\  ^  ^^jirm  j^  ^  M-%  /^yiL^^i^^^^^^dm^.^kjn^y*j-\  ^<s 
 
•    X.  I  B  Pt  .A.  n  "2- 
 
 ahcolofljcal    ^cmiuaiy. 
 
 Tlif   StrplnMi  Collins   Donation. 
 
 No.  S/.rh\  >^^j^44_ 
 
 j  A".    fi(tn/,\  ^        ^^ 
 
,i*^-^  ^:^.^^'  ^•-M^, 
 
,t>*-^ 
 
 V      \v*       *><.^.     >••   X 
 
 / 
 
REPORT 
 
 ON 
 
 EDUCATION    IN   EUROPE, 
 
 TRUSTEES 
 
 GIRARD  COLLEGE   FOR   ORPHANS. 
 
 ALEX.  DALLAS  BACHE,  LL.D. 
 
 PRESIDENT  OF  THE  COLLEGE. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 PRINTED  BY  LYDIA  R.  BAILEY,  26  NORTH  FIFTH  STREET. 
 
 1839. 
 
i  *CI^       ^^ 
 
 « 
 
 Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  tlie  year  1839,  by 
 
 A.   D.   BACHE, 
 
 (in  behalf  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Girard  College  for  Orphans,) 
 
 m  the  Clerk's  OlTicc  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  and  for  the 
 Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The  origin  and  nature  of  the  following  Report,  which  has 
 been  ordered  to  be  printed  by  the  Trustees  of  the  Girard  Col- 
 lege for  Orphans,  will  be  best  explained  by  prefixing  to  it  the 
 instructions  directing  the  tour,  during  which  the  information 
 embodied  in  it  was  collected.  These  instructions  were  drawn 
 up  by  the  Committee  on  Scholastic  Education,*  who  were 
 charged  with  this  duty  by  the  Board  of  Trustees. 
 
 Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Girard  College  for  Orphans, 
 September  19,  1836. 
 
 A.  D.  Bache,  Esq., 
 
 President  of  the  Girard  College  for  Orphans, 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Dear  Sir: — I  enclose  a  copy  of  a  resolution,  passed  by  this 
 Board  on  the  19th  July  last,  authorizing  you  to  visit  Europe, 
 under  the  instructions  of  the  Committee  on  Scholastic  Educa- 
 tion. I  also  enclose,  in  quadruplicate,  a  commission  from  the 
 Board,  certified  by  the  Mayor  of  Philadelphia,  stating  the 
 objects  of  your  mission,  and  asking  the  aid  of  all  friends  of 
 science  to  facilitate  your  inquiries.  The  financial  arrange- 
 ments for  your  salary  and  expenses  arc,  as  you  know,  com- 
 
 *  Consisting  of  Nicliolas  Biddic,  Chairman,  W.  M.  Mercditli,  J.  'SI.  Keagy, 
 J.C.  Biddle,  S.  V.  Merrick,  and  W.  W.  Haly,  Esq'rs.  The  Board  of  Trustees  has 
 since  had  to  regret  the  decease  of  Dr.  J.  M.  Kcngy  and  J.  C.  Biddic,  Esq.,  two 
 of  its  most  attentive  and  efiicient  members. 
 
IV  PRF.FACE. 
 
 pleted.  It  remains  only  for  the  Committee  to  mid  their  instruc- 
 tions for  your  government. 
 
 Your  familiarity  with  the  subject  of  education,  anrl  your  per- 
 sonal acquaintance  with  the  views  of  the  Board,  of  which  you 
 were  a  member,  supersede  the  necessity  of  any  detailed  ex- 
 planations in  regard  to  the  purposes  of  your  voyage,  or  the  best 
 means  of  accomplishing  thcin  ;  and  the  Committee  will,  there- 
 fore, confine  themselves  to  such  general  instructions  as  may 
 regulate  the  course  of  your  movements  and  inquiries. 
 
 The  Board  of  Trustees  are  charged  by  the  City  of  Philadel- 
 ])hia  to  prepare  a  system  of  instruction  for  the  Girard  College 
 for  Orphans.  For  this  puri)Ose  they  are  anxious  to  have  the 
 most  accurate  information  of  the  best  means  used  for  the  same 
 purpose  elsewhere,  and  you  have  been  selected  to  obtain  it. 
 Your  object,  then,  is  to  visit  all  establishments  in  Europe  simi- 
 lar to  the  Girard  College;  and  as  these  are  found  principally,  if 
 not  exclusively,  in  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  France,  Bel- 
 gium, Holland,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  the 
 rest  of  the  states  of  Germany,  these  countries  will  form  the 
 natural  limits  of  your  tour.  Accordingly,  all  institutions  in  each 
 of  those  countries  resembling  the  Girard  College,  or  any  others 
 which  promise  to  allbrd  useful  information  in  organizing  it,  you 
 will  see  and  examine.  Your  own  reflection  will  readily  suggest 
 the  points  of  information  desired;  and  I  will,  therefore,  merely 
 enumerate  a  few,  which  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  your  own 
 extensive  investigation.  Of  every  establishment  visited  by  you, 
 we  should  wish  to  know — 
 
 1.  Its  history,  general  administration,  and  the  nature  and  ex- 
 lent  of  its  funds. 
 
 2.  Its  interior  organization  and  government;  the  names,  titles, 
 and  duti(;s  of  all  the  persons  emj)loyed  in  it. 
 
 3.  Who  are  admitted  to  it,  and  the  forms  and  terms  of  ad- 
 mission, and  where  it  is  professedly  for  the  education  of 
 r»r]»li:ins  wlin  aro  cnnsidM-cd  ns  orphans. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 4.  The  number  and  classification  of  the  scholars,  and  their 
 term  of  residence. 
 
 5.  Their  course  of  studies,  in  the  minutest  detail,  from  the 
 commencement  to  the  end  of  their  residence  in  the  institution, 
 with  the  text-books  and  other  works  used. 
 
 6.  As  a  part  of  that  course,  specially  important  to  the  Girard 
 College,  we  should  desire  to  know  the  regulations  or  the  prac- 
 tice by  which,  among  a  large  body  of  scholars,  a  portion,  after 
 continuing  for  some  time  in  the  institution,  are  permitted  to  begin 
 their  active  career  in  life — while  others,  with  greater  aptitude 
 or  greater  willingness  to  learn,  are  carried  up  to  the  higher 
 branches  of  education.  The  nature  and  the  mode  of  that  dis- 
 crimination would  be  highly  interesting — as  would  also  be — 
 
 7.  The  precise  extent  to  which  moral  and  religious  instruc- 
 tion is  proposed  to  be  given,  and  is  actually  given,  and  also  by 
 whom  and  in  what  form  that  instruction  is  conveyed. 
 
 8.  The  mechanical  arts  taught — the  mode  of  teaching  them 
 — the  models,  tools,  and  implements  of  all  kinds  emplo3^ed — 
 and  the  manner  in  which  the  practice  of  these  arts  is  mingled 
 with  the  routine  of  studies. 
 
 9.  The  system  of  rewards  and  punishments  in  regard  to  stu- 
 dies or  personal  conduct. 
 
 10.  The  general  police  and  discipline  of  the  school. 
 
 11.  The  amusements — gymnastic  exercises — games  of  all 
 kinds,  uniting  instruction  with  agreeable  relaxation — together 
 with  the  number  and  extent  of  the  vacations,  pecuniary  allow- 
 ance, or  personal  indulgences  to  the  scholars. 
 
 12.  The  diet  and  clothing  of  the  scholars. 
 
 13.  The  regulations  in  regard  to  health,  hours  of  study  and 
 of  rest,  arrangement  as  to  sleeping  and  eating,  and  the  whole 
 routine  of  each  day's  employment. 
 
 14.  The  expenses  of  the  school,  including  salaries  and  all 
 incidents,  with  the  average  annual  expense  of  each  scholar. 
 
VI  PREFACE. 
 
 15.  The  structure  of  the  buildings,  the  arrangement  of  dor- 
 mitories, refectories,  play-grounds,  and  work-shops,  illustrated 
 by  drawings,  where  they  can  be  procured. 
 
 10.  As  a  proper  foundation  for  similar  statistical  inquiries  in 
 this  country,  you  will  collect  all  the  information  you  can  in 
 respect  to  the  proportion  of  orphans  to  the  rest  of  the  com- 
 munity. 
 
 These  general  heads  of  inquiry,  which  you  can  easily  mul- 
 tiply, will  indicate  the  wish  of  the  Board  that  your  examination 
 should  be  thorough  and  practical.  They  already  possess,  or 
 may  easily  obtain,  all  that  books  can  teach  on  the  subject.  It 
 is  your  especial  duty  to  study  the  actual  working  of  the  ma- 
 chinery of  education;  to  domesticate  yourself,  if  practicable,  in 
 these  institutions,  and,  by  your  own  personal  observation,  to 
 distinguish  what  is  really  useful  from  what  is  merely  plausible 
 in  theory. 
 
 It  is  this  anxiety  that  your  investigation  should  be  complete, 
 which  induces  them  not  to  fix  at  present  any  period  for  your 
 return.  How  much  time  it  may  require  cannot  now  be  safely 
 determined.  They  rely  confidently  on  your  diligence,  and  arc 
 sure  that  you  will  not  prolong  your  absence  without  ample 
 reason.  While,  therefore,  they  are  very  anxious  to  open  the 
 College  with  the  least  possible  delay,  they  deem  it  so  much 
 more  important  to  begin  well  than  to  begin  soon,  that  they  post- 
 pone naming  any  limit  to  your  stay  in  Europe,  until  you  are 
 able  to  apprize  them  of  your  progress. 
 
 In  respect  to  the  purchase  of  books  and  apparatus,  mentioned 
 in  the  resolution  of  the  Board,  it  is  not  their  wish  that  you 
 should,  at  this  time,  purchase  a  library,  or  an  extensive  philo- 
 sophical appiiratus.  You  will  oiil\'  iiiquii'o  where  they  can  be 
 best  procured  hereafter,  and,  in  the  mean  time,  limit  yom*  actual 
 purchases  to  text-books  and  other  works  used  in  schools,  or 
 which  may  assist  your  inquiries:  to  models,  drawings,  and  such 
 philosophical   iiistrtiiiu.*nts  as   mav   be   necessary  or   usefiil  in 
 
PREFACE.  Vll 
 
 opening  the  College,  or  which  you  may  deem  it  expedient  to 
 procure  in  anticipation  of  the  larger  collection. 
 
 The  materials  and  information  thus  acquired  you  will,  on 
 your  return,  present  to  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and  at  the  same 
 time,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  practicable,  you  will  prepare  a 
 final  Report,  with  a  plan  for  the  government  and  instruction  of 
 the  College — the  result  of  all  your  examination  and  reflection. 
 
 In  the  mean  time,  you  will  keep  the  Board  constantly  advised 
 of  your  movements. 
 
 With  my  best  wishes  that  your  mission  may  be  as  pleasant 
 as  I  am  sure  it  will  be  useful,  I  remain, 
 
 Your's,  truly, 
 
 (Signed.)        N.  BIDDLE,  Chairman. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Introductory  Remarks, 1 
 
 PART  FIRST. 
 
 INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  EDUCATION  OF  ORPHANS  AND  OTHER  DESTITUTE  CHILDREN. 
 
 CHAPTER   I. 
 
 Eleemosynary  Institutions  of  Great  Britain, 11 
 
 Education  Hospitals  for  Boys,  at  Edinburgh, 12 
 
 Notice  of  the  Orphan  Hospital, 13 
 
 Description  of  Heriot's  Hospital, 13 
 
 Description  of  George  Watson's  Hospital,          ....  32 
 
 Description  of  John  Watson's  Institution,          ....  38 
 
 Notice  of  Cauvin's  Hospital, 47 
 
 Eleemosynary  Schools  of  England, 48 
 
 Description  of  the  Liverpool  Bluccoat  School,            ...  48 
 
 Notice  of  Henshaw's  Hospital,  or  the  Oldham  Blue-coat  School,  56 
 
 Description  of  the  London  Orphan  Asylum,  Clapton,          -         -  58 
 
 Description  of  Christ's  Hospital,  or  the  London  Blue-coat  School,  65 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 Orphan-houses  of  Germany, 83 
 
 Introductory  Observations, 83 
 
 Description  of  the  Orphan-house  of  Hamburgh,         .        .        -  83 
 
 Notice  of  the  Orphan-house  of  Altona, 93 
 
 Description  of  the  Franke  Foundations  at  Halle,        -         .         .  94 
 
 Description  of  the  Military  Orphan-house  at  Potsdam,        -         -  115 
 
 Courses  of  Instruction  in  the  Military  Orphan-house  at  Annaburg,  125 
 Notices  of  the  Civil  Orphan-houses  at  Potsdam  and  at  Little 
 
 Gliencke, 129 
 
 Description  of  the  Orphan-house  of  Frankfort  on  Maine,             -  131 
 Description  of  the  School  for  Soldiers'  Children  at  Struppen,  near 
 
 Dresden, 137 
 
 Description  of  the  Orphan. house  of  St.  John  at  Prague,     -        -  140 
 
 B 
 
X  CONTENTS. 
 
 CIIAPTKR    III.  fAGK. 
 
 Or])han-liousth  unci  I'oujidations  of  Holland, 146 
 
 Introductory  Remarks, 14G 
 
 ilotice  of  the  Burgher  Orphan-house  at  Amsterdam,           -         -  147 
 
 General  Remarks  on  the  Orphan-houses. 
 
 Notice  of  the  Rcnswoudc  Foundations, 151 
 
 PART  SECOND. 
 
 INSTITUTIONS  FOR  KDUCATION  IN  GENERAL. 
 
 Outline  of  the  Plan  of  this  part  of  the  Report, 153 
 
 CHAPTER    I. 
 Infant  Schools,     .--.---.-  -         1.07 
 
 Introductory  Observations. 
 
 Model  Infant  School  of  the  Glasgow  Education  Society,  -  -  159 
 Model  School  of  the  Edinburgh  Infant  School  Society,  -  -  166 
 Gray's  Inn-Road  School,  of  the  Home  and  Colonial  Infant  School 
 
 Society,  of  London, 167 
 
 CHAPTER    II. 
 
 Primary  or  Elementary  Schools, 170 
 
 Introductory  Remarks. 
 
 Elementary  Instruction  in  Great  Britain, 174 
 
 General  Account  of  the  Provisions  for  Elementary  Instruction  in  England, 
 Ireland,  and  Scotland. 
 
 Juvenile  Training  School  of  the  Glasgow  Education  Society,     -         178 
 
 Sessional  School  of  Edinburgh, 189 
 
 Elementary  Departments  of  the  Madras  College  at  St.  Andrew's,  194 
 Notice  of  the  Circus-Place  School  of  Edinburgh,         -         -         -         196 
 
 CHAPTER    III. 
 
 Primary  Instruction  in  France, 199 
 
 General  Organization  of  Primary  Instruction. 
 
 CHAPTER   IV. 
 
 Primary  or  Elementafy  Instruction  in  Holland, 202 
 
 General  Organization,  (Sec. 
 
 A  Primary  School  at  the  Hague, 309 
 
 Comparison  of  the  Burgher  Schools  and  French  Schools  with  the 
 
 Schools  for  the  Poor, 218 
 
 CHAPTER    V. 
 
 Primary  or  Elementary  Instruction  in  Prussia, 220 
 
 GcneraJ  Account  of  the  Organization,  A:c. 
 
 Primary  Schools  for  tlic  Poor,  at  Berlin, 231 
 
 Observations  on  the  Burgher  or  Middle  Schools,  -         -         235 
 
CONTENTS.  XI 
 
 PAQE. 
 
 Seminary  School  of  Weissenfels, 237 
 
 Dorothean  Higher  City-school  of  Berlin, 240 
 
 Seminary  School  of  Berlin, 247 
 
 Higher  Burgher  School  of  Potsdam, 261 
 
 Remarks  on  the  Primary  Instruction  of  Prussia, 268 
 
 CHAPTER   VI. 
 
 Elementary  Instruction  in  Saxony,  &,c.,         -         -         -         -         ^         -  271 
 General  Organization,  &c.     Schools  of  Dresden  and  Leipsic.     Burgher 
 
 School  of  Leipsic, 278 
 
 Notice  of  the  Model  Burgher  School  of  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,    -         -  287 
 
 CHAPTER   VII. 
 
 Primary  Schools  of  Baireuth  in  Bavaria,  with  Special  Reference  to  Doctor 
 
 Graser's  System  of  Education, 291 
 
 SCHOOLS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY   CLASS   INTENDED   TO    PREPARE   FOR    SOME    PARTICULAR 
 OCCUPATION  IN  LIFE. 
 
 CHAPTER   VIII. 
 
 Schools  of  Agriculture  and  Industry, 303 
 
 Rural  Schools  of  Switzerland,  &c., 305 
 
 Agricultural  School  of  HofVvyl, 306 
 
 Rural  School  of  Carra, 310 
 
 Agricultural  School  of  Templemoyle,  near  Londonderry,  -         -  311 
 
 Manual  Labour  School  of  Ealing,  near  London,         -         -         -  315 
 
 Lamartini6re  Industrial  School  of  Lyons, -  318 
 
 CHAPTER   IX. 
 
 Seminaries  for  the  Preparation  of  Teachers  of  Primary  Schools,     -         -  323 
 
 Introductcy  Observations. 
 
 Seminaries  for  Primary  Teachers  in  Prussia, 327 
 
 Seminary  of  Weissenfels, 330 
 
 Seminary  of  Berlin, 342 
 
 Education  of  Teachers  in  Holland. 
 
 Notice  of  the  School  for  the  Education  of  Teachers  at  Haarlem,  346 
 Normal  Schools  of  France. 
 
 Primary  Normal  Schools  of  Versailles  and  Dijon,      -         -         -  349 
 Schools  for  Teachers  in  Switzerland. 
 
 Normal  School  of  Zurich, 355 
 
 SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 
 
 CHAPTER    X. 
 
 General  Divisions  of  Secondary  Instruction, 362 
 
 Observations  on  the  Secondary  Instruction  preparatory  to  tho  University  Courses. 
 
Xll  OONTEPfTS. 
 
 rAGE. 
 
 Secondary  Schools  of  Great  Britain.     General  Remarks,         -         -         .  365 
 
 T}jc  Academy  of  Edinburjrh, 3GS 
 
 Notice  of  the  Glasorow  Hiprli-Schooi, 371 
 
 Notice  of  the  Belfast  Academy, 379 
 
 Notice  of  the  Belfast  Academical  Institution,     ....  381 
 The  Hill  Street  Institution  of  Edinburirh,  and  comparison  with 
 
 the  Academy, 382 
 
 The  Grammar  School  at  Rugby, 390 
 
 Courses  of  Instruction  at  Harrow  Grammar  School,  -  398 
 
 Comparison  of  Rujrby  and  Harrow,  &c.,  ....  3!t9 
 
 St.  Domingo-House  School  at  Evcrton,  near  Liverpool,      -         -  40*2 
 
 Bruce-Castle  School  ut  Tottenham,  near  London,       -         -         -  409 
 
 CHAPTER    XI. 
 
 Secondary  Instruction  in  France,  -         .         -         .         -         .         .         417 
 
 General  Organization  of  tlic  University  of  France  and  of  Secondary  In- 
 struction. 
 
 The  Royal  Colleges  of  France, 424 
 
 Normal  School  for  the  Education  of  Teachers  for  the  Secondary 
 
 Schools, 440 
 
 CHAPTER   XII. 
 Secondary  Instruction  in  Prussia,  .......         450 
 
 General  Division  of  the  Schools. 
 
 Organization  of  Classical  Secondary  Schools  or  Gymnasia,     -         •         -         451 
 Frederick  William  Gymnasium  of  Berlin,  ....         470 
 
 Cologne  Real  Gymnasium  of  Berlin, 471 
 
 Gymnasium  at  Schulpforta,       .......         472 
 
 Comparison  of  the  Studies  of  the  Frederick  William  Gymnasium 
 at  Berlin,  of  the  Cologne  Real-Ciymnasium  at  Berlin,  and  of  the 
 Schulj)forta  Gymnasium,       .......         477 
 
 General  Remarks  and  Comparisons  of  the  Secondary  Instruction  of  differ- 
 ent Countries, 503 
 
 Secondary  Schools  belonging  to  the  Second  Division,  or  preparatory  to  the 
 
 Mechanic  Arts  and  Higher  Trades, 517 
 
 Royal  Real.School  of  Berlin, 517 
 
 City  Trade-School  of  Berlin, 523 
 
 Notice  of  the  Fitzthum  Gyninasium  and   Blochinan    Boarding  School  at 
 
 Dresden, 533 
 
 HLTERIOR  SCnoOLS. 
 
 CHAPTER    XIII. 
 
 General  Remarks  on  the  Clasaification  of  Superior  Schools',    -         -         -         53G 
 Universities  and  Special  Schools  of  Arts,  Manufnrturcs,  and  Commerce. 
 
CONTENTS.  XIU 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Polytechnic  School  of  France, 542 
 
 Notice  of  the  Schools,  of  Roads  and  Bridges,  and  of  Mines,  of 
 
 France, 561 
 
 School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  of  Paris,        ....  563 
 
 Notice  of  the  Boarding  Institute  of  Arts  at  Charonne,       -         -  572 
 
 Schools  of  Arts  of  Prussia, 573 
 
 Institute  of  Arts  at  Berlin, 574 
 
 Polytechnic  Institute  of  Vienna, 583 
 
 School  of  Mines  of  Saxony,  at  Frey berg,            ....  589 
 
 Institute  of  Agriculture  and  Forestry  at  Hohenheim,         -         -  595 
 
 Naval  School  of  Austria,  at  Venice,           -         .         .         ,         .  600 
 
 Concluding  Remarks, 602 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No.  I.  List  of  Documents  collected  in  Great  Britain,  France,  Switzer- 
 land, Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Italy,  -  -  -  609 
 No.  II.  Distinctions  to  be  drawn  between  Institutions  for  the  Main- 
 tenance and  Education  of  Orphans,  and  those  for  other 
 classes  of  children,  -.-.....  643 
 No.  III.  Rules  of  Heriot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh,  relating  to  those  who 
 have  passed  through  the  institution,  and  are  serving  an  ap- 
 prenticeship,     644 
 
 No.  IV.       Queries  to  be  answered  by  Apprentices  from  Heriot's  Hospital 
 
 to  their  masters,  and  keepers  of  the  houses  where  they  board,  645 
 No.  V.  List  of  Studies  and  Distribution  of  Time,  prepared  for  John 
 Watson's  Institution,  Edinburgh.  Distribution  of  Time  at 
 Heriot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh.  List  of  Text-books  used  at 
 Heriot's  and  George  Watson's  Hospital,  Edinburgh,  at  the 
 Madras   College,  St.   Andrew's,  and  the   High  School  of 
 
 Edinburgh, 646 
 
 No.  VI.        Documents  relating  to  the  Admission  of  Pupils  into  Cauvin's 
 
 Hospital, 651 
 
 Tables  of  Diet  in  various  Eleemosynary  Institutions,    -         -         653 
 Table  of  the  Order  of  the  Day  in  Eleemosynary  and  other 
 Schools,  both  primary  and  secondary,  showing  the  amount 
 of  time  occupied  in  study,  exercise,  «fcc.,  -         -         -         .         655 
 Example  of  a  Bible  lesson  in  the  Glasgow  Model  Infant  School,       656 
 Method  of  teaching  to  read,  called  "Reading  Disentangled,"  657 
 
 Remarks  on  Education  by  Mr.  Emanuel  de  Fellenberg,  -  658 
 Remarks  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Arnold  on  the  Study  of  the  Classics,  661 
 Brief  Notes  of  Orphan  Statistics, 665 
 
 No. 
 
 VII. 
 
 No. 
 
 VIIL 
 
 No. 
 
 IX. 
 
 No. 
 
 X. 
 
 No. 
 
 XI. 
 
 No. 
 
 XII. 
 
 No. 
 
 XIIL 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 The  following  errata  should  be  corrected  as  affecting,  in  general,  the  meaning 
 of  the  text. 
 
 On  page  5,  line  17  from  top  of  page, /or  "  western"  read  southern, 
 bottom,  erase  one  of  the  "  its." 
 
 "         before  "  impossible"  insert  sometimes, 
 top,       for  the  semicolon  after  "exercises"p/acea  comma, 
 bottom, /oj-  "require"  read  requires, 
 top,       for  "  insures"  read  insure. 
 
 "        insert  "  Intellectual  Education"  at  beginning  of 
 line, 
 bottom,  for  "  infraction"  read  infractions. 
 
 "        for  "  amout"  read  amount. 
 
 "        for  "  gospel"  read  gospels,  and/or  "  works"  read 
 books, 
 top,       for  "  introduction"  read  introductory. 
 
 "        for  "  ten"  read  two. 
 
 "         insert  after  "  credit  of,"  first, 
 bottom, /or  "composing"  read  comparing, 
 
 "        for  "  body"  read  board, 
 top,       for  "  recite"  read  have  recreation. 
 
 "       for  "  branches"  read  bachelor. 
 bottom,/or  "Olto"  read  Otto. 
 Note,    for  «  380,381"  read  398,399. 
 top,        erase  "  at  a  quarter  to  seven." 
 bottom, /or  "Frey burgh"  read  Freyberg, 
 
 "         erase  the  colon  between   "described"  and  "at 
 Potsdam." 
 top,       for  "Freyburg"  read  Freyberg. 
 
 6, 
 
 13 
 
 8, 
 
 18 
 
 15, 
 
 17 
 
 18, 
 
 7&8, 
 
 28, 
 
 13 
 
 50, 
 
 12 
 
 76, 
 
 13 
 
 112, 
 
 17 
 
 125, 
 
 12 
 
 129, 
 
 15 
 
 151, 
 
 10 
 
 305, 
 
 8 
 
 386, 
 
 10 
 
 391, 
 
 12 
 
 409, 
 
 3 
 
 435, 
 
 11 
 
 477, 
 
 10 
 
 504, 
 
 534, 
 
 15&1( 
 
 540, 
 
 17 
 
 573, 
 
 14 
 
 589, 
 
 14 
 
 593, 
 
 15 
 
REPORT    ON    EDUCATION. 
 
 TO    THE    TRUSTEES    OF    THE 
 
 GIRARD    COLLEGE    FOR    ORPHANS. 
 
 Gentlemen: 
 
 Having  completed  the  tour  of  examination  into  the  state  of 
 Education  in  Europe,  undertaken  by  your  direction,  with  espe- 
 cial reference  to  the  organization  of  the  Girard  College  for 
 Orphans,  I  beg  leave  to  present  to  you  a  Report  upon  the  infor- 
 mation collected. 
 
 The  more  immediate  direction  of  my  mission,  as  President 
 of  the  Girard  College  for  Orphans,  was  devolved  by  the  Trus- 
 tees upon  their  Committee  on  Scholastic  Education,  from  whom 
 1  received  detailed  instructions.  In  these  I  was  directed  to 
 visit  the  institutions  in  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  which 
 might  be  supposed  to  afford  useful  information  towards  organi- 
 zing the  College,  to  procure  text-books,  and  other  works  used 
 in  the  more  remarkable  schools,  and  the  more  important  works 
 on  Education:  and  to  collect  such  philosophical  instruments, 
 models,  and  drawings,  as  might  be  useful  or  necessary  in  open- 
 ing the  College,  or  as  might  seem  to  me  desirable  to  be  pur- 
 chased in  anticipation  of  the  larger  collections. 
 
 My  arrangements  for  leaving  home  were  completed  at  the 
 close  of  September,  1836;  and  after  having  visited  the  chief 
 countries  of  Europe,  which  were  the  most  interesting  for  my 
 undertaking,  I  completed  my  tour  in  October,  1838.  It  is 
 almost  needless  to  say,  that  I  am  now  not  only  ready,  but 
 1 
 
2  INTRODUCTION. 
 
 anxious  to  render  available,  as  soon  as  possible,  in  the  organi- 
 zation of  the  Girard  College,  the  knowledge  which  has  thus 
 been  accjuired. 
 
 It  will  be  the  design  of  the  present  Report  to  state  in  what  way 
 I  have  executed  the  instructions  of  the  Committee  of  the  Board 
 of  Trustees,  and  to  present  the  result  of  the  inquiries  which  they 
 directed.  Their  instructions  contained,  besides  the  general 
 indications  of  the  objects  of  my  journey,  suggestions  as  to  the 
 mode  of  securing  these  objects,  which  I  found  highly  useful, 
 and  for  which  I  feel  very  grateful.  The  most  important  pur- 
 pose of  my  mission  was  the  examination  of  institutions  for  Edu- 
 cation, and  my  Report  will  principally  consist  of  descriptions  of 
 these,  and  remarks  upon  them.  The  other  objects  were  se- 
 condary, and  even  incidental. 
 
 Whoever  has  even  glanced  at  the  part  of  the  Will  of  Mr. 
 Girard,  which  relates  to  the  endowment  of  a  "College  for  Or- 
 j)hans,"  must  have  perceived  that  he  intended  no  ordinary 
 Orjihan  Asylum  to  be  created  with  the  immense  fund  which  his 
 liberality  intrusted  to  the  authorities  of  the  city  of  his  adoption. 
 Mr.  Girard  has  put  himself  in  the  |)lace  of  a  father  to  the 
 orphan,  and  has  determined  that  talent  shall  have  all  the  oppor- 
 tunities for  development,  by  education,  within  the  reach  of  chil- 
 dren the  most  favoured  by  the  circumstances  of  their  parents. 
 This  view  has  been  prominent  in  all  the  measures  taken  by  the 
 City  Councils  of  Philadelphia,  in  the  execution  of  their  trust; 
 and  the  Board  of  Trustees,  to  whom  they  have  delegated  the 
 direct  control  of  the  Institution,  have,  by  their  President,  oflicial- 
 ly  asserted  this  same  understanding  of  the  founder's  wishes.  A 
 due  execution,  therefore,  of  the  instructions  of  the  Scholastic 
 Committee,  re(]uired  not  merely  an  examination  of  orphan- 
 houses  and  elementary  schools,  but  of  the  various  modes  of 
 education  and  grades  of  instruction.  This  task  I  undertook 
 with  real  distrust  of  my  power  to  do  it  justice,  notwithstanding 
 the  encouragement  extended  by  the  choice  made  of  me,  by 
 gentlemen  for  whom  I  entertain  a  iiigh  respect.  1  must  be  allow- 
 ed to  say  that,  in  the  course  of  attempting  its  execution,  I  have 
 spared  lu)  personal  exertion,  and  that,  though  1  may  regret  it 
 
INTRODUCTION.  O 
 
 was  not  in  abler  hands,  my  conscience  acquits  me  of  having 
 wasted  any  part  of  the  time  or  means  so  Hberally  placed  at  my 
 disposal  by  my  fellow  citizens. 
 
 Before  entering  upon  the  descriptive  portion  of  my  Report, 
 I  propose  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  views  and  circumstances 
 which  guided  me  in  the  distribution  of  time  in  the  different  coun- 
 tries visited,  and  to  present  some  of  the  general  features  of  pub- 
 lic education  peculiar  to  each  of  them. 
 
 While  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  general  principles  of 
 education  must  be  founded  upon  those  of  human  action,  and 
 hence  be  common  to  all  nations,  it  must  be  admitted  that  sys- 
 tems framed  from  such  general  laws  would  require  considera- 
 ble modification  to  render  them  applicable  to  different  countries. 
 Differences  in  pohtical  and  social  organization,  in  habits  and 
 manners,  require  corresponding  changes  to  adapt  a  system  of 
 education  to  the  nation;  and,  without  such  modifications,  success 
 in  the  institutions  of  one  country  is  no  guarantee  for  the  same  re- 
 sult in  those  of  another.  The  difficulties,  however,  of  working 
 out  a  plan  of  education,  from  observation,  appeared  to  me  much 
 greater  at  the  outset  of  my  undertaking  than  they  do  now,  that  I 
 have  seen  how  very  many  of  the  essentials  are  common  to  all  well 
 organized  institutions  having  the  same  scope.  A  consideration 
 of  these  difficulties  induced  me  to  make  Great  Britain  the  first 
 point  of  my  tour,  since  it  was  reasonable  to  infer  that  the  success- 
 ful methods  of  education  there  might  be  more  easily  transplant- 
 ed, being  more  directly  applicable  at  home  than  those  of  other 
 countries.  The  examination  of  some  of  the  more  interesting  insti- 
 tutions there  occupied  rather  more  than  eight  months;  and,  lest 
 this  portion  of  time  should  appear  too  great  in  comparison  with 
 that  devoted  to  the  Continent,  it  may  be  well  to  state  the  cir- 
 cumstances which  absolutely  required  so  considerable  an  allot- 
 ment. Owing  to  the  absence  of  any  regular  or  central  system 
 of  education,  and  of  any  general  responsibility  in  the  manage- 
 ment of  its  institutions  for  public  instruction,  and  to  the  entire 
 freedom  of  individual  effort,  more  time  is  required  to  obtain 
 access  to,  and  examine  the  establishments  of  Great  Britain,  than 
 of  any  other  country  which  I  visited.     A  proper  idea  of  the 
 
INTUODUiJTiUX. 
 
 general  arrangements  can  be  obtained  only  by  a  study  oi'  parti- 
 cular cases,  and  each  institution  requires  to  be  approached 
 individually,  and  often  in  a  diflerent  way,  to  secure  a  prr)fitablc 
 entrance.  As  entirely  dificrent  ideas  frequently  prevail  in  the 
 organization  of  institutions  of  the  same  class,  it  is  not  sufficient, 
 as  it  usually  is  elsewhere,  to  sec  merely  a  specimen  to  judge  of 
 the  whole.  For  the  special  objects  of  my  tour,  the  eleemosy- 
 nary institutions  were  to  be  carefully  inspected;  and  in  the 
 number  of  its  Educational  Charities,  its  Orphan  Asylums,  Blue- 
 coat  Schools,  and  Education  Hospitals,  Great  Britain  exceeds 
 every  other  country  in  Europe.  The  city  of  Edinburgh  and  its 
 vicinity  alone  contain  five  such  institutions  for  boys,  and  no  two 
 of  these  are  exactly  alike  in  their  regulations  and  adminis- 
 tration, so  that  it  was  necessary  to  visit  all  to  form  precise 
 ideas  of  their  arrangements.  If  this  be  true  of  establishments 
 having  similar  objects,  in  the  same  city,  it  may  be  inferred  of 
 those  in  diticrent  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  Ihcts  fully  sustain 
 the  inference.  It  is  true,  to  such  an  extent,  that  in  preparing 
 descriptions  of  these  schools  to  present  to  the  Board,  I  have 
 found  it  dillicult  to  classify  them,  so  that  by  presenting,  in 
 detail,  one  institution  as  the  type  of  a  class,  I  might  avoid  the 
 too  great  extension  of  this  Report.  The  management  of  these 
 institutions,  the  observation  of  which  formed  an  imjiortant  part 
 of  my  duty,  may  serve  in  many  points,  especially  in  all  that  re- 
 lates to  the  material  comforts  of  life,  as  a  model  to  those  of  other 
 countries,  in  many  of  which  1  freely  admit  that  more  just  ideas 
 in  regard  to  instruction  prevail.  Upon  a  review  of  the  results 
 of  my  visit  to  the  institutions  of  Great  Britain,  it  appears  to  me 
 that  the  time  was  well  bestowed,  though  more  profitable  cxpori- 
 cnre  in  regard  to  instruction  was  acquired  in  less  time  in  some 
 of  the  countries  of  the  Continent. 
 
 After  completing  a  tour  through  some  of  the  institutions  of 
 Ireland,  Scollainl,  and  England,  I  crossed  to  the  Continent,  and 
 visited,  in  turn,  the  principal  schools  of  France,  Switzerland, 
 Holland,  Belgium,  and  the  chief  States  of  Germany,  making  also 
 a  rapid  visit  to  Italy.  The  same  subjects  of  inquiry  did  not,  of 
 cgurse.  interest  me  equally  in  these  different  countries,  and  1 
 
INTRODUCTIOIV.  5 
 
 proceed  to  pass  briefly  in  review  their  respective  points  of 
 interest. 
 
 In  Great  Britain,  the  charitable  institutions  for  education  oc- 
 cupied most  of  my  attention.  There,  as  in  otlicr  countries 
 where  similar  establishments  exist,  and  where  no  great  or  re- 
 cent change  has  been  made  in  public  instruction,  the  instruction 
 within  them  resembles  more  nearly  that  of  the  schools  of  the 
 same  grade  in  general,  than  in  countries  w^here  such  a  change 
 has  been  wrought.  While  engaged  in  visiting  them,  I  did  not 
 neglect,  how^ever,  institutions  which  afforded  a  less  direct  pros- 
 pect of  advantage.  To  illustrate  by  an  example;  although 
 Heriot's,  the  Watsons',  and  other  hospitals  for  education  at 
 Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  occupied  a  large  share  of  my  atten- 
 tion while  in  Scotland,  I  visited,  more  or  less  in  detail,  at 
 Edinburgh,  the  Model  Infant  School,  the  Circus-Place  Prepara- 
 tory School,  the  Sessional  School,  the  High  School,  the  Aca- 
 demy, the  Western  Academy,  the  Hill  Street  Institution,  and 
 the  Univ^ersity;  at  Glasgow,  the  Infant  and  Juvenile  Schools  of 
 the  Education  Society,  the  different  departments  of  the  High 
 School,  and  the  University.  I  also  made  an  excursion  to  St. 
 Andrew's,  to  visit  the  Madras  College  founded  by  Dr.  Bell. 
 
 In  France,  the  general  system  of  education,  especially  as 
 modified  in  its  lower  departments,  and  the  schools  for  science 
 and  the  arts,  formed  the  special  objects  of  examination.  The 
 orphans  are,  in  general,  associated  with  the  foundlings,  and  dis- 
 tributed through  the  country  at  the  expense  of  the  state;  the 
 system  presenting  nothing,  as  far  as  my  inquiries  led,  either  for 
 approval  or  imitation.  The  plan,  of  which  I  venture  to  speak 
 thus  freely,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  excellent  system 
 in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Weimar,  which,  though  similar  in  ap- 
 pearance, diflfers  essentially  from  it.  In  Weimar,  orphan  chil- 
 dren, deprived  of  both  parents,  are  distributed  among  families, 
 as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  station  of  hfe  as  the  deceased 
 parents,  and  a  real  superintendence,  both  moral  and  intellectual, 
 is  exercised  over  them  by  ofiicers  specially  appointed  for  the 
 purpose,  and  by  the  parochial  clergy  and  schoolmasters. 
 
 In  Switzerland,  recent  and  great  efforts,  consequent  upon  the 
 
6  I\TRODlCTIO\. 
 
 advance  of  true  lihcrly,  have  been  made  among  the  republics, 
 in  behalf  of  general  education.  The  school  of  Pcstalozzi,  at 
 Yverdun,  occupies  a  prominent  ])lace  in  the  liistory  of  educa- 
 tion;  and  the  institutions  of  Feljcnberg,  at  Ilofwyl,  have  been 
 frequently  described.  Others  of  great  inerit,  but  more  recently 
 established,  are  less  generally  known,  and  some  of  them  ^vill, 
 as  far  as  my  limits  allow,  be  noticed  in  this  Report.  I  cannot, 
 however,  enter  into  the  particulars  requisite  to  present  the 
 striking  results  which  the  last  seven  years  have  produced  in 
 many  of  the  cantons. 
 
 The  common  school  system,  as  well  as  the  eleemosynary 
 institutions  of  Holland,  deservedly  attract  much  attention,  and 
 afforded  interesting  subjects  for  examination.  There  are  pecu- 
 liarities about  both,  and  experiments  have  been  made  there 
 which  bear  upon  some  of  the  most  interesting  questions  in  edu- 
 cation. I  need  only  refer,  here,  to  those  of  the  method  of  mu- 
 tual instruction,  and  of  the  manner  of  supplying  teachers;  the 
 latter  of  which  experiments  has  led  to  a  conclusion  in  favour 
 of  schools  for  teachers,  which  appears  to  me  irresistible. 
 
 Among  the  institutions  of  the  diilerent  states  and  free  towns 
 of  Germany,  I  visited  more  or  less  in  detail  those  of  Prussia,  Sax- 
 ony, Austria,  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Nassau,  Weimar,  Frank- 
 fort, Bremen,  and  Hamburgh.  The  condition  of  public  instruc- 
 tion, in  general,  in  the  diflerent  states,  as  well  as  of  the  different 
 departments  of  it  it  in  the  same  state,  is  very  unequal.  Prussia  is 
 at  present  decidedly  in  advance  of  the  other  larger  German 
 States  in  the  education  of  the  people,  especially  in  the  manner 
 and  matter  of  the  instruction.  The  ease  with  which  every 
 point  connected  with  the  schools  is  ascertained,  is  remarkable; 
 and  I  look  back  to  the  time  spent  in  them,  and  in  intercourse 
 with  their  teachers,  as  one  of  the  most  ])rofitable  portions  of  that 
 occupied  by  my  tour.  As  the  various  accounts  which  have 
 been  given  of  ))ul)lic  instruction  in  Prussia  ha\c,  in  general,  re- 
 ferred to  the  systtMii  more  particularly  than  to  the  schools,  I 
 shall,  in  this  Uej  ort,  touch  more  brielly  upon  the  former,  and 
 go  more  into  detail  in  regard  to  the  latter.  By  reference  to 
 Llicir  sjtirit  and  minute  arrjuigomeuts,  it   is  ea^y  to  see  where 
 
INTRODUCTION', 
 
 they  would  apply  as  perfectly  in  a  republic  as  in  a  monarchy. 
 The  instruction  in  niany  of  the  charitable  institutions  of  that 
 country  has  not  kept  pace  with  that  in  the  schools  in  general, 
 though  there  are  others  which  have  even  led  the  way  in  im- 
 provement. Weimar  has  followed  closely  the  Prussian  model 
 in  its  system  of  education,  and  the  schools  of  Nassau  may 
 be  said  to  be  derived  from  the  same  source.  The  schools 
 of  Saxony  w-ere  once  famous  throughout  Eiu'ope,  but  the  pri- 
 mary schools  appear  to  have  lost  that  rank;  they  are  now, 
 however,  rapidly  improving,  by  the  same  means  which  pro- 
 duced the  present  advanced  state  of  instruction  in  Prussia — the 
 education  of  teachers.  In  Bavaria,  changes  of  system  have 
 been  too  recent  to  render  general  remarks  of  any  value.  I 
 shall,  however,  give  an  account  of  the  method  of  Graser,  in- 
 troduced into  the  schools  of  a  section  of  the  kingdom.  In 
 Austria,  public  instruction  remains  nearly  on  the  footing  upon 
 which  it  was  placed  by  the  reforming  emperor,  Joseph  the 
 Second.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  once  much  in 
 advance  of  the  times,  though  the  elementary  department  is  at 
 present  behind  that  of  most  of  the  other  German  States.  They 
 still  adhere  to  the  incomplete  plan  of  educating  teachers  in  ordi- 
 nary schools,  and  to  antiquated  methods  of  instruction.  The 
 Schools  of  Arts  in  Austria  rank,  however,  with  the  best  in  Eu- 
 rope, and  receive  liberal  encouragement  from  the  government. 
 Of  the  many  institutions  which  have  claimed  my  attention, 
 it  would  be  entirely  impossible  to  give  even  a  meagre  sketch 
 within  the  limits  appropriate  to  a  Report,*  and  if  it  were  prac- 
 ticable to  go  into  details  respecting  all,  many  would  be  found 
 not  to  repay  the  pains  taken  in  reducing  to  paper  a  descri|> 
 tion  of  them.  In  making  the  selection,  which  is  thus  neces- 
 sary, I  shall  endeavour  to  bring  to  the  notice  of  the  Board 
 the  countries  in  which  the  diflcrent  departments  of  education 
 are  best  carried  on,  and  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  system  of  edu- 
 cation, illustrated  by  the  minutiae  of  as  many  individual  institu- 
 
 *  The  whole  number  of  scliools  visited  was  upwards  of  two  hundred  and 
 seventy-eight;  to  some  of  these,  however,  I  merely  made  a  single  siiort  visit, 
 others  occupied  me  for  several  days. 
 
8  I.N  TIIODICTIUN. 
 
 tiuns  as  appear  necessary  to  exemplily  the  .system,  and  lu 
 render  its  results  available  for  practice;  endeavouring  to  render 
 each  account  as  complete  in  itself  as  the  nature  of  the  main 
 object  of  my  Report  will  permit. 
 
 The  manner  of  collecting  the  information  wliich  1  sought  re- 
 (juires  a  passing  notice.  The  introductions  which  usually  flow 
 in  abundantly  upon  any  one  known  to  have  a  special  object  in 
 visiting  a  country,  opened  to  me  the  earliest  and  sometimes  the 
 best  sources  of  information  as  to  the  existence,  nature,  and  ex- 
 tent of  institutions,  and  of  the  books  necessary  to  give  ^particulars 
 in  regard  to  them,  and  which  are  rarely  known  at  a  distance. 
 By  consulting  these  and  other  works  and  documents,  and  by 
 comparison  of  various  opinions,  I  was  usually  enabled  to  decide 
 correctly  as  to  the  course  which  I  ought  to  take,  to  see  what 
 was  most  deserving  of  attention.  However,  sometimes  erro- 
 neous opinions  deceived  me,  and  I  found  that  my  course  had 
 missed  some  interesting  point,  or  had  brought  me  to  one  of 
 little  interest.  Occasionally  the  error  was  irremediable,  but 
 not  often.  Again,  as  it  was  necessary  to  employ  all  periods 
 of  the  year,  I  found  it  impossible  to  arrange  my  visit  so  as  to 
 pass  through  a  country  at  the  period  of  greatest  activity  in  the 
 schools.  Where  the  system  of  public  instruclic^n  was  central, 
 like  that  of  France,  or  Prussia,  recourse  to  authority  pointed  out 
 the  proper  institutions  to  visit,  and  gained  admission  to  them. 
 The  personal  ac(iuaintance  w  liicli  the  teachers  of  Germany  have 
 with  each  other,  greatly  facilitated  my  progress  in  its  several 
 states.  Almost  everywhere,  indeed,  I  have  reason  to  remem- 
 ber with  gratitude  the  kind  assistance  rendered  to  me.  Having 
 ascertained  the  places  which  it  would  be,  probably,  profitable  to 
 visit  and  the  institutions  to  be  examined,  I  regulated  the  time 
 and  the  attention  devoted  to  them,  by  the  interest  which  they 
 appeared  to  present,  returning  to  the  same  institution  frequently 
 or  not  at  all,  according  to  circumstances.  As  auxiliaries  to  my 
 investigations  during  these  visit.s  I  procured  the  jirinted  docu- 
 ments which  existed  relative  to  the  institutions. 
 
 I  also  prepared  beforehand  a  series  of  (jucstions,  to  which, 
 when  modified  to  suit  the  j)articular  establishment  in  regard  U> 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 which  detailed  information  was  desired,  I  obtained  answers 
 from  the  head,  or  from  one  or  more  intelligent  persons  connect- 
 ed with  the  establishment. 
 
 The  written  and  printed  sources  of  information  which  are 
 thus  at  the  disposal  of  the  Board,  are  1st.  A  journal  of  my  visits 
 to  ditferent  institutions,  and  of  verbal  information  received  in 
 regard  to  them,  with  my  remarks.  2d.  Replies  to  a  series  of 
 questions  in  regard  to  particular  institutions,  or  systems  of  in- 
 struction. 3d.  Statutes,  by-laws,  and  regulations  of  different  in- 
 stitutions. Laws  and  documents  relating  to  public  instruction, 
 &c.  4th.  Histories,  descriptions,  and  text-books  of  different 
 schools.    5th.  Particular  works  on  education. 
 
 These  form  a  mass  of  documentary  matter  which,  duly  ar- 
 ranged and  digested,*  will  always  throw  the  light  of  experiment 
 upon  doubtful  points  in  the  working  of  our  system  of  organization. 
 In  many  cases  the  documents,  descriptive  of  the  schools,  give 
 the  actual  results  of  suggestions  contained  in  the  works  on  edu- 
 cation. 
 
 From  this  mass  I  propose  to  draw  out  some  of  the  more 
 prominent  parts,  and  to  call  the  attention  of  the  Trustees  spe- 
 cially to  them.  The  personal  experience  gained  by  my  tour 
 will,  however,  as  far  as  the  Girard  College  is  concerned,  be  its 
 most  important  result.  I  could  not  expect  the  Trustees  to  fol- 
 low me  through  descriptions  or  even  notices  of  all  the  institu- 
 tions which  I  have  visited  during  my  two  years'  absence,  or  lis- 
 ten to  a  record  of  the  many  failures  and  mistakes  which  I  have 
 seen,  and  which,  though  they  have  formed  one  considerable  item 
 in  the  experience  gained,  it  would  be  truly  an  ungrateful  task 
 
 to  record. 
 
 As  best  calculated  to  present  the  impressions,  derived  from 
 this  examination,  of  the  actual  results  of  education,  I  have  adopt- 
 ed the  descriptive  form  for  my  Report,  and  have  purposely 
 avoided  summing  up  the  conclusions,  or  presenting  a  review 
 
 *  The  translations  from  foreign  languages  have  been  made  by  :\Ir.  Theodore 
 Trcwendt,  to  whose  indefatigable  zeal  and  industry  in  this  matter,  I  am  much 
 indebted.  The  documents  and  books  have  also  been  systematically  arranged  by 
 him.     A  li&t  of  <he  documents  is  appended  to  this  Report, 
 
10  IffTRODUCTIOX. 
 
 of  Ihcm  separately  iVuin  the  facts,  that  the  force  of  the  opinions 
 may  not  be  weakened  by  appearing  out  of  lliis  connexion.  It  is 
 true  that  tlie  remarks  must  be  considered  as  c^^eneral  inductions 
 from  numerous  facts,  and  not  inferences  from  single  instances,  but 
 these  instances  serve  as  their  best  illustration,  if  not  sufficient, 
 taken  singly,  to  prove  that  they  are  just.  These  remarks  sug- 
 gested themselves  at  first  as  queries  to  be  answered  })y  further 
 observation. 
 
 This  Report  will  be  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  relating 
 to  the  means  provided  for  the  education  of  orphans,  the  second 
 to  the  systems  of  general  education.  Corresponding  to  these  di- 
 visions there  are  two  groups  of  institutions  which  present, 
 in  general,  dilTcrent  objects  for  consideration;  in  the  first,  the 
 government,  disci})line,  and  domestic  economy,  as  well  as  the 
 instruction  arc  to  be  examined;  while  in  the  second,  the  instruc- 
 tion is  the  chief  point  of  interest.  Every  individual  institu- 
 tion in  the  first  group  should  furnish  moral,  intellectual,  and 
 physical  education;  many  in  the  second  are  necessarily  more 
 limited  in  their  design. 
 
PART   I. 
 
 INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  EDUCATION  OF  ORPHANS,  OR  OTHER 
 DESTITUTE  CHILDREN,  THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  WHICH  ARE 
 SOMETIMES  EXTENDED  TO  OTHER  CLASSES. 
 
 It  is  not  very  material  in  what  order  these  institutions  are 
 discussed,  and  I  have  adopted  a  geographical  arrangement  as 
 well  suited  to  their  classification.  The  institutions  selected  to 
 present  to  your  notice,  are  a  part  of  those  of  Great  Britain,  of 
 the  German  States,  and  of  Holland.  I  shall  begin  with  those  of 
 Scotland,  presenting  next  those  of  England,  then  of  Hamburgh, 
 then  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  then  of 
 Bohemia,  and  lastly  of  Holland. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 SCHOOLS  FOR  ORPHANS,  &c.,  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 
 
 The  greater  number  of  well  conducted  and  endowed  institu- 
 tions of  this  kind  are  found  in  Edinburgh,  while  the  oldest  is  the 
 celebrated  Blue-coat  School  of  London.  The  schools  of  this  class 
 throughout  the  kingdom  resemble  more  or  less  the  most  prominent 
 institution  existing  at  the  time  when  they  were  founded.  Thus 
 the  arrangements  of  the  Blue-coat  Schools  of  Chester  and  Bris- 
 tol have,  until  lately,  been  similar,  and  the  new  Blue-coat  School 
 at  Oldham  near  Manchester,  has  been  modelled  upon  the  ex- 
 cellent establishment  of  the  same  kind  at  Liverpool.  In  some 
 of  these  older  schools,  as  at  Chester,  changes  have  been  very 
 slowly  adopted,  and  they  are  nearly  as  antique  in  their  style  of 
 education  as  in  the  costume  of  the  pupils;  while  in  others,  as  at 
 Bristol,  great  changes  have  recently  been  made:  in  general, 
 however,  they  are  behind  the  more  modern  institutions.  I  pro- 
 pose to  present  in  turn  descriptions  of  the  most  prominent  of  the 
 
\'2  ELEEMUSV\A1'.V    INSTITUTIONS  (»K  (JKEAT   lilUTAI.V. 
 
 schools  of  tills  kiud  wliicli  1  visited;  namely,  of  those  at  Edin- 
 bur£?h,  called  hospitals,  founded  by  George  Hcriot,  George 
 Watson  and  John  Watson,  \vith  a  notice  of  Cauvin's  Hospital, 
 a  description  of  the  Blue-coat  School  at  Liverpool,  with  a  no- 
 tice of  that  at  Oldham  near  Manchester,  a  description  of  the 
 London  Orphan  Asylum  at  Clapton,  and  of  Christ's  Hospital  or 
 the  Bine-coat  School  of  London. 
 
 In  these,  and  in  general  in  other  cases  where  a  formal  division 
 of  the  subject  may  be  necessary,  it  will  be  treated  under  tlie 
 ficads  of,  1st.  The  history,  buildings,  general  government,  and 
 domestic  economy  of  the  institution.  2d.  The  reception  and 
 dismission  of  the  pupils.  3d.  The  educational  arrangements, 
 considered  under  the  divisions  of  intellectual,  moral,  and  phy- 
 sical education. 
 
 There  are  in  Edinburgh  seven  education  hospitals,  six  of  which 
 admit  other  inmates  than  orphans.  The  eflect  of  thus  receiving 
 children  whose  parents  are  alive,  of  maintaining,  educating,  and 
 providing  situations  for  them,  is  supposed  by  many  intelligent 
 men  to  be  injurious  to  the  tone  of  social  morals,*  and  to  remove 
 a  stimulus  to  honourable  exertion  on  the  part  of  parents,  by  pro- 
 viding for  their  children  if  they  surrender  them,  or,  if  the  pa- 
 rents are  disposed  to  struggle  for  their  education  at  home,  by 
 |)lacing  them  in  unfavourable  competition  with  others  so  edu- 
 cated. Such  an  opinion  might  be  brought  to  the  test  of  numbers, 
 but  I  was  not  able  to  fuid  that  tliis  had  been  done  by  anv  who 
 entertained  it.  The  grounds  of  the  argument,  even  if  admitted 
 to  their  full  extent,  do  not,  however,  atlect  the  establishment  of 
 or[ihnii-('harities,  and  a  provision  for  the  fatherless  seems  to 
 have  heen  the  governing  motive  in  the  original  foundation  of 
 at  least  three  out  of  the  five  of  the  Edinburgh  institutions  for 
 boys. 
 
 Of  these  five  houses  of  education,  the  Orphan  Asylum  is  in- 
 tended to  fit  its  pupils  for  service,  Heriot's  and  George  Wat- 
 
 •  As  an  illustration  of  this  opinion,  I  apjicnd  to  my  Report,  Ap|Kni]ix  No.  II., 
 an  extract  from  a  iiistory  of  the  Orphan  Hospital  of  Edinburirh,  printed  in  1833, 
 in  which  iho  author  han  thoujjht  it  necessary  to  show  that  this  institution  docs 
 not  lie  under  piich  objection?. 
 
HER10T*S  HOSPITAL.  13 
 
 son's  have  each  a  provision  for  the  higher  instruction  of  boys 
 of  talent,  and  Cauvin's  is  intended  to  educate  teachers. 
 
 The  building  for  the  Orphan  Hospital  is  on  a  fine  scale,  and 
 its  interior  arrangements  in  general  so  good,  that  I  herewith 
 submit  the  plans.  It  is,  as  to  economy  and  discipline,  on  a  simi- 
 lar footing  with  John  Watson's  Hospital,  of  which  I  shall  give 
 a  particular  description,  while  in  regard  to  instruction  it  oc- 
 cupies a  lower  level.  On  these  accounts  I  have  supposed  that  a 
 special  description  of  the  establishment  is  unnecessary.  The 
 government  is  of  the  paternal  kind,  the  household  forming  one 
 family,  of  which  the  master  is  the  chief.  The  moral,  physical, 
 and  intellectual  education,  thus  depend  mainly  upon  one  person, 
 who  acts,  however,  under  certain  general  regulations  prescribed 
 by  the  trustees  of  the  hospital.  Fatherless  children  are  re- 
 ceived in  this  institution  as  orphans. 
 
 HERIOT'S  HOSPITAL. 
 
 History  and  Buildmg.  This  noble  institution,  originally  de- 
 signed for  the  maintenance  and  education  of  poor  fatherless 
 sons  of  burgesses,  or  freemen,*  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh,  was 
 founded  in  pursuance  of  the  will  of  George  Heriot,  jeweller, 
 dated  1G23.  By  this  will  Doctor  Robert  Balcanquall,  Dean 
 of  Rochester,  and  master  of  the  Savoy,  London,t  was  select- 
 ed to  draw  up  the  statutes  for  the  organization  and  government 
 of  the  institution,  and  to  decide  upon  the  plan  of  a  building.  By 
 the  statutes  of  Dr.  Balcanquall,  dated  July,  1627,  the  govern- 
 ment of  Heriot's  Hospital  is  vested  in  the  provost,  bailiffs,  coun- 
 cil, and  ministers  (of  the  estabhshed  church)  of  the  city  of  Edin- 
 burgh, and  the  present  building  was  erected  between  1627  and 
 1650.  The  charity  has  been  extended  to  destitute  children 
 whose  parents  are  living,  and  by  a  late  act  of  Parliament  the 
 governors  have  been  authorized  to  erect  day-schools  in  the  city 
 
 *  "For  the  maintenance,  rcleifc,  bringing  vpp  and  educa^on  of  soe  manie 
 poore  fatherlesse  boyes,  freemens  sonncs  of  that  townc  of  Edonburgh." 
 
 t  An  institution  intended  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  whieh  was  founded  in  1513; 
 suppressed  on  aeeount  of  abuses  in  1553.  Restored  by  Queen  Mary,  and  finally 
 suppressed  in  1702  by  Queen  Anne. 
 
14  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTION'?. 
 
 w  itli  tli«^  siirj)In  of  llieir  income,  after  suj>]>ortinf];  the  ])re.seiit 
 ))nnili(M-  of  oiKi  hundred  and  eighty  pupils  in  the  hospital  itself.* 
 This  surplus  is  derived  from  the  increased  value  of  the  estates 
 held  by  the  governors;  and  the  application  of  it  to  schools  in- 
 stead of  to  the  increase  of  the  hospital,  was  decided  to  be  ad- 
 visable, after  much  consideration  and  discussion.  They  were 
 induced,  no  doubt,  by  the  fact  that  ample  provision  is  made 
 for  destitute  children  of  various  classes  in  the  city  of  Edinburgh, 
 and  perhaps  also  by  the  doubt,  to  which  I  have  already  refer- 
 red, of  the  utility  of  institutions  extending  education  and  main- 
 tenance to  those  whose  parents  are  alive.  My  information  in 
 regard  to  this  institution  is  derived  from  the  printed  documents, 
 kindly  furnished  to  me  by  the  house-governorf  and  the  trea- 
 surer of  the  hospital  ;J  from  an  examination  of  the  books  kept  at 
 the  hospital  and  at  the  treasurer's  ofFicc,  which,  on  stating  the 
 object  of  my  mission,  were  most  liberally  opened  to  me;  from 
 replies  to  my  queries  by  the  house-governor;  from  repeat- 
 «j(l  visits  to  the  institution  at  various  hours,  and  from  conversa- 
 tions with  the  governors  and  masters.§  The  government  of  the 
 institution  is  regulated  by  the  original  statutes  of  Dr.  Balcan- 
 quall,  of  which  certain  parts  only  arc  deemed  fundamental, 
 and  by  regulations  and  by-laws  enacted  from  time  to  time  by 
 the  trustees. 
 
 Tlie  building  is  in  the  Gothic  style,  with  tiie  irregularities  and 
 excess  of  ornament  which  it  j^ermits,  and  is  beautifully  situated, 
 overlooking  part  of  the  old  town  of  Edinburgli,  and  having  a 
 fine  view  of  its  picturesque  castle  and  of  tlie  new  town.  The 
 house  is  divided  into  many  small  rooms,  approached  by  turret 
 stairs,  in  the  style  prevailincr  two  centuries  ago,  but  now  deem- 
 
 •  The  present  income  of  tlio  institution  is  not  less  tiian  from  siAt3'-fivo  to 
 ■cvcnty  thousand  dollars. 
 
 t  The  Rev.  Hector  Holme.  {  ^Ir.  Dayley. 
 
 ()  Ab  tlic  sources  of  information  in  rc«Tard  to  dillercnt  institutions  arc  very 
 fiimilar,  and  have  already  been  stated  in  a  general  way,  and  ore  now  rcjxatt  d 
 here,  I  do  not  Uiink  it  necessary  to  restate  them  at  ovory  new  description. 
 The  list  of  inintfd  (loruments  r<  latini;  to  public  instruclion  is  in  the  Appendix 
 No.  I. 
 
HERIOT  S  HOSPITAL.  15 
 
 cd  inconvenient.  It  contains  rooms  for  the  meeting  of  the  gov- 
 ernors, for  the  lodging  of  the  masters,  a  dining-hall  for  the 
 pupils  and  for  the  masters,  dormitories  and  wash-rooms,  a 
 kitchen,  various  offices,  and  bath-rooms.  The  room  recently  fit- 
 ted up  for  the  drawling-classes,  is  lighted  from  above,  while 
 blinds  at  the  side  windows  prevent  cross  lights.  Many  of  the 
 rooms  have  the  necessary  arrangements  for  lighting  them  by 
 gas,  and  the  means  of  heating  have  been  lately  improved  by 
 the  introduction  of  warm  air.  The  ventilation  of  the  school 
 rooms  is,  however,  quite  imperfect.  Indeed,  of  the  many  build- 
 ings I  have  seen,  very  few  are  even  tolerably  ventilated,  and  it 
 should  be  a  matter  of  congratulation  that  our  architect  has  de- 
 voted much  attention  to  this  point.* 
 
 The  court  about  which  the  building  is  erected,  serves  as  a 
 place  of  play  for  the  boys  at  certain  times,  and  to  give  them  full 
 liberty  in  their  games  of  hand-ball,  which  seem  to  find  more  fa- 
 vour among  them  than  regular  gymnastic  exercises;  gratings 
 of  wire  are  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  lower  windows,  which 
 protect  them  from  fracture.  At  first  the  effect  of  these  gratings 
 of  wire,  suggesting  the  idea  of  the  want  of  discipline,  which 
 rendered  them  necessary  as  a  protection  to  the  vrindows,  struck 
 me  unpleasantly,  but  when  I  saw  the  great  freedom  which  it 
 gave  to  the  younger  pupils  in  their  games,  my  first  impressions 
 were  entirely  removed. 
 
 General  Government  and  Domestic  Economy  of  the  Institu- 
 Hon.  The  Board  of  Governors  vest  the  internal  management 
 and  immediate  superintendence  of  the  hospital  in  a  visiting 
 committee,  who  further  divide  themselves  into  sub-committees, 
 meeting  at  the  hospital  at  least  once  a  fortnight.  The  house- 
 governor  meets  with  these  committees.  It  is  usual  also  for  mem- 
 bers of  the  board  to  attend  the  Sunday  evening  exercises  at  (ho 
 institution.    The  board  is  also  divided  into  the  following  comniit- 
 
 *  The  consequence  of  defective  ventilation,  on  those  confined  in  scliool-roojiib, 
 has  been  often  much  insisted  upon,  and  yet  proper  ventilation  is  very  imperfectly 
 understood.  It  is  not  enough  to  trust  merely  to  the  opening-  of  the  upper  parts 
 of  windows  for  such  a  purpose.  Draughts  and  abrupt  changes  of  temperature 
 aie  thus  produced  which  are  injurious  to  healtli. 
 
16  KLEEMOSV\AKY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 tecs:  1.  or  auditors,  who  audit,  yearly,  tiie  treasurer's  accounts. 
 2.  or  finance,  who  advise  with  the  treasurer  on  occasion,  and  ex- 
 amine such  accounts  as  tlie  regulations  do  not  refer  to  the 
 treasurer  and  house-committee.  3.  Of  superintendence  of  the 
 hospital  property.  4.  Of  grounds  leased.  5.  Of  laws.  G.  Of 
 the  house,  who  attend  to  making  contracts,  passing  bills  for 
 house  expenses,  ordering  small  repairs,  ifcc.  7.  Of  education.  8. 
 Of  the  superintendence  of  the  boys  after  leaving  the  hospital.  9. 
 Of  the  erection  of  new  schools.  10.  General  visiting  commit- 
 tee of  all  the  governors. 
 
 The  officers*  of  the  institution  arc — 1st,  a  treasurer,  who  re- 
 ceives the  moneys  for  the  register,  pays  the  bills  of  the  hospital, 
 the  salaries  of  the  teachers,  the  expenses  of  every  week  as  cer- 
 tified by  the  house-governor  and  an  accountant,  and  has  charge 
 of  the  repairs  of  the  building. 
 
 2d.  A  register,  or  clerk,  of  the  hospital,  who  is  also  secre- 
 tary to  the  governors,  and  has  in  general  charge  of  tiie  books 
 and  papers  of  the  hospital.  He  attends  also  to  all  law  business, 
 receives  the  rents  of  the  estates,  the  leases  of  which  are  exe- 
 cuted by  him.  Tiie  checks  for  the  payment  of  the  oillcers  witiiia 
 the  hospital  arc  sent  there,  w  itli  one  also  for  the  amount  of  ser- 
 vant wages,  which  are  paid  by  the  matron. 
 
 3d.  The  house-governor,  who  is  the  head  of  the  institution, 
 and  also  one  of  the  teachers,  and  has  a  seat  in  the  Board  of  Gov- 
 ernors. He  is  responsible  directly  to  the  visiting  committee 
 or  its  sub-committees,  and  all  the  inmates  of  the  hospital  di- 
 rectly to  him.  Besides  acting  as  the  head  of  the  family,  he  is 
 required  to  teach  daily,  three  hours,  the  boys  of  the  elder  classes, 
 "such  branches  as  shall  be  interesting  to  all  these  boys,  what- 
 ever may  be  their  tlestiiiation  in  alter  life;  for  example,  the  gene- 
 ral outlines  of  iiistury,  particularly  J-^nglish  history;  geography; 
 the  first  princi[)les  of  natural  history  and  of  mechanical  i)hilo- 
 sophy;   the  ek^ments  of  IjUglish  composition:  and  the  higher 
 
 *  The  salaries  arc  judiciously  Icfl  in  blank  in  the  original  statutes.  1  do  not 
 insert  those  which  are  now  paid,  l)ecau.so  the  salaries  of  ofliccrs,  Uakcn  out  of 
 connexion  with  niinnto  statistical  in(()rniation  in  rcgfard  to  the  counlrv  in  which 
 ihcy  rchidc,  arc  data  which  can  lead  to  no  just  conclusions. 
 
heriot's  hospital.  17 
 
 branches  of  religious  instruction."  He  must  also  examine  the 
 classes  of  the  other  masters,  once  a  week,  and  preserve  a  re- 
 cord of  the  places  of  the  boys,  &.c.  He  keeps  a  book  contain- 
 ing the  account  of  provisions  received  and  issued,  a  record  of 
 things  ordered  for  the  house,  which  is  settled  weekly,  a  day- 
 book for  issues,  the  accounts  of  which  are  transferred  to  the 
 ledger  and  to  the  monthly  bills,  a  list  of  admissions,  &c. 
 
 4th.  The  masters,  of  whom  four  are  resident,  and  whose 
 duties  will  be  particularly  described  hereafter.  I  remark  here 
 what  seems  to  me  a  decided  defect  in  the  organization  of  the 
 institution,  that  these  masters  have  no  meetings  as  a  board,  and 
 hence  their  views  of  discipline  and  instruction  are  never  directly 
 consulted. 
 
 5th.  A  physician  and  surgeon,  who,  besides  making  regular 
 visits,  are  required  to  attend  as  often  as  called  for. 
 
 6th.  The  mistress  or  matron,  who  has  charge  of  all  the  move- 
 ables of  the  house,  and  in  general  acts  as  mistress  of  the  family; 
 superintending  the  duties  of  the  female  servants,  the  issues  of 
 clothes,  of  tea  and  sugar,  the  police  of  the  house,  and  of  the  pu- 
 pils, the  sick-rooms,  the  washing,  the  ordinary  fare,  and  the 
 diet  of  the  sick. 
 
 7th.  The  steward,  who  receives  the  supplies  of  meat,  bread, 
 milk,  flour,  &c.,  contracts  for  coal,  and  candles,  and  verifies  the 
 weight  and  quality,  under  the  direction  of  the  matron;  has 
 charge  of  the  deliveries  of  the  same,  and  of  the  order  and  po- 
 lice of  the  dining-hall  and  of  the  eating  utensils.  His  accounts 
 are  examined  once  a  month,  by  the  house-governor  and  trea- 
 surer, and  paid  by  the  latter. 
 
 The  servants  are  as  follows:  Nine  female  servants  for  the 
 police  of  the  house,  serving  the  tables,  washing  the  feet  of  all 
 the  boys  once  a  week,  and  the  care  of  the  junior  boys  in  their 
 wards.  One  of  them  may  act  as  nurse.  One  cook.  Three  laun- 
 dresses. Two  wardmen,  one  of  whom  sleeps  in  and  has  charge 
 of  each  senior  ward.  One  of  them  must  be  in  the  play-ground 
 when  the  boys  are  at  play.  Two  porters,  one  of  whom  may 
 be  a  married  man,  and  has  charge  of  the  gates,  and  who  are 
 jointly  responsible  for  the  police  of  the  grounds  about  the  house, 
 3 
 
18  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 and  for  the  preservation  of  the  building.  Tiicy  receive  the  visi- 
 tors, who  arc  admitted  by  an  order  from  the  treasurer,  or  the 
 house-governor,  and  show  them  the  various  y)arls  of  the  hos])ilnl. 
 
 Reception  and  Dismission  of  Pupils.  The  rules  require  that 
 application  for  admission  shall  be  made  at  least  three  weeks  be- 
 fore the  periods  of  election  in  April  and  October.  The  appli- 
 cants must  be  above  seven  years  of  age  and  below  eleven.  The 
 cases  arc  canvassed  by  a  committee  of  the  governors,  and  se- 
 lections arc  made  depending  upon  the  degree  of  destitution,  the 
 character  of  the  parents,  the  degree  of  instruction  which  the 
 ap})licant  has  received,  and  his  general  intelligence  manifested 
 at  an  examination  by  the  house-governor.  Children  who  have 
 lost  both  parents  arc  in  general  considered  as  presenting  the 
 liighest  claims;  next  those  who  liave  lost  their  father,  and  then 
 those  who  have  lost  their  mother,  and  lastly  those  whose  pa- 
 rents are  alive.*  It  is  understood  that  certificates  of  the  mar- 
 riage of  the  parents,  of  the  baptism  of  the  children,  and  of  the 
 fathers  right  as  a  freeman,  must  have  been  presented. 
 
 The  new  comers  are  separated  for  twelve  months  from  the 
 rest  of  tiie  boys  at  all  times,  occupying  separate  places  in  church 
 and  in  chapel,  and  separate  dormitories;  taking  their  meals  and 
 exercise,  and  visiting  their  relations  at  dilTerent  times  from  the 
 otiiers.  By  this  regulation  it  seems  to  me  that  tiie  force  of  good 
 example  is  made  ineflcctive,  and  that  each  new  set  of  boys  rc- 
 cjuire  a  new  training.  I  am  not  aware  when  it  was  first  enacted. 
 It  does  not  appear  in  the  original  statutes,  and  was  perhaps  one 
 of  the  measures  used  to  break  up  a  most  shocking  abuse  of  the 
 fagging  system  wiiich  prevailed  many  years  ago  in  the  school, 
 and  by  which  the  elder  boys  were  the  complete  tyrants  of  the 
 younger  ones.  So  deej)ly  rooted  had  the  }>ractice  of  this  sys- 
 tem, known  as  "Garin  law,"t  become,  that  it  cost  the  cx}hi1- 
 
 •  Of  two  Imndrctl  and  tlirce  boys  admitted,  between  October,  1830,  and  Octo- 
 ber, lb3G,  cifjbt  bad  lost  botb  parents,  tbirty  bad  lost  tbcir  falbcr,  fourteen  tlicir 
 niotber,  and  one  bundred  and  forty-eijirbt  liad  botb  parents  abve.  Tiiiec  were  ad- 
 uiilltd  on  presentations,  not  requiring  a  ataternent  as  to  wbetlxcr  tlicir  parents 
 were  alive  or  not. 
 
 t  Gar  significH  force. 
 
19 
 
 sion  of  some  twenty  pupils  to  eradicate  it.  I  have  every  reason 
 to  believe  that  the  true  relation  of  the  pupils  to  each  other  and 
 to  the  masters,  is  now  much  better  understood.  It  is  easy  to 
 see  that  there  may  have  been  other  reasons  for  the  separation 
 of  the  new  comers  from  the  other  pupils,  but  none  of  those 
 which  occur  to  me  seem  to  make  it  desirable.  These  boys  are 
 under  female  superintendence. 
 
 The  pupils  in  general  leave  the  institution  at  fourteen  years 
 of  age;  if  a  boy  is  not  fourteen  on  or  before  the  day  for  regular 
 dismission,  he  remains  another  year  in  the  institution,  and  cer- 
 tain pupils  are  retained  until  sixteen.  Tlie  statutes  provide  that 
 "hopeful  scholars"  may  receive,  for  four  years,  a  sum  of  money 
 to  enable  them  to  attend  the  classes  of  the  high-school  as  a 
 means  of  preparation  for,  and  to  continue  their  education  at,  the 
 University  of  Edinburgh.  The  institution  pays  the  apprentice  fee 
 of  such  as  are  bound  out,  and  gives  gratuities  to  those  who 
 produce  satisfactory  certificates  of  conduct  and  progress.  The 
 regulations  in  regard  to  the  arrangements  for  leaving  the  insti: 
 tution  are  highly  judicious,  and  will  be  found  in  detail  in  the 
 Appendix  to  this  Report  (No.  III.)  The  governors  require,  six 
 months  before  the  time  when  a  boy  should  leave  the  school,  a 
 report  of  his  conduct,  acquirement,  and  talents,  from  the  house- 
 governor.  One  month  before  the  same  time  a  statement  from 
 his  parent,  or  guardian,  of  the  calling  which  it  is  wished  the 
 boy  should  adopt,  the  master  who  may  be  chosen,  and  the  ar- 
 rangements desired  to  be  made  for  boarding.  These  matters  are 
 discussed,  and  the  disposition  made  oj  the  boy  depends  upon  the 
 result.  The  boy  having  been  bound  apprentice,  the  master  can- 
 not receive  the  annual  instalments  of  the  apprentice  fee,  without 
 answering  certain  queries  as  to  the  conduct  and  proficiency  of 
 his  apprentice.  It  is  also  provided  that  answers  to  two  other 
 similar  series*  of  questions,  one  addressed  to  the  apprentice,  the 
 other  to  the  person  with  whom  he  lodges,  shall  be  furnished  an- 
 nually, and  the  treasurer  is  enjoined  to  keep  a  register  of  them. 
 
 See  Appendix  No.  IV. 
 
20  KI.EEMOSVNARV   IN-iTITl'TIONN. 
 
 On  leaving  the  institution,  each  pupil  receives  an  outfit  of 
 clothing,  &c.*  The  boys  intended  for  tlie  university  are  main- 
 tained and  clothed,  and  receive  a  certain  sum  per  annum. 
 
 Education.  This  term  appears  to  have  been  considered  by 
 the  authors  of  tlie  regulations  as  synonymous  with  instruction, 
 and  accordingly,  they  provide  that  "the  education  which  the 
 boys  receive  shall  be,  as  much  as  possible,  accommodated  to 
 the  capacity  and  prospects  of  each/'f  The  subjects  of  instruc- 
 tion, according  to  the  order  in  which  they  rank  in  importance 
 in  the  institution,  are  English  (/.  e.  spelling  and  reading,)  gram- 
 mar, geography,  and  Iiistory,  writing,  Latin,  mathematics,  draw- 
 ing, French,  music,  Greek,  mechanical  and  natural  philosophy, 
 and  chemistry.  These  are  taught  in  seven  classes,  and  the  first 
 two  are  exclusively  occupied  with  the  English  studies,  writing, 
 and  arithmetic.  The  third  and  fourth  classes  have  one  hour  of 
 Latin.  The  sixth  has  but  one  hour  of  the  miscellaneous  English 
 studies,  and  the  seventh  has  none.  Natural  philosophy  is  in  fact 
 not  taught,  and  the  chemical  course  has  been  cut  oO'.  Greek  is 
 taught  only  in  its  very  elements.  In  the  attempts  to  improve 
 the  courses  of  this  school,  to  bring  them  up  to  the  present  state 
 of  instruction,  the  additional  branches  have  been  loosely  attach- 
 ed, and  the  course  is  not  now  one  consistent  whole.  The  only 
 remedy  for  this,  consistent  with  keeping  up  with  the  progress 
 of  instruction,  is  to  revise  the  entire  course,  from  time  to  time, 
 maintaining  due  subordination  of  the  separate  branches  to  the 
 general  plan  of  studies. 
 
 Tiie  corps  of  masters  is  divided  into  resident  masters  and 
 non-resident,  a  good  arrangement  when  the  teachers  are  nu- 
 merous. There  arc  resident  in  the  house,  besides  the  Iiouse-gov- 
 ernor,  who  has  charge  of  the  geographical  and  religious  in- 
 struction, and  of  part  of  the  historical  course,  two  masters  of 
 
 •  One  dozen  shirt?,  half  a  dozen  pairs  of  slockinjfs,  a  Bible,  and  other  books. 
 
 t  The  kind  of  inHtruction  which  appeared  necessary  in  the  day  of  Dr.  Balcan- 
 quall,  we  learn  from  the  statutes:  "and  bccaua  that  the  scholleris  salbc  brocht 
 ujK!  in  letteris,  their  salbe  a  sehoil  maister  whose  otViee  salbe  to  teaehe  the  scho- 
 leris  to  read  and  wreatt  Scottis  distinctHe,  to  cypher  and  cast  all  nianer  of  ac- 
 comptis  ns  hNd  in  fim  lie  vanir  tlir  I.nliiv  rndimcntis,  hot  no  further." 
 
HERIOT*S  HOSPITAL.  21 
 
 the  English  branches,  a  mathenaatical,  and  a  classical  teacher. 
 The  non-resident  teachers  are  those  of  niusic,  writing,  drawing, 
 and  French.  The  music  taught  is  church  nnusic;  and  the  draw- 
 ing, that  denominated  mechanical  drawing. 
 
 The  principal  labour  of  teaching  the  various  courses  is 
 divided  among  five  masters.  Of  these,  the  house-governor 
 teaches  three  hours  every  day;  the  other  masters  from  six  to 
 seven  hours,  besides  superintending  the  studies  for  an  hour, 
 and,  in  rotation,  taking  charge  of  the  boys  at  rising  and  going 
 to  bed,  at  meals,  and  by  the  regulations  being  even  responsible 
 for  them  during  play  time.  They  are  thus  decidedly  overbur- 
 thened  with  labour,  and  the  compensation  which  they  receive 
 for  this  devotion  is  not  such  as  to  attach  them  permanently  to 
 the  institution. 
 
 The  methods  of  teaching  the  different  general  branches  do 
 not  vary  much.  Lessons  are  given  to  be  learned  from  books, 
 either  in  or  out  of  the  school-room.  Oral  explanations  are  joined. 
 The  mathematical  instruction  is  chiefly  oral.  In  the  English 
 department  the  method  of  the  sessional-school  hereafter  to  be 
 described,  is  intended  to  be  practised.*  The  efficiency  of  this 
 department  seemed  to  me  impaired  by  the  distribution  of  the 
 classes,  each  of  the  two  masters  having  one  division  of  each  of 
 the  two  English  classes,  so  that  there  were  always  two  divi- 
 sions in  the  same  master's  room  at  the  same  time,  in  different 
 states  of  advancement.  As  but  one  of  these  divisions  could  be 
 taught  at  a  time,  the  other  was  occupied  in  preparing  lessons 
 under  monitors.  The  regulation  which  requires  these  masters 
 to  teach  the  elements  of  Latin,  acts  injuriously  upon  this  depart- 
 ment, and  reacts  upon  the  classical  department,  by  giving  a 
 different  elementary  preparation  to  the  two  divisions,  which  are 
 afterwards  united  in  the  proper  Latin  class.  The  classical  in- 
 struction is  intended  to  prepare  boys  for  the  upper  classes  of 
 
 *  One  of  the  English  masters,  the  Rev.  John  Oswald,  has  prepared  a  scries  of 
 etymological  works,  carrying  out  the  practice  of  the  sessional-school.  His  Ety- 
 mological Dictionary  of  the  English  language  was  republished  here,  with  notes, 
 by  the  late  Dr.  J.  M.  Keagy,  one  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Girard  College. 
 
J'J  KLEEMOSY.VARV  JXSTITUTIONS. 
 
 the  high-school,  and  iiliimatcly  fur  the  university.  The  Latin 
 course  extends  to  the  partial  reading  of  Virgil  and  Horace — 
 and  the  Greek  includes  merely  the  elements.  TIjc  principle  is 
 recognised  that  all  the  pu|)ils  are  not  re(juired  to  pursue  the 
 classical  courses,  the  propriety  of  which  will  at  once  be  ad- 
 mitted, when  it  is  stated  that  of  sixty-two  boys,  furty-seven  be- 
 come aj)prentices  to  trades,  and  a  larger  number  leave  the  insti- 
 tution at  or  before  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  plan  of  carrying  out 
 this  i)rinciple,  however,  strikes  me  as  liable  to  many  objections. 
 The  study  of  Latin  begins  in  the  fourth  class,  or  after  the  boys 
 have  been  three  years  in  the  school.  Tiie  regulations  provide 
 that  "each  boy  shall  have  a  fair  trial  of  the  study  of  Latin.  If, 
 upon  the  average  of  the  first  year,  he  be  found  in  the  lowest 
 tiro-tliinJs  of  the  class  to  which  he  belongs,  lie  shall  remain  in 
 that  class  for  a  second  year;  and  if,  at  the  end  of  the  second 
 year,  he  occupy  no  higher  place  in  it,  he  shall  be  withdrawn 
 from  the  study,  and  shall  be  engaged  in  other  employments." 
 The  execution  of  this  rule  inevitably  detains  a  boy  w  ho  has  not 
 a  talent  for  language  two  years  in  a  class  for  which  he  is  ut- 
 terly unfit,  injuring  his  habits  of  attention,  wasting  time  which 
 he  might  otherwise  employ  to  some  purpose,  and  reacting  inju- 
 riously upon  the  class.  In  fact,  a  considerable  number  of  the 
 boys  never,  wdiile  they  remain  in  the  school,  get  beyond  the 
 fourth  class,  in  which  the  elements  of  Latin  are  taxight;  and  of 
 those  w  iio  pursue  the  Latin  studies,  very  few  succeed  in  securing 
 the  university  places.  Thus,  for  the  sake  of  the  few  who  can 
 really  benefit  by  the  classical  courses,  the  many  are  emj>loyed 
 upon  subjects  which,  to  say  the  least,  niight  better  be  replaced 
 by  others.  I  am  far  from  being  one  of  those  who  undervalue 
 classical  culture,  but  I  am  convinced  that  to  be  at  all  ellectivc 
 it  must  be  thorough,  that  it  cannot  be  thorough  when  the 
 instruction  is  terminated  at  an  early  age,  and  that  there  are 
 certain  minds  very  little  or  not  at  all  improvable  by  language, 
 as  there  arc  others  similaily  related  to  mathematical  studies. 
 If  the  object  of  a  school  were  to  make  professional  men,  I  would 
 have  the  classical  course  the  rule,  and  then,  consider  as  ex- 
 ceptional cases  those  who,  from  character  of  min«l,   want   of 
 
heriot's  hospital.  23 
 
 industry,  inability  from  circumstances  to  remain  sufficiently, 
 long  in  the  school,  or  other  causes,  were  unable  to  benefit 
 largely  by  such  a  course;  but  if  the  school  has  a  majority  of 
 its  pupils  intended  for  trades,  I  would  make  the  culture  of  mind 
 depending  upon  classics  the  exception.  It  is  easy  to  see  how 
 such  a  system  could  be  contrived,  and  there  are  many  institu- 
 tions on  the  continent  of  Europe,  which  furnish  examples  of  the 
 plan.  In  regard  to  the  instruction  in  French,  the  same  seems 
 to  me  to  be  true,  whether  we  consider  it  as  a  means  of  cultivat- 
 ing the  faculties,  or  as  useful  for  future  application.  In  point 
 of  fact,  it  is  begun  too  late  to  acquire  much  knowledge  of  it 
 before  leavinG;  the  institution. 
 
 With  a  view  to  inform  themselves  as  to  the  results  of  their 
 system  of  instruction,  the  governors  have  lately  required  from 
 those  boys  who  receive  pecuniary  rewards  during  their  appren- 
 ticeship, the  presentation  of  three  documents,  before  referred  to, 
 containing  answers  to  certain  queries.  One  of  the  sets  of  ques- 
 tions is  answered  by  the  master,  and  relates  to  the  conduct  of 
 the  boy,  as  an  apprentice;  a  second,  by  the  person  with  whom 
 the  boy  lodges,  and  contains  an  account  of  his  conduct  while 
 in  the  house,  of  his  hours,  &c. ;  a  third,  by  the  boy  himself — 
 and  inquires,  among  other  points,  into  his  hours  of  work,  his 
 occupations,  and  relaxation,  and  the  utility  of  his  studies, 
 while  in  the  hospital,  to  the  business  in  which  he  is  engaged. 
 This  excellent  regulation  has  been  in  force  only  some  three 
 years,  and  hence  the  inferences,  from  the  replies  of  the  boys, 
 are  not  as  important  as  they  will  one  day  be.  Even  with  a 
 longer  continued  average,  they  will  not  be  absolutely  conclu- 
 sive in  regard  to  the  value  of  the  several  branches  of  studv%  for 
 it  requires  very  good  judgment  to  get  rid  of  tiie  idea  that  only 
 the  immediately  useful  is  at  all  useful,  and  to  appreciate  the 
 effect  of  general  mental  culture.  As  a  result,  however,  of  the 
 expression  of  opinion  of  forty-seven  out  of  sixty-tour  boys, 
 nearly  all  had  found  use  for  their  arithmetical  studies,  and  some 
 for  their  English  studies,  including  grammar,  geography,  and 
 history.  Of  those  from  whom  I  saw  no  replies,  seventeen  in 
 number,  four  were  at  the  university,  who,  from  the  prizes  which 
 
24  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 the  "Ilcriol's  boys"  carry  away  in  classics,  no  doubt  found  their 
 Latin  and  Greek  (especially  the  former)  studies  "useful;"  three 
 were  not  minors,  and  two  deceased;  leaving  but  eight  out  of 
 sixty-four  unaccounted  for. 
 
 Should  the  results  of  these  queries  continue  to  be  as  just  stated, 
 they  will  one  day  allbrd  the  strongest  argument  in  favour  of 
 my  position,  tliat  the  arrangement  is  a  defective  one,  by  which, 
 in  an  institution  for  the  purposes  answered  by  Ileriot's,  the 
 classics  are  made  the  basis  of  instruction.  At  present,  other 
 grounds  arc  stronger. 
 
 The  mathematical  instruction  includes  arithmetic,  through 
 fractions,  and  elementary  algebra  and  geometry,  and  is  upon 
 the  ])lan  generally  followed  in  the  higher  schools,  and  in  part 
 of  the  universities  of  Scotland.  Oral  ex[)lanations  are  given 
 by  the  teacher,  and  examples  are  worked  by  the  pupils,  in  con- 
 cert or  individually,  by  the  teacher  performing  the  work,  or 
 drawing  the  figures,  on  a  black  board,  at  the  dictation  of  the 
 boy.  This  mode  is  accompanied  by  the  working  of  examples, 
 by  the  pupil,  on  the  slate,  but  so  far  as  the  mechanical  opera- 
 tions are  executed  by  the  teacher  the  pupil  is  deprived  of  the 
 means  of  acquiring  dexterity  in  writing  or  drawing  figures, 
 and  of  ideas  of  proportion,  and  thus  loses  the  opportunity  of  the 
 education  of  both  the  hand  and  eye.  This  method,  further,  ren- 
 ders the  knowledge  of  the  pu})ils  somewhat  uncertain,  since  the 
 operation  of  the  master  may  precede  the  direction  of  the  pupil; 
 and  while  it  may  be  convenient  in  some  cases,  its  general  use 
 apj)ears  to  me  injurious.  Of  this,  1  believe  the  intelligent  mathe- 
 matical master  at  Heriot's  is  fully  satisfied.  There  are  two 
 special  prizes  for  excellence  in  this  department,  which  are 
 awarded  on  competition. 
 
 The  mode  of  instruction  in  drawing  is  the  same  as  that  used 
 in  the  Prussian  schools,  and  to  which  attention  has  been  called 
 in  Scotland  by  the  able  Secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
 burgh, Sir  John  Robison.  The  boys,  after  learning  the  first 
 elements  of  linear  drawing,  draw  from  models;  a  sinqile  per- 
 sjvective  machine  being  used  to  give  them  an  idea  of  the  princi- 
 ples which  they  are  to  put  in  practice.     At  first,  simple  solids, 
 
heriot's  hospital.  25 
 
 bounded  by  straight  and  curved  lines,  are  set  before  them,  and 
 drawn  upon  the  slate.  Then  mouldings,  and,  gradually,  more 
 complex  combinations  of  surfaces  are  given,  and  are  drawn 
 upon  paper  with  the  crayon  or  pencil.  This  method  forms  the 
 eye  admirably,  but  does  little,  I  may  say  nothing,  to  improve  the 
 taste.  Hence,  it  is  rejected  by  some.  Nevertheless  it  appears 
 to  me  admirably  adapted  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life,  and 
 especially  for  the  use  of  those  engaged  in  mechanical  pursuits, 
 and  much  superior  to  tlie  system  of  linear  drawing  from  engrav- 
 ings, taught  in  the  primary  schools  of  France.  The  method 
 has  the  further  advantage,  that  almost  every  pupil  is  able  to 
 acquire  some  proficiency  in  mechanical  drawing  and  sketching 
 by  it.  Every  boy  must  attend  this  class  for  at  least  twelve 
 months  before  leaving  the  institution.  When  I  visited  the  hos- 
 pital, the  hours  interfered  much  with  those  of  other  departments. 
 
 There  is  a  writing  lesson,  of  at  least  one  hour  a  day,  for  each 
 class,  and  two  prizes  for  excellence  have  been  established  by  a 
 late  governor. 
 
 Religious  and  Moral  Instruction.  The  positive  religious  in- 
 struction is  given  by  the  study  of  the  Bible,  the  Evidences  of 
 Christianity,  and  the  Catechism  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 
 Family  worship  also  is  held  morning  and  evening.  On  Sunday, 
 in  addition,  the  pupils  are  occupied  one  hour  in  the  morning 
 in  the  study  of  the  Church  Catechism,  or  of  a  Bible  lesson  or 
 hymn,  which  they  recite  in  the  evening,  and  they  attend 
 church  twice  during  the  day.  Besides  this,  the  disciphne  of 
 the  school,  repressing  what  is  amiss,  and  encouraging  virtue, 
 acts  of  course  powerfully;  the  example  of  the  elder  boys,  and 
 the  good  order  which  prevails,  tend  to  produce  regular  habits. 
 The  results  of  this  combined  moral  education  are  to  be  found 
 in  the  records  of  the  character  of  the  pupils,  when  they  are  no 
 longer  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  institution ;  and  the  an- 
 swers to  the  queries  before  referred  to,  in  regard  to  the  conduct 
 of  the  young  men,  given  by  the  masters  to  whom  they  are  ap- 
 prenticed, and  by  those  with  whom  they  lodge,  exhibit  these 
 results  in  a  highly  satisfactory  point  of  view.  Of  forty-seven 
 sets  of  answers,  forty  were  entirely  to  the  credit  of  the  young 
 4 
 
26  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 men,  on  the  part  of  the  masters,  and  forty-six  on  the  part  of  the 
 persons  with  whom  they  lodged.  Of  the  seven  falHng  under 
 censure,  three  had  not  made  satisfactory  progress  in  tlicir  busi- 
 ness; two  were,  in  addition,  absent  sometimes;  one  was  com- 
 plained of  as  not  doing  his  errands  punctually,  and  only  one 
 was  of  the  class  considered  decidedly  vicious. 
 
 I  have  found  no  subject  of  discipline,  in  regard  to  which  more 
 diversity  of  opinion  exists,  than  as  to  the  appropriate  amount  of 
 intercourse  with  rclativ^es  to  be  allowed  during  the  stay  of  a  boy 
 in  these  establishments.  On  the  one  hand,  the  importance  of 
 not  breaking  such  natural  ties  as  the  boy  may  have,  is  obvi- 
 ous; and,  on  the  other,  the  injury  resulting  from  bad  counsel, 
 undue  indulgence,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  bad  example,  be- 
 comes not  less  so  from  experience.  According  as  one  or  other 
 of  these  disadvantages  predominates  in  the  teacher's  mind,  he 
 is  favourable  or  not  to  frequent  intercourse  with  relatives.  In 
 lleriot's  Hospital,  the  pupils  cannot  leave  the  house  for  the 
 purpose  of  visiting  their  friends  oftener  than  once  in  three 
 weeks,  unless  under  special  circumstances,  of  which  the  house- 
 governor  is  the  judge.  Those  who  live  in  town  are  received 
 at  the  door  of  the  house  by  a  relation,  who  is  charged  with  their 
 return  at  the  appointed  time.  Those  whose  relatives  hve  in 
 the  country  have,  if  the  visiting  committee,  or  house-governor, 
 see  no  objection  thereto,  a  vacation  of  three  weeks  during  the 
 month  of  August.  The  relatives  who  reside  in  Edinburgh,  are 
 not  allowed  to  visit  the  pupils  unless  when  called  to  the  house 
 by  the  governor,  or  when  their  boys  arc  sick.  Those  who  re- 
 side in  the  country,  must  obtain  permission  from  the  house- 
 governor  to  make  visits.  So  much  depends  upon  the  charac- 
 ter of  the  relatives  and  connexions  of  the  youth,  that  it  appears 
 to  me  no  other  rule,  than  to  give  to  some  ofiicer  a  discretionary 
 power  to  ])ermit  the  absence  of  pupils,  can  be  adopted,  until  the 
 particular  circumstances  of  the  institution  are  carefully  studied. 
 
 To  keep  in  remembrance  the  good  deed  of  the  founder  of 
 the  school,  the  first  Monday  of  June  is  celebrated  as  his  birth- 
 day. 
 
 Closely  connected  with  the  intellectual  and  moral  education 
 
heriot's  hospital.  27 
 
 stand  the  rewards  and  punishments  adopted  in  the  institution. 
 These  consist  of  places  in  the  class,  and  in  the  superintendence 
 over  their  fellows  in  the  house,  in  indulgences  of  visiting  or  re- 
 ceiving friends,  in  prizes  for  proficiency  or  good  conduct,  in  the 
 greater  or  less  extent  of  their  instruction  while  in  the  house,  in 
 pecuniary  allowances  during  their  apprenticeship,  or  to  enable 
 them  to  pursue  a  university  education,  and  in  assistance  even  af- 
 ter their  apprenticeship.  Those  boys  who  are  at  the  high-school, 
 preparatory  to  entering  the  university,  lodge  in  the  house ;  an 
 arrangement  which  I  saw  extended  with  great  effect  at  Am- 
 sterdam, and  elsewhere  in  Holland,  to  all  the  pupils  who  are 
 apprenticed  in  the  city.  The  regulations  require  that,  "the 
 more  degrading  kinds  of  corporal  punishment  shall  be  as  sel- 
 dom as  possible  resorted  to,"  and  yet  counteract  the  good  effect 
 of  this  provision  by  directing  that  "  they  shall  not  be  inflicted 
 in  the  private  classes,  but  only  in  what  is  called  'the  pubhc 
 school,'  in  presence  of  the  house-governor,"  thus  rendering  the 
 degradation  most  certain  by  the  publicity  of  the  punishment.  It 
 is  true,  these  chastisements  are  rarely  inflicted,  and  the  regula- 
 tions provide  that  "they  shall  not  be  resorted  to  for  mere  lite- 
 rary negligence,  if  unaccompanied  by  moral  blame."  The 
 house-governor  has  great  latitude  in  regard  to  the  character 
 of  the  punishments,  and  I  am  sure  exercises  a  sound  discretion 
 in  reference  to  them. 
 
 There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  more  dangerous  to  blunt  the 
 sensibilities  of  a  youth  to  moral  reproof,  than  to  harden  him  by 
 corporal  chastisement.  Hence  such  chastisements  may  be 
 preferable  in  certain  cases,  where  reproof  has  failed,  to  a  con- 
 tinuance of  the  attempt  to  correct  by  admonition.  This  sup- 
 poses it  to  be  administered  in  private,  without  temper,  and  as  a 
 last  resort.  Some  dispositions  are  better  acted  upon  by  the  depri- 
 vation of  indulgences  by  confinement,  and  similar  penaUies  of 
 this  class,  where  remonstrances  have  failed;  while  others  require 
 something  more  immediate  in  its  action.  In  many  schools  in 
 England,  where  the  rod  was  once  freely  used,  it  has  been  almost, 
 and  in  others  entirely,  laid  aside.  In  schools  Hke  these,  where 
 the  youth  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  institution,  I  am  fully 
 
28  F.LF.EMOSV.VARV  I.VSTITl'TIONS. 
 
 persiiaded  that,  with  proper  treatment,  it  need  be  resorted  to 
 very  seldom,  if  at  all.     F^'ew  dispositions  are  not  open  to  kind- 
 ness, especially  under  these  circumstances,  and  no  master  has 
 the  qualities  apprf>priate  to  such  an  institution  who  prefers  the 
 repulsive  system  to  the  encouraging;.      1  refer  to  the  example 
 of  the  English    schools   because  they  have  held  out  longest 
 against  the  modern  improvements  in  discipline,  and  their  rclin- 
 fjuishment  of  such  means  is  a  stronger  argument  than  could  be 
 derived  from  the  more  gentle  discipline  of  the  continent.     The 
 spirit  of  kindness  between  master  and  pupil  which  exists  in 
 many  of  the  continental  schools,  the  confidence  that  renders 
 him,  as  it  were,  the  head  of  a  family  circle,  are  delightful  to  wit- 
 ness, and  insures,  better  than  stripes,  the  obedience  of  his  pupils. 
 I  believe  that  this  species  of  discipline,  which  leads  the  pupil 
 instead  o(  driving  him,  may  be  considered  as  particularly  con- 
 genial to  the  American  character.    The  governors  of  Heriot*s 
 sav  that  "it  is  earnestly  recommended,  that  as  far  as  possible, 
 preventions  of  fault  be  employed;  and  that  gentle  treatment  be 
 practised  with  the  children."  Thus,  as  far  as  their  recommenda- 
 tion goes,  they  are  on  the  side  where  I  should  prefer  to  range 
 myself.    There  is  one  point  in  which  the  teachers  at  Heriot's 
 have  not  the  means  of  acquiring  that  moral  control  over  the  boys 
 which  would  smooth  many  of  their  dilTiculties;  the  education 
 during  the  play  hours  is  not  attended  to  by  them.   It  is  true  that 
 each  of  the  teachers,  in  rotation,  is  responsible  for  the  order  of 
 the  house:  but  he  has  not  the  immediate  superintendence  of  the 
 bovs.     In  such  an  institution  especially,  this  is  of  importance, 
 and  the  many  hours  of  occupation  in  teaching,  which  prevents 
 the  intimary  of  the  masters  with  the  boys  during  periods  of 
 relaxation,  is  a  serious  disadvantage.     That  such  an  intimacy 
 is  extremely  important  to  mf)ral  training,  no  sound  educator  now 
 doubts;  and  it  is  certain  that  much  teaching  in  school  is  not  equi- 
 valent to  moderate  training  out  of  school,  to  form  the  moral  man. 
 Servants  cannot  supply  the  place  of  the  teacher.     The  general 
 principle  which  I  would  here  inculcate,  is  distinctly  recognised 
 in  some  of  the  best  traininL'-schools  which   I   have  seen,  and 
 
heriot's  hospital.  29 
 
 renders  the  infant-school  system  of  moral  training  in  Scotland 
 so  perfect. 
 
 Physical  Education.  A  due  attention  to  this  branch,  though 
 fully  insisted  upon  in  all  modern  works  on  education,  and  com- 
 manding from  the  common  sense  of  every  one  a  ready  assent 
 as  an  abstract  proposition,  is  yet  strangely  neglected  in  many 
 establishments  which  I  have  visited.  The  clothing  and  diet, 
 at  Heriot's  Hospital,  are  good  in  quality,  and  ample  in  quantity, 
 and  cleanliness  is  sufficiently  attended  to.  The  linen  is  changed 
 thrice  a  week,  the  stockings  as  often  in  summer,  two  suits  of 
 over-clothes*  are  allowed  a  year,  and  are  an  adequate  supply, 
 in  a  climate  where  very  slight  changes  are  required  for  comfort 
 in  the  different  seasons.     The  bed  linen  is  frequently  changed. 
 
 The  arrangements  of  the  lavatory  for  the  pupils  are  good, 
 each  lad  having  the  means  of  washing  and  wiping  separately 
 from  the  rest,  and  the  opportunities  of  bathing  are  furnished  in 
 warm  weather.f  The  boys  are  brushed  and  combed  daily. 
 The  cleanliness  in  the  dormitories,  school-rooms,  &c.,  appeared 
 to  me  satisfactory,  and  the  ventilation  of  the  former  is  unex- 
 ceptionable, and  is  made  the  subject  of  a  distinct  regulation,  re- 
 quiring the  bed  clothes  to  be  "drawn"  from  the  hour  of  rising, 
 (six  in  summer  and  seven  in  winter)  until  ten  A.  M.,  and  the 
 windows  to  be  kept  open  until  three  P.  M.  in  winter,  and  seven 
 P.  M.  in  summer.  I  have  already  remarked  upon  tlie  imper- 
 fect ventilation  of  the  school-rooms.  The  pupils  walk  out  fre- 
 quently in  summer,  five  or  six  miles,  and  make  excursions  dur- 
 
 *  The  allowance  of  other  clothing  per  annum,  is  three  day-shirts,  one  night- 
 shirt of  check,  four  pairs  of  stockings,  two  pairs  of  suspenders,  four  pairs  of  shoes 
 and  mending,  two  pocket-handkerchiefs.  The  latter  are  looped  to  a  button  in 
 the  pocket  to  preserve  them,  and  must  be  shown  at  the  daily  morning  inspec- 
 tion. The  making  and  mending  of  the  shoes,  and  making  of  upper  clothes,  is 
 contracted  for.  The  uniform,  when  I  visited  the  school,  consisted  of  a  brown 
 coatee,  which  they  intended  to  change  for  a  roundabout,  corduroy  pantaloons, 
 and  a  cloth  vest. 
 
 t  The  change  in  these  respects,  within  the  memory  of  some  most  respectable 
 citizens  of  Edinburgh,  is  truly  surprising.  In  former  days,  all  washed  from  one 
 vessel,  and  wiped  on  one  long  towel !  The  influence  upon  moral  training  of  a 
 state  of  physical  education  which  permitted  siich  tilings,  must  have  been  great. 
 Tlie  practices,  of  course,  tended  lo  the  propagation  of  cutaneous  diseases. 
 
30  KLEEMOSVNARV  IXSTITl'TIO.VS. 
 
 ing  the  three  weeks'  holiday  of  August,  when  about  two-thirds  of 
 the  school  are  still  together,  to  Tloslin  and  Stirling.  A  system  of 
 gymnastics  was  adopted  some  years  since,  for  affording  regular 
 and  graduated  muscular  exercises,  but  it  has  fallen  entirely  into 
 disuse.  After  the  novelty  had  worn  olf,  the  boys  grew  weary 
 of  the  exercises,  and  greatly  preferred  the  ordinary  sports  of 
 the  schools.  I  have  liad  occasion  to  remark,  as  applying  to 
 the  English  schools  in  general,  that  the  gymnastic  exercises, 
 so  popular  in  some  ])arts  of  Germany  and  Switzerland,  had 
 not  taken  root  in  any  of  them,  though  in  many  they  had 
 been  introduced,  and  well  and  carefully  taught.  At  the  same 
 lime,  nothing  is  more  characteristic  of  the  English  school-boy, 
 than  his  fondness  for  exercise  in  the  difierent  games  of  the 
 schools.  The  greatest  number  of  play  hours  is  three  per  day, 
 according  to  a  schedule  furnished  me,  and  this  seems  to  me, 
 from  comparison  with  the  other  schools,  quite  too  small,  es- 
 pecially for  the  younger  boys ;  and  the  unbroken  succession  of 
 several  hours  in  school,  is  also  objectionable.  The  amount 
 of  time  which  these  boys  are  employed  in  the  class-room,  fre- 
 quently reaching  for  the  elder  ones  to  eight  hours  a  day,  and 
 the  variety  of  subjects  brought  before  them  in  their  short  course, 
 at  the  longest  but  seven  years,  appears  from  observation  to  be 
 highly  detrimental  to  intellectual  development.  It  is,  indeed, 
 said  to  diminish  the  amount  of  repressive  discipline  necessary 
 in  the  institution,  by  taming  the  spirit  by  over  intellectual  work, 
 but  a  saving  of  this  sort  is  a  real  loss.  It  is  probable  that 
 the  diet,  and  limited  amount  of  exercise  at  Ilcriot's,  may  also 
 have  something  to  do  with  the  absence  of  youthful  buoyancy  and 
 activity  which  I  noticed  among  I  he  jnipils.  The  practice  of 
 giving  a  luncheon  of  bread  in  the  interval  between  each  of  the 
 three  regular  meals  will  not  explain,  as  I  first  supposed  it 
 would,  this  observation,  since  it  does  not  involve  necessarily 
 any  excess  of  food.  And  besides,  I  found  the  same  j)ractice  in 
 schools  in  Germany,  where  a  like  eflect  is  not  observable.  It 
 prepares  the  pupils  badly,  Imwcvcr,  for  their  diet  in  after  life. 
 The  kind  and  quantity  of  food  will  be  found  stated  in  the  Ap- 
 pendix (No.  VII.)    The  boys  do  none  of  the  meninl  work  oflhe 
 
heriot's  hospital.  31 
 
 house,  and  even  tliat  relating  to  them  personally  is  attended  to 
 by  serv^ints.  The  dormitories  are  cleaned,  the  beds  made,  the 
 arrangements  fur  meals  provided  and  removed,  the  clothes  are 
 brushed,  shoes  cleaned,  &c.,  by  the  servants  of  the  institu- 
 tion. Th.ese  boys,  brought  up  thus  to  be  waited  upon  instead  of 
 waiting  on  themselves,  must,  wlicn  they  leave  the  school,  find 
 their  position  of  attending  to  the  wants  of  others  particularly  irk- 
 some. Indeed,  many  of  those  persons  who  receive  them  as  ap- 
 prentices, judging  by  the  awivwardncss  with  which  these  and 
 other  common  affairs  of  life  are  attended  to  by  them,  underrate 
 exceedingly  the  results  of  their  education.  This  effect  is  in- 
 creased by  their  ignorance  of  ordinary  life.  The  masters  hav- 
 ing no  families,  those  boys  who  never  leave  the  school  have  no 
 opportunity  of  witnessing  any  other  than  the  peculiar  modifica- 
 tion of  society  which  the  hospital  affords,  and  even  those  who 
 do  visit  their  friends,  form  only  such  an  acquaintance  with  life 
 as  a  few  weeks  in  each  year  can  give. 
 
 In  the  only  government  school  of  our  country,  the  Military 
 Academy  at  West  Point,  where  youths  are  received,  whose  pa- 
 rents are  in  all  the  various  circumstances  of  life,  an  opposite 
 plan  is  pursued  in  regard  to  the  duties  of  the  house  and  personal 
 poKce ;  and  I  have  reason  to  know,  from  personal  experience 
 and  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  its  graduates,  that  the  inde- 
 pendent habits  thus  produced  are  retained  by  many  as  among 
 the  most  convenient  results  of  their  early  training. 
 
 From  the  documents  so  liberally  put  at  my  disposal  in 
 Heriot's  Hospital,  I  had  an  opportunity  to  examine  an 
 interesting  question  on  its  tendency  to  remove  the  pupils 
 from  the  class,  as  to  occupation,  of  their  parents,  and  to 
 place  them  in  others  requiring  a  higher  grade  of  mental 
 cultivation.  The  registers  for  the  last  three  years  contain 
 the  pursuits  of  the  father  of  each  pupil  admitted,  and  the 
 occupation  of  the  pupils  who  have  left  the  institution.  The 
 fathers  of  sixty-seven  out  of  seventy-three  boys  were  tradesmen 
 or  shopkeepers.  Of  the  sons,  fifty-six  became  tradesmen  or 
 shopkeepers,  six  followed  other  occupations,  ten  were  not  stated 
 on  the  book,  and  two  had  died.     Distributin;:r  this  number  of 
 
32  KLEEMOSV.VAIIV    I.VSTITLTIONS. 
 
 twelve,  in  the  raUo  of  fiflv-six  to  six,  \vc  have  sixty-six  to 
 seven,  nearly,  as  the  ratio  of  those  who  followed  the  trades  to 
 those  who  went  into  other  occupations,  or  nearly  the  same  as 
 above  stated  in  the  case  of  the  parents  of  the  pu])ils.  Of  these 
 boys,  the  number  who  liavc  embraced  the  same  occupation  as 
 the  father,  he  bcini;  alive,  is  eleven,  and  he  being  dead,  two,  in 
 all  thirteen.  This  tendency  in  the  old  country,  for  the  son  to 
 follow  in  his  father's  footsteps,  is  of  course  much  greater  than  in 
 oiM-s,  but  it  amounts  only  to  thirteen  in  sixty-two  in  the  case  un- 
 der discussion.  While,  then,  the  education  at  Ileriot's  has  been 
 freely  spoken  of  as  reflection  prompted  me,  I  do  not  find  any 
 evidence  that,  under  the  circumstances  which  exist  in  Edin- 
 burgh, it  can  be  charged  with  a  tendency  unduly  to  increase  the 
 professional  classes. 
 
 Exactly  an  opi)osite  objection  has  been  urged  against  the  in- 
 stitution, viz.  that  from  its  foundation  to  the  present  day  it  has 
 not  produced  a  single  great  man,  in  any  department.  That  it 
 has  furnished  many  useful  citizens,  and  some,  who  in  their  places 
 have  been  distinguished,  is  certain.  To  use  the  language  of  a 
 most  excellent  divine  of  Edinbin'gh,  ''if  it  has  not  produced 
 distinguished  men,  it  has  infused  into  the  industrious  classes  a 
 considerable  number  of  sober,  steady  citizens."  Many  of  these 
 have  risen  to  civic  honours,  and  become  governors  of  the  insti- 
 tution which,  in  their  youth,  had  f(xstercd  them.  A  desire  to 
 subject  it  to  the  test  of  i)roducing  results  to  which  education  is 
 entirely  incompetent,  is  rather  preposterous.  School  systems 
 may  aid  in  developing  mind,  but  it  is  not  their  province  to  pro- 
 duce it.  They  address  themselves  to  averages  of  intellect,  all 
 of  which  are  below  greatness. 
 
 CEORGE  WATSON'S  HOSPITAL. 
 
 This  institution,  which  was  modelled  on  Ileriot's  hospital,  re- 
 sembles it  in  its  general  outline;  there  are,  however,  some  dif- 
 ferences which  will  be  worth  remarking,  especially  as  I  am 
 inclined  to  think  that  the  proj^cr  relations  between  the  pu))ils 
 and  their  teachers  are  here  better  understood.  It  is  true  that 
 Ileriot's  contains  between  two  and  three  times  as  manv  Ixns  as 
 
GEORGE  Watson's  hospital.  33 
 
 the  Watsons',  and  the  difficulty  of  treating  them  as  individuals, 
 increases  greatly  with  the  numbers. 
 
 History,  Building,  <^c.  This  institution  was  founded  by  George 
 Watson,  who,  by  strict  economy  and  prudence,  first  in  the  situa- 
 tion of  a  clerk,  and  then  trading  on  his  own  account,  died  an 
 independent  and  even,  for  the  times,  a  wealthy  man.  After  lega- 
 cies to  his  few  surviving  relatives,  he  left  the  bulk  of  his  estates, 
 £  12,000,  to  found  a  house  of  education*  for  the  children  of  de- 
 cayed merchants  of  Edinburgh.  The  present  plain  structure 
 was  erected  about  1724,  by  the  company  of  merchants  and 
 other  trustees  of  the  bequest,  on  a  lot  belonging  to  Heriot's 
 Hospital,  and  opposite  to  that  edifice. 
 
 The  organization  of  the  Board  of  Governors  who  direct  this 
 establishment,  is  quite  similar  to  that  already  described  for  He- 
 riot's,  being  however  more  simple,  because  they  have  less  pro- 
 perty, and  a  smaller  institution  to  manage.  The  office  of  trea- 
 surer  is  now  only  an  honorary  appointment. 
 
 General  Economy.  The  head  master  performs  the  duties  of 
 the  house-governor  at  Heriot's,  and  the  matron  that  of  both  ma- 
 tron and  stewardess.  They  each  receive,  in  advance,  a  sum 
 for  incidental  expenses,  of  which  the  master  renders  an  account 
 to  the  visiting  committee,  and  the  matron  to  the  master.  The 
 contractors  for  supplies  render  their  accounts  quarterly  to  the 
 head  master,  who  examines  them,  and  if  approved,  hands  them 
 over  to  the  treasurer. 
 
 There  are  two  porters,  one  of  whom  must  be  a  tailor.  He  is 
 a  married  man,  and  his  wife  receives  an  allowance  for  keeping 
 the  gate.  The  porters  in  turn  have  charge  of  the  boys  at  play 
 hours,  of  their  rising  and  going  to  bed,  and  one  superintends 
 their  bathing  while  the  other  sends  them  bv  sections  to  the 
 bath. 
 
 Admission,  ^c.  These  boys  are.  in  general,  sons  of  persons 
 who  have  had  more  cultivation  than  the  parents  of  those  who 
 are  the  objects  of  Hei'iot's  bounty;  more  is  required  of  them 
 
 ^  The  income  is  now   between  fhiily-threo  and  (hir(y-four  thousand  dollars. 
 5 
 
34  E'LEEMOSYNAKV   I\ST1TUTI05S. 
 
 for  admission,  and  lliey  arc  older  when  they  enter.*  Those 
 teachers  who  knew  both  institutions,  generally  thought  that 
 the  greater  docility  of  character  observable  in  the  pupils 
 of  Watson's  Ilosjjital,  resulted  from  their  better  parentage;  but 
 I  confess  that  this  idea  made  little  impression  on  me,  as  the 
 different  management  of  the  boys  in  the  two  schools  would  be 
 likely  to  produce  the  very  results  which  have  given  rise  to 
 the  supposition.  The  rcfjuirements  for  admission  are  reading, 
 and  a  certificate  that  the  child  has  been  one  year  at  school 
 if  admiUod  at  seven,  two  years  if  admitted  at  eight,  and  so  on  up 
 to  eleven,  the  greatest  age  at  which  he  can  be  received.  The 
 pupils  may  thus  remain  in  the  school  eight  years  or  only  four, 
 being  required  to  leave  it  at  fifteen.  The  less  age  at  entering 
 is  in  favour  of  lleriol's;  but  it  must  be  considered  that  the  boys 
 at  Watson's  are,  in  general,  those  who  have  a  parent,  or 
 parents,  and  may  have  been  well  though  humbly  brought  up 
 before  entering.  I  am,  therefore,  disposed  to  think  that  we 
 may  reason  upon  the  results  produced  in  the  two  houses  as 
 though  the  circumstances,  in  reference  to  the  pupils,  were  ori- 
 ginally the  same. 
 
 The  objects  to  bo  attained  arc,  however,  very  dilTercnt. 
 These  boys  are  intended  to  be  educated  as  merchants,  or  for 
 professions.  The  records  which  I  was  enabled,  by  the  kind- 
 ness of  the  head  master,f  to  consult,  showed  that  out  of  ninety- 
 four  boys  who  were  apprenticed  on  leaving  the  school,  fifteen 
 were  indentured  to  merchanls,  twenty  us  clerks,  nine  to  profes- 
 sional men,  six  to  occupations  of  other  kinds,  and  forty-four,  only, 
 to  tradesmen  or  shopkeepers.  In  Ileriot's,  the  number  appren- 
 ticed to  tradesmen  or  shopkeepers  was  in  the  proportion  of 
 
 *  'I'lic  liillowiiiy  certificates  arc  required  to  bo  presented  with  the  application 
 for  admission.  1.  'J'hat  the  father  or  "grandfather  of  the  applicant  was  a  mor- 
 chant,  or  brotlur  of  tJie  fjuild,  from  the  dc;m  of  guild.  2.  Of  indifrcncc,  from  two 
 rc8j)cctablc  individuals,  besides  liic  minister  of  the  parish,  and  the  kirk-session. 
 3.  An  extract  from  tlie  register  of  birth  and  baptism,  certifying  the  nge.  Thi.s 
 provision  excludes  ille;,'iiiinatc  children.  I.  Of  the  time  which  tlie  boy  has  been 
 in  school. 
 
 +  The  Rev.  ."Mr.  Munio 
 
GEORGE  Watson's  hospital.  35 
 
 eighty-five  out  of  ninety-four.  This  leads  us  to  consider  the 
 kind  of  education  which  is  given  for  the  principal  object  of  this 
 institution. 
 
 Intellectual  Education.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  regu- 
 lations recognise  the  principle  that  certain  branches  may 
 be  less  useful  for  particular  pursuits  than  others;  and  yet, 
 the  instruction  varies  from  Heriot's  only  in  being  rather 
 higher,  in  carrying  the  pupil  further  in  classics,  both  in  Latin 
 and  Greek,  and  in  geography  and  history.  The  modern  lan- 
 guages are  not  more  particularly  insisted  on,  and  the  courses, 
 in  general,  in  the  English  branches,  arithmetic,  &c.,  are  not 
 very  different  from  those  in  the  other  school,  though  they 
 seem  rather  better  digested. 
 
 There  is  the  same  over-working  of  the  pupils  with  a  similar 
 effect,  a  factw^hich  I  found  admitted  by  all  the  masters,  though, 
 as  they  had  a  certain  course  to  teach,  and  on  the  average 
 but  six  years  for  its  accomplishment,  they  saw  no  remedy. 
 The  same  over-tasking  of  the  masters,  and  low  salaries,  lower, 
 indeed,  except  in  one  case,  than  in  Heriot's,  on  account  of 
 which  changes  were  frequent.  There  is,  further,  the  same  in- 
 junction to  celibacy.  The  teachers  are  here  promoted  in  rota- 
 tion; and,  although  the  head  master  had  been  but  three  years 
 in  the  institution,  he  had  passed  through  the  two  subordinate 
 stations.  This  regular  promotion  has  several  very  good  fea- 
 tures, as  applied  to  the  two  subordinate  masters;  but,  in  refe- 
 rence to  the  head  master,  it  produces  unfavourable  results,  as  he 
 is  required  frequently  to  give  instruction  in  branches  to  which 
 he  may  not  previously  have  attended.  With  one  hundred  and 
 eighty  boys,  as  at  Heriot's,  the  discipline  and  superintendence 
 are  sufficient  to  occupy  one  person  exclusively:  but  such  is 
 not  the  case  with  the  limited  number  of  pupils  in  this  institution. 
 There  are,  here,  three  resident  masters  for  seventy-six  boys, 
 and  in  Heriot's,  five  for  one  hundred  and  eighty,  the  advantage 
 being  on  the  side  of  this  school.  The  resident  teachers  instruct 
 in  classics,  English,  and  mathematics,  the  latter  courses  being 
 under  the  charge  of  the  head  master,  who  also  teaches  the 
 elements  of  chemistry.     The  pupils  are  divided  into  three  cor- 
 
36  K.LEEMOSVWRY   Ilf STITUTIONS. 
 
 responding  classes.     There  are  no  formal  meetings  ol  the  mas- 
 ters as  a  board,  but  the  three  have  similar  duties,  and  take 
 turns  each  in  superintending  the  pui)ils  at  meals,  in  the  dormi- 
 tories, and,  in  general,  at  play.     Further,  the  head  master  is 
 neither  raised  above  the  others  by  being  a  governor,  nor  by 
 various  minute  regulations,  as  at  Heriot's,  and  hence  all  work 
 more   harmoniously   together.      There  is  a    peculiarity   well 
 deservinff  of  notice  in  ref^ard  to  the  courses  here,  and  I  iiave 
 seen  the  same  in  several  flourishing  institutions  of  the  con- 
 tinent.    The  courses  and  text-books  are  not  permanently  laid 
 down,  but  every  year  are  passed  upon  by  the  education  commit- 
 tee of  the  governors,  on  the  presentation  of  a  list  by  the  head 
 master.    The  programme  is,  in  fact,  made  out  after  consultation 
 with  the  other  masters;  but  there  is  no  regulation  requiring  the 
 head  master  to  advise  with  them,  which,  as  a  matter  of  duty, 
 and  not  of  his  own  pleasure,  he  ought  to  do.   That  this  revision  is 
 necessary  every  year  may  be  doubted,  but  in  an  old  estab- 
 lished institution,  where  routine  is  prone  to  take  the  place  of 
 reasoning,  and  where  it  is  so  difficult  to  keep  the  courses  up  to 
 the  actual  level  of  education  in  general,  it  may  be  iairly  as- 
 sumed that  the  crnn*,  if  any,  is  on  the  proper  side.     The  prizes 
 for  intellectual  ctlort  and  conduct  are  quite  high  in  this  estab- 
 lishment, and  their  eflect  is  considered  to  be  very  great.     They 
 consist  in  the  distribution  of  about  £20  (^100)  in  books,  after 
 the  annual  examination;  the  inscription  of  the  name  of  the  boy, 
 who  is  distinguished  in   most  of  the  classes  for  correctness 
 of  conduct,  on  a  tablet  in  the  governor's  room;  and  in  allow- 
 ing those  who  are  fit  to  pursue  the  course  of  the  university,  one 
 hundred  dollars  for  four  years,  to  attend  there,  and  eighty-five 
 dollars  for  two  years  subseciuently,  their  examinations  and  con- 
 duct being  satisfactory  to  the  committee  on  education.     Un- 
 married pupils  of  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  who  are  not 
 provided  with  cajVital  to  commence  business,  may  receive  from 
 the  governors,  on  presenting  satisfactory  testimonials,  two  hun- 
 dred and   fifty  dollars,      'i'hus  encouragement  is  held  out  to 
 merit  long   aftm*  the   pnjiils  have    loft   the   ]M-otection   of  the 
 alf/iu  mater.     'J'li(»se  who  are  aj)prciitiecd  to  lawyers,  surgeons. 
 
GEORGE  Watson's  hospital.  37 
 
 &c.,  are  enabled,  by  a  like  liberal  policy,  to  pay  the  large  fees 
 required  in  such  cases. 
 
