fifty- 
 two thousand cubic inches — a quantity which would fill se- 
 venty-seven wine hogsheads, and would weigh fifty-three 
 pounds troy. By means of this function, a vast body of air is 
 daily brought into contact with the mass of blood, and com.- 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 237 
 
 municates to it its vivifying influence ; and, therefore, it is of 
 the utmost importance to health, that the air, of which we 
 breathe so considerable a quantity, should be pure, and uncon- 
 taminated with noxious effluvia. 
 
 Digestion. — This process is performed by the stomach, 
 which is a membranous and muscular bag, furnished with two 
 orifices. By the one, it has a communication with the gullet, 
 and by the other, with the bowels. The food, after being 
 moistened by the saliva, is received into the stomach, where 
 it is still farther diluted by the gastric juice, which has the 
 power of dissolving every kind of animal and vegetable sub- 
 stance. Part of it is afterwards absorbed by the lymphatic 
 and lacteal vessels, and carried into the circulating system, 
 and converted into blood for supplying that nourishment which 
 the perpetual waste of our bodies demands. 
 
 Perspiration is the evacuation of the juices of the body 
 through the pores of the skin. It has been calculated that 
 there are above three hundred thousand millions of pores in the 
 glands of the skin which covers the body of a middle sized 
 man. Through these pores, more than one-half of what we 
 eat and drink passes otf by insensible perspiration. If we con- 
 sume eight pounds of food in a day, five pounds of it are in- 
 sensibly discharged by perspiration. During a night of seven 
 hours' sleep, we perspire about forty ounces, or two pounds 
 and a half. At an average, we may estimate the discharge 
 from the surface of the body, by sensible and insensible per- 
 spiration, at from half an ounce to four ounces an hour. This 
 is a most wonderftil part of the animal economy, and is abso- 
 lutely necessary to our health, and even to our very existence. 
 When partially obstructed, colds, rheumatisms, fevers, and 
 other inflammatory disorders, are produced ; and were it com- 
 pletely obstructed, the vital functions would be clogged and 
 impeded in their movements, and death would inevitably 
 ensue. 
 
 Sensation. — The nerves are generally considered as the 
 instruments of sensation. They are soft white cords which 
 proceed from the brain and spinal marrow. They come forth 
 originally by pairs. Ten pair proceed from the medullary 
 substance of the brain, which are distributed to all parts of the 
 head and neck. Thirty pair proceed from the spinal marrow, 
 through the vetebrte, to all the other parts of the body ; being 
 forty in all. These nerves, the ramifications of which are in- 
 finitely various and minute, are distributed upon the heart, 
 lungs, blood-vessels, bowels, and muscles, tifl they terminate 
 on the skin or external covering of the body. Impressions of 
 
 20* 
 
THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 external objects are received by the brain from the adjacent 
 organs of sense, and the brain exercises its commands over 
 the muscles and limbs by means of the nerves. 
 
 Without prosecuting these imperfect descriptions farther, I 
 shall conclude this very hasty sketch with the following sum- 
 mary of the parts of the body, in the words of Bonnet. — " The 
 bones, by their joints and solidity, form the foundation of this 
 fine machine : the ligaments are strings which unite the parts 
 together : the muscles are fleshy substances, which act as 
 elastic springs to put them in motion : the nerves, which are 
 dispersed over the whole body, connect all the parts together : 
 the arteries and veins, like rivulets, convey life and health 
 throughout : the heart, placed in the centre, is the focus where 
 the blood collects, or the acting power by means of which it 
 circulates and is preserved : the lungs, by means of another 
 power, draw in the external air, and expel hurtful vapors : the 
 stomach and intestines are the magazines where every thing 
 that is required for the daily supply is prepared : the brain, 
 that seat of the soul, is formed in a manner suitable to the 
 dignity of its inhabitant : the senses, which are the soul's mi- 
 nisters, warn it of all that is necessary either for its pleasure 
 or use.* Adorable Creator ! with what wonderful art hast 
 thou formed us ! Though the heavens did not exist to pro- 
 claim thy glory ; though there were no created being upon 
 earth but myself, my own body might suffice to convince me 
 that thou art a God of unlimited power and infinite goodness." 
 
 This subject suggests a variety of moral and religious re- 
 flections, but the hmits to which I am confined, will permit 
 me to state only the following : — 
 
 1. The economy of the human frame, when seriously con- 
 templated, has a tendency to excite admiration and astonish- 
 ment, and to impress us with a sense of our conthiual depend- 
 ence on a Superior Power. What an immense multiplicity of 
 machinery must be in action to enable us to breathe, to feel, 
 and to walk ! Hundreds of bones of diversified lorms, con- 
 nected together by various modes of articulation ; hundreds 
 of muscles to produce motion, each of them acting in at least 
 ton difierent capacities ; (seep. 83.) hundreds of tendons and 
 ligaments to connect the bones and muscles ; hundreds of 
 arteries to convey the blood to the remotest part of the sys- 
 tem : hundreds of veins to bring it back to its reservoir the 
 heart ; thousands of glands secreting humors of various kinds 
 from the blood ; thousands of lacteal and lymphatic tubes, 
 
 * Contemplation of Nature, vol. I. p. 64. 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 239 
 
 absorbing and conveying nutriment to the circulating fluid ; 
 millions of pores, through which the perspiration is continu- 
 ally issuing ; an infinity of ramifications of nerves, diffiising 
 sensation throughout all the parts of this exquisite machine ; 
 and the heart at every pulsation exerting a force of a hundred 
 thousand pounds, in order to preserve all this complicated 
 machinery in constant operation ! The whole of this vast 
 system of mechanism must be in action before we can walk 
 across our apartments ! We admire the operation of a steam- 
 engine, and the force it exerts. But, though it is constructed 
 of the hardest materials which the mines can supply, in a few 
 months some of its essential parts are worn and deranged, 
 even although its action should be frequently discontinued. 
 But the animal machine, though constructed, for the most part» 
 of the softest and most flabby substances, can go on without 
 intermission in all its diversified movements, by night and by 
 day, for the space of eighty or a hundred years ; the heart 
 giving ninety-six thousand strokes every twenty-four hours, 
 and the whole mass of blood rushing through a thousand pipes 
 of all sizes every four minutes ! And, is it man that governs 
 these nice and complicated movements ? Did he set the heart 
 in motion, or endue it with the muscular force it exerts 1 And 
 when it has ceased to beat, can he command it again to resume 
 its functioos ^ Man knows neither the secret springs of the 
 machinery within him, nor the half of the purposes for which 
 they serve, or of the movements they perform. Can any thing 
 more strikingly demonstrate our dependance every moment on 
 a Superior Agent, and that it is " in God we live and move, 
 and have our being ^" Were a single pin of the machinery 
 within us, and over which we have no control, either broken 
 or deranged, a thousand movements might instantly be inter- 
 rupted, and our bodies left to crumble into the dust. 
 
 It was considerations of this kind that led the celebrated 
 physician Galen, who was a sceptic in his youth, publicly to 
 acknowledge that a Supreme Intelligence must have operated 
 in ordaining the laws by which living beings are constructed. 
 And he wrote his excellent treatise " On the uses of the parts 
 of the human frame," as a solemn hymn to the Creator of the 
 world. " I first endeavor from His w orks," he says, " to know 
 him myself, and afterwards, by the same means, to show him to 
 others ; to inform them, how great is his wisdom, his good- 
 ness, his power." The late Dr. Hunter has observed, that 
 Astronomy and Anatomy are the studies which present us with 
 the most striking view of the two most wonderful attributes of 
 the Supreme Being. The first of these fills the mind with the 
 
240 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 idea of his immensity in the largeness, distances, and number 
 of the heavenly bodies ; the last astonishes us with his intel- 
 lifi^ence and art in the variety and delicacy of animal me- 
 chanism. 
 
 2. The study of the animal economy has a powerful ten- 
 dency to excite emotions of gratitude. Man is naturally a 
 thoughtless and ungrateful creature. These dispositions are 
 partly owing to ignorance of the wonders of the human frame, 
 and of the admirable economy of the visible world ; and this 
 io-norance is owing to the want of those specific instructions 
 which ought to be communicated by parents and teachers, in 
 connexion with religion. For, there is no rational being who 
 is acquainted with the structure of his animal system, and re- 
 flects upon it with the least degree of attention, but must feel 
 a sentiment of admiration and gratitude. The science which 
 unfolds to us the economy of our bodies, shows us, on what 
 an infinity of springs, and motions, and adaptations, our life 
 and comfort depend. And when we consider, that all these 
 movements are performed without the least care or laborious 
 effort on our part, if we be not altogether brutish, and insen- 
 sible of our dependance on a superior Power, we must be 
 filled with emotions of gratitude towards Him " whose hands 
 have made and fashioned us, and who giveth us life, and 
 breath, and all things." Some of the motions to which I have 
 adverted, depend upon our will ; and with what celerity do 
 they obey its commands ] Before we can rise from our chair, 
 and walk across our apartment, a hundred muscles must be 
 set in motion ; every one of these must be relaxed or con- 
 stricted, just to a certain degree, and no more ; and all must 
 act harmoniously at the same instant of time ; and, at the 
 command of the soul, all these movements are instantaneously 
 performed. When I wish to lift my hand to my head, every 
 part of the body requisite to produce the effect is put in mo- 
 tion : the nerves are braced, the muscles are stretched or re- 
 laxed, the bones play in their sockets, and the whole animal 
 machine concurs in the action, as if every nerve and muscle 
 had heard a sovereign and resistless call. When I wish the 
 next moment to extend my hand to my foot, all these muscles 
 are thrown into a different state, and a new set are brought 
 along with them into action : and thus we may vary, every 
 moment, the movements of the muscular system, and the 
 mechanical actions it produces, by a simple change in our 
 volition. Were we not daily accustomed to such varied and 
 voluntary movements, or could we contemplate them in any 
 other machine, we should be lost in wonder and astonishment. 
 
HISTORY. 241 
 
 Besides these voluntary motions, there are a thousand im- 
 portant functions which have no dependance upon our will. 
 Whether we think of it or not, whether we be sleeping or 
 waking, sitting or walking — the heart is incessantly exerting 
 its muscular power at the centre of the system, and sending 
 off streams of blood through hundreds of pipes ; the lungs are 
 continually expanding and contracting their thousand vesicles, 
 and imbibing the vital principle of the air ; the stomach is 
 grinding the food ; the lacteals and lymphatics are extracting 
 nourishment for the blood ; the liver and kidneys drawing oif 
 their secretions ; and the perspiration issuing from millions 
 of pores. These, and many other important functions with 
 which we are unacquainted, and over which we have no con- 
 trol, ought to be regarded as the immediate agency of the 
 Deity within us, and should excite our incessant admiration 
 and praise. 
 
 There is one peculiarity in the constitution of our anima. 
 system, which we are apt to overlook, and for which we are 
 never sufficiently grateful ; and that is, the j^oiver it possesses 
 of self-restoration. A wound heals up of itself: a broken 
 bone is made firm again by a callus ; and a dead part is sepa- 
 rated and thrown off. If all the wounds we have ever received 
 were still open and bleeding afresh, to what a miserable con- 
 dition should we be reduced 1 But by a system of internal 
 powers, beyond all human comprehension, as to the mode of 
 their operation, such dismal effects are effectually prevented. 
 In short, when we consider, that health depends upon such a 
 numerous assemblage of moving organs, and, that a single 
 spring out of action, might derange the whole machine, and 
 put a stop to all its complicated movements, can we refrain 
 from joining with the Psalmist, in his pious exclamation, and 
 grateful resolution, " IIow precious are thy wonderful contri- 
 vances concerning me, God ! how great is the sum of 
 them ! I will praise thee ; for I am fearfully and wonderfully 
 made. Marvellous are thy works, and that my soul knoweth 
 right well." 
 
 Omitting the consideration of several other departments of 
 science, I shall in the meantime, notice only another subject 
 connected with religion, and that is History. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 History embraces a record and description of past facts and 
 '^vents, in reference to all the nations and ages of the world, 
 \n so far as they are known, and have been transmitted to our 
 time. As Natural History contains a record of the operations 
 
242 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 of the Creator in the material world, so, sacred and civil his- 
 tory embraces a record of his transactions in the moral and 
 intellectual world, or, in other words, a detail of the plans and 
 operations of His Providence, in relation to the inhabitants of* 
 our globe. Through the medium of Sacred History, we learn 
 the period arid the manner of man's creation — the reason of 
 his fall from the primitive state of integrity in which he was 
 created, and the dismal consequences which ensued ; — the 
 various movements of Providence in order to his recovery, 
 and the means by which human Redemption was achieved ; — 
 the manner in which the Gospel was at first promuloated, the 
 countries into which it was carried, and the important effects 
 it produced. Through the medium of Civil History we learn 
 the deep and universal depravity of mankind, as exhibited in 
 the wars, dissensions, and ravages, which have desolated our 
 fallen race, in every period, and in every land ; — we learn the 
 desperate wickedness of the human heart, in the more private 
 acts of ferocity, cruelty, and injustice, which, in all ages, men 
 have perpetrated upon each other ; — we behold the Righteous- 
 ness of the Supreme Ruler of the world, and the equity of his 
 administration, in the judgments which have been inflicted on 
 wicked nations — and the improbability, nay, the impossibilUy 
 of men being ever restored to moral order and happiness, 
 without a more extensive diffusion of the blessings of the 
 Gospel of Peace, and a more cordial acquiescence in the 
 requirements of the Divine laws. 
 
 Such being some of the benefits to be derived from History, 
 it requires no additional arguments to show, that this branch 
 of knowledge should occasionally form a subject of study to 
 every intelligent Christian. But in order to render the study 
 of History subservient to the interests of Religion, it is not 
 enough merely to gratify our curiosity and imagination, by 
 following out a succession of memorable events, by tracing 
 the progress of armies and of battles, and listening to the 
 groans of the vanquished, and the shouts of conquerors. 
 This would be to study History merely as sceptics, as Athe- 
 ists, or as writers of novels. When we contemplate the 
 facts which the Historian presents to our view, we ought to 
 raise our eyes to Him who is the Governor among the nations, 
 " who doth according to his will in the armies of heaven, and 
 among the inhabitants of the earth," and who overrules the 
 jarring interests of mortals, for promoting the prosperity of 
 that Kingdom which shall never be moved. We should view 
 the immoral jjropensities and dispositions of mankind as por- 
 trayed in the page of history, as evidences of the depravity of 
 
HISTORY. 243 
 
 our species, and as excitements to propagate, with unremitting' 
 energy, the knowledge of that ReHgion, whose subhme doc- 
 trines and pure precepts alone can counteract the stream of 
 human corruption, and unite all nations in one harmonious 
 society. We should view the contests of nations, and the 
 results with which they are accompanied, as guided by that 
 Invisible Hand, which " mustereth the armies to the battle ;" 
 and should contemplate them either as the accomplishment of 
 Divine predictions, as the inflictions of retributive justice, as 
 paving the way for the introduction of rational liberty and 
 social happiness among men, or as ushering in that glorious 
 period, when " the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the 
 earth", and the nations shall learn war no more. 
 
 Thus I have taken a very cursory survey of some of those 
 sciences which stand in a near relation to the objects of Reli- 
 gion ; and which may, indeed^ be considered as forming so 
 many of its subordinate branches. There are many other 
 departments of knowledge which, at first view, do not seem to 
 have any relation to Theological science ; and yet, on a closer 
 inspection, will be found to be essentially connected with the 
 several subjects of which I have been treating. For example 
 — some may be apt to imagine that Arithmetic, Geometry, 
 Trigonometry, and other branches of Mathematics, can have 
 no relation to the leading objects of Religion. But if these 
 sciences had never been cultivated, the most important disco- 
 veries of astronomy, geography, natural philosophy, and che- 
 mistry, would never have been made ; ships could not have 
 been navigated across the ocean ; distant continents, and the 
 numerous "isles of the sea," would have remained unexplored, 
 and their inhabitants left to grope in the darkness of heathen- 
 ism ; and most of those instruments and engines by which the 
 condition of the human race will be gradually meliorated, and 
 the influence of Christianity extended, would never have been 
 invented. Such is the dependance of every branch of useful 
 knowledge upon another, that were any one portion of science, 
 which has a practical tendency, to be discarded, it would 
 prevent, to a certain degree, the improvement of every other. 
 And, consequently, if any one science can be shown to have 
 a connexion with religion, all the rest must likewise stand in a 
 certain relation to it. It must, therefore, have a pernicious 
 effect on the minds of the mass of the Christian world, when 
 preachers, in their sermons, endeavor to undervalue scientific 
 
244 THE CHRISTIAN PKILOSOniER. 
 
 knowledge, by attempting to contrast it with the doctrines of 
 Revelation. It would be just as reasonable to attempt to con- 
 trast the several doctrines, duties, and facts, recorded in the 
 New Testament with each other, in order to determine their 
 relative importance, and to show which of them might be 
 altogether overlooked and discarded. The series of facts and 
 of Divine revelations comprised in the Bible ; the moral and 
 political events which diversify the history of nations ; and the 
 physical operations that are going on among the rolling worlds 
 on high, and in the chemical changes of the invisible atoms 
 of matter, are all parts of one comprehensive system, under 
 the direction of the Eternal Mind ; every portion of which 
 must have a certain relation to the whole. 
 
 And, therefore, instead of attempting to degrade one part 
 of the Divine fabric in order to enhance another, our duty is 
 to take an expansive view of the whole, and to consider the 
 symmetry and proportion of its parts, and their mutual bear- 
 ings and relations — in so far as our opportunities, and the 
 limited faculties of our minds will permit. 
 
 If the remarks w^hich have been thrown out in this chapter, 
 respecting the connexion of the Sciences with Religion, have 
 any foundation, it will follow — that Sermons, Lectures, Sys- 
 tems of Divinity, and Religious Periodical works, should em- 
 brace occasional illustrations of such subjects, for the purpose 
 of expanding the conceptions of professed Christians, and of 
 enabling them to take large and comprehensive views of the 
 perfections of the providence of the Almighty. It is much 
 to be regretted, that so many members of the Christian Church 
 are absolute strangers to such studies and contemplations ; 
 while the time and attention that might have been devoted to 
 such exercises, have, in many cases, been usurped by the most 
 grovelling affections, by foolish pursuits, by gossiping chit- 
 chat, and slanderous conversation. Shall the most trifling and 
 absurd opinions of ancient and modern heretics be judged 
 worthy of attention, and occupy a place in Religious journals, 
 and even in discussions from the pulpit, and shall " the mighty 
 acts of the Lord," and the visible wonders of his power and 
 wisdom, be thrown completely into the shade ? To survey, 
 with an eye of intelligence, the wide-extended theatre of the 
 Divine operations — to inark the agency of the Eternal Mind 
 in every object we behold, and in every movement within us 
 and around us, are some of the noblest attainments of the 
 rational soul ; and, in conjunction with every other Christian 
 study and acquirement, are calculated to make " the man of 
 God perfect, and thoroughly furnished unto every good work." 
 
HISTORY. 245 
 
 By such studies, we are, in some measure, assimilated to the 
 angelic tribes, whose powers of intellect are for ever employed 
 in such investigations— and are gradually prepared forbearmg 
 a part in their immortal hymn—" Great and marvellous are 
 thy works, Lord God Almighty ; just and true are thy ways, 
 thou King of Saint?. Thou art worthy to receive glory, and 
 honor, and power ; for thou hast created all thmgs, and for 
 thy pleasure they are and were created." 
 
 Gl 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE RELATION WHICH THE INA^ENTIONS OF HUMAN 
 ART BEAR TO THE OBJECTS OF RELIGION. 
 
 In this chapter, I shall briefly notice a few philosophical 
 and mechancical inventions which have an obvious bearing 
 on Religion, and on the general propagation of Christianity 
 among the nations. 
 
 The first, and perhaps the most important of the inven- 
 tions to which I allude, is the Art or Printing. This art 
 appears to have been invented (at least in Europe) about the 
 year 1430, by one Laurentius, or Lawrence Koster, a native 
 of Haerlem, a town in Holland. As he was walking in a 
 wood near the city, he began to cut some letters upon the rind 
 of a beach tree, which, for the sake of gratifying his fancy, 
 being impressed on paper, he printed one or two lines as a 
 specimen for his grandchildren to follow. This having suc- 
 ceeded, he meditated greater things ; and first of all, invented 
 a more glutinous writing ink ; because he found the common 
 ink sunk and spread ; and thus formed whole pages of wood, 
 with letters cut upon them.* By the gradual improvement of 
 
 * I am aware, that the honor of this invention has been claimed by other 
 cities besides Haerlem, particularly by Strasburg, and Mentz, a city of Ger- 
 many ; and by other individuaiis besides Lam-entius, chiefly by one Fusl, 
 commonly called Dr. Faustus ; by Schoeffer, and by Gutenberg. It appears 
 that the art, with many of its implements, was stolen from Laurentius by 
 one of his servants, whom he had bound, by an oath, to secrecy, who fled 
 to Mentz, and first commenced the process of printing in that city. Here 
 the art was improved by Fust and Schoeffer, by their invention of metallic, 
 instead of icooden types, which were first used. When Fust was in Paris, 
 disposing of some Bibles he had printed, at the low price (as was then 
 thought) of sixty crowns, the number, and the uniformity of the copies he 
 possessed, created universal agitation and astonishment. Informations 
 were given to the Police against him as a magician, his lodgings were 
 searched, and a great number of copies being found, they were seized ; the 
 3ed ink witl* v'hich they were embellished, was said to be his blood , it 
 
ART OF PRINTING. 247 
 
 this art, and its application to the diffusion of knowledge, a 
 new era was formed in the annals of the human race, and in 
 the progress of science, religion, and morals. To it we are 
 chiefly indebted for our deliverance from ignorance and error, 
 and for most of those scientific discoveries and improvements 
 in the arts which distinguish the period in which we live. — 
 Without its aid, the Reformation from Popery could scarcely 
 have been achieved ; for, had the books of Luther, one of the 
 first reformers, been multiplied by the slow process of hand- 
 writing and copying, they could never have been ditfused to 
 any extent ; and the influence of bribery and of power might 
 have been sufficient to have arrested their progress, or even to 
 have erased their existence. But, being poured torth from the 
 press in thousands at a time, they spread over the nations of 
 Europe like an inundation, and with a rapidity which neither 
 the authority of princes, nor the schemes of priests and car- 
 dinals, nor the bulls of popes, could counteract or suspend. — 
 To this noble invention it is owing that copies of the Bible 
 have been multiplied to the extent of many miUions — that ten 
 thousands of them are to be found in every Protestant country 
 — and that the poorest individual who expresses a desire for it, 
 
 was seriously adjudged, that he was in league with the Devil ; and if he 
 had not fled from the city, most probably he would have shared the fate of 
 those whom ignorant and superstitious judges, at that time, condemned for 
 witchcraft. From this circumstance, let us learn to beware how we view 
 the inventions of genius, and how we treat those Avhose ingenious contri- 
 vances may afterwards be the means of enlightening and meUorating man- 
 kind. See Appendix. No. VII. 
 
 Vaa-ious improvements have been made, of late years, in the art of print- 
 ing. That which has lately been announced by Dr. Cluxrch of Boston, is 
 the most remarkable ; and, if found successful, will cany this art to a higli 
 degree of perfection. A principal object of this improvement is, to print 
 constantly from new types, which is effected by simplifying the process for 
 casting and composing. The type is deUvered perfect by machinery, and laid 
 as it is cast, in separate compartments, with unerring order and exactness. 
 The composition is then effected by other apparatus, directed by keys like 
 those of a piano-forte, and the type may then be arranged in words and 
 lines, as quickly as in the performance of notes in music. No error can 
 arise except from touching the wrong key ; and hence an expert hand will 
 leave little labor for the reader. It is then found less expensive under Dr. 
 Church's economical system of re-casting, to re-melt the types, and re-cast 
 them, than to perform the tedious operation of distribution. The melting 
 takes place without atmospheric exposure, ^by which oxydation and waste 
 of metal are avoided. It is calculated that two men can produce 75,000 
 new types per hour, and in re-composing, one man will perform as much 
 as three or four compositors. In the production of types, the saving is 
 ninety-nine parts in a hundred ; and in the composition, distribution, and 
 reading, is three parts in four. In regard to press-work. Dr. C. has inven- 
 ted a machine to work with plattens, instead of cyUnders, from which he 
 •\vill be enabled to take 30 fine impressions per minute. 
 
248 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 may be furnished with the " Word of Life" which will guide 
 him to a blessed immortality. That Divine light which is des- 
 tined to illuminate every region of the globe, and to sanctify 
 and reform men of all nations, and kindreds, and tongues, is 
 accelerated in its movements, and directed in its course through 
 the nations, by the invention of the Art of Printing ; and ere 
 long, it will distribute among the inhabitants of every land, the 
 " Law and the Testimony of the Most High," to guide their 
 steps to the regions of eternal bliss. In short, there is not a 
 more powerful engine in the hands of Providence, for diffu- 
 sing the knowledge of the nature and the will of the Deity, 
 and for accomplishing the grand objects of Revelation, than 
 the art of multiplying books, and of conveying intelligence 
 through the medium of the Press. Were no such art in exis- 
 tence, we cannot conceive how an extensive and universal 
 propagation of the doctrines of Revelation could be effected^ 
 unless after the lapse of an indefinite number of ages. But^ 
 with the assistance of this invention, in its present improved 
 state, the island of Great Britain alone, within less than a 
 hundred years, could furnish a copy of the Scriptures to every 
 inhabitant of the world, and would defray the expense of such 
 an undertaking, with much more ease, and with a smaller sum, 
 than were necessary to furnish the political warfare in which 
 we were lately engaged. 
 
 These considerations teach us, that the ingenious inventions 
 of the human mind are under the direction and control of the 
 Governor of the world — are intimately connected with the ac- 
 complishment of the plan of his providence, and have a ten- 
 dency, either directly or indirectly, to promote, over every 
 region of the earth, the progress and extension of the kingdom 
 of the Redeemer. They also show us, from what small be- 
 ginnings the most magnificent operations of the Divine econo- 
 my may derive their origin. Who could have imagined that 
 the simple circumstance of a person amusing himself by cut- 
 ting a few letters on the bark of a tree, and impressing them 
 on paper, was intimately connected with the mental illumina- 
 tion of mankind ; and that the art which sprung from this 
 casual process was destined to be the principal means of illu- 
 minating the nations, and- of conveying to the ends of the 
 earth, '^ the salvation of our God?' But, " He who rules in 
 the armies of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth," 
 and who sees " the end from the beginning," overrules the 
 most minute movement of all his creatures, in subserviency 
 to his ultimate designs, and shows himself, in this respect, to 
 be " wonderful in counsel and excellent in working." 
 
THE mariner's COMPASS. 249 
 
 The Mariner's Compass. — Another invention which has 
 an intimate relation to rehgion, is, the Art of JYavis^-aiion, and 
 the invention of the Mariner's Compass. Navigation is the 
 art of conducting a ship through the sea, from one port to 
 another. This art v/as partly known and practised in the early 
 ages of antiquity, by the Phenicians, the Carthaginians, the 
 Egyptians, the Romans, and other nations of Europe and Asia. 
 But they had no guide to direct them in their voyages, except 
 the sun in the day time, and the stars by night. When the sky 
 was overcast with clouds, they were thrown into alarms, and 
 durst not venture to any great distance l>om the coast, lest they 
 should be carried forward in a course opposite to that which 
 they intended, or be driven against hidden rocks, or unknown 
 shores. The danger and difficulty of the navigation of the 
 ancients, on this account, may be learned trom the delibera- 
 tions, the great preparations, and the alarms of Homer's heroes, 
 when they were about to cross the Egean Sea, an extent of 
 not more than 150 miles ; and the expedition of the Argonauts 
 under Jason, across the sea of Marmora and the Euxine, to 
 the island of Colchis, a distance of only four or five hundred 
 miles, was viewed at a most wonderful exploit at which even 
 the gods themselves were said to be amazed. The same 
 thing appears from the narration we have in the Acts of the 
 Apostles, of Paul's voyage from Cisarea to Rome. " When,'' 
 says Luke, " neither sun nor stars in many days appeared, 
 and no small tempests lay on us, all hope that we should be 
 saved was then taken away." Being deprived of these guides, 
 they were tossed about in the Mediterranean, not knowing 
 whether they were carried to north, south, east, or west. So 
 that the voyages of antiquity consisted chiefly in creeping along 
 the coast, and seldom venturing beyond sight of land : they 
 could not, therefore, extend their excursions by sea to distant 
 continents and nations ; and hence, the greater portion of the 
 terraqueous globe and its inhabitants were to them altogether 
 unknown. It was not before the invention of the Mariner^s 
 Compass, that distant voyages could be undertaken, that ex- 
 tensive oceans could be traversed, and an intercourse carried 
 on between remote continents and the islands of the ocean. 
 
 It is somewhat uncertain at what precise period this noble 
 discovery was made ; but it appears pretty evident, that the 
 Mariner's Compass was not commonly used in navigation be- 
 fore the year 1420, or only a few years, before the invention of 
 Printing.* The loadstone, in all ages, was known to have the 
 
 * The invention of the Compass is usually ascribed to Falvio Gioia, of 
 Amalli, in Campania, about the year 1302 ; and the Italians are strenuous 
 
 21* 
 
250 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 property of attracting iron ; but its tendency to point towards 
 the north and south seems to have been unnoticed till the 
 beginning of the twelfth century. About that time some curi- 
 ous persons seem to have amused themselves by making to 
 swim, in a basin of water, a loadstone suspended on a piece 
 of cork ; and to have remarked, that, when left at liberty, one 
 of its extremities pointed to the north. They had also re- 
 marked, that, when a piece of iron is rubbed against the load- 
 stone, it acquires also the property of turning towards the north, 
 and of attracting needles and filings of iron. From one expe- 
 riment to another, they proceeded to lay a needle, touched 
 with the magnet, on two small bits of straw floating on the 
 water, and to observe that the needle invariably turned its 
 point towards the north. The first use they seem to have 
 made of these experiments, was, to impose upon simple 
 people by the appearance of magic. For example, a hollow 
 swan, or the figure of a mermaid, was made to swim in a basin 
 of water, and to follow a knive with a bit of bread upon its 
 point which had been previously rubbed on the loadstone. The 
 experimenter convinced them of his power, by commanding, 
 in this way, a needle laid on the surface of the water, to turn 
 its point from the north to the east, or in any other direction. 
 But, some geniuses, of more sublime and reflective powers of 
 mind, seizing upon these hints, at last applied these experi- 
 ments to the wants of navigation, and constructed an instru- 
 ment by the help of which the mariner can now direct his 
 cours*^ to distant lands, through the vast and pathless ocean. 
 
 In consequence of the discovery of this instrument, the 
 coasts of almost every land on the surface of the globe have 
 been explored, and a regular intercourse opened up between 
 the remotest regions of the earth. Without the help of this 
 noble invention, America, in all probability, would never have 
 been discovered by the eastern nations — the vast continent of 
 New-Holland — the numerous and interesting islands in the 
 Indian and Pacific oceans — the isles of Japan, and other im- 
 mense territories inhabited by human beings, would have re- 
 mained as much unknown and unexplored as if they had never 
 
 in supporting this claim. Others affirm, tliat Marcus Pauius, a Venetian, 
 having made a journey to China, brought back the invention with him in 
 1260. The French also lay claim to the lionor of this invention, from the 
 circumstance, that all nations distinguish the J^Torth point of the card by a 
 Jleur de lis ; and with equal reason, the English have laid claim to the same 
 honor, from the name compass, by which most nations have agreed to dis- 
 tinguish it. But whoever were the inventors, or at wdiatever period this 
 instrument was first constructed, it does not appear that it was brought 
 into general use, before the period mentioned in the text. 
 
THE mariner's COMPASS. 251 
 
 existed. And as the nations of Europe, and the western parts 
 of Asia, were the sole depositories of the records of Revela- 
 tion, they could never have conveyed the blessings of salvation 
 to remote countries, and to unknown tribes of mankind, of 
 whose existence they were ennrely ignorant. Even although 
 the whole terraqueous globe had been sketched out before 
 them, in all its aspects and bearings, and ramifications of 
 islands, continents, seas, and oceans, and the moral and politi- 
 cal state of every tribe of its inhabitants displayed to view ; — 
 without a guide to direct their course through the billows of the 
 ocean, they could have afforded no light and no relief to cheer 
 the distant nations " who sit in darkness, and in the shadow 
 of death." Though the art of Printing had been invented ; 
 though millions of Bibles were now prepared, adequate to the 
 supply of all the " kindreds of the heathen ;" though ships 
 in abundance were equipped for the enterprise, and thousands 
 of missionaries ready to embark, and to devote their lives to 
 the instruction of the Pagan world — all would be of no avail» 
 and the " salvation of God" could never be proclaimed to the 
 ends of the world, unless they had a Mariner's Compass to 
 guide their course through the trackless ocean. 
 
 In this invention, then, we behold a proof of the agency of 
 Divine Providence, in directing the efforts of human genius to 
 subserve the most important designs, and contemplate a strik- 
 ing specimen of the " manifold wisdom of God." When the 
 pious and contemplative Israelite reflected on the declaration 
 of the prophets, that " the glory of Jehovah would be reveal- 
 ed, and that all flesh would see it together ;" — from the state 
 of the arts which then existed, he must have felt many difficul- 
 ties in forming a conception of the manner in which such pre- 
 dictions could be realized. — " The great and wide sea," now 
 termed the Mediterranean, formed the boundary of his view, 
 beyond which he was unable to penetrate. Of the continents, 
 and " the isles afar off," and of the far more spacious oceans 
 that lay between, he had no knowledge ; and how " the ends 
 of the earth" were to be reached, he could form no concep- 
 tion ; and, in the midst of his perplexing thoughts, he could 
 find no satisfaction only in the firm belief, that " with God all 
 things are possible." But now we are enabled not only to 
 contemplate the grand designs of the Divine economy, but the 
 principal means by which they shall all, in due time, be accom- 
 plished, in consequence of the progress of science and art, and 
 of their consecration to the rearing and extension of the Chris- 
 tian church. 
 