 Moral  Education.  I  have  already  hinted  that  I  consider  the 
 relation  existing  between  the  teachers  and  boys  at  George 
 Watson's  to  be  an  agreeable  one.  The  general  system  by 
 which  this  result  is  produced  depends,  in  part,  upon  the  regu- 
 lations, but  essentially  upon  the  personal  character  of  the  mas- 
 ters. Frequent  walks  are  taken  under  the  direction  of  the  mas- 
 ters, depending  upon  the  previous  good  conduct  of  the  whole 
 school.  Ten  or  a  dozen  boys  are  invited  to  take  tea  in  the 
 teacher's  room  during  his  term  of  duty  as  house-master,  the  ex- 
 penses being  defrayed  by  the  institution.  Encouragement  is 
 given  to  their  sports,  to  gardening,  &c.  A  prize  for  good  con- 
 duct is  bestowed  by  the  boys  themseh^es,  and,  in  fine,  there  is 
 a  general  endeavour  to  substitute  the  influence  of  the  good 
 opinion  of  the  instructors  for  artificial  stimulus  to  intellectual 
 exertion  and  good  conduct.  Though  the  punishments  ap- 
 proved are  mainly  the  cutting  off  of  indulgences,  yet  flogging 
 is  allowed;  the  article  in  reference  to  the  corporal  punishment 
 in  a  "public  school"  at  Heriot's,  in  regard  to  which  I  felt  con- 
 strained to  remark,  is  here  so  far  modified,  that  the  head  mas- 
 ter's presence  in  a  private  class  is  the  necessary  formality. 
 
 Those  pupils  whose  conduct  has  been  satisfactory  during  the 
 week,  are  allowed,  under  certain  regulations,  to  visit  their  pa- 
 rents or  relatives  every  Saturday.  The  teachers  believe,  from 
 observation,  that  these  frequent  visits  are  of  service ;  their  con- 
 clusions, however,  depend  much,  no  doubt,  upon  the  average 
 character  of  the  relatives  of  the  boys. 
 
 Physical  Education.  Regular  gymnastic  exercises  have  never 
 been  introduced  here,  but  the  boys  are  supplied  with  balls,  bat- 
 tledores, &c.,  and  receive  lessons  in  dancing.  Their  excur- 
 sions in  summer  for  several  days,  frequent  walks,  bathing  once 
 a  week,  cultivation  of  gardens,  and  habitual  cleanliness,  keep 
 them  in  general  good  health.     The  arrangements  for  clothing* 
 
 *  The  boys  wear  green  jackets,  or  roundabouts,  the  ekler  ones  with  a  vest  of 
 the  same,  the  young-er  with  the  jacket  and  pantaloons  Inittoned  too-cther.     Cor- 
 
38  FLKEMOSYNARV  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 and  diet  niv,  in  the  niniii.  (he  same  as  at  Ilcriot's.  They 
 are,  however,  more  troubled  liere  with  eruptions  on  the  head. 
 Some  institutions  are  nnuch  annoyed  by  this  scourge,  which 
 rcfjuircs  ahiiost  absolutely  the  separation  of  the  infected  from 
 his  class-mates.  The  cultivation  of  gardens  is  encouraged  by 
 an  annual  ])rize;  the  gardens  are  divided  into  four  parts,  and 
 each  one  L'ivcn  to  an  individual  of  the  same  class:  the  four  thus 
 in  ])artnership  compete  with  the  similar  divisions  into  which 
 the  school  is  distributed. 
 
 There  is  a  vacation  of  six  weeks  after  the  yearly  examina- 
 tion in  August,  during  whicli  one  of  the  masters  remains  in  the 
 house,  with  such  pupils  as  have  no  friends  to  receive  them,  or 
 who,  from  other  causes,  do  not  leave  the  establishment. 
 
 The  dormitories,  in  general,  are  not  well  arranged.  Two 
 boys  arc  placed  in  each  bed,  and  the  rooms  locked  up  at  night, 
 the  head  master  having  the  keys.  If  a  boy  is  sick,  there  is  a 
 bell  to  summon  assistance.  These  arrangements  appear  to  me 
 to  be  very  defective.  The  bedsteads  are  of  iron,  and  answer 
 extremely  well. 
 
 JOHN  WATSOX'S  IXSTITUTIOX. 
 
 This  is  the  most  recent  school  of  its  kind  in  Edinburgh, 
 having  been  organized  in  18'2.S,  and  thus  the  experience  which 
 it  furnishes  on  certain  points  must  be  most  valuable  \o  the 
 board.  One  of  these  is,  the  expediency,  and,  indeed,  the  neces- 
 sity, of  the  gradual  organization  of  an  institution;  and  the 
 f>ther,  the  propriety  of  leaving  the  regulations  relating  to  details 
 to  be  tried  in  the  actual  circumstances  of  the  establishment  be- 
 fore enacting  them  into  laws.  By  following  out  these  two  ideas, 
 this  instiluti(»ii  has  been  organized,  brought  under  its  })rosent 
 
 (hiroy  pantaloons.  Lratlicr  raj)?  for  the  house,  and  cloth  for  the  street.  Tiiese 
 leather  enps,  which  fit  closely  to  the  head,  arc  very  injurious,  tcndinfj,  apparently, 
 to  protlucc  diseases  of  the  head. 
 
 The  clothes  are  marked,  not  only  with  n  nunihor,  which  the  boy  receives  nt 
 entrnnce,  but  with  his  name:  the  effect  of  the  latter  provision,  in  .sccurincr  ^'^ 
 thp  boy  his  individuality,  is  not  Ui  be  neijlerted. 
 
JOHN   WATSON  S  INSTITUTION.  rfU 
 
 good  regulation,  and  its  numbers  increased  to  one  hundred 
 and  sixteen  pupils,*  with  very  few  unpleasant  circunristances. 
 It  cannot,  however,  be  said  to  have  yet  taken  its  ultimate  form, 
 and  I  feel  persuaded  that  many  modifications  will  still  be  made 
 in  its  arrangements. 
 
 History,  Building,  S^c.  This  establishment,  for  the  education 
 of  destitute  children  from  any  part  of  Scotland,  was  founded 
 from  fundsf  left  by  John  Watson,  of  Edinburgh,  a  writer  to 
 the  signet,J  in  the  year  1763.  The  present  capital  is  chiefly 
 in  bank  stocks,  and  exceeds  three  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
 sand dollars;  the  yearly  income  is  about  fifteen  thousand 
 dollars.  The  building  is  situated  a  little  out  of  the  city  of 
 Edinburgh,  towards  the  northwest,  occupies  a  high  and  healthy 
 position,  and  is  surrounded  by  grounds  neatly  laid  out,  having 
 a  garden  in  front,  and  in  rear  play  grounds  for  the  children, 
 and  a  bleaching  ground.  It  is  a  neat  structure,  \\n\h  a  centre 
 and  wings,  the  centre  having  in  front  a  Grecian  Doric  portico. 
 One  of  the  wings  is  appropriated  to  the  accommodation  of  the 
 girls,  and  the  other  to  that  of  the  bo3's,  with  some  few  excep- 
 tions. I  shall  speak  only  of  the  boys'  accommodations.  The 
 interior  is  commodiously  arranged:  the  basement  contains  a 
 play-room  for  wet  weather,  a  bathing-room,  laundry,  refec- 
 tory, kitchen,  pantry,  masters'  offices,  and  parlour.  This  play- 
 room is  almost  an  essential,  as  the  school-rooms  should  not  be 
 used  for  that  purpose,  and,  in  bad  weather,  the  children  must 
 have  cover  either  in  or  out  of  the  building.  The  bath  is  well 
 arranged.  Between  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  is  a  conve- 
 nient turning-box  for  supplying  the  food,  transferring  the  plates, 
 
 *  Of  tliesc,  nineteen  have  lost  both  i)arents,  seventy-two  t'ather,  one  mother, 
 and  eight  have  both  parents  alive. 
 
 t  The  original  object  of  the  testator  was  a  foundling  hos[)ital.  Convinced  of 
 the  evil  of  such  institutions,  a  change  in  the  objects  of  the  bequest  was  petitioned 
 for,  and  made  by  Parliament. 
 
 t  Attorneys  entitled  to  practice  in  the  highest  civil  and  criminal  courts  of 
 Scotland,  and  forming  the  society  of  "Clerks  or  Writers  to  the  Signet."  Tiic 
 title  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  it  is  one  of  the  privileges  of  these  attorneys  to 
 fubscribe  the  writs  which  pass  the  royal  signet  in  Scotland. 
 
40  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 tfec.  On  the  first  lloor  are  the  rooms  of  the  master  and  assist- 
 ants, of  the  governors,  the  chapel,  and  three  school-rooms.  An 
 attempt  has  been  made  to  heat  the  house  by  warm  air  thrown 
 into  the  entries,  but  tliis  has  not  been  cHef-tual;  the  school-rooms 
 are  cold,  and  the  temperature  cannot  be  kept  up  except  at  the 
 expense  of  the  ventilation.  The  second  floor  contains  working- 
 rooms  for  the  boys,  dormitories,  rooms  for  the  sick,  and  offices, 
 matrons'  apartments,  &c.  The  v^^hole  house  is  lighted  by  gas, 
 and  is  su|)plied  with  water  from  the  city  works,  two  most  im- 
 portant conveniences,  which  I  found  liighly  appreciated  by 
 those  who  had  previously  been  without  them. 
 
 General  Government  and  Domestic  Economy.  The  general 
 government  is  vested  in  fifteen  trustees,  of  whom  three  go  out 
 every  year  in  rotation ;  they  are  elected  by  the  commissioners 
 of  the  writers  to  the  signet,  and  meet  regularly  but  three  times 
 a  year.  Tiiey  have  a  treasurer,  a  clerk,  and  assistant,  as  per- 
 manent salaried  otlicers,  and  are  divided  into  visiting  com- 
 mittees of  two,  wh(^  are  expected  to  visit  the  hospital  every 
 fortnight. 
 
 The  oflicers  recognised  by  the  regulations  are:  a  master  and 
 one  assistant,  a  matron,  a  surgeon,  and  a  steward.  The  mas- 
 ter* is  responsible  for  all  the  in-door  concerns,  superintending 
 the  boys  more  particularly,  and  having  the  religious  instruction 
 specially  under  his  charge.  The  matron  has  the  care  of  the 
 girls,  and  attends  to  the  housekeeping  concerns.  The  master 
 keeps  a  [>etty  expense  book,  a  waste-book,  and  ledger,  and  the 
 matron  a  book  of  disbursements  for  housekeeping.  The  5Hir- 
 gcon  visits  the  institution  regularly  twice  a  week,  and  corrtcs 
 also  whenever  sent  for. 
 
 The  servants  of  the  house  consist  of  a  porter,  two  nurses, 
 three  house-maids,  f<»ur  ('hamber-maids,  one  cook,  and  an  assist- 
 ant. The  j)ortcr  has  charge  of  the  gate  and  grounds,  calls  the 
 boys  in  the  morning,  suj)erintonds  them  while  washing,  morning 
 and  evening,  at  play,  ami  when  (hey  bath(\  and  assists  at  meals. 
 
 •   The  prcttcnt  licad  imtstcr  i.^  Uic  \W\.  Mi.  Murhliall,  m  wliObC  kimli)rsf^  I 
 indebted  for  iiiformaliou  relating  to  Uie  institutinn. 
 
 .1111 
 
JOHN  watson's  institution.  41 
 
 One  of  the  nurses  attends  specially  to  the  cleanliness  of  the 
 younger  boys,  and  in  general  to  the  police  of  the  elder  ones. 
 The  annual  avcrafre  cost  of  the  maintenance  and  education  of 
 each  child  is  about  one  hundred  and  nineteen  dollars.  The 
 unitino-  of  the  two  sexes  in  one  establishment  for  education, 
 however  favourable  it  may  be  at  a  very  early  age,  is  after- 
 wards attended  with  so  many  difficulties,  some  of  which  are 
 insurmountable,  that  the  governors  of  this  hospital  have  gra- 
 dually diminished  the  number  of  female  pupils,  and  the  head 
 master  would  gladly  see  the  establishment  divided  into  two, 
 neither  the  instruction  nor  discipline  which  is  suitable  to  one  sex 
 answering  for  the  other. 
 
 Receipt  of  Pupils  and  their  Discharge.  The  pupils  must  be 
 between  five  and  eight  years  of  age  at  entrance  ;  and  it  is  very 
 perceptible  that  the  early  age  at  which  they  are  received  is  a 
 decided  advantage  to  this  institution.  Their  pliability  and  ex- 
 emption from  bad  habits  are  conditions  which  should  not  be 
 lost  sight  of.  At  the  opening,  twenty-five  boys  and  twenty- 
 six  girls  were  admitted,  and  when  they  were  trained  during 
 a  year,  a  further  admission  took  place.  Notwithstanding 
 the  great  care  thus  exercised  to  begin  properly,  and  the  abilities 
 of  the  master,  who  excels  in  the  kindly  character  most  likely 
 to  win  upon  a  child,  the  training  of  these  twenty-five  boys 
 was  not  eflected  without  much  difficulty,  and,  in  fact,  three 
 of  them  were  expelled  during  this  year.  The  first  set  being  well 
 trained,  the  others  have  fallen  gradually  in  with  the  example  ol" 
 their  elders,  and  no  further  expulsions  have  been  necessary, 
 though  seventy-nine  boys  and  sixty-six  girls  have  been  since 
 admitted,  up  to  1836.  In  fact,  the  institution  was  begun  on 
 too  large  a  scale,  limited  as  its  organization  may  have  seemed. 
 
 The  admissions  are  made  on  petition  to  the  governors,  setting 
 forth  the  destitution  of  the  child,  to  establish  which  it  is  neces- 
 sary to  show  that  its  parents  or  friends  have  not  the  means  ol 
 furnishing  a  good  education.  The  |Xititioncrs  must  include  \\\ 
 their  number  a  commissioner  or  writer  to  the  signet.  There 
 are  no  requirements  ol"  previous  instru<'lion.  Illegitimate  or 
 r> 
 
42  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 diseased  children,  arc  not  received.  The  pupil  is  first  admitted 
 on  a  week's  probation,  and  if  his  moral  and  physical  condition 
 appear  suited  to  the  institution,  he  is  then  fully  admitted;  if  not, 
 his  friends  are  bound  to  withdraw  him.  The  pupils  leave  it 
 at  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  there  is  no  provision  what- 
 ever for  their  subsequent  superintendence  or  advancement; 
 if  the  children  have  friends  who  can  take  care  of  them,  this  is 
 no  great  hardship,  but  such  children  do  not  seem  to  be 
 the  proper  objects  of  charity.  That  the  orphan  should  be 
 thrown  upon  the  world  at  this  age,  with  ten  pounds,  and  a 
 Bible,  does  not  seem  to  me  judicious,  and  this  part  of  the 
 out-door  establishment  I  should  regret  to  see  imitated.  The  re- 
 sult has  been,  I  was  informed,  to  induce  the  selection  of  chil- 
 dren of  persons  who  have  occupied  higher  stations  and  arc 
 reduced,  in  })refcrence  to  others  more  destitute.  Thus,  out  of 
 ninety-eight  children,  the  parents  of  twenty-two  belonged  to 
 professions,  forty-three  followed  other  avocations,  and  thirty- 
 three  were  tradesmen  or  shopkeepers.  I  am  fully  persuaded 
 of  the  very  great  importance  of  keeping  up  a  connexion  until 
 a  later  period  of  life,  between  the  child  and  the  institution,  though 
 it  may  be  necessary  to  apprentice  him  to  a  trade  at  fourteen  or 
 fifteen  years  of  age;  and  in  a  future  part  of  this  Report  the  prac- 
 tice in  reference  to  this,  of  some  of  the  orphan-houses  of  Hol- 
 land, is  fully  explained. 
 
 Intellectual  Education.  The  course  of  instruction  proposed 
 by  the  head  master  is  very  comprehensive;  indeed,  much  more 
 so  than  I  believe  the  time  will  allow  to  be  carried  througli, 
 without  distracting  the  mind  of  the  pupil  by  the  diversity  of  sub- 
 jects presented  to  his  notice.  This  plan  of  instruction  is  an 
 extension  of  th;it  at  Ilcriot's,  and  ofTers  a  very  systematic  ar- 
 rangement of  the  branches,  and  a  detailed  distribution  of 
 the  time.  (See  Appenilix,  No.  V.)  Only  a  j^ortion  of  the 
 plan,  however,  is  executed,  and  I  am  satisfied  that  such  must 
 continue  to  be  the  case,  unless  an  arr.uiizcment  is  made  by 
 which  diilerent  trains  of  instruction  shall  be  pursued  by  dilTer- 
 cnt  sets  of  pupils,  according  to  their  mental  development  and 
 
JOHN  Watson's  institution.  43 
 
 probable  pursuits  in  after  life.  The  course  includes  spelling, 
 reading,  grammar,  composition,  writing,  plain  and  ornamental, 
 arithmetic,  algebra,  book-keeping,  geography,  general  and 
 particular,  modern  and  ancient,  history,  modern  and  ancient, 
 drawing  in  pencil,  chalk,  and  colours,  of  maps,  &c.,  the 
 elements  of  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry,  and  of  natural 
 history,  geometry  and  mensuration,  surveying,  and  the  ele- 
 ments of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages. 
 
 The  statutes  of  the  school  provide  for  the  appointment  of  two 
 teachers  only,  the  head  master  and  an  assistant.  It  has  been 
 found  necessary,  however,  to  have,  besides,  two  sub-assistants, 
 one  for  each  of  the  three  classes  into  which  the  boys  are 
 divided,  the  head  master  exercising  a  general  superintendence 
 of  the  whole,  and  teaching  only  occasionally.  To  render 
 comparison  of  the  proficiency  of  diiTerent  classes  more  easy, 
 they  all  recite  upon  the  same  branches  at  the  same  time,  as  far 
 as  practicable;  thus,  for  example,  all  the  classes  are  engaged 
 in  arithmetic  or  reading,  &.C.,  at  one  time,  and  the  head  master 
 passes  from  one  to  another  to  obtain  an  idea  of  their  compara- 
 tive progress.  The  present  sub-assistants  are  young  men,  who 
 have  been  brought  up  in  the  institution,  and  both,  I  believe,  are 
 attending  the  lessons  of  the  high-school,  preparatory  to  entering 
 the  university;  the  assistant  was  educated  at  Heriot's.  Each 
 teacher  has,  in  general,  charge  of  one  class  in  several  different 
 branches,  according  to  the  method  now  practised  in  the  best 
 schools  of  Germany.  In  the  other  schools  which  I  have  spoken 
 of,  each  master  has  a  subject,  or  a  few  subjects,  which  he 
 teaches,  and  different  classes  come  before  him  at  different 
 times.  This,  it  is  objected,  prevents  any  strong  attachment  from 
 growing  up  betw^een  the  children  and  the  master,  of  whom  they 
 see  but  little,  and  who  from  hour  to  hour  is  changed  for  an- 
 other. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  contended  that  a  man  cannot 
 be  equally  competent  to  teach  different  subjects,  and  thus  his 
 instruction  in  all  the  branches  is  not  given  to  the  greatest  ad- 
 vantage. It  appears  to  me  that  both  the  opinions  are  true,  to 
 a  certain  extent.  That  the  first  principle  is  entirely  applicable 
 to  elementary  education,  and  the  second  to  a  later  period,  when 
 
44  ELKKMOSYNAKY    INS'I  lir  IlcjX.S. 
 
 the  subjects  ol  iristructiuii  become  more  dilliciilt,  ami  the  posi- 
 tive knowledi^e  of  tlie  master  of  more  im]H)rlance;  and  this  baj)- 
 pcns  just  at  the  time  wlien  the  influence  of  the  instructor  would, 
 from  the  development  of  the  child,  necessarily  become  weaker, 
 and  when,  if  the  youth  lias  been  properly  trained,  he  is  pre- 
 pared, in  a  degree,  for  self-government.  Thus  each  principle 
 is  good  in  its  place. 
 
 The  three  classes  arc  subdivided  each  into  three  sections, 
 corresponding  to  the  diflbrent  degrees  of  progress,  and  which 
 contain  boys,  when  intelligent  and  studious,  of  about  the  fol- 
 lowing ages:  the  first  class  of  six,  seven,  and  eight  years  of 
 age;  the  second  of  nine,  ten,  and  eleven;  and  the  tliird  of 
 twelve,  thirteen,  and  fourteen.  The  whole  number  of  pupils 
 in  1837  was  one  hundred  and  sixteen,  of  whom  sixty-six  were 
 boys.  Thirty-nine,  therefore,  composed  an  average  class, 
 which  is  about  the  same  number  as  that  of  a  class  at  Ileriot's 
 Hospital. 
 
 The  head  master  is  here  very  far  removed  in  duties,  privi- 
 leges, age,  and  compensation,  from  the  under  teachers,  present- 
 ing the  opposite  system  from  that  adopted  at  Heriot's  and  George 
 Watson's,  of  bringing  together  several  experienced  teachers  of 
 a  standing  similar  to  that  of  the  head  master.  The  plan  in  use 
 here  has  some  advantages  in  regard  to  moral  education  and 
 discipline,  where  the  number  of  the  pupils  is  not  large;  but  the 
 other,  1  am  satisfied,  produces  much  better  results  as  to  intel- 
 lectual develoi)ment. 
 
 Moral  and  Physical  Education.  It  is  exceedingly  diflicult  to 
 ascertain  what  is  the  essence  of  moral  discipline,  for,  although 
 the  regulations  in  regard  to  it  may  l)e  the  same  in  two  institu- 
 tions, yet  tlie  practice  under  these  may  diller  very  widely. 
 Kindness  or  severity  of  manner  and  (lisj)osition,  in  enforcing  a 
 rule,  may  render  it  practically  either  gentle  or  severe.  The 
 regulations  here  do  not  diller  much  from  those  of  Heriot's 
 or  George  Watson's,  but  the  air  of  family  life  ])ervading  the 
 establishment  cannot  lail  to  strike  every  observer,  while,  in  the 
 others,  especially  in  Heriot's,  there  appears  to  be  more  formality 
 of  discipline.':  and  vet.  in    all  tlirc(\  tli(^  rules-  (»!'  the   iD^tiliitinns 
 
45 
 
 are  adhered  to.  This  is  one  of  the  cases  in  whicfi  the  teacher 
 may  make  or  mar  a  system.  The  means  of  promoting 
 good  conduct  are  here  as  in  the  other  schools ;  for  rewards, 
 the  approbation  of  the  teachers,  increased  opportunities  of 
 amusement,  social  parties  at  the  master's,  and  prizes;  for  pun- 
 ishments, admonition,  flogging,  and  expulsion.  There  are 
 offices  of  superintendents  in  and  out  of  school,  in  the  dormito- 
 ries, &c.,  which  are  considered  also  as  rewards,  and  which 
 work  well  under  close  inspection,  and  by  frequent  change  of 
 the  boys  in  authority.  Small  sums  of  pocket  money  are  given 
 by  the  head  master,  at  his  discretion,  to  the  boys,  and  the 
 supplies  from  parents  or  friends  must  be  deposited  with  him  for 
 distribution.  Two  principles  are  adopted  by  the  master  in  ad- 
 ministering the  regulations,  which,  probably,  more  than  the  laws 
 themselves,  lead  to  the  state  of  things  I  have  endeavoured  to 
 describe.  First,  small  indulgences  now  and  then  prevent  the 
 necessity  for  grave  punishments  often  repeated;  and  second, 
 punishments  must  be  so  applied  as  never  to  produce  in  the  sub- 
 ject of  them  the  feeling  that  the  measure  of  the  fault  has  been 
 fully  paid ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  so  as  to  satisfy  him  that  some- 
 thing has  been  forgiven. 
 
 The  religious  instruction  does  not  differ  materially  in  amount 
 and  kind  from  that  already  described. 
 
 There  are  no  regular  gymnastic  exercises,  but  in  the  in- 
 tervals of  recreation  the  children  engage  in  a  great  variety  of 
 games,  the  implements  for  which  are  furnished  by  the  master, 
 and  in  which  the  teachers  frequently  take  part  wath  good  effect. 
 The  deprivation  of  these  sports  is  made  a  means  of  punishment. 
 The  loan  of  materials  for  play,  such  as  marbles,  &c.,  obviates 
 an  objection  sometimes  urged  to  certain  games  of  skill,  viz. 
 that  they  produce  a  sordid  habit  and  love  of  gaming.  The  pu- 
 pils w^alk  out  frequently,  accompanied  by  a  teacher,  make 
 "pic  nic"  excursions,  and  celebrate  particular  days. 
 
 Cleanliness  is  carefully  attended  to;  the  face  and  hands  are 
 washed  morning  and  evening,  the  feet  once  a  week  in  w^inter, 
 and  oftener  in  summer,  besides  whicii  the  boys  bathe;  on  these 
 occasions  the  pupils  arc  attended  by  a  teacher  and  the  porter. 
 
46  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The  arrangements  fur  vvaslii.iir  arc  not  irood  ;  basins  of  tinned 
 copper  have  heen  tried,  whifh  do  not  answer  well,  and  a  trough 
 is  required  for  the  feet.  Inspection  is  made  every  morning  in 
 regard  to  cleanliness,  and  the  due  order  of  their  dress.  Scald 
 heads  are  frequent  as  at  George  Watson's,  and  the  same  means 
 of  eradicating  and  preventing  the  disease  from  spreading, 
 are  employed.  The  leather  caps  in  use  fitting  closely  to  the 
 head,  contribute,  I  doubt  not,  to  the  complaint.  The  diet  is  the 
 same  as  at  Ileriot's,  except  that  here  nothing  is  taken  in  the 
 intervals  of  the  regular  meals.  The  two  sub-assistants  eat  with 
 the  boys. 
 
 The  pupils  do  no  menial  ofTices  in  the  house,  except  that  of 
 cleaning  shoes,  wliicli  is  done  for  the  whole  family  by  a  cer- 
 tain number  of  the  elder  boys  in  rotation,  who  rise  earlier  than 
 the  others  for  this  purpose. 
 
 Each  boy  has  a  separate  bed,  except  in  the  dormitories  for 
 the  young(.'st,  where  tlicre  are  two  in  a  bed,  and  of  wliich  a 
 nurse  iias  charge.  In  the  other  dormitories,  one  of  the  sub- 
 assistants  sleeps,  or  one  of  the  elder  boys  has  charge  of  the 
 dormitory,  and  the  assistant  sleeps  near. 
 
 The  clothing  is  similar  to  that  at  George  Watson's.  The 
 leather  caps  are,  however,  to  be  laid  aside,  and  cloth  ones  sub- 
 stituted. 
 
 Order  of  the  Day.     The  order  by  which  the  distribution  of 
 duties  is  regulated,  presents  peculiarities,  in  the  succession  of 
 study  and  play,  well  worthy  of  attention.     The  following  is  for 
 the  winter  season.     The  pupils  rise  at  seven ;  from  seven  to  half 
 past,  washing  and  dressing.      Half  past  seven  to  eight,  have 
 prayers.      Eight  to  nine,  school.     Nine  to  cjuarter  past  nine, 
 breakfast.     Quarter  jiast  nine  to  ten,  play.     Ten  to  half  past 
 eleven,  school.     Half  past  eleven  to  twelve,  play.     Twelve  to 
 one,  school.     One  to  half  j)ast  one,  dinner.     Half  ]iast  one  to 
 three,  play.     Three  to  five,  school.     Five  to  six,  play.     Six  to 
 seven,  school.     Seven  to  a  cjuarter  past  seven,  supper.     (Quar- 
 ter past  seven  to  eight,  play.     Eight  to  half  j)ast  eight,  juaycrs. 
 f  lalf  past  eight  to  nine,  wasli  and  go  to  bed. 
 
 The  hnppy  o^vr\  of  ih<'   jndic'ions  variety  in  study  and  ex«-'i-- 
 
cauvin's  hospital.  47 
 
 cise,  and  of  the  moral  discipline  of  this  institution,  are  proved 
 by  the  cheerful  character  of  its  pupils,  and  their  general  health 
 and  spirits.  The  hours  of  study  in  this  plan  are  six  and  a  half, 
 and  of  play  four  and  a  half,  during  the  day  of  fourteen  hours, 
 while  at  George  Watson's  they  study  nine  hours,  and  even 
 sometimes  more. 
 
 Tliere  is  a  vacation  for  about  four  weeks  in  the  month  of  July, 
 and  the  children  may  be  visited  once  in  three  weeks  by  their 
 parents,  for  two  hours  at  a  time.  The  master  here  is  confident 
 as  to  the  bad  efiects  of  allowing  the  children  to  leave  the  insti- 
 tution, for  the  purpose  of  visiting  parents  or  friends;  in  regard  to 
 which,  however,  I  have  nothing  new  to  remark. 
 
 CAUVIN'S  HOSPITAL. 
 
 This  institution  was  founded  in  1832,  pursuant  to  the  Will  of 
 Lewis  Cauvin,  a  teacher  of  French,  in  Edinburgh;  and  is  intend- 
 ed for  the  education  and  maintenance  of  the  sons  of  teachers 
 and  farmers.  As  the  founder  was  himself  a  teacher,  and  the 
 want  of  seminaries  for  teachers  was  most  deeply  felt  in  Scot- 
 land, the  trustees  of  Cauvin's  determined  that  the  new  institution 
 should  contribute,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  the  supply  of  this 
 want. 
 
 The  children  enter  between  the  ages  of  six  and  eight  years, 
 and  nearly  all  those  now  in  the  institution  have  been  there  about 
 four  years;  the  tw^enty  pupils  required  to  complete  the  founda- 
 tion* having  been  admitted  at  once.  It  is  not  possible  at  this 
 early  date  to  draw  a  positive  inference  as  to  the  success  of  the 
 school,  and  especially  of  its  primary  object.  The  character  of 
 the  trustees  may,  however,  be  considered  as  a  guarantee  for 
 the  first,  and,  in  reference  to  the  second,  there  arc  already  indi- 
 cations that  three  or  four  out  of  the  twenty  boys  now  in  the 
 establishment  will  probably  have  a  disposition  for  the  pro- 
 fession towards  which  it  would  incline  them.  It  may  be 
 important  to  remark,  that  as  these  boys  can  only  be  at  the 
 charge  of  the  school  until  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  as  this  is 
 
 *  The  income  is  about  Rve  thousand  dollars  per  annum. 
 
48  ELEEMOSy.NARV   IVSTITUTIOJIS. 
 
 too  short  a  time  to  cotnj>lcte  their  education,  those  who  are 
 most  promising  will  perforin  tlieir  novitiate  as  teachers  in  the 
 hospital,  thus  continuing  their  education,  while  they  serve  as 
 instructors  to  those  younger  than  themselves. 
 
 I  shall  recur  to  this  topic,  of  the  use  of  orphan-schools  as 
 seminaries  for  teachers,  in  speaking  of  the  Orphan-house  of 
 Hamburgh.  Our  country  is  one  that  especially  calls  for  every 
 effort  to  interest  well  educated  young  men  to  adopt  a  profes- 
 sion, the  proper  exercise  of  which  is  of  such  high  importance  to 
 our  future  prospects  and  the  permanency  of  our  institutions. 
 
 The  implements  of  instruction  in  this  establishment  are  better 
 than  in  any  other  of  the  same  kind  which  I  saw  in  Scotland  : 
 they  have  obtained  the  most  a]>proved  maps,  etc.,*  from  abroad 
 as  well  as  at  home,  and  have  already  the  rudiments  of  a  col- 
 lection of  natural  history. 
 
 I  liave  appended  certain  d<icuments,  relating  to  the  form  t>l 
 application  \hv  admission  to  this  school,  (Appendix,  No.  VI..) 
 which  may  be  useful  for  relerencc. 
 
 LIVERPOOL  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL. 
 
 This  institution,  in  point  of  order  and  regularity,  is  one  of  the 
 best  which  I  have  seen;  and,  as  a  study  of  how  far  an  estab- 
 lishment may  be  carried  on  by  the  force  of  routine,  interested 
 me  very  much.  At  the  time  of  my  visit  the  head  niaster  was 
 absent,  and  the  boys'  department  was  entirely  under  the  charge 
 of  a  young  teacher,  formerly  a  pupil  of  the  school.  This  cir- 
 cumstance was  very  favourable  for  judging  of  the  point  to 
 which  I  have  just  referred.  The  arrangements  have  a  military 
 precision  about  them  which  is  very  striking;  and  if  the  object  of 
 a  school  were  to  perform,  as  much  as  possible,  with  very 
 limited  mcans,t  the  organization  of  this  one  would  serve  as  an 
 
 *  These  collections  were  made  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Pillans,  of  tlie 
 University  of  Edinhurph,  one  of  the  trustees,  and  to  whose  influence  is  mainly 
 due  the  direction  fr'ivvn  to  the  Btudies  of  tiie  youth  in  Cauvin's  institution. 
 
 t  Each  child  cosla  for  maintenanci  and  instruction  less  than  fifty  dollars  jKr 
 annum.  At  the  Orphan  Hospital  at  Edinburgh,  each  costs  l>etween  sixty-five  and 
 seventy  dollars.  At  John  WatsnnV  oik  hundred  and  nineteen,  and  at  Tauvin's 
 two  hundrnl  and  fiOv  df>lhir8. 
 
LIVERPOOL  BLUE-GOAT  SCHOOL.  49 
 
 excellent  model.  Though  successful  in  producing  a  considera- 
 ble effect  upon  the  pupils  in  general,  the  means  of  individual 
 education  are  to  be  found  in  the  subsidiary  arrangements  of  the 
 school,  and  not  in  its  general  system.  In  regard  to  instruction, 
 it  affords  a  good  example  of  that  division  of  the  system  of  mu- 
 tual instruction  which  originated  with  Dr.  Bell,  whose  precepts 
 and  practice,  as  contained  in  his  Manual,  are  mainly  followed. 
 While  the  Scotch  schools  which  I  have  described  have  obvi- 
 ously borrowed  something  from  each  other  in  their  arrange- 
 ments, this  institution  is  in  a  totally  different  sphere,  both  intel- 
 lectual and  religious. 
 
 In  the  regulations,  every  case  which  has  occurred,  or  which 
 has  been  foreseen,  of  violation  of  discipline,  or  interference  by 
 parents,  and  the  like,  has  been  provided  for  by  formal  rules — a 
 plan,  the  expediency  of  which  I  much  doubt.  The  punishment  of 
 offences  against  morality  may  be  provided  for  by  general  regula- 
 tions, and  cases  of  interference  on  the  part  of  parents,  by  vesting 
 discretionary  power  in  some  of  the  authorities  of  the  institution. 
 The  regulations  required  by  a  contrary  course,  if  read  to  the 
 school,  must  suggest  many  offences  otherwise  not  thought  of. 
 In  the  progress  of  the  institution,  the  decisions  of  cases  actually 
 occurring  will  establish  precedents  which  supply  the  place  of  a 
 more  formal  code  of  rules.  Power  must  be  lodged  somev^^here, 
 and  by  investing  chosen  agents  with  it,  the  trustees  of  an  insti- 
 tution may  be  almost  certain  that  it  will  be  exercised  with 
 knowledge,  and  the  power  of  revision,  on  appeal,  must  of  right 
 be  theirs. 
 
 History,  Buildings,  <^c.  This  institution  was  founded  by 
 voluntary  subscription,  in  1708,  and  assumed  something  of  its 
 present  form  in  1717.  It  is  intended  to  give  education  and 
 maintenance  to  destitute  children,  who  have  lost  their  parents, 
 or  whose  parents  have  been  reduced  in  life — these  children  to 
 be  taken  from  those  "above  the  lowest  class  in  society." 
 
 It  is  managed  by  a  board  of  trustees,*  wdiose  executive 
 officer  is  the  treasurer,  who,  though  an  honorary  officer,  is 
 
 *  TJu'ce  of  these  c^cntlcincn  were  ronncrly  pupils  in  Llic  iiis;titution. 
 7 
 
50  ELEEMOSYxVARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 nevertheless  expected  to  attend  both  to  the  out  and  in-door 
 managennent.  The  head  master  is  the  chief  witliin  doors, 
 and  is  assisted  by  a  matron  and  female  teachers  for  the 
 girls,  and  by  three  assistant  masters  for  the  boys.  A  surgeon 
 and  physician*  are  the  only  other  oflicers.  The  assistants 
 take  turns  in  superintending  the  boys  \vhen  not  in  school, 
 and  seeing  that  they  go  through  the  routine  of  the  day.  All 
 attend  in  the  refectory  for  the  preservation  of  order,  and  to  as- 
 certain that  the  wants  of  each  pupil  are  duly  supplied.  They 
 also,  in  turn,  attend  the  boys  in  their  walks,  and  sleep  in  rooms 
 adjoining  to  and  having  a  view  of  the  dormitories. 
 
 All  the  boys'  classes  are  united  for  instruction  in  one  long 
 room,  the  whole  being  under  the  charge  of  the  head  master 
 and  senior  assistant,  and  each  class  being  taught  by  its  assist- 
 ant master,  or  by  the  pupils  appointed  to  act  as  teachers. 
 Frequently  the  hearing  of  lessons  is  delegated  to  these  pupil- 
 teachers,  the  master  having  previously  prepared  the  class  by 
 explanations  intended  to  remove  difficulties  from  the  way  of 
 private  study.  At  other  times,  the  master  hears  the  lesson  him- 
 self, or  is  present  when  the  pupil-teacher  hears  it,  or  goes  over 
 the  ground  willi  the  class,  after  the  teacher  has  done  his  part. 
 A  class  is  sometimes  divided,  the  master  taking  one  part  and 
 intrusting  the  other  to  the  pupil-teacher,  and  then  changing  the 
 divisions.  As  the  higher  classes  have  respectively  seventy, 
 ninety,  and  forty  members,  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  mas- 
 ter, alone,  to  instruct  to  any  advantage.  The  youngest  class, 
 on  the  contrary,  is  quite  small,  and  always  in  the  hands  of  a 
 junifjr  master.  Although  the  system  of  mutual  instruction, 
 which  was  first  applied  by  Doctor  Bell  is,  in  general,  followed, 
 it  is,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  details  above  presented,  in  a 
 modified  form,  with  a  considerable  share  of  the  personal  atten- 
 tion of  the  masters  in  teaching. 
 
 The  j)lace  of  a  pupil  in  the  class  depends  upon  tiie  answers 
 which  he  gives  in  the  recitations,  and  upon  his  conduct,  a  fixcil 
 
 •  On  an  average,  in  this  institution,  there  arc  four  sick  per  week,  in  the  whole 
 numlxjr  of  two  hundred  and  fiHy  boys  and  one  Imndrcd  girls,  and  one  dies  in  the 
 cour»c  of  three  year?. 
 
LIVERPOOL  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  51 
 
 system  of  rules  being  adopted  in  regard  to  every  circumstance 
 which  can  cause  a  change  of  place  during  a  lesson.  In  the 
 lower  class,  the  places  are  registered  every  day,  and  the  ave- 
 rage at  the  end  of  the  quarter  gives  the  standing.  There  is  a 
 general  new  classification  of  the  school  every  quarter,  and  those 
 who  are  fit  for  a  higher  class  are  then  promoted.  When,  how- 
 ever, a  pupil-  is  remarkably  superior  to  the  rest  of  his  class,  he  is 
 promoted  without  waiting  for  this  term.  The  system  of  emula- 
 tion thus  adopted,  is  supposed  to  excite  considerable  diligence. 
 It  appeared  to  me  to  do  so  really  on  the  part  of  a  very  few  near 
 the  head  of  the  class,  who  had  the  competition  for  honours  be- 
 fore them ;  but  below  the  middle  it  did  not  produce  any  efFect 
 until  towards  the  lower  end,  where  its  results  were  evidently  bad. 
 I  found  all  the  intelligent  persons  connected  with  this  institu- 
 tion so  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  efficacy  of  the  monitorial 
 system,  that  I  paused  in  drawing  conclusions  in  regard  to  it 
 until  I  had  compared  this  school  with  others  upon  the  same  or 
 a  similar  system;  it  is,  however,  one  of  the  best  examples  which 
 I  saw  of  the  Bell  or  Madras  system,  or,  rather,  of  a  modified 
 form  of  it.  The  gentlemen  above  referred  to  are  convinced 
 that  the  pupil-teachers  are  not  only  competent  to  give  instruc- 
 tion, but  that  they  frequently  communicate  it  in  a  more  intelli- 
 gible form  than  teachers  who  are  further  removed  by  age  and 
 knowledge  from  the  boys ;  that  the  emulation  among  the  pupil- 
 teachers  of  different  classes  induces  their  pupils  to  exert  them- 
 selves more  than  if  under  the  charge  of  the  master,  and  that 
 the  pupil-teachers  are  sufficiently  exact  and  impartial  in  admin- 
 istering the  rules  of  discipline  and  instruction.  I  state  these 
 opinions  broadly,  not  wishing  to  conceal  that  the  views  of 
 others,  who  have  experience  in  the  matter,  are  adverse  to  my 
 own.  I  observed  as  closely  as  my  opportunities  would  permit, 
 here  and  elsewhere,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that,  in  com- 
 municating knowledge  not  merely  mechanical,  the  pupil-teach- 
 ers are  generally  at  fault,  that  they  fail  to  keep  up  the  attention 
 of  the  pupils,  and  to  preserve  order  among  them,  except  in  pre- 
 sence of  the  master,  and  that  they  do  not  always  deal  impar- 
 tially in   administering  the  rules.      It  is  true,  that  if  a  class 
 
52  ELKE.MO^V.VAIIV    IN^TITLTIOXS. 
 
 ol"  uinety  is  t»;  bo  coiilided  to  one  niaslcr,  moiiilurs  may  be 
 usefully  employed  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  liiin.  A  similar 
 plan  is  pursued  at  the  best  school  on  the  Bell  system  which  I 
 have  seen,  the  Madras  College  at  St.  Andrew's,  Scotland. 
 Further  than  this,  1  do  not  believe  that  monitors  can  be  use- 
 fully employed,  and  where  the  means  of  j)rocuring  a  sufhcient 
 number  of  good  teachers  is  not  wanting,  1  would  not  at  all 
 recommend  the  use  of  the  monitorial  system  in  imparting  in- 
 struction. 
 
 The  branches  taught  in  this  Blue-coat  School  are  in  accord- 
 ance with  the  destination  of  the  boys  in  after  life.  They  con- 
 sist of  spelling,  reading,  writing,  mental  and  written  arithmetic, 
 English  grammar,  geography,  the  history  of  England,  elements 
 of  astronomy,  the  catechism  and  religious  doctrines  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  and  the  singing  of  church  music.  A  few 
 pupils  receive  instruction  in  geometry  and  music,  and  those  who 
 show  a  disposition  to  become  teachers  have  the  means  of  addi- 
 tional study  and  of  i)reparation,  by  being  apprenticed  as  mas- 
 ters in  tlie  school.  The  opportunity  of  drawing  from  engrav- 
 ings is  also  furnished. 
 
 Much  time  is  devoted  to  the  mechanical  branches  of  general 
 instruction,  such  as  writing,  making  printed  letters,  and  drawing 
 maps,  6z,c.  More  than  nine  hours  per  week  are  given  up  by 
 the  eldest  class  to  such  objects,  besides  those  devoted  to  print- 
 ing in  the  evening.  The  pupils  are  so  fully  imbued  with  the 
 desire  to  succeed  in  these  pursuits,  that  as  an  expedient  to  in- 
 duce a  prej)aration  of  the  reading  lessons,  those  only  who  have 
 \-(r,\d  well  are  allowed  to  attend  the  writing  exercises. 
 
 It  has  been  found  advisable  to  vary  the  subjects  of  their  read- 
 ing lessons  very  considerably.  Formerly  the  Bible  was  the 
 only  book  used  for  reading,  and  beside  that  the  associati(^ns 
 with  it  as  a  text-book  a|)peared  not  to  be  favourable  to  reli- 
 gious impressions,  the  pupils  became  so  used  to  its  })hraseology 
 as  not  to  be  able  to  read  understandingly  other  works,  although 
 they  could  read  this  with  tolerable  lluency.* 
 
 •  This  fiirt  comes  froin  a  source  ahovc  all  mispicion. 
 
LIVERPOOL  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  53 
 
 The  very  useful  exercise  in  the  Madras  system,  in  which  the 
 pupils  question  each  other,  is  well  carried  out  in  this  school; 
 every  boy  thus  must  ask  as  well  as  answer  questions.  It,  how- 
 ever, offers  considerable  practical  difficulty.  Some  hold  back 
 from  diffidence,  others  from  fear  of  showing  ignorance  by  their 
 questions,  and  others  are  incompetent  to  it  from  ignorance  of 
 the  subjects. 
 
 Moral  and  Religious  Instruction.  One  of  the  things  which 
 struck  me  most  on  my  first  visit  to  this  school,  was  the  exten- 
 sive acquaintance  with  doctrinal  religion  which  the  boys  of  the 
 eldest  class  manifested.  My  surprise  was  removed,  however, 
 on  learning  the  method  by  which  this  result  was  obtained,  and 
 which  consisted  in  devoting  the  morning  hours  of  winter,  and 
 at  other  seasons  when  the  weather  did  not  invite  to  a  walk,  be- 
 tween rising  and  breakfast,  to  learning  commentaries  on  the 
 doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England,  commencing  in  the  fourth 
 class  with  the  Catechism  of  the  Church  of  England,*  the  col- 
 lects, prayers,  &c.;  continuing  in  the  third  class  with  the 
 explanation  of  the  catechism;  in  the  second,  with  commit- 
 ting to  memory  the  chief  doctrines  of  the  church;  in  the  first, 
 with  committing  the  references  by  which  the  doctrines  are 
 supported.  I  felt  bound  to  examine  faithfully  the  question 
 whether  this  was  a  mere  intellectual  eftbrt,  or  whether  the 
 Christian  truths  thus  inculcated  made  an  impression  upon  the 
 hearts  of  these  children;  and  I  regret  to  state  that  I  was  forced 
 to  the  conclusion  that,  in  the  greater  number  of  cases,  the 
 heart  was  little  affected  by  what  the  tongue  repeated,  and  the 
 intellect  assented  to,  and  this  conclusion  was  in  accordance 
 with  the  result  of  my  inquiries.  It  is  true  that  the  seed  thus 
 planted  may  lie  hid  to  germinate  in  after  life,  and  this,  no  doubt, 
 sometimes  occurs;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  the  measure  is  found 
 to  be  unproductive,  as  far  as  its  immediate  effects  have  been 
 observed. 
 
 *  There  is  no  qualification  as  to  the  religious  sect  to  which  the  parent  or 
 pupil  belongs,  in  regard  to  admission;  but  he  is  required  to  conform,  wlien 
 admittei',  to  the  fornus  of  the  Church  of  England. 
 
i>4  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTION'S. 
 
 The  religious  services  in  this  school,  on  Sunday  afternoon, 
 are  very  remarkable  for  their  order  and  decorunn.  The  pupils 
 are  marched  into  the  room,  and  receive  from  the  leaders  of 
 their  divisions  their  books  as  they  file  off  to  their  places.  The 
 prayers  are  prepared  for  the  school,  and  are  read  by  one  of 
 the  ]Hi|)ils,  appointed  as  a  mark  of  a[)prohation.  The  singing, 
 \vhich  is  resj)ectablc,  is  acconn»anicd  by  an  organ  ]»laycd  by 
 one  of  the  teachers.  The  psalms  and  hymns  are  given  out 
 alsu  by  one  of  the  boys.  A  monitor  puts  part  of  a  class 
 through  the  catechism.  The  services  are  thus  from  beginning 
 to  end  carried  on  by  the  pupils,  with  the  exception  of  the  assist- 
 ance in  music  by  the  master.  The  treasurer,  and  frequently 
 others  of  the  trustees,  attend  these  services,  and  the  parents  or 
 friends  of  the  pupils  arc  admitted  on  presenting  a  ticket  from 
 the  treasurer. 
 
 The  rewards  for  good  conduct  are,  the  approbation  of  the 
 teachers,  permission  to  read  the  books  in  the  school  library,  of 
 which  there  is  a  very  judicious  selection,  offices  of  trust  in  the 
 school,  and  recommendations  to  situations  after  leaving  the 
 institution.  In  regard  to  the  use  of  the  library,  which  I  found 
 a  very  strong  incentive  in  this  school,  I  would  ofler  a  remark. 
 When  a  judicious  selection  of  childrens'  books  has  been  made, 
 and  it  is  found  that  there  is  no  desire  to  read  them,  the 
 instruction  is  radically  defective.  Few  children  care  to  read 
 what  they  do  not  understand,  and,  if  taught  merely  mechani- 
 cally, the  books  selected  for  their  use  will  be  unintelligible,  and 
 hence  uninteresting  to  them.  The  amount  of  use,  therefore,  of 
 the  lending  library,  is  a  test  of  the  thoroughness  of  the  instruc- 
 tion, and  of  its  being  of  the  explanatory  sort.  There  may,  of 
 course,  be  exceptions  to  this  rule,  arising  from  the  over-employ- 
 ment of  children  at  other  work,  by  which  they  are  prevented 
 from  using  the  books,  and  from  other  causes;  but  I  speak  now 
 of  the  general  rule,  which  I  found  most  fully  })roved  l)y  nume- 
 rous observations. 
 
 There  arc  vacations  of  two  weeks  at  mid-summer,  ami  t»f  a 
 week  at  Christmas. 
 
 No  punislnnent  other  than  the  position  in  the  class  is  applied 
 
LIVERPOOL  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  55 
 
 for  not  being  on  a  par  in  recitation  with  others.  For  a  some- 
 what serious  offence,  a  boy  is  "  put  into  Coventry,"  and  his 
 classmates,  when  seeing  tliis  badge  of  punishment,  are  not 
 allowed  to  speak  to  him.*  Corporal  punishment  is  used,  but 
 the  rod  is  not  habitually  in  sight  as  a  motive  to  exertion. 
 Immorality  is  punished  by  flogging,  and,  if  not  amended,  by 
 expulsion. 
 
 Physical  Education.  There  are  no  regular  gymnastic  exer- 
 cises or  amusements,  but  all  the  pupils  are  taken  frequently  to 
 walk  for  exercise,  and,  during  the  course  of  the  morning  school, 
 which  lasts  from  nine  to  twelve,  each  class  has,  separately,  a 
 few  minutes  of  recreation,  being  marched  into  the  court-yard, 
 under  the  charge  of  the  monitors.  The  play-ground  is  not 
 very  large,  and  is  paved  with  round  stones,  and  there  is  a 
 covered  way  on  one  side  for  wet  weather,  an  indispensable  ap- 
 pendage to  such  an  establishment:  under  this  each  bey  has  a 
 box  in  which  he  may  keep  his  ball  and  other  play-things.  The 
 menial  duties  of  the  house,  and  some  of  them  in  rotation,  are 
 performed  by  the  pupils;  they  serve  the  table,  wait  upon  it, 
 clean  their  shoes  and  clothes,  make  their  beds,  &c.,  and  are 
 nearly  independent  of  the  use  of  servants:  in  my  opinion,  an 
 admirable  regulation.  One  of  the  boys  even  acts  as  por- 
 ter, which,  as  it  is  a  responsible  and  profitable  situation,  is 
 made  a  reward  for  character,  and  is  attended  with  certain 
 perquisites,  matters  of  custom  in  those  countries,  but  incon- 
 sistent with  the  ideas  entertained  in  ours. 
 
 The  allowance  of  clothes,  linen,  &c.,  is  the  same  as  in  the 
 Scottish  institutions.  Three  shoemakers  are  constantly  em- 
 ployed in  making  and  mending  shoes  for  the  pupils.  The  girls 
 knit  the  boys'  stockings,  and  make  up  their  linen,  and  the  mend- 
 ing of  clothes,  &c.,  is  done  by  persons  residing  in  the  house. 
 
 The  diet  is  very  plain,  but  wholesome.f  The  entire  cost  of 
 the  food  for  each  child  is  about  forty  cents  per  w^eek,  or  less 
 
 *  The  use  of  any  badge  or  mark  of  this  sort  is  liable  to  the  same  objection  as 
 all  other  public  punishments,  upon  which  I  have  already  remarked. 
 
 t  The  cooking  operations,  commonly  performed  by  boiling-,  are  all  done  by 
 pteam. 
 
56  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTION^. 
 
 than  six  cents  a  day.  A  tabic  of  diet  is  subjoined  in  the  Ap- 
 pendix. The  supper,  consisting  of  clieese  and  bread,  is  distri- 
 bnted  in  the  refectory,  and  taken  to  the  school-room  to  be 
 eaten,  the  water  being  previously  drunk  at  the  table ;  a  custom 
 which  produces  several  inconveniences. 
 
 The  arrangements  for  washing  are  by  no  means  convenient, 
 the  boys  using  the  wash-room  for  this  purpose  morning  and 
 evening,  and  the  hydrant  in  the  yard  after  dinner  and  supper. 
 They  occupy  two  dormitories,  overlooked  by  windows  from 
 the  tutor's  rooms.  The  bedsteads  are  of  wrought  iron,  the  mat- 
 tresses of  straw.  Two  boys  occupy  the  same  bed,  a  plan  u})on 
 which  I  have  already  commented. 
 
 The  pupils  sometimes  marcii  to  and  from  the  refectory  to 
 the  sound  of  music,  and  a  very  tolerable  band  of  fifers  has  been 
 formed  from  among  the  boys. 
 
 IIENSIIAW'S  HOSPITAL,  OR  OLDHAM  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL. 
 
 As  this  institution  is  modelled  upon  that  of  Liverpool,*  of 
 which  I  have  spoken  somewhat  in  detail,  I  shall  offer  merely 
 a  few  remarks  upon  certain  topics  connected  with  it,  which 
 seem  to  me  of  interest.  The  foundation  results  from  the  will  of 
 Mr.  Thomas  ITenshaw,f  a  hatter,  of  Oldham,  a  manufacturing 
 town  near  Manchester,  who  left,  in  1810,  the  sum  of  two  hun- 
 dred thousand  dollars  to  endow  a  "Blue-coat  School."  This 
 endowment  now  amounts  to  nearly  four  hundred  thousand 
 dollars,  and  the  school  has  a  revenue  of  near  eleven  thousand 
 five  hundred  dollars,  for  its  support.  By  the  will  of  the 
 founder,  no  part  of  this  money  was  to  go  to  erect  a  building  for 
 his  school,  and  if  the  town  of  Oldham  did  not  raise  the  funds 
 for  that  purpose,  Manchester  was  to  have  the  option  to  do  so. 
 
 The  sum  required  for  the  building  was,  however,  nearly  all 
 raised  in  the  town  of  Oldham,  and  much  of  it  among  the  work- 
 men of  the  different  manufactories,  who  clubbed  together  when 
 
 •  The  hr.ul  mii.sti  r  was  hroiiglit  up  at  that  school. 
 
 t  This  same  cliaritahlc  imliviciual  has  also  ]v(\  n  fund  lor  thi  (ducation  r)riii 
 bUnd. 
 
HENSHAW*S  HOSPITAL.  57 
 
 their  separate  donations  did  not  seem  of  sufficient  amount  to  be 
 presented  singly.  The  building,  in  the  Elizabethan  Gothic 
 style,  is  now  the  pride  of  the  citizens  of  Oldham,  who  have 
 erected  it. 
 
 The  interior  arrangements,  of  which  I  have  procured  the 
 plans,  are  of  unequal  merit.  Those  connected  with  the  diet, 
 clothing,  and  cleanliness,  are  good.*  The  attempt  to  heat  the 
 house  by  the  circulation  of  hot  water  has  not  proved  successful. 
 The  school-room  is  covered  with  an  arch,  and  the  reverbera- 
 tion has  been  so  annoying  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  hang  it 
 with  cloth.  This  is  done  in  the  compartments  of  the  Gothic 
 vaults,  two  pieces  of  cloth  being  stretched  across  at  right  angles 
 to  the  axis  of  the  arch,  and  others  intersecting  each  other,  so 
 as  to  form  a  St.  Andrew's  cross:  the  appearance  is  not  bad, 
 and  the  remedy  is  effectual. 
 
 This  institution  was  opened  in  1834,  when  fifty  boys  were  ad- 
 mitted between  the  ages  of  nine  and  ten.  There  are  now  (1836) 
 two  hundred  boys,  and  the  funds  will  probably  support  more  than 
 this  number.  The  difficulties  of  organization  were  very  great, 
 owing  to  the  late  age  of  the  pupils,  and  especially  to  the  number 
 introduced  at  the  opening  of  the  school.  Nearly  the  whole  time 
 of  the  head  master  has  been,  heretofore,  so  occupied  in  arranging 
 the  details  of  maintenance  and  discipline,  that  he  has  been  able  to 
 give  but  little  attention  to  the  instruction,  which,  though  the  insti- 
 tution had  been  in  operation  upwards  of  two  years  when  I  visited 
 it,  was  by  no  means  in  the  condition  which  he  desired.  These 
 difficulties  must  have  been  much  lessened  by  the  fact,  that  the 
 model  of  the  Blue-coat  School  of  Liverpool  was  followed  as 
 closely  as  possible  in  all  the  arrangements;  that  the  master 
 was  educated  there,  and  had  to  apply  his  knowledge  under 
 very  similar  circumstances.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  task  has 
 been  very  great,  and  the  lesson  it  teaches  ought  not  to  be 
 lost  upon  us.  It  was  one  of  the  examples  which  induced  me  to 
 express  myself  strongly  in  regard  to  this  point,  when  describing 
 the  organization  of  John  Watson's  Hospital;  the  tenor  of  the 
 
 *  All  those  connected  with   the  kitchen  and  laundry  arc  very  good,  such  as 
 steatning-kettles,  washingf-machinc,  drying:-closets,  mangle,  &.c. 
 R 
 
58  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 results  being  the  same  in  these  two  cases.  It  is  so  difTicult  to 
 unmake,  that  a  preparatory  system  for  the  trial  of  a  plan,  by 
 which  the  development  may  be  gradual,  and  mistakes  avoided 
 at  the  final  organization,  must  be  very  desirable.  The  wish  to 
 begin  an  institution  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  its  future 
 entire  organization,  is  a  natural  one,  but  it  should  yield  to  the 
 lessons  of  experience,  \vhich  have  every  where  shown  that  a 
 small  beginning  is  preferable.  It  is  easy  to  train  a  few  pupils, 
 and  those  who  follow  are  influenced  by  their  example.  In  a 
 novel  undertaking,  the  teacher,  though  of  well  tried  skill 
 in  a  different  school,  requires  also  training  in  this.  Finally,  the 
 regulations  which  work  well  elsewhere,  may  require  modifica- 
 tions which  experience  only  can  point  out.  If  legislation  and 
 counter  legislation  would  be  avoided,  the  rules  should  be  tried 
 upon  a  scale  which  permits  close  observation  of  their  results. 
 The  application  of  laws  deduced  from  practice  elsewhere,  under 
 new  circumstances,  can  only  be  guided  by  theory,  and  should 
 be  considered  as  theoretical,  and,  therefore,  the  laws  themselves 
 cautiously  introduced. 
 
 LONDON  ORPHAN  ASYLUM  AT  CLAPTON. 
 
 The  Orphan  Asylum  at  Clapton,  near  London,  presents  a  set 
 of  rules  so  admirably  arranged  for  the  application  of  an  inge- 
 nious system  of  rewards  and  punishments,  that  it  deserves  a 
 detailed  examination,  wliich  I  must,  however,  preface  by  a  few 
 remarks  on  the  general  arrangements  of  the  institution. 
 
 This  Orphan  Asylum  is  supported  by  voluntary  contributions, 
 and  hence  derives  an  income  of  about  forty  thousand  dol- 
 lars, upon  which  are  maintained  and  educated  between  three 
 and  four  hundred  children.*  The  immediate  control  of  the 
 institution  is  vested  in  a  board  of  managers,  elected  at  the  gene- 
 ral annual  meeting  of  the  contributors.  From  this  board  is 
 chosen  a  visiting  or  house-committee  of  twelve,  who  meet 
 every  week  at  the   asylum.     They  superintend  the  education 
 
 •  Actually  three  hundred  and  forty-six  in  1836,  of  whom  about  two  hundred 
 were  boys.  The  cost  of  each  pupil  for  Uic  year,  including  ins  maintenance  and 
 education,  was  nearly  one  hundred  and  seven  dollars. 
 
LONDON  ORPHAN  ASYLUM  AT  CLAPTON.  59 
 
 and  household  affairs,  examine  the  bills,  &c.  The  charge  of 
 such  matters  as  belong  to  the  female  department,  it  does  not 
 form  part  of  my  purpose  to  notice.  There  are  two  secretaries, 
 a  treasurer,  who  is  a  salaried  officer,  and  a  collector.  The 
 building  erected  for  this  institution,  the  plans  of  which  are  submit- 
 ted with  this  Report,  is  highly  convenient  and  quite  ornamental. 
 It  consists  of  two  wings  and  a  retired  centre,  and  the  interior 
 arrangements  are  particularly  good.  The  w^hole  building  is 
 supplied  with  water  by  a  steam-engine  in  the  cellar,  and  which 
 is  used,  also,  for  some  of  the  laundry  work.  The  kitchen  and 
 laundry  arrangements  are,  in  general,  similar  to  those  at  Old- 
 ham, with  the  advantage  of  the  use  of  the  steam-engine. 
 
 To  be  admitted  to  this  Orphan  Asylum  a  child  must  be  father- 
 less, and  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  eleven.  The  applica- 
 tion for  admission  must  be  signed  by  a  subscriber,  and  accom- 
 panied by  certificates  of  birth,  &c.,  and  by  a  certified  statement 
 of  claims  to  admission.  The  child  must  be  sound  in  body  and 
 mind;  and,  if  any  imposition  is  discovered  in  regard  to  any  of 
 the  statements  upon  which  it  was  admitted,  is  required  to  be 
 withdrawn.  Two  respectable  housekeepers  must  become  secu- 
 rities that  the  child  will  be  withdraw^n,  at  any  time,  on  the  re- 
 quisition of  the  board  of  managers. 
 
 Children  who  have  been  in  the  workhouse  are  not  taken,  ex- 
 cept under  very  peculiar  circumstances.  On  the  payment  of 
 one  hundred  guineas  into  the  funds,  the  board  may  receive,  if 
 they  see  fit,  a  child  not  belonging  to  the  class  for  which  the 
 establishment  is  particularly  designed.  The  regular  admissions 
 are  decided  by  ballot,  a  printed  form  containing  the  names  of 
 the  children,  their  claims,  and  other  particulars,  and  a  conve- 
 nient mode  of  voting,  being  furnished  to  the  stockholders,  on 
 application  to  the  secretary. 
 
 All  the  pupils  leave  the  school  when  between  thirteen  and  four- 
 teen years  of  age;  and,  in  case  of  satisfactory  deportment,  the 
 board  of  managers  very  generally  procure  situations  for  them, 
 with  the  consent  of  their  friends,  though  they  do  not  enter  into 
 any  obligation  to  do  so.  They  give,  at  leaving,  a  certificate  of 
 conduct,  and,  on  examination,  one  of  proficiency,  and  the  child 
 
60  ELEEMOSYNARY  IXSTITL'TIOffS. 
 
 is  furnished  with  a  suit  of  clothes,  and  other  articles  of  wearing 
 apparel,  a  Bible  and  prayer  book,  and  printed  advice  on  his  con- 
 duct; receives  a  charge  from  one  of  tfic  members  of  the  board, 
 and,  in  addition,  may  have  presented  to  him  the  sum  of  fifty 
 dollars.  To  keep  up  the  connexion  of  the  pupils  with  the  insti- 
 tution, an  annual  meeting  is  held,  for  attendance  at  which  each 
 one  receives  an  honorarium,  increasing  in  amount  with  the  time 
 elapsed  since  he  left  the  school.  From  these  sums  contributions 
 to  the  asylum  are  frequently  made,  for  special  objects,  by  the 
 former  pupils  thus  assembled. 
 
 The  boys  are  not  allowed  to  visit  their  friends,  except  in  case 
 of  the  illness  of  the  latter.  They  may  receive  visits  between 
 two  and  half  past  four,  P.  M.,  on  Wednesdays,  and  their 
 friends  who  wish  to  pay  such  visits  must  apply  at  the  secreta- 
 ry's office  for  a  ticket,  which  is  given,  in  general,  but  once  a 
 quarter.  The  house  is  opened  to  strangers  on  Monday,  be- 
 tween eleven,  A.  M.,  and  five,  P.  M.,  on  presenting  a  ticket 
 from  a  manager. 
 
 The  officers  for  education  and  police  are,  a  master  and 
 chaplain,  the  offices  being,  at  the  present  time,  united  in  the 
 same  person;*  assistant  masters,  a  matron,  and  a  mistress  for  the 
 girls.  Besides  the  house-servants,  who  arc  females,  there  is  a 
 gardener,  who  acts  as  porter. 
 
 Tiie  master  is  principal  of  the  establishment,  of  which  he  has 
 the  entire  superintendence,  under  the  house-committee.  lie 
 gives  all  the  religious  instruction,  and  also  teaches,  in  part,  the 
 higher  classes  in  other  subjects,  lie  is  responsible  for  the  due 
 execution  of  the  })lans  matured  by  the  board.  The  assistants 
 are  directly  under  his  control,  and  he  has  a  vote  on  their  appoint- 
 ment, to  enable  him  to  exercise  which  with  due  care,  they  are 
 not  permanently  attached  until  after  a  three  months'  probation. 
 He  reports  monthly  on  the  state  ol'  the  school. 
 
 The  matron  is  a  housekeeper  to  both  departments,  hires  the 
 servants  deemed  necessary  by  the  committee,  superintends  the 
 whole  domestic  economy,  receives  the  stores,  and  is  responsible 
 
 •  ThcRtv.  .'Mr.  Iloalh. 
 
LONDON    ORPHAN    ASYLUM  AT  CLAPTON.  61 
 
 for  them.  A  table  is  spread  in  her  room,  at  dinner  and  supper, 
 for  the  mistress  of  the  girls'  department  and  the  assistants. 
 She  is  the  keeper  of  all  the  keys,  when  not  required  by  the 
 masters. 
 
 The  assistants  not  only  give  instruction,  but  attend  the  boys 
 at  rising  and  washing  in  the  morning,  at  prayers,  meals,  recrea- 
 tion, washing  in  the  evening,  and  going  to  bed,  performing  these 
 duties  in  rotation.  There  is,  notwithstanding,  no  appearance 
 of  that  family  feeling  which  might  be  expected  to  grow  out  of 
 such  an  intercourse;  probably  from  the  tendency  of  the  regu- 
 lations presently  to  be  detailed  to  introduce  different  feelings. 
 The  order  of  the  day  in  the  institution  is  as  follows:  The  pu- 
 pils rise  at  six  in  summer,  and  seven  in  winter.  Bedside 
 prayers,  washing,  muster  and  inspection,  occupy  until  seven  in 
 summer,  (eight  in  winter.)  At  seven  there  is  school,  in  sum- 
 mer. At  eight,  breakfast.  Play  until  nine.  At  nine,  public 
 prayers.  From  twenty  minutes  past  nine  to  half  past  twelve, 
 school.  At  one,  dinner,  and  play  until  two.  At  two,  school 
 until  half  past  four.  Prayers  and  play  until  half  past  six. 
 Supper  and  play  until  half  past  seven.  Muster,  washing,  bed- 
 side prayers,  and  retiring  at  eight.  In  summer  they  may  be  kept 
 up  until  half  past  eight.  They  have  thus,  during  one  part  of  the 
 year,  six  hours  and  a-half  of  school  daily,  and  about  four  hours 
 of  play.  There  are  a  few  regular  holidays  in  the  year,  and 
 July  and  August  may  be  vacations  for  a  part  of  the  masters. 
 There  are  two  excursions  annually,  made  under  the  charge 
 of  some  of  the  trustees  or  masters,  by  those  boys  w'ho  have 
 merited  indulgences. 
 
 The  subjects  of  instruction  are  those  belonging  to  what  is 
 understood  by  a  plain  EngHsh  education,  entirely  adapted  to 
 the  age  at  which  the  boys  must  leave  the  school,  and  the  sys- 
 tem of  teaching  is  a  modified  form  of  Dr.  Bell's  metliod. 
 
 The  diet  is  plain  and  wholesome.  An  abstract  of  the  diet- 
 tables  of  this  and  other  institutions  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix, 
 No.  VII.  The  clothing  is  good  in  quality,  and  sulHcient  in  quan- 
 tity, and  is  admirably  preserved  under  the  charge  of  the  excellent 
 matron  of  the  establishment.     Rooms  are  appropriated  for  the 
 
62  ELEEMOSYNARY  I\STITl'TIO\S. 
 
 clothes  in  use,  and  tlicy  arc  served  out  by  tlie  boys  who  have 
 charge  of  divisions.  The  cleanhness  is  superintended  by  a 
 nurse,  wiio  is  under  the  charge  of  the  matron.  The  conti- 
 nuance of  female  superintendence  over  the  elder  boys  seems  to 
 me  objectionable. 
 
 Besides  the  ordinary  sports  of  youth,  which  an  ample  play- 
 ground attached  to  the  buildings  admits,  the  pupils  have  a  spe- 
 cies of  gymnastic  exercise,  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour  daily, 
 out  of  duors  when  the  weather  permits,  and  in  doors  at  other 
 times.  The  in-door  exercises  are  calculated  to  give  moderate 
 play  to  the  ditlerent  parts  of  the  body,  and  in  this  respect  are 
 better  adapted  than  more  violent  ones,  to  the  true  purpose  of 
 gymnastics  for  ordinary  life.  For  youth,  I  much  prefer  an  ex- 
 tension of  their  ordinary  sports,  when  out-door  exercise  is  possi- 
 ble, especially  if  regulated  according  to  principle,  to  the  violent 
 exercises  which  are  commonly  adopted  in  the  systems  of  gym- 
 nastics. I  am  satisfied  that  a  skilful  physician  would,  by 
 observation,  ])roduce  something  much  more  adapted  to  the  in- 
 clinations of  our  boys,  than  the  very  artificial  system  of  gym- 
 nastic exercises ;  which  has,  I  believe,  never  permanently  suc- 
 ceeded in  any  institution  either  in  this  country  or  in  England. 
 
 This  account  is  sufficient  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  insti- 
 tution, and  I  now  proceed  to  a  description  of  its  peculiar  plan 
 of  education,  before  alluded  to,  in  reference  to  rewards  and 
 punishments. 
 
 There  are  two  tables  of  rewards,  the  one  for  petty,  the  other 
 for  great  merits.  These  classes  of  merits  are  compensated,  the 
 first  by  rewards  in  money  according  to  a  system,  and  in  a 
 school  currency,  the  second  by  gifts  made  at  the  public  exami- 
 nation. AuKjng  great  merits  are  considered  all  cases  of  vo- 
 luntary, patient,  and  persevering  labour  by  a  child,  whether  in 
 the  business  of  the  school,  or  in  occupation  of  his  own  selection. 
 Corresponding  to  these  are  two  tables  of  jninishmonts,  for  petty 
 and  great  oflences,  which  are  visited,  the  first  by  fines,  and  the 
 second  by  flogging  or  solitary  conlinement. 
 
 The  ordinary  rewards  are  bestowed,  aiul  lines  levied  in  a 
 school  currency  of  tokens,  bearing  the  designation  of  one,  ton, 
 
LONDON  ORPHAN  ASYLUM  AT  CLAPTON.  63 
 
 and  twenty  mark  pieces  respectively,  and  of  which  ten  marks 
 are  reckoned  at  the  value  of  a  penny  sterling,  (two  cents.)  An 
 account  of  the  issues  and  receipts  of  them  is  kept  to  prevent 
 barter,  and  as  an  index  of  the  general  conduct  of  the  school. 
 All  cases  of  exemplary  punishment  are  entered  into  the  master's 
 book.  When  any  pupil  has  obtained  a  certain  number  of  marks, 
 he  is  entitled  to  present  himself  before  the  house-committee,  at 
 a  monthly  meeting,  to  receive  their  value  in  money.  As  means 
 of  using  this  money  are  provided — first,  a  Hbrary,  to  which  those 
 who  subscribe  a  penny  a  month  have  access,  a  right  to  recom- 
 mend a  book  for  purchase  to  the  master  and  secretaries  of  the 
 institution,  and  a  voice  in  the  choice  of  a  boy  as  treasurer  and 
 librarian.  The  school  currency  is  not  received  in  payment  of 
 this  subscription.  Second,  a  small  shop  kept  by  one  of  the  boys, 
 selected  by  his  fellows  for  that  purpose,  at  which  are  sold,  at 
 prime  cost,  articles  of  stationary,  books,  useful  toys,  and  mate- 
 rials for  drawing  and  mechanical  pursuits.  Third,  a  shop  kept 
 by  the  wife  of  the  porter,  where  fruit,  cakes,  &c.,  are  sold. 
 
 Those  children,  on  the  contrary,  w^ho  are  fined  beyond  the 
 marks  which  they  have  received  as  rewards,  are  considered  as 
 defaulters,  and  must  by  extra  w^ork  recover  their  solvency. 
 While  defaulters,  they  can  neither  hold  oflice  among  their  fel- 
 lows nor  vote  for  officers. 
 
 The  boys  w^ho  have  been  one  entire  school  year  without  in- 
 solvency, or  sufl^ering  any  of  the  higher  punishments,  are  con- 
 sidered as  "free  boys;"  they  alone  are  eligible  to  trusts,  and 
 may  be  candidates  for  honorary  medals.  They  are,  further,  en- 
 titled to  make  two  excursions  a  year,  with  one  of  the  house- 
 committee  or  one  of  their  teachers.  If  a  boy  have  lost  his 
 "  freedom,"  he  may  regain  it  by  six  months  of  solvency  and  ex- 
 emption from  high  punishment. 
 
 Those  who  for  a  year  have  been  remarkable  for  diligence 
 and  good  conduct,  receive  a  "student's  medal,"  and  those  who 
 have  held  important  offices,  and  discharged  their  duty  to  the 
 satisfaction  of  the  masters,  receive  a  high  honorary  medal, 
 which  they  wear,  unless  degraded. 
 
 The  whole  school  is  classified  in  the  order  of  conduct  each 
 
64  ELEEMOSVNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 month,  autl  ihc  list  presented  to  the  house-committee.  This  list 
 is  suspended  in  the  school-room,  two  days  before  its  presenta- 
 tion, that  any  boy  may  have  an  opportunity  to  appeal  to  the 
 master,  if  he  thinks  iiimself  improperly  rated.  For  their  govern- 
 ment, when  not  in  school,  the  boys  elect  half  yearly  a  prefect 
 and  sub-prefects.  These  latter  have  charge  each  of  nine  boys, 
 whom  they  select  in  turn,  forming  thus  a  squad  of  ten,  or  decad. 
 The  master  has  in  this,  as  in  all  other  cases  of  selection  of  offi- 
 cers, a  veto  upon  the  choice  made  by  the  pupils.  These  and  other 
 oilicers  of  the  school  are  rewarded  for  the  performance  of  their 
 duties,  and  punished  for  non-performance,  the  fines  for  neglect 
 and  rewards  for  the  discharge  of  duty  being  in  proportion  to 
 the  importance  of  their  oilice.  A  part  of  the  morning  of  every 
 Saturday  is  devoted  to  the  making  u})  of  accounts,  reports,  and 
 similar  matters. 
 
 No  pupil  is  allowed  to  leave  the  establishment  without  an  ex- 
 amination by  the  house-committee  into  his  conduct  and  progress, 
 which,  if  satisfactory,  entitles  him  to  a  certificate.  A  month 
 before  leaving  the  school,  the  claims  of  a  pupil  to  have  his  name 
 inscribed  on  the  "table  of  iionour,"  are  decided  by  his  fellows, 
 who  may  petition  the  master  on  the  subject;  and  if  he  counter- 
 sign their  petition,  it  is  presented  to  the  house-committee.  The 
 annual  meeting  of  the  children,  both  in  and  out  of  the  house, 
 has  been  already  alluded  to. 
 
 Many  of  these  rules  may  appear  trivial  to  some  persons  who 
 are  in  the  habit  of  treating  as  "boys'  j^lay"  the  occupations  of 
 children,  but  to  those  who  see  future  citizens  in  their  pupils,  I 
 am  sure  the  details  will  not  appear  irrelevant.  It  should  never 
 be  forgotten,  that  the  basis  of  our  institution  is  an  elementary 
 school,  and  that  if  this  basis  is  unsound,  we  shall  in  vain  work  at 
 the  College,  which  is  its  superstructure;  we  shall  in  vain  try  to 
 produce  good  citizens,  intelligent  tradesmen,  mechanics,  teach- 
 ers, engineers,  navigators,  merchants,  or  scholars,  unless  we 
 have  rightly  trained  the  children^  who  by  a  wise  provision  in 
 the  Will  of  our  founder,  are  to  be  early  placed  under  the  pro- 
 tection of  his  institution. 
 
 Of  those  who  view  ihe  matter  seriously,  many  object  to  the 
 
LONDON"  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  65 
 
 introduction  of  pecuniary  rewards  at  all  in  a  school.  I  tried,  as 
 far  as  my  opportunities  would  permit,  and  with  the  advantage 
 of  a  free  communication  with  the  amiable  master,  with  his 
 first  assistant,  and  others,  to  ascertain  whether  any  permanent 
 bad  effects  had  shown  themselves,  but  I  could  not  learn  that 
 such  had  been  the  case,  or  that  these  boys  appeared  more  sor- 
 did or  avaricious  than  children  generally.  In  regard  to  the 
 general  effect  of  the  regulations  it  is  certainly  good,  for  the 
 boys  are  cheerful  and  healthy,  gay  and  well  disposed  in  the 
 play-ground,  with  great  docility  and  a  reasonable  degree  of 
 quickness  in  the  class-room.  Of  course  much  of  this  depends 
 upon  the  judicious  manner  in  which  the  rules  are  executed, 
 but  if  they  were  radically  defective,  the  results  must  have  in- 
 dicated the  fact.  I  believe  that  the  system  of  family  discipline, 
 duly  carried  out,  would  produce  even  better  results,  but  such  a 
 plan  is  incompatible  with  a  limited  expenditure,  from  the  num- 
 ber and  character  of  the  agents  which  it  requires.  Upon  this 
 point,  however,  I  have  elsewhere  already  insisted,  and  if  a 
 comparison  is  to  be  drawn  between  the  system  pursued  at 
 Liverpool  and  the  one  just  described,  I  should  give  this  the 
 preference. 
 
 CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL,  OR  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL,  LONDON. 
 This  is  the  oldest  and  most  wealthy  of  all  the  institutions  in 
 Great  Britain  having  a  similar  object,  and  it  is  the  one  which 
 gives  the  most  distinguished  of  its  scholars,  after  leaving  its 
 walls,  the  best  opportunities  of  rising  to  the  stations  which  their 
 talents  warrant.  We  have  seen  that  a  few  of  the  Heriot's  boys 
 were  sent  to  the  university,  but,  in  Christ's  Hospital  there  is  a 
 systematic  selection  of  a  number  of  pujjils  for  the  English  uni- 
 versities, where  success  is  sure  to  lay  the  foundation  of  future 
 prosperity.  Though  this  school  is  not  characterized  by  the 
 practical  turn  which  must  distinguish  the  Girard  College,  yet, 
 from  the  age  to  which  a  part  of  its  pupils  are  retained,  and  the 
 degree  to  which  its  studies  are  carried,  it  will  afford  instructive 
 matter  of  examination.  The  great  scale  of  the  institution,  so 
 much  beyond  any  other  in  Great  Britain,  and,  indeed,  in  the 
 9 
 
GG  ELEKMOSYiVARV  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 world,  rendered  my  visits  to  it  very  interesting,  and  the  ac- 
 quaintance formed  with  its  intelligent  masters  and  olliccrs,* 
 was  a  source  of  great  personal  gratification. 
 
 History  and  Bidhlui^.  Christ's  Hospital  was  founded  in 
 1552,  by  King  Edward  the  Sixth,  and  was  opened  in  the  old 
 monastery  of  Gre\friars,  which  had  been  given  by  Henry  the 
 Eighth  to  the  City  of  London,  for  the  use  of  the  poor.  It 
 seems  that  from  near  the  period  of  its  foundation  one  object  of 
 the  institution  was  its  use  as  a  classical  or  grammar  school, 
 though  to  what  extent  it  served  this  purpose  does  not  clearly 
 appear.  In  1577  the  Writing  School^  so  called,  was  formed  to 
 supi)ly  great  defects  in  the  English  education  of  the  pupils,  and 
 in  1G73  the  Mathematical  School  was  established  by  Charles  the 
 Second,  for  the  education  of  officers  for  the  naval  and  mer- 
 chant services,  by  special  instruction  in  mathematics,  naviga- 
 tion, and  the  kindred  branches.  In  1G7G  originated  the  Pre- 
 paratory Estahlisluncnt  for  young  children  now  at  Hertford;  and 
 thus  were  completed,  within  about  a  century  from  the  founda- 
 tion of  the  school,  the  four  establishments  of  which  it  may  be 
 considered  as  at  present  composed.  The  number  of  governors 
 of  Christ's  Hospital  now  amounts  to  four  hundred  and  twenty, 
 including,  as  ex-ofhcio  members,  the  lord  mayor,  aldermen,  and 
 council  of  the  city  of  London.  Of  these  governors  a  standing 
 committee  of  forty  has  the  general  charge  of  the  alfairs, 
 being  responsible  to  the  general  board,  which  meets  six  times 
 yearly.f 
 
 The  capital  is  invested  chiefly  in  landed  or  funded  property, 
 the  latter  being  the  most  productive.  The  income  for  the  year 
 1830,  deducting  moneys  paid  for  stocks  and  passed  to  the  build- 
 incT  fund,  amounted  to  the  enormous  sum  of  three  hundred  and 
 thirty  three  thousand  dollars,  by  no  means  all  of  which,  how- 
 ever, was  absorbed  by  the  current  expenses,  and  these  are  so 
 
 •  I  was  indc-btuil  to  William  Vaufjhan,  Esq.,  of  London,  for  an  introduction  to 
 tills  institution,  which  opened  every  avenue  to  information  in  respect  to  it. 
 
 t  In  lb32  there  were  in  the  Hospital  at  London  and  the  Preparatory  Estab- 
 lishment at  Hertford,  thirteen  hundred  and  thirty-seven  cliildrcn;  in  1^33,  tliir- 
 tccn  hundred  \^A  thirty-five. 
 
LOJTDOy  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  67 
 
 various  in  kind,  that  they  cannot  all  properly  be  charged 
 against  the  education  and  maintenance  of"  the  pupils.  There 
 are  between  thirteen  and  fourteen  hundred  children  on  the 
 charity,  the  average  maintenance  of  each  of  whom  costs  a  little 
 over  one  hundred  and  ten  dollars,  and  including  all  expenses 
 except  the  management  of  estates,  (tc,  about  one  hundred  and 
 ninety  dollars.  The  buildings  of  the  institution  at  London  have, 
 in  later  years,  undergone  thorough  repairs ;  new  ones,  in  a 
 Gothic  style,  resembling  the  older  ones,  have  been  erected, 
 and  the  assemblage  is  now  one  of  the  most  imposing  to  be 
 found  connected  with  any  similar  establishment  in  the  world. 
 They  are  still  constantly  undergoing  alterations  upon  a  regular 
 plan,  and  thus  a  steady  improvement  in  this  respect  is  secured. 
 The  large  dining-hall,  with  the  offices  below,  the  writing-school, 
 and  the  mathematical  school,  are  beautiful  specimens  of  archi- 
 tecture, and  admirably  suited  to  their  uses.  The  cloisters, 
 which  form  the  sides  of  a  part  of  the  building,  and  which 
 connect  others,  are  excellent  places  of  play  for  wet  weather. 
 The  kitchen,  large  lavatory,*  and  other  offices  deserve  exami- 
 nation. 
 
 General  Government.  The  chief  executive  officer  is  the  trea- 
 surer,f  who  not  only  manages  the  estates,  but  has  the  control 
 of  the  institution,  and  is,  in  fact,  its  presiding  officer.  He  is  a 
 member  of  the  board  of  governors,  is  chairman  of  all  commit- 
 tees, and  when  the  committee  of  forty  are  not  in  session,  has 
 discretionary  power  of  action.  He  is  allowed  a  deputy,  called 
 a  receiver,  and  a  clerk. 
 
 The  standing  committee  of  forty  regulate  all  contracts,  and 
 the  bills  on  articles  thus  purchased  are  paid  by  the  treasurer  or 
 receiver.  Other  bills  require  the  signature  of  three  of  a  com- 
 mittee of  auditors  consisting  of  twelve  members,  of  whom  six 
 are  from  the  larger  committee,  and  six  from  the  general  board. 
 
 *  All  these  parts  of  this,  and  the  Orplian  Asylum  at  Clapton,  were  carefully 
 visited  in  my  company  by  our  architect,  T.  U.  Walter,  Esq.,  which  renders 
 further  details  from  me  unnecessary. 
 
 t  Now  J.  H.  Pigeon,  Esq.,  who  gave  me  every  facility  for  visitinor  the  insti- 
 tution. 
 
08  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The  ofliccrs  render  accounts  once  a  month  to  the  committee 
 of  forty,  and  the  cash  book  is  submitted  to  their  examination. 
 The  salaries,  including  tliose  of  the  masters,  steward,  beadles, 
 &c.,  arc  paid  quarterly,  at  the  counting-house  within  the 
 Hospital  enclosure,  by  the  treasurer.  The  house-servants 
 (females,)  are  paid  by  the  matron.  The  out-door  servants 
 and  labourers,  by  the  receiver,  monthly.  The  steward  re- 
 ceives monthly  £100  in  advance  for  petty  expenses,  for  which 
 he  accounts.  To  transact  the  business  of  the  counting-house, 
 the  following  officers  are  required: — 1st.  A  chief  clerk,  who 
 conducts  all  correspondence,  attends  meetings  of  committees 
 and  of  the  board,  (called  courts,)  6lc.  2d.  A  receiver,  who  is 
 the  treasurer's  deputy,  and  assists  the  clerk  as  secretary  at  the 
 meetings  of  committees.  3d.  A  wardrobe-keeper  and  cliief  as- 
 sistant clerk,  who,  under  contracts  made  by  the  committee,  in- 
 spects, receives,  and  delivers  all  apparel,  and  assists  in  the 
 counting-house.  4th.  Two  other  assistant  clerks,  who  are  se- 
 lected from  among  the  pupils  of  the  school.  5th.  Two  mes- 
 sengers. All  articles  required  for  the  establishment,  except 
 provisions,  are  received  at  this  counting-house,  and  drawn  out 
 on  orders  from  those  who  superintend  their  use. 
 
 Besides  the  oflicers  connected  with  the  estates,  are  a  solicitor, 
 and  a  surveyor,  who  is  also  the  architect,  and  who  has  his  office 
 within  the  buildings.  All  the  officers  hold  their  appointments 
 at  the  will  of  the  governors,  and  the  treasurer  has  the  power  of 
 sus))ending  any  one  of  them,  reporting  the  case  to  the  com- 
 mittee. 
 
 Besides  the  servants  already  mentioned,  are  a  porter  for  the 
 front  gate,  a  gale-keeper  for  the  private  entrance,  who  also  at- 
 tends to  the  lauijjs  in  the  courts,  two  watchmen,  a  cook,  who 
 is  required  to  keep  two  servants  to  assist  her,  labourers  to  light 
 fn-es,  bring  water,  &lc.  The  porter  is  expected  to  attend  to 
 the  fire-engine  and  plugs,  and  to  be  responsible  for  their  good 
 order.  Tt>  be  sure  that  the  watchmen  are  on  the  alert  at  every 
 liour  of  the  night,  the  following  ingenious  plan  is  adopted.  A 
 dial-plate  moved  by  a  clock,  presents  a  number  of  holes  corres- 
 ponding to  the  hours,  each  of  which  passes  in  turn  before  an 
 
LONDON  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  69 
 
 opening  in  the  dock-case;  a  pin  is  required  to  be  inserted  into 
 one  of  these  holes,  which  can  only  be  done  at  or  near  the  pro- 
 per time;  and  if  omitted,  the  want  of  vigilance  is  detected. 
 
 Admission^  ^^c.  The  presentations  of  candidates  for  admission 
 are  made  in  the  meetings  of  the  governors,  each  member  of  the 
 board  having  a  right  of  nomination  in  turn.  The  cases  are 
 then  discussed  and  voted  upon.  There  is  no  precise  limit  set 
 by  law  to  the  income  of  a  parent  which  would  exclude  his 
 child,  but  each  case  is  separately  considered.*  There  is  also 
 no  qualification  as  to  previous  instruction.  The  age  of  admis- 
 sion is  between  six  and  ten,  the  same  fixed  upon  by  Mr.  Gi- 
 rard  for  the  admission  of  orphans  into  his  college.  There  is  no 
 obligation  on  the  governors  either  to  bind  out  the  children  who 
 are  to  enter  their  apprenticeship  when  they  leave  the  institution, 
 or  to  maintain  them  in  any  way;  there  are,  however,  various 
 benefactions,  which  have  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
 board  for  such  purpose  by  difTerent  benevolent  individuals. 
 The  boys  of  the  mathematical  school  are  appointed  in  the 
 navy,  or  apprenticed  in  the  merchant  service,  and  the  most  dis- 
 tinguished pupils  of  the  grammar  school  have  various  scholar- 
 ships open  to  them  at  the  universities. 
 
 Intellectual  Education.  Various  changes  have  been  made  in 
 the  instruction  at  diflerent  times  since  the  foundation  of  the 
 institution,  to  bring  it  more  nearly  in  unison  with  the  general 
 condition  of  education  of  the  day.  It  is  not  necessary  to  detail 
 these  alterations,  but  merely  to  give  some  account  of  the  pre- 
 sent state  of  the  schools.f  The  objects  of  the  education  here 
 may  be  considered  as  threefold.  First,  to  fit  boys  for  trades  or 
 mercantile  pursuits;  these  pupils  leaving  the  institution  at  about 
 fourteen  years  of  age.  Second,  to  fit  boys  for  the  naval  or 
 merchant  service;  these  pupils  having  a  special  course  in  the 
 
 *  I  was  informed  that  an  income  of  fifteen  hundred  dollars  (X300)  per  annum 
 had  been  ruled  to  exclude  from  tlie  school  the  child  of  a  futlier  possessing  it,  un- 
 less he  had  a  large  family. 
 
 t  At  one  period  in  the  history  of  the  school,  the  pupils  studied  but  one  branch 
 at  a  time,  and  this  depending  upon  their  age  I  showing  the  strange  ideas  of  intel- 
 lectual culture  then  prevailing. 
 
70  ELEEMOSWARY   I V^^TIXrTIO.VS. 
 
 inathcmatical  scliool,  anrl  leaving  tlie  institnilon  at  the  age  of 
 sixteen.  Third,  to  fit  a  chosen  few  for  the  universities;  these 
 devote  themselves  to  classics,  mainly  complete  their  instruction 
 in  the  upper  grammar  school,  and  leave  the  institution  at  about 
 eighteen  or  nineteen.  The  ])rcliininary  school  at  Hertford  is 
 tlie  nursery  of  the  estahlishment,  and  rrr)m  it,  as  vacancies  oc- 
 cur, the  pujiils  arc  transferred  to  the  London  house.  It  is  ex- 
 pected that  previous  to  this  transfer,  the  boys  have  acquired 
 some  knowhulge  of  English,  of  arithmetic,  and  of  the  rudiments 
 of  I^atin.  On  arriving  at  the  London  school,  they  join  one  of 
 two  great  divisions  which  are  equal  in  standing,  and  one  of 
 which  attends  the  c:rammar  school  in  the  morning'  and  the  wri- 
 ting  school  in  the  afternoon,  the  other  alternating  w^ith  the  first, 
 and  the  time  of  attendance  being  changed  every  alternate  week. 
 The  grammar  school  is  divided  into  two  departments,  called 
 the  upper  and  lower  schools,  each  containing  three  classes, 
 those  of  the  lower  school  designated  as  the  junior,  middle,  and 
 upper  classes,  and  of  the  upper  school  as  great  Erasmus, 
 deputy  Grecians,  and  Grecians.  The  head  master*  has  the 
 special  cliarge  of  the  upper  school,  giving  instruction  person- 
 ally to  its  two  higher  classes,  and  superintends  the  lower  school, 
 which  he  examines  every  six  months.  All  these  classes  alter- 
 nate in  their  attendance  at  the  grammar  and  writing  schools, 
 except  the  deputy  Grecians  and  Grecians,  who  attend  the  ma- 
 thematical school  for  three  hours  on  two  afternoons  of  the 
 week.  The  lower  school  is  directly  under  the  cliarge  of  two 
 masters,  who  use  the  same  books  and  pursue  the  same  general 
 course,  and  who  are  in  part  assisted  by  monitors  from  the  upjier 
 school.  The  instruction  consists  of  spelling,  English  reading, 
 grammar,  geography,  Latin  and  Greek  rudiments,  and  an  in- 
 troduction to  the  church  catechism.  The  classical  lessons  are 
 Latin  or  Greek  grammar,  construing  and  parsing,  and  exer- 
 cises. In  the  writing  school  these  same  boys  are  taught  wri- 
 ting, arithmetic,  book-keeping,  the  drawing  of  invoices,  and  all 
 matters  intended  to  fit  them  specially  for  the  counting-house,  and 
 
 ■    At  present  the  Rev.  Mr.  Rirr,  to  whose  politeness*  T  wn.-*   iiiueli  iiuKl)ted. 
 
LONDON    BLUE-COAT    SCHOOL.  71 
 
 writing  from  dictation  is  added  to  improve  their  orthography. 
 There  are  two  masters  and  two  ushers  for  this  school. 
 
 Twenty  of  these  boys  may,  also,  attend  a  lesson  in  drawing 
 once  a  week,  but  as  the  hour  fixed  for  the  purpose  is  at  present 
 during  the  time  of  "half  holiday,"  but  little  use  is  made  of  the 
 privilege. 
 
 The  pupils  of  the  lower  grammar  school  are  carried  thus  as 
 far  as  the  Heriot's  and  George  Watson's  boys  of  Edinburgh, 
 and  the  greater  number  of  them  have  arrived  at  the  age  when 
 they  leave  the  institution  to  be  apprenticed  to  trades  and  similar 
 occupations.  The  courses  of  instruction  here  are  more  con- 
 centrated, and  in  those  just  named  of  Edinburgh,  include  more 
 useful  branches.  Both  are  liable  to  the  objection  that  much 
 time  is  spent  upon  matters  which  are  not  pursued  far  enough 
 to  secure  the  mental  culture  w^hich  w^ould  otherwise  result 
 from  them,  and  yet  which  have  no  bearing  upon  the  future 
 occupations  of  the  pupils.  In  reply  to  this  objection,  it  may 
 be  said,  that  it  is  impossible  to  discriminate  between  boys 
 at  this  early  age,  and  to  discern  who  have  the  aptitude  for  a 
 thorough  training  by  languages,  or  who  will  make  the  future 
 Grecians  of  the  school.  That  it  is  difficult  may  be  freely  ad- 
 mitted, but  that  it  is  impossible  I  do  not  believe.  With  the  re- 
 sources of  an  institution  like  Christ's  Hospital,  the  number  of 
 teachers  may  be  so  far  multiplied  as  to  permit  an  accurate 
 study  and  appreciation  of  the  actual  talents  of  a  youth,  and  to 
 watch  the  progress  of  their  development;  on  the  average,  the 
 appreciation  would  be  just,  and  remedies  for  cases  of  error 
 or  of  late  development  are  easily  provided.  But,  if  we  suppose 
 the  discrimination  impossible,  and  that  all  must  receive,  up  to 
 thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age,  an  education  to  prepare  them 
 for  the  business  of  life,  in  a  lower  occupation,  or  one  introductory 
 to  his/her  studies — with  which  individual  will  the  case  be  the 
 harder?  With  him  who,  having  received  the  lower  kind  of  in- 
 struction, has  the  talent  to  push  himself  into  the  higher  studies, 
 and  who,  besides,  remains  at  the  institution  for  several  years 
 for  this  purpose,  or  with  him  who  is  at  once  to  enter  an  appren- 
 ticeship to  a  trade  without  having  acquired  the  necessary  in- 
 
72  ELEEMOSVXARY  IXSTITUTIOXS. 
 
 formation  introductory  to  his  career?  Obviously  the  latter  inrli- 
 vidual  will  find  his  position  the  more  difficult  one.  But  we  are 
 not  left  to  such  a  comparison  in  this  particular  instance,  for 
 there  are  less  than  seventy  cases  in  Vvliich  the  studies  may  be 
 claimed  to  prepare  for  the  pursuits  of  the  youth,  to  more  than 
 three  liundrcd  of  the  opposite  character.  Whore  the  numbers 
 stand  thus,  I  do  not  conceive  that  there  should  be  any  hesita- 
 tion as  to  the  course  to  be  pursued. 
 
 INIy  first  position,  that  it  is  practicable  so  to  arrancrc  an  insti- 
 tution that  superior  talent  shall  receive  full  opportunities  for  its 
 cultivation,  without  sacrificing  inferior  talent  by  inappropriate 
 instruction,  is  fully  borne  out  by  the  experience  of  some  of  the 
 orphan  schools  of  Germany  and  Holland,  which  I  shall  hereafter 
 describe.  My  excuse  for  so  often  recurring  to  this  sul)ject, 
 must  be  found  in  the  fact,  that  this  question  must  be  decided  for 
 the  Girard  College  by  its  Trustees,  and  I  am,  therefore,  most 
 anxious  in  regard  to  it.  I  return  to  the  course  of  the  descrip- 
 tion of  Christ's  Hospital,  thus  interrupted,  and  resume  the  con- 
 sideration of  the  arrangements  of  the  gramniar  school,  with 
 the  lower  class  of  the  upper  school. 
 
 The  boys  of  the  great  Erasmus  class  are  pushed  forward  in 
 the  classical  studies,  being  those  from  among  whom  the  dcjmty 
 Grecians  are  selected.  In  Latin  they  read  parts  of  Sallust, 
 Ovid's  Epistles,  and  Virgil,  and  in  Greek  of  the  Diatessaron  and 
 of  Xcnophnn's  Anabasis.  During  the  last  half  year  of  the  course, 
 the  pupils  who  have  no  expectation  of  promotion  drop  ofl*,  and 
 are  apjirenticed  by  their  parents  or  friends  to  surgeons,  solici- 
 tors, etc.  7'hcre  are  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  pupils  usually 
 in  this  class,  and  their  average  age  is  about  fifteen  years. 
 
 The  deputy  Grecians  are,  during  nearly  half  the  time  spent 
 in  the  grammar  school,  under  the  charge  of  the  head  master, 
 and  study  the  following  authors  and  books: — In  Latin,  Virgil's 
 iEncid,  Ovid's  Epistles,  Horace,  selected  orations  of  Cicero, 
 Terence,  Valpy's  Exercises,  Elegantia  Lat.,  part  second.  Ken- 
 rick's  Abridgment  of  Zumpt's  Latin  Grammar,  Edward's  Latin 
 Lyrics  and  JOIogiacs,  Latin  and  I'higlish  versification.  Portions 
 of  Horace  and  Uvid  arc  Icarnctl  hv  heart,  anil  themes  are  writ- 
 
LONDON  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  73 
 
 ten.  In  Greek,  Scriptores  Grncci,  Homer,  Demosthenes,  Ed- 
 wards' Abridgment  of  Matthioc's  Greek  Grammar,  IlLintingford's 
 Exercises.  Portions  of  Homer  arc  committed  to  memory.  In 
 Hebrew,  the  grammar.  In  English,  Butler's  Geography,  Histo- 
 rical Catechism,  English  Poetry.  An  English  theme,  and  prac- 
 tice in  versification,  alternate  with  the  corresponding  exercises 
 in  Latin.  There  are  ordinarily  from  eighteen  to  twenty  in  this 
 class,  some  of  whom  are  promoted  to  the  next  higher,  and  others 
 are  withdrawn  by  their  friends  to  begin  the  study  of  a  profes- 
 sion, or,  having  completed  their  preparatory  studies  by  the  same 
 assistance,  enter  the  universities  by  successful  competition  for 
 some  open  scholarship,  or  at  the  expense  of  their  friends. 
 
 The  Grecians  pursue  the  studies  necessary  for  admission  to 
 the  universities,  and  as  one  of  the  scholarships  belonging  to  the 
 hospital,  or  to  which  the  Christ's  Hospital  boys  have  the  prefe- 
 rence, at  either  university,  becomes  vacant,  the  eldest  member 
 of  the  class  is  promoted,  his  place  being  filled  from  the  most 
 promising  of  the  deputy  Grecians.  Two  vacancies  at  Cambridge 
 every  year,  and  one  at  Oxford  every  fourth  year,  are  thus  sup- 
 plied. There  are  usually  seven  or  eight  members  in  the  class 
 of  Grecians,  which,  by  the  arrangements  just  stated,  must  con- 
 tain pupils  in  various  states  of  progress,  and  usually  of  different 
 ages,  some  of  them  having  reached  eighteen  and  even  twenty 
 years  of  age.  The  class  is  principally  under  the  immediate 
 charge  of  the  head  master,  and  their  course  of  classical  studies 
 is  very  extensive.  As  already  stated,  they  receive  instruction  in 
 mathematics  for  three  hours,  on  two  afternoons  of  every  week. 
 Their  studies  in  the  grammar  school  are,  in  Latin,  Livy,  Horace, 
 and  Juvenal,  alternately,  Cicero,  Tusc.  Disput.,  and  de  Nat.  Deo- 
 rum.  Pitman's  Excerp.  ex  Var.  Rom.  Poet.,  Kenrick's  Exercises 
 on  Zumpt's  Latin  Grammar,  Edward's  Exercises  on  Latin 
 Lyrics,  and  translations  into  Latin  Elegiacs  and  Lyrics,  frequent 
 exercise  in  Latin  and  English  versification  and  declamation, 
 learning  by  heart  portions  of  Horace,  Juvenal,  and  Virgil's  Geor- 
 gics.  In  Greek,  Dalzcl's  Analccta  Majora,  vols.  1  and  2,  Hero- 
 dotus, Thucydides,  Barker's  Selected  Orations  of  Demosthenes, 
 Homer's  Iliad,  Aristophanes,  Kenrick's  Greek  Exercises,  part  se= 
 
 10 
 
74  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 cond,  Buttmann*s  Grammar,  Greek  prosody  and  versification, 
 Beatson's  Exercises  in  Greek  Iambics,  the  translation  of  Greek 
 into  Latin  and  vice  versa,  the  Greek  Testament.  In  Hebrew, 
 the  grammar  and  part  of  the  Psalter. 
 
 The  sons  of  ofTicers  of  the  navy,  and  others  who  have  been 
 elected  to  tlie  foundation,  are  ])laced  in  tiie  mathematical  school 
 after  they  have  attained  the  necessary  knowledge  of  English 
 and  arithmetic,  and  have  been  until  about  fifteen  years  of  age 
 in  the  f^rammar  and  writinc:  schools.  Here  the  studies  are  en- 
 tirely  mathematical,  embracing  such  applications  as  are  essen- 
 tial to  navigation.  Formerly,  instruments  were  in  possession  of 
 the  institution  for  exercise  in  practical  astronomy,  and  even  an 
 observatory  was  attached  to  the  buildings;  but  I  believe  nothing 
 of  this  kind  now  exists.  These  boys  attend  a  drawing  master 
 two  afternoons  in  the  week,  and  their  places  are  occupied  by 
 the  Grecians  and  deputy  Grecians. 
 
 Twice  a  year  the  difTerent  scholastic  departments  are  ex- 
 amined, viz.  in  May  and  November.  The  examination  is 
 not  conducted  by  the  masters,  but  by  gentlemen  unconnected 
 with  the  institution,  appointed  for  that  purpose,  and  who 
 report  to  the  governors.  Prizes  are  given  in  the  writing 
 school,  to  the  boys  most  proficient  in  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
 drawing,  and  specimens  of  the  writing  of  all  the  boys  are  post- 
 ed for  inspection.  This  plan  of  examining  by  persons  not  con- 
 nected with  a  school,  prevails  in  many  public  establishments, 
 both  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  sup- 
 posed to  insure  at  once  impartial  dealing  towards  the  pupils,  with 
 whom  the  examiner  in  general  has  no  acquaintance,  and  a  fair 
 report  of  the  character  of  the  instruction,  and  was  the  means,  at 
 one  period,  of  rectifying  very  great  abuses  in  tiie  mathematical 
 school  of  Christ's  Hospital.  Examinations  are  too  apt  to  de- 
 generate into  a  show,  if  public,  without  some  such  precaution, 
 especially  if  viva  voce,  and  yet  the  metiiod  above  referred  to 
 is  lialjlc  t(j  seriuus  objections.  Besides  these  examinations,  every 
 boy  who  has  attained  the  age  of  thirteen  is  examined  in  spell- 
 ing and  reading  English. 
 
 The  masters  of  this  establishment  have  in  general  a  right  to 
 
LONDON  ELUE'COAT  SCHOOL.  "75 
 
 i-^ceive  each  six  private  pupils,  to  be  educated  with  the  boys  of 
 the  house;  this  is  a  privilege  conferred  with  a  view  to  increase 
 their  stipends,  which  are  not  considered  adequate. 
 
 The  vacations  are  eighteen  days  at  Easter,  four  weeks  in 
 August,  and  fifteen  days  at  Christmas,  Sundays  inclusive.  Be- 
 side this,  the  afternoons  of  Saturdays  are  holidays,  and  Wednes- 
 day is  alternately  a  whole  and  half-holiday.  Those  boys  whose 
 friends  wish  them  to  spend  the  August  holidays  out  of  London 
 with  them,  may  be  permitted  to  do  so;  an  indulgence  formerly 
 granted  but  once  in  three  years,  but  now  annually.  On  such 
 occasions  they  are  required  not  to  appear  in  the  city.  Those 
 who  remain  in  the  hospital  during  August,  have  permission 
 to  visit  their  friends  in  London  three  days  in  every  week, 
 unless  stopped  for  punishment's  sake.  On  certain  other  holidays, 
 all  the  pupils  are  allowed  to  leave  the  enclosure,  and  on  the 
 half-holidays  those  boys  who  have  deserved  reward  are  per- 
 mitted to  leave  the  institution,  returning  by  an  appointed  hour 
 in  the  evening.  On  these  occasions  they  must  wear  the  uni- 
 form of  the  school,  a  precaution  adopted,  partly  as  insuring  the 
 good  conduct  of  the  pupil,  and  partly  his  safety,  from  the  favour- 
 able regard  of  the  public  towards  the  institution.  During  my 
 stay  in  London  I  frequently  met  these  boys  in  the  streets,  and 
 never  saw  one  misbehaving,  and  certainly  believe  that  their 
 pecuHar  costume  insures  them  protection,  attracting  much  at- 
 tention from  its  antique  appearance  even  in  that  crowded  me- 
 tropolis. To  prevent  absence  without  leave,  the  gates  are  ob- 
 served by  certain  elder  boys,  who  receive  tickets  of  leave  to  go 
 beyond  the  bounds  as  a  reward  for  the  discharge  of  their  weekly 
 office.  A  bell  is  also  rung  by  the  steward  at  irregular  times,  to 
 call  all  together,  and  detect  absentees. 
 
 The  boys  receive  lessons  in  singing,  but  only  to  prepare  them 
 to  take  part  in  church  music. 
 
 There  are  two  libraries  which  may  be  consulted  under  pro- 
 per regulations;  one,  of  English  and  classical  works,  in  the 
 upper  grammar  school,  is  intended  for  the  boys  of  that  school, 
 and  is  placed  in  the  Grecians'  parlour.     The  second  is  of 
 
"70  ELEEMOSYNARY    INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 entertaining  books,  and  is  under  the  same  control.  The  books 
 are  furnished  by  the  governors  on  the  requisition  of  the  head 
 master. 
 
 jMural  and  Religious  Instniclion  and  Discipline.  We  have 
 seen  that  the  instruction  in  church  catechism  by  the  masters 
 is  one  part  of  tiie  school  duties;  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  sing- 
 ing of  psalins,  graces,  lVlc,  and  attendance  at  Sunday  worship 
 are  other  means  of  religious  instruction,  and  are  very  regularly 
 attended  to.  On  Sunday  a  Bible  lesson  is  learned,  and  the  boys 
 are  questioned  upon  it  by  the  monitors,  and  the  head  master 
 reads  a  lecture  after  supper.  Every  night  prayers  are  read  in 
 the  hall  by  one  of  the  Grecians,  and  a  psalm  is  sung,  after 
 which  a  monitor  reads  a  short  prayer  in  the  wards  before  the 
 boys  retire  to  bed. 
 
 The  discipline  in  the  school-room  varies,  of  course,  with  the 
 instructor,  but  is  in  all  reasonably  good.  Corporal  punishment  is 
 sparingly  resorted  to,  and  the  opinion  of  the  head  master,  who 
 has  had  much  experience  in  the  concerns  of  the  institution,  was 
 very  unfavourable  to  its  frequent  use,  as  tending  to  harden  the 
 character  of  the  boys,  and  to  render  them  less  tractable  and 
 well  disposed  towards  their  masters  and  others.  Out  of  doors 
 the  pupils  are  superintended  by  the  steward,  who  has  under  his 
 charge  four  servants,  called  beadles,  who  attend  in  the  difler- 
 ent  courts,  and  report  infraction  of  regulations.  The  older  re- 
 cords show  tiiat  the  boys  were  in  former  times  in  the  habit 
 of  very  rough  conduct  in  their  intercourse  with  each  other. 
 This  is  much  modified  at  present,  but  struck  me  as  still  ad- 
 mitting of  improvement.  On  this  point  I  may  be  fastidious, 
 but  I  believe  that  the  Christian  law  of  love  is  not  to  be  lost 
 sight  of  in  school,  if  we  would  have  it  practised  in  society, 
 and  that  independence  of  character  is  by  no  means  inconsistent 
 with  kindness  in  intercourse.  The  system  of  tagging  which 
 prevails  at  one  of  the  principal  English  grammar  schools  which 
 I  visited,  and  exists  in  many  others,  is  not  allowed  here,  and 
 the  younger  boys  arc  not  subjected  thus  to  the  tyranny  of  the 
 elder  ones.     Tiiose  boys  who  are  selected  for  trusts  in  the  dor- 
 
LONDON  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  77 
 
 mitories  and  in  school,  are  chosen  for  good  character,  their  selec- 
 tion being  entirely  at  the  master's  option,  and  when  they  offend 
 they  may  be  displaced  by  the  same  authority.  In  the  school 
 the  eye  of  the  teacher  is  upon  the  monitors,  and  in  the  dormi- 
 tories the  authority  of  the  nurse  is  at  hand  to  control  them,  so 
 that  abuse  of  their  delegated  power  is  difficult.  At  meals, 
 the  boys  are  superintended  by  the  steward  and  matron,  and 
 certain  Grecians. 
 
 The  monitors  are  selected  by  the  steward,  with  the  advice 
 of  the  teachers,  from  among  the  boys  who  are  highest  in  the 
 classes  of  the  grammar  and  writing  schools.  Besides  this 
 class,  whose  duties  in  and  out  of  school  hours  have  been  stated, 
 there  is  another  class  of  boys,  called  "  markers,"  selected  by 
 the  head  master  of  the  grammar  school,  and  solely  in  reference 
 to  their  rank  in  that  school,  to  hear  the  lessons  of  catechism 
 and  Sunday  reading.  These  wear  a  badge,  which  they  are 
 allowed  to  preserve  on  leaving  the  school.  The  two  situations 
 are  not  incompatible. 
 
 The  nurse  and  w^ard  monitors  are  responsible  for  proper  con- 
 duct during  washing  in  the  morning  and  evening.  Each  has 
 a  ward  in  charge,  containing  from  fifty  to  sixty  boys,  and  has 
 control  over  the  servants  of  the  ward.  There  are  two  special 
 nurses  for  the  infirmary.  The  apartments  of  the  nurse*  are  at 
 the  end  of  the  ward,  and  look  into  it.  She  is  responsible  for  the 
 general  order  of  the  ward,  has  charge  of  the  mending,  of  dis- 
 tributing clean  clothes,  &c.,  which  she  does  through  the  ward 
 monitor.  When  any  of  the  pupils  are  unwell,  she  takes  them  to 
 the  infirmary,  or  reports  them  to  the  physician.  She  reports  the 
 number  who  are  well  each  day  to  the  steward  for  meals.  This 
 superintendence  by  females  struck  me  as  strange,  since  some  of 
 the  boys  are  quite  well  grown,  and  the  Grecians,  who  occupy 
 a  part  of  the  ward,  are  young  men,  frequently  nearly  nineteen 
 years  of  age.  The  singularity  of  the  arrangement,  however, 
 disappears,  in  great  part,  when  it  is  considered  that  the  same 
 
 *  The  rules  prescribe  that  the  nurses  shall  be  widows,  and  above  forty  years 
 of  age. 
 
78  ELEEMOSYNARY  IVSTITUTIOVS. 
 
 nurse  always  has  charge  of  a  boy,  from  his  early  entrance  into 
 the  institution  until  he  leaves  it,  and  hence  becomes  as  a  mo- 
 ther to  him;  and,  in  fact,  some  have  actually  their  own  children 
 among  the  pupils  of  the  ward.  Admitting  that  care  is  required 
 in  the  selection  of  the  nurses,  I  must  say  that  neither  from  ob- 
 servation nor  inquiry  could  I  learn  that  in  this  institution  the 
 arrangement  was  productive  of  dilhculties.  This  was  not,  how- 
 ever, the  case  in  another  school  which  I  visited,  where  the  se- 
 lection had  been  less  judicious,  and  where  the  discipline  was 
 rather  relaxed.  The  nurses  are  assisted  in  their  wards  by  the 
 ward  monitors,  and  superintended  by  the  matron  and  steward. 
 They  are  present  at  the  prayers  said  on  rising  and  going  to 
 bed.  The  servants  of  the  wards  arc  named,  paid,  and  may  be 
 discharged  by  them. 
 
 Corporal  punishment  is  discouraged  out  of  school  as  well  as 
 in  it.  A  few  boys  may  be  indulged  by  sitting  up  after  the 
 others,  as  a  reward  for  good  conduct,  but  none  can  be  up  later 
 than  a  quarter  before  ten  o'clock.  The  Grecians  have  the  pri- 
 vilege of  sitting  up  until  ten  o'clock. 
 
 It  might  naturally  be  supposed  that,  in  so  large  an  institution 
 as  this,  having  within  its  enclosure  between  seven  and  eight  hun- 
 dred youths,  one  would  find  an  exact  code  of  rules  and  regula- 
 tions lor  discipline.  But  such  is  not  the  case,  nor  do  they  seem  to 
 feel  the  want  of  it.  The  discretionary  power  vested  in  the  dif- 
 ferent officers  works  without  rules.  General  verbal  instruc- 
 tions are  given  to  the  inferior  officers  by  their  superiors,  but 
 the  usages  of  the  school  have  passed  into  a  common  law,  well 
 understood  by  both  the  pupils  and  officers. 
 
 A  well  regulated  gradation  of  privileges,  constituting  a  gra- 
 dual assumption  of  the  entire  resj)onsibility  of  his  conduct  l)y 
 the  pu])il  is,  in  my  opinion,  essential  to  the  success  of  an  insti- 
 tution which  aims  at  preparing  youth  for  the  business  of  life. 
 The  want  of  it  is  the  cause,  no  doubt,  why  so  many  fall  away 
 from  rectitude  on  issuing  from  these  recluse  establishments,  and 
 finding  themselves  in  entirely  novel  circumstances.  Partial  at- 
 tempts have  been  made,  in  some  schools,  to  remedy  this  dillicul- 
 ty;  for  example,  at  the  Orphan-house  of  Halle,  the  pupil  has  an 
 
LONDON  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  79 
 
 allowance  in  money  for  the  purchase  of  his  breakfast,  that  he 
 may  learn  to  dispose  of  money  on  his  own  account.  At  Ham- 
 burgh, the  pupils  are  sent  of  errands  into  the  city,  to  become 
 familiar  with  its  localities  and  the  manners  of  the  people.  In 
 one  of  the  grammar  schools  of  Holland,  a  similar  idea  is  ap- 
 plied to  a  gradation  of  instruction  between  the  hourly  respon- 
 sibility of  the  pupil  of  an  ordinary  school,  and  the  entire  free- 
 dom of  the  member  of  a  university;  and  a  plan  in  part  resem- 
 bling this  has  been  adopted  at  Geneva,  in  their  more  recent 
 arrangements  for  higher  education.  In  this  institution  the 
 monitors  and  markers  have  privileges,  but  the  Grecians  are 
 those  who  are  pre-eminently  favoured.  They  receive  each  fifty 
 dollars  a  year  to  dispose  of,  and  each  one  has  a  study,  and  a 
 bed  separated  by  a  curtain  from  others  in  the  dormitories. 
 They  have  a  parlour  in  common,  a  superior  table,  and  a  dress 
 differing  somewhat  from  that  of  the  other  pupils;  retire  at  dif- 
 ferent hours  from  the  others,  are  allowed  to  leave  the  premises 
 during  the  day,  except  in  school  hours ;  assist  in  keeping  order 
 within  doors,  being  superior  to  the  monitors,  and  aid  the  mas- 
 ters in  school.  These  arrangements,  as  far  as  they  extend, 
 are  highly  judicious,  and  productive  of  good  results. 
 
 Physical  Education.  The  health  of  these  boys  appears,  in 
 general,  remarkably  good,  and  their  physical  development 
 even  above  the  average.  They  are  not  overburthened  with  in- 
 door work,  and  are  kept  as  much  as  possible  in  the  open  air. 
 Their  play-ground,  however,  is  rather  limited  in  extent,  and  their 
 sports  are,  in  consequence,  not  of  the  most  athletic  kind.  The 
 frequent  opportunities  of  leaving  the  enclosure  remedy  this  de- 
 fect in  part,  and  their  cloisters  give  them  great  advantages 
 over  boys  who  have  no  covered  play-ground,  especially  in  so 
 humid  a  climate  as  that  of  England.  While  at  play,  they  are 
 superintended  by  beadles,  of  whom  there  arc  four,  one  having 
 charge  of  each  court.  The  beadles  also  superintend  the  boys 
 at  rising  and  washing,  and  one  of  them  has  charge  of  the  small 
 gate,  which  is  commonly  open,  and  prevents  any  pupil  from 
 egress  without  a  pass.  This  only  applies  to  the  younger  pupils, 
 the  Grecians,  as  already  stated,  having  free  egress  except  dur- 
 
80  ELEEMOSYNARY  IXSTITUTIOXS. 
 
 ing  school  hours  and  after  night.  The  steward,  besides  his  duties 
 ah'cady  generally  mentioned,  is  responsihlc  for  the  conduct  of 
 the  boys  while  at  play  and  at  meals;  no  boy  can  be  absent 
 from  meals  without  liis  authority,  and  he  may  punish  by  con- 
 finement to  bounds  or  to  the  room  any  infringements  of  good 
 order.  He  regulates  not  only  the  receipts,  but  the  delivery  of 
 provisions,  in  which  ollices  he  is  assisted  by  boys  detailed  for 
 the  purpose.  The  pupils,  under  his  dircrtiun,  receive  the  pro- 
 visions, and  serve  and  clear  the  tables.  Some  of  these  ollices 
 are  rewards,  and  carry  with  them  small  gratifications  in  the 
 way  of  leaves  to  be  absent  from  bounds,  <tc.,  others  are  punish- 
 ments for  faults  committed.  The  diet  is  plain, but  wholesome; 
 the  mode  of  serving  the  table,  the  utensils,  &c.,  are,  however, 
 antique  in  the  extreme.  The  matron  sends  the  portions  for  their 
 tables  to  the  nurses,  who  distribute  to  the  boys  and  one  of  the 
 Grecians,  or  deputy  Grecians,  the  nurse  superintending,  carves, 
 while  the  boys  who  are  appointed  for  the  purpose  act  as  waiters. 
 A  portion  of  Scripture  and  a  prayer  are  read,  and  grace  said  or 
 sung,  before  beginning  the  meal;  thanks  are  returned  at  the 
 close,  and  the  dining-hall  is  vacated  at  signals  from  the  steward, 
 who  presides.  Besides  the  regular  meals  three  times  a  day, 
 bread  is  distributed  once,  one  of  the  boys  carrying  a  basket, 
 and  another  serving.  Of  the  various  ofiices  filled  by  the  boys, 
 I  found  it  impossible  to  discriminate  those  considered  marks  of 
 dishonour  from  the  others,  but  usage  has  rendered  the  artificial 
 distinctions  perfectly  familiar  to  the  pupils.  What  remains  of 
 the  provisions  after  meals  is  distrilmied  to  the  poor. 
 
 Clothinfr.  The  supply  of  clothing  consists  of  two  suit.?  every 
 year,  and  is  ample  to  keep  the  boys  looking  neat.  Their  cos- 
 tume is  surprisingly  antique,  being,  in  fact,  the  same  which  was 
 adopted  at  or  near  the  j)eriod  of  the  foundation,  and  from  which 
 the  popular  name  of  the  Blue-coat  School  is  derived.  As  it  is 
 entirely  inapplicable  to  the  use  of  a  modern  school,  I  may  pass 
 over  the  subject  with  one  remark,  however,  bearing  upon  the 
 health.  The  cap  is  so  small  as  to  allbrd  a  very  inconsiderable 
 protection  to  the  head,  and  being  inconvenient  is,  in  fiict,  not 
 used  at  all,  so  that  both  out  and  in  doors,  these  boys  appear 
 
LONDON  BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL.  81 
 
 with  bare  heads.  That  this  has  an  efTcct  in  preventing  com- 
 plaints of  the  head,  such  as  ring-worms  and  scald-heads,  I 
 make  no  doubt  from  observation,  and  in  some  climates,  or 
 when  weather  permits,  the  practice  is,  I  believe,  beneficial.  It 
 prevails  even  more  extensively  on  the  continent  than  in  Eng- 
 land, and  I  was  quite  surprised  to  see  the  pupils  of  Mr.  Fellen- 
 berg's  school,  at  Hofwyl,  in  Switzerland,  going  bare  headed, 
 without  inconvenience,  out  of  doors,  when  I  required  a  fire 
 within. 
 
 The  mending  is  done  on  the  premises,  the  clothes  being  re- 
 paired by  the  nurses,  and  the  shoes  by  a  workman  constantly 
 employed  for  the  purpose.  The  regulation  requiring  the  pupils 
 to  wear  the  uniform  of  the  school  w^hen  absent  on  leave  from 
 its  bounds,  acts  as  a  great  stimulus  to  neatness  and  the  care  of 
 clothing. 
 
 Cleanliness.  This  subject  has  attracted  much  attention  here, 
 and  great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  arrangements 
 for  promoting  cleanliness.  Formerly,  the  boys  of  one  dormi- 
 tory washed  in  common  in  a  trough,  and  wiped  upon  one 
 towel.  Thus  any  disease  of  the  head  or  eyes  was  propagated 
 rapidly  and  certainly,  and  the  want  of  cleanliness  tended  to  en- 
 courage the  production  of  such  diseases.  Besides  a  large  lava- 
 tory, capable  of  accommodating  one  hundred  boys,  and  fur- 
 nished w^ith  a  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water,  each  dormitory 
 has  now  an  adjacent  smaller  lavatory,  well  supplied  with  water; 
 the  boys  enter  by  squads,  and  each  has  a  stream  of  running 
 water  in  which  to  wash,  a  towel,  soap,  tooth-brush,  &c.  Be- 
 sides washing  twice  a  day,  their  feet  are  washed  once  a  week 
 in  winter,  and  oftener  in  summer.  These  precautions  should 
 be  multiplied  during  summer  with  us,  to  suit  the  requirements 
 of  our  climate. 
 
 The  boys  sleep  on  iron  bedsteads,  one  in  each  bed,  the  bed- 
 ding being  supplied  at  the  discretion  of  the  matron.  They  make 
 their  own  beds,  clean  their  shoes,  and  do  other  oflices  of  poHce 
 and  domestic  economy,  as  already  stated.  The  sweeping  of 
 the  dormitories  is  a  punishment  inflicted  for  ofiences  in  the 
 ward,  for  laziness,  or  slovenliness. 
 11 
 
82  ELEEMOSYNARY  I\STITUTIOrfS. 
 
 Sickness.  The  sick  arc  taken  care  of  by  the  nurses,  at  tfic 
 infirmary,  a  building  apart  from  the  schools  and  dormitories, 
 and  cases  which  may  be  infectious  or  contagious  are  treated 
 in  separate  wards.  An  apothecary,  who  prescribes  in  common 
 cases,  resides  upon  the  premises,  and  the  consulting  physician 
 attends  at  tlie  hosjiital  once  a  week  regularly,  and  whenever 
 sent  for.  There  is  a  small  dispensary  attached  to  the  infirmary. 
 The  diet  of  the  boys  in  the  infirmary  is  under  the  control  of 
 tlie  physicians,  and,  of  course,  difitrs  in  general  from  that  of 
 the  pupils  in  health.  It  is  prepared  by  one  of  the  infirmary 
 nurses,  who  has  a  small  fund  advanced,  for  the  disbursements 
 of  which  she  is  responsible:  the  nurse  has  an  assistant,  w^hen 
 necessary.  The  friends  of  the  sick  boys,  who  visit  them,  are 
 not  allowed  to  bring  in  any  article  of  food  or  medicine,  unless 
 by  permission  of  the  apothecary. 
 
ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS  OF  GERMANY.  83 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 ORPHAN-HOUSES  OF  GERMANY. 
 
 Having  completed  an  account  of  the  most  interesting  of  the 
 eleemosynary  institutions  of  Great  Britain  which  I  visited,  I 
 proceed  next,  according  to  the  plan  already  sketched,  to  those 
 of  Germany.  I  have  found  it  impossible,  w^ithout  describing  in- 
 stitutions of  inferior  note,  to  give  the  South  of  Germany  its  pro- 
 portion of  notice,  and,  after  much  reflection,  have  concluded 
 to  confine  myself,  in  reference  to  it,  to  an  account  of  the 
 Orphan-house  of  Prague.  I  might,  indeed,  have  added  that 
 of  Stuttgard,  in  Wurtemberg;  but  having  been  there  during  a 
 time  of  vacation,  I  have  collected  only  printed  results  in  relation 
 to  it,  and  nothing  from  personal  observation.  The  institution 
 of  Frankfort  on  Maine,  belongs,  geographically,  to  those  of  the 
 middle  of  Germany,  though  I  am  av^are  that  the  city  is  con- 
 sidered by  its  people  to  lean  in  feelings  and  manners  to  the 
 south. 
 
 This  chapter  will  include  a  description  of  the  Orphan-house  of 
 Plamburgh,  a  notice  of  that  of  Altona,  a  description  of  the 
 Franke  Foundations  at  Halle,  of  the  Military  Orphan-house  at 
 Potsdam,  a  statement  of  the  courses  of  instruction  at  the  Mili- 
 tary Orphan-house  at  Annaburg,  in  Prussia,  a  notice  of  the  Civil 
 Orphan-houses  at  and  near  Potsdam,  a  description  of  the  Or- 
 phan-house of  Frankfort  on  Maine,  and  of  the  School  for  Sol- 
 diers' Children  at  Struppen,  near  Dresden,  and  of  the  Orphan- 
 house  of  St.  John,  at  Prague. 
 
 ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  HAMBURGH. 
 
 The  Orphan-house  at  Hamburgh  was  considered,  not  many 
 years  since,  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  Germany.  It 
 had  attached  to  it,  or  rather  growing  out  of  it,  a  seminary  for 
 teachers,  the  benefits  of  which  wx^-e  felt  not  only  within,  but 
 
84  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 without  the  establishment,  and  the  arrangements  for  education 
 were  considered  to  be  well  matured  and  administered. 
 
 I  propose  first  to  give  a  brief  account  of  what  the  institution 
 was,  and  then  to  notice  its  present  condition;  both  the  past  and 
 present  state  of  the  establishment  appearing  to  me  fraught  with 
 instruction.  In  general,  if  an  institution  fails,  it  is  more  from 
 the  inelliciency  of  its  teachers  than  from  defects  in  its  arrange- 
 ments. An  efficient  teacher  may  supply  many  deficiencies  in  a 
 plan,  but  there  are  some  cases,  of  which  this  is  one,  in  which  a 
 defective  organization  places  the  remedy  beyond  the  teacher's 
 reach. 
 
 History,  Buildings,  <^-c.  The  establishment  was  founded  by 
 the  exertions  of  two  refugee  noblemen  from  Holland,  De  Greve 
 and  A^'an  Petkum,  in  151)7.  It  was  commenced  in  an  old 
 church  granted  to  the  trustees,  among  whom  were  its  founders, 
 and  the  present  buildings  w^ere  not  erected  until  1782-5.  The 
 pecuniary  resources,  the  number  and  kind  of  pupils,  and  the 
 general  arrangements,  have  varied  frequently.  The  revenues, 
 which  depended  in  part  on  payments  to  be  made  from  church 
 funds,  were  often  inadequate  to  support  the  number  of  pupils, 
 which  at  one  time  rose  as  high  as  eight  hundred.  Means 
 w'cre  provided  for  introducing  foundlings  into  the  house  with- 
 out exposure,  which,  after  trial,  were  abandoned,  though  the 
 house  is  still  a  foundling  hospital.*  Among  the  arrangements  for 
 teaching  deserving  of  notice,  the  rudiments  of  a  mutual  instruc- 
 tion system  were  introduced  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
 a  method  of  teaching  reading  and  writing  togetiier,  which  has 
 been  since,  in  an  improved  form,  introduced  with  good  etlcct, 
 was  adopted  ab(jut  the  same  time.  Both  resulted  from  a  desire 
 for  undue  economy;  the  first,  to  economise  teachers,  the  second 
 books,  and  neither  a])|)ear,  in  the  form  in  which  they  were 
 tried,  to  have  had  any  success.  The  spirit  which  j)rompted 
 these  experiments  was  not  of  the  kind  to  render  them  eflectivc, 
 
 •  To  the  credit  of  the  morals  of  Hamburgh  I  ought  to  mention  tliat,  at  prc- 
 Bcnt,  not  more  tlion  one  foundling  a  year,  on  the  average,  is  received  at  this 
 iiousc.  The  means  of  nitrodueing  ihtiii  referud  to  in  the  text,  was  l>y  u  turn 
 iiig-box,  eimiiai  to  that  btiil  used  at  tlic  Fouudlijig  Iloi>pilal  of  Purie. 
 
ORPHAN-HOUSE  OF  HAMBURGH.  85 
 
 a  the  ideas  had  been  ever  so  good.  Tlie  moriaiity  in  this 
 house  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  was  fre- 
 quently as  high  as  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  per  cent.  It  has 
 been  in  this  century  reduced  as  low  as  three. 
 
 The  present  buildings  are  in  general  commodious,  wanting, 
 however,  the  requisite  accommodations  for  the  families  of  the 
 masters,  who,  when  married,  must  live  off  the  premises,  an  evil, 
 the  effects  of  which  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  There  are  two 
 divisions  of  the  house,  one  for  boys,  the  other  for  girls,  and  a 
 chapel  common  to  both  sexes.  On  the  boys'  side  there  are  three 
 class-rooms,  a  large  room  for  singing  and  writing  lessons,  a 
 room  for  tailor's  work,  in  which  the  boys  make  and  mend 
 their  own  clothes,  an  extensive  lavatory,  and  a  bath-house;  a 
 dining-hall  below  stairs,  and  dormitories  above.  The  sick 
 wards  are  in  the  upper  stories,  in  a  building  joining  the  two 
 wings.  The  trustees  have  a  meeting-room  in  the  house,  and 
 the  economist  (steward),  rooms  for  his  family.* 
 
 The  institution  is  governed  by  thirteen  trustees,  consisting  of 
 the  first  burgomaster  of  the  city  as  president,  of  two  senators, 
 two  aldermen,  and  eight  other  members,  usually  merchants, 
 who  are  elected  by  the  city  councils,  and  one  of  whom  goes 
 out  every  year. 
 
 Admission,  Sfc  Fatherless  children  below  eight  years  of 
 age  may  be  admitted  at  any  time.  If  healthy,  the  children 
 are  boarded  out  until  they  reach  eight  years,  if  not  healthy, 
 they  are  placed  in  the  sick  wards.  Every  three  months,  chil- 
 dren of  eight  years  old  or  over,  who  are  living  out,  become 
 members  of  the  family  within  the  house.  At  fourteen  the 
 child  is  apprenticed  and  leaves  the  institution.  Formerly, 
 as  already  stated,  those  who  were  fit  for  the  occupation,  were 
 instructed  as  teachers  in  the  school  itself  Not  less  than  five 
 per  cent,  of  the  pupils  were  found  thus  qualified,  and  willing 
 to  devote  themselves  to  the  laborious  occupation  of  school- 
 masters.    The  teacher's  class  contained  usually  from  eight  to 
 
 *  The  small  size  of  the  kitchen  required  among  these  people  to  suppJy  foui 
 hundred  children  with  food,  would  appear  incredible  to  tho£-e  used  to  the  arrange- 
 ments of  England  and  the  United  States, 
 
86  KLEEMOSVNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 twelve  individuals.  Tlie  plan  of  education  \vhich  follows  ex- 
 isted at  that  time. 
 
 Intellectual  and  Moral  Education.  This  was  declared  to  be 
 of  a  kind  adapted  to  fit  a  child  for  some  ''useful  callings"  and 
 excluding  the  higher  branches  of  education. 
 
 The  pupils  were  divided  into  five  classes.  First,  the  elemen- 
 tary class,  subdivided  according  to  its  numbers  into  four  or 
 five  sections,  and  instructed  by  pupils  of  the  house  who  were 
 preparing  as  teachers.  On  entering  this  class  the  children  were 
 usually  between  eight  and  nine  years  of  age,  and  they  remain- 
 ed in  it  two  years,  passing,  every  six  months,  into  a  higher  di- 
 vision. The  studies  in  this  class  were — first,  exercises  of  speech 
 and  thought,  orally,  the  teachers  following  Von  Turk's  Percep- 
 tions by  the  Senses,  or  Pohlman's  Book  of  Nature.*  Second, 
 reading  by  the  phonic  method,  which  will  be  described  in  a 
 subsequent  part  of  this  Report.  Third,  arithmetic,  especially 
 mental  arithmetic,  accordin^j  to  Pestalozzi's  method.  The  four 
 ground  rules  were  taught  in  the  higher  division. 
 
 Fourth,  elementary  geometry,  notions  of  form,  measure,  and 
 construction.  Fifth,  writing,  according  to  the  method  used  by 
 Pestalozzi. 
 
 Neither  of  the  books  used  for  the  exercises  of  induction  have, 
 I  believe,  been  translated  into  English,  nor  have  equivalent  ones 
 been  published  in  our  language.  The  admirable  Lessons  on  Ob- 
 jects, by  Miss  Mayo,  are  designed  for  children  more  advanced 
 in  attainments  and  culture  than  these,  though  not  in  age.  The 
 infant-school  lessons  on  objects  practised  in  many  of  the  English 
 schools,  would  come  nearer  to  the  requirements  of  this  class, 
 but  are  still  of  a  dificrent  kind  from  those  adopted  by  Von  Tiirk 
 and  Pdhlman.  Indeed,  as  the  locality  of  a  school,  the  school-room 
 itself,  and  the  implements  for  teaching  aflbrd  the  most  instruc- 
 tive objects  for  beginning  with  these  lessons,  they  must  vary  in 
 a  great  degree  with  the  school  itself,  and  none  other  than  a 
 general  guide  can  be  given  to  a  teacher,  which,  however,  wuukl 
 
 •  I  insert  the  nuincs  f)rilic  text-books,  Kcausc  tlicy  give  nn  idea  in  their  titles 
 of  the  nature  of  the  cxereises.  The  names  of  the  others  arc  suppressed.  They 
 arc  to  be  found  in  Uic  college  librory. 
 
ORPHAN-HOUSE  OF  HAMBURGH.  87 
 
 be  amply  sufficient  for  one  fully  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the 
 method.  It  contains  within  itself  the  elements  of  all  instruction, 
 preparing  a  basis  for  elementary  arithmetic,  natural  philosophy, 
 natural  history,  grammar,  geography,  geometry,  and  morals.  Its 
 importance  can  only  be  fully  realized  by  seeing  it  well  practised. 
 
 Mental  arithmetic  having  been  long  used  in  our  schools  and 
 in  those  of  England,  we  have  many  excellent  works  on  the 
 subject.  It  serves  admirably  to  strengthen  the  memory  for  ab- 
 stractions, to  give  the  concentration  of  mind  required  to  draw 
 conclusions  rapidly,  when  surrounded  by  persons  and  things 
 tending  to  interfere  with  close  thought.  As  it  comes  to  its  results 
 rather  by  ingenious  processes  than  by  rule,  it  gives  great  readi- 
 ness in  inventing  methods  in  cases  having  reference  to  quantity. 
 
 For  the  elementary  notions  of  form,  our  books  are  again 
 much  behind  the  German  school-books,  though  lately  Mr.  Rei- 
 ner has  supplied  in  part  this  deficiency.*  As  a  basis  for  geo- 
 metry, for  the  useful  exercises  of  geometrical  analysis,  and  as 
 giving  to  the  young  mind  clear  ideas  of  the  connexion  between 
 arithmetic  and  geometry,  I  have  seen  no  exercises  equal  to  them. 
 
 Pestalozzi's  writing  method  is  too  well  known  to  need  re 
 mark;  in  general  it  applies  better  to  the  formation  of  the  Ger- 
 man written  letters  than  to  ours. 
 
 In  1826-7,  from  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  to  one  hun- 
 dred and  thirty-eight  pupils  were  instructed  in  this  class  by  the 
 pupils  who  were  serving  their  novitiate  as  teachers. 
 
 After  passing  through  the  elementary  class,  the  pupils  enter- 
 ed one  of  the  three  jyarallel  classes,  so  called  because  they  pur- 
 sued the  same  studies  and  consisted  of  individuals  of  nearly 
 the  same  age.  They  remained  in  one  of  these  classes  generally 
 two  years,  or  until  nearly  thirteen  years  of  age.  Each  parallel 
 class  was  composed  of  two  divisions,  and  had  one  teacher.  The 
 subjects  of  instruction  were  as  follows: — First,  Religious  in- 
 struction, Bible  history,  and  the  Lutheran  Catechism,  Trefurt's 
 Bible  stories.     Second,  German  grammar.     Third,  arithmetic, 
 
 •  Lessons  on  Number;  The  Master's  Manual,  by  C.  Reiner,  London,  1835: 
 Lessons  on  Form,  by  C'harlcs  Reiner,  London,  1837. 
 
88  ELEEMOSYXARV  hVSTITUTIONS. 
 
 and  geometry,  according  to  Von  Turk's  method.  Fourth,  useful 
 knowledge,  tlic  teaclicr  using  IIofTman's  Instructor  in  Natural 
 Objects,  and  Zccliariah's  Geography.  Fifth,  riietorical  reading. 
 
 The  subjects  of  study  and  works  used,  probably  require  some 
 comment.  The  religious  instruction  was  given  in  the  lower 
 classes  orally,  by  the  relation  of  some  of  the  princii)al  Bible 
 stories,  with  an  exposition  of  their  moral ;  in  the  higher  classes 
 by  the  selection  of  the  historical  portion  from  the  Old  and  New 
 Testament,  to  be  read  by  the  pui)ils,  and  then  by  drawing  their 
 attention,  in  a  familiar  lecture,  to  the  moral  of  the  history,  and 
 by  unfolding  also  its  appHcation.  Frequent  explanations  of  the 
 peculiar  manners  and  customs  of  the  nations  treated  of  in  the 
 sacred  volume,  and  of  the  natural  history  of  the  East,  throw  a 
 great  charm  about  this  kind  of  instruction.  The  feelings  and 
 dispositions  of  the  children  are  ascertained  by  their  answers  to 
 the  questions  put  by  the  teachers,  and  thus  the  lesson  is  made  a 
 powerful  means  of  moral  training. 
 
 The  Manual  of  Magnitude  and  Form  by  Von  Tiirk,  is  another 
 one  of  his  useful  productions,  which  has  not,  I  believe,  been 
 translated;  it  is  the  result  of  his  practice  in  teaching,  and  con- 
 tains much  that  is  good  in  regard  to  the  connexion  of  the  two 
 sciences  of  number  and  extension. 
 
 The  term  "useful  knowledge,"  by  its  limitation  to  certain 
 subjects,  being  calculated  to  throw  other  important  ones  into 
 the  shade,  is  certainly  objectionable.  By  it,  however,  is  under- 
 stood a  combination  of  the  study  of  the  natural  productions  of 
 the  earth  with  its  natural  and  artificial  divisions,  and  the  history 
 of  its  inhabitants,  or  a  combination  of  ge()graphy,  history,  and 
 natural  history,  admirably  calculated  to  interest  the  pupil  deeply 
 in  the  elements  of  these  branches. 
 
 The  parallel  classes  were  united  for  instruction  in  arithmetic 
 and  writing,  the  lower  divisions  of  the  former  having  their  les- 
 sons in  the  morning,  the  higher  in  the  afternoon.  All  the  pu- 
 pils having  a  taste  for  drawing  attended  the  drawing  class,  and 
 the  elder  boys  received  lessons  in  vocal  music. 
 
 There  were  half  yearly  examinations  in  presence  of  the 
 trustees  on  these  subjects. 
 
ORPHAN-HOUSE  OF  HAMBURGH.  89 
 
 This  instruction  completed  the  intellectual  course  of  the  pu- 
 pils in  general,  who  were  bound  to  trades  on  leaving  the  insti- 
 tution. Those  who  displayed  the  necessary  intelligence  and 
 other  qualities  which  promised  that  they  would  make  instruc- 
 tors, after  passing  through  the  studies  of  this  class,  entered 
 the  Select  Class,  which  was  under  the  direction  of  the  head 
 teacher,  the  catechist  of  the  house,  and  pursued  the  following 
 course : 
 
 First.  Religious  instruction,  Bible  explanations,  and  the  larger 
 Lutheran  Catechism.  Second.  Mathematics.  Third.  Ger- 
 man. Exercises  of  style.  Fourth.  Physics,  by  familiar  lec- 
 tures. Fifth.  Technology  and  natural  liistory,  by  familiar  lec- 
 tures and  the  examination  of  specimens.  Sixth.  Geography. 
 Seventh.     History,  particularly  of  Germany. 
 
 To  render  the  instruction  in  "  useful  knowledge,"  physics,  and 
 technology  efficient,  a  small  collection  of  models,  apparatus, 
 and  products  of  nature,  art,  and  manufactures;  a  solar  micro- 
 scope, planetarium,  &c.,  were  provided ;  this  collection  still 
 remains,  but  is  by  no  means  extended  enough  to  meet  the 
 teacher's  wishes.  Nothing  can  contribute  so  much  to  the  due 
 efiect  of  such  studies  as  collections,  the  specimens  of  which 
 the  pupil  can  handle  himself.  From  them  he  can  learn  by  his 
 own  observation,  and  may  be  led  to  further  observation  by  his 
 own  reflection  and  awakened  curiosity.  Such  a  collection  as 
 this  must  be  expensive,  and  hence  it  is  seldom  seen.  In  the  La 
 Martiniere  school  of  Lyons,  such  collections  and  methods  form 
 the  characteristic  features  of  the  establishment,  of  which  I  shall 
 speak  more  particularly  hereafter.  We  are  most  favourably 
 situated  for  carrying  out  this  principle,  and,  if  it  be  once  prac- 
 tically demonstrated,  even  partially,  the  board  will,  I  am  sure, 
 encounter  the  expense  of  its  complete  development,  in  view  of 
 the  importance  of  the  results. 
 
 The  subjects  of  instruction  heretofore  mentioned  are  still  re- 
 quired to  be  taught,  but  the  plan  of  classification  is  entirely 
 changed.  The  boys  are  now  divided  into  three  classes,  one  of 
 which  contains  children  of  the  ages  of  fourteen,  eleven,  and 
 eight  years;  another  of  thirteen,  ten.   and  seven;   a  third  ot 
 
90  ELEEMOSYNARY  I  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 twelve,  nine,  and  six;  the  same  individuals  remaining  with  the 
 same  teacher  throughout  their  course.  The  least  reflection 
 will  render  it  obvious  that  the  instruction  of  three  divisions  of 
 a  class  in  such  very  diflcrent  stages  of  progress,  by  one  teacher, 
 is  impossible.  If  the  instruction  is  addressed  to  the  highest  divi- 
 sion, it  is  too  high  for  the  lowest,  and  if  to  the  lowest,  it  docs 
 not  employ  the  highest.  The  active  mind  of  the  catechist, 
 whose  recitations  I  attended,  had  adopted  various  devices  to 
 obviate  this  difllculty,  but  in  vain.  Even  in  the  religious  in- 
 struction, which  may  be  considered  as  more  appropriately  ad- 
 dressed tiian  any  other  branch,  to  various  intelligences,  it  was 
 obvious  that  a  part  of  the  class  answered  too  readily,  and  the 
 instruction  was  lost  to  another  part,  who  did  not  even  under- 
 stand the  answers  of  their  comrades.  In  the  lectures  on  phy- 
 sics and  on  technology,  the  case  was,  of  course,  much  worse. 
 Indeed,  I  do  not  believe  the  difficulties  inherent  in  such  a  plan 
 remediable.  It  thus  happens  that  an  arrangement  which,  to 
 persons  not  conversant  practically  with  instruction,  may  seem  to 
 realize  some  leading  ideas  of  equality  or  emulation  among  teach- 
 ers, or  the  like,  may  bring  destruction  upon  an  entire  system. 
 
 In  the  school  for  teachers  attached  to  the  Orphan-house,  as 
 has  been  stated,  there  wxre  always  from  eight  to  twelve  pupils, 
 who  remained  four  years  preparing  for  their  duties.  The  first 
 two  years  were  devoted  to  theoretical  studies;  the  second  cm- 
 braced,  also,  the  practice  of  teaching.  In  the  former  years 
 they  extended  their  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  of  the  German  and 
 French  languages,  of  mathematics  and  physics,  of  drawing 
 and  gymnastics,  and  were  taught  the  theory  of  music,  practis- 
 ing on  the  piano.  The  last  years  they  studied  anthropology, 
 the  art  of  leaching,  the  history  of  the  science  of  teaching,  and 
 of  its  methods.  During  the  latter  period  they  were  engaged  in 
 teaching  under  the  eye  of  the  catechist,  or  of  the  other  masters. 
 They  w  ere  recjuired  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  at  en- 
 tering the  class,  in  the  middle  of  their  course,  and  also  at  its 
 close.  Tliis  experiment  is,  in  all  respects,  an  encouraging  one. 
 The  number  of  pu])ils  having  caj)acity  and  willingness  to  devote 
 themselves  to  the  occuj)ation  of  teaching  was  nearly  live  i>cr  cent. 
 
ORPHAN-HOUSE  OF  HAMBURGH.  91 
 
 of  the  whole  school.  While  receiving  their  special  education, 
 they  were  conferring  a  benefit  on  the  institution  by  acting  as 
 teachers,  and,  subsequently,  diffused  the  excellent  methods  in 
 which  they  had  been  trained  through  their  own  and  neighbour- 
 ing communities. 
 
 I  pass  now  to  the  moral  education,  which,  except  in  the 
 withdrawins;  of  the  influence  of  the  select  class  and  other  de- 
 tails,  remains  nearly  as  heretofore.  The  moral  education  is 
 promoted,  first,  by  the  attendance  in  the  chapel,  by  prayers, 
 morning  and  evening,  and  by  religious  instruction  in  the  school. 
 Second,  by  the  superintendence  of  the  teachers,  in  turns,  during 
 the  hours  of  play.  At  present,  the  married  teachers  not  being 
 in  the  house,  this  superintendence  is  confided  to  the  porters, 
 which  thus  changes  its  character.  I  have  had  many  opportu- 
 nities of  observation  in  reference  to  this  point,  and  feel  that 
 a  proper  method  of  providing  for  superintendence  out  of  school 
 hours,  is  difficult  to  devise.  If  the  teacher  is  thus  employed, 
 he  is  worn  out  by  the  additional  labour;  and  if  the  pupils  are 
 confided  to  an  inferior  person,  he  has  neither  the  influence  nor 
 the  qualities  of  observation  of  a  teacher,  and  thus  a  very  im- 
 portant part  of  education  is  lost,  namely,  that  of  the  play- 
 ground. The  ample  endowment  of  the  Girard  College  requires 
 that  the  interests  of  our  pupils  should  always  prevail  over  pe- 
 cuniary considerations,  and  in  this  view  we  should  prefer  in- 
 creasing the  corps  of  teachers  beyond  what  is  absolutely  neces- 
 sary for  the  duties  of  instruction,  that  one  or  more  of  them  in 
 the  several  departments  may  be  on  duty  as  superintendents, 
 especially  in  the  lower  schools.  Well  trained  pupils  of  the  elder 
 classes  will  make  their  best  assistants. 
 
 The  superintendence  in  the  dormitories  and  in  the  lavatory 
 of  this  institution  rests  always  with  the  porter,  who  is  assisted 
 by  the  chiefs  of  divisions,  selected  for  this  purpose  from  among 
 the  boys. 
 
 Third.  Moral  training  is  effected  by  varied  occupation  of  the 
 hours  not  devoted  to  school,  particularly  by  handicrafts  and 
 exercise.  At  present,  the  only  mechanical  employment  is  one 
 which  is  ill  suited  to  the  pupils,  because  entirely  sedentary,  tfiat 
 
9'^  ELEEMOSYNARY   I\STTTUTIO\^. 
 
 of  tailoring.  It  is  true  that  general  manual  dexterity  is  ac- 
 quired by  this  trade,  and  that  it  may,  in  some  circumstances 
 be  of  utility  in  after  life;  but  to  keep  the  pupils  at  work  merely 
 on  account  of  the  saving  to  be  eflected  in  making  their  clothes, 
 is  carrying  it  to  an  extent  which  interferes  with  their  proper 
 physical  education.  Fourth.  Moral  education  is  promoted  by 
 rewards  and  punishments,  the  former  consisting  in  presents  of 
 books  and  money,  in  permission  to  walk  at  hours  not  allowed 
 to  others,  in  doing  the  errands  of  the  house  in  town :  the  latter 
 in  private  admonitions,  exclusion  from  the  play-ground  and 
 from  the  walking-parties,  confinement,  reports  to  the  trustees, 
 and,  if  necessary,  flogging.  In  order  to  prevent  the  improper 
 use  of  money  given  to  the  children,  the  larger  sums  arc  depo- 
 sited with  the  steward,  and  they  receive  parts  of  these  deposits 
 in  coin  of  the  house.  This  money  the  porter  is  allowed  to  ex- 
 pend for  them  for  its  full  value,  and  at  the  discretion  of  the  pu- 
 pils. As  a  reward  for  diligence  and  good  conduct,  the  chil- 
 dren arc  allowed  to  visit  their  relations  four  times  a  year,  and 
 their  relations  may  visit  them  once  a  month.  During  the  gene- 
 ral holidays,  the  principal  ones  being  before  Easter,  leaves  of 
 absence  may  be  granted  to  pupils  whose  relations  wish  to  re- 
 ceive them. 
 
 Physical  Education.  The  diet  is  plain  and  would  be  con- 
 sidered with  us  scanty;  the  breakfast  is  of  bread  and  milk,  the 
 dinner  of  soup  and  vegetables,  with  boiled  meat,  and  rarely 
 roasted  meat,  fruit  being  occasionally  given  in  addition  in  the 
 summer;  in  the  afternoon,  rye  bread  and  water;  in  the  evening, 
 wheat  bread  and  milk. 
 
 The  pupils  wash  their  faces  and  hands  three  times  a  day  in 
 cold  water.  The  lavatory  is  at  present  a  separate  building,  in 
 the  ^ard  of  the  orphan-house.  Each  boy  has  his  basin  of  por- 
 celain ]>laced  in  a  trough,  and  a  whole  series  of  basins  may  be 
 filled  and  ein})tied  at  once,  so  that  the  monitor  in  charge  of  the 
 division  is  enabled  to  regulate  the  time  of  washing.  \n  sum- 
 mer they  bathe  at  least  once  a  week. 
 
 The  clothing  is  simple  but  suflicient,  consisting  C)f  a  round- 
 about, vest,  and  |»antaloons  of  blue  cloth  for  the  in-door  winter 
 
ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  ALTONA.  93 
 
 dress.  Besides  walking  occasionally,  the  pupils  formerly  had 
 regular  lessons  in  gymnastics;  the  exercises  are  still  kept  up, 
 but  are  voluntary.  Military  exercises  are  sometimes  practised. 
 In  winter,  the  yard,  which  may  be  in  part  covered  with  w^ater 
 for  the  purpose,  affords  a  place  for  skating.  Formerly  the  pu- 
 pils were  taught  turner's  work,  and  the  making  of  pasteboard 
 boxes,  &c.,  but  these  employments  have  been  discontinued. 
 The  tailor's  w^ork  can  hardly  be  considered  as  promoting  the 
 physical  education. 
 
 The  provision  for  the  sick  has  already  been  alluded  to.  A 
 physician  and  surgeon  visit  the  house  daily,  and  the  sick  are 
 under  the  charge  of  a  nurse  and  assistant. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day  is  as  follows: 
 
 The  pupils  rise  at  half  past  five  in  summer,  and  six  in  winter, 
 wash  and  dress,  at  seven  o'clock  breakfast,  from  eight  to  half 
 past  eleven  are  in  school,  at  twelve  dine,  play  from  one  to  two, 
 are  in  school  from  two  to  four,  receive  a  luncheon  of  bread,  and 
 are  permitted  to  exercise  from  four  to  half  past  four,  are  in  school 
 from  half  past  four  to  six,  are  occupied  with  mihtary  exercises 
 and  walking,  or  walking  and  play,  from  six  to  eight,  at  eight 
 sup  and  have  prayers,  and  retire  at  nine  o'clock.  Thus  seven 
 hours  are  occupied  in  school  and  study,  five  are  allotted  to  both 
 exercise  and  recreation,  three  hours  to  three  hours  and  a-half 
 to  domestic  matters,  and  eight  and  a-half  to  nine  hours  to  sleep. 
 
 Domestic  Economy.  The  five  hundred  and  thirty-seven  pu- 
 pils of  this  institution  cost,  in  1836,  one  hundred  and  five  thou- 
 sand and  eighty  marcs  banco,  or  about  thirty  thousand  dollars ; 
 the  cost  of  each  was  therefore  about  fifty-six  dollars.  Of 
 these  five  hundred  and  thirty-seven  pupils,  the  four  hundred 
 which  are  in  the  house  require  for  attendance,  &c.,  three 
 nurses,  two  cooks,  three  female  servants,  and  three  male  ser- 
 vants, of  whom  one  is  the  porter;  the  female  pupils,  however, 
 do  much  of  the  w^ork  of  the  entire  house. 
 
 ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  ALTONA. 
 
 While  at  Hamburgh,  I  visited  the  Orphan-house  and  schools 
 attached  to  it,  in  Altona  in  Denmark.     The  number  of  orphans 
 
94  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 licrc  educated  is  sixty-two.  The  system  of  instruction  is  tfiat 
 adopted  generally  in  the  public  schools  of  Denmark,  and  is  a 
 modified  Lancastrian  method,  the  lower  classes  being  taught 
 by  monitors  under  the  direction  of  a  teacher,  and  the  upper 
 classes  being  taught  by  the  teacher  himself.  It  does  not  appear 
 to  mc  necessary  to  enter  into  the  details  of  this  method,  but 
 ratiier  briefly  to  state  my  conclusions.  The  instruction  of  the 
 elementary  classes,  it  is  assumed,  may  be  left  in  a  degree 
 to  monitors,  the  lessons  being  revised  by  the  teachers.  The 
 monitors,  however,  did  not  succeed  as  far  as  I  could  discern 
 in  communicating  true  instruction,  and  in  their  hands  the  me- 
 thod of  Pestalozzi  degenerated  into  a  mechanical  and  lifeless 
 routine. 
 
 Upon  such  a  basis  I  believe  that  no  teacher  can  possibly 
 succeed  in  raising  a  proper  intellectual  superstructure.  I  did 
 not  pass  suflicient  time  here  to  enable  me  to  give  a  proper  prac- 
 tical judgment  of  all  the  results  of  this  system,  yet  I  may  be  al- 
 lowed to  support  the  opinion  just  advanced  by  the  negative 
 evidence,  that,  as  far  as  I  saw  the  upper  classes,  there  was 
 nothing  which  contradicted  it. 
 
 While  visiting  the  lower  classes  of  one  of  the  public  schools 
 near  the  orphan-house,  with  an  intelligent  teacher,  the  ineflicicnt 
 instruction  in  arithmetic  by  the  monitors  particularly  struck  me, 
 and  the  fact  that  the  spiritless  repetition  of  a  string  of  sentences 
 from  the  Pcstalozzian  course  of  addition,  and  a  merely  me- 
 ciianical  use  of  the  illustrations  by  blocks  by  the  monitors,  fail- 
 ed entirely  to  convey  a  proper  idea  of  the  subject  to  the  class, 
 who  in  general  appeared  listless  and  inattentive.  The  teacher 
 took  up  the  instruction,  and  immediately  the  whole  scene  ap- 
 peared changed,  and  it  was  soon  evident  that  he  had  interested 
 and  attentive  hearers,  who,  under  similar  instruction,  would  have 
 proved  learners. 
 
 FRANKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE. 
 
 The  Orphan-house  of  Halle  has  clustered  around  it  the  vari- 
 ous foundations  known  by  the  name  of  its  founder,  Professor 
 
FRANKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE.  95 
 
 Franke,*  of  the  University  of  Halle.  This  institution  has  pro- 
 bably bec^n  more  influential  than  any  other  in  promoting  the 
 cause  of  the  fatJierless,  iiaving  led  to  similar  establishments,  not 
 only  in  Germany,  but  also  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  an  example 
 of  what  may  be  done  with  very  small  means,  tracing  its  origin 
 to  the  education  of  four  fatherless  children  in  the  house  of 
 Franke,  then  settled  as  a  clergyman  at  Halle.  This  orphan- 
 house  w^as  established  in  1695,  and  successively  the  various 
 foundations  now  connected  with  it  have  been  added,  all  of 
 which  are  made  to  minister  to  the  maintenance  or  education 
 of  the  orphans.     They  may  be  thus  divided.f 
 
 First.  Those  exclusively  devoted  to  purposes  of  revenue,  and 
 which  include  establishments  for  the  sale  of  books,  drugs,  and 
 medicines.  Second.  The  schools,  six  in  number,  viz.  an  ele- 
 mentary free  school  for  boys  and  girls,  a  "higher"  school  for 
 boys  and  girls,  a  superior  school  for  girls,  a  "real  school"  for 
 boys,  a  Latin  school,  and  a  "p3edagogium."{  Third.  The 
 educational  institutions.^  These  comprise  the  orphan-house, 
 the  boarding  institution,  and  the  psedagogium. 
 
 These  establishments  not  only  provide  the  public  instruction 
 of  different  grades,  required  by  the  citizens  of  Halle,  but  col- 
 lect pupils  from  other  parts  of  Prussia.  As  we  are  especially 
 concerned  with  the  orphan-house,  I  shall  only  briefly  give  an 
 account  of  the  intention  of  the  other  educational  institutions, 
 make  some  general  remarks  on  the  schools,  and,  omitting  the 
 first  division,  which  sufficiently  explains  itself,  pass  on  at  once 
 to  an  account  of  the  orphan-house. 
 
 The  educational  institutions  serve  as  the  homes  of  the  chil- 
 dren who  are  collected  here,  and  who  use  the  schools  in  com- 
 
 *  Franke  was  Professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental  Literature,  and  pastor  of  a 
 church  at  Glauca,  a  suburb  of  Halle,  where  he  resided. 
 
 t  This  division  is  by  Dr.  II.  A.  Niemcyer,  the  director  of  tlicsc  foundations, 
 to  whose  kindness  I  owe  the  particulars  which  I  give  in  respect  to  them,  and  an 
 opportunity  of  visiting  those  parts  of  the  establishment  more  immediately  bear- 
 ing upon  the  objects  of  my  mission. 
 
 t  These  names  will  be  found  explained  subsequently. 
 
 §  This  term  is  used  here  in  contradistinction  to  instruction,  by  education  be- 
 ing intended  training  when  the  pupil  is  not  in  school. 
 
96  ELEEMOSYNARY   KNbTll  UTJONS. 
 
 nion  with  llic  day  scholars  from  tlic  town.  All  the  buildings 
 containing  these  various  establishments  are  arran^red  about 
 courts,  which  communicate  with  each  other,  so  that  the  whole 
 scries  is  closely  connected.  They  are  very  plain,  having  been 
 erected  with  a  view  to  furnish  the  necessary  accommodations 
 with  the  smallest  f)Ossible  ex[)enditure. 
 
 The  lioardhi^  lasliliUion  is  a  large  establishment,  intended 
 to  provide  for  the  education  of  pupils  when  not  occupied  in 
 school.  The  boys  residing  in  it  are  under  the  direction  ot 
 tutors,  each  of  whom  has  a  division  to  sui)erintend,  and  in  re- 
 lation to  which  he  is  to  supply  the  place  of  the  parent.  As 
 many  as  eight  pupils  occupy  a  room,  thus  making  the  expenses  of 
 lodging  but  trilling,  and  rendering  the  institution  entirely  acces- 
 sible to  the  middle  ranks  of  society.*  The  schools  which  the 
 bovs  attend  are  selected  in  reference  to  their  destination  in 
 life.  They  dine  in  common,  having  two  tables  at  dillerent 
 rates,  a  plan  which,  however,  is  not  approved  of  by  the 
 director. 
 
 The  Pa'clarrogium.  This  is  a  boarding-school,  but  is  en- 
 tirely distinct  frum  all  the  other  establishments,  providing  edu- 
 cation and  maintenance  within  itself  It  is  intended  to  prepare 
 young  men  for  the  universities,  and,  in  its  educational  arrange- 
 ments, to  aObrd  an  ellcctual  substitute  for  judicious  parental 
 control.  There  is  a  small  parlour  and  sitting-room  for  every 
 two  young  men,  and  four  such  suites  of  rooms  are  upon  one 
 floor,  three  of  them  occupied  by  the  pupils,  and  a  fourth  by  a 
 tutor,  who  is  expected  to  be  their  friend  and  director  as  well 
 as  instructor.  The  execution  of  this  plan  depending  upon  the 
 personal  character  of  these  tutors,  has  various  degrees  of  suc- 
 cess, but  in  general  it  works  well.  The  instruction  is  of  the 
 same  grade  as  that  of  the  gymnasia,  or  grammar  schools  of 
 Prussia. 
 
 The  series  o{  schools  embraces  the  whole  range  of  public  in- 
 struction.    It  begins  with  the  common  or  elementary  schools, 
 
 *  Tlicy  pay  Imt  iVyni  »in;hiy  to  one  hiiiKirtil  n.\  tlutlers,  lilly-MX  lo  seventy 
 dollars,  |»cr  amnun,  for  niaintuKUicc  uiul  education,  every  lliiiigr  exeept  clothes 
 and  books  bcin^'  provided. 
 
FRANKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE.  97 
 
 in  which  the  instruction  terminates  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  four- 
 teen years;  contains  a  "higher"  or  middle  school,  called,  also, 
 a  "burgher  school,"  the  courses  of  which  end  at  fourteen  or 
 sixteen  years,  and  where  the  pupil  is  prepared  to  enter  life  as  a 
 tradesman.  Also,  a  "real  school,"  its  courses  ending  at  sixteen 
 or  eighteen,  and  intended  to  prepare  for  the  higher  mechanical 
 occupations;  and  a  classical  school,  or  "gymnasium,"  retaining 
 its  pupils  until  eighteen  or  nineteen  years  of  age,  and  fitting 
 them  for  admission  to  the  university. 
 
 As  the  elementary  school  does  not  prepare  for  the  middle 
 school,  the  latter  has  its  own  elementary  classes,  and  after 
 passing  through  them,  the  student  enters  the  real  school,  or  the 
 gymnasium,  according  to  his  destination  in  after  life.  Each 
 school  has  its  inspector  or  head  master,  appointed  by  the  di- 
 rector, and  responsible  to  him.  And  the  head  of  the  whole  is 
 the  provincial  school-board  of  the  Province  of  Magdeburgh, 
 who  cannot,  however,  change  the  system  without  the  consent 
 of  the  director.  This  collection  of  schools  furnishes  an  epitome 
 of  the  grades  of  public  instruction  in  Prussia,  exclusive  of  the 
 schools  for  teachers  and  industrial  schools;  and  had  I  not  be- 
 come acquainted  with  them  by  careful  study  in  the  capital,  a 
 prolonged  visit  to  Halle  would  have  afforded  a  compendious 
 way  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  them.  In  the  schools  of  the 
 capital  there  are,  however,  advantages  in  regard  to  the  means 
 of  procuring  teachers  which  cannot  be  expected  here.  As  the 
 schools  of  Prussia  will  be  described  particularly  in  the  second 
 part  of  my  Report,  I  shall  confine  my  remarks  at  present  prin- 
 cipally to  the  middle  and  classical  schools,  which  are  attended 
 by  the  pupils  of  the  orphan-house.* 
 
 *  The  number  of  pupils  in  the  different  schools,  in  1837,  was  as  follows : 
 
 Free  School  for  boys 
 
 350, 
 
 in  four  classes. 
 
 "          "        "   girls 
 
 350, 
 
 ((          it 
 
 Burgher  School  for  boys 
 
 600, 
 
 twelve      " 
 
 "             "        "    girls 
 
 400, 
 
 eight       » 
 
 Superior       "        "       " 
 
 100, 
 
 six        " 
 
 Real              "        "    boys 
 
 150, 
 
 five        " 
 
 Carried  forward, 
 
 1950, 
 
 13 
 
9«  ELEEMOSYNARY    INSTITUTION^. 
 
 General  Administration.  The  director  of  the  Frankc  P^oun- 
 dations  is  appointed  by  his  predecessor,  and  the  otlice  has  re- 
 mained, generally,  up  to  this  time,  in  the  family  of  the  founder, 
 lie  has  the  chief  control  of  the  administration,  being  respon- 
 sible, however,  in  regard  to  the  schools,  as  already  stated,  to 
 the  provincial  school-board,  and  making  a  report  of  his  expen- 
 ditures to  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  lie  is  assisted 
 by  a  council  composed  of  a  co-director,  as  an  "  economy  in- 
 spector," of  a  syndic,  who  is  the  law-oOlccr  of  the  institution, 
 and  of  a  treasurer.  These,  as  well  as  all  other  ofiicers,  are 
 appointed  by  him.  lie  has,  also,  a  secretary,  and  there  is 
 an  accountant,  who  assists  the  treasurer.  All  benefices,  sti- 
 pends, places  of  orphans,  etc.,  are  granted  by  the  director;  all 
 regulations  also  are  made  by  him,  and  he  is  thus  supreme  within 
 the  institution.  The  immediate  administration  of  the  orphan- 
 house,  however,  is  under  an  inspector. 
 
 Admission  J  Discharge,  <^c.  To  be  qualified  for  admission  to 
 the  orphan-house,  a  child  must  be  poor,  fatherless,  legitimate, 
 healthy,  of  good  morals,  and  between  ten  and  fourteen  years 
 of  age.  It  is  preferred  that  his  parents  should  have  belonged 
 to  the  middle  classes  of  society;  and  if  he  have  property,  or 
 receive  property  during  his  stay  in  the  house,  the  income  of 
 it  must  go  to  the  foundation  during  his  residence  there. 
 
 Applications  for  admission  are  addressed  to  the  Director  of 
 Frankc's  Foundations,  and  must  be  accompanied  by  certifi- 
 cates of  the  birth  of  the  child  in  wedlock,  the  death  of  the 
 father,  of  vaccination  and  general  good  health,  of  previous 
 attendance  at  school ;  and,  from  the  child's  guardian,  anrl  the 
 
 Brouirht  forward,  in.')!"), 
 
 Gymnasium  or  grammar  school  300,  in  six  classes. 
 PiL-dagogium  80,       five        " 
 
 Total,  2:^30, 
 
 In  tlic  cslaltK-Iuncnts  for  education  there  were  at  the  same  time,  in  tlie  or- 
 phan. house  114  boys  and  IG  girls,  in  the  boarding-school  230  boys,  and  in  tlic 
 ptedagogium  80,  total  436.  These  pupils  attended  the  schools,  and  are  counted 
 in  the  numbers  above  slated. 
 
FRANKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE.  99 
 
 chief  magistrate  of  his  dwelling-place,  of  the  pecuniary  and 
 family  circumstances  of  the  applicant,  and  of  his  surviving 
 parent.  These  are  sent  to  the  inspector  of  the  orphan-house, 
 who  reports  thereon,  and  if  the  report  is  satisfactory  to  the 
 director,  the  child's  name  is  inscribed  on  the  list  of  candidates. 
 Admissions  take  place  according  to  the  order  of  application, 
 and  when  there  is  a  vacancy,  due  notice  is  giv^en  of  it  to  the 
 friends  of  the  child  whose  name  heads  the  list  of  candidates. 
 If  the  child  is  not  presented,  and  his  friends  are  not  heard  from 
 at  the  appointed  time,  his  application  is  considered  to  be  with- 
 drawn. Cases  of  withdrawal  of  the  application,  or  of  the  death 
 of  the  child  are,  however,  expected  to  be  reported  to  the  director. 
 On  the  arrival  of  the  child  at  the  institution,  he  is  reported  to 
 the  inspector  of  the  orphan-house,  by  whom  he  is  assigned  a 
 place.  All  control  over  him  is  understood  to  have  been  relin- 
 quished by  his  relations,  who  are  enjoined  not  to  interfere  with 
 him  in  any  way,  always  excepting  the  right  of  complaint  to  the 
 director.  Any  pocket-money  intended  for  the  child  must  be 
 handed  to  the  inspector,  under  penalty  of  his  dismission. 
 
 Those  pupils  who  are  found  worthy,  are  sent  to  the  univer- 
 sity, but,  in  general,  they  all  leave  the  institution  at  about  four- 
 teen years  of  age  to  go  to  a  trade.  In  cases  of  misconduct,  the 
 friends  are  bound  to  receive  them  back.  The  institution  does 
 not  undertake  to  find  situations  for  them  on  leaving  it,  but  en- 
 deavours so  to  do,  advising  with  their  friends  on  the  subject. 
 Those  who  leave  the  institution  with  credit,  are  entitled  to  cer- 
 tain small  gratuities. 
 
 As  the  parts  of  the  establishment  intended  for  the  residence, 
 instruction,  performance  of  religious  exercises,  and  taking  of 
 meals,  of  the  orphan  pupils,  are  distinct  in  their  administration,  I 
 shall  consider  the  occupations  of  the  pupils  under  the  divisions 
 of  the  house,  the  schools,  the  refectory,  and  the  chapel>  to  the 
 discipline  of  which  the  orphans  are  subjected  in  turn,  during 
 the  day  or  week. 
 
 The  House.  The  orphan-house  is  superintended  by  an  in- 
 spector, who  is  responsible  to  the  director  of  the  Franke  Foun- 
 dations.   This  latter  directs  the  disbursement  of  moneys  for  the 
 
100  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 school,  and  all  its  ofTiccrs  are  paid  directly  from  the  treasury. 
 The  inspector  nnust  be  consulted  before  any  change  is  made  in 
 any  of  the  rules  regarding  either  economy  or  instruction.  He 
 has  a  certain  sum  of  money  put  at  his  disposal  for  contingent 
 expenses. 
 
 Under  this  ins])ector  are  four  tutors,  who  live  in  the  house, 
 slecj)ing  in  the  same  dormitories  with  the  boys.  Two  of  these 
 at  a  time,  and  in  rotation,  have  the  superintendence  of  the  boys 
 out  of  school,  in  their  w  alks  and  play,  one  having  charge  of 
 the  boys  who  are  attending  the  gymnasium,  tlie  other  of  those 
 who  are  sent  to  the  burgher  school.  They  are  also  present 
 during  the  study  hours,  when  they  are  expected  to  assist  the 
 pupils  in  their  lessons.  To  aid  in  maintaining  order,  and  to 
 help  the  pupils  forward  in  their  studies,  there  are  two  monitors 
 placed  at  each  study-table,  who  are  selected  from  among  the 
 elder  boys,  and  have  charge  of  the  younger  ones.  They  re- 
 port weekly  to  the  tutors,  and  then,  in  a  meeting  at  which  the 
 inspector  presides,  make  report  to  him,  and  act  as  a  council  in 
 advising  in  regard  to  measures  of  discipline.  This  arrange- 
 ment, by  which  each  study-table  has  its  chief  under  the  super- 
 vision of  a  tutor,  is  common  in  the  boarding  gymnasia  of  Ger- 
 many, and  is  productive  of  excellent  results.  It  is  said  that,  in 
 old  times,  it  liad  degenerated  into  a  system  of  fagging,  and, 
 indeed,  one  of  the  rules  of  this  orphan-house  was  obviously 
 adopted  in  reference  to  such  a  case;  but  the  superintendence  by 
 the  tutors,  the  careful  selection  of  the  monitors,  and  the  im- 
 proved state  of  general  feeling  in  these  schools,  have  entirely 
 done  away  with  the  abuse. 
 
 The  rewards  for  conduct  and  scholarship  consist  of  books, 
 of  permissions  of  absence,  walks,  ttc;  the  lumishments  are,  the 
 suppression  of  indulgences,  excluding  from  table,  admonition, 
 confinement,  corporal  punishment,  and  dismission.  Otfences 
 against  morality  are  severely  punished,  and,  unless  a  reform  is 
 produced,  the  oifender  is  dismissed.  Scruj)ulous  modesty  of 
 deportment  is  every  where  enjoined  and  exacted,  as  a  neces- 
 sary safeguard  from  the  approaches  of  vice. 
 
 Though  it  is  expected  that  the  religious  instruction  provided 
 
FRANKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE.  101 
 
 in  the  house  and  school,  will  produce  and  foster  moral  and  re- 
 ligious dispositions,  great  reliance  is  placed  upon  the  moral 
 training,  by  the  good  example  of  the  tutors  and  of  the  elder 
 boys.  Experience  proves  that  the  orphan-house  gives  more 
 satisfaction  in  regard  to  discipline,  than  either  of  the  other  es- 
 tablishments, and  that  of  the  orphans  who  leave  it,  those  who 
 enter  into  trades,  and  similar  occupations,  less  frequently  fall 
 away  from  rectitude  than  those  who  go  to  a  higher  career. 
 
 The  inmates  of  the  orphan-house  have  the  usual  Christmas, 
 Easter,  and  summer  vacations,  and  those  who  have  friends  are 
 allowed  to  go  home  at  these  times:  for  those  who  remain  in  the 
 institution,  a  temporary  order  of  the  day  is  adopted. 
 
 The  health  of  the  pupils  is  reasonably  good,  but  their  physi- 
 cal development  not  remarkable.  The  number  of  sick  is  usually 
 about  two  out  of  the  one  hundred  and  fourteen  inmates  of  the 
 boys'  orphan-house.  The  boys  have  a  play-ground  and  garden 
 in  which  to  exercise.  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  are  half- 
 holidays.  The  physician  in  chief  visits  this  as  well  as  the  other 
 houses  of  the  foundations  daily,  and  may  be  called  on  when 
 required. 
 
 Voluntary  manual  labour  in  the  field  or  garden,  is  the  prin- 
 cipal means  of  the  physical  education  of  the  elder  boys,  and 
 certainly  contributes  very  materially  to  their  health.  The  boys 
 have  no  mechanical  occupations,  which,  considering  the  future 
 destination  of  most  of  them,  may  be  regarded  a  defect,  in  as 
 much  as  general  manual  dexterity  is  easily  acquired  at  an  early 
 age,  and  almost  as  a  play. 
 
 The  pupils  clean  their  shoes,  sweep  their  rooms,  &c.,  for 
 themselves,  and  make  and  attend  to  the  fires  in  weekly  turns. 
 They  thus  early  acquire  habits  of  waiting  upon  themselves,  which 
 will  be  advantageous  whatever  may  be  their  success  in  after  life. 
 
 The  outer  clothing  is  renewed  yearly,  and  they  have  on  hand 
 always  two  suits  for  winter  wear,  and  three  changes  of  hnen. 
 A  frock-coat  for  the  street,  of  dark  cloth  (iron-grey),  and  a 
 jacket  for  study  and  play.  The  clothes  are  marked  with  a  num- 
 ber. The  linen  is  changed  but  once  a  week.  The  washing  in 
 the  morning  is  done  in  basins,  and  each  boy  carries  his  own 
 
102  ELEEMObVNARY   KNbTlTUTlOXS. 
 
 to  the  lavatory.  Two  boys  use  the  same  towel,  which  is 
 changed  but  once  a  week.  All  these  arrani^ements  are  far  inl'e- 
 rior  in  character  to  those  of  the  schools  of  England  which  I  have 
 described,  and,  with  a  few  other  details  of  police  which  I  need 
 not  mention,  struck  me  as  particularly  defective. 
 
 For  both  departments,  male  and  female,  of  the  school,  there 
 are  two  superintendents  of  clothing  and  quarters,  and  five  ser- 
 vants, three  male  and  two  female. 
 
 When  a  bill  is  |)rc.scntcd,  it  is  handed  fur  examinali<jn  and 
 approval  to  the  ofliccr  w  ho  has  received  the  article,  then  to  the 
 accountant,  who  examines  and  certifies  as  to  the  calculation, 
 and  then  to  the  director,  who  orders  payment,  and  finally  to  the 
 treasurer,  who  pays  the  amount.  The  cost  of  the  institution  in 
 1837,  was  ten  thousand  nine  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  for  one 
 hundred  and  fourteen  boys  and  sixteen  girls,  or  eighty-four 
 dollars  for  each  pupil.  Of  the  total  sum  contributed  to  all  the 
 foundations,  the  state  gives  about  ten  thousand  five  hundred 
 dollars,  which  is  nearly  half  the  whole  revenue. 
 
 There  is  no  matron  in  the  establishment  for  boys,  and  indeed 
 throughout  Germany,  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  place  all  po- 
 lice and  instruction  in  the  hands  of  men.  This  probably  arises 
 from  the  circumstances  of  the  country,  where  competition 
 for  all  situations  which  yield  a  support  is  very  great,  and  from 
 the  respect  in  which  teachers  and  those  having  the  superinten- 
 dence of  youth  are  held,  which  induces  a  considerable  number 
 of  men  to  prepare  themselves  specially  for  these  ollices.  The 
 exemption  from  military  service,  which  these  situations  procure, 
 is  an  additional  cause  no  doubt  of  the  abundance  of  candidates 
 for  them.  The  Prussian  system  of  education  has,  indeed,  ad- 
 dressed itself  too  exclusively  to  the  male  sex,  a  defect,  however, 
 which  measures  have  already  been  taken  to  remedy. 
 
 The  arrangement  in  regard  to  breakfast  in  this  and  ni  the 
 other  educational  institutions  of  the  Franke  Foundations,  is  pe- 
 culiar, and  intended  to  habituate  the  boys  to  dispose  properly 
 of  money.  They  receive  each  a  certain  sum  weekly;  just 
 enough  to  buy  the  iw^rtion  of  bread  and  milk  absolutely  neces 
 sary  for  breakfast  f<»r  each  day.  and  lay  this  out  a>  thry  please. 
 
FRANKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE.  103 
 
 A  want  of  due  regularity  brings  its  own  punishment,  in  the  loss 
 of  the  meal.  Combinations  of  several  might  enable  them,  per- 
 haps, to  evade  tliis  regulation,  but  such  are  happily  contrary  to 
 the  spirit  of  the  school.  In  a  modified  form,  such  a  regulation 
 would  fall-in  very  well  with  the  ideas  which  I  have  heretofore 
 expressed  as  to  the  importance  of  gradually  increasing  the  res- 
 ponsibilities of  a  boy,  to  fit  him  for  his  entrance  into  life. 
 
 There  are  two  dormitories,  in- each  of  which  two  tutors  sleep, 
 the  youngest  boys .  go  to  bed  under  the  charge  of  the  older 
 ones,  and  of  a  tutor,  and  the  others  follow.  Each  boy  has  a 
 separate  bed. 
 
 Tlie  Refectory.  This  is  under  the  charge  of  a  steward,  who 
 provides  the  boys  of  the  boarding-school  and  of  the  orphan-house. 
 There  are  three  diflerent  qualities  of  diet,  that  of  the  orphans 
 occupying  the  middle  place,  which  are  furnished  by  contract, 
 at  a  certain  rate  for  each  pupil.  The  quality  of  the  provision  is 
 insured  by  the  attendance  in  the  hall,  in  rotation,  of  the  teach- 
 ers, and  the  daily  attendance  of  the  economy-inspector  of  the 
 foundations,  and  further,  by  sending  at  each  meal  a  specimen 
 of  the  dishes  from  the  middle  table,  in  a  vessel  witli  a  locked 
 cover,  to  the  director,  or  his  deputy. 
 
 The  pupils  repair  to  meals  under  the  charge  of  their  tutors, 
 a  grace  is  said,  and  after  dinner  thanks  returned.  No  loud 
 talking  is  allowed.  The  knife,  fork,  and  spoon  of  each  is  brought 
 by  him  to  the  refectory  and  taken  away  again. 
 
 The  School  The  school  which  the  boys  of  the  orphan-house 
 in  general  attend,  is  that  called  the  "burgher"  or  citizens'  school, 
 sometimes  also  called  middle  school.  Its  objects  are  thus  de- 
 fined— first,  "so  to  train  the  sons  of  citizens  by  instruction  in 
 useful  science,  that,  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years,  they  may  be 
 in  a  condition  to  begin  a  handicraft,  or  other  trade;"  second, 
 "to  prepare  the  pupils  for  the  lower  classes  of  a  gymnasium, 
 or  for  the  classes  of  a  real  school,  to  accomplish  which  latter 
 purposes  Latin  and  French  are  taught." 
 
 The  lower  classes  are  in  fact  those  of  an  elementary  school, 
 and  the  boys  who  leave  the  orphan-house  at  fourteen,  are  in- 
 structed exclusivelv  in  this  eslalilishment.     The  few  who  are 
 
104  ELEEMOSVXARY  1\>TITUTI0X.S. 
 
 selected  to  remain  after  fourteen  go  to  the  Latin  school;  Latin 
 and  French  both  are,  however,  studied  in  the  upper  classes 
 of  the  burgher  school,  and  the  aptitude  of  the  orphan  pupils 
 for  language,  is  thus  put  to  the  test.  The  school  is  divided 
 into  four  classes  in  reference  to  the  progress  of  the  pupils,  and 
 each  is  subdivided  for  convenience,  with  a  teacher  to  every  subdi- 
 vision. Thus  the  same  teacher  gives  instruction  in  all  the  subjects 
 of  study,  to  a  class  of  boys  numbering  on  the  average  about  fifty. 
 
 The  branches  taught  arc: 
 
 Exercises  of  speech  and  thought.     Bible  history. 
 
 Religious  instruction.     Mental  and  written  arithmetic. 
 
 Elements  of  geography.     (Knowledge  of  home.) 
 
 Reading  and  writing  taught  together.  Reading.  Calligraphy. 
 
 Stories  from  history. 
 
 German  grammar.  Composition.  Geography  of  Germany. 
 German  history. 
 
 French  grammar.     General  history.     Higher  arithmetic. 
 
 Elements  of  geometry. 
 
 Bible  lessons.  Christian  morals.  Christian  doctrines.  Ele- 
 ments of  Latin. 
 
 Tliere  arc  teachers  of  singing  and  drawing,  besides  the  regu- 
 lar class  teachers.  The  pupils  are  examined  privately  once 
 every  six  months,  and  publicly  at  Easter,  when  the  change  of 
 classes  takes  place. 
 
 The  exercises  of  speech  and  thought,  the  first  subject  on 
 the  above  list,  constitute  the  brcaking-in,  as  it  were,  of  the 
 child,  and  being  at  the  very  threshold  of  instruction,  try  the 
 teacher's  skill  more  than  many  a  learned  branch.  He  must 
 teach  the  pupil  to  think,  taking  care  that  his  thoughts  are  ex- 
 pressed in  appropriate  words.  Pestalozzi,  who  first  practised 
 upon  this  idea,  drew  the  child's  attention  to  the  human  frame, 
 as  the  subject  of  contemplation;  others  have  preferred  to  bring 
 him  in  contact  with  nature,  in  general,  by  making  simple  natural 
 phenomena  the  basis  of  the  inductive  lessons;  others,  not  sur- 
 rounded by  nature,  make  man  and  his  dwelling  their  theme: 
 others  introdiic^o  simple  lessons  on  objects  of  nature  and  art. 
 which  rail  rt'adily  be  piTsruti'd  l.>  ihc  child  lur  liis  cxniniiintion. 
 
FRANKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE.  105 
 
 and  on  which  as  a  basis  to  rear  the  superstructure  of  natural 
 history,  physics,  and  technology,  in  his  advanced  course.  All 
 these  are  good  in  their  way,  but  such  as  I  saw  tried  seemed  to 
 depend  for  their  efficacy  upon  the  circumstances  of  the  school, 
 and  to  be  better  or  worse  as  tlic  child  found  means  to  apply  his 
 newly  acquired  powers  of  perception,  to  observ^e  for  himself. 
 Of  all  the  plans,  w^hen  the  school  is  rightly  situated  for  it,  a  refe- 
 rence to  nature  produces  the  best  training  of  the  heart,  as  well 
 as  the  mind  of  the  child.  It  would  be  impossible  to  present, 
 here,  even  extracts  from  the  numerous  works  which  contain 
 the  methods  employed  in  these  exercises.  I  trust,  however, 
 that  the  board  will  have  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  similar 
 ones  in  our  own  institution,  and  that  they  will  consider  the 
 power  to  carry  them  out  an  important  qualification  for  a 
 teacher  in  the  elementary  department  of  the  Girard  College. 
 
 The  Bible  history  and  religious  instruction  next  referred  to,  are 
 principally  given  orally,  the  morals  of  the  Bible  and  the  events 
 which  it  describes,  being  put  into  such  a  form  that  when  the 
 sacred  book  itself,  at  a  later  day,  comes  into  the  child's  hands, 
 he  is  prepared  to  read  it  with  proper  interest.  This  plan  is  dia- 
 metrically opposed  to  that  which  employs  it  as  the  beginner's 
 horn-book,  and  from  which,  I  feel  bound  to  say,  I  have  never 
 seen  any  good  result. 
 
 I  cannot  enter  into  details  in  regard  to  all  the  branches,  but 
 must  be  satisfied  with  noticing  two  which  are  here  taught  par- 
 ticularly well,  namely,  reading  and  writing,  and  geography. 
 
 The  reading  and  writing  are  taught  at  the  same  time,  accord- 
 ing to  the  method  of  Harnisch,  developed  by  Scholtz.  The 
 child  makes  a  letter  on  his  slate,  after  a  copy  upon  the  black- 
 board, and  is  taught  to  name  it.  The  German  language  hav- 
 ing a  fixed  sound  for  each  letter,  when  the  sound  of  the  letter 
 has  been  learned,  not  its  common  arbitrary  name,  but  the 
 sound  which  it  has  in  composition,  the  pupil  has  made  some 
 progress  towards  knowing  how  to  form  combinations,  which 
 is  the  next  step,  the  vowels  being  placed  alternately  before  and 
 after  tlie  consonant.  These  combinations  are  first  written  on 
 the  slate.,  and  then  pronounced.  The  next  exercise  consists  in 
 11 
 
lOG  ELEEMOSiNAKY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 placing  a  vowel  between  two  consonants,  which  is  followed 
 by  other  simple  combinations.  These  being  classified  by  care- 
 ful study,  the  child  is  soon  able  to  compose  simple  sentences, 
 in  which  his  ideas  are  developed,  so  that  the  mechanical  opera- 
 tion of  writin^]^  and  of  reading  is  interspersed  with  intellectual 
 exercise.  In  tliis  the  talent  of  the  teacher  is  strikingly  exhibited, 
 and  a  prescribed  routine  of  instruction  would  fail  in  its  object. 
 The  written  letters  being  once  learned,  the  next  step  is  with 
 the  printed,  and  a  reading  book  is  not  introduced  until  the  child 
 has  felt  the  necessity  of  it  in  his  further  progress.  It  is  then  a 
 relief,  and  not  a  task. 
 
 I  saw,  here,  a  class  which  had  been  under  instruction  for 
 only  nine  months,  the  pupils  of  which  wrote  short  sentences 
 very  legibly  in  a  hand  of  medium  size,  spelled  them  correctly, 
 and  read  them  distinctly. 
 
 This  method  of  learning  to  read  is,  in  a  great  degree,  inap- 
 plicable to  our  language,  in  which  the  vowel  sounds  are  so 
 numerous;  but  the  union  of  reading  and  writing  may  have  its 
 advantages.  The  characters  of  the  ordinary  German  writing 
 are  composed  of  very  dillerent  forms  from  those  of  our  round 
 iiand,  and  which  arc  more  simple,  and,  in  general,  angular; 
 hence  no  considerable  dexterity  of  hand  is  required  to  trace 
 the  letters,  and  only  a  brief  practice  in  elementary  forms  is  re- 
 quired. I  saw  classes  of  children  of  ten  and  eleven  years  old,  at 
 Zurich,  who,  by  being  constantly  practised  in  this  method  from 
 their  earliest  instruction,  had  acquired  a  very  striking  facility 
 of  expressing  their  ideas  clearly  and  correctly  in  writing.  The 
 method  produces  a  facihty  of  composition,  in  writing,  as  that  of 
 Jacotot  does  a  fluency  in  speaking.  The  or})hans  entering  at 
 ten  years  of  age,  do  not,  in  general,  pass  through  this  class. 
 
 The  geographical  instruction,  founded  upon  the  method  of 
 Pestalozzi,  ])roceeds  on  strictly  inductive  principles,  and  is  an 
 exaniple  of  how  much  may  be  done  by  making  the  pupil  pro- 
 ceed from  tiic  known  to  the  unknown.  The  following  was  the 
 course  of  a  recitation  wiiicli  I  attentied  on  the  subject.  The 
 teacher  drew,  first,  from  the  knowledge  of  the  })upils  of  diflerent 
 objects  or  bodies,  a  definition  of  the  term  body,  then  led  them 
 
FRANKE  rOUXDATIOXS  AT  HALLE.  107 
 
 to  define  extension,  dimensions,  &c.,  and  thus  furnished  them 
 ideas  of  space.  Sunrise  and  sunset  were  used  for  establishing 
 the  position  of  the  cardinal  points,  and  that  of  the  class-room 
 was  determined  in  reference  to  these.  Then  commencing  with 
 home,  with  a  map  of  the  city  of  Halle,  they  gave  an  account 
 of  its  localities,  and  the  history  connected  with  them.  Widen- 
 ing hence  in  circles,  the  natural  and  political  features  of  the  sur- 
 rounding district  were  described,  always  indicating  the  real 
 directions  of  places,  &c.  The  pupil  thus  grasps  every  step  of 
 geographical  knowledge ;  begins  with  his  own  house,  rambles 
 through  his  own  town,  makes  excursions  in  its  neighbourhood, 
 sets  out  on  his  travels  through  his  fatherland,  visits  foreign 
 parts,  sees  what  is  worth  seeing  in  the  natural  and  artificial 
 state  of  the  country,  finally  learns  the  relation  of  its  parts  and 
 of  the  whole  to  other  worlds,  and  thus  the  interest  is  kept  up 
 from  the  first  to  the  last.  The  reverse  method  I  compared 
 with  this  over  and  over  again;  some  teachers  have  found  this 
 tedious,  others  have  mixed  the  two  systems,  but,  judging  by 
 the  comparative  results,  I  give  this  method  greatly  the  prefer- 
 ence over  others,  as  not  only  teaching  geography,  and  connect- 
 ing history  with  it,  but  enlarging  the  general  intelligence,  while  it 
 improves  the  memory.  In  the  upper  classes,  the  pupils  use  maps 
 without  names,  and  draw  maps  on  the  board,  marking  localities, 
 &c.  At  other  times,  the  places  are  indicated  by  one  pupil,  and 
 named  by  another,  with  other  variations  of  exercise.  In  the 
 lower  classes,  the  responses  were  frequently  repeated  by  the 
 whole  class,  and  in  the  upper  classes  the  instruction  was  more 
 addressed  to  individuals.  With  all  the  inherent  merits  of  this 
 method,  I  have  seen  it  wholly  marred  by  a  dull  teacher. 
 
 The  inductive  method  applied  to  any  branch  of  knowledge 
 requires  time,  patience,  and  some  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
 The  routine  method,  or  positive  teaching,  is  much  easier  to  the 
 instructor.  The  former  at  every  step  unfolds  the  mind,  the  latter 
 frequently  ovcrburthens  it.  If  the  positive  knowledge  acquired  by 
 the  first  is  entirely  lost,  the  habit  of  thinking  remains,  while,  if  ac- 
 quired by  the  second  there  is  nothing  left  unless  some  improvement 
 of  memory,  and  general  development  of  the  reasoning  powers. 
 
lOS  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 A  pupil  who  has  })ropcrly  improved  ihc  advantages  ol'  this 
 school,  Avill  have  acquired  a  reasonable  knowledge  of  the  Ger- 
 man language,  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  of  geogra- 
 phy and  general  history,  will  be  familiar  with  the  history, 
 morals,  and  doctrines  of  the  Bible,  and  his  general  mental  and 
 moral  development  will  be  such  as  befits  his  age.  If  espe- 
 cially industrious  or  apt,  he  will  have  had  an  opportunity  of 
 beginning  Latin  and  French,  and  if  he  prove  to  have  a  facility 
 in  language,  will  be  transferred  to  the  Latin  school.  It  would 
 seem  that,  if  he  have  a  peculiar  disposition  for  mathematical 
 studies,  he  should  be  sent  to  the  real  school*  to  prepare  him 
 for  one  of  the  higher  mechanical  callincrs;  but  no  arran^i^ement 
 of  tliis  kind  yet  exists.  There  are,  indeed,  some  obstacles  to  it, 
 as  for  cxami)Ie  the  difliculty  he  will  find  of  a  support  before  he 
 receives  employment  in  one  of  these  higher  callings,  the  neces- 
 sity for  patronage,  capital,  &lc.  None,  however,  I  believe  are 
 insurmountable.  If  he  should  have  had  this  advantage,  on  reach- 
 ing seventeen  years  of  age  he  would  have  added  to  his  stock 
 of  knowledge — 
 
 Further  acquaintance  with  German  and  French.  Latin  and 
 Finglish  if  required,  though  not  regularly  taught. 
 
 History  and  geography. 
 
 Natural  history.     Mathematics. 
 
 Practical  arithmetic.     Physics  and  chemistry. 
 
 Religion.f 
 
 Improved  writing,  and  drawing. 
 
 The  Latin  school,  into  which  the  more  intelligent  pupil  now 
 actually  enters,  conforms  to  the  general  jtlan  of  the  Prussian 
 gymnasia  or  grammar  schools,  which  will  be  more  fullv  i\c?- 
 
 *  This  school  is  dcnigncd  to  complete  the  education  of  those  intended  for 
 "shojtkcepors,  higher  trades,  economists,  military  men,  arcliitects,  or  foresters, 
 and  especially  for  those  callinnfs  for  which  a  learned  course  is  not  necessary." 
 This  real  school  has  only  heen  added  to  the  other  institutions  since  18.35.  It  has 
 five  classes. 
 
 t  The  ri^rht  hranchrs  jiisl  nanu-d,  l»c;;inning  with  history  and  ending;  wifli 
 nligion,  arc  classed  in  the  procrrnmmo  as  "sciences."  Th»^  school-nionry  for  the 
 year  is  twelve  thalcrs.  equal  to  al>out  nine  dollars! 
 
FRANKE  FOTTNDATIONS  AT  HALLE.  109 
 
 criljed  hereafter.  This  gymnasium  has  six  classes,  divided 
 each  into  two  parts,  and  forming  a  connected  series  of  instruc- 
 tion, one  part  being  six  months  behind  the  other,  except  that 
 the  pupils  of  the  two  parts  are  sometimes  assembled  to  listen 
 to  the  same  lecture. 
 
 The  branches  studied  are:  Religious  instruction,  Latin, 
 Greek,  French,  mathematics,  elements  of  physics,  histor}^,  psy- 
 cology,  and  logic.  Poetry  and  rhetoric,  and  Hebrew  or  Eng- 
 lish, as  the  student  may  desire. 
 
 The  degrees  to  which  they  are  carried,  the  preparation  being 
 for  the  university,  may  be  known  from  tlie  studies  of  the  first 
 division  of  the  highest  or  first  class. 
 
 1.  Religion,  Christian  morals  from  Niemeyer's  Manual,  for 
 the  upper  classes  of  the  higher  schools.  Explanation  (by  lec- 
 ture) of  the  references  to  the  New  Testament  in  Greek,  &c. 
 2.  Latin.  (By  lecture.)  Introduction  to  the  development  of  rhe- 
 toric among  the  Greeks.  Cic.  de.  Orat.  Extempore  exercises 
 from  translations  of  prose  and  poetry,  &c.  Lecture  on  Horace's 
 Epistles,  two  books.  Satires,  one  book.  History  of  poetry 
 among  the  Romans.  Life  of  Horace.  Review  of  odes.  3.  Greek. 
 (Lectures.)  Life  of  Demosthenes,  and  selected  orations,  Philip- 
 pics, for  peace,  &c.  Written  exercises  from  Euripides.  Sopho- 
 cles. (Antigone,  QEdip.  Colon.)  Introduction  (by  lecture)  to  the 
 rise  of  the  Greek  tragedy,  the  arrangements  of  the  stage,  &c. 
 Extempore  reading  of  selections  from  the  IHad.  (All  these  lec- 
 tures in  Latin.)  4.  Hehreio.  Joshua.  Psalms,  G9  to  72.  Jonas.  Joel, 
 1st  and  2d,  with  analysis.  Written  exercises.  Lectures  on  Psalms 
 1  to  18,  analytically.  Hebrew  syntax.  Selections  from  transla- 
 tions of  the  New  Testament  into  Hebrew.  5.  German.  Poetry 
 and  rhetoric,  by  examples.  Prose  and  poetical  exercises. 
 Directions  for  private  reading.  6.  French.  Voltaire's  Brutus  and 
 Zaire.  Exercises  in  style.  7.  English,  (a  choice  of  this  language 
 or  Hebrew)  Vicar  of  Wakefield.  8.  Mathematics.  Progressions. 
 Combinations.  Logarithms.  Binomial  theorem.  Plane  trigo- 
 nometry. Elements  of  physics.  9.  History  of  the  middle  ages, 
 from  Schmidt's  Iconography  of  the  history  of  the  middle  ages, 
 and  later  times.     10.  Psycology  and  logic. 
 
110 
 
 ELEEMOSYNARY  IXSTITUTIOXS. 
 
 The  lectures  alluded  to,  throughout,  are  rather  informal  ex- 
 planations, generally  extempore,  by  the  professors,  and  of  which 
 the  students  usually  take  notes.  They  are,  in  the  case  of  the 
 classics,  mostly  analytical,  critical,  and  historical.  The  elements 
 of  physics  are  such  a  general  view  of  the  subject  as  can  be  had 
 by  the  aid  of  a  few  simple  mathematical  principles.  The  psy- 
 cology  is  that  of  observation  (empirical  so  called)  now  so  po- 
 pular in  the  German  and  French  schools.  It  must  be  evident 
 that  if  the  pupil  arrive  at  a  proficiency  in  such  courses,  he  can- 
 not be  said  to  have  commenced  the  study  of  the  learned  lan- 
 guages too  late  in  life,  and  yet  his  first  lesson  of  Latin  grammar 
 has  been  begun  at  nearly  thirteen  years  of  age. 
 
 The  following  is  the  order  of  the  day,  by  which  these  various 
 arrangements  arc  carried  out,  divided  into  two  columns,  one 
 showing  the  occupations  of  the  older,  the  other  those  of  the 
 younger  boys. 
 
 The  Elder  Boys. 
 
 Rise  at  half  past  four  in 
 summer,  half  past  five  in  win- 
 ter, wash  and  go  to  study  un- 
 til seven  o'clock. 
 
 Breakfast  at  seven,  and  have 
 recreation  until  eight. 
 
 Are  in  school  from  eight  to 
 eleven. 
 
 Have  an  hour  of  drawing, 
 or  mutual  instruction,  on  two 
 days  in  the  week. 
 
 Dine  at  twelve. 
 
 Arc  at  liberty  to  occupy 
 themselves  on  the  farm  or  in 
 the  garden  until  two,  P.  M., 
 or  are  free  until  one,  and  have 
 a  drawing  lesson  of  an  hour, 
 according  to  the  season.  On 
 Saturday  change  their  linen. 
 
 The  Younger  Boys. 
 
 Rise  at  five  in  summer,  and 
 quarter  past  five  in  winter. 
 Brush  their  shoes  and  wash. 
 
 Breakfast  at  seven,  and 
 study  until  eight. 
 
 Are  in  school  from  eight  to 
 eleven. 
 
 Study  until  twelve,  except 
 those  intended  for  the  classi- 
 cal school,  who  take  a  Latin 
 lesson. 
 
 Dine  at  twelve. 
 
 Brush  their  clothes,  and,  on 
 Saturday,  change  their  linen. 
 In  general,  are  free  four  days, 
 and  take  a  drawing  lesson  two 
 days,  from  one  to  two.  A  few 
 learn  French  two  days  in  the 
 week. 
 
FRANKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Are  in  school  four  days  and 
 at  study  two  days  in  the  week, 
 until  four,  P.  M. 
 
 Receive,  at  four,  a  piece  of 
 bread,  and  may  engage  in 
 work  in  the  garden  or  farm  un- 
 til five,  and  on  Wednesdays  and 
 Saturdays,  in  winter,  study. 
 
 Study  from  five  to  seven 
 two  days,  from  five  to  six 
 two  other  days,  and  occupy 
 the  remaining  time  with  a 
 singing  lesson.  Walk  on  two 
 other  days  in  summer. 
 
 In  winter  study,  except  twice 
 a  week  a  singing  lesson  of  an 
 hour. 
 
 Supper  at  seven. 
 
 Are  allowed  to  work  in  the 
 field  from  seven  to  nine  in 
 summer,  and  play  in  the  house 
 from  seven  to  eight,  and  are 
 occupied  in  mutual  instruction 
 from  eight  to  nine  in  winter. 
 
 Study  from  nine  to  ten. 
 
 Arc  in  school  four  days  in 
 the  week,  or  walking  with  the 
 tutors  two  days  until  four, 
 P.  M. 
 
 Receive  a  luncheon  of  bread 
 at  four,  and  play  in  the  yard ; 
 on  Saturday  walk  until  five. 
 
 Study  two  days,  and  receive 
 singing  lessons  four  days  in 
 the  week  from  five  to  seven. 
 
 Supper  at  seven. 
 
 Play  in  summer  out  of  doors, 
 in  winter,  in-doors,  until  eight. 
 Voluntary  occupation  and 
 prayers. 
 
 The  fourth  class  goes  to  bed 
 at  nine. 
 
 The  third  class  studies  until 
 ten. 
 
 As  all  the  particulars  of  this  distribution  of  time  have  been 
 carefully  studied  by  the  directors  of  this  institution,  and  in  the 
 true  spirit,  it  merits  especial  attention.  In  passing  it  briefly 
 in  review^  I  would  call  attention,  first,  to  tiie  portions  of  the 
 day  devoted  to  occupation,  recreation,  and  domestic  duties. 
 These  are,  in  summer,  about  seventeen  and  a-half  hours,  and 
 in  winter  sixteen  and  a-half  for  the  upper  classes,  leaving  but 
 six  and  a-half  in  the  former,  and  seven  and  a-half  in  the  lat- 
 ter to  sleep.  I  confess  that  both  allotments  seem  to  me 
 entirely  too  small  for  boys  about  twelve  years  of  age;  and,  in- 
 deed, such  as  would  scarcely  be  adapted  to  the  average  of  full 
 
112  ELEEMOSYNARY   IN.STH  U TIONS. 
 
 grown  mcMi.  The  allowance  is  so  small,  compared  wiiii  that 
 of  every  other  institution,  that,  had  I  nut  derived  tlie  information 
 from  the  director  himself,  1  should  conclude  there  was  some 
 mistake  in  the  matter.  The  younger  boys  have  an  additional 
 time  for  sleep,  the  youngest  having  an  hour  and  a-half,  nearly, 
 more  than  the  eldest,  and  the  other  three  classes  about  half  an 
 hour  more.  The  general  arrangement  is  highly  judicious,  but 
 it  seems  to  me  doubtful  whellier  so  great  a  difference  is  neces- 
 sary between  boys  often  and  fourteen.  For  the  j)urpose  of  com- 
 parison of  this  and  the  other  heads  of  my  remarks  with  other 
 schools,  I  have  placed  in  the  Appendix,  No.  VIII. ,  a  table  con- 
 taining an  abstract  of  the  orders  of  the  day  of  some  of  the  i)rin- 
 cipal  schools  which  are  described  in  this  Report. 
 
 Next,  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  day  into  time  for 
 study,  for  regular  scliool  duties,  for  the  extra  school  duties,  for 
 play,  and  for  domestic  concerns,  the  amount  of  time  devoted 
 to  each  for  the  elder  boys  stands  thus,  on  the  general  average. 
 For  study  and  school  in  winter  nearly  eleven  hours,  in  summer 
 nearly  ten  and  a-half;  for  play  and  domestic  occupations,  in 
 winter,  about  five  and  a-half  hours,  and  in  summer,  about 
 seven  hours,  the  amout  of  hours  employed  in  study  and  school 
 exercises  being  nearly  equal  in  winter,  and  about  in  the  ]iro- 
 portion  of  four  to  five  in  summer.  With  the  German  plan,  in 
 which  so  much  of  the  instruction  is  communicated  orally,  and 
 at  this  age  of  the  pupils,  these  proportions  are,  probably,  quite 
 just  and  consistent  with  a  high  intellectual  development.  That 
 the  development  should  be  of  the  higher  order,  will  a[)pear  by 
 comparing  the  number  of  hours  oc('upied  in  intellectual  exer- 
 cises in  this  school,  with  the  allotment  in  the  others,  as  shown 
 in  the  table  already  referred  to. 
 
 In  relation  to  the  succession  of  work  and  i>lay,  there  are 
 the  following  arrangements.  In  summer,  in  the  evening,  there 
 are  three  hours  of  study,  and  in  winter  four;  in  the  former  case, 
 two  hours  of  recreation  out  of  doors,  and  in  the  latter,  one 
 within  doors.  There  is,  further,  time  for  preparation  for  the 
 day's  lessons,  in  the  morning,  (»f  which  an  liour  is  set  apart  for  this 
 purpose.     Two  hours  are  passed,  also,  before  school,  in  domes- 
 
FRA.JVKE  FOUNDATIONS  AT  HALLE.  113 
 
 tic  duties,  some  of  which  give  bodily  exercise.  The  school 
 then  continues  for  three  hours,  in  summer,  with  an  extra  hour 
 devoted  to  drawing  or  mutual  instruction,  and  four  iiours  in 
 winter.  There  are  two  hours  of  recreation,  then  two  hours 
 of  school,  and  again  an  hour  of  recreation,  before  the  evening 
 study.  This  succession  is,  it  must  be  admitted,  very  judicious. 
 An  improvement,  however,  suggests  itself,  that  there  should  be 
 brief  intervals  of  out  of  door  relaxation  between  the  school 
 hours.  It  is  true  that  this  would  be  difficult,  though  not  impos- 
 sible, at  Halle,  where  several  schools  open  upon  the  same  court. 
 On  Wednesday  and  Saturday  there  is  no  school  in  the  after- 
 noon, and  the  pupils  w^alk  out  under  the  charge  of  their  tutors. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  younger  boys,  the  arrangement,  except  in 
 the  time  of  rising,  is  not  materially  difierent,  until  after  the 
 morning  school  at  eleven,  when,  only  a  selected  number  of 
 them,  have  one  hour  of  instruction  until  twelve.  From  twelve 
 until  two,  on  two  days  of  the  week,  some  of  the  boys  learn 
 French,  and  all  of  them  drawing,  and  on  two  other  days  they 
 are  free.  This  may  be  considered  as  an  additional  school  hour 
 to  those  of  the  elder  boys,  but  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  in- 
 struction is  communicated,  in  great  part,  orally  to  the  younger 
 boys,  and  hence  they  require  fewer  hours  of  preparation  and 
 more  of  recitation.  On  Wednesda3^s  and  Saturdays,  they  walk 
 from  two  to  four,  instead  of  studying  as  the  elder  boys  do  in 
 the  half-holiday,  and  study  from  five  to  sev^en,  while  the  others 
 are  out.  They  have  four  hours  more  of  lessons  in  vocal  music 
 than  the  elder  boys.  For  all  but  the  lowest  class  there  is  an 
 hour  of  study,  from  nine  to  ten.  The  attention  which  has  been 
 paid  to  the  minutiae  of  these  arrangements,  shows  itself  every 
 where.  The  director  has  the  power  to  carry  into  execution  as 
 soon  as  he  is  satisfied  of  the  propriety  of  a  measure,  and  changes 
 and  modilications  may  be  made  immediately,  whenever  circum- 
 stances indicate  their  necessity. 
 
 The  Sunday  order  of  the  day  is  the  following:     From  rising 
 
 until  seven  o'clock  household  duties,  from  seven  to  eight  study, 
 
 from  eight  to  nine  voluntary   occupation,  from  nine  to  ten 
 
 prayers  in  the  common  hall,  from  ten  to  twehe  voluntary  oc- 
 
 15 
 
114  ELEEMOSVNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 cupalion,  from  twelve  to  two  liberty  to  go  into  tiic  garden, 
 from  two  to  four  study,  from  four  to  seven  voluntary  occupa- 
 tions, and  visits  in  the  town,  from  seven  to  nine  in  the  garden. 
 It  would  seem  that  there  is  a  very  scanty  supply  of  religious 
 instruction,  but  the  school  [thin  shows  that  this  forms  a  part  of 
 the  every  day  duty  of  the  school,  and  that  thus  it  is  mingled 
 with  all  the  other  exercises.  The  Sunday  occupations,  however 
 inappropriate  they  would  be  deemed  in  an  institution  of  Great 
 Britain  or  the  United  States,  conform  to  the  tone  of  religious 
 sentiment  of  the  country,  and  hence  I  do  not  consider  them  a 
 proper  subject  for  comment  or  objection,  in  connexion  with  a 
 single  institution.  The  whole  subject  must  excite  much  re- 
 flection. 
 
 MILITARY  ORPHAN-HOUSES  AT  POTSDAM  AND  ANNABURG. 
 
 These  are  both  establishments  for  soldiers'  children,  and  in- 
 tended to  train  them  for  the  service  as  non-commissioned  offi- 
 cers. I  present  the  first  to  the  notice  of  the  board  on  account 
 of  its  well  arranged  system  of  physical  education,  discipline,  and 
 police,  from  which,  though  its  object  is  diflerent  from  ours, 
 some  useful  hints  may  be  drawn,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
 strict  conformity  of  means  to  ends.  I  am  induced  to  lay  be- 
 fore the  board  the  plan  of  instruction  pursued  in  the  second, 
 because,  the  school  has  recently  been  re-organized  under  the 
 direction  of  one  of  the  most  able  and  experienced  teachers  of 
 Prussia;  from  a  visit  to  whose  school  for  teachers,  and  the  es- 
 tablishments connected  with  it,  I  derived  much  instruction,  and 
 from  whose  experience  and  judgment  tiiis  sketch  of  the  organi- 
 zation of  an  elementary  and  middle  school  results.*  I  did  not 
 visit  the  school,  wliich  was  out  of  my  general  route,  because, 
 having  been  but  recently  re-organized  on  that  plan,  there  was 
 no  new  experience  to  be  gathered  in  rci^^ard  to  its  working. 
 
 •  I  am  indebted,  for  a  manuscript  copy  of  (lie  ( xrtlknt  rofrulutions  of  tliij 
 school,  to  the  kindness  of  its  author,  Dr.  Harniscii,  dir.jclor  of  Uic  seminary  f)r 
 Icuchcra  at  Wcisscnfcls,  iii  Prussia. 
 
MILITARY  OrvPIIA?f-IIOUSE  AT  POTSDAM.  115 
 
 MILITARY  ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  POTSDAM. 
 
 History,  Buildivgs,  and  General  Government.  This  institution 
 was  founded  in  1724,  by  Frederick  William  the  First  of  Prussia. 
 The  reputation  of  Franke's  Foundations  induced  this  monarch 
 to  rival  the  benevolence  of  the  clergyman,  and  to  establish  on 
 a  scale  proportioned  to  his  greater  means,  a  house  for  the  edu- 
 cation of  the  orphans  of  his  soldiers.  While,  however,  the  re- 
 cipients of  Franke's  bounty  are  free  to  choose  their  career  in 
 after  life,  and  only  so  far  bound  to  the  institution,  as  a  sense  of 
 gratitude  may  prompt,  the  youth  who  passes  through  the  Mili- 
 tary Orphan-house  of  Potsdam,  must  enter  the  military  service 
 for  twelve  years.  Three  of  these,  indeed,  are  the  term  of  service 
 of  every  citizen,  and  I  believe  the  three  years  in  the  non-com- 
 missioned officers'  school  are  now  counted  as  part  of  the 
 twelve,  and  thus  the  actual  number  of  extra  years  of  service  is 
 reduced  to  six.  The  institution  began  with  one  hundred  and 
 seventy-nine  children,  both  girls  and  boys  being  received;  this 
 arrangement  continued  until  a  few  years  since,  when  the  girls' 
 school  was  removed  from  Potsdam,  and  the  establishment  at  pre- 
 sent is  for  male  pupils  only.  There  are  between  three  and  four 
 hundred  in  the  elementary  or  boys'  department.  In  the  early 
 history  of  the  orphan-house  two  attempts  are  recorded  to  in- 
 troduce manual  labour,  as  a  profitable  speculation;  neither  of 
 which  appears,  however,  to  have  succeeded.  The  first  of  these, 
 the  manufacture  of  Brabant  lace,  was  introduced  in  1743,  and 
 after  various  modifications  of  the  mode  of  applying  the  labour 
 of  the  children,  it  was  finally  abandoned  in  1795.  In  1744,  the 
 culture  of  silk  was  introduced  extensively  throughout  the  king- 
 dom, and  especially  enjoined  at  the  orphan-houses ;  but  this  at- 
 tempt was  not  more  successful  in  the  end  than  the  other,  and 
 the  culture  is  not  kept  up  in  this  institution. 
 
 The  present  spacious  buildings  were  chiefly  constructed  un- 
 der the  reign  of  the  founder  and  of  Frederick  the  Great.  Ad- 
 ditions have,  however,  been  made  from  time  to  time  since,  and 
 the  whole  plan  is  hardly  yet  completed.  The  institution  may 
 be  considered  as  divided  into  three  departments  or  schools:  an 
 
IIG  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTION;?. 
 
 elementary  schuol,*  ii  trade  school,  and  a  music  school.  The 
 buildings  for  the  elementary  school  are  erected  alji^nt  a  spacious 
 court,  which  serves  as  an  exercising  and  play-ground.  On  the 
 ground  floor  arc  the  refectory,  in  which  all  the  youth  from  the 
 dillercnt  schools  composing  the  institution,  meet  three  times  a 
 day,  and  the  study  and  play-rooms,  lavatory,  &c.  The  study- 
 rooms  form  a  long  range,  and  when  the  doors  of  communica- 
 tion are  opened,  one  teacher  can  superintend  the  whole  of  the 
 classes.  The  arrangement  of  the  lavatory  is  defective,  the  boys 
 washing  together  in  a  large  stone  trough.  The  school-rooms 
 are  on  the  first  and  second  floors,  and  are  calculated  for  divi- 
 sions of  forty  boys  each.  There  are  six  dormitories,  furnished 
 with  wooden  or  iron  bedsteads,  the  latter  having  been  more 
 recently  introduced,  and  found  to  answer  well.  The  bedding 
 consists  of  a  straw  bed  beneath  and  a  mattress  of  hair  above. 
 Each  dormitory  is  superintended  by  a  teacher,  who  sleeps  at 
 one  end  of  it.  There  are  also  dwelling  rooms  for  the  teachers, 
 officers,  &c.,  and  in  the  court  a  very  large  wash-house,  with  a 
 drying-room  above  it. 
 
 The  buildings  occupied  by  the  trade  and  music  schools  are 
 separated  by  a  street  from  the  others,  and  with  the  dwellings  of 
 the  officers,  a  room  for  gymnastic  exercises,  and  musical  prac- 
 tice, and  the  workshops,  form  a  second  immense  series  of  struc- 
 tures. The  infirmary  is  near  to  them,  and  is  under  a  separate 
 direction;  subordinate,  however,  to  the  general  executive  body. 
 It  is  divided  into  rooms  assigned  to  patients  sufiering  from  dif- 
 ferent complaints.  A  schoolmaster  gives  instruction  to  the  con- 
 valescent. The  arrangements  in  the  dormitories  of  the  trades' 
 school,  are  similar  to  tliose  used  in  the  army,  and  the  sui>erin- 
 tendencc  and  discipline  are  strictly  military. 
 
 The  part  of  the  building  occupied  by  the  music-school,  con- 
 tains separate  rooms  fur  practising  by  individuals,  class-rooms, 
 and  dormitories.  There  are  rooms  in  the  main  pile  for  the 
 meetings  of  teachers,  for  a  small  library,  &c. 
 
 •  Tlio  literal  translation  f>rt}i<-  lilK)  of  this  school  is  tlu'  l>ovs'  liousc,  (dus  Kiia- 
 benhaus.) 
 
MILITARY  ORPHAN-HOUSE   AT  POTSDAM.  117 
 
 The  executive  board  of  this  scliool  depends  partly  on  the 
 ministry  of  war,  and  partly  on  that  of  public  instruction;  the 
 former,  however,  is  the  controlling  authority.  Under  this 
 board  is  the  military  superintendent,  or  director,  to  whom  the 
 chaplain,  the  secretaries,  the  economist,  the  military  superin- 
 tendent of  the  day,  the  teachers,  commandants  of  companies, 
 the  inspectors  of  the  trades'  and  music  school,  and  other 
 officers,  are  directly  responsible.  The  clergyman  is  the  super- 
 intendent of  the  elementary  school,  and  has  a  general  charge 
 of  all  the  intellectual  and  religious  instruction. 
 
 Admission.  The  orphan  children  of  soldiers  are  received  for 
 maintenance,  at  any  age,  by  the  authorities  of  the  establishment, 
 but  if  under  six  years,  are  boarded  with  their  friends  or  others 
 until  six,  and  then  admitted  into  the  house  at  Potsdam;  they 
 remain  there  until  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age,  and,  if  of 
 sound  constitution,  are  transferred  to  the  trade,  or  to  the  music 
 school,  W'here  they  remain  four  years,  and  whence  they  pass, 
 if  their  conduct  has  been  good,  to  the  school  for  non-commis- 
 sioned officers.  I  have  never  seen  a  body  of  young  men  all  so 
 well  physically  developed  as  the  pupils  of  the  trade  school,  a 
 result  produced  by  constant  attention  to  their  education  on  this 
 point.  Children  who  are  not  healthy,  or  who  have  failed  in  the 
 elementary  school,  are  apprenticed  at  fourteen,  and  the  institu- 
 tion ceases  to  have  the  charge  of  them. 
 
 Education.  In  the  Elementary  School,  the  usual  branches 
 taught  in  the  common  schools  of  Prussia  arc  pursued,  including 
 reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  the  German  language,  geography, 
 drawing,  religious  instruction,  and  a  little  natural  history.  The 
 boys  are  divided  into  four  classes,  according  to  their  profi- 
 ciency, and  all  the  classes  below  the  first  are  subdivided  into 
 two  sections,  each  being  under  the  charge  of  a  teacher,  and 
 having  a  separate  recitation  room.  These  sections  contain 
 about  forty  pupils  each.  A  monitor  of  order  from  among  the 
 pupils,  has  charge  of  a  section  on  entering  and  leaving  the 
 school-room,  and  renders  such  service  as  the  master  requires 
 during  the  lesson;  he  is  assisted  by  one  of  the  class  in  the  dis- 
 tribution of  the  books,  slates,  and  other  implements  of  instruc- 
 
118  ELREMOSYrfARY  IXSTITT'TIONS. 
 
 tion.  Tlic  teachers  keep  each  a  roll,  upon  which  the  charac- 
 ter of  the  recitation  and  conduct  of  the  pupils  is  entered,  and 
 which  is  examined  weekly  by  the  chaplain,  and  submitted  to 
 the  board  of  teachers  at  their  meetings.  No  youth,  who  is  be- 
 low a  certain  grade  upon  this  roll,  is  permitted  to  enter  the 
 trades'  school.  There  are  about  five  hours  of  instruction  on 
 four  days  of  the  week,  and  about  twenty-three  in  the  whole 
 week.  The  holidays  are,  a  week  at  Easter,  four  days  at 
 Michaelmas,  a  fortnight  in  the  latter  half  of  July,  and  from  the 
 twenty-third  of  December  to  the  second  of  January.  For 
 those  who  have  no  friends  to  go  to,  the  Christmas  festivities 
 are  kept  u})  in  the  school,  as  in  the  private  families  of  the 
 country. 
 
 The  board  of  teachers  meet  once  every  fortnight,  and  the 
 director,  or  his  substitute,  or  the  chaplain,  presides.  At  their 
 meetings,  all  matters  relating  to  instruction  and  discipline  are 
 discussed. 
 
 The  form  of  the  discii)line  of  the  school  is  mihtary,  but  a 
 spirit  of  mildness  tempers  it,  suiting  it  to  the  age  of  the  pupils. 
 The  boys,  in  general,  are  divided  into  four  companies,  each  of 
 which  has  a  commandant,*  who  has  charge  of  the  instruction 
 in  military  exercises,  and  ranks  with  the  teachers  of  the  school. 
 These  companies  form  a  battalion,  and  are  drilled  without  arms, 
 and  in>pccted  by  the  director,  or  an  ofllcer  appointed  by  him. 
 In  turn  the  commandants  of  companies,  acting  as  officers  of 
 the  day,  have  general  charge  of  the  military  and  police  duties. 
 Two  of  the  teachers,  also,  in  turn,  act  as  inspectors  of  the 
 (lay,  and  have  the  general  su]»crinlcndcnre  of  the  jiupils  in  study 
 and  recreation  hours,  in  the  duties  of  personal  ])olice,  at  meals, 
 and  in  the  dormitories,  relieving  each  other  at  difierent  parts  of 
 the  day.  They  are  co-ordinate  in  authority  with  the  officer 
 of  the  day,  and  he  is  expected  to  relieve  and  aid  them  in  the 
 maintenance  of  order.  These  officers  report  immediately  to 
 the  director. 
 
 The  four  companies  arc  subdivided  into  sections  of  eleven, 
 
 •   A  nun-cumnuKHioncd  ofticer  of  the  higliest  gradr. 
 
MILITARY   ORrHAN-HOUSE  AT  POTSDAM.  119 
 
 over  each  of  which  one  of  the  boys  is  placed,  witli  the  title  of 
 overseer,  or  corporal,  and  he  is  responsible  for  the  good  order  of 
 his  section,  and  may  be  assisted  in  his  duties  by  one  chosen  from 
 it.  From  among  these  corporals  one  is  selected  for  the  general 
 control  and  superintendence  of  the  others,  and  inarches  the 
 company  to  the  lavatory,  to  meals,  to  the  dormitory,  &c.,  being 
 responsible  for  them  whenever  they  are  collected  as  a  com- 
 pany. The  boys  composing  a  section  are  placed  at  meals  upon 
 the  same  side  of  the  table  with  the  corporal  who  has  charge  of 
 them.  The  younger  pupils  do  not  join  these  companies  at 
 once,  but  are  kept  together  in  a  division  which  is  under  female 
 superintendence,  has  a  separate  overseer,  and  is  under  differ- 
 ent regulations  as  to  rising,  going  to  bed,  and  other  particulars 
 of  discipHne  and  police  from  the  elder  pupils. 
 
 All  the  duties  of  domestic  and  personal  police,  and  some  of 
 those  of  domestic  economy,  are  performed  by  the  boys  enrolled 
 in  the  four  companies.  They  clean  their  own  shoes,  brush  their 
 own  clothes,  attend  to  the  police  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
 building,  serve  the  meals,  and  make  their  beds.  That  the  vari- 
 ous duties  may  be  attended  to  in  an  orderly  way,  there  are,  be- 
 sides those  already  spoken  of,  special  overseers  appointed  among 
 the  pupils,  W'ho  have  general  charge  of  them  while  engaged 
 in  certain  duties,  and  of  particular  localities.  Thus  there  is  an 
 overseer  of  the  room  where  the  clothes  and  shoes  are  kept, 
 who  has  charge  of  the  exchange  of  the  Sunday  for  week-day 
 dress,  and  vice  versa ;  an  overseer  of  the  room  where  the  shoes 
 are  brushed  and  blacked;  an  overseer  of  the  lavatory;  four 
 superintendents  of  cleanliness,  who  direct  ihe  pupils  while  wash- 
 ing and  combing  their  hair;  one  of  hair  cutting;  two  of  serving 
 the  table,  who  have  charge  of  a  detail  of  thirty  pupils,  who 
 serve  and  clear  the  tables  and  clean  the  knives  and  forks;  one, 
 of  the  manual  labour  classes;  one,  of  the  sick  in  the  hospital; 
 one,  of  those  who  are  unwell,  and  must  report  to  the  physician ; 
 one,  of  the  lights;  one,  to  prevent  the  passing  of  bounds;  one  of 
 the  pupils  who  sing  the  liturgy  in  the  church:  one  to  conduct 
 the  pupils,  whose  shoes  require  repairs,  to  the  shoemaker;  be- 
 sides, those  for  the  classes  and  the  younger  boys,  already  men- 
 
IVIO  ELEEMOSYNAIIY   INbTlTU  1  lO.N"?. 
 
 tioncd,  and  a  lew  olhci's.  1  make  this  enuinoratioii  in  order  lo 
 show  the  minuteness  of  llie  arrangements  for  police  and  disci- 
 pline, and  tlie  extent  to  which  they  are  conducted  by  the  ,  'ij)ils 
 tiiemselves.  The  selections  for  appointments  are  made  by  the 
 teachers  and  oflicers,  and  submitted  to  the  chaj)Uiin  and  direc- 
 tor for  their  approbation.  A  i)art  of  the  \)U\nh  employed  as 
 superintendents  receive  small  pecuniary  allowances,  and  all 
 enjoy  many  privileges. 
 
 Some  of  the  pupils,  who  are  found  to  have  a  taste  for  music, 
 receive  special  lessons,  and  are  emj)loyed,  when  sufliciently  pro- 
 ficient, to  give  the  signals  for  the  dillerent  duties  of  the  day. 
 Eight  pu[»ils  are  thus  selected  to  be  taught  the  bugle  and  fife, 
 and  twelve  the  drum. 
 
 In  regard  to  conduct,  the  pupils  are  divided  into  four  grades, 
 according  to  the  reports  of  the  teachers  and  officers,  a  revision 
 of  the  classification  taking  place  every  quarter,  and  the  director 
 having,  in  the  mean  time,  the  power  to  displace  a  pupil  in  a 
 case  of  emergency.  The  first  class  grade  is  composed  of  })u- 
 pils  distinguished  for  unvarying  good  conduct,  and  on  holidays 
 its  members  are  allowed  to  leave  the  orph.an-house  alone  to 
 make  small  purchases  at  discretion,  and  are  neither  subject  to 
 corporal  punishment  nor  to  the  stoppage  of  their  meals.  The 
 second  class  is  composed  also  of  meritorious  puj)ils,  but  of  a 
 lower  grade  of  conduct  than  the  first;  they  are  permitted  to 
 leave  the  school  sometimes,  but  not  so  often  as  the  others,  and 
 are  generally  under  supervision.  From  these  two  grades  only, 
 the  su{)crintcndcnts  or  overseers  are  taken.  Puj)ils  of  the  third 
 grade  stand  between  lh(»e  w  ho  are  decidedly  good  or  bad,  and 
 are  treated  accordingly.  They  are  the  last  who  are  peruiitled 
 to  pass  from  the  elementary  to  the  trades'  school,  on  completing 
 their  course  in  the  former.  Those  of  the  fourth,  or  lowest  grade, 
 are  kept  constantly  under  supervision,  have  no  allowances,  no 
 leaves  of  absence,  arc  separated,  when  j)ossible,  from  the  rest 
 of  the  pu|)ils,  and  arc  even  punished  by  an  inferior  diet.  There 
 were  very  few  pupils  in  this  grade  when  I  visited  the  institu 
 tion,  in  1837-8,  which  was  iusil\  ronsidered  n'>  an  i)idi<;"i..'. 
 of  its  good  condilit'ii 
 
.MILITARY  ORPHAN-HUUSE   AT  POTSDAM.  121 
 
 The  health  of  the  pupils  is  promoted  by  frequent  bodily  ex- 
 ercise, and,  when  the  weather  permits,  in  the  open  air.  Thus 
 they  have  regular  gymnastic  exercises  four  times  a  week,  are 
 drilled  by  companies  four  times,  and  by  battalion  twice  a  week, 
 take  frequent  walks,  and,  in  summer,  bathe  every  day.  The 
 regular  manual  labour  in  this  department  of  the  school  is  con- 
 fined to  knitting  and  tailoring.  The  gymnastic  exercises  are 
 conducted  by  two  teachers,  each  taking  charge  of  one  of  the 
 companies,  of  which  two  attend  the  lesson  at  the  same  time, 
 and  assisted  by  pupils  selected  from  among  the  most  proficient 
 in  the  exercises.  There  are  two  swimming  lessons  given  to 
 each  company,  in  summer,  every  week.  In  the  ordinary  divi- 
 sion of  the  day,  in  summer,  between  two  and  three  hours  are 
 allowed  for  manual  labour,  the  same  for  recreation,  two  hours 
 for  exercise,  and  nearly  eight  for  sleep. 
 
 Their  clothing  is  a  neat  uniform  jacket  of  blue  cloth,  of  a 
 military  fashion,  gray  or  white  pantaloons  for  the  winter,  and 
 a  brown  linen  jacket  and  white  linen  pantaloons  for  the  sum- 
 mer, and  their  officers  are  distinguished  by  badges  similar  to 
 those  worn  in  service.  The  diet  is  rather  generous,  (see  tlie 
 table.  Appendix,  No.  VII.,)  and,  besides  the  three  regular  meals, 
 bread  is  served  to  them  as  a  luncheon  in  the  morninfz:  and  after- 
 noon  intervals.  The  mortality  was,  in  1831,  but  one  in  two 
 hundred  and  twenty-three  in  the  whole  institution. 
 
 An  opportunity  is  given  to  those  who  are  to  pass  into  the 
 trades'  school,  to  ascertain  the  trade  which  they  may  wish  to 
 follow,  by  a  trial  during  the  last  year  of  the  elementary  course. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day,  with  merely  slight  variations  during 
 four  days  of  the  week,  in  summer,  is  as  follows :  The  pupils 
 rise  at  a  quarter  before  five  o'clock,  and  proceed  by  companies 
 to  the  lavatory,  two  companies  occupying  it  at  once  and  alter- 
 nating, the  other  two  being,  meanwhile,  engaged  in  cleaning 
 their  shoes.  Wash  and  comb  their  hair.  At  half  past  five  the 
 boys  detailed  to  serve  the  meals  proceed  to  the  refectory  under 
 their  two  superintendents.  At  a  quarter  before  six  the  bugle 
 sounds,  and  the  companies  assemble,  by  sections,  in  the  court 
 yard.  Morning  prayers  and  breakfast.  Those  who  are  slightly 
 10 
 
li-'"-3  KLKKMOSV^ARV  l-\6TH  U llOXS. 
 
 sick  report  to  tfie  physiciiin.  At  a  quarter  before  seven,  the 
 boys  assemble  according  to  classes,  and  at  seven  are  marched 
 to  the  school-rooms.  At  a  quarter  before  nine  a  luncheon  of 
 bread  is  served  out  to  them.  School  closes  at  eleven,  and  the 
 pupils  are  free  for  three  (juartcrs  of  an  hour.  Dinner  at  about 
 a  quarter  before  twelve.  The  [lupils  brush  their  clothes,  and  are 
 inspected  by  the  otlicer  of  the  day.  From  a  quarter  past  one 
 to  half  past  two,  review  the  morning  lessons  in  school.  From 
 a  quarter  to  three  until  five,  are  occupied  with  manual  labour 
 in  the  work-rooms.  Part  of  the  pupils  receive  instruction  in 
 music,  and  the  first  and  second  classes  in  drawing;  a  stated 
 number  take  a  swimming  lesson;  the  drummers,  fifers,  and 
 buglers  also  have  a  lesson.  A  luncheon  of  bread  is  distributed. 
 One  of  the  companies  is  at  drill,  one  at  gymnastics,  and  the 
 other  pupils  bathing  or  walking  until  seven.  Evening  prayers 
 in  the  refectory,  and  supper.  Wash,  and  have  recreation  until 
 nine,  when  they  retire.  The  younger  pupils  retire  at  half  past 
 eight. 
 
 In  winter,  the  diflerent  occupations  of  the  day  are  each 
 one  hour  later  than  in  summer,  until  half  past  two,  when  the 
 hour  of  review  of  the  lessons  is  omitted,  and  the  exercises,  as 
 far  as  appropriate  to  the  season,  follow  in  the  same  order  as 
 in  summer,  until  half  past  live,  at  which  hour  the  pupils  go  to 
 the  school-room,  and  remain  until  a  quarter  before  seven. 
 
 On  Wednesday  and  Saturday,  an  hour  in  the  morning  is  de- 
 voted to  religious  instruction,  the  other  lessons  being  omitted, 
 except  the  physical  exercises  on  Wednesday.  Stated  days  and 
 periods  of  the  day  are  assigned  for  the  exchange  of  the  week-day 
 clothes  for  those  of  Sunday,  for  taking  clothes  or  shoes  requir- 
 ing repairs  to  the  tailor  or  shoemaker  of  the  establishment,  for 
 hair-cutting  and  combing,  for  washing  the  neck  and  shoulders, 
 the  feet,  and  for  other  minute  matters  not  necessary  to  be  here 
 presented,  since  a  sulTiciently  correct  idea  of  the  order  and 
 exactness  of  the  arrangements  may  be  formed  from  the  speci- 
 men of  the  order  of  the  day  already  given. 
 
 Trade  School.  Tlie  object  of  this  school  is,  in  j>art,  to  econo- 
 mise the  funds  of  the  institution,  by  making  within  its  walls 
 
MILITARY  ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  POTSDAM.  123 
 
 articles  of  clothing  required  for  the  pupils,  but  more  to  secure 
 the  acquisition,  not  only  of  general  mechanical  dexterity,  but 
 of  a  trade,  which  may  serve  to  increase  their  emoluments  when 
 they  enter  the  military  service.  There  are,  at  present,  one  hun- 
 dred and  four  pupils  in  the  class. 
 
 In  order  to  pass  into  the  trades'  school  from  the  elementary 
 division,  the  pupil  must  have  reached  at  least  the  second  class, 
 have  been  above  the  fourth  grade  in  conduct,  be  between  four- 
 teen and  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  of  a  bodily  constitution  fitting 
 him  for  the  military  service.  The  course  lasts  three  years. 
 The  school  has  a  special  inspector,  or  superintendent,  who  is 
 responsible  to  the  director  of  the  whole  institution,  or,  in  fact, 
 to  his  substitute,  who  has  special  charge  of  this  and  of  the  mu- 
 sic school. 
 
 The  different  trades  now  taught  here  are  those  of  blacksmiths, 
 saddlers,  tailors,*  shoemakers,  and  lithographers.  The  last 
 named  has  but  seven  pupils  admissible  to  its  school,  and  the  next 
 to  the  last  forty-four.  These  numbers  depend  upon  the  demand 
 for  the  occupation  subsequent  to  leaving  the  establishment,  the 
 space  required  for  the  operations  of  the  trade,  the  difficulty  of 
 teaching,  &c.  As  each  pupil  is  in  general  permitted,  on  ad- 
 vising with  the  inspector,  to  choose  his  employment,  it  some- 
 times happens  that  boys  are  sent  into  the  town  to  learn  a  trade 
 not  taught  in  the  school.  Changes  of  occupation  are  very  rare, 
 but  are  sometimes  permitted.  The  blacksmiths  are  principally 
 engaged  in  the  repairs  of  arms,  the  saddlers  make  the  caps  and 
 accoutrements,  &c.  used  in  the  house,  the  tailors  all  the  uniforms, 
 the  shoemakers  supply  not  only  this  orphan-house,  but  that  of 
 the  girls  wath  shoes,  and  the  lithographers  are  occupied  in  copy- 
 ing forms  for  the  school  or  war  department,  manuals,  &c. 
 They  work  about  seven  hours  a  day,  under  the  superintendence 
 of  master  workmen  from  the  town. 
 
 An  hour  of  each  day  is  spent  in  gymnastic  or  military  exer- 
 cises in  the  open  air  in  summer,  and  i/i  winter  in  the  large  room 
 
 *  At  this  trade  the  pupils  xvera  scoted  upon  a  form,  or  bench,  around  a  circu- 
 lar table,  and  not,  as  with  ub,  in  a  constrained  position  upon  a  table. 
 
124  KLKEMOSYNAKY   IXSTITL'TIONS. 
 
 before  spoken  ol.  The  nulilary  exercises,  besides  the  ordinary 
 ones,  comprise  some  wliich  are  peculiar  to  the  Prussian  servicow 
 The  usual  exercises  of  gymnastics  arc  introduced,  omitting  any 
 which  seem  to  have  a  tendency  towards  the  tri(;ks  of  the 
 mountebank.  A  manual,  compiled  from  Jahn  and  Eiselin,*  is 
 the  guide  of  the  teachers.  For  instruction  in  these  exercises, 
 the  wliole  school  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  each  again  into 
 squads,  so  that  the  teacher  need  liavc  but  twelve  to  fourteen 
 under  his  charge.  Non-commissioned  ollicers  are  the  under 
 teachers,  and  in  turn  arc  superintended  by  higher  teachers,  and 
 by  an  inspector. 
 
 There  can  be  no  doubt  that  to  these  well  regulated  and  per- 
 severingly  continued  exercises  it  is,  in  great  part,  due  that  the 
 physical  development  of  these  youths  is,  on  the  average,  so  per- 
 fect. Judicious  recreation,  a  proper  diet  and  clotliing,  great 
 cleanliness,  a  proper  number  of  hours  of  work,  of  instruction 
 and  sleep,  no  doubt,  arc  necessary,  each  and  all  in  their  degree, 
 but  great  influence  must  be  besides  allowed  to  the  gymnastic 
 exercises. 
 
 The  pupils  have  two  hours  of  instruction  during  the  day,  in- 
 tended to  keep  up  their  knowledge  of  tlie  branches  taught  in 
 the  elementary  school,  rather  tlian  to  teach  new  ones.  MiHtary 
 drawing  is,  however,  added  to  their  former  acquisitions. 
 
 When  not  in  the  shops,  nor  in  school,  nor  at  exercise,  they 
 are  superintended  by  non-commissioned  ollicers.  The  disci- 
 pline in  this  school  is  military  in  spirit,  as  well  as  in  details,  and 
 altogether  adapted  as  a  preparation  to  the  life  which  they  are 
 to  lead  after  leaving  it. 
 
 Music  School  Those  pupils  who  have  manifested  a  decided 
 musical  talent  in  the  lower  school,  are  here  instructed  thoroughly 
 in  the  theory  and  practice  of  music.  Tlie  object  is  to  supply 
 musicians  to  the  icgimcntal  bands.  These  pupils  have  a  scjiarate 
 superintendence  from  those  of  the  other  schools,  and  dillerent 
 
 •  Mr.  Kiel,  the  Bupcrintcndcnt  of  this  de|mrtincnt,  has  not  only  adopted  the 
 new  excrciscH  of  Liselin,  of  l^rlin.  Imt  li.is  iii.u!.-  sonif  v.  i  v  iiidicioii-i  iim)rnv.>- 
 iiionta  npitn  tli» m. 
 
MILITARY  ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  ANXABCRG.  125 
 
 hours  of  exercise  and  duty.  They  keep  up  the  knowledge  ac- 
 quired in  the  elementary  school,  as  is  done  in  the  trades'  scliool. 
 There  are  about  forty  pupils  in  the  classes. 
 
 MILITARY  ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  ANNABURG. 
 
 The  course  of  instruction  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  an 
 elementary  course,  consisting  of  religious  instruction,  arithmetic, 
 the  mother  tongue,  singing,  writing,  and  exercises  of  induction, 
 taught  in  four  classes,  between  tlie  ages  of  ten  and  fourteen. 
 The  other,  a  higher  course,  taught  in  three  classes,  and  between 
 the  fifteenth  and  eighteenth  years  of  age  of  the  pupils.  In  or- 
 der to  rise  to  the  place  of  a  non-commissioned  officer,  the  pupil 
 must  have  gone  through  at  least  the  lowest  of  the  classes  of  the 
 higher  school  The  subjects  of  instruction  in  this  school  are : 
 religious  instruction,  arithmetic,  singing,  the  German  language, 
 calligraphy,  geography  and  history,  algebra,  geometry,  trigo- 
 nometry, and  drawing. 
 
 The  courses  in  the  different  branches  are  arranged  as  fol- 
 lows : 
 
 First.  Religious  Instruction. 
 
 LOWER  SCHOOL. 
 
 VII  Class.  Bible  stories,  psalms  and  hymns,  appropriate  to  the  season.  Four 
 hours  per  week. 
 
 VI  Class.  Histories  from  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  portions  of  the  histor)' 
 of  the  Christian  church,  catechism.     Four  hours  per  week. 
 
 V  Class.  Reading  and  explanation  of  the  Bible,  and  of  its  arrangement.  Tlic 
 gospel  and  historical  works  are  selected,  and  the  history  is  connected  with  the 
 geography  of  the  Holy  Land.     Catechism.     Five  hours. 
 
 IV  Class.  Doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  church,  taught  by  Luther's  Catechism. 
 Five  hours. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 Ill  Class.     Moral  instruction,  duties  to  God  and  man.    Three  hours. 
 
 II  Class.  Reading  the  Bible  with  comments,  the  pupils  making  abstracts. 
 Three  hours. 
 
 I  Class.  (Two  years.)  The  first  year  a  repetition  of  Luther's  Catechism. 
 The  second,  a  history  of  the  Christian  dispensation.     Three  hours. 
 
 Every  class  commits  verses  from  tlie  Bible  to  memory. 
 
 Second.  Arithmetic.     Mental  and  written  arithmetic  are  tauclit  too-ether,  that 
 
120  ELEEMOSYN'ARY   I.VSTITL'TIO.VS. 
 
 the  readiness  afforded  by  the  one,  and  the  accuracy  of  the  other,  may  both  be 
 cultivated. 
 
 LOWER  SCHOOL. 
 
 VII  Class.  The  four  ground-rules,  with  three  places  of  finiircs  mentally.  Ap- 
 plication  to  questions  in  weights  and  measures.     Three  hours. 
 
 VI  Class.     The  same  rules  extended.     Three  hours. 
 
 V  Class.     Fractions,  with  applications  to  weights  and  measures.     Three  hours. 
 IV  Class.     Proportions.     TJiice  hours. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 III  Class.  The  applications  of  proportions  to  questions  of  weight,  strength, 
 value,  time,  and  general  quantity.     Two  hours. 
 
 II  Class.     Exercises  in  practical  algebra.     Two  hours. 
 
 I  Class.  Review  of  the  course.  P'irst  year,  practical  operations.  Second, 
 theory  of  arithmetical  processes.     Two  hours. 
 
 Third.    Voral  Music. 
 
 LOWER  SCHOOL. 
 
 VII  &  VI  Classes.  Practice  of  songs,  adapted  to  youth  of  a  cheerful,  serious, 
 military,  or  religious  cast,  with  one  part.     Two  hours. 
 
 V  &  IV  Classes.  Choral  and  other  songs,  with  the  different  parts.  Elements 
 of  music.     Two  hours. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 Ill,  II,  &  I  Classes.  More  difficult  choral  pieces.  Theoretical  instruction 
 continued.  One  hour.  There  is,  besides,  instruction  given  to  a  select  choir,  in- 
 tended  to  conduct  the  vocal  exercises  of  the  church. 
 
 Fourth.  Rra'linrr.  In  tlie  lower  classes,  a  readiness  in  reading,  and  in  the 
 higher,  the  style  of  reading,  is  attended  to  especially.  Pieces  learned  previously, 
 by  heart,  are  recited. 
 
 lower  school. 
 
 VII  Class.     A  good  pronunciation,  and  some  facility  in  reading.     Six  hours. 
 
 VI  Class.  Readiness  in  reading,  and  repeating  the  substance  of  what  has  been 
 read.     Familiar  illustrations.     Five  hours. 
 
 V  Class.  Reading  some  work  in  reference  to  knowledge  useful  in  conmion 
 life.     Four  hours, 
 
 IV  Class.     Reading,  with  attention  to  emphasis.     Four  hours. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 III  Class.  Reading  the  Bible  and  Sacred  Melodies,  with  tlie  view  to  correct 
 reading  in  this  kind  of  composition.     Two  hours. 
 
 II  Class.     Reading  various  st'. 'cted  works,  in  and  out  of  the  class. 
 
 I  Class.     Reading  continued,  and  recitations  from  works  previously  read. 
 
 Fifth.  Orthography  and  Wriliivr.  These  may  l>e  tauirht  together  in  th."  sanin 
 way  as  mt;ntul  and  written  nritliruetir ;  the  teacher  is,  however,  a{  liberty  to  lol- 
 low  hiB  own  methf»d. 
 
MILITARY   OllPIIAN-HOUSE  AT   ANNABURG.  127 
 
 LOWER  SCHOOL. 
 
 VII  Class.     Copying  on  slates  from  the  black-board.     Four  hours. 
 
 VI  Class.     Copying  on  paper,  from  the  board,  and  from  books.     Four  hours. 
 
 V  Class.  Writing  from  copy-slips,  from  books,  or  from  dictation.  (Practice 
 in  spelling  and  writing).     Four  hours. 
 
 IV  Class.     Similar  exercises  continued.     Four  hours. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 III  Class.     Copying  useful  papers,  such  as  registers,  accounts,  contracts,  &,c. 
 Two  hours. 
 
 II  Class.  Calligraphy,  with  Roman  as  well  as  German  letters,  practice  in  or- 
 thography,  reading  of  letters  and  documents  in  various  handwritings.  Two 
 hours. 
 
 I  Class.  Copying  papers  relating  to  the  management  of  the  institution,  as  a 
 practical  introduction  to  business.     One  hour. 
 
 Slxth.   Useful  Knoivledge  taugJit  hy  induction. 
 
 LOWER  SCHOOL. 
 
 VII  Class.  The  pupils  give  their  ideas,  verbally,  of  surrounding  objects  of  the 
 most  simple  kind,  of  the  commonest  productions  of  nature  and  art.  Conversa- 
 tions relating  to  them.  Drawing  the  most  simple  mathematical  figures  on  the 
 slate.     Three  hours. 
 
 VI  Class.  Descriptions  of  animals  and  j)lants,  the  former  in  the  winter,  the 
 latter  in  the  summer  term.  Written  remarks  on  these,  serving  to  afford  exer- 
 cise in  the  formation  of  phrases  and  in  orthography.     Four  hours. 
 
 V  Class.  The  most  essential  parts  of  physics  and  natural  history,  the  pupils 
 taking  notes  of  the  lessons.     Four  hours. 
 
 IV  Class.  Compositions  on  various  subjects.  Letters  relating  to  civil  and 
 military  affairs.     Four  hours. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 III  Class.     History  of  Prussia  and  drawing  of  maps.     Four  hours. 
 
 II  Class.  General  geography,  particularly  that  of  Europe.  Passing  from 
 physical  to  political  gcograpliy.  Civil  geography  in  connexion  with  the  former. 
 Five  hours. 
 
 I  Class.  Universal  history.  One  year  is  devoted  to  ancient  and  one  to  mo- 
 dern history.  Selections  are  made  of  the  more  important  parts  of  history.  Five 
 hours. 
 
 The  remaining  studies  only  belong  to  the  higher  school. 
 
 Seventh.  German  Grammar  and  Style. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 III  Class.  Logical  and  grammatical  construction  of  the  German  language 
 taught. 
 
 II  Class.  Idiom  of  the  language.  Compositions  on  military  subjects,  with 
 especial  reference  to  correctness  of  grammar. 
 
12S  B'.LEEMOSYNAKV    INSTi  1  U'l  lO.N  s. 
 
 I  C'lass.     Acquiiintance  witli  tlie  best  writers.     Exercises  of  cojiiiKJsitiun  on 
 subjects  taken  from  liistory. 
 
 Eighth.  Geometry. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 Ill  Class.     Teaching  the  names  and  properties  of  mathematical  figures  by  in- 
 duction, in  connexion  with  drawing. 
 
 II  Class.     Efjuations,  with  application  to  problems  of  common  life. 
 
 I  Class.     Elements  of  trigonometry. 
 