 The two inventions to which I have now adverted, may 
 
252 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 perhaps, be considered as among the most striking instances- 
 of the connection of human art with the objects of Rehgion. 
 But there are many other inventions which, at first view, do 
 not appear to bear so near a relation to the progress of Christi- 
 anity, and yet have an ultimate reference to some of its grand 
 and interesting objects. 
 
 The Telescope. — We might be apt to thmk, on a slight 
 view of the matter, that there can be no immediate relation be- 
 tween the grinding and polishing of an optic glass, and fitting 
 two or more of them in a tube, and— the enlargement of our 
 views of the operation of the Eternal Mmd. Yet the connec- 
 tion between these two objects, and the dependance of the 
 latter upon the former, can be fairly demonstrated. — The son 
 of a spectacle-maker of Middleburg in Holland, happening to 
 amuse himself in his father's shop, by holding two glasses be- 
 tween his finger and his thumb, and varying their distance, 
 perceived the weather-cock of the church spire opposite to 
 hull, much larger than ordinary, and apparently much nearer, 
 and turned upside down. This new wonder exercised the 
 amazement of the father ; he adjusted two glasses on a board, 
 rendering them moveable at pleasure ; and thus formed the 
 first rude imitation of a perspective glass, by which distant ob- 
 jects are brought near to view. Galileo, a philosopher of Tus- 
 cany, hearing of the invention, set his mind to work, in order 
 to bring it to perfection. He fixed his glasses at the end of 
 long organ-pipes, and constructed a telescope, which he soon 
 directed to different parts of the surrounding heavens. He 
 discovered four moons revolving around the planet Jupiter — 
 spots on the surface of the Sun, and the rotation of that globe 
 around its axis — mountains and valleys in the moon — and 
 numbers of fixed stars where scarcely one was visible to the 
 naked eye. These discoveries were made about the year 
 1610, a short time after the first invention of the telescope. 
 Since that period this instrument has passed through various 
 degrees of improvement, and, by means of it, celestial won- 
 ders have been explored in the distant spaces of the universe, 
 which, in former times, were altogether concealed from mortal 
 view. By the help of telescopes, combined with the art of 
 measuring the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bo- 
 dies, our vieAvs of the Grandeur of the Almighty, of the pleni- 
 tude of his Power and of the extent of his universal Empire, 
 are extended far beyond what could have been conceived in 
 former ages. Our prospects of the range of the Divine oper- 
 ations are no longer confined within the limits of the world we 
 nHabit : — we can now plainly perceive, that the kingdom of 
 
THE TELESCOPE. 253 
 
 God is not only " an everlasting dominion," but that it ex- 
 tends through the unlimited regions of space, comprehending 
 within its vast circumference thousands of suns, and ten thou- 
 sands of worlds, all ranged in majestic order, at immense dis- 
 tances from one another, and all supported and governed " by 
 Him who rides on the Heaven of Heavens," whose greatness 
 is unsearchable, and whose understanding is infinite. 
 
 The telescope has also demonstrated to us the literal truth 
 of those scriptural declarations which assert that the stars are 
 " innumerable." Before the invention of this instrument^ not 
 more than about a thousand stars could be perceived by the 
 unassisted eye in the clearest night. But this invention has 
 unfolded to view not only thousands, but hundreds of thous- 
 ands, and millions of those bright luminaries, which lie dis- 
 persed in every direction throughout the boundless dimensions 
 of space. And, the higher the magnifying powers of the teles- 
 cope are, the more numerous those celestial orbs appear ; 
 leaving us no room to doubt, that countless myriads more lie 
 hid in the distant regions of creation, far beyond the reach of 
 the finest glasses that can be constructed by human skill, and 
 which are known only to Him " who counts the number of the 
 stars, and calls them by their names." 
 
 In short, the telescope may be considered as serving the 
 purpose of a vehicle for conveying us to the distant regions of 
 space. We would consider it as a wonderful achievement, 
 could we transport ourselves two hundred thousand miles from 
 the earth, in the direction of the Moon, in order to take a 
 nearer view of that celestial orb. But this instrument enables 
 us to take a much nearer inspection of that planet, than if we 
 had actually surmounted the force of gravitation, traversed the 
 voids of space, and left the earth 230,000 miles behind us. 
 For, supposing such a journey to be accomplished, we should 
 still be ten thousand miles distant from the orb. But a teles- 
 cope which magnifies objects 240 times, can carry our views 
 within ONE thousand miles of the moon ; and a telescope, such 
 as Dr. Herschel's 40 feet reflector, which magnifies 6000 times, 
 would enable us to view the mountains and vales of the moon, 
 as if we were transported to a point about 40 miles from her 
 surface,* We can view the magnificent system of the planet 
 
 * Though the highest magnifying power of Dr. Herschel's large telescope 
 was estimated at six thousand times, yet it does not appear that the Doctor 
 ever applied this power with success, when viewing the moon and the 
 planets. The deficiency of light, when using so high a power, would ren- 
 der the view- of these objects less satisflictory than when viewed with a 
 power of one or two thousand times. Still, it" is quite certain, that if any 
 
254 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 Saturn, by means of this instrument as distinctly, as it^ we ha«' 
 performed a journey eight hundred milHons of miles in th ■. 
 direction of that globe, which, at the rate of 50 miles an hoi 
 would require a period of more than eighteen hundred years t- 
 accomplish. By the telescope, we can contemplate the re 
 gion of the fixed stars, their arrangement into systems, anc 
 their immense numbers, with the same distinctness and am- 
 plitude of view, as if we had actually taken a flight often hun- 
 dred thousand millions of miles into those unexplored and un- 
 explorabie regions, which could not be accomplished in seve- 
 ral millions of years, though our motion were as rapid as a ball 
 projected from a loaded cannon. We would justly consider it 
 as a noble endowment for enabling us to take an extensive 
 survey of the works of God, if we had the faculty of trans- 
 porting ourselves to such immense distances from the sphere 
 we now occupy ; but, by means of the telescopic tube, we may 
 take nearly the same ample views, of the dominions of the 
 Creator, without stirring a foot from the limits of our terres- 
 trial abode. This instrument may, therefore, be considered 
 as a providential gift, bestowed upon mankind, to serve, in the 
 mean time, as a temporary substitute for those powers of rapid 
 flight with which the seraphim are endowed, and for those su- 
 perior faculties of motion with which man himself may be in- 
 vested, when he arrives at the summit of moral perfection.* 
 
 The Microscope. — The JVIicroscope is another instrument 
 constructed on similar principles, which has greatly expanded 
 our views of the "manifold wisdom of God." This instru- 
 ment, which discovers to us small objects, invisible to the 
 naked eye, was invented soon after the invention and improve- 
 ment of the telescope. By means of this optical contrivance, 
 we perceive a variety of wonders in almost every object in the 
 animal, the vegetable, and the mineral kingdoms. We per- 
 ceive that every particle of matter, however minute, has a 
 
 portions of the moon's surface were viewed through an instrument of such 
 a power, they would apj^ear as large (but not nearly so bright and distinct) 
 as if we were placed about 40 miles distant from that l)ody. The enlarge- 
 ment of the angle of vision, in this case, or, the apparent distance at which 
 the moon would be contemplated, is found by dividing the moon's dis- 
 tance — 240,000 miles by 6000, the magnifying power of the telescope, 
 which produces a quotient of 40 — the number of miles at which the moon 
 would appear to be placed from the eye of the observer. Dr. Herschel ap- 
 pears to have used the highest power of his telescopes only, or chiefly, when 
 viewing some very minute objects in the region of the stars. The powers 
 he generally used, and with which he made most of his discoveries were, 
 227, 460, 754, 932, and occasionally 2010, 3168, and 6450 when inspecting 
 double and treble stars, and the more distant neloulse. 
 * See Appendix, No. VIH. 
 
THE TELESCOPE. 2o5 
 
 determinate form — that the very scales of the skin of a haddock 
 are all beautifully interwoven and variegated, like pieces of 
 net-work, which no art can imitate — that the points of the 
 prickles of vegetables, though magnified a thousand times, ap- 
 pear as sharp and well polished as to the naked eye — that 
 every particle of the dust on the butterfly's wing is a beautiful 
 and regularly organized feather — that every hair of our head is 
 a hollow tube, with bulbs and roots, furnished with a variety 
 of threads or filaments — and that the pores in our skin, through 
 which the sweat and perspiration flow, are so numerous and 
 minute, that a grain of sand would cover a hundred and twen- 
 ty-five thousand of them. We perceive animated beings in 
 certain liquids, so small, that fifty thousand of them would not 
 equal the size of a mite ; and yet each of these creatures is 
 furnished with a mouth, eyes, stomach, blood-vessels, and 
 other organs for the performance of animal functions. In a 
 stagnant pool which is covered with a greenish scum during 
 the summer months, every drop of the water is found to be a 
 world teeming with thousands of inhabitants. The mouldy 
 substance which usually adheres to damp bodies exhibits a 
 forest of trees and plants, where the branches, leaves, and 
 fruit, can be plainly distinguished. In a word, by this admira- 
 ble instrument we behold the same Almighty Hand which 
 rounded the spacious globe on which we live, and the huge 
 masses of the planetary orbs, and directs them in their rapid 
 motions through the sky, — employed, at the same moment, in 
 rounding and polishing ten thousand minute transparent globes 
 in the eye of a fly ; and boring and arranging veins and arte- 
 ries, and forming and clasping joints and claws, for the move- 
 ments of a mite ! We thus learn the admirable and astonish- 
 ing effects of the Wisdom of God, and that the Divine Care 
 and Benevolence are as much displayed in the construction of 
 the smallest insect, as in the elephant, or the whale, or in 
 those ponderous globes which roll around us in the sky. These, 
 and thousands of other views which the miscroscope exhibits, 
 would never have been displayed to the human mind, had they 
 not been opened up by this admirable invention. 
 
 In fine, by means of the two instruments to which I have 
 now adverted, we behold Jehovah's empire extending to infi- 
 nity on either hand. By the telescope we are presented with 
 the most astonishing displays of his omnipotence, in the im- 
 mense number, the rapid motions, and the inconceivable mag- 
 nitude of the celestial globes ; — iiiJ, oy the microscope, we 
 behold, what is still more inconceivable, a display of his un- 
 searchable wisdom in the Divine mechanism, by which a drop 
 
256 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 of water is peopled with myriads of inhabitants — a fact, which, 
 were it not subject to ocular demonstration, would far exceed 
 the limits of human conception or belief. We have thus the 
 most striking and sensible evidence, that, from the immeasur- 
 able luminaries of heaven, and from the loftiest seraph that 
 stands before the throne of God, down to this lower world, 
 and to the smallest microscopic animalcula that eludes the 
 finest glass — He is every where present, and, by his power, 
 intelligence, and agency, animates, supports, and directs the 
 whole. Such views and contemplations naturally lead us to 
 advert to the character of God as delineated by the sacred 
 writers, that " He is of great power and mighty in strength ;" 
 that " His understanding is infinite ;" that " His works are 
 wonderful ;" that " His operations are unsearchable and past 
 finding out ;" and they must excite the devout mind to join 
 with fervor in the language of adoration and praise. 
 
 When thy amazing works, O God ! 
 
 My mental eye sm-veys, 
 " Transported with the view, I'm lost 
 
 In wonder, love, and praise." 
 
 Steam Navigation. — We might have been apt to suppose 
 that the chemical experiments that were first made to demon- 
 strate the force of Steam as a mechanical agent, could have 
 little relation to the objects of rehgion, or even to the comfort 
 of human life and society. Yet it has now been applied to the 
 impelling of ships and large boats along rivers and seas, in op- 
 position to both wind and tide, and with a velocity which, at 
 an average, exceeds that of any other conveyance. We have 
 no reason to believe that this invention has hitherto approxi- 
 mated to a state of perfection ; it is yet in its infancy, and may 
 be susceptible of such improvements, both in point of expedi- 
 tion and of safety, as may render it the most comfortable and 
 speedy conveyance between distant lands, for transporting the 
 volume of inspiration, and the heralds of the gospel of peace to 
 " the ends of the earth." By the help of his compass the 
 mariner is enabled to steer his course in the midst of the ocean, 
 in the most cloudy days, and in the darkest nights, and to 
 transport his vessel from one end of the world to another. It 
 now only remains, that navigation be rendered safe, uniform, 
 and expeditious, and not dependant on adverse winds, or the 
 currents of the ocean ; and, perhaps the art of propelling ves- 
 sels by the force of steam, when arrived at perfection, may 
 effectuate those desirable purposes. Even at present, as the 
 invention now stands, were a vessel fitted to encounter the 
 waves of the Atlantic, constructed of a proper figure and 
 
STEAM NAVIGATION. 257 
 
 curvature, having a proper disposition of her wheels, and hav- 
 ing such a description of fuel, as could be easily stowed, and 
 in sufficient quantity for the voyage — at the rate of ten miles an 
 hour, she could pass from the shores of Britain to the coast of 
 America, in less than thirteen days ; — and, even at eight miles 
 an hour, the voyage could be completed in little more than tit- 
 teen days ; so that intelligence might pass and repass between 
 the eastern and western Continents within the space of a sin- 
 gle month — a space of time very little more than was requisite^ 
 sixty years ago, for conveying intelligence between Glasgow 
 and London. The greatest distance at which any two places 
 on the globe He from each other, is about 12,500 miles ; and, 
 therefore, if a direct portion of water intervene between them, 
 this space could be traversed in fifty-four or sixty days. And, 
 if the isthmus of Panama, which connects North and South 
 America, and the isthmus of Suez, which separates the Medi- 
 terranean from the Red Sea, were cut into wide and deep 
 canals, (which we have no doubt will be accomplished as soon 
 as civilized nations have access to perform operations in these 
 territories,) every country in the world could then be reached 
 from Europe, in nearly a direct line ; or, at most by a gentle 
 curve, instead of the long, and dangerous, and circuitous route 
 which must now be taken, in sailing the eastern parts of Asia, 
 and the north-western shores of America. By this means, 
 eight or nine thousand miles of sailing would be saved in a 
 voyage from England to Nootka Sound, or the Peninsula of 
 California ; and more than six thousand miles, in passing from 
 London to Bombay in the East Indies ; and few places on the 
 earth would be further distant from each other by water than 
 15,000 miles ; which space might be traversed at the rate 
 mentioned above, in a period from sixty-two to seventy-seven 
 days.* 
 
 But we have reason to beheve, that when this invention, 
 combined with other mechanical assistances, shall approxi- 
 mate nearer to perfection, a much more rapid rate of motion 
 will be effected ; and the advantages of this, in a religious, as 
 well as in a commercial point of view, may be easily appreci^- 
 ated ; especially at the present period, when the Christian 
 world, now aroused from their slumbers, have formed the grand 
 design of sending a Bible to every inhabitant of the globe. 
 When the empire of the Prince of Darkness shall be shaken 
 throughout all its dependencies, and the nations aroused to in- 
 quire after light, and liberty, and divine knowledge — intelli- 
 
 * See Appendix, No. IX. 
 22 
 
258 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 geiice would thus be rapidly communicated over every region, 
 and between the most distaiU tribes. " Many would ran to 
 and fro, and knowledge would be increased." The Ambas- 
 sadors of the Redeemer, with the Oracles of Heaven in their 
 hands, and the words of salvation in their mouths, would 
 quickly be transported to every clime, " having the everlast- 
 ing gospel to preach to every nation, and kindred, and tongue, 
 and people." 
 
 Air Balloons. — Similar remarks may be applied to the 
 inutntion of Air Balloons. We have heard of some pious 
 people who have mourned over such inventions, and lamented 
 the folly of mankind in studying their construction, and wit- 
 nessing their exhibition. Such dispositions generally proceed 
 from a narrow range of thought, and a contracted view of the 
 Divine Economy and arrangements in the work of Redemp- 
 tion. Though the perversity of mankind has often applied 
 useful inventions to foolish, and even to vicious purposes, yet 
 this forms no reason why such inventions should be decried ; 
 otherwise the art of Printing, and many other useful arts, 
 might be regarded as inimical to the human race. We have 
 reason to believe that air balloons may yet be brought to such 
 perfection, as to be applied to purposes highly beneticial to the 
 progress of the human mind, and subservient, in some de- 
 gree, for effecting the purposes of Providence in the enlighten- 
 ing and renovation of mankind. For this purpose, it is only 
 requisite that some contrivance, on chemical or mechanical 
 principles, be suggested, analogous to the sails or rudder of a 
 ship, by which they may be moved in any direction, without 
 being directed solely by the course of the wind ; and, there 
 can be little doubt that such a contrivance is possible to be ef- 
 fected. It requires only suitable encouragement to be given 
 to ingenious experimental philosophers, and a sufficient sum 
 of money to enable them to prosecute their experiments on an 
 extensive scale. To the want of such pre-requisites, it is 
 chiefly owing, that the hints on this subject, hitherto suggest- 
 ed, have either failed of success, or have never been carried 
 into execution. A more simple and expeditious process foi 
 filling balloons has lately been effected — the use of the parci- 
 chtite, by which a person may detach himself from the balloon, 
 and descend to the earth, has been successfully tried, — the 
 lightning of heaven has been drawn from the clouds, and 
 forced to act as a mechanical power in splitting immense 
 stones to pieces, — the atmosphere has been analyzed into its 
 component parts, and the wonderful properties of the ingre- 
 dients of which it is composed, exhibited in their separate state : 
 
AIR BALLOONS 259 
 
 and why, then, should we consider it as at all improbable that 
 the means of producing a horizontal direction in aerial naviga- 
 tion, may soon be discovered ] Were this object once effected, 
 balloons might be applied to the purpose of surveying and ex- 
 ploring countries hitherto inaccessible, and of conveying the 
 messengers of divine mercy to tribes of our fellow-men, whose 
 existence is as yet unknown. 
 
 We are certain that every portion of the inhabited world 
 must be thoroughly explored, and its inhabitants visited, before 
 the salvation of God can be carried fully into effect ; and, for 
 the purpose of such explorations, we must, of course, resort 
 to the inventions of human genius in art and science. Nu- 
 merous tribes of the sons of Adam are, doubtless, residing in 
 regions of the earth with which we have no acquaintance, and 
 to which we have no access, by any of the modes of convey- 
 ance presently in use. More than one-half of the interior parts 
 of Africa and Asia, and even of America, are wholly unknown 
 to the inhabitants of the civilized world. The vast regions of 
 Chinese Tartary, Thibet, Siberia, and the adjacent districts ; 
 almost the whole interior of Africa, and the continent of New 
 Holland— the extensive isles of Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, 
 and Japan, the territory of the Amazons, and the internal 
 parts of North America, remain, for the most part, unknown 
 and unexplored. The lofty and impassable ranges of moun- 
 tains, and the deep and rapid rivers, which intervene between 
 us and many of those regions, together with the savage and 
 plundering hordes of men, and the tribes of ravenous beasts, 
 through which the traveller must push his way — present to 
 European adventurers, barriers which they cannot expect to 
 jurmount, by the ordinary modes of conveyance, for a lapse of 
 ages. But, by balloons constructed with an apparatus for 
 directing their motions, all such obstructions would at once be 
 surmounted. The most impenetrable regions, now hemmed 
 m by streams and marshes, and lofty mountains, and a barba- 
 rous population, would be quickly laid open ; and cities and 
 nations, lakes and rivers, and fertile plains, to which we are 
 now entire strangers, would soon burst upon the view. And 
 the very circumstance, that the messengers of peace and sal- 
 vation descended upon such unknown tribes from the regions oj 
 the clouds, might arouse their minds, and excite their attention 
 and regard to the message of Divine mercy which they came 
 thither to proclaim.* Such a scene (and it may probably be 
 
 * In this point of view, we cannot but feel the most poignant regret at 
 the conduct of the Spaniards, after the discovery of America, towards the 
 
260 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 realized) would present a literal fulfilment of the prediction of 
 ''^angels flying through the midst of" the aerial ^^ heaven, 
 having the everlasting gospel to preach to them that dwell upon 
 the earth, and to every kindred and nation." 
 
 That the attention of the philosophical world is presently 
 directed to this subject, and that we have some prospect of the 
 views above suggested being soon realized, will appear from 
 the following notice, which lately made its appearance in the 
 London Scientific Journals : — " A Prize being offered for the 
 discovery of a horizontal direction in Aerostation, M. Mingreli 
 of Bologna, M. Pietripoli of Venice, and M. Lember of Nu- 
 remberg, have each assumed the merit of resolving this pro- 
 blem. It does not appear that any one of these has come 
 forward to establish, by practical experiment, the validity of 
 his claim ; but a pamphlet has lately been reprinted at Paris 
 (first printed at Vienna) on this subject^ addressed to all the 
 learned Societies in Europe. The following passage appears 
 in the work : — "Professor Robertson proposes to construct aa 
 acrostic machine, 150 feet in diameter, to be capable of raising 
 72,954 killograms, equivalent to 149,037 lbs. weight (French.) 
 To be capable of conveying all necessaries for the support of 
 sixty individuals, scientific characters, to be selected by the 
 Academicians, and the aerial navigations to last for some 
 months, exploring different heights and climates, &c. in all 
 
 natives of that country. When those untutored people beheld the ships 
 which had conveyed Columbus and his associates from the eastern world, 
 the di-esses and martial order of his troops, and heard their music, and the 
 thunder of their cannon, they were filled with astonishment and wonder 
 at the strange objects presented to their view ; they fell prostrate at their 
 feet, and viewed them as a superior race of men. When Cortes afterAvards 
 entered the territories of Mexico, the same sentiments of reverence and 
 admiration seemed to pervade its inhabitants. Had pure Christian motives 
 actuated the minds of these adventurers, and had it been then- ruling desire 
 to communicate to those ignorant tribes the blessings of the Gospel of peace, 
 and to administer to their external comfort, the circumstances now stated 
 would have been highly favourable to the success of missionary exertion, 
 and would have led them to listen with attention to the message from, 
 heaven. But, unfortunately for the cause of religion, treachery, lust, cruelty, 
 selfishness and the cursed love of gold, predominated oA^er every other feeling, 
 affixed a stigma to the Christian name, and rendered them curses, instead 
 of blessings, to that newly-discovered race of men. It is most earnestly to 
 be wished, that, in future expeditions in quest of unknown tribes, a few 
 intelligent and philanthropic missionaries were appointed to direct the 
 adventurers in their moral conduct and intercourse with the people thev 
 visit, in order that nothing inconsistent with Christian principle make its 
 appearance. The uniform manifestation of Christian benevolence, purity, 
 and rectitude, by a superior race of men, would win the affections of n 
 rude people far more effectually than all the pomp and ensigns of milit^v 
 parade.. 
 
AIR BALLOONS. 261 
 
 seasons. If, from accident, or wear, the machine, elevated 
 above the ocean, should fail in its functions, to be furnished 
 with a ship that will ensure the return of the Aeronauts." 
 
 Should any one be disposed to insinuate, that the views now 
 stated on this subject are chimerical and fallacious, I beg leave 
 to rejiiind them, that, not more than twenty years ago, the idea 
 of a large vessel, without oars and sails, to be navigated 
 against the wind, with the rapidity of ten miles an hour, would 
 have been considered as next to an impossibility, and a mere 
 fanciful scheme, which could never be realized. Yet we now 
 behold such vehicles transporting whole villages to the places 
 of their destination, with a degree of ease, comfort, and ex- 
 pedition, formerly unknown. And little more than forty years 
 have elapsed, since it would have been viewed as still more 
 chimerical to have broached the idea, that a machine might 
 be constructed, by which human beings might ascend more 
 than two miles above the surface of the earth, and fly through 
 the region of the clouds at the rate of seventy miles an hour, 
 carrying along with them books, instruments, and provisions. 
 Yet both these schemes have been fully realized, and, like 
 many other inventions of the human intellect, are doubtless 
 intended to subserve some important ends in the economy of 
 Divine Providence.* 
 
 * Balloons were first constructed in the year 17S3, by Messrs. S. and J. 
 Mongolfier, paper-manufacturers at Annonay, in France. A sheep, a cock, 
 and a duck, were the first animals ever carried up into the air by these 
 vehicles. At the end of their journey, they were found perfectly safe and 
 unhurt, and the sheep was even feeding at perfect ease. The first human 
 being who ascended into the atmosphere in one of these machines, was 
 M. Pilatre de Rozier. This adventurer ascended from amidst an astonished 
 multitude assembled in a garden in Paris, on the 15th October, 1783, in a 
 balloon, whose diameter was 48 feet, and its height about 74 ; and remauied 
 suspended above the city about four hours. Mr. Lunardi, an Italian, soon 
 after, astonished the people of England and Scotland, by his aerial excur- 
 sions. Dr. G. Gregory gives the following account of his ascent :— " I was 
 myself a spectator of the flight of Lunardi, and I never was present at a 
 sight so intei-esting and sublime. The beauty of the gradual ascent, united 
 widi a sentiment of terror, on account of the danger of the man, and the 
 novelty and grandeur of the Avhole appearance, are more than words can 
 express. A deheate woman was so overcome with the spectacle, that she 
 died upon the spot, as the balloon ascended ; several fainted ; and the silent 
 admiration of the anxious multitude was beyond any thing I had ever 
 beheld." 
 
 Balloons have been generally made of varnished silk, and of the shape 
 of a globe or a spheroid, from thirty to fifty feet in diameter. They are 
 filled with hydrogen gas, which, as formerly stated, is from twelve to fifteen 
 times lighter than common air: and they rise into the atmosphere, on the 
 same principle as a piece of cork ascends from the bottom of a pail of 
 water. The aerial travellers are seated in a basket below the balloon, 
 which is attached to it by means of cords. — The Parachute is an invention, 
 
 22* 
 
^62 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 Acoustic Tunnels. — By means of the inventions jusl 
 now adverted to, when brought to perfection, mankind may be 
 enabled to transport themselves to every region of the globe, 
 with a much greater degree of rapidity than has hitherto been 
 attained. By the help of the microscope, we are enabled to 
 contemplate the invisible worlds of life, and by the telescope 
 we can penetrate into regions far beyond the range of the 
 unassisted eye. By the arts of Writing and Printing, we can 
 communicate our sentiments, after a certain lapse of time, to 
 every quarter of the world. In the progress of human know- 
 ledge and improvement, it would obviously be of considerable 
 importance, could we extend the range of the human voice, and 
 communicate intelligence to the distance of a thousand miles, 
 in the course of two or three hours ; or could we hold an occa- 
 sional conversation with a friend at the distance of 20 or 30 
 miles. From the experiments which have been lately made, 
 in reference to the conveyance of sound, we have some reason 
 to believe, that such objects may not be altogether unattaina- 
 ble. It has been long known, that wood is a good conductor 
 of sound. If a watch be laid on the end of a long beam of 
 timber, its beating will be distinctly heard, on applying the ear 
 to the other end, though it could not be heard at the same dis- 
 tance through the air. In " Nicholsvon's Philosophical Journal" 
 for February, 1803, Mr. E. Walker describes a simple appara- 
 tus, connected with a speaking trumpet, by means of which^ 
 at the distance of 17^ feet, he held a conversation with another 
 in whispers, too low to be heard through the air at that dis- 
 tance. When the ear was placed in a certain position, the 
 words were heard as if they had been spoken by an invisible 
 being within the trumpet. And what rendered the deception 
 still more pleasing, the words were m.ore distinct, softer, and 
 more musical, than if they had been spoken through the air. 
 
 About the year 1750, a merchant of Cleves, named Joris- 
 sen, who had become almost totally deaf, sitting one day near 
 a harpsichord, while some one was playing, and having a 
 tobacco-pipe in his mouth, the bowl of which rested accident- 
 ally against the body of the instrument, he was agreeably and 
 unexpectedly surprised to hear all the notes in the most dis- 
 tinct manner. By a little reflection and practice, he again 
 
 by which the voyager, in cases of alarm, may l^e enabled to desert his bal- 
 loon in mid-air, and descend, without injury, to the ground. They resemble 
 an umbrella, but are of far greater extent. With one of tliese contrivances, 
 twenty-three feet in diameter, M. Garnerin, having detached himself from 
 liis balloon, descended from a heiglu of more than 4000 feet, and landed 
 without shock or accident. 
 
ACOUSTIC TUNNELS. 263 
 
 obtained the use of this valuable sense ; for he soon iearnedy 
 by means of a piece of hard wood, one end of which he 
 placed against his teeth, while another person placed the other 
 end on his teeth, to keep up a conversation, and to be able to 
 understand the least whisper. In this way, two persons who 
 have stopped their ears may converse with each other, when 
 they hold a long stick or a series of sticks, between their 
 teeth, or rest their teeth against them. The effect is the same, 
 if the person who speaks rest the stick against his throat, or 
 his breast, or when one rests the stick which he holds in his 
 teeth against some vessel into which the other speaks ; and 
 the effect will be the greater, the more the vessel is capable of 
 tremulous motion. These experiments demonstrate the faci- 
 lity with which the softest whispers may be transmitted. — 
 Water, too, is found to be a good conductor of sound. Dr. 
 Franklin assures us, that he has heard under water, at the 
 distance of half a mile, the sound of two stones struck against 
 each other. It has been also observed, that the velocity of 
 sound is much greater in solid bodies, than in the air. By a 
 series of experiments, instituted for the purpose of determin- 
 ing this point, Mr. Chladni found that the velocity of sound, 
 in certain solid bodies, is 16 or 17 times as great as in air. 
 
 But what has a more particular bearing on the object hinted 
 at above, is, the experiments lately made by M. Biot, " on the 
 transmission of sound through solid bodies, and through air, 
 in very long tubes." These experiments were made by means 
 of long cylindrical pipes, which were constructing for conduits 
 and aqueducts, to embellish the city of Paris. With regard 
 to the velocity of sound, it was ascertained that " its trans- 
 mission through cast iron is 101 times as quick as through 
 air." The pipes by which he wished to ascertain at what 
 distance sounds are audible, were 1,039 yards, or nearly five 
 furlongs, in length. M. Biot was stationed at the one end of 
 this series of pipes, and Mr. Martin, a gentleman who assisted 
 in the experiments, at the other. They heard the lowest 
 voice, so as perfectly to distinguish the words, and to keep up 
 a conversation on all the subjects of the experiments. " I 
 wished," says M. Biot, " to determine the point at which the 
 human voice ceases to be audible, but could not accomplish 
 it : words spoken as low as when we whisper a secret in 
 another's ear, were heard and understood ; so that not to be 
 heard, there was but one resource, that of not speaking at all. 
 — This mode of conversing with an invisible neighbor, is so 
 singular that we cannot help being surprised, even though 
 acquainted with the cause. Between a question and answer, 
 
264 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 the interval was not greater than was necessary for the trans- 
 mission of sound. For Mr. Martin and me, at the distance 
 of 1,039 yards, this time was about 5^ seconos." Reports of 
 a pistol fired at one end, occasioned a considerable explosion 
 at the other. The air was driven out of the pipe with suffi- 
 cient force to give the hand a smart blow, to drive light sub- 
 stances out of it to the distance of half a yard, and to extin- 
 guish a candle, though it was 1,039 yards distant from the 
 place where the pistol was fired. A detailed account of these 
 experiments may be seen in JVichohon^s Phil. Jour, for 
 October, 1811. Don Gautier, the inventor of the Telegraph, 
 suggested also the method of conveying articulate sounds to 
 a ^reat distance. He proposed to build horizontal tunnels, 
 widening at the remoter extremity, and found that at the dis- 
 tance of 400 fathoms, or nearly half a mile, the ticking of a 
 watch could be heard far better than close to the ear. He 
 calculated that a series of such tunnels would convey a mes- 
 sage 900 miles in an hour. 
 
 Froiii the experiments now stated, it appears highly pro- 
 bable, that sounds may be conveyed to an indefinite distance. 
 If one man can converse with another at the distance of nearly 
 three quarters of a mile, bij means of the softest whisper., there 
 is every reason to believe, that they could hold a conversa- 
 tion at the distance of 30 or 40 miles, provided the requisite 
 tunnels were constructed for this purpose. The latter case 
 does not appear more wonderful than the former. Were this 
 point fully determined, by experiments conducted on a more 
 extensive scale, a variety of interesting effects would follow, 
 from a practical application of the results. A person at one 
 end of a large city, at an appointed hour, might communicate 
 a message, or hold a conversation with his friend, at another ; 
 friends in neighbouring, or even in distant towns, might hold 
 an occasional correspondence by articulate sounds, and recog- 
 nize each other's identity by their tones of voice. In the case 
 of sickness, accident, or death, intelligence could thus be 
 instantly communicated, and the tender sympathy of friends 
 immediately exchanged. A clergyman sitting in his owm room 
 in Edinburgh, were it at any time expedient, might address a 
 congregation in Musselburgh or Dalkeith, or even in Glasgow. 
 He might preach the same sermon to his own church, and the 
 next hour to an assembly at forty miles distant. And surely 
 there could be no valid objection to trying the effect of an 
 invisible prenclier on a Christian audience. On similar prin- 
 ciples, an apparatus might be constructed for augmenting the 
 strength of the human voice, so as to make it extend its force 
 
PRACTICAL REMARKS. 265 
 
 to an assembled multitude, composed of fifty or a hundred 
 thousand individuals ; and the utility of such a power, when 
 the mass of mankind are once thoroughly aroused to attend 
 to rational and religious instruction, may be easily conceived, 
 fn short, intelligence respecting every important discovery, 
 occurrence, and event, might thus be communicated, through 
 the extent of a whole kingdom, within the space of an hour 
 after it had taken place. 
 