 Ninth.  Draicing. 
 
 UPPER  SCHOOL. 
 
 III  Class.     Drawings  from  common  objects,  varying  the  positions,  &^c. 
 
 II  Class.     Copying  flowers,  or  drawings  of  implements. 
 
 I  Class.     Architectural  drawing  with  instrument.^,  drawings  of  furniture,  6lc. 
 
 I  have  allowed  mj'sclf  to  present  this  extended  programme, 
 because  it  conveys,  in  as  brief  a  compass  as  possible,  excellent 
 ideas  of  the  succession  of  courses  in  an  elementary  school,  and 
 in  a  technical  or  trade  school,  for  such  the  higher  school  must 
 be  considered.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  main  purpose 
 is  the  preparation  of  youth  for  the  military  service,  and  hence 
 that  the  wants  of  the  service  are  especially  consulted.  Another 
 fact  must  be  remembered,  namely,  that  this  is  a  Lutheran  school, 
 and  therefore  the  religious  instruction  is  adapted  to  the  parti- 
 cular views  of  that  church.  The  course  of  morals  of  the  third 
 class,  I  must  say,  iiowever,  seems  to  me  out  of  its  place,  for 
 although  our  duties  to  God  and  our  neighbour  are  of  course 
 best  learned  from  his  Word,  yet  their  inculcation  by  precept 
 and  example  cannot  commence  too  early. 
 
 In  the  arithmetical  course,  the  union  of  mental  and  written 
 arithmetic  is  absolutely  essential.  The  gradation  appears  to  me 
 good,  and  the  application  to  questions  of  common  life  gives  a 
 zest  to  such  studies,  attainable  in  no  other  way.  The  theory  of 
 arithmetical  processes,  however,  should  accompany  or  follow 
 mure  nearly  their  practical  acquisition.  Indeed,  if  they  are 
 taught  as  they  ought  to  be,  by  induction,  the  theory  goes  with 
 the  practice. 
 
 If  the  ynuih  at  Annal)iirg  take  the  same  pleasure  m  the 
 exercises  of  song,  from  tlie  elements  to  the  completion  of   the 
 
ORPHAN-HOUSES  OF  POTSDAM  AND   LITTLE  GLIENCKE.  129 
 
 musical  course,  as  those  of  the  school  actually  superintended 
 by  the  author  of  this  project,  the  success  will  be  complete. 
 
 The  connexion  of  orthography  and  writing,  especially  if 
 combined  with  early  reading,  is  natural. 
 
 The  exercises  of  induction,  which  in  the  lower  classes  are  well 
 drawn  out,  deviate  from  the  appropriate  track  in  the  fourth  class, 
 and  in  the  geographical  and  historical  courses  do  not  return  to 
 it.  The  system  in  both  these  branches  is  rather  synthetical  than 
 inductive.  There  is  a  great  temptation  to  break  away  from  this 
 method,  into  that  of  giving  positive  instruction,  from  the  appa- 
 rently greater  rapidity  of  progress  of  the  pupil;  some  teachers 
 have  abandoned  it  altogether,  as  too  slow,  though  ultimately 
 to  their  cost,  as  appeared  to  me  in  cases  where  I  had  an  oppor- 
 tunity of  comparing  the  results. 
 
 The  writing  is  preceded  by  an  introduction  course  of  draw- 
 ing, which  might  with  excellent  effect  be  so  extended  as  to 
 branch  out  into  complete  courses  of  drawing  and  writing. 
 
 As  this  plan  results  from  an  extended  experience,  the  number 
 of  hours  of  instruction,  per  week,  necessary  to  secure  the  results, 
 is  an  important  datum,  and  as  such  I  have  retained  it,  whenever 
 it  was  inserted  in  the  original  programme. 
 
 CIVIL  ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  POTSDAM,   AND   ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT 
 LITTLE  GLIENCKE. 
 
 Besides  the  Military  Orphan-house  at  Potsdam,  there  are  two 
 other  orphan-houses  at  and  near  the  city,  the  general  arrange- 
 ments of  which  I  propose  here  to  describe.  From  their  limited 
 number  of  pupils,  and  other  peculiarities,  they  will  not  require 
 a  full  discussion. 
 
 The  founder  of  both  these  interesting  establishments  is  coun- 
 sellor Von  Tiirk,  whose  enlightened  benevolence,  aided  by  the 
 means  of  his  friends,  has  furnished  homes  and  education,  in  one 
 of  these  establishments,  for  the  sons  of  deceased  physicians, 
 clergymen,  &c.,  and  in  the  other,  for  the  orphans  of  country 
 schoolmasters,  and  of  the  inferior  officers  of  government.  The 
 first,  called  the  Civil  Orphan-house  of  Potsdam,  has  twenty-four 
 17 
 
130  ELKEMOSVNAKY  IXSTITUTIO.VS. 
 
 pupils  under  its  charge,  of  whom  sixteen  reside  in  the  house,  tfie 
 otiiers  being  assisted  at  the  dvvelhngs  of  their  mothers.  The 
 pupils  first  enter  the  excellent  burgher  scliool  of  Potsdam,  and 
 uhcn  they  have  I'eachcd  its  first  class,  (or  at  between  thirteen 
 and  fourteen  years  of  age,)  choose,  according  to  their  disposi- 
 tion and  talent,  their  future  course.  According  to  this,  they  pass 
 to  the  trade  school,  the  sciiool  for  teachers,  or  the  gymnasium. 
 Those  of  ordinary  parts  are  apprenticed  at  fourteen.  A  teacher 
 lives  with  them  and  superintends  their  studies. 
 
 Those  who  have  passed  through  the  gymnasium,  are  sup- 
 ported at  the  universities  by  foundations.  The  road  is  thus 
 opened  to  merit  in  any  direction  in  w  hich  it  may  exhibit  itself. 
 The  institution  is  merely  the  home,  and  the  public  schools  af- 
 ford to  it,  at  a  very  cheap  rate,  precisely  the  kind  of  instruction 
 which  is  required.  The  advantages  here  given  to  particular 
 orphans  are,  doubtless,  those  which  our  founder  intended  to  be 
 extended  to  all,  and  that  within  the  institution  itself;  an  idea 
 requiring  means  no  less  ample  than  those  which  he  has  devoted 
 to  it,  to  secure  its  successful  execution. 
 
 In  the  Orphan-house  of  Little  Gliencke,  the  pupils  receive 
 such  an  education  as  may  fit  them  for  mechanical  pursuits,  or 
 as  introductory  to  the  profession  of  a  teacher  in  the  elementary 
 schools  of  Prussia.  Provision  to  receive  a  higher  education 
 is  made  for  those  who  distinguish  themselves.  The  pupils  are 
 engaged  a  portion  of  each  day  in  manual  labour:  in  summer, 
 in  agriculture,  the  rearing  of  mulberry  trees,  and  in  gardening, 
 having  also  an  opportunity  to  learn  the  management  of  bees  and 
 silk-worms.  In  the  winter,  with  manufactures  of  straw  and 
 making  nets,  and  some  of  the  elder  boys  in  joinery  work,  mo- 
 delling, and  smithing.  The  number  of  boys  is  only  thirteen, 
 so  that  but  one  teacher  is  needed,  who  lives  with  them  con- 
 stantly, giving,  himself,  nearly  all  the  instruction.  Counsellor 
 Von  Tiirk  takes  a  share  in  some  departments,  to  which  lie 
 has  especially  devoted  himself,  as  for  example  the  connexion 
 of  arithmetic  and  geometry.  The  discij^line  is  of  the  family 
 kind.  Tiie  boys  are  divided  into  classes  of  two,  three,  or  four, 
 according  to  ihcir  progress.     The  teacher  now  in  this  school, 
 
ORPHAX-HOUSE  OF   FRANKFORT  ON  MAINE.  131 
 
 is  one  of  those  instances  of  ardent  attachment  and  devotion  to 
 his  profession,  such  as  are  more  frequently  seen  in  Prussia 
 than  in  any  other  country  to  which  my  researches  extended. 
 
 ORPHAN-HOUSE  OF  FRANKFORT  ON  MAINE. 
 
 This  establishment  makes  no  pretensions  to  giving  an  edu- 
 cation above  that  intended  to  fit  its  pupils  for  trades,  but  in  the 
 means  taken  to  give  them  a  general  mechanical  dexterity,  ap- 
 plicable to  their  future  pursuits,  as  well  as  in  the  paternal 
 character  of  its  discipline,*  it  is  not  surpassed  by  any  of  the  in- 
 stitutions which  I  have  visited.  I  am  satisfied  that  this  idea  of 
 the  object  of  manual  labour  may  be  carried  out  to  great  ad- 
 vantage in  our  college,  and  indulge  a  confident  expectation 
 that,  by  a  judicious  selection  of  masters,  the  discipline  of  the  in- 
 stitution, notwithstanding  its  enlarged  scale,  may  be  as  mild  as 
 that  of  the  school  now  under  discussion. 
 
 The  present  buildings  of  the  orphan-house  are  well  situated, 
 and  commodiously  arranged,  with  a  neat  garden  in  front,  a 
 pretty  chapel  at  one  end  of  the  garden,  and  the  other  buildings 
 on  a  long  line  at  right  angles  to  the  front  of  the  chapel.  About 
 a  century  ago  the  rights  of  orphans  to  education  from  the  pub- 
 lic were  so  little  acknowledged,  that  they  were  ranked  with 
 offenders,  or  when  better  off  than  this,  with  adult  paupers. 
 There  are  many  examples  of  both  those  connexions  in  the  his- 
 tory of  European  orphan-houses,  and  the  former  existed  in  the 
 case  of  the  Frankfort  establishment,  until  towards  the  close  of 
 the  last  century,  the  orphan-house  being,  up  to  that  time,  a 
 branch  of  the  correction-house.  The  present  establishment 
 shows  what  a  great  change  in  public  sentiment  has  taken 
 place  since  that  period.  The  buildings  date  from  1829-32. 
 The  income  is  derived  in  part  from  landed  and  in  part  from 
 funded  property.  It  is  managed  by  twelve  trustees,  usually  se- 
 lected from  among  the  elder  senators  of  the  city.  Under  these 
 is  the  head  master,  who  controls  all  the  in-door  affairs  of  the 
 
 *  This  and  the  present  improved  general  condition  of  the  institution,  are  du« 
 to  the  enlightened  efforts  of  the  head  ninster,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Schaeffer. 
 
\'3*i  EI.EEMOSVXARY   1\STITUTI0\>. 
 
 institution,  and  is  responsible  lor  its  efficiency.  He  is  re-eli- 
 gible every  four  years,  a  tenure  quite  unusual  in  similar  schools, 
 but  attended  with  advantages  in  some  points  of  view.  The 
 economist  or  steward,  w^ho  is  the  only  officer  allowed  to  be  a 
 married  man,  has  charge,  under  the  head  master,  of  providing 
 for  the  household.  There  are  two  assistant  teachers,  re-eligible 
 every  year. 
 
 The  pupils  arc  fatherless  children,  or,  in  certain  cases,  other 
 destitute  children  and  foundlings,  the  latter  being  paid  for  by 
 the  city.  There  are  in  all  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  children 
 at  the  charge  of  the  institution,  of  whom  ninety-five  are  boys, 
 and  thirteen  very  young  children,  who  are  boarded  out  of  the 
 house.  The  age  of  admission  is  six,  and  that  of  leaving  the 
 school  between  fourteen  and  fifteen,  or  after  the  celebration 
 of  their  first  communion.  Places  as  apprentices  are  secured 
 for  those  who  are  to  leave  the  house,  and  they  remain  under 
 its  superintendence  until  the  term  of  apprenticeship  has  ex- 
 pired. They  are  then  presented  with  a  suit  of  clothes  and  a 
 sum  of  money,  and  their  connexion  with  the  ori)han-house 
 ceases. 
 
 The  intellectual  education  is  of  the  same  grade,  and  em- 
 braces nearly  the  same  subjects,  as  at  Hamburgh;  the  division 
 is  here,  however,  into  three  classes,  each  of  which  has  its 
 master,  the  head  master  passing  from  class  to  class,  and  hav- 
 ing special  charge  of  the  religious  instruction,  and  of  the  exer- 
 cises of  induction,  arithmetic,  and  the  elements  of  geometry. 
 I  had  occasion  to  hear  a  recitation  of  the  youngest  class  with 
 him  in  the  inductive  exercises,  and  to  remark  how  much  more 
 difficult  his  task  was  than  that  of  a  teacher  in  the  neighbouring 
 school,  who  had  a  class  of  the  same  age  in  the  same  subject;  in 
 fact  it  required  considerable  exertion  on  his  part  to  induce  them 
 to  exercise  their  reflective  powers  at  all.  As  a  general  rule  in 
 Germany,  where  the  temperament  is  less  lively  than  in  England, 
 youths  in  this  situation,  many  of  them,  before  entering  these  in- 
 stitutions, friendless,  neglected,  or  ill  used,  require  very  peculiar 
 management  to  elicit  their  mental  powers,  and  in  all  the  coun- 
 tries which  1  visited,  I  observed  that  bovs  thus  situated  are,  in 
 
ORPHAN-HOUSE  OF  FRANKFORT  ON  MAINE.  133 
 
 general,  below  the  average  in  animal  spirits,  and  frequently  in 
 mental  activity. 
 
 The  assistant  teachers  superintend  the  boys  by  turns  during 
 the  hours  when  they  are  not  in  school,  an  arrangement,  of  the 
 advantages  of  which  I  have  often  spoken.  These  teachers  are 
 re-appointed  every  year,  the  trustees  judging  this  method  more 
 advisable  than  any  stipulations  as  to  removal.  In  point  of  fact, 
 they  have  generally,  after  a  number  of  years'  service,  I  believe, 
 the  offer  of  more  important  situations,  and  their  places  are  sup- 
 plied from  the  qualified  pupils  of  the  institution. 
 
 The  discipline,  in  general,  is  addressed  to  the  moral  senti- 
 ments and  affections.  No  prizes  are  given  to  stimulate  to  study. 
 Keeping  the  boys  from  play  or  work,  requiring  them  to  work 
 alone,  admonition,  solitary  confinement,  and,  as  a  last  resort, 
 corporeal  chastisement,  are  the  punishments.  The  character 
 of  each  pupil  is  studied,  as  far  as  possible,  and  the  means  of 
 repression  or  encouragement  are  applied  accordingly. 
 
 A  diary  is  kept  by  each  assistant-teacher,  in  which  he  enters 
 not  only  the  progress  of  every  pupil,  and  of  all  the  classes, 
 but  such  remarks  on  the  conduct  as  he  may  find  necessary; 
 the  head  master  examines  this  diary,  and  confers  with  the  un- 
 der masters  from  time  to  time.  There  are,  besides,  regular 
 meetings  of  the  teachers  held  every  week,  as  is  usual  in  the 
 German  schools,  and  which  serve  not  only  to  inform  the  seve- 
 ral masters  of  the  character  and  standing  of  each  pupil,  but  as 
 opportunities  for  giving  and  receiving  advice  in  relation  to  me- 
 thods of  instruction  or  discipline. 
 
 There  is  one  vacation  in  the  year,  new  year's  day,  on  which 
 the  pupils  are  allowed  to  visit  their  friends.  During  two  hours 
 on  every  Sunday  afternoon  they  receive  their  friends,  who 
 are  provided  with  tickets  for  that  purpose.  There  are  oc- 
 casions, however,  of  breaking  through  this  strict  seclusion,  by 
 the  occupation  of  the  boys  in  services  connected  with  the 
 town,  which  take  them  out  of  the  walls  of  the  institution.* 
 
 *  It  is  an  evidence  of  the  difterences  wliich  prevail  in  regard  to  views  of  mo- 
 rals, that,  while  with  us  lotteries  are  abolished,  these  youths  actually  receive  a 
 pecuniary  reward  for  drawing-  the  lotteries  of  the  city  of  Frankfort. 
 
l:ii  F.LEEMOSVXARY   LVSTITUTIO.VS. 
 
 Besides  llic  religious  instruction  in  the  school-room,  the  children 
 attend  chapel  once  on  Sunday,  and,  as  the  services  are  Lutheran, 
 the  Roman  Catholic  children  are  sent  to  a  chapel  in  the  city. 
 
 The  diet  is  niore  generous  than  that  at  Hamburgh,  as  ihey 
 have  meat  for  dinner  three  times  a  week.  In  regard  to  the 
 kind  of  food  necessary  for  nourishment,  the  practice  of  the  con- 
 tinent, while  it  is  no  examj)le  for  England,  seems  much  more 
 applicable  to  our  country,  as  far  as  the  similarity  of  climate  is 
 concerned.  Though  our  winters  are  generally  longer,  they  are 
 not  more  severe  than  those  of  the  middle  of  Germany,*  while 
 our  summers  exceed  theirs  in  heat.  The  supply  of  clothing  is 
 nearly  the  same  as  at  Hamburgh. 
 
 The  discipline  of  the  dormitories,  wash-house,  during  the 
 walks,  &c.,  is  rendered  easier  by  the  division  of  the  pupils  into 
 squads  of  twelve,  each  having  a  monitor  at  its  head.  I  am  not 
 aware  that  in  any  of  these  institutions  the  plan  adopted  at  the 
 London  Orphan-house  has  been  tried,  of  allowing  the  moni- 
 tors to  choose  their  own  divisions;  believing  it  to  be  attended 
 with  good  results,  I  was  anxious  to  see  it  further  put  to  the 
 test  of  use  under  different  circumstances.  It  is  under  the 
 charge  of  these  monitors  that  the  clothes  are  served  out,  and 
 the  usual  duties  of  police  executed.  The  dormitories  are  pro- 
 vided with  iron  bedsteads,  each  pupil  sleeping  separately.  The 
 assistant  masters  occupy  beds  in  the  two  end  dormitories,  hav- 
 ing thus  a  general  superintendence  of  the  pupils  at  night,  as  well 
 as  at  rising  and  retiring. 
 
 The  principal  house- work  being  performed  by  the  pupils,  one 
 male  and  one  female  servant  only  are  required. 
 
 Besides  the  emjiloyment  in  handicraft  work,  two  hours  every 
 day,  the  pupils  have  an  hour  of  regular  gymnastic  exercises, 
 and  on  Wednesday  they  walk,  or  bathe  in  the  Maine,  according 
 to  the  season.  They  also  do  much  of  the  household  work 
 which  is  not  appropriate  to  girls,  split  and  pile  the  wood,  &ic. 
 The  ])upils,  though  in  general  healthy  in  appearance,  wxre  pcr- 
 
 ■  During;  my  journry  in  the  winti-r  f»f  1837-8,  tlie  thormomftrr  was  rrpnrfod 
 once  as  low  ns  —  fip  Falir.,  nt  riofhn,  urnr  t)ir,  rontrc  of  (Jcrnianv. 
 
ORl'HAiX-HOUSE  OF  FIlANKrORT  ON  MAIXE.  135 
 
 ceptibly  less  robust  than  those  of  some  neighbouring  schools. 
 I  do  not,  however,  lay  much  stress  on  the  comparison,  as  it 
 leaves  out  of  view  many  elements,  as,  for  example,  the  import- 
 ant ones  of  the  health  of  the  parents,  and  the  physical  develop- 
 ment of  the  children  before  entering,  and  I  was  satisfied  that 
 neglect  of  physical  education  could  not  justly  be  imputed  to 
 the  institution.  In  sickness,  a  physician  is  called  in,  and  the 
 boys  are  transferred  to  the  infirmary. 
 
 The  handicraft  employments  are  well  arranged,  so  as  to 
 avoid  two  difficulties — on  the  one  hand,  that  of  forcing  the  in- 
 clination of  a  pupil  to  work  which  does  not  suit  him;  and  on 
 the  other,  allowing  him  to  acquire  habits  of  unsteadiness  by  go- 
 ing from  one  occupation  to  another.  Each  pupil  is  at  liberty 
 to  choose  which  of  the  handicrafts  he  will  ensiao-e  in  at  the  be- 
 ginning  of  any  quarter,  but  when  his  choice  is  made,  he  must 
 remain  in  this  division  for  three  months  at  least,  unless  special 
 reasons  determine  the  master  to  permit  a  change.  The  manual 
 occupations  are  making  baskets,  mats,  cord,  turning,  book- 
 binding, working  in  iron  and  brass  wire,  shoemaking,  and  tai- 
 loring. In  summer,  gardening  is  added  to  the  list.  Some  boys 
 who  have  a  taste  for  music,  are  afforded  means  of  improving 
 it.  The  little  boys  are  occupied  in  knitting,  a  very  general  oc- 
 cupation in  the  German  schools  for  young  children  of  both 
 sexes.  Each  trade  has  its  own  room,  and  its  superintendent. 
 There  are  regular  instructors  in  those  branches  in  which  the 
 teachers  cannot  give  instruction.  The  articles  made  are  none 
 of  them  sold,  but  generally  used  in  the  institution. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day  is  as  follows: 
 
 The  elder  boys  rise  at  five  in  summer,  wash  and  dress,  and 
 go  to  morning  prayers.  The  younger  boys  rise  at  six.  All 
 breakfast  between  six  and  seven.  The  elder  boys  are  occupied 
 in  tailoring,  or  cleaning  the  hall,  or  carrying  wood  to  the  kitchen, 
 and  other  household  duties,  until  seven.  All  have  instruction 
 from  seven  until  ten.  Arc  occupied  at  handcrafts  from  ten 
 until  twelve.  Dine  at  twelve.  Arc  occupied  in  personal  police 
 and  play  from  one  to  two.  In  school  from  two  until  four,  ex- 
 cept on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays.  At  four,  have  a  luncheon 
 
136  ELEEMOSYNARY  IXSTITUTIOXS. 
 
 of  bread.  From  five  to  six,  all  arc  preparing  for  ihc  lessons  uf 
 the  following  day,  except  twelve,  who  are  occupied  by  turns, 
 from  four  to  six,  in  the  tailor's  room.  From  six  to  seven,  gym- 
 nastic exercises.  At  seven,  take  supper,  which  is  followed  by 
 evening  prayers.  The  younger  boys  retire  at  eight,  and  the 
 elder  ones  are,  in  summer,  in  the  garden  until  nine,  and  in  win- 
 ter en^aired  in  handicrafts. 
 
 In  winter  they  rise  one  hour  later,  but  in  general  the  order 
 of  the  day  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  summer. 
 
 By  comparing  the  number  of  hours  employed  in  this  school 
 and  at  Hamburgh,  it  will  be  found  that,  generally,  they  agree 
 very  well.  In  the  intellectual  education  tlius  measured,  this 
 school  is  very  little  behind  Hamburgh.  It  has  considerable  ad- 
 vantage on  the  score  of  the  occupation  in  trades,  while  the 
 other  excels  it  in  the  opportunities  for  play  and  the  exercises 
 of  gymnastics.  If  we  judged  only  by  the  programme  of  studies 
 at  Halle,  Hamburgh,  and  Frankfort,  we  should  place  the  intel- 
 lectual education  on  a  par,  except  that  in  Halle  some  few  in  the 
 highest  class  study  Latin  and  others  French;  but,  on  examining 
 the  number  of  hours  of  occupation,  we  find  four  hours  of  study 
 in  Halle  to  one  in  Frankfort,  and  one  hour  more  of  school  ex- 
 ercise: this  is  suilicient  to  show  that  the  studies  are  pursued 
 further,  though  the  same  in  kind,  a  fact  confirmed  by  my  ex- 
 amination. The  select  class,  when  it  existed  at  Hamburgh, 
 was  {)robably  on  a  par  with  the  oldest  class  at  Halle.  This 
 uniformity  I  believe  to  be  attributable  to  the  common  sense 
 view  taken  l)y  the  German  schoolmasters,  who  have  given  the 
 impress  to  the  present  system,  of  adapting  means  to  ends.  They 
 begin  by  laying  down  the  purpose  of  a  school,  and  then  or- 
 ganize it  accordingly,  and  I  believe  the  boys  at  Frankfort  to 
 be  quite  as  well  fitted  as  those  at  Halle  for  the  particular  posi- 
 tion which  they  are  to  occupy.  When  boys  arc  to  be  pushed 
 in  their  studies,  so  as  to  select  the  best  to  carry  forward,  then 
 the  time  of  study  must  be  increased,  as  at  Halle,  or  a  select 
 class  must  be  established,  as  formerly  at  Hamburgh.  It  will  be 
 observed  that  in  all  these  schools,  the  interest  of  the  majority 
 of  the  boys  is  made  the  regulating  principle  of  the  instruction. 
 
SCHOOL  FOR  soldiers'  CHILDREN  AT  STRUPPEN.  137 
 
 SCHOOL    FOR    SOLDIERS'    CHILDREN    AT    STRUPPEN,    NEAR 
 
 DRESDEN. 
 
 This  institution  is  under  the  enlightened  superintendence  of 
 the  Minister  of  War  of  Saxony,  and  under  the  immediate  di- 
 rection of  a  teacher  *  who  carries  out  the  plan  in  a  thorough 
 Way,  both  as  regards  manual  labour  and  instruction.  The  pupils 
 are  the  orphan  boys  of  soldiers,  and  are  received  at  an  early  age, 
 and  prepared  for  apprenticeship  in  civil  life,  or  for  the  army. 
 The  system  is  a  judicious  mixture  of  instruction  and  work;  in 
 winter,  at  various  trades  and  family  occupations,  and  in  sum- 
 mer, out  of  doors,  in  the  garden  and  fields,  as  well  as  in-doors. 
 The  institution  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  borders  of  the 
 Saxon  Switzerland,  and  its  accommodations  are  well  adapted 
 to  the  purposes  of  the  school. 
 
 The  grade  of  instruction  is  that  of  an  elementary  school,  the 
 subjects  being  religious  instruction,  the  German  language,  read- 
 ing, arithmetic,  the  elements  of  geometry  and  natural  philoso- 
 phy, natural  history,  geography  and  history,  writing,  drawing, 
 and  singing.  A  portion  of  the  classes  w^ere  examined  upon  th°e 
 principal  subjects  of  study  during  my  visit,t  ^"d  specimens  of 
 their  writing  and  drawing  were  submitted  for  inspection.  The 
 proficiency  of  the  pupils  was  highly  satisfactory. 
 
 The  distribution  of  the  time  which  is  allotted  to  intellectual 
 instruction,  during  the  winter  session,  is  given  below.  There 
 are  three  classes,  of  which  the  highest  is  called  "select,"  many 
 pupils,  however,  are  apprenticed  to  a  trade,  or  enter  the  army 
 as  drummers  or  musicians,  before  reaching  that  o-rade. 
 
 The  basis  of  their  education  is  moral  and  religious,  and  the 
 principal  subjects  in  addition,  are  the  mother  tongue,  and  ma- 
 thematics. The  study  of  French  by  the  select  class  is  easily 
 explained,  from  the  peculiar  political  position  of  Saxony  in  re- 
 ference to  the  rest  of  the  Germnn  states. 
 
 *  Mr.  Braun. 
 
 f  For  the  advantageous  opportunity  of  visiting  this  school  in  his  company   T 
 am  indebted  to  the  Minister  of  War  of  Saxony,  Lieuf.  Ceneral  Von  Zezschw.u 
 18 
 
138  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Table  of  the  distribution  of  study  at  the  School  for  Soldiers'  Chjldren 
 
 at  Slrui)i)cn,  near  Dresden. 
 
 WI.NTFR   TERM. 
 
 SUMMER  TERM. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 Religious  Instruction,    -     -     - 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 6 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 German  Language,  ...     - 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Reading, 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Natural  Philosophy,       -     -     - 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Natural  History,       .... 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Geography  and  History,     -     - 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 French, 
 
 o 
 
 Writing, 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Singing, 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 2G 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 2G 
 
 The  distribution  of  instruction  and  labour  is  sucii,  that  during 
 the  week,  in  summer,  each  class  has  from  twenty-six  to  twenty- 
 eight  hours  of  instruction,  and  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  of 
 manual  labour,  and  during  the  winter,  from  twenty-six  to  thirty 
 hours  of  instruction,  and  from  eighteen  to  twent}'-onc  of  work. 
 The  various  trades  and  occupations  ^\  ithin  doors  are  tailoring, 
 (making  and  mending  their  own  rlothes),  shoeniaking  and 
 mending,  sawing  and  clK)pping  wood  for  the  house,  working  in 
 pasteboard,  in  straw,  and   in  wood,  making  nets,  tilling  mat- 
 
SCHOOL  FOR  soldiers'  CHILDREN   AT  STRUPPEN.  139 
 
 tresses,  spinning,  writing  for  the  war  office  and  school,  and 
 miscellaneous  house  work.  These  occupations  are  all  carried 
 on  regularhr,  and  with  a  view  to  defray  a  portion  of  the  ex- 
 penses of  the  institution;  the  farm  is  worked  for  the  same  pur- 
 pose, and  there  is  a  large  dairy  attached  to  it.  The  pupils  are 
 detailed  for  the  different  duties  every  month,  and  the  regular 
 hours  of  work  are  fixed  by  the  school  programme. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day  in  winter  is  as  follows:  the  pupils  rise 
 at  six  o'clock,  wash,  dress,  and  make  their  beds.     At  seven, 
 they  attend  prayers,  and  take  their  breakfast.     From  eight  to 
 twelve,  there  is  instruction  every  week-day,  with  an  intermis- 
 sion of  a  quarter  of  an  hour  at  ten  o'clock  for  recreation  and 
 luncheon.     From  twelve  until  two,  they  dine,  have  recreation 
 and  gymnastic  exercises.     From  two  until  five,  except  in  the 
 cases  of  a  few  pupils,  there  is  manual  labour.     From  five  to  six, 
 recreation  and  supper.     From  six  to  eight,  study,  singing  les- 
 sons, and  manual  labour.     At  half  past  eight,  prayers°  and  at 
 nine  the  classes  retire.     In  summer  they  rise  at  five,  at  half 
 past  six  have  prayers,  and  religious  instruction  until  seven. 
 Breakfast,  and  have  recreation   until  eight.     Are  enn-ao-ed  in 
 school  or  manual  labour  until  twelve,  with  an  intermission  of  a 
 quarter  of  an  hour,  for  relaxation,  at  ten.     Have  recreation, 
 gymnastic  exercises,  and  dine  between  twelve  and  two.    Are 
 engaged  in  school  or  manual  labour  until  six,  with  an  interval 
 at  five  for  recreation,  during  which,  as  in  the  morning,  they 
 receive  a  luncheon  of  bread.     On  Wednesday  afternoon,  they 
 bathe  in  the  Elbe,  which  is  at  an  easy  walk  from  the  institution. 
 About  seven  o'clock  they  sup,  and  then  are  free  until  the  hour 
 for  prayers,  towards  nine  o'clock.     At  nine  they  retire. 
 
 The  arrangements  of  the  school  are  military,  the  students 
 wear  a  neat  uniform,  and  those  who  are  appointed  to  the 
 command  of  the  others  at  meals,  in  the  dormitories,  &c.,  arc 
 distinguished  by  particular  badges.  The  discipline  is  m.ild. 
 The  fare  exceedingly  simple.  In  the  morning,  flour  gruel,  or 
 milk  and  bread  is  given  for  brcakfiist;  at  noon,  vegetables  for 
 dinner,  except  on  one  day  of  the  week  a  milk  gruel.  They  also 
 receive  a  piece  of  bread  in  the  intervals  of  recreation,  in  the 
 
140  ELEEMOSYiVARY   IXSTITUTIONS. 
 
 morning  in  winter,  and  botli  morning  and  afternoon  in  summef. 
 The  appearance  of  the  children  is  healthy. 
 
 The  number  of  pupils  in  the  several  classes,  in  1837-8,  was, 
 in  the  select  class  twenty-six,  in  the  first  class  forty-seven,  and 
 in  the  second  class  fifty-one.  Total,  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
 four.  There  is  a  principal  and  two  assistant  teachers,  besides 
 those  for  the  handicrafts.  The  steward  has  charge  of  the  farm, 
 and  gives  the  pupils  instruction  in  agriculture. 
 
 ST.  JOHN'S  ORPHAN-HOUSE  AT  PRAGUE. 
 
 This  was  the  best  orphan-house  which  I  visited  in  the  Aus- 
 trian dominions,  and  I  give  it  as  containing  some  of  the  peculiar 
 arrangements  found  in  southern  Germany. 
 
 History,  BiiUding,  and  General  Government.  The  institution 
 was  founded  in  1773,  after  the  close  of  the  seven  years'  war, 
 by  Count  Runigh  and  others,  for  the  maintenance  and  educa- 
 tion of  twenty-five  orphans.  The  funds*  have  been  increased 
 by  imperial  grants,  especially  by  those  of  Maria  Theresa,  and 
 in  consequence  of  a  fever  of  violent  type  having  broken  out  in 
 the  house,  which  was  attributed  to  its  contracted  dimensions, 
 that  empress  gave  money  for  erecting  a  more  spacious  one. 
 The  present  building  contains  not  only  all  necessary  accommo- 
 dations, but  is  better  adapted  to  its  object  than  most  of  the  or- 
 phan-houses which  I  have  seen  on  the  continent.  It  contains 
 large  halls  for  school-rooms  and  studies,  for  dormitories,  and 
 for  a  refectory,  for  examinations,  and  dancing  lessons;  also,  a 
 chapel  with  a  gallery  for  the  choir,  a  meeting-room  for  the 
 trustees,  and  for  the  teachers,  apartments  for  the  teachers,  &c. 
 Tiie  establishment  is  administered  by  seven  trustees,  appoint- 
 ed by  the  city  of  Prague,  eacii  of  whom  takes  a  separate  de- 
 partment of  it  under  his  superintendence,  the  president  having  a 
 general  responsibility.  They  meet  once  a  month  at  tiie  liouse, 
 for  the  transaction  of  business,  inspect  the  institution  every 
 quarter,  and  receive  a  yearly  report  from  the  superintendent 
 who  has  charge  of  all  the  departments.     At  present,  one  of  the 
 
 •  The  income  is  now  about  twcnty-onc  lliousand  dollars. 
 
ST.  John's  orphan-house  at  i'rague.  141 
 
 teachers  has  been  chosen  to  this  ofRce,  but  continues  also  to 
 give  instruction. 
 
 There  are,  besides,  three  teachers,  and  one  assistant,  all  of 
 whom,  as  well  as  the  superintendent,  must  be  unmarried.  The 
 teachers  hold  monthly  conferences,  to  discuss  the  progress  and 
 conduct  of  the  pupils,  a  system  which  cannot  be  too  warmly 
 recommended,  as  producing  concert  of  action  in  teachers  of 
 the  same  age,  and  improvement  in  younger  ones.  The  eco- 
 nomy of  the  house  is  in  charge  of  a  stewardess,  who  receives 
 a  fixed  sum  for  the  board  of  each  pupil  and  teacher,  and  has, 
 besides,  a  small  salary  from  the  institution,  with  certain  per- 
 quisites. 
 
 Admission,  S^c.  To  be  admitted,  a  child  must  be  fatherless,  the 
 son  of  a  citizen  of  Prague,  or  of  one  of  the  inferior  town  officers, 
 in  necessitous  circumstances,  and  of  six  years  of  age.  On  appli- 
 cation for  admission,  a  certificate  of  the  marriage  of  parents,  of 
 baptism,  vaccination,  and  of  having  attended  school,  must  be  pre- 
 sented. There  is  no  fixed  age  beyond  which  children  are  not  re- 
 ceived, but  in  general  they  are  not  admitted  w^hen  over  twelve 
 years.  Special  exceptions  to  these  rules,  particularly  as  regards 
 being  the  sons  of  burghers,  have  been  made  in  certain  cases, 
 as,  for  example,  in  the  orphans  rendered  so  by  the  cholera. 
 
 When  the  claims  of  several  children  are  considered  equal, 
 and  the  number  of  applications  exceed  the  vacancies,  they  are 
 obliged  to  draw  for  their  places.  If  it  is  discovered,  after  the 
 admission  of  a  child,  that  any  deception  has  been  used,  his 
 friends  are  obliged  to  pay  the  expenses  which  have  been  in- 
 curred for  his  maintenance,  &c.  The  admission  takes  place 
 once  a  year,  on  St.  John's  day. 
 
 The  pupils  are  retained  until  between  thirteen  and  fourteen 
 years  of  age,  and  are  then  apprenticed  by  the  institution.  At 
 the  close  of  the  apprenticeship,  they  receive  certain  gratuities. 
 As  the  custom  of  paying  a|)prentice  fees  still  exists  in  Austria, 
 and  the  institution  does  not  pay  them,  these  children  are  obliged 
 to  serve  for  a  longer  term  than  others,  as  an  equivalent.  The 
 master  to  whom  they  are  bound  is  obliged,  if  he  have  fault  to 
 
142  ELEEMOSYNARY   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 find  with  his  apprentice,  to  report  it  to  the  trustees,  and  in  gene- 
 ral cannot  break  the  indenture  without  consulting  them.  iS'o 
 regular  provision  is  made  for  the  advancement  of  the  more 
 inlelhgcnt. 
 
 According  to  the  rules  of  the  house,  children  who  are  not 
 orphans  may  be  taken  on  the  payment  of  a  certain  sum  an- 
 nually. Tliis  practice  prevailed  also  formerly  in  some  of  the 
 orphan-houses  of  Switzerland.  It  was  intended  partly  to  bene- 
 fit the  funds  of  the  house,  and  })artly  to  prevent  that  isolation  ol 
 the  orphans  from  society,  which  their  own  friendless  condition 
 would  teixl  to  produce.  It  has  been  found,  however,  not  to 
 work  well.  The  objections  which  appeared  here  were  twofold; 
 the  want  of  ecjuality  in  the  pupils  who  were  on  the  charity,  and 
 of  those  who  paid,  was  a  source  of  discomfort  to  the  former, 
 when  the  pay  pupils  were  numerous,  and  the  guardians  of  bad 
 children  frequently  took  advantage  of  this  way  of  educating 
 them,  and  thus  the  mass  of  the  school  was  corrupted  by  tiie 
 introduction  of  a  few  immoral  individuals.  The  number  of 
 these  pupils  is,  in  conse(iuence,  in  the  course  of  gradual  re- 
 duction. 
 
 The  whole  number  of  boys  in  the  house,  in  1837,  was  fifty. 
 
 Education.  The  courses  of  study  here  are  those  of  the  Aus- 
 trian model  high-school,  and  consist  of  reading,  writing,  arith- 
 metic, geograi)hy,  and  German  and  Bohemian  grammar. 
 
 There  are  three  classes,  the  lowest  of  which,  the  first,  can  be 
 passed  through  in  one  year,  and  the  other  two  in  from  two  to 
 three  years. 
 
 As  i)art  of  these  children  speak  the  Bohemian  language  only, 
 and  part  the  German,  one  of  the  main  objects  of  instruction  is 
 to  produce  an  interchange  of  the  two.  Accuracy  is  not  at- 
 tained by  their  intermixture  in  conversation,  for  they  tend  to 
 corrupt  each  other's  language  by  introducing  a  ditferent  idiom. 
 Tiie  case  is  a  very  dillerent  one  from  that  of  a  single  indi- 
 vidual f)laced  in  a  community  whose  language  iie  wishes 
 to  acquire,  antl  the  result  shows  conclusively  tliat  this  dilfer- 
 encc  is  not  to  bo  overlooked  in  determining  how  a  foreii^n 
 language  is  to  be  taught.     The  necessity  for  this  devoli(»n  to 
 
ST.  John's  orphan-house  at  Prague.  143 
 
 language  for  its  own  sake,  limits  very  much  the  intellectual  dc- 
 velopnfient  of  the  pupils. 
 
 Drawing  is  one  of  the  courses  in  which  very  great  pains  are 
 taken,  and  boys  who  have  chosen  their  intended  occupations, 
 are  directed  to  the  kind  of  drawing  judged  most  suitable  for 
 them.  This  selection  is  usually  made  about  a  year  before  leav- 
 ing the  house,  so  that  some  time  is  afforded  for  special  drawing. 
 
 Music  is  not  taught  in  any  form,  except  to  the  few  who  con- 
 stitute the  choir  of  the  chapel ;  neither  is  singing  used  in  the 
 school,  which,  to  my  apprehension,  is  an  important  omission. 
 
 The  religious  instruction  of  the  school  is  given,  at  present,  by 
 a  Roman  Catholic  clergyman,  one  of  the  trustees,*  who  also 
 holds  a  service  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  in  the  chapel  The 
 instruction  consists  of  catechetical  exercises,  Bible  history,  &c. 
 
 The  teachers  have  not  separate  subjects  precisely,  nor  yet 
 are  they  confined  to  one  class,  to  which  they  give  instruction 
 in  several  branches,  but  a  kind  of  mixed  system  is  in  use,  which 
 is  not  very  advantageous.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  is, 
 that  as  each  teacher  must  in  turn  superintend  the  study  hours 
 of  all  the  classes,  he  must  teach  every  class,  in  order  to  be 
 able  to  keep  them  in  due  order.  I  was  not  satisfied  with  the 
 result,  and  believe  that  either  system,  would  be  preferable, 
 but  that  for  an  elementary  school,  hke  this,  the  class  system,  as 
 far  as  it  can  be  pursued,  is  the  better.  When  a  teacher  is  tho- 
 roughly trained,  for  example,  as  those  who  are  sent  out  by  the 
 seminaries  for  teachers  in  northern  Germany,  he  has  more  than 
 the  acquirement  requisite  for  such  a  purpose. 
 
 Each  teacher,  in  turn,  is  expected  to  superintend  the  pupils 
 from  rising  until  they  are  in  bed,  which  is  an  excellent  ar- 
 rangement. In  this  he  is  assisted  by  certain  boys,  appointed 
 to  the  charge  of  divisions  of  six,  and  who  are  selected  for  this 
 purpose  at  the  monthly  conference  of  the  teachers. 
 
 The  rewards  for  conduct  and  progress  are  permissions  to 
 
 *  Pater  Schneider  has  devoted  the  small  amount  now  available  as  a  salary  for 
 an  ecclesiastic  acting-  as  instructor,  to  create,  by  its  accumulation,  a  fund  for  a 
 chaplain.  His  benefits  to  the  institution  cannot,  however,  be  estimated  by  pecu- 
 niary measure. 
 
144  KLEEMOSVNARV   INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 visit  friends  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  the  inscription  of  the  pu- 
 pil's nanic  in  a  book  of  iionour,  presenting  him  favourably  to 
 the  trustees,  appointing  him  to  the  charge  of  others,  and  ren- 
 dering him  eligible  to  prizes  at  the  examinations.  These  are 
 only  bestowed  in  cases  where  the  conduct  of  a  superintendent 
 has  been  irreproachable  for  six  montiis. 
 
 The  punishments  are  varied  in  reference  to  the  dispositions 
 of  individuals,  but  consist  principally  in  abridging  their  plea- 
 sures. Corporal  punishment  is  permitted,  but  is  rarely  re- 
 sorted to. 
 
 There  are  no  mechanic  arts  taught  in  the  institution,  nor  do 
 the  pui)ils  even  assist  the  workmen,  (tailor  and  shoemaker,) 
 who  are  employed  in  the  house.*  They  take  but  little  part  in 
 the  police  of  the  establishment,  merely  waiting  on  each  other 
 at  meals.  Thus  they  lose  much  good  moral  and  physical  dis- 
 cipline. The  gardens  attached  to  the  house  are  rented,  and 
 nothing  but  their  play-ground  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  boys. 
 Their  exercises  consist  of  gymnastics  and  of  walks  in  sum- 
 mer almost  every  day,  and  in  winter,  in  walks  on  Thursday 
 and  Sunday,  and  dancing.  Their  health  is  in  general  good,  no 
 indisposition  having  occurred  during  the  year  before  my  visit, 
 requiring  the  use  of  the  sick-room.  The  clothing  is  ample,  in 
 the  ordinary  fashion  of  the  boys  of  the  town,  and  is  changed 
 froni  winter  to  summer.  They  have  an  out  and  in-door  suit, 
 wliich  are  supplied  as  the  occasion  requires. 
 
 The  diet  is  quite  generous,  resembling  that  of  the  English 
 schools,  more  than  those  of  northern  Germany.  They  have 
 meat  every  day  but  Friday,  and  in  the  evening  beer,  with 
 bread  and  butter.  This  fare  shows  how  local  such  matters 
 are,  when  we  find  in  the  snulh  a  northern  diet  and  beverage. 
 Their  food  is  inspected  by  the  superintendent,  and  by  one  of  the 
 trustees,  who  attends  from  time  to  time  for  that  purpose.  The 
 teachers  dine  in  the  same  hall  with  the  boys,  and,  with  the  stew- 
 ardess, superintend  them  at  meals.  The  boys  who  wait  at 
 table  receive  a  small  gratuity  for  their  services. 
 
 •   Tlirrc  nrc  fivr  fniinlo  <«rrvnnt«,  brsidos  ;i  porter  for  the  hnusr  srrvicr. 
 
ST.  John's  orphan-house  at  Prague.  145 
 
 The  provision  for  cleanliness  is,  in  general,  good.  There  is 
 a  special  wash-house  for  summer  use,  but  in  winter  they  are 
 obliged  to  use  the  school-rooms  for  this  and  other  duties  of 
 cleanliness,  which,  it  is  needless  to  say,  is  a  very  bad  arrange- 
 ment. The  police  of  the  dormitories  is  good,  and  the  linen  fre- 
 quently changed ;  each  boy  has  his  own  bed,  but  the  bedsteads 
 are  of  wood,  except  in  the  dormitories  of  the  infirmary,  where 
 iron  has  been  introduced,  and  its  advantage  recognised.  A 
 teacher  sleeps  in  each  dormitory,  and  a  lamp  is  kept  burning 
 through  the  night. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day  gives  four  hours  of  study,  four  of  reci- 
 tation, three  devoted  to  household  duties,  meals,  &c.,  four  and 
 a-half  to  play,  exercise,  and  gymnastics,  and  eight  and  a-half 
 to  sleep,  in  the  summer  time.  In  the  winter  they  rise  half  an 
 hour  later  than  in  summer. 
 
 19 
 
14G  ELEEMOSYNARY  INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER  III. 
 
 NOTICES  OF  THE  ORPIIAN-HOUSES  OF  HOLLAND. 
 
 There  arc  two  classes  of  Orphan-houses  in  Holland,  the  first 
 are  conducted  with  a  view  to  strict  economy  as  the  prinnary 
 consideration,  the  second  are  foundation  cstabHshments,  which 
 before  the  French  occupation  were  rich,  and  are,  even  now,  usu- 
 ally sufficiently  well  oH'to  look  to  higher  considerations  than  those 
 of  mere  economy,  and  to  give  those  pupils  who  show  great  in- 
 telligence a  better  education  than  ordinary.  Both  classes  of 
 these  schools  have  an  interesting  provision  in  the  late  age  to 
 which  the  pupils  are  superintended  by  the  establishment,  which 
 replaces  the  home  of  the  more  fortunate  child;  and  as  the  mode 
 of  carrying  out  the  provision  will  appear  equally  by  selecting 
 an  institution  of  either  class,  I  shall  take  for  description  the 
 Burgher  Orphan-house  of  Amsterdam,  which  belongs  to  the 
 second.  In  charge  of  the  trustees  of  the  orphan-houses  at  Utrecht 
 and  the  Hague,  are  certain  foundations  for  educating  young  men 
 of  talent,  which  I  shall  describe  in  connexion  with  a  few  re- 
 marks on  those  establishments. 
 
 It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  one  country  borrow's  very  little 
 from  another,  in  regard  to  the  organization  of  such  institu- 
 tions, while  similar  ideas  prevail  in  nearly  all  where  parti- 
 cular signs  of  nationality  arc  exhibited.  They  all  have  a 
 tendency,  too,  to  retain  the  organization,  in  every  respect, 
 of  a  past  age,  and  when  the  world  around  them  is  changing 
 rapidly,  are  left  behind  in  regard  both  to  matters  of  little 
 importance,  such  as  dress  and  diet,  and  also  to  the  essen- 
 tials of  education.  In  countries  where  education  is  in  a 
 state  of  transition,  they  arc  in  general  the  last  to  benefit  by 
 the  changes,  an  observation  which  will  serve  to  explain  my 
 silence  in  regard  to  many  of  the  schools  which  I  visited  with- 
 out the  invidiousnes.s   of   s])ccial   remark.      My  mission  was 
 
BURGHER  ORI'llAN-llOUSE  OF  AMSTERDAM.  H7 
 
 rather  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  good,  and  to  place  some 
 account  of  their  })eculiarities  before  the  Board,  than  to  notice 
 all  indiscriminately.  I  have  considered  myself  bound  to  notice 
 defects  in  those  described,  where  they  seemed  to  bear  upon 
 our  institution,  and  have  treasured  up  mistakes  of  various  kinds, 
 as  warnings  to  which  we  may  profitably  turn,  but  I  have  felt 
 the  task  of  presenting  either  in  this  Report  an  ungrateful  one,  and 
 have  avoided  it  where  I  could  do  so  without  a  violation  of  duty. 
 
 BURGHER  ORPHAN-HOUSE  OF  AMSTERDAM. 
 
 This  establishment  was  founded  in  1520,  by  a  charitable 
 lady  (Haasje  Plaas),  who,  during  her  lifetime,  had  educated 
 several  orphan  children,  and  at  her  decease  left  a  house  and 
 funds  to  continue  this  benevolent  practice.  Subsequent  legacies, 
 by  citizens  of  Amsterdam,  have  increased  the  funds  of  the  in- 
 stitution, which  at  present  supports  itself,  without  drawing  upon 
 the  resources  either  of  the  city  or  the  state.  There  are  six 
 trustees,  or  governors,  who  are  named  by  the  magistrates  of 
 the  city,  and  have  absolute  control  over  the  institution  and  its 
 funds.  The  Board  meets  once  a  week,  at  the  house,  and  the 
 president  is  charged,  in  the  interim,  w^ith  all  their  duties  and 
 powers.     They  report  yearly  to  the  burgomaster  of  the  city. 
 
 The  officers  of  the  establishment  are,  a  director,  who  attends 
 to  the  out-door  affairs,  and  to  whom,  when  the  trustees  are  not 
 in  session,  the  other  officers  of  the  house  are  responsible.  A 
 superintendent,  and  matron  for  the  boys,  and  another  for  the 
 girls,  called  in  the  language  of  the  orphan-houses  of  Holland, 
 the  father  and  mother  of  the  boys  and  of  the  girls.  The  super- 
 intendent of  the  boys  has  charge  of  them  at  all  times,  but  es- 
 pecially when  not  in  school;  has  the  power  to  correct  them  at 
 discretion,  reporting  the  circumstances  to  the  president  on  his 
 daily  visit.  He  makes  a  verbal  report  to  the  trustees  at  their 
 weekly  meetings.  The  other  superintendent,  the  steward  of  the 
 house,  andlhe  two  matrons,  have  charge  of  the  kitchen,  of  the 
 clothing,  and  the  domestic  work.  The  arrangement  by  which 
 the  boys  are  intrusted  out  of  school  hours  to  an  officer  as  hi'TJi 
 as  a  superintendent,  is  much  better  than  that  of  turning  thcn\ 
 
148-  ELEEMOSVNARV   INSTITUTION'S. 
 
 over  to  servants,  but  the  danger  is,  that  the  inspection  comes 
 at  last  to  be  really  executed  by  the  latter,  since  the  superinten- 
 dent has  many  other  duties  to  attend  to,  and  some  of  which  call 
 him  away  from  the  house. 
 
 The  servants  are,  two  nurses  for  the  sick,  one  to  take  care 
 of  the  children  below  eleven  years  of  age,  who  are  united  in 
 one  building,  and  five  woinen.  A  baker  is  attached  to  the  es- 
 tablishment, receiving  a  salary,  and  a  shoemaker  does  the  work 
 of  the  house  on  his  own  account. 
 
 The  buildings  are  very  commodious,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
 admit  of  an  entire  separation  of  the  two  sexes  in  the  older  de- 
 partment. The  neatness  of  Holland  is  too  proverbial  to  require 
 remark  on  that  score.  There  is  a  commodious  chapel,  and  the 
 boys'  department  has  memorials  of  deceased  pupils  who  have 
 distincruished  themselves  in  after-life,  to  serve  as  a  stimulus  to 
 
 o 
 
 the  present  generation. 
 
 This  institution  was  founded  for  the  children  of  those  who 
 had  the  rights  of  citizenship  in  Amsterdam,  and  now  that  these 
 rights  are  obsolete,  descendants  of  those  who  formerly  enjoyed 
 them  may  claim  the  places,  and  children  of  parents  by  whom 
 a  certain  amount  has  been  paid  may  be  admitted.  Children 
 who  have  lost  a  parent  have  a  preference  over  others,  and 
 those  who  have  lost  both  parents  are  considered  to  have  the 
 strongest  claim. 
 
 There  are  three  hundred  and  thirty-nine  pupils  in  the  charge 
 of  the  institution;  of  these,  one  hundred  and  fourteen  are  boys 
 below  fourteen  years  of  age.  The  instruction  is  on  the  footing 
 of  the  elementary  schools  of  Holland,  and  will  be  hereafter  des- 
 cribed in  detail.  It  does  not  require  special  notice  here.  Tlie 
 teachers  are  selected  as  in  the  other  schools  of  Holland,  by  com- 
 ])etition,  unless  there  is  some  one  whose  abilities  are  sufliciently 
 known  to  the  trustees  not  to  make  examination  necessary.  At 
 fourteen,  the  boys  are  apprenticed,  or  begin  the  studies  prepa- 
 ratory to  sea  service;  they  are  frequently,  in  the  latter  case, 
 drafted  in(«»  the  army  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  but  always  remain 
 *' children  of  the  house"  until  they  reach  twenty  years  of  age. 
 Those  who  are  ap|)renticed  return  to  the  house  to  lodge,  and 
 
BURGHER  ORPHAN-HOUSE  OF  AMSTERDAM.  149 
 
 to  receive  instruction  in  the  evening,  and  those  who  go  to  sea, 
 conae  back  to  the  institution  as  to  a  home,  at  the  end  of  every 
 voyage.     The  superintendent  of  the  boys  is  charged  with  fre- 
 quent visits  of  inspection  at  the  houses  where  they  are  appren- 
 ticed, during  which  he  informs  himself  of  their  conduct  and 
 progress.     This  regulation  I  regard  as  much  better  contrived 
 than  that  of  the  English  schools,  where  the  boys  are  to  receive 
 money  at  certain  stated  periods  during  their  apprenticeship;  so 
 loose  a  connexion  helmj'  attended  with  little  advanta<]je.     In  the 
 former  case,  the  superintendent  really  supplies  the  place  of  a 
 father,  and  the  house  of  a  home  for  the  orphan  child,  who,  in- 
 stead of  being  thrown  upon  the  world  at  once,  from  his  state 
 of  seclusion,  is  by  degrees  prepared  to  begin  his  solitary  career. 
 A  theoretical  objection,  made  sometimes  to  this  course,  is,  that 
 these  boys,  acquiring  bad  habits  out  of  doors,  return,  and  may 
 communicate  the  infection  to  those  within,  but  there  are  many 
 reasons  why  this  result  should  not  take  place.     The  boys  are 
 supposed  to  be  well  brought  up,  and  to  return  daily  to  the  fami- 
 ly, still  under  superintendence,  the  object  of  which  is  to  prevent 
 the  acquisition  of  those  bad  habits  which  they  are  assumed  at 
 once  to  have  acquired.    Besides,  they  do  not  mingle  freely  with 
 the  pupils  of  the  house ;  on  the  contrary,  their  return  is  at  stated 
 intervals,  for  fixed  purposes,  needing  no  communication  with 
 the  others.     I  took  particular  pains  to  inform  myself  in  the  dif- 
 ferent institutions  where  this  practice  prevails  in  the  form  in 
 which  I  have  described  it,  and  was  told,  that  it  was  not  pro- 
 ductive of  any  bad  results.     1  remember  especially  the  remark 
 of  the   superintendent  of  the  Orphan-house  of  the  Reformed 
 Church  at  Amsterdam,  that  if  the  arrangement  gave   much 
 more  trouble  than  it  really  did,  he  was  so  well  satisfied  of  its 
 good  fruits,  that  he  should  regret  to  see  it  abandoned.     The 
 idea  is  a  beautiful  one,  and  I  should  be  most  happy  to  see  it 
 fairly  tried  in  our  institution,  and  under  our  circumstances.    The 
 location  of  the  Girard  College  is  an  obstacle,  but  not  one  that 
 I  should  consider  insurmountable.     The  practice  of  over-work 
 with  apprentices  of  an  early  age,  cannot  be  too  strongly  depre- 
 cated, and  therefore  1  do  not  rcojard  its  existence  as  a  bar  to 
 
l.'iO  ELEE3I0SYNARy  IXSTITUTIONS. 
 
 the  plan.  If  fairly  tried  and  diligently  watched,  1  .should  ncrt 
 apprehend  much  risk  of  a  failure,  provided  the  school  depart- 
 ments are  organized  in  a  ])roper  way.  If  it  were  found  impos- 
 sible, on  account  of  the  location  of  the  College,  a  similar  but 
 less  efficacious  arrangement  of  superintendence,  retaining  the 
 family  connexion  with  the  College,  might  be  substituted  for  it. 
 The  first  mentioned  arrangement  would,  perhaps,  limit  the 
 number  of  places  for  our  apprentices  to  particular  quarters  of 
 the  city,  though  this  could  hardly  occur,  connected  as  the  dif- 
 ferent parts  of  the  city  are  by  ready  and  cheap  conveyances. 
 
 The  religious  instruction  given  in  the  Burgher  Orphan-house 
 is  according  to  the  doctrines  of  the  reformed  church  of  Holland, 
 and  dissenters  go  to  their  own  ministers  for  instruction.  There 
 are  two  clergymen  attached  to  the  house,  who  hold  catechetical 
 and  other  exercises  on  Wednesday  evening  and  on  Sunday. 
 There  are,  besides,  morning  and  evening  prayers,  and  the  usual 
 grace  and  thanks  before  and  after  meals.  During  meals,  one  of 
 the  pupils  reads  aloud  from  the  Bible,  a  practice  which,  as  con- 
 ducted, is  not  only  unserviceable,  but  savours,  in  my  opinion,  of 
 irreverence.  The  punishments  are,  preventing  from  a  visit  to 
 friends  on  Sunday,  admonition,  particular  places  at  table,  con- 
 finement with  or  without  the  usual  food,  and  dismission.  Cor- 
 poral chastisement  is  not  used.  The  location  at  table  is  a 
 public  punishment,  and  liable,  on  that  account,  to  objection. 
 There  arc  no  regular  vacations,  but  in  the  holiday  time  of  other 
 schools  the  pupils  are  allowed  to  go  to  their  friends,  if  request 
 is  made,  and  there  is  no  objection  on  the  part  of  the  oilicers  of 
 the  institution.  Small  pecuniary  allowances  are  made  to  the 
 pupils,  at  the  discretion  of  the  superintendent. 
 
 The  physical  education  of  the  children  in  the  orjihan  houses 
 of  Holland,  on  the  average,  is  by  no  means  attended  to  as  in 
 those  (jf  Germany.  Gymnastics  have  never  found  favour  in 
 Holland,  and  amusements  out  of  doors  are  less  in  accordance 
 with  the  spirit  of  the  children  than  in  England,  from  causes 
 connected,  no  doubt,  originally  with  the  peculiarities  of  the 
 surface  of  their  country.  At  the  orj)han  colonies  of  William- 
 soord,  the  bo}'s  arc  occupied  in  agriculture,  and  are  certainly 
 
THE  REIVSWOUDE   FOUNDATIONS.  151 
 
 more  robust  in  consequence.  The  play-grounds  of  the  city 
 orphan-houses  are  in  general  very  contracted,  and  do  not  admit 
 of  active  sports  taking  place  in  them. 
 
 The  following  is  the  order  of  the  day  in  winter.  The  elder 
 boys  rise  at  half  past  five,  the  younger  at  seven.  Their  break- 
 fast of  bread  and  butter  is  taken  as  soon  as  they  are  washed 
 and  dressed,  those  who  live  out  of  the  house  receiving  theirs, 
 which  they  may  take  aw^ay  with  them.  From  nine  until  half 
 past  eleven  there  is  school  for  the  boys  of  the  house,  and  again 
 from  ten  until  four.  They  dine  at  one,  sup  at  half  past  eight, 
 and  retire  at  ten.  They  are  free  to  amuse  themselves  from 
 after  supper  until  bed  time.  The  time  devoted  to  instruction 
 gives  an  idea  of  the  limited  course  intended.  There  is  no  pro- 
 vision for  the  development  of  higher  intellect  in  regular  con- 
 nexion with  the  institution. 
 
 THE  RENSWOUDE  FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 These  foundations  are  for  the  benefit  of  the  orphan-houses  of 
 Utrecht  and  the  Hague,  and  the  funds  are  administered  by  their 
 governors.  They  were  left  by  a  lady,*  (Mrs.  Van  Renswoude,) 
 for  the  purpose  of  training  those  pupils  who  distinguished  them- 
 selves, to  higher  callings  not  requiring  a  complete  university  edu- 
 cation. There  are  seven  young  men  now  on  this  foundation  at 
 Utrecht,  and  six  at  the  Hague.  Most  of  those  selected  have  be- 
 come highly  respected  in  their  professions,  and  several  have  risen 
 to  distinction.  This  is  the  more  encouraging,  that  both  the  insti- 
 tutions from  which  the  young  men  have  been  chosen  have  but 
 few  inmates;  neither  have  now  more  than  twenty,  and  though 
 formerly  the  number  was  larger,  they  have  always  been  small 
 establishments.  As  these  youths  are,  upon  the  average,  about 
 seven  years  upon  the  foundation,  there  is  only  about  one  choice 
 every  year.  The  pupils  are  selected  for  these  places  when 
 between  eleven  and  thirteen  years  of  age,  and  then  receive,  in 
 or  out  of  the  orphan-house,  a  higher  grade  of  instruction  than 
 the  other  children.  After  spending  about  two  years  in  general 
 studies,  the  youth  and  his  teacher  fix  upon  the  profession  which 
 seems  to  promise  fairest,  and  the  pupil  begins  the  particulnr 
 
 *  The  "■  Viy  Vrouw  Van  Renswoude." 
 
l;'/^  KLEF.MOSVXAKY   INSTITUTION'S. 
 
 studies  most  appropriate  as  a  preparation.  ITc  resides  in  the 
 house  until  it  is  necessary  to  seek  in  some  public  school,  away 
 from  the  city,  the  special  branches  necessary  to  his  prolcssion. 
 When  I  visited  the  Hague  school,  three  of  the  pupils  on  thu 
 Rensvvoudc  foundation  were  at  Utrecht,  attending  to  clinical 
 medicine  in  the  medical  department  of  the  university,  one  in  the 
 veterinary  school  of  the  same  place,  one  studying  mathematics 
 at  Leyden,  and  one,  a  pupil  of  the  architectural  school,  had 
 gained  the  approbation  of  government,  and  been  sent  to  travel, 
 at  the  public  expense,  for  improvement  in  his  art.  Of  ten  pupils 
 at  Utrecht,  who  have  been  educated  on  this  foundation,  between 
 1834  and  1836,  one  is  a  surgeon,  one  a  veterinary  surgeon,  two 
 are  painters,  one  is  a  surveyor,  two  are  oflicers  in  the  colonies, 
 two  pilots,  and  one  is  an  organ-builder.  The  actual  director  of 
 the  hydraulic  works  of  Holland  was  a  Renswoude  pupil,  and 
 before  the  existence  of  special  schools  for  professions  requir- 
 ing considerable  scientific  attainments,  these  foundations  were 
 of  great  importance. 
 
 Before  leaving  the  subject  of  the  orphan-houses  of  Holland, 
 I  may  state,  that  both  at  Utrecht  and  the  Hague,  and  indeed 
 also  in  part  at  Rotterdam,  the  pupils  reside  in  the  house  after 
 having  been  apprenticed.  At  the  Hague  they  are  apprenticed 
 at  between  twelve  and  thirteen  years  of  age,  a  stipulation  being 
 made  with  the  master  in  regard  to  the  hours  of  meals  and  of 
 the  cessation  of  work.  Both  here  and  at  Utrecht  the  insti- 
 tution saves  the  gains  of  the  apprentices,  and  pays  them  over 
 to  them  on  leaving  the  establishment,  deducting  only  an  allow- 
 ance for  pocket-money.  At  Rotterdam  the  institution  retains 
 five-sixths  of  the  earnings,  as  an  equivalent  for  the  pupil's  board- 
 ing and  education.  In  this  latter  institution  the  children  are 
 apprenticed  at  the  early  age  of  ten,  in  the  city,  and  those  who 
 go  to  sea,  at  twelve.  With  so  many  examples  there  can  be  no 
 doubt  that,  under  the  circumstances  of  society  in  Holland,  and 
 of  the  institutions  in  that  country,  this  plan  is  not  only  perfectly 
 practicable,  but  is  entirely  approved  after  full  experience.  The 
 habits  of  life  there  arc  much  more  like  those  in  lOngland  and  the 
 United  Slates  than  those  in  any  other  nation  of  the  continent 
 of  Europe. 
 
PART   II. 
 
 EDUCATION  IN  GENERAL. 
 
 The  first  part  of  this  Report  is  devoted  to  institutions  for 
 orphans  and  destitute  children,  as  these  might  be  supposed  to 
 bear  more  especially  upon  the  organization  of  the  Girard  Col- 
 lege.    By  examples  selected  from  among  the  best  establish- 
 ments of  the  kind  which  I  visited,  the  scope  of  these  institutions 
 has  been  shown  to  vary  very  considerably.     In  some  we  have 
 seen  provision  made  for  preparing  the  more  able  students  for 
 the  university;  while  others  confined  their  training  to  the  hum- 
 bler walks  of  life.     In  others,  again,  we  have  found  systematic 
 arrangements  for  educating  the  pupils  to  grades  depending  upon 
 their  abilities,  and  for  occupations  in  life  selected  according 
 to  their  particular  talents.    The  foundations  which  have  the 
 means  to  accomplish  the  last  named  result  are,  however,  few  in 
 number.     There  are  but  two  among  those  in  Great  Britain 
 which  have  funds  adequate  to  the  purpose,  and  I  am  not  ac- 
 quainted with  a  single  institution  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
 which  is  thus  endowed.     The  tw^o  in  Great  Britain  originated 
 at  a  period  when  distinction  was  only  to  be  attained  through 
 the  learned  professions,  and  a  character  was  thus  impressed 
 upon  them  which  has  not  since  been  changed.     As  a  general 
 rule,  changes  are  less  readily  made  in  institutions  of  this  class, 
 than  in  the  schools  at  large;  so  that  when  education  is  progres- 
 sive, they  are  apt  to  be  left  behind.     Nothing  is  clearer,  how- 
 ever, than  that  Mr.  Girard  intended  his  institution  to  have  the 
 entire  range  of  usefulness  to  which  I  have  referred.     Hence 
 my  investigations  would  have  been  incomplete,  had  they  not  in- 
 cluded public  schools  in  general,  and  my  Report  deficient,  did 
 it  not  present  to  the  trustees  some  account  of  the  institutions  for 
 general  education  in  those  countries  of  Europe  where  it  is  on 
 the  best  footing.     From  these  descriptions  various  hints  may 
 20 
 
154  PUBLIC  INiTRUCTIOX   IS  GEXERAL. 
 
 be  galliercd,  and  measures  suggested  whicli  cannot  fail  to  be 
 serviceable  in  tlie  general  organization  or  minute  arrangement 
 of  the  Girard  College.  If  this  account  should  further  contribute 
 to  awaken  attention  in  our  schools  to  improvements  which  have 
 been  introduced  abroad,  I  am  sure  that  tlie  trustees  of  the  Girard 
 College  will  feel  gratified  at  this  useful  result  of  their  measures. 
 The  periods  of  education  for  which  separate  schools  and  dif- 
 ferent materials  of  instruction  liavebeen  appropriately  provided, 
 are,  the  Infant,  the  Elementary  or  Primary,  the  Secondary,  and 
 the  Superior.  Schools  for  the  one  class  sometimes  include  de- 
 partments for  the  other;  but,  in  general,  the  classification  holds 
 good.  Tliese  four  classes  include  the  period  up  to  the  age  at 
 which  education  is  completed,  and  the  career  of  active  life  is 
 commenced.  The  first  period  extends,  generally,  to  six  years 
 of  age;  the  second  to  ten  or  twelve  years;  the  third  to  sixteen 
 or  eighteen;  and  the  fourth  to  about  twenty-one.  These  limits 
 vary  in  dillerent  countries,  under  dillcrent  social  organizations, 
 and  with  diflcrent  individuals.  Circumstances  do  not  permit 
 every  one  to  pass  through  these  several  periods,  nor  are  they 
 all  reiiuired  for  the  dilTorent  callings  of  life.  Hence  the  educa- 
 tion frequently  terminates  with  the  elementary  period,  which  is 
 then  extended  to  the  age  of  fourteen.  The  limits  of  secondary 
 instruction  are  frequently  changed  in  ihe  same  way.  As  in  all 
 artificial  classifications,  the  limits  of  the  classes  are  not  pre- 
 cisely defined,  though  the  division  is,  nevertheless,  convenient 
 for  the  arrangement  and  discussion  of  facts. 
 
 The  lowest  period  of  education  is  entirely  anterior  to  that  at 
 which  the  pupil  must  enter  the  Girard  College,  according  to 
 the  will  of  the  founder;  but,  for  reasons  which  will  be  stated  in 
 the  introduction  to  it,  I  have  concluded  to  embrace  a  notice  of 
 it  in  this  report.  It  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin ;  is  well 
 developed  in  but  one  country  in  Europe ;  and  hence  occupies 
 but  a  small  space,  which  is  altogether  insignificant  when  com- 
 pared with  the  principles  embraced.  The  elementary  and  se- 
 condary periods  are  those  which  the  limits  of  age  fixed  by  the 
 will  oi  Mr.  Girard  would  indicate  as  especially  embraced  in  our 
 course  of  education.  A  portion  of  that  of  superior  instruction 
 is,  however,  included  within  them,  especially,  according  to  the 
 
INTRODUCTION.  155 
 
 educational  arrangements  common  in  the  United  States.  This 
 grade  of  education,  as  given  in  Europe,  has  two  distinct  objects. 
 The  first  is,  an  introduction  to  the  learned  professions ;  the  se- 
 cond, to  the  higher  occupations  in  the  arts,  manufactures,  and 
 commerce.  The  first  kind  of  instruction  is  given  in  the  univer- 
 sities, and,  in  general,  the  universities  of  Great  Britain  forming 
 the  exception,  the  studies  are  of  a  professional  character  or  ten- 
 dency. For  this,  and  other  reasons,  more  fully  developed  in 
 the  remarks  introductory  to  the  chapter  on  superior  education, 
 I  have  chiefly  confined  myself  to  the  schools  of  the  second  divi- 
 sion of  this  grade. 
 
 In  submitting,  then,  the  view  of  the  diflxjrent  periods  of  edu- 
 cation, to  which  the  remainder  of  this  Report  is  principally  de- 
 voted, I  shall  take  them  up  in  the  succession  already  mentioned, 
 preceding  each  by  a  statem.ent  of  the  order  in  which  the  dif- 
 ferent countries  are  treated,  and  w^ith  such  remarks  as  may 
 seem  necessary,  by  way  of  introduction.  As  it  would  have 
 been  manifestly  impossible  to  give  an  account  of  general  edu- 
 cation in  all  the  countries  I  visited,  within  the  limits  appro- 
 priate to  a  report,  I  have  selected  in  each  period,  those  which 
 appeared  to  me  most  important  as  examples,  making  such  re- 
 marks as  a  view  of  the  whole  ground  has  suggested,  and  oc- 
 casionally instHuting  direct  comparisons.  Following  out  the 
 same  principle,  I  have  not  undertaken  to  give  an  account  of  all 
 the  schools  I  visited ;  but  have  confined  my  Report  to  such  as 
 seemed  best  calculated  to  serve  as  types  of  diflerent  classes  of 
 institutions. 
 
 After  brief  notices  of  certain  infant  schools,  elementary  in- 
 struction is  considered  under  two  heads:  the  first,  embracing 
 the  schools  for  general  purposes,  the  second,  those  intended  for 
 special  training,  as  for  the  education  of  a  rural  or  industrial  popu- 
 lation, and  of  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools.  Under  the 
 former  head  will  be  given  a  notice  of  the  provisions  for  elemen- 
 tary instruction  in  Great  Britain;  a  notice  of  the  primary  public 
 instruction  in  France;  a  more  particular  description  of  the  pri- 
 mary  system  of  Holland,  and  of  some  schools  which  illustrate  its 
 application ;  a  history  and  general  sketch  of  the  Prussian  system, 
 with  detailed  descriptions!   nnd   notires  of  sovf^rnl  prominonf 
 
156  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION   IN  GENERAL. 
 
 schools;  a  notice  of  the  system  of  primary  instruction  in  Sax- 
 ony, and  of  some  of  the  sciiools,  and  an  account  of  the  method 
 appHed  in  the  schools  of  Bayreuth,  in  Bavaria.  The  second 
 division  of  primary  instruction  will  comprehend  descriptions  of 
 certain  rural  schools  of  Switzerland  and  Great  Britain,  an  indus- 
 trial primary  school  of  France,  and  of  some  of  the  schools  for 
 primary  teachers  in  Prussia,  France,  Holland,  and  Switzerland. 
 
 Passing  to  the  head  of  secondary  instruction,  the  Report  will 
 include  descriptions  and  notices  of  schools  in  Great  Britain, 
 France,  Prussia,  and  Saxony;  each  chapter  being  devoted  to 
 a  separate  country,  and  preceded  by  general  introductory 
 remarks.  I  have  ventured  to  propose  a  subdivision  of  this 
 head,  which  appears  to  me  borne  out  by  reason,  and  by  the 
 present  state  of  facts  in  regard  to  education;  the  argument  in 
 reference  to  it  will  be  found  among  the  matter  introductory  to 
 that  division  of  the  Report. 
 
 In  some  countries  it  would  appear,  from  the  nature  of  their 
 institutions,  to  be  assumed  that  there  is  but  one  w-ay  of  forming 
 character,  and  of  training  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  and  that  by 
 this  way  all,  if  they  are  to  be  educated,  must  pass,  whatever 
 their  occupation  in  after  life.  In  others,  a  diversity  in  the  me- 
 thods of  training  appears  to  be  admitted.  In  the  first,  if  it  be 
 not  the  lot  of  the  individual  to  remain  sufficicntlv  lonor  under 
 education  to  master  the  entire  scholastic  course,  he  is  expected 
 at  least  to  possess  a  fragment  of  it.  In  the  second,  fragmentary 
 education  is  not  admitted;  but  according  to  the  time  the  indi- 
 vidual may  have  to  dispose  of  before  entering  active  life,  his 
 course  of  education  is  directed;  and  as  this  cannot  be  accurately 
 known  in  early  life,  the  diflerent  paths  diverge  at  first  slowly, 
 to  render  a  passage  from  one  to  the  other  easy.  Examples  will 
 be  furnished  of  both  these  systems;  and,  if  I  mistake  not,  it  will  be 
 seen  that  the  second,  while  its  theory  commends  itself  to  reason, 
 is,  at  the  same  time,  entirely  practicable. 
 
 Under  the  division  of  Superior  Instruction  will  be  given  tle- 
 scriptions  of  some  special  schools  for  the  arts,  manufactures, 
 and  commerce  of  France,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  and  tfic  higher 
 agricultural  school  uf  VVirtemburgh,  besides  brief  notices  of 
 a  few  otfier  similar  institutions. 
 
INFANT  SCHOOLS.  157 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 INFANT  SCHOOLS. 
 
 As  the  pupils  of  the  Girard  College  cannot  be  admitted  before 
 the  age  of  six,  they  are  past  the  infmt  period,  and  thus  it  may 
 be  supposed  that  I  am  departing  from  the  rule  which  I  have 
 been  obliged  to  lay  down,  in  order  to  confine  my  Report  within 
 reasonable  bounds.  I  am  so  fully  impressed,  however,  with  the 
 importance  of  infant  education,  that  I  would  not  feel  justified 
 in  passing  over  the  period  without  a  brief  notice.  The  infant 
 school  system  embraces  so  much  of  the  philosophy  of  educa- 
 tion, has  been  made  so  entirely  an  inductive  branch,  has  been 
 pondered  over  by  so  many  minds  of  a  superior  order,  that  we 
 cannot  fail  to  derive  advantage  from  a  consideration  of  some  of 
 its  principles  and  practical  results.  I  am  persuaded,  that  from 
 the  quarter  of  infant  school  instruction  will  one  day  come  the 
 reform  of  the  English  juvenile  schools,  and  indeed  this  reform 
 has  already  commenced,  in  the  instance  of  the  Juvenile  Model 
 School  of  Glasgow,  and  must  extend  widely,  by  the  influence 
 of  its  school  for  teachers. 
 
 The  inlant  school  system  seems  to  have  originated  about  the 
 same  time  in  Great  Britain  and  Switzerland.  In  the  former 
 country,  the  first  idea  has  been  steadily  improved  upon,  and 
 there  also  it  is  now  best  carried  out.  Oberlin,  the  pastor  of 
 Steinthal  (Ban  de  la  Roche),  collected  the  younger  children  of 
 the  poor  of  his  parish  into  schools,  where  a  female  superin- 
 tendent taught  them  spinning  or  knitting,  and  at  intervals  a  little 
 geography,  from  a  Map  of  Steinthal  and  its  Environs,  or,  by  the 
 help  of  pictures,  a  portion  of  Bible  or  natural  history.  About 
 the  same  time,  the  children  of  the  workmen  in  Mr.  Owen's  ex- 
 tensive manuiacturing  establishments,  at  New  Lanark,  were 
 collected  in  schools,  for  the  purpose  of  healthful  recreation,  and 
 of  due  care  and  of  a  certain  degree  of  intellectual  instruction; 
 and,  subsequently,  a  similar  establishment  was  commenced  by 
 Lord  Brougham,  in  Westminster.     Mr.  Wilderspin  must,  how- 
 
158  GENERAL  EDUCATIO.V.       I\FA\T   PERIOD. 
 
 ever,  be  considered  as  the  author  of  the  infant  school  as  it  now 
 exists,  having,  in  his  connexion  with  a  proposed  asylum  in  another 
 part  of  London,  first  proposed  the  name,  defined  the  age,  and 
 established  the  true  principles  of  infant  education. 
 
 It  is  mninly  by  his  instrumentality  that  the  present  system  is 
 now  diffused  so  extensively  over  Orcal  Britain.  Of  this  system 
 the  infant  schools  of  Liverpool,  which  he  was  engaged  to  re- 
 form, otlbred  me  an  examf)le  for  inspection,  though  not  of  the 
 most  favourable  kind.  Tlie  model  infant  schools  of  Glasgow, 
 Edinburgh,  and  London,  are  improvements  on  the  system,  pre- 
 senting marked  varieties:  that  in  London  being  derived,  how- 
 ever, from  the  Glasgow  model. 
 
 The  necessity  for  the  existence  of  such  schools  must  vary 
 much  in  dillerent  countries,  and  hence  their  not  being  adopted 
 in  all  is  no  argument  against  the  general  principle  of  infant  edu- 
 cation. The  want  of  such  schools  is  most  felt  in  a  dense  and 
 manufacturing  population,  least  in  a  scattered  and  agricultural 
 one.  Independently  of  essentially  dificrent  degrees  of  usefulness, 
 under  difierent  circumstances,  various  prejudices  have  concurred 
 to  prevent  the  introduction  of  these  schools  into  some  countries. 
 Certain  govcrnmcn-ts,  as  those  of  Germany  in  general,  have  not 
 lent  their  influence  to  them,  and  the  clergy  have,  in  some  parts 
 of  Europe,  been  as  warmly  opposed  to  them  as  in  others  they 
 have  been  their  friends.  The  deformed  models  which  have  been 
 transplanted  from  England  to  other  countries,  have  tended  in 
 many  cases  to  foster  these  prejudices.  In  some  of  these  the  in- 
 tellectual development  of  the  pupils  has  been  attempted  to  be 
 carried  on  to  their  manifest  injury,  physically  and  mentally. 
 In  others,  a  mere  mechanical  and  lifeless  routine  has  been  fol- 
 lowed. The  infant  schools  which  I  saw  at  Paris,  called  "  ecoles 
 d'asile,"  seem  to  me  to  educate  upon  wrong  princi|)lcs,  having 
 adopted  the  mechanical  arrangements  of  the  English  infant 
 schools,  without  having  seized  their  spirit.  I  believe,  that  de- 
 priving them  of  the  female  superintendence  which  they  formerly 
 enjoyed,  to  make  them  a  jvirt  of  the  government  system,  will 
 react  fiirlhcr  very  injuriously  u)ion  thorn. 
 
 In  some  of  the  cities  of  Holland,  as  llotterdam,  Amsterdam. 
 and  Zwollc,   I   saw   good   infant   srhools.      In  tho  mpitnl  of 
 
GLASGOW  MODEL  INFANT  SCHOOL.  159 
 
 Prussia  they  are  beginning  to  take  permanent  root.  In  Aus- 
 tria Proper,  their  condition  is  rather  languishing,  but  in  the 
 Italian  provinces  they  are  deemed  most  important  means  of 
 ultimately  effecting  a  great  change  in  the  character  of  the  peo- 
 ple. At  Venice  the  establishment  is  fostered  by  the  governnnent 
 and  liked  by  the  people.  At  Milan  is  an  admirable  institution, 
 growing  out  of  that  founded  at  Cremona,  by  the  Abbe  d'Apos- 
 ti,  who  first  introduced  these  schools  into  Italy.  In  Lombardy 
 and  Venice  the  schools  are  under  the  control  of  a  society. 
 
 The  best  infant  schools  which  I  visited  w^ere  decidedly  those 
 of  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and  London.  The  system  of  the  infant 
 schools  of  Lombardy,  as  I  saw  it  at  Milan,  comes  next  to  the 
 English  model,  but  is  comparatively  too  verbal  and  precise, 
 dealing  too  little  with  realities.*'  I  propose  to  give  an  account 
 of  the  school  at  Glasgow,  and  merely  a  notice  of  those  at 
 Edinburgh  and  Gray's  Inn  Road,  London,  that  I  may  not  be 
 supposed  to  dwell  unnecessarily  upon  the  subject. 
 
 Model  Infant  School  of  the  Glasgow  Education  Society. 
 This  is  the  first  of  the  schools  of  the  Glasgow  Education 
 Society,  and  was  founded  in  1826.  At  my  visit  in  183G,  it 
 contained  two  hundred  pupils,  and  the  success  of  the  society 
 had  been  such  as  to  induce  the  erection  of  new  buildings  to 
 contain  their  infant,  juvenile,  normal,  and  other  schools.f 
 
 The  principles  of  the  sy-stem  of  education  in  this  school  are, 
 first,  that  the  corporal,  intellectual,  and  moral  nature  of  its 
 pupils,  is  to  be  improved.  Second,  that  this  is  to  be  done  by  in- 
 culcating good  principles,  and  training  to  the  practice  of  them. 
 Third,  that  to  render  such  training  effectual,  the  nature  of  the 
 individual  to  be  educated  must  be  studied.    In  a  day-school  like 
 
 *  I  am  indebted  to  the  Marquis  of  Beccaria,  one  of  the  most  strenuous  friends 
 of  infant  schools  in  Lombardy,  for  an  account  of  the  foundation  and  actual  con- 
 dition of  the  asylums  of  charity  at  Milan,  in  1837,  and  tlie  "Manual  of  Educa- 
 tion and  Administration  of  Infant  Schools,"  by  the  Rev.  Abbe  d'Aposti,  and  a 
 "  Guide  for  the  Founders  and  Directors  of  Infant  Charity  Schools,  derived  from 
 the  Practice  in  the  Infant  Scliools  of  Cremona."     Milan,  183G. 
 
 t  I  am  particularly  indebted,  for  the  opportunities  of  freely  visitinj^  the  schools 
 of  this  society  to  the  intelligent  secretary,  David  Slow,  Esq.,  author  of  Stow's 
 System  of  Moral  Training  and  of  the  Training  System  Adopted  in  the  Model 
 Schools  of  the  Glasgow  Education  Society,  &c. 
 
160  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       INFANT  PERIOD. 
 
 this  one,  for  example,  corporal  training  would  include  the  acqui- 
 sition of  proper  habits  of  walking,  sitting,  standing,  holding  a 
 book  or  slate,  which,  with  manners,  cleanliness,  and  a  variety 
 of  others,  will  naturally  suggest  themselves.  Intellectual  train- 
 ing exercises  the  observing,  perceiving,  knowing,  and  reasoning 
 faculties  in  a  due  degree,  and  here  the  art  of  the  teacher  is  exer- 
 cised mainly  to  judge  how  far  he  shall  ofler  food  to  these.  And 
 so  also  of  the  moral  and  religious.  It  is  frequently  forgotten  that 
 the  amelioration  of  the  heart  should  precede  that  of  the  head,  and 
 moral  and  physical  development  are  sacrificed  to  intellectual.* 
 Not  so  in  this  school.  Its  peculiar  characteristic  may  be  con- 
 sidered, the  great  stress  which  it  lays  upon  the  daily  use  of 
 the  Bible,  as  a  means  of  both  moral  and  intellectual  training, 
 and  the  constant  preference  given  to  such  exercises  as  may  be 
 connected  with  it  over  all  others.  I  subjoin,  in  the  Appendix, 
 (No.  IX.,)  an  example  of  a  Bible  lesson,  to  illustrate  my  mean- 
 ing in  asserting  the  connexion  of  various  intellectual  exercises 
 with  its  lessons.  In  Wilderspin's  system  there  were  twenty- 
 four  Bible  lessons,  selected  with  a  view  to  avoid  any  of  the 
 points  on  which  sects  of  Christians  difler;  in  this  there  is  a  les- 
 son for  each  day  in  the  year,  giving  the  variety  which  the 
 other  system  wants,  but  at  the  expense,  in  part,  of  simpHcity. 
 
 The  mechanical  arrangements  of  the  school  are,  first,  the 
 school-room,  with  its  platforms  as  usual  raised  in  steps,  called  the 
 gallery,  occupying  a  considerable  part  of  the  breadth  of  the  room. 
 Second,  the  lesson-posts  and  forms,  where  the  little  classes  as- 
 semble under  their  monitors.  Third,  the  detached  room,  where 
 the  master  may  retire  with  a  class.  Fourth,  the  play-ground, 
 with  its  implements  for  exercise  and  amusement,  its  llowers 
 and  fruits.  The  school-room  is  but  tolerably  well  ventilated, 
 though,  no  doubt,  this  will  be  remedied  in  a  house  built  ex- 
 pressly for  the  purposes  of  the  school.     It  is  hung  round  with 
 
 •  The  iil)UPc  of  intellectual  development  is  nowhere  more  admirably  set  fortli 
 tlian  in  the  treatise  by  our  countryman,  A.  Brigham,  INI.  D.,  which  has  been  re- 
 published in  lOnj^'lund,  and  is  considered  a  standard  work  on  the  subject.     An- 
 otlicr  of  our  countrymen,  Mr.  Abbott,  stands  high  as  autliority  in  relation  to  in 
 f&nt  cultuxe. 
 
©LASGOW  MODEL  INFANT  SCHOOL.  .  161 
 
 boards,  on  which,  in  large  letters,  are  inscribed  words  or  reli- 
 gious sentiments,  or  on  which  are  piciui'es  of  animals,  6z:c. 
 The  raised  platform,  in  steps  of  due  height,  and  where  both 
 boys  and  girls*  are  seated,  combines  many  advantages;  it  ena- 
 bles the  teacher  distinctly  to  see  every  pupil,  and  in  turn  the 
 pupils  to  see  the  master  and  each  other.  Thus  the  power  of 
 imitation  and  sympath}^  which  play  so  great  a  pai't  in  edu- 
 cation, are  brought  to  bear  under  the  most  advantageous  cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 It  is  in  this  gallery  that  the  most  important  exercises  are 
 given.  The  school  opens  with  a  short  prayer,  adapted  to  the 
 comprehension  of  the  children,  order  being  first  secured,  if  there 
 are  untrained  pupils  among  them,  by  the  aid  of  short  physical 
 exercises,  raising  and  lowering  the  hands,  rising  and  sitting 
 down,  and  so  on — such  exercises  never  failing  to  produce  this 
 result.  The  children  assembled  here  listen  to  the  Bible  lesson, 
 the  master  occupying  the  front  and  centre  of  the  little  assem- 
 blage, with  the  Bible-stand  to  support  his  book,  and  by  its  side 
 the  whistle  and  bell,  which  are  to  convey  signals,  intended  to 
 secure  prompt  obedience.  The  lesson  having  been  read,  it  is 
 broken  up  into  detached  parts.  The  simple  ones  afford  matter 
 for  direct  questions,  or  the  children  are  led  to  understand  them 
 by  other  preliminary  questions,  proceeding  always  from  the 
 known  to  the  unknown.  Replies  from  many  are  secured  by 
 the  elliptical  form  of  answer,  in  which  the  master  leaves  a 
 simple  but  emphatic  word,  or  part  of  a  word,  to  be  supplied. 
 These  are  impressed  upon  all  by  a  repetition  of  the  ellipsis, 
 the  filling  up  of  which  all  have  now  caugfit  from  those  who 
 first  supplied  it,  and  finally  the  whole  answer  is  repeated. 
 The  Bible  lesson  is  frequently  one  of  civil  or  natural  history 
 and  geography.  Simplicity  in  question  is  the  desideratum  in 
 this  and  other  exercises.  The  master  must  descend  to  the 
 level  of  the  child,  or  he  effects  nothing.  Singing  a  hymn,  or 
 physical  exercises,  or  the  inspection  which  ensures  cleanliness, 
 
 *  It  is  considered  most  importaijt  to  infant  training  tli.it  both  hi^y;  and  ^^iria 
 should  be  united  in  n  ola««s  niid<»r  a  master  and  mistross. 
 21 
 
165i  GENERAL   EDUCATION'.       INFANT    PERIOD. 
 
 will  vary  this  course,  and  above  all,  care  must  be  taken  that 
 the  attention  of  the  children  is  kept  up.  If  this  fails,  it  is  the 
 master  himself  who  fails.  A  principle  which,  if  at  all  admitted, 
 in  more  advanced  education,  does  not  occupy  the  place  wiiich 
 it  deserves. 
 
 The  gallery  serves  also  for  the  lessons  on  o])jects,  or  pictures 
 of  objects,  w  here  simple  specimens  from  the  animal,  vegetable, 
 and  mineral  kingdom,  or  of  artificial  productions,  are  made  the 
 subjects  of  actual  examination  or  of  description.  Their  proper- 
 ties, as  far  as  may  be,  are  observed  by  the  children,  led  by  the 
 master,  who  directs  their  feeble  perceptions.  Words  to  express 
 their  ideas  are  furnished,  when  the  want  of  these  words  is  felt. 
 With  those  somewhat  advanced,  the  printed  or  written  word 
 is  shown  and  imitated  on  the  slate. 
 
 At  an  earlier  period  the  letter  which  begins  the  word  is  se- 
 lected from  a  series  of  large  brass  letters,  cut  out  for  this  pur- 
 pose, and  is  held  before  the  pupil,  and  its  name  or  its  most 
 common  sound  in  combination  given.  A  word  beginning  with 
 the  same  letter  is  suggested  by  a  pupil,  another  and  another 
 may  be  written  on  the  board  and  copied,  and  all  or  any  of 
 them  may  be  made  the  subject  of  instructive  exercise. 
 
 At  a  later  day  the  exercise  of  practical  grammar,  which  will 
 be  explained  when  speaking  of  the  juvenile  school,  is  added. 
 When  places  are  spoken  of,  objects  or  pictures  are  shown  in 
 connexion  with  them.  The  children  are  in  the  gallery  also 
 during  their  arithmetic  lessons,  when  the  ball  frame,  so  well 
 known  in  all  infant  schools,  is  substituted  for  the  Bible-stand, 
 and  the  teacher  gives  his  lessons  by  question  and  answer  ellip- 
 tically,  by  teaching  a  song  in  which  the  ellipsis  of  a  word  occurs 
 in  each  line,  or  by  the  pupils  singing  simple  songs  already 
 learned.  These  impress  the  easy  operations  of  infant  arithmetic 
 powerfully  upon  the  memory.  The  eye  and  car  are  thus  im- 
 proving wiih  the  intellect,  or  the  eye  is  exercised  by  the  deter- 
 mination of  angles  by  the  jointed  instrument,  called  a  goni- 
 graph,  or  by  geometrical  figures.  The  children  are  also  in  the 
 gallery  when  hearing  from  the  master  a  story,  embodying  cir- 
 cumstances of  a  moral  tendency,  or  calculated  to  instruct  or 
 amuse,  or  to  arouse  curiosity.     This  is  one  of  the  exercises 
 
GLASGOW  MODEL  INFANT  SCHOOL.  163 
 
 they  are  most  fond  of,  and  which,  if  the  master  be  apt,  may 
 be  made  as  useful  as  any.  The  characters  of  the  great  and 
 the  good  may  be  brought  before  them,  their  feehngs  interested, 
 and  thus  early  elevated,  their  patriotism  excited,  and  evil  ten- 
 dencies repressed.  It  is  the  peculiar  feature  of  this  school  to 
 draw  such  stories  often  from  the  sacred  volume,  and  in  general, 
 as  an  illustration  of  how  attractive  these  may  be  rendered,  it 
 may  be  stated,  that  when  left  to  choose  the  kind  of  story  they 
 will  have,  the  children  prefer  a  Bible  history  to  any  other. 
 These  various  exercises  of  course  are  not  continuous,  nor  do 
 they  even  occur,  sometimes,  on  the  same  day,  and  each  of  them 
 is  interrupted  frequently  for  exercise,  especially  with  untrained 
 children. 
 
 The  elliptical  method*  spoken  of  is  to  omit  the  last  or  some 
 important  word  of  a  sentence,  taking  care  that  it  is  one  easily  sup- 
 plied by  the  children,  and  which  leaves  the  sentence  plainly  im- 
 perfect until  it  is  given.  Thus  the  children  are  engaged  in  a  kind  of 
 conversation  with  the  teacher,  interesting  to  them  because  they 
 are  parties  in  it,  and  watching  keenly  the  sentence,  that  they 
 may  seize  the  wanting  w^ord.  In  the  ellipsis  used  in  this  school, 
 the  first  sounds  of  a  word  are  frequently  supplied,  requiring  the 
 little  assembly  to  suggest  the  rest.  I  observed  a  great  differ- 
 ence iiT  the  facility  with  which  the  children  supplied  the  ellipsis 
 of  their  master,  by  whom  they  were  in  the  habit  of  being  ques- 
 tioned, and  that  of  others  by  whom  they  were  addressed,  but 
 found  that  it  arose,  generally,  from  the  too  great  rapidity  of  the 
 uninitiated  teachers,  by  which  they  did  not  allow  the  children 
 time  to  think  and  to  answer.  This  explanation  supposes  the 
 ellipsis  well  contrived.  The  method  of  responses  is  frequently 
 varied,  by  inducing  some  one  or  more  of  the  children  to  ask 
 questions  of  the  class,  two  or  more  of  each  other,  or  one  or  more 
 to  volunteer  to  be  questioned  by  the  class.  From  the  whole 
 of  this  method,  emulation  as  a  principle  is  excluded,  it  is  not 
 needed,  and  indeed  it  is  truly  held  that  it  would  be  pernicious. 
 
 *  Tliis  method  is  stated  to  have  been  firpt  announced  by  Dr.  Bortluvick  Gil- 
 christ, in  his  lectures  on  Oriental  literature.  It  was  adoi»lcd  early  by  Mr.  Wil- 
 derspin. 
 
104  GEXERAL  EDUCATION.       LNFAXT   PERIOD. 
 
 I  was  s!irprised,  in  witnessing  some  of  these  exercises,  at  the 
 accuracy  with  which  the  childi-en  stated  their  questions,  result- 
 ing entirely  from  the  imitation  of  the  perspicuous  style  of  the 
 master.^  On  the  subject  of  imitative  powers  at  this  early  age, 
 many  facts  might  be  brought  together;  one  struck  me  so  much 
 that  I  mention  it  here.  1  never  visited  an  infant  school  in  which 
 the  voice  of  the  master  or  mistress  was  agreeable  in  singing, 
 without  finding  melody  among  the  children,  and  vice  versa.  It 
 is  recorded  in  this  school  that  nearly  all  the  children  learn  to 
 sing  agreeably. 
 
 The  passage  from  the  gallery  to  the  lesson  posts  is  performed 
 while  singing,  and  always  in  i-egular  order.  Sometimes  an 
 interval  of  out  or  in-door  exercise  separates  the  lessons.  The 
 monitors  are  chosen  by  the  master,  or  offer  themselves  by  the 
 holding  up  of  hands,  when  he  calls  for  it,  before  the  childrei> 
 leave  the  gallery.  Each  monitor  has  a  class  of  half  a  dozen 
 or  more,  to  whom  he  explains  the  picture  suspended  upon  their 
 particular  reading-post,  and  the  letters  or  words  beneath  it. 
 The  classes  change  posts,  after  a  reasonable  interval,  and  the 
 monitor  has  a  new  set  to  drill.  Such  teaching  is  not  to  be 
 expected  to  be  efficient,  but  it  nevertheless  answers  a  good 
 purpose  at  this  age.  The  lesson-posts  are  arranged  so  that  the 
 board  on  which  the  lesson  is  pasted  may  be  readily  changed, 
 and  so  that  its  height  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  size  of  the 
 pupils  receiving  tlie  lesson.  The  boards  are  covered  with  co- 
 loured prints  of  animals,  representations  of  trades,  of  costumes, 
 &c.  No  formal  attempt  is  made  to  teach  reading,  but  it  is 
 found  without  it  that  the  children  insensibly  learn  to  read.  A 
 useful  exercise  for  the  more  advanced  children,  requiring  study 
 at  home,  and  which  also  iVe(]uently  excites  the  attention  of  pa- 
 rents, is  to  give  them  cards,  with  (juestions  relating  to  natural 
 history  &.C.,  to  be  answei'ed  on  a  subsequent  day.  The  answers 
 arc  sometimes  required  from  particular  parts  of  the  Bible. 
 
 Behind  the  gallery  are  the  places  for  hanging  the  caps  and 
 cloaks  of  the  children,  which  they  are  trained  to  put  ofT  and 
 
 *   Mr.  Diivid  C'aviji^liy,  whose  wife  is  hi5  nssislant  in  the  school. 
 
GLASGOW  MODEL  INFANT  SCHOOL.  165 
 
 to  take  again  in  an  orderly  manner.  The  detached  room  en- 
 ables a  master  to  hear  any  class  which  he  may  wish,  apart 
 from  the  others,  the  mistress  meanwhile  superintending  the 
 school,  or  to  teach  the  monitors,  or  furnislies  a  place  for  the 
 noon  luncheon,  which  many  of  the  children  bring  with  them. 
 
 The  play-ground  in  the  system  of  this  school  is  considered  the 
 "uncovered  school-room,"  the  true  place  for  moral  training, 
 where  the  principles  inculcated  within  are  to  be  carried  into 
 practice,  and  where  the  tempers  and  dispositions  show  them- 
 selves more  fully,  in  unrestrained  intercourse,  than  in  the  school. 
 There  is  in  it  a  circular  swing*  for  exercise,  wooden  prisms 
 in  the  proportions  of  bricks,  for  amusement,  and  flowers  and 
 fruits,  to  train  them  to  respect  the  goods  of  others  and  of  the 
 public. 
 
 The  master  is  constantly  with,  or  overlooking  them,  some- 
 times mixing  in  their  sports,  or  showing  them  new  or  amusing 
 games,  and  always  attentive  to  their  development  of  character, 
 but  unless  in  extraordinary  cases,  his  interference  is  not  neces- 
 sary. The  benevolence  of  some  children  prevents  or  remedies 
 the  accidents  incident  to  their  plays,  and  justice  insures  a  tole- 
 rably equal  share  of  the  sports.  When  a  fault  is  committed,  it 
 is  noticed  after  the  assembling  of  the  children  in  the  gallery, 
 where  the  public  opinion  of  his  equals  in  age  is  brought  to  bear 
 upon  the  offender  by  a  judicious  series  of  questions  from  the 
 master,  without,  however,  making  the  punishment  a  public  one, 
 by  directly  designating  the  individual  w^ho  is  under  censure. 
 Punishments  in  or  out  of  school  are  adapted  to  the  tender  age 
 of  the  child,  and  addressed  to  his  peculiar  temperament.  Cor- 
 poral punishment,  even  of  the  mildest  kind,  is  seldom  found  ne- 
 cessary. 
 
 *  Tliis  consists  of  a  mast  or  post,  about  cir^htecn  fccthigii,  on  liie  top  of  which 
 is  a  plate  of  iron,  movable  upon  a  j)in  of  the  same  material,  fastened  into  the  post. 
 Four  ropes  hang  from  this  plate,  and  each  has  knots  or  sticks  across  it,  at  heights 
 suitable  to  the  size  of  the  children,  who  arc  to  grasp  them.  These  ropes  being 
 seized,  the  children  run  round,  keeping  them  fully  stretched.  The  motion  soon 
 produces  a  sufficient  centrifugal  force  to  take  them  off  their  feet.  If  a  child  lets 
 go  of  the  rope,  he  is  carried  beyond  the  circle  where  the  others  would  touch  h'mx 
 in  their  courso  round. 
 
166  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       INFANT  PERIOD. 
 
 When  the  ])lay-gronnd  cannot  be  used,  the  want  is  supplied, 
 as  far  as  possible,  by  games  within  doors,  which  are,  however, 
 very  imperfect  substitutes  for  those  in  the  open  air. 
 
 SCHOOL  OF  THE  EDINBURGH  INFANT  SCHOOL  SOCIETY. 
 
 This  establishment  was  founded  by  the  Edinburgh  Infant 
 School  Society,  in  1829,  subsequently  to  that  of  Glasg<:)W,  and 
 upon  principles  of  education  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Glasgow 
 Model  School.  The  necessity  of  combining  moral  with  intel- 
 lectual training  is  especially  insisted  upon  here  as  in  the  other, 
 and  the  same  importance  is  attached  to  physical  training.  The 
 same  use  is  made  of  the  play-ground  as  in  the  Glasgow  school, 
 and  with  similar  cflicacy  as  to  the  bodily  and  moral  improve- 
 ment of  the  children.  The  system  of  Wilderspin  was  at  the 
 outset  the  guide  of  both. 
 
 The  general  principles  which  regulate  the  establishment  of  a 
 school,  however  closely  it  may  be  the  intention  of  the  teacher  to 
 follow  them,  will  always  receive  a  modifying  impress  from  his 
 own  peculiar  views  and  qualities.  Thus,  while  intellectual  edu- 
 cation is  declared  to  be  a  secondary  object  here,  the  amount  of 
 actual  attainment  by  the  pupil  is  much  greater  than  at  Glasgow, 
 from  the  circumstance  that  the  turn  of  the  master's  mind  is  con- 
 stantly towards  inventing  ways  of  simplifying  the  mode  of  in- 
 struction. Some  part  of  the  time  occupied  in  the  other  school 
 in  religious  training  is  spent  in  this  in  intellectual,  and  the  chil- 
 dren leave  it,  having  advanced  so  far  as  to  read,  spell,  and  parse, 
 and  having  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  gcogra[)hy,  history, 
 and  arithmetic,  with  the  properties  of  various  objects,  &c.  The 
 season  at  which  I  visited  the  school,  the  winter,  was  unfavour- 
 able to  a  judgment  of  the  physical  education,  but  the  appear- 
 ance of  the  children  indicated  that  it  was  good.  The  moral  re- 
 sults api^car  from  published  documents  highly  satisfactory,  and 
 the  intellectual  struck  me  as  perhaps  even  too  high;  a  correct 
 decision,  however,  on  this  important  question  would  require 
 more  time  for  observation  than  1  had  to  bestow,  especially  from 
 the  fact  which  I  have  before  remarked,  that  the  talent  of  the 
 
INFANT  SCHOOL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON.  167 
 
 master*  particularly  showed  itself  in  intellectual  training.  His 
 multiplied  means  of  addressing  instruction  through  the  eye,  the 
 products  in  great  part  of  his  own  ingenuity  in  devising  and  skill  in 
 executing,  were  very  remarkable;  added  to  which  he  had  thrown 
 many  subjects  into  the  form  of  games,  rendering  them  attrac- 
 tive to  the  children.  Among  the  former  were  the  progressive 
 maps  of  travel  for  infant  geography,  the  historical  maps,  with 
 picture  illustrations,  the  illustrated  grammar  exercises,  the  ex- 
 ercises in  measures  and  weights,  and  in  Arabic  and  Roman  nu- 
 merals, all  illustrated  by  ingenious  and  perspicuous  diagrams. 
 I  was  also  particularly  pleased  with  a  series  of  moral  training 
 lessons,  which,  beginning  with  a  statement  of  what  the  school 
 should  be,  provides  rules  for  attaining  this  condition,  and  rea- 
 sons for  the  rules;  precepts  in  regard  to  the  virtues,  and  re- 
 marks upon  faults  to  be  avoided. 
 
 This  school  has  had  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  sixty  pu- 
 pils, and  the  general  attendance  averages  about  one  hundred 
 and  twenty.  The  mixed  system  of  lessons  in  the  gallery,  and 
 of  monitors  for  the  classes,  is  used  in  it  as  at  Glasgow,  and  the 
 other  general  arrangements  are  also  much  the  same  in  the  two 
 schools. 
 
 SCHOOL  OF  THE  HOME  AND  COLONIAL  INFANT  SCHOOL 
 SOCIETY  OF  LONDON. 
 
 "The  Home  and  Colonial  Infant  School  Society"  was  insti- 
 tuted in  1836,  to  promote  the  cause  of  infant  education,  by  point- 
 ing out  to  the  public  the  indispensable  qualifications  of  teachers, 
 by  providing  an  establishment  where  teachers  might  be  received 
 and  their  acquirements  put  to  the  test  and  improved,  and  by  pub- 
 lishing lectures,  lessons,  manuals,  and  other  appropriate  works.f 
 To  carry  out  the  second  part  of  this  undertaking,  the  society 
 found  a  model  infant  school  absolutely  necessary.    The  teachers 
 
 *  Mr.  Milne,  who  has  his  wife  for  his  assistant  in  the  scliool. 
 
 t  The  society  has  been  fortunate  in  securing  the  assistance  of  some  of  the 
 most  distinguished  friends  of  education  in  their  enterprise,  as  Doctor  and  Miss 
 Mayo,  of  London,  Dr.  Bryce,  of  Belfast,  &.c.  Dr.  Mayo  is  well  known  as  the 
 principal  of  a  Pestalozzian  school  at  Chcam,  in  Surrey. 
 
168  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       INFANT  PERIOD. 
 
 were  instructed  in  the  principles  of  their  art,  but  as  the  schools 
 which  they  visited  did  not  exemplify  these  principles,  they  were 
 not  trained  in  the  practice  of  them,  and  hence,  in  many  cases, 
 their  career  did  not  justify  the  expectations  of  the  society. 
 
 The  model  infant  school  establi^^hed  by  this  society  is  upon 
 the  enlightened  ))lan  which  I  have  already  described,  the 
 teacher  luiving  been  trained  in  the  Normal  school  at  Glasgow; 
 but  it  partakes,  in  a  considerable  degree,  of  the  peculiarities 
 of  the  Edinburgh  school.  Thus,  in  religious  instruction,  its 
 aim  is  to  avoid  such  matter  as  shall  be  objectionable  to  any 
 denomination  of  Christians,  and  it  carries  intellectual  education 
 further  than  its  Glasgow  model.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  in  the  re- 
 cent official  work*  on  infant  education  issued  by  the  society,  a 
 part  of  the  instruction  actually  given,  namely,  teaching  to  read, 
 is  not  spoken  of  with  special  approbation,  but  rather  as  a  yield- 
 ing to  the  supposed  prejudices  of  parents.  The  method  itself 
 draws  strong  encomiums  from  the  managers  of  the  society, 
 and  will  be  found  described  in  the  Appendix  to  this  Report, 
 (No.  X.)t  I  was  particularly  pleased  with  the  lessons  given 
 in  sensible  objects,  and  the  incidental  exercises  of  orthography 
 to  which  they  led.  The  pictures  used  are  a  decided  improve- 
 ment on  those  commonly  employed,  but  a  difficulty  in  their  use 
 has  been  discovered,  from  the  very  precise  ideas  which  the 
 child  attaches  to  them,  by  which  truth  appears  to  be  violated, 
 when  the  same  subject  is  illustrated  diflerently  in  two  pictures. 
 It  has  been  found  possible  to  overcome  this  diffiiculty,  in  a 
 degree,  by  impressing  upon  the  child  that  these  pictures  are 
 merely  general  illustrations,  and  not  precise  representations  of 
 events  which  the  artist  has  witnessed. 
 
 The  small  play-ground  here  is  better  furnished  with  the  means 
 of  infant  gymnastic  exercises  than  that  of  Glasgow,  but  is  by 
 no  means  commodious. 
 
 ■  Practical  Rcmiirks  on  Infant  Education,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Mayo  nnd  -Miss 
 Mayo.  It  is  interesting  to  sec,  in  this  work,  how  admirably  the  natural  method 
 of  instruction  by  IVstalozzi  adapts  itself  to  the  infant  school. 
 
 +  It  is  entitled  "  Rpndinjf  Disentangled,"  nnd  is  divided  into  twenty-»en'en 
 lessons. 
 
INFANT  SCHOOL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON.  1(59 
 
 The  teachers  who  are  in  training  receive  theoretical  lessons, 
 attend  the  practice  of  the  school,  are  employed  to  teach 
 small  classes  in  separate  rooms,  under  superintendence,  and, 
 finally,  practice  with  the  entire  class.  The  course  for  teachers 
 is,  as  yet,  however,  of  too  limited  a  duration,  being  only  three 
 months;  but  it  is  proposed  to  extend  it  when  further  means  of 
 reducing  the  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  the  pupil-teachers  shall 
 be  afforded. 
 
 22 
 
170  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       TRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 ELEMENTARY  OR  PRIMARY  EDUCATION. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 
 
 Elementary  education  may  be  considered  in  two  points  of 
 view,  both  of  great  importance:  as  the  sole  education  of  the 
 mass  of  the  community,  or  as  leading  to  higher  instruction. 
 In  the  former  view,  it  requires  to  be  complete,  as  a  whole;  in 
 the  latter,  it  is  essentially  preparatory.  In  reference  to  each, 
 its  character  is  materially  dillbrent.  In  our  country  at  large, 
 we  have  been  necessarily  more  occupied  with  creating  com- 
 mon schools,  than  with  elevating  the  standard  of  the  instruction 
 given  in  them.  In  the  meantime,  education  has  been  advanc- 
 ing; and,  unless  we  would  be  untrue  to  ourselves  and  to  our 
 political  institutions,  we  must  gather  experience  wherever  it  is 
 to  be  found,  and  apply  those  practical  results  which  are  best 
 adapted  to  our  circumstances.  In  like  manner,  on  the  more 
 limited  field  of  the  Girard  College,  we  must  raise  our  system 
 upon  the  basis  of  the  successful  experiments  of  others,  unless 
 we  would  encounter  the  vexations  incident  to  the  acquisition  of 
 experience  by  our  own  failures. 
 
 The  importance  of  primary  instruction  in  both  these  refer- 
 ences, has  induced  me  to  extend  this  notice  of  its  present  con- 
 dition to  a  considerable  nun)l)cr  of  countries,  and  to  multiply 
 the  examples  illustrative  of  the  systems,  where  the  schools  are  in 
 a  nourishing  condition. 
 
 It  happens,  and  I  believe  unfortunately  for  us,  that  the  ele- 
 mentary schools  of  Great  Britain  are,  in  general,  behind  those 
 of  other  countries  of  Europe  with  which  we  are  less  con- 
 nected. Desultory,  and  sometimes  conflicting,  eflbrts  at  im- 
 provement have  not  made  an  impression  proportioned  to  the 
 wants  of  the  people  of  that  country,  and  have  left  them  behind 
 others,  who  have  much  less  need  of  cultivated  intelligence  to 
 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS.  171 
 
 enable  them  to  fufil  the  duties  of  citizens.  Through  the  me- 
 dium of  schools  for  teachers,  the  importance  of  which  is  now 
 recognised,  the  same  rapid  reforms  may,  however,  be  worked 
 there,  as  have  been  effected  in  some  countries  on  the  continent. 
 It  w^ill  be  found  that,  at  present,  I  have  been  obliged  to  draw 
 my  examples  of  the  schools  for  popular  instruction  in  Great 
 Britain  from  Scotland  exclusively,  but  descriptions  of  depart- 
 ments for  primary  instruction  will  be  found  in  some  of  the 
 notices  of  secondary  schools  of  other  parts  of  the  country. 
 
 Although  the  primary  schools  of  France  are  not  yet,  in  gene- 
 ral, upon  a  level  with  those  of  Holland  and  Prussia,  I  have 
 appended  a  brief  notice  of  the  system  and  progress  of  public 
 instruction  there.  The  view  affords  great  encouragement,  by 
 showing  how  much  may  be  realized  by  judicious  laws,  and  in 
 a  well-arranged  system  of  inspection.  A  rapid  improvement  in 
 the  schools  in  general  will,  no  doubt,  result  from  the  operation 
 of  the  normal  schools. 
 
 The  system  of  primary  instruction  in  Holland  is  particularly 
 interesting  to  an  American,  from  its  organization  in  an  ascend- 
 ing series ;  beginning  with  the  local  school  authorities,  and  ter- 
 minating, after  progressive  degrees  of  representation,  as  it 
 were,  in  the  highest  authority;  instead  of  emanating,  as  in  the 
 centralized  systems,  from  that  authority.  A  fair  trial  has  been 
 given  to  a  system  of  inspection  which  is  almost  entirely  ap- 
 plicable to  our  country,  and  which  has  succeeded  with  them. 
 They  have  tried  an  important  experiment,  in  communicating 
 religious  without  sectarian  instruction;  another,  which  has 
 resulted  in  demonstrating  the  necessity  of  special  schools  for 
 teachers;  and  another,  entirely  unfavourable  to  the  system  of 
 mutual  instruction.  I  have  enlarged,  therefore,  upon  the  gene- 
 ral account  of  their  system  of  public  instruction,  and  have 
 given  rather  a  general  notice  of  the  schools,  than  of  any  one  in 
 particular.  I  have,  however,  made  one  of  the  schools  for  the 
 poor,  which  seemed  to  me  superior  even  to  those  of  the  same 
 class  in  Prussia,  the  subject  of  special  description  and  remark. 
 
 The  account  in  reference  to  Holland  is  followed  by  that  of 
 the  Prussian  system  and  schools.    This  is  the  most  perfect  of 
 
172  GENERAL  EDUCATIO.V.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 the  centralized  systems,  allowing  considerable  latitude  in  the 
 arrangement  of  the  individual  schools,  while  all  are  subject  to  the 
 influence  of  the  central  authority.  It  has  not,  as  is  commonly 
 supposed,  recently  sprung  into  existence,  but  has  been  the  work 
 of  time,  has  been  altered  and  amended,  and  is  still  in  progress. 
 Its  j)resent  condition  is  the  result  of  exj)ericnce,  and  thus  it  com- 
 mends itself  to  enliglitencd  imitation,  by  which  I  mean  that 
 which,  laying  aside  what  is  inapplicable  to  the  political  or  social 
 institutions  of  the  country  adopting  it,  would  employ  the  large 
 amount  of  useful  material  which  it  contains.  The  schools  contain 
 much  more  that  is  applicable  to  our  country  than  the  system  in 
 general,  and  hence  I  have  enlarged  upon  them,  particularly  upon 
 the  higher  class  of  primary  schools,  which  seem  to  me  in  better 
 condition  than  those  of  any  other  of  the  larger  European  states. 
 It  is  in  what  may  be  called  the  incidental  parts  of  instruction, 
 and  which  do  not  appear  upon  paper;  in  the  spirit  of  the  teacher, 
 and  sometimes  in  that  of  the  books;  that  the  peculiarities  of  na- 
 tional organization  in  these  schools  arc  chiefly  to  be  found. 
 
 The  chapter  on  Prussia  is  followed  by  a  notice  of  the  schools 
 of  Saxony,  and  by  an  account  of  the  excellent  higher  primary 
 school,  or  Burgher  School  of  Leipsic.  The  Model  Primary 
 School  of  Frankfort  on  Maine  is  described  in  the  same  chapter. 
 The  necessity  of  confining  myself  within  limits  has  alone  pre- 
 vented me  from  giving  an  account  of  some  of  the  schools  of 
 Weimar,  of  Nassau,  and  of  Switzerland. 
 
 The  Bavarian  schools,  according  to  Graser's  method,  follow 
 in  the  chapter  succeeding  Saxony.  I  have  omitted  mention  of 
 the  others,  as  throwing  no  new  light  upon  the  subject.  This  is 
 true  also  of  the  Austrian  primary  schools.  These  latter  are 
 chiefly  characterized  by  a  spirit  of  system,  which  exactly  regu- 
 lates the  method  and  amount  of  what  is  to  be  taught,  and  when 
 it  shall  be  taught,  throughout  this  vast  empire.  The  mode  of 
 educating  teachers  tends  to  give  them  rather  the  routine  than 
 the  spirit  of  their  profession.  My  remarks  ai)ply  to  Austria 
 Proper,  and  have  no  reference  to  the  number,  but  to  the  general 
 character  of  the  schools.  I  was  most  favourably  impressed  with 
 the  earnest  eflbrts  making  in  the  Italian  provinces  of  Austria  to 
 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS.  173 
 
 spread  primary  instruction,  an  innportant  measure  where  the 
 schools  have  been  so  much  neglected. 
 
 In  the  notices  introductory  to  the  description  of  schools  in  the 
 different  countries,  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  an  outline  of  the 
 organization  of  public  instruction,  of  the  regulations  upon  which 
 it  is  founded,  and  of  the  mode  of  supplying  teachers.  The  va- 
 rieties in  the  schools  are  represented  by  some  of  the  best  which 
 I  visited,  and  of  these  I  have  given  a  more  or  less  minute  ac- 
 count, as  the  subject  seemed  to  require,  endeavouring,  as  in  the 
 former  part  of  the  Report,  rather  to  notice  pecuharities  and  dif- 
 ferences than  to  repeat  the  same  details  in  every  case.  In  ge- 
 neral, however,  as  before,  the  history  and  purpose  of  the  school 
 is  first  given,  then  its  organization  and  government,  then  the 
 admission  and  dismission  of  pupils,  then  the  moral,  intellectual, 
 and  physical  education  which  it  provides  are  discussed,  and 
 comparisons  drawn  between  it  and  other  similar  institutions. 
 These  are  interspersed  with  such  remarks  as  reflection  upon 
 the  subject  may  have  suggested. 
 
 Besides  the  class  of  general  primary  schools,  others  which 
 may  be  considered  as  of  a  special  character  have  been  planned, 
 by  which,  w^hile  pursuing  the  studies  of  the  elementary  period, 
 the  individual  is,  at  the  same  time,  trained  for  his  calling  in  after 
 life.  Such  are  the  rural  schools  of  Switzerland,  which  have  also 
 been  transplanted  to  England  and  Ireland,  and  the  manufac- 
 turing and  industrial  schools  of  France.  I  have  placed  this  class 
 in  a  separate  chapter,  and  described,  in  turn,  two  of  the  rural 
 schools  of  Switzerland,  one  of  Ireland,  one  of  a  mixed  rural  and 
 industrial  character  in  England,  and  one  industrial  school  of 
 France. 
 
 I  have  preferred,  for  the  sake  of  a  better  comparison  of  the 
 seminaries  for  teachers,  sometimes  called  normal  schools,  to 
 place  tnose  of  different  countries  together,  and  they  will  accord- 
 ingly be  found  in  a  separate  chapter,  after  those  containing  an 
 account  of  the  primary  schools.  The  seminaries  of  Prussia  are 
 placed  first,  then  those  of  France,  and  lastly,  a  notice  is  given 
 of  one  of  the  normal  schools  of  Holland  and  of  Switzerland. 
 
174  SEVERAL  EDUCATIOM.        I'RIMARY    PERIOD. 
 
 These  notices  will  terniinalu  the  division  of  my  Report  relating 
 to  primary  schools. 
 
 ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 
 
 Until  lately,  the  only  part  of  Great  Britain  which  had  the 
 advantages  of  a  system  of  public  elementary  instruction,  was 
 Scotland.  In  England  the  establishment  of  schools  has  been 
 left  to  private  enterprise  or  charity,  or  religious  zeal  and  libe- 
 rality, assisted,  but  not  efficiently,  by  appropriations  from  Par- 
 liament. The  schools  for  the  instruction  of  the  people  during 
 week  days  are  still  miserably  deficient,  both  in  number  and 
 kind,  and  as  yet  there  appears  no  prospect  of  concert  of  effort 
 to  bring  about  a  better  state  of  general  education.  The  exer- 
 tions which  have  produced  here  and  there  endowed  schools, 
 factory  schools,  schools  of  industry,  schools  for  paupers  or  for 
 adults,  though  of  course  highly  commendable,  can  lead  to  no 
 general  system  of  national  education;  and  the  same  may  be 
 remarked  of  Sunday  schools,  however  good  and  useful  in  their 
 particular  way.  In  no  country  in  Europe,  I  believe,  is  so  much 
 benevolent  efibrt  to  be  met  with  as  in  Great  Britain,  and  could 
 it  be  directed  in  concert,  it  is  capable  of  the  highest  results.  The 
 two  associations  which  have  done  most  for  general  elementary 
 instruction  are  the  "  British  and  Foreign  School  Society,"  es- 
 tablished in  1805,  to  aid  in  extending  the  svstem  proposed  by 
 Joseph  Lancaster,  and  the  "National  Society  for  Promoting 
 the  Education  of  the  Poor  on  the  Princi|)les  of  the  Established 
 Church,  throughout  England  and  Wales,"  founded  in  1811, 
 to  disseminate  the  system  of  Dr.  Bell.  With  the  ditVerent  prin- 
 ciples of  action  of  these  societies  I  have  nothing  to  do  in  this 
 place.  I  visited  schools  in  connexion  with  both,  or  following 
 their  methods,  and  as  might  have  been  expected,  found  their 
 model  sclujols  established  in  Loudon,  in  general,  the  best  speci- 
 mens of  their  views. 
 
 The  model  school  of  the  first  named  society  in  the  Borough- 
 road,  is  under  the  charge  of  an  enlightened  teacher,*  who  has 
 
 •    Mr.  S.C; ossK'V. 
 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  175 
 
 done  much  to  improve  the  Lancastrian  method,  by  rendering 
 it  less  mechanical,  infusinG:  a  more  intellectual  character  into  its 
 exercises,  and  addinfr  new  branches  of  instruction.*  The  sue- 
 cess  is  limited,  however,  by  the  capacity  of  the  method  itself, 
 and  I  cannot  hold  up  even  this  improved  form  of  it  as  a  model 
 for  imitation.  The  results  produced  at  a  public  examination 
 pleased  me  very  much,  but  these  were,  in  fact,  in  great  part, 
 consequences  of  the  master's  instruction,  and  of  the  very 
 superior  intelligence  of  a  few  pupils.  To  judge  of  the  effect 
 upon  the  whole  school,  it  should  be  visited  in  w^orking-hours, 
 and  especially  when  the  classes  are  under  their  monitors,  who 
 carry  on  the  principal  business  of  teaching.  The  humble  cha- 
 racter of  the  intellectual  and  moral  teaching  belonging  to  the 
 system  of  mutual  instruction  is  then  fully  visible.  While  I  esti- 
 mate highly  the  good  which  this  society  has  done  by  establish- 
 ing schools  when  there  were  none,  I  do  not  find  it  necessary  to 
 describe  the  particulars  of  their  method  of  instruction.  The 
 model  school  of  the  National  Society  did  not  come  up  to  the 
 example  of  the  modified  Bell  system,  already  presented  in  the 
 Liverpool  Blue-coat  School.  The  system  of  mutual  instruction 
 belongs  to  a  very  unadvanced  grade  of  public  education,  and 
 in  which  the  means  of  procuring  or  compensating  masters  are 
 limited.  When  large  numbers  of  children  must  be  collected  in 
 one  school,  or  be  destitute  of  instruction  on  account  of  limited 
 means,  then  the  method  is  the  only  one  feasible,  and  ought  to 
 be  encouraged. 
 
 The  society  for  the  promotion  of  the  education  of  the  poor  in 
 L'eland,  established  in  1811,  has  been  of  essential  service  in  that 
 country.  At  first,  they  acted  as  a  private  body,  but  subsequently 
 received  a  grant  of  money  from  the  British  Parliament.  They 
 have  a  model  school  in  Dublin,  and  during  the  continuance  of  the 
 government  grant,  educated  a  considerable  number  of  teachers, 
 published  many  cheap  school-books,  and  works  for  lending-libra- 
 ries. With  them  also  originated,  in  its  application  to  Ireland, 
 the  admirable  system  of  regular  school  inspectors.     This  grant 
 
 *  Linear  dniwinjr  and  music  arc  both  cultivated. 
 
176  GKNEIIAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  TERIOD. 
 
 was  withdrawn  in  1831,  which  has  reduced  very  essentially 
 the  scale  of  their  operations. 
 
 The  Board  of  National  Education  for  Ireland  was  appointed 
 in  1831,  and  is  intended  as  the  head  of  a  government  system 
 of  elementary  instruction  for  the  population  of  the  whole  island. 
 This  Board  has  not  only  greatly  increased  the  number  of  ele- 
 mentary schools,  and  supplied  new  text-books,  but  has  estab- 
 lished, on  a  considerable  scale,  a  seminary  where  the  future 
 teacher  is  first  instructed  in  the  elementary  branches  in  which 
 he  may  be  deficient,  and  then  is  furnished  with  the  principles 
 of  education,  and  an  opportunity  to  reduce  them  to  practice, 
 under  superintendence,  in  model  schools.  At  the  time  of  my 
 visit  to  Dublin,  these  schools  were  in  the  course  of  organization 
 in  a  new  building,  erected  specially  for  them.  The  appoint- 
 ment of  school-inspectors,  a  practice  followed  up  by  this  Board, 
 is  no  doubt  one  of  its  most  important  measures,  aflbrding,  as 
 it  does,  in  connexion  with  the  control  of  pecuniary  supplies, 
 the  means  of  continual  improvement  in  the  individual  schools. 
 
 The  system  of  parochial  schools  in  Scotland  was  established 
 a  century  and  a-half  ago,  by  an  act  of  the  Scottish  Parliament. 
 This  act  provided  for  the  existence  of  a  school  in  each  parish, 
 for  the  manner  of  election  of  the  schoolmaster,  and  for  his 
 compensation,  no  mention  being  made  of  the  branches  required 
 to  be  taught.  The  masters  have  been,  in  general,  selected 
 either  from  among  candidates  for  the  ecclesiastical  profession, 
 or  such  persons  as  could  not  pursue  the  requisite  studies  far 
 enough  to  reach  the  ministry,  and  from  persons  of  the  humble 
 classes  who  were  physically  incompetent  for  trades,  and  endea- 
 voured to  secure  the  patronage  and  instruction  necessary  to 
 obtain  places  as  teachers. 
 
 The  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  has  the 
 right  of  inspecting  these  schools,  but  not  that  of  displacing 
 their  teachers,  and  hence  the  system  is  wanting  in  the  means 
 of  improvement.  It  has,  in  fact,  not  kept  jmce  with  the  general 
 progress  of  the  country,  the  schools  being  deficient  both  in 
 number  and  (jualily.  To  remedy  this,  efilbrts  have  been  made 
 by  the  General  Assembly  and  by  benevolent  individuals,  by 
 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  177 
 
 the  erection  of  new  schools,  and  of  model  schools,  by  en- 
 deavouring to  improve  the  condition  of  the  teachers,  and  by 
 furnishing  those  who  aspire  to  this  profession  the  means  of  pro- 
 per training  in  their  art.  The  sessional  school*  of  Edinburgh 
 has  opened  its  doors  to  persons  wishing  to  procure  practical 
 knowledge  in  teaching,  and  more  lately  the  Normal  Seminary  of 
 Glasgow  for  training  Teachers  has  been  established  and  taken 
 under  the  patronage  of  the  Education  Committee  of  the  General 
 Assembly.f 
 
 The  instruction  in  the  parochial  schools  is  generally  confined 
 to  reading,  writing,  and  cyphering.  Occasionally,  in  the  higher 
 schools,  a  little  Latin  is  taught.  The  Bible  and  Catechism  fre- 
 quently constitute  the  text-books  for  reading.  In  some  schools 
 there  are  spelling-books,  with  selections  of  stories  for  children. 
 The  former  collection  of  reading-lessons  was  absurd  in  the  ex- 
 treme as  a  book  for  ciiildren,  consisting  of  extracts  for  the  most 
 part  above  their  comprehension;  it  has  been,  however,  more 
 recently  replaced  by  a  judicious  selection.  Most  of  the  chil- 
 dren who  go  to  these  schools  are  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
 twelve. 
 
 Besides  the  parochial  schools,  there  are,  especially  in  the 
 large  towns,  endowed  schools,  the  state  of  instruction  in  which, 
 at  any  given  time,  depends  much  upon  the  trustees  into  whose 
 hands  the  endowment  has  fallen.  The  subscription  and  pri- 
 vate schools  have,  in  general,  not  been  in  advance  of  the  others, 
 and  in  many  of  the  Highland  schools,  neither  writing  nor  arith- 
 metic are  taught. 
 
 It  seems  to  be  generally  conceded  that  a  great  change  is 
 necessary  in  the  character  of  popular  instruction,  but  the  nature 
 
 *  Schools  under  the  charge  of  the  ministers  and  ciders,  or  church-session  of  a 
 parish,  arc  so  called. 
 
 t  The  petition  of  the  Education  C  >mmittee  of  the  General  Apscmbl}'-  of  the 
 Scottish  Church  to  Parliament  for  aid,  states,  that  in  the  Highlands  alone  there 
 were,  in  1833,  eighty-three  thousand  three  hundred  and  ninety-seven  persons 
 above  six  years  of  age  who  could  neither  read  nor  writi\  and  twenty-eight  thou- 
 sand between  six  and  twenty  years  of  age  in  this  predicament.  One-sixth  of 
 the  population  was  thus  without  instruction,  and  means  were  wanting  to  provide 
 them  with  schools. 
 
 23 
 
178  GENERAL  EDUCATlOIf.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 of  the  chanp^e  is  the  suhjcct  of  much  keen  controversy,  in  regard 
 to  \vhich  I  should  be  going  out  of  my  way  to  speak. 
 
 The  i)ublic  school  which  has  produced  the  most  important 
 results  in  improving  the  state  of  elementary  instruction  in  Scot- 
 land, is  the  Sessional  School  of  Edinburgh.  The  Juvenile  Model 
 School  at  Glasgow*  has  been  founded  later,  but  its  eflccts  are 
 already  felt.  The  elementary  departments  of  the  Madras  Col- 
 lege, at  St.  Andrews,  have  also  contributed  to  the  same  ol)ject. 
 After  giving  a  description  of  these  establishments,  I  shall  con- 
 clude this  section  with  a  notice  of  the  Circus  Place  School  at 
 Edinburgh,  intended  to  prepare  pupils  for  the  public  or  private 
 classical  schools,  by  the  improved  methods  which  the  sessional 
 school  has  made  so  well  known  in  Scotland.  The  elementary 
 teachin^X  i"  the  lower  classes  of  the  Hi^ih  School  of  Glasgow 
 and  of  the  Hill-street  Institution  of  Edinburgh,  ranks  with  the 
 best  which  I  saw,  but  I  shall  refer  to  it  in  speaking  of  the 
 respective  schools  which  belong  to  the  secondary  grade  of  in- 
 struction. 
 
 JUVENILE  TRAINING-SCHOOL  OF  THE  GLASGOW  EDUCATION 
 
 SOCIETY. 
 
 This  is  the  only  attempt  w^hich  I  witnessed  to  carry  the 
 "training  system"  of  the  infant-school  into  the  juvenile  day- 
 schools  of  Great  Britain.  The  endeavour  is  made,  under  this 
 system,  not  only  to  inculcate  good  principles,  but  also  to  form 
 good  habits — not  only  to  teach,  but  to  train.  A  child  entering 
 from  the  infant  school  is  prepared  for  the  instruction  and  disci- 
 ])Iine  of  this;  his  education  goes  on  in  the  same  way  and  with 
 the  same  sj)irit  here  as  in  the  former  school.  Other  children, 
 entering  at  six,  may  have  positively  bad  habits  to  eradicate.  Ex- 
 perience has  proved,  however,  that  they  may  be  trained  with  the 
 others,  only  at  a  greater  cost  of  time  and  labour.  In  this  sys- 
 tem, as  in  the  corresponding  infant  school  system,  the  }>lay- 
 
 •  III  describinjj  tlicsc  scliools,  I  have  ijivcn  lliat  of  Glas^'-ow  the  first  place, 
 because  it  its  quifo  disfiiu-t  from  the  ollirrs  in  its  chnraclcr,  while  they  have 
 general  rcsciiiblaiiccs  to  each  otlicr. 
 
JUVENILE  TRAINING -SCHOOL  AT  GLASGOW.  179 
 
 ground  is  the  "  uncovered  school,"  and  the  moral  training  goes 
 on  in  it;  hence  the  pupils  must  necessarily  be  under  the  super- 
 intendence of  the  master,  who  notices  their  aberrations  with- 
 out interfering,  unless  when  absolutely  necessary,  and  makes  a 
 school-room  lesson  of  their  conduct.  The  eflective  character 
 of  this  training  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  one  hundred  and 
 eighty  children  of  the  lower  classes  of  Glasgow  were  in  the 
 daily  habit,  for  five  months,  of  frequenting  the  play-ground  of 
 the  school,  without  any  injury  to  the  borders  planted  with 
 flowers,  shrubs,  and  fruits. 
 
 The  designs  of  the  Glasgow  Educational  Society  include  not 
 only  this  school,  but  the  infant  school  which  has  been  described, 
 and  a  normal  seminary  for  the  education  of  teachers.  To  aid 
 in  carrying  out  especially  the  latter  part  of  the  design,  the  rec- 
 tor of  the  normal  seminary  made  a  tour  on  the  continent, 
 visiting  the  best  seminaries  of  Prussia,  and  even  attending  a 
 part  of  their  courses.  His  return  occurred  just  before  my  se- 
 cond visit  to  Glasgow,  and  I  had  not,  therefore,  the  benefit  of 
 seeing  the  fruits  of  his  experience  in  the  practice  of  the  schools.* 
 
 At  present,  the  courses  of  the  normal  school  are  so  restricted 
 in  point  of  time,  from  the  limited  means  of  the  teachers  who 
 resort  to  it  for  instruction,  that  little  more  than  a  general 
 idea  of  the  system  can  be  obtained  by  the  pupils,  and  vigorous 
 efforts  w^ere  making  to  induce  the  gov^ernment  of  Great  Britain, 
 and  the  wealthy  of  Glasgow,  to  contribute  to  the  support  of 
 young  men  while  in  the  school,  and  thus  to  enable  them  to  re- 
 main sufl[iciently  long  to  become  imbued  with  the  spirit  and 
 practice  of  the  methods  of  teaching. 
 
 The  course  of  instruction  in  the  juvenile  training-school  is  to 
 be  considered  still  in  a  great  degree  experimental,  but  the  re- 
 sults already  obtained  are  of  the  most  encouraging  character. 
 
 Intellectual  and  Moral  Education.  It  is  understood  from  my 
 preface,  that  this  school  is  intended  to  give  an  elementary  educa- 
 
 *  The  Rev.  John  M'Crie,  a  young  teacher  of  the  highest  promise,  wliose  un- 
 timely death  has  prevented  the  career  of  usefulness  for  which  he  had  prepared 
 himself 
 
180  C.E\ERAL   EDUCATIOV.        I'RIMARV   PERIOD. 
 
 tion  to  children  between  six  and  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  age. 
 Contriv^ed  as  an  improvement  on  the  Scottish  parochial  system,  it 
 supposes  the  means  of  procuring  teachers  to  be  small.  Hence 
 it  places  a  large  number,  even  as  many  as  a  hundred,  under 
 one  teacher,  adapts  its  arrangements  to  render  his  services  as 
 efficient  as  possible,  and  employs  the  more  advanced  pupils  as 
 monitors.  Emanating  from  the  Scottish  Church,  it  inculcates 
 its  observances  anrl  doctrines,  adopting  a  mode  of  imparting 
 Christian  truths  which  renders  them  eminently  attractive.  It 
 seeks  (and  here  I  consider  the  system  overstrained)  to  attach 
 to  the  knowleds^e  of  the  Bible  all  other  branches,  and  thus  to 
 make  it  the  medium  by  which  a  child  shall  not  only  learn  mo- 
 rals, but,  in  connexion  with  which  he  shall  receive  lessons  in 
 history,  natural  history  and  philosophy,  geography,  manners 
 and  customs,  and  grammar.  The  system  discards,  in  a  great 
 degree,  all  use  of  books,  and  substitutes  the  lively  oral  method 
 employed  in  the  German  schools.  It  requires  the  master  to  be 
 thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  subjects  he  teaches,  in  order  to 
 be  able  to  communicate  them  in  the  manner  exactly  suited  to 
 the  diilcrcnt  capacities  of  the  pupils,  which  he  is  expected  to 
 study.  The  children  are  assembled  here,  as  in  the  infant  school, 
 in  the  gallery,  and,  in  general,  the  methods  of  communicating 
 knowledge,  or  of  drawing  from  them  their  ideas,  do  not  differ 
 in  the  two  schools.  There  is  a  little  more  form  here,  perhaps, 
 but  the  methods  are  substantially  the  same.  The  exercises  of 
 the  gallery  terminated,  the  classes  take  their  places  upon  the 
 floor  under  the  charge  of  monitors,  or  range  themselves  at  the 
 desks  for  writing.  The  master  examines,  in  a  room  apart,  one 
 class  at  a  time,  and,  after  this  lesson,  gives  an  interval  for  the 
 play-ground.  From  the  play-ground  the  classes  return  to  the 
 charge  of  the  monitors.  When  all  have  passed  thus  before  the 
 master,  an  exercise  in  the  gallery  closes  the  instruction  for  the 
 lime. 
 
 The  nltornation  is  shown  by  the  following  order  of  the  day: 
 At  halt'  past  nine   o'clock  the   school-room  and  j)lay-ground 
 are  open  to  the  pupils,  and  the  school  commences  at  ten. 
 
JUVENILE  TRAINING-SCHOOL  AT  GLASGOW.  181 
 
 Ten  to  eleven,  Bible  training  and  religious  teaching  in  the 
 gallery. 
 
 Ten  minutes  play. 
 
 Until  a   quarter  past  twelve,  reading   under  monitors,  the 
 master  examining  each  class  in  turn. 
 
 Until  one,  may  leave  the  premises  or  play. 
 
 One  to  two,  intellectual  training  in  the  gallery. 
 
 Ten  minutes  interval  for  play. 
 
 Until  half-past  three,  classes  under  the  monitors. 
 
 Play  until  four,  when  the  ground  is  closed. 
 
 The  efiicacy  of  such  a  school  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
 the  character  of  the  master,  and  during  my  visit,  this  truth 
 was  fully   impressed,   by   seeing  it   under  the   charge  of  the 
 head  master,  and  again  under  that  of  an  assistant,  and  by  com- 
 paring it  with  the  infant  school.     There  is  no  teaching  so  dif- 
 cult  to  many  instructors  as  that  by  the  natural  method.    For, 
 brought   up  in  stifl'  and  artificial  habits,  they  cannot  break 
 themselves  into  those  required,  and  descend  to  the  level  of  their 
 pupils.    I  saw,  however,  quite  enough  to  convince  me  that  this 
 was  a  great  improvement  upon  the  old  system  of  the  Scottish 
 schools.    The  questioning,  conversation  between   the  teacher 
 and  pupils,  singing,  and  other  exercises  of  the  gallery,  go  on 
 with  more  spirit  when  considerable  numbers  are  present  than 
 when  few  are  there,  and  hence  are  particularly  valuable  in 
 schools  which  require  instruction  to  be  given  by  one  teacher  to 
 many  pupils.    The  arrangement  of  the  gallery  admits  of  every 
 child   being  distinctly  seen,  and  of  his  seeing  the  master,  and 
 hence  is  much  better  than  the  usual  one  of  benches.    When  the 
 school  contains  pupils  of  very  diflerent  states  of  progress,  it 
 loses  its  efficacy  in  a  great  degree,  and  I  consider  it  still  doubt- 
 ful whether  it  will  answer  thus  to  unite  all  classes  composing  a 
 large  school.    As  this  school  had  been  only  four  years  in  exist- 
 ence when  I  saw  it,  the  dilliculty  did  not  show  itself  very  pro- 
 minently.   A  provision  is  made  for  this  case,  in  the  excellent 
 manual  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Stow,  in  which  it  is  recommended  to 
 divide  the  pupils  into  one  or  more  classes,  so  that  while  a  part 
 are  in  the  gallery,  another  may  be  on  the  floor  with  monitors, 
 
182  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 and  another  in  the  play-ground.  The  monitorial  system  worked 
 no  better  here  than  elsewhere.  Indeed,  if  the  master  had  no  as- 
 sistant, and  should  retire  to  an  adjoining  room  with  a  class,  the 
 mechanism  would  go  on  very  irregularly,  as  I  had  an  opportu- 
 nity of  seeing  actually  proved. 
 
 Advantage  is  taken  in  the  arrangement  of  the  school-room 
 to  keep  such  printed  moral  ))recepts  and  attractive  repre- 
 sentations before  the  eyes  of  the  children  as  it  may  be  de- 
 sired to  impress  on  their  memory,  care  being  taken  to  change 
 the  objects  from  time  to  time,  that  too  great  familiarity  may 
 not  blunt  the  sense  of  curiosity  or  interest.  Order  and  neat- 
 ness are  inculcated  by  the  proper  arrangement  of  every  ar- 
 ticle of  school-furniture,  and  by  that  of  their  own  hats  and 
 cloaks. 
 
 I  propose  now  to  state  the  subjects  of  instruction,  to  take 
 lip  each  and  to  notice  it  in  a  general  way,  referring  to  the 
 implements  of  teaching  as  the  several  branches  are  under  ex- 
 amination. 
 
 Encjlish  reading?.  Roots.  Construction  and  meaning  of  Enor- 
 lish  words.  Practical  grammar.  Mental  arithmetic.  Practical 
 geography.  Sacred  geography.  Objects.  Natural  history, 
 assisted  by  pictures.  Outlines  of  general  science.  Outlines  of 
 geometry.  Outlines  of  civil  history.  Writing.  Arithmetic  on 
 slates,  by  rule.  Grammar  by  rule.  Geography,  with  the  use 
 of  globes.    Daily  Bible  training.     Vocal  music,  chiefly  sacred. 
 
 If  the  pupils  have  come  from  the  Infant  School,  they  are  in 
 part  prepared  to  read  w  ithout  the  necessity  of  referring  to  first 
 elements.  In  the  alphabet  class  there  are  pictorial  representa- 
 tions to  impress  the  words  upon  the  memory.  An  orthographi- 
 cal desk  is  described,  in  Mr.  Stow's  book,  as  an  auxiliary  to 
 this  exercise,  but  I  did  not  see  it  in  the  schook  It  contains  com- 
 partments or  small  boxes,  each  of  which  has  within  it  several 
 sets  of  a  letter  of  the  alphabet,  printed  on  paper  and  pasted  on 
 small  square  plates  of  wood.  Other  boxes  contain  pictures. 
 The  child  selects  a  picture,  and  spells  the  name  of  the  object, 
 f(;riiiiMg  the  word  with  the  letters  taken  from  his  set  of  boxes. 
 Another  method  of  learning  the  alphabet  and  spelling,  recom- 
 
JUVENILE  TRAINING-SCHOOL  AT  GLASGOW.  183 
 
 mended  by  Mr.  Stow,  is  to  select  a  letter  on  a  printed  page, 
 calling  it  by  name,  and  requiring  the  child,  as  an  exercise,  to 
 point  out  every  recurrence  of  the  same  letter  on  the  page. 
 Among  the  various  methods  of  teaching  to  read  which  have 
 been  tried,  I  regret  not  to  have  seen  in  use,  so  as  to  form  an 
 opinion  of  its  success,  Jacotot's  method  of  teaching,  by  begin- 
 ning with  words  instead  of  letters,  especially  as  it  has  been  sup- 
 posed particularly  applicable  to  our  language,  owing  to  the  va- 
 rious sounds  belonging  to  the  same  letter.  It  is  the  fact,  that  the 
 children  in  the  Infant  School  at  Glasgow  actually  recognise  the 
 words,  and  can  name  them  at  sight  before  they  can  spell  them. 
 
 For  the  introduction  of  the  admirable  exercise  on  the  roots, 
 construction  and  meaning  of  English  words,  the  Scottish  schools 
 are  indebted  to  Mr.  Wood,  of  Edinburgh,  and  I  shall  speak  of 
 it  particularly  in  describing  the  Sessional  School. 
 
 By  practical  grammar  is  meant  such  as  the  pupil  can  obtain 
 by  his  own  induction  or  by  teaching,  aided  by  his  own  compa- 
 risons. It  is  the  true  elementary  grammar,  and  the  name  prac- 
 tical does  not  seem  to  me  well  chosen.  I  can  give  a  clearer  idea 
 of  it  by  an  example.  Several  things  are  named  over  to  a  class — 
 hat,  desk,  chair,  &c.  These  are  the  names  of  things.  They 
 are  called  nouns.     Or,  to  employ  the  elliptical  method  of  the 
 
 school,  these  are  the  names  of ,  leaving  to  the  pupil  to 
 
 reply things.    If  it  is  perceived  that  all  have  not  caught 
 
 the  answer,  the  class  are  made  to  repeat  it.    They  are  called 
 
 nouns,  is  stated  by  the  master.    A  noun  is  the  name  of  a ■ 
 
 thing,  the  ellipsis  being  supplied  by  the  class.  Further.  You 
 "wish  me  to  give  you  a  stick  of  what  kind?  A  short,  a  long,  a 
 smooth,  &c.,  will  be  answered.    Short,  long,  &,c.,  are  qualities 
 
 of  the  stick.    They  arc  called  adjectives.    Short  is  an 
 
 adjective.    Stick  is  a noun.    An  adjective  is  the  quality 
 
 of  a noun.    Combining  such  exercises  with  pictorial 
 
 representations  of  the  parts  of  speech,  and  varying  them  until 
 they  suit  the  mind  of  every  pupil,  an  indelible  impression  is 
 made.  A  foundation  is  laid  for  grammar  by  rules  taught  in  the 
 higher  classes,  which  should,  however,  be  so  accompanied  by 
 exercises  as  to  be  quite  as  practical  as  this. 
 
184  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 The  practical  geography  consists  also  of  elements,  but  taught 
 in  a  much  less  natural  way  tfian  in  the  German  schools  already 
 spoken  of.  Fictitious  travelling  should  follow  a  knowledge  of 
 home;  ])Utting  a  map  into  a  boy's  hand,  without  explanation, 
 is  not  likely  to  lead  to  much  inquiry.  The  methods  of  this 
 school,  however,  it  should  be  considered,  are  in  a  great  degree 
 experimental. 
 
 In  speaking  of  the  courses  in  the  German  eleemosynary  insti- 
 tutions, I  have  already  said  so  much  of  mental  arithmetic,  that 
 it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  here  again  upon  it.  It  has  been 
 permanently  adopted  in  many  of  the  English  schools,  where 
 other  improvements  have  been  slowly  introduced.  The  lessons 
 in  arithmetic  are  begun  with  the  ball  frame  used  for  infant  in- 
 struction. 
 
 Sacred  geography  is  used  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  making 
 the  pupils  accurately  acquainted  with  the  localities  mentioned 
 in  the  Scriptures,  and  with  the  curious  physical  state  of  the 
 country,  with  its  manners  and  customs  and  profane  history,  but 
 as  an  incentive  to  them  to  search  out  from  specified  parts  of  the 
 Bible  the  verses  where  particular  places  are  mentioned,  and  to 
 connect  with  the  localities  the  incidents  of  the  narrative. 
 
 The  lessons  in  objects  are  modified  from  those  arranged  by 
 Miss  Mayo,  and  are  adapted  to  the  ditlerent  ages  of  an  ele- 
 mentary school  They  are  intended  as  guides  to  teachers  in 
 communicating  oral  instruction  in  regard  to  the  objects  met 
 with  in  common  life.  The  box  of  objects  connected  with  them 
 contains,  in  the  small  comjiass  of  less  than  three-sixteenths  of 
 a  cubic  foot,  one  hundred  and  twelve  specimens  of  various 
 productions  of  nature  and  art  in  dificrent  countries,  each  of 
 which  may  form  some  part  of  an  instructive  conversation.* 
 These  lessons  are  supplementary  to  those  of  the  infant  school, 
 in  which  more  common  specimens  are  used.  They  serve  not 
 only  to  give  the  direct  mental  exercise  and  the  information, 
 which  are  their  principal  purposes,  but  incidentally  are  made 
 
 •  I  havr  thr  plmsiiro  to  show  to  tho  Board  one  oftlirse  cases.     A  piniilar  one 
 ought  to  be  furnished  ty  every  elementary  school  in  the  country. 
 
JUVENILE  TRAINIIVG-SCHOOL  AT  GLASGOW.  185 
 
 the  means  of  instruction  in  orthography^  writing,  and  grammar. 
 In  their  direct  bearing  they  may  be  considered  as  introductory 
 to  the  courses  of  technology,  which  belong  to  higher  instruction. 
 The  courses  of  natural  history  are  among  those  which  excite 
 the  greatest  interest  in  the  mind  of  a  child,  and  which  may  be 
 made  most  useful  in  developing  the  intelligence,  strengthening 
 the  observation  and  memory,  and  conveying  religious  impres- 
 sions appropriate  to  the  age.     Illustrated  by  pictures  they  are 
 very  attractive;   but  w^hen  the  means  of  acquiring  specimens 
 are  within  the  power  of  the  school,  the  courses  are  rendered 
 much  more  interesting.    In  the  examination  of  plants  and  stones, 
 they  may  be  made  subservient,  also,  to  the  purposes  of  air  and 
 exercise.     It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  there  is  no  attempt 
 to  teach  the  subjects  as  sciences,  and  specially  for  their  own 
 sake.     They  are  mere  introductory  exercises  to  such  studies, 
 to  which  the  tastes  of  pupils  may  perhaps  lead  them  at  a  later 
 period  of  instruction.     The  importance  of  forming  museums 
 of  these  objects  is  beginning  now  to  be  fully  appreciated  in  the 
 best  schools. 
 
 Vocal  music  is  not  used  solely  for  cultivating  the  ear  or  taste, 
 but  for  producing  its  appropriate  moral  effects  from  the  cha- 
 racter of  the  songs,  and  as  an  important  auxiliary  to  order  and 
 discipline,  substituting  harmony  for  noise  during  changes  of 
 position,  and  promoting  regularity. 
 
 The  Bible-training  has  already  been  described,  and  in  regard 
 to  the  higher  subjects  of  instruction,  which  follow  it  immedi- 
 ately upon  the  programme,  the  classes  had  not  yet  reached 
 them  when  I  visited  the  school.  Linear  drawing  upon  the 
 slate,  and  copying  lines,  or  tracing  the  outlines  of  simple  ob- 
 jects, are  intended  to  be  introduced.  In  general,  the  mechanical 
 parts  of  instruction  have  not  yet  received  their  intended  develop- 
 ment. There  is  a  lesson  of  an  hour  in  Bible-reading*  every 
 day,  in  which  the  outline  given  in  the  infant  school  is°filled  up 
 
 *  The  Bible-stand  is  placed  in  front  of  the  gallery,  and  is  so  arranged  that  it 
 may  be  used  to  support  a  black-board  or  pictures.     The  hand-bell  and  whistle  for 
 signals  used  in  the  infant  school,  arc  still  employed  in  this.     The  posts  for  the 
 monitorial  lessons  are,  in  a  great  degree,  superseded  by  books. 
 24 
 
ISO  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 by  more  copious  selections  of  historical  or  other  matter.  The 
 pupils  are  exercised  on  the  meaning  of  the  words,  on  the  lead- 
 ing points  of  the  story,  and  on  the  moral  lessons  to  be  deduced, 
 and  it  is  found  that  if  the  premises  are  well  laid  down,  the  chil- 
 dren will  themselves  draw  the  proper  conclusions.  The  teacher 
 is  not  permitted  to  inform  them  directly  of  any  thing  which  by 
 analysis,  comparison,  or  illustration,  they  can  be  made  to  find 
 out  for  themselves.  Those  pupils  who  can  read  are  expected 
 to  go  over  the  lesson.  The  mode  of  obtaining  answers  is,  in 
 part,  by  direct  interrogation,  and  in  part  by  the  elliptical  me- 
 thod. From  the  character  of  this  school,  and  the  connexion  of 
 its  directors  with  the  church,  it  must  be  considered  a  most  im- 
 portant conclusion,  in  reference  to  the  improvement  of  the  paro- 
 chial schools,  that  the  method  of  conveying  religious  instruc- 
 tion by  the  learning  of  catechisms  by  rote,  is  inferior  to  that 
 already  described  as  in  use  here. 
 
 The  system  of  changing  places  in  the  class  is  not  approved  as  a 
 principle,  yet  a  modification  of  it  is  nevertheless  in  use.  It  would 
 require  very  careful  experiment  under  the  actual  circumstances 
 of  the  pupils  and  teachers  of  any  school,  to  prove  that  this  mode 
 can  be  dispensed  with.  I  agree  entirely  as  to  the  necessity  for 
 greatly  modifying  it,  and  as  to  the  principle  that  the  motive  of 
 emulation  is  an  inferior  one.  In  the  present  condition  of  society, 
 however,  I  do  not  believe  that  emulation  in  schools  can  be  en- 
 tirely dispensed  with,  if  we  would  have  the  youth  in  them  pre- 
 pared for  active  life.  Men  are  esteemed  by  their  fellows  in 
 proportion  to  their  intellectual  and  moral  qualities,  and  though 
 society  is  not  formally  graded  by  placing  individuals  in  the  pre- 
 cise order  of  these  qualities,  yet  every  one  is  aware  that  some 
 men  have  greater  iniluence  than  others,  because  of  higher  in- 
 tellectual and  moral  attainments,  and  the  desire  to  stand  high 
 in  the  estimation  of  others  is,  at  present,  one  of  the  strongest, 
 though  certainly  not  of  the  purest,  motives  to  exertion.  Self- 
 emulation  is  a  much  more  noble  and  safe  guide  to  action,  and 
 no  doubt  may,  under  judicious  management,  be  rendered  a  very 
 powerful  stimulus. 
 
 The  principle  of  discipline  laid  down  in  this  school,  not  to  use 
 
JUVENILE  TRAINING-SCHOOL  AT  GLASGOW.  187 
 
 things  which  you  desire  a  child  should  love,  as  a  punishment, 
 is  an  excellent  one,  and  I  regretted  to  see  the  practice,  in  some 
 cases,  going  counter  to  it.  Corporal  chastisement  has  not  been 
 resorted  to  for  two  and  a-half  years. 
 
 MoiYiI  and  Physical  Training.  As  already  stated,  the  play- 
 ground, or  "  uncovered  school-room,"  is  considered  the  place 
 in  which  moral  training  is  to  be  accomplished,  where  the  prin- 
 ciples taught  in  the  school  may  be  carried  into  practice  so 
 as  to  become  habits.  Accordingly,  the  play-ground  is  not 
 merely  fitted  up  with  the  means  of  exercise,  but  is  planted,  in 
 part,  with  flowers  and  fruit,  accessible  to  all,  but  which  are  to 
 be  enjoyed  under  the  injunction,  "smell,  see,  but  touch  not." 
 It  has  been,  and  is,  in  part,  to  this  day,  the  reproach  of  Eng- 
 land and  the  United  States,  that  public  property  is  always  in- 
 jured; that  flowers  cannot  bloom,  nor  fruit  ripen,  unless  w^hen 
 enclosed ;  and  in  France,  which  is  considered  as  oflering  an  ex- 
 ception to  this  barbarous  practice,  I  fear  that  the  result  is  pro- 
 duced rather  by  the  certainty  of  detection  and  punishment,  than 
 from  the  influence  of  a  higher  motive.  Education  is  the  true 
 source  of  relief  from  this  reproach ;  if  the  child  be  trained  to 
 respect  what  belongs  to  the  public,  the  man  will  never  injure  it. 
 Such  views  have  been  decried  as  visionary,  and  the  idea  that  a 
 child  could  be  so  trained  has  been  scouted.  But  facts  prove 
 that  the  visionary  persons  were  only  a  little  in  advance  of  the 
 times,  and  their  training  system  has  succeeded,  and  its  princi- 
 ples will  finally  be  so  generally  adopted,  that  to  doubt  them  will 
 be  as  remarkable  as  the  idea  itself  originally  appeared.  In  this 
 particular  school  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  scholars, 
 from  the  manufacturing  classes  of  Glasgow,  have  been  in  the 
 habit  of  using  the  play-ground  for  more  than  an  hour  and 
 a-quarter  every  day  for  two  years  and  a-half,  without  damage 
 to  the  flowers  or  fruits  which  it  contains.  Great  attention  is  paid 
 to  neatness  in  the  play-ground,  that  the  habits  inculcated  in  the 
 school  may  be  carried  out  here.  It  affords,  also,  opportunities 
 of  exemplifying  lessons  on  cruelty  to  animals,  on  truth,  justice, 
 kindness,  and  other  virtues.  The  means  of  healthy  exercise  is 
 given  by  the  more  simple  kinds  of  gymnastics,  one  of  the  most 
 
188  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 popular  and  excellent  of  which  is  the  circular  swing.  Wooden 
 prisms  are  furnished  for  building,  and  the  more  ordinary  games 
 of  ball,  &c.,  are  also  practised.  There  is  an  opportunity  in 
 the  play-ground  for  a  full  display  of  character,  which,  when 
 observed,  and  rightly  managed,  leads  to  the  same  system  em- 
 l^loyed  by  a  judicious  parent  at  home,  with  the  advantage  of 
 better  opportunities  of  judging  of  the  points  of  character  which 
 require  developing  or  repressing,  from  the  inlluence  of  numbers 
 in  making  these  points  more  prominent.  It  is  plain  that  such  a 
 system  of  moral  training,  carried  into  an  institution  Uke  ours, 
 must  be  invaluable,  and  that  its  results  will  be  felt  not  only  by 
 our  pupils,  but  by  the  society  through  w^hich  they  will  be  dis- 
 persed. There  is,  however,  one  consideration  which  should 
 not  be  lost  sight  of.  The  recluse  system  which  we  are  to  fol- 
 low in  the  main,  not  being  that  according  to  which  society  is 
 organized,  our  pupils  might  not  be  trained  for  after  life.  Ha- 
 bits acquired  in  the  institution  might  thus  easily  be  broken 
 through  under  the  influence  of  new  circumstances  out  of  doors. 
 The  necessity  for  gradually  approximating  our  arrangements 
 to  those  of  society  at  large  is  thus  suggested,  of  developing  the 
 pupil  as  far  as  possible  in  the  way  in  which  he  would  be  treated 
 in  a  family.  Of  gradually,  not  suddenly,  taking  from  around 
 and  beneath  him  the  fostering  arms  of  the  institution,  and  of 
 not  abandoning  him  to  his  own  direction  until  all  reasonable 
 means  have  been  taken  to  give  self-government,  under  the  cir- 
 cumstances in  which  he  is  to  be  placed. 
 
 As  a  vent  for  the  animal  spirits  of  a  child,  the  play-ground 
 is  an  important  auxiliary  to  the  schook  A  quarter  of  an  hour 
 spent  there  between  the  lessons  leads  not  only  to  health,  but  to 
 greater  quiet  on  the  return  of  the  pupil  to  the  room.  Supple- 
 mentary to  it  are  simultaneous  movements,  executed  by  the 
 class  by  express  direction  of  the  master.  The  subdued  quiet 
 produced  by  a  rigid  discipline  may  be  a  necessary  evil  in  large 
 schools,  but  should  still  be  considered  as  an  evil,  and  means 
 taken  t(j  counteract  its  ellects  by  exercise  from  time  to  time  in 
 and  out  of  llie  class-room.  Hence  the  mechanical  motions  con- 
 sidered by  some  as  so  ludicrous  in  ilio  I  Lancastrian  system  are 
 
SESSIONAL  SCHOOL  OF  EDINBURGH.  189 
 
 founded  on  a  proper  regard  to  the  principles  of  physical  edu- 
 cation. 
 
 It  need  scarcely  be  remarked  that  this  system  of  training 
 can  no  more  be  carried  on  without  the  master's  presence  in 
 the  play-ground,  tlian  without  it  in  the  school-room,  and  in  this 
 particular  it  coincides  with  the  best  examples  of  practice  in  the 
 German  schools. 
 
 THE  SESSIONAL  SCHOOL  OF  EDINBURGH. 
 
 The  formation  of  a  system  of  Sunday  schools  by  the  dif- 
 ferent church  sessions  of  Edinburgh  in  1813,  showed  that  the 
 week-day  education  of  those  who  came  for  religious  instruction 
 on  Sundays,  was  in  many  cases  most  grossly  neglected,  from  a 
 deficiency  in  the  number  of  and  attendance  on  the  parochial 
 schools,  and  that  a  reform  in  this  particular  must  take  place 
 before  any  real  progress  could  be  made  in  the  Sunday  instruc- 
 tion. This  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  day-school,  in  which 
 a  certain  number  of  pupils,  sent  by  the  different  sessions,  were 
 instructed  gratuitously,  and  a  still  larger  number  from  the  quar- 
 ter of  the  town  where  the  school  was  placed,  at  merely  a  nomi- 
 nal fee.  This  school  has  been  up  to  the  time  of  taking  its  present 
 form,  entirely  an  experimental  one.  It  was  not  begun  by  laying 
 down  a  set  of  rules  and  regulations,  but  by  authorizing  the  Se- 
 cretary and  Committee  of  the  Board  of  Delegates  to  try  such 
 plans  as  might  seem  good  to  them.  At  first  the  arrangements 
 and  methods  of  the  Lancastrian  system  were  introduced;  these 
 made  way  for  those  of  Dr.  Bell,  and  the  school  ow^es  its  present 
 reputation  and  influence  to  the  admirable  methods  engrafted 
 by  Sheriff  Wood,  upon  a  skeleton  form  of  the  latter  system. 
 These  were  also  experimental.  Mr.  Wood  was  not  a  teacher 
 himself,  but  became  so  from  the  interest  which  he  felt  in  this 
 particular  school.  Beginning  with  his  ideas  as  to  the  manner  of 
 improving  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  he  made  trial  of  his 
 method,  and  its  success  led  in  turn  to  the  explanator}'  system 
 in  reading,  to  its  extension  through  all  the  classes,  to  the  etymo- 
 logical method  among  the  higher  classes,  to  inductive  instruc- 
 tion in  grammar,  and  to  an  improved  method  in  geograpliy. 
 
190  GEXERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 This  system  is  eminently  intellectual,  its  leading  characteristic, 
 however,  being  the  exercise  of  the  faculties  through  language. 
 It  neglects  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  objects,  takes 
 little  or  no  cognizance  of  the  physical  education,  and  inculcates 
 morals,  without  specially  training  in  their  practice.  It  is  in  fact 
 the  old  method  of  the  English  school  made  intellectual.  I  should 
 say  that  its  inlluence  has  been  more  extensively  felt  in  the 
 higher  schools  than  in  the  lower,  and  that  its  verbal  character 
 belongs  rather  to  them  than  to  the  others.  With  Mr.  Wood  as 
 the  master,  this  system  is  intellectual  in  spite  of  the  monitorial 
 arrangements  which  it  uses,  but  it  is  in  the  upper  classes  espe- 
 cially, whence  the  monitors  are  derived,  that  it  shows  its  full 
 character.  With  the  monitors  in  general,  though  they  may  be 
 directed  to  avoid  routine,  it  is  difficult  to  secure  such  a  result; 
 accordingly,  I  perceived  distinctly,  that  under  the  diminished 
 attention  of  SherifT  Wood  at  the  school,  and  the  administration 
 of  it  by  another  teacher,  its  tone  had  essentially  lowered  from 
 that  usually  supposed  to  prevail  in  it.  This  remark  will  be 
 better  understood,  however,  when  speaking  of  the  method  of 
 leaching. 
 
 The  school-room  is  arranged  as  in  the  Madras  system,  with 
 writing-desks  around  the  wall.  The  classes  occupy  the  floor, 
 one-half  of  the  pupils  being  there  at  a  time.  They  form  in  arcs 
 of  circles,  one  behind  the  other,  the  middle  scholar  exactly 
 facing  the  desk  of  the  master,  which  is  at  one  end  of  the  room, 
 and  the  monitors  standing  near  the  front  and  middle  of  the 
 classes,  which  they  face. 
 
 The  arrangements  of  books  and  slates  arc  made  by  the  mo- 
 nitors a  little  before  ten  o'clock,  and  at  ten  the  school  begins. 
 A  prayer  is  said.  Half  the  pupils  occupy  the  desks,  engaged 
 in  writing  or  cyphering.  The  other  half  are  in  classes  on  the 
 floor,  occui)ie{l  witli  spelling,  reading,  grammar,  &C.  In  half 
 an  hour  they  change  occupations  with  each  other.  From  eleven 
 o'clock  until  twelve  the  first  division  is  engaged  with  arithmetic, 
 in  classes  on  the  floor,  and  the  second  writes.  The  monitors 
 receive  instruction  from  twelve  until  one,  with  a  brief  interval, 
 the  other  pupils  having  an  hour  of  recreation.    At  one  the  school 
 
SESSIONAL  SCHOOL  AT  EDINBURGH.  191 
 
 recommences,  the  first  division  writing  while  the  second  is  on  the 
 floor.  These  change  at  two  o'clock;  at  three  the  places  of  the 
 pupils  in  their  classes  are  recorded.  They  repeat  the  Lord's 
 Prayer  and  are  dismissed,  except  those  who  volunteer  to  attend 
 a  lesson  in  geography. 
 
 Saturday  is  a  half-holiday.  On  Mondays  and  Saturdays  the 
 school  is  open  to  the  inspection  of  visitors. 
 
 In  the  explanatory  method  of  this  school  the  reading-lessons 
 are  the  great  means  of  imparting  incidental  instruction;  its  ap- 
 pHcation  begins  with  the  very  elements,  so  that  the  child  never 
 reads  a  word  without  being  made  to  understand  it,  nor  a  sen- 
 tence without  comprehending  the  words  and  their  connexion. 
 This  renders  the  reading-lessons  pleasing  as  well  as  easy,  and 
 thus  they  are  made  the  vehicles  of  much  useful  information. 
 The  habit  of  minute  analysis  is  cultivated,  and,  in  the  end,  a 
 great  command  and  thorough  knowledge  of  the  English  lan- 
 guage is  obtained  by  it. 
 
 The  alphabet  is  learned  as  usual,  the  child  being  taught  to 
 name  each  letter  and  to  recognise  it.  Then  follow  words  (not 
 mere  unmeaning  syllables)  of  two  letters,*  printed  both  in  Ro- 
 man and  Italic  characters,  and  simple  sentences  framed  from 
 them,  all  of  which  should  in  turn  be  explained  by  or  to  the  pupil. 
 Next  are  words  of  threef  letters,  arranged  according  to  a  sys- 
 tem, with  sentences  combining  the  words,  and  adapted  to  the 
 comprehension  of  the  child.  The  reading-book,  with  words  of 
 four  letters,  which  follows  this,  admits  of  a  considerable  variety 
 
 *  For  example,  the  first  lesson  contains  the  words  Be,  He,  Me,  We,  Ye,  &,c., 
 which  the  cliild  should  give  his  own  notion  of.  Thus,  spelling-  Be,  he  illustrates 
 it  by  saying  "  to  be  good,"  &cc.,  Me,  the  pupil  may  point  to  himself.  Sec.  Any  an- 
 swers  sliould  be  satisfactory  which  show  some  apprehension  of  the  use  of  the 
 word  or  its  meaning. 
 
 +  The  first  lesson  in  these  letters  contains  words  with  two  consonants  followed 
 by  a  vowel,  as  Fly,  Cry,  Ply,  Sly,  &.c.,  sentences  combining  these  and  the  fore- 
 going, as  "  why  do  you  cry."  Next  a  vowel  between  two  consonants.  Here  the 
 pupil  is  called  upon  to  supply  examples  which  rhyme,  and  to  read  sentences  made 
 up  of  words  not  in  the  lesson,  the  sentences  beginning  now  to  assume  a  higher 
 character  as  to  moral  sentiment  or  intellect.  The  succeeding  lessons  contain  words 
 ending  vvitli  a  dipthong  or  a  silent  e. 
 
192  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 of  matter,  as  Bible  histories,  ideas  of  natural  phenomena,  or  of 
 the  more  common  trades  and  ])rocesses.  All  of  these  should 
 be  made  instructive  exercises,  and  will  he  so  under  intelligent 
 teachers.  Routine  in  all  should  be  strictly  avoided,  as  it  de- 
 stroys the  spirit'  of  the  method.  The  higher  reading  brings  in 
 geography  and  history  incidentally,  and  subjects  connected 
 with  mechanics,  which  are  exceedingly  popular  among  the 
 pupils.  There  is  a  lending-library,  to  encourage  a  taste  for 
 reading  out  of  school,  which  is  much  used. 
 
 Instruction  in  grammar,  upon  the  inductive  plan  and  without 
 the  use  of  a  text-book,  is  begun  early  in  the  school.  The 
 method  is  that  already  described  under  the  title  of  practical 
 grammar  in  the  Juvenile  School  at  Glasgow.  It  is  eminently 
 successful  as  an  introduction  to  grammar  by  rule,  and  is  an 
 exercise  in  which  the  pupil  takes  an  interest,  from  the  investi- 
 gation which  it  requires  of  him.f 
 
 The  etymological  instruction  introduced  by  Mr.  Wood  is 
 one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  his  method.  The  teaching 
 is  also  inductive,  and  even  incidental  to  the  reading,  though,  of 
 course,  the  teacher  must  have  a  plan  or  systematic  arrange- 
 ment in  his  own  mind,  that  important  omissions  may  not  occur.J 
 As  an  example  of  their  etymological  lessons,  suppose  the  pupil, 
 in  reading,  meets  the  w^ord  "  introduce,"  he  is  made  to  divide  it, 
 "intro"  and  "duce."    He  is  told  that  "intro"  is  a  prefix  from  the 
 
 •  At  my  first  visit  to  this  scliool,  I  was  liig^hly  pleased  witli  the  answers  of 
 a  class  of  little  urcluns  who  were  in  words  of  three  syllables.  "  You  "  was 
 well  illustrated  by  pointing  to  the  master.  "  Tico"  by  another  pointing  to  him- 
 self  and  neighbour.  "  Yew;'  a  yew  tree.  "  Eire;'  a  female  sheep.  "  Deir;' 
 water  on  the  grass.  Returning  on  the  following  public  day,  my  pleasure  was 
 marred  by  hearing  identically  the  same  boys  give  precisely  tlie  same  answers, 
 showing  that  they  had  as  much  learned  thera  by  rote,  as  if  tlicy  were  definitions 
 from  an  Expositor. 
 
 t  Mr.  Wood's  |)lan  will  be  found  fully  detailed  in  his  "Account  of  the  Edin- 
 burgh Sessional  School." 
 
 \  Wood's  Etymological  fJuide,  Oswald's  Etymological  Manual,  and  Oswald's 
 Etymologienl  Dictionary,  have  all  been  publisiied  to  supply  the  demand  for  this 
 kind  of  instruction,  which  has  spread  through  the  schools  of  Edinburgh  with  the 
 best  results.  Mr.  Gibson,  of  Cuuvin's  Hospital,  was  also  engaged  on  a  work  on 
 this  subject  when  I  visited  Edinburgh,  in  1837. 
 
SESSIONAL  SCHOOL  AT  EDINBURGH.  193 
 
 Latin,  and  means  within.  He  is  asked  for  some  other  word 
 beginning  with  "  intro,"  and  soon  exhausts  "  introduction,"  "  in- 
 troductory," &c.  The  other  part  is  next  taken  up,  and  its  mean- 
 ing (to  lead)  is  explained.  Examples  of  it  are  given  by  different 
 members  of  the  class,  as  "adduce,"  "conduce,"  "deduce,"  "edu- 
 cate," "induce,"  "induction,"  "produce,"  &c.  The  teacher 
 takes  care  that  no  important  word  is  omitted  in  furnishing  these 
 examples.  The  true  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words  thus 
 acquired  has  led  to  the  use  of  the  method  even  in  the  classical 
 schools,  where  it  is  found  to  furnish  a  new  motive  to  study,  by 
 placing  one  application  of  his  knowledge  immediately  before 
 the  pupil.  The  great  command  of  words  which  it  must  give, 
 when  derivations  from  diflerent  ancient  and  modern  languages 
 are  thus  called  for,  is  quite  obvious. 
 
 The  instruction  in  geography  is  entirely  by  the  use  of  maps 
 and  oral  explanations ;  places  are  pointed  out  on  a  map,  and 
 information  given  in  respect  to  them.  When  their  relative  po- 
 sitions are  wxll  fixed  in  the  pupil's  mind,  the  points  marking 
 them  are  transferred  to  a  black-board,  with  or  without  an  out- 
 line of  the  limits  of  the  country  where  they  are  situated,  and 
 the  pupil  is  exercised  in  naming  them;  similar  plans  are  pursued 
 in  regard  to  other  parts  of  the  subject.  This,  as  well  as  other 
 branches  of  Mr.  Wood's  method,  approaches  closely  to  that 
 used  in  the  best  German  schools,  and  requires  considerable 
 attainments  in-  the  teachers.  If  left  to  monitors,  it  cannot  fail 
 to  lose  its  spirit. 
 
 The  exercises  in  arithmetic  arc  among  the  most  striking  in 
 the  school  Mental  arithmetic  is  particularly  cultivated,  and 
 the  higher  classes  acquire  an  extraordinary  facility  in  its  accu- 
 rate use.  It  is  begun  simultaneously  with  the  second  book  of 
 reading,  and  the  lessons  generally  consist  in  part  of  mental 
 and  in  part  of  written  arithmetic,*  one  portion  of  the  time  be- 
 ing devoted  exclusively  to  exercises,  another  to  teaching  a  new 
 
 *  In  one  of  my  visits  to  the  school,  a  row  of  twelve  figures  was  multiplied  bv 
 the  number  five,  in  four  seconds  from  the  time  when  the  instructor  had  given  out 
 the  question,  but  he  began  by  the  multiplier,  and  some  of  the  pupils  were  at 
 work  as  he  gave  out  tlic  multiplicand. 
 
194  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 rule  with  examples.  The  dull  method  of  working  through  the 
 questions  of  a  book  is  not  countenanced,  the  instruction  as  well 
 as  examples  being  given  by  the  teacher  or  monitor. 
 
 In  writing,  which  is  begun  upon  the  slate,  as  well  as  in 
 cyphering,  the  pencil  is  put  into  a  tin  tube,  that  the  child  may 
 not  acquire  a  bad  habit  of  iiolding  it.  Steel  pens  are  used  here 
 and  in  several  other  schools  which  I  visited,  and  answer  well. 
 
 In  regard  to  discipline  and  other  school  and  class  arrange- 
 ments, this  establishment  is  not  peculiar.  Mr.  Wood  regards  cor- 
 poral punishment  as  necessary,  but  requires  that  it  should  be  used 
 as  seldom  as  possible.  lie  is  also  an  advocate  for  the  system 
 of  places  in  a  class,  and  of  prizes  for  scholarship,  but  would 
 especially  encourage  self-emulation,  the  principle  upon  which 
 some  other  teachers  rely  entirely,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  first. 
 He  disapproves  of  tasks  or  confinement  in  the  school-room,  as 
 associating  study  and  school  with  ideas  of  punishment. 
 
 This  institution  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  an  intellectual 
 reform,  beginning  with  a  charity-school,  and  extending  upwards. 
 It  is  but  too  often  the  case  that  schools  for  the  poor  are  consi- 
 dered as  appropriately  of  a  lower  grade  than  others ;  at  least  it 
 is  so  in  Europe. 
 
 ELEMENTARY  DEPARTMENTS  OF  THE  MADRAS  COLLEGE. 
 
 This  institution  resulted  from  an  arransremcnt  made  by  the 
 late  Dr.  Bell,  author  of  the  Madras  system*  of  education,  with  the 
 authorities  of  St.  Andrews,  his  native  place.  The  Madras  Col- 
 lege replaces  the  Borough  School,  and  besides  is  intended  to 
 exemplify  the  application  of  the  system  of  mutual  instruction  to 
 the  various  departments  of  elementary  and  higher  education. 
 
 It  is  under  the  direction  of  four  trustees,  of  whom  the  provost 
 of  the  burgh  is  one.  They  legislate  in  regard  to  the  institution 
 in  general,  but  the  details  of  instruction  are  left  entirely  to  the 
 masters. 
 
 The  college  building  is  a  beautiful  structure,  in  the  Elizabethan 
 
 »  So  called  from  its  liavinp  been  first  applied  by  Dr.  Bell,  in  a  large  school 
 under  his  care,  attached  to  an  asylum  for  soldiers'  children  at  Madras. 
 
MADRAS  SCHOOLS  OF  ST.  ANDREWS.  195 
 
 Gothic  style,  standing  at  a  convenient  distance  from  one  of  the 
 main  streets,  and  having  in  front  upon  the  street  the  picturesque 
 ruin  of  the  monastery  of  the  Greyfriars.  The  different  schools 
 are  erected  about  a  quadrangle,  the  cloistered  sides  of  which 
 form  a  sheltered  play-ground,  and  all  but  the  classical  depart- 
 ment being  a  single  story  in  height.  The  great  height  of  these 
 rooms  secures  a  good  ventilation,  but  the  arched  ceilings  and 
 smooth  walls  are  the  worst  possible  for  school-rooms,  from  the 
 excessive  reverberation.  On  the  lower  floor  of  the  building  of 
 the  classical  department  are  a  series  of  small  school-rooms,  in- 
 tended for  the  teachers  of  modern  languages,  &c.  Two  of  the 
 masters  have  houses  at  the  entrance  of  the  grounds,  and  are 
 allowed  to  take  boarders. 
 
 The  college  is  divided  into  five  departments,  entirely  distinct 
 from  each  other,  the  classical,  French,  mathematical,  writing 
 and  drawing,  and  English  departments.  As  the  instruction  in  the 
 last  three  belongs  either  in  whole  or  part  to  the  elementary  pe- 
 riod, I  propose  to  make  a  few  remarks  upon  it  here,  not  intend- 
 ing, however,  again  to  discuss  the  Bell  system,  but  merely  to 
 present  some  of  the  peculiar  points  which  were  brought  to  my 
 notice  by  a  visit  to  this  school,  and  intercourse  with  its  intelli- 
 gent teachers. 
 
 Each  school  has  a  teacher  and  an  assistant,  and  every  teacher 
 is  independent  of  the  other,  the  arrangements  in  the  subsidiary 
 schools  being,  however,  such  as  to  admit  attendance  there 
 without  interference  with  the  others,  and  the  parents  being  free 
 to  choose  which  departments  their  children  shall  attend.  The 
 English  department  is  divided  into  two  sections,  the  school  fees 
 being  higher  in  the  one  than  in  the  other,  which  produces  a 
 corresponding  difference  in  the  character  of  the  pupils.  The 
 lower  school,  as  it  may  be  called,  contains  four  hundred  chil- 
 dren, varying  in  age  from  four  to  sixteen.  Each  class  is  sepa- 
 rated into  two  parts,  if  required  by  its  numbers,  and  is  under 
 the  charge  of  monitors.  The  thorough  Bell  system  is  used  in 
 this  section,  and  its  intellectual  character  is  much  below  that  of 
 the  higher  section,  which  is  less  numerous,  and  where  the  classes 
 have  the  benefit  of  more  immedinte  instruction  from  the  assist- 
 
190  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 ant  master.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  every  class  in  both  sec- 
 tions shall  come  before  the  master  or  his  assistant  every  day, 
 and  this  rule  prevades  the  otiier  departments  of  the  college.  In 
 the  lower  section  of  the  English  school,  however,  from  its  num- 
 bers, this  exercise  must  be  a  mere  revision  by  the  master,  while 
 in  the  higlicr  it  is  a  true  lesson.  In  this  section  I  heard  an  ex- 
 cellent rer.itntion  from  the  pupils  in  reading,  with  explanatory 
 and  etymological  f^xnrrisns,  according  to  jNIr.  Wood's  plan,  in 
 English  grammar  with  the  correction  of  false  syntax,  and  in 
 history.    Girls  and  boys  were  mingled  in  the  classes. 
 
 In  the  mathematical  sciiool  arithmetic  is  taught  by  monitors, 
 the  lessons  being  revised  by  the  master.  Modern  geography 
 is  also  taught  here,  and  the  school  is  well  furnished  with  out- 
 line maps  without  names.  In  the  higher  classes  of  arithmetic, 
 the  revisions  by  the  master  are  more  in  the  form  of  lessons, 
 and  in  geometry  the  mutual  instruction  nearly  disappears. 
 
 The  pupils  of  the  English  schools  all  attend  the  writing 
 school  for  an  hour  a-day.  The  monitorial  system  here  produces 
 very  good  results,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  when  a  merely 
 mechanical  brancii  is  to  be  taught,  it  is  entirely  applicable.  The 
 monitors  are  divided  into  four  classes,  each  of  which  serves  dur- 
 ing a  quarter  of  the  hour  spent  in  school.  Drawing  is  pursued 
 at  other  hours  by  those  who  have  the  disposition  for  it. 
 
 The  schools  composing  this  college,  the  higher  departments 
 inclusive,*  are  among  the  best  in  Scotland,  but  they  owe  their 
 merits  to  the  character  of  the  masters,  and  not  of  the  method. 
 In  fact,  the  instruction  apj^ears  to  produce  the  best  results  where 
 the  monitorial  system  is  least  used,  and  the  master's  talent  is 
 directly  exercised  in  teaching. 
 
 CIRCUS  PLACE  SCHOOL,  EDINBLTRGH. 
 
 It  is  seldom  that  the  advantages  of  a  decided  improvement  in 
 instruction  in  one  institution  are  lost  to  the  public  from  not  being 
 
 •  The  classicnl  (leimrtiiuail  is  undtr  tho  cliarjrc  of  the  Rev.  INFr.  ('annirha.l, 
 to  wJiosc  linspitahtv  and  kiinl  atliutioii  1  led  iiuich  indehfcd. 
 
CIRCUS  PLACE  SCHOOL  OF  EDINBURGH.  197 
 
 transferred  to  others.  I  have  already  stated  that  the  system  of 
 the  Sessional  School  has  led  to  considerable  improvement  in 
 the  various  schools  of  Edinburgh.  That  in  Circus  Place  was 
 founded  by  subscription,  to  apply  the  intellectual  method  of  Mr. 
 Wood  to  the  instruction  of  boys  who  are  preparing  for  the 
 Edinburgh  High  School  or  Academy,  or  other  classical  schools. 
 It  receives  pupils  from  the  age  of  four  to  six  years,  and  re- 
 tains them  until  nine  or  ten,  when  they  are  fitted  to  begin  a 
 classical  course.  The  intelligent  rector*  informed  me,  that  he 
 preferred  decidedly  such  pupils  as  came  from  the  infant  schools 
 to  others,  finding  them  more  teachable  and  more  tractable. 
 
 The  school  is  purely  an  English  one,  and  the  branches  taught 
 are  generally  similar  to  those  of  the  Sessional  School.  It  has, 
 however,  a  great  advantage  over  the  latter,  in  the  fact  that  each 
 class  has  an  intelligent  teacher,  and  hence  no  monitors  are  used, 
 unless  for  the  relief  of  the  master  in  promoting  order,  by  no- 
 ticing offences.  The  classes  are  in  different  rooms,  some  of 
 which  have  the  benches  placed  upon  forms  rising  in  steps. 
 
 A  great  improvement  has  been  made  in  the  intellectual  sys- 
 tem here,  by  the  introduction  of  objects  of  nature  and  art  as 
 the  ground-work  of  many  lessons.  The  advantages  of  this  im- 
 provement are  hardly  yet  fully  realized.  The  directors  are 
 earnestly  engaged,  however,  in  extending  the  museum  auxiliary 
 to  these  lessons.  There  is  a  lending-library  for  the  use  of  the 
 school. 
 
 In  the  higher  classes  half  an  hour  of  each  week  day,  except 
 Saturday,  is  occupied  with  religious  instruction.  Two  hours 
 with  reading  and  incidental  instruction  in  grammar  and  his- 
 tory, &c.  Half  an  hour  with  geography.  Half  an  hour  with 
 grammar.  Half  an  hour  with  arithmetic,  and  one  hour  with 
 writing. 
 
 The  highest  class,  composed  only  of  boys,  during  tiieir  read- 
 ing-lessons are  fully  drilled  on  "  prefixes  and  post-fixes,"  and 
 the  analysis  of  our  language,  according  to  the  method  of  Mr. 
 
 *  Tlic  Rev.  Alcx.mdrr  Rcid. 
 
198  GENERAL   EDUCATIOIV.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 Wood.    Both  in  this  and  the  next  class  the  instruction  which 
 I  witnessed  was  excellent. 
 
 The  classes  have  an  hour  of  interval  in  the  middle  of  the  day, 
 which  they  are  allowed  to  spend  in  the  play-ground  attached  to 
 the  school,  hut  no  attempt  at  regular  physical  education  has  yet 
 been  made. 
 
PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  FRANCE.  199 
 
 CHAPTER  III. 
 
 PUBLIC  ELEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  FRANCE. 
 
 The  present  law  regulating  primary  instruction  in  France, 
 dates  from  the  year  1833.  Previous  to  framing  it,  M.  Cousin 
 was  deputed  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  to  visit  some 
 of  the  states  of  Germany,  the  systems  of  which  have  the  highest 
 reputation,  and  especially  Prussia.  The  information  collected 
 by  him,  and  chiefly  embodied  in  his  Report,*  is  supposed  to 
 have  contributed  in  an  important  degree  to  the  framing  of  the 
 new  law.  By  one  of  the  provisions  of  this  law,  primary  in- 
 struction is  divided  into  two  grades,  elementary,  and  superior 
 primary,  and  the  least  amount  of  instruction  admissible  in  each 
 grade  is  defined.  In  the  first  is  enumerated  moral  and  religious 
 instruction,  reading,  writing,  the  elements  of  the  French  lan- 
 guage, and  arithmetic,  and  the  system  of  weights  and  measures 
 prescribed  by  law.  Linear  drawing,  is  very  generally  added 
 to  these  branches,  and  in  many  of  the  schools,  vocal  music  is 
 also  taught. 
 
 To  the  subjects  just  enumerated,  the  law  adds,  as  a  minimum 
 for  superior  primary  instruction,  the  elements  of  geometry,  with 
 its  common  applications,  particularly  to  geometrical  drawing 
 and  surveying,  the  elementary  principles  of  physical  science, 
 and  natural  history  and  geography,  and  particularly  the  history 
 and  geography  of  France.  This  superior  primary  instruction 
 has  spread  but  little,  even  in  the  metropolis  of  France,  and  the 
 whole  kingdom  contained  in  1838  but  three  hundred  and  thirty- 
 two  schools  of  the  sort.f     In  Lyons  I  found  but  one  public 
 
 *  Report  on  the  state  of  public  instruction  in  several  of  the  countries  of 
 Europe,  and  especially  in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  by  Victor  Cousin,  Peer  of 
 France,  «Scc. 
 
 t  Two  hundred  and  thirty-five  of  these  scliools  are  public,  and  ninety-seven 
 private.  Report  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  to  the  King,  on  primary 
 instruction,  June  1,  1^38. 
 
200  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  I'ERIOD. 
 
 school  of  this  grade  in  1838,  and  that  but  imperfectly  devel- 
 oped. 
 
 While  the  law  thus  lays  down  the  brandies  of  instruc- 
 tion constituting  the  least  admissible,  it  very  properly  says 
 nothing  about  the  methods  of  teaching.  In  the  public  schools 
 there  arc,  however,  two  leading  methods,  those  of  mutual 
 and  simultaneous  instruction.  The  first  is  a  modified  Lan- 
 castrian system,  originally  introduced  from  England.  The 
 second  is  used  chiefly  in  the  schools  of  the  "Christian  Bro- 
 thers," and  its  practices  are  derived  from  the  founder  of  this 
 religious  body,  the  Abbe  John  La  Salle.  Specimens  of  both 
 are  to  be  found  in  the  model  schools  attached  to  the  Normal 
 seminaries  for  educating  primary  teachers,  of  which  there  is 
 one  for  every  department  of  France,  with  one  exception. 
 Teachers  educated  in  these  establishments  are  expected  to  be 
 able  to  use  either  method.  In  many  of  the  schools  fragments 
 of  the  two  are  joined,  constituting  what  has  been  termed  a 
 mixed  system.  It  cannot,  with  propriety,  however,  be  consi- 
 dered a  special  method,  but  is  rather  a  modification,  in  various 
 degrees,  of  one  of  the  systems  by  the  introduction  of  parts  of 
 the  other.  Of  the  schools  upon  the  system  of  mutual  instruc- 
 tion, I  visited  at  Paris,  with  greater  or  less  care,  four,  besides 
 giving  a  glance  at  two  others,  in  reference  to  musical  instruc- 
 tion. Of  those  taught  by  the  Ciiristian  Brothers  I  visited  two. 
 At  Versailles,  the  two  in  connexion  with  the  primary  Normal 
 schools,  and  the  similar  ones  at  Dijon.  At  Lyons,  two  of  the 
 first  named  kind  and  one  of  the  second.  The  selection  was 
 made,  of  course,  with  reference  to  the  merits  of  the  schools  in 
 regard  to  which  I  had  tiie  best  advice.*  Those  on  the  plan  of 
 mutual  instruction  were  inferior  to  the  English  model,  and  those 
 upon  the  other  system,  to  the  similar  schools  in  Holland,  or  in 
 Germany,  generally.  Hence,  I  do  not  feel  warranted  in  enter- 
 ing into  details  in  regard  to  them  in  this  Report.     Primary 
 
 •  At  Paris  I  was  much  indebted  to  the  oblijDfinir  ofiices  of  M.  Lamottc,  In- 
 spcctor  of  Primary  Scliools,  to  whom  1  was  introduced  by  the  kindness  of  M. 
 Cousin.  I  was  also  much  obHcfcd  by  the  kind  introductions  of  the  Minister  of 
 Public  Instruction,  M.  Snlvandy,  of  M.  Arn^ro,  and  of  M.  Cliarlcs  Coqucrel. 
 
PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  FRANCE.  201 
 
 instruction  in  France  i.  in  a  state  of  transition,  wliich,  although 
 .t  holds  out  a  fair  promise  for  the  future,  presents,  at  present, 
 but  httle  lor  mutation  in  tlic  individual  schools. 
 
 I  ought  to  notice  that  the  mode  of  teaching  music  adopted 
 ni  the  mutual  instruction  schools  of  Paris,  has  proved  hi-' hlv 
 successful,  and  that,  in  general,  the  results  of  the  attempt  to 
 mtroduce  vocal  music  into  these  schools  have  surpassed  the 
 expectation  even  of  its  advocates.  The  introduction  of  linear 
 drawmg  has  also  been  attended  with  success,  but  the  mode  of 
 teaching  from  engravings  is,  1  think,  for  the  purposes  in  view 
 interior  to  that  used  in  the  schools  of  Berlin. 
 
 It  must  not  be  supposed,  from  the  foregoing  remarks,  that  I 
 undervalue  the  efforts  lately  made  and  now  making  in  France 
 in  behalf  of  primary  instruction.     The  law  itself  was  a  rrreat 
 step.    The  system  of  inspection,  which  was  begun  in  1833,  was 
 carried  out  by  the  permanent  appointment  of  one  inspector  to 
 each  department  in  1835,  and  greatly  extended  by  creathi.. 
 sub-inspectors  in  1838,  and  is  a  most  valuable  auxiliary  to  the 
 law.     The  regulation  of  the  schools  for  girls  in  1830;  the  in- 
 crease of  primary  normal  schools  from  forty-seven  in  1833  to 
 seventy.four  in  1838;  the  increase  of  more  than  a  million  in 
 the  attendance  on  the  boys'  schools  alone,  between  1829  and 
 1838;*  the  systematic  encouragement  to  infant  schools;  all  these 
 are  positive  results,  which  have  been  already  obtained,  an.l  on 
 which  France  has  great  reason  to  congratulate  herself    It  was 
 not  to  be  expected  that,  with  the  previous  deficiency  in  the 
 number  of  schools  for  primary  instruction  in  France,  tliere 
 would  be  great  fastidiousness  as  to  their  character,  which  must 
 however,  rapidly  improve,  if  the  introduction  of  well  prepared 
 teachers  from  the  normal  schools  is  allowed  to  have  its  full 
 effect. 
 
 »TI,eso  numbers  arc  fron,  a  Ucport  on  P,i,„ary  Instruclion,  by  tl.c  Minister 
 
 2f> 
 
202  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  HOLLAND. 
 
 Amoxg  the  primary  schools  of  Holland  arc  some  of  the  best 
 which  I  visited,  and  the  whole  condition  of  popular  instruction 
 is  worthy  of  a  nation  which  has  ever  been  distinguished  for  its 
 virtue  and  intelligence. 
 
 The  primary  instruction  of  Holland  began  to  receive  its  pre- 
 sent form  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  chiefly  by  the  in- 
 strumentality of  the  "  Society  for  Public  Utility,"  the  branches 
 of  which  extended  throughout  the  country.  This  society  estab- 
 lished model  schools  where  they  were  required,  published  cheap 
 text-books,  excited  discussions  on  methods  of  teaching,  and  sti- 
 mulated the  local  authorities  and  others  to  the  establishment  of 
 new  schools.  Always  withdrawing  its  efforts  when  no  longer 
 needed  in  the  cause,  it  avoided  the  effects  of  jealousy,  by  show- 
 ing that  it  had  no  desire  for  control. 
 
 With  a  view  to  produce  system  throughout  the  then  Bata- 
 vian  Republic,  a  law  containing  the  genei'al  principles  which 
 should  govern  primary  instruction  was  passed  in  ISOG,  and 
 was  accompanied  by  a  series  of  regulations,  to  carry  out  its 
 details.  The  most  important  provisions  of  the  law-  are  those 
 for  the  inspection  and  management  of  the  schools,  and  for  the 
 due  qualification  of  schoolmasters,  the  establishment  of  individual 
 schools  being  left  to  the  local  authorities.  The  system  of  in- 
 spection is  eminently  adapted  to  a  country  where  centralization 
 has  never  existed,  and  has  j)roved  highly  successful  in  its  opera- 
 tion. It  begins  with  the  appointment  in  each  school  district  of 
 an  inspector,  and,  when  the  schools  are  numerous,  gives  him 
 the  assistance  of  a  committee. 
 
 The  inspectors  of  the  different  school  districts  of  a  province 
 form  tlu2  Provincial  Board  of  Primary  Instruction,  who  meet 
 thrice  every  year,  receive  the  reports  of  the  inspectors,  delibe- 
 
PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.  203 
 
 rate  upon  the  concerns  of  primary  instruction  in  the  province, 
 and  make  report  annually  to  the  minister  of  the  interior.  To 
 carry  out  this  system,  the  minister  of  the  interior  has  authority 
 to  convene  at  the  capital  an  assembly  of  delegates  from  the 
 provincial  Boards,  to  advise  upon  general  matters.  Only  one 
 such  meeting  has,  how^ever,  taken  place.  In  the  general  con- 
 trol of  primary  instruction,  the  minister  of  the  interior  is  re- 
 placed by  an  officer  called  a  referendary,  and  there  is  also  an 
 inspector  general,*  who  resides  at  the  Hague. 
 
 To  be  admitted  to  the  rank  of  a  teacher,  certain  preliminary 
 examinations  must  be*  passed  before  the  school-inspector,  or 
 local  or  provincial  Board,  according  to  the  grade  sought. 
 There  are  four  grades,  requiring  each  a  different  examination. 
 The  lowest  of  these  may  be  obtained  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  the 
 third  at  eighteen,  and  the  second  at  twenty-two.  The  second 
 qualifies  for  the  mastership  of  any  primary  school,  and  the  first 
 is,  in  fact,  honorary.  To  pass  the  examination  for  the  second 
 grade,  the  candidate  must  be  able  to  read  and  spell  correctly, 
 to  write  a  good  hand,  must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  theory  of 
 the  Dutch  language,  geography,  history,  arithmetic  in  all  its 
 branches,  and  a  facility  in  imparting  instruction.  His  moral 
 and  religious  qualifications  are  also  ascertained. 
 
 This  general  examination  entitles  an  instructor  to  become  a 
 candidate  for  vacant  schools,  either  public  or  private,  but  does 
 not  supersede  the  special  examination  or  competition  which 
 may  be  required  by  their  directors. 
 
 The  law,  besides,  enjoins  upon  the  local  authorities,  on  the 
 one  hand,  to  furnish  a  sufficient  number  of  schools  for  the  po- 
 pulation, and  on  the  other,  not  to  allow  such  a  number  as  to 
 render  the  income  of  the  several  masters  inadequate  to  their 
 support. 
 
 The  definition  of  a  primary  school,  as  given  in  one  of  the 
 regulations  issued  to  complete  the  law,  covers  a  wide  field. 
 According  to  it,  a  primary  school  is  one  in  which  youth  is  in- 
 
 •  To  this  gentleman,  M.  Wynbeek,  I  am  indolitrd  for  nitirh  attention,  fiir 
 which  I  beg  leave  here  to  return  my  thanks. 
 
204  GENERAL  EDUCATIO\.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 structcd  in  the  first  principles  of  knowledge,  such  as  reading, 
 writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  Dutch  language,  or  the  more  ad- 
 vanced branches,  such  as  the  French,  or  other  modern  lan- 
 guages, or  the  ancient  languages,  geography,  iiistory,  and  other 
 subjects  of  that  description.  There  arc  several  different  kinds 
 of  schools,  corresponding  to  different  grades  of  instruction  in 
 these  branches.  Infant  school  instruction  is  included  in  the 
 primary  department,  but  it  is  not  yet  fully  developed,  being 
 limited  chiefly  to  Rotterdam  and  Zwollc. 
 
 The  lowest  schools  are  those  for  the  poor  (armen-scholen), 
 and  which  are  entirely  gratuitous.  The  children  enter  at  from 
 six  to  seven,  and  remain  until  twelve  or  fourteen.  As  supple- 
 mentary to  them  are  evening  schools,  principally  intended  for 
 revising  former  courses,  and  which  should  be  attended  until 
 sixteen  or  eiGjhteen  vears  of  i^g^c.     As  the  attendance  in  these 
 
 CD  »i  O 
 
 latter  schools  is  not  obligatory,  the  proportion  of  those  who 
 receive  instruction  in  them  varies  much  in  diflerent  localities. 
 
 The  next  are  called  intermediate  schools  (tusschen-scholen), 
 in  which  the  pupils  pay  a  trifling  fee.*  Both  these  are,  in 
 general,  public.  Some  have  been  established  by  the  school- 
 committees,  and  after  a  few  years  have  become  self-support- 
 ing. The  grade  of  instruction  is  rather  higher  than  in  the 
 schools  for  the  })oor,  but  as  the  law  does  not  prescribe  any 
 particular  programme,  it  varies  much  in  the  diflerent  parts  of 
 Holland — a  school  which  would  \)c  ralied  intermediate  in  a 
 small  town  ranking  below  one  of  the  gratuitous  establishments 
 for  the  ])0or  in  one  of  the  chief  cities.  The  amount  taught 
 depends,  other  circumstances  being  the  same,  upon  the  average 
 age  to  which  the  children  remain  at  school,  and,  therefore, 
 varies  also  in  the  dilferejit  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
 
 The  next  grade,  or  burgher  school  (burger  school),  is,  in 
 general,  a  ju'ivate  establishment.  It  is  distinguished  from  both 
 the  classes  just  enumerated  by  a  larger  fee,t  and,  in  general,  by 
 
 •  For  example,  in  an  inlenuediafr  school  at  Rottordain  which  I  visiUtl,  eight 
 cents  a  week. 
 
 t  The  sehool  tie  at  the  Imr^rlar  st  fioul  at  llaailtiii  is  hrlucm  six  ami  s.veii 
 dollars  a  year. 
 
PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.  205 
 
 a  higher  grade  of  mstruction;  but  while  in  a  single  town  or 
 district  it  is  easy  to  perceive  this  gradation,  yet  it  is  scarcely 
 possible  to  observe  it  on  a  comparison  of  the  country  at  large. 
 In  some  places,  the  last  mentioned  school  is  called  the  Dutch 
 school,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  following  class. 
 
 The  school  denominated  the  "French  School"*  is  the  highest 
 of  the  primary  division,  and  is,  in  general,  a  private  establish- 
 ment, though  frequently  of  the  kind  classed  by  the  law^  with 
 private  schools,  but  superintended,  in  reality,  by  the  local 
 school-committee  itself.  Besides  the  branches  taught  in  the 
 other  schools,  the  courses  of  this  embrace  the  French  language, 
 of  w^hich  the  pupils  acquire  a  grammatical  knowledge,  and 
 which  they  are  enabled  to  speak  with  considerable  facility. 
 These  schools  prepare  their  pupils  for  entrance  into  active  life, 
 and  serve,  also,  in  some  degree,  as  feeders  to  the  grammar  or 
 Latin  schools.  The  instruction  in  French  is  not,  however,  an 
 exclusive  mark  of  this  grade  of  institution,  as  the  descendants 
 of  the  French  emigrants,  constituting  the  Walloon  congrega- 
 tions, continue  the  teaching  of  this  language  in  the  gratuitous 
 schools  for  the  poor  connected  with  their  churches. 
 
 While,  in  point  of  fact,  there  is  not  the  regular  fourfold  divi- 
 sion of  primary  instruction  which  thus  appears,  it  is  difficult  to 
 draw  a  separating  line.-j-  The  intermediate  school  connects 
 the  school  for  the  poor  and  the  burgher  school,  while  in  the 
 burgher  schools,  the  same  branches  are  studied  as  in  the  French 
 schools,  except  the  French  language.  The  less  number  of 
 children  under  the  charge  of  one  master,  the  greater  age  to 
 which  the  children  in  general  remain  at  school,  the  generally 
 greater  capacity  of  the  master,  from  the  higher  salary  which 
 his  talents  command,  tlie  greater  family  culture  of  tiic  children 
 before  coming  into  and  while  in  the  school,  render  the  average 
 progress  in  the  burgher  school  of  a  given  place  superior  to  that 
 
 *  All  these  classes,  viz.,  Infant,  Poor,  Intermediate,  Dutcli,  and  French  Schools, 
 were  noted  in  the  returns  of  the  school-committee  at  Rotterdam,  which  tlieir  se- 
 cretary, M.  Mces,  liad  the  kindness  to  show  mc. 
 
 t  M.  Cousin,  in  his  work,  "  Dc  I'lnstruction  Fuhliquc  en  Holland,"  1837, 
 places  the  division  hclwcen  the  hiuijhor  and  the  French  schools. 
 
200  (;KXKnAI.   KDUCATION.       i'HJMAFiY   I'ERIOD. 
 
 in  the  iiilonncdiatc  school,  and  in  this  latter  higher  than  in  the 
 school  tor  the  jioor.  1  must  say,  however,  that  in  nxjre  than 
 one  case,  in  the  same  ])lace,  I  could  detect  no  diOerence  in  the 
 school  itself,  between  the  intermediate  ar.d  the  burgher  school, 
 exce{>t  in  the  greater  comfort  of  the  accommodations  of  the 
 latter;  and  I  have  already  remarked  that,  in  comparing  the 
 establishments  of  difierent  places,  the  name  is  not  an  accurate 
 guide  to  the  grade  of  the  school. 
 
 A  sketch  of  the  arrangement  of  the  primary  schools  them- 
 selves would,  I  have  thought,  be  rendered  more  compendious, 
 \vithout  injury  to  its  fidelity,  by  selecting  for  particular  descrip- 
 tion one  of  the  schools  for  the  poor,  which,  as  a  class,  rank 
 higher  in  Holland  than  in  any  other  of  the  European  states,  and 
 engrafting  upon  the  account  of  this,  remarks  on  the  methods  of 
 other  schools;  concluding  by  a  brief  statement  of  the  particulars 
 in  which  the  intermediate,  burgher,  or  French  schools  difTer,  in 
 geneial,  from  the  assumed  type,  or  from  each  other. 
 
 Before  doing  so,  however,  there  are  some  points  fixed  by  the 
 school  regulations  which  require  notice.  The  first  is,  that  the 
 system  of  instruction  must  be  that  called  simultaneous,  or  in 
 which  all  the  pupils  of  a  class  take  part  at  once.  In  practice, 
 this  requires  to  be  varied  by  questions  adapted  to  individuals,  and 
 the  classes,  therefore,  must  not  be  too  large.  In  the  intermediate 
 schools  I  found,  more  commonly,  classes  of  from  thirty  to  fifty, 
 the  lesser  number  being  well  adapted  to  the  method.  With  a 
 well  trained  master,  and  a  class  of  moderate  numbers,  this  kind 
 of  instruction  is  the  most  lively  that  can  be  imagined,  and  when 
 judiciously  varied  by  (juestions  put  to  all,  but  which  only  one  is 
 permitted  to  answer,  it  is  also  thorough.  It  is,  in  a  great  de- 
 gree, the  system  already  described  of  Mr.  Wood's  own  class 
 in  the  Edinburgh  Sessional  School. 
 
 The  method  of  mutual  instruction  is  not  at  all  favoured  in 
 Holland.  A  very  decided  and  general  opinion  against  it  ap- 
 pears early  to  have  been  brought  about  by  the  comparison  of 
 the  English  schools  with  their  own.  A  prize  was  oflered  for 
 the  best  dissertation  on  the  subject  by  the  society  for  public 
 utility,  and  taken  l)y  M.  Visser,  inspector  of  primary  schools 
 
PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.  1^07 
 
 in  Freesland.  This  excellent  dissertation*  which  was  published 
 and  widely  distributed  by  the  society,  no  doubt  contributed  to 
 form  or  to  strengthen  the  opinion  which  prevails  at  this  day. 
 
 The  only  approach  to  the  monitorial  system  in  the  schools 
 of  Holland  is,  that  pupils  who  have  an  inclination  to  teach,  and 
 who  will  probably  become  teachers,  are  put  in  charge  of  the 
 lower  classes  of  a  school.  Thus,  also,  some  of  the  best  moni- 
 tors of  the  Borough-road  School  in  London  are  boys  who  are 
 likely  one  day  to  follow  the  career  of  teaching.  There  is, 
 however,  a  very  wide  difference  between  the  use  of  a  few  ap- 
 prentices to  the  profession,  and  that  of  a  large  number  of  moni- 
 tors to  give  instruction.  I  had  occasion  to  observe,  however, 
 that  in  many  cases  there  was  a  want  of  life  in  the  j'ounger 
 classes  entrusted  to  these  inexperienced  teachers.  If  they  are 
 to  be  used,  it  would  be  better  to  employ  them  in  classes  which 
 have  some  training,  even  though  nearer  the  teacher's  age  and 
 attainments. 
 
 The  next  point  is  in  regard  to  religious  instruction  in  the 
 schools.  There  is  unbounded  toleration  of  religious  creed  in 
 Holland,  and  while  the  necessity  of  religious  instruction  in  the 
 schools  has  been  strongly  felt,  it  has  been  made  to  stop  short 
 of  the  point  at  which,  becoming  doctrinal,  the  subjects  taught 
 could  interfere  with  the  views  of  any  sect.  Bible  stories 
 are  made  the  means  of  moral  and  relifrious  tcachinir  in  the 
 school,  and  the  doctrinal  instruction  is  given  by  the  pastors  of 
 the  different  churches  on  days  appointed  for  the  purpose,  and 
 usually  not  in  the  school-room. 
 
 The  last  point  is  in  regard  to  the  choice  of  school-books. 
 The  publication  of  them  is  not  left  to  open  competition.  Every 
 book,  before  it  can  be  used  in  a  public  school,  must  be  submit- 
 ted to  the  examination  of  the  minister  of  the  interior,  acting  of 
 course  by  deputy,  and  if  approved,  is  admitted  to  the  list  of 
 books  which  may  be  used  in  the  schools.  From  this  list  the 
 provincial  board  of  primary  schools  select  those  which  they 
 
 *  "Essays  on  the  subjects  of  instruction  necessary  in  the  schools  for  the  poor, 
 and  on  tlie  best  methods  of  instruction,  witli  a  comparison  of  tliese  methods  and 
 that  of  the  Bell-Lancastrian  method."  1820. 
 
208  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       rRlMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 consider  best,  to  be  used  in  their  province,  and  from  their  list 
 the  teachers  choose  such  as  they  approve.  In  private  schools 
 the  teacher  selects  his  own  books,  but  he  must  report  a  list  of 
 them  to  the  inspector. 
 
 There  are  two  normal  schools  for  the  education  of  teachers 
 for  the  primary  schools,  one  at  Groningen,  established  by  the 
 society  for  public  utility,  the  other  at  Haarlem,*  by  the  govern- 
 ment. Formerly  all  instructors  were  prepared  in  the  dillerent 
 primary  schools.  They  began  to  teach  as  early  as  twelve 
 years  of  age,  attending  the  evening  school  to  make  ujj  their 
 loss  of  time  during  the  day.  At  sixteen  they  had  served  their 
 apprenticeship,  and  were  admissible  to  the  fourth  grade  of 
 teachers.  This  method  prevails  still  to  a  considerable  extent, 
 but  as  it  has  been  found  to  produce  rather  routine  than  intelli- 
 gent teaching,  the  two  normal  schools  have  been  established 
 to  supply  the  defect. 
 
 The  jnalerial  of  clcmcniary  intellectual  instruction  consists  in 
 most  countries  of  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  a  knowledge 
 of  the  mother  tongue,  to  which  the  geography  of  the  country, 
 and  sometimes  general  geography,  natural  history,  linear  draw- 
 ing and  vocal  music  arc  added.  Special  exercises  of  the  per- 
 ceptive and  reflective  faculties  are  also  included  in  the  more  im- 
 proved intellectual  systems.  While  the  material  is  thus  nearly 
 the  same,  nothing  can  be  more  dillerent  than  the  results  produced 
 by  the  schools,  according  to  the  use  which  is  made  of  it.  In 
 some  the  means  are  mistaken  for  the  end,  and  if  the  i)Upil  is  en- 
 abled to  read,  write,  and  cyjiher  mechanically,  the  school  is 
 supposed  to  have  done  its  duty.  In  others  these  branches  are 
 employed  as  the  means  of  developing  the  intellect  as  well  as 
 for  the  communication  of  useful  knowledge;  according  as  one 
 or  the  other  view  is  taken,  the  instruction  is  arranged  in  con- 
 formity with  it.  In  Holland  the  intellectual  methods  of  Pesta- 
 loxzi  have  taken  deep  root,  and  the  enlightened  state  of  public 
 opinion,  in  regard  to  elementary  education,  prevents  in  a  great 
 degree  a  mechanical  system  of  teaching. 
 
 •    l^slublisUcd  in  lbl6. 
 
PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.  209 
 
 The  plan  of  the  school  for  the  poor  at  the  Hague,  to  which 
 I  now  proceed,  will  justify  this  remark.  To  render  it  clear, 
 I  shall,  even  at  the  risk  of  dwelling  rather  long  upon  it,  present 
 first  the  essential  features  of  the  instruction;  next  show  the 
 chief  steps  in  the  entire  course,  from  which  a  just  idea  of  the 
 character  of  the  whole  of  it  can  be  formed,  appending  to 
 this  some  remarks  upon  the  methods  of  leaching  and  the  text- 
 books: then,  by  separating  the  exercises  of  tiie  classes,  and 
 attaching  to  each  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  it  per  week, 
 I  shall  show  that  this  is  no  theoretical  programme,*  but  one 
 formed  for  practice ;  and  this  will  further  appear  by  stating,  in 
 conclusion,  some  of  the  results  which  I  witnessed  at  an  exami- 
 nation of  the  pupils. 
 
 This  school,  I  should  remark,  though  ranking  with  the  best 
 of  those  w^hich  I  saw  in  Holland,  is  not  distinguished  above 
 several  others  of  its  class,  and  in  its  intellectual  character  seemed 
 to  me  decidedly  below  many  of  the  intermediate  schools  where 
 the  pupils  are  less  numerous.  It  is  therefore  no  exaggerated 
 statement  of  what  is  obtained  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
 twelve  or  fourteen.  The  subjects  of  instruction,  including  intel- 
 lectual and  moral,  are: 
 
 Exercise  of  the  perceptive  and  reflective  faculties.  Learning  to  read  accord- 
 ing to  Prinscn's  method,  including  the  spelling  of  words  and  the  analysis  of  words 
 and  simple  sentences.  The  composition  of  simple  sentences  with  printed  letters. 
 A  knowledge  of  the  different  kinds  of  printed  and  written  letters.  Writing  from 
 dictation,  for  orthography.  Correct  reading  of  prose  and  poetry.  Grammar  of 
 the  Dutch  language.  Geography  of  Holland.  History  of  Holland,  including  its 
 chronology.  Writing,  beginning  and  ending  with  writing  on  the  black-board- 
 Linear  drawing.  Arithmetic  by  induction.  Mental  and  written  arithmetic, 
 with  a  knowledge  of  the  Roman  numerals.  Practical  arithmetic,  to  decimal 
 fractions  inclusive.  The  theory  of  numbers.  Moral  and  religious  instruction. 
 Vocal  music. 
 
 As  natural  history  does  not  appear  either  in  this  programme  or 
 in  others  of  primary!  schools,  I  was  at  the  pains  to  ascertain  if 
 
 *  Kindly  furnished  me  by  the  request  of  tlic  Inspector-general,  M.  Wynbcek. 
 
 t  It  occurs  by  name  as  well  as  pliysics,  upon  a  list  of  subjects  and  books  fur- 
 nished to  me  by  Mr.  Prinsen,  at  Haarlem,  as  those  used  in  the  normal  schooL 
 but  I  did  no!  see  it  on  the  list  of  exercises  of  the  primary  ^choolit. 
 27 
 
210  f.EXERAL  KDUCATIOX.       PRIMARY    PERIOD. 
 
 any  thing  was  tauglit  in  relation  to  a  branch  so  eminently  cal- 
 culated to  promote  early  religious  impressions,  and  found  that 
 incidentally  information  was  given  on  the  habits  of  animals,  and 
 some  of  the  phenomena  of  the  physical  world.  It  will  be  ob- 
 served that  in  this  school,  as  in  general,  physical  training  forms 
 no  part  of  the  system.  In  Holland  the  gymnastics,  so  popular 
 in  Northern  Germany,  have  never  been  permanently  introduced, 
 even  in  the  boanlinc^  schools. 
 
 TJic  nature  and  extent  of  the  instruction  in  the  branches  enu- 
 merated above  will  be  best  understood  by  the  following  list  of 
 progressive  exercises : 
 
 1.  Exercises  of  thought,  reason,  and  intelligence. 
 
 2.  Reading.  Prinscn's  Reading  Tables.  Vowels  and  consonants  from  the  letter- 
 box. Composition  of  words  on  the  reading-board.  Explanation  of  words  and 
 simple  sentences.  Spelling  from  memory.  Exercises  in  reading  different  printed 
 and  written  characters.  Simultaneous  reading  from  a  scries  of  books  graduated 
 to  the  capacity  of  the  class.  Explanation  of  words  met  in  reading.  Composition 
 of  sentences  on  the  reading-board.  Writing  from  dictation  for  ortliograpliy. 
 Correct  reading.     Composition  of  simple  sentences. 
 
 3.  Grammar  practically.    Conjugation  of  verbs,  &-e.    Parsing. 
 
 4.  History  of  Holland  and  chronology. 
 
 5.  Geography  of  Holland. 
 
 G.  Writing.  Elements  of  writing  on  the  black-board.  Writing  on  slates. 
 Writing  of  numbers.  Linear  drawing.  Writing  on  paper.  Writing  capital 
 letters  and  large  hand.    Exercises  of  writing  on  the  black-board. 
 
 7.  Arithmetic  by  induction.  Mental  arithmetic.  Reading  Roman  numbers. 
 Practical  arithmetic.  Tables  of  moneys.  Exercises  in  reading  numbers.  De- 
 cimal fractions.  Tables  of  weights  and  measures.  Theory  of  arithmetic.  Ele- 
 ments of  form. 
 
 8.  Moral  and  religious  instruction.    lUble  stories,  »Soc. 
 
 9.  Singing. 
 
 In  giving  a  short  explanation  of  the  exercises  just  enumerated, 
 I  shall  not  confine  myself  to  the  methods  followed  in  this  par- 
 ticular school,  with  all  of  which  indeed  I  am  not  acquainted, 
 but  give  them  as  in  most  general  use,  especially  as  I  saw  them 
 practised  in  the  schools  of  Haarlem,  which  have  the  advantage 
 of  immediate  contact  with  the  seminary  (nv  teachers  there,  and 
 the  use  of  its  pupils  as  sub-teachers. 
 
 The  excrci.ses  of  perception  and  reflection  in  frc(iucnt  use, 
 
A  CHARITY  SCHOOL  AT  Tllfi:  HAGUE.  211 
 
 are  those  recommended  by  Ewald,*  and  consist  of  a  selection 
 from  various  authors,  as  well  as  of  many  subjects  on  which  the 
 teacher  is  expected  to  be  informed.  The  instruction  is  given 
 orally,  according  to  the  following  outline:  The  child  is  taught 
 to  observe  and  to  speak  correctly,  by  referring  to  objects 
 which  are  about  him.f  Knowledge  of  colours.  Of  some  va- 
 rieties of  form,  as  round,  square,  &c.  Naming  of  words  of 
 similar  and  contrary  significations.J  Meaning  of  verbs  in  com- 
 mon use.  Numerating  by  v-^ubes.  Knowledge  of  coins  of  the 
 country  and  their  relative  values.  Division  of  time.  To  tell 
 the  time  by  a  watch.  To  distinguish  the  true  from  the  false. 
 Questions  on  nature  and  art.§  Qualities  of  resemblance  and 
 distinction.  Compound  expressions,  as  "good  day,"  "besides," 
 6lc.  Witty  sayings.  Points  of  the  compass.  Lessons  on 
 weights  and  measures.  On  difTerent  metals.  Articles  of  fur- 
 niture in  common  use.  Different  daily  occupations.  The  four 
 ages  of  man.  Different  ranks  of  society.  Proverbs  and  phrases. 
 Riddles  and  charades.  Fables.  Honourable  and  dubious  ac- 
 tions.   Explanations  of  words. 
 
 Systems,  in  my  opinion  better  than  those  of  Lohr,  are  in  use 
 in  Germany,  but  this  enumeration  shows  what  in  general  these 
 exercises  are  in  the  Dutch  schools. 
 
 The  arrangements  for  teaching  reading,  according  to  Prin- 
 
 *  Kortc  handleiding  voor  hot  Ondervvijs  der  Jeugd,  &lc.,  door  Johann  Ludwig 
 Ewald,  gchcel  omgewerkt  en  met  aantcekcningen  vcrracerderd.  (Amsterdam, 
 182G,)     From  the  German,  with  revision  and  additions. 
 
 t  Pestalozzi's  Book  for  Mothers  is  referred  to.  I  liad  an  interesting  example 
 of  the  entire  want  of  previous  instruction  of  a  class  of  children  of  six  years  of 
 age,  who  had  just  entered  an  intermediate  school  at  Haarlem.  They  had  received 
 their  first  lesson  in  the  morning,  that  of  keeping  quiet,  and  in  the  afternoon,  the 
 teacher,  to  show  me  the  materials  upon  which  he  had  to  work,  gave  a  lesson  of 
 induction.  The  children  did  not  know  the  meaning  of  tiie  words  right  and  left. 
 The  front  of  the  head  from  the  back.  And  when  taught  to  know  the  right  hand 
 from  the  left,  could  not  tell  the  right  eye  from  the  left.  Reading  is  taught  in 
 from  nine  to  twelve  months,  to  .'^uch  pupils,  by  the  phonic  method  applicable  to 
 the  Dutch  language. 
 
 I  Lohr's  "Food  for  the  Understanding,"  translated  from  the  German,  is  Ihc 
 jiitmual  referred  to  by  the  teachers. 
 
 ^   Lohr's  work  is  used  as  a  guidu  to  many  of  the  exercises  which  lulluw. 
 
2iy  (iEN'ERAL   EDUCATION'.        PRIMARY    PERIOD. 
 
 sen,  arc  a  spelling  and  reading-board  to  be  presently  described, 
 reading-tables  or  progressive  lessons  printed  and  pasted  upon 
 boards,  and  a  series  of  reading-books,  beginning  with  the  simple 
 vowel  sounds  and  rising  to  stories  for  children  who  have  a  fa- 
 cility in  reading.  There  is  a  manual  also  for  the  teacher  to 
 guide  his  lessons.  The  reading-board*  consists  of  a  centre 
 piece  with  horizontal  grooves,  or  raised  ledges  forming  grooves 
 between  them,  into  which  small  wooden  prisms,  having  letters 
 marked,  or  printed  letters  pasted  upon  them,  may  be  placed. 
 The  vowels  are  arranged  in  compartments  r»n  one  side  of 
 the  centre-piece,  and  the  consonants  on  the  other.  The  letter- 
 prisms  have  the  same  letter  in  different  characters,  capitals 
 and  small  letters,  on  four  faces  of  the  prism.  This  reading 
 machine  admits  of  a  great  variety  of  exercises  in  the  mechani- 
 cal arrangements  concerned,  in  which  the  pupil  takes  part,  such 
 as  composing  simple  words  and  sentences,  and  forming  words 
 from  the  letters  composing  them,  which  have  been  purposely 
 disarranged.  The  reading-tables  of  progressive  lessons  are  for 
 the  purposes  of  varying  the  exercises,  of  employing  a  number 
 of  children  actively  at  the  same  time,  and  for  habituating  them 
 to  letters  of  the  ordinary  size.  They  are  nine  in  number,  be- 
 ginning with  single  vowels,  and  terminating  with  words  con- 
 taining several  compound  sounds.  All  the  combinations  of  let- 
 ters used  form  words,  as  in  Mr.  Wood's  plan,  and  the  teacher 
 is  careful  to  rc(|uirc  an  cxjilanation  of  every  word  as  it  occurs. 
 Prinsen's  Primer  enables  the  tcaclicr  to  exercise  the  intelligence 
 of  the  pupil,  and  to  give  a  pleasing  variety  to  his  instruction. 
 There  are  pictures  attached  to  each  loiter,  representing  some 
 object  or  action,  the  word  refeiring  to  which  contains  the  vowel 
 sound  to  be  taught.  The  teacher  draws  from  the  pupil  a  de- 
 scription of  the  object  or  action,  and  when  he  has  obtained  the 
 right  word,  makes  the  child  remark  the  sound  of  the  letters. 
 Of  course,  these  sounds  are  not  the  arbitrary  names  of  the  let- 
 
 •   Fi  inson,  in  his  book  on  the  methods  of  teaching  to  read,  "  Tc  liercn  Iczcn 
 allributci  the  invention  of  the  rcadin<r.board  to  DcUcbarrc. 
 
PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.  Vi  1  o 
 
 ters,  and  hence  this  method,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  spelhng 
 method,  is  called  "phonic"  (lautir).  The  reading-machine  and 
 primer  are  used  in  conjunction.  When  the  pupil  has  reached 
 the  "  first  reading-book,"  the  teacher  reads  aloud,  that  tlie  for- 
 mer, by  following,  may  receive  ideas  of  emphasis.  The  read- 
 ing-books contain  stories  entirely  adapted  to  the  comprehension 
 of  children,  giving  them  ideas  of  common  trades  and  opera- 
 rations,  of  moral  sentiments,  of  nature,  of  the  biographies  of 
 the  worthies  of  Holland,  familiar  letters,  &c.  They  contain 
 various  forms  of  printed  and  written  alphabets. 
 
 In  learning  to  write,  beginning  upon  the  slate  or  board,  one 
 of  the  pupils  composes  a  word  upon  the  reading-board  with 
 written  letters;  then  all  name  the  sounds,  and  copy  the  forms 
 upon  their  slates.  In  some  schools,  elementary  forms  are  first 
 taught,  and  the  letters  of  large  hand  next  written.  In  others, 
 small  hand  is  made  the  basis ;  and  in  the  school  for  the  poor  at  the 
 Hague,  the  teacher  has  ingeniously  sifted  out  the  elements  of  a 
 current  small  hand,  and  begins  with  them.  From  the  best 
 examination  I  could  give  these  methods,  it  appeared  to  me 
 that  the  hand  begun  by  small  letters  was  not  so  good  as  that 
 begun  by  large  ones. 
 
 A  specimen  of  the  method  of  teaching  geography  will  be 
 seen  by  following  the  outline  of  Prinsen's  Description  of  Haar- 
 lem, used  as  a  guide  to  the  teachers  of  that  place.  It  begins 
 with  the  elementary  notions  of  the  manner  of  representing  a 
 country  on  a  map,  the  points  of  the  compass,  &:c.  Then  fol- 
 lows the  position  of  the  town,  its  size  and  the  character  of  its 
 environs,  number  of  its  inhabitants,  most  remarkable  buildings, 
 the  divisions  of  the  town,  the  gates,  principal  canals  and  streams, 
 principal  streets,  and  particulars  relating  to  remarkable  build- 
 ings in  them,  and  minute  descriptions  of  the  more  important 
 places  in  the  several  wards,  from  the  first  to  the  sixth.  After 
 thus  becoming  acquainted  with  the  geography  of  tiie  town  and 
 its  environs,  that  of  Holland  follows.  In  some  schools,  the  old 
 method  is  still  in  use. 
 
 Arithmetic  is  chiefly  taught  according  to  Pestalozzi's  me- 
 
Ki\i  (.K.NKllAl,   KlAtAJIU.V.       liU.MAllV   I'EIUOD. 
 
 lliod,  ciiiiical  Mocks  l)oii)g  used  lur  numeration.  Those  have 
 been  sujierscdcd,  in  some  countries?,  by  the  arithmetical  frame 
 spoken  of  before,  which  answers  the  same  purpose  of  ad- 
 dressing the  eye,  while  its  use  is  more  convenient  than  that  of 
 the  cubes.  The  method  is  by  induction.  The  first  lesson 
 teaches  to  combine  three  units,  variously,  by  addition.  The 
 second,  to  reckon  these  forwards  or  backwards.  The  third,  to 
 name  them  from  the  middle.  Then  ideas  of  comparison,  as  of 
 greater  or  less  numbers,  up  to  three  units.  Of  dillerenccs,  of 
 how  many  times  unity  must  be  repeated  to  make  two  or  three, 
 or  elementary  ideas  of  subtraction,  of  multiplication,  and  of 
 division.  The  same  course  of  lessons  is  repeated,  increasing 
 the  number  of  cubes  (units)  up  to  ten.  Next  follows  ideas  of 
 even  and  uneven  numbers,  and  of  the  result  of  their  combina- 
 tions, reaching  as  high  as  fifteen.  Counting  by  units,  by  twos, 
 by  threes,  and  following  the  same  steps  as  in  the  earlier  lessons. 
 Counting  by  twos  and  threes,  by  ones  and  threes,  &c.  and  always 
 repeating  the  same  train.  A  similar  course  is  followed  in  reckon- 
 ing up  to  twenty,  adding  counting  by  fours,  by  threes  and  fours, 
 by  tw^os  and  fours,  by  ones  and  fours,  and  a  similar  series 
 by  fives.  This  course  is  kept  up  as  long  as  necessary,  and 
 from  the  insight  it  gives,  from  the  very  beginning,  into  the 
 theory  of  aritlimetic,  a  judicious  teacher  will  be  amply  repaid 
 for  the  somewhat  tedious  repetition  of  the  earlier  steps,  by  the 
 facility  of  the  later  progress.  The  various  exercises  in  arith- 
 metic are  fully  detailed  in  the  programme  of  the  Hague  school, 
 already  given.  The  elements  of  form  are  also  taught  accord- 
 ing to  Pestalozzi. 
 
 The  results  of  the  moral  and  religious  instruction  communi- 
 cated in  and  out  of  school,  are  fully  shown  in  the  character  of 
 the  people  of  Holland;  and  these  must  be  deemed  satisfactory. 
 Sectarian  instruction  is  carefully  kept  out  of  the  schools,  w  hile 
 the  historical  parts  of  the  Bible  and  its  moral  lessons  are  fully 
 dwtjlt  upon.  There  are  various  collections  of  Bible  stories  f<^r 
 this  purpose,  which  are  commented  on  by  the  teacher,  and  all 
 ijie  in<idi'iitnl  instruction,  so  iniportant  in  a  school,  has  the  same 
 
PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAXD.  215 
 
 tendency.  Doctrinal  instruction  is  given,  according  to  an  ar- 
 rangement made  with  the  churches  of  the  various  denomina- 
 tions when  the  school  law  was  promulgated;  this  instruction  is 
 imparted  out  of  the  school,  on  the  half-holidays  and  Sundays. 
 Sometimes,  when,  as  at  the  Hague,  the  pupils  nearly  all  belong 
 to  one  communion,  a  catechist  attends  at  the  school;  but  even 
 then,  only  those  children  wdiose  parents  wish  it  are  present  at 
 the  exercises. 
 
 Music  is  taught  by  note,  and  most  of  the  schools  have  a 
 black-board  with  the  ledger  lines  painted  in  white  or  red  upon 
 it,  to  assist  the  teacher.  The  songs  are  of  very  various  charac- 
 ters, as  moral,  religious,  patriotic,  grave,  gay,  and  loyal;  and 
 very  considerable  attainment  is  made  in  vocal  music. 
 
 I  return  now  to  the  school  of  the  Hague,  to  give  an  account 
 of  the  manner  in  w^hich  the  various  exercises  are  accomplished, 
 within  the  six  or  eight  years  devoted  to  elementary  instruction. 
 As  the  law  requires  but  three  classes  in  each  school,  these  are 
 sub-divided.  Each  division  is,  in  fact,  a  separate  class,  with  a 
 distinct  course  of  study,  and  an  industrious  pupil  can  pass 
 through  one  division  each  year.  The  number  of  hours  marked, 
 are  those  devoted  per  week  to  the  several  subjects. 
 
 FIRST,  OR  LOWEST  CLASS. 
 
 FIRST  DIVISION. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Exercises  of  thought  and  reason, 2 
 
 Prinscn's  Tables, fi 
 
 Vowels  and  consonants  from  the  Icttcr-box, 1 
 
 Composition  of  words  on  the  reading. board,            ...         -  3 
 
 General  exercises  with  the  letter-box, 1 
 
 Spelling  from  memory,  ......--1 
 
 Explanation  of  words  and  sentences, 2 
 
 Simultaneous  reading  from  books, 4 
 
 Individual  reading, 1 
 
 Reading  different  printed  characters, 1 
 
 Mental  arithmetic, 1 
 
 Exercises  in  aritlnnctic,         ........  2 
 
 Learning  Roman  and  Arabic  numerals,          ...        -         .  1 
 
 Sitting  quiet, 1 
 
 Exercises  of  thought  and  rcapon,  ronlinucd,  ....  2 
 
216 
 
 GENERAL   EDUCATION.       PRIMARY    PERIOD. 
 
 SECOND  DIVISION. 
 
 Vowels  and  consonants  from  the  letter-box,  continued, 
 Spcllin;^  from  memory,  continued,  ... 
 
 Explanations  of  words  and  sentences,  continued,    - 
 Simultaneous  reading  from  books,  continued 
 Composition  of  sentences  on  the  reading-board, 
 Reading  written  cliaractcrp,  .... 
 
 Writing  on  tlie  black-board,  .  .         .         . 
 
 Arithmetic  by  induction,  continued, 
 Mental  arithmetic,  continued,         .... 
 Writing  and  reading  numbers,       .... 
 
 Reading  Roman  numerals, 
 
 Elements  of  form, 
 
 Sitting  quiet, 
 
 Hours. 
 1 
 3 
 3 
 
 THIRD  DIVISION. 
 
 Exercises  of  tliought  and  reason,  continued, 
 
 Spelling  from  memory,  continued,  .... 
 
 Explanation  of  words  and  sentences,  continued. 
 
 Simultaneous  reading  from  books,  continued. 
 
 Composition  of  sentences  on  the  reading-board,  continued. 
 
 Writing  on  the  black-board,  continued, 
 
 Reading  written  characters,  continued,  ... 
 
 Grammar,  the  conjugations, 
 
 Writing  on  slates,  ....... 
 
 Writing  out  verses  to  learn  by  rote,        .         -         -         - 
 
 Linear  drawing, 
 
 Arithmetic  by  induction,  continued,       .... 
 Mental  arithmetic,  continued,         ..... 
 Practical  arithmetic,      -.-..-. 
 Writing  and  reading  numbers,  continued, 
 Reading  Roman  numerals,  continued,    .         -         -         . 
 
 Elements  of  form,  continued, 
 
 Tables  of  coins, 
 
 Catechism, 
 
 SECOND  CLASS. 
 
 FIRST  DIVISION. 
 
 Exorcises  of  thought  and  reason,  continued,  • 
 
 Analysis  of  sentences, 
 
 Explanation  of  words  and  sentences,  continued. 
 Composition  of  sentences,  continued. 
 Simultaneous  reading,  continued. 
 
A  PRIMARY  SCHOOL   AT  THE  HAGUE. 
 
 217 
 
 Hours. 
 1 
 1 
 
 Correct  reading-, 
 
 Parsing-, 
 
 Writing  on  slates, •         .  -^ 
 
 Writing  small  hand  on  paper, 5 
 
 Mental  arithmetic,  continued, j 
 
 Practical  arithmetic,  continued, 2 
 
 Tables  of  coins,  continued, I 
 
 Elements  of  form,  continued, i 
 
 Linear  drawing-,  continued, t 
 
 Moral  and  religious  instruction,  continued, 1 
 
 Singing, j 
 
 SECOND  DIVISION. 
 
 Exercises  of  thought  and  reason,  continued,  - 
 Simultaneous  reading  from  books,  continued, 
 Correct  reading,  continued. 
 Composition  of  sentences,  continued,      . 
 Writing  on  the  slate,  continued, 
 
 Writing  on  paper,  continued, 4 
 
 Writing  capital  letters, 1 
 
 Linear  drawing,  continued, j 
 
 History  of  Holland, 
 Geography  of  Holland, 
 Arithmetic  by  induction,  continued. 
 Mental  arithmetic,  continued. 
 
 Practical  arithmetic,  continued, 3 
 
 Rules  of  arithmetic, 
 
 Decimal  fractions, 
 
 Elements  of  form,  continued,  ---,.. 
 Moral  and  religious  instruction,  continued,  .... 
 Vocal  music,  continued, 
 
 THIRD  CLASS. 
 
 Exercises  of  thought  and  reason,  continued,  - 
 Simultaneous  reading,  continued. 
 Correct  reading  of  prose  and  poetry. 
 Writing  from  dictation  for  orthography, 
 Grammar,  continued,    - 
 History  of  Holland,  continued, 
 Chronology  of  Holland, 
 Geography  of  Holland, 
 Writing  of  small  liand  from  copy -slips, 
 Writing  capital  letters  and  figures, 
 Writing  on  black-board, 
 28 
 
218  GEXERAL  EDUCATIO.V.       ELEMENTARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Iluurs. 
 
 Mental  uritlimctic,  continued, 1 
 
 Practical     ditto,         ditto,  4 
 
 Rules  of     ditto,         ditto,  3 
 
 System  of  weights  and  measures, 1 
 
 Theory  of  numbers, 1 
 
 Moral  and  religious  instruction,  continued, 1 
 
 Catechism,  continued, 1 
 
 Vocal  music,  contiimed,         ........  \ 
 
 The  half-yearly  examination  of  the  pupils,  at  which  I  was 
 present,  enabled  me  to  hear  their  progress  in  arithmetic  with 
 the  cubes,  in  reading  and  spelling,  in  forming  words  and  sen- 
 tences, in  numerating  written  numbers,  making  Roman  nume- 
 rals, in  higher  reading,  in  the  elements  of  form,  in  higher  arith- 
 metic, in  mental  arithmetic,  in  the  geography  of  Holland,  and 
 in  vocal  music.  Their  attainments  in  these  branches  were,  in 
 general,  quite  respectable,  and  in  some  of  them  very  satisfac- 
 tory indeed. 
 
 The  system  of  weights  and  measures  is  taught  in  the  schools 
 of  Holland,  not  only  by  learning  tables,  but  by  reference  to  the 
 standards  themselves,  a  complete  set  of  copies  of  which  is  ex- 
 ])ected  to  be  preserved  in  every  school.  The  advantages  of 
 this  method  are  very  great. 
 
 The  branches  taught  in  the  schools  for  the  poor  arc  carried 
 further  in  the  burgher  schools.  Thus  the  course  of  grammar 
 is  extended,  and  general  history  and  geography  are  added. 
 Tiic  essentials  are,  how^ever,  the  same,  and  there  is  no  new 
 train  of  study. 
 
 The  instruction  in  the,  so  called,  French  schools,  may  be 
 illustrated  by  that  in  the  one  established  by  the  school-com- 
 mittee of  Utrecht.  This  school  consists  of  three  divisions:  two 
 for  boys  and  one  for  girls.  Of  those  for  boys,  the  first  is  a 
 Dutch  elementary  school,  which  takes  its  pupils  at  about  five 
 years  of  age,  and  carries  them  through  a  course  very  similar 
 to  that  already  described.*     At  from  ten  to  eleven  they  pass 
 
 •  1  was  murli  pleaded  lo  sec  the  iiulhod  oftcarhing  geography  by  delineating 
 maps  on  the  blark-board  in  use  in  this  school.  The  master  himself  must  br 
 practiced  in  the  ar(,  in  order  that  thr  |>upils  mny  learn  by  imitation. 
 
PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF  HOLLAND.  219 
 
 to  the  French  school.  Here  they  make  further  attainments 
 m  the  Dutch  language,  study  general  geograj.hy  and  history 
 m  detail,  carry  their  arithmetic  further,  and  begin  algebra, 
 continue  the  course  of  geometry,  make  greater  ^progress  in 
 the  theory  and  practice  of  music,  and,  above  all,  sttidy  the 
 French  language  grammatically,  and,  by  using  it  as  the  lan- 
 guage of  recitation,  and  learning  much  of  the  other  branches 
 through  its  medium,  acquire  a  great  facihty  in  speaking  it.  In 
 some  of  these  schools  physics  and  natural  history  are°  taught, 
 and  Latin  is  begun  by  those  who  intend  to  enter  the  Grammar 
 School.* 
 
 *  As,  for  example,  in  an  admirable  private  school  by  Mr.  Tip,  at  Utrecht 
 The  school  of  the  committee  just  referred  to  is  also  called  private,  not  beinJ 
 supported  by  the  public  funds,  but  its  plan  is  prescribed  by  the  committee. 
 
*22()  t.KVERAL  KDUCATIO.V.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER  V. 
 
 SYSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  AND  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA. 
 
 Of  the  primary  scliools  in  tlic  difTercnt  states  of  Germany 
 which  I  visited,  those  of  Prussia,  and  of  the  smaller  states  in  its 
 immediate  neighbourhood,  struck  me  most  favourably.  After 
 giving  a  sketch  of  the  system  of  public  instruction  in  Prussia, 
 I  shall  proceed  to  an  account  of  certain  of  its  primary  schools; 
 then  notice  some  of  the  primary  schools  of  Saxony,  pre- 
 facing the  account  by  a  few  words  on  its  system  of  public 
 instruction;  next  describe  the  model  primary  school  of  the 
 town  of  Frankfort  on  Maine;  and,  finally,  conclude  the  sub- 
 ject of  the  primary  period  by  an  account  of  the  school  method 
 of  Graser  of  Bayrenth,  in  Bavaria.  The  organization  of  pri- 
 mary instruction  in  general,  in  Bavaria,  is  not  such  as  to  de- 
 mand a  special  notice. 
 
 It  is  a  very  general  impression,  that  the  present  primary 
 school  system  of  Prussia  is  of  comparatively  recent  date,  or 
 that  it  has  been,  within  twenty  years,  recast  and  moulded  into 
 its  present  furin.*      The  fact  however  is,  that  it  is  a  system 
 
 »  This  impression  is  derived,  as  well  as  I  can  trace  it,  from  the  Report  on  the 
 State  of  Public  Instruction  in  Prussia,  &.C.,  by  M.  Victor  Cousin.  M.  Cousin 
 quotes  larjrely  from,  and  comments  upon,  "the  legislative  project  of  1819,  which 
 Jias  the  force  of  law,  and  regulates  the  present  order  of  things  throughout  llic 
 country."  (American  edition  of  Rei>ort,  «&c.,  p.  25.)  IIo  speaks  so  often  of  "the 
 law  of  1819,"  that  it  never  occurred  to  me  to  doubt  that  there  was  such  a  law, 
 until  I  came  to  consult  authorities,  namely,  the  authorized  collection  of  laws  on 
 primary  instruction,  by  Dr.  Neigebaur,  (Sammlung  der  auf  den  Oflcntlichcn 
 Untcrricht  in  den  Konigl.  Prcuss  Staaten  sich  bcziehcnden  Verordnungen,  &c., 
 182G.)  (Das  Volks-Schulwe-en  in  den  Preussischen  Staaten,  1831),  and  the  An- 
 nual of  Common  School  Instruction,  by  Dr.  PeckedorlT.  (Jahrbiicher  des  Preus- 
 sischen V^olks-SchuKvosens.)  In  neither  of  them  is  a  general  law  on  public  in- 
 struction of  the  dato  of  1819,  or  notice  of  such  a  law,  to  Ix^  found,  and  some  of 
 the  prf)vision8  enumerated  by  M.  Cousin  arc  not  contained  in  any  of  the  decrees 
 
SYSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  irfSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA.  221 
 
 composed  of  fragments  of  very  dilforcnt  dates,  beginning  in 
 the  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  before  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  ex- 
 isted, and  variously  modified  from  that  time  to  the  present.  It 
 is  one  of  the  peculiar  merits  of  the  system,  that  its  provisions 
 have,  for  the  most  part,  been  tried  on  a  small  scale  before  they 
 have  been  applied  to  the  whole  country,  and  that  when  a  pro- 
 vision has,  on  trial,  proved  ill  devised,  it  has  been  promptly  mo- 
 dified or  annulled.  Prussia  seems,  for  a  series  of  years,  to  have 
 possessed  patriotic  and  enlightened  citizens,  who  have  devoted 
 themselves  to  the  cause  of  public  instruction,  and  monarchs 
 who  have  duly  estimated  and  encouraged  their  exertions  in 
 this  cause. 
 
 I  propose  to  sketch  some  of  the  earlier  measures,  in  regard 
 to  primary  instruction,  in  chronological  order,  to  establish  the 
 point  as  to  the  early  date  of  many  important  regulations  now 
 in  operation;  then  to  give  a  short  account  of  the  most  im- 
 portant provisions  of  existing  laws,  attaching  to  each  the  date 
 at  which  it  appears  in  the  statute-book,  so  that  the  chronologi- 
 cal order  may  still  be  ascertained. 
 
 As  early  as  the  reign  of  the  Elector  Joachim  the  Second 
 (1540),  visiters  were  appointed  to  inspect  the  town  schools  of  the 
 
 actually  given,  while  many  are  in  decrees  antecedent,  and  others  in  decrees 
 subsequent  to  1819.  These  and  other  German  authorities  are,  besides,  directly 
 opposed  to  the  existence  of  such  a  law.  Ncigebaur,  in  the  preface  of  his  work 
 published  in  1834,  expressly  says  that  no  general  law  exists.  "The  progress 
 of  the  important  department  of  public  instruction  has  hitherto  rendered  it  im- 
 possible to  make  a  general  law  in  relation  to  public  instruction  in  Prussia.  All 
 the  important  measures,  up  to  this  time,  are  contained  in  separate  ordinances, 
 which,  as  the  older  collections  have  become  obsolete  by  this  progress,  must  be 
 compiled  anew  for  the  use  of  teachers  and  ofRcers."  Mr.  Thiersch,  of  Munich, 
 in  his  work  on  the  present  condition  of  public  instruction  in  certain  states  of 
 Germany,  (Uber  den  gcgcnwartigen  Zustand  des  6tfentliclien  Untcrrichts  in  den 
 wcstlichen  Staaten  von  Deutschland,  &c.,  von  Fricdrich  Thierscli,  1833,)  says, 
 in  speaking  of  Prussia,  "  In  a  decree  in  relation  to  public  instruction  in  1817,  a 
 general  school  system  had  been  promised,"  *  *  •  *  "  but  this  royal  pro- 
 mise has  remained  unfulfilled  for  eighteen  years." 
 
 Tlic  numerous  writers  out  of  Germany,  who  speak  on  this  subject,  have  evi- 
 dently drawn  their  conclusions  tliat  the  law  of  1819  is  in  existence,  from  M.  Cou- 
 sin's authority,  and  hence  cannot  be  consitlercd  as  giving  independent  testimony 
 on  the  matter. 
 
222  GENERAL  EDUCATIOy.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Electorate,  with  express  directions  to  report  in  relation  to  the 
 measures  deemed  necessary  for  their  improvement.*  In  1545 
 the  same  elector  appointed  a  permanent  council,  or  board,  on 
 church  and  school  matters.  In  a  decree  of  some  length  by  the 
 elector  John  George  (1573),  special  sections  are  devoted  to  the 
 schools,  to  teachers  and  their  assistants,  and  to  pupils.  It  is 
 remarkable  as  containinoj  a  provision  for  committees  of  super- 
 intendence, consisting  of  the  parish  clergyman,  the  magistrates, 
 and  two  notables,  exactly  similar  in  constitution  to  the  present 
 school-committees.  It  provides  also  for  Sunday  catechetical 
 instruction  of  children. 
 
 In  1717  a  decree  of  Frederick  William  the  First,  King  of 
 Prussia,  enjoins  upon  parents  to  send  their  children  to  school, 
 provides  for  the  payment  of  teachers,  for  the  education  of  poor 
 children,  and  for  catechetical  instruction  by  the  parochial  clergy- 
 men.f  In  1735  the  first  regular  seminary  for  teachers  in 
 Prussia  was  established  at  Stettin,  in  Pomerania.J  To  induce 
 a  better  attendance  at  school,  a  decree  of  173G  requires  that 
 the  parent  of  every  child  between  five  and  twelve  years  of 
 age  shall  pay  a  certain  fee,  whether  his  child  goes  to  school 
 or  not ;  this  rule  being,  as  it  were,  preliminary  to  the  present 
 one  of  forced  attendance.^  The  same  decree  refers  to  school- 
 houses  erected  by  associated  parishes,  showing  that  such  asso- 
 ciations existed  previously  to  the  decree  for  providing  public 
 schools;  similar  associations  may  even  now  exist,  but  they  are 
 not  numerous,  forming  exceptions  to  the  general  rule,  requiring 
 each  j)nrish  to  have  its  public  school.  The  decree  provides 
 further  for  the  amount  of  fees  to  be  paid  to  the  teacher  by  the 
 ))nj)ils,  the  chunh,  or  i\\c  state,  and   for  aid   to  peasants  who 
 
 *  Bcckcdorir  JulirbUclicr  ties  Prcussisclieu  Volks-Scliulwcscns.  Zwcitcr 
 Uuml.  Erst.  IIcll.  liLckcdorlT'H  Annual  of  Coniinon  Schools  in  Prussia,  vol.  ii.. 
 No.  1,  pp.  18,  19,  &c.  t  ll)i(l.,  p.  30. 
 
 I  Ibid.,  p.  3'2.  Dr.  KrOgcr,  of  lluniburgli,  says,  in  rcj)ly  to  my  inquiries  on  this 
 Hubjcct,  that  ini[)crrc'cl  cslablislnnents  existed  as  early  as  IGSO  in  Gotha,  We:^el, 
 and  Brunswick,  and  as  early  us  1701  at  IvOnij^sber<r. 
 
 {)  Das  Volk  ScbulwcRcn  in  den  Treuss.  Staatcn,  &.C.,  von  l)r.  .Toh;inn  IVidi 
 nand  Neifjcbaur,  ly.'Jl.  Ntigebaur's  C'ulkotion  ol'  Decrees,  \.r..  lelaliiij:  u, 
 C'onnnon  Seliouls,  Sec,  \blil,  p.  1. 
 
SYSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  IlVSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA.  223 
 
 have  more  than  two  children  above  five  years  of  age,  by  the 
 payment  of  the  fees  of  all  over  this  number  from  a  school 
 fund.*  A  rescript  of  1738  constitutes  the  clergy  the  inspectors 
 of  schools-l 
 
 An  attempt  to  provide  more  precisely,  by  law,  for  the  regu- 
 lation of  the  schools  in  Berlin,  was  made  by  a  decree  of  1738. 
 This  decree  requires  that  teachers  shall  be  regularly  examined 
 by  the  inspectors  of  schools,  before  being  allowed  to  teach, 
 and  prescribes  their  acquirements  in  detail.  It  directs  the  open- 
 ing and  closing  of  the  schools  with  prayers;  fixes  the  hours  of 
 daily  attendance  at  from  eight  to  eleven  or  seven  to  ten  in  the 
 morning,  and  one  to  three  in  the  afternoon;  prescribes  instruc- 
 tion in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  singing,  and 
 regulates  the  emoluments  and  perquisites  of  the  master.J 
 
 A  new  impulse  was  given  to  public  instruction  under  the 
 reign  of  Frederick  the  Great.  The  regulations  drawn  up  by 
 Hecker,§  and  approved  by  the  king  (1763),  are  very  precise, 
 and  though  they  have  been  in  part  superseded  by  later  decrees, 
 many  of  their  provisions  are  still  in  force.  They  provide  for  the 
 selection  of  school-books  by  the  consistory;  that  children  shall  be 
 sent  to  school  at  five  years  of  age,  and  be  kept  there  until  thir- 
 teen or  fourteen,  or  until  they  have  made  satisfactory  attain- 
 ments in  reading  and  writing,  in  the  knowledge  of  Christian 
 doctrine,  and  of  such  matters  as  are  to  be  found  in  their  text- 
 books ;  fix  the  school  hours,  requiring  six  hours  a-day  of  instruction 
 in  winter,  and  three  in  summer,  and  one  hour  of  catechetical 
 instruction,  besides  the  Sunday  teaching;  require  that  all  unmar- 
 ried persons  of  the  parish  shall  attend  the  hour  of  instruction  in 
 the  catechism,  and  besides,  receive  lessons  in  reading  and  writing 
 from  the  Bible.  The  regulations  provide  anew  for  the  school- 
 masters' fees,  and  for  the  instruction  of  poor  children;  require 
 that  the  school-master  shall  be  furnished  from  the  church  regis- 
 ter with  a  list  of  all  the  children  of  the  age  to  attend  school, 
 
 *  Das  Volk  Schulwcscn  in  den  Preuss.  Staatcn,  &c.,  von  Dr.  Johann  Ferdi- 
 nand Ncigcbaur,  1834.  Ncigcbaur's  Collcclio)i  of  Decrees,  &c.,  relating  to  Gonv 
 mon  Schools,  &c.,  1834,  p.  1,  Sec.  +  Ibid.  p.  3. 
 
 t  BeckcdorfF's  Ajuiual,  vol.  ii„  p,  33  ^  Ibid.,  p.  33, 
 
224  GEN'ERAL  EDUCATION".       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 and  that  he  shall  prepare  a  list  of  those  who  are  actually  in 
 attendance,  and  submit  both  to  the  clergyman,  in  his  periodical 
 visits;  direct  anew  the  examination  of  candidates  for  the  situa- 
 tion of  school-master,  and  refer  particularly  to  the  advantages  of 
 the  seminary  opened  at  Berlin  for  preparing  teachers  for  the  Mark 
 of  Brandenburg;  lay  down  minutely  the  scheme  of  elementary 
 instruction,  and  actually  specify  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  the 
 diflcrent  branches  with  each  of  the  two  classes  composing  the 
 school;*  require  the  parochial  clergy  to  visit  the  schools  twice  a 
 week,  and  inspectors  of  circles  to  perform  the  same  service  at 
 least  once  a  year. 
 
 The  decree  of  Frederick  regulating  the  Catholic  schools  of 
 Silesia  (17G5),  is  even  more  particular  than  the  foregoing.  It 
 shows  the  setdcd  policy  in  regard  to  educating  teachers  in 
 special  seminaries,  now  so  important  a  part  of  the  Prussian  sys- 
 tem, by  setting  apart  certain  schools  by  name  for  this  purpose, 
 requiring  the  appointment  of  a  director  to  each,  and  assigning 
 his  duties.f 
 
 In  1787  Frederick  William  the  Second  created  a  council  of 
 instruction,  under  the  title  of  an  "Upper  School  Board,"  (Ober 
 Schul-Collegium,)  of  which  the  minister  of  state  was  president. 
 This  council  was  directed  to  examine  text-books,  and  to  pass  trpon 
 the  licenses  of  masters,  on  the  reports  of  the  provincial  school 
 boards.  They  were  authorized  to  erect  seminaries  for  teachers  at 
 the  government  expense,  and  to  frame  their  regulations;  to  send 
 out  an  inspector  from  their  body  to  examine  any  part  of  public 
 instruction,  and  to  rectify  all  wrongs  by  a  direct  order,  or  through 
 the  school  boards  of  the  ^provinces,  the  school-committees,  or 
 patrons.J  This  organization  remained  substantially  in  force 
 until  the  separation  of  the  departments  of  state  and  instruction 
 in  1817,  with  the  creation  of  a  ministry  of  public  instruction. 
 
 *  Neigcbaurof  1834,  p.  5,  &c. 
 
 t  Ibid.  p.  18.  This  decree  contains  the  remarkable  pcntcncc,  "  The  pcntry,  as 
 well  a3  the  common  people,  must  not  consider  or  treat  the  teacher  as  a  scrvtint, 
 but  as  an  officer,  vhosc  duty  it  is  to  form  good  tenants  for  laudloids,  and  cliil 
 drcn  for  parents." 
 
 t  Bcckcdorff'rt  Annual,  vol.  ii.,  p.  45 
 
SYSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIO.V   IN   fRUSSfA.  225 
 
 The  attributes  of  this  upper  school  board,  it  will  be  seen,  now 
 belong  to  that  council. 
 
 The  school  plan  of  1765  was  modified  by  an  ordinance  of 
 1794,  which  introduces  geography  and  natural  history  in  the 
 elementary  schools,  and  refers  to  vocal  music  as  one  of  their 
 most  important  exercises;  it  also  attempts,  by  minute  prescrip- 
 tions, to  introduce  uniformity  in  the  methods  of  instruction  and 
 discipline.*  The  regulation  for  the  catholic  schools  of  Silesia  was 
 also  revised  in  ISOl.f 
 
 Having  now  brought  this  chronological  account  to  the  be- 
 ginning of  our  century,  and  shown  that  many  provisions  of 
 weight  originated  previous  to  this  period,  I  proceed,  according 
 to  the  purpose  already  explained,  to  leave  the  chronological 
 order,  and  to  give  a  view  of  the  more  important  regulations  now 
 in  force,  appending  to  them  the  date  of  their  enactment.  These 
 dates,  with  the  foregoing,  show,  that  while  the  separation  of  the 
 ministry  of  public  instruction  from  that  of  the  state,  in  1817, 
 no  doubt  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  present  system,  and  was 
 an  important  change  in  administration,  it  w^as  by  no  means 
 the  beginning  of  a  new  system.  This  division,  in  fact,  resulted 
 from  the  effects  of  the  earlier  provisions  of  the  system  itself, 
 and  especially  of  the  seminaries  for  teachers.  As  early  as  1806, 
 a  measure  of  great  consequence  was  adopted,  that  of  sending 
 teachers  to  the  school  of  Pestalozzi  and  others ;  many,  also, 
 went  at  their  own  expense;  and  thus  improved  methods  were 
 distributed  over  the  kingdom  and  over  Germany  in  general.J 
 
 The  authorities  which  administer  public  instruction  in  Prussia 
 are  the  following:  The  chief  authority  is  the  minister,  who  joins 
 to  this  supervision  that  of  ecclesiastical  and  medical  affairs.^ 
 
 »  Neigebaur  of  1834,  p.  71,  &c..  No.  29.  +  Ibid.,  No.  8,  p.  41,  &c. 
 
 X  Dr.  KrOger  gives  me  tlic  names  of  several  men  now  high  in  the  duties  of 
 public  instruction,  (Kawerau,  Hoffman,  Hiensch,  Kunzc,  Plomann,)  which  fully 
 bear  out  my  assertion.  Letter  of  22d  May,  1838.  Dr.  K.  was  also  one  of 
 tliesc  teachers. 
 
 ^  Cabinet  order  of  November  3,  ISIT.  Frcdeiick  William  the  Third.  (Neige- 
 baur, 1834,  p.  186,  &c.)  The  duties  of  the  section  of  public  instruction  and  re- 
 ligious aftairs  of  the  statp  rmmril  were  already  defined  in  1810.  (Neigebaur^ 
 p.  1 77,  &c.) 
 
 •20 
 
226  GENERAL   EDUCATION.        I'KIMARY    I'EKIUD. 
 
 He  is  assisted  by  a  council  consisting  of  a  variable  number  of 
 members,  and  divided  into  three  sections  corresponding  to  the 
 three  charges  of  the  minister.  The  section  for  public  instruc- 
 tion has  its  president  and  secretary,  and  meets  usually  twice  a 
 week  for  the  transaction  of  business.  One  of  this  body  is  gene- 
 rally deputed  as  extraordinary  inspector  in  cases  requiring  ex- 
 amination, and  reports  to  the  minister.*  The  kingdom  of  Prussia 
 is  divided  into  ten  provinces,  each  of  which  has  its  governor, 
 styled  Superior  President,  (Ober-President,)  who  is  assisted  by 
 a  council  called  a  Consistory,  (Consistorium.)t  This  council 
 has  functions  in  the  province  similar  to  those  of  the  ministerial 
 council  in  the  kingdom  at  large,  and  has  direct  control  of  se- 
 condary public  instruction,  and  of  the  schools  for  the  education 
 of  primary  teachers.J  It  is  subdivided  into  two  sections,  of 
 which  one  has  charge  of  the  primary  instruction  in  the  pro- 
 vince,§  under  the  title  of  the  School  Board,  (Provincial  Schul- 
 Collegium.)  The  school  board,  in  addition  to  exercising  the 
 general  supervision  of  education  in  the  province,  examines  the 
 statutes  and  regulations  of  the  schools,  insures  the  execution  of 
 existing  laws  and  regulations,  examines  text  books,  and  gives 
 permission  for  their  introduction  after  having  obtained  the  ap- 
 probation of  the  ministry.  This  Board  communicates  with  the 
 higher  authorities  through  their  president,  to  whom  the  reports 
 from  the  next  lower  authority,  to  be  presently  spoken  of,  are 
 addressed,  and  by  whom,  when  these  relate  to  school  matters, 
 they  are  referred  to  the  Board  for  examination.|| 
 
 The  next  smaller  political  division  to  a  province  is  called  a 
 Regency,  (Regierungs-Bezirk,)  which  is  again  subdivided  into 
 Circles,  (Kreiscn,)  and  those  into  Parishes,  (Gemeinden.)  The 
 chief  civil  authority  in  tlie  regency  is  a  president,  who  is  assisted 
 by  a  council  called  also  a  regency. 
 
 This  body  is  divided  into  three  sections,  having  charge  re- 
 spectively of  the  internal  alTairs,  of  direct  taxes,  and  of  church 
 
 *  BcckcdortFs  Annual,  vol.  ii.,  p.  86.  t  Ncigcbaur,  1834,  p.  ITP. 
 
 t  Ncijrebaur  of  1^31.     Instructions  for  rrovincial  School  Boards,  October  23, 
 1817,  p.  I7f).     Cousin,  Public  Instruction  in  Prussia,  p.  20,  American  edition. 
 ^  Neigebaur  of  1834,  p.  188-9.  11  Ibid.,  p.  17n,\c. 
 
SYSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA.  227 
 
 and  school  matters.*  The  last  named  committee  examines 
 and  appoints  all  the  teachers  of  elementary  and  burgher  schools 
 within  the  regency,  superintends  the  schools,  ascertains  that 
 the  school-houses  and  churches  are  duly  kept  in  order,  ad- 
 ministers the  funds  of  schools  and  churches,  or  superintends 
 the  administration  when  vested  in  corporations,  and  collects 
 the  church  and  school  fees.f  This  committee  is  presided  over 
 by  a  member  of  the  regency  called  a  School-councillor,  (Schul- 
 rath.)  As  councillor,  he  has  a  seat  and  voice  in  the  provincial 
 consistory,  where  he  is  required  to  appear  at  least  once  a  year, 
 and  to  report  upon  their  affairs  in  his  regency,  of  which  the 
 provincial  consistory  has  the  superintendence.!.  It  is  also  his 
 duty  to  visit  the  schools,  and  to  satisfy  himself  that  they  are  in 
 good  condition. 
 
 The  next  school  authority  is  the  ins}>ector  of  a  circle,  who 
 has  charge  of  several  parishes.^  These  inspectors  are  gene- 
 rally clergymen,  while  the  school-councillors  are  laymen.  Next 
 below  the  special  superintendents  is  the  immediate  authority, 
 namely,  the  school-committee,  (Schul-Vorstand.)  Each  parish 
 (Gemeinde)  must,  by  law,  have  its  school,  except  in  special 
 cases,||  and  each  school  its  committee  of  superintendence,  (Schul- 
 Vorstand,)  consisting  of  the  curate,  the  local  magistrate,  and 
 from  two  to  four  notables;  the  constitution  of  the  committee 
 varying  somewhat  with  the  character  of  the  school,  whether 
 endow^ed,  entirely  supported  by  the  parish,  in  part  by  the  pro- 
 vince or  state,  or  by  subscription.  The  committee  appoints  a 
 school-inspector,  who  is  usually  the  clergyman  of  the  parish.! 
 In  cities,  the  magistrates  form  the  school-committee  or  school- 
 deputation,  as  it  is  there  called,  the  curates  still  acting  as  local 
 inspectors. 
 
 *  Neigebaur  of  1834,  Instructions  of  31st  December,  1825,  p.  189. 
 t  Ibid.,  Instruction  for  the  Regencies,  October,  1817,  p.  183,  (fee. 
 t  Ibid.,  Ordinance  of  1815,  p,  179. 
 
 ^  School  Regulations,  Neigebaur  of  1834,  p.  5,  Sec,  No,  G. 
 II  Neigebaur  of  1826.    Order,  «Jcc.,  June,  1820,  p.  181,  a5id  ]>ievioas  decrrrs,  ;ill 
 pointing  to  the  same  result. 
 
 H    Nrigrbaur  of  1831.     Cabiiirt  Order  of  1.^12,  p.  19.^. 
 
228  GENERAL   EDUt  ATION.        I'RIMARV    TKRlOU. 
 
 Thus  there  is  a  regular  series  of  authorities,  from  the  master 
 of  the  school  up  to  the  minister,  and  every  jiart  of  primary  in- 
 struction is  entirely  within  the  control  of  an  impulse  froin  the 
 central  government,  and  takes  its  direction  according  to  the 
 will  of  the  highest  authorities.  With  such  a  system,  under  a 
 despotic  goverimient,  it  is  obvious  that  the  provisions  of  any 
 law  may  be  successfully  enforced. 
 
 The  cardinal  provisions  of  the  school  system  of  Prussia  are: 
 
 First.  That  all  children  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  four- 
 teen years  shall  go  regularly  to  school.*  This  is  enforced  by 
 the  school-committees,  who  are  furnished  with  lists  of  the  chil- 
 dren w^ho  should  attend,  and  of  those  actually  in  the  schools 
 under  their  charge,  and  who  are  required  to  enforce  the  penal- 
 lies  of  the  law. 
 
 Second.  That  each  parish  shall,  in  general,  have  an  elemen- 
 tary school.  When  the  inhabitants  are  of  ditlerent  religious 
 persuasions,!  each  denomination  has  its  school,  and  if  not,  pro- 
 vision is  made  for  tlic  religious  instruction  of  the  children  by 
 
 •  Royal  Prussian  General  Regulations  for  the  Scliools  of  the  Country.  (Neige- 
 baur  of  1826,  p.  12G.)  Five  years  is  named  as  the  period  for  beginning  school,  but 
 seven  is  that  when  tlie  police  regulations  render  the  attendance  obligatory.  See 
 also  Neigebaur  of  1834.  Cabinet  Order  of  1825,  p.  64.  M.  Cousin  calculates 
 the  number  of  children  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  in  Prussia,  in 
 1831,  at  2,043,030,  and  shows,  from  the  returns  of  the  number  of  pupils  in  tlie 
 different  primary  schools,  that  2,021,421  were  in  actual  attendance,  leaving  but 
 21,609  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  children  educated  in  private  scliools,  at  home, 
 and  in  the  lower  classes  of  the  gymnasia.  The  latter,  in  1832,  amounted  to 
 17,935.  (Cousin's  Report,  Amer.  Edit.  p.  311).  Nearly  onc-sixtli  of  the  entire 
 population  of  the  kingdom  would  thus  apjjcar  to  be  in  the  schools.  Tlic  ratio, 
 however,  varies  exceedingly  in  dilferent  parts  of  the  kingdom;  in  the  provinces  of 
 Saxony,  Silesia,  and  Brandenburg,  the  proportion  was,  in  1831,  higher  than  one- 
 sixth,  while,  in  the  Rhenish  provinces,  it  was  one-seventh,  and  in  Posen,  as  low 
 as  one-elcventh.  (KrOgcr's  Appendix  to  his  Transl.  of  Cousin,  p.  213.)  The 
 number  is  swelled  to  that  stated  above,  the  sixth  of  tiie  entire  population,  by  the 
 introduction  into  the  account  of  children  under  seven  years  of  age:  the  pupils  of 
 the  infant-schools,  the  work-schools,  orphan  asylums,  &.c.,  being  included  under 
 the  head  of  those  who  are  in  the  elementary  schools. 
 
 t  Tiii.s  is  easy  of  accoiiiplishnunt,  as  since  the  union  of  the  LutheraiiB  and 
 Calvinists  to  form  the  Eviiiifjelirjil  churcli.  thcrr  arc  hut  two  divisions  Protcst- 
 antP  nnd  RnniHii  Catliolirs 
 
SYSTEM  OF  I'RIMARV  1\  ST  RUCTION   IN   PRUSSIA.  229 
 
 tlieir  own  pastors.  The  erection  of  the  school-house,  its  furni- 
 ture, the  income  of  the  master,  and  aid  to  poor  scholars,  are  all 
 provided  for.  The  re(|uisite  sum  comes,  in  part,  from  parochial 
 funds,  and  in  part  from  a  tax  upon  house-holders.  When  the 
 parish  is  poor,  it  is  assisted  by  the  circle,  by  the  province,  and 
 even  by  the  state.  Besides  these  elementary  schools,  most  of 
 the  towns  in  Prussia  have  one  or  more  upper  primary  or  burgher 
 schools.* 
 
 Third.  The  education  of  teachers  in  seminaries,f  adapted 
 to  the  grade  of  instruction  to  which  they  intend  devoting  them- 
 selves. Their  exemption  during  their  term  of  study  from  active 
 military  service  required  of  other  citizens.  A  provision  for 
 their  support  during  their  term  of  study.  A  preference  given 
 to  them  over  school-masters  not  similarly  educated.  Their  ex- 
 amination previous  to  receiving  a  certificate  of  capacity,  which 
 entitles  them  to  become  candidates  for  any  vacant  post  in  the 
 province  where  they  have  been  examined.  Their  subsequent 
 exemption  from  active  military  service,  and  even  from  the  an- 
 nual drill  of  the  militia,  if  they  cannot,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
 school-inspector,  be  spared  from  their  duties.  Provision  for  the 
 removal  of  the  incompetent  or  immoral.  A  provision  for  the 
 support  of  decayed  teachers. 
 
 Fourth.  The  authorities  which  regulate  the  schools  and  ren- 
 der them  a  branch  of  the  general  government,  and  the  teachers 
 in  fact  its  officers.  In  a  country  like  Prussia,  this  connexion 
 secures  to  the  teacher  the  respect  due  to  his  station,  and  thus 
 facihtates  the  discharge  of  his  important  duties.  It  gives  the 
 government,  however,  almost  unlimited  control  over  the  schools, 
 securing  that  no  principles  shall  be  disseminated  in  them  which 
 are  not  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  central  authority, 
 and  even  providing  for  the  propagation  among  the  people  of 
 those  in  which  it  may  desire  them  to  be  educated. 
 
 *  In  1833  there  wore  t'i<rlit  hundred  and  twenty-ei^lit  burgher  schools  in 
 Prussia.     (KrOger's  Appendix  to  his  Trans),  of  Cousin.) 
 
 t  In  1833  there  were  forty-three  such  seminaries  in  Prussia,  attended  by  two 
 thousand  and  thirty-six  pupils,  and  furnishing  nearly  right  hundred  teachers 
 annually. 
 
230  GENERAL   EDUCATIOY.       IHIMARY  I'ERIOU. 
 
 Having  thus  completed  a  brief  .sketch  of  the  system  of  piihlic 
 instruction,  I  proceed,  according  to  the  division  made  in  the 
 beginning  of  tliis  chapter,  to  describe  some  of  the  individual 
 schools.  It  will  be  seen  that  tlie  subjects  of  popular  instruction 
 are  excellent  in  theniselves,  and  that  the  methods  of  teachinsj 
 are  in  general  the  most  improved.  Prussia  has  certainly  set  a 
 noble  example  in  this  respect.  It  is  true  that  the  government 
 has  provided  that  the  incidentals  of  instruction,  which  exert  so 
 strong  an  influence  on  the  mind,  shall  all  tend  to  educate  the 
 people  in  sentiments  of  attachment  to  the  existing  order  of 
 things,  but  they  would  have  been  untrue  to  their  political  sys- 
 tem had  they  not  done  so,  and  this  fact,  instead  of  leading  to 
 a  rejection  of  the  experience  of  their  schools  by  nations  more 
 advanced  in  the  true  principles  of  government,  should  stimulate 
 them  to  a  like  care  in  their  systems  of  education.* 
 
 As  already  stated,  the  primary  schools  of  Prussia  are  of  two 
 kinds,  the  elementary,  and  the  burgher  or  middle  school.  The 
 first  is  not  an  introduction  to  the  second,  as  might  be  supposed 
 by  its  name,  but  is  intended  for  such  children  as  are  to  receive 
 an  elementaiy  education,  only  remaining  at  school  until  thirteen 
 or  fourteen  years  of  age.  These  schools  in  the  cities  and  large 
 towns  educate  the  poor,  and  are  frequently  designated  as  poor 
 or  charity-schools,  (Armen-schulen.)  The  others  are  intended 
 for  children  whose  parents  can  dispense  \\iih  their  services 
 until  fifteen  or  sixteen.  Their  pupils  generally  become  artisans 
 or  shopkeepers. 
 
 There  are,  in  flict,  two  grades  of  burgher  schools,  of  which 
 the  higher,  usually  fjund  in  the  cities,  besides  preparing  its 
 pupils  as  just  stated,  enables  them  to  enter  the  third  class  of  the 
 
 •  It  is  frequently  a  question  what  results  have  been  derived  from  this  much 
 vaunted  system.  What  has  been  tlic  cflcct  upon  the  people?  To  answer  this 
 accurately  would  require  a  long  residence  in  the  country;  to  have  known  its 
 state  in  j)ast  years,  and  to  estimate  accurately  the  causes  of  any  observed  chanfjes. 
 It  i.s  a  most  dilficult  question,  and  I  tio  not  pretend  to  pivc  my  results  as  an  an- 
 swer, but  menly  to  bear  testimony  to  the  superior  intellectual  and  moral  con- 
 diliun  of  this  people  to  others  of  the  same  race,  in  circumstances  oUicrwisc  some- 
 what similar,  but  less  favoured  by  education.  It  is  impossiblo  to  judge  of  the  re- 
 sults which  would  he  produced  in  a  countrv  where  tUr  promt  is  tree,  by  those  of 
 I'rnssia. 
 
SVSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION   IN  PRUSSIA.  231 
 
 grammar  school  or  gymnasium.  The  instruction  in  them  is 
 altogether  better  than  that  in  the  elementary  schools,  which 
 latter,  as  far  as  I  saw  them,  were  inferior  to  those  of  Holland. 
 The  lower  burgher  schools,  on  the  contrary,  aflbrd  an  elevated 
 standard  of  true  primary  instruction,  and  Prussia  has  special 
 reason  to  be  proud  of  the  whole  class. 
 
 Uniformity  of  instruction  throughout  this  kingdom  would  no 
 doubt  be  practicable  in  a  general  sense,  by  means  of  the  sys- 
 tem already  described.  There  is,  indeed,  at  present,  a  close 
 approach  to  uniformity  of  spirit  in  the  schools  and  in  the  sub- 
 jects taught.  Very  wisely,  however,  the  methods  of  teaching 
 are  not  prescribed,  and  though  a  common  sentiment  among 
 the  directors  of  the  seminaries  for  teachers,  produces  an  ap- 
 proximation to  uniformity  of  method  among  the  younger  mas- 
 ters, yet  even  among  these  there  is  some  diversity  of  opinion 
 and  action.  When  we  speak,  then,  of  uniformity  in  the  Prussian 
 schools,  it  must  be  understood  with  great  limitations,  or  we 
 give  a  theoretical  view  of  what  might  be,  instead  of  a  prac- 
 tical one  of  what  is. 
 
 PUBLIC  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF  BERLIN. 
 
 The  Prussian  system  admits  of  so  much  license  in  its  minor 
 arrangements,  that  the  elementary  schools  of  Berlin,  as  at  pre- 
 sent established,  vary  from  the  parochial  system  in  use  in  the 
 kingdom  at  large,  resulting  from  a  plan  proposed  to  the  regency 
 by  School-counsellor  Reichelen,  and  adopted  in  1627.  There  are 
 at  present  nine  public  elementary  schools  in  the  city,  but  if  the 
 classes  were  confined  to  seventy-five  pupils  each,  as  originally 
 intended,  fourteen  schools  would  be  required,  according  to  the 
 calculations  of  Mr.  Reichelen.  The  number  of  pupils,  however, 
 in  charge  of  a  single  master,  is  greater  than  that  just  stated, 
 thereby  impairing  essentially  the  cfiiciency  of  the  schools. 
 
 The  masters  receive  fixed  salaries,*  the  fees  which  they 
 
 *  The  salary  of  the  head  master  of  both  boys'  and  girls'  schools  is  two  hun- 
 dred  and  twenty-five  dollars  per  annum,  besides  which  he  has  liis  lodginj^  and 
 certain  allowances,  amounlinj  to  from  seventy-five  to  a  hundred  and  twelve  dol 
 
232  GENERAL   EDUCATION.        riUiMARV   PERIOD. 
 
 collect  being  paid  over  to  the  school-committee.  Of  the  two 
 schools  of  this  kind  at  Berlin  which  I  visited,  one  came  up  to  the 
 requirements  of  the  law  in  the  branches  of  instruction,  except  in 
 tlic  omission  of  linear  drawing.  In  the  other,  both  drawing  and 
 natural  history  were  omitterl.  In  the  first,  the  branches  were: 
 1.  Religious  instruction.  2.  Reading.  3.  German  language. 
 4.  The  geography  and  history  of  Prussia.  5.  Arithmetic. 
 ().  Elements  of  geometry.  7.  Weights  and  measures  of  the 
 country.     8.  Natural  history.     9.  Writin^r.     10.  Sinirinrr.     In 
 
 »  V  0  0         0 
 
 none  of  these  schools  is  the  physical  education  of  the  pupils  at- 
 tended to.  In  each  there  is  a  girls'  school,  separated  from  that 
 of  the  boys',  and  giving  similar  instruction,  except  that  a  por- 
 tion of  the  time  is  occupied  in  w^orks  appropriate  to  the  sex. 
 
 According  to  rule,  these  schools  should  have  two  classes  for 
 each  sex,  the  head  master  teaching  the  first,  and  the  assistant 
 the  second;  in  one,  however,  the  two  classes  w^ere  subdivided, 
 forming  four.  The  lowest  class  learns  to  read  and  write  a  lit- 
 tle, and  is  then  promoted.  In  the  school  of  two  classes,  the 
 lower  contained  pupils  from  six  to  nine  and  even  ten  years  of 
 age,  and  the  upper  class  pupils  from  eight  and  nine  to  twelve 
 and  thirteen  years.  This  division  is  much  inferior  to  that  of 
 the  school  for  the  poor  at  the  Hague,  which  I  have  already 
 described;  it  requires  the  union  in  one  class  of  pupils  in  very 
 diflferent  stages  of  progress,  and  renders  simultaneous  teaching 
 almost  out  of  the  question.  The  lower  class  has  twenty-six, 
 and  the  upper  thirty-two  to  thirty-four  hours  of  instruction  per 
 week,  the  former  having  one  hour  less  per  day  than  the  latter, 
 which  is  a  good  arrangement.  There  is  a  short  interval  of 
 recess  in  the  morning  exercises.  1.  The  religious  instruction 
 consists,  in  all  the  schools,  of  Bible  history,  catechism,  and 
 reading  the  Bible.  The  schools  are  for  Protestants,  and  the 
 r.uthcran  Catechism  is  used.  2.  The  reading  is  taught  by  the 
 pi  ionic  method,  already  described  at  length  under  the  head  of 
 
 lard.  The  puidls  pay  ut  the  miiiiinuin  tlirt^r,  and  at  the  niaxiimiin  tliirty  ccnU? 
 ]Kr  month.  In  one  of  the  schuolfi  which  I  visited,  the  fees  ainfmntcd  in  nil  to  about 
 nine  dollars  and  Kcventy-Hvc  cents  per  month,  the  two-fifths  of  wliieh,  formintj 
 the  ina»lcr\s  perquisite,  amounted,  tlitrcforr,  to  about  f«>rty-i«cvcn  dollars  n  year. 
 
ELEMKNTARY  SCHOOLS)  OF   BERLIN. 
 
 233 
 
 primary  instruction  in  Holland.  In  many  schools  the  reading- 
 board  and  letter-blocks  are  used;  in  one  of"  those  which  I  visited, 
 writing  was  taught  with  reading.  Exercises  of  thought  and 
 speech  are  interwoven  w^ith  the  elements  of  reading.  The 
 reading-books*  are  various,  and  combine  progressive  instruc- 
 tion in  this  branch  with  incidental  information  in  morals,  the 
 history  of  the  country,  history  of  the  church  and  of  sects,  bio- 
 graphy, geography,  natural  history  and  elementary  physics, 
 grammar,  &c.  This  incidental  method  is,  however,  far  from 
 giving  sufficient  instruction,  unless  combined  with  the  direct, 
 though,  by  keeping  it  in  view,  the  exercises  in  reading  are  pre- 
 vented from  deireneratino^  into  mere  lessons  of  sounds.  From 
 the  books  w  Inch  are  allowed  by  the  highest  school  authorities 
 to  be  used,  the  committee  of  any  particular  school,  after  con- 
 sulting the  master,  adopt  such  as  they  please,  and  when  the 
 teacher  wishes  a  change,  he  applies  to  the  same  authority. 
 The  list  of  approved  books  is  always  sufficiently  large  to  admit 
 of  the  exercise  of  the  individual  judgments  of  the  master  and 
 committee.  The  analysis  of  words  and  sentences  is  attended 
 to  in  these  schools,  and  exercises  of  induction  are  practised, 
 especially  where  younger  masters  from  the  teachers'  semina- 
 ries are  employed.  As  the  method  of  teaching  depends  princi- 
 pally upon  the  master,  it  sometimes  varies  even  in  the  same 
 school.  If  the  precise  routine  were  laid  down,  the  spirit  would 
 be  different,  and  thus,  at  last,  it  is  the  kind  of  education  given 
 to  the  teacher  which  determines  the  character  of  the  school.  It 
 may  be  stated,  however,  that  the  instruction  is  either  simulta- 
 neous or  individual.  3.  The  German  requires  no  special  re- 
 mark; it  includes  instruction  in  grammar.  4.  The  geogra- 
 phy is  taught  by  beginning  with  an  outline  of  general  geo- 
 graphy, referring  to  maps,  and  learning  from  books.     There  is 
 
 *  Hcmpel's  "Common  School  Friend,"  which  I  found  in  use  in  the  schools, 
 appears  to  me,  in  general,  to  be  a  good  compilation,  though  the  ideas  of  history 
 which  it  gives  are  very  limited.  The  statements  in  regard  to  Nortlx  America 
 are,  besides,  of  a  kind  to  lead  the  child  to  suppose  that  the  country  is  still  peo- 
 pled by  red  men,  who  are  without  the  institutions  of  the  old  world,  which  ai'. 
 enumerated,  to  show  the  superior  Hdvuntagcs  of  civilized  over  savage  life. 
 30 
 
234  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 a  great  deficiency  in  the  implements  for  teaching  this  branch. 
 5.  Both  mental  and  written  arithmetic  are  taught.  In  one  of 
 the  schools,  the  ground-work  is  laid  according  to  Pestalozzi's 
 method,  and  the  extent  of  the  course  is  to  the  single  rule  of 
 three,  inclusive.  Some  of  the  pupils  acquire  great  facility  in 
 mental  arithmetic,  but  I  have  seen  better  results  in  this  branch 
 in  the  English  schools.  G.  The  geometry  consists  of  the  ele- 
 ments of  form,  accordiniT  to  Pcstalozzi.  7.  The  weights  and 
 measures  are  taught  as  in  our  schools,  by  committing  tables  to 
 memory,  and  not,  as  in  Holland,  by  actual  reference  to  the  stan- 
 dards themselves.  9.  The  writing  is  taught  by  copying  from 
 ordinary  copy-boards,  first  on  the  slate,  then  on  paper.  The 
 black-board  is  used  in  some  cases.  Writing:  from  dictation  is 
 resorted  to  for  orthography.  The  proficiency  in  this  branch 
 is,  however,  only  tolerable.  10.  Vocal  music  is  taught  by  note, 
 and  particular  attention  is  paid  to  church  music.  The  school 
 is  begun  and  ended  with  a  psalm  or  hymn,  as  well  as  with 
 prayer. 
 
 The  ordinary  discipline  is  conducted  without  corporal  punish- 
 ment, though  it  is  allowed  in  extreme  cases.  Tiie  individuals 
 of  the  classes  retain  the  same  places,  unless  in  cases  of  gross 
 neglect,  or  as  a  kind  of  punishment.  These  places  are  in  some 
 schools  regulated  in  the  upper  classes  by  a  writing-lesson  at 
 the  end  of  the  month,  in  which  correctness  in  spelling  as  well 
 as  neatness  of  handwriting  arc  taken  into  the  account. 
 
 The  arrangements  of  the  school-houses  in  Berlin,  both  in- 
 terior and  exterior,  have  undercjonc  considerable  channrc  of  late 
 years.  The  eighth  town-school  is  in  a  very  neat  building,  and 
 the  rooms  are  commodious,  and  provided  with  raised  platforms 
 for  the  benches  and  desks;  all  those,  however,  occupied  by  the 
 larger  classes  are  defective  in  ventilation.* 
 
 *  The  number  of  children  in  Berlin  rerjuiring  nearly  or  quite  pratuitous  in- 
 Btruclion  was  reckoned,  in  1827,  at  four  thousand  five  hundred.  These  arc  sup- 
 posed to  he  gathered  principally  in  the  nine  school-houscs  now  erected.  One  of 
 those  which  I  visited  contained  six  hundred  children.  It  is  intended  to  increase 
 the  numl)cr  of  houses,  so  as  to  prevent  such  an  accumulation  in  any  one,  three 
 hundred  being  the  number  calculated  for  each  school. 
 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF  BERLIN'.  235 
 
 These  schools  are  reasonably  good,  and  if  they  were  in  a 
 country  less  celebrated  for  the  character  of  its  public  instruction 
 than  Prussia,  would  not  call  for  special  remark,  but  they  can 
 by  no  means  be  held  up  as  having  attained  all  that  is  possible, 
 or  even  that  is  required,  in  establishments  of  the  kind. 
 
 In  addition  to  these  charity  schools,  each  of  which  is  common 
 to  both  sexes,  there  are  nine  schools  of  industry  (Erwerb- 
 schulen)  for  girls;  in  these  the  pupils  work,  receiving  a  small 
 compensation,  besides  instruction  in  the  rudiments.  There  are 
 also  evening  schools,  at  which  the  attendance  is  voluntary,  and 
 where  those  who  have  gone  through  the  elementary  courses 
 may  revise  or  extend  their  knowledge.* 
 
 BURGHER  OR  MIDDLE  SCHOOLS. 
 
 These  are  the  higher  primary  schools  already  referred  to. 
 They  owe  their  superiority  over  the  others  not  only  to  the 
 greater  variety  of  subjects  of  instruction,  and  to  the  greater  ex- 
 tent to  which  they  are  carried,  but  to  various  minor  advan- 
 tages. Among  the  first  of  these  may  be  stated  the  greater 
 number  of  classes,  admitting  of  a  nearer  equality  in  the  know- 
 ledge of  the  pupils,  and  hence  of  more  efficient  instruction. 
 The  number  of  regular  classes  in  these  schools  is  usually  from 
 four  to  six,  and  in  the  others  only  two.  Next,  the  number  of 
 pupils  under  the  charge  of  one  teacher  is  less  than  in  the  ele- 
 mentary schools,  which  is  attended  with  the  same  cfTect  as  just 
 stated,  especially  where  individual  teaching  is  attempted,  in  con- 
 nexion with  the  simultaneous  method.     In  the  whole  kingdom 
 
 *  The  number  of  elementary  schools,  public  and  private,  in  Berlin,  is  given  in 
 the  census  of  1831  at  117,  and  the  pupils  in  attendance  at  13,131.  Of  burgher- 
 schools  80,  attended  by  7,210  pupils,  making  197  primary  schools,  attended  by 
 20,341  pupils.  Adding  750,  the  probable  number  in  the  lower  classes  of  the 
 gymnasia  and  real  schools,  we  have  21,091  children  between  the  ages  of  seven 
 and  fourteen  in  the  schools.  The  number  of  children  in  Berlin  between  the  ages 
 of  one  day  and  fourteen  years  is  reported  in  the  same  census  to  be  G7,709.  Ad- 
 mitting that  three-sevenths  of  them  are  between  seven  and  fourteen  years,  we 
 have  29,019  children,  who,  according  to  law,  should  be  in  the  schools.  There 
 is,  therefore,  an  unexplained  deficiency  in  tlie  capital  of  nearly  8000.  TJiesc 
 numbers  are  taken  from  the  table  given  in  the  Supplement  to  M.  Cousin's  Reporl, 
 American  cdilion. 
 
236  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOU. 
 
 of  Prussia,  in  1831,  the  average  number  of  i)upils  to  one  in- 
 structor in  the  elementary  schools,  was  seventy-seven,  and  in 
 the  burgher  schools,  thirty-seven,  or  less  than  half  the  former 
 number.  Again,  the  higher  salaries  paid  in  these  schools  secures 
 to  them,  in  general,  advantages  in  the  choice  of  teachers  not 
 possessed  by  the  others,  which  frequently  must  be  entrusted  to 
 inferior  abilities  or  experience.  There  is,  further,  no  doubt,  as 
 far  as  observation  may  be  trusted,  that  the  grade  of  intelligence 
 of  the  children  in  the  burgher  schools  is  higher  than  in  the 
 others,  their  opportunities  of  domestic  culture  and  the  incen- 
 tives to  exertion  are  greater,  and  the  intercourse  of  home 
 is  usually  more  improving.  All  these,  and  perliaps  other 
 causes,  tend  to  widen  the  interval  between  these  classes  of 
 schools.  The  connecting  link  between  the  iiigher  burgher 
 and  the  elementary  schools  of  the  cities,  is  aflbrded  by 
 the  burgher  schools  of  the  smaller  towns,  sometimes  called 
 lower  burgher  schools.  Both  divisions  educate  the  same 
 classes  of  individuals,  but  the  w^ants,  both  material  and  intel- 
 lectual, of  the  tradesman  of  the  small  town  and  of  the  city  are 
 very  diflerent,  and  the  instruction  to  which  they  aspire  difiers 
 essentially.  The  village  tradesman  of  Prussia  is  satisfied  to  be 
 able  to  read  and  write  German,  and  to  cast  accounts,  while  the 
 city  tradesman  of  the  same  class  must  be  better  informed  in 
 these,  and  add  a  knowledge  of  French  and  some  mathematics 
 to  his  elementary  acquirements.  Besides,  the  higher  burgher 
 schools  are  made  to  serve  as  preparatory  establishments  for 
 the  gymnasia,  and  the  plan  of  instruction  is  modified  accord- 
 ingly, being  in  the  higher  classes  so  fiir  changed  as  almost  to 
 remove  them  from  the  sphere  of  legitimate  primary  instruction. 
 It  is  the  lower  class  of  these  schools  which  appears  to  me  to 
 afllbrd  a  suitable  standard  for  the  primary  grade,  in  regard  to 
 the  nature,  extent,  and  methods  of  instruction,  and  the  classifica- 
 tion in  general  of  the  school.  Divesting  the  higher  schools  of 
 certain  features  which  do  not  appear  essential,  they  aflbrd  ex- 
 cellent models,  upon  which  it  would  not  be  too  much  to  ask 
 that  the  primary  schools  should  bo  arranged,  or  to  the  standard 
 of  whirl)  llio\    should  ciidcavonr  to  :itt;iin.      l*M<fpniiii)L^  fiirllnM' 
 
SEMINARY  SCHOOL   AT  WRISSENFELS.  237 
 
 remark  on  this  subject  until  some  ol'  the  individual  schools  have 
 been  described,  I  proceed  to  an  account  of  the  seminary  school 
 at  Weissenfels,  belonging  to  the  lower  burgher  school  class, 
 and  of  three  higher  burgher  schools,  presenting  varieties  of  the 
 same  grade  of  establishment,  namely,  the  Dorothean  higher 
 city  school,  and  the  seminary  school  of  Berlin,  and  the  higher 
 burgher  school  of  Potsdam.  I  have  selected  these  as  charac- 
 teristic specimens  of  the  best  schools  of  the  kind  which  I  visited, 
 and  they  are  all  which  my  limits  will  permit  me  to  present. 
 
 SEMINARY  SCHOOL  AT  WEISSENFELS. 
 
 This  is  a  higher  elementary,  or  lower  burgher  school,  at- 
 tached to  the  seminary  for  teachers  at  Weissenfels,  and  is  under 
 the  charge  of  the  director  of  the  seminary.*  The  school  is  in- 
 tended not  only  for  the  benefit  of  the  citizens  of  Weissenfels, 
 but  also  as  a  model  school,  in  which  the  pupils  of  the  seminary 
 may  reduce  to  practice,  under  the  eye  of  their  teachers,  the 
 lessons  of  theory  in  the  art  of  teaching,  which  forms  an  im- 
 portant part  of  the  course  of  the  seminary. 
 
 The  school  has  four  hundred  pupils,  male  and  female.  They 
 are  divided  into  five  classes,  in  the  three  lower  of  which  the 
 two  sexes  receive  instruction  in  common,  being  separated  in 
 the  highest.  Each  class  averages  thus  eighty  under  the  charge 
 of  one  master,  who  is,  however,  assisted  by  the  pupils  of  the 
 seminary.  The  following  table  shows  the  subjects  of  instruc- 
 tion, and  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  each.  The  whole 
 course  usually  lasts  seven  years,  when  the  pupil  enters  at  the 
 age  of  six  or  seven. 
 
 *  Dr.  Harnisch,  one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  teachers  pf  Germany,  to 
 whom  I  am  indebted  for  a  MS,  account  of  his  seminary,  and  other  valuable  do- 
 cuments, besides  a  kind  welcome.  Dr.  H.  docs  not  consider  liis  school  a  true 
 burgher  school,  (see  his  work,  Die  Deutsclic  Biirgcrsclmlc,)  but  I  speak  of  things 
 as  they  exist,  and  wuth  names  as  comninnly  applied.  This  school  was  placed 
 under  its  present  director  in  182Q,  when  tlie  normal  school  was  rc-organizcd. 
 The  pupils  of  the  highest  class  pay  but  two  dollars  and  seven-five  cents  per  year 
 for  tuition. 
 
238 
 
 (;EiVERAL  KDUCATIOX.       ^FANT  PERIOD. 
 
 Table  of  the  (lirfliibution  of  lime  in  the  "Seminary  School"  at  Weissenfc Is 
 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 OF 
 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Religious  Instruction,    -     - 
 German  Language,  -     -     - 
 
 Reading, 
 
 Inductive  Exercises,       -     - 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Geog.,  Hist.,  Nat.  Hist.,  &c., 
 
 Writing, 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 Singing, 
 
 Total, 
 
 NO.  OF  HOURS  PER  WEEK. 
 
 30 
 
 2G 
 
 26      2G 
 
 The  religious  instruction  consists  in  the  narration  of  Bible 
 stories  and  in  pointing  out  the  appropriate  moral ;  in  Bible 
 history  in  a  more  connected  form ;  in  learning  Luther's  Cate- 
 chism, and  committing  parts  of  the  Bible  to  memory.  The 
 pupils  are  also  expected  to  give  an  account  of  the  Sunday's 
 
 *  This  column  is  calculated  on  the  supposition  that  the  pupil  remains  in  the 
 echool  from  six  until  thirteen  years  of  age,  passing  through  the  lowest  class  in 
 one  year,  and  each  of  the  otliers  in  two  years. 
 
 +  As  the  instruction  in  writing  and  reading  is  combined,  I  have  placed  half  of 
 the  number  of  hours  under  each  head. 
 
 t  Of  these  ei^'hl  hours  three  arc  combined  reading  and  writing,  and  two 
 copying. 
 
SEMINARY  SCHOOL  AT  WEISSENFEL5.  239 
 
 sermon.  The  study  of  German  includes  the  grammar.  There 
 are  exercises  specially  of  orthography  and  syntax  in  the  upper 
 classes.    Poetry  is  also  committed  to  memory. 
 
 The  elements  of  reading  and  icriting  are  taught  together, 
 according  to  Dr.  Harnisch's  method,  already  described  as  in 
 use  at  Halle.  In  the  upper  classes  the  reading-lessons  are  in- 
 tended not  only  to  give  fluency  in  the  art  of  reading,  but  also 
 incidental  instruction  in  grammar  and  general  knowledge. 
 
 Direct  exercises  of  induction  are  in  use  only  in  the  lowest 
 class. 
 
 The  instruction  in  arithmetic  extends  through  fractions:  men- 
 tal arithmetic  preceding  written  through  all  the  rules.  That  of 
 geometry  consists  merely  of  the  elements  of  form,  according  to 
 Pestalozzi. 
 
 Under  geography  and  history  are  included  both  physical  and 
 political  geography  and  biography.  With  the  physical  geo- 
 graphy is  interwoven  an  account  of  the  productions  of  nature 
 and  art  of  different  countries-  In  the  summer  the  pupils  are 
 made  acquainted  with  the  botany  of  the  environs,  and  in  winter 
 receive  lessons  upon  animals,  &c. 
 
 Writing  on  paper  is  a  matter  of  privilege  attainable  by  those 
 who  improve  sufficiently.  The  others  write  on  slates.  The 
 first  lessons  in  drawi7ig  are  introductory  to  writing;  afterwards 
 it  is  made  a  separate  branch. 
 
 The  higher  classes  learn  music  by  note,  and  sing  twice  a 
 week  in  company  with  the  pupils  of  the  normal  school.  The 
 violin  is  used  in  leading  the  class  singing  exercises. 
 
 The  discipline  and  instruction  are  admirable.  The  teachers 
 have  little  occasion  to  use  punishment.  The  instruction  is 
 chiefly  given  viva  voce,  and  the  pupils  in  general  appear  inte- 
 rested in  their  studies.  A  book  is  kept  for  the  record  of  delin- 
 quencies, which  is  examined  by  one  of  the  superior  masters 
 once  a  week,  and  notice  taken  of  the  faults  recorded.  The 
 director  examines  it  once  a  month,  and  admonislies  those  who 
 need  it.  Corporal  punishment  is  resorted  to  only  in  extreme 
 eases. 
 
 According  to  the  A'iews  of  director  Ilarnisch,  as  to  what  a 
 
210  GE\ERAL   EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 true  burgher  school  should  be,  the  pupils  who  have  gone  through 
 the  courses  of  this  school  are  just  fit  to  enter  one,  and  I  must 
 express  my  entire  approbation  of  thus  making  the  elementary 
 school  merely  a  step  in  the  general  course  of  education,  and 
 one  which  leads  to  further  advance. 
 
 The  schools  next  to  be  described  will  be  found  to  vary  very 
 considerably  in  their  arranc^cments  from  this  one,  formins^  the 
 opposite  extreme,  as  it  were,  of  the  class,  but  a  connecting  link 
 will  be  supplied  by  the  burgher  school  of  Potsdam,  which  is  in- 
 tended to  cover  the  ground  occupied  by  both  divisions. 
 
 DOROTPIEAN  HIGHER  CITY  SCHOOL. 
 
 This  is  a  burgher  school  of  recent  establishment,  which  f 
 was  recommended  to  visit  as  one  of  the  best  in  Berlin. '^^  The 
 city  has  recently  erected  a  very  neat  and  commodious  build- 
 ingf  for  it  in  the  Dorothean  quarter  of  the  town,  from  which 
 the  school  takes  its  name.  The  pupils  are  admitted  at  six  years 
 of  age,  and  may  remain  until  sixteen,  when  they  are  prepared 
 to  enter  a  business  life.  If  intended  for  a  professional  career^ 
 they  pass  from  the  second  class  to  the  third  of  a  gymnasium 
 or  grammar  school  at  about  fourteen.  At  present  there  is  no 
 first  class,  but  this  deficiency  is  to  be  supplied,  and  it  is  intended 
 that  a  pupil  of  capacity,  who  has  passed  through  its  studies, 
 shall  be  prepared  for  the  second  class  of  a  gymnasium.  In 
 this  case  private  lessons  in  Greek  must  be  taken,  and  I  should 
 judge  that,  when  established,  this  class  will  be  composed  only 
 of  those  who  intend  to  finish  their  education  here,  so  as  to  pass 
 to  a  "real  school,"  or  to  some  "technical  schooL''  Many  pu- 
 pils are  actually  prepared  here  for  entrance  into  the  third  class 
 of  a  gymnasium,  and  the  courses  have  been  in  part  adapted 
 to  this  purpose.  The  certificate  of  the  first  class  of  this 
 school,  as  of  others  of  its  grade,  gives  the  privilege  of  claim- 
 ing but  one  year  of  military  service,  and  (jualifies   for  cm- 
 
 *   It  is  under  llic  charfrr  of  I\Ir.  Ziiinow,  a  most  inlclligcjil  and  devoted  trarhcr 
 t  The  cost  of  the  buildinp  was  slat,  d  1..  have  boon  X>'.,000  Ihalcrs,  ^?  18,750.. 
 
DOROTHEAN   HIGHER  CITY  SCHOOL  AT  BERLIN.  241 
 
 ployments  in  the  government  bureaux,  which,  however,  do  not 
 require,  in  general,  a  knowledge  of  Latin. 
 
 The  school*  now  consists  of  five  classes,  of  which  the  sixth 
 and  fifth,  the  lowest  tw^o,  have  courses  of  one  year  each,  and 
 the  others  of  two  years.  There  is  a  head  master  and  four 
 regular  teachers,' besides  four  assistants  or  special  masters,  who 
 are  employed  during  part  of  the  school  hours,  or  in  teaching 
 particular  subjects.  In  the  lower  classes  each  master  teaches, 
 in  general,  the  whole  round  of  subjects  in  which  his  class  is 
 occupied.  In  the  upper  classes,  the  teachers  are  confined  to  a 
 few  subjects.  The  arrangement  of  this  matter  is,  however,  at 
 the  discretion  of  the  director,  or  head  master,  who  varies  it  as 
 appears  best  for  the  interests  of  the  school.f  In  some  of  the 
 classes  there  is  a  special  master  for  religious  instruction,  w'hich, 
 however,  is  not  usual  in  Prussia. 
 
 The  methods  of  instruction  in  this  school  are,  in  general, 
 most  excellent,  and  I  w^as  particularly  struck  with  the  small 
 number  of  text-books  employed.J  This  is  not  peculiar,  how- 
 ever, to  this  establishment,  but  is  a  feature  in  every  good  school 
 in  Germany.  The  master  is  expected  to  be  so  fully  imbued 
 with  his  subject,  and  expert  in  his  art,  as  to  be  able  to  impart 
 knowledge  principally  orally  to  his  pupils,  and  in  such  a  way 
 as  to  adapt  it  to  each  individual;  hence  books  are  chiefly  re- 
 quired for  study  at  home,  and  individual  training  is  possible  to 
 an  extent  which  no  routine  system  with  books  would  permit. 
 
 *  At  the  date  of  my  visit  in  December,  1837,  the  school  numbered  one  hundred 
 and  ninety-seven  pupils.  The  fees  were  nearly  five  dollars  per  quarter,  but  it 
 was  intended  to  reduce  them  to  less  than  four  dollars.  Should  these  at  any  time 
 not  prove  adequate  to  the  support  of  the  school,  the  city  must  supply  the  defi- 
 ciency. 
 
 t  The  masters  are  appointed  by  the  school-committee,  on  the  nomination  of 
 the  head  master. 
 
 X  I  annex  the  list,  as  presenting  this  fact  in  a  striking  point  of  view.  There 
 are  but  ten  text-books,  exclusive  of  those  for  teaching  Latin,  used  in  the  six 
 classes.  Baedcckcr's  Primer,  Diestcrweg's  Reading  Book  fur  Schools,  Erk's 
 School  Songs,  the  Bible,  Luther's  Catechism,  Church  Songs,  Schulze's  Latin 
 Grammar,  Drogan  "Materials,"  Roquctte's  French  Grammar,  Gcdicke's  Latin 
 Reading  Book,  Schulze's  Latin  Exercises,  Cornelius  Nepos,  Florian's  Numa 
 Pompilius,  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  Diesterweg's  Practical  Arithuictic,  Zinnow''- 
 Geometry,  Dielitz's  Historical  Tables, 
 31 
 
242  GENERAL   EDUCATlOiV.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  t"ollo\vin<]:  statements  j^ive  the  course  of  instruction  in 
 detail.  Leaving  out  some  of  the  subjects  as  unnecessary  for 
 elementary  instruction,  I  can  see  no  reason  why  a  very  similar 
 programme  should  not  be  adopted  in  the  lower  scliools,  the 
 period  of  instruction  being  nearly  the  same  in  the  two  cases.* 
 The  difference  between  the  instrucii^n  in  a  Berlin  charity 
 school  and  in  a  burgher  school  like  this,  is  at  present  very 
 great  indeed. 
 
 Religious  Instruction. 
 
 Class  VI.   Stories  from  tlie  Old  Testament. 
 
 Class  V.     Stories  from  the  New  Testament. 
 
 Class  IV.    Bible  History. 
 
 Class  III.  Reading  and  explanation  of  selections  from  the  Scriptures. 
 
 Class  II.     Tlie  Evidences  of  Christianity. 
 
 The  Stories  alluded  to  in  the  course  of  the  sixth  and  fifth 
 classes  are  the  most  remarkable  biographies  of  the  Old  and 
 New  Testaments.  The  stories  are  chiefly  narrated  by  the 
 teacher,  frequently  in  the  words  used  in  the  sacred  volume; 
 and  in  the  fourth  class  these  same  histories  are  read  in  the  Bible 
 itself  The  narrations  in  the  lower  classes  admit  of  various 
 explanatory  remarks  and  illustrations  of  the  history,  the  na- 
 tural history,  and  geography  referred  to.  The  subject  of  the 
 narrative  being  thus  familiar  to  the  pupil,  he  is  interested  by 
 the  beautiful  simplicity  of  the  language  of  the  Bible,  which 
 otherwise  he  might  fail  to  perceive,  since  his  attention  would 
 be  en£TafTcd  with  the  incidents  about  which  he  was  readinjz, 
 ratlier  than  with  the  style.  The  study  of  the  Evidences  of 
 Christianity  would,  it  seems  to  me,  be  more  suitable  to  the  age 
 of  the  first  than  of  the  second  class. 
 
 German  Language. 
 
 Class  VI.  Exercises  of  speech  and  thought  (inductive  exercises).     Prepara- 
 tory exercises  in  reading  by  the  phonic  (lautir)  method.    Fluent 
 reading  of  words  and  sentences. 
 Class  V.  The  most  important  parts  of  etymology  explained  by  reading  les- 
 sons.    Exercises  of  orthography. 
 
 •  The  expense  I  do  not  consider  a  rca.sonablc  objection,  for  if  the  people  iiave 
 a  right  to  instruction,  they  should  be  well  taught. 
 
DOROTHEAS  HIGHER  CITY  SCHOOL  AT  BERLI^^  243 
 
 Class  IV.  Exercises  of  etymology.    Reading  from  a  text-book.    Stories  nar- 
 rated for  written  exercises.     Orthographical  exercises. 
 Class  III.  Grammatical  analysis  of  sentences. 
 Class  II.   The  same  continued.  Original  written  exercises  and  descriptions. 
 
 The  exercises  of  speech  and  thought  are  admirably  con- 
 ducted. In  teaching  to  read,  the  letter-box  and  composition- 
 board,  similar  to  that  which  I  have  already  described  in  the 
 chapter  on  the  schools  of  Holland,  are  used.  The  lowest  class 
 is  divided  into  two  sections  in  receiving  this  instruction,  so  that 
 each  teacher  has  not  more  than  twenty-five  pupils  under  his 
 charge.  The  reading  exercises  throughout  the  course  will  be 
 found  included  under  the  title  of  "German."  Diesterweg's 
 Reading  Book  for  Schools  is  used  in  the  lower  classes. 
 
 Latin  Language. 
 
 Class  IV.  Regular  verbs  and  other  parts  of  speech.  Translation  of  Gedicke's 
 
 Reading  Book. 
 Class  III.  Constructions  varying  from  the  German.     More  difficult  parts  of 
 
 Gedicke's  Reading  Book.     Cornelius  Ncpos. 
 Class  II.   Irregular  parts  of  etymology.     Syntax.     Special  reference  to  the 
 
 differences  from  the  German.     Ovid. 
 
 Although  the  Latin  is  begun  with  the  fourth  class,  it  will  be 
 seen  hereafter  that  it  occupies  but  a  small  portion  of  the  time 
 of  each  week,  and  as  far  as  mental  culture  is  concerned  to 
 those  who  leave  off  this  study  at  fourteen,  I  cannot  say  that 
 observation  indicated  its  utility.  On  the  contrary,  an  imperfect 
 knowledge  is  acquired,  which  can  produce  no  good  effect. 
 
 French  Language. 
 
 Class  V.  Exercises  in  reading  and  translating  small  sentences. 
 
 Class  IV.  Auxiliary  and  regular  verbs.     Exercises  on  simple  sentences. 
 
 Class  III.  Irregular  verbs  and  rules  on  the  use  of  pronouns.     Numa  Pom- 
 
 pilius  begun. 
 Class  II.  More  difficult  parts  of  th^  French  Grammar.     Numa  Pompilius 
 completed. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Class  VI.  The  four  ground  rules,  with  numbers  up  to  one  thousand. 
 Class  V.  Denominate  numbers  and  preparatory  exercises  in  fractions. 
 Class  IV,  Fractions, 
 
244  UEXERAL   FDUCATION.        I'RIMARY    FERIOU. 
 
 Class  III.  Proportions,  with  their  applications. 
 
 Class  II.  Elements  of  Algebra,  Involution,  and  Evolution. 
 
 The  course  of  arithmetic,  as  taught  in  the  seminary  school, 
 of  which  I  shall  next  give  an  account,  is,  I  think,  better 
 arranged  than  this. 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 Class  V.  Regular  figures,  &c.  from  the  Elements  of  Geometry. 
 Class  IV.  Lines,  angles,  and  triangles. 
 
 Class  III.  Cireles  and  polygons.     Mensuration  of  plane  figures. 
 Class  II.  Similarity  of  figures,  &c. 
 
 The  geometry  is  here  introduced  earlier  than  in  the  semi- 
 nary school,  and,  in  general,  the  studies  of  the  fifth  class  a})pear 
 to  me  rather  too  much  diversified  for  their  age. 
 
 Natural  History. 
 
 Class  IV.  Domestic  animals. 
 
 Class  III.  Viviparous  animals. 
 
 Class  II.  Birds  and  fishes,  illustrated  by  a  small  collection. 
 
 Physics  is  also  taught  in  the  second  class,  so  far  as  to  give  a 
 knowledge  of  the  general  properties  of  bodies. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Class  V.  Knowledge  of  home.    The  district.    The  province.    The  kingdom. 
 
 Class  IV.  General  geography. 
 
 Class  III.  Principal  countries  of  Europe. 
 
 Class  II.  Europe  more  in  particular. 
 
 The  knowledjre  of  home  includes  an  account  of  its  historv, 
 its  monuments,  distinguished  men,  &c.  The  course  follows, 
 in  general,  the  plan  already  so  often  spoken  of,  and  more  par- 
 ticularly described  in  the  schools  of  Halle  and  Haarlem. 
 
 History. 
 
 (■lass  IV.  A  general  view  of  the  more  important  historical  events,  with  the 
 
 study  of  particular  ones  in  detail. 
 Class  III.  Ancient  history. 
 (Hass  II.  Modern  history,  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
 
 The  general  liistory  is  rather  a  scries  of  biographical  sketches 
 than  a  regular  narration  of  events,  and  serves  well  as  an  intro- 
 duction to  svstomatir  hi?!toricnl  studies. 
 
DOROTHEAN   HIGHER  CITY  SCHOOL  AT  BERLIN.  245 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Class  VI.  Preparatory  exercises  in  tlie  lower  division.     Letters  and  words 
 
 in  the  upper. 
 Class  V.  Single  letters  and  small  sentences. 
 Class  IV.  Writing-  from  copy-slips. 
 Class  III.  Writing,  with  special  reference  to  orthography. 
 
 The  elements  of  writino;  are  tau£,^ht  accordinjT  to  Pestalozzi's 
 method,  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  letters  being  given 
 by  horizontal,  and  the  slope  by  inclined  lines.  In  regard  to  this 
 branch  it  may  be  remarked,  that  very  few  schools  which  I 
 visited  did  not  present  a  satisfactory  proficiency. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Class  VI.  Preparatory  exercises.     Regular  figures. 
 
 Class  V.  Drawing  of  bodies  in  elevation. 
 
 Class  IV.  Solids  bounded  by  plane  figures  and  straight  lines. 
 
 Class  III.  Solids  bounded  by  plane  figures  and  straight  lines,  with  shadows. 
 
 Class  II.  Solids  bounded  by  curved  surfaces. 
 
 The  method  of  instruction  is  that  devised  by  ]Mr.  P.  Schmidt, 
 which  I  shall  describe  more  particularly  when  speaking  of 
 one  of  the  so  called  "real  schools"  of  Berlin,  where  he  is 
 teacher. 
 
 Singing  is  taught  by  ear  in  the  two  lower  classes,  and  by 
 note  in  the  upper.  The  execution  by  the  second  class,  which  I 
 heard,  was  excellent.     They  sing  in  parts,  and  by  note. 
 
 The  following  table  shows  the  time  devoted,  in  school,  during 
 the  week  by  each  class  to  the  several  subjects  of  instruction: — 
 
24(5 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Arrangement  of  the  branehcs  of  instruction  at  tlic  Dorothean  Higher  City 
 
 School. 
 
 SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY. 
 
 Religious  instruction,     -     - 
 German  Language,    -     -     - 
 
 Latin, 
 
 French, 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Natural  History,  -     ,     -     - 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History, 
 
 Writing, 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 Singing 
 
 Total, 
 
 HOURS    PER   WEEK. 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 10' 
 
 3-2 
 
 20 
 
 Tlie  three  higher  classes  have,  as  shown  by  the  table  just 
 given,  six  liours  of  recitation  every  day  except  Wednesday 
 
 •  Six  hours  of  the  instruction,  called  "German,"  are  devoted  in  the  sixth  class 
 to  learning  to  read,  and  four  to  "Exercises  of  speech  and  thought." 
 
 t  Two  hours  of  this  instruction  is  given  to  physics. 
 
 t  In  the  fifth  class,  geography  and  history  arc  combined  under  the  title  of 
 "Knowledge  of  homo." 
 
 ^  This  column  is  obtained  by  doubling  the  niunbcrs  in  those  classes  of  which 
 the  rotirnc  is  for  two  years,  and  adding  the  nnmbrrii  for  the  othrr  rlass«s. 
 
SEMINARY  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN.  247 
 
 and  Saturday,  which  are  half-holidays,  and  on  which  they  have 
 but  four  hours.  The  lowest  class  has  but  five  hours  for  four 
 days  in  the  week,  and  three  the  other  two.  The  increase  of 
 school  hours  in  the  upper  classes  is  manifestly  a  proper  arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 This  distribution  of  time  assigns  to  language,  including  Ger- 
 man, Latin,  and  French,  ninety-eight  hours;  to  sciences  and  the 
 kindred  branches,  namely,  arithmetic,  geometry,  natural  his- 
 tory, geography,  and  history,  eighty-two;  to  the  branches  which 
 specially  educate  a  part  of  the  senses,  while  they  have  import- 
 ant applications  in  after  life,  as  writing,  drawing,  and  singing, 
 forty-eight  hours,  and  to  morals  and  religion,  eighteen  hours. 
 Similar  tabular  statements  will  be  furnished  for  the  other  schools 
 of  this  class,  by  which  numerical  comparisons  may  be  insti- 
 tuted. 
 
 SEMINARY  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN. 
 
 This  is  a  burgher  or  middle  school,  founded  in  1332,  and 
 attached  to  the  Teacher's  Seminary  of  Berlin,*  taking  its 
 name  from  this  connexion.  The  school  is  for  boys  only,  and, 
 like  other  higher  burgher  schools,  it  serves  to  prepare  for  the 
 the  third  class  of  a  gymnasium,  as  well  as  for  entrance  into  active 
 life.  The  same  teachers  give  instruction  in  this  school  and  in 
 the  seminary,  being  assisted  here  by  the  pupils  of  the  seminary, 
 to  whom  this  serves  as  a  school  of  practice.  There  are  four 
 regular  teachers,  besides  the  director,  and  also  masters  for 
 drawing  and  singing. 
 
 The  pupils  are  admitted  as  early  as  five  and  six  years  of  age. 
 The  time  of  year  for  general  admission  is  Easter.  There  are 
 six  classes  in  the  school,  the  lower  four  of  which  each  retain 
 the  pupil,  if  industrious  and  intelligent,  a  year,  and  the  two 
 upper,  each  two  years.  The  whole  course  thus  lasts  eight 
 years.  Fifteen  is,  however,  the  usual  age  at  which  those  who 
 do  not  pass  to  the  gymnasium  leave  the  school.  The  average 
 number  of  pupils  in  each  class  is  thir1\-.f 
 
 *  or  vvliicli  Dr.  Uicstcrvvc'^'  is  director. 
 
 t  The  scliool  fees  for  the  four  lower  classes  arc  three  dollars  and  seventy-live 
 
248  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  I'ERIOD. 
 
 ]:^vcry  month  there  is  a  private  examination,  in  presence  of 
 ail  the  tcacliers,  at  wiiicli  liic  parents  may  attend.  Every 
 three  months  the  pu[)i]  receives  a  note  of  progress  and  conduct, 
 to  be  handed  to  his  parents.  Formerly  a  printed  circular  was 
 sent,  containinix  information  in  the  form  of  an  abstract  from 
 the  account  kept  of  recitations  and  conduct.  It  has  been  found, 
 however,  much  more  eOcctual  to  give  a  written  statement  of 
 the  character  of  the  pupil,  derived  from  tiie  school  journal,  in- 
 asmuch as  it  insures  more  certainly  the  attention  of  parents. 
 At  Easter  a  public  examination  is  held,  and  those  who  have 
 made  a  proper  proficiency  in  their  studies  are  passed  to  a 
 higher  class. 
 
 Arrangements  exist  by  which  those  pupils  whose  parents  de- 
 sire it,  may  study  under  the  superintendence  of  a  teacher,' 
 during  the  time  considered  necessary  for  the  preparation  of 
 the  lessons  of  their  class.  The  following  division  of  the  studies 
 of  the  school  is  made  by  the  director. 
 
 1.  Religious  Instruction.  Bible  Iiistory.  History  of  the  Church  aiid  of  the 
 Reformation.     Protestant  Catechism. 
 
 2.  Languages,  (a)  German.  Fluency  in  reading,  and  readiness  in  answering 
 questions.  Capability  of  writing-  an  exercise  upon  an  ordinary  subject.  Gram- 
 mar  of  the  language,  {b)  Latin.  Orthography,  etymology,  and  the  elements  of 
 syntax.  Translation  of  an  easy  Latin  author  (Cornelius  Ncpos)  into  German,  or 
 of  an  easy  German  author  into  Latin,  (c)  French.  Knowledge  of  the  grammar. 
 Facility  in  the  translation  of  easy  authors,  and  in  writing  compositions. 
 
 3.  Sciences,  (a)  Arithmetic.  Mental  and  written.  Positive  and  negative 
 quantities.  Involution  and  evolution,  (h)  Geometry.  Plane  geometry,  witli 
 practical  applications,  (c)  Natural  history.  Knowledge  of  the  most  important 
 minerals  and  plants  of  the  neighbourhood.  General  outline  of  zoology  and 
 anthropology.  (</)  CJcograpliy,  physical  and  mathematical,  {e)  History.  Out- 
 lines of  universal  liistory.     History  of  the  country. 
 
 4.  Mechanical  Acquirements.  (a)  Reading.  (/^)  A  good  liandwriting. 
 (c)  Draughts  of  models,  furniture,  &cc.     (d)  Singing. 
 
 It  will  bo  found,  subseciucntly,  that  I  have  taken  reading  out 
 
 cents  per  quarter,  and  for  the  two  higher  classes  four  dollars  and  fifty  cents  j)cr 
 quarter,  besides  a  charge  of  one  dollar  twelve  and  a-half  crnts  for  fuel  during 
 the  winter. 
 
 *  The  fee  for  private  study  is  four  dolhirs  nnd  filly  cents  per  quarter. 
 
SEMINARY  SCHOOL  Or  BERLIN.  249 
 
 of  this  class,  and  placed  it  beside  the  German  language,  to 
 which  it  is  subsidiary,  and  where  it  is  classed  in  the  preceding 
 school. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  methods  of  carrying  out  this  course,  the  fol- 
 lowing rules  are  laid  down,*  and  after  carefully  visiting  the 
 school,  I  can  testify  that  they  are  fully  observed.  Indeed,  this 
 is  one  of  the  most  interesting  establishments  which  I  saw,  from 
 the  liveliness  and  activity  which  prevails  in  its  classes. 
 
 The  principle  of  induction  is  used,  as  far  as  practicable,  in 
 all  branches:  thus,  in  the  earlier  exercises,  an  object  is  presented 
 to  the  pupil,  who  is  led  to  notice  its  peculiarities,  and  to  express 
 his  conceptions  of  them.  He  passes  from  objects  which  are 
 known,  and  even  familiar,  to  the  unknown.  Unknown  objects 
 are  illustrated,  if  possible,  by  models,  and  the  names  of  the  parts 
 are  taught,  and  their  uses  or  properties  examined.  The  pupil 
 proceeds  first  from  particulars  to  generals.  Subsequently,  the 
 order  is  reversed.  He  is  made  to  understand  whatever  he  is 
 required  to  remember;  to  find  out  for  himself,  if  possible,  rather 
 than  to  be  taught  directly. 
 
 Historical  and  similar  subjects  are  taught  by  lecture,  min- 
 gled with  questions.  The  pupil  is  led  to  express  himself 
 readily  and  correctly ;  the  teacher  speaks  no  more,  therefore, 
 than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  explanation,  or  to  induce 
 suitable  answers.  Self-exertion,  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  is  con- 
 stantly encouraged.  He  is  taught  to  observe  whatever  is  inter- 
 esting. Imitation  of  what  is  seen,  and  repetition  of  what  is 
 heard,  lead  to  original  thought.  This,  however,  is  to  be  ex- 
 pected only  from  pupils  of  talent,  and  hence  the  teacher  must 
 be  satisfied  to  allow  some  to  learn  what  others  have  found 
 out.  The  common  mistakes  of  overburthenin<jr  the  mind  with 
 positive  knowledge,  and  of  too  much  system  in  teaching,  are 
 
 *  I  give  merely  an  abstract  of  the  views  of  Dr.  Diestcrwcfif,  as  suited  to  tlic 
 limits  of  my  Report.  Dr.  Diestcrwcg  is  one  of  the  most  cnlig^Iitcned  practical 
 teachers  of  Germany.  He  was  formerly  director  of  the  normal  school  at  Moers, 
 m  the  Rhenish  provinces,  and  was  transferred  from  that  post  to  the  seminary 
 at  Berlin.  He  is  the  editor  of  the  Pedagopjical  Journal,  the  Rhine  sheets  for 
 education  and  instruction.  (Rheinischc  Blatter  fiir  Erziehung  und  UntcrrichtO 
 32 
 
250  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 to  be  avoided,  as  both  arc  injurious  to  mental  development. 
 The  teacher  must  be  able  to  make  his  subject  interesting,  and, 
 therefore,  should  know  how  to  communicate  it  without  a  book, 
 and  to  elicit  the  knowledge  of  his  pupil  by  proper  questions. 
 It  is  the  mental  activity  of  the  pupil  which  will  determine  the 
 measure  of  his  success  in  after  life ;  and  hence  this  activity, 
 rather  than  positive  knowledge,  should  be  looked  to  as  the 
 object  of  the  instruction  at  schooL 
 
 In  regard  to  this  last  named  principle,  although  I  consider  it 
 applicable,  in  a  great  degree,  in  elementary  education,  yet  it 
 appears  to  me  that  exception  must  be  made  of  the  cases  of  pu- 
 pils who  intend  to  enter  active  life  on  leaving  the  school,  and 
 to  whom,  therefore,  the  knowledge  which  they  will  have  imme- 
 diate occasion  to  use,  should  be  imparted,  to  render  their  edu- 
 cation eflcctivc.  In  general,  where  the  mind  may  be  cultivated 
 by  diilerent  studies,  choice  should  be  made  of  those  most  likely 
 to  be  applied  by  the  individual  in  his  future  career,  especially 
 if  his  education  is  necessarily  to  terminate  before  he  can  have 
 time  to  master  the  complete  circle. 
 
 I  proceed  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  arrangement  of 
 the  studies,  following  it  by  such  remarks  as  to  the  methods 
 pursued  in  the  particular  branches  as  may  appear  necessary, 
 and  by  a  comparison  of  the  courses  with  those  of  the  Doro- 
 thean  school 
 
 Religious  Instruction. 
 
 Class  VI.  Four  hours  per   week.     Narration  by  tJie  teacher  of  stories  from 
 
 the  Old  Testament,  in  the  words  of  tlie  Bible,  repeated  by  tlie 
 
 pupils.     Easy  verses  learned  by  heart. 
 Class  V.  Four  hours.     Stories  from  the  gospels,  except  the  latter  portion  of 
 
 the  Life  of  Christ.     Church  songs  and  Bible  verses  learned. 
 Class  IV.  Three  hours.     The  Old  Testament  in  a  more  connected  form. 
 
 The  moral  of  the  history  is  impressed  upon  the  children.     Tlie 
 
 Ten  Commandments  and  church  songs  committed  to  memory. 
 Class  III.  Two  hours.     The  life  and  doctrines  of  Cinist,  to  tlie  jKriod  of  liis 
 
 imprisonment.     Church  history.     Four   weeks   are  set  apart 
 
 for  learning  the  geography  of  Palestine. 
 Cla.<s  II.  'I'wo   hours.     The  Protestant  Catechism   conunitliil   to  memory 
 
 nnd  rxplainrd.     Church  songs  and  verses  rt.mmilted. 
 
SEMINARY  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN.  251 
 
 Class  I.  Two  liours.  A  compendium  of  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 particularly  after  the  Apostolic  age.  History  of  the  Reformation. 
 Review  of  the  Bible.  Committing  to  memory  psalms  and 
 hymns,  continued. 
 
 German  Language. 
 
 Class  VI.  Four  hours.  Exercises  of  speech.  Stories  narrated  to  the  chil- 
 dren and  repeated  by  tliem.  After  learning  to  write,  these 
 stories  are  written  upon  the  slate. 
 
 Class  V.  Four  hours.     Exercises  in  orthography.     Etymology  begun. 
 
 Class  IV.  Four  hours.  Exercises  in  orthography  and  style.  Every  week  a 
 short  composition  is  written  on  some  subject  which  has  been 
 narrated. 
 
 Class  III.  Grammar  continued. 
 
 Class  II.  Four  hours.  Original  compositions,  which  are  corrected  during 
 the  recitation.     Syntax  commenced. 
 
 Class  I.  Three  hours.  Compositions  on  historical  subjects.  Essays  written 
 at  home  and  corrected  in  the  class-room.     Syntax  continued. 
 
 Latin  Language. 
 
 Class  IV.  Three  hours.  Declensions  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns 
 learned.  Examples  learned  by  heart,  and  others  written  as  an 
 exercise  at  home.     Auxiliary  verbs  conjugated. 
 
 Class  III.  Four  hours.  Comparison  of  adjectives.  Regular  verbs  conju- 
 gated. 
 
 Class  II.  Four  hours.  Irregular  verbs.  Syntax  begun.  Translation  from 
 Latin  into  German. 
 
 Class  I.  Six  hours.  Grammar  continued.  Written  exercises  at  home  and 
 in  the  class.  Every  four  weeks  an  extempore  exercise  is  written, 
 which  the  teachers  correct  out  of  school  hours.  Cornelius 
 Nepos  read  and  construed. 
 
 French  Language. 
 
 Class  III.  Three  hours.     Exercises  in  reading.     Elements  of  grammar. 
 
 Words  learned  by  heart.     Easy  exercises  written  at  home  and 
 
 in  school  hours. 
 Class  II.     Four  hours.     Regular    and  irregular  verbs  learned.     Syntax. 
 
 Translations  from  French  into  German.     Words  learned  by 
 
 rote. 
 Class  I.   Four  hours.     Written  exercises  of  increased  difficulty.     Tables 
 
 dictated  and  learned  by  heart.     Voltaire's  Charles  XII.  read. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Class  VI.  Four  hours.  Practical  Arithmetic.  The  fundamental  operations 
 taught  with  numbers  from  one  to  one  hundred ;  first  mentally, 
 then  with  blocks,  and  afterwards  with  figures.  Exercises  pre- 
 pared at  home  twice  a  week, 
 
232  GENERAL  EDUcATIUlV.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 Clast;  V.  Four  liours.  The  four  ground  rules  conlinucd,  with  numbers  us 
 hi<:rli  as  one  thousand.  Exercises  in  reading  and  \vritin{;r  large 
 numbers.  Mental  arithmetic  especially  practised.  Addition 
 and  subtraction  of  abstract  numbers. 
 
 Class  IV.  Four  hours.  Addition  and  subtraction  revised.  Multiplication 
 and  division  of  abstract  numbers.  Weights  and  measures 
 explained. 
 
 Class  III.  Four  hours.     The  four  ground  rules,  with  fractions. 
 
 Class  II.  Three  hours.     Revision  of  the  above.     Rule  of  three. 
 
 Class  I.  Three  hours.  In  tlie  first  year  practical  arithmetic  finished.  Pro- 
 portions and  decimal  fractions.  Elements  of  algebra.  Mental 
 algebra. 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 Class  IV.  Two  hours.  The  essential  preparatory  exercises  in  form,  in  con- 
 nexion with  drawing.     Rudiments  explained. 
 
 Class  III.  Two  hours.  Practice  in  tJic  position  of  points,  drawing  of  lines, 
 angles,  plane  figures,  representations  of  solids. 
 
 Class  II.  Two  hours.  Elements  of  geometry  proper,  the  point,  line,  angles, 
 triangles,  and  measures  of  straight  lines,  surfaces,  and  con- 
 tents. 
 
 Class  I.  Two  hours.  Plane  geometry  completed,  with  practical  exercises. 
 Every  alternate  six  montlis  lessons  in  physics  are  given. 
 
 Natural  History. 
 
 Class  II.  Two  hours.  In  the  summer  term,  study  of  certain  classes  of 
 plants.  In  the  winter  term,  of  animals.  The  subject  is  illus- 
 trated by  drawings. 
 
 Class  I.  Two  hours.  Systematic  botany  during  the  winter  term,  and  zool- 
 ogy and  mineralogy  during  tlic  winter. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Class  III.  Two  hours.  Knowledge  of  home.  Berlin  and  its  environs.  Re- 
 gency of  Potsdam.  Province  of  Brandenburg.  Necessary 
 technical  terms  explained,  as  horizontal,  vertical.  Sec. 
 
 Class  II.  Two  hours.     Geography  of  Prussia  and  Germany. 
 
 Class  I.  Tsvo  hours.  General  geography,  particularly  Europe  and  America. 
 Asia  more  generally.     Africa  and  Australia  very  briefly. 
 
 History. 
 
 Class  II.  Two  hours.  View  of  universal  history,  biographical  rather  than 
 chronological. 
 
 Class  I.  Two  hours.  First  year  universal  history  completed.  Second  year 
 the  history  of  Germany,  and  particularly  of  Prussia.  The 
 most  important  inventions  and  discoveries  arc  noticed  in  con- 
 nexion with  the  history  of  these  couulriesi. 
 
SEMINARY  SCHOOL  OF  liErxLIN.  253 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Class  VI.  Seven  hours.     Reading  by  the  plionic  (laulir)  mctliod.     Analysis 
 
 of  words  in  regard  to  division  into  syllables  and  sounds. 
 Class  V.  Seven  hours.     Mechanical  reading  continued,  but  with  reference  to 
 
 the  meaning  of  the  words.     The  pupils  are  examined  upon 
 
 words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs. 
 Class  IV.  Four  hours.     Explanatory  reading  continued.    Accentuation.    No 
 
 piece  is  allowed  to  be  read  without  its  being  understood. 
 Class  III.  Two  hours.     Rythmical  reading  begun.     Interesting  portions  of 
 
 the  matter  read,  narrated  by  the  pupils  in  their  own  words. 
 Class  II.  Two  hours.     Rythmical  readmg  continued. 
 Class  I.  Two  hours.     Reading  of  some  of  the  German  classics.     Analysis 
 
 of  the  subject  read. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Class  VI.  Five  hours.  Introductory  exercises  of  drawing  upon  the  slate. 
 Copying  the  small  letters  from  the  black-board.  Writing  on 
 paper.  Capital  letters.  Written  exercises  at  home  twice  a 
 week. 
 
 Class  V.  Five  hours.  Writing  of  German  characters  continued.  Roman 
 letters  begun.  Copying  from  a  book  at  home,  with  special  re- 
 ference to  orthography. 
 
 Class  IV.  Four  hours.  Writing  in  German  and  Roman  characters  con- 
 tinued. Two  hours  copying  from  copy-slips.  Two  hours 
 writing  from  dictation. 
 
 Class  III.  Three  hours.  Exercises  of  Class  IV.  continued.  Pupils  who 
 write  well  are  allowed  to  write  without  lines.  Writing  without 
 copies,  according  to  progress. 
 
 Class  II.  Two  hours.  Exercises  continued.  Most  of  the  pupils  write 
 without  lines  or  by  directing  points  merely. 
 
 Class  I.  The  written  exercises  in  other  departments  arc  examined,  to  ascer- 
 tain the  character  of  the  handwriting.  No  special  lessons  are 
 given. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Class  IV.  Two  hours.  Drawing  straight  lines  in  various  directions  and  of 
 various  lengths.  Making  definite  angles.  Drawing  triangles, 
 squares,  and  other  rectilinear  figures. 
 
 Class  III.  Two  hours.     Drawing  of  circles  and  ovals. 
 
 Class  II.  Two  hours.  Drawing  of  bodies  bounded  by  planes  and  straight 
 lines  in  perspective.     Drawing  of  curves. 
 
 Class  I.  Drawing  from  natural  objects,  from  plaster  casts,  and  models. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 Class  IV.  Two  hours  suffice  to  learn  fifteen  or  twenty  songs,  of  one  or  two 
 versos,  by  note,  and  some  ten  choral  songs. 
 
^2^)4  CKiVERAI.   EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 ( 'lass  III.  Two  Iiours.     Songs  witli  two  parts  continued.    Cliorals  with  one 
 
 voice. 
 Class  II.  Two  hours.     Songs  with  two  or  three  voices  continued. 
 Class  I.  Two  hours.     Songs  and  chorals  with  three  or  four  parts. 
 
 Once  during  the  morning  there  is  an  interval  for  recreation 
 in  the  court-yard  of  the  school,  and  the  pupils  are  directed  in 
 their  exercises  of  marching  and  counter-marching,  and  the  like, 
 by  one  of  the  teachers. 
 
 The  course  marked  out  in  the  foregoing  programme,  as  far 
 as  it  extends,  seems  to  me  well  adapted  to  educate  the  moral 
 and  intellectual  faculties,  as  well  as  the  senses;  to  give  mental 
 vigour,  while  it  furnishes  information  useful  to  the  pupil  in  after 
 life. 
 
 There  are  peculiarities  in  regard  to  the  religious  instruction, 
 even  as  intended  for  Protestants,  which  may  be  remarked  in  the 
 fifth  and  third  classes,  the  object  of  which  I  do  not  understand. 
 In  other  respects,  when  sectarian  instruction  may  be  given,  as 
 in  this  school,  where  all  the  pupils  are  of  one  denomination,  the 
 course  appears  to  be  good.  The  manner  of  communicating 
 the  instruction  by  conversation  and  lectures,  used  in  both  this 
 and  the  Dorothean  school,  renders  it  very  effective.  There 
 are  in  all  the  classes,  taken  together,  twenty-two  hours  per 
 week  devoted  to  religious  instruction  here,  and  eighteen  in  the 
 other,  but  the  programme  does  not  show  a  gain  in  the  amount 
 of  knowledge  communicated. 
 
 The  course  in  the  mother  tongue  is  fully  explained  in  the 
 programme,  and  is  well  adapted  to  produce  lluency  and  accu- 
 racy of  expression  in  conversation  and  writing.  Both  this  and 
 the  forecjoinsj  course  extend,  as  thev  should,  throuiih  all  the 
 classes. 
 
 The  Latin  language  is  introduced  with  a  view  to  prepara- 
 tion for  a  gymnasium,  to  the  nomenclature  of  natural  history, 
 the  business  of  the  chemLst  and  druggist,  and  perhaps,  to  use 
 the  language  of  an  accomplished  teacher  in  one  of  the  higher 
 town  schools,  "  because  such  ahvays  has  been  the  custom."  I 
 would  give  the  preference  to  the  course  of  this  school  over 
 
SEMIJVARV  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIJV.  255 
 
 that  of  the  other,  considering  the  time  of  twenty-seven  hours 
 devoted  to  it  more  appropriate  than  of  thirty,  as  in  the  other. 
 ^  The  French,  besides  combining  with  the  German  and  Latin  to 
 give  the  due  proportion  of  intellectual  culture  from  language,  is 
 introductory  to  the  courses  in  the  real  schools,  which  are  pa- 
 rallel with  the  gymnasia,  and  prepare  for  the  polytechnic  or 
 other  special  schools,  as  the  latter  do  for  the  university.  It  is 
 practically  useful,  too,  to  the  shopkeeper  and  tradesman  of  the 
 continent  of  Europe,  and  was,  probably,  formerly  more  so  than 
 at  present.  The  Latin  language  is  begun  in  the  fourth  class,  or 
 at  about  eight  years  of  age,  and  the  French  language  in  the  third 
 class,  but  neither  occupy  more  than  three  hours  a  week,  until 
 a  year  afterwards.  These  languages  occupy  fifty-six  hours  in 
 the  Dorothean  school,  and  forty-seven  in  this,  per  week,  during 
 the  entire  period  through  which  they  are  taught. 
 
 Nothing  can  be  better  than  the  foundation  laid  for  arithmetic. 
 The  pupils  are  engaged  a  year  in  practical  arithmetic  before 
 they  are  introduced  to  a  knowledge  of  abstract  numbers.  Ha- 
 bits of  thought  are  given  by  simple  exercises  in  mental  arith- 
 metic. The  eye  is  enlisted  to  aid  the  mind  by  computing  with 
 cubes,  according  to  the  method  already  described  in  the  schools 
 of  Holland.  Written  arithmetic  relieves  the  mental  exertion, 
 aids  the  memory,  and  trains  the  hand.  The  course  is  then  car- 
 ried on,  combining  mental  and  written  arithmetic,  and  reachino- 
 algebra,  which  is  also,  in  part,  taught  mentally.  The  text^ 
 book  of  arithmetic  is  a  very  useful  treatise,  by  Dr.  Diesterweo- 
 and  Mr.  Heuser.*  I  liked  the  course  in  this  school  altoo-ether 
 better  than  that  in  the  other,  where,  however,  in  the^'older 
 classes,  the  same  text-book  is  used. 
 
 The  course  of  geometry  begins  with  ideas  of  form,  in  con- 
 nexion with  drawing,  according  to  Pestalozzi's  method,  which 
 It  follows  in  general.  It  is  thus  a  powerful  means  of  stimulat- 
 ing the  mind,  and,  though  the  time  occupied  is  greater  than  if 
 the  subject  were  taught  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  results  are 
 much  more  satisfactory.     If  there  is  latent  mathematical  talent 
 
 *  Th 
 
 IS  work  has  jrr)nc  lliroiitrh  ten  cditioiis. 
 
256  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       I'RIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 in  a  pupil,  his  powers  of  invention  cannot  fail  to  be  drawn  out 
 by  this  method. 
 
 Natural  history  is  not  left  to  incidental  instruction,  to  be  de- 
 rived from  the  reading-book,  but  is  directly  taught  in  the  last  two 
 years.  I  had  not  the  opportunity  of  judging  of  the  fruits  of  this 
 instruction  in  the  seminary  school  itself,  but  the  pupils  of  the 
 seminary  were  pursuing  the  subject  with  zeal.  In  comparing 
 this  course  with  that  of  the  other  school,  I  think  it  preferable, 
 except  in  the  omission,  at  tiie  beginning,  of  an  account  of  the 
 domestic  animals.  There  will  be,  I  doubt  not,  great  improve- 
 ments in  teaching  this  branch  at  a  future  day.  At  present,  the 
 plan  is  hardly  formed,  and  the  collections  for  illustration,  where 
 they  exist  at  all,  are,  in  general,  (juite  small.  There  is,  besides, 
 a  tendency  to  make  the  course  too  strictly  scientific. 
 
 The  system  of  instruction  in  geography  is  that  already  mi- 
 nutely described  in  the  school  at  Haarlem  and  at  Ilallc.  It  is 
 begun  in  the  third  class,  or  at  nine  years  of  age,  with  a  de- 
 scription of  home.  History,  which  in  its  elements  is  combined 
 with  geography,  takes  a  separate  place  in  the  second  class. 
 The  practice  of  giving  biographical  sketches  instead  of  mere 
 chronological  details,  cannot  be  too  much  commended.  The 
 pupil  learns  with  interest  the  events  of  the  lives  of  men  who 
 have  made  an  impression  upon  the  age  in  which  they  lived: 
 these  events  form  an  outline  which  is  easily  fixed  in  the  mind, 
 and  may  subsequently  be  filled  up  in  detail.  Again,  the  discus- 
 sions of  inventions  and  discoveries  in  art  or  science  afford  re- 
 lief from  the  descriptions  of  battles  and  revolutions,  and  serve 
 to  show  the  influence  of  genius  exerted  in  civil  life. 
 
 The  i»honic  method  of  teaching  to  read,  wants  only  the  use 
 of  words  having  a  meaning,  as  in  Mr.  Wood's  system,  to  be 
 nearly  perfect.  No  reading  is  allowed,  however,  without  under- 
 standing not  only  the  words,  but  their  connexion,  and  the  ideas 
 conveyed  by  the  sentences.  The  habit  of  thus  giving  paraphrases 
 of  subjects,  leads  to  facility  of  expression,  and  by  combining 
 this  with  copying  from  good  models,  a  correct  style  is  formed. 
 The  course  «.>f  reading  of  the  highest  class,  includes  selections 
 from  the  German  classics,     introductory  exercises  in  drawing 
 
SEMINARY  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN^  257 
 
 precede  the  instruction  in  writing;  these  might,  I  have  no  doubt, 
 be  much  further  extended  with  advantage.*  A  good  handwri- 
 ting is  produced  by  the  succession  of  exercises  described  in  the 
 programme.  The  course  of  drawing,  which  is  commenced  as 
 a  distinct  branch  in  the  fourth  class,  is  intended  to  enable  the 
 pupil  to  sketch  correctly,  and  with  facility,  such  objects  of 
 furniture,  machinery,  &c.,  as  he  may  have  occasion  to  repre- 
 sent in  his  occupations  in  after  life.  The  addition  of  two  hours 
 of  drawing  in  the  fifth  class,  as  in  the  Dorothcan  school,  w^ould 
 seem  to  me  not  to  overburthen  the  class  with  work,  w^hile  it 
 would  add  materially  to  their  proficiency  in  this  useful  branch. 
 
 Singing  is  successfully  taught,  and  by  note.  It  is  considered 
 an  indispensable  branch  of  instruction,  and  all  my  convictions 
 are  in  its  favour,  whether  as  a  means  of  developing  moral 
 sentiment,  or  of  physical  education.  Singing  by  ear  might, 
 however,  very  well  begin  in  the  lower  classes,  and  for  this 
 purpose  the  number  of  hours  of  instruction  per  w^eek  might  be 
 increased  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-six  in  the  lowest,  and 
 twenty-eight  in  the  fifth  class.  This  would  make  the  number 
 of  hours  for  these  classes  the  same  as  in  the  Dorothean  school. 
 
 The  time  allotted  to  the  difl^erent  studies  will  appear  better 
 by  the  annexed  table.  In  regard  to  the  ages  of  the  pupils,  in- 
 serted in  the  heading  of  the  columns,  it  is  to  be  understood 
 that  they  are  those  of  intelligent  and  industrious  boys,  entering 
 at  six  years,  and  going  regularly  through  the  classes.  As  in 
 the  former  tables,  the  subjects  of  instruction  are  placed  in  the 
 first  column,  the  number  of  hours  per  week  occupied  by  the 
 several  classes  in  the  following  ones,  and  the  total  number  of 
 hours  devoted  to  each  subject,  while  in  the  school,  in  the  last 
 column.  In  forming  this  total,  the  number  of  hours  occupied 
 by  the  four  lower  classes,  the  course  in  each  of  which  is  of  one 
 year,  is  reckoned  once;  and  the  number  of  hours  of  the  two 
 upper  classes,  each  course  occupying  two  years,  is  doubled. 
 
 *  As  has  been  clone  for  the  elements  of  an  Eng-lisli  hand,  hy  our  countryman, 
 Mr.  Rembrandt  Pcalc,  in  his  admirable  System  of  Graphics.  The  forms  of  the 
 German  letters  would  require  a  different  system. 
 
 :J8 
 
258 
 
 GENERAL   EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 Table  of  distribution  of  time  in  the  Royal  Seminary  School  of  Berlin. 
 
 SUBJECTS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 
 
 NUMBER  OP  HOURS  PER  WEEK. 
 
 ■in 
 
 ijj- 
 
 •l2pjr 
 
 o 
 ■A    ^^ 
 
 ■^    ° 
 
 Religious  Instruction, 
 German  Language, 
 Reading,    .... 
 Latin  Language,     - 
 French  Language,  - 
 Arithmetic,     -     -     - 
 Geometry,      -     -     - 
 Natural  History, 
 Geography,    -     -     - 
 History,     .... 
 
 Drawing, 
 Singing, 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 From  this  table  it  appears  that  language  occupies  one  hundred 
 and  five  hours,  estimating  the  time  devoted  to  reading  with  that 
 for  German,  Latin,  and  French,  science  sixty-four  hours,  and 
 the  mechanical  branches,  including  writing,  drawing,  and  sing- 
 ing, forty-three.  It  would  be  erroneous,  however,  to  suppose  that 
 the  results  are  in  these  proportions.  The  least  consideration  will 
 show  that  the  progress  in  dilVerent  branches  in  the  same  school 
 
 •  This  includes  preparatory  gcomclncal  exercise* 
 
SEMINARY  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN. 
 
 i>59 
 
 cannot  be  estimated  by  the  time  devoted  to  tliem;  the  intrinsic 
 difficulties  of  acquisition,  the  difierent  periods  of  the  course  at 
 whicfi  they  arc  introduced,  and  various  other  causes,  prevent 
 comparisons  of  this  sort.  Not  only  so,  but  the  time  occupied  in 
 the  same  subjects  in  different  schools,  which  might  be  thought  to 
 afford  an  accurate  test  of  comparative  progress  in  them,  can- 
 not, in  reality,  be  employed  for  this  purpose,  without  at  the 
 same  time  carefully  studying  the  programmes,  to  ascertain  how 
 the  time  is  applied  in  each  class,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
 distributed  among  the  several  classes.  The  two  higher  city 
 schools  just  described,  afford  conclusive  evidence  of  this  fact. 
 There  can  be  no  doubt,  I  think,  that  the  Dorothean  school  is 
 the  stronger  in  language,  and  the  seminary  school  in  science. 
 Such  is  the  general  reputation  of  the  two,  and  such  is  the  tone 
 which  the  director  of  each  would  be  likely  to  give  to  the  school 
 under  his  charge.  The  impression  which  I  derived  from  visit- 
 ing the  two  establishments  was  to  the  same  effect.  The  nun> 
 her  of  hours  per  week  devoted  to  language  in  all  the  classes 
 of  the  two  schools  is,  however,  ninety-eight  for  the  first,  and  one 
 hundred  and  five  for  the  second,  and  to  science,  eighty-two  for 
 the  former  and  sixty-four  for  the  latter;  leading,  in  both  cases, 
 to  the  reverse  of  the  conclusion  just  stated.  If  differences  in 
 the  arrangement  of  studies,  in  the  power  of  the  teachers,  in  the 
 methods  and  implements  of  instruction,  and  even  in  the  pupils 
 themselves,  may  lead  to  such  resuUs,  small  differences  in  the 
 proportion  of  time  allotted  to  different  branches  should  not, 
 without  carefully  checking  their  results  by  other  comparisons, 
 be  assumed  to  indicate  corresponding  differences  in  the  value 
 of  the  courses. 
 
 In  following  the  course  of  studies  of  these  two  schools,  it 
 will  be  seen  that  those  of  the  lowest  class,  in  each,  are  almost 
 identical.  In  the  next,  the  seminary  school  has  greatly  the 
 advantage  in  the  compactness  of  arrangement,  by  which  the 
 attention  of  the  pupil  is  confined  to  fewer  subjects.  No  less 
 than  ten  branches  are  introduced  into  the  programme  of  this 
 class  in  the  Dorothean  school,  while  there  are  but  five  in  the 
 seminary  school     The  scientific  branches,  pxcept  those  ^^•llich 
 
200  CiENERAL  EDUCATION.        lUIMAin     IKHUH). 
 
 run  through  all  the  yours,  arc  introduced  later  in  the  latter 
 school,  which  is  in  accordance  with  the  principle  of  concen- 
 trating the  attention  on  a  few  subjects,  where  it  is  possible.  It 
 appears  to  me  that,  in  general,  it  is  not  proper  to  introduce  these 
 branches  early,  exccjU  as  matters  of  incidental  instruction. 
 The  separation  of  the  programmes  of  the  two  schools,  produced 
 as  just  stated,  renders  it  dilTicult  briefly  to  compare  the  courses 
 of  the  same  class  in  each.  A  general  comparison  of  the  sub- 
 jects shows  that  the  German  language  is  taught  accordfng 
 to  the  same  plan  in  each,  and  that  the  highest  class  attains  the 
 same  level  in  each,  as  far  as  the  grammar  is  concerned;  much 
 more  attention,  howev^er,  is  paid  in  the  seminary  school  to  the 
 reading  courses,  as  well  for  the  acquisition  of  reading  as  an 
 art,  and  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  it,  as  for  the  incidental  know- 
 ledge to  be  communicated.  Nearly  onc-fourtli  of  the  pupil's 
 time,  in  the  school  just  named,  is  devoted  to  the  vernacular. 
 The  Latin  is  bcc^nn  in  the  same  class  in  both  schools,  but  the 
 course  in  the  Dorothean  school  at  once  takes  the  lead  of 
 the  other,  and  keeps  it  throughout.  The  French  begins  in 
 the  fifth  class  in  one  school,  and  in  the  third  in  the  other;  and, 
 though  the  programmes  terminate  at  about  the  same  point,  there 
 is  a  greater  proficiency  made  in  the  Dorothean  schook  One 
 object,  if  not  the  principal  one,  of  learning  this  language  being 
 to  speak  it,  the  early  commencement  is  an  advantage.  In 
 a  general  comparison  of  progress  in  language,  the  Dorothean 
 school,  as  already  stated,  ranks  higher  than  the  other. 
 
 The  courses  of  arithmetic  arc  different,  but  terminate  at  the 
 same  level;  I  have  already  mentioned  my  preference  for  the 
 course  of  the  seminary.  Geometry  is  begun  in  the  fifth  class 
 in  the  Dorothean,  and  in  the  fourth  in  the  seminary  school; 
 the  courses  go  on  together  for  three  classes,  and  extend  further 
 in  the  latter  institution.  The  dificrences  in  the  courses  of  na- 
 tural history  have  already  been  the  subject  of  remark.  The 
 course  of  geography  is  essentially  the  same,  dillering  only  in 
 the  age  of  the  pupil  at  beginning.  History  is  begun  in  the 
 fourth  class  *A'  the  Dorothean,  and  in  the  second  in  the  seminary 
 school:  it  is  more  sv*^tomnlic  in  the  former,  nnd  assuni(*s  more 
 
HIGHER  BURfillER  SCHOuL  OF  POTSUAM.  201 
 
 the  form  of  biography  in  the  latter:  the  range  of  the  two  courses 
 does  not  differ  essentially.  Taking  these  branches,  classed  as 
 scientific,  together,  the  superiority  is  with  the  seminary  school, 
 and  thus,  in  both  this  and  the  former  case,  the  judgment  which 
 would  have  been  pronounced  by  referring  to  the  numbers 
 merely,  is  reversed. 
 
 HIGHER  BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  POTSDAM. 
 
 This  school*  differs  from  those  already  described  in  several 
 particulars,  exemplifying,  in  its  arrangements,  the  division  into 
 lower  and  higher  burgher  schools,  and  carrying  the  courses  of 
 the  latter  decidedly  into  the  domain  of  secondary  instruction. 
 Its  principal  objects  are  to  prepare  children  of  both  sexes  for 
 occupations  connected  with,  or  corresponding  to,  the  lower 
 trades,  and  boys  for  the  higher  mechanical  occupations,  as 
 builders,  architects,  &c.,  or  for  admission  into  the  trade  school 
 connected  with  the  Government,  Mechanics',  or  Trade  Institute 
 at  Berlin,!  and  for  the  gymnasium.  This  school  thus  supplies 
 instruction  of  different  grades;  first,  elementary  instruction  of  a 
 higher  kind;  second,  that  usually  given  in  the  "real  schools"  of 
 Prussia,  and  third,  that  necessary  for  entrance  into  the  higher 
 classes  of  a  gymnasium,  or  grammar  school.  Hence  its  studies 
 embrace  many  subjects  and  stages  of  progress  which  properly 
 belong  to  secondary  instruction,  and  even  to  a  greater  degree 
 than  other  higher  burgher  schools. 
 
 The  pupils  pursue  a  course  common  to  all  in  the  three  lower 
 classes,  or  from  about  six  to  eleven  or  twelve  years  of  age, 
 when  a  separation  takes  place.  Those  who  are  to  leave  school 
 at  thirteen  or  fourteen,  pass  into  the  "  middle  burgher  school 
 class,"  in  which  the  study  of  Latin  and  French  is  dropped,  and 
 the  time  is  devoted  to  religious  instruction,  German,  mathema- 
 tics, geography  and  history,  the  elements  of  natural  history, 
 technology  and  physics,  writing,  drawing,  and  vocal  music. 
 Those  pupils  who  are  })reparing  for  a  higher  class  of  a  gym- 
 
 *  Under  the  cliarge  of  director  Lofiler. 
 
 +  This  excellent  institution  will  be  hereafter  particularly  described. 
 
2iV2  UlCNKRAL   ElJlJCATlO.N.       PRIMARY   PERlOlJ. 
 
 nasium,  or  who  intend  lo  pursue  tlic  entire  course  here,  pass 
 iVoni  the  third  class  to  the  "  second  burgher  school  class." 
 These  arrangements  appear  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  citizens 
 of  Potsdam,  for,  in  1837,  forty-two  puj)ils  passed  from  the  third 
 class  to  the  middle  burgher  school  class,  and  forty-one  to  the 
 second  class  of  the  higher  school. 
 
 Pupils  preparing  for  the  sixth  class  of  a  gymnasium  leave 
 this  school  in  the  "  second  elementary  class,"  or  at  about  nine 
 or  ten  years  of  age,  and  those  who  aim  at  the  third  class  of  a 
 gymnasium,  usually  pass  from  this  at  the  close  of  the  course 
 of  the  second  class  in  the  higher  school.  The  first,  or  upper 
 class,  thus  contains  only  those  pupils  who  intend  to  enter  into  ac- 
 tive business  life  on  leaving  the  school,  or  to  enter  a  special 
 school  of  arts  and  trades.  On  this  account,  the  branches  of 
 science  which  are  immediately  applicable  to  such  objects,  are 
 introduced  into  the  course.  This  class  consisted,  in  1837,  of 
 ten  pu})ils.  The  complete  course  is  usually  gone  through  at  or 
 before  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  entitles  the  pupil  to  claim  one 
 year  of  voluntary  military  service,  instead  of  the  three  regular 
 years,  and  qualifies  him  for  appointment  in  the  government 
 bureaux. 
 
 The  six  boys'  and  three  girls'  classes  have  twelve  ordinary 
 teacliei-s,  besides  one  assistant,  and  two  female  teachers.  Each 
 of  the  lower  classes  has  but  one  teacher,  who  attends  to  all 
 the  subjects  as  in  the  other  schools  already  described.  The 
 total  number  of  pupils  was,  in  1837,  four  hundred  and  fifty-six, 
 of  whom  three  hundred  and  twenty-three  were  boys. 
 
 The  usual  system  of  change  of  place  in  the  classes  is  cm- 
 ployed  to  excite  emulation,  and  discipline  is  mainly  conducted 
 by  means  of  a  black-book,  in  which  a  pupil's  name  is  entered 
 at  the  end  of  the  week  or  month,  when  he  has  had  a  certain 
 number  of  faults  per  week  or  per  month  marked  against  him 
 by  the  teacher.  Marks  of  merit  arc  allowed  to  cancel  those  of 
 demerit.  The  entry  is  communicated  to  the  pupil's  comrades, 
 and  also  to  his  parents.  As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  judge  of 
 these  and  similar  systems  of  discipline  in  day  schools,  I  have 
 not  found  anv  marked  i^ood  oflert*:  from  them.      If  a  t(>ncher  is 
 
HIGHER  BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  POTSDAM.  263 
 
 competent,  he  keeps  up  good  discipline  without  them,  and  if  he 
 is  not,  they  are  of  Httle  or  no  service  to  him.  In  this  remark 
 I  do  not  mean  to  include  communications  to  parents,  which  aro. 
 frequently  of  the  greatest  utility.  The  following  plan,  which 
 apparently  hears  some  analogy  to  this,  but  which  owes  its  effi- 
 cacy to  a  different  principle,  is  in  successful  operation  in  Dr. 
 Mayo's  excellent  boarding-school  at  Cheam,  in  Surrey,  Eng- 
 land. When  a  pupil  proves  insensible  to  the  admonitions  of  the 
 teacher,  and  is  frequently  reported  for  offences  or  negligence, 
 he  is  required  to  show  to  the  principal  a  written  statement  of 
 character  from  each  master  after  every  hour.  He  is  thus  sub- 
 jected to  admonition  or  other  punishment  from  the  principal 
 immediately  after  committing  an  offence.  For  this  very  strict  su- 
 pervision, one  extending  over  a  day  or  week  is  substituted  when 
 improvement  manifests  itself,  or  w^hen  the  case  does  not  require 
 so  great  severity. 
 
 I  propose  now  to  give  a  statement  of  the  courses  of  the 
 burgher  school  at  Potsdam,  and  of  the  time  required  for  their 
 completion,  w^ith  remarks  and  comparisons  with  the  schools 
 already  described. 
 
 The  annexed  plan  of  the  distribution  of  time  gives  also  a  list 
 of  the  subjects  of  instruction;  it  is  arranged  exactly  like  the 
 similar  ones  already  presented.  The  first  two  columns  of  figures 
 on  the  left  hand  refer  to  the  number  of  hours  of  study  per  week 
 in  the  two  classes  of  the  higher  school.  The  third  contains 
 those  of  the  middle  burgher  school  class,  the  pupils  in  which 
 terminate  their  course  here.  The  next  three  contain  the  hours 
 of  study  of  the  elementary  classes,  which  are  common  to  the 
 whole  school. 
 
201  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARV  PERIOD. 
 
 Tabic  of  tlic  distribution  of  time  of  tlic  Higher  Burgher  School  of  Potsdam. 
 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 OF 
 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 w^  - 
 
 "3 
 
 1  i 
 
 m 
 11 
 
 m 
 
 J    1 
 
 «      rs 
 
 ^    1 
 
 1    1 
 
 =  «•  i: 
 -  s  r 
 
 c«       oc 
 
 1        . 
 r    1 
 
 !  " 
 
 =  5  S 
 
 y  ;j  i-- 
 
 u<     " 
 
 <n      -^ 
 
 2 
 
 Religious  Instruction,      .... 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 German  Language, 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5* 
 
 5* 
 
 6t 
 
 44 
 
 Reading, 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 oo 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 It 
 
 2§ 
 
 2§ 
 
 18 
 
 Natural  History, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 Geography, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 Technology, 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 PViiroina      _.-                -.... 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 Writing,       
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 V2 
 
 Singing, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 38 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 •  Includes  orthography,  2  hours;  grammar,  2  hours;  exercises  of  style,  1 
 hour. 
 
 +  Includes  exercises  of  memory,  2  hours. 
 
 t  Preparatory  exercises. 
 
 f)  KIcmcnts  of  form. 
 
 II  The  column  of  totals  refers  to  the  regular  progression  of  five  classes,  and  is 
 obtained  by  doubling  the  numhers  here  jjiven  for  the  three  elementary  and  two 
 upper  burgher  school  cla-sscs. 
 
HIGHER  BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  POTSDAM.  265 
 
 Besides  the  branches  taught  in  the  burgher  schools  already 
 described,  we  have  in  this  one  technology,  physics,  and  che- 
 mistry, and  the  nunnber  of  hours  attached  to  them  in  the  forego- 
 ing table  shows  that  they  are  actually  taught  to  a  considerable 
 extent.  These  subjects  are  introduced,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
 amount  of  study  in  the  languages  is  increased,  requiring  an  un- 
 due degree  of  labour  of  the  classes,  and  dividing  their  attention 
 among  too  many  subjects.  Thirty-eight  hours  of  attendance 
 on  school  per  week  is  certainly  too  much  to  require. 
 
 Latin  is  begun  in  the  second  elementary  class,  where  the  first 
 rudiments  of  grammar  are  learned,  and  easy  sentences  trans- 
 lated. This  course  is  continued  in  the  next  class.  Those  who 
 intend  to  leave  the  school  in  the  middle  burgher  school  class, 
 may  be  excused  from  attending  the  Latin  lessons  in  the  first. 
 
 The  second  class  of  the  higher  school  read  Cornelius  Nepos, 
 and  the  first  Caesar  and  Ovid,  Their  proficiency  did  not,  how- 
 ever, seem  to  me  to  correspond  at  all  with  the  number  of  hours 
 devoted  to  this  branch,  viz.  forty.  The  object  of  this  instruction, 
 for  those  who  do  not  go  to  the  gymnasium,  is  stated  to  be  to 
 enable  them  to  pursue  the  science  necessary  to  their  callings, 
 without  embarrassment  from  the  terms.  I  am  of  opinion  that, 
 in  such  a  case,  the  system  pursued  in  Mr.  Wood's  school,  applied 
 to  learning  the  etymology  of  compound  Latin  words,  and  of  the 
 German  words  derived  from  the  Latin,  would  answ^er  the  end 
 better,  with  a  less  consumption  of  time;  and  if  Latin  is  to  be  re- 
 tained, the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  it  in  the  Dorothean 
 school  (thirty),  or  in  the  seminary  school  (twenty-seven),  seem 
 much  better  suited  to  the  object  in  view.  I  am  induced  to  what 
 may  seem  a  tedious  discussion  of  these  programmes,  because 
 they  aftbrd  difl^erent  examples  of  primary  instruction — the  grade 
 with  which  our  college  must  begin,  and  we  cannot  examine 
 too  carefully  the  subjects  which  should  compose  it,  nor  draw 
 too  largely  upon  experience  in  the  details  of  arrangement. 
 
 French.  This  course  docs  not  dilTer   materially  from  those 
 
 already  given.     Telemachus  is  used  as  a  text-book.     The  time 
 
 appropriated  to  the  language  appears  sufiicient,  without  being 
 
 burthensonic.     Both  the  Latin  and  French  being  (-ommenccd 
 
 34 
 
260  tiENERAL   EDUCATION.       PKIMARV   PERIOD. 
 
 in  the  second  elementary  class,  which  contains  pupils  who 
 intend  to  leave  school  at  the  end  of  the  "  middle  burgher  school 
 class  year,"  it  may  be  supposed  that  this  time  is  thrown  away, 
 as  very  little  proficiency  can  be  made  in  so  short  a  period ;  the 
 force  of  this  objection  is,  however,  somewhat  diminished  by 
 the  fact,  that  the  arranc^cmcnt  gives  an  opportunity  for  the  de- 
 velopment of  a  disposition  for  language  which  may  warrant 
 a  change  in  the  destination  of  the  pupil. 
 
 In  arithmetic,  the  lowest  class  is  employed  mainly  in  tlic  men- 
 tal exercises.  After  they  have  learned  to  make  figures,  they 
 prepare  written  examples  at  home.  In  the  next  class,  written 
 arithmetic  is  combined  with  mental.  The  four  ground  rules 
 are  learned  with  abstract  and  concrete  numbers.  Preparatory 
 exercises  in  fractions  are  taught.  The  first  elementary  class 
 proceed  as  far  as  to  include  fractions,  and  a  part  of  the  class 
 study  proportions.  The  middle  burgher  school  class  pass  on 
 to  decimal  fractions  and  the  square  and  cube  root.  The  second 
 burgher  school  class  have  their  attention  in  these  same  parts 
 of  arithmetic  directed  to  the  technical  applications,  and  besides, 
 begin  algebra,  and  proceed  as  far  as  simple  equations.  The 
 first  burgher  school  class  extend  their  course  of  alget)ra 
 through  equations  of  the  second  and  third  degrees,  progres- 
 sions, and  logarithms.  Mercantile  arithmetic  also  forms  part 
 of  their  course.  These  latter  subjects,  however,  can  in  no  wise 
 be  considered  as  belonging  to  primary  instruction. 
 
 Gdomelry.  Preparatory  exercises  of  form,  after  the  method 
 of  Pestalozzi,  are  taught  in  the  elementary  classes,  and  the 
 higher  ones  proceed  through  the  elements  of  geometry,  and 
 include  mensuration  and  plane  trigonometry.  The  head  mas- 
 ter has  arranged,  for  the  benefit  of  his  pupils,  a  course  contain- 
 ing the  most  important  elements,  and  teaches  also  by  lectures, 
 which  the  pupils  are  required  to  write  out.  The  time  allotted  to 
 this  subject  is  nearly  double  that  of  the  seminary  school,  and  I 
 saw  some  reason  to  doubt  the  propriety  of  beginning  the  ele- 
 mentary exercises  so  early. 
 
 Kno\rh'dirc  of  nature  and  art.  The  introduction  to  this  sub- 
 ject, taught  in  \\w  lowost  twri  rjnsscs.  is  drawn  from  nntnral 
 
HIGHER  BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  POTSDAM.  267 
 
 history,  physical  geography,  and  physics,  and  is  made  the 
 means  of  inductive  exercise.  The  recitations  and  conversation 
 lectures  which  I  heard,  evidently  interested  the  pupils,  while 
 they  cultivated  habits  of  reflection  and  observation.  They  are 
 parallel  with  the  lessons  on  objects  of  the  English  schools, 
 being,  however,  more  extended.  The  more  systematic  course 
 of  natural  history  of  the  higher  classes,  is  Hke  that  of  the 
 seminary  school.  In  summer  the  pupils  make  occasional  ex- 
 cursions into  the  country,  for  practical  exercise  in  this  branch, 
 under  charge  of  a  teacher:  these  excursions,  if  rightly  impro- 
 ved, may  be  made  also  the  means  of  cultivating  proper  relations 
 between  the  pupil  and  teacher,  but  they  are  liable  to  abuse, 
 and  should  be  carefully  attended  to,  in  order  to  prevent  such 
 results.  This  school  possesses  a  good  collection  of  plates  of 
 natural  history,*  and  has  the  use  of  the  museum  of  the  trade 
 school,  which  is  under  its  roof. 
 
 The  course  of  technology,  intended  to  give  a  knowledge  of 
 the  principal  arts  and  their  processes,  lies  open  to  the  objection 
 already  urged,  on  the  score  of  overburthening  the  pupils  with 
 work.  Such  knowledge,  as  well  as  that  of  physics  and  che- 
 mistry, would  be  of  service  in  after  life,  but  I  do  not  see  the 
 possibility  of  teaching  it,  except  in  a  mere  outline,  in  a  short 
 course,  and  the  time  allotted  appears  to  contemplate  something 
 more. 
 
 Geography.  This  course  is  begun  with  physical  geography. 
 The  natural  and  artificial  divisions  of  the  world  follow. 
 Then  the  physical  and  political  geograply  of  Europe  is  taken 
 up.  The  course  of  the  upper  or  middle  burgher  school  class 
 terminates  with  that  of  Germany,  and  especially  of  the  Mark  of 
 Brandenburgh,  and  with  a  review  of  the  whole.  The  second 
 burgher  school  class  has  the  same  course  with  the  middle  class. 
 The  first  takes  up  mathematical  geography,  and  reviews  physi- 
 cal geography  more  minutely,  adding  a  knowledge  of  the  cli- 
 mate, productions,  commerce,  manuft^cturcs,  (fee.  of  the  coun- 
 tries studied.     Mnps  are  drawn,  as  an  exercise,  nt  home.    This 
 
ii()8  GENERA1>  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PEKIOb. 
 
 geographical  course,  which  attaches  every  other  part  of  the 
 information  to  physical  geography,  appeared  to  ine  next  in  its 
 success  to  the  inductive  plan  already  described.  It  is  much 
 facilitated  by  the  use  of  raised  maps,  on  which  the  natural 
 features  of  the  country  strike  the  eye  more  forcibly  than  on  a 
 common  map,  where,  if  the  physical  details  are  given,  the 
 names  and  positions  of  the  places,  the  boundaries,  &c.  are  ob- 
 scured by  them. 
 
 The  course  of  historij,  in  the  lower  classes,  is  like  that  in  the 
 other  schools.  In  the  middle  class  the  subject  is  reviewed,  and 
 the  history  of  Germany,  and  especially  that  of  Prussia,  and 
 of  the  Mark  of  Brandenburgh  is  studied.  The  second  higher 
 burgher  school  class  is  taught  an  outline  of  ancient  history,  of 
 that  of  the  middle  ages,  and  of  later  times,  and  then  proceeds 
 to  the  history  of  Germany  and  of  Brandenburgh.  In  the  first 
 class,  the  history  of  Germany,  and  of  modern  Europe  in  gene- 
 ral, is  continued. 
 
 In  the  mechanical  branches,  the  distribution  of  time  agrees 
 with  that  in  the  other  schools,  except  in  the  number  of  hours 
 allotted  to  writing,  which  is  here  twenty-eight,  and  in  theDoro- 
 thean  school  but  sixteen.  Vocal  music  is  taught  by  ear  in  the 
 lower  classes,  and  by  note  in  the  u]>per. 
 
 Physical  education.  There  is  an  interval  of  a  quarter  of  an 
 hour  in  the  middle  of  tlie  morning,  during  which  the  pupils  are 
 free  to  take  exercise,  but  there  is  no  regular  gymnastic  or  other 
 <^xercise  under  the  superintendence  of  the  teachers. 
 
 GENERAL  REMARKS. 
 
 It  is  clear,  from  the  foregoing  examples  of  scho(.)ls  usually 
 considercd  as  belonging  to  the  same  class,  that  any  general  law 
 requiring  exact  uniformity  in  all,  would  not  meet  the  wants  ol 
 the  people,  the  varieties  having  been  framed  to  meet  these 
 wants. 
 
 Accordingly,  the  project  of  1811),*  which  contains  a  parti- 
 cular course  for  the  burgher  school,  has  not  been  adopted,  and 
 
 *   Report  of  .Al.  Cousin,  Amor.  E<ht.,  pi>.  ")•>,  67. 
 
BURGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA.  269 
 
 though  the  Royal  Cabinet  Order  of  September,  1829,*  refers  to 
 improvements  in  the  burgher  schools  generally,  as  recommended 
 to  the  attention  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  I  am  not 
 aware  that  any  steps  have  been  taken  to  produce  a  more  sys- 
 tematic arrangement  of  the  class-f 
 
 It  is  obvious,  also,  from  what  has  been  presented,  that  the 
 elementary  instruction  requires  raising  to  a  higher  level  than 
 at  present,  namely,  to  that  of  which  an  example  has  been  given 
 in  the  higher  elementary  school  of  Weissenfels.     That  then  all 
 pupils  whose  circumstances  permit  them  to  devote  a  longer 
 time  to  education  should  pass  to  other  schools,  of  a  kind  de- 
 pending upon  their  destination  in  after  life,  as  determined  by 
 the  circumstances  of  their  parents  and  their  own  talents.     The 
 tone  of  these  higher  schools  would,  it  appears,  require  to  be 
 varied  according  to  the  wants  of  the  population  among  which 
 they  are  placed,  whether  that  of  the  country,  of  small  towns,  or 
 of  cities.     In  the  cities,  it  has  been  seen  that  one  class  of  burgher 
 schools  required  is  provided,  and  others  will  be  described  be- 
 longing more  properly  to  a  higher  grade  of  instruction,  upon 
 the  province  of  which,  however,  these  latter  decidedly  trench. 
 An  example  of  a  systematic  arrangement  appropriate  to  a  city 
 is  afforded  by  the  burgher  school  of  Leipsic,  presently  to  be 
 described.     Such  a  plan  would,  however,  be  inappropriate  to 
 a  small  town,  where,  of  necessity,  several  schools  must  be 
 united  in  one.     In  this  case,  it  would  require  care  to  avoid  the 
 union  of  incompatible  classes  of  pupils,  causing  mutual  losses  of 
 time,  and  giving  rise  to  defective  habits  of  study.     The  same 
 teachers  should  give  instruction  in  the  different  departments  of 
 the  school,  in  the  same  or  kindred  subjects,  rather  than  to  unite 
 different   classes.     The    pupil  preparing   for   the   gymnasium 
 should  not  be  called  upon  to  study  the  natural  sciences  or  ma- 
 thematics which  he  will  pursue  there,  and  of  which  he  does 
 not  feel  the  want  for  admission,  nor  the  student  who  is  to  enter 
 
 *  Allgcmcinc  Sclnil  Zcitunf^,  Al)th.  1,  Num.  9, quoted  by  Dr.  irarnit-ch,  "Din 
 Deutsche  Biirgerschulo,"  p.  91). 
 
 t  See  also  Harnisch  "  Dio  DiMitsrhe  Biirg-f^rsrlinlo,"  pngr  101. 
 
270  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 an    architectural,   commercial,  or   trade   school,   the  classics 
 which  tlic  gymnasial  student  re(juires  for  his  admission. 
 