 Let none imagine that such a project is either chimerical or 
 impossible. M. Biot's experiment is decisive, so far as it 
 goes ; that the softest tvhisperj without any diminution of its 
 intensity, may be communicated to the distancQ of nearly three 
 quarters of a mile ; and there is nothing but actual experi- 
 ment wanting to convince us, that the ordinary tones of the 
 human voice may be conveyed to at least twenty times that 
 distance. We are just now acting on a similar principle, in 
 distributing illumination through large cities. Not thirty years 
 ago, the idea of lighting our apartments by an invisible sub- 
 stance, produced at ten miles' distance, would have been con- 
 sidered as chimerical, and as impossible to be realized, as the 
 idea of two persons conversing together, by articulate sounds, 
 at such a distance. It appears no more wonderful, that we 
 should be able to hear at the distance of five or six miles, than 
 that we should be enabled to see objects at that distance by 
 the telescope, as distinctly as if w^e were within a few yards of 
 them. Both are the effects of those principles and laws which 
 the Creator has interwoven with the system of the material 
 world ; and when man has discovered the mode of their oper- 
 ation, it remains with himself to apply them to his necessities. 
 What the telescope is to the eye, acoustic tunnels would be to 
 the ear ; and thus, those senses on which our improvement in 
 knowledge and enjoyment chiefly depends, would be gradually 
 carried to the utmost perfection of which our station on earth 
 will permit. And, as to the expense of constructing such com- 
 munications for sound, the tenth, part of the millions of money 
 expended in twenty-two years' war in which we were lately 
 engaged, would, in all probability, be more than sufficient for 
 distributing them in numerous ramifications, through the whole 
 island of Great Britain, Even although such a project were 
 partially to fail of success, it would be a far more honorable 
 and usetul national undertaking, than that which now occupies, 
 the attention of the despots on the continent of Europe, and, 
 might be accomplished with far less expenditure, either of 
 blood or of money. Less than the fourth part of a milhon of 
 p,QUnds would be sufficient for trjdng an experiment of this 
 
266 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 kind, on an extensive scale ; and such a sum is considered as 
 a mere item, when fleets and armies are to be equipped for car- 
 rying destruction through sea and land. When will the war- 
 madness cease its rage ! When will men desist from the work 
 of destruction, and employ their energies and their treasures 
 in the cause of human improvement ! The most chimerical 
 projects that were ever suggested by the most enthusiastic 
 visionary, are not half so ridiculous, and degrading to the 
 character of man, as those ambitious and despotic schemes, in 
 which the powers of the earth in all ages have been chiefly en- 
 gaged, — But on this topic it is needless to enlarge, till more 
 extended experiments shall have been undertaken. 
 
 In the preceding sketches I have presented a few specimens 
 of the relation which the inventions of human ingenuity bear 
 to religious objects. I intended to have traced the same rela- 
 tion in several other instances ; in the invention of the elec- 
 trical machine, the air-pump, mills, clocks and watches, gas- 
 lights, chemical fumigations, inventions for enabling us to 
 walk upon the water, to prevent and alleviate the dangers of 
 shipwreck, &c. &c. But, as my prescribed hmits will not 
 permit farther enlargement, I trust that what has been already 
 stated will be suflicient to establish and illustrate my general 
 position. From this subject we may learn — 
 
 1st, That the various processes of art, and the exertions of 
 human ingenuity, are under the special direction of Him who 
 arranges all things " according to the counsel of his will." As 
 " the king's heart is in the hand of the Lord, and as the rivers 
 of waters, he turns it whithersoever he pleases ;" so, all the 
 varied schemes and movements of the human mind, the 
 discoveries of science, and the diversified experiments of 
 mechanics, chemists and philosophers, are directed in such 
 channels as may issue in the accomplishment of His eternal 
 purposes, in respect to the present and future condition of the 
 inhabitants of our world. This truth is also plainly taught us in 
 the records of mspiration, " Doth the ploughman plough all 
 day to sow ? Doth he open and break the clods of his ground 1 
 AVhen he hath made plain the face thereof, doth he not cast 
 abroad the fitches, and scatter the cummin,* and cast in the 
 wheat in the principal [place,] and the barley in the appointed 
 place, and the rye in its proper place J For his God doth in- 
 struct him to discretion, and doth teach him. This also cometh 
 forth from the Lord of hosts, who is wonderful in counsel, and 
 
 * Fitches la a kind of seed froqn.ontly sown in Jiidea, for the use of cut- 
 tle : ai:d cummin lo the seed of a piai;l somewhat hke fennel. 
 
millen?nIAL era. 2fi7 
 
 excellent in working." Agriculture has, by most nations, 
 been attributed to the suggestions of Deity ; for " every good 
 and perfect gift cometh down from the Father of lights." It is 
 he who hath taught men to dig from the bowels of the earth, 
 iron, copper, lead, silver, and gold, and to apply them to useful 
 purposes in social life ; and who hath given them " wisdom 
 and understanding" to apply the animal and vegetable produc- 
 tions of nature to the manufacture of cloths, linen, muslin, and 
 silk, for the use and the ornament of man. For " all things 
 are of God." " Both riches and honor come from him, and 
 he reigneth over all, and in his hand is power and might, and 
 in his hand it is to make great, and to give strength to all." 
 When the frame of the Mosaic Tabernacle, and all its curious 
 vessels were to be constructed, the mind of Bezaleel " was 
 filled with the spirit of God, in wisdom and understanding, and 
 in knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship, to devise 
 curious works in gold, and in silver, and in brass." And, when 
 the fabric of the New Testament church is to be reared, and 
 its boundaries are extended, artificers of every description, ade- 
 quate for carrying on the different parts of the works are 
 raised up, and inspired with the spirit of their respective de- 
 partments — some with the spirit of writing, printing, and pub- 
 lishing ; some with the spirit of preaching, lecturing, and cate- 
 chising ; some with the spirit of fortitude, to make bold and 
 daring adventures into distant barbarous climes ; and others, 
 with the spirit of literature, of science, and of the mechanical 
 arts — all acting as pioneers " to prepare the way of the Lord," 
 and as builders for carrying forward and completing the fabric 
 of the Christian Church. 
 
 2dly, All the mechanical contrivances to which I have ad- 
 verted, all the discoveries of science, and all the useful inven- 
 tions of genius which may hereafter be exhibited, ought to be 
 viewed as preparing the way for the millennial era of the church, 
 and as having a certain tendency to the melioration of the ex- 
 ternal condition of mankind during its continuance. We are 
 certain, from the very nature of things, as well as from scrip- 
 tural predictions, that, w^hen this period advances towards the 
 summit of its glory, the external circumstances of this world's 
 population will be comfortable, prosperous, and greatly melio- 
 rated beyond what they have ever been in the ages that are 
 past — " Then shall the earth yield her increase, and God, even 
 our own God, shall bless us. Then shall he give the rain of thy 
 seed, that thou shalt sow thy ground withal, and bread of the 
 increase of the earth ; and it shall be fat and plenteous. In 
 that day shall thy cattle feed in large pastures ; the oxen like 
 
268 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 wise and the young asses that ear the ground shall eat savoury 
 provender, which hath been winnowed with the shovel and 
 with the fan. And the inhabitants shall not say, I am sick. 
 They shall build houses and inhabit them, and plant vineyards, 
 and eat the fruit of them. They shall not build, and another 
 inhabit ; they shall not plant, and another eat ; for, as the days 
 of a tree are the days of my people^ and mine elect shall long 
 enjoy the work of their hands. They shall not labor in vain, 
 nor bring forth for trouble ; for they are the seed of the blessed 
 of the Lord, and their offspring with them. The seed shall be 
 prosperous, the vine shall give her fruit, and the ground shall 
 give her increase, and the heavens shall give their dew ; the 
 evil beasts shall cease out of the land, and they shall sit every 
 man under his vine, and under his fig-tree, and none shall 
 make him afraid ; for wars shall cease to the ends of the world, 
 and the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth as the 
 waters cover the sea."* Diseases will be, in a great measure, 
 banished from the world, and the life of man extended far be- 
 yond its present duration — agriculture will be brought to per- 
 fection — commodious habitations erected for the comfortable 
 accommodation of all ranks — cities built on elegant and spa- 
 cious plans, adapted to health, ornament, and pleasure ; di- 
 vested of all the filth, and darkness, and gloom, and narrow 
 lanes which now disgrace the abodes of men — roads will be 
 constructed on improved principles, with comfortable means 
 of retreat for shelter and accommodation of all seasons ; and 
 conveyances invented for the ease, and safety, and rapid con- 
 veyance of persons and property from one place to another. 
 Either the climates of the earth will be meliorated, by the uni- 
 versal cultivation of the soil, so that storms and tempests, 
 thunders and lightnings, shall no longer produce their present 
 ravages : or chemical and mechanical contrivances will be in- 
 vented to ward off their destructive etfects. The landscape of 
 the earth will be adorned with vegetable and architectural 
 beauty ; and, instead of horse-racing, demoralizing plays, 
 routs, and masquerades, boxing, and bull-baits — artificial dis- 
 plays of scenery will be exhibited, more congenial to the dig- 
 nity of rational, renovated, and immortal minds. For " the 
 knowledge of the Lord," and the "beauties ofhoUness," will 
 pervade men of all ranks and ages, " from the least even to the 
 greatest."-]- 
 
 Psalm Ixvii. Isaiah xxx. 23, 24. xxxiii. 24. Ixv. 21, 23, &c. 
 t The various circumstances above-stated may be considered as the 
 natund results of a state of society on which the hglu of science and o^ r*»ve- 
 
MILLENNIAL ERA. 9,69 
 
 Now, as we have no reason to expect any miraculous infer' 
 ference^ we must regard the past, and the future useful inven- 
 tions of philosophy and mechanics, as having a bearing on this 
 glorious period, and a tendency to promote the improvement 
 and the felicity of those who shall live during this era of Mes- 
 siah's reign. If diseases are to be generally abolished, it will 
 be owing to the researches of the scientific physician in dis- 
 covering certain antidotes against every disorder, and to the 
 practice of temperance, meekness, equanimity of mind, and 
 every other means of preserving the vigor of the animal frame. 
 If the earth is to produce its treasures in abundance, and with 
 little labour, it will be owing, in part, to the improvement of 
 agricultural science, and of the instruments by which its opera- 
 tions are conducted. If the lightnings of heaven shall no 
 longer prove destructive to man and to the labors of his hands, 
 it will be effected either by machinery for drawing off the 
 electricity of a stormy cloud, or by the invention of thunder- 
 guards, which shall afford a complete protection from its rav- 
 ages. In these, and numerous other instances, the inventions 
 of men, under the guidance of the Spirit of Wisdom, will 
 have a tendency to remove a great part of the Curse which 
 has so long hung over our sinful world. And since the inven- 
 tions of human skill and ingenuity for the melioration of man- 
 kind, and for the swift conveyance of intelligence have, of 
 late years, been rapidily increasing, at the same time when the 
 Christian world is roused to increased exertions in dissemina- 
 ting the Scriptures throughout all lands, when general know- 
 ledge is increasingly diffused, and when the fabric of Supersti- 
 tion and Despotism is shaking to its foundations, — these com- 
 bined and simultaneous movements seem plainly to indicate, 
 that that auspicious era is fast hastening on, when "the glory 
 of Jehovah shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together," 
 when " righteousness and praise shall spring forth before all 
 
 lation has diffused its full influence, and where the active powers of the 
 human mind are invariably directed by the pure principles and precepts of 
 Chi'istianity, That the duration of human life, at the era referred to, will 
 be extended beyond its present boundary, appears to be intimated in some 
 of the passages above quoted, particularly the following — "»is the days of 
 a tree shall be the days of my people, and mine elect shall long enjoy the work 
 of their hands." And, if the life of man will be thus protracted to an in- 
 definite period, it will follow, that those diseases which now prey upon the 
 human frame, and cut short its vital action, will be in a great measure ex- 
 tirpated. Both these effects may be viewed (without supposing any mira- 
 culous interference) as the natural consequence of that happiness and 
 equanimity of mind which will flow from the practice of Christian \'irtues, 
 from the enlargement of om- knowledge of the principles of nature, and 
 from the physical enjoyments which such a state of society will furnish. 
 
 23 
 
270 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 nations," and when " Holiness to the Lord," shall be inscribed 
 on all the pursuits, and implements, and employments of men. 
 Lastly, — If the remarks suggested above be well founded, 
 we may conclude, that the mechanical and philosophical inven- 
 tions of genius are worthy of the attentive consideration of 
 the enlightened Christian, particularly in the relation they may 
 have to the accomplishment of religious objects. He should 
 contemplate the experiments of scientific men, not as a waste 
 of time, or the mere gratification of an idle curiosity, but as 
 embodying the germs of those improvements, by which civili- 
 zation, domestic comfort, knowledge, and moral principle may 
 be diffused among the nations. To view such objects with 
 apathy and indifference, as beneath the regard of a religious 
 character, argues a weak and limited understanding, and a 
 contracted view of the grand operations of a Superintending 
 Providence. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SCRIPTURAL DOCTRINES AND FACTS ILLUSTRATED 
 FROM THE SYSTEM OF NATURE.* 
 
 Without spending time in any introductory ODservations 
 on this subject, it may be remarked in general, 
 
 I. — That scientific knowledge, or an acquaintance with the 
 System of JVature, may frequently serve cls a guide to the true 
 interpretation of Scripture, 
 
 It may be laid down as a universal principle, that there can 
 be no real discrepancy between a just interpretation of Scrip- 
 ture, and the facts of physical science ; and on this principle, 
 the following canon is founded, which may be considered as 
 an infallible rule for Scripture-interpretation, namely, — That 
 no interpretation of Scripture ought to he admitted ivhich is 
 inconsistent with any well-authenticated facts in the material 
 world. By w ell-authenticated facts^ I do not mean the theories 
 of philosophers, or the deductions they may have drawn from 
 them, nor the confident assertions or plausible reasonings of 
 scientific men in support of any prevailing system of Natural 
 science ; but those facts which are universally admitted, and 
 the reality of which every scientific inquirer has it in his power 
 to ascertain : such as that the earth is not an extended plane, 
 but a round or globular body, and that the rays of the sun, 
 when converged to a focus by a large convex glass, will set 
 fire to combustible substances. Such facts, when ascertained, 
 ought to be considered as a revelation from God, as well as 
 the declarations of his word. For they make known to us a 
 
 + Under this head, it was originally intended to embmce an elucidation 
 of a considerable variety of the facts recorded in the Sacred History, and 
 of the allusions of the inspired writers to the system of nature ; but as the 
 volume has already swelled beyond the limits proposed, I am reluctantly 
 eonipelled to confine myself to the illustration of only two or three topics. 
 
272 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 portion of his character, of his plans and his operations. — 
 This rule may be otherwise expressed as follows : — Where a 
 passage of Scripture is of doubtful meanings or capable of dif- 
 ferent interpretation^ that interpretation ought to be preferred 
 which will best agree with the established discoveries of science. 
 For since the Author of revelation and the Author of univer- 
 sal nature is one and the same Infinite Being, — there must 
 exist a complete harmony between the revelations of his word, 
 and the facts or relations which are observed in the material 
 universe. To suppose the contrary, would be to suppose the 
 Almighty capable of inconsistency ; a supposition which would 
 go far to shake our confidence in the theology of Nature, as 
 well as of Revelation. If, in any one instance, a Record 
 claiming to be a Revelation from heaven were found to con- 
 tradict a well-known fact in the material world ; if, for exam- 
 ple, it asserted, in express terms, to be literally understood, 
 that the earth is a quiescent body in the centre of the universe, 
 or that the moon is no larger than a mountain ; it would be a 
 fair conclusion, either that the revelation was not Divine, or 
 that the passages embodying such assertions are interpolations, 
 or, that science, in reference to these points, has not yet arri- 
 ved at the truth. The example, we are aware, is inapplicable 
 to the Christian Revelation, which rests securely on its own 
 basis, and to which science is gradually approximating, as it 
 advances in the amplitude of its views, and the correctness of 
 its deductions ; — but it shows us how necessary it is, in inter- 
 preting the Word of God, to keep our eye fixed upon his 
 tVorks ; for we may rest assured, that truth in the one will 
 always correspond with fact in the other. 
 
 To illustrate the rule now laid down, an example or two 
 may be stated. — If it be a fact that geological research has 
 ascertained that the materials of the strata of the earth, arc of 
 a more ancient date than the Mosaic account of the com- 
 mencement of the present race of men ; the passages in the 
 first chapter of Genesis, and other parts of Scripture, which 
 refer to the origin of our world, must be explained as convey- 
 ing the idea, that the earth was then merely arranged into its 
 present form and order, out of the materials which previously 
 existed in a confused mass, and which had been created by 
 the Almighty at a prior period in duration. For Moses no 
 where asserts, that the materials of our globe were created, or 
 brought into existence out of nothing, at the time to which his 
 history refers ; but insinuates the contrary. " For the earth," 
 says he, prior to its present constitution, " was without form, 
 and void," &c. — ^^Again, if it be a fact that the universe is la 
 
SCRIPTURAL FACTS ILLUSTRATED. 273 
 
 definitely extended, that, of many millions of vast globes which 
 diversify the voids of space, only two or three have any im- 
 mediate connexion with the earth ; then it will appear most 
 reasonable to conclude, that those expressions in the Mosaic 
 history of the creation, which refer to the creation of the fixed 
 stars, are not to 6e understood as referring to the time when 
 they were brought into existence, as if they had been created 
 about the same time with our earth ; but, as simply declaring 
 the fact, that, at what period soever in duration they were cre- 
 ated, they derived their existence from God. That they did 
 not all commence their existence at that period, is demon- 
 strable from the fact, that, within the space of 2000 years 
 past, and even within the space of the two last centuries, new 
 stars have appeared in the heavens, which previously did not 
 exist in the concave of the firmament ; which, consequently, 
 have been created since the Mosaic period ; or, at least, had 
 undergone a change analogous to that which took place in our 
 globe, when it emerged from a chaotic state, to the form and 
 order in which we now behold it. Consequently, the phrase, 
 " God rested from all his works," must be understood, not 
 absolutely, or in reference to the whole system of nature, but 
 merely in relation to our world ; and as importing, that the 
 Creator then ceased to form any new species of beings on the 
 terraqueous globe. — The same canon will direct us in the in- 
 terpretation of those passages which refer to the last judgment, 
 and the destruction of the present constitution of our globe. 
 When, in reference to these events, it is said, " that the stars 
 shall fall from heaven," that " the powers of heaven shall be 
 shaken," and that " the earth and the heaven shall flee away," 
 our knowledge of the system of nature leads us to conclude, 
 either that such expressions are merely metaphorical, or that 
 they describe only the appearance, not the reality of things. 
 For it is impossible that the stars can ever fall to the earth, 
 since each of them is of a size vastly superior to our globe, 
 and could never be attracted to its surface, without unhinging 
 the laws and the fabric of universal nature. The appearance^ 
 however, of the " heaven fleeing away," would be produced, 
 should the earth's diurnal rotation, at that period, be suddenly 
 stopped, as will most probable happen ; in which case, all 
 n9.ture in this sublunary system, would be thrown into confu- 
 sion, and the heavens, with all their host, would appear to flee 
 away. 
 
 Now, the scientific student of Scripture alone can judi- 
 ciously apply the canon to which I have adverted ; he alone 
 can appreciate its utility in the interpretation of the sacred 
 
 23* 
 
274 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 oracles y for he knows the facts which the philosopher arfd 
 the astronomer have ascertained to exist in the system of 
 nature ; from the yvant of which information, many divines, 
 whose comments on Scripture have, in other respects, been 
 judicious, have displayed their ignorance, and fallen into egre- 
 gious blunders, when attempting to explain the first chapters of 
 Genesis, and several parts of the book of Job, which have 
 tended to bring discredit on the oracles of heaven. 
 
 II. — The System of JVature Confirms and Illustrates the 
 Scriptural Doctrine of the Depravity of Man. 
 
 In the preceding parts of this volume, I have stated several 
 striking instances of Divine benevolence, which appear in the 
 construction of the organs of the animal system, in the con- 
 stitution of the earth, the waters, and the atmosphere, and in 
 the variety of beauties and sublimities which adorn the face of 
 nature; all which proclaim, in language which can scarcely 
 be mistaken, that the Creator has a special regard to the hap- 
 piness of his creatures. — Yet the Scriptures uniformly de- 
 clare, that man has fallen from his primeval state of inno- 
 cence, and has violated the laws of his Maker ; that " his 
 heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked ;" 
 and that " destruction and misery are in his ways." Obser 
 vation and experience also demonstrate, that a moral disease 
 pervades the whole human family, from the most savage to 
 the most civilized tribes of mankind ; which has displayed its 
 virulence in those wars and devastations which have, in all 
 ages, convulsed the world ; and which daily displays itself in 
 those acts of injustice, fraud, oppression, malice, tyranny, and 
 cruelty, which are perpetrated in every country, and among 
 all the ranks even of civilized life. That a world inhabited 
 by moral agents of this description would display, in its phy- 
 sical constitution, certain indications of its Creator's displea- 
 sure, is what we should naturally expect, from a consideration 
 of those attributes of his nature with which we are acquainted. 
 Accordingly, we find, that, amidst all the evidences of benevo- 
 lence which our globe exhibits, there are not wanting, certain 
 displays of " the wrath of Heaven against the ungodliness 
 and unrighteousness of men," in order to arouse them to a 
 sense of their guilt, and to inspire them with reverence and 
 awe of that Being whom they have offended. The following 
 facts, among many others, may be considered as corroborating 
 this position. 
 
 In the first place, the present state of the interior strata of 
 
DEPRAVITY OF MAN. 275 
 
 ike earth may be considered as a presumptive evidence, tliat 
 a moral revolution has taken place since man was placed upon- 
 the globe. When we penetrate into the interior recesses of 
 the earth, we find its different strata bent into the most irre- 
 gular forms ; sometimes lying horizontally, sometimes pro- 
 jecting upwards, and sometimes downwards, and thrown into 
 confusion ; as if some dreadful concussion had spread its 
 ravages through every part of the solid crust of our globe. 
 This is visible in every region of the earth. Wherever the 
 miner penetrates among his subterraneous recesses, wherever 
 the fissures and caverns of the earth are explored, and 
 wherever the mountains lay bare their rugged cliffs, the marks 
 of ruin, convulsion, and disorder meet the eye of the beholder. 
 Evidences of these facts are to be found in the records of all 
 intelligent travellers and geologists who have visited Alpine 
 districts, or explored the subterraneous regions of the earth ; 
 of which I have already stated a few instances, in the article 
 of Geology, pp. 160, 165, 166. — These facts seem evidently 
 to indicate that the earth is not now in the same state in which 
 it originally proceeded from the hand of its Creator ; for such 
 a scene of disruption and derangement appears incompatible 
 with that order, harmony and beauty which are apparent in 
 the other departments of nature. We dare not assert, that 
 such terrible convulsions took place by chance, or indepen- 
 dent of the will of the Creator ; nor dare we insinuate, that 
 they were the effects of a random display of Almighty Power ; 
 and, therefore, we are necessarily led to infer, that a moral 
 cause, connected with the conduct of the rational inhabitants 
 of the globe, must have existed, to warrant so awful an inter- 
 position of Divine Power ; for the fate of the animated beings 
 which then peopled the earth, was involved in the conse- 
 quences which must have attended this terrible catastrophe. 
 The volume of Revelation on this point, concurs with the de- 
 ductions of reason, and assigns a cause adequate to warrant 
 the production of such an extraordinary effect. " The wick- 
 edness of man was great upon the earth ; the earth was 
 FILLED WITH VIOLENCE ; evciy puiposc and desire of man's 
 heart was only evil continually." Man had frustrated 
 the end of his existence ; the earth was turned into a habita- 
 tion of demons ; the long period to which his life was pro- 
 tracted, only served to harden him in his wickedness, and to 
 enable him to carry his diabolical schemes to their utmost 
 extent, till the social state of the human race became a scene 
 of unmixed depravity and misery. And the physica^ efl?ects 
 of the punishment of this universal defection from God, are 
 
276 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 presented to our view in every land, and will remain to all 
 ages, as a visible memorial that man has rebelled against the 
 authority of his Maker. 
 
 2. The existence of Volcanoes, and the terrible ravages they 
 produce, bear testimony to the state of man as a depraved 
 intelligence. A volcano is a mountain, generally of an im- 
 mense size, from whose summit issue fire, smoke, sulphur, 
 and torrents of melted lava, (see p. 141.) Previous to an 
 eruption, the smoke, which is continually ascending from the 
 crater, or opening in the top, increases and shoots up to an 
 immense height ; forked lightning issues from the ascending 
 column ; showers of ashes are thrown out to the distance of 
 forty or fifty miles ; volleys of red hot stones are discharged 
 to a great height in the air ; the sky appears thick and dark ; 
 the luminaries of heaven disappear ; and these terrible fore- 
 bodings are accompanied with thunder, lightning, frequent 
 concussions of the earth, and dreadful subterraneous bellow- 
 ings. When these alarming appearances have continued 
 sometimes four or five months, the lava begins to make its 
 appearance, either boiling over the top, or forcing its way 
 through the side of the mountain. This fiery deluge of 
 melted minerals rolls down the declivity of the mountain, 
 forming a dismal flaming stream, sometimes fourteen miles 
 long, six miles broad, and 200 feet deep. In its course, it 
 destroys orchards, vineyards, cornfields, and villages ; and 
 sometimes cities, containing twenty thousand inhabitants, 
 have been swallowed up and consumed. Several other phe- 
 nomena, of awful sublimity, sometimes accompany these 
 eruptions. In the eruption of Vesuvius, in 1794, a shock of 
 an earthquake was felt ; and, at the same instant, a fountain 
 of bright fire, attended with the blackest smoke, and a loud 
 report, was seen to issue, and to rise to a great height from 
 the cone of the mountain ; and was soon succeeded by fifteen 
 other fiery fountains, all in a direct line, extending for a mile 
 and a half downwards. This fiery scene was accompanied 
 with the loudest thunder, the incessant reports of which, like 
 those of a numerous heavy artillery, were attended by a con- 
 tinued hollow murmur, similar to that of the roaiing of the 
 ocean during a violent storm. The houses in Naples, at 
 seven miles' distance, were for several hours in a constant 
 tremor ; the bells ringing, and doors and windows incessantly 
 rattling and shaking. The murmur of the prayers and lamen- 
 tations of a numerous population added to the horrors of the 
 scene. All travellers, who have witnessed these eruptions, 
 seem to be at a loss to find words sufficiently emphatic to 
 
DEPRAVITY OF MAN. 277 
 
 express the terrors of the scene. " One cannot form a juster 
 idea," says Bishop Berkley, " of the noise emitted by the 
 mountain, than by imagining a mixed sound made up of the 
 raging of a tempest, the murmur of a troubled sea, and the 
 roaring of thunder and artillery, confused altogether. Though 
 we heard this at the distance of twelve miles, yet it was very 
 terrible.''^ In 1744, the flam.es of Cotopaxi, in South Ame- 
 rica, rose 3,000 feet above the brink of the crater, and its 
 roarings were heard at the distance of six hundred miles. 
 " At the port of Guayaquil, 150 miles distant from the crater," 
 says Humboldt, " we heard, day and night, the noise of this 
 volcano, like continued discharges of a battery, and we distin- 
 guished these tremendous sounds even on the Pacific ocean." 
 
 The ravages produced by volcanoes are in proportion to 
 the terror they inspire. In the eruption of Etna, in 1669, the 
 stream of lava destroyed, in 40 days, the habitations of 27,000 
 persons ; and, of 20,000 inhabitants of the city of Catania, 
 only 3,000 escaped. In the year 79, the celebrated cities of 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely overwhelmed and 
 buried under ground by an eruption of Vesuvius, and the spots 
 on which they stood remained unknown for 1600 years. 
 Since that period, about 40 eruptions have taken place, each 
 of them producing the most dreadful ravages. But the vol- 
 canoes of Asia and America are still more terrible and de- 
 structive than those of Europe. The volcanic mountain 
 Pichinca, near Quito, caused, on one occasion, the destruction 
 of 35,000 inhabitants. In the year 1772, an eruption of a 
 mountain in the island of Java, destroyed 40 villages, and 
 several thousands of the inhabitants ; and in October, 1822, 
 eighty-eight hamlets, and above 2000 persons, were destroyed 
 in the same island, by a sudden eruption from a new -volcano. 
 The eruption of Tomboro, in the island of Sumbawa, in 1815, 
 was so dreadful, that all the Moluccas, Java, Sumatra, and 
 Borneo, to the distance of a thousand miles from the moun- 
 tain, felt tremulous motions, and heard the report of explo- 
 sions. In Java, at the distance of 340 miles, the clouds of 
 ashes from the volcano produced utter darkness. 
 
 Volcanoes are more numerous than is generally imagined. 
 They are to be found in every quarter of the world, from the 
 icy shores of Kamtschatka to the mountains of Patagonia. 
 Humboldt enumerates 40 volcanoes constantly burning, be- 
 tween Cotopaxi and the Pacific Ocean ; 20 have been observed 
 in the chain of mountains that stretches along Kamtschatka ; 
 and many of them are to be seen in the Phillippines, the 
 Moluccas, the Cape de Verd, the Sandwich, the Ladrone, and 
 
278 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 other islands in the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is stated 
 in vol. 6th of Sup. to Ency. Brit, lately published, that about 
 205 volcanoes are known, including only those which have 
 been active within a period to which histoiy or tradition 
 reaches. Europe contains 14 ; and, of the whole number, it 
 is computed, that 107 are in islands, and 98 on the great 
 continents. 
 
 Can we then suppose, that so many engines of terror and 
 destruction, dispersed over every quarter of the globe, are 
 consistent with the conduct of a benevolent Creator towards 
 an innocent race of men 1 If so, we must either admit that the 
 Creator had it not in his power, when arranging our terrestrial 
 system, to prevent the occasional action of these dreadful 
 ravagers, or, that he is indifferent to the happiness of his 
 innocent offspring. The former admission is inconsistent 
 with the idea of his Omnipotence, and the latter, with the idea 
 of his universal Benevolence. It is not, therefore, enthu- 
 siasm, but the fairest deduction of reason to conclude, that 
 they are indications of God's displeasure against a race of 
 transgressors who have apostatized from his laws. 
 
 3. The same reasoning will apply to the ravages produced 
 by earthquakes. Next to volcanoes, earthquakes are the 
 most terrific phenomena of nature, and are even far more 
 destructive to man, and to the labors of his hands. An earth- 
 quake, which consists in a sudden motion of the earth, is 
 generally preceded by a rumbling sound, sometimes like that 
 of a number of carriages driving furiously along the pavement 
 of a street, sometimes like the rushing noise of a mighty wind, 
 and sometimes like the explosions of artillery. Their effect 
 on the surface of the earth is various. Sometimes it is instan- 
 taneously heaved up in a perpendicular direction, and some- 
 times it assumes a kind of rolling motion, from side to side. — 
 The ravages which earthquakes have produced, are terrible 
 beyond description ; and are accomplished almost in a mo- 
 ment. In 1692, the city of Port-Royal, in Jamaica, was 
 destroyed by an earthquake, in the space of two minutes, and 
 the houses sunk into a gulph forty fathoms deep. In 1693, 
 an earthquake happened in Sicily, which either destroyed, or 
 greatly damaajed, fifty-four cities, and an incredible number of 
 villages. The city of Catania was utterly overthrown : the 
 sea all of a sudden began to roar ; mount Etna to send forth 
 immense spires of flame ; and immediately a shock ensued, as 
 if all the artillery in the world had been discharged. The birds 
 flew about astonished ; the sun was darkened ; the beasts ran 
 howling from the hills ; a dark cloud of dust covered the air i 
 
DEPRAVITY OF MAN. 279 
 
 and, though the shock did not last three minutes, yet nine- 
 teen thousand of the inhabitants of the city perished in the 
 ruins. This shock extended to a circumference of 7000 
 miles. 
 
 Earthquakes have been producing their ravages in various 
 parts of the world, and in every age. Pliny informs us, that 
 12 cities in Asia Minor were swallowed up in one night. In 
 the year 115, the city of Antioch, and a great part of the adja- 
 cent country, were buried by. an earthquake. About 300 
 years after, it was again destroyed, along with 40,000 inhabi- 
 tants; and, after an interval of only 60 years, it was a third 
 time overturned, with the loss of not less than 60,000 souls. 
 In 1755, Lisbon was destroyed by an earthquake, and it buried 
 under its ruins above 50,000 inhabitants. The effects of this 
 terrible earthquake were felt over the greater part of Europe 
 and Africa, and even in the midst of the Atlantic ocean ; and 
 are calculated to have extended over a space of not less than 
 four millions of square miles. In August, 1822, two-thirds 
 of the city of Aleppo, which contained 40,000 houses, and 
 200,000 inhabitants, were destroyed by an earthquake, and 
 nearly thirty thousand inhabitants were buried under the ruins. 
 — To suppose that the human beings who have been victims 
 to the ravages of earthquakes and volcanoes, " were sinners 
 above all those who dwelt around them," would be the height 
 of impiety and presumption. But, the fact that thousands of 
 rational beings have been swept from existence, in a manner 
 so horrible and tremendous, seems plainly to indicate, that 
 they belonged to a race of apostate intelligences, who had 
 violated the commands of their Creator. Such visitations are 
 quite accordant to the idea of man being in the condition of a 
 transgressor ; but, if he were an innocent creature, they would 
 be altogether unaccountable, as happening under the govern- 
 ment of a Being of unbounded benevolence. 
 