 Wlien  there  are  ecjually  good  means  for  the  cultivation  of 
 the  faculties,  it  is  clear  that  the  destination  of  the  individual 
 should  regulate  those  which  are  to  be  applied  to  his  case.  As 
 this  destination  usually  only  appears  as  the  pupil  advances  in  age 
 and  intellectual  development,  many  different  classes  must  ne- 
 cessarily be  kept  together  during  the  elementary  period.  Sub- 
 sequently, when  a  separation  in  the  character  of  the  studies  be- 
 comes expedient,  it  should,  at  first,  be  gradual,  to  give  oppor- 
 tunity for  the  transfer  of  a  pupil  from  one  line  to  another,  and, 
 finally,  be  entirely  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  future  occu- 
 pation. Mental  discipline  is,  doubtless,  the  chief  object  of  the 
 first  periods  of  education,  but  if  it  be  attainable  by  the  acquisi- 
 tion of  knowledge  directly  applicable  to  the  pursuits  in  life, 
 such  an  advantage  is  by  no  means  to  be  neglected.  If  there 
 were  but  one  method  for  a  thorough  culture  of  mind,  still,  when 
 time  is  allowed  for  only  a  partial  application  of  that  method,  it 
 might  be  expedient  to  adopt  inferior  means,  which  would  pro- 
 duce a  result  complete  in  itself,  with  the  advantage  that  the 
 knowledge  used  to  train  the  mental  powers  is  also  directly  ap- 
 plicable to  the  pursuits  in  life.  Where  primary  education  is 
 merely  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  secondary,  the  problem 
 is  much  more  simple. 
 
PRIMARY   INSTRUCTION   IN  SAXONY.  271 
 
 CHAPTER  VI. 
 
 PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SAXONY. 
 
 The  existing  law  on  primary  instruction  dates  only  from 
 1835,*  and  is  as  yet  but  imperfectly  carried  into  practice,  except 
 in  the  provisions  which  formed  the  law  of  the  land,  and  which  had 
 grown  into  usage  previously  to  the  promulgation  of  the  present 
 system.  I  shall  give  a  very  brief  sketch  of  the  main  features 
 of  this  law,  which,  in  essentials,  differs  but  little  from  the  exist- 
 ing decrees  in  Prussia.  At  one  period  of  its  history.  Saxony 
 was  in  advance  of  Prussia  in  the  character  of  its  public  instruc- 
 tion, a  distinction  which  it  has  now  lost,  but  which  it  is  making 
 vigorous  efforts  to  regain. 
 
 A  number  of  common  schools,  corresponding  to  the  wants  of 
 the  people,  's  ensured  by  a  division  of  the  kingdom  into  school- 
 circuits  (schul-bezirke),  and  all  the  children  residing  in  each 
 circuit  must  attend  the  school  there  established  for  eight  years, 
 beginning  at  least  at  the  age  of  six.f  No  boy  can  be  appren- 
 ticed until  after  the  age  at  which  he  may  lawfully  leave  school. 
 Congregations  of  different  religious  persuasions  are  allowed  to 
 establish  schools  in  their  circuit,  and  if  no  other  school  exists 
 than  one  so  estabhshed,  all  the  children  of  the  circuit  are  bound 
 
 *  Law  No.  60,  concerning  popular  elementary  instruction,  June  6,  1835. 
 (Gesetz  das  Elcmcntar  Volkschuhvesen  betrcfTend  von  6ten  Juni,  1835.)  Also  No. 
 61 :  (Dispositions  relating  to  the  law  on  popular  elementary  instruction,  9th  June, 
 1835.)  (Vcrordnung  zum  Gestetzc,  &c.,  von  9ten  Juni,  1835.)  These  laws,  with 
 the  regulations  for  the  examination  of  teachers,  a  list  of  a  teacher's  library,  and 
 directions  for  the  erection  of  school-houses,  are  collected  in  one  volume,  by  Dr. 
 G.  L.  Schulzc,  under  tlic  title  "  Das  Elemcntar-volksschulgcsetz  fur  die  KOniglich 
 Siichsischen  Land,  &.c.,  mit  Inhaltsiibersichten,  verschiedenen  anmerkungen  and 
 erlauterungen  und  cinen  volstilndigsten  register,  6lc. 
 
 t  There  is  attaciied  to  eacii  school  a  person  whose  duty  it  is  to  ascertain  the 
 causes  of  the  absence  of  pupils,  and  who  is  entitled  to  a  small  fee  from  the  parents 
 for  each  call  he  maken  upon  them. 
 
272  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIJVIARY   PERIOD. 
 
 to  attend  it;  they  are  not,  however,  required  to  take  part  in  the 
 religious  instruction. 
 
 Every  school  circuit  nnust  furnish  a  school-house,  and  a 
 dwelling  for  the  teacher.  Populous  villages  are  frequently  di- 
 vided into  several  circuits.  The  schools  are  supported  from 
 funds  of  the  church,  from  the  interest  on  donations  to  the  school- 
 fund,  from  fines  levied  on  parents  who  neglect  to  send  their 
 children  to  school,  from  a  payment  made  to  the  school-fund  in 
 purchases  of  property,  from  collections,  from  the  fees  paid  l)y 
 the  pupils,  and  from  direct  taxation.  These  funds  are  charge- 
 able with  the  master's  salary,*  with  the  furniture  of  the  school, 
 books  and  slates  for  poor  children,  prizes,  insurance,  and  inci- 
 dental expenses. 
 
 According  to  a  census  in  July,  1832,  Saxony  contained  273,535 
 children  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fourteen  years.  Adding 
 to  this  1126,t  the  probable  increase  up  to  the  close  of  1832,  we 
 have  at  that  period  274,661  children  required  to  be  in  the 
 schools.  The  census  for  the  same  period  gives  274,305  in  the 
 elementary  and  burgher  schools,  leaving  but  356  to  be  accounted 
 for  by  those  under  private  instruction,  and  in  the  lower  classes 
 of  the  gymnasia.  At  the  same  time  there  were  4397  pupils 
 in  the  private  schools  of  Dresden  and  Lcipsic  alone,  besides  up- 
 wards of  2400  in  the  lower  classes  of  the  gymnasia.J  This 
 excess  is  explained,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Prussian  schools, 
 by  the  fact  that  children  above  fourteen  and  below  six  years 
 of  age  are  included  in  the  number  of  those  reported.  It  seems, 
 then,  that  as  far  as  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  schools  are  con- 
 cerned, education  in  Saxony  is  in  a  highly  satisfactory  state.§ 
 
 Each  primary  school  contained,  in  1832,  at  a  mean,  one  hun- 
 dred and  thirty-four  children,  those  in  the  country  averaging 
 
 *  The  minimum  salary  is  ninety  dollars  per  annum. 
 
 t  Deduced  from  the  returns  of  the  Statistieal  Society  of  the  Kingdom  of 
 Saxony. 
 
 X  Dr.  Krrtgcr's  translation  of  Cousin's  Report  has  furnished  me  with  these  num- 
 bers, or  witli  the  data  for  ealeulating  them.    Appendix,  pp.  218,  219. 
 
 ()  The  numlnr  of  cliildrcn  at  school  is  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  population 
 of  Saxony,  rated  at  ],ll.'),0(M).  The  pr()ix)rlion  cxcctds  that  in  the  kinndom  af 
 Prussia. 
 
SYSTEJM  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SAXONY.  273 
 
 one  hundred  and  twelve,  and  each  teacher  had  one  hundred  and 
 two  pupils  under  his  charge;  these  facts  show  that  the  number 
 of  schools  and  the  number  of  teachers  both  require  to  be  mul- 
 tiplied, especially  the  latter,  for  in  the  cities,  some  of  the  school- 
 houses  can  properly  accommodate  a  large  number  of  pupils. 
 
 Primary  schools  in  Saxony,  as  in  Prussia,  are  of  two  grades. 
 In  the  low^er,  or  elementary  school,  pupils  must  receive  instruc- 
 tion, by  law,  in: — 1st.  Religion.  2d.  Exercises  of  speech  and 
 reading.  3d.  Calligraphy  and  orthography,  with  written  exer- 
 cises on  subjects  relating  to  the  affairs  of  common  life.  4th. 
 Mental  and  written  arithmetic.  5th.  Singing.  6th.  The  most 
 important  portions  of  natural  history,  geography,  and  history, 
 especially  those  of  the  country.  The  details  of  the  school  plan 
 are  left  to  the  teacher  and  local  school-inspector. 
 
 In  the  higher  grade,  or  low^er  burgher  school,*  the  amount 
 taught  in  these  branches  is  increased,  and  exercises  of  style, 
 geometry,  and  drawing,  are  added. 
 
 These  subjects  will  be  recognised  as  the  same  with  those  of 
 the  Prussian  schools.  Physical  education  is  alike  left  out  of 
 the  general  plan  in  both  countries. 
 
 The  books  used  in  the  Protestant  schools  are,  the  Bible,  Lu- 
 ther's Catechism,  the  hymn  book,  and  three  reading-books,  the 
 selection  of  which  is  made  by  the  local  school-inspector.  In 
 the  Roman  Catholic  schools,  the  selection  of  books  is  left  to  the 
 ecclesiastical  authorities. 
 
 The  regular  time  for  attendance  is  six  hours  on  three  ds.ys 
 in  the  week,  and  four  on  two  other  days,  making  twenty-six 
 hours  per  week.  The  vacations  are  regulated  by  the  church 
 festivals,  and  last  about  a  week  at  a  time.  Children  above  ten 
 years  of  age,  in  the  country,  are  exempted,  during  harvest  time, 
 from  attendance  at  school. 
 
 The  punishments  are  chiefly  addressed  to  the  moral  senti- 
 ments, but  corporal  chastisement,  in  extreme  cases,  is  allowed. 
 
 *  A  systematic  nomenclature  for  schools  is  yet  mucli  needed  in  Germany. 
 In  Dresden  tlicy  aj)[)Iy  the  title  of  "  real  school"  to  wiiat  would  be  called  a  lower 
 burgher  school  in  Prussia.  A  normal  school  in  Prussia  is  a  seminary  fur  teach- 
 ers, in  Austria  it  is  a  model  hijrlicr  clementarv    ohool. 
 
 3e5 
 
274  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Tiie  code  of  discipline  is  required  to  be  placed  in  a  conspicuous 
 situation  in  the  school-room. 
 
 Besides  the  regular  day  schools,  there  are  Sunday  schools, 
 for  extending  or  repeating  the  lessons  learned  in  the  former. 
 
 In  order  to  provide  the  schools  with  qualified  teachers,  can- 
 didates are  subjected  to  examination  by  a  committee.  No  person 
 can  be  licensed  who  has  not  attained  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
 passed  one  examination  as  a  candidate,  served  two  years  as 
 an  assistant,  and  passed  a  second  examination  of  a  higher 
 grade.  The  seminaries  are  expected  to  furnish  the  greater 
 number  of  teachers,  but  as  yet  have  not  been  able  to  do  so. 
 There  are  six  seminaries  for  teachers,  which  had,  in  1832,  two 
 hundred  and  twenty-three  pupils;  or,  including  the  preparatory 
 seminary  at  Freyburg,  two  hundred  and  fifty-three.  These 
 institutions  could  not  furnish  more  than  between  seventy  and 
 eighty  teachers  annually,  while  the  primary  schools  require, 
 probably,  upwards  of  one  hundred.*  It  is  a  remarkable  fact, 
 that  there  is  no  seminary  for  teachers  in  Lcipsic,  and  that  its 
 common  schools  arc  still  usually  supplied  with  teachers  from 
 among  the  candidates  of  theology. 
 
 The  authorities  who  have  the  superintendence  of  public 
 instruction,  beginning  with  the  lowest,  are,  first,  the  local  school 
 committees  and  inspectors.  These  committees  are  composed 
 of  at  least  four  members  each,  one  of  whom  must  be  a  clergy- 
 man. If  the  school  has  a  patron,  or  founder,  he  is  ex-officio  a 
 member  of  the  committee.  They  make  regulations  for  the 
 school,  holding  meetings  on  fixed  days  of  their  own  appoint- 
 ment. TIjcy  receive  from  the  master  reports  of  the  progress  of 
 his  pupils,  of  their  attendance  at  school,  &c.  Public  semi-annual 
 examinations  take  place  in  their  presence  and  in  that  of  the  in- 
 spector. This  latter  officer  is  a  clergyman.  It  is  his  duty  to 
 visit  the  school  frequently,  and  to  sec  that  the  regulations  are 
 enforced.    After  tlic  semi-annual  examination,  he  reports  to  the 
 
 *  ('ulrulatinjT  on  the  received  pro])ortion,  that  about  four  \ht  cent,  (if  (he 
 whole  mMiil>cr  f)rih»-  teaeherp  is  ref|uire(l.  aimnallv,  to  pupplv  vaeniirics 
 
SYSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIOIV  IN  SAXONY.  275 
 
 district  inspector  the  state  of  the  classes.  If  there  are  schools 
 of  different  religious  denominations  in  a  circuit,  each  denomina- 
 tion is  entitled  to  its  committee  and  inspector. 
 
 The  next  body  is  the  board  of  inspectors,  who  have  several 
 schools  under  their  charge,  and  to  whom  the  local  committees 
 are  subordinate.  Co-ordinate  with  this  board  is  the  district 
 school-inspector.  The  board  of  inspectors  consists  of  the 
 superintendent,  an  ecclesiastical  functionary,  of  the  patrons  of 
 the  different  schools,  and  of  the  magistracy.  The  superinten- 
 dent is,  besides,  the  district  school-inspector.  It  is  his  duty  to 
 visit  all  the  primary  schools  of  his  district,  private  as  well  as 
 public,  and  in  case  they  are  numerous,  he  is  allowed  to  name  a 
 clergyman  to  assist  him.  He  has  power  to  grant  leaves  of 
 absence  to  teachers,  and  to  supply  temporary  vacancies.  He 
 is  expected  to  see  that  the  teachers  perform  their  duties  faith- 
 fully, and  reports  upon  all  these  matters  to  the  higher  authorities 
 once  a  year. 
 
 The  next  higher  authority  is  the  board  of  directors  of  the 
 circle  (Kreis  direction.)  Saxony  is  divided  into  five  circles,  in 
 each  of  which  a  board  regulates  the  school  circuits,  districts,  and 
 associations.  It  has  charge  of  all  primary  schools,  and  of  the 
 seminaries  for  primary  teachers,  with  the  general  management 
 of  the  property  and  funds  of  the  schools,  and  regulates  pecu- 
 niary allowances,  and  appoints  or  dismisses  teachers. 
 
 The  minister  of  public  instruction  and  religious  worship  is 
 the  highest  authority  in  school  matters. 
 
 The  two  most  important  points  which  I  visited  in  Saxony 
 were  Dresden*  and  Leipsic.  In  the  former  I  examined, 
 more  or  less  particularly,   six   elementary!  and  three  higher 
 
 *  For  great  facilities  in  examining  the  institutions  of  Dresden,  I  am  indebted 
 to  the  American  consul,  E.  F.  Rivinus,  Esq.  I  owe  my  thanks  in  connexion 
 with  these  schools  to  town  councillor  Gehe  and  director  Otto,  of  the  normal 
 seminary. 
 
 t  There  is  a  class  of  establishments  corresponding  to  the  infant  schools  in 
 other  places,  called  Bewahr-Anstalten,  literally  guardian  institutions,  which  are 
 rather  nurseries  than  schools.  The  children  of  mothers  who  go  out  to  work  are 
 well  taken  care  of  in  these  establishnipnts,  but  thrre  is  little  instruction  given 
 
270  CJENEKAL  EDl'CATION.       J'lllMARV   I'ERlnD. 
 
 primary;  and  in  the  latter,  three  large  elementary  schools,  and 
 their  admirable  higher  burgher  school,  which  occupied  mucii 
 of  my  attention.  The  course  of  instruction  in  the  charity 
 school  which  I  examined  in  Dresden,  conforms  in  general  to 
 the  directions  of  the  law:  in  the  afternoon,  however,  the  pupils 
 are  occupied  in  manual  labour,  the  boys  in  weaving  straw  and 
 spinning,  the  girls  in  sewing,  knitting,  or  spinning.  It  is  pro- 
 posed to  introduce,  also,  into  some  of  these  schools,  the  art  of 
 working  in  wood,  which  consists  of  making  of  this  material 
 many  beautiful  articles  now  usually  manufactured  of  straw.*  A 
 sedentary  employment  of  this  kind,  however,  should  be  relieved 
 by  active  physical  exercise,  which,  I  regret  to  say,  is  as  little 
 attended  to  in  these  schools  as  in  those  of  other  countries  in 
 fTcneral.  In  the  schools  attached  to  the  seminary  for  teachers, 
 in  the  Frederick  quarter,  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  class  is 
 not  allowed  to  exceed  fifty  in  general.  Much  of  the  instruc- 
 tion, however,  is  given  by  the  young,  and  comparatively  unprac- 
 tised, pupils  of  the  seminary,  and  thus  the  eflect  of  the  former 
 good  arrangement,  is  in  part  neutralized.  These  pupils  are,  it 
 must  be  admitted,  according  to  my  observation,  usually  better 
 instructors  than  older  teachers  who  have  not  had  their  advan- 
 tages, though  they  are  deficient  when  compared  with  finished 
 theoretical  and  practical  teachers  from  the  same  schools. 
 
 The  city  of  Dresden  owes  to  the  society  for  promoting  edu- 
 cation, (Das  PUdagogische  Verein,)  the  establishment  of  the 
 class  of  schools  called  district  schools,  (burgher  schools,)  in 
 which  general  history,  geography,  geometry,  French,  and 
 drawing,  are  added  to  the  branches  already  enumerated  as 
 composing  elementary  instruction.  The  conferences  of  their 
 teachers,  held  once  a  month,  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
 their  improvement,  and  from  the  activity  displayed  in  them, 
 
 *  The  wood  used  is  aspen,  w  liicli,  when  cut  in  pieces,  and  soaked  in  water,  be- 
 comes toujrh.  It  is  cut  into  strips,  and  then  these  are  separated  into  fil)res  of 
 greater  or  less  degree  of  fineness,  accordinj^  to  tlic  articles  to  be  made.  These 
 consist  of  mab<,  bags,  baskets,  bonnets,  blinds  Ibr  windows,  «&c.  The  blinds  arc 
 woven  in  a  loom. 
 
SYSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SAXONY.  277 
 
 I  doubt  not  they  will  rapidly  advance  in  standing.  In  the 
 Catholic  higher  primary  school,  instruction  in  Latin  is  furnished, 
 in  addition  to  the  branches  taught  in  the  district  schools.*  It 
 is  confined,  however,  to  the  two  upper  classes  of  the  five  of 
 which  the  school  is  composed,  which  are  designated  as  gym- 
 nasium or  grammar  school  classes.  The  principal  part  of  the 
 pupils  leave  this  school  in  the  third  class.f 
 
 In  Leipsic  the  public  primary  schools  are  of  three  sorts,  the 
 first  for  the  use  of  tbe  children  of  the  poor  who  receive  supplies 
 from  the  public;  the  second  for  those  who,  not  belonging  to  this 
 class,  would  still  be  burthened  by  the  payment  of  a  school  fee; 
 the  third,  the  burgher  class.  Many  of  the  schools  for  the  poor 
 are  endowed.  One  of  them  had,  at  the  period  of  my  visit  in 
 1838,  nine  hundred  pupils  and  fourteen  teachers,  some  of  whom 
 received  very  good  salaries.  A  second  had  twelve  hundred 
 pupils  and  twelve  teachers.  In  this  latter  the  pupils  received 
 instruction  only  during  half  the  day,  or  eighteen  hours  per  week, 
 being  divided  into  two  sections,  one  attending  in  the  morning, 
 and  the  other  in  the  afternoon.  During  the  other  half  the  day 
 they  were  engaged,  under  superintendence,  in  the  manufacture 
 of  pasteboard  boxes,  which  are  sold  for  the  benefit  of  the 
 school. 
 
 In  1832  there  were  fifty-one  primary  schools  in  Leipsic,  in- 
 structing 16,603  children.  I  shall  describe  the  burgher  school 
 in  detail,  as  one  of  the  most  complete  in  its  plan  of  organization 
 which  I  have  seen.  This  plan  is  not  yet  fully  reduced  to  prac- 
 tice, and  in  some  of  the  classes  the  want  of  experienced  teachers 
 renders  its  execution  imperfect,  but  these  imperfections  are  in- 
 cidental to  the  present  circumstances  of  the  school  and  city, 
 and  will,  under  the  active  spirit  now  prevailing,  be  speedily 
 changed  for  the  better. 
 
 *  The  fees  in  all  these  schools  are  exceedingly  low ;  in  the  "  real  school," 
 attached  to  the  seminary,  the  liighest  fee  is  three  dollars  and  ninety  cents  per 
 annum;  in  the  Catholic  high  school,  nine  dollars  per  annum. 
 
 t  1  am  indehted  to  the  inspector  of  this  school,  the  clergyman  of  the  Court 
 Church,  (Ilof-prcdigcr,)  Pater  Dicltrich,  for  very  valuahle  introductions. 
 
278  OKNKRAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 HURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  LEIPSIC. 
 
 This  school^  is  designed  to  educate  children  of  the  middle 
 ranks  of  society,  and  those  of  the  upper  ranks  whose  parents 
 wish  them  to  receive  a  public  education. 
 
 It  is  composed :  First,  Of  an  elementary  school  for  both  boys 
 and  girls,  which  pupils  should  enter  at  six  years  of  age.  There 
 are  three  classes,  in  the  lowest  of  which  the  two  sexes  are 
 taught  in  the  same  room.  The  pupils  are  retained,  in  general, 
 a  year  and  a-half  to  two  years,  leaving  this  department  at  eight 
 years  of  age  and  proceeding  to  the  next  higher. 
 
 Second.  The  burgher  school  proper.  Here  the  boys  and 
 girls  receive  instruction  separately.  There  are  six  classes  for 
 boys,  each  of  which  occupies  a  year.  After  passing  through 
 the  three  lower  classes,  the  sixth,  fifth,  and  fourth,  the  pupils 
 begin  separate  courses,  according  to  their  inclination  or  sup- 
 posed destination  in  life.  This  is  at  about  eleven  years  of  age. 
 Those  who  are  intended  for  trades,  and  whose  school  education 
 must  finish  at  fourteen,  to  enable  them  to  begin  their  appren- 
 ticeship, pass  through  the  remaining  classes,  the  third,  second, 
 and  first  of  the  burgher  school. 
 
 Otlicr  boys  who  are  intended  to  pursue  higher  departments 
 of  mechanical  occupations,  or  for  manufacturers,  clerks,  miners, 
 foresters,  stewards  of  estates,  merchants,  artists,  civil  officers, 
 &c.,  pass  into  the  department  called  the  "  j'cal  school,^^  termi- 
 nating their  course  there  at  about  sixteen  years  of  age.  Others 
 who  are  intended  for  the  learned  professions  go  at  eleven  to  a 
 gymnasium,  pass  through  its  classes  at  eighteen,  and  enter  the 
 university,  being  prepared  for  a  profession  at  twenty-one. 
 
 Third.  The  "  real  schooV  or  higher  burgher  school.  In  this 
 there  are  four  classes,  intended  to  occupy  together  about  five 
 years,  and  to  prepare  the  pupils  to  enter  a  commercial,  poly- 
 technic, architectural,  or  mining  academy,  according  to  his  vo- 
 cation. Omitting  the  girls'  school,  the  scheme  thus  marked  out 
 will  appear  better  by  the  following  skeleton. 
 
 •  Now  under  the  char(j<?  of  director  Vogcl,  wlio  lias  been  called  to  Lcipsic,  and 
 under  whoso  administration  this  must  l)ccomc  a  mcwt  flourishing  establishment. 
 Its  lower  classes  are  already  so  crowded  as  to  require  division. 
 
BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  LEIPSIC.  279 
 
 TARY  o^„„^.  Burgher 
 
 School.  ^^"°°^-  School. 
 
 Three       Three  classes.      Three  classes, 
 classes.     Pupils  8  to  11    Pupils  11  to  14 
 Pupils  6  to    years  of  age.       years  of  age.     The  pupils  are  apprenticed  on  leav- 
 8  years  of  ing  the  school, 
 
 age. 
 
 Or, 
 
 Real  School  of  four  classes. 
 Pupils  11  to  16  years  of  age,  and  pass  to  a 
 polytechnic,  com- 
 mercial, mining, 
 architectural,  S^c. 
 academy. 
 Or, 
 
 Gymnasium  (grannnar  school)  of  six  classes. 
 Pupils  11  to  18  years  of  age.    They  pass  to  tiie  uni- 
 
 versity,  where, 
 after  a  course  of 
 three  years,  tiiey 
 may  be  admit- 
 ted to  one  of  the 
 learned  profes- 
 sions. 
 
 A  plan  at  once  convenient  and  rational  is  thus  marked  out 
 for  a  youth's  education,  depending  upon  the  views  of  his  pa- 
 rents, their  circumstances,  and  his  own  talents  and  dispositions. 
 The  first  four  named  schools  are  united  in  one  building,  erected 
 by  the  liberality  of  the  town  of  Leipsic,  and  have  the  same 
 director. 
 
 The  subjects  and  the  order  of  succession  of  the  different 
 courses  are  good;  there  is  a  constant  reference  to  the  ultimate 
 object  of  the  instruction,  and  no  branches  are  inserted  in  the 
 programme  merely  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  pupils  for  the 
 higher  classes  of  other  schools.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  considered 
 better  that  pupils  should  obtain  access  to  them  through  the 
 lower  classes  of  the  same  school.  By  detaining'them  here,  injury 
 would  be  done  to  both  schools.  The  primary  instruction  wiiich 
 is  common  to  all  the  pupils  embraces  a  moderate  number  of 
 branches,  and  terminates  at  an  age  wficn  experience  has  shown 
 that  the  culuiro  l\v  the  ancient  languages  should  be  no  longer 
 
280  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 postponed,  in  the  case  of  tJiose  who  are  intended  for  the  learned 
 professions,  and  when  the  studies  of  others  destined  for  the  arts 
 should  take  a  diflerent  direction.  The  question,  whether  the 
 proper  age  has  been  adopted  for  this  separation  is  wholly  one 
 of  experience,  and  the  facts  in  reference  to  it  will  be  submitted 
 in  speaking  of  secondary  instruction. 
 
 The  subjects  taught  and  the  time  they  occupy  in  the  elemen- 
 tary school  agree  very  closely  with  those  of  the  first  two  classes 
 in  the  seminary  school  of  Berlin.  Drawing  on  slates  and  sing- 
 ing are  both  introduced  here,  constituting  an  advantage  over 
 the  other;  they  are  brought  in  as  a  relief  from  intellectual  ex- 
 ercises, and  as  objects  of  direct  attainment.  The  number  of 
 hours  of  duty  is  but  four  on  four  days  of  the  w^eek,  and  two  on 
 each  of  the  others.  These  might,  I  think,  be  increased  to  the 
 standard  of  the  primary  schools,  twenty-four  hours  per  wxek, 
 without  fear  of  over-tasking  the  pupils;  and  if  a  portion  of  the 
 time  were  bestowed  on  judiciously  arranged  exercises,  the  phy- 
 sical as  well  as  moral  education  would  be  improved.  The  moral 
 training  of  the  play-ground  is  not  as  yet  an  element  in  any  of 
 the  German  systems.  The  same  master  teaches  in  succession 
 all  the  studies  of  his  class. 
 
 The  pupils  pass  from  the  third  to  the  second  class  at  the  end 
 of  six  months,  a  change  which  is  favourable  to  their  progress, 
 since  at  this  early  age  strongly  marked  dificrences  appear  soon 
 after  entering  the  school.  With  a  similar  view  of  fitness  in  re- 
 gard to  their  age,  the  plan  of  daily  exercises  is  not  rigorously 
 prescribed,  but  is  merely  indicated  to  serve  as  a  general  guide 
 in  relation  to  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  the  different  subjects. 
 
 I  found  occasion  in  this  school  to  remark  the  danger  of  de- 
 feating the  exercises  of  induction,  by  making  them  merely 
 mechanical,  by  the  reception  of  fixed  answers  to  invariable 
 questions:  and,  also,  the  necessity  of  selecting  very  simple 
 melodies  for  the  early  exercises  in  singing:  beyond  these,  the 
 exertion  of  the  voice  of  the  child,  so  far  from  being  a  physical 
 benefit,  is  a  positive  injury.  JMy  preference  for  beginning 
 arithmetic  with  a  reference  to  sensible  objects,  that  is.  l)y  d 
 nominate  numbers,  was  again  strongly  ronfirmod. 
 
 (le- 
 
BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  LEIPSIC. 
 
 281 
 
 It  might  seem  iaipossible  to  determine  how  many  pupils  of  a 
 definite  age  might,  with  advantage,  be  entrusted  to  the  care  of  one 
 teacher  under  a  given  method  of  instruction.  The  average  for 
 branches  of  the  same  kind  is  not,  however,  so  wide  from  the  ex- 
 tremes as  might  at  first  be  supposed.  In  the  simultaneous  method, 
 the  skill  of  the  teacher  is  the  chief  determining  quality.  The  va- 
 rious subordinate  ones  depending  upon  the  pupil,  the  particular 
 exercise,  the  arrangements  in  reference  to  ventilation,  warmth, 
 (fcc,  will  readily  suggest  themselves.  In  the  midst  of  all  these, 
 the  average  shows  itself  to  attentive  observation.  It  is  easy  to 
 see  how  many  pupils  are  attending  to  what  is  going  on,  and  if 
 the  teacher  be  skilled  in  his  art,  the  number  is  thus  obtained, 
 which  a  class  should  not  exceed.  For  the  intellectual  exercises, 
 I  obtained  in  this  way  from  thirty-five  to  forty  in  the  German 
 schools  as  the  maximum  number  of  an  elementary  class;  the 
 observation  in  reference  to  the  classes  of  the  best  teachers 
 here  confirmed  these  numbers.  In  the  mechanical  branches, 
 the  number  of  pupils  may  be  very  much  increased,  without  ma- 
 terial injury  to  the  instruction,  and  hence  the  classification 
 which  suits  them  is  not  adapted  to  the  intellectual  departments. 
 
 The  principal  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  burgher  school^  in- 
 cluding both  the  lower  and  higher  departments,  are  religion  and 
 morals,  German,  French,  arithmetic,  geometry,  natural  history, 
 histoiy,  geography,  calligraphy,  drawing,  and  vocal  music,  and 
 to  these  are  added  in  the  highest  classes  technology  and  physics. 
 The  list  difiers  from  that  of  the  Dorothean  higher  city  school, 
 and  the  seminary  school  of  Berlin,  in  the  omission  of  Latin 
 and  the  introduction  of  technology  and  physics,  both  which  dif- 
 ferences mark  the  proper  character  of  the  school.  It  is  not  in- 
 tended that  the  upper  classes  shall  prepare  pupils  for  the  higher 
 classes  of  the  gymnasium,  but  that  those  who  are  to  be  trained 
 in  the  classical  studies  shall  have  previously  passed  to  the  lower 
 classes  of  the  gymnasium,  where  they  properly  belong,  and 
 where  they  can  obtain  the  instruction  appropriate  to  their  ob- 
 jects. The  distribution  of  time  is  shown  in  the  annexed  table, 
 which  is  similar  in  its  arraniiemcnt  to  those  nlrcady  given. 
 36 
 
282 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Plan  of  instruction  in  the  higher  and  lower  burgher  schools  of  Leipsic. 
 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 OF 
 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Religious  Instruction,  .... 
 German  Language,*    .     .     .    . 
 
 French,      
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Natural  History, 
 
 Technology, 
 
 Physics,     - 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History, - 
 
 Writing, 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 Singing, 
 
 Total, 
 
 BURGHER  SCHOOL  FOR  BOVS. 
 
 Higher  School. 
 
 fcx 
 
 a 
 
 x    c 
 
 o  g 
 
 33 
 
 ox 
 
 33 
 
 -3     > 
 
 •^ 
 
 33. 
 
 Lower  School. 
 
 28 
 
 cc    O 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 The  increase  in  the  number  of  branches  as  the  pupils  rise  to 
 the  upper  classes,  seems  to  me  judiciously  made  in  this  plan. 
 At  the  same  time,  the  number  of  hours  per  week  is  gradually 
 
 •  This  includes  the  exercises  of  reading. 
 
 t  In  this  is  included  an  hour  of  preparatory  exercises  for  geonietrV' 
 
 t  Anthropology. 
 
 §  Elementary  natural  history  and  natural  philosophy. 
 
BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  LEIPSIC.  283 
 
 increased,  and  perhaps  beyond  the  due  limit,  though  it  would 
 require  longer  attention  than  I  could  give  to  this  institution  to 
 affirm  positively  that  this  is  the  case.  Comparing  the  pro- 
 gramme with  that  of  the  classes  of  corresponding  age  in  the 
 seminary  school  of  Berlin,  a  general  similarity  appears  through- 
 out, although  each  has  distinctive  features.  In  the  sixth  class, 
 of  which  the  pupils  are  of  the  same  age  with  those  of  the  fourth 
 in  the  seminary  school,  a  few  lessons  of  natural  history  and 
 geography  ("knowledge  of  home")  are  given,  and  with  ad- 
 vantage. The  number  of  hours  per  week  devoted  to  the  dif- 
 ferent studies  is  nearly  the  same  in  both  schools. 
 
 In  the  fifth  class,  natural  history  and  history  are  introduced 
 in  the  burgher  school,  and  in  its  corresponding  classes  in  the 
 seminary  school,  Latin,  French,  and  geometry.  The  number 
 of  hours  of  arithmetical  instruction  is  greater  in  this  school 
 than  in  the  other. 
 
 A  similar  difference  continues  in  the  fourth  class,  as  it  is  not 
 the  object  to  begin  French  until  after  those  who  leave  the 
 school  at  fourteen  have  terminated  their  course.  The  elemen- 
 tary exercises  of  geometry  are  begun  in  this  class  of  the  burgher 
 school. 
 
 The  third  class  is  the  first  or  lowest  of  the  higher  burgher 
 school,  and  the  programme  of  this  and  of  the  second  agree  in 
 the  main  with  those  of  the  seminary  school.  Greater  attention 
 is  devoted  to  religious  instruction,  to  arithmetic,  and  drawing, 
 and  less  to  French,  in  the  burgher  than  in  the  seminary  school. 
 The  number  of  hours  given  to  the  first  named  branch  in  the 
 burgher  school  is  double  that  in  the  other,  and  the  number  to 
 the  last  only  one-half,  which  is  probably  too  small  an  allotment 
 for  the  object.  Technology  and  physics  are  taken  up  in  the 
 first  class  of  the  Leipsic  school,  and  Latin  is  continued  through 
 all  those  of  the  Berlin  institution. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  plan  of  treating  the  subjects  of  instruction, 
 the  following  is  a  comparison  of  the  two  schools : 
 
 1.  In  religious  instruction,  the  general  train  is  the  same,  be- 
 ing more  detailed  in  the  burgher  school,  and  having  a  special 
 course  of  morals  in  the  higher  classes.     In  general,  the  Ger- 
 
284  OEN-ERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 man  institutions  arc  very  free  from  an  objection  urged  to  a 
 course  of  religious  instruction,  in  a  former  part  of  my  lie- 
 port,  namely,  that  it  was  addressed  rather  to  the  understanding 
 than  to  the  heart.  There  is  no  express  instruction  in  morals, 
 but  it  is  because  the  morals  of  the  Scriptures  mingle  with  their 
 daily  lessons,  and  no  special  course  is  needed,  until  a  more  ad- 
 vanced age,  than  that  embraced  by  these  schools  in  general. 
 
 2.  The  course  of  German  language  (including  composition) 
 and  reading  is  parallel  with  that  of  the  Berlin  seminary  school, 
 except  in  the  two  higher  classes.  In  these  a  turn  is  given  to 
 the  compositions  to  adapt  them  to  the  peculiar  destination  of 
 the  pupils,  who  are  also  exercised  in  speaking,  by  reading  dia- 
 logues and  brief  dramatic  pieces.  In  a  country  enjoying  a 
 constitutional  government,  the  art  of  public  speaking  may  not 
 be  neglected  by  its  citizens. 
 
 3.  The  course  of  French,  in  the  burgher  school,  struck  me  as 
 rather  defective,  probably  from  the  small  amount  of  time  which 
 is  devoted  to  it,  as  already  stated. 
 
 4.  JMathematics.  The  courses  of  arithmetic  and  geometry  are 
 also  parallel  with  those  in  the  seminary  school.  The  mathe- 
 matical studies  here  are  extended  further  in  algebra,  and  in- 
 clude logarithms,  mensuration,  and  surveying. 
 
 5.  Kalural  history,  physics,  and  technology.  The  early  be- 
 ginnings of  this  course  are  exercises  in  induction,  directed 
 particularly  to  awakening  habits  of  observation  and  rellection. 
 T^atcr,  some  of  the  more  interesting  parts  of  natural  history  are 
 taken  u]),  and,  finally,  the  subject  is  treated  somewhat  systema- 
 tically, and  a  technological  direction  given  to  it.  The  physics 
 consists  of  such  popular  notions  of  natural  j)henomcna  as  should 
 be  possessed  by  all.  The  technology  explains  the  processes 
 of  some  of  the  common  arts  and  trades. 
 
 ().  The  course  of  geography  begins  like  that  already  de- 
 scribed at  Halle,  but  subsequently  pursues  the  inverse  order,  giv- 
 ing an  idea  of  the  earth  as  a  part  of  the  world,  its  form,  motions, 
 &c.  Director  Vogel  has  conceived  the  plan  of  presenting  the 
 parts  of  the  earth  always  in  their  just  proportions,  as  upon  the 
 sphere,  and  has  contrived  for  this  purpose  a  globe,  which  may 
 
BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  LEIPSIC.  285 
 
 be  divided  tlirough  the  equator  or  through  a  meridian.  The 
 hemisphere  being  suspended  with  its  plane  surface  against  the 
 wall,  presents  the  convex  surface,  with  its  delineations,  in  true 
 proportion.  This  idea  he  proposes  to  extend,  by  substituting  for 
 maps,  in  the  early  recitations,  portions  of  spherical  surfaces, 
 with  the  delineations  of  the  countries  upon  them. 
 
 After  taking  a  general  survey  of  the  different  countries,  espe- 
 cially those  of  Europe,  the  pupils  pass  to  the  geography  of 
 Germany.  They  then  enter  more  into  the  details  of  the  coun- 
 tries of  Europe,  draw  maps,  and,  finally,  study  mathematical 
 and  physical  geography  in  a  scientific  form.  To  carry  out  his 
 views  of  the  connexion  of  history,  natural  history,  and  ethno- 
 graphy with  geography,  director  Vogel  has  prepared  a  school 
 atlas  upon  a  new  plan.  The  vignettes  surrounding  the  maps 
 contain  illustrations  of  these  difl^erent  kindred  branches,  and  ad- 
 dress the  eye  of  the  learner,  thus  impressing  the  memory  with 
 their  connexion  with  the  countries  defineated.  For  example, 
 around  the  maps  representing  the  different  quarters  of  the  globe 
 are  the  characteristic  plants,  animals,  and  men  of  the  different 
 regions  near  to  the  portions  of  the  country  where  they  are 
 found.  The  more  detailed  maps  of  the  countries  give  a  view 
 of  their  natural  productions,  represent  the  more  prominent  or 
 characteristic  qualities  of  the  nation,  the  arts  which  flourish 
 more  particularly  among  them,  and  give  medallions  pourtray- 
 ing  their  great  historical  characters,  or  including  the  names  of 
 their  distinguished  men,  or  the  dates  of  important  historical 
 events.  The  execution  of  this  work  is  highly  satisfactory,  and 
 I  am  convinced  of  the  advantages  of  the  plan  itself. 
 
 7.  The  historical  course,  as  far  as  it  is  distinct  from  that 
 last  mentioned,  agrees,  in  its  general  features,  with  that  of  the 
 Berlin  seminary  school,  being,  however,  more  minute. 
 
 8.  Writing  and  drawing.  In  learning  to  write,  the  classes 
 begin  with  small  hand,  and  succeed  better  than  is  usual  upon 
 that  plan,  probably  from  the  attention,  at  the  same  time,  to 
 drawing.  The  last  named  branch  is  taught  by  Schmidt's 
 method.  The  teacher  has  made  an  admirable  collection  of 
 models  in  wood  and  plaster,  of  geometrical  solids,  oi' machines, 
 
286  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 of  buildings,  bridges,  and  the  like,  of  ornaments,  &lc.,  and  brings 
 his  class  forward  in  this  kind  of  drawing  very  rapidly.  Only 
 the  more  elementary  parts  of  these  collections,  however,  are 
 used  for  the  classes  of  the  burgher  school. 
 
 9.  Vocal  music  is  taught  as  in  the  other  schools. 
 
 The  particular  method  which  the  teacher  pursues  in  his  in- 
 struction is  left  much  to  the  individual,  the  director  remarking 
 justly,  that  if  he  is  competent  to  his  place,  his  method  must  be 
 good.  lie  has  for  his  guide,  however,  a  programme  indicating 
 the  degree  of  proficiency  which  his  class  must  show  at  the  end 
 of  the  year. 
 
 In  the  lower  classes  of  a  school  like  this,  if  the  pupils  ha\e 
 been  previously  well  trained,  a  larger  number  can  be  instructed 
 by  the  simultaneous  method  than  in  the  elementary  classes,  in 
 a  subject  of  the  same  kind.  This  advantage  is  lost  as  the 
 course  becomes  higher,  and  the  scale  turns  again  in  proportion 
 as  individual  teaching  becomes  more  desirable,  with  increased 
 individual  development  and  difterences  in  mental  quality.  The 
 simultaneous  method  re(]uires  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the 
 teacher,  not  to  deceive  himself  as  to  the  progress  of  his  class. 
 It  is,  of  course,  rarely  that  a  question  cannot  be  answered  by 
 some  of  them,  while  the  mass  may  be  entirely  ignorant  in  rela- 
 tion to  the  subject.  I  have  seen  both  skill  and  attention  fall  into 
 the  mistake  to  which  I  refer. 
 
 Between  each  of  the  hours  of  recitation  there  are  a  few  mi- 
 nutes of  interval,  during  which  the  classes  leave  the  school- 
 rooms. This  is  an  arrangement  favourable  to  health,  and 
 worthy  of  imitation. 
 
 The  lower  classes  have  each  a  teacher  for  all  the  subjects,  a 
 system  which  is  gradually  changed  in  the  higher  classes  for 
 that  of  a  teacher  for  a  single  subject.  Drawing  and  singing 
 are  taught  by  special  instructors  in  the  higher  classes. 
 
 The  classes  for  girls  are  similar  to  those  described,  the  in- 
 struction being  modified  so  as  to  render  it  more  applicable  to 
 the  sex. 
 
 The  plan  of  instruction  in  the  "  Real  School,''  the  highest  of 
 whif^h  this  establishment  is   composed,  cm   hardly  hr  snid   to 
 
BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  LEIPSIC.  287 
 
 have  received,  as  yet,  its  ultimate  form.  The  school  belongs 
 to  the  class  of  secondary  instruction,  running  parallel  with  the 
 gymnasium,  and  preparing  for  the  university  of  the  arts,  or 
 polytechnic  school,  as  the  other  prepares  for  the  university  of 
 the  learned  professions.  The  branches  taught,  and  which  I  may 
 enumerate,  to  complete  the  description  of  the  institution,  are, 
 
 1.  Religious  instruction.  2.  German.  3.  French.  4.  Eng- 
 lish. 5.  Mathematics,  including  algebra;  geometry,  trigono- 
 metry, plane  and  spherical;  practical  surveying;  a  review  of 
 arithmetic  and  technical  arithmetic.  6.  Physics  and  chemistry. 
 7.  Natural  history.  8.  History.  9.  Geography.  10  Calli- 
 graphy.    11.  Drawing.     12.  Vocal  music. 
 
 The  separate  branches  in  this  school  are  in  general  taught  by 
 special  instructors.  The  methods  of  Pestalozzi  are  considered 
 by  the  director  as  less  applicable  to  the  higher  than  to  the  lower 
 courses.  But  I  doubt  this,  for  though  much  less  frequently  ap- 
 plied, I  have  seen  them  used  with  good  effect  in  advanced 
 courses.  The  opposite  method  takes  up  less  time  if  the  object 
 be  to  communicate  positive  knowledge,  and  the  importance  of 
 this  object  certainly  increases,  and  even  becomes  paramount,  in 
 the  later  parts  of  the  student's  career.  The  objection  urged  to 
 this  plan  does  not  apply  in  the  case  of  those  subjects  which  are 
 continuous  through  a  series  of  years,  but  to  such  as  are  broken 
 up  into  a  number  of  kindred  branches,  the  elements  of  which 
 are  to  be  taught  at  different,  and  even  at  advanced  stages  of 
 the  course. 
 
 The  plan  of  special  study  hours  for  those  whose  parents  wish 
 them  to  be  prepared  for  their  lessons  under  the  direction  of  a 
 teacher,  has  been  adopted  in  this  school. 
 
 MODEL,  OR  BURGHER  SCHOOL  AT  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAINE. 
 
 I  conclude  the  account  of  the  German  burgher  schools, 
 which  the  interesting  nature  of  the  subject  has  induced  me  to 
 present  somewhat  at  length,  by  a  brief  notice  of  the  model 
 school,  (muster-schule,)  or  burgher  school*  of  Frankfort  on 
 
 *  Under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Baggc,  an  able  and  experienced  teacher. 
 
288  GEXERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 the  Maine.  This  is  one  of  the  best  conducted  of  the  many 
 which  I  have  seen,  and  is  of  great  ijnportance  to  the  city  which 
 supports  it,  and  whose  authorities  have  the  superintendence 
 of  it.  It  dill'ers  frona  those  already  described  in  two  points;  in 
 the  first,  that  the  rehgious  instruction  is  general,  and  not  sec- 
 tarian; and  second,  that  the  French  language  has  much  time 
 devoted  to  it,  as  being  indispensable  at  Frankfort  to  the  class 
 for  whom  the  school  is  intended.  The  school  plan,  with  the 
 hours  of  instruction,  will  occupy  but  little  more  space  than  a 
 bare  enumeration  of  the  subjects  taught.  It  is  the  result  of 
 much  experience,  and  of  changes  from  time  to  time,  to  keep 
 the  school  up  to  the  level  of  the  instruction  of  the  day.  It  pre- 
 sents a  well  digested  course  for  pupils  from  six  to  fourteen  or 
 fifteen  years  of  age.  As  usual,  the  figures  refer  to  the  number 
 of  hours  occupied  per  week  by  the  several  subjects  of  study. 
 
MODEL  BURGHER  SCHOOL  OF  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAINE.       289 
 Table  of  the  plan  of  exercises  at  the  Frankfort  Model  School,  1836-7. 
 
 SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 -a 
 
 c 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 Religious  Instruction,        -     -     - 
 
 211 
 
 211 
 
 Exercises  of  Thought  and  Speech,* 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 German  Language,       .... 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 French,      
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 Geography,! 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 Natural  Philosophy,      .... 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Mathematical  Geography,!     -     - 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Technology  and  Chemistry,  -     - 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 History, 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Arithmetic  and  Algebra,§       -     - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 Algebra,    
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Geometry,      - 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Lessons  of  form, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Writing, 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Singing, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Total,      -      -      - 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 *  Exercises  of  induction. 
 
 t  Combined  with  elementary  physics,  or  a  popular  view  of  natural  phenomena. 
 t  And  popular  astronomy. 
 §  Higher  arithmetic. 
 II  The  two  classes  united. 
 37 
 
290  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 The  elementary  classes  are  confined  to  few  subjects,  and 
 which  are  introductory  to  those  of  the  higher  classes,  and  cal- 
 culated to  developc  the  moral  principles,  the  intellect,  and  readi- 
 ness in  the  mechanical  branches  of  instruction.  The  sphere  is 
 then  widened,  by  introducing  a  foreign  language,  the  study  of 
 natural  phenomena,  and  of  form.  In  the  advanced  classes,  as 
 constituting  a  preparation  for  the  pupil's  future  career,  a  more 
 systematic  account  of  the  earth  and  its  productions,  of  man  and 
 his  actions,  as  recorded  in  history,  and  of  the  processes  of  art, 
 are  furnished  him.  The  programmes  of  the  last  two  schools 
 which  have  been  under  discussion,  are  both  liable  to  the  objec- 
 tion of  attempting  too  much  in  the  last  year. 
 
 The  physical  education  is  so  far  attended  to  in  this  school, 
 as  to  provide  a  very  neat  and  tolerably  spacious  play-ground, 
 and  to  give  an  interval  for  play  during  the  morning  hours* 
 
GRASER*S  SYSTEM  OF  EDUCATION.  291 
 
 CHAPTER  VII. 
 
 COMMON  SCHOOLS  OF  BAYREUTH  IN  BAVARIA,  AND  DR.  GRA* 
 SER'S  SYSTEM  OF  EDUCATION. 
 
 The  reputation  of  Dr.  Graser's  system,  among  certain  of  the 
 teachers  of  Germany,  induced  me  to  visit  Bayreuth,  where  he 
 resides,  to  examine,  under  his  direction,  the  schools  which 
 pursue  his  method  of  education.  Dr.  Graser  rejects  equally  the 
 communication  of  positive  knowledge  and  the  giving  of  intel- 
 lectual culture  as  the  true  ground-work  of  a  system  of  educa- 
 tion; he  considers  these  as  incidental  objects,  and  that  the 
 principles  of  a  system  are  to  be  sought  a  priori,  by  a  considera- 
 tion of  the  purpose  of  education,  of  man  as  its  recipient,  and  of 
 the  subjects  or  branches  of  instruction. 
 
 His  system,  therefore,  professes  to  reject  every  thing  like  an 
 arbitrary  assemblage  of  branches,  and  to  present  a  rational 
 plan  for  selecting  the  subjects  of  instruction,  and  for  determin- 
 ing their  succession.  It  must  require  a  mind  brought  up  in  a 
 similar  school,  to  enter  into  the  philosophy,  so  called,  of  this 
 system,  and  I  do  not  propose  to  attempt  a  full  view  of  it.*  I 
 shall,  however,  briefly  state  what  appears  to  me  its  chief  prin- 
 ciples, of  which,  though  they  may  be  true  in  the  abstract,  I 
 
 *  It  may  be  objected  to  even  this  brief  notice,  that  it  is  going-  out  of  my  way, 
 and  that,  if  followed,  it  would  require  an  examination  of  the  system  of  Jacotot  as 
 well  as  of  this.  This  objection  has  not  escaped  mc,  but  Graser's  system  is  little 
 known  among  us,  while  Jacotot's  has  been  often  discussed.  I  visited  the  school  of 
 one  of  Jacotot's  most  prominent  pupils,  at  Paris,  and  must  say,  that  the  results 
 seemed  to  me  more  showy  than  sound.  Dr.  Graser's  principal  works  are  Divini- 
 tat,  oder  das  Prinzip  der  einzig  wahrcn  Menschcnerzichung,  &,c. ;  Divincncss,  or 
 the  Principle  of  the  only  true  Education  for  Men,  &cc.;  Die  Elementar  Schule 
 fiirs  Leben,  «fcc.;  Elementary  School  for  Life,  and  das  Verhultnisse  des  Elcmen- 
 tarunterrichts  zur  Politik  der  Zcit,  Dcpcndance  of  Elementary  Instruction  on  the 
 Political  Circumstances  of  the  Time,  «Scc.  There  is  a  good  and  quite  full  sketch 
 of  Dr.  Graser's  system  in  Krrtgor'f?  .Tonrncy  through  Germany,  Reiscn  durcli 
 Deutschland,  «&:c. 
 
292  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 confess  that  I  do  not  perceive  tlie  peculiar  applicability.  I  shall 
 then  pass  to  the  practice,  which  may  be  of  interest,  even  if  the 
 theory  should  not  be  deemed  satisfactory. 
 
 After  considering  the  constitution  of  man,  Dr.  Graser  lays 
 down  the  principle,  that  he  is  destined  to  live  in  accordance 
 with  it,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  holiness  (godliness,  divinitiit).    The 
 child  must  be  educated  in  reference  to  this  destination.     Man 
 requires  strength  of  body,  hence  physical  education,  and  of 
 soul   (virtue),  hence    moral    education.      His   bodily  strength 
 must  be  rendered   available   by  dexterity,   his  virtue,  by  pru- 
 dence.   Both  must  be  directed  by  intelligence,  lience  intellectual 
 education.     Besides,  he  must  have  a  just  sense  of  the  harmony 
 in  the  relations  of  life,  or  a  feeling  of  fitness,  or  beauty,  hence 
 aesthetical  education.    As  a  condition  of  his  being,  man  stands 
 in  certain  relations  to  external  nature,  to  his  fellow  men,  and 
 to  God.     Instruction  in  nature,  man,  and  God,  must,  therefore, 
 form  the  materials  of  his  education.     Nature  must  be  viewed 
 in  its  productions,  the  objects  of  natural  histor}^  or  its  pheno- 
 mena, the  objects  of  natural  philosophy,  or  physics.     To  com- 
 plete the  study  of  nature,  geography,  arithmetic,  geometry  and 
 its  applications,  and  drawing,  must  be  called  in,  and  the  prac- 
 tical application  of  the  study  includes  technology  and  domestic 
 economy.     The  study  of  man  requires  that  of  the   theory  of 
 gymnastics,  dietetics,  history,  and  geography.    To  approach  to 
 God,  man    must  know  him.     The   hrst   form  of  godliness  is 
 truth.     God's  truth,  then,  as  revealed,  should  be  man's  study. 
 The  second  form  is  justice;  jurisprudence  in  higher  education, 
 or  the  laws  of  the  land  in  lower,  should,  therefore,  also  form  a 
 part  of  man's  studies,  and  as  accessory  subjects,  history  and 
 grammar.    The  third  is  love,  taught  through  morals  or  practi- 
 cal religion.   The  fourth  is  beauty,  requiring  the  study  of  paint- 
 ing, music,  poetry,  and  decorum.     Graser  next  endeavours  to 
 modify  the   several    subjects  of  education,  according  to   the 
 special  wants  of  those  who  are  to  receive  it,  which  he  con- 
 siders to  depend  upon  their  political  situation.     Thus,  for  his 
 country,  he  divides  men  into  three  classes,  the  people,  or  go- 
 verned:   the   nobles;   and    the   roiuninii   fnmilv,  or    fiovernors. 
 
graser's  system  of  education.  293 
 
 The  first  he  considers  as  more  concerned  with  material  ob- 
 jects, the  others  with  the  ideal,  or  spiritual,  and  hence  adopts 
 two  divisions  of  the  subjects  of  study,  as  calculated  for  their 
 schools. 
 
 In  the  arrangement  of  instruction,  his  principle,  that  the 
 school  must  prepare  for  actual  life,  is  brought  into  play.  He 
 admits  no  separation  into  branches  of  study,  no  natural  order 
 of  succession  in  the  branches,  but  insists  that  all  instruction 
 shall  be  grouped  according  to  the  wants  of  some  particular 
 mode  of  life.  Taking  society  as  the  state  of  man's  existence, 
 he  begins  instruction  with  the  paternal  mansion  of  the  child  and 
 his  family  relations,  and  attaches  to  these  all  the  elementary 
 knowledge  of  morals,  manners,  speech,  number,  form,  objects, 
 drawing,  and  writing,  which  would  be  found  necessary  in  this 
 sphere.  He  next  widens  the  sphere  to  include  the  place  of  re- 
 sidence, with  its  community;  extends  it  to  the  circle  or  judicial 
 district,  to  the  province,  to  the  country,  to  the  assemblage  of  the 
 German  states,  the  division  of  the  earth,  the  entire  earth,  the 
 universe. 
 
 The  application  of  Graser's  principles  to  a  common  school 
 will  be  best  understood  by  following  up  the  course  of  instruc- 
 tion as  far  as  it  has  been  developed  in  one  of  the  schools  of 
 Bayreuth.* 
 
 The  sixth,  or  lowest  class,  is  instructed  in  what  relates  to 
 family  life.  The  exterior  of  the  house.  Its  interior.  Its  in- 
 habitants.    Their  wants. 
 
 The  classification  followed  in  Wiirst's  reading-book  will  show, 
 generally,  the  way  in  which  these  subjects  are  taught. 
 
 *  Dr.  Grascr  is  not  himself  a  teaclier,  nor  has  he,  at  present,  the  means  of  en- 
 forcing, by  authority,  the  adoption  of  his  methods;  hence  they  have  not  the  ad- 
 vantage of  execution  by  the  designer,  nor  do  tliey  appear  in  all  the  classes  of  this 
 school.  To  the  kind  attention  of  Dr.  Grascr  I  was  indebted  for  an  opportunity  of 
 visiting  three  of  the  common  schools  of  Bayreuth,  in  which  his  method  was 
 more  or  less  used.  In  speaking  of  the  principles  of  this  method,  I  have  endea- 
 voured to  keep  in  view  the  respect  which  is  due  to  the  personal  character  and 
 zeal  of  Dr.  Grascr,  and  also  the  fact  that,  having  been  educated  in  a  totall}^  dif- 
 ferent atmosphere,  as  it  were,  I  should  be  likely  to  err  in  forming  an  estimate  of 
 the  value  of  similar  speculations.  I  have  aimed,  therefore,  at  giving  an  account 
 of  the  system,  as  far  as  I  understand  if,  leaving  to  others  to  pass  judgment  on  it. 
 
294  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 1.  Tlic  paternal  mansion,  considered  as  the  dwell  in  fr.place  of  tlic  family. 
 Houses  and  huts.  Stones  and  lime.  (Story  of  an  accident  from  playing  with 
 lime.)  The  walls  and  the  roof.  Doors  and  windows.  (History  of  the  discovery 
 of  glass.)  Earth,  fire,  water,  and  light.  Comparison  of  building  materials. 
 Gloom,  darkness,  light,  shadow.  Property.  Owner.  Rectitude.  Goodness. 
 Decorum.  Politeness.  (Story  of  the  polite  and  the  rude  boy.)  Pilfering.  Theft. 
 Robbery.  Robbers.  2.  The  inmates  of  the  house.  Enumeration  of  them. 
 Exterior  distinctions  between  the  men  and  animals.  Distinctive  qualities  of  the 
 different  domestic  animals.  The  poultry.  Further  distinctions  between  men  and 
 animals.  Voice.  Speech  as  a  characteristic  of  man.  Power  of  induction,  flo- 
 ral order  of  the  family.  (The  intractable  child.)  Uses  of  the  domestic  animals, 
 obligations  towards  them,  (Tormentors  of  animals.)  Noxious  domestic  animals. 
 Conduct  towards  them.  Flies.  Spiders.  Review  of  conduct  towards  animals 
 in  general.  3.  Wants  of  the  inmates  of  the  house.  The  dwelling  itself  Fur- 
 niture  and  clothing.  Arrangements  for  their  jjreservation.  Inviolability  of  the 
 property  of  cliildren  and  servants.  Activity  and  offices  of  parents.  Duties  of 
 children  towards  their  parents. 
 
 This  course  is  commenced  between  six  and  seven  years  of 
 age,  and  occupies  about  six  months.  I  shall  go  into  some 
 particulars  in  regard  to  parts  of  the  instruction.  1.  The  dwell- 
 ing-house.— The  teacher  shows  a  model  of  a  simple  dwell- 
 ing-house, of  which  the  gable  end  may  be  removed,  and  is  a 
 rectangular  block,  surmounted  by  a  triangle.  The  teacher 
 takes  oir  the  triangle,  and  counts  the  number  of  its  sides  audi- 
 bly; this  part  of  the  house  has  how  many  sides?  is  his  question. 
 Three.  He  shows  that  it  has  also  three  corners,  or  asks  how 
 many  corners,  leaving  to  the  more  intelligent  pupils  to  lead  the 
 class  in  the  answer,  and  when  the  answer  is  obtained,  causing 
 it  to  be  rei)eated  by  all.  Watching  the  class,  if  he  finds  inat- 
 tention, he  addresses  the  question  where  it  prevails,  giving  the 
 pupils  as  much  as  possible  to  find  out,  in  order  to  keep  up  their* 
 attention  as  long  as  their  ])hysical  constitution  will  permit.  A 
 change  of  subject,  physical  exercise,  or  rest,  should  be  allowed 
 when  the  attention  is  exhausted,  the  habit  of  which  may  be 
 gradually  established  by  training.  Tliis  inductive  course,  com- 
 bined with  repetition,  is  always  employed,  and  in  what  follows 
 I  shall  merely  indicate  the  order  of  the  instruction.  The  figure  in 
 question  is  three-cornered.     Interior  corners  arc  called  angles.* 
 
 •    In  Grrninn  \hr  upacc  formed  hv  llir   mrrfing  of  l\v<>  linos  virw^d  frnm  the 
 
GRASEr's  system  of  EDUCATIOiV.  295 
 
 It  is  a  three-angled  figure,  and  called  a  triangle.     Next,  the 
 four-sided  figure  is  similarly  treated.     Then  the  triangular  cap 
 is  set  upon  the  rectangle,  forming  a  five-sided  figure.     This 
 part  of  the  model  is  now  placed  before  the  children  to  draw 
 upon    the   slate,  with  the   following   preliminary  instruction. 
 Each  group  of  three  or  four  children,  or,  if  convenient,  each 
 child,  is  furnished  with  a  rectangle  of  pasteboard,  or  thin  wood, 
 in  which  five  holes  are  pierced,  corresponding  to  the  five  an- 
 gular points  of  the  pentagon  to  be  drawn.     These  are  marked 
 on  the  slate  by  inserting  the  points  of  the  pencil  through  the 
 holes,  and  the  child  is  practised  in  joining  the  points  by  hand. 
 Practice  in  this  constitutes  his  first  drawing-lesson.     Returning 
 to  the  rectangular  part  of  the  model,  the  positions  of  the  verti- 
 cal and  horizontal  boundary  lines  are  pointed  out,  and  a  plum- 
 met and  common  mason's  level  are  shown,  to  give  a  notion 
 how  these  Hnes  are  established  in  practice,  and  a  correct  idea 
 of  their  actual  positions.     Attention  is  next  called  to  the  hori- 
 zontal side  of  the  triangular  cap,  then  to  the  sloping  sides.     A 
 comparison  of  the  angles  which  they  form  with  the  horizon, 
 and  that  formed  by  the  horizontal  and  vertical  Hnes,  leads  to 
 the  distinction  between  acute  and  right  angles.     The  objects  of 
 a  triangular  roof,  and  of  the  rectangular  lower  part  of  the  house, 
 are  next  stated.     An  obtuse-angled  polygonal  roof  is  substituted 
 for  the  one  already  mentioned.     The  form  gives  an  illustration 
 of  the  obtuse-angle,  placing  it  upon  the  model  leads  to  counting 
 as  far  as  seven.     Dividing  the  house  into  stories  by  lines,  to 
 counting  to  nine.     The  children  are  next  led  to  enumerate  the 
 parts  of  the  house  as  shown  in  the  model,  and  with  the  names 
 of  which  they  are  of  course  familiar — as  the  doors,  windows, 
 &c.     The  distinction  between  squares  and  rectangles  is  made 
 obvious.     The  parallelogram  and  rhomb  are  also  here  intro- 
 duced.    The  distinction  between  curved  and  straight  lines,  &c. 
 Different  simple  drawings  of  cottages  are  made.     Counting  is 
 continued  to  ten.     Addition  is  commenced  by  referring  to  the 
 
 interior,  or  from  the  exterior,  has  different  names,  and  the  compounds  of  these, 
 with  the  numerals  three,  four,  five,  &r.,  constitute  the  names  of  the  figures,  as 
 drcy-cck,  vicr-eck,  &c. 
 
i><J()  UENEKAL  EDUCATION.       I'RIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 number  of  panes  in  the  windows  of  the  model,  covering  up 
 those  not  to  be  adderl,  and  proceeding  from  smaller  to  larger 
 numbers,  within  the  limits  of  ten.  These  arc  extended  to  one 
 hundred,  stating  to  the  children  the  mode  of  formation  of  com- 
 pound numbers,  to  assist  their  memory.  Subtraction  is  intro- 
 duced by  reference  to  the  same  illustrations.  Mental  arith- 
 metic alone  is  practised.  In  adding  numbers  which  exceed 
 ten,  the  tens  are  first  added,  then  the  units,  carrying  to  the  tens, 
 if  necessary:  thus,  in  adding  twenty-two  and  thirty-nine  toge- 
 ther, their  process  would  be,  twenty-two  is  two  tens  and  two 
 ones — thirty-nine,  three  tens  and  nine  ones;  two  tens  and  three 
 tens  are  five  tens;  two  ones  and  nine  ones  are  eleven  ones,  or 
 one  ten  and  one  one;  five  tens  and  one  ten  arc  six  tens,  and  one, 
 sixty-one.  Multiplication  is  begun  also  by  a  reference  to  the 
 window-panes,  which  afibrd,  usually,  many  combinations.  Di- 
 vision is  similarly  treated,  the  question  being  such  as  the  cliil- 
 dren  would  take  an  interest  in  solving,  and  their  coins  are  early 
 explained  to  them,  and  made  the  subjects  of  their  exercises. 
 Fractions  grow  naturally  from  division.  The  foregoing  instruc- 
 tion is  interspersed  with  other  matters  yet  to  be  described. 
 
 In  fact,  there  is  no  fixed  order  of  exercise,  or  school-plan,  ac- 
 cording to  Graser's  method,  but  the  teacher  is  relied  upon  to 
 advance  the  difixjrent  parts  of  the  instruction  duly,  according 
 to  his  observation  of  the  progress  of  the  class. 
 
 The  elements  of  physics,  natural  history,  technology,  and 
 domestic  economy,  arc  tlius  introduced,  it  being  understood 
 that  the  same  mixed  method  of  question  and  answer,  and  of 
 direct  and  inductive  teaching,  is  used  throughout.  jMen  did  not 
 always  live  in  houses,  but  once  in  caves  and  huts.  The  incon- 
 veniences of  such  places  from  cold,  damp,  &c.,  are  pointed 
 out.  The  materials  required  for  a  house,  as  stone,  mortar, 
 wood,  iron,  &:c.  INIost  of  the  children  have  seen  the  operation 
 of  building,  and  can  tell  the  materials  required;  those  who  have 
 not  observed,  will  probably  not  let  an  opportunity  pass  after- 
 wards of  so  doing.  Whence  the  stone  is  procured,  quarries, 
 quarrymen.  The  hewing  of  stone.  Limestone  and  lime — the 
 objects  being  presented  to  them.     The  ronversion  of  the  lime- 
 
A  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  OF  BAYREUTH.  297 
 
 stone  into  lime.  The  slaking  of  lime,  making  of  mortar,  its 
 hardening,  laying  the  stones.  Digging  of  the  trench  for  the 
 foundations,  &c. 
 
 Next  the  wood  is  taken  for  the  subject  of  a  lesson.  The  dis- 
 tinction of  wood  from  fruit  trees  and  forest  trees  is  shown. 
 Shaping  of  the  wood  by  sawing.  Beams.  Planks.  Boards. 
 Laths.  Trade  of  house-carpenter.  Of  joiner,  &c.  In  the  same 
 way  iron  is  treated  of.     Bricks  and  tiles.     Glass. 
 
 In  recapitulating  these  matters,  or  in  presenting  new  ones,  the 
 elements  of  grammar  are  begun.  The  nouns  and  adjectives 
 are  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  parts  of  speech  by  the 
 induction  of  the  pupils  themselves,  when  directed  in  the  right 
 way. 
 
 Used  as  incidental  matters  of  instruction,  but  not  as  forming- 
 its  ground-work,  it  appears  to  me  that  the  foregoing  subjects 
 are  of  value,  and  that  useful  hints  may  be  gathered  from  the 
 way  of  treating  them ;  hence,  I  am  led  to  remark  upon  certain 
 sources  of  difficulty  in  their  execution.  The  instruction  may  be 
 rendered  wholly  ineffective  by  the  teacher  treating  the  subject 
 in  a  mechanical  way,  so  that  what  is  intended  to  excite  the 
 observing  and  reflecting  faculties,  especially  the  former,  shall 
 become  a  mere  memory  of  words.  It  may  be  rendered  actu- 
 ally mischievous  by  the  teacher  inculcating  erroneous  ideas  of 
 natural  phenomena  and  natural  history.  The  teacher's  guide 
 should  be  prepared  with  care,  and  revised  by  adepts  in  the 
 sciences,  to  avoid  such  mischief,  which  I  have  known  to  occur 
 in  many  cases.* 
 
 Elementary  ideas  of  right  and  wrong,  of  goodness,  of  "  fit- 
 ness" ("the  beautiful"),  are  inculcated  in  the  following  way: 
 The  dwelling  being  still  under  discussion,  the  attention  is  called 
 to  the  parts  of  the  door,  its  lock,  &c.     The  object  of  the  door 
 
 *  To  show  that  this  is  not  imaginary,  I  may  mention  [^ that,  in  a  school  where 
 the  subject  of  the  caustic  nature  of  lime,  and  of  its  heating  during  slaking,  were 
 under  examination,  they  were  explained  thus: — the  limestone  was  turned  into 
 lime  by  heat,  in  which  process  it  absorbed  a  great  deal  of  heat,  which  made  it 
 burning,  or  caustic;  when  water  is  thrown  upon  it,  flic  water  imitcs  with  the- 
 lime,  and  this  heat  escapes. 
 3R 
 
298  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 and  its  fastenings.  Who  may  rightfully  enter  a  iiousc.  The 
 right  to  put  out  those  entering  wrongfully.  A  story  is  told 
 here  of  a  poor  child  begging  for  admission  to  a  house  during  a 
 storm — cold,  hungry,  and  ill-clothed.  The  child  is  received  and 
 supplied.  Tlie  moral  is  drawn  from  the  children,  and  bene- 
 volence, love  to  man,  is  inculcated.  In  entering  a  strange 
 house  or  a  room,  leave  must  be  asked.  The  contrast  of  good 
 and  bad  manners  in  making  or  answering  the  request  is  brought 
 home  to  the  children.  The  subject  is  next  followed  up  by  suppos- 
 ing an  unlawful  entry  made  into  the  dwelling,  and  the  dilTerence 
 between  theft  and  burglary,  or  stealing  and  robbing,  is  brought 
 out.  The  smallest  possible  theft  of  any  kind,  or  pilfering,  is  im- 
 moral.    A  story  is  told  to  illustrate  the  fate  of  the  pilferer. 
 
 Next  the  inmates  of  the  house  and  out-houses  form  subjects 
 of  instruction,  the  mode  of  treating  which  will  easily  be  con- 
 ceived by  referring  again  to  the  general  enumeration  of  the  ar- 
 rangement of  the  subjects.  Exercises  of  speech  and  thought, 
 natural  history  of  domestic  animals,  and  much  elementary 
 technological  information,  are  thus  introduced.  Proverbs  are 
 committed  to  memory,  inculcating  moral  lessons  or  duties. 
 
 The  next  head  furnishes  an  opportunity  to  examine  the  wants 
 of  the  inmates  of  the  house,  the  topography  of  the  dwelling  and 
 its  grounds,  as  introductory  to  geography,  the  construction  and 
 uses  of  the  furniture  in  continuation  of  technology,  and  to  intro- 
 duce the  drawing  of  simple  articles  of  furniture.  Speech  is 
 considered  as  the  means  of  communicating  between  the  mem- 
 bers of  a  family.  Other  modes  of  communicating  ideas  by  signs 
 and  gestures  are  adverted  to.  Tlie  sight  may  be  addressed 
 through  pictures  as  substitutes  for  verbal  descriptions  addressed 
 to  the  ear.  Hieroglyphics  or  signs  may  be  substituted  for  pic- 
 tures. Trials  of  these  are  resorted  to,  as,  for  example,  the  curve 
 of  tiie  forefinger  and  thumb  forming  a  C,  may  be  imitated  on  the 
 slate,  and  understood  to  stand  for  "  come  iiere."  A  number  of 
 signs,  having  reference  to  letters  subsequently  to  be  formed,  and 
 to  their  actual  use  in  the  spelHng  of  words,  are  taught  to  tlie  chil- 
 dren, who  at  first  are  delighted  with  these  acquisitions,  but  after 
 a  time  find  the  accumulation  of  signs  very  troublesome.     This 
 
A  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  OF  BAYREUTH.  299 
 
 is  supposed  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  zeal  in  acquiring  writing 
 and  reading.  To  connect  the  written  with  the  spoken  language, 
 Dr.  Graser  goes  back  to  the  origin  of  the  former,  and  imagines 
 that  the  forms  of  the  letters  result,  in  general,  from  an  attempt 
 to  imitate  the  position  of  the  lips,  or  lips  and  tongue,  in  sounding 
 the  component  parts  of  a  word.  This  requires  a  difficult  and 
 in  many  cases  a  most  fanciful*  connexion  to  be  formed  in  the 
 mind  of  the  pupil  between  the  sound  and  its  sign.  Four  dif- 
 ferent series  of  lines  are  ruled  by  the  pupils  upon  the  slates,  on 
 which  they  write;  one  is  a  set  of  two  parallels  for  the  standard 
 letters;  another  of  three  parallels  for  the  letters  which  project 
 above  the  standard  lines,  the  interval  between  the  upper  two 
 being  less  than  that  between  the  lower;  another  set,  also  of  three 
 parallels,  for  the  letters  which  extend  below,  and  a  fourth  for 
 those  which  extend  in  both  directions.  Words  are  formed  as 
 soon  as  possible,  and  of  a  kind  intelligible  to  the  child,  and  sen- 
 tences of  the  same  character.  I  doubt  much  if  the  pupil  re- 
 ceives any  real  aid  from  the  connexion  assumed  between  sounds 
 and  signs.  The  determinate  sound  of  the  letters  in  the  German 
 renders  the  spelling  easy,  when  the  true  sound  and  the  signs  of 
 the  letters  have  been  connected  in  the  memory.f  The  previous 
 practice  of  drawing  has  prepared  the  hand,  so  that  there  is  a 
 remarkable  facility  in  acquiring  the  manual  part  of  writing. 
 The  selection  of  intelligible  sentences  carries  out  the  habit  of 
 understanding  every  thing  as  it  is  brought  forward.  Reading 
 the  written  hand  soon  becomes  familiar,  and  the  transition  to 
 
 *  I  have  called  this  fanciful,  for  so  it  appears  to  me,  but  speak  in  no  spirit  of 
 disrespect.  This  method  is  connected,  in  Dr.  Graser's  school,  with  the  instruction 
 of  the  deaf  and  dumb  with  other  children.  The  maxim  prevailing-  in  the  prin- 
 cipal schools  of  Germany  for  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  is,  that  they 
 must  be  restored  to  society  by  enabling  them  to  understand  speech  and  to  speak. 
 Hence  the  first  attempt  is  to  make  them  understand  the  motions  of  the  or<rans 
 of  speech,  and  to  imitate  them,  forcing  air  through  them  so  as  to  produce  the 
 sounds.  The  perseverance  and  zeal  expended  in  attempting  to  carry  out  this 
 idea  are  almost  incredible.  In  some  of  the  institutions  for  deaf  mutes  much  of  the 
 instruction  is  actually  communicated  through  the  means  of  speech. 
 
 +  I  have  a  specimen  of  writing  from  one  of  a  class  who  had  been  five  months 
 under  this  instruction,  remarkable  for  the  correctness  of  spelling  and  execution. 
 It  was  written  from  dictation.     The  pupil  was  seven  years  of  age. 
 
300  GE\ERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 the  printed  letters  is  easy.  In  all  this  instruction  the  black-board 
 is  used  for  illustrating  the  lessons.  Elementary  principles  of 
 grammar  are  inculcated  in  connexion  with  the  writing  and 
 readiniT. 
 
 o 
 
 In  the  next  class,  occupying  also  six  months,  the  instruction 
 is  connected  with  "  life  in  the  community."  This  includes  the 
 political  organization  of  the  community,  with  the  reasons  for  it; 
 the  geography  of  the  place ;  the  continuation  of  the  exercises 
 of  thought  and  speech;  the  commencement  of  Bible  history; 
 an  extension  of  instruction  in  morals,  technology,  and  natural 
 history;  of  the  elements  of  form;  of  grammar;  of  drawing  and 
 WTiting;  so  at  least  they  would  be  called  in  the  other  schools. 
 The  plan  of  arrangement  is  as  follows: 
 
 Life  in  the  community.  History  of  the  formation  of  communities,  with  their 
 wants  and  obligations.  Original  existence  of  man.  Union  of  several  families. 
 Fatal  accidents  in  communities.  Necessity  of  mutual  aid  in  misfortune.  Neces- 
 sity of  a  magistracy.  Arrangements  for  safety.  Taxes.  Laws  and  punish- 
 ments.  Wants  of  the  community.  Roads,  bridges,  <Scc.  Watchmen.  Servants. 
 Council-house.    School-house. 
 
 2.  In  reference  to  man.  The  five  senses.  Their  abuse  exposes  to  punish- 
 ment.  Information  in  regard  to  the  organs  of  sense.  Their  injury  or  deficiency. 
 Their  preservation  and  exercise.  The  mind.  Perception  not  required  for 
 tliought,  or  for  distinguisliing  the  true  from  the  false,  the  good  from  the  evil. 
 The  soul.  Man  has  reason  and  will.  Stories  of  good  actions.  The  good  is  not 
 always  rewarded  in  this  world,  but  there  is  a  God. 
 
 3.  Relation  of  man  to  God.  Attributes  of  the  Deity.  God  is  the  creator,  the 
 supporter,  the  governor  of  tlie  world,  the  father  of  all  men,  the  high  and  righteous 
 judge,  a  spirit.  Duties  to  God.  Honour,  love  as  of  a  child,  trust,  thankfulness, 
 reverence.  Constant  remembrance  of  God.  Conscience.  Stories  related.  The 
 evil  conscience.  Conscience  makes  a  man  anxious  and  uneasy  when  he  docs 
 wrong.  The  moral  to  be  inculcated  is,  tliat  man  has  witliin  him  a  monitor  which 
 warns  him  against  doing  evil.  Story  of  a  pleasant  evening.  There  is  also  ap- 
 proval within  one's  self  of  good  ckeds.  Necessity  of  a  revelation  to  man.  Sto- 
 ries from  the  Scriptures  related.  The  creation.  Cain  and  Abel.  The  deluge. 
 Those  saved.  The  j)roplKts.  Expectation  and  coming  of  the  ^Icssiah.  The 
 three  wise  men.  The  ciiild  Jesus.  John.  Jesus  the  teacher,  saviour,  and 
 founder  of  the  kingdom  of  godliness. 
 
 4.  Relation  of  man  to  nature.  The  native  j)Iace  and  its  environs.  The  vil- 
 lage as  the  dwelling  of  tlie  community.  The  cardinal  points.  Position  of  the 
 buildings.  Streets.  Roads.  Springs.  Stories  of  the  village.  Review  of  the 
 position  of  the  village.  Natural  iiistory.  Beauties  of  nature.  First  walk  in 
 tlu*  garden.     Fruit  ircv*,  shrubs,  }i(<rl>s,  tbnvrr.s'.     The  fields,  hills,  valleys,  woods, 
 
A  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  OF  BAYREUTH.  801 
 
 and  forests.  Morning  ramble  in  the  woods.  Morning-  song.  Insects.  Stories 
 of  cruelty  to  insects.  Natural  philosophij.  Heat.  Tlic  sun.  Sunrise.  Song. 
 Division  of  time.  The  calendar.  Vapour.  Storms.  Thunder  and  lightning. 
 Rules  for  protection. 
 
 5.  Relation  op  man  to  society.  Age  and  youth.  Infirm  persons.  The 
 able  bodied  and  tlie  sick.  Duties  towards  and  protection  of  the  sick.  Employ, 
 ments.  Labourers  and  tradesmen.  Peacefulncss.  Willingness  in  service.  Up- 
 rightness. Respectfulness.  Disposition  to  work.  Poverty  and  riches.  Contentment. 
 
 The  same  elements  of  instruction  are,  in  the  next  class, 
 grouped  about  the  next  pohtical  division,  the  circle,  the  course 
 occupying,  as  before,  six  months.  Beginning  here,  the  division 
 restricts  some  portions  of  instruction  unnecessarily.  In  gene- 
 ral, however,  I  was  satisfied  with  the  progress  of  this  class.  I 
 had  no  opportunity  of  judging  of  the  results  of  the  following 
 division,  namely,  "life  in  the  province,"  no  class  being  in  that 
 stage  of  progress. 
 
 In  the  next  following,  or  "  life  in  the  kingdom,"  the  political 
 circumstances  became  too  abstruse  for  the  intellectual  develop- 
 ment of  the  children,  and  the  attempts  at  induction  in  regard  to 
 the  government  failed  almost  entirely.  All  the  circumstances, 
 except  those  relating  to  the  army,  were  out  of  the  pale  of  their 
 ordinary  experience,  and  the  complex  mechanism  of  govern- 
 ment was  beyond  the  power  of  their  reason  to  grasp.  The 
 German  language  is  taught  grammatically  in  this  class,  and, 
 besides  the  geography  and  natural  history  of  Bavaria,  its  his- 
 tory, the  biography  of  its  most  distinguished  men,  arithmetic, 
 mental  and  written,  geometry,  drawing,  singing,  and  morals 
 from  the  Bible.  At  this  stage  of  progress,  it  is  quite  apparent 
 that  the  branches  require  a  different  mode  of  instruction,  that 
 they  must  be  separated,  and  the  progress  of  each  regulated  ac- 
 cording to  the  adaptation  of  the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  its  recep- 
 tion, and  not  according  to  any  extraneous  theoretical  circum- 
 stances. 
 
 The  two  highest  classes  being  joined  under  a  teacher  who 
 pursued  altogether  the  old  method  of  instruction,  I  had  no  op- 
 portunity to  put  to  the  test  the  judgment  formed  in  the  lower 
 class,  which  I  have  just  expressed.     Social  or  political  circum- 
 
302  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRLMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Stances  do  not  afTord,  I  am  satisfied,  a  just  method  of  arranging 
 the  details  of  instruction,  though  a  knowledge  of  them  should 
 doubtless  form  a  part  of  education.  The  reasons  why  the  ar- 
 rangement of  Grascr  produces  satisfactory  results  in  the  lower 
 classes  are,  first,  that  elementary  instruction  does  not  require  a 
 systematic  division  of  its  subjects,  in  order  to  apply  them  to  cul- 
 tivating the  intellect  or  morals,  or  for  communicating  know- 
 ledge: and  second,  that  the  subjects  are  within  the  pale  of 
 the  child's  experience,  and  refer  to  his  every-day  wants  and 
 perceptions.  Just  the  reverse,  however,  is  the  case  in  the 
 higher  divisions,  and  hence  a  diflferent  method  becomes  abso- 
 lutely necessary.*  Still  the  leading  idea  of  the  system,  that 
 to  develope  the  intellectual,  moral,  and  physical  faculties  of  man 
 is  not  sufficient,  but  that  he  must  be  educated  in  reference  to 
 the  life  in  which  he  is  to  take  a  part,  strikes  with  the  force  of 
 truth,  independently  of  the  details  which  may  be  devised  to 
 carry  it  into  effect. 
 
 The  institutions  which  Dr.  Graser  considers  necessary  to 
 give  the  entire  public  instruction  of  a  nation  are : 
 
 Popular  Schools.  Schools  for  Higher  Instruction. 
 
 1.  The  elementary  school.  1.  The  elementary  school. 
 
 2.  The   real  school,  ("  Real  Gymna-  2.  The  gymnasium. 
 
 slum.") 
 
 3.  The   real    institute,    ("  Real  Uni-  3.  The  university. 
 
 versity.") 
 
 The  character  of  the  instruction  appropriate  to  these  estab- 
 lishments may,  according  to  his  views,  be  thus  expressed.  In 
 the  elementary  school,  it  should  be  popular  and  inductive;  in 
 the  real  school,  practical  and  scientific;  and  in  the  university, 
 scientific  and  practical,  or  applying  science  to  practice. 
 
 •  This  view  is  also  taken  by  Dr.  KrOger,  whose  experience  and  skill  as  a 
 teacher  I  have  already  so  often  referred  to.  See  his  Journey  through  Germany. 
 (Reise  durch  Deutschland,  &c.,  pp.  132, 133.) 
 
SCHOOLS  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  INDUSTRY.  303 
 
 CHAPTER  VIII. 
 
 SCHOOLS  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  INDUSTRY. 
 
 Besides  the  schools  for  general  instruction,  which  have  been 
 noticed  in  the  foregoing  chapters,  others  have  been  devised, 
 intended  to  give  special  education  for  a  future  calling  while 
 pursuing  the  branches  of  common  school  instruction.  The 
 devotion  of  a  part  of  the  time  to  manual  labour,  as  in  the 
 schools  of  Dresden  and  Leipsic,  &c.,  already  spoken  of,  is  inci- 
 dental, and  not  a  chief  feature  in  the  plan,  and  the  occupations 
 learned  in  the  boys'  schools  are  not  such  as  are  likely  to  be 
 followed  in  after  life.  In  the  schools  now  under  consideration,  on 
 the  contrary,  the  manual  labour,  or  practical  exercises,  are  lead- 
 ing features  in  the  system,  and  are  intended  to  train  the  pupil 
 for  his  future  vocation.  These  establishments  require  very  pecu- 
 liar circumstances  to  render  them  useful;  the  future  occupation 
 of  the  pupil  must  be  distinctly  pointed  out  at  an  early  age, 
 or  it  must  be  desirable  to  give  him  a  particular  bias  by  educa- 
 tion. Thus,  in  the  rural  cantons  of  Switzerland,  there  can  be 
 no  doubt  that  boys  without  fortune  are  to  be  agricultural 
 labourers,  of  a  grade  depending  upon  their  success  in  life,  and 
 it  is  highly  important  to  the  country  that  as  many  as  possible 
 should  be  trained  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  their  calling. 
 Hence  the  establishment  of  "  rural  schools"  in  these  cantons, 
 and  the  encouragement  held  out  to  their  multiplication  by  pa- 
 triotic citizens.  Again,  it  is  important  in  a  community  like  that  of 
 Lyons,  where  the  manufacture  of  silk  employs  so  large  a  num- 
 ber of  the  population,  that  the  workman  should  be  acquainted 
 with  the  theory  of  his  art,  and  should,  if  he  have  talent,  also 
 have  the  acquirement  necessary  to  improve  it.  Hence  the 
 appropriation  of  the  Lamartiniere  funds  to  give  a  suitable 
 training  to  those  whom  it  is  supposed  may  become  workmen 
 in  the  extensive  manufactories  of  the  city.     The  creation  of 
 
304*  OEXEIIAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 such  schools,  where  the  conditions  necessary  to  render  them 
 successful  cannot  be  fulfilled,  must  be  followed  by  failure.  They 
 belong  essentially  to  particular  localities  and  social  circum- 
 stances, and  their  extension,  without  reference  to  a  due  conside- 
 ration of  these,  has  tended,  in  some  cases,  to  destroy  the  favour- 
 able opinion  formed  from  the  operation  of  similar  establishments 
 in  their  legitimate  sphere.  The  present  condition  of  the  rural 
 schools  of  Switzerland,  as  exemplified  by  those  which  I  visited, 
 a  comparison  of  the  organization  now  existing  with  that  at  the 
 outset,  an  inquiry  into  how  far  the  results  expected  from  them 
 have  been  realised,  and  among  these  results,  how  far  the  schools 
 may  be  considered  as  self-supporting,  afford  general  matter  of 
 interest,  and  will  appear  in  the  descriptions  of  the  schools  at 
 Hofwyl  and  Carra.  An  example  of  a  school  adaptetl  to  the 
 rural  population  of  England  will  follow  the  notice  of  the  Swiss 
 schools,  afibrding  an  instance  of  the  adoption  of  a  principle, 
 and  its  ingenious  modification,  to  suit  the  new  circumstances 
 under  which  it  is  applied. 
 
 On  account  of  the  late  ago  at  which  the  pupils  enter,  and  the 
 grade  of  agricultural  life  for  which  they  are  prepared,  I  have 
 hesitated  as  to  a  notice  of  the  agricultural  school  at  Temple- 
 moyle,  near  Londonderry,  in  this  chapter;  but  considering  that 
 the  intellectual  instruction  is  quite  elementary,  I  have  concluded 
 to  insert  it.  It  will  be  remarked,  in  relation  to  all  the  agricultural 
 schools,  that  the  age  to  which  pupils  are  retained  passes  far  the 
 limits  of  the  primary  period  of  education. 
 
 An  admirable  plan  for  adapting  the  ordinary  day  school  of 
 the  National  Board  of  Education  for  Ireland  to  the  wants  of 
 an  agricultural  community,  has  been  put  in  practice  by 
 Captain  Kennedy,  at  the  estate  of  Lough  Ash,  in  the  county 
 of  Londonderry.  The  children  are  taught  the  theory  and 
 practice  of  gardening,  of  farming  in  a  small  way,  and  of  the 
 care  of  cattle,  Aic,  by  the  master,  working  a  certain  number  of 
 hours  every  day,  when  the  season  permits,  in  the  small  garden 
 and  farm  attached  to  the  school.  When  these  arrangements 
 have  been  matured,  and  have  been  in  steady  operation  for  a 
 considerable  time,  ihe  results  will.  1  have  no  doubt,  prove  of 
 
SCHOOLS  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  INDUSTRY.  305 
 
 great  value  to  the  portion  of  the  country  where  they  will  be 
 displayed,  extending  beyond  this  one  estate  by  the  imitation  of 
 the  system  in  others. 
 
 Besides,  the  general  interest  which  may  attach  to  these 
 schools,  the  variety  of  arrangement,  and  the  methods  of  in- 
 struction  in  special  branches,  cannot  fail  to  be  of  service  for 
 the  more  direct  objects  of  my  Report.  The  Lamartini^re 
 school  IS  entitled,  I  believe,  to  the  credit  of  carrying  into  full 
 execution  the  method  of  teaching  the  elements  of  chemistry 
 and  mechanics,  by  combining  manipulation  with  the  study  of 
 the  theory. 
 
 RURAL  SCHOOLS  OF  SWITZERLAND. 
 
 These  are,  in  general,  schools  in  which  manual  labour  occu- 
 pies the  chief  part  of  the  pupil's  time,  moral  and  intellectual 
 training  being  mingled  with  it,  and  occupying  the  intervals  of 
 rest.    The  master  of  the  school  is  the  farmer,  and  the  pupils  are 
 his  family.     Labour  and  instruction  are  carried  on  together,  and 
 the  discipline  is  paternal.     The  arrangement  implies  that  the  pu- 
 pils reside  in  the  schools,  which  are  in  fact  charitable  establish- 
 ments, since  the  pupils  do  not  remain  long  enough,  after  their 
 labour  becomes  profitable,  to  repay  the  expenses  of  their  edu- 
 cation and  maintenance.     The  present  organization  of  these 
 schools  is  due  to  Mr.de  Fellenberg,  who  first  established  a  model 
 school  of  the  kind  at  Hofwyl,  in  1806,  and  no  less  than  twelve 
 for  boys  and  girls  have  been  since  established  in  the  different 
 cantons.     At  the  meeting  of  the  society  for  public  utility  at 
 Geneva,  in  August  of  1837,  a  report  was  made,  highly  com- 
 mendatory of  these  establishments,  and  proposing,  as  a  means  of 
 promoting  their  extension,  a  central  seminary  for  the  education 
 of  teachers  for  them;  the  importance  of  this  suggestion  will 
 appear  when  it  is  seen  how  entirely  the  character  of  these  estab- 
 lishments depends  upon  the  qualities  of  the  teachers,  and  how 
 difficult  it  is  to  find  suitable  ones.     The  two  for  boys  which  I 
 visited  were  Carra,  near  Geneva,  and  Hofwyl,  near  Berne. 
 39 
 
306  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 AGRICULTITRAL  SCHOOL  AT  HOFWYL. 
 
 The  establishments  for  education  at  Hofvvyl  have  attracted 
 more  attention  probably  than  any  other  educational  institutions 
 in  the  world,  and  have  become  well  known  from  the  various 
 reports  made  in  relation  to  them.*  At  the  time  of  my  visit, 
 in  1837,  they  consisted  of  a  school  chiefly  for  poor  children, 
 and  called  the  Agricultural  or  Rural  School,  of  a  middle  or 
 real  school  for  the  education  of  youth  not  intended  for  the 
 learned  professions^  of  a  boarding-school  for  the  preparatory 
 education  for  professional  life,  and  of  an  agricultural  institute, 
 to  the  lectures  of  which  pupils  in  the  other  departments  only 
 were  admitted.  All  these  establishments,  requiring  such  different 
 mental  resources  for  their  organization  and  management,  were 
 under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  de  Fellenberg,  their  founder, 
 and  by  whom  the  whole  institution  has  been  reared,  without 
 public  aid.f  At  the  time  of  my  visit  to  Hofvvyl,  the  middle 
 school  had  assumed  an  important  position,  and  was  the  most 
 flourishing,  probably,  of  the  different  establishments.  As,  how- 
 ever, the  regulations  did  not  permit  as  close  an  examination  of 
 this  and  of  the  boarding  institute,  within  the  time  which  I  was 
 able  to  devote  to  them,  as  of  some  other  similar  schools  which 
 I  visited,  I  propose  to  confine  the  present  notice  to  the  agricul- 
 tural school.J  Not  to  lose,  however,  the  advantage  of  the  prin- 
 ciples developed  in  these  establishments,  I  shall  place  in  the 
 
 *  Tlic  most  particular  account,  and  that  in  which  tlie  spirit  of  the  institutions  is 
 considered  by  their  founder  to  have  been  best  exhibited,  is  given  by  our  country- 
 man, Mr.  W.  C.  Woodbridgc,  in  the  Annals  of  Education,  published  at  Boston. 
 Mr.  Woodbridgc  resided  at  Ilofwyl,  and  made  himself  thoroughly  master  of  the 
 minutifc  of  the  cstubli.sliments. 
 
 t  Mr.  du  Fellenberg  is  one  of  tliosc  rare  instances  in  which,  from  motives  of 
 patriotism  and  benevolence,  men  occupying  high  stations  by  wcaltli  and  social 
 position,  devote  tiieir  means,  their  time,  and  talents,  to  the  promotion  of  cduca- 
 tion.  I  am  not  aware  of  any  case  in  which  equal  sacrifices  liave  been  made  as 
 in  that  of  Mr.  de  Fellenberg. 
 
 t  In  regard  to  this,  Mr.  de  Fellenberg  was  good  cnougli  to  put  mo  in  commu- 
 nication with  an  intelligent  pui)il  (John  Cuviu),  wlio  had  been  ten  months  in  the 
 Bchool,  and  who  was  then  in  the  middle  school,  preparing  as  on  instructor,  under 
 the  patronage  of  an  Irish  nobleman.  Lord  Wallscourt. 
 
RURAL  SCHOOLS  OF  SWITZERLAND.  307 
 
 Appendix,  No.  XL,  some  deductions  of  Mr.  de  Fellenberg  from 
 the  experience  of  Hofwyl. 
 
 The  pupils  of  the  agricultural  school  are  admitted  at  an  early 
 age,  there  being,  however,  no  fixed  limits,  and  are  expected  to 
 remain  until  twenty-one,  if  supported  gratuitously.  By  so  doing, 
 they  would  be  enabled,  by  their  manual  labour,  to  repay  the 
 expense  of  their  maintenance  and  education,  so  as  to  leave  the 
 institution  without  pecuniary  obligation.  They  would,  besides, 
 be  detained  beyond  what  may  be  considered  the  most  critical 
 age.  In  practice,  however,  it  is  found  difficult  to  induce  this 
 lengthened  stay,  the  actual  expediency  of  which  must  depend  so 
 much  upon  individual  circumstances.  In  addition  to  the  gra- 
 tuitous pupils,  others  are  taken,  who  pay,  in  part  or  entirely,  for 
 their  education.  Twenty  is  the  usual  number  of  gratuitous 
 pupils,  and  at  the  time  of  my  visit  there  were  ten  pay  pupils 
 besides ;  this  number  is  essentially  restricted  by  the  plan  of  the 
 school. 
 
 Formerly,  the  pupils  were  under  the  charge  of  a  single 
 teacher,  for  manual  labour,  instruction,  and  discipline.  The 
 teacher  lived  with  them,  and  was  expected  to  be  their  constant 
 companion,  adviser,  and  friend,  as  well  as  instructor.  The 
 first  teacher  of  the  agricultural  school,  Wehrli,  was  specially 
 trained  for  the  purpose  by  Mr.  de  Fellenberg,  and  executed  the 
 plan  of  the  school  in  a  way  to  produce  commendation  from  all 
 quarters.*  It  is  easily  seen  that  such  a  place  would  be  most 
 difficult  to  supply,  and  yet,  that  to  preserve  the  original  princi- 
 ple of  organization  requires  absolutely  that  it  should  be  sup- 
 plied. 
 
 At  present  the  arrangement  is  essentially  different.  The  pupils 
 work  and  live  with  the  teacher,  but  receive  instruction  in  the 
 middle  school.  In  summer,  the  time  occupied  in  labour  is  from 
 eight  to  twelve  hours  per  day,  and  in  instruction  from  two  to 
 four  hours.  In  winter,  the  amount  of  labour  is  less,  and  of  study 
 more.    At  particular  seasons  in  the  summer,  as  during  the  time 
 
 *  Mr.  Wclirli  is  now  at  the  head  of  the  normal  school  at  Kreuzlingcn,  in  his 
 native  canton  of  Thurgovia. 
 
308  GEXERAL   EIJUCATIO:^.        PRIMARY    PERIOD. 
 
 of  harvest  and  hay-making,  the  instruction  is  omitted  altogether. 
 In  the  winter,  gymnastic  exercises,  in  a  degree,  replace  agri- 
 cultural labour.  Thus  the  character  of  the  instruction  is  entirely 
 changed  from  what  the  former  records  of  the  school  represent 
 it  to  have  been.  It  was  intermingled  with  work,  and  much  of 
 it  incidental,  the  peculiar  talent  of  Wchrli  appearing  to  have 
 displayed  itself  in  improving  every  opjjortunity  for  communi- 
 cating instruction  of  this  sort.  At  present  the  intellectual  and 
 moral  instruction,  and  the  field-work,  both  assume  a  more 
 formal  character.  The  former  plan  appears  to  have  been  pe- 
 culiarly well  adapted  to  the  Swiss  character,  and  certainly 
 produced  happy  results  upon  the  youth  educated  under  it,  and, 
 if  I  understood  Mr.  de  Fellenberg  aright,  he  is  anxious  to  re- 
 turn to  it  when  a  suitable  teacher  shall  have  been  obtained.  In 
 addition  to  ordinary  farming,  and  labour,  and  gardening,  the 
 pupils  are  employed  in  an  extensive  dairy  and  a  shop  for  making 
 agricultural  machines.  They  have,  besides,  in  the  agricultural 
 institute,  means  of  acquiring  the  theory  as  well  as  the  practice  of 
 farming.  The  farming  operations  in  which  they  assist  are  car- 
 ried on  to  great  advantage  upon  the  extensive  domain  of  Hofvvyl. 
 
 They  rise  at  five  in  summer,  attend  to  the  police  of  their 
 dwelling-house,  and  unite  in  the  prayers  and  lessons  of  the 
 middle  school;  breakfast  at  half  past  six;  are  engaged  in  labour 
 or  instruction,  with  an  intermission  of  an  hour  at  noon  for  din- 
 ner, until  six  o'clock;  sup,  and  arc  engaged  in  their  lessons  until 
 eight;  iiave  prayers  and  retire  to  bed  at  nine.  Their  meals 
 are  served  from  the  same  kitchen,  and  are  of  the  same  quality 
 with  those  of  the  hands  u])on  the  farm.  On  Sunday  they  rise 
 at  six  in  summer,  breakfast  at  seven,  attend  prayers,  study,  and 
 join  the  classes  of  vocal  music  with  the  pupils  of  the  middle 
 school  until  eleven,  meet  the  other  classes  at  chapel,  where  they 
 have  a  sermon  from  a  Protestant  and  Catholic  clergyman,  alter- 
 nately; dine  at  twelve;  have  study  and  recreation  until  five, 
 when  they  sup;  are  free  until  seven;  have  prayers  and  retire  at 
 eight. 
 
 The  instruction  received  is  in  reading  the  (i'^'inan  language 
 and  exercises  oi'  induction,  four  hours  per  week;   arithmetic. 
 
AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOL  OF  HOFWYL.  309 
 
 three  hours;  elementary  geometry,  or  knowledge  of  forms,  two 
 hours;  geography  and  the  history  of  Switzerland,  three  hours; 
 natural  history  and  philosophy,  two  hours;  religion  and  morals, 
 two  hours;  writing,  drawing,  and  vocal  music,  three  liours. 
 
 Three  hours  per  week  are  devoted  to  military  drill,  in  which 
 the  pupils  of  the  several  schools  are  united.  An  admirable  ar- 
 rangement is  made  for  bathing,  by  enclosing  a  copious  spring, 
 so  as  to  form  a  reservoir  with  an  overflow,  by  which  the  water 
 is  constantly  changed.  The  depth  is  regulated  so  as  to  be 
 adapted  to  the  use  both  of  those  who  can  and  others  who  can- 
 not swim.  A  bathing-house,  steps  to  enter  the  water,  and  ap- 
 paratus of  various  kinds,  for  instruction  in  swimming,  complete 
 the  arrangements.* 
 
 The  discipHne  of  this  school  is  of  a  mild  character;  the 
 elder  pupils  have  much  influence  over  the  younger;  and  where 
 the  teacher  is  constantly  with  them,  as  in  the  former  organiza- 
 tion, his  control  is  a  substitute  for  regulations.  In  the  begin- 
 ning, the  number  of  pupils  admitted  w^as  so  small  that  no  one 
 could  escape  the  teacher's  observation  and  kindly  admonition; 
 and  when  the  numbers  were  increased,  this  spirit  was  propagated 
 from  the  older  pupils  to  the  new  comers. 
 
 In  connexion  with  this  rural  school  should  be  mentioned  the 
 establishment  know^n  as  the  Colony  of  Meykirk,  placed  several 
 miles  from  Hofwyl,  upon  an  uncultivated  spot.  The  objects  of 
 this  establishment  were  to  demonstrate  the  possibility  of  render- 
 ing rural  schools  self-supporting,  and  that  they  might  even  be 
 used  as  the  means  of  improving  the  agricultural  condition  of  the 
 country.  A  spot  of  fifteen  acres  was  selected,  and  a  log  house 
 built  upon  it.  The  colony  was  opened  with  six  pupils  in  1827, 
 and  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  pupil  of  Wehrli's.  The  number 
 was  gradually  increased.  The  instruction  was  made  entirely 
 incidental,  agricultural  labour  being  the  first  necessity  for  the 
 
 •  The  mode  of  teaching  to  swim  is  by  a  belt,  which  passes  round  the  body, 
 and  is  attaclicd  to  a  rope  passing  through  a  ring  at  the  end  of  a  bar  of  wood 
 from  wliicli  it  hangs,  and  which  acts  as  an  clastic  support.  Tlie  length  of  the 
 rope  can  be  increased  or  diminislied  at  pleasure,  so  as  to  afford  a  greater  or  less 
 support.  The  more  usual  instruction,  however,  is  given  by  the  elder  pupils  sup- 
 porting the  younger  on  their  hands. 
 
310  GE?fERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 colonists.  Their  mode  of  life  was  of  the  most  fruc^al  character, 
 to  an  extent  unpractised  in  our  country;  in  the  earlier  periods 
 they  were  supplied  from  Hofwyl,  but  w^ere  made  to  depend 
 upon  that  source  as  little  as  possible.  The  school  was  discon- 
 tinued a  few  years  since,  and  all  the  accounts  relating  to  it 
 closed,  when  it  appeared  that  during  its  brief  existence  the  esti- 
 mated improvements  of  the  soil  had  been  nearly  adequate  to  de- 
 fray the  expenses  of  the  scliool,  over  and  above  its  receipts. 
 This  result,  however,  depended  upon  the  peculiar  location  of  the 
 colony,  since  it  is  by  no  means  commt-n  to  such  schools,  even 
 in  Switzerland. 
 
 RURAL  SCHOOL  AT  CARRA,  NEAR  GENEVA. 
 
 This  rural  school  was  founded  in  1820,  by  Mr.  Pictet,  and 
 is  still  carried  on  upon  part  of  the  estate  of  his  nephew,  the  syn- 
 dic Vernet-Pictet.  There  is  a  similar  establishment  for  girls  in 
 the  vicinity,  and  under  the  charge  of  charitable  ladies.  The 
 school  at  Carra  belongs  to  subscribers,  and  is  managed  by  a 
 committee,  of  which  Mr.  Vernet-Pictet  is  president.  The  farm 
 attached  to  it  is  forty  acres  in  extent,  and  is  worked,  as  far  as 
 practicable,  by  the  pupils  themselves.  Of  course,  in  the  heavier 
 parts  of  farming  they  require  assistance.  The  master  of  the 
 school  is  the  head  farmer,  as  well  as  schoolmaster  and  father 
 of  the  family.  Agricultural  labour  is  the  business  of  the  pupil, 
 and  instruction  fills  up  the  intervals.  The  pupils  enter  at  about 
 eight  years  of  age,  and  remain  until  from  eighteen  to  twenty. 
 During  the  latter  years  of  their  stay,  their  work  begins  to  be 
 profitable  to  the  establishment,  and  they  are  even  sent  to  work 
 in  the  neighbourhood,  or,  as  is  found  more  advisable,  the  school 
 docs  the  work  of  a  neighbouring  farm  on  shares.  On  the 
 average,  however,  the  manual  labour  produces  but  about  one- 
 third  of  the  expense  of  the  pui)il. 
 
 The  style  of  living  is  so  plain,  that  the  wliole  cost  of  the  pupil 
 amounts  to  but  little  more  than  ten  cents  per  day.  The  society 
 supports  twenty-five  boys  of  different  ages,  who  live  with  the 
 master  and  his  family.  During  the  winter,  basket-making  and 
 other  handicraft  labour  is  added  to  their  employments,  and  the 
 
AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOL  OF  TEMPLEMOYLE.  811 
 
 older  pupils  go  to  market  with  the  produce  of  the  farm.  They 
 receive  an  elementary  education,  consisting  of  religious  instruc- 
 tion, reading,  writing,  accounts,  mental  arithmetic,  geography, 
 and  Swiss  history.  The  master  was  educated  under  the  cele- 
 brated Wehrli.  It  is  plain  that,  as  the  master  is  at  once  the 
 head  of  the  family  and  instructor,  the  character  of  the  moral, 
 intellectual,  and  physical  culture  of  the  pupils  depends  entirely 
 upon  him;  when  it  is  further  considered  that  a  great  part  of  the 
 instruction  is  incidental,  so  that  no  precise  rule  can  be  laid 
 down,  even  as  to  the  time  when  it  is  to  be  given,  it  is  quite  as 
 obvious  that  the  whole  results  of  education  depend  upon  his 
 tact,  temper,  judgment,  and  other  personal  qualities,  and  upon 
 his  preparation  for  this  difficult  task.  Since  the  foundation  of 
 the  school,  about  sixty-seven  pupils  have  been  attached  to  it ; 
 of  these,  twenty-four  have  passed  through  with  approbation, 
 twenty-seven  were  in  the  school  in  1837,  and  sixteen  have  been 
 withdrawn.  Of  twenty  pupils  for  whom  places  were  found  by 
 the  directors,  after  six  years  residence  in  the  institution,  twelve 
 were  apprenticed  as  farm-servants  or  gardeners,  three  as  school- 
 masters, two  as  house-servants,  and  three,  who  had  not  ade- 
 quate strength  for  country  work,  to  tradesmen.  The  commit- 
 tee complain  of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  young  men,  even  thus 
 brought  up,  in  the  country,  contrary  to  the  general  tendency 
 towards  the  towns. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOL   OF   TEMPLEMOYLE,  NEAR  LONDON- 
 DERRY. 
 
 The  Agricultural  School  of  Templemoyle  w^as  established  by 
 the  Northwest  of  Ireland  Agricultural  Society,  in  1827.*     It  is 
 
 *  I  am  indebted  for  a  most  favourable  introduction  to  this  school  to  Sir  R. 
 Ferguson,  of  Dcrry,  one  of  its  most  active  managers,  and  had  the  good  fortune 
 to  meet  there  Captain  Kennedy,  of  Lough  Ash,  the  manager  of  a  large  estate,  in 
 a  wild  district,  where  he  is  pursuing  plans  for  the  elevation  of  the  peasantry, 
 which  must  produce  the  happiest  results.  The  improvement  of  his  tenants  is  in 
 an  increasing  ratio  witii  the  time  of  their  residence  on  his  estate.  His  school, 
 saving-fund,  and  bazaar,  where  articles  of  use  arc  sold  at  cost;  his  arrangements 
 for  leases,  loans,  agricultural  instruction,  and  moral  and  religious  culture,  are  all 
 admirably  conceived,  and  executed  with  a  zeal  beyond  my  praise.     I  do  not 
 
312  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.       PRIMARV  PERIOD. 
 
 situated  in  a  healthful  and  picturesque  part  of  the  county  of 
 Londonderry,  about  six  miles  from  the  city.  At  the  same 
 time  with  this  school,  the  subscribers  established  one  for  the 
 education  of  mercantile  and  professional  men,  not  far  from 
 Templemoyle,  expecting  that  the  latter  would  prove  profitable 
 in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  and  thus  yield  assistance  for  the 
 support  of  the  former.*  The  idea  was,  however,  not  realized, 
 and  after  a  considerable  expense  in  its  establishment,  the  higher 
 school  was  abandoned,  and  all  the  efforts  of  the  subscribers 
 concentrated  upon  the  agricultural  school.  The  plan  of  Mr. 
 do  Fellenberg's  establishment  was  thus  taken  as  a  model,  but, 
 under  the  diflcrent  circumstances  of  the  case,  proved  a  decided 
 failure. 
 
 The  agricultural  school  is  designed  for  the  education  of  the 
 sons  of  farmers,  or  of  young  men  intended  for  farming  occupa- 
 tions, either  on  their  own  account,  or  in  the  employ  of  others. 
 It  aims  at  giving  them  a  plain  English  education,  and  a  know- 
 ledge of  the  principles  and  practice  of  agriculture. 
 
 Pupils  are  admitted  at  or  after  fifteen,  and  should  remain  in 
 the  school  during  a  period  dependent  upon  the  age  of  admis- 
 sion, but  as  they  are  pay  scholars,  they  may  be  removed  at 
 any  time  by  their  parents.  The  sum  paid  for  education  and 
 maintenancef  is  not  adequate  for  their  support,  and  yet  is  so 
 high  as  to  limit  essentially  the  number  of  pupils  which  the  in- 
 stitution actually  receives.  In  the  spring  of  1836  there  were 
 thirty-three  in  the  school,  but  in  the  autumn,  this  number  was 
 increased  to  sixty-six,  by  the  pupils  sent  by  the  commissioners 
 of  woods  and  forests  and  by  societies.  The  buildings  can,  how- 
 ever, furnish  accommodation  for  upwards  of  one  hundred.  The 
 school  has  educated,  since  its  establishment,  one  hundred  and 
 
 know  that  I  have  been  ever  more  impressed  with  a  sense  of  philanlliropic  exer- 
 tion, than  by  a  visit  to  Lough  Ash. 
 
 *  To  cstublisli  the  schools,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  shares  of  one  hundred 
 and  twenty. five  dollars  eaeh  weie  subscribed  by  diflVrent  comi)anies  and  indi- 
 viduals, and  six  thousand  dollars  were  subsecjuently  subscribed  for  the  erection 
 of  the  buildinj^rs  at  Templemoyle.  Various  other  donations  and  aiuiual  subscrip- 
 tions have  been  made. 
 
 t  About  fifty  dollars  per  annum,   $48.66.1 
 
AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOL  OF  TEMPLEMOYLE.  313 
 
 seventy-eight  youths,  from  diflerent  parts  of  Ireland  and  from 
 Scotland. 
 
 The  direction  is  vested  in  a  committee  of  the  subscribers. 
 The  immediate  control  is  divided  between  the  agricultural 
 master,  or  farmer,  who  regulates  the  agricultural  labours, 
 the  school-master,  who  divides  the  time  of  the  pupils  with  the 
 farmer,  and  the  matron,  who  has  charge  of  the  domestic  eco- 
 nomy of  the  establishment,  under  the  direction  of  the  farmer  and 
 instructor.  A  working-gardener  has  lately  been  added,  and  a 
 piece  of  ground  laid  off  to  be  cultivated  by  the  pupils  under  his 
 du'ection. 
 
 At  half  past  five  the  pupils  rise,  arrange  their  rooms,  say 
 their  prayers,  and,  in  two  divisions,  which  alternate  on  different 
 days,  are  engaged  until  eight  in  study,  or  in  work;  half  the  pu- 
 pils are  with  the  farmer,  and  half  under  the  school-master, 
 except  on  extraordinary  occasions,  when  the  services  of  all  are 
 required  for  the  farm,  or  the  season  releases  them  from  their 
 agricultural  duties.  At  eight  they  breakfast,  and  are  free  until 
 nine;  work  and  attend  school,  in  alternate  divisions,  from  nine 
 until  one.  Dine  at  one,  and  have  recreation  until  two.  From 
 two  to  six,  are  at  work  and  in  school  alternately.  From  six  to 
 seven,  sup  and  have  recreation.  From  seven  to  nine,  prepare 
 the  lessons  for  the  next  day,  have  prayers,  and  retire  at  nine. 
 On  Sundays  they  attend  their  respective  places  of  worship,  and 
 occupy  a  part  of  the  remainder  of  the  day  in  religious  reading. 
 
 The  intellectual  instruction  consists  in  spelling,  reading,  gram- 
 mar, geography,  arithmetic,  writing,  and  book-keeping,  with 
 some  elementary  and  practical  geometry,  and  trigonometry. 
 The  farmer  gives  lectures  also  in  the  evening,  upon  the  theory 
 of  agriculture.  It  is  intended  to  introduce  lectures  on  botany 
 and  agricultural  chemistry. 
 
 The  practice  includes  all  the  operations  of  farming,  under  the 
 different  approved  systems,  the  rearing  of  cattle,  the  manage- 
 ment of  a  dairy,  and,  in  general,  the  incidental  as  well  as  the 
 direct  occupations  of  the  farmer  or  agricultural  labourer.  The 
 head  farmer,  or  agricultural  master,  is  expected  to  explain  the 
 principles  of  the  work  in  which  the  pupils  arc  engaged,  and  to 
 40 
 
314  GENERAL  EDUCATIOxV.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 take  opportunities  for  incidental  instruction.  The  operations 
 which  he  is  specially  called  upon,  in  the  regulations  of  the  com- 
 mittee, to  teach,  are,  ploughing  and  the  setting  of  the  plough, 
 the  use  of  farming  instruments  in  general,  the  qualities  of  stock 
 and  modes  of  recognising  them,  the  treatment  and  manage- 
 ment of  dairy  and  farming  stock,  the  making  and  repairing  of 
 fences,  the  rotation  of  crops  and  those  best  adapted  to  different 
 varieties  of  soils,  the  modes  of  draining,  reclaiming,  and  im- 
 proving lands,  and  the  most  recent  inventions  and  improve- 
 ments in  agricultural  implements.  The  farmer  takes  those  who 
 are  sufficiently  advanced  in  knowledge  and  age  to  be  benefited 
 thereby,  to  the  fairs,  to  assist  in  the  sale  of  the  products  of  the 
 farm  and  stock. 
 
 The  pupils  are  divided,  for  work,  into  sections,  each  of  which 
 has  its  monitor,  or  chief,  and  consists  of  eight  or  ten  boys. 
 The  head  monitor,  or  superintendent,  has  the  control  of  them, 
 in  the  absence  of  the  master,  and  arranges  with  him  the  distri- 
 bution of  their  time,  takes  an  account  of  the  stock,  and  of  the  pro- 
 ducts of  the  labour,  and  advises  with  the  master  in  regard  to 
 the  farm,  in  such  a  way  as  to  prepare  himself  for  actual  super- 
 intendence. This  place  is  occupied  by  the  elder  pupils  in  rota- 
 tion. 
 
 The  farm  consists  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  acres,*  of 
 which  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  are  arable  land.  It  is  worked 
 so  as  to  present  examples  of  the  most  approved  rotation  of 
 crops,  the  fields  embraced  in  the  same  series  of  shifts  lying  ad- 
 jacent to  one  another.  The  whole  is  drained  by  under-ground 
 drains,  according  to  the  Scottish  system,  and  is  well  enclosed 
 with  dilicrent  fences  as  specimens,  and  trials  of  the  various 
 kinds.  The  house  is  substantially  built,  and  contains  a  school- 
 room, refectory,  dormitories,  sitting-room,  and  apartments  for 
 the  masters,  all  arranged  in  the  plainest  manner,  with  the  out- 
 houses proper  for  a  farm.     The  garden  is  laid  out  for  vegeta- 
 
 •  A  plot  of  the  ground,  as  surveyed  by  the  pupils,  and  drawn  by  one  of  tlio 
 number,  was  prcsjcnlcd  to  nic,  showing  the  details  of  tlio  arrangement,  and  the 
 elassification  of  its  parts.  The  construction  of  this  drawing  was  one  of  the  prao 
 tical  exerciecB  of  tU^  ^ine^ 
 
MANUAL  LABOUR  SCHOOL  AT  EALING.  315 
 
 tables,  fruits,  and  flowers,  and  portions  have  been  sown  with 
 the  various  grasses,  to  exemplify  their  growth  and  uses. 
 
 The  discipline  of  the  school  is  believed  to  be  good,  and  to  be 
 administered  with  little  difficulty.  It  depends  mainly  upon  the 
 administration  of  a  code  of  rules  by  the  two  masters  and  ma- 
 tron, and  is,  therefore,  essentially  different  in  spirit  from  that 
 of  the  Swiss  rural  schools.  The  scale  of  the  institution  is  also, 
 in  all  respects,  larger,  and  the  character  of  the  education  ap- 
 proaches much  nearer  to  that  appropriate  for  a  school  for  spe- 
 cial instruction,  as  does  also  the  age  of  the  pupils  at  admission. 
 These  circumstances  should,  of  course,  modify  materially  the 
 system,  even  if  the  character  of  the  pupils  was  the  same. 
 
 The  domestic  economy  is  simple,  and  the  fare  substantial,  but 
 very  plain.  It  is  remarkable  that,  with  the  simplicity  of  the 
 life,  and  the  age  of  many  of  the  pupils,  some  of  them  being 
 quite  men,  this  school  has  not  yet  managed  to  support  itself, 
 even  including  in  the  account  the  payment  made  by  the  pupils. 
 It  still  requires  the  aid  of  subscriptions,  which,  however,  are 
 secured  to  it  by  a  conviction  of  the  general  benefits  resulting 
 from  it.  The  highest  testimony  to  the  usefulness  of  the  pupils 
 who  have  been  educated  here,  is  borne  by  those  who  have  em- 
 ployed them  in  their  service. 
 
 MANUAL  LABOUR  SCHOOL  AT  EALING. 
 
 There  have  been,  of  late  years,  many  independent  efforts  in 
 different  parts  of  England  to  establish  schools  upon  principles 
 better  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  labouring  agricultural  classes 
 than  the  ordinary  day  schools.  An  attempt  was  made,  in  1833, 
 to  form  a  society,*  the  object  of  which  was  the  establishment  of 
 a  model  school  for  industrial  schools  for  the  peasantry,  and  the 
 union  with  it  of  a  school  for  the  education  of  teachers  for  simi- 
 lar establishments.  The  attempt  was  unsuccessful  in  reference 
 to  the  society,  but  a  benevolent  lady  undertook  to  carry  out  the 
 plan,  in  regard  to  the  model  school,  at  her  own  expense.     The 
 
 *  Sec  an  excellent  memoir  on  Industrial  Schools  for  the  Peasantry,  in  the 
 first  publication  of  the  Central  Society  of  Education  in  London,  by  Mr.  Duppa, 
 secretary  of  the  society. 
 
31G  (JENERAL  EDUCATION.       rRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 new  school  was  established  at  Ealing,  a  village  about  five  miles 
 from  London.  It  was  intended  to  combine  manual  labour, 
 chiefly  gardening,  with  instruction  in  the  usual  elementary 
 branches,  but  to  introduce  the  later  improvements  in  the  modes 
 of  elementary  teaching.  Tiie  task  of  hnding  a  master  capa- 
 ble of  filling  such  a  place  was  obviously  no  easy  one,  and  the 
 necessity  for  employing  a  teacher  imbued  with  the  routine  spirit 
 of  the  common  village  schools,  has,  no  doubt,  retarded  the  de- 
 velopment of  the  plan.  I  saw  enough  during  my  visit  to  this 
 school  to  be  persuaded  that,  when  in  full  operation,  according  to 
 the  original  idea,  its  results  must  be  of  considerable  importance, 
 and  that  even  in  its  present  imperfect  state,  the  school  is  highly 
 beneficial  to  the  rural  district  in  which  it  is  situated.  It  is  an 
 attempt  to  adapt  the  spirit  of  the  Swiss  rural  schools  to  the  cir- 
 cumstances of  the  English  peasantry.  "  Its  leading  principles 
 are,  that  the  children  should  early  acquire  habits  of  patient  in- 
 dustry ;  that  they  should  be  acquainted  with  the  value  of  labour, 
 and  know  the  connexion  between  it  and  property ;  that  they 
 should  have  intelligence,  skill,  and  an  acquaintance  with  the 
 objects  by  which  they  are  surrounded;  that  the  higher  senti- 
 ments, the  social  and  moral  part  of  their  being,  should  receive 
 a  full  development."* 
 
 Habits  of  industry  are  promoted  by  labouring  in  the  garden 
 attached  to  the  school-house.  This  is  divided,  one  portion 
 being  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  school,  another  being  sub- 
 divided into  small  gardens  for  the  boys.  The  pupils  work  in 
 the  first  under  monitors,  and  receive  a  compensation  in  propor- 
 tion to  the  useful  results  of  their  labour.  The  second  they  hire 
 at  fixed  rates,  and  dispose  of  the  produce  as  they  please,  al- 
 ways receiving,  however,  the  market  price  for  it  from  the 
 school,  if  they  choose  to  dispose  of  it  there.  The  younger 
 children  are  not  allowed  to  undertake  gardens  on  their  own 
 account,  but  work  for  others  or  tor  the  establishment.  Part- 
 nerships are  sometimes  formed  among  them  for  the  more  ad- 
 vantageous cultivation  of  larger  pieces  of  ground.     At  thn  pe- 
 
 *  See  \hv  nrticle  iK^forc  referred  t<>.  mid  w  liicli  is  ollHirtl 
 
MANUAL  LABOUR  SCHOOL  AT  EALIIVG.  317 
 
 riod  of  my  visit,  the  gardens  were  planted  with  vegetables  and 
 flovi^ers,  and  many  of  them  tastefully  arranged.  All  exhibited 
 an  appearance  of  neatness,  and  during  the  hours  of  w^ork 
 the  renters  appeared  busily  occupied.  The  best  order  reigned 
 among  all  the  children.  An  occasional  simple  song  was  sung 
 in  the  group  who  were  working  for  the  school,  under  the  di- 
 rection of  a  monitor.  The  master  directs  the  whole,  and  to 
 his  suggestions  they  are  indebted  for  many  improvements;  it  is 
 their  privilege  to  resort  to  his  counsel  in  cases  of  difficulty.  The 
 school  furnishes  the  w^orking-tools,  which  for  the  youngest 
 children  are  merely  a  hoe  and  rake.  They  have  also  in-door 
 work  for  bad  weather,  consisting  of  carpentry,  the  making  of 
 w^ooden  shoes,  &c.  1  was  told  that  the  room  for  containing  their 
 gardening-tools,  where  there  is  also  a  trough  for  washing,  had 
 been  fitted  up  by  the  pupils,  and  they  have  shown  considerable 
 ingenuity  in  the  repairs  of  the  out-houses  attached  to  the  school, 
 and  have  even  entirely  constructed  one  of  them.  In  the 
 beginning  a  gardener  was  employed  to  teach  the  boys,  but  this 
 is  now  done  by  the  master  and  monitors.  An  account  current 
 with  each  pupil  is  kept,  in  which  he  is  charged  with  the  rent  of 
 his  ground,  and  the  seeds  and  plants  which  he  has  purchased 
 from  the  stock,  and  credited  with  the  produce  which  he  has 
 sold  to  the  schooL  Some  of  the  pupils  have  a  considerable 
 surplus  on  the  credit  side  at  the  end  of  the  year;  one  lad  is 
 stated  to  have  gained  nearly  ten  dollars  from  a  sixteenth  of  an 
 acre;*  another,  of  thirteen,  to  have  gained  nearly  five  dollars 
 and  a-half,  from  the  gardening  between  March  and  November; 
 another,  of  fourteen,  five  dollars;  and  a  third,  of  eleven,  the  same 
 sum.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  master  so  to  arrange  that  the  pu- 
 pils may  not  lose,  unless  by  providential  circumstances;  not 
 to  intrust,  for  example,  a  youth  with  the  charge  of  a  garden 
 before  his  capability  to  manage  it  is  sufficiently  proved;  and 
 not  to  allow  extravagances  or  glaringly  injudicious  measures 
 on  the  part  of  the  little  gardeners.     The  tendency  of  these 
 
 *  They  pay  six  cents  per  month  to  the  school  as  rent  for  tliis  quantity  of 
 ground. 
 