 4. The phenomena of thunder- storms^ tempests^ and hurri' 
 canes, and the ravages they produce, are also presumptive 
 proofs that man is a depraved intelligence. In that season of 
 the year when Nature is arrayed in her most beautiful attire, 
 and the whole terrestrial landscape tends to inspire the mind 
 with cheerfulness — suddenly a sable cloud emerges from the 
 horizon — the sky assumes a baleful aspect — a disiHal gloom 
 envelopes the face of nature— the lightnings flash from one 
 en3 of the horizon to another — the thunders roll with awful 
 majesty along the verge of heaven, till at length they burst 
 over head in tremendous explosions. The sturdy oak is shat- 
 tered and despoiled of its foliage ; rocks are rent into shivers ; 
 
280 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 and the grazing herds are struck into a Hfeless group. Even 
 man is not exempted from danger in the midst of this appall- 
 ing scene. For hundreds in every age have fallen victims 
 either to the direct stroke of the lightning, or to the concus- 
 sions and conflagrations with which it has been attended. In 
 tropical countries, the phenomena of thunder-storms are more 
 dreadful and appalling, than in our temperate climate. The 
 thunder frequently continues for days and weeks in almost one 
 incessant roar ; the rains are poured down in torrents ; and 
 the flashes of lightning follow each other in so rapid a succes- 
 sion, that the whole atmosphere and the surrounding hills 
 seem to be in a blaze. In some instances, the most dreadful 
 effects have been produced by the bursting of an electrical 
 cloud. In 1772, a bright cloud was observed at midnight to 
 cover a mountain in the Island of Java ; it emitted globes of 
 fire so luminous, that the night became as clear as day. Its 
 effects were astonishing. Every thing was destroyed for 7 
 leagues round ; houses were demohshed ; plantations buried 
 in the earth ; and 2140 people lost their lives, besides 1500 
 head of cattle, and a vast number of horses and other animals. 
 — Eiicy. Brit. — Art. Cloud. 
 
 Is it not reasonable, then, to conclude, that such awful phe- 
 nomena as storms, volcanoes, and earthquakes, are so many 
 occasional indications of the frown of an offended Creator upon 
 a race of transgressors, in order to arouse them to a sense of 
 their apostacy from the God of heaven? We cannot con- 
 ceive that such physical operations, accompanied by so many 
 terrific and destructive effects, are at all compatible with the 
 idea that man is at present in a 'paradisiacal state, and pos- 
 sessed of that moral purity in which he was created. Such 
 appaling displays of Almighty power are in complete unison 
 with the idea, that man is a trangressor, and that the present 
 dispensations of God are a mixture of mercy and of judgment ; 
 but if he belong to an innocent race of moral intelligences, 
 they appear quite anomalous, and are altogether inexplicable, 
 on the supposition, that a Being of infinite benevolence and 
 rectitude directs the operations of the physical and moral 
 world ; more especially when we consider the admirable care 
 which is displayed in the construction of animal bodies, in 
 order to prevent pain, and to produce pleasurable sensations. 
 When man was first brought into existence, his thoughts and 
 affections, we must suppose, were in unison with the will of 
 his Creator ; his mind was serene and unruffled ; and, con- 
 sequently, no foreboding apprehensions of danger would, in 
 such a state, take possession of his breast. But after he had 
 
DEPRAVITY OF MAN. 281 
 
 swerved from the path of primeval rectitude, and especially 
 after the Dehige had swept away the inhabitants of the Ante- 
 diluvian world, the constitution of the earth and the atmosphere 
 seems to have undergone a mighty change, corresponding to 
 the degraded state into which he had fallen ; so that those very 
 elements which may have formerly ministered to his enjoy- 
 ment — 'by being formed into different combinations — now con- 
 spire to produce terror and destruction. 
 
 The same important conclusion might have been deduced, 
 from a consideration of the immense deserts of marshes and 
 barren sands which are dispersed over the globe — the vast and 
 frightful regions of ice around the poles — the position of the 
 mineral strata, and the vast disproportion which the extent ol 
 the dry land bears to the expanse of the ocean — all which cir- 
 cumstances, and many others, in conjunction with the facts 
 above-stated, conspire to show, that man no longer stands in 
 the rank of a pure intelligence ; and that his habitation cor 
 responds, in some degree, to his state of moral degradation 
 By overlooking this consideration, St. Pierre, and other natu- 
 ralists have found themselves much at a loss, when attempting 
 to vindicate the wisdom and equity of Providence, in the phy- 
 sical disorders which exist in the present constitution of our 
 globe. The circumstance, that man is a fallen creature, ap- 
 pears the only clue to guide us in unravelling the mysteries of 
 Providence, and to enable us td perceive the harmony and co:i- 
 sistency of the Divine operations in the system of nature ; and 
 no other consideration will fully account for the disorders 
 which exist in the present economy of our world. 
 
 But, it is a most consoling consideration, that, amidst a 1 
 the physical evils which abound, the benevolence and mercy 
 of God are admirably blended with the indications of his dis- 
 pleasure. Thunder-storms and tempests contribute to the 
 purification of the atmosphere ; and volcanoes are converted 
 into funnels for vomiting up those fiery materials which pro- 
 duce earthquakes, and which might otherwise swallow up 
 whole provinces in one mighty gulf. In the ordinary course 
 of things, such phenomena are more terrific than destructive ; 
 and are calculated rather to rouse an unthinking world to con- 
 sideration, than to prove the instruments of human destruc- 
 tion. Compared with the miseries which men have volunta- 
 rily inflicted on one another, the destructive eftects of the ele- 
 ments of nature dwindle into mere temporary and trifling acci- 
 dents. We have reason to believe, that a much greater destruc- 
 tion of human beings has been produced by two or three of the 
 late battles in modern Europe, such as those of Waterloo, 
 
 24 
 
282 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 Borodina, and Smoleiisko, than has been produced by all the 
 electrical storms, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, which 
 have raged for the space of a hundred years. It has been calcu- 
 lated, that during the Russian campaign of 181 2, including men, 
 women, and children, belonging to the French and Russians, 
 there were not less than five hundred thousand human victims 
 sacrificed to the demon of war. It is probable, that the des- 
 truction produced among the human race, by the convulsions 
 of nature, since the commencement of time, (the deluge only 
 excepted,) does not amount to above four or five millions of 
 lives ; but were we to take into account the destruction of 
 human life produced by ambition, tyranny, oppression, super- 
 stition, wars, devastations, murders, and horrid cruelties, in 
 every period of the world, it would, doubtless, amount to seve- 
 ral hundreds of millions. So that, amidst the most terrible dis- 
 plays of the displeasure of God against the sins of men, mercy 
 is mingled Avith judgment ; and while man is the greatest 
 enemy and destroyer of his own species, benevolence is the 
 prominent feature of all the arrangements of the Deity in the 
 physical world. For " his tender mercies are over all his 
 works."* 
 
 III. — The discoveries which have been made in the system of 
 nature^ illustrate the doctrine of the Resurrection of the 
 Dead. 
 
 The doctrine of a Resurrection from the dead, at first view, 
 appears to involve in it a variety of difficulties, and apparent 
 contradictions. That a complex organical machine, as the 
 human body is, consisting of thousands of diversified parts 
 for the performance of its functions, after it has been reduced 
 to atoms, and those atoms dispersed to " the four winds of 
 heaven" — should be again reared up with the same materials, 
 in a new and more glorious form — is an idea which seems to 
 baffle the human comprehension ; and, in all probability, would 
 never have entered the mind of man, had it not been commu- 
 nicated by Divine Revelation. Accordingly we find, that the 
 philosophers of antiquity, though many of them believed in 
 the doctrine of a future state, never once dreamed, that the 
 bodies of men, after they had been committed to the dust, 
 
 * The facts stated in this section are expressed, for the most part in the 
 author's own words, for the sake of compression. — His authorities are, 
 Goldsmith's " Natural Hist.," Humboldt's "Travels," Brydon's," Tour," 
 Sir W. Hamilton's " Observations," Raffles' " History of Java," Eiicy. 
 Brit. Art. Etna, Volcano, Earthquake, Antioch, Cloud ; The Literary and 
 Scientific Journals for 1822, &c. 
 
THE RESURRECTION ILLUSTRATED. 283 
 
 would ever again be reanimated ; and hence, when the Apostle 
 Paul proposed this doctrine to the Athenian philosophers, they 
 scouted the idea, as if it had been the reverie of a madman. 
 And, indeed, without a strong conviction, and a lively impres- 
 sion of the infinite power and intelligence of God, the mind 
 cannot rely with unshaken confidence on the declaration of a 
 future fact so widely different from all the obvious phenomena 
 of nature, and from every thing that lies within the range of 
 human experience. " If a man die," says Job, " shall he live 
 again ? There is hope of a tree, if it be cut down, that it will 
 sprout again, and bring forth boughs like a plant. But man 
 dieth and wasteth away ; yea, man giveth up the ghost, and 
 where is he ?" When the mind, however, is frequently exer- 
 cised in contemplations on the stupendous works of the Al- 
 mighty, it must feel an impressive conviction, that " nothing 
 can be too hard for Jehovah." When we endeavor to draw 
 aside the veil which conceals many of the scenes of nature 
 from the vulgar eye, we perceive a variety of operations and 
 analogies, which tend to assist us in forming a conception, not 
 only of the 'possihUihj of a resurrection, but also of the manner 
 in which it may probably be effected, when the power of Om- 
 nipotence is interposed. 
 
 The transformations of insects afford us a beautiful illustra- 
 tion of this subject. All the butterflies which we see flutter- 
 ing about in the summer months, were originally caterpillars. 
 Before they arrive at that highest stage of their existence, they 
 pass through four different transformations. The first state 
 of a butterfly is that of an egg ; it next assumes the form of a 
 loathsome crawling worm ; after remaining some time in this 
 state, it throws off its caterpillar skin ; languishes ; refuses to 
 eat ; ceases to move ; and is shut up, as it were, in a tomb. 
 In this state, the animal is termed a chrysalis ; it is covered 
 with a thin crust or shell, and remains, sometimes for six or 
 eight months, without motion, and apparently without life. 
 After remaining its allotted time in this torpid condition, it be- 
 gins to acquire new life and vigor ; it bursts its imprisonment, 
 and comes forth a butterfly, with wings tinged ^\ith the most 
 beautiful colors. It mounts the air ; it ranges from flower to 
 flower, and seems to rejoice in its new and splendid existence. 
 How very different does it appear in this state from what it did 
 in the proceding stages of its existence ! How unlikely did it 
 seem that a rough, hairy, crawling worm, which lay for such a 
 length of time in a death-like torpor, and enshrouded in a tomb, 
 should be re-animated, as it were, and changed into so beau- 
 tiful a form, and endued with such powers of rapid motion ! 
 
284 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 Perhaps the change to be effected on the bodies of men, at the 
 general resurrection, may not be greater, nor more wonderful 
 in its nature, than are the changes which take place from the 
 first to the last stage of a caterpillar's existence. In such 
 transformations, then, we behold a lively representation of the 
 death and resurrection of a righteous man. " A little while 
 he shall lie in the ground, as the seed lies in the bosom of the 
 earth ; but he shall be raised again, and shall never die any 
 more." 
 
 There is another illustration, taken from a consideration of 
 tlie chemical changes of matter, which has a still more direct 
 bearing on the doctrine of a resurrection. We know, that 
 substances which are invisibly incorporated with air, .water, 
 and other fluids, and which seem to be destroyed, may be 
 made to re-appear in their original form by the application of 
 certain chemical re-agents. For example ; put a small piece 
 of solid camphor into a phial half-filled with alcohol or spirits 
 of wine ; in a short time the camphor will be dissolved in the 
 fluid, and the spirit will be as transparent as at first. If water 
 be now added, it will unite with the ardent spirit, and the cam- 
 phor will be separated and fall to the bottom of the phiaL In 
 this way the camphor may be nearly all recovered as at 
 first ; and, by distillation, the alcohol may also be separated 
 from the water, and exhibited in a separate state. I have 
 already noticed, that Carbon^ which forms an essential part of 
 all animal and vegetable substances, is found to be not only 
 indestructible by age, but in all its combinations, which are 
 infinitely diversified, it still preserves its identity. In the state 
 of carbonic acid it exists in union with earths and stones in 
 unbounded quantities ; and though buried for thousands of 
 years beneath immense rocks, or in the centre of mountains, 
 it is still carbonic acid ; for no sooner is it disengaged from 
 its dormity than it rises with all the life and vigor of recent 
 formation, not in the least impaired by its torpid inactivity dur- 
 ing a lapse of ages. The beams of the theatre at Hercula- 
 neum were converted into charcoal (which is one of the 
 compounds of Carbon) by the lava which overflowed that city, 
 during an eruption of Mount Vesuvius ; and during the lapse of 
 1700 years, the charcoal has remained as entire as if it had 
 been formed but yesterday, and it will probably continue so to 
 the end of the world. In addition to these facts it may be 
 stated, that provision has been made for the restoration of the 
 fallen leaves of vegetables which rot upon the ground, and, to 
 a careless observer, would appear to be lost forever. It has 
 been shown by experiment, that whenever the soil become;?. 
 
GENERAL CONFLAGRATION. 285 
 
 charged with such matter, the oxygen of the atmosphere 
 combmes with it, and converts it into carbonic acid gas. 
 The consequence of which is, that this very same carbon is, in 
 process of time, absorbed by a new race of vegetables, which 
 .t clothes with a new foliage, and which is itself destined to 
 judergo similar putrefaction and renovation to the end of 
 time."* 
 
 These facts, and others of a similar description which 
 might have been stated, demonstrate, that one of the con- 
 stituent parts of animal bodies remains unalterably the same, 
 amidst all the revolutions of time, and all the changes and 
 decompositions which take place in the system of nature ; 
 and, consequently, that though human bodies may remain in a 
 state of putrefaction for ages, in the earth and in the waters, 
 yet their component parts remain unchanged, and in readiness 
 to enter into a new and more glorious combination, at the 
 command of that Intelligence to whom all the principles of 
 nature and all their diversified changes are intimately known ; 
 and whose Power is able to direct their combinations to the 
 accomplishment of his purposes. — Though such considera- 
 tions as these may have no weight on certain unreflecting 
 minds, that never meet with any difficulties in the economy 
 either of Nature or of Redemption ; yet, the man of deep re- 
 flection, who has frequently had his mind distracted with the 
 apparent improbability of the accomplishment of certain Di- 
 vine Declarations, will joyfully embrace such facts in the 
 economy of nature, as a sensible support to his faith in the 
 promises of his God ; and will resign his body to dust and 
 putrefaction, in the firm hope of emerging from the tomb to a 
 future and more glorious transformation. 
 
 IT. The discoveries of Science tend to illusti-ate the doctrine 
 of the General Conflagration. 
 
 We are informed, in the Sacred Oracles, that a period is 
 approaching, when " the elements shall melt with fervent 
 heat, and the earth, and the works that are therein, shall be 
 burned up." Science has ascertained certain facts in the con- 
 stitution of nature, which lead us to form some conception of 
 the manner in which this awful catastrophe may probably be 
 eflfected, and also of the ease with which it may be accom- 
 plished, when the destined period shall have arrived. It was 
 formerly stated, (pp. 73, 223,) that the atmosphere, or the air 
 we breathe, is a compound substance, composed of two very 
 
 * Parkes' " Cliem. Catechism," p. 266, and the additional notes. 
 
286 TUt CHRISTIAN PHILOSOFHER. 
 
 different and opposite principles, termed oxygen and nitrogei:., 
 The oxygen, which forms about a fifth part of the atmosphere^ 
 is now ascertained to be the principle of flame ; a Hghted 
 taper immersed in this gas, burns with a brilliancy too great 
 for the eye to bear ; and even a rod of iron or steel is made to 
 blaze under its energy. 
 
 The modern infidel, like the scoffers of old, scouts the idea 
 of the dissolution of the world, and of the restitution of the 
 universe, " because all things continue as they were from the 
 beginning of the creation ; not knowing the Scriptures, nor the 
 power of God ;" and not considering the principles and facts 
 in the system of nature, which indicate the possibility of such 
 an event. But, from the fact now stated, we may learn, how 
 easily this effect may be accomplished, even in conformity 
 with those laws which now operate in the constitution of our 
 globe. For should the Creator issue forth his Almighty Fiat 
 — " Let the nitrogen of the atmosphere be completely sepa- 
 rated from the oxygen, and let the oxygen exert its native 
 energies without control, wherever it extends ;" — from what 
 we know of its nature, we are warranted to conclude, that in- 
 stantly a universal conflagration would commence throughout 
 all the kingdoms of nature — not only wood, coals, sulphur, 
 bitumen, and other combustible substances, but even the 
 hardest rocks and stones, and all the metals, fossils, and 
 minerals, and water itself, which is a compound of two inflam- 
 mable substances, would blaze with a rapidity which would 
 carry destruction through the whole expanse of the terra- 
 queous globe, and change its present aspect into that of a new 
 world : — at the same time, all the other laws of nature might 
 still operate as they have hitherto done since the creation of 
 the world. 
 
 I do not mean positively to assert, that this is the agent 
 which the Almighty will certainly employ for accomplishing 
 this terrible catastrophe, (though we think it highly probable,) 
 since Infinite Power is possessed of numerous resources for 
 accomplishing its objects, which lie beyond the sphere of our 
 knowledge and comprehension. But I have brought forward 
 this fact, to show with what infinite ease this event may be ac- 
 complished, when Almighty Power is interposed. By means 
 of the knowledge we have acquired of the constitution of the 
 atmosphere, and by the aid of chemical apparatus, we can 
 perform experiments on a small scale, similar in kind, though 
 infinitely inferior in degree, to the awful event under consider- 
 ation. And, therefore, we can easily conceive that He who 
 formed the expansive atmosphere which surrounds us, and 
 
6ENERAL CONFLAGRATION. 287 
 
 who knows the native energy of its constituent principles, 
 may, by a simple volition, make that invisible fluid, in a few 
 moments, the cause of the destruction of the present constitu- 
 tion of our world, and, at the same time, the means of its 
 subsequent renovation. For as fire does not annihilate, but 
 only changes the forms of matter, this globe on which we 
 now tread, and which bears the marks of ruin and disruption 
 in several parts of its structure, may come forth from the 
 flames of the general conflagration, purified from all its physi- 
 cal evils, adorned with new beauties and sublimities, and 
 rendered a fit habitation for pure intelligences, either of our 
 own species or of another order. For, though the " heavens," 
 or the atmosphere, " shall be dissolved, and the elements 
 melt with fervent heat ;" " yet," says the Apostle Peter, 
 " we, according to his promise, look for new heavens and a 
 new earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness." Whether, after 
 being thus renovated, it shall be allotted as the residence of the 
 redeemed inhabitants of our world, is beyond our province at 
 present to determine. But if not, it will, in all probability, be 
 allotted as the abode of other rational beings, who may be 
 transported from other regions, to contemplate a new province 
 of the Divine empire, or who may be immediately created for 
 the purpose of taking possession of this renovated world. For 
 we have reason to believe, that the energies of Creating 
 Power will be continually exerted, in replenishing the bound- 
 less universe, throughout all the ages of infinite duration, and 
 that no substances, or worlds which God has created, will ever 
 be suffered to fall into annihilation — at least, that the original 
 atoms of matter will never be destroyed, whatever new forms 
 they may assume, and however varied the combinations into 
 which they may enter. 
 
 The above are only a few examples out of many which 
 were intended to be specified, of the illustrations which the 
 system of nature affords of the doctrines and facts of Revela- 
 tion, but the narrow limits of this volume prevent further 
 enlargement. 
 
 It was also intended to follow up the preceding discussions 
 with particular illustrations of the following topics : — The 
 views which science affords of the incessant energies of 
 Creating Poiver — the changes and revolutions which appear 
 to have happened, and which are still going on in the distant 
 regions of the universe, as tending to amplifij our vieivs of the 
 grand and multifarious otijects over which Divine Providence 
 'presides — the connection of science with a future state — the 
 aids which the discoveries of science afford, in enabling us to 
 
288 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 form a conception of the scenes of future felicity — of the em^ 
 ployments of the heavenly inhabitants, and of their perpetual 
 advances in knowledge and happiness, and in their views.of the 
 perfections of Deity — the moral relations of intelligent beings 
 to their Creator, and to each other ; and the physical grounds 
 or reasons of those moral laws which the Deity has promul- 
 gated for regulating the conduct, and for promoting the har- 
 mony and order of intelligent agents—- illustrations of the 
 allusions of the Sacred writers to the system of the material 
 world — the simnUaneous progress of science and religion^ 
 considered as an evidence of the connection of the one with 
 the other — the moral effects of the study of science in connec- 
 tion with religion — replies to objections and insinuations which 
 have been thrown out against the idea of combining the dis- 
 coveries of Science with the discoveries of revelation, &c. 
 But, as illustrations of these, and various other topics con- 
 nected with them, would occupy two or three hundred pages, 
 they must, in the mean time, be postponed.* 
 
 * A work, embracing illustrations of some of the topics here stated, is pre- 
 
 fiaring for the press, under the title of" The Philosophy of Religion ;^'' or, an 
 Uustration of the Moral Laws of the Universe, on the principles of Reason 
 and Divine Revelation." In this work, an original, and, at the same time, 
 a popular train of thought will be prosecuted, and the diflferent topics 
 will be enlivened with illustrative facts, borrowed from the scenery of 
 nature and the moral history of mankind. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 BENEFICIAL EFFECTS WHICH MIGHT RESULT TO CHRISTIAN 
 
 SOCIETY FROM CONNECTING THE DISCOVERIES OF 
 
 SCIENCE WITH THE OBJECTS OF RELIGION. 
 
 f. — The variety of topics which would be introduced into 
 Christian Instructions^ by connecting: them with the manifes- 
 tations of- Deity in the System of JVature, would have a 
 
 TENDENCY TO ALLURE THE ATTENTION OF THE YOUNG 
 
 TO RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS, and to afford JSIental Entertain- 
 ment, and JMoral Instruction to intelligent minds of every 
 description. 
 
 Novelty and variety appear to be essentially requisite in 
 order to rouse the attention, not only of the more ignorant but 
 even of the more intelligent class of mankind, and to excite 
 them to make progress in the path of intellectual and moral 
 improvement. The principle of curiosity, which appears at a 
 very early period of life, and which variegated scenery and 
 novel objects tend to stimulate and to gratify — so far from 
 being checked and decried, in a religious point of view, as 
 some have been disposed to do, ought to be encouraged and cul- 
 tivated in the minds both of the old and of the young. As it is a 
 principle which God himself has implanted in our natures, for 
 wise and important purposes, it requires only to be chastened, 
 and directed in a proper channel, in order to become one of 
 the most powerful auxiliaries in the cause of religion, and of 
 intellectual improvement. To gratify this principle, and to 
 increase its activity, the Creator has adorned our globe with a 
 combination of beauties and sublimities, strewed in endless 
 variety over all its different regions. The hills and dales, the 
 mountains and plains ; the seas, the lakes, the rivers, the 
 islands of every form and size which diversify the surface of 
 the ocean ; the bays, the gulfs, and peninsulas; the forests, the 
 groves, the deep dells, and towering elitfs ; the infinite variety 
 of trees, plants, flowers, and vegetable productions of evcrj-f 
 
290 THE QHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 hue, so profusely scattered over the face of Nature ; the diver- 
 S'ified productions of the mineral kingdom ; the variegated color- 
 ing spread over the face of nature ; together with the many 
 thousands of ditferent species of animated beings which tra- 
 verse the air, the waters, and the earth — atibrd so many stimuli 
 to rouse this principle into exercise, and to direct the mind to 
 the contemplation of the Creator. And as the earth displays 
 an endless diversity of objects, so the heavens, in so far as 
 they have been explored, exhibit a scenery both grand and 
 variegated. There is not a planet in the Solar System but 
 differs from another, in its magnitude, in its distance from the 
 central Ljminary about which it revolves, in the velocity of its 
 motion, in the extent of the circle it describes around the sun, 
 in the period of time in which its revolution is completed, in 
 its rotation round its axis, in the number of moons with which 
 it is attended, in the inclination of its, axis to the, plane of its 
 orbit, and the diversity of seasons which results from this cir- 
 cumstance ; in the density of its atmosphere, and the various 
 appearances which diversify its surface. And if we were 
 favored with a nearer view of these majestic orbs, we should, 
 doubtless, behold a similar variety in every part of their inter- 
 nal arrangements. — The surface of the moon presents a varie- 
 gated prospect of mountains and vales, but so very different 
 in their form, position, and arrangement, from what obtains^ 
 on the surface of our globe, that it would exhibit a scenery 
 altogether new and uncommon to an inhabitant of this world, 
 were he placed on the surface of that planet. Every comet, 
 too, is distinguished from another, by its magnitude, the extent 
 of its atmosphere, the length of its blazing tail, the rapidity of 
 its motion, and the figure of the curve it descrbes around the 
 sun. With regard to the fixed stars which are distributed, of 
 every size, and in every direction, through the immensity of 
 space, our senses, as well as the declaration of an inspired 
 writer, convince us, that, in point of brilliancy, color, and mag- 
 nitude, " one star diifereth from another star in glory." 
 
 And as the system of Nature in all its parts presents a 
 boundless variety of scenery, to arouse the attention, and to 
 gratify the desire for novelty, so the Revelation of God con- 
 tained in the Sacred Records, displays a diversified combina- 
 tion of the most sublime and interesting subjects and events. 
 "Were we to form an opinion of the compass of Divine Reve- 
 lation, from the range of subjects to which the minds of some 
 professing Christians are confined, it might all be compre- 
 hended within the limits of live or six chapters of the New 
 Testament : and all the rest might be thrown aside, as a dead- 
 
VARIETY OF TOPICS IN RELIGION. 291 
 
 weight upon the Christian System. But here, as in all the 
 other displays of the Almighty, Divine Perfection and Provi- 
 dence are exhibited in the most diversified aspects. Here we 
 have recorded a history of the creation and arrangement of our 
 globe, — of the formation of the first human pair, — of their 
 primeval innocence, temptation and fall, — of the arts which 
 were cultivated in the first ages of the world, — of the increase 
 of human wickedness, — of the building of the ark, — of the 
 drowning of the world by a universal deluge, — of the burning 
 of Sodom by fire from the clouds, — of the origin of languages, 
 — of the dividing of the Red Sea, — of the journeying of the 
 tribes of Israel through the deserts of Arabia, — of their con- 
 quest of the promised land, and their wars with the nations of 
 Canaan, — of the corporeal translation of Elijah from earth to 
 heaven, — of the manifestation of the Son of God in human 
 flesh, the benevolent miracles he performed, and the triumphs 
 he obtained over all the powers of hell and earth. We are 
 here presented with the most interesting and affecting narra- 
 tives, elegies, dramatic poems, and triumphal songs, — with 
 views of society in the earliest ages of the world, when the 
 lives of men were prolonged to nearly a thousand years, — with 
 splendid miracles performed in the land of Egypt, in the wil- 
 derness of Horeb, and in the " field of Zoan," when "the sun 
 and moon stood still in their habitation ;" when the waters of 
 the great deep were divided, and mountains shook and trem- 
 bled "at the presence of Jehovah," — with the glorious march- 
 ing of a whole nation through the Arabian deserts, under the 
 guidance of a miraculous pillar of clouds and fire, — with the 
 visits of celestial messengers, and the visible symbols of " a 
 present Deity," — with prophetical delineations of the present 
 and future condition of the race of Adam, — with descriptions 
 of the Power, Wisdom, Love, and Majesty of the Almighty, 
 and of his operations in Heaven and Earth, — with the results 
 and bearings of the Economy of Redemption, — with Divine 
 Songs, Odes and Hymns, composed by angels and inspired 
 men, — with maxims of moral wisdom, examples of sublime^ 
 eloquence, of strength of reasoning, and of manly boldness oi 
 reproof,— with Proverbs, Parables, Allegories, Exhortations, 
 Promises, Threatenings, and Consolatory addresses. In short, 
 we have here detailed, in the greatest variety — History, Anti- 
 quities, Voyages Travels, Philosophy, Geography, Natural 
 and Moral Science, Biography, Arts, Epic Poetry, Epistles, 
 Memoirs, Delineations of Nature, Sketches of Human Cha- 
 racter, Moral Precepts, Prophecies, Miracles, Narrations, 
 Wonderful Providences, Marvellous Deliverances, the Phe- 
 
292 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 nomena of the Air, the Waters, and the Earth ; the Past, the 
 Present, and the Future Scenes of the World — all blended 
 together in one harmonious system, without artificial order, 
 bul; with a majesty and grandeur corresponding to the style of 
 all the other Works of God, — and all calculated to gratify the 
 principle of curiosity — to convey " reproof, correction, and 
 instruction, in righteousness," and " to make the Man of God 
 perfect, and thoroughly furnished to every good work." 
 
 And, as the scenes of Nature, and the scenes of Revela 
 tion, are thus wonderfully diversified, in order to excite the 
 attention of intelligent beings, and to gratify the desire for 
 variety, so we have every reason to believe, that the scenes, 
 objects, and dispensations, which will be be displayed in the 
 heavenly world, will be incomparably more grand and diversi- 
 fied. When we consider the immensity of God's Universal 
 Kingdom, and the numerous systems, and worlds, and beings 
 comprehended within its vast circumference, and that the ener- 
 gies of Creating Power may be forever exerted in raising new 
 worlds into existence — we may rest assured, that the desire of 
 variety and of novelty, in holy intelligences, will be completely 
 gratified throughout an endless succession of existence ; and 
 that the most luxuriant imagination, in its boldest excursions, 
 can never go beyond the reality of those scenes of diversified 
 grandeur which the Heaven of heavens will display. 
 
 Now, since the book of Nature, and the Book of Revela- 
 tion, since all the manifestations of the Creator in heaven and 
 earth are characterized by their subhme and diversified aspect ; 
 we would ask, why should we not be imitators of God, in dis- 
 playing the diversified grandeur of his kingdom of Providence 
 and of Grace, before the minds of those whom we profess to 
 instruct ? Why should we confine our views to a few points 
 in the Christian system, to a few stones in the fabric of the 
 Divine operations, when " a wide and unbounded prospect lies 
 before us V Why should we not rather attempt to rouse the 
 moral and intellectual energies of mankind, from the pulpit, 
 from the press, in the school-room, and in the family circle, by 
 exhibiting the boundless variety of aspect which the Revela- 
 tions of Heaven present, and the holy tendencies of devout 
 contemplation on the Works and the Ways of God 1 that they 
 mav learn, with intelligence, to " meditate on all the works of 
 the Lord, and to talk of all his doings." — By enlarging and 
 diversifying the topics of religious discussion, according to the 
 views now stated, we have it in our power to spread out an 
 intellectual feast to allure and to gratify every variety of taste, 
 — the voung and the old, the learned and the unlearned ; yea, 
 
AMPLITUDE OP THE DIVINE EMPIRE. 293 
 
 even the careless and the ignorant, the sceptical and the dissi- 
 pated, might frequently be allured by the selection of a judi- 
 cious variety of striking and impressive objects and descrip- 
 tions, to partake of those mental enjoyments which might 
 ultimately issue in the happiest results. The man of an 
 inquisitive turn of mind, who now throws aside every thinfr 
 that has the appearance of religion, on account of its dulness, 
 might have his curiosity gratified amidst such a variety as that 
 to which I allude ; and, from perceiving the bearing of every 
 discussion on the great rcahties of religion and a future state, 
 might be led to more serious inquiries after the path that leads 
 to immortality. In a word, to associate and to amalgamate, 
 as it were, the arts and sciences, and every department of 
 useful knowledge, with divine subjects, is to consecrate them 
 to their original and legitimate ends, and to present religion to 
 the eyes of men, in its most sublime, and comprehensive, and 
 attractive form, corresponding to what appears to be the 
 design of the Creator, in all the manifestations he has given 
 of himself, in the System of Nature, in the Operations of 
 Providence, and in the Economy of Redemption. 
 
 II. — By connecting Science with Religion, ChiHstians mould 
 be enabled to take an extensive survey of the king- 
 dom OF God. 
 
 How very narrow and limited are the views of most profes- 
 sors of religion respecting the universal Kingdom of Jehovah, 
 and the range of his operations ! Tho views of some indivi- 
 duals are confined chiefly within the limits of their own 
 parish, or at farthest, extend only to the blue mountains that 
 skirt their horizon, and form the boundary of their sight. 
 Within this narrow circle, all their ideas of God, of rehgion, 
 and of the relations of intelligent beings to each other, are 
 chiefly confined. There are others, who form an extensive 
 class of our population, whose ideas are confined nearly to 
 to the county in which they reside, and to the adjacent dis- 
 tricts ; and there are few, comparatively, whose views extend 
 beyond the confines of the kingdom to which they belong — 
 though the whole island in which we reside is less than the 
 two thousandth part of the globe we inhabit. Of the vast 
 extent of this earthly ball, of its figures and motions, of its 
 continents, seas, islands, and oceans ; of its volcanoes and 
 ranges of mountains, of its numerous and diversified climates 
 and landscapes ; of the various nations and tribes of mankind 
 that people its surface, and of the moral government of God 
 respecting them, — they are almost as completely ignorant as 
 
 25 
 
294 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 the untutored Greenlander, or the roving savage. — With 
 regard to the objects which he beyond the boundary of our 
 world, they have no precise and definite conceptions. When 
 the moon is " walking in brightness" through the heavens, 
 they take the advantage of her light to prosecute their jour- 
 neys ; and, when the sky is overcast with clouds, and they 
 are anxious to travel a few miles to their destined homes, they 
 will hft up their eyes to the h^^avens to see if any of the stars 
 are twinkling through the gloom, that their footsteps may be 
 directed by their glimmering rays. Beyond this they seldom 
 soar. What may be the nature of the vast assemblage of 
 shining points which adorn the canopy of their habitation, and 
 the ends they are destined to accomplish in the plan of the 
 Creator's operations, they consider as no part of their pro- 
 vince to inquire. 
 
 " Their minds, fair Science never ta\i£^ht to stray 
 
 Far as the Solar Worlds, or Milky Way." 
 
 How very diiferent, in point of variety, of grandeur, and of 
 extent, are the views of the man who connects all the different 
 departments of knowledge, and the discoveries of science, 
 with his prospects of God's Universal Dominion and Govern- 
 ment 1 With his mental eye he can traverse the different 
 regions of the earth, and penetrate into the most distant and 
 retired recesses where human beings have their residence. — 
 He can contemplate and adore the conduct of Divine 
 Sovereignty, in leaving so many nations to grope amidst the 
 darkness of Heathen Idolatry, — he can trace the beams of 
 the Sun of Righteousness, as they gradually arise to illume 
 the benighted tribes of men, — he can direct his prayers, with 
 intelligence and fervor, in behalf of particular kindreds and 
 people, — he can devise with judgment and discrimination, 
 schemes for carrying the " Salvation of God" into effect, — 
 he can realize, in some measure, to his mental sight, the glo- 
 rious and happy scenes which will be displayed in the future 
 ages of time, when " the kingdoms of this world shall become 
 the kingdom of our Lord, and of his Christ," and when the 
 *' everlasting gospel" shall be published, and its blessings 
 distributed among all who dwell upon the face of the earth. — 
 He can bound from this earth to the planetary worlds, and 
 survey far more spacious globes, peopled with a higher order 
 of intelligences, arranged and superintended by the same 
 Almighty Sovereign, who " doth according to his will among 
 the inhabitants of the earth." He can wing his way beyond 
 the visible region of the sky, till he find himself surrounded on 
 every hand with suns and systems of worlds, rising to view in 
 
AMPLITUDE OF THE DIVINE EMPIRE. 295 
 
 boundless perspective, throughout the tracts of immensity 
 
 diversified with scenes of magnificence, and with beings of 
 every order — all under the government and the wise direction 
 of Him who " rules among the armies of heaven," and who 
 " preservetli them all," and whom the " host of heaven wor- 
 ship" and adore. He can soar beyond them all to the throne 
 of God, where angels and archangels, cherubim and seraphim, 
 celebrate the praises of their Sovereign Lord, and stand ready 
 to announce his Will, by their rapid flight to the most distant 
 provinces of his empire. He can descend from that lofty 
 eminence to this terrestrial world, allotted for his temporally 
 abode, and survey another unbounded province of the Empire 
 of God, in those living worlds which lie hid from the unas- 
 sisted sight, and which the microscope alone can descry. He 
 can here perceive the same Hand and Intelligence which 
 direct the rolling worlds above, and marshal all the angelic 
 tribes — organizing, arranging, and governing the countless 
 myriads of animated existence which people the surface of a 
 muddy pool. He can speed his course from one of these 
 departments of Jehovah's kingdom to another, till, astonished 
 and overwhelmed with the order, the grandeur, and extent of 
 the wondrous scene, he is constrained to exclaim, " Great and 
 marvellous are thy works. Lord God Almighty !" *' Thine 
 understanding is infinite !" The limits of thy dominions are 
 " past finding out !" 
 
 By taking such extensive surveys of the empire of Jehovah, 
 we are enabled to perceive the spirit and references of those 
 sublime passages in the sacred writings which proclaim the 
 Majesty of God, and the glory of his Kingdom. Such pas- 
 sages are diffusely scattered through the inspired volume, and 
 have evidently an extent of reference far beyond what is 
 generally conceived by the great mass of the Christian world. 
 The following may suffice as a specimen : — 
 
 " Thine, Lord ! is the greatness, and the glory, and the 
 majesty ; for all in heaven and earth is thine ! Thine is the 
 kingdom, Lord ! Thou art exalted above all, thou reignest 
 over all, and in thine hand is Power and Might. — Behold the 
 heaven, and the Heaven of heavens, is the Lord's ; the earth 
 also, with all that therein is. — Ascribe ye greatness to our 
 God ; for there is none like unto the God of Israel, who 
 rideth upon the heavens in his strength, and in his excellency 
 on the sky. Thou, even thou art Lord alone ; thou hast 
 made heaven, the Heaven of heavens, with all their host ; the 
 earth, and all things that are therein ; the seas, and all that is 
 therein ; and thou preservest them all, and the Host of Heaven 
 
296 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 worshippeth thee. — He divideth the sea by his Power ; by his 
 Spirit he hath garnished the heavens : Lo ! these are only 
 parts of his ways ; but how Uttle a portion is heard of him> 
 and the thunder of his Power who can understand 1 — The 
 Lord hath prepared his Throne in the Heavens, and his king- 
 dom ruleth over all. — Lord our God ! how excellent is thy 
 name in all the earth ! who hast set thy glory above the 
 heavens. When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy 
 fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained ; 
 what is man, that thou art mindful of him ! — His Kingdom is 
 an everlasting Kingdom ; Honor and Majesty are before him ; 
 all the inhabitants of the earth are reputed as nothino; in his 
 sight, and he doth according to his will in the army of heaven, 
 and among the inhabitants of the earth. — He measures the 
 waters in the hollow of his hand ; He meteth out heaven with 
 a span, and comprehendeth the dust of the earth in a measure. 
 — He sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants 
 tliereof are as grasshoppers. — ^I have made the earth, and 
 created man upon it ; I, even my hands, have stretched out 
 the heavens, and all their host have I commanded. — The Most 
 High dwelleth not in temples made with hands ; for the heaven 
 is his throne, and the earth is his footstool. — With God is 
 awful Majesty.^Great things doth He, which we cannot 
 comprehend ; yea, the Lord sitteth King for ever. — Praise 
 ye the Lord in the Heavens ; praise him in the heights ; 
 praise him all his angels ; praise ye him all his hosts. Praise 
 him sun and moon ; praise him all ye stars of light ; praise 
 him ye Heaven of heavens. Praise him ye kings of the earth, 
 and all people, princes, and judges of the earth ; both young 
 men and maidens ; old men and children — let them praise the 
 name of the Lord ; for his name alone is excellent, his glory 
 is above the earth and heaven." 
 
 These sublime descriptions of the Supremacy of God, and 
 of the Grandeur of his kingdom, must convince every reflect- 
 ing mind, of the inconceivable magnificence and extent of 
 that Dominion " which ruleth over all." It is quite evident, 
 that we can never enter, with intelligence, into the full import, 
 and the grand references of such exalted language employed 
 by inspired writers, unless we take into view, all the disco- 
 veries which Science has made, both in the earth, and in the 
 heavens, respecting the variety and extent of the Dominions 
 of the Creator. If the " Kingdom of the Most High" were 
 as limited in its range as most Christians seem to conceive^ 
 such descriptions might be considered as mere hyperboles, or 
 bombast, or extravagant declamation, which far exceeds the 
 
AMPLITUDE OF THE DIVINE EMPIRE. 297 
 
 bounds of " truth and soberness." But we are certain, that 
 the conceptions and the language of mortals can never go 
 beyond the reality of what actually exists within the boundless 
 precincts of Jehovah's Empire. For " who can utter the 
 mighty acts of the Lord ?" or " who can show forth all his 
 praise ?" The language and descriptions to which we have 
 now adverted, seem to have had a prospective reference to 
 later and more enlightened times, when more extensive pro- 
 spects of God's dominions would be opened up by the exer- 
 tions of the human intellect. And were we to search all the 
 records of literature, in ancient or modern times, we should 
 find no descriptions nor language of such a dignified nature 
 as to express the views and feelings of an enlightened Chris- 
 tian Philosopher, when he contemplates the sublimity and 
 extent of Divine operations — except those which are to be 
 found in the inspired volume — the strength, and majesty, and 
 comprehension of which, no human language can ever exceed. 
 Again, by familiarizing our minds to such extended pro- 
 spects of God's universal kingdom, we shall be qualified and 
 disposed to comply with the injunctions of Scripture, which 
 represent it as an imperious duty, to communicate to the minds 
 of others such elevated conceptions. This duty is enjoined in 
 numerous passages of Sacred Scripture, particularly in the 
 book of Psalms ; " Declare his glory among the heathen, 
 and his wonders among all people. — I will extol thee, my 
 God, King. — One generation shall praise thy works to 
 another, and shall declare thy mighty acts. — I will speak of 
 the glorious honor of thy majesty, and of thy wondrous works, 
 — And men shall speak of the might of thy terrible acts ; and 
 shall declare thy greatness. All thy works shall praise thee, 
 Lord ; and thy saints shall bless thee. They shall speak 
 of the glory of thy kingdom, and talk of thy power ; to make 
 knoivn to the sons of men thy mighty acts, and the glorious 
 majesty of thy kingdom.''^'^ When we look around us in the 
 world, and in the visible church, and mark the conceptions, 
 and the conversation of the members of religious societies, 
 we need scarcely say how little this ennobling duty is attended 
 to by the mass of those who bear the Christian name. We 
 hear abundance of idle chat about the fashions and the poli- 
 tics of the day — how Miss A. danced so gracefully at the 
 ball, and how Miss B. sung so sweetly at the concert ; how 
 Mr. C. acted his part so well in the character of Rob Roy, 
 and how Mr. D. made such a flaming speech at the corpora- 
 
 * Psalm cxlv. and xcvi. 3, 4. 
 25* 
 
298 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 tion dinner. We listen to slanderous conversation, and heaf 
 abundance of mean, and base, and uncharitable insinuations 
 against our neighbors ; which indicate the operation of maUce, 
 hatred, envy, and other malevolent tempers. We spend whole 
 hours in boisterous disputations about metaphysical subtleties 
 in relio-ion, and questions " which gender strife rather than 
 godly edifying ;" but " to speak of the glory of God's king- 
 dom, and to talk of his Power," with the view of " making 
 known to the sons of men his mighty works," is a duty 
 which remains yet to be learned by a majority of those who 
 profess the religion of Jesus. And how can they be sup- 
 posed to be qualified to enter into the spirit of this duty, and 
 to proclaim to others " the glorious majesty of God's king- 
 dom," unless such subjects be illustrated in minute detail, 
 and proclaimed with becoming energy, both from the pulpit, 
 and from the press 1 These powerful engines, when con- 
 ducted with judgment and discrimination, are capable of pro- 
 ducing on the mass of mankind, a tone of thinking, and an 
 enlargement of conception, on such subjects, which no other 
 means can easily effect ; and it is to be hoped, that more 
 precise and luminous details, and more vigor and animation, 
 will soon be displayed, in this respect, than in the ages that 
 are past. 
 
 There is a certain principle of selfishness which pervades 
 the minds of many professed religionists, which leads them 
 to conclude, that, if they can but secure their own personal 
 salvation, they need give themselves no trouble about the 
 glory and extent of the kingdom of the Most High. " What 
 need we care," say they, " about nations in the far-distant 
 parts of the world, and about the planets and the stars ; our 
 business is to attend to the spiritual interests of our souls." 
 Such persons seem neither to understand in what salvation 
 really consists, and what is conducive to their spiritual inte- 
 rests, nor to appreciate those tempers and habits which will 
 qualify them for the enjoyment of eternal life. It forms but 
 a very slender evidence of their possessing any spark of 
 Christianity at all, if they wish to rest satisfied with the most 
 vague and grovelling conceptions, and if they do not ardently 
 aspire after a more enlarged view of the attributes of God, of 
 the glory of his empire, and of whatever may tend to expand 
 their conceptions of " the inheritance of the saints in light." 
 We have often been astonished at the opinions of some of 
 those who move in a higher sphere of intelligence, who seem 
 to consider it as a matter of pure indifference, whether or not 
 Christians should attain to the highest conception in their 
 
AMPLITUDE OF THE DIVINE EMPIRE. 299 
 
 jiower of the God whom they worship, and of his boundless 
 dominions ; because they conceive that such views are not 
 essentially connected with salvation ! But we would ask 
 such persons, how they came to know that such views are not 
 connected with salvation 1 Though they may not have been 
 essential to the salvation of men in the dark ages that are 
 past, or to obscure tribes of people at present, who have no 
 access to the proper sources of information, yet, since God, 
 in the course of his Providence, which guides all human in- 
 ventions and discoveries, has disclosed to us a far more ex- 
 pansive view of the " glory of his kingdom," than former 
 ages could obtain, for the purpose of illustrating the revela- 
 tions of his word — who will dare to assert, that the man who 
 has access, by his studious efforts, to contemplate this won- 
 drous scene, and to display its grandeur to others, and yet 
 wilfully shuts his eyes on the Divine glory therein displayed, 
 does not thereby hazard the Divine displeasure 1 In this 
 point of view, the following passage deserves a serious con- 
 sideration : " Because they regard not the works of the Lord, 
 nor the operations of his hands, he shall destroy them, and 
 not build them up." We have no hesitation in admitting, that 
 persons may have obtained salvation who never saw more of 
 the sacred writings than what is contained in the gospel of 
 Mark, or in one of Paul's Epistles ; but what would we say 
 of the man who had access to all the Revelations of Heaven 
 we now possess, and yet confined his attention solely to a 
 chapter or two in the New Testament, and would not deign 
 to look into any other part of the inspired volume ? We 
 should not hesitate at once to pronounce that such a person 
 was grossly deficient in his duty, and devoid of that reverence 
 and submission which are due to the oracles of God. And, 
 if it be admitted, that the person who has access to the Bible, 
 and who refuses to peruse its important contents, is guilty of 
 a criminal neglect, we do not see how the man, who has free 
 access to the other volume of God's revelation, and views it 
 as a matter of mere indifference, whether he looks into it or 
 not, can be deemed, in this respect, entirely innocent. If it 
 be understood, that we shall be judged according to the hght 
 and privileges we enjoy, and the use we make of them, in our 
 improvement in the knowledge of God — we would deem it a 
 hazardous position, for any one to support, That " inattention 
 to the visible glories of the kingdom of God, and to the 
 * declaration of his wonders among the people,' is a matter 
 either of indifference, or of trivial importance." 
 
 For, let it be considered, further — that on the extent of o^^r 
 
300 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 vieivs respecting the universal kingdom of God, depends our 
 conceptions of the JMctjestij and Glory of the Creator himself. 
 We become acquainted with the nature of God, only in so far 
 as he has manifested himself to us by external operations,* 
 and in so far as we form just conceptions of these operations. 
 If we conceive his empire as included within the bounds of 
 eicrhty or ninety thousand miles, our conceptions of the Sover- 
 eign of that empire will be circumscribed within nearly the 
 same limits. The mind of every reasonable man must, in- 
 deed, admit the abstract proposition, " That the Divine Being 
 is infinite, and, consequently, fills all space with his presence." 
 But this infinity in our view, is nothing more than a vague 
 conception of empty space, extending a little way beyond the 
 sphere of his visible operations. The mind must have some 
 material, visible or tangible objects to rest upon, and to guide 
 it in its excursions, when it would attempt to form the most de- 
 finite and comprehensive conceptions of an Infinite, Eternal, 
 and Invisible Existence. For however much we may talk 
 about purely spiritual ideas, it is quite evident, from the nature 
 of things, and from the very constitution of man, that we can 
 have no ideas at all without the intervention of sensible objects. 
 And, therefore, if we would wish to form the most sublime 
 conceptions of God himself, we must endeavor, in the first 
 place, to take the most extensive views which science and rev- 
 elation exhibit, of his vast dominions. We must endeavor to 
 form some adequate idea of the wide extent of the globe on 
 which we dwell, its diversified scenery, and the numerous 
 tribes of human beings, and other animated existences, visible 
 and invisible, which people its different provinces. We must 
 explore the vast regions of the planetary system, and compare 
 the bulk of the earth, large as it is, with some of those more 
 mao-nificent globes, which would contain a thousand worlds as 
 large as ours. We must next wing our way, in imagination, 
 over a space which a cannon-ball, flying five hundred miles 
 every hour, would not traverse in ten hundred thousand years, 
 till we arrive at the nearest fixed stars, and find ourselves in 
 the centre of thousands of systems and worlds, arranged at im- 
 measurable distances from one another. We must pass from 
 one nebula, or cluster of systems, to another ; continuing our 
 excursions as far as the eye or the telescope can direct our 
 view ; and, when the aid of artificial instruments begins to fail, 
 our imagination must still take its flight far beyond the boun- 
 daries of mortal vision, and add system to system, and nebula 
 
 * Here I include the manifestations of Deity, as exhibited both in Di- 
 vine Revelation, and in the System of Natui-e. 
 
AMPLITUDE OF THE DIVINE EMPIRE. 301 
 
 to nebula, through the boundless regions of space, till we 
 arrive at the grand centre of the universe, the Throne of God, 
 around which all worlds and beings revolve, where " thousands 
 thousands" of bright intelligences " minister to Him, and ten 
 thousand times ten thousand stand before him." — We must 
 consider all this magnificent assemblage of objects, not merely 
 as so many masses of inert matter, or as a grand raree-show, 
 to dazzle the eyes of a few hundreds of human spectators, — 
 but as destined for purposes worthy of the plans and the intel- 
 ligence of Him who is " the only wise God," — as peopled 
 with numerous orders of intelligent beings, whose physical and 
 moral economy is superintended and directed by Him, who, at 
 the same time, rules amidst the tumults of human revolutions, 
 and governs the living myriads which people a drop of water. 
 In this way, then, do we come to acquire the most extensive 
 views of the amolitude and glory of the Kingdom of the Most 
 High ; and it is only by the same process of thought that we 
 can ever attain the most exalted conceptions of the attributes 
 of its almighty Sovereign. For our views of the Sovereign of 
 the universe must always correspond with our views of the ex- 
 tent and magnificence of those dominions which sprung from 
 his Creating Hand, and over which he every moment presides. 
 His essence must for ever remain imperceptible to finite 
 minds ; for he is " the King Eternal, immortal, and Invisihle, 
 dwelling in that Light which no man can approach unto, whom 
 no man hath seen, or can see." From his nature, as a spiritual 
 uncompounded substance, and from his immensity, as filling 
 infinite space with his presence, it appears impossible, in the 
 very nature of things, that the glory of his perfections can be 
 displayed in any other way than through the medium of the 
 visible operations of his hands, or in the dispensations of his 
 providence towards particular worlds or classes of intelli- 
 gences. And if, in the future world, the souls of good men 
 will enjoy a more glorious display than at present, of the at- 
 tributes of Deity, it will be owing chiefly to their being placed 
 in more favorable circumstances than they now are, for con- 
 templating this display ; to their faculties being more invigo- 
 rated ; and every physical and moral impediment to their 
 exercise being completely removed ; so as to enable them to 
 perceive more clearly than they now do, the unbounded dis- 
 plays he has given of his infinite Power, Wisdom, and Benevo- 
 lence. And, if we expect to be introduced to this state of 
 enlarged vision, when we pass from the scenes of mortality, it 
 cannot be a matter o^ mere indifference, even now, whether or 
 not our minds be prepared for such exalted employments, hy 
 
S02 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 endeavoring to form the most ample conceptions of the attri- 
 butes of God which can be obtained through the medium of 
 his Word, and by a contemplation of the variety and magnifi- 
 cence of his Works. — In the prospect of that world where we 
 hope to spend an interminable existence, it must also be inter- 
 esting to ascertain, whether or not the dominions of the univer- 
 sal Sovereign present such an extent of empire, and such a 
 variety of objects, that new scenes of wonder and glory may 
 be expected to be displayed in continual succession, for the 
 contemplation and entertainment of holy beings, while eternal 
 ages are rolling on. And, on this point, the discoveries of 
 science confirm and illustrate the notices of heavenly glory and 
 felicity recorded in the inspired volume, and lead us to rest with 
 full assurance on the prophetic declaration, that " eye hath not 
 seen, nor ear heard, nor hath it entered into the heart of man 
 to conceive the things which God hath prepared for them that 
 love him." 
 
 III. — Bij connecting the discoveries of Science ivith Religion, 
 the minds of Christians ivould be enabled to take a more 
 minute and comprehensive survey of the Operations of 
 Providence. 
 
 Providence is that superintendence and care which God ex- 
 ercises over all creatures and events, in order to accomplish 
 the eternal purposes of his will. In Creation, God brought 
 the universe out of nothing, and arranged all its provinces and 
 inhabitants into due order. By his Providence he supports 
 and governs all the movements of the material system, and the 
 sensitive and rational beings with which it is peopled. It is 
 evident, that, in proportion as our views of the Creator's Do- 
 minions are extended, our views of his Providence will, to a 
 certain extent, be proportionably enlarged. For wherever 
 worlds and beings exist, there will God be found, preserving, 
 superintending, and governing the movements of all creatures 
 and events. It is chiefly, however, in the world in which we 
 reside, that the diversified dispensations of Providence can be 
 distinctly traced. Now an acquaintance with the prominent 
 parts of the different branches of knowledge to which I have 
 already adverted, would enable us to take a particular and com- 
 prehensive view, not only of the ways of God to man, but also 
 of his arrangements in reference to all subordinate creatures 
 and events. 
 
 From the Inspired History of the Old Testament, we can 
 trace the prominent lines of the dispensations of God towards 
 man, particularly in regard to the Israelites and the surround- 
 
RANGE OF DIVINE PROVIDENCE. 303 
 
 mg nations — from the Creation to a period about 400 years 
 before the coming of Christ. But in order to perceive the 
 farther progress and bearings of these Hnes till the commence- 
 ment of the New Testament economy, we must have recourse 
 to the most authentic records of profane history. From the 
 era of the birth of Christ to near the close of the first century, 
 we can acquire, from the Evangelists, and the History of the 
 Apostles, a particular account of the life of Christ, of the 
 events which preceded and accompanied the finishing of the 
 work of redemption, and of the progress of the Gospel 
 through Judea and the adjacent countries. But after this 
 period we have no inspired guide to direct us in tracing the 
 Divine Dispensations towards the various nations of the 
 earth ; and, therefore, we must have recourse to the annals, 
 memoirs, chronicles, and other records of the history of 
 nations, down to the period in which we live ; otherwise we 
 could never contemplate the continued series of events in the 
 Divine Economy towards the inhabitants of our world. Un- 
 less men of learning and of observation had recorded the 
 prominent facts which have occurred in the history of nations, 
 for 1700 years past, we must have remained almost as igno- 
 rant of the dispensations of God towards our race, during 
 that period, as the inhabitants of the planet Saturn : and unless 
 we study the events thus recorded in the writings of the histo- 
 rian, and contemplate their varied aspects and bearings in the 
 light of Divine Revelation, we must still remain ignorant of 
 the grand movements and tendencies of Divine Providence. 
 This single circumstance shows, in the clearest light, that it 
 is the intention of God, that we should learn the operations of 
 his Providence from the researches of Science and of History, 
 as well as from the records of Revelation ; and that the 
 Scriptures, though they contain every supernatural discovery 
 requisite to our happiness, are not of themselves sufficient 
 to present us with a connected view of the prominent dispensa- 
 tions of heaven, from the Creation to the period in which we live. 
 From the science of Geography we acquire a knowledge of 
 the extent of the surface of the earth — of the various tribes 
 of human inhabitants with which it is peopled — of the physi- 
 cal aspect of the different climates they inhabit — of their arts, 
 manners, customs, laws, religion, vices, wars, and political 
 economy : and, consequently, we can, in these and similar 
 respects, trace some of the aspects of Divine Providence to- 
 wards them in relation to their present and future condition. 
 From the same source, we learn the number of human beings 
 which the Governor of the world has under his direction at 
 
304 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 one time, which is nearly a thousand millions, or five Hundred 
 times the number of the inhabitants of Scotland. From the 
 data afforded by this science, we may also form an estimate 
 of the number of disembodied spirits that have passed from 
 this world since the Creation, and are now under the superin- 
 tendence of the Almighty in the invisible state, which cannot 
 be much less than 145,000 millions ; and on similar grounds 
 we may also learn the number of rational beings that are 
 coming forward into existence, and passing into the eternal 
 world every day, which is at least 68,000, and, consequently, 
 nearly 50 during each passing minute, — every individual of 
 which, the Supreme Disposer of events superintends at his 
 entrance into life ; and, at his departure from it, directs to his 
 respective and eternal state of destination. All which cir- 
 cumstances, and many others of a similar kind, must be taken 
 into account, in order to our forming a comprehensive con- 
 ception of the numerous bearings, and the incessant agency 
 of a Superintending Providence. 
 
 From JVatural History we learn the immense number and 
 variety of the subordinate tribes of animated beings which 
 inhabit the different regions of earth, air, and sea — their eco- 
 nomy and instincts — their modes of existence, and the man- 
 ner in which the Creator provides for their various necessities. 
 — From an acquaintance with the History of the Arts and 
 JMechanical Inventions, we learn the gradual manner in which 
 God directs the movements of the human mind, in making 
 those improvements and discoveries which have a bearing 
 upon the accomplishment of his eternal plans of mercy, and 
 which tend to enlarge our views of the amplitude and the 
 glories of his kingdom. From JVatural Philosophy and Che- 
 mistry, we learn the secondary causes or subordinate laws by 
 which the Almighty supports and directs the natural constitu- 
 tion of the world — the wonderful manner in which our lives 
 are every moment supported — and the agencies by which fire, 
 air, light, heat, and fertility are distributed through the globe, 
 for promoting the comfort and happiness " of every thing that 
 lives." — From Anatomy and Physiology, we learn, how " fear- 
 fully and wonderfully we are made and preserved" — that our 
 health and comfort depend upon the regular action of a thou- 
 sand organical parts and functions, over which we have no 
 control — and that our very existence every moment is depen- 
 dant on the superintendence of a Superior Pov/er, " in whose 
 Hand our breath is, and whose are all our ways." 
 
 By an occasional study, then, of the subjects to which we 
 have now alluded, we would gradually expand our concep- 
 
RANGE OF DIVINE PROVIDENCE. 305 
 
 tions of the range and operations of Divine Providence. 
 Every geographical exploration of a new region of the globe 
 — every scientific improvement and discovery — every useful 
 invention — every eruption of a volcano — every shock of an 
 earthquake — every hurricane, and storm, and tempest — every 
 battle of the warrior — every revolution among the nations — 
 and every detail in the newspapers we daily read, would lead 
 us to form some conceptions of the providential purposes of 
 Him who is the Supreme Disposer of all events. — Even the 
 arrangements of Divine Wisdom, M'ith regard to the economy 
 of the lower animals, ought not to be overlooked in such a 
 survey. When we consider the immense number and variety 
 of animated beings — that there are 500 species of quadrupeds, 
 every species containing, perhaps, many millions of indivi- 
 duals ; 4000 species of birds ; 2500 species of fishes ; 700 
 species of reptiles ; and 44,000 difl^erent kinds of insects, 
 besides many thousands of species altogether invisible to the 
 unassisted sight — when we consider that the structure and 
 organization of all these diflJerent species are different from 
 each other, and exactly adapted to their various situations and 
 modes of existence, and that their multifarious wants, in 
 regard to food and habitation, are all provided for, and amply 
 supplied by Him, who, at the same time, arranges and governs 
 the afl!airs of ten thousand worlds — we must be lost in aston- 
 ishment at the greatness of that Intelligence which formed 
 them, and at the exuberance of that Bounty which spreads so 
 full a table for so immense an assemblage of living beings I 
 And were we transported to other worlds, we should, doubt- 
 less, behold still more ample displays of Divine Beneficence. 
 We are here presented with a striking commentary on such 
 passages of the Sacred Volume as these : " The eyes of all 
 look unto Thee, Lord ! and thou givest them their meat in 
 due season. Thou openest thy hand liberally, and satisfiest 
 the desire of every living thing. The earth is full of thy 
 riches, Lord! so is the great and wide sea, wherein are 
 things creeping innumerable, both great and small beasts. — 
 These all wait upon thee, and thou givest them their meat in 
 due season. That which thou givest them they gather : Thou 
 openest thy hand, they are filled with good." — " Lord, thou 
 preservest man and beast ! How excellent is thy loving-kind- 
 ness ! Therefore the children of men shall put their trust under 
 the shadow of thy wings : They shall be abundantly satisfied 
 with the fatness of thy house,"* (of the table thou hast spread 
 
 * This, and several other similar passages, may be considered as more 
 especially applicable to the bounty of Providence wliich God has provided 
 26 
 
S06 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 in thy world for all thine offspring,) "and thou shalt make them 
 drink of the river of thy pleasures." One excellent practical 
 effect which might flow from such contemplations would be, to 
 inspire us with feelings of humanity towards the inferior order 
 of animals, and to prevent us from wantonly and unnecessarily 
 torturing, or depriving them of existence. For since the 
 Creator and Preserver of all has so curiously organized their 
 bodies, and fitted them for the different regions in which they 
 reside, and so carefully provided for all their wants, it must be 
 His will that they should enjoy happiness according to the 
 extent of their capacities ; and, therefore, they ought to be 
 considered as necessary parts of our sublunary system. — 
 Another practical lesson we may derive from such surveys, is, 
 to place an unshaken dependance upon God for our temporal 
 subsistence, while we, at the same time, exert all our faculties 
 in the line of active duty. " Blessed is the man who trusteth 
 in him ; for there is no want to them that fear him. The young 
 lions may suffer hunger, but they that fear the Lord shall not 
 want any good thing." — He who decks the lily of the vale, and 
 spreads out a plentiful table to the fowls of heaven, to the 
 beasts of the forests, to the creeping insects, and even to the 
 microscopic animalcula, will never fail to supply the necessary 
 wants of those who " do His will, and hearken to the voice of 
 His commandments." And if, at any time, we be found des- 
 titute of daily food, and pining away in penury and squalid 
 disease, we have too much reason to conclude, that, in one 
 way or another, either our deviation from the path of recti- 
 tude, or our distrust of Divine Providence, or our want of 
 prudence and economy, has procured for us these things. 
 
 I have said, that it is chiefly in the world in which we dwell, 
 that the dispensations of Providence can be distinctly traced. 
 But we must nevertheless admit that the Care and Superinten- 
 dence of God are as minutely exercised in the distant regions 
 of the universe as in our terrestrial sphere ; though we are 
 not permitted, at present, to inspect the particular details of 
 His procedure in reference to other orders of intelhgences. — 
 We are not, however, altogether ignorant of some prominent 
 features of the physical and moral economy of other worlds, 
 
 for all his creatures. The practice of spiritualizing such passages, as it is 
 termed, has a tendency to carricature Scripture, and to twist it from its 
 precise and sublime references, to accord with the vague fancies of inju- 
 dicious minds. Tlie Hteral meaning of Scripture is always the most appro- 
 priate, emphatic, and sublime ; but it may, in some cases, be used by way 
 of accommodation, in illustrating divine subjects, when it is applied with 
 judgment and discrimination. 
 
RANGE OF DIVINE PROVIDENCE. 307 
 
 in consequence of the discoveries of modern astronomical 
 science. 
 
 With respect to their jyhysical economy, we behold a strik- 
 ing variety in the Divine arrangement. We perceive one 
 planetary world surrounded by two splendid and magnificent 
 rings, one of them 204,000, and the other 184,000 miles in 
 diameter, stretching across its celestial canopy from one end 
 of the heavens to another — moving with majestic grandeur 
 around its inhabitants every ten hours, and diffusing a light 
 equal to several thousands of moons like ours — which may be 
 considered as a visible and permanent emblem of the Majesty 
 and Glory of their Creator. We perceive connected with the 
 same globe, seven moons all larger than ours, of different 
 magnitudes, and placed at different distances, and revolving in 
 different periods of time around that spacious world. The 
 diversified aspects of these rings, as viewed from the different 
 regions of the planet at different times, and the variety of 
 appearances produced by the alternate rising and setting, cul- 
 mination, and frequent eclipses, and other aspects of the moons, 
 must present to the inhabitants a very grand, and varied, and 
 magnificent scene of Divine operation.* On the other hand, 
 we behold another planetary globe, destitute both of rings and 
 moons, but which has the starry heavens presented to view 
 nearly in the same aspect in which we behold them. We per- 
 ceive a third globe much larger than them both, capable of con- 
 taining 200 times the number of the inhabitants of our world — 
 accompanied in its course with four moons to diffuse light in the 
 absence of the sun, and to diversify the aspect of its sky. In 
 some of these worlds, the succession of day and night is 
 accomplished within the space of ten hours ; in others, this 
 revolution is not completed till after the lapse of twenty-four 
 hours, or of as many days. In some, the days and nights are 
 nearly equal on every part of their surface, and they have little 
 variety of seasons ; in others, the variety in the length of the 
 days, and the vicissitudes of the seasons, are nearly the same 
 as those we experience in our terrestrial world. Around some 
 there appears a dense atmosphere, while others are environed 
 with atmospheres more rare and transparent. Some move in 
 the vicinity of the sun, and enjoy an abundant efflux of light 
 and heat, while others are removed to the distance of eighteen 
 hundred millions of miles from that central luminary. Some 
 finish the revolution of their year in a few months ; while others 
 require twelve, thirty, or even eighty of our years to complete 
 
 i 
 * See the plate, Fig, 7. ■,:' 
 
308 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 their annual round. Some appear adorned with majestic 
 mountain-scenery, and others seem to have great changes 
 occasionally taking place in their atmospheres, or on their sur- 
 faces. There are four planetary bodies lately discovered, 
 which, there is every reason to believe, once formed the corn- 
 potent parts of a large globe ; but by some mighty catastro- 
 phe in the dispensations of heaven, it appears to have been 
 burst asunder into the fragments we now behold. If the 
 general proposition illustrated in Section 2. of the preceding 
 chapter be admitted, such a fact would seem to indicate that a 
 moral revolution has taken place among the intelligent beings 
 who had orginally been placed in those regions ; and that their 
 fate was involved in the dreadful shock which burst asunder 
 the globe they inhabited; just as the fate of the Antediluvians 
 was involved in the shock by which the solid crust of our 
 globe wa3 disrupted, at the period of the universal deluge. 
 