318  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 measures  is,  incidentally  to  train  to  habits  of  respect  for  pro- 
 perty, of  honesty,  fair  dealing,  and  mutual  assistance,  quite  as 
 valuable  as  those  of  industry.  The  time  employed  in  manual 
 labour  by  the  elder  pupils  is  three  hours,  and  to  this  is  added 
 three  hours  and  a-half  of  intellectual  instruction.  The  younger 
 boys  are  four  hours  and  a-half  in  school.  It  would  be  unfair  to 
 compare  a  school,  where  the  pupils  have  been  so  recently 
 brought  under  instruction,  with  others  of  longer  standing;  hence 
 I  would  only  remark,  that  the  theory  of  the  intellectual  instruc- 
 tion was  much  better  than  its  practice,  and  express  the  opinion 
 that  the  same  enlightened  superintendence  which  has  accom- 
 plished so  much,  will  probably  work  out  satisfactorily  all  the 
 details  of  the  plan.  The  mechanical  parts  of  a  new  project 
 are  always  more  easily  realized  than  the  intellectual.  When 
 the  young  men  now  training  up  as  teachers  in  this  school 
 shall,  in  their  turn,  come  to  improve  the  practice  which  they 
 witness,  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  success  of  the  intellectual 
 department-  The  greatest  novelty  is  that  which  has  already 
 proved  successful. 
 
 LA  MARTINIERE  SCHOOL  OF  LYONS. 
 
 This  school  was  founded  in  pursuance  of  the  will  of  a  citizen 
 of  Lyons,  M.  Martin,  who  left  the  French  army  while  in  Syria, 
 went  to  India,  and  entered  the  service  of  one  of  the  native 
 princes.  He  acquired  a  very  large  fortune,  and  at  his  death 
 left  a  considerable  portion  of  it  to  found  three  charitable  insti- 
 tutions, two  in  India  and  one  at  Lyons.  The  war  with  Eng- 
 land prevented,  for  a  time,  the  acquisition,  by  the  city  of  Lyons, 
 of  their  portion  of  this  legacy,  which,  when  it  came  into  the 
 treasury,  amounted  to  more  than  four  hundred  thousand  dol- 
 lars. With  this  the  municipal  council  determined  to  found  a 
 school  for  the  working  classes,  and  that  its  benefits  might  be 
 extended  as  widely  as  possible,  made  a  day  school  of  it.  The 
 chief  object  of  the  institution  is  to  train  up  an  educated  class 
 of  workmen  for  the  manufactories.  The  arrangement  of  the 
 courses  has  been  governed  by  two  principles,  the  first,  to  fulfil 
 the  object  just  stated:  the  second,  to  avoid  the  danger  of  dc- 
 
LA  MARTINIERB  SCHOOL  OF  LYON^.  819 
 
 feating  it  by  over  education.  Pupils  enter  at  the  age  of  ten, 
 and  the  elementary  attainments  in  language  which  they  may 
 have  made  before  admission,  are  rather  kept  up  than  extended. 
 Thorough  scientific  courses,  form  the  basis  of  further  educa- 
 tion, giving  them  entirely  a  practical  turn,  and  studiously  avoid- 
 ing the  speculative.  The  experience  of  the  school,  v^hich  has 
 been  in  full  activity  only  five  years,  is  not  yet  sufficient  to  show 
 how  far  the  plan  will  attain  the  ends  proposed  ;  but  it  affords  at 
 present  some  of  the  best  illustrations  of  exact  teaching  of  science 
 which  I  have  ever  seen.  In  regard  to  these  I  shall  enter  into 
 some  particulars,  prefacing  them  by  a  general  notice  of  the 
 establishment. 
 
 The  school  is  governed  by  trustees,  chosen  by  the  munici- 
 pality of  the  city  of  Lyons,  and  constituting  a  board,  which' 
 regulates  all  tlie  concerns  of  the  institution,  and  appoints  its 
 officers.  The  trustees  choose  committees  from  among  the 
 citizens  to  attend  the  examinations  -and  to  distribute  the  prizes 
 for  excellence  in  the  different  departments.  The  selection  is 
 made  from  those  who  are  supposed  best  acquainted  with  the 
 branch  under  examination. 
 
 Pupils  are  admitted  between  ten  and  fourteen  years  of  age, 
 and  remain  two,  or  in  special  cases,  three  years.  They  are 
 expected  to  be  familiar  with  the  studies  of  the  primary  schools 
 before  entering. 
 
 The  course  of  instruction  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first 
 general,  the  second  special.  The  general  course  consists  of 
 mathematics,  drawing,  writing,  and  French,  the  last  two  named 
 being  intended  merely  to  keep  up  the  attainments  made  in  the 
 primary  schools.  The  special  courses  are  of  chemistry  and 
 weaving.  These  latter  arc  not  obligatory;  the  choice  as  to 
 whether  the  pupil  will  pursue  one  or  other  of  them,  or  not,  be- 
 ing left  with  his  parents.  The  object  of  restricting  the  courses 
 of  writing  and  French,  is  to  prevent  the  tendency  to  leave  the 
 more  laborious  occupations,  towards  which  the  institution  would 
 direct  its  pupils,  for  situations  as  clerks,  &:c. 
 
 The  course  of  mathematics  extends  through  the  two  years, 
 
320  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 and  embraces  arithmetic,  algebra  to  quadratic  equations,  prac- 
 tical geometry,  descriptive  geometry,  and  mechanical  prob- 
 lems. There  are  two  classes,  each  under  a  professor,  \vho 
 is  assisted  by  a  "repeater"  (rcpetiteur),  to  go  over  the  lessons, 
 and  to  exercise  the  pupils  in  examples.  I  have  not  seen  the 
 simultaneous  method  of  instruction  so  well  practised  elsewhere 
 as  in  the  course  of  mathematics  of  the  higher  class.  Each 
 pupil  had  a  small  black-board,  on  which  he  wrote  with  pre- 
 pared chalk,  and  at  a  word  from  the  professor  the  question  was 
 written  down,  and  its  results  shown,  after  solution.  The  rapidity 
 and  accuracy  of  the  solutions,*  and  the  large  proportion  of  the 
 class  who  were  able  to  solve  the  questions,  showed  that  they 
 had  been  thoroughly  taught,  and  the  best  possible  order  resulted 
 from  the  manner  of  executing  the  class  movements  together,  at 
 the  word  of  command.  To  construct  in  space  the  problems  of 
 descriptive  geometry,  relating  to  the  right  line  and  plane,  each 
 pupil  had  a  small  tablet  of  wax,  and  rods  of  wire  of  diflerent 
 lengths.  All  the  introductory  definitions,  as  well  as  the  pro- 
 blems, were  required  to  be  illustrated  by  these  contrivances, 
 and  the  problems  themselves  to  be  constructed  in  space  before 
 recourse  was  had  to  projections.  As  an  introduction  to  this 
 exercise,  the  propositions  in  the  fifth  book  of  Legendre's 
 geometry  arc  constructed  in  a  similar  manner.  The  pupils 
 are  engaged  in  their  mathematical  studies  two  hours  a-day 
 with  a  professor,  and  tw'o  hours  with  a  "  repeater,"  or  under 
 monitors  from  the  class. 
 
 The  course  of  drawing  also  occupies  two  years.    The  pupils 
 draw  altogether  from  models,  beginning,  as  in  the  Prussian 
 
 •  Among  the  questions  were  tliese : — Tlie  eubc  root  of  3.333  to  three  places 
 of  decimals,  was  found  in  three  and  a-half  minutes.  The  radius  of  a  sphere  of 
 532  cubic  centimetres  in  capacity,  was  found  in  three-quarters  of  a  minute.  The 
 capacity  of  a  5i)here  was  piven  at  513  cubic  centimetres,  and  its  specific  n^ravity 
 at  I'J,  the  weight  was  found  in  three  and  a-half  minutes.  In  the  equations  "2x — iy 
 =20,  and  3x-\-5ij=50,  the  values  of  x  and  y  were  found  in  tlirec  minutes.  Tiic 
 condenser  of  a  steam  engine  being  supposed  to  contain  3.25  kilogrammes  of 
 steam,  required  the  quantity  of  water  at  'P  C,  to  reduce  tlie  steam  to  25"^  C,  this 
 question  was  solved  in  two  minutes. 
 
LA  MARTINIERE  SCHOOL  OF  LYONS.  321 
 
 method,  with  the  most  simple  forms,  going  into  the  delineation 
 of  complex  machinery,  and  making  projections  as  well  as  per- 
 spective drawings.  They  begin  upon  slates,  but  soon  learn  to 
 draw  upon  paper.  In  general,  instruments  are  not  used,  even 
 when  they  come  to  machine  drawing.  When  I  visited  the 
 school,  a  part  of  the  upper  class  was  engaged  in  completing 
 the  perspective  of  a  model  of  a  steam  engine,  for  an  approach- 
 ing competition  for  places.  The  results  of  this  course  also  ap- 
 peared to  me  very  satisfactory.  These  lessons  occupy  two 
 hours  every  day. 
 
 Chemistry  is  taught  practically  in  the  laboratory,  and  at 
 an  hour  (from  seven  to  a  quarter  past  eight,  A.  M.)  which 
 does  not  interfere  with  the  other  courses.  The  class  is  divided 
 into  two  sections,  each  of  which  has  its  set  of  apparatus,  and 
 goes  through  the  preparation  and  execution  of  the  principal 
 experiments  and  illustrations  of  a  course  of  chemistry  as  ap- 
 plied to  the  arts.  They  are  particularly  exercised  in  the  che- 
 mistry of  dyeing  and  bleaching.  The  facility  in  the  detection 
 of  mineral  salts,  which  the  pupils  m  general  displayed,  showed 
 the  efficiency  of  this  method.  Habits  of  observation  and  ex- 
 actness, as  well  as  skill  in  manipulation,  are  gained  by  the 
 instruction. 
 
 Weaving  is  taught  theoretically  as  well  as  practically,  with 
 special  reference  to  the  silk  manufacture.  Whoever  has  be- 
 come acquainted  with  the  use  of  the  Jacquard  loom,  will  see 
 that  there  is  abundance  of  room  for  calculation  in  regard  to  its 
 combinations.  There  are  several  looms,  to  afford  opportunity 
 for  practical  exercise.  This  branch,  also,  is  taught  at  an  hour 
 (half  past  five  to  seven,  P.  M.)  which  does  not  interfere  with 
 the  other  instruction. 
 
 There  is  also  a  course  of  exercise  in  the  manipulations  of 
 physics,  the  institution  possessing,  besides  an  extensive  collection 
 of  apparatus  and  of  models  of  machines,  a  number  of  small  sets 
 of  the  commoner  apparatus  for  the  use  of  the  pupils.  Writing 
 and  French  occupy  one  hour  every  day. 
 
 The  manner  in  which  all  these  courses  are  taught,  makes 
 41 
 
322  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 them  more  really  valuable,  as  a  means  of  general  mental  culti- 
 vation, than  might  at  first  be  supposed,  from  the  limited  range 
 of  the  subjects.  The  resources  of  intellect,  knowledge,  and 
 general  manual  dexterity,  furnished  by  them,  must  be  of  incal- 
 culable value  in  the  particular  callings  for  which  the  pupils  are 
 educated. 
 
SEMINARIES  FOR  PRIMARY  TEACHERS.  323 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 
 SEMINARIES  FOR  THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  THE 
 PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 
 
 The  influence  of  these  establishments  upon  the  primary 
 schools  is  so  great  that,  though  the  pupils  are,  even  on  entering 
 them,  past  the  primary  period  in  age,  this  seems  to  be  an  ap- 
 propriate place  for  the  introduction  of  descriptions  or  notices  of 
 them.  Originating  in  Germany,  they  have  been  gradually  im- 
 proved there,  and  brought  into  their  present  condition,  and  have 
 spread  into  Holland,  France,  Switzerland,  and,  more  recently, 
 into  England,  being  modified  only  so  far  as  to  adapt  them  to 
 the  circumstances  of  society  and  education  in  these  several 
 countries. 
 
 The  most  imperfect  arrangement  for  providing  teachers  is  that 
 which  requires  an  examination  into  merely  the  knov^ledge  of 
 the  candidates  in  the  branches  required  to  be  taught.  This  is 
 specially  imperfect  in  the  case  of  elementary  instruction,  where 
 the  knowledge  required  is  small  in  amount,  and  where  the  art 
 of  teaching  finds  its  most  difficult  exercise.  The  erroneous  no- 
 tion, that  an  individual  can  teach  whatever  he  knows,  is  now 
 generally  abandoned,  and  in  those  countries  which  still  adhere 
 to  the  old  method,  of  depending  solely  upon  examinations  for 
 securing  competent  teachers,  examination  is  made  not  only 
 of  the  acquirements  of  a  candidate,  but  of  his  ability  to  give 
 instruction.  I  have  called  this  the  most  imperfect  method, 
 because  the  mere  employment  of  a  teacher,  without  examination 
 or  personal  knowledge  of  his  powers,  which  still  occurs  in 
 countries  where  education  is  neglected,  does  not  deserve  to  be 
 mentioned  in  a  discussion  of  the  more  enlightened  national 
 systems. 
 
 The  most  obvious  method  of  acquiring  practice  in  the  art  of 
 
324  GENERAL  EDUCATlOrf.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 teaching  is  by  serving  in  the  lower  departments  of  a  school, 
 under  the  eye  and  direction  of  an  experienced  teacher.  Ac- 
 companied by  private  study,  founded  on  previous  knowledge, 
 and  by  private  lessons,  this  method  may  form  excellent  teachers 
 of  those  who  have  particular  aptitude  for  the  profession.  Con- 
 sidered in  the  general,  however,  it  must  be  admitted  to  have  a 
 tendency  to  produce  a  routine  system  in  teaching.  The  pupil- 
 teacher  imitates  the  methods  of  those  with  whom  he  is  asso- 
 ciated, and  which  arc  placed  before  him  as  models,  without 
 examining  their  principles,  or  discriminating  between  their  me- 
 rits and  defects.  He  places  great  stress  upon  peculiar  modes  of 
 instruction  in  particular  branches,  and  when  they  do  not  suc- 
 ceed, attributes  the  fault  neither  to  the  methods  nor  to  himself, 
 but  to  the  pupil.  The  habits  of  observation  and  reflection, 
 which  enable  him  to  profit  by  experience,  are  not  developed  by 
 this  method,  and  thus,  though  he  may  consider  experience  as  a 
 merit,  it  may  produce  none  of  its  appropriate  results  in  his  case. 
 Accordingly,  wherever  this  mode  of  preparing  teachers  has  been 
 adopted  as  a  system,  as  in  Holland,  or  has  been  incidental  to  the 
 method  of  examinations,  as  in  Saxony,  it  has  not  stood  the  test 
 of  application  in  the  schools  where  the  modern  improvements 
 in  teaching  have  been  introduced,  much  less  of  a  comparison 
 with  the  method  of  instruction  in  special  seminaries. 
 
 The  most  efficacious  means  of  securing  qualified  teachers 
 are  to  be  found  in  the  seminaries  where  a  number  of  young 
 men  intending  to  become  teachers  are  collected,  receive  a 
 common  instruction  in  the  subjects  required  for  the  grade  of 
 schools  in  which  they  propose  to  teach,  or  revise  and  extend 
 this  knowledge  previously  acquired,  have  lessons  in  the  science 
 and  art  of  teaching,  and  practice  the  art  under  intelligent  super- 
 vision. At  first,  these  seminaries  produced  good  scholars,  who 
 were,  however,  deficient  as  teachers.  Then,  to  remedy  this  de- 
 fect, lectures  and  lessons  on  the  science  ami  art  of  teaching 
 were  multiplied,  forming  good  theoretical  teachers,  but  who 
 were  still  wanting  in  practice,  wiiich  had  to  be  acquired  after 
 entering  their  profession,  and,  therefore,  at  the  expense  of  the 
 first  pupils  placed  under  their  charge.    This  ditficulty  is  entirely 
 
SEMI Pf ARIES  rOR  PRIMARY  TEACHERS.  325 
 
 obviated  by  schools  attached  to  the  seminaries,  in  which  the 
 theoretical  lessons  may  be  put  in  practice,  and  where  the  future 
 teachers  may  observe  the  methods  of  others,  try  their  own 
 skill  in  the  art  under  inspection,  and,  finally,  take  part  in  the 
 regular  instruction. 
 
 The  profession  of  the  teacher  is  raised  into  respectability  by 
 the  considerable  acquirements  exacted  of  him,  and  his  salary 
 is  placed  upon  a  footing  appropriate  to  the  outlay  of  time  and 
 means  which  has  been  made  in  reaching  the  profession.  It  is 
 a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  low  salaries  given  in  some 
 countries,  as  in  Prussia,  for  example,  indicate  that  a  low  estimate 
 is  placed  upon  the  station  of  the  teacher;  the  very  reverse  is 
 the  fact  in  the  particular  country  mentioned,  and  the  salary 
 will  be  found  adapted  to  the  scale  of  expenditure  of  the  country, 
 and  to  the  general  style  and  cost  of  living. 
 
 When  education  is  to  be  rapidly  advanced,  seminaries  for 
 teachers  afford  the  means  of  securing  this  result.  An  eminent 
 teacher  is  selected  as  director  of  the  seminary,  and  by  the  aid 
 of  competent  assistants,  and  while  benefiting  the  community 
 by  the  instruction  given  in  the  schools  attached  to  the  semi- 
 nary, trains,  yearly,  from  thirty  to  forty  youths  in  the  enlightened 
 practice  of  his  methods;  these  in  their  turn  become  teachers 
 of  schools,  which  they  are  fit  at  once  to  conduct  without  the 
 failures  and  mistakes  usual  with  novices;  for,  though  beginners 
 in  name,  they  have  acquired,  in  the  course  of  the  two  or  three 
 years  spent  at  the  seminary,  an  experience  equivalent  to  many 
 years  of  unguided  effort.  This  result  has  been  fully  realized 
 in  the  success  of  the  attempts  to  spread  the  methods  of  Pesta- 
 lozzi  and  others  through  Prussia.  The  plan  has  been  adopted, 
 and  is  yielding  its  appropriate  fruits  in  Holland,  Switzerland, 
 France,  and  Saxony,  while  in  Austria,  where  the  method  of 
 preparing  teachers  by  their  attendance  on  the  primary  schools 
 is  still  adhered  to,  the  schools  are  stationary,  and  behind  those 
 of  Northern  and  Middle  Germany. 
 
 These  seminaries  produce  a  strong  esprit  de  corps  among 
 teachers,  which  tends  powerfully  to  interest  them  in  their  pro- 
 fession, to  attach  them  to  it,  to  elevate  it  in  their  eyes,  and  to 
 
326  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMAKY  PERIOD. 
 
 stimulate  them  to  improve  constantly  upon  the  attainments 
 with  which  they  may  have  commenced  its  exercise.  By  their 
 aid  a  standard  of  examination  in  the  theory  and  practice  of 
 instruction  is  furnished,  which  may  be  fairly  exacted  of  can- 
 didates who  have  chosen  a  different  way  to  obtain  access  to 
 the  profession. 
 
 Objections  have  been  urged  against  seminaries  for  teachers, 
 which  apply  rather  to  a  defective  organization  than  to  the  system 
 itself.  First,  that  the  youths  issuing  from  them  being  over-taught, 
 are,  in  consequence,  dissatisfied  with  their  duties,  and  leave 
 the  profession  to  push  themselves  forward  in  a  ditlerent  career 
 of  life;  and,  second,  that  theoretical,  not  practical  teachers,  are 
 formed  by  them.  The  first  objection  points  out  the  necessity  for 
 restricting  the  instruction  to  that  which  is  essential  to  a  complete 
 fulfilment  of  the  duties  of  the  teachers  educated  in  these  schools. 
 The  seminary  should  not  go  further,  and  hence  the  connexion 
 of  such  establishments  with  secondary  or  other  higher  schools 
 is  inadmissible.  If  the  tendency  of  a  seminary  course  is  to 
 render  the  teacher  dissatisfied  with  his  occupation,  experience 
 shows  that  it  is  a  fault  in  the  particular  course,  tlie  defect  not 
 being  general  to  this  class  of  institutions.  That  a  pupil  of 
 talent  may  seek  other  and  more  congenial  roads  to  station  in 
 life,  is  no  reproach  to  the  seminary  where  he  was  educated. 
 The  institution  secures  the  services  of  this  pupil  to  primary  in- 
 struction by  his  pledge  at  entrance,  for  a  number  of  years,  in 
 return  for  the  education  which  he  has  received,  and  has  so 
 far  benefited  the  community.  If  by  any  means  it  prevents 
 the  individual  from  rising  to  the  position  where  his  talents 
 would  place  him,  an  act  of  positive  injustice  is  committed. 
 Not  only  the  instruction,  however,  but  the  whole  plan  of  living 
 in  the  seminary  should  be  adapted  to  the  future  destination  of  the 
 pupil,  and  indulgences  should  not  be  allowed  which  would  pro- 
 duce wants  not  subsequently  to  be  gratified;  such  is,  in  fact,  the 
 very  system  of  all  properly  regulated  institutions  of  this  class. 
 That  mere  theoretical  teachers  arc  formed  in  well  conducted 
 seminaries,  is  by  no  means  the  fact.  Every  care,  on  the  con- 
 trary, is  taken  to  avoid  this:  it  is  true,  that  general  principles 
 
SEMINARIES  FOR  PRIMARY  TEACHERS  IN  PRUSSIA.  827 
 
 are  inculcated,  in  order  that  routine  in  teaching  may  be  avoided, 
 but  these  principles  are  constantly  applied,  and  under  circum- 
 stances where  error  is  sure  to  be  pointed  out  by  the  observation 
 of  class-mates  and  teachers,  and  where  it  can  hardly  escape 
 correction. 
 
 The  question,  whether  the  pupils  of  these  schools  should 
 reside,  in  common,  in  the  buildings,  or  board  apart  from  each 
 other,  and  merely  come  together  to  receive  instruction,  appears 
 to  me  not  to  admit  of  a  general  solution  applicable  to  every 
 case.  The  manners  and  habits  of  a  country,  and  even  the 
 locality  of  the  school,  will  render  one  or  other  method  prefer- 
 able in  a  particular  case.  Thus,  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  ar- 
 rangements of  the  seminaries  at  Weissenfcls  and  at  Berlin,  in 
 Prussia,  at  Haarlem  in  Holland,  at  Versailles  in  France,  and  at 
 Zurich  in  Switzerland,  though  they  differ  from  each  other,  are 
 all  adapted  to  the  countries  and  particular  localities  where  the 
 institutions  are  established.  It  will  be  my  object  to  make  such 
 a  selection  from  among  the  best  schools  of  this  class  which  I 
 visited,  as  will  show  some  of  their  principal  varieties.  The 
 general  statistics  in  regard  to  them  have  been  given  in  the 
 introductory  remarks  upon  the  systems  of  primary  instruction  in 
 thQ  different  countries,  and  need  not,  therefore,  be  presented  here. 
 
 PRIMARY  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA. 
 
 Of  the  very  interesting  schools  for  the  education  of  primary 
 teachers  in  Prussia,  I  visited  several,  namely,  those  at  Mocrs,  in 
 the  Rhenish  provinces,  of  Weissenfels  and  Erfurt  in  the  pro- 
 vince of  Saxony,  and  of  Potsdam  and  Berlin  in  the  province  of 
 Brandenburgh.  These  are  all  of  the  class  called  "principal 
 normal  schools."  The  "  small  normal  schools"  arc  exclusively 
 for  the  education  of  country  teachers,  and  present,  on  a  diminish- 
 ed scale,  and  with  incomplete  means,  tiie  same  general  prin- 
 ciples with  the  others. 
 
 There  is  no  general  code  of  regulations  for  the  normal 
 schools,  the  practice  being  to  select  some  teacher  of  known 
 merit  and  tried  skill  for  the  head  master  or  director  of  the  in- 
 stitution, and  to  leave  the  organization  to  him,  under  the  con- 
 
328  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       I'RIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 trol  of  the  provincial  authorities.  I  liavc  selected,  as  repre- 
 senting this  class,  an  institution  in  which  the  pupils  live  in 
 common,  and  another  in  wliich  tliey  board  out  of  the  school. 
 It  would  be  more  agreeable  to  me  to  give  the  particulars  col- 
 lected in  each  of  those  which  I  visited,  but  this  would  be  im- 
 possible within  the  limits  of  my  Report.  I  can  truly  say  of  this 
 class  of  institutions,  that  I  never  visited  one  without  being  inte- 
 rested and  instructed,  and  never  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
 director  of  one  of  them  without  feeling  that  his  place  was  wor- 
 thily filled,  and  that  it  was  wise  to  have  such  a  man  as  much 
 untrammelled  by  rules,  regulations,  and  systems,  as  possible. 
 
 While  these  institutions  hold  out  advantages  to  young  men 
 intending  to  become  teachers,  other  avenues  to  the  profession 
 are  not  closed  by  them ;  on  the  contrary,  all  who  can  stand  the 
 required  examinations  may  enter  this  career.  Every  year  an 
 examination  is  held  at  every  "principal  seminary"  for  those  who 
 intend  to  leave  it,  and  of  other  candidates  for  admission  to  the 
 teachers'  profession.  This  examination  takes  place  in  presence 
 of  the  teachers,  of  one  or  more  commissaries  named  by  the 
 provincial  school-board,  and  of  a  school-councillor  of  the  re- 
 gency in  which  the  seminary  is  situated.  The  authorities  of 
 the  province  and  regency  also  hold,  about  the  same  time,  an 
 examination  for  those  who  have  studied  at  the  universities, 
 frequently  candidates  in  theology,  who  intend  to  become  teach- 
 ers in  the  primary  schools.  The  director  of  the  seminary  forms 
 one  of  this  board.*  The  law  requires  that  those  who  have 
 appeared  feeble  at  this  trial,  shall  be  examined  tlu'cc  years 
 subsequent  thereto. 
 
 The  examinations  are  of  three  kinds:  in  writing,  viva  voce, 
 and  by  practical  exercises  of  teaching.  The  written  examina- 
 tion of  candidates  from  the  seminary,  and  of  otiiers  who  have 
 not  passed  through  a  gymnasium,  consists  in  answering  some 
 ten  or  twenty  questions  in  history,  geography,  natural  philo- 
 
 •  Ministerial  orders  of  June,  1826,  and  March,  1827,  quoted  by  Dr.  Hamiscli 
 in  liis  account  of  tlic  Fcminary  at  Wcisscnfels  (Das  Weisscnfclscr  Sclmllclircr 
 seminar  und  seine  liulfsanstaltcn,  1838,)  to  wliich  I  am  indebted  for  the  accoimt 
 of  the  cxaminationp. 
 
SEMINARIES  FOR  PRIMARY  TEACHERS  OF  PRUSSIA.  329 
 
 sophy,  natural  history,  arithmetic,  and  from  the  Bible.  Besides 
 which  they  set  a  bass  to  an  air  given  for  the  purpose,  and  exe- 
 cute a  drawing.  The  character  of  the  handwriting  appears 
 from  the  exercises.  The  viva  voce  examination  embraces  the 
 German  language,  reading,  mental  arithmetic,  geometry,  the 
 art  of  teaching,  and  the  reading  of  music.  The  exercise  in 
 teaching  consists  in  giving  a  catechetical  lesson  upon  some 
 subject  assigned  by  the  examiner.  The  student-candidates 
 (Literaten,  oder  Studirten),  and  those  examined  for  a  second 
 time,  are  questioned  especially  in  regard  to  practical  teaching. 
 The  candidates  are  divided,  according  to  the  results  of  the  ex- 
 amination, into  three  classes,  entirely  satisfactory,  satisfactory, 
 and  unsatisfactory.  The  subjects  of  examination  arc  enume- 
 rated as  follows:  1.  Christian  doctrine  and  explanation  of  the 
 Bible.  2.  Knowledge  of  the  Bible  and  Bible  history.  3.  Ger- 
 man language.  4.  Style.  5.  Reading.  6.  Writing.  7.  Mental 
 and  written  arithmetic.  8.  Geometry.  9.  Natural  philosophy 
 and  natural  history.  10.  Hygiene  and  gardening.  11.  His- 
 tory of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants.  12.  Drawing.  13.  Vocal 
 music.  14.  Science  of  teaching.  15.  Readiness  in  teaching. 
 Besides  which  are,  in  addition,  1.  Skill  in  playing  on  the 
 organ.  2.  Propriety  in  leading  church  music.  Of  the  above 
 named  subjects,  number  15  is  considered  the  principal;  the 
 first  seven  constitute  the  more  important,  and  the  last  seven  the 
 less  important.  When  a  candidate  has  been  marked  "entirely 
 satisfactory"  in  all  the  branches,  he  receives  a  general  mark 
 of  the  same  kind;  when  only  in  15,  and  the  first  seven  branches, 
 the  general  mark  satisfactory.  A  failure  in  one  of  the  more 
 important  branches,  would  require  a  general  remark  of  unsatis- 
 factory.* The  results  of  these  examinations  afibrd  a  direct 
 means  of  comparison  between  the  young  teachers  educated  in 
 the  seminaries  and  others,  and  serve  to  stimulate  both  classes, 
 and  especially  to  point  out  defects  where  they  exist  in  the 
 schools  for  teachers. 
 
 *  Order  of  the  Provincial  School  Board,  November,  1834,  quoted  by  Dr.  liar- 
 nisch  in  his  account  of  the  seminary  at  Weissenfels. 
 42 
 
830  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 SEMINARY  FOR  TEACHERS  AT  WEISSENFEL9. 
 
 This  seminary,  for  the  education  of  teachers  for  the  elemen- 
 tary schools,  is  one  of  four  belonging  to  the  province  of  Saxony,* 
 and  was  last  organized  in  1822.  It  combines  within  its  pre- 
 mises, or  in  the  neighbourhood,  so  as  to  be  subject  to  the  con- 
 trol of  the  same  director,  the  following  establishments:  1.  The 
 normal  school,  or  seminary  for  teachers,  a  government  insti- 
 tution. 2.  A  preparatory  school  subsidiary  to  the  former, 
 and  established  by  the  enterprise  of  its  teachers.  3.  A  semi- 
 nary school,  or  burgher  school,  of  four  hundred  pupils,  already 
 described.  4.  An  elementary  school  for  poor  children,  of  two 
 hundred  pupils.  5.  A  school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  of  twenty- 
 five  pupils,  established  in  1828,  and  supported  by  the  govern- 
 ment. The  last  three  mentioned  schools  afford  practice  to 
 the  students  of  the  seminary. 
 
 The  government  of  these  establishments  is  confided  to  a 
 director,!  who  is  responsible  immediately  to  the  provincial 
 school-board  in  Magdeburg.  He  has  the  personal  charge  of 
 the  seminary  in  which  he  gives  instruction,  and  of  which  he 
 superintends  the  domestic  economy,  discipline,  and  police.  He 
 is  assisted,  in  the  seminary,  by  three  teachers,  who  meet  him 
 once  a  week  in  conference,  to  discuss  the  progress  and  conduct 
 of  the  pupils,  the  plans  of  instruction,  and  other  matters  relating 
 to  the  school.  There  are  also  seven  assistant  teachers,  five  for 
 the  seminary  school,  and  two  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  institution, 
 who  also  assist  in  the  seminary  itself  Once  a  month  there  is 
 a  general  meeting  of  the  teachers  of  all  the  schools  just  enume- 
 rated, for  similar  purposes. 
 
 Api)licants  for  admission  are  required  to  produce  certificates 
 of  baptism,  of  moral  conduct,  and  of  health,J  besides  an  en- 
 gagement on  the  part  of  their  parents  or  guardians  to  pay  an 
 
 •  At  Magdcburp^,  Ilalbcrstadt,  Erfurt,  and  Wcisscnfels. 
 
 t  The  Rev.  Dr.  Ilaniiscli,  to  whom  I  am  iiidchted  for  a  kind  welcome  to  Ins 
 institution,  and  a  MS.  account  of  its  diflercnt  schools. 
 
 t  The  directions  issued  by  tiic  provincial  authorities  arc,  that  they  shall  liavc 
 a  strong  chest  and  sound  lungs,  not  be  too  near-sightcd,  nor  deaf,  nor  infirm. 
 The  physician's  certificate  must  slate  whether  tliey  Jiavc  I)ad  the  measles,  &:c 
 
SEMINARY  FOR  TEACHERS  AT  WEISSENFELS.  3^1 
 
 annual  sum  of  fifty  thalcrs  (thirty-seven  dollars)  for  mainte- 
 nance. These  papers  must  be  forwarded  to  the  director  a  fort- 
 night before  the  day  of  examination.  The  candidates  are  exam- 
 ined at  a  stated  time  of  the  year  (after  Easter),  in  presence  of 
 all  the  teachers  of  the  school,  and  their  attainments  must  prove 
 satisfactory  in  Bible  and  church  histor}^,  the  Lutheran  Cate- 
 chism, reading,  writing,  German  grammar,  especially  the  or- 
 thography of  the  language,  the  ground-rules  of  arithmetic 
 (mental  and  written),  geography  and  history,  and  natural  his- 
 tory and  philosophy,  of  the  grade  of  the  highest  class  of  a 
 burgher  school.  They  must  also  be  able  to  play,  at  sight,  easy 
 pieces  of  music  upon  the  violin.  The  usual  age  of  admission 
 is  eighteen,  and  the  lowest  at  which  they  are  admissible,  seven- 
 teen. On  entrance  they  are  entitled  to  free  lodging  and  in- 
 struction, and  if  their  conduct  and  progress  are  satisfactory,  in 
 general,  receive  a  yearly  allowance  of  twenty-five  dollars, 
 which  is  equivalent,  nearly,  to  the  cost  of  their  maintenance. 
 Their  clothing  and  school-books  are  provided  by  the  pupils. 
 The  modes  of  preparation  judged  most  appropriate  by  the 
 authorities  of  the  seminary  are,  the  attendance  on  a  burgher 
 school,  with  private  lessons  from  a  competent  teacher,  or  en- 
 trance into  the  preparatory  establishment  at  Weissenfels.  A 
 gymnasium  is  considered  by  no  means  a  proper  place  for  the 
 preparation  of  pupils,  its  courses,  discipline,  and  mode  of  life 
 having  a  different  tendency  from  that  required  by  the  future 
 teacher  of  a  common  school. 
 
 The  admission  of  new  pupils  takes  place  with  some  cere- 
 mony, in  presence  of  the  teachers  and  pupils.  The  director 
 gives  a  charge,  in  which  he  makes  them  acquainted  with 
 the  rules  of  the  school,  chiefly  those  relating  to  moral  con- 
 duct, to  obedience  to  the  authorities,  punctuality,  regular  at- 
 tendance at  study,  school,  church,  and,  in  general,  on  the  ap- 
 pointed exercises,  due  exertion,  neatness  in  their  habits,  and 
 exactness  in  the  payment  of  dues  to  the  tradesmen  with  whom 
 they  may  deal.  They  bind  themselves  to  serve  for  three  years 
 after  leaving  the  school,  in  whatever  situation  may  be  assigned 
 them  by  the  regency  of  Merscburg,  or  to  pay  the  cost  of  their 
 
332  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       TRLMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 education  and  maintenance.  During  their  stay  at  the  seminary, 
 they  are  exempted  from  military  service,  except  for  six  weeks; 
 in  fact,  this  service  usually  takes  place  at  leaving  the  school, 
 and  before  entering  upon  their  new  career.  The  number  of 
 pupils,  on  the  average,  is  sixty. 
 
 The  courses  of  instruction  are,  morals  and  religion,  German, 
 arithmetic  and  geometry,  cosmology,  pedagogy,  terraculture, 
 Iiygiene,  theory  and  practice  of  music,  drawing,  and  writing. 
 Cosmology  is  a  comprehensive  term  for  geography,  an  outline 
 of  history  and  biography,  the  elements  of  natural  history  and 
 natural  philosophy,  all  that  relates  to  the  world  (earth)  and  its 
 inhabitants.  Pedagogy  includes  both  the  science  and  art  of 
 teaching.  The  courses  just  enumerated  are  divided  among  the 
 masters,  according  to  the  supposed  ability  of  each  in  the  par- 
 ticular branches,  the  whole  instruction  being  given  by  the  four 
 teachers.  The  director,  as  is  customary  in  these  schools,  takes 
 the  religious  instruction,  and  the  science  and  art  of  teaching, 
 as  his  especial  province,  and  adds  lectures  on  the  theory  of 
 farming  and  gardening  (terraculture),  and  of  health. 
 
 The  duration  of  the  course  of  studies  has  been  reduced 
 from  three  years  to  two,  on  account,  as  is  alleged,  of  the  ne- 
 cessity for  a  more  abundant  supply  of  teachers.  There  are, 
 probably,  other  reasons,  such  as  the  expense,  and  the  fear 
 of  over-educating  the  pupils  for  their  station,  which  have  been 
 influential  in  bringing  about  this  reduction.  There  are  two 
 classes  corresponding  to  the  two  years  of  study.  The  first 
 year  is  devoted  entirely  to  receiving  instruction,  and  in  the  se- 
 cond, practice  in  teaching  is  combined  with  it.  In  the  prepa- 
 ratory school  there  is  likewise  a  course  of  two  years,  and  the 
 pu})ils  are  divided  into  two  classes.  This  establishment  is  in 
 a  building  near  the  seminary,  which  can  accommodate  forty 
 pupils,  and  is  under  the  special  charge  of  one  of  the  teachers.* 
 
 The  outline  of  the  studies  in  the  two  schools  is  as  follows: 
 
 *  Tlic  payments  made  by  tlie  pupils  arc,  per  annum,  for  instruction,  nine  dol- 
 lars;  for  dinner,  bread  not  included,  tliirteen  dollars  and  fifty  cent^;  lodfjinn^, 
 three  dollars,  waiting  and  nursing  in  time  of  sickness,  one  dollar  and  seventy-five 
 cents;  use  of  librarv,  fifiv  cents. 
 
SEMINARY  FOR  TEACHERS  AT  WEISSENFELS.  333 
 
 Religious  Instruction. 
 
 PREPARATOrvT  SCHOOL. 
 
 II  Class.  Bible  stories,  which  tlie  pupils  must  be  able  to  narrate  with  pro- 
 priety.  Christian  doctrine.  Portions  of  Scripture  committed  to  memory.  Four 
 hours  weekly. 
 
 I  Class.  Reading  the  Bible,  especially  the  historical  parts.  Krummaeher's 
 Bible  Catechism.  Christian  doctrine.  Parables  of  the  New  Testament.  Seven 
 hours. 
 
 In  the  lectures  on  Christian  doctrine,  which  the  two  classes 
 of  the  normal  school  attend  together,  the  director  gives  a  por- 
 tion of  Scripture  to  be  committed  to  memory,  explains  and 
 illustrates  it,  and  interrogates  the  pupils,  who  take  notes  of  the 
 lecture,  which  they  subsequently  write  out. 
 
 NORMAL  SCHOOL. 
 
 II  Class.  Reading  the  Bible,  particularly  the  historical  parts ;  writing  cate- 
 chetical exercises,  adapted  to  children.     Two  hours. 
 
 I  Class.    Continuation  of  the  second  class  course.     Two  hours. 
 
 I  and  II  Class.  Christian  doctrine,  from  Luther's  Catechism.  Three  hours. 
 History  of  the  different  dispensations.     Two  hours.     A  course  of  two  years. 
 
 The  course  of  church  history  is  taught,  also,  by  the  mixed 
 method  of  lecture  and  interrogation,  to  both  classes  united. 
 
 German  Language. 
 
 PREPARATORY  SCHOOL 
 
 II  Class.  Exercises  of  speech  in  reading  and  delivery.  Descriptions  and 
 essays  on  subjects  drawn  from  common  life.  Grammar.  Writing  as  an  exer- 
 cise  in  calligraphy  and  orthography.     Nine  hours. 
 
 I  Class.  Reading,  with  explanations.  Composition.  Grammar  revised. 
 Writing,  as  in  the  second  class.     Nine  hours. 
 
 NORMAL  SCHOOL. 
 
 II  Class.  Reading,  with  explanations.  Writing,  as  an  exercise  of  calligra- 
 phy and  orthography.  Exercises  of  style.  A  composition  once  every  month. 
 Essays  from  history,  geography,  or  natural  history.  Grammar  revised.  Eight 
 liours. 
 
 I  Class.  Poetry,  with  readings.  Calligraphy.  Exercises  of  style.  Grammar 
 revised.     National  literature.     Seven  hours. 
 
 The  first  and  second  classes  are  united  for  a  portion  of  instruction  in  this  de- 
 partment, intended  to  rid  tlicm  of  provincialisms  of  speech,  and  to  improve 
 their  handwriting.    Three  hours. 
 
334  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Ma(?ietnatic8. 
 
 PREPARATORV  SCHOOL. 
 
 II  Class.     Arillimclia,  including  the  Rule  of  Three.     Three  liours. 
 
 I  Class.    Arrtlimctic,  revised  and  extended.    Use  of  compass  and  ruler.    Four 
 hoars. 
 
 NORMAL  SCnOOI^ 
 
 II  Class.     Geometry,  commenced.     Four  hours. 
 
 I  Class.     Revision  of  previous  studies.     Geometry,  continued.     Two  hours. 
 
 The  method  of  teaching  mathematics  is  that  of  Pestalozzi; 
 and  director  Harnisch  lias  himself  prepared  a  work  on  geome- 
 try for  his  pupils.  The  applications  arc  made  to  follow  the 
 principles  closely.  As  in  the  other  courses,  the  greater  part 
 of  the  learning  is  done  in  the  school-room,  the  books  being 
 used  rather  for  reference  than  for  preparation.  In  the  lessons 
 which  I  attended  in  this  department,  much  skill  was  displayed 
 by  the  instructors,  and  a  very  considerable  degree  of  intelli- 
 gence by  the  pupils.  Considering  it  as  the  means  of  develop- 
 ing the  reasoning  powers,  this  method  is  very  far  superior  to 
 that  in  which  the  propositions  are  learned  from  books.  To 
 exemplify  the  method  of  Ur.  Harnisch,  I  may  state  the  follow- 
 ing case  of  a  recitation  in  geometry  by  the  second  class.  The 
 equality  of  two  triangles,  w^hen  the  two  sides  and  the  angle  con- 
 tained between  them  in  one  are  equal  respectively  to  the  tw^o 
 sides  and  the  contained  angle  in  the  other,  had  been  shown  by 
 the  teacher,  and  the  demonstration  repeated  by  the  pupils,  who 
 were  interrogated  closely  upon  it.  An  application  of  the 
 theorem  was  at  once  required,  to  determining  the  distance 
 between  two  points,  one  of  which  is  inaccessible.  Two  of  the 
 class  found  the  solution  immediately,  and  all  were  able  to  take 
 part  in  the  subsequent  discussion  of  the  problem. 
 
 Cosmology,  (Weltkunde.) 
 
 rREPARATORY   SCIIOOU 
 
 II  Class.     Elements  of  botany  and  zoology.     Excursions  for  practical  instruc- 
 lion  in  the  former.     Four  lionrs. 
 
 I  Class.    Geography  and  the  drawing  of  maps.    Elements  of  physics  and  tccli- 
 nology.    Biography.     Tiiree  liours. 
 
 NORMAL  SCHOOL. 
 
 II  Class.     Revision  of  the  above  studies.     TJirce  hours. 
 
 I  and  II  CMasses  united.     General  views  of  the  eurtii  and  its   productions  and 
 
SEMINARY  FOR  TEACHERS  AT  WEISSENFELS.  33^5 
 
 inhabitants.    One  hour  weekly  for  one  year.    Gardening  and  hygiene  (Gesund- 
 heitskunde).     Two  hours  weekly  for  two  years. 
 
 The  lectures  in  the  normal  school  on  these  subjects  are  by 
 the  director.  The  means  of  illustration  in  physics  are  small, 
 and  the  whole  course  is  chiefly  intended  to  show  the  future 
 teachers  how  wide  a  range  of  knowledge  may  be  opened  to  them 
 by  study.  The  natural  history  is  illustrated  for  the  most  part 
 by  drawings.  To  render  the  seminarists  more  useful  in  their 
 situation  of  country  school-masters,  which  a  large  proportion  of 
 the  pupils  become,  they  have  lectures  on  the  principles  of  agri- 
 culture and  gardening,  and  also  practical  lessons  from  the 
 gardener,  who  has  charge  of  the  grounds.  The  pupils  work 
 during  the  appropriate  season  every  day  in  turn,  under  the  di- 
 rection of  the  gardener.  Good  manuals,  conveying  correct  but 
 elementary  instruction  on  these  matters,  are  much  wanted. 
 They  should,  perhaps,  be  prepared  by  a  teacher,  but  by  no 
 means  allowed  to  go  into  use  without  revision  by  persons 
 specially  acquainted  with  the  different  branches  of  science  thus 
 grouped  together.  This  revision  would  insure  the  accuracy 
 which,  though  diificult  to  attain,  is  so  necessary;  the  more  so 
 in  conveying  such  elements,  as  there  is  no  collateral  knowledge 
 to  correct  or  modify  error  as  to  fact  or  theory. 
 
 Science  and  Art  of  Teaching. 
 
 PREPARATORY  SCHOOL. 
 
 The  first  class  receive  simple  directions  for  keeping  school,  and  lessons  on 
 teaching.  They  attend  in  turn  the  classes  of  the  seminary  scliools  two  hours 
 weekly,  but  take  no  part  in  teaching. 
 
 NORMAL  SCHOOL. 
 
 II  Class.     Lessons  on  teaching,  three  hours.     Visits  to  the  schools,  three  hours. 
 
 I  Class.  Lessons  on  the  art  of  teaching,  tliree  hours.  Visits  to  the  scliools,  five 
 hours.  Lessons  on  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  by  tiie  director  of  that 
 department,  one  hour. 
 
 I  and  II  Classes  united.    Science  of  teaching,  two  hours. 
 
 The  director  delivers  the  course  on  the  science  of  teachins:, 
 which  in  these  schools  is  considered  of  the  highest  importance, 
 and  also  gives  a  portion  of  the  lessons  in  the  art  of  teaching 
 to  the  first  class. 
 
33G  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       TIILMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Tlie  theoretical  instruction  in  the  science  and  art  of  teach- 
 ing embraces  two  courses,  eacii  of  a  year,  the  first  being  de- 
 voted cliiefly  to  education  in  general,  the  second,  to  instruction 
 and  the  arransccments  of  the  school.*  The  director  remarks 
 of  this  course,  that  the  pupils  learn  by  it  to  say  a  good  deal 
 upon  these  subjects,  and  sometimes  believe  that  they  can  easily 
 execute  what  they  can  so  readily  describe,  an  opinion  of 
 which  practice  can  alone  show  the  error,  and  which  it  is  es- 
 sential should  be  removed.  The  general  theory  of  education 
 is  founded  upon  the  constitution  of  man,  and  under  the  head 
 of  instruction,  the  methods  of  teaching  the  various  branches  arc 
 described.  The  practice  w^hich  must  render  this  theory  of  real 
 use  is  had  in  part  in  the  schools.  The  pupils  attend  the  free 
 school,  the  burgher  school,  and  the  deaf  and  dumb  school,  at 
 stated  times.  They  go  at  first  as  listeners,  next  take  part  in  the 
 instruction,  under  direction  of  the  assistant  teachers,  and  lastly 
 instruct  the  classes.  In  order  that  they  may  have  models  of 
 teaching,  not  only  in  the  assistants,  but  in  the  teachers  of  the 
 seminary  themselves,  the  latter  give  lessons  occasionally  in  the 
 diflcrent  schools;  thus  the  director  teaches  one  hour  per  week 
 in  the  seminary  school,  the  second  teacher  two  hours,  and  the 
 third  and  fourth  teachers  four  hours.  The  lower  class  attend 
 the  several  classes  of  the  burgher  school,  except  the  highest 
 girls'  class,  remaining,  in  general,  one  fifth  of  the  time  in  each 
 class  except  the  lowest,  where  they  remain  double  this  time, 
 and  visiting  each  class  twice  at  intervals.  The  upper  class 
 attend  also  the  girls'  class,  the  deaf  and  dumb  scliool  and  the 
 free  school,  remaining  one-eighth  of  their  time  in  each  of  the 
 classes.  Each  member  of  the  lower  class  keeps  a  journal  of 
 his  visits  to  the  schools,  which  is  inspected  by  the  second 
 
 •  Harnisch's  Manual  of  Common  School  Matters  (Handbuch  des  Volks-schul- 
 wcscns)  is  used  as  a  text-book. 
 
 A  more  common  division  of  the  course  is  into  pedagogics,  or  the  principles  of 
 education  and  instruction.  Methodics,  or  the  art  of  teachinjj  the  system  or 
 methods  of  cduculion,  to  which  a  tliird  division  is  sometimes  added,  called  di- 
 dactics, which  relates  to  the  subjects  of  education,  (Sehwarz  Erziehunjr  und  I'n- 
 Icrrichta  Ichrc.) 
 
SEMINARY  FOR  TEACHERS  AT  WEISSENFELS.  337 
 
 teacher.  Each  of  the  first  class  draws  up  a  report  of  his  oc- 
 cupation and  observations  in  the  schools,  which  is  reviewed 
 by  the  assistant  teacher  of  the  class  to  which  it  refers,  and  is 
 then  examined  by  the  second  teacher  and  by  the  director. 
 The  several  assistant  teachers  make  reports  upon  the  qualifica- 
 tions of  the  seminarists  who  have  given  instruction  in  their 
 classes.  By  these  arrangements,  a  pupil  who  has  the  mental 
 qualities  essential  to  a  teacher,  cannot  fail  to  become  well 
 versed  in  the  practice  of  his  profession.  Habits  of  observation 
 are  inculcated,  w^hich  must  be  of  great  service  to  him  in  his 
 practice,  enabling  him  to  adapt  himself  to  the  circumstances  in 
 which  he  is  placed,  and  to  profit  by  the  experience  of  every 
 day. 
 
 To  exemplify  the  principles  and  methods,  a  small  number  of 
 the  children  from  the  seminary  school  are  brought  into  the  class- 
 room of  the  seminary,  and  are  examined  upon  a  given  subject 
 by  some  of  the  pupils.  The  class  present  and  the  director  make 
 their  notes  on  these  examinations,  and  the  exercise  terminates 
 by  an  examination  of  the  children  by  the  director  himself,  as 
 an  exemplification  of  his  views,  and  that  they  may  not  receive 
 injury  from  being  left  in  a  half  or  ill-informed  state  on  the  sub- 
 jects of  the  lesson.  The  children  having  retired,  the  difl^erent 
 members  of  the  class  make  their  criticisms,  which  are  accepted 
 or  shown  to  be  erroneous  by  the  director,  a  conference  or  dis- 
 cussion being  kept  up  until  the  subject  is  exhausted.  The  cha- 
 racter of  each  exercise  is  marked  by  the  director,  who  is  thus 
 enabled  to  judge  of  the  progress  made  by  every  member  of  the 
 class,  and  to  encourage  or  admonish  privately,  according  to 
 circumstances. 
 
 The  lectures  given  by  the  head  master  of  the  school  for  the 
 deaf  and  dumb  are  also  accompanied  by  practice,  a  certain 
 number  of  pupils  being  detained  every  day  for  that  purpose. 
 The  basis  of  the  method  is  the  idea  that  it  is  possible  to  restore 
 the  deaf  mute  to  society,  by  enabHng  him  to  understand  spoken 
 language  from  the  motion  of  the  lips,  and  to  speak  intelligibly 
 by  mechanical  rules.  It  is  hoi)ed  ultimately,  by  training  every 
 school-master  in  this  method,  that  the  mute  may  be  instructed  in 
 43 
 
338  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 schools  with  other  children,  and  thus  not  be  required  to  sunder 
 ties  of  kindred  during  a  long  absence  fronn  home.  The  pupils 
 of  the  deaf  and  dumb  institution  do  not  live  in  the  establishment, 
 but  are  boarded  with  tradesmen  of  the  town  of  Weisscnfcls; 
 the  object  is  to  induce  the  practice  of  the  lessons  out  of  school, 
 the  pupils  being  enjoined  to  avoid  tlie  use  of  signs.  The 
 first  lesson  is  one  in  articulation.  The  principle  of  this  instruc- 
 tion is  now  dominant  in  Germany,  but  up  to  this  time  the  sys- 
 tem has  not  been  fairly  tried  by  its  results.  The  indomitable 
 perseverance  of  the  masters  of  the  principal  schools  which  I 
 visited  struck  me  with  admiration,  but  I  was  not  convinced 
 that  what  they  aimed  at  was  practicable,  at  least  to  the  extent 
 which  their  principle  asserts.  The  attempt  deserves,  however, 
 the  best  encouragement. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 TREPARATORY   SCHOOL. 
 
 The  two  classes  united  for  geometrical  and  perspective  drawing. 
 
 NORMAL  SCHOOL. 
 
 The  same  course  continued. 
 Music. 
 
 PREPARATORY  SCHOOL. 
 
 Tlie  two  classes  united  for  instruction  in  the  elements  of  music.  Clioral  sing- 
 ing. Instruction  is  given  on  the  piano  and  organ  to  the  pupils,  divided  into  four 
 sections.     Tliey  are  also  taught  the  violin. 
 
 NORMAL  SCHOOL. 
 
 The  instruction,  as  just  stated,  is  continued.     Theory  of  music.     Composition. 
 
 The  violin  is  taught  as  the  means  of  leading  the  exercises  in 
 singing  in  the  elementary  schools.  The  piano  serves  as  an  in- 
 troduction to  the  organ,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  important  to 
 the  Prussian  school-master,  as  enabling  him  to  act  as  organist 
 in  the  church  of  the  parish  where  his  school  may  be  situated. 
 So  high  a  value  is  placed  upon  an  elementary  knowledge  in 
 vocal  music,  that  an  ability  to  give  instruction  in  it  is  indispen- 
 sable to  admission  into  the  class  of  teachers.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
 surprising  that  the  pupil.s  of  the  seminaries  in  general  are  pro- 
 ficients in  music    I  confess,  however,  that  I  was  not  pit'iiared 
 
SEMINARY  FOR  TEACHERS  AT  WEiSSENFELS.  339 
 
 for  the  advance  in  the  theory  and  practice  to  which  many  of 
 the  first  class  in  this  school  had  attained.  In  regard  to  the 
 former,  I  was  present  at  one  of  the  exercises  in  composition, 
 in  which  the  teacher*  read,  and  the  pupils  transcribed  three 
 stanzas  of  poetry.  This  done,  they  were  required  to  compose 
 an  air  adapted  to  the  words.  In  less  than  ten  minutes  a  fifth 
 of  the  class  were  ready.  The  teacher  took  his  station  at  a 
 black-board,  on  which  the  ledger  lines  were  drawn,  and  one  of 
 the  pupils  whom  he  designated  began  to  sing  the  words  to  the 
 air  which  he  had  composed,  the  teacher  writing  the  music 
 meanwhile.  This  air  was  pronounced  not  to  be  original.  A 
 second  was  tried,  which  the  teacher  thought  an  imitation.  A 
 third  and  fourth  he  accepted,  and  wrote  upon  the  board.  They 
 w^ere  criticised  by  both  the  class  and  teacher,  set  to  parts  by 
 the  former,  and  sung.  The  two  classes  were  in  the  next  hour 
 united  for  choral  singing,  in  which  many  are  proficient,  the 
 teacher  leading  at  the  organ. 
 
 The  course  of  drawing  is  hmited  in  extent,  the  object  being 
 chiefly  to  give  opportunities  to  those  pupils  who  have  a  taste 
 for  drawing  to  cultivate  it.  In  fact,  as  it  tends  to  divert  atten- 
 tion from  more  important  matters,  which  the  short  time  spent 
 at  the  seminary  requires  entire  devotion  to,  it  is  not  much  en- 
 couraged. 
 
 The  four  teachers  attached  to  the  normal  school  have  charge 
 of  specific  departments  of  labour,  as  well  as  of  particular  im- 
 plements of  instruction.  The  director  has  the  general  super- 
 intendence of  the  instruction,  discipline,  household  arrange- 
 ments, and  finance,  and  is  librarian  of  their  small  collection. 
 The  second  teacher  has  charge  of  one  of  the  schools,  of  the  mu- 
 sical exercises,  books,  and  instruments;  a  third,  of  the  students 
 when  assembled,  especiall}^  in  the  school-house,  and  of  the  draw- 
 ings, copy-slips  for  writing,  and  maps.  The  fourth  superintends 
 the  pupils  while  in  the  dwelling-house,  and  also  at  meals.  These 
 teachers  are  aided  in  their  duties  by  younger  ones  attached 
 to  the  seminary,  under  the  title  of  assistant  teachers.  The 
 dining-hall,  or  the  recitation-rooms,  serve  as  places  of  study. 
 
340  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY   rERIOlJ. 
 
 according  as  the  pupils  arc  in  the  school-house  or  in  the  dwell- 
 ing, the  two  buildings  being  separated  by  a  portion  of  the 
 grounds.  The  chapel,  which  is  a  neat  room  connected  with 
 the  school-house,  serves  for  the  music-room,  as  well  as  for  the 
 religious  exercises. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day  in  the  normal  school  will  serve  to 
 show  how  constantly  these  young  men  are  employed  in  pre- 
 paring for  the  duties  of  their  arduous  profession,  and  yet  they 
 appeared  to  me  always  cheerful  in  the  performance  of  their 
 self-imposed  task.  In  winter,  the  pupils  rise  at  five,  and,  after 
 washing  and  dressing,  have  a  brief  religious  exercise,  and  study 
 until  breakfast,  which  is  at  seven  o'clock.  Until  eight  there  is 
 recreation.  From  eight  until  twelve  they  are  in  school,  en- 
 gaged in  recitation,  listening  to  lectures,  or  teaching.  From 
 twelve  until  one  they  have  dinner  and  recreation.  From  one 
 until  five  they  arc  again  in  school.  From  five  until  seven  or 
 half  past  seven,  in  summer,  there  is  recreation,  or  excursions 
 are  made  with  a  teacher,  and  then  study  until  nine.  In  win- 
 ter there  is  recreation  until  six,  from  six  to  eight  study,  and 
 from  eight  to  nine  musical  exercises,  one-third  playing  on  the 
 violin,  another  on  the  organ  or  piano,  and  another  singing.  At 
 half  past  nine  in  winter,  and  ten  in  summer,  the  pupils  retire. 
 There  are  prayers  morning  and  evening.  On  Wednesday  and 
 Saturday  tliey  have  half  of  the  day  for  recreation,  and  in  sum- 
 mer make  excursions  to  collect  plants  or  minerals.  A  place  for 
 gymnastic  exercises  is  provided,  and  used  during  the  hours  of 
 recreation. 
 
 The  moral  education  of  these  young  men  is  closely  attended 
 to.  They  not  only  receive  direct  religious  instruction,  but  the 
 best  examples  are  constantly  before  them.  The  chief  reward 
 for  proficiency  or  good  conduct  is  the  approbation  of  the  teach- 
 ers, the  principal  punishment,  short  of  dismission,  their  dis- 
 approbation. The  director  has,  also,  the  inlluence  resulting 
 from  his  jiowcr  to  give  pecuniary  assistance  to  the  meritorious, 
 whilt;  ill  the  school,  and  tu  secure  them  good  places  at  leav- 
 ing it.  The  ^iv.'Ucst  harmony  reigns  throiiglH)Ut  the  cstablisli- 
 inL'iit.  Oil  \\u)  <'MMiii)'j;s  of  Satur(l;i\-,  there  are  fre(juenlly  par- 
 ties ill  turn  ;iiiiuii.r  the  Irnrhrrs,  In  w  hi<-h  lli<'  piipiN  iwo  iiivitecJ, 
 
SEMINARY  rOR  TEACHERS  AT  WEISSENFELS.  341 
 
 and  where  there  is  usually  music.  Those  who  have  acquaint- 
 ances in  the  town,  are  encouraged  to  visit  their  families,  but 
 the  places  of  visiting  must  be  known  to  the  director. 
 
 Physical  education  is  most  essential  where  young  men,  at  the 
 time  of  life  of  these  seminarists,  are  sedulously  engaged  in  intel- 
 lectual pursuits,  and  necessarily  so  much  confined  to  the  house. 
 They,  therefore,  have  gymnastic  exercises  or  work  in  the  fields 
 or  garden,  or  walk  during  those  periods  of  the  day  and  parts  of 
 the  w^eek  allowed  for  recreation.  Care  is  taken  that,  unless 
 indisposed,  they  do  not  remain  in  the  house  at  those  times, 
 when  the  weather  permits  them  to  be  in  the  open  air.  There 
 is  an  infirmary  for  the  sick,  in  which  one  of  the  pupils  in  turn 
 acts  as  nurse,  and  a  physician  is  called  in  when  necessary. 
 
 The  school  year  is  divided  into  three  terms,  the  first  from  the 
 beginning  of  June  until  August,  the  second  from  September  to 
 Christmas,  and  the  third  from  January  to  May.  The  holidays 
 are  four  weeks  in  August,  two  at  Christmas,  and  one  at  Easter. 
 During  the  first  two  named,  the  pupils  go  home  to  their  friends. 
 Christmas  is  celebrated  in  the  school,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
 first  and  second  terms  there  are  private  examinations,  the  re- 
 sults of  which  are  communicated  to  the  students.  At  the  close 
 of  the  third  term,  the  examination  for  passing  from  the  second 
 to  the  first  class  is  held,  and  none  arc  promoted  from  one 
 class  to  another  unless  fully  proficient  in  the  courses  of  the  past 
 year.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year,  they  are  examined  upon 
 the  whole  range  of  study,  and  in  composition  and  orthography. 
 Those  who  pass  satisfactorily  receive  a  diploma,  and  find  no 
 difliculty  in  obtaining  employment  as  teachers.  Some  of  the 
 most  promising  are  frequently  retained  in  the  schools  of  the  in- 
 stitution as  assistant  teachers,  under  the  appointment  of  the  di- 
 rector. The  additional  experience  thus  gained  is  of  in][)ortance 
 in  a  professional,  and  ultimately  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view. 
 
 Every  pupil,  on  leaving  the  school  with  a  diploma,  makes  a 
 drawing,  or  copies  a  piece  of  music  or  of  writing,  which  he 
 leaves  as  a  memento. 
 
 The  pupils  of  all  the  normal  schools  are  bound  by  law  to 
 serve  in  such  situations  as  may  be  assigned  to  them  for  three 
 years,  or  to  pay  certain  sums  in  lieu  of  this  service. 
 
31'2  VEN'KRAL  F.DUrATIOX.       PRIMARY   PERIOD. 
 
 The  domestic  economy  is  siipcrintcnded  by  llic  director, 
 who  has  a  house-keeper  under  his  orders.  Dinner  is  provided 
 at  a  common  table,  but  each  person  furnishes  himself  with  break- 
 fast and  sujiper.  The  diet  is  of  the  plainest  kind,  but  there  is 
 meat  for  dinner  every  day  in  the  week  except  two.*  The  po- 
 lice of  the  establishment  is  attended  to  by  the  pupils  themselves. 
 The  members  of  the  second  class,  in  turn,  have  charge  of  the 
 police  of  the  school-rooms,  dormitories,  of  the  lamps,  of  ringing 
 the  bell,  &c.,  or  these  duties  arc  executed  by  those  who  have 
 fallen  under  censure.  The  first  class  superintend  the  fires  and 
 out  of  door  work,  have  charge  of  the  cellar,  store-room,  lavatory, 
 &c.  There  are  three  dormitories,  under  the  general  superin- 
 tendence of  one  of  the  teachers,  aided  by  pupils  selected  for  the 
 purpose.  The  bed  and  bedding  are  furnished  by  the  pupils  at 
 entrance.  The  lodging  of  these  youths  is,  like  their  fare  and 
 clothing,  of  the  plainest  sort ;  a  plainness  which  puts  in  strong 
 relief  the  richness  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  culture  aflbrd- 
 ed  by  the  institution.f 
 
 SEMINARY   FOR  TEACHERS  OF  THE  CITY   SCHOOLS  AT 
 BERLIN. 
 
 This  is  one  of  the  more  recently  erected  seminaries,  and  its 
 objects  are  declared  to  be — first,  to  educate  teachers  for  the  city 
 schools  ;  second,  to  enable  teachers  to  advance  in  tiieir  voca- 
 tion, by  providing  them  with  lectures,  and  with  a  library  ;  and 
 third,  to  enable  candidates  for  the  ministry  to  become  some- 
 what acquainted  with  the  art  of  teaching,  as  they  are  required, 
 subsequently,  to  act  as  inspectors  of  the  schools.  The  first  of 
 these  is  the  main  object  of  the  institution.  The  teachers  to  be 
 furnished  are,  in  general,  of  the  grade  required  for  the  burgher 
 schools.     This,  with  its  location  in  the  city,  renders  the  general 
 
 •  The  dinner  costs  seven  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  annum,  or  about  two  cents 
 und  a-half  per  day.  If  a  pupil  receives  no  stipend  from  the  institution,  he  is 
 charged  but  half  this  sum. 
 
 t  The  yearly  cost  of  this  institution  is  but  about  twcnty-ciglit  hundred  and 
 forty  dollars.  The  director  receives  a  salary  of  six  liundred  dollars,  which  en- 
 ables him  to  live  very  comfortably,  and  to  maintain  his  proj)cr  station,  on  a  par 
 with  the  burgher  nuthorities,  the  elerjfyman,  distiict  judj^^e,  &c. 
 
SEMINARY  FOR  CITY  TEACHERS  AT  BERLIN".  34^ 
 
 plan  of  this  school  different  from  that  already  described.  The 
 care  taken  in  the  selection  of  the  directors  of  the  normal  schools 
 prevents  the  necessity  for  minute  regulations,  and  does  what 
 no  regulation  can,  namely,  infuses  the  proper  spirit;  hence, 
 there  will  always  be  found  differences  in  the  minute  details  of 
 these  institutions,  which  may  not,  however,  be  essential. 
 
 The  director  of  this  seminary*  is  also  the  head  of  the  school 
 of  practice  attached  to  it,  and  already  described.  There  are, 
 besides  him,  eight  teachers  for  both  the  school  and  seminary. 
 The  pupils  of  the  latter  arc  about  fifty  in  number. 
 
 The  pupils  generally  live  out  of  the  seminary,  there  being 
 accommodations  but  for  sixteen  or  eighteen  within  the  buildings. 
 It  is  an  important  question,  whether  the  method  of  boarding  the 
 pupils  in  or  out  of  the  house  shall  be  adopted  in  these  institu- 
 tions, and  I  believe  that  it  has  been  rightly  solved,  both  at  Weis- 
 senfels  and  here,  adopting  in  the  former  school  the  method  of 
 collecting  the  pupils,  and  in  the  latter,  of  allowing  them  to 
 dwell  apart. 
 
 The  conditions  for  admission  are  nearly  those,  as  to  certi- 
 ficates, age,  and  qualification,  of  the  Weissenfels  school,  taking 
 as  the  standard  of  qualification  the  attainments  of  pupils  from 
 the  preparatory  department.  Thus,  eighteen  years  is  the  gene- 
 ral age  of  admission,  and  the  applicants  must  present  to  the 
 school-board  of  the  province  certificates  of  baptism,  of  having 
 attended  the  first  communion,  of  having  attended  school,  of  mo- 
 ral conduct,  of  good  health,  and  that  their  parents  or  guardians 
 will  support  them  while  at  the  seminary.  The  candidates  are  ex- 
 pected to  be  prepared  for  examination  on  the  principal  parts  of 
 the  Bible  and  the  chief  truths  of  Christianity,  and  to  be  acquainted 
 with  some  of  the  principal  church  songs;  to  express  themselves 
 correctly  in  words  and  in  writing,  and  to  have  a  good  know- 
 ledge of  the  etymology  of  the  German  language;  to  understand 
 the  ground  rules  of  arithmetic,  proportions,  and  fractions,  and 
 the  elements  of  form  in  geometry,  to  possess  a  competent  know- 
 ledge of  geography  and  history,  to  know  the  use  of  mathe- 
 matical instruments,  and  to  have  an  elementary  knowledge  of 
 
 *  Dr.  Dicbtcrwcg. 
 
311  CE.VERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 music.  The  school  docs  not  professedly  maintain  any  pupil 
 wliile  receiving  instruction,  but  assists  some  of  those  of  the 
 second  year  who  are  meritorious,  and  makes  a  further  advance 
 to  those  of  the  tiiird  year  who  have  shown  themselves  worthy 
 of  their  calling.* 
 
 The  courses  are  of  three  years'  duration,  of  which  the  first 
 is  entirely  occupied  with  revising  and  extending  the  attainments 
 of  the  pupil;  the  second  is,  in  part,  devoted  to  teaching,  but 
 under  the  inspection  of  the  director,  and  the  third  is  mainly 
 filled  up  with  teaching  in  the  school  attached  to  the  seminary 
 or  others  of  the  city.  This  arrangement  is  intended,  first,  to 
 secure  a  due  amount  of  scholarship  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  and 
 next,  to  make  practical  teachers  of  them.  The  first  essays  in 
 their  art  are  made  under  close  supervision,  and  subsequently, 
 the  independent  teaching  aflx)rds  them  opportunities  for  compar- 
 ing the  theoretical  principles  which  are  inculcated  in  the  lec- 
 tures at  the  seminary  with  their  daily  observation,  and  the 
 communication  of  their  remarks  in  meetings  with  the  director 
 gives  them  the  advantage  of  his  experience  in  guiding  their 
 observation. 
 
 The  scope  of  the  instruction  here  does  not  ditler  essentially 
 from  that  at  Weissenfels,  the  subjects  being  reproduced  in  a 
 dilTcrent  form.  The  following  table  gives  the  names  of  the 
 branches,  with  the  time  occupied  in  each  of  the  classes,  the 
 third  class  being  the  lowest.  The  course  of  each  class  is  a  year 
 in  duration. 
 
 The  liours  of  duty  are  from  seven  in  the  morning  until  noon, 
 and  from  two  in  the  afternoon  until  four  for  the  second  and 
 third  classes,  with  few  exce})tions.  The  first  class  receive 
 their  instruction  from  half  past  five  until  half  past  seven  in  the 
 evening,  except  on  Wednesday  and  Saturday.  Wednesday  is  a 
 half-holiday  for  the  lower  classes,  as  well  as  Saturday. 
 
 The  religious  instruction  is  given  by  a  clergyman.  Tiie 
 physical  education  is  left  much  to  the  discretion  of  the  young 
 
 »  Tlii.H  may  lunouiit  lo  sixty  dollars  yearly.  The  boarders  at  the  school 
 pay  but  three  dollars  uiui  thirty -seven  eeiiU  per  (juarter  for  their  lodging.  An 
 entrance  fee  of  twelve  dollars  m  paid,  which  excnipUs  the  pupil  from  furtlicr 
 cliargca  for  instruelion. 
 
SEMINARY  FOR  CITY  TEACHERS  AT  BERLIN. 
 
 845 
 
 men,  at  least  in  case  of  those  who  Hve  out  of  the  seminary.  The 
 school  is  deficient,  as  the  one  already  described,  in  the  means 
 of  illustrating  the  courses  of  natural  philosophy  and  natural  his- 
 tory, but  the  pupils  may  have  access  to  the  natural  history  col- 
 lections of  the  university. 
 
 Tabic  of  Ihc  distribution  of  time  among  the  different  employments  at  tlic 
 Berlin  Seminary. 
 
 SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY,  &c. 
 
 Pedagogy,  -  -  - 
 Practice,  -  .  -  - 
 Religious  Instruction, 
 Theory  of  Music,  - 
 Vocal  Music,  -  - 
 German  Language, 
 Reading,  -  -  -  . 
 Arithmetic,  -  -  - 
 Geometry,  -  -  . 
 Geography,  -  -  - 
 History,  -  -  .  . 
 Zoology,  -  -  .  - 
 Mineralogy,  -  -  - 
 Physics,  .... 
 Drawing,  -  .  -  . 
 Writing,  -  .  .  , 
 Playing  the  Violin,  - 
 
 44 
 
 HOURS  PER  WEEK. 
 
 rn 
 
 w 
 
 rt 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 
 § 
 
 12 
 
 Im 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
34G  GENERAL  EDUCATIOif.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  method  of  instruction,  as  in  the  other  school,  is  mainly 
 by  lecture,  with  interrogations.  The  inductive  system  is  fol- 
 lowed in  the  mathematical  branches.  The  works  of  the  di- 
 rector on  these  subjects  enjoy  a  high  reputation,  and  are  in 
 use  in  many  of  the  schools.  The  exercise  called  "  practice," 
 in  the  duty  of  the  first  class,  is  that  which  I  have  already 
 described,  where  the  pupil  gives  instruction  under  the  eye 
 of  his  class-mates  and  of  the  director,  and  this  instruction 
 is  made  the  matter  of  subsequent  criticism.  Here  the  semi- 
 narists themselves  act  as  pupils,  receiving  supposed  lessons 
 from  one  of  their  class,  while  at  Wcissenfels,  pupils  from  the 
 seminary  class  are  called  in.  This  latter  plan  appears  to  me 
 to  have  great  advantages  over  the  one  adopted  here,  which, 
 however,  is  used,  I  believe,  only  in  the  case  of  the  first  class, 
 who  receive  lessons  at  times  when  the  schools  are  not  in  session. 
 
 PRIMARY  NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  HAARLEM. 
 
 This  school,  which  has  been  already  referred  to  in  the  chap- 
 ter on  primary  instruction  in  Holland,  is  peculiar  in  regard  to 
 instruction,  practice  in  teaching,  and  disciphne.  It  is  intended  to 
 prepare  for  at  least  the  second  grade  among  primary  teachers, 
 which,  it  will  be  remembered,  qualifies  for  the  mastership  of 
 any  primary  school,  the  first  class  being  an  honorary  grade. 
 The  age  of  admission,  the  time  of  continuance,  and  the  courses 
 of  instruction,  are  regulated  accordingly. 
 
 The  director*  is  the  head  of  the  institution,  and  controls 
 absolutely  all  its  arrangements.  His  principle,  that  a  teacher 
 in  such  a  place  should  be  left  to  study  the  character  and  dis- 
 positions of  his  pupils,  and  to  adapt  his  instruction  and  disci- 
 pline to  them,  dispenses  with  rules  and  regulations,  or  con- 
 stitutes the    director  the  rule.f     To  carry  out  this  principle 
 
 *  Mr.  Prinscn,  to  whom  I  have  already  referred  as  one  of  a  class  of  teachers 
 who  adorn  tliis  profession  in  Holland. 
 
 t  When  M.  Cousin,  in  his  visit  to  Haarlem,  invited  Mr.  Prinscn  to  conunuiii- 
 catc  to  hiiu  the  rtgululions  of  his  school,  and  tlicn  to  sliow  him  how  tliey  were 
 carried  out,  furst  tlic  rule,  then  the  results,  tlie  director  replied,  "  I  am  tJic  rule." 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  HAARLEM.  347 
 
 requires  that  the  scliool  should  not  be  numerous,  and  it  is  ac- 
 cordingly limited  to  forty  pupils.  There  is  an  assistant  to  the 
 director,  who  shares  in  the  general  instruction  with  him,  and 
 upon  whom  the  religious  teaching  of  the  pupils  specially  de- 
 volves. The  school  is  visited  periodically  by  the  inspector- 
 general,  who  examines  the  pupils  personally,  and  notes  their  ge- 
 neral and  individual  proficiency. 
 
 To  be  admitted,  a  youth  must  be  over  fifteen  years  of  age, 
 and  have  passed  an  examination  upon  the  studies  of  the  elemen- 
 tary school,  satisfactory  to  a  district-inspector,  who  recom- 
 mends him  for  admission.  He  is  received  on  probation,  and  at 
 the  end  of  three  months,  if  his  conduct  and  proficiency  are 
 satisfactory  to  the  director,  is  recommended  to  the  minister 
 of  public  instruction,  who  confirms  his  appointment. 
 
 The  course  of  theory  and  practice  lasts  four  years  in  ge- 
 neral, though,  if  a  pupil  have  the  third  low^er  grade  of  public 
 instruction  in  view,  which  is  attainable  at  eighteen  years  of  age, 
 he  is  not  required  to  remain  connected  with  the  institution  be- 
 yond that  age,  and  indeed  may  leave  it,  on  his  own  responsi- 
 bility, before  the  close  of  the  regular  course.  The  second 
 grade  is  only  attainable  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  and  hence  it 
 is  not  usual  for  pupils  to  enter  this  school  as  early  as  the  law 
 permits.  The  theoretical  instruction  is  composed  of  a  review 
 and  extension  of  the  elementary  branches,  as  the  Dutch  lan- 
 guage, geography,  arithmetic,  elementary  geometry,  the  history 
 of  the  country,  natural  history,  religion,  writing,  and  vocal  music, 
 and  also  of  general  geography  and  history,  natural  philosophy, 
 and  the  science  and  art  of  teaching.  This  is  communicated  in 
 the  evenings,  the  pupils  meeting  at  the  school  for  the  purpose. 
 During  the  day  they  are  occupied  in  receiving  practical  in- 
 struction, by  teaching  under  the  inspection  of  the  director  in 
 the  elementary  school  already  spoken  of,  attached  to  the  nor- 
 mal school  and  occupying  its  rooms,  or  in  teaching  in  some 
 other  of  the  elementary  schools  of  the  town  of  Haarlem.  They 
 pass  through  different  establishments  in  turn,  so  as  to  see  a 
 variety  in  the  character  of  instruction.  The  director,  as  in- 
 spector of  primary  schools  in  this  distrcl,  visits  frequently  those 
 
348  GENERAL  EDUCATION.      PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Avherc  his  pupils  arc  employed,  and  observes  their  teaching, 
 and  also  receives  a  report  from  the  masters.  The  observations 
 and  reports  are  turned  to  account  in  subsequent  meetings  with 
 liis  class. 
 
 The  pupils  do  not  board  together  in  the  normal  school,  but 
 are  distributed  through  the  town,  in  certain  families  selected  by 
 the  director.  They  form  a  part  of  these  families  during  their 
 residence  with  them,  being  responsible  to  the  head  for  the  time 
 of  their  absence  from  the  house,  their  hours,  and  conduct. 
 They  take  their  meals  with  the  families,  and  are  furnished 
 with  a  study  and  sleei)ing-room,  fire,  lights,  &c.  The  director 
 pays  the  moderate  sum  required  for  this  accommodation  from 
 the  annual  stipend  nllowcd  by  government.*  The  efficiency 
 of  such  a  system  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  habits  of  family 
 life  of  the  country,  and  upon  the  locality  where  the  school  is 
 established.  In  Holland  and  Haarlem  the  plan  succeeds  well, 
 and  has  the  advantage  that  the  pupils  are  constantly,  in  a  de- 
 gree, their  own  masters,  and  must  control  themselves,  and  that 
 they  are  never  placed  in  an  artificial  state  of  society  or  kind  of 
 life,  which  is  the  case  when  they  arc  collected  in  one  establish- 
 ment. The  director  makes  frequent  visits  to  these  families, 
 and  is  informed  of  the  home  character  of  his  pupils.f  The 
 discipline  of  a  normal  school  is  of  course  one  of  the  easiest 
 tasks  connected  with  it,  for  improprieties  or  levities  of  conduct 
 arc  inconsistent  with  the  future  calling  of  the  youth.  Admoni- 
 tion by  the  assistant  and  by  the  director  are  the  only  coercive 
 means  resorted  to,  previous  to  dismission.  The  director  has 
 authority  to  dismiss  a  student  without  consulting  the  minister, 
 merely  rci^orting  the  fact  and  case  to  him.     Though  this  power 
 
 *  This  annual  stipend  is  ninety  dollars.  Supposing  that  a  student  has  an  entire 
 hursary,  he  will  require  some  additional  funds  to  support  him  while  at  tlie 
 Bcliool;  for  his  board,  lodjrinfr,  &,c.  cost  two  dollars  per  week,  whieh,  for  the  forty- 
 two  weeks  of  term-time,  amounts  to  eighty-four  dollars,  leaving  him  but  six  dol- 
 lars for  incidental  expenses. 
 
 t  Director  Prinsen  entirely  disclaims  the  use  of  the  police  as  aiding  in  the  dis- 
 cipline of  tlie  school,  and  alleges  that,  in  attributing  this  to  him,  AI.  Cousin  has 
 niisunderstcH>d  his  remarks  on  the  subject.  See  Cousin  on  ruMie  Instruction  in 
 Holland,  Cliaj»tcr  on  Ilanrlcm. 
 
PRIMARY  NORMAL  6CH00LS  OF  VERSAILLES  AND  DIJON.        849 
 
 may  be  important  in  increasing  his  influence,  yet  it  has  been 
 necessary  to  exercise  it  but  three  times  in  twenty  years.  There 
 are  two  vacations  of  from  four  to  six  weeks  each,  during  wliich 
 the  pupils,  in  genera],  return  to  tJicir  friends.  Tiic  school  has 
 a  lending-library  of  books  relating  to  teaching,  and  of  miscel- 
 laneous works.  Tiiis  useful  institution  supplies  for  the  primary 
 schools  every  year  from  eight  to  twelve  well  prepared  masters, 
 who  propagate  throughout  the  country  the  excellent  methods 
 and  principles  of  teaching  here  inculcated. 
 
 PRIMARY  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  OF  VERSAILLES  AND  CIJON. 
 
 Of  the  primary  normal  schools  of  France,  first  organized  by 
 the  law^  of  1833,  I  visited  two,  which  were  specially  recom- 
 mended by  high  authority,  those  at  Versailles  and  Dijon.  With 
 certain  distinctive  differences  depending  upon  the  personal 
 character  of  the  directors,  and  upon  the  localities,  the  general 
 system  of  these  schools  is  the  same.  I  propose,  first,  to  give 
 a  sketch  of  the  arrangement  of  that  at  Versailles,  and  to  follow 
 this  by  a  notice  of  that  at  Dijon.  When  the  normal  schools  of 
 France  have  had  the  same  amount  of  experience  which  those 
 of  Germany  now  enjoy,  a  comparison  can  be  more  fairly  made 
 between  them  than  at  present.  In  France,  the  primary  normal 
 schools  are  yet  in  a  condition  of  experiment,  and  it  must  be 
 some  time  before  the  sj^stem  best  suited  to  the  different  parts  of 
 the  country  has  been  selected.  The  first  of  the  above  named 
 schools  furnished,  in  18375  twenty,  and  the  second  seventeen 
 primary  teachers. 
 
 The  primary  normal  school  of  Versailles  is  for  the  depart- 
 ment of  Seine^  and  Oise.  It  comprises  within  its  ample  pre- 
 mises* several  establishments  for  the  instruction  and  practice 
 of  teachers.  The  school  itself  contains  eighty  pupils  under 
 regular  instruction  throughout  the  year,  and  furnishes  a  two 
 months'  course  to  adult  school-masters.  The  establishments  for 
 practice  begin  with  the  infant  school,  and  rise  through  the  pri- 
 mary to  the  grade  of  primary  superior.     Of  the  elementary 
 
 *  Used  under  a  former  dynast}^  to  uccommodatA-  the  hounds  of  Cn  ^'les  X. 
 
350  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 schools,  one  affords  the  young  teachers  an  example  of  the 
 method  of  mutual,  and  another  of  simultaneous  instruction. 
 The  primary  superior  school  had  been  recently  established,  at 
 the  date  of  my  visit,  in  1837.  There  is,  besides,  an  evening 
 department  for  the  elementary  instruction  of  adults,  taught  by 
 the  pupils  of  the  normal  school,  and  also  a  school  of  design, 
 which  is  established  here  rather  for  convenience  than  as  pro- 
 perly belonging  to  the  range  of  the  institution. 
 
 The  whole  establishment  is  under  the  immediate  control  of  a 
 director,*  subject  to  the  authority  of  a  committee,  and  of  the 
 university,  the  inspectors  of  which  make  regular  visits.  The 
 committee  inspect  the  school  by  sub-committees  once  a  month, 
 visiting  the  recitation-rooms  of  the  professors  without  giving 
 special  notice,  a  plan  much  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  stated 
 visits.  If  a  member  of  a  committee  desires  questions  to  be  put 
 upon  any  particular  points,  he  calls  upon  the  professor  to  ex- 
 tend his  examination,  or  asks  questions  himself.  The  director 
 examines  the  classes  frequently,  or  is  present  at  the  lessons. 
 There  are  eight  professors  for  the  various  courses,  and  two 
 **  repeaters"  (repetiteurs),  these  latter  superintending  the  pupils 
 when  not  with  the  professors,  and  giving  them  assistance  if 
 required.  The  repeaters  are  responsible  for  the  execution  of 
 the  order  of  the  day  in  the  institution,  and  for  the  police,  and 
 one  of  them  sleeps  in  each  of  the  two  dormitories.  Some  of 
 the  teachers  in  the  normal  school  also  give  instruction  in  the 
 model  sch.ools,  and  have  charge  of  the  pupils  while  engaged  in 
 the  practical  exercises.  The  domestic  economy  is  under  the 
 charge  of  the  director,  but  he  is  allowed  an  assistant,  who 
 actually  discharges  the  duty  of  superintendence,  and  who  lias 
 brought  this  department  into  most  excellent  order.f 
 
 There  are  a  certain  number  of  gratuitous  places,  to  which 
 pupils  are  admitted  l)y  competition,  those  found  best  prepared 
 at  the  examination  for  admission  having  the  preference.     Pay 
 
 •  IMr.  I.c  Brun,  to  whose  politeness  I  am  inucli  indebted. 
 
 t  Durinfj  the  first  year  of  tlic  institution,  tlic  fare  of  cacli  student  cost  fifty- 
 nine  centimes  (twelve  cents)  \Kr  day.  They  had  meat  twice  a-day,  except  on 
 llic  fasts  ofthechnrrh. 
 
NORMAL  SCnOOL  OF  VERSAILLES.  851 
 
 pupils  are  also  received  at  a  very  moderate  rate,*  but  are  ex- 
 actly on  the  same  footing,  in  reference  to  the  duties  of  the  insti- 
 tution, with  the  former.  Young  men  who  wish  to  compete  for 
 a  place,  and  are  not  sufficiently  prepared,  may  enter  as  pay 
 pupils,  and  thus  receive  instruction  directly  applicable  to  their 
 object.  The  age  of  admission  is,  by  rule,  between  sixteen  and 
 twenty-one,  but  the  former  limit  is  considered  too  early  for  pro- 
 fitable entrance.  The  qualifications  for  admission  consist  in  a 
 thorough  knowledge  of  the  subjects  taught  in  the  elementary 
 schools. 
 
 The  period  of  instruction  is  two  years.  The  first  year  is 
 devoted  to  the  revision  of  elementary  studies,  and  the  second 
 to  an  extension  of  them,  and  to  tlieoretical  and  practical  in- 
 struction in  the  science  and  art  of  teaching.  The  subjects  of 
 revision  or  instruction  are,  reading,  writing,  linear  drawing, 
 geography,  history,  the  drawing  of  maps,  morals  and  religion, 
 vocal  music,  arithmetic,  elementary  physics,  terraculture  and 
 pedagogy. 
 
 The  religious  instruction  is  given  by  an  ecclesiastic,  who  is 
 almoner  to  the  school;  it  includes  lessons  on  the  doctrines  and 
 history  of  the  church,  given  twice  per  week.  Protestants  are 
 not  required  to  attend  these  lessons,  but  receive  instruction  out 
 of  the  institution  from  a  minister  of  their  own  confession. 
 
 Physical  education  is  conducted  by  means  of  exercises  in 
 gymnastics,  by  walks,  and  the  practice  of  gardening.  In  sum- 
 mer the  pupils  bathe  once  a  week.  The  gymnastic  exercises 
 are  taught  by  the  more  expert  pupils  to  the  scholars  of  the 
 model  schools,  and  appear  to  have  taken  well  among  them. 
 
 The  pupils  study  in  a  room  common  to  all,  and  the  degree  of 
 attention  which  they  pay,  and  their  conduct,  are  marked,  ac- 
 cordiiig  to  a  uniform  scale,  by  the  superintending  "repeater," 
 and  reported  daily  to  the  director.  Once  every  month  the  pro- 
 fessor examines  these  classes  on  the  studies  of  the  past  month, 
 and  reports  the  standing.  Marks  are  also  given  for  great  pro- 
 ficiency and  attention,  which  are  reported  with  the  standing. 
 
 ♦  Five  liundred  francs,  or  about  one  hundred  dollars,  per  annum. 
 
852  gei^ehil  education.     pnii'^ARY  period. 
 
 These  marks,  ond  those  of  the  cxaminrttion,  are  summed  up, 
 and  when  they  amount  to  a  certain  number  for  the  month, 
 the  pupil  is  entitled  to  a  premium.  The  premiums  consist  of 
 books  uniformly  bound,  and  accompanied  by  a  certificate.  Re- 
 port is  made  of  these  pupils  to  the  minister  of  public  instruction, 
 and  the  rec>.'rd  may  serve  them  when  desirous  to  secure  a 
 particular  place.  The  director  assembles  the  school  to  hear  an 
 account  of  these  monthly  reports,  and  makes  such  remarks  as 
 they  may  suggest. 
 
 Besides  the  more  usual  school  implements,  this  institution  has 
 a  library,  a  small  collection  of  physical  and  chemical  apparatus, 
 of  technological  specimens,  already  of  considerable  interest,  and 
 of  models  of  agricultural  implements.  There  are,  also,  two 
 gardens,  one  of  which  is  laid  out  to  serve  the  purposes  of  sys- 
 tematic instruction  in  horticulture,  the  other  of  which  contains 
 specimens  of  agricultural  products,  and  a  ground  for  gymnastic 
 exercises.  The  pupils  work  by  details  of  three  at  a  time,  un- 
 der the  direction  of  the  gardener,  in  cultivating  flowers,  fruits, 
 vegetal)lcs,  &c.  They  have  the  use  of  a  set  of  carpenter's  and 
 joiner's  tools,  with  which  they  have  tiued  up  their  own  library 
 in  a  very  creditable  way.*  In  the  second  year  they  receive 
 lectures  on  the  science  and  art  of  teaching,  and  in  turn  givu  in- 
 struction in  the  schools,  under  the  direction  of  the  teachers. 
 Their  performances  arc  subsequently  criticised  for  their  im- 
 provement. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day  in  summer  is  as  follows: 
 The  pupils  rise  at  live,  wash,  make  up  their  beds,  and  dean 
 their  dormitories,  in  two  divisions,  which  alternate;  meet  in 
 the  study-Iiall  at  half  past  five  for  prayers,  breaktast,  engage 
 in  studies  or  recitation  until  one;  dine  and  have  recreation  until 
 two;  study  or  recite  until  four;  have  exercises  or  recreation,  sup, 
 study  and  engage  in  religious  reading  and  prayers;  and  retire 
 
 •  A  carpenter  who  came  to  attend  the  evening  classes  was  found  by  the  di- 
 rector so  inttlHgcnt,  that  Jic  advised  him  to  prepare  for  tiie  school.  The  young 
 man  succeeded  in  entering,  at  the  annual  comiKJtition,  and  subsequently,  on  leav- 
 ing the  sclic.ji,  received  one  of  Uic  best  appointments  of  his  year  us  u  teaclici. 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  VERSAILLES.  353 
 
 at  teUf  except  in  special  cases.     Before  meals  there  is  a  grace 
 said,  and  during  meals  one  of  the  pupils  reads  aloud. 
 
 In  distributing  the  time  devoted  to  study  and  recitation,  an 
 hour  of  study  is  made  to  precede  a  lesson,  when  the  latter  re- 
 quires specific  preparation;  when,  on  the  contrary,  the  lesson 
 requires  after-reflection  to  fix  its  principles,  or  consists  of  a 
 lecture,  of  which  the  notes  are  to  be  written  out,  the  study  hour 
 follows  the  lesson.  The  branches  of  a  mechanical  nature 
 are  interspersed  with  the  intellectual.  The  students  of  the 
 second  year  are  employed,  in  turn,  in  teaching,  and  are  relieved 
 from  other  duties  during  the  hours  devoted  to  the  schools  of 
 practice. 
 
 On  Sunday,  after  the  morning  service,  the  pupils  are  free  to 
 leave  the  walls  of  the  institution.  The  same  is  the  case  on 
 Thursday  afternoon.  The  director  has  found,  however,  bad 
 results  from  these  indiscriminate  leaves  of  absence. 
 
 The  discipline  of  the  school  is  mild,  the  age  and  objects  of  the 
 pupils  being  such  that  the  use  of  coercive  means  is  seldom  re- 
 quired. The  first  step  is  admonition  by  a  "repeater"  or  profes- 
 sor, the  next  a  private  admonition  by  the  director.  If  these  means 
 prove  ineffectual,  dismission  follows.  The  director  has  great  in- 
 fluence, from  his  personal  character,  and  from  the  fact  that  his 
 recommendation  can  secure  a  good  place*  to  the  pupil  imme- 
 diately on  leaving  the  school.  The  mode  of  life  in  the  institu- 
 tion is  very  simple.  The  pupils  are  neatly  but  roughly  dressed, 
 and  perform  most  of  the  services  of  police  for  themselves.  The 
 dormitories  are  very  neat.  The  bedsteads  are  of  wrought 
 iron,  corded  at  the  bottom.  During  the  night  the  clothes  are 
 deposited  in  small  boxes  near  the  beds.  The  extra  articles  of 
 clothing  are  in  a  common  room.  Cleanliness  of  dress  and  per- 
 son are  carefully  enjoined.  The  fare  is  plain,  but  good,  and 
 the  arrangements  connected  with  the  table  unexceptionable. 
 There  is  an  infirmary  attached  to  the  school,  which  is,  however, 
 but  rarely  used. 
 
 *  Tiic  best  places,  m  point  ut"  enioluuieiil,  uic  worth  liom  lillceii  to  eighteen 
 Imndrcd  liancs  (about  $300  to  $3tiU). 
 1.5 
 
351  GENERAL   EDUCATIOiV.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  schools  for  practice  do  not  require  special  description, 
 as  their  organization  will  be  sufficiently  understood  from  what 
 has  already  been  said  of  primary  schools,  and  they  have  not 
 been  long  enough  in  operation  to  acquire  the  improved  form 
 which,  I  cannot  doubt,  they  will  receive  under  the  present  able 
 director  of  the  normal  school. 
 
 The  primary  normal  school  at  Dijon  for  the  department 
 of  Cote  d'Or,  in  its  general  organization,  is  the  same  as  that  at 
 Versailles.  It  differs,  however,  in  one  most  important  par- 
 ticular, which  involves  other  differences  of  detail.  All  the  in- 
 struction, except  of  religion  and  music,  as  well  as  the  superin- 
 tendence, is  under  the  charge  of  the  director  and  a  single 
 assistant,  who,  by  the  aid  of  the  pupils,  carry  on  the  schools  of 
 practice,  as  well  as  the  courses  of  the  normal  school.  This 
 arrangement  limits  the  amount  of  instruction,  and  interferes 
 very  materially  with  the  arrangement  of  the  studies.  The 
 school  is  conducted,  however,  with  an  excellent  spirit.  An 
 idea  of  the  plan  will  be  obtained  from  the  order  of  the  day, 
 which  also  contains  an  outline  of  the  course  of  instruction. 
 
 From  five  to  six,  A.  M.,  the  pupils  say  their  prayers,  wash, 
 &c.  From  six  to  seven  the  higher  division  has  a  lesson  in 
 French  grammar.  The  lower  receives  a  lesson  in  geography 
 or  history  alternately.  From  seven  to  eight,  the  higher  divi- 
 sion has  a  lesson  in  geography  or  history  alternately;  the 
 lower  division  in  arithmetic.  From  eight  to  half  past  eight, 
 breakfast  and  recreation.  From  half  past  eight  until  eleven,  a 
 portion  of  the  higher  division  is  employed  in  the  primary 
 schools  of  practice,  and  the  others  arc  engaged  in  study.  From 
 eleven  until  one,  writing  and  linear  drawing  for  both  divisions. 
 From  one  until  two,  dinner  and  recreation.  From  two  until 
 half  past  four,  as  from  halt'  past  eight  to  eleven.  Recreation 
 until  five.  From  five  to  six,  instruction  in  instrumental  or  vocal 
 music  for  each  division  alternately.  From  six  to  seven,  tlic 
 higher  division  has  a  lesson  in  geometry  or  its  applications,  the 
 lower  division  in  French  grammar.  From  seven  until  a  quarter 
 before  eight,  supper  and  recreation.  From  this  lime  until  nine, 
 the  higher  division  has  a  Lsson  in  physical  science  or  natural 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  ZURICH.  355 
 
 history,  meclmnics,  agriculture,  and  rural  economy,  or  book- 
 keeping; the  lower  division  in  reading.  The  last  quarter  of 
 an  hour  is  occupied  by  both  divisions  in  prayers,  after  which 
 they  retire.  This  order  applies  to  all  the  days  of  the  week  but 
 Thursday,  when,  from  eight  to  ten,  the  pupils  receive  moral  and 
 religious  instruction.  From  ten  to  eleven,  instruction  in  the 
 forms  of  simple,  legal,  and  commercial  \vritings,  and  from  two 
 to  four,  engaged  in  the  review  of  part  of  the  week's  studies. 
 On  the  afternoon  of  Thursday  the  schools  of  practice  are  not 
 in  session. 
 
 On  Sunday,  after  the  duties  following  their  rising,  the  pupils 
 are  occupied  in  studying  and  revising  some  of  the  lessons  of 
 the  week.  From  nine  to  ten  o'clock,  in  religious  reading,  aloud. 
 At  ten  they  go  to  service  in  the  parish  chapel,  attended  by  the 
 director  and  his  assistant.  Receive  moral  and  religious  in- 
 struction on  their  return  until  dinner  time.  After  dinner,  attend 
 the  evening  service,  and  then  take  a  walk.  In  the  evening, 
 assemble  for  conversation  on  pedagogical  subjects  and  for 
 prayers. 
 
 NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  THE  CANTON  OF  ZURICH  AT  KUSSNACHT, 
 NEAR  ZURICH. 
 
 The  eflbrts  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland,  since  1831,  to  ex- 
 tend the  benefits  of  popular  education,  have  been  great,  and 
 already,  to  a  certain  degree,  successful,  and  the  adoption  of  the 
 system  of  instructing  teachers  will  insure  rapid  progress  for  the 
 future.  This  system  has  been  commended  and  enforced  by 
 the  society  for  public  utility,  the  branches  of  which,  dispersed 
 over  the  cantons,  with  their  standing  committees,  and  the  gene- 
 ral meetings  of  the  society  in  diflferent  parts  of  the  confedera- 
 tion, give  it  great  influence  over  public  opinion.  At  its  last 
 meeting,  an  able,  and  I  believe  impartial,  report  upon  the  nor- 
 mal schools  was  read,  and  an  interesting  discussion,  productive 
 of  sound  views  on  the  subject,  was  elicited.  Of  the  primary 
 normal  schools  alrcadv  established,  I  visited  those  (»f  T.ausannc 
 
35G  UKiVERAL  EDrCATION'.       -SECONDARY   PEIIIOD. 
 
 tlie  school  for  t[ie  canton  of  \^aud,  Lucerne  for  the  canton  of 
 Lucerne,  Munchenbuchsee  for  Berne,  Kiissnacht  for  Zurich, 
 and  Kreutzlingen  for  Thurgovia.  Each  of  these  has  character- 
 istics adapting  it  to  its  location,  and  depending  upon  the  views 
 of  the  councils  of  education  of  the  cantons,  and  upon  those  of 
 the  directors.  Obliged  to  limit  myself  in  this  Report  to  a  spe- 
 cimen of  these  schools,  I  have  taken  the  seminary  of  Zurich, 
 and  the  establishments  connected  with  it,  for  description. 
 
 The  normal  school  at  Kiissnacht  is  about  a  league  from  the 
 town  of  Zurich,  and  the  buildings  are  prettily  situated  on  the 
 borders  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name.  This  institution  was 
 re-organized  in  183G,  though  the  modifications  made  have  been 
 rather  in  the  details  than  in  general  principles.  It  now  consists 
 of  a  school  for  teachers,  a  preparatory  school  for  this  seminary, 
 and  three  primary  model  schools.  It  is  intended  to  suppl}^ 
 teachers  for  the  diilcrcnt  grades  of  primary  schools  of  the  can- 
 ton, and  during  a  portion  of  the  year  lectures  are  also  delivered 
 in  the  seminary  to  the  older  teachers,  who  arc  assembled  for 
 that  purpose  in  their  vacations. 
 
 The  superintendence  and  control  of  the  normal  school  is 
 vested  by  the  legislative  council  in  the  council  of  education, 
 who  appoint  a  committee  of  superintendence  from  their  own 
 body.  This  committee  visits  the  school  at  least  once  a  month, 
 attends  its  examinations,  and,  in  general,  inspects  its  manage- 
 ment. The  executive  power  is  delegated  to  a  director,*  who 
 has  the  immediate  charge  of  the  school,  and  arranges  the 
 plan  of  instruction,  in  subordination  to  the  council  of  education. 
 JTo  examines  the  candidates  for  admission,  inspects  the  classes 
 of  the  seminary,  and  of  tlie  schools  attached  to  it,  and  lec- 
 tures in  the  school  of  repetition  for  the  older  teachers.  He  is 
 also  responsible  for  the  disci])line,  and  reports  halt' yearly  the 
 
 *  Mr.  Sclicrr,  a  very  remarkable  teacher.  Until  recently,  ]\Ir.  Schcrr  was  an 
 instructor  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  The  observation  rcciuired  in  this  department 
 of  instruction,  antl  the  newness  of  it,  by  which  it  has  not  dejrenernted  into  rou- 
 tine, rc(|uire  a  constant  exercise  of  the  intellect  of  the  teacher,  and  render  it  ini 
 excellent  preparation  for  one  who  wishes  to  improve  his  art. 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  ZURICH.  357 
 
 State  of  the  institution  to  tlic  council  of  education.  lie  is  more- 
 over present  at  the  meeting  of  the  committee  of  superinten- 
 dence. There  are  three  other  teaciiers,  besides  a  variable  num- 
 ber of  assistants.  These  teachers  in  turn  have  charge  of  the 
 pupils  of  the  normal  school  in  and  out  of  school-hours.  There 
 are  conferences  of  all  the  teachers,  at  which  the  director  pre- 
 sides. The  manners  of  the  people  and  the  purpose  of  the  semi- 
 nary render  the  discipline  of  very  trifling  amount.  The  pupils  of 
 the  normal  school  reside  in  the  village  of  Kiissnacht,  but  spend 
 the  greater  part  of  their  time  at  the  school,  under  the  direction 
 of  its  masters.  All  the  time  devoted  to  study,  recitation  or  lec- 
 ture, and  regular  exercise,  is  passed  there. 
 
 To  be  admitted  as  a  candidate  for  the  normal  school,  a  youth 
 must  be  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  of  suitable  moral,  intellectual, 
 and  physical  qualities  for  the  profession  of  a  teacher.  He  must 
 have  spent  two  years  in  the  higher  division  of  primary  instruc- 
 tion (called  here  secondary)  in  the  model  school,  or  some 
 equivalent  one,  or  have  passed  through  the  preparatory  depart- 
 ment of  the  normal  school,  which  gives  a  preference  to  the 
 candidate,  other  qualifications  being  equal.  The  examination 
 of  candidates  takes  place  once  a  year,  and  in  presence  of  the 
 committee  of  superintendence,  or  of  a  deputation  from  their 
 body.  The  formal  right  of  admitting  to  the  school  is,  however, 
 vested  alone  in  the  council  of  education.  The  subjects  of  ex- 
 amination are  Bible  history,  speaking  and  reading,  grammar, 
 the  elements  of  history,  geography  and  natural  philosophy, 
 arithmetic  and  the  elements  of  geometry,  writing,  drawing,  and 
 vocal  music.  The  council  of  education  fixes  the  number  of  pu- 
 pils who  may  be  admitted,  and  the  most  proficient  of  the  can- 
 didates are  selected.  There  are  forty  stipendiary  places,  ten  of 
 the  value  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  Swiss  francs  (forty-eight 
 dollars),  and  thirty  of  half  that  sum.  Natives  who  are  admitted 
 all  receive  their  instruction  gratis.  If  there  is  room  in  the 
 school,  foreigners  may  be  received,  paying  twelve  dollars  per 
 annum  for  their  instruction.  The  number  of  pupils  at  the  date 
 of  my  visit,  in  the  autumn  of  1837,  was  one  hundred  and  ten. 
 
3r>8  C.F.VEUAL   F.DUCATIO.V.       IT.I.MARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  Stipendiaries  arc  bound  lo  serve  as  teachers  in  the  canton 
 two  years;  a  very  moderate  return  for  the  education  received. 
 
 There  are  two  grades  of  courses  in  the  normal  school,  one 
 of  two  years  for  pupils  intending  to  become  teachers  in  the 
 lower  primary  schools,  the  other  of  three  years  for  the  higher 
 primary  schools.  The  courses  begin  in  April,  and  continue, 
 with  seven  weeks  of  vacation,  throughout  the  year.  The  sub- 
 jects of  instruction  are:  Religious  instruction,  German,  French, 
 mathematics,  history,  geography,  natural  history  and  philo- 
 sophy, pedagogy,  writing,  drawling,  and  vocal  and  instrumental 
 music.  French  is  only  obligatory  upon  the  students  of  the  three 
 years'  course.  Gymnastic  exercises  and  swimming  are  regu- 
 larly taught  and  practised. 
 
 There  are  three  classes,  corresponding  to  the  three  years  of 
 study.  The  courses  w^ere  distributed,  in  1837,  according  to  the 
 following  table: 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  ZURICH. 
 
 359 
 
 Tabic  of  the  distribution  of  the  lessons  in  the  Primary  Normal  School  of  Zurich. 
 
 SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY,  &c. 
 
 Religious  Instruction, 
 
 Mode  of  communicating  Religious  Instruction, 
 
 German  Language, 
 
 Elocution, 
 
 French  Language, 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History, ...-. 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Natural  History, 
 
 Natural  Philosophy, 
 
 Pedagogy, 
 
 Writing  or  Drawing, 
 
 Geometrical  Drawing, 
 
 Vocal  Music, 
 
 Gymnastics, 
 
 UOURS  PER  WEEK. 
 
 s| 
 
 J 
 
 "2 
 
 § 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 5* 
 
 5* 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 There  is,  besides,  a  lecture  of  an  hour  and  a-half  on  the  art 
 of  building,  once  a  week,  attended  by  all  the  students.  Those 
 who  learn  instrumental   music   have  lessons  two  hours  and 
 
 *  Or  individual  iiislrucliou  in  umsic. 
 
3G0  GENERAL  EDUCATIO.V.       PRIMARY  PERIOD. 
 
 a-Iiair  every  week,  and  two  hours  of  Sunday  are  occupied  willi 
 singing  in  concert.  One  of  the  teachers  devotes  two  extra 
 hours  every  week  to  the  assistance  of  sonic  of  tlie  pupils  in  their 
 studies,  or  to  repetitions. 
 
 At  the  close  of  each  year  there  is  a  public  examination,  and 
 the  pu})ils  are  classed  according  to  its  results.  On  leaving  the 
 institution,  they  are  arranged  in  three  grades,  tfic  first,  of  those 
 who  have  gone  very  satisfactorily  through  the  school,  the  se- 
 cond, of  those  who  have  passed  satisfactorily,  and  the  third,  of 
 those  who  have  not  come  up  to  the  standard.  Certificates  of 
 the  first  two  grades  entitle  their  holders  to  compete  for  any  va- 
 cant primary  school. 
 
 The  courses  of  practice  begin  in  the  second  year,  when  the 
 pupils  take  regular  part  in  the  exercises  of  the  schools  attached 
 to  the  seminary.  Tiiese  are,  first,  two  model  schools  for  chil- 
 dren from  the  ages  of  six  to  nine,  and  from  nine  to  twelve,  at 
 which   latter  acjc  the  leiral  oblij:^ation  to   attend   the  schools 
 
 O  CD  CD 
 
 ceases.  The  third,  called  a  secondary  school,  contains  pupils 
 from  twelve  to  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  system  of  instruction 
 used  in  the  lower  schools  is  attended  with  very  striking  results. 
 The  lessons  are  not  divided  into  distinct  branches,  studiously 
 kept  separate,  as  in  most  elementary  schools,  but  are  connected, 
 as  far  as  possible,  so  as  to  keep  the  diflerent  subjects  constantly 
 before  the  mind.  Thus,  a  lesson  of  geography  is,  at  the  same 
 time,  one  of  history,  and  incidentally  of  grammar,  natural  his- 
 tory, of  reading  and  writing,  and  so  on  through  the  circle  of 
 elementary  instruction.  Tlie  Pestalozzian  lessons  on  form  are 
 made  the  basis  of  writing,  and  with  good  success.  The  lowest 
 class  is  taught  to  speak  correctly,  and  to  spell  by  the  phonic 
 method,  to  divide  words  into  syllables,  and  thus  to  count.  To 
 number  the  lessons.  T(j  make  forms  and  combine  them,  and 
 thus  to  write,  and  through  writing  to  read.  The  second  passes 
 to  i)ractical  grammar,  continues  its  reading  and  writing,  the 
 lessons  in  which  arc  made  exercises  of  natural  history  and 
 grammar.  Ivoading  and  speaking  arc  combined  to  produce 
 accuracy  in  the  latter,  which  is  a  difliculty  where  the  language 
 has  been  corrupted  inlt.)  a  dialect,  as  the  CJerman  has  in  northern 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  ZURICH*  361 
 
 Switzerland.  Movable  letters  are  used  to  give  exercise  in 
 spelling  and  reading.  Tiie  plan  of  the  Pestalozzian  exercises 
 in  grammar  is  followed,  and  when  the  pupils  have  learned  to 
 write,  a  whole  class,  or  even  two  classes,  may  bo  kept  employed 
 intellectually,  as  well  as  mechanically,  by  one  teacher.  In 
 reading,  the  understanding  of  every  thing  read  is  insisted  upon, 
 and  the  class-books  are  graduated  accordingly.  I  never  saw 
 more  intelligence  and  readiness  displayed  by  children  than  in 
 all  these  exercises;  it  affords  a  strong  contrast  to  the  dulness  of 
 schools  in  which  they  are  taught  mechanically.  The  same 
 principles  are  carried  into  the  upper  classes,  and  are  transplanted 
 into  the  schools  by  the  young  teachers,  wdio  act  here  as  assist- 
 ants. The  examination  of  the  second  school  in  Bible  history, 
 with  its  connected  geography  and  grammar  lessons,  in  compo- 
 sition, with  special  reference  to  orthography  and  to  the  hand- 
 writing, and  the  music  lesson,  at  all  of  which  the  director  was 
 so  kind  as  to  enable  me  to  be  present,  were  highly  creditable. 
 
 There  are  three  classes  in  each  of  these  schools,  and  the  pu- 
 pils of  the  normal  seminary  practice  as  assistant  teachers  in 
 them  at  certain  periods ;  the  director  also  gives  lessons,  w^hich 
 the  pupils  of  the  seminary  repeat  in  bis  presence. 
 
 In  the  highest,  or  secondary  school,  the  elementary  courses 
 are  extended,  and  mathematics  and  French  are  added. 
 
 The  pupils  of  the  preparatory  department  of  the  seminary 
 spend  two  years  in  teaching  in  the  two  model  schools,  and  in 
 receiving  instruction  in  the  "  secondary  school,"  under  the 
 special  charge  of  the  director  of  the  seminary.  This  establish- 
 ment has  furnished,  during  three  years  of  full  activity,  two 
 hundred  teachers  to  the  cantonal  primary  schools.  These 
 young  teachers  replace  the  older  ones,  who  are  found  by  the 
 courses  of  repetition  not  able  to  come  up  to  the  present  state  of 
 instruction,  and  who  receive  a  retiring  pension.  The  schools 
 must  thus  be  rapidly  regenerated  throughout  the  canton,  and 
 the  education  of  the  people  raised  to  the  standard  of  their  wanty 
 as  republicans. 
 
 46 
 
3G2  GENERAL  EDUCATION.      SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER  X. 
 
 SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Secondary  instruction  occupies  the  j)lace  between  elementary 
 and  superior  instruction.  It  follows  the  attainments  which  arc 
 indispensable  to  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  precedes  the 
 special  studies  which  bear  more  or  less  upon  the  occupation  of 
 the  individual  in  future  life.  It  embraces  the  period  from  eight 
 or  ten  years  of  age  to  seventeen  or  nineteen,  as  the  ordinary 
 average  limits.  Viev^^ed  in  its  most  enlarged  sense,  this  instruc- 
 tion prepares  for  any  kind  of  special  studies  for  which  matured 
 intelligence  is  necessary,  for  the  higher  occupations  of  the  use- 
 ful arts,  as  well  as  for  the  learned  professions.  It  is  no  objec- 
 tion to  this  view  that  in  some  countries  there  are  no  public 
 schools  for  the  arts,  as  there  are  for  the  professions,  since  there 
 are  also  some  of  the  learned  professions  in  certain  countries 
 which  have  no  public  schools  set  apart  for  them,  but  which  are, 
 nevertheless,  avowedly  in  the  front  rank,  and  which  require,  as 
 an  introduction  to  their  studies,  a  thorough  secondary  training. 
 This  view  gives  rise  to  a  two-fold  division  of  the  subject — first, 
 secondary  instruction,  as  preparatory  to  the  professions  usually 
 designated  as  learned ;  second,  as  preparing  for  the  higher  prac- 
 tical occupations,  which  are  rising  rapidly  into,  or  have  taken 
 their  place  in  the  same  rank  with  the  professions.  I  leave  these 
 views  to  be  judged  of  by  the  facts  to  be  presented.  The  first  kind 
 of  secondary  instruction  is  to  be  met  with,  as  a  national  system, 
 in  most  countries  of  Europe,  while  in  others  it  is  supplied  by  in- 
 dividual enterprise,  and  by  independent  foundations  or  corpo- 
 rations. The  institutions  which  supply  this  instruction  in  a  more 
 or  less  perfect  form,  arc  designated  by  various  names.  The  class 
 is  composed  of  the  academies  and  grammar  schools,  some  of  the 
 colleges,  the  proprietary  and  certain  other  schools  of  England: 
 
SECONDARY  INSTRUCTIOPT.  363 
 
 the  colleges,  royal  and  communal  "  institutions,"  and  boarding- 
 schools  (pensions)  of  France;  the  Latin  schools  and  others  of 
 Holland;  the  colleges,  auditories,  and  gymnasia  of  Switzerland; 
 the  colleges  of  Italy,  and  the  gymnasia  of  the  German  states. 
 It  is  true,  that  in  some  of  these  schools,  especially  in  England 
 and  France,  elementary  instruction  is  given  as  well  as  se- 
 condary, but  this  is  generally  done  in  separate  departments  or 
 divisions.  It  is  also  true,  that  university  instruction  in  some 
 branches  is  merely  a  development  of  that  of  the  schools,  and  in 
 England,  especially,  as  viewed  in  one  light,  is  but  an  extension 
 of  secondary  instruction.  Nevertheless,  the  rule  is,  I  believe, 
 as  laid  down;  and  these  cases  must  be  considered  as  excep- 
 tions, which,  with  others,  tend  to  prevent  any  exact  classifi- 
 cation. The  second  kind  of  this  grade  of  instruction '  exists 
 in  its  most  advanced  state  in  Germany,  where  the  "real 
 schools,"  and  some  of  the  "trade  schools,"  prepare  pupils  for 
 the  polytechnic  institutions,  or  for  "trade  institutes,"  or  com- 
 mercial and  other  schools,  which  are  the  equivalents  of  the  uni- 
 versities. In  France,  it  is  by  no  means  supplied  by  the  primary 
 superior  schools,  which  are  not  real  substitutes  for  the  trade 
 schools  of  Germany,  while  the  higher  grade  of  special  instruc- 
 tion is  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and  the  pupil  must  seek  the 
 required  preparation  in  estabhshments  intended  for  other  pur- 
 poses, or  by  private  study,  or  in  the  higher  institutions  them- 
 selves. In  England,  the  recent  introduction  of  courses  for  civil 
 engineers  into  the  University  of  Durham,  and  into  London  Uni- 
 versity and  King's  Colleges,  is  an  earnest  that  the  preparatory 
 grade  of  schools  will,  in  due  time,  also  be  provided. 
 
 There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  scope  and  nature  of  the  Gi- 
 rard  College  require  us  to  embrace  both  these  grades  of  second- 
 ary instruction,  while  our  strength  should  be  applied  to  the  lat- 
 ter, and  will  require  to  be  so  much  more  vigorously  exerted, 
 as  the  materials  which  we  can  derive  from  experience  are 
 much  less  complete  than  in  the  former  division.  In  making  a 
 selection  from  these  materials,  I  shall,  as  in  treating  the  other 
 divisions  of  my  subject,  ofler  such  comments  upon  them,  in  con- 
 nexion with  the  descriptions,  as  may  seem  necessary,  and  from 
 
364  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECOXDARy  PERIOD. 
 
 these  comments,  and  the  comparison  of  diflcrent  institutions  in 
 the  same  country,  and  of  secondary  instruction  in  dillercnt 
 countries,  show  not  only  the  grounds  of  my  own  opinions,  but 
 enable  the  trustees  to  judge  how  far  they  are  founded  in  reason 
 and  in  fact. 
 
 The  great  number  of  institutions  for  preparation  for  the  pro- 
 fessions which,  in  a  tour  like  that  directed  by  the  trustees  of 
 the  Girard  College,  would  necessarily  be  visited,  renders  an 
 account  of  this  branch  difficult,  from  the  abundance  of  matter 
 collected.  With  real  regret  at  the  necessity  for  omitting  ac- 
 counts of  interesting  establishments,  I  have  concluded  to  limit 
 this  notice  to  those  of  Scotland  and  England,  from  which  those 
 of  our  own  country  are  principally  derived,  and  to  those  of 
 France  and  of  Prussia.  In  so  doing,  though  I  am  obliged  to  pass 
 over  the  institutions  of  countries  such  as  Switzerland,  Halland, 
 and  the  German  states,  which  I  visited  with  great  interest,  and, 
 I  trust,  not  without  profit,  yet  I  fear  that,  even  with  these  omis- 
 sions, my  Report  will  be  extended  beyond  its  due  limits. 
 
 Of  the  objects  of  sound  education,  namely,  intellectual,  moral, 
 and  physical  development,  the  first  two  occupy,  in  general,  near- 
 ly exclusive  attention,  the  last  being  left  to  regulate  itself,  and  in 
 some  cases  being  even  interfered  with  by  the  means  taken  to 
 encourage  the  former;  a  growing  attention,  however,  to  this 
 branch,  at  least  so  far  as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  physical  man, 
 gives  promise  of  a  reform  in  this  particular.  The  materials  for 
 the  secondary  instruction  abroad,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  in- 
 tellectual and  moral  education  leading  to  the  learned  professions, 
 are  selected  from  among  the  following:  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
 Hebrew  lann-uaixcs,  the  vernacular  and  other  modern  lanfruaires, 
 mathematics,  ])hysics,  chemistry,  the  natural  sciences,  geogra- 
 phy, history,  moral  and  mental  science,  religious  instruction, 
 and  the  arts.  The  selection  from  these  varies  from  the  ultra 
 schemes,  on  one  side,  which  would  confine  youth  to  the  study 
 of  the  ancient  languages,  witii  a  small  proportion  of  the  verna- 
 cular, and  of  geograpiiy,  history,  and  religion,  to  the  opjiosite 
 extreme,  which,  witiiout,  perhaps,  actually  excluding  the  ancient 
 languages,  would  so  far  restrict  the  study  of  them,  as  to  reduce 
 
SECONDARY  IJTSTRUCTION  IN  GREAT  I3RITAIN.  365 
 
 them  to  comparative  inefficiency  as  a  means  of  mental  train- 
 ing. Between  these  extremes  there  exists,  as  will  be  shown, 
 a  variety  of  plans  of  instruction,  each  one  recommending  itself 
 to  some  particular  constitution  of  mind,  and  in  the  results  of 
 some  of  which  close  observation  has  failed  to  detect  differences 
 which  would  induce  a  very  decided  preference  for  one  or  the 
 other. 
 
 The  question  of  the  uses  and  abuses  of  classical  and  scientific 
 instruction  has  been  held  up  in  almost  all  possible  lights,  in  the 
 keen  strife  which  has  arisen  for  the  possession  of  the  secondary 
 schools,  and  it  will  be  my  object  in  this  Report  to  add  to  this 
 body  of  argument  for  the  trustees,  that  of  facts  and  results,  pro- 
 duced by  the  gradual  development  of  public  opinion  in  the 
 countries  w^hich  wdll  be  under  consideration. 
 
 The  secondary  and  higher  departments  of  instruction  were 
 the  first  organized  in  the  progress  of  civilization,  while  popular 
 primary  instruction  has  come  into  being  under  the  impulse  of 
 modern  improvement.  Hence,  while  modifications  in  the  latter 
 have  been  easy,  the  former  departments  have  presented  fixed 
 systems,  in  which  even  improvement  must  make  its  way 
 against  the  odium  usually  attaching  to  innovation, 
 
 SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 
 
 There  being  no  general  system  of  secondary  instruction  in 
 Great  Britain,  this  account  resolves  itself,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
 primary  schools,  to  a  description  of  particular  institutions, 
 which  may  be  considered  as  types  of  the  class  to  which  they 
 belong.  On  account  of  the  absence  of  system,  more  time  is 
 consumed,  both  in  actual  examination  and  in  description,  than 
 is  required  in  countries  where  the  schools  are  organized  accord- 
 ing to  a  general  plan.  There,  a  few  schools  give  a  complete 
 idea  of  all  the  variations  which  the  system  allows,  while  liere, 
 the  number  of  special  cases  must  be  multiplied  according  to 
 the  variety  in  the  ideas  of  individuals,  or  associations,  who  have 
 the  charge  of  secondary  institutions. 
 
 In  England  there  is  a  large  amount  of  endowment  for  schools, 
 in  which  secondary  instruction,  leading  to  the  universities  and 
 
3GG  GENERAL  EDUCATION.      SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 professions,  is  given,  or,  rather,  \vhicli  has  hitherto  been  ap- 
 pHed,  ahnost  exclusively,  to  that  purpose.  The  second  divi- 
 sion of  this  grade  is  left  mainly  to  private  establishments  and 
 associations.  In  Manchester  and  Birmingham,  however,  the 
 trustees  of  the  endowed  grammar  schools  have  recently  deter- 
 mined to  embrace  both  objects  in  their  courses,  and  thus  to 
 satisfy  the  wants  of  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  population 
 of  those  cities  for  wdiose  benefit  the  schools  were  endow^ed, 
 when  the  necessities  of  the  community,  in  regard  to  education, 
 were  very  different  from  what  they  are  now. 
 
 In  England,  secondary  instruction  for  boys  is  given  in  the 
 public  grammar  schools,  which  are  endowed,  and  educate,* 
 gratuitously,  certain  classes  of  students,  in  the  preparatory 
 schools  erected  by  associations,  and  modelled  according  to  the 
 views  of  the  committees  or  proprietors,  and  in  private  schools, 
 which  are  numerous  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Some  of  the 
 grammar  schools,  such  as  Eton,  Winchester,  and  Westminster, 
 are  styled  colleges.  In  many  of  these  institutions,  the  elemen- 
 tary period,  as  well  as  the  proper  secondary,  is  embraced. 
 
 In  Scotland,  the  title  of  academy,  high-school,  or  college,  is 
 applied  to  similar  establishments ;  and  in  Ireland,  that  of  aca- 
 demy, academical  institution,  &c.  There  are  very  striking 
 differences  between  the  university  systems  of  England  and 
 Scotland,  which  tend  to  impress  corresponding  differences  of 
 organization  on  the  schools  which  serve  as  feeders