 These are some outlines in the economy of Providence 
 which we can trace with regard to the arrangements of other 
 worlds ; but beyond such general aspects we are not permitted 
 to penetrate, so long as we sojourn in tabernacles of clay. — 
 But even such general views afford some scope to the contem- 
 plative mind, for forming enlarged conceptions of the Grandeur 
 and diversity of the Dispensations of God, in the worlds which 
 roll in the distant regions of space. 
 
 With regard to their moral economy — we may rest assured 
 that the prominent outlines of it are materially the same as of 
 that economy which relates to the inhabitants of our world. — 
 The fundamental principles of the moral laws given to men, 
 and which it is the great object of Revelation to support and 
 illustrate, are, " Thou shaJt love the Lord thy God with all 
 thy heart and understanding," and, " Thou shalt love thy 
 neighbor as thyself." On these two commandments hang all 
 the Law and the prophets. — Now, we must admit, from the 
 nature of the Divine Being, and from the relations in which 
 rational beings stand to Him, and to one another, — that the 
 Creator has enacted these laws, as the great governing princi- 
 ples by which the actions of all intelligences in heaven, as 
 well as upon earth, are to be directed. For the Governor of 
 the world can never be supposed to issue a law to any order 
 of rational creatures, which would permit them to hate their 
 Creator, or to hate those whom he has formed after his own 
 image. Such a supposition would be inconsistent with the 
 eternal rules of rectitude, and with the perfections of Deity 
 — and the facts supposed, (if it could exist,) would intro- 
 duce confusion and misery throughout the whole intelligent 
 
RANGE OF DIVINE PROVIDENCE. 309 
 
 universe. And, therefore, we must necessarily admit, that the 
 laws to which I now advert, are binding upon all the rational 
 inhabitants which exist throughout Jehovah's dominions ; and 
 that it is by these that the moral order of all the Principalities 
 and Powers of Heaven is preserved and directed. In those 
 worlds where there is no change in the succession of their 
 inhabitants — or, in other words, where there is no death, or 
 where they are not produced by any process analogous to gen- 
 eration, but have a lixed and permanent residence, there will be 
 no need for moral precepts corresponding to the fifth and the 
 seventh commandments of our moral law ; and in those 
 worlds where property is common, and the bounties of the 
 Creator are equally enjoyed by all, there will be no necessity 
 for a law corresponding to the eight commandment ; but the 
 general principles on which these laws are founded, will be 
 applicable to all the other circumstances and relations which 
 actually exist ; so that the principle, and spirit, and essence of 
 our religion must be common to all the holy inhabitants of the 
 universe. And, therefore, it will follow, that every intelligent 
 being that is animated and directed by such principles and 
 affections, will be qualified for holding delightful intercourse 
 with all holy beings throughout the universe of God, in what- 
 ever province of the Creator's empire he may hereafter be 
 placed ; and, to qualify us for such harmonious and affection- 
 ate intercourses, is one great end of the Salvation exhibited 
 m the Gospel. So that, although we cannot, in our present 
 state, acquire a minute and comprehensive knowledge of the 
 moral history of other worlds, of the special interpositions or 
 manifestations of Deity in relation to them, or of the means 
 by which they are carried forward in moral and intellectual 
 improvement — yet we can trace the general principles or laws 
 which form the basis of their moral and religious economy. — 
 For as the laws of optics, and the principle of gravitation, 
 pervade the whole material system, as far as the universe is 
 visible to our assisted vision, so the principle of supreme love 
 to God, and sincere affection to fellow-intelligences must 
 pervade the intelleclual universe, wherever it extends ; and, 
 if any intelligent agents besides men, have violated these 
 laws, they must experience pain, and misery, and disorder, 
 analogous to those which are felt by the inhabitants of our 
 apostate world. 
 
 Thus I have endeavored to show, that the combination of 
 Science with Religion would tend to expand our views of 
 Divine Providence — in the various arrangements of God, in 
 relation to the human race, and to the subordinate tribes of 
 
 26* 
 
310 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 sensitive beings — and in reference to some of the prominent 
 features of his administration in distant worlds. And, there- 
 fore, though the Christian ought never to overlook the ways 
 of Providence in relation to himself, and to his spiritual and 
 domestic concerns, yet it would argue ai selfishness and a 
 sottishness altogether inconsistent with the noble and expan- 
 sive spirit of Christianity, to overlook all the other parts of 
 the Theatre of Divine Dispensations, when a very slight 
 degree of labor and research might be instrumental in unfold- 
 ing them to his view. 
 
 IV. — The connexion of Science with Religion would have a 
 tendency to induce upon Christians a spirit of liberality, 
 
 OF CANDOR, a«rfo/ACCURACY IN JUDGING OF THE OPINIONS 
 AND ACTIONS OF MEN, and of THE DIVINE PROCEDURE AND 
 OPERATIONS. 
 
 Who is the most Candid and Liberal Being in the Uni- 
 verse ? God. — And why is God to be considered as the most 
 Liberal Intelligence that exists? Because he embraces a 
 minute, a full, and comprehensive view of all the circum- 
 stances, connexions, relations, habits, motives, temptations, 
 modes of thinking, educational biases, physical affections, 
 and other causes that may influence the sentiments or the 
 conduct of any of his creatures. — Who among created intel- 
 ligences may be viewed as endowed with these qualities in 
 the next degree ? The loftiest seraph that God has created, 
 who has winged his way to numerous worlds, and taken the 
 most extensive survey of the dispensations of the Almighty, 
 and of all creatures and events. — Who, among the sons of 
 men, is the most illiberal and inaccurate in judging of opinions, 
 of persons, and of things ? The man who has lived all his 
 days within the smoke of his father's chimney, or within the 
 confines of his native village — who has never looked beyond 
 the range of his own religious party — whose thoughts have 
 always run in one narrow tract — whose reading has been 
 confined to two or three musty volumes, which have lain for 
 ages on the same smoky shelf — who cares for nothing either 
 in the heavens or the earth, but in so far as it ministers to his 
 convenience, his avarice, or his sensual enjoyment — who will 
 admit no sentiment to be true, but what he may have heard 
 broached by his parson — and whose conversation seldom 
 rises beyond mere gossipping chit-chat, and the slanderous 
 remarks which are circulated among his neighbors. — Such 
 characters are entirely unquaUfied for forming a correct judg- 
 
EXPANSION OF INTELLECTUAL VIEWS. 311 
 
 hieiit, either of the sentiments and the actions of men, or of 
 the Works and the Ways of God ; for they are completely 
 destitute of the requisite data whereon to form a rational de- 
 cision in relation to either of these subjects. 
 
 It may be admitted as a kind of axiom, in our estimate of 
 human character, that in proportion to the ignorance, and the 
 narrow range of view which characterize any individual, in a 
 similar proportion will be his want of candor and his unfitness 
 for passing a sound judgment on any subject that is laid be- 
 fore him, — and that the man who has taken excursions through 
 the widest range of thought, accompanied with a correspond- 
 ing improvement of his moral powers, will always be the most 
 liberal and candid in his decisions on the moral and intellec- 
 tual qualities of others. To these maxims few exceptions 
 will generally be found. — In forming an enlightened judgment 
 in regard to any action or object, it is essentially requisite, 
 that we contemplate it in all its different features and aspects, 
 and in all its minute circumstances, bearings, and relations. 
 W^e would not hesitate for a moment to determine who is best 
 qualified to give an accurate description of a city, — he who 
 has only viewed its spires from a distance, while in rapid mo- 
 tion in his chariot — or he who has minutely surveyed all its 
 streets, lanes, squares, public edifices, and surrounding scenery, 
 in every variety of aspect ; or, who appears most likely to 
 form the most accurate and enlightened judgment in relation 
 to any particular kingdom — he who has just skirted along a 
 few miles on one of its coasts, or he who has traversed its 
 length and breadth in all directions, and mingled with every 
 class of its inhabitants. On the same principle, it must be 
 admitted, that he who has viewed religion in all its aspects 
 and bearings, who has taken the most extensive survey of the 
 manifestations of God, and of the habits and relations of men, 
 is the best qualified to pronounce a candid and accurate deci- 
 sion on all the intellectual and moral cases that may come 
 before him. 
 
 If the spirit of the above-stated sentiments be founded on 
 reason and on fact, it will follow, that the more we resemble 
 God in the amplitude of our intellectual views and benevolent 
 affections, the more candid, and liberal, and accurate will our 
 judgments be in reference to all the actions, objects, and rela- 
 tions we contemplate. — On the other hand, the man who is 
 confined to a narrow range of thought and prospect is con- 
 tinually blundering in the estimates he forms, both in respect 
 to physical facts, to general principles, and to moral actions. 
 He forms a premature and uncharitable opinion on every 
 
312 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 slander and report against his neighbor. He condemns, 
 without hesitation, and throws an unmerited odium on whole 
 bodies of men, because one or two of their number may have 
 displayed weakness or folly. He hates and despises men 
 and their opinions, because they belong not to his political or 
 religious party. He pronounces his decisions on the motives 
 of men, with as much confidence as if he had surveyed their 
 hearts with the eye of omniscience. He cannot hear an ob- 
 jection against his flivorite opinions with patience, nor an 
 apology for any set of principles but his own. He is arrogant 
 and dogmatical in his assertions, and will make no concessions 
 to the superior wisdom of others. He sets himself, with vio- 
 lence, against every proposal for reformation in the church, 
 because his forefathers never thought of it, and because such 
 " innovations" do not suit his humor and preconceived opi- 
 nions. He decides, in the most confident tone, on what God 
 can and cannot do, as if he had taken the gauge of Infinite 
 Perfection ; and he frets at the Divine dispensations when 
 they do not exactly quadrate with his own humors and selfish 
 views. 
 
 With regard to the operations of the Most High, he also 
 forms the most foohsh, and vague, and contradictory concep- 
 tions. Tell him of the vast dimensions of the planetary sys- 
 tem, of the men and animals that live on the opposite side of 
 the globe, of the annual and diurnal motion of the earth — 
 that this world and its inhabitants are moving through the re- 
 gions of space many thousands of miles every hour — that 
 one of the planets is so large that it would contain 1400 
 worlds as Spacious as ours — that another is flying through the 
 tracts of immensity, at the rate of a hundred thousand miles 
 in an hour — and that light is darted from the sun with a velo- 
 city of 195,000 miles in a moment of time — he will stare at 
 you with astonishment at such extravagant assertions, and 
 will sooner believe the stories of giants 100 feet high, and of 
 fairies that can enter in crowds through the key-hole of his 
 door. Instead of frankly acknowledging that " He is igno- 
 rant of such subjects, and of the grounds of such conclu- 
 sions, — that those who have studied them with intelHgence 
 are best capable of judging, — that, if true, they must fill us 
 with admiration of the glory of God — but that, as he has 
 hitherto had no opportunity of examining such matters, he 
 must suspend his assent till he inquire into the reasons which 
 can be given for such amazing deductions ;" — instead of such 
 concessions, which are the dictates of modesty and of com- 
 mon sense — he will tell you at once, without hesitation, and 
 
EXPANSION OF INTELLECTUAL VIEWS. 313 
 
 without a blush at his presumptuous decisions, that " it is all 
 extravagance, and folly, and idle romance, contrary to Scrip- 
 ture, and reason, and common sense ;" and will not hesitate 
 to brand you as a heretic, for endeavoring to break loose his 
 intellectual trammels ! — thus tacitly declaring, that he is far 
 better qualified to pronounce a decision on such topics, than 
 all the philosophers and divines, and all the brightest geniuses 
 who ha.ve appeared in the world for ages past ; though he will 
 at the same time admit, that he never gave himself the trouble 
 to examine into such matters ! 
 
 His views of the providential dispensations of God are 
 equally partial and distorted. If disease, or poverty, or mis- 
 fortune, happen to his neighbor, especially if he had with- 
 drawn from the religious party to which he belongs, it is con- 
 sidered as a penal judgment for his error and apostacy. If 
 prosperous circumstances attend his family or his religious 
 party, it is viewed as a sign of divine approbation. He seldom 
 views the hand of God, except in uncommon occurrences ; 
 and then, he imagines that a miracle is performed, and that 
 the wheels of nature are stopped in order to accomplish the 
 event. He seldom looks beyond the precincts of his own 
 church or nation, to observe the movements of the Divine 
 footsteps towards other tribes of his fallen race. He over- 
 looks the traces of Divine operation which are every moment 
 to be seen above and around him — and yet, in the midst of all 
 such partial and contracted views, he will sometimes decide 
 on the Wisdom and Rectitude of the ways of God, with as 
 much confidence, as if he hnd entered into the secret 
 counsels of the Eternal, and surveyed the whole plan of his 
 procedure. 
 
 Such are a few prominent outlines of the character of 
 thousands whose names are enrolled as members of the visi- 
 ble church — whose illiberality and self-conceit are owing to 
 the contracted notions they have formed of God and of Reli- 
 gion. And, surely, it must appear desirable to every enlight- 
 ened Christian, that every proper means should be used to pre- 
 vent rational immortal beings from remaining enchained in 
 such mental thraldom. 
 
 On the other hand, the man who takes an enlightened view 
 of all the works and dispensations of God, and of all the cir- 
 cumstances and relations of subordinate beings, necessarily 
 acquires a nobleness and liberality of mind, and an accuracy 
 in judging of things human and divine, which no other person 
 can possess. He does not hastily take up an evil report 
 against his neighbor ; for he considers how unfounded such 
 
314 
 
 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 reports often are, and how much they are owing to the insinua- 
 tions of envy or of maUce. And when he can no longei 
 doubt of an evil action being substantiated against any one 
 he does not triumph over him in the language of execration ; 
 for he considers all the circumstances, relations, feelings, 
 and temptations with which he may have been surrounded ; 
 he considers, that he himself is a frail sinful creature, and 
 might possibly have fallen in a similar way, had he been 
 placed in the same situation. He does not trumpet forth the 
 praises of a man who has performed one brilliant benevolent 
 deed, as if he were a character to be admired and eulogized — 
 while the general course of his life is marked with vice, and 
 an utter forgetfulness of God and Religion ; nor does he fix 
 a stigma of immorality upon the person who may have acted 
 foolishly or sinfully, in one or two instances, while the general 
 tenor of his conduct has been marked by purity and rectitude : 
 for, in both cases, he considers, that it is not an insulated 
 action^ but general habits, which determine the character of 
 of any individual. He esteems the Wise and the Good, and 
 holds triendly intercourse with them, to whatever political or 
 religious party they belong. He can bear, with affability and 
 candor, to have his opinions contradicted, and can differ from 
 his neighbor in many disputed points, while, at the same time, 
 he values and esteems him. He will not brand a man as a 
 Heretic or a Deist, because he takes a view of some dogmas 
 in Theology, in a different light from what he himself does ; 
 for he considers the difference of habits, studies, pursuits, and 
 educational prejudices which must have influenced his opi- 
 nions ; and makes due allowance for the range of thought to 
 which he may have been accustomed. He is always dis- 
 posed to attribute the actions of others to good motives, 
 >vhen he has no proof of the contrary. He uses no threats 
 nor physical force to support his opinions, or to convince 
 gainsayers ; for he knows that no external coercion can illu- 
 mmate the mind, and that the strength of arguments, and the 
 force of truth, can alone produce conviction. He is con- 
 vinced how ignorant he is, notwithstanding all his study, ob- 
 servations, and researches, and presses forward, as long as 
 he lives, to higher degrees of knowledge and of moral im- 
 provement. 
 
 He is an active promoter of every scheme that tends to 
 enlighten and meliorate mankind, and to extend the knowledge 
 of Salvation to the ends of the earth ; for he considers that it 
 is not by miracles, but by the subordinate agency of intelli- 
 gent bemgs, that God will effectuate the illumination and the 
 
EXPANSION OF INTELLECTUAL VIEWS. 315 
 
 moral renovation of our apostate race. He views the special 
 agency of God in all the movements of the Scientific, the 
 Religious, and the Political world, and perceives Him accom- 
 plishing his purpose, in the inventions of human genius, and 
 in the economy of the minutest insect, as well as in the earth- 
 quake, the storm, and the convulsions of nations ; for he 
 considers the smallest atom, and the hosts of Heaven, as 
 equally directed by Eternal Wisdom, and equally necessary in 
 the universal chain of creatures and events. He displays a 
 becoming modesty in speaking of the w-ays and the works of 
 God. When he meets with any dark and afflictive dispensa- 
 tion in the course of Providence, he does not fret and repine, 
 but is calm and resigned, conscious that he perceives only a 
 small portion of the chain of God's dispensations, and is, 
 therefore, unable to form a just comparison of the connexion 
 of any one part with the whole. When he contemplates the 
 depraved and wretched condition of the greater part of the 
 world, at present, and for thousands of years past, notwith- 
 standing the salvation which has been achieved for sinners of 
 mankind, he is far from arraigning the Divine goodness and 
 rectitude, in leaving so many nations " to walk in their own 
 ways ;" for he knows not what relation this dismal scene may 
 bear, what influence it may have, or what important impres- 
 sions it may produce on worlds and beings with which we are 
 at present unacquainted. 
 
 He is cautious in pronouncing decisively respecting the dis- 
 pensations of God, in regard to the universe at large. He 
 does not, for example, assert, with the utmost confidence, as 
 some have done, " that there never was, and never will be, to 
 all the ages of eternity, such a bright display of the Divine 
 Glory as in the Cross of Christ."* He admires and adores 
 the Condescension and the Love of God, in the plan of Salva- 
 tion, which the Gospel exhibits, and feels an interest in it far 
 beyond that of any other special manifestation of Deity; but 
 he dares not set limits to the Divine Attributes and Operations. 
 He considers himself at present, with regard to the grand 
 system of the Universe, in a situation similar to that of a 
 small insect on one of the stones of a magnificent edifice, 
 which sees only a few hair-breadths around it, and is altogether 
 incapable of surveying the symmetry, the order, and beauty 
 of the structure, and informing an adequate conception of the 
 whole. He considers that he has never yet surveyed the 
 milUoneth part of Jehovah's empire, and, therefore, cannot 
 
316 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 t*ll what the Eternal Sovereign has been pleased to exhibit in 
 its numerous provinces ; and, least of all, can he ever pre- 
 sume to dive into the depths of interminable ages, and boldly 
 declare what the Almighty will, or will not do, through eter- 
 nity to come. He, therefore, views it as presumption, while 
 he has no dictate of revelation for his warrant, to pronounce 
 decisively, either on the one side or the other, of such a deep 
 and important question, which seems above the reach of the 
 loftiest Seraph to determine.* In short, he endeavors to take 
 a view of all the manifestations of Deity within his reach, 
 from every source of information which lies before him, and as 
 far as his limited faculties will permit. He does not call in ques- 
 tion the discoveries of science, because they bring to his ears 
 most astonishing reports of the Wisdom and Omnipotence of 
 Jehovah, and of the boundless extent of his Kingdom ; but 
 rejoices to learn, that the grandeur of his dominions is actually 
 found to correspond with the lofty descriptions of Divine 
 Majesty and Glory, recorded in the volume of Inspiration, 
 and is thereby inspired with nobler hopes of the glory and feli- 
 city of that heavenly world where he expects to spend an 
 endless existence. 
 
 If, then, such be some of the features in the character of 
 the enhghtened Christian ; if liberality and candor, and accu- 
 rate investigation, mark the judgments he pronounces on the 
 sentiments and the actions of men, and on the works and the 
 ways of God ; and if such views and feelings ought to be con- 
 sidered as more congenial to the noble and benevolent spirit 
 of our religion, than the narrow and distorted notions of a 
 contracted mind, it must be an object much to be desired, that 
 the mass of the Christian world be led into such strains of 
 thought, as might imbue their minds with a larger proportion 
 of this spirit. And, if diversified and occasional discussions 
 on the topics to which we have adverted, would have a ten- 
 dency to produce this desirable effect, it is obvious, that such 
 branches of knowledge as are calculated to enlarge the capa- 
 city of the mind, and to throw a light over the revelations and 
 the works of God, should no longer be overlooked in the range 
 of our religious contemplations. 
 
 * See Appendix, No. X. 
 
PIETY AND HUMILITY. 317 
 
 V. — The extensive range of thought which the diversified oh- 
 jects in JVature present, would have a tendency to in- 
 spire us WITH A SPIRIT OF PIETY, AND OF PROFOUND 
 HUMILITY. 
 
 It is owing, m many instances, to want of attention to the 
 impressive displays of Wisdom and Omnipotence in the mate- 
 rial world, that our pious feelings and devotional exercises are 
 so cold and languid. We stalk about on the surface of the 
 earth, and pass from one day to another, without reflecting on 
 the grand and complicated machinery around us, which is car- 
 rying us along through the regions of space, and from one 
 portion of duration to another, as if the mighty energies of the 
 Eternal mind, exerted in our behalf, were unworthy of our 
 acknowledgment or regard. How few, for example, reflect, 
 when they open their e3^es in the morning, and perceive the 
 first beams of the rising sun, that, since they lay down to 
 sleep, the Divine PoAver has been exerted in carrying them 
 more than four thousand miles round to the eastward, in order 
 that they might again be cheered with the morning light ; and 
 that, during the same period, they, along with the earth and its 
 vast population, have been carried forward 476,000 miles from 
 that portion of space which they occupied seven hours before ! 
 Or, if they have no idea of the motion of the earth, and attach 
 no belief to such an opinion, how is it they do not reflect that, 
 after night has thrown its shades around them, the sun, and 
 ten thousand other vast globes must move several hundreds of 
 millions of miles, before their eyes can again behold the light of 
 day? Either the one or the other of these cases must be the fact ; 
 and, in either case, there is presented to our view, a display of 
 the Omnipotence, and the Superintendence of Him in whom we 
 live and move, which demands our gratitude, our admiration, 
 and praise. And can it ever be supposed, that such reflec- 
 tions, combined with all the other excitements to reverence 
 and gratitude, will not tend to elevate our contemplations, and 
 to raise our pious feelings to a higher pitch of devotion ? 
 Whether the Psalmist entertained any views of this kind when 
 he composed the ninety-second Psalm, we cannot certainly 
 determine ; but I presume, the pious and contemplative mind, 
 when awaking from the slumbers of the night, under such im- 
 pressions might sing the first part of that song of praise with 
 peculiar emphasis and delight — " It is a good thing to give 
 thanks to Jehovah, and to sing praise to thy name, thou 
 most High ! to show forth thy loving kindness in the morning. 
 For thou, Lord, hast made me glad through thy work," (or thv 
 
 27 
 
318 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 powerful energy ;) " I will triumph in the works of thy hands. 
 
 Lord ! HOW great are thy works ! and thy thoughts" 
 (or contrivances) " are very deep ! A brutish man knoweth 
 not, neither doth a fool understand this." 
 
 An extensive acquaintance with nature and science, com- 
 bined with Christian principle, would also induce profound 
 humility. The man who has made excursions through the 
 most diversified regions of thought, is deeply sensible of the 
 little progress he has attained, and of the vast and unbounded 
 field of Divine science which still remains to be explored. 
 When he considers the immense variety of sublime subjects 
 which the volume of inspiration exhibits, and of which he has 
 obtained but a very faint and imp nfect glimpse — the compre- 
 hensive extent, and the intricate ^^'ndings of the operations of 
 Providence, and the infinite number of beings over which it 
 extends — the amplitude and magnificence of that glorious uni- 
 verse over which Jehovah presides, and how small a portion of 
 it hes open to his minute inspection — he is humbled in the 
 dust at the view of his own insignificance ; he sees himself to 
 be a very babe in knowledge ; and, as it were, just emerging 
 from the gloom of ignorance into the first dawnings of light 
 and intelligence. He feels the full force and spirit of the 
 Poet's sentiments — 
 
 " Mvich learning shows how little mortals know," 
 When he considers the comprehensive extent of the Divine 
 law, and its numerous bearings on every part of his conduct, 
 and on all the diversified relations in which he stands to his 
 God, and to his fellow men ; and when he reflects on his mul- 
 tiplied deviations from that eternal rule of rectitude, he is 
 ashamed and confounded in the presence of the Holy One of 
 Israel ; and, on a review of his former pride and self-conceit, 
 is constrained to adopt the language of Agur and of Asaph — 
 *' Surely I am more brutish than any man, and have not the 
 understanding of a man." " So foolish was I, and ignorant^ 
 
 1 was as a beast before thee." He views the meanest and the 
 most ignorant of his species, as but a very few degrees below 
 him in the scale of intelligence, and sees no reason why he 
 should glory over his fellows. 
 
 This sentiment might be illustrated from the example of 
 some of the most eminent men in whose minds science and 
 religion were combined. The Honorable Mr. Boyle was 
 the most unwearied and successful explorer of the works of 
 God, in the age in which he lived, and all his philosophical pur- 
 suits were consecrated to the service of Religion. Among 
 other excellent traits in his character, humility was the most 
 
PIETY AND HUMILITY. 
 
 conspicuous. " He had about him," says Bishop Burnet, 
 " all that unaffected neglect of pomp in clothes, lodging, furni- 
 ture, and equipage, which agreed with his grave and serious 
 course of life," and was courteous and condescending to the 
 meanest of his fellow men. " He had," says the same author, 
 " the profoundest veneration for the Great God of Heaven 
 and earth, that ever I observed in any person. The very 
 name of God was never mentioned by him without a pause, 
 and a visible stop in his discourse ;" and the tenor of his phi- 
 losophical and theological writings is in complete unison with 
 these traits of character. Sir Isaac Newton, too, whose 
 genius seemed to know no limits but those of the visible uni- 
 verse, was distinguished by his modestij, humility^ and meekness 
 of temper. He had such an humble opinion of himself, tnat 
 he had no relish of the applause which was so deservedly paid 
 him. He would have let others run away with the glory of his 
 inventions, if his friends and countrymen had not been more 
 jealous of his honor than he was himself. He said, a little 
 before his death, " I do not know what I may appear to the 
 world, but to myself, I seem to have been only like a boy play- 
 ing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then 
 finding a pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the 
 great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." 
 
 The same sentiment might have been illustrated from the 
 lives of Bacon, Locke, Dr. Boerhaave, Hervey, Nieuwentyt, 
 Ray, Derham, the Abbe Pluche, Bonnet, and other eminent 
 characters, who devoted their stores of knowledge to the illus- 
 tration of the Christian system. For an extensive knowledge 
 of the operations of God has a natural tendency to produce 
 humility and veneration ; and wherever it is combined with 
 pride and arrogance, either among philosophers or divines, it 
 indicates a lamentable deficiency, if not a complete destitution 
 of Christian principle, and of all those tempers which form the 
 bond of union among holy intelligences. Afler the attention 
 of Job had been directed to the works of God, and when he 
 had contemplated the inexplicable phenomena of the Divine 
 agency in the material world, he was ashamed and confounded 
 at his former presumption ; and, in deep humility, exclaimed, 
 " I have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear ; but now 
 mine eye see thee ; wherefore I abhor myself, and repent 
 in dust and ashes." — In accordance with what has been now 
 stated, we find, that the most exalted intelligences who, of 
 course, possess the most extensive views of the works and 
 providential arrangements of God, are represented as also the 
 most humble in their deportment, and as displaying the most 
 
330 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 profound reverence m their incessant adorations. They "/o/^ 
 doivn before him who sits upon the throne ; and cast their 
 crowns before the throne, saying, Thou art worthy, O Lord, to 
 receive glory, and honor and power ; for thou hast created all 
 things, and for thy pleasure they are and were created." 
 Their moral conduct evinces the same lowly temper of mind. 
 They wait around the throne, in the attitude of motion, with 
 wings outspread readv to fly, on the first signal of their Sove- 
 reign's will ; they " do his commandments, hearkening to the 
 voice of his word," and do not disdain to perform important 
 services, in our wretched world, to the meanest human being 
 who is numbered among " the heirs of salvation." In like 
 manner, were ive endued with the grasp of intellect, the capa- 
 cious minds, the extensive knowledge, and the moral powers 
 which they possess, we would also display the same humble 
 and reverential spirit, and feel ashamed of those emotions of 
 vanity and pride, which dispose so many of the human family 
 to look down with contempt on their fellow mortals. 
 
 If the leading train of sentiment which pervades this volume 
 be admitted, the following general conclusions maybe ad- 
 duced : — That, in conducting the religious instruction of the 
 young, the works of God in the material world, and the most 
 striking discoveries which have been made as to their magni- 
 tude, variety, and mechanism, should be frequently exhibited 
 to their view in minute detail ; as illustrations of the attributes 
 of the Deity, and of those descriptions of his nature and ope- 
 rations contained in the Volume of Inspiration ; — that the 
 books put into their hands should contain, among other sub- 
 jects, popular and striking descriptions of the facts and appear- 
 ances of nature ; — that seminaries should be established for 
 the occasional instruction of young persons, from the age of 
 15 to the age of 20 or 30, or upwards, in all those popular 
 branches of natural and moral science which have a tendency 
 to enlarge the capacity of their minds, and to expand their con- 
 ceptions of the incessant agency of God ; — and that the Minis- 
 ters of Religion, in their public instructions, should frequently 
 blend their discussions of divine topics with illustrations de- 
 rived from the scenes of creation and providence. 
 
APPENDIX; 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 -oejoc^ 
 
 No. I. p. 48. — Illustration of the rate of motion in the Heaven' 
 ly Bodies, on the supposition that the Earth is at rest. 
 
 The distance of the sun is about 95 millions of miles ; con- 
 f=^quently, the diameter of the circle he would describe around 
 the earth would be 190 millions, and its circumference 
 597,142,857, which forms the extent of the circuit through 
 which he would move in 24 hours, if the earth were at rest. 
 This number divided by 24, gives 24,880,952, the number of 
 miles he would move in an hour ; and this last number, divided 
 by 60, gives 414,682, the number of miles he would move 
 in a minute. The nearest star is reckoned to be at least 
 20,000,000,000,000 or twenty biUions of miles distant from the 
 earth ; consequently, its daily circuit round our globe would 
 measure more than 125,000,000,000,000 miles. This sum 
 divided by 86,400, the number of seconds in a day, would give 
 1,454,861,111, or somewhat more than one thousand four 
 hundred millions of miles, for its rate of motion in a second of 
 time — a motion which, were it actually existing, would, in all 
 probability, shatter the universe to atoms. 
 
 The unlearned reader may, perhaps, acquire a more distinct 
 idea of this explanation from the following figure : 
 
 27* 
 
322 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Let the small circle A, in the centre, represent the Earth, 
 and the circle B C D E the orbit of the Sun, on the supposi- 
 tion that he moves round the Earth every 24 hours. The 
 line A B will represent the distance of the Sun from the Earth, 
 or 95 millions of miles ; the line B D the diameter of the orbit 
 he would describe ; and the circle B C D E the circumfe- 
 rence along which he would move every day, or 597 millions 
 of miles, which is somewhat more than three times the diame- 
 ter. If the line A F represent the distance of the nearest 
 star, the circle F G H I will represent the circuit through 
 which it would move every 24 hours, if the earth were at rest. 
 It is obvious, from the figure, that since the stars are at a 
 greater distance from the earth than the sun, the circle they 
 would describe around the earth would be larger in proportion, 
 and, consequently, their velocities would be proportionably 
 more rapid ; since they would move through their larger cir- 
 cles in the same time in which the sun moved through his 
 narrower sphere. But the supposition that the earth is the 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 323 
 
 centre of all the celestial motions, and that the different stars 
 are daily moving around it with different velocities, and the 
 slowest of these motions is so inconceivably rapid — is so wild 
 and extravagant, that it appears altogether inconsistent with 
 the harmony of the universe — with the Wisdom and Intelli- 
 gence of the Deity, and with all the other arrangements he has 
 made in the system of nature. 
 
 No. II. p. 72. — Experimental Illustrations of the Pressure of 
 the Atmosjjhere. 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere is most strikmgly illustrated 
 by means of the air pump. But as few persons, compara- 
 tively, possess this instrument, the following experiments, 
 which any person may perform at pleasure, are sufficiently 
 convincing on this point. Take a common wine glass, and 
 fill it with water ; apply a piece of paper over the mouth of the 
 glass ; press the paper to the rim of the glass with the palm of 
 the hand ; turn the glass upside down ; withdraw the hand 
 from the paper, and the water will be supported by the pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere. That it is the atmospherical pressure, 
 and not the paper, which supports the water is evident ; for 
 the paper, instead of being pressed down by the weight of the 
 water, is pressed upward by the pressure of the atmosphere, 
 and appears concave^ or hollow in the middle. If the flame of 
 a candle be applied to the paper, it may be held, for an indefi- 
 nite length of time, close to the paper, without setting fire to it. 
 The same fact is proved by the following experiment : — Take 
 a glass tube, of any length, and of a narrow bore ; put one end 
 of it in a basin of water ; apply the mouth to the other end, 
 and draw out the air by suction ; the water will immediately 
 rise toward the top of the tube ; and if the finger or thumb be 
 applied to the top of the tube, to prevent the admission of air, 
 and the tube removed from the basin of water, the water in the 
 tube will be supported by the pressure of the atmosphere on 
 the lower end. Again : — Take, a wine glass, and burn a 
 small bit of paper in it ; and, when the paper is burning, press 
 the palm of the hand upon the mouth of the glass, and it will 
 adhere to the hand with considerable force. In this case, the 
 pressure of the atmosphere will be sensibly felt ; for it will 
 sometimes require considerable force to detach the glass from 
 the hand. 
 
 The pressure of the o.tmosphere explains a variety of com- 
 mon phenomena. When we talve a draught of water out of a 
 
324 APPENDIX. 
 
 basin, or a running stream, we immerse our mouths in the 
 water, and make a vacuum by drawing in the air ; the pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere upon the external surface of the water 
 then forces it into the mouth. The same cause explains the 
 process of a child sucking its mother's breasts — the action of 
 a boy's sucker, in lifting large stones — the rise of water in 
 pumps — the effects produced by cements — the firm adhesion 
 of snails and periwinkles to rocks and stones — the scarcity 
 of water in the time of hard frosts — and the fact that a cask 
 will not run by the cock, unless a hole be opened in some 
 other part of the cask. 
 
 No. III. p. 253. — On the means by which it may probably be 
 ascertained whether the JMoon be a habitable ivorld. 
 
 About six years ago, the Author published, in the Monthly 
 Magazine, a few observations on the surface of the Moon, in 
 which a few remarks were offered on this subject. The fol- 
 lowing is an extract from that communication : — 
 
 " If we be ever to obtain an ocular demonstration of the 
 habitability of any of the celestial orbs, the Moon is the only 
 one, where we can expect to trace, by our telescopes, indica- 
 tions of the agency of sentient or intelligent beings ; and I 
 am pretty much convinced, that a long continued series of 
 observations on this planet, by a number of individuals in 
 different places, might completely set at rest the question, 
 ' Whether the Moon be a habitable world V Were a vast 
 number of persons, in different parts of the world, to devote 
 themselves to a particular survey of the Moon — were different 
 portions of her surface allotted to different individuals, as the 
 object of their particular research — were every mountain, 
 hill, cavern, chff, and plain accurately inspected — and every 
 change and modification in the appearance of particular spots 
 carefully marked and represented in a series of delineations, 
 it might lead to some certain conclusions, both as to her phy- 
 sical constitution, and her ultimate destination. It can be 
 demonstrated, that a telescope which magnifies 100 times, 
 will show a spot on the Moon's surface, whose diameter is 
 1223 yards ; and one which magnifies a thousand times, will, 
 of course, enable us to perceive a portion of her surface, 
 whose size is only 122 yards : and, consequently, an object, 
 whether natural or artificial, of no greater extent than one of 
 our large edifices, (tor example, St. Paul's Church, London,) 
 may, by such an instrument, be easily distinguished. Now, 
 
APPENDIX. 325 
 
 if every minute point on the Lunar surface were accurately 
 marked by numerous observers, it might be ascertained 
 whether any changes are taking place, either from physical 
 causes, or from the operations of intelligent agents. If a 
 large forest were cutting down — if a city were building in an 
 open plain, or extending its former boundaries — if a barren 
 waste were changing into a scene of vegetation — or, if an 
 immense concourse of animated beings were occasionally 
 assembled on a particular spot, or shifting from one place to 
 another — such changes would be indicated by certain modifi- 
 cations of shade, color, or motion ; and, consequently, would 
 furnish a direct proof of the agency of intelligent beings 
 analogous to man, and of the Moon being a habitable globe. 
 For although we may never be able to distinguish the inha- 
 hitants of the Moon (if any exist) yet if we can trace those 
 effects which can flow only from the operations of intelligent 
 agents, it would form a complete demonstration of their ex- 
 istence, on the same ground on which a Navigator concludes 
 an unknown island to be inhabited, when he perceives human 
 habitations, and cultivated fields. 
 
 " That changes occasionally happen on the lunar hemi- 
 sphere next the earth, appears from the observations of Her- 
 schel and Schroeter, particularly from those of the latter. In 
 the transactions of the ' Society of Natural Philosophy,' at 
 Berlin, Schroeter relates, that on the 30th December, 1791, 
 at 6 o'clock, J), m. with a 7 feet reflector, magnifying 161 
 times, he perceived the commencement of a small crater on 
 the south-west declivity of the volcanic mountain in the Mare 
 Crmwwi, having a shadow of at least 2^^ 5. On the 11th 
 January, at 20 minutes past five, on looking at this place 
 again, he could see neither the new crater nor its shadow. 
 Again, on the 4th January, 1792, he perceived, in the eastern 
 crater of Helicon, a central mountain, of a clear gray color, 
 3''' in diameter, of which, during many years' observations, 
 he had perceived no trace. ' This appearance,' he adds, ' is 
 remarkable, as probably from the time of Hevelius, the western 
 part of Hehcon has been forming into its present shape, and 
 Nature seems, in that district, to be particularly active.' — In 
 making such minute observations as those to which I allude, 
 it would be proper, along with an inspection of the moon's 
 luminous disk, to mark the appearances of different portions 
 of her dark hemisphere, when it is partially enhghtened by 
 the reflected light from the earth, soon after the appearance 
 of new moon. These researches would require a long-con- 
 tinued series of the most minute observations, by numerous 
 
326 APPENDIX. 
 
 observers in different regions of the globe, which could hi 
 effected only by exciting, among the bulk of mankind, a ge 
 neral attention to such investigations. But were this objec 
 accomplished, and were numerous observations made fron'. 
 the tops of mountains, and in the serene sky of southern 
 climes, where the powers of the telescope are not counter- 
 acted by dense vapors, there can be little doubt that direct 
 proofs would be obtained that the Moon is a habitable world ; 
 or, at least, that the question in relation to this point would be 
 completely set at rest." 
 
 No. lY. — Remarks on trie late pretended discovery of a Lunar 
 Fortification. 
 
 The British Public was lately amused by the announce- 
 ment of a discovery said to have been made by Professor 
 Frauenhofer, of Munich. This gentleman was said to have 
 discovered a fortifivcation in the Moon, and to have distin- 
 guished several hues of road, supposed to be the work of the 
 lunar inhabitants. It is scarcely necessary to say, that such 
 announcements are obviously premature. To perceive dis- 
 tinctly the shape of an object in the Moon, which resembles 
 a fortification, it is requisite, that that object be of a much 
 larger size than our terrestrial ramparts. Besides, although 
 an object resembling one of our fortifications were perceived 
 on the surface of the moon, there would be no reason to con- 
 clude, that it served the. same purpose as fortifications do 
 among us. We are so much accustomed to vjar in our ter- 
 restrial system, and reflect so httle on its diabolical nature, 
 that we are apt to imagine that it must form a necessary em- 
 ployment even in other worlds. To be assured that a fortifi- 
 cation existed in the Moon for the same purpose as with us, 
 would indeed be dismal tidings from another world ; for it 
 would be a necessary conclusion, from such intelligence, that 
 the inhabitants of that globe are actuated by the same princi- 
 ples of depravity, ambition, and revenge, which have infected 
 the moral atmosphere of our sublunary world. With regard 
 to the pretended discovery of the Lunar roads, it may not be 
 improper to remark, that such roads behooved to be at least 
 400 feet broad, or ten times the breadth of ours, in order to be 
 perceived as faint lines through a telescope which magnifies a 
 thousand times ; which is a higher power, I presume, than 
 Frauenhofer can apply with distinctness to any of his tele- 
 
APPENDIX. 327 
 
 scopes. It is not at all likely that the lunar inhabitants are of 
 such a gigantic size, or employ carriages of such an enormous 
 bulk, as to require roads of such dimensions, since the whole 
 surface of the Moon is only the thirteenth part of the area of 
 our globe. 
 
 Schroeter conjectures the existence of a great city to the 
 north of Marius, (a spot in the moon,) and of an extensive 
 canal towards Hijgena, (another spot,) and he represents part 
 of the spot named Mare Imbrium, to be as fertile as the 
 Campania. See Edin. Phil. Jour. JVo. 21, for July, 1824. 
 Similar remarks to those now stated will apply to these con- 
 jectures of Schroeter. We are too apt to imagine, that the 
 objects we perceive in the moon must bear a certain resem- 
 blance to those with which we are acquainted on the Earth ; 
 whereas, there is every reason to believe, from the variety we 
 perceive in nature, that no one world resembles another, 
 except in some of its more prominent and general arrange- 
 ments. The Moon bears a general resemblance to the Earth, 
 in its being diversified with mountains and valleys ; but the 
 positions and arrangement of these objects in the Moon, and 
 the scenery they exhibit, are materially different from what 
 appears on the surface of the terraqueous globe. 
 
 No. V. — On the ideas of JVLagnitude, JWotion, and Duration, 
 as expressed hij numbers. See pp. 93, 98. 
 
 In the pages referred to, and other parts of this volume, 
 some very large numbers are expressed in figures. Some 
 readers have insinuated, that it would have been better to 
 have expressed such numbers in u'ords. The Author, how- 
 ever, is of a different opinion ; because, to some readers, not 
 much acquainted with JVumeration, a thousand trillions would 
 convey nearly the same idea as a thousand nonilions, though 
 the one number contains 58 places of figures, and the other 
 only 22. It is chiefly the number of figures, or cyphers, in 
 such large sums, that leads us to form a comparative estimate 
 of their value or extent. Our ideas of magnitude and exten- 
 sion, conveyed by such numbers, must, of course, be very 
 vague and undefined. If we have been accustomed to travel- 
 ling, we have a tolerably clear conception of a hundred, and 
 even of a thousand miles ; but we have no clear nor adequate 
 conception of a body, or a portion of space, ten hundred 
 thousand, ten hundred millions, or ten hundred billions of 
 
328 APPENDIX. 
 
 miles m extent. The mind, however, may be assisted in iis 
 conceptions, £ind in its comparative estimate of different num- 
 bers, by fixing on some particular number as a standard. If, 
 according to the common reckoning, we suppose, that 5828 
 years have elapsed since the commencement of time, the num- 
 ber of seconds, or moments, in this period, will amount to 
 183,913,782,212, or one hundred and eighty-three thousand 
 nine hundred and thirteen millions, seven hundred and eighty- 
 two thousand, two hundred and twelve, which is less than the 
 fifth part of a billion. If the distance of the nearest stars from 
 the earth be at least 20 billions of miles, then this distance may 
 be otherwise expressed, by saying, that the number of miles 
 which intervene between us and these bodies is more than a 
 hundred times greater than the number of moments, which 
 have elapsed since the creation ; and, by a similar comparison, 
 it will be found that the number of cubical miles within the 
 limits of the planetary system, is 130,000,000,000,000,000, 
 or, one hundred and thirty thousand billions of times greater 
 than the number of moments in 5828 years. 
 
 It has been computed, that the earth, supposing it a solid 
 globe, contains about 30,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,- 
 000,000, or thirty septiUions of grains of sand, supposing a 
 hundred grains of sand to be equal in length to an inch, and, 
 consequently, a million of such grains for every cubical inch. 
 If we use this number as a standard for estimating the number 
 of cubical miles contained within the space which intervenes 
 between us and the nearest stars, we shall find that the num- 
 ber of cubical miles comprehended within this space, is more 
 than ten thousand millions of times greater than the number 
 of the grains of sand contained in the globe on which we 
 dwell. 
 
 Though the human mind can form no definite conceptions 
 of such numbers and magnitudes, yet it may be useful, occa- 
 sionally, to ruminate on such subjects ; as it is the only, or, at 
 least, the principal mode by which limited minds like ours can 
 approximate to an idea of the infinity of the Creator. And if 
 an image of infinity is presented to the mind in the spaces 
 comprehended within the limits of our system, how overpow- 
 ering the conception of innumerable systems, to which ours 
 bears no more proportion than a drop of water to the mighty 
 ocean 1 How ineffably glorious must be the attributes of that 
 Incomprehensible Being who pervades every part of this vast 
 universe, and who continually superintends all its minute and 
 diversified movements ! 
 
APPENDIX. 329 
 
 No. VI. p. 195.— 021 a Plurality of Worlds. 
 
 The doctrine of a plurality of worlds is now admitted as 
 highly probable both by philosophers and by enlightened di- 
 vines. But it has been admitted by many persons, on grounds 
 that are too general and vague, and consequently, a full con- 
 viction of its truth is seldom produced in the mind. In differ- 
 ent parts of the preceding volume, I have all along taken it for 
 granted, because I consider it as susceptible of a moral demon- 
 stration. — The following heads of argument, were they fully 
 illustrated, would go far to carry demonstration to the mind on 
 this subject : namely, That there are numerous bodies in the 
 universe of a bulk sufficient to contain myriads of intelhgent 
 beings, and to afford them enjoyment — that there appears, in 
 the constitution of many of these bodies, a variety of arrange- 
 ments evidently adapted to this end — that, in relation to the 
 planets of our system, there are many circumstances which 
 bear a striking resemblance to the constitution of our globe 
 and its appendages : They have annual and diurnal motions, 
 moons, atmospheres, mountains and vales — that light, and 
 heat, and color, appear to be distributed throughout the regions 
 of immensity ; and that these agents can have a relation only 
 to the necessities and the happiness of organized intelli- 
 gences — that every part of nature, so far as our observations 
 on the surface of this globe extend, appears to exist solely for 
 the sake of sentient beings — that this doctrine is more worthy 
 of the Infinite Creator, and gives a more glorious and magnifi- 
 cent idea of his nature, than to suppose his benevolent regards 
 confined to the globe on which we dwell. When these and a 
 variety of other arguments are considered, in connection 
 with the Wisdom and other attributes of the Deity, they 
 amount not only to a high degree of probability, but to some- 
 thing approaching to a moral demonstration. But to illustrate 
 these arguments in a minute detail, so as to make a convincing 
 impression on the mind, would require a volume of a consid- 
 erable size. The Author flatters himself he has some original 
 thoughts on this subject, which may probably see the light 
 should the present work meet with public acceptance. There 
 is no work in our language which takes an extensive view on 
 this subject, in connection with the attributes of the Deity, and 
 the intimations contained in Divine Revelation. Fontenelle's 
 " Plurality of Worlds," contains a number of ingenious rea- 
 sonings ; but he treats the subject in too light and flippant a 
 manner, and without the least reference to a Supreme Intelli- 
 gence. The celebrated Huygens in his " Cosmotheoros,''^ 
 
 28 
 
330 APPENDIX. 
 
 instead of attempting to prove the doctrine of a plurality of 
 worlds, takes it for granted, and indulges chiefly in conjec- 
 tures respecting the organical structure, and faculties of their 
 inhabitants. 
 
 That the Scriptures are silent on this head, has been as- 
 sumed by some as a presumptive argument that this doctrine 
 is without a solid foundation. I have already endeavored to 
 show that this assumption is unfounded, (see page 193.) A 
 plurality of worlds is more than once asserted in Scripture, 
 and in numerous passages, is evidently taken for granted. 
 Celestial intelHgences are represented as ascribing " glory, 
 honor, wisdom and power" to the King of Heaven, " because 
 he hath created all things," and because they perceive his 
 works to be " great and marvellous." But if all the great 
 globes in the firmament were only so many frightful deserts, 
 destitute of inhabitants, such a universe could never inspire 
 superior intelligences with admiration of the wisdom of the 
 Creator. For wisdom consists in proportioning means to 
 ends ; but, in the case supposed, there would be no proportion 
 between the means and the end. The means are indeed great 
 and astonishing ; but no end appears to justify such a display 
 of creating energy. — The Psalmist, when he contemplated the 
 heavens, was so affected with the idea of the immense popula- 
 tion of the universe, that he seems to have been almost afraid 
 lest he should be overlooked amidst the immensity of beings 
 that are under the superintendence of God. " When I con- 
 sider thy heavens — what is man that thou art mindful of him !" 
 There would be no propriety nor emphasis in this exclama- 
 tion, if the heavenly orbs were devoid of inhabitants ; for, if 
 no intelligent beings exist besides man, and a colony of an- 
 gels, it would not appear wonderful that the Creator should 
 exercise a particular care over the one half of his intelligent 
 offspring. But, if we conceive the universe as composed of 
 ten thousand times ten thousand worlds, peopled with myriads 
 of intellectual beings of various orders, the sentiment of admi- 
 ration implied in the passage is extremely natural and em- 
 phatic, and conveys to us an impressive idea of the Intelli- 
 gence, the Benificence, and the Condescension of the Founder 
 and Governor of all worlds. 
 
 No. VII. p. 246. — On the first Inventor of Printing. 
 
 Mr. Ireland, in his " Picturesque Tour through Holland, 
 Brabant, and part of France, in 1789," gives the following 
 
APPENDIX. 331 
 
 account of the inventor of Printing, when describing the city 
 of Haerlem. 
 
 " Haerlem claims the invention of the art of printing. It is 
 attributed to Lawrence Koster, an alderman of this city, in 
 1440 ; whose house is yet standing in the market-place, oppo- 
 site the church. Amusing himself one day in the neighboring 
 wood, with cutting the bark of trees into the letters that form- 
 ed the initials of his name, he is said to have laid them on 
 paper, and falling asleep, when he awoke, observed, that from 
 the dew, their form was impressed on the paper. This acci- 
 dent induced him to make further experiment : he next cut 
 his letters in wood, and, dipping them in a glutinous liquid, 
 impressed them on paper, which he found an improvement ; 
 and, soon after, substituting leaden and pewter letters, erected 
 a press in his house ; thus laying the foundation of this noble 
 art, which has thence gradually risen to its present excellence. 
 — The art, it is said, was stolen from him by his servant, John 
 Faustus, who conveyed it to Mentz, and, from the novelty of 
 the discovery, soon acquh'ed the title of Doctor and Conjurer. 
 The«original specimens are now shown at the library in the 
 Town Hall. The first is on a leaf of parchment, and the 
 second and third on paper, printed only on one side, and the 
 
 ooriier loft blank for capitaler At the top are WOoden CUtSj 
 
 representing the creation, and, as it is called, Lucifer's Fall." 
 —pp. 109—111. 
 
 No. YHL p. 254. — On Telescopes ; with a brief notice of a 
 New Reflecting Telescope, constructed by the Author. 
 
 It is doubtful to what particular individual we owe the in- 
 vention of the telescope. Some have supposed that Roger 
 Bacon and Baptista Porta invented this instrument. Borelli 
 ascribes the invention to Zacharias Jansen, a native of Mid- 
 dleburg. Perhaps the account given in the article to which 
 this note refers, and which is stated by a variety of authors, 
 may be as probable as any other. It is certain that the teles- 
 cope was not in general use until the beginning of the 17th 
 century, and that no discoveries in the heavens were made 
 with it, till the year 1609. 
 
 There are two kinds of telescopes. Refracting and Reflect- 
 ing. In refracting telescopes, the rays of light pass through 
 convex or concave glasses or lenses. The object-glass is 
 always convex, and forms an image or picture of the object 
 in an inverted position in its focus ; which image is viewed by 
 the eye-glass ; and the magnifying power is in the proportion 
 
332 APPENDIX. 
 
 of the focal distance of the object-glass to that of the eye- 
 glass. The focal distance of a convex glass may be ascer- 
 tained by holding it in the rays of the sun, opposite to a piece 
 of white paper, and measuring the distance between the glass 
 and the white spot, or burning point, formed on the paper. — 
 An Astronomical telescope for viewing celestial objects may 
 be constructed with only two glasses. If an object-glass, 30 
 inches focal distance, be fixed in the end of a tube, and an 
 eye-glass of one inch focus be placed at the other end, at the 
 distance of 31 inches from the object-glass, a telescope will 
 be formed, which will magnify in the proportion of one to 
 thirty, or 30 times ; that is, objects seen through such a tele- 
 scope will appear thirty times larger in diameter, or thirty times 
 nearer than to the naked eye. By such an instrument, the 
 inequalities on the moon's surface, and some of the satellites 
 of Jupiter may be perceived ; but when directed to land 
 objects they will appear inverted, or turned upside down. In 
 order to reverse the appearance of the object, two other eye- 
 glasses are required ; or, if a concave eye-glass of a similar focus 
 be placed at 29 inches from the object-glass, the object ^will 
 appear in its natural position, and the magnifying power will 
 be the same ; but the field of view will be much smaller. — 
 Astronomical telescopes of this construction were formerly 
 made of 120, and even of 200 feet in length, and were used 
 without a tube ; the object-glass being placed on the top of a 
 long pole ; but these are now entirely superseded by Achro- 
 matic telescopes. In the achromatic telescope, the object- 
 glass is compounded of two, and sometimes of three lenses, 
 placed close to each other, one of which is a double concave 
 of white flint glass, and the other a double convex of crown 
 glass. By this means an image is formed without being blend- 
 ed with the prismatic colors ; and it will, therefore, bear a 
 much greater magnifyhig power than a common refractor. — 
 An achromatic telescope four feet long, will magnify objects as 
 much as a common refractor 100 feet long. 
 
 In Reflecting telescopes the images of objects are formed 
 by speculums or mirrors, instead of lenses. They are of two 
 kinds, the Gregorian and the Newtonian. The Gregorian 
 reflector consists of a tube in which a concave mirror, having 
 a hole in its centre, is placed. The rays of light from distant 
 objects falling upon this mirror, form an image before it, in its 
 centre or focus. This image is intercepted by a smaller mir- 
 ror, which reflects it back through the hole in the large mirror, 
 to an eye-glass, through which the observer views the object. 
 In the Newtonian Reflector, a plane mirror, placed at an anglo 
 
APPENDIX. 333 
 
 of 45 degrees, is substituted in place of the small mirror in 
 the Gregorian construction, and the observer looks down upon 
 the object through the side of the tube. Dr. Brewster has 
 suggested an interesting improvement in the construction of 
 this instrument, which is described in The Edinburgh Ency. 
 Art. Optics, p. 644. 
 
 New Reflector. — About three years ago, the Author com- 
 menced a series of experiments on Reflecting Telescopes ; 
 and has lately constructed several on a new plan and princi- 
 ple. In this construction, there is no small speculum, either 
 plane, convex, or concave ; there is no tube, except a short one 
 of two or three inches in length, for holding the speculum. — 
 The observer sits with his back to the object, and views the 
 image formed by the speculum through an eye-piece, which 
 requires to be nicely directed and adjusted. Three or four 
 instruments of this construction have been fitted up, with 
 specula of 5, 8, 16, 28, 35, and 49 inches focal distance. — 
 One of them, having a speculum of eight inches focus, and 2 
 inches diameter, with a terrestrial eye-piece, magnifying about 
 25 times, forms an excellent parlour telescope for viewing 
 land objects, and exhibits them in a brilliant and novel aspect. 
 When compared with a Gregorian of the same size and mag- 
 nifying power, the quantity of light upon the object appears 
 nearly double, and the image is equally distinct. It represents 
 objects in their natural colors, without that dingy and yellowish 
 tinge which appears when looking through a Gregorian. — 
 Another of these instruments, having a speculum of 28 inches 
 focal distance, and an eye-piece producing a magnifying power 
 of about 100 times, serves as an excellent astronomical tele- 
 scope. By this instrument the belts and satellites of Jupiter, 
 the ring of Saturn, and the mountains and cavities of the 
 Moon may be contemplated with great ease and distinction. 
 By placing the pedestal on the floor of the apartment, when 
 the object is at a high elevation, we can view celestial phe- 
 nomena with the same ease as if we were sitting at a writing- 
 desk reading a book. With a magnifying power of about 40 
 or 50 times applied to this telescope, terrestrial objects appear 
 extremely bright and well defined. A speculum of 49 inches 
 focal distance, and 6* inches diameter, has lately been fitted 
 up on the same principle. With magnifying powers of from 
 100 to 160 times, it exhibits distinct and interesting views of 
 the Moon's surface, and of the ring of Saturn, and with a 
 
 28* 
 
334 APPENDIX. 
 
 power of 66 times it affords a beautiful view of land objec4v 
 The specula used in these instuments are far from being good; 
 being of a yellowish color, and scarcely half poUshed, and 
 having large holes in the centre ; as they were originally intend- 
 ed for Gregorian Reflectors ; yet the brightness of vision 
 approaches nearly to that of xichromatic Telescopes. The 
 experiments which have been made on this subject demon- 
 strate, that a tube is not necessary for a Reflecting Telescope, 
 when viewing either celestial or terrestrial objects ; and, there- 
 fore, this construction of the instrument may be denominated, 
 The Aerial Reflector. The simplicity of the construc- 
 tion, and the excellence of the performance of these instru- 
 ments, have been much admired by several scientific gentlemen 
 to whom they have been exhibited. A Caveat has lately been 
 lodged at the Patent Oflice, in the view of taking out a Patent 
 for this construction of Reflecting telescopes ; and a more 
 detailed account of it will probably soon appear in some of the 
 Scientific Journals. 
 
 In the System of Optics, lately published in the Edinburg 
 Encyclopeedia, (one of the most luminous and comprehensive 
 treatises which has yet appeared on this subject,) the writer, in 
 his introduction to the account of Dr. Brewster's improve- 
 ment on the Newtonian Telescope, remarks : — " If we could 
 dispense with the use of the small specula in telescopes of 
 moderate length, by inclining the great speculum, and using 
 an oblique, and, consequently, a distorted reflection, as pro- 
 posed first by La Maire, we should consider the Newtonian 
 Telescope as perfect ; and on a large scale, or when the in- 
 strument exceeds 20 feet, it has undoubtedly this character, as 
 nothing can be more simple than to magnify, by a single eye- 
 glass, the image formed by a single speculum. — As the front 
 view is quite impracticable ; and, indeed, has never been at- 
 tempted in instruments of a small size, it becomes of great 
 practical consequence to remove as much as possible the evils 
 which arise from the use of a small speculum," &c. — The 
 instruments noticed above have effectuated the desirable ob- 
 ject alluded to by this respectable writer; and the principle of 
 the construction is neither that of Dr. Hcrschel's front view, 
 nor does it coincide with that proposed by La Maire, which 
 seems to have been a mere hint, which was never put into 
 execution. 
 
 No. IX. p. 257. — On Steam Navigation. 
 The appUcatioa of steam, as a mechanical power for impel^^ 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ling vessels along rivers and seas, is one of the most brilliant 
 and useful achievements of art which distinguish the present 
 age, and seems destined to produce an important and interest- 
 ing change in the general intercourse of nations. From the 
 "Report of a Committee of Parliament," published in 1S22, 
 it appears, that the first application of steam to the impelling 
 of vessels, was made by an Englishman, of the name of Hull, 
 who, in 1736, obtained a patent for the invention of a Steam- 
 boat, to be moved with a crank and paddles. But it was only 
 in 1807, that the invention was fairly brought into practical 
 use, by Mr. Fulton, an American, who had the assistance 
 and advice of Mr. Bell, a Scots engineer. There are nowj 
 according to Mr. Perkins' statement, about 300 Steam-boats 
 on the rivers, bays, and coasts of the United States^ varying 
 in their size from 100 to 700 tons. In Britain, the first suc- 
 cessful application of steam to vessels, was made by the above 
 mentioned Mr. Bell,* who built the Comet of 25 tons, and 
 four horses' power, to ply on the Clyde. There are now reck- 
 oned about 150 Steam-boats, from 40 to 500 tons, plying on 
 the rivers and coasts of the British isles. Glasgow, which 
 had the honor of introducing steam navigation on this side of 
 the Atlantic, is still the seat of its greatest activity. Accord- 
 ing to a statement given in the " Edinburgh Philosophical 
 Journal," pubhshed in July^ 1822, there v/ere then no less 
 than 36 Steam-boats, of various sizes, plying on the Clyde. 
 Some of these, besides performing regular voyages to Inve- 
 rary, Campbelton, Belfast, Liverpool^ and other places, are also 
 performing tours, during the summer months, to the Giant's 
 Causeway, Staffa, Skye, and other ports of the Western Isles, 
 and to Inverness by the Caledonian Canal. Steam-boats are 
 also plying between Aberdeen and Leith — between Newha- 
 ven and Aberdour, Bruntisland, Kinghorn, Kirkaldy, and 
 Dysart ; and to Queensferry, AUoa^ Grangemouth and Ster 
 ling — between Leith and London — Dover and Calais. One 
 has been plying for several years on Loch-Lomond, which en- 
 ables the traveller, at a small expense, to take an interesting 
 view of the diversified scenery of that beautiful lake. Five 
 are just now plying on the Tay ; two of which, with engines of 
 30 and 40 horse powers^ and fitted up with elegant accommo- 
 
 + It is much to be regretted, and it is certainly not congenial to the libe- 
 ral spirit of the age, that this gentleman, who was among the first invent- 
 ors of steam navigation, and who has done so much to promote its success 
 in the neighborhood of Glasgow, has never received any public reward 
 for his exertions, and has been left to sink into a state approaching to 
 poverty^ 
 
336 APPENDIX. ' 
 
 dation, ply daily between Perth and Dundee ; each of them 
 during most of the summer months, transporting nearly a hun- 
 dred passengers at every trip. 
 
 Steam navigation, though less understood on the Continent 
 than with us, is now beginning to make considerable progress. 
 There are eight Steam-boats on the Garonne, and several on 
 the Seine. There are two on the Lake of Geneva, and two 
 are about to be established on the Lake Constance, and there 
 are, besides, one or two on the Danube. It is likely, that in 
 the course of a few years such conveyances will be estab- 
 lished on all our Friths and Rivers, and the period is, no doubt, 
 hastening on, when excursions will be taken, in such vehicles, 
 between Europe and America. A Steam-boat of 700 tons 
 burden, and 100 horse power, has sailed regularly, summer 
 and winter, for three or four years, between New York and 
 New Orleans, a distance of 2000 miles, in an open sea, ex- 
 posed to great storms ; and, by many, she is preferred to the 
 packets, not only for the certainty of making shorter voyages, 
 but on account of greater safety. In America, steam vessels 
 are fitted up with every accommodation and elegancy which 
 art can devise ; so as to produce, if possible, as great a vari- 
 ety of enjoyment to passengers on sea, as on land. Mr. 
 Church, the American Consul in France, has invented a pad- 
 dle, which revolves on the paddle wheel, by very simple 
 mechanism, which is found to save power. In the United 
 States, a new mode of constructing cabins has been lately in- 
 troduced, so as to place them beyond the reach of injury from 
 explosions of the boiler. A steam vessel of a large size has 
 lately been fitted up, which is intended to sail between Lon- 
 don and Calcutta. 
 
 " Steam vessels have been built in this country from 10 to 
 500 tons, and from 3 or 4 to 110 horse power. The length 
 of the City of Edinburgh, on the upper deck, is 143 feet ; and 
 some have lately been constructed of still larger dimensions. 
 The American steam-boats are larger than ours, and are much 
 more used for the conveyance of merchandise. The Fron- 
 tinac, which plies on the Canadian side of Lake Ontario, is 
 170 feet long on deck, and 32 feet broad ; and the Chancel- 
 lor Livingston, which plies on the Hudson, is of the same 
 size. The velocity aimed at is generally 8 or 9 miles an 
 hour. The proportion is, on an average, about one horse 
 power for every four tons of burden, computed in the usual 
 way. The velocity is found to be nearly as the square root of 
 the power, so that an SO horse power engine will produce only 
 twice the velocity of one of 20 horse power. Something 
 
APPENDIX. 337 
 
 depends also on the make and size of the vessel. The " Sover- 
 eign," of 210 tons, and 80 horse power, goes 9| miles an 
 hour in still water ; and the " James Watt," of 448 tons, and 
 100 horse power, is stated to go ten miles. For the paddle- 
 boards, the rule is, that 3-lOths of a square foot of surface 
 should be immersed in the water for each horse power. The 
 paddle wheels vary from 10 to 15 feet in diameter, dip from 
 12 to 20 inches in the water, and have about one foot in 
 breadth for each 10 horse pov/er. Mr. Gladstone affirms, that 
 so much power is wasted in displacing the water by the stroke 
 of the board, that the velocity of the ship is only about one 
 half of that of the outer surface of the paddle-wheel. 
 
 " There are two sources of apprehension in steam-boats — 
 fire, and the bursting of the boiler. With regard to the latter, 
 when the boiler is of low pressure, it is satisfactorily estabhsh- 
 ed that not the smallest danger exists. And in the best con- 
 structed vessels, the danger from fire is completely obviated, 
 by separating the furnace from the sides of the vessels by five 
 inches of water." — The poM^er of steam is now rendered sub- 
 servient to the breaking of stones for the construction of roads. 
 The stones are put into a kind of hopper above, and pushed 
 down with a rake, and the machine is worked by a rotatory 
 motion of one horse power ; and will break a. ton of hard peb- 
 bles, completely, in from six to eight minutes. A steam ma- 
 chine has also been invented for the dressing of woollen cloth, 
 which does as much work in 50 minutes as two men could do 
 in two days. Mon. Mag. Aug. 1823, p. 71. — A steam car- 
 riage, for conveying goods and passengers on land, was lately 
 constructing by Mr. Griffiths. Its rate of motion, on common 
 roads is estimated at five miles an hour, at an average ; about 
 three miles when going up-hill, and above seven when running 
 down. But pecuniary embarrassments, or other impediments, 
 have, hitherto, prevented the completion of his design. 
 
 Mr. Perkins has lately made improvements on the steam- 
 engine, which promise to carry its powers to a high degree of 
 perfection. The engine he has lately constructed is calculated 
 to a ten horse power, though the cylinder is no more than two 
 inches in diameter, and 18 inches long, with a stroke of only 
 12 inches. Although the space occupied by the engine is not 
 more than six feet by eight, yet Mr. P. considers the appara- 
 tus (with the exception of the working cylinder and piston) is 
 perfectly sufficient for a thirty horse engine. "When the en- 
 gine performs full work, it consumes only two bushels of coal 
 in the day. Mr. Perkins has also announced a discovery still 
 more e^^traordinary, viz. that he has been able " to arrest the 
 
338 APPENDIX. 
 
 heat, after it has performed its mechanical functions, and ac- 
 tually pump it back to the generator, to unite with a fresh por- 
 tion of water, and renew its useful labors." A particular 
 account of Perkins' engine, accompanied with an engraving, 
 is given in the Edin. Philos. Journal, No. 17, for July 1823. 
 The pretensions of Mr. Perkins, however, have not yet been 
 so fully substantiated by experiment as to satisfy the anxious 
 expectation of the public. 
 
 An interesting Report has lately been published of a series 
 of experiments, made with a new steam engine, invented by an 
 American machinist, called the capillanj steam engine. Three 
 great objects are said to be accomplished by this invention, 
 lightness, safety, and economy of f net. In an engine calcu- 
 lated for a four horse power, the generator, is formed of a cop- 
 per tube i inch in diameter, and 100 feet long, which weighs 
 about 16 lbs. It is arranged in coils, one above another, in 
 the form of a sugar loaf, 30 inches high ; the bottom coil 
 being 18 inches in diameter, and the top one considerably less. 
 The wood is prepared as is usual for a stove, and put within 
 the coils. The steam cylinder is formed of sheet copper, three 
 inches in diameter, 27 inches in stroke, and, with all its append- 
 ages, weighs about 25 lbs. It has been ascertained, that the ge- 
 nerator dnd maiu cylinder, with their contents and appendages, 
 exclusive of fuel, need not weigh more than 20 lbs. to the 
 horse power. JVo harm can be done by the bursting of boilers 
 ■ — even a safety-valve is considered as useless. In the course 
 of the experiments, the experimenters several times burst the 
 tube ; but, so far from doing any injury, it could not always be 
 perceived by the spectators. To ascertain what may be done 
 towards aerial navigation, by steam, experiments were made 
 on the power of wings in the air, and on the power necessary 
 to work them. The result is, that it requires a horse power to 
 carry 30 lbs. in the air ; so that a flying engine, to be worked 
 by charcoal, would weigh about 30 lbs. to the horse power, 
 wings, condenser and fuel included. It was also ascertained by 
 experiments and calculations, that a balloon could be made to 
 carry a man with an engine, which would push it at the rate of 
 15 miles an hour in the air. A more particular detail of these 
 experiments may be seen in the " London Mechanic's Maga- 
 zine," No. 60, for 16th October, 1824. 
 
 No. X. p. 316. — Strictures on a certain sentiment respecting 
 the Work of Human Redemption. 
 The sentiment referred to in this paragraph, " That there 
 never was, nor ever will be, through all the ages of eternity, 
 
APPENDIX. o39 
 
 SO wonderful a display of the Divine gloiy, as in the cross of 
 Christ," has been reiterated a thousand times, in sermons and 
 in systems of divinity, and is still repeated by certain preachers 
 as if it were an incontrovertible axiom, which ought never to 
 be called in question ; and is, no doubt, intended to magnify 
 the Divine attributes, and the work of redemption.* But it is 
 nothing more than a presumptuous assumption, which has a 
 tendency to limit the perfections of Deity, and to present a 
 partial and distorted view of the economy of human redemp- 
 tion. For, in the first place, it has no foundation in Scrip- 
 ture. There is not a single passage from which it can be 
 legitimately deduced. The onus 'prohandi, on this point, 
 
 * It is not important to determine how often the sentiment here ex- 
 pressed has been " reiterated in sermons and systems of Divinity." We 
 cannot, however, beheve that it has been repeated with the same frequen- 
 cy, as the author's language seems to imply. That there are instances, 
 in which it was designed to express all the meaning here attributed to it, 
 cannot be denied. But why may it not have been sometimes used to dis- 
 tinguish the work of mediation ti'om all the other favors, which God has 
 conferred on our race ? In his History of R.edemption, p. 342, President 
 Edwards says, " from what has been said, one may argue, that the work 
 of Redemption is the greatest of all God's works, of which we have any 
 notice, and it is the end of all his other woi-ks." This view of the subject 
 accords with the scriptures. Though it cannot be asserted, that in a 
 single instance they directly affirm the work of redemption to be the 
 greatest of all the works of God, yet they give it such an importance and 
 prominency, as are conceded to no other of His dispensations. In this 
 light the Apostles seem to have regarded it. Paul counted all the distinc- 
 tions and honors and advantages, which he had acquired amongst the 
 Jews, as loss in comparison with the glory of the Gospel. He went even 
 farther. He declared that he counted ALL THINGS but loss for the 
 excellency of the knowledge of Christ Jesus his Lord. In this view of the 
 subject there is no presumption and no limitation of the " divine perfec- 
 tions and operations." It has no tendency either to damp the hopes, or 
 obscure the prospects of immortal beings. 
 
 On the other hand who, that is not presumptuous beyond endurance, 
 will suppose, that he now understands the full extent of the love of Christ 
 and Its bearings on all the other divine operations ? Who will dare to 
 assert, that this theme will not be sufficient forever to employ the medita- 
 tions and the songs of the redeemed ? Has any one ascertained, that it is 
 so limited, as to be soon exhausted ? On these topics the author is hap- 
 pily silent; or rather he "pronounces nothing decisively;" but affirms, 
 that were he " to hazard a conjecture," he should say, " that the converse 
 of the proposition" under consideration " is true." But for ourselves 
 " we feel chained down to an obscure corner of God's domains," and pos- 
 sess no light except that which he has given us. In our present condition 
 we dare not launch with the author into the ocean of conjecture. Guided 
 by the revelation which God has made, we are compelled to regard tlie 
 work of Redemption as the greatest of all the divine works of which we 
 have any knowledge ; and we are satisfied, that the developement of the 
 relations and bearings and effects of this stupendous work will be suffi- 
 cient to employ all our powers of comprehension, and ever to minister to 
 us new and constant delight. Am. Editor. 
 
340 APPENDIX. 
 
 rests with those who make the assertion. A gentleman, when 
 lately conversing on this subject, brought forward the follow- 
 ing interrogation, as a demonstrative argument in proof of 
 the position in question : " Is not Redemption declared in 
 Scripture to be the chief of all the icorls of God ?" but he 
 was not a little surprised, when he was informed, that the 
 passage which he had partly misquoted, is applied to the 
 Behemoth or the Elephant, as stated in Job, xl. 19. — 2dly, 
 the assertion is as presumptuous as it is unfounded. It takes 
 for granted, that we know all the events which have already 
 happened, and which are now taking place throughout the 
 whole range of God's Universal Empire. This empire ap- 
 pears unbounded ; and that portion of it which we can mi- 
 nutely explore, is but as a point in comparison of the whole. 
 But before we can, on good grounds, hazard such an assertion 
 as that under consideration, we must have explored all the 
 dispensations of God, through every portion of his vast 
 dominions ; and be able to form a comparison between the 
 different displays of Divine glory, nlade to all the different 
 classes of intellectual beings, under the government of the 
 Creator. And who, among the sons of Adam, can lay claim 
 to such high quahfications for pronouncing so sweeping a de- 
 cision on this point 1 3dly, It sets limits to the Divine per- 
 fections and ojjerations. For although it could be proved, 
 (which it cannot be,) that no such displays have hitherto been 
 made to any other beings, yet who can take upon him to 
 assert, that displays of Divine perfection far more glorious 
 and astonishing, will not be exhibited during the countless 
 ages of eternity which are yet to come 1 To set limits to the 
 operations of Almighty Power and Boundless Benevolence, 
 during the lapse of infinite duration, is not the province of any 
 created intelligence, and far less of man, who stands so low 
 in the scale of universal being. 4thly, It tends to damp the 
 hopes and prospects of immortal beings, when looking forward 
 to an interminable existence. For this sentiment leads them 
 to conclude, that they are already acquainted with the gre.atest 
 display of Divine glory which can be made ; and that what- 
 ever scenes of wonder may be exhibited in the future world, 
 they must, of course, be all inferior to this, in point of extent 
 and grandeur. 
 
 The Redemption of the human race, as displayed in the 
 Christian Revelation, is a theme sufficiently grand, astonish- 
 ing, and interesting, to command the attention of all who are 
 convinced that they belong to an apostate race of intelligences, 
 and to excite tlie admiration and gratitude of all who have 
 
APPENDIX. 341 
 
 experienced its benefits ; and it stands in no need of such 
 unfounded and extravagant assertions, to display its riches 
 and glory. " Will a man speak deceitfully for God ? Shall 
 not his excellency make you afraid, and his dread fall upon 
 you 1" — We pronounce nothing decisively on this subject. 
 We feel ourselves chained down to an obscure corner of 
 God's dominions, to be in the very infancy of our knowledge, 
 and withal, to be connected with a race of beings whose 
 *' understandings are darkened by reason of sin ;" and are 
 therefore unable to pronounce an infallible decision on what 
 God will, or will not do. Were we to hazard a conjecture on 
 this subject, we would say, that the converse of the proposition 
 under consideration, is more probable than the proposition 
 itself. We can conceive worlds ten thousand times more 
 populous than ours, and peopled with a higher order of intel- 
 lectual beings, towards whom a similar display of Benevo- 
 lence and Mercy, were it necessary, may be made ; and, 
 therefore, in point of the extent of its objects, we can conceive 
 the Love of God more illustriously manifested than even to 
 the inhabitants of our globe. But whether such an event 
 shall ever take place, it would be presumption in us to deter- 
 mine. For the thoughts and the ways of God as far trans- 
 cend ours, " as the heavens are high above the earth." It 
 demands our highest tribute of grateful adoration, that the 
 Almighty condescended to " regard us in our low estate," 
 and to deliver us from the moral degradation into which we 
 had fallen ; but, surely, it would be unreasonable to conclude, 
 from this consideration, that, of all the rational tribes which 
 people the universe, Man is the only favorite of the most 
 High, " when thousand worlds are round." Though myriads 
 of other intelligences were to share in similar favors, it would 
 not lessen the happiness conferred on us, nor ought it in the 
 least, to detract from our admiration of " the love of God, 
 which is in Christ Jesus our Lord." 
 
 There are a great many other vague and untenable notions 
 which are entertained and reiterated by certain commentators 
 and divines, as indisputable axioms, which it would be of im- 
 portance to the cause of Religion to discard ; . such as — that 
 angels are pure immaterial substances* — that they were 
 formed on the first day of the Mosaic creation — that the 
 ivisdom of God is no where so illustriously displayed through- 
 
 + In the Scriptures angels are called Spirits. And till some evidence is 
 offered of their materiality we shall see no reason to abandon the opinion, 
 that they are pure spirits. — Ed. 
 
 29 
 
342 APPENDIX. 
 
 out the universe as in the scheme of redemption* — ;that the 
 chief employment of the future world m411 be to pry into the 
 mysteries of salvationf — that sin is an injinite evilj — that the 
 whole material universe was brought into existence at the 
 same time with our earth — that the Creator ceased to create 
 any new order of beings in the universe, after arranging the 
 fabric of our globe — that the whole system of material nature 
 in heaven and earth, will be destroyed at the period of the dis- 
 solution of our world — that our thoughts and affections shoula 
 be completely detached from all created things, &c. &c. — 
 Several vague notions of this description are founded on the 
 false assumption, that the globe we inhabit, and the rational 
 oemgs that have appeared on its surface from age to age, art 
 the chief objects of God's Superintendence and Care — and 
 that the Scriptures are the only medium through which we can 
 view the plans and operations of the Deity — assumptions, 
 which are contrary to reason, which are unwarranted in Re- 
 velation, nay, which are directly contradicted in numerous 
 passages of Scripture, some of which have already been 
 referred to in the course of this volume. It would be of 
 
 * To show that it is important to discard this sentiment, the author 
 ought at least to have stated some good reason for beUeving it to be with- 
 out foundation. Until something moi-e decisive of this point shall be made 
 to appear, there cannot be the least occasion to abandon the sentiment in 
 question. — Ed. 
 
 t Here substantially the same reply may be made as in the preceding 
 instance. Prove, that this will not be the chief employment of heaven — 
 Show, that any thing else will, for the most part, occupy the attention of 
 the spirits of just men made perfect in glory, and the sentiment mider con- 
 sideration will be readily renounced. Till then we shall claim the right to 
 believe, and maintain, that the em]iloynient of the redeemed in glory will 
 consist, to a great extent, in beholding, admiring, and adoring Huifi, who 
 bath loved them and died for them. — Ed. 
 
 I Infinite is once used in the scriptures to qualify the term iniquity. 
 Job xxii. 5. Is not thy tcickedness great and thine iniquities infinite ? But 
 not to insist on perhaps a too literal interpretation of the term, it will be 
 sufficient to show what it is ordinarily vised to denote. 
 
 Some authors, regarding only the very Hmited faculties and powers of 
 human beings, deem it mipossible, that any of their deeds can be an iiifi- 
 nite evil. 
 
 Others, considering only the infinity of the Being against whom sin is 
 committed, find no dilficulty in convincing themselves, that it is an infinite 
 evil. 
 
 There is also a third class, who taking the word of God for their guide, 
 and learning that sin exposes men to everlasting punishment, do not hesi- 
 tate to denominate that an infinite evil, which brings on its guilty victim 
 sufferings infinite in duration. Understood in this last sense, we_ can feel 
 no obligation to reject it. It must, however, be admitted that it is not 
 always used in this manner, and that it is sometimes an occasion of ambi- 
 guity. — Ed. 
 
APPENDIX. 343 
 
 essential service to the cause of Christianity, that its doc- 
 trines, facts, and moral requisitions were uniformly exhibited 
 in their native simplicity and grandeur, without being obscured 
 and distorted by the vague and extravagant representa- 
 tions with which they are too frequently blended by injudicious 
 minds. 
 
 No. XI. 
 As authority has a considerable degree of weight on some 
 minds, I shall conclude with an extract on the subject of this 
 volume, from that respectable and enlightened divine, Dr. 
 DwiGHT, late President of Yale College : — " The works of 
 God were by him intended to be, and are, in fact, manifesta- 
 tions of himself; proofs of his character, presence, and 
 agency. In this light he requires men continually to regard 
 them : and to refuse this regard is considered by him as 
 grossly wicked, and highly deserving of punishment, Psalm 
 xxviii. 5. Isa. v. 12 — 14. I am apprehensive, that even good 
 men are prone to pay less attention to the works of creation 
 and providence than ]iiety demands, and the Scriptures re- 
 quire. We say and hear so much concerning the insufficiency 
 of these works to unfold the character of God, and the nature 
 of genuine rehgion, that we are prone to consider them as 
 almost uninstructive in moral things, and, in a great measure, 
 useless to the promotion of piety. This, however, is a palpa- 
 ble and dangerous error. The works alone, without the aid of 
 the Scriptures, would, I acknowledge, be far less instructive 
 than they now are, and utterly insufficient to guide us in the 
 way of righteousness. The Scriptures were designed to be 
 a comment on these works ; to explain their nature, and to 
 show us the agency, purposes, wisdom, and goodness of God 
 in their formation. Thus explained, thus illuminated, they 
 become means of knowledge, very extensive and eminently 
 useful. He who does not find in the various, beautiful, sub- 
 lime, awful, and astonishing objects presented to us in Crea- 
 tion and Providence, irresistible and glorious reasons, for ad- 
 miring, adoring, loving, and praising his Creator, has not a 
 claim to evangehcal piety." — System of Theology, vol. iii. 
 p. 477. 
 
 No. XII. — List of Popular Works on the different Sciences 
 treated of in this Volume, ivith occasional Remarks. 
 
 SELECT BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 " Goldsmith's History of the Earth, and animated nature," 
 with notes by T. Brown, Esq. published at Manchester, 6 
 
344 APPENDIX. 
 
 vols. 8vo. The copious notes appended to this edition, con- 
 tain an account of the latest discoveries, and form a valuable 
 addition to the original work. — " The Gallery of Nature, and 
 Art," by Dr. Mason Good, and others, 6 vols. 8vo. — " Spec- 
 tacle de la JVature,^^ or, Nature Displayed, 7 vols. 12mo. — 
 "Nature Displayed," by Dr. Simeon Shaw, 3 vols. Svo. or in 
 6 vols. 12mo. This work, though chiefly a compilation, 
 embodies a great variety of interesting and popular descrip- 
 tions of the most remarkable facts in the system of nature, 
 which are illustrated with numerous engravings, both plain 
 and colored. — Clarke's " Hundred Wonders of the World," 
 1 A^ol. 12mo. and Piatt's " Book of Curiosities," contain a 
 number of interesting selections on this subject. — Smellie's 
 " Philosophy of Natural History," 2 vols. 4to. and his trans- 
 lation of " Buffon's Natural Plistory." — Works entitled, 
 " System" and " Elements" of " Natural History," are nu- 
 merous ; but the greatest part of them is confined to descrip- 
 tions of the forms, habits, and instinct of animals. On this 
 department of natural science, a work is just now in course of 
 publication, by the celebrated Cuvier, entitled " The Animal 
 Kingdom,''^ with engravings, chiefly from the living subjects in 
 the Museum of Natural History at Paris. — A popular and 
 comprehensive History of the facts which have been ascer- 
 tained respecting the earth, the atmosphere, the meteors, the 
 heavens, &c. calculated for general readers, and interspersed 
 with appropriate moral and religious reflections, is still a desi- 
 deratum. The facts of Natural History, next to the facts 
 recorded in the Sacred Volume, are the first subjects to which 
 the minds of the young should be directed in the course of a 
 general education. 
 
 SELECT BOOKS ON GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pinkerton's Modern Geography, 2 vols. 4to. and the 
 Abridgment, 1 vol. Svo. — Guthrie's Geographical Grammar. 
 — The Glasgow Geography, in 5 vols. Svo. This work com- 
 prehends an immense mass of information, on the historical 
 and descriptive parts of Geography. It also contains com- 
 prehensive compends of Astronomy, Geology, Meteorology, 
 &c. — Make Brun's " System of Geography," Svo. The 
 English translation of this work, Avhen completed, will com- 
 prise the fullest and most comprehensive view of Universal 
 Geography that has yet appeared in our language, including 
 details of the most recent discoveries. Five volumes of the 
 
APPENDIX. 345 
 
 English translation have already appeared. The first volume 
 contains a luminous and comprehensive outline of the science 
 of Geology, and Physical and Mathematical Geography. — 
 Myer's " System of Modern Geography," with maps, views, 
 engravings representing costumes, &c. 2 large vols. 4to. — 
 Cooke's " System of Universal Geography," in 2 very large 
 quarto vols, closely printed, contains a great variety of inter- 
 esting sketches in relation to Descriptive Geography, ex- 
 tracted from the writings of modern Voyagers and Travellers ; 
 the details of incidents, &c. being related, for the most part, 
 in the words of the respective authors from whom the infor- 
 mation is collected. — Winterbotham's " Geographical and 
 Historical view of the United States of America, &c." four 
 vols. Svo. — Morse's " American Geography," 8vo. — Gold- 
 smith's " Geography on a popular plan," contains an interest- 
 ing account of the manners and customs of nations, for the 
 entertainment and instruction of the young, illustrated with 
 above 60 engravings. Of smaller systems, there is a great 
 abundance in the English language, but most of them are 
 extremely deficient, particularly in what relates to General 
 Geography. — On Sacred Geography, Well's Geography, mo- 
 dernized by the Editor of Calmet's Dictionary, is the most 
 complete work of its kind. — On Physical or General Geogra- 
 phy — Play fair's System of Geography, vol. 1. and Yarenius's 
 General Geography. A Modern system of General Geo- 
 graphy, in a separate form, on the plan of Varenius, is a desi- 
 deratum. — Edin. Ency. Art. Geography — Sup. to Ency. Brit. 
 Art. Physical Geography, &c. &c. Books of Voyages and 
 Travels, generally contain the most circumstantial details of 
 the physical aspects of the different countries, and of the 
 dispositions and customs of their inhabitants ; and present to 
 the view of the Christian Philanthropist, those facts and inci- 
 dents, froni which the moral state and character of the various 
 tribes of human beings may be inferred. The following 
 works contain comprehensive abridgments of the most cele- 
 brated voyages and travels. — " Pinkerton's General Collec- 
 tion of Voyages and Travels in all parts of the world," 17 
 vols. 4to. — " Mavor's Voyages," &c. 28 vols. 18mo. — " The 
 World Displayed," 18 vols. ISmo.—" Philip's Collection of 
 Voyages and Travels," &:c. 
 
 The following are among the most respectable modern pub- 
 lications oh this subject, arranged according to the different 
 quarters of the World. Asia. — " Valencia's Travels in India, 
 Arabia," &c.— " Porter's Travels in Georgia, Armenia," &c. 
 — " Golownin's Travels in Japan." '* Staunton's Account of 
 
 29* 
 
346 APPENDIX. 
 
 Macartney's Embassy to China." " Raffle's Travels Ik? 
 Java." " Clark's Travels in Asia Minor, and the Holy 
 Land." " Chateaubriand's Travels in Palestine." "Ali Bey's 
 Travels in Arabia." — "Morier's Travels through Persia," &c. 
 Africa. — "Lyon's Travels in Northern Africa." Burckhard's 
 Travels in ISubia. Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia. Salt's 
 Travels in Abyssinia. Bowdich, Hutton, and Dupuis' Ac- 
 count o{ Ashantee. Leigh's Jour, in Egypt. Belzoni's Tra- 
 vels in Egypt. Sonini's Travels in Egypt. Barrow's, Bur- 
 chell's, and Campbell's Travels in Southern Africa, &c. &c. 
 America. — Howison's Sketches of Upper Canada. Fearon's 
 Sketches of the United States. Miss Wright's Yiews of 
 Society in the United States. Humboldt's Travels in South 
 America. Duncan's Travels in the United States. Luccock's, 
 Vidal's, Kosters's, and Hall's Travels in South America, &c. 
 Europe. — Henderson's and Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland. 
 —Thompson's Travels in Sweden. — Carr's Travels in Russia, 
 
 Denmark, &c. Pallas' Travels in Russia. Wraxail's, 
 
 Neale's, Coxe's, and Lemaistre's Tours through France, 
 Switzerland, Ger^iany, &c. — Bourgoing's and Jacob's Tra- 
 vels in Spain. — Brydon's Tour in Sicily, &c. — Von Buch's 
 Travels in Norway and Lapland, — Cochrane's Travels in 
 Siberia, &c. — Cook's, Anson's, Bryon's, Perouse's, and Bou- 
 ganville's Voyages round the World, &c. — Prior's Universal 
 Traveller, 1 thick vol. 12mo, closely printed with one hundred 
 engravings. 
 
 SELECT BOOKS ON GEOLOGY. 
 
 Kirwan's " Mineralogy," and his " Geological Essays." — ' 
 De Luc's " Geology," and his " Geological Travels." — Par- 
 kinson's " Organic Remains of a former World," 3 vols. 4to. 
 — " The Fossils of the South Downs, or Illustrations of the 
 Geology of Sussex, by G. Mantel, F. L. S." The prelimi- 
 nary Essay to this splendid work, contains several excellent 
 remarks respecting the connexion of Geology with Religion, 
 which are calculated to advance the interests of both. — 
 Cuvier's " Essay on the Theory of the Earth," with illustra- 
 tions by Professor Jameson ; 4th edition. — Playfair's illustra- 
 tions of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth. — Transactions 
 of the Geological and Wernerian Societies. — Jameson's Min- 
 eralogy. — Buckland's Account of the Discovery of a Den of 
 Hyenas in a cavern in Yorkshire. — Philips' "Outlines of Min- 
 eralogy and Geology," 12mo. This last work forms a good 
 introduction to the study of Geology, for those who are just 
 
APPENDIX. 347 
 
 6'omniencing their inquiries on this subject. The object of 
 this science, in the mean time, should be chiefly to the collect- 
 ing off acts in reference to the structure of the earth, and the 
 changes it has undergone. The exterior aspect of our globe, 
 and its internal recesses, must be still more extensively 
 explored, before any theory of the earth can be established on 
 a broad and solid foundation. It should be left to future ages 
 to build a system with the materials we are now preparing. 
 
 POPULAR WORKS ON ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Brewster's " Ferguson's Astronomy," 2 vols. 8vo. with a 
 vol. of plates. The notes and supplementary chapters of this 
 work, written by Dr. Brewster, contain a full and comprehen- 
 sive detail of all the modern discoveries in this science. — 
 " Bonnycastlfe's Introduction to Astronomy," 1 vol. 8vo. — 
 La Place's " System of the World," 2 vols. 8vo. Dr. Olinthus 
 Gregory's Astronomy, 1 vol. Svo. — Mrs. Bryan's " System of 
 Astronomy," Svo. — Dr. Mylne's " Elementary Treatise on 
 Astronomy," Svo. — Adam's "Astronomical and Geographical 
 Essays," Svo. — Philips' " Eight Familiar Lectures on Astro- 
 nomy," 12mo. — Squire's «' Grammar of Astronomy," 1 thick 
 vol. ISmo. closely printed and illustrated with 35 plates. — 
 The " Wonders of the Heavens," 12mo. This work contains 
 a popular view of the principal facts of Astronomy, and is 
 illustrated with 50 elegant engravings, of a variety of interest- 
 ing objects connected with the scenery of the heavens ; but 
 its discussions are too frequently blended with the peculiari- 
 ties of a modern physical theory. — Martin's " Gentleman and 
 Lady's Philosophy," vol. 1. — Derham's "Astro-Theology," 
 and Whiston's " Astronomical principles of Religion," Svo. 
 — Baxter's " Matho," 2 vols. &c. — An elegant and compre- 
 hensive outline of the leading facts of Astronomy, in their re- 
 lation to revealed Religion, will be found in Dr. Chalmers' 
 " Discourses on the Christian Revelation, viewed in connec- 
 tion with the Modern Astronomy," Svo. — The general reader 
 in commencing his study of this science, will find Bonnycas- 
 tle's " Introduction" a very interesting work. It js written in 
 an elegant and animated style, and is agreeably interspersed 
 with a number of appropriate reflections ; but it is deficient in 
 the detail of modern discoveries. He might next proceed to the 
 perusal of Ferguson, Gregory, Squire, &c. La Place's work 
 contains a beautiful exposition of the JXewtonian System, but 
 it is glaringly deficient in a reference to the Wisdom and 
 Agency of a Supreme Intelligence. " An undevout astrono- 
 mer is mad','' Baxter's " Matho," contains a popular and 
 
348 APPENDIX. 
 
 interesting view of this subject and forms a striking contrast to 
 the apathy of La Place, who carefully keeps out of view the 
 agency of the Creator — the main design of this author being 
 to connect the phenomena of the heavens and the earth with 
 the attributes of Deity, and the high destination of immortal 
 minds. Though this work passed through three editions, it 
 does not seem to have been appreciated according to its merits. 
 As it has now become scarce, a new edition, with notes, con- 
 taining a detail of modern discoveries, might be an acceptable 
 present to the public. Those who wish to prosecute this 
 subject to a greater extent, may be referred to "Long's Astro- 
 nomy," 2 vols. 4to. — Robinson's " Mechanical Philosophy," 
 vol. 1. — A^ince's "Complete System of Astronomy," 3 vols. 
 4to. — " La Lande Astronomie,-^ 3 volumns 4to. — and Biot's 
 " Traite Elementaire d'Astronomie Physique." A compre- 
 hensive work on Descriptive Astronomy, detailing, in a popular 
 manner, all the facts which have been ascertained respecting 
 the scenery of the heavens, accompanied with a variety of 
 striking delineations, and interspersed with appropriate moral 
 reflections, accommodated to the general reader, is a deside- 
 ratum. 
 
 SELECT BOOKS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Hauys " Elementary treatise on Natural Philosophy," 
 translated by Dr. O. Gregory, 2 vols. 8vo. This translation 
 contains a number of valuable notes by the translator. — Fer- 
 guson's " Lectures on Select Subjects in Mechanics," &c. 
 by Dr. Brewster, 2 vols. 8vo. with a vol. of plates. The 
 Ajjpendix to this work, by Dr. Brewster, contains a mass of 
 valuable information on Mechanics, Hydraulics, Dialling, and 
 the construction of Optical Instrinnents ; besides a variety 
 of illustrative notes interspersed through the body of the work. 
 A new edition of this work, comprising a detailed account of 
 the recent discoveries in Experimental Philosophy, has been 
 lately published. — Nicholson's " Introduction to Natural Phi- 
 losophy," 2 vols. 8vo. — Cavallo's " Complete Treatise on 
 Natural and Experimental Philosophy," 4 vols. Svo. — Mar- 
 tin's " Philosophia Britannica," 3 vols. Svo. His "Gentleman 
 and Lady's Philosophy," 3 vols. Svo. and his Philosophical 
 Grammar," 1 vol. Svo. — Gregory's " Economy of Nature, 
 3 vols. Svo. and his " Lectures on Experimental Philoso- 
 phy, Astronomy, and Chemistry," 2 vols. 12mo. — Joyce's 
 "Letters on Experimental Philosophy," 2 vols. 12mo. — and 
 his " Scientific Dialogues," 6 vols. ibmo. — Adams' " Lec- 
 tures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy," 4 vols. 
 
APPENDIX. o4y 
 
 Svo. with a vol. of plates. — Young's " Lectures on Natural 
 Philosophy," 2 vols. Svo. — Walker's system of " Familiar 
 Philosophy," 4to. in 12 lectures, with 47 quarto engravings. — 
 Conversations on Natural Philosophy, by the Author of 
 Conversations on Chemistry, 1 thick vol. 12mo. with 23 en- 
 gravings. — Blair's " Grammar of Natural and Experimental 
 Philosophy," especially the late editions, contains (at a small 
 price) a comprehensive view of the principal departments of 
 Philosophy, including Astronomy, Geology, Chemistry, Me- 
 teorology, &c. — Euler's " Letters to a German Princess," 2 
 vols. Svo. contains a popular view of the most interesting sub- 
 jects connected with Natural and Experimental Philosophy, 
 Logic, and Ethics. This work is distinguished by a vein of 
 dignified and scriptural piety, which runs through every part of 
 it. Euler was one of the most distinguished Philosophers and 
 Mathematicians of his day. He died in 1783, at the age of 
 77. A new edition of this work, ivith notes by Dr. Brewster^ 
 has been lately pubhshed. These notes are excellent, so far 
 as they extend ; but it is to be regretted that they are so 
 sparingly distributed, and that the passages suppressed by M. 
 Condorcet, and De la Croix, which were restored by Dr. 
 Hunter, who translated the work, and the notes of the French 
 and English editors, are, for the most part, discarded. Not- 
 withstanding the numerous excellent treatises which are to be 
 found on this subject, a comprehensive work on experimental 
 Philosophy, blended with sketches of those parts of natural' 
 history, which are connected with it, and enlivened with appro- 
 priate reflections on the peculiar agencies of the Deity, which 
 appear in the various processes of nature — is still wanting to 
 interest the general reader, and to attract his attention to this 
 department of knowledge. Were philosophers in their dis- 
 cussions of natural science, more frequently to advert to the 
 agency of the Deity, and to point out the Religious and Phi- 
 lanthropic purposes to which modern discoveries might be 
 applied, they might be the means of promoting, at the same 
 time, the interests both of science and of religion ; by alluring 
 general readers to direct their attention to such subjects ; and 
 by removing those groundless prejudices which a great propor- 
 tion of the Christian world still entertain against philosophical 
 studies. About the period when Boyle, Ray, Derham^ 
 Nieuwentyt, Whiston, Addison, the Abbe Pluche, and other 
 Christian Philosophers flourished, more attention seems to 
 have been paid to this object than at present. Since the mid- 
 dle of the last century, the piety of philosophers appears to have 
 been greatly on the decline. It is to be hoped that it is now 
 
350 APPENDIX. 
 
 beginning to experience a revival. But, whatever may be the 
 varying sentiments and feehngs of mere philosophers, in re- 
 ference to the agencies of the material system—" all the works 
 of God invariably speak of their Author," to the humble and 
 enlightened Christian ; and if he be directed to contemplate 
 the "order of nature, with an eye of intelligence, he will never 
 be at a loss to trace the footsteps and the attributes of his 
 Father and his God. 
 
 SELECT BOOKS ON CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Davy's Elements of Chemical Philosophy, 8vo. — lire's 
 Dictionary of Chemistry, on the basis of Mr. Nicholson's, one 
 large vol. Svo. Henry's Epitome of Chemistry, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 — Accum's Chemistry, 2 vols. 8vo. — Thomson's system of 
 Chemistry, 4 vols. Svo.— Murray's System of Chemistry, 4 
 vols. Svo. and Appendix. — Kerr's translation of Lavoisier's 
 Elements of Chemistiy, Svo.— Chaptal's Chemistry, applied 
 to the Arts, 4 vols. Svo. — Fourcroy's Chemistry, 4 vols. — 
 Accum's " Chemical Amusements," and Griffin's " Chemical 
 Recreations," contain a description of a variety of interesting 
 Chemical facts and amusing experiments.— Gurney's Lec- 
 tures on the Elements of Chemical Science, Svo. — Macken- 
 zie's One Thousand Experiments in Chemistry, &c. — Mitch- 
 ell's Dictionary of Chemistry.— Conversations on Chemistry, 
 by a Lady, 2 vols. 12mo. — Joyce's Dialogues on Chemistry, 
 2 vols. ISmo. — Parker's Rudiments of Chemistry, ISmo. and 
 his Chemical Catechism, Svo.— The four works last mention- 
 ed may be recommended as popular introductions to the study 
 of this science. Parkes' Rudiments and Catechism are dis- 
 tinguished by their constant reference to the agency of the 
 Deity, and by the anxiety which the author displays to fix the 
 attention of his readers on the evidences of benevolent design 
 which appear in the constitution of nature. The numerous 
 notes appended to the Chemical Catechism, embody a great 
 variety of interesting facts in reference to the economy of 
 nature, and the processes of the arts. To this amiable and 
 intelligent writer I feel indebted for several of the chemical 
 facts stated in this volume. 
 
 THE END. 
 
\ 
 
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Princeton Theologic; 
 
 Seminary-Speer Libi 
 
 1 1012 01007 0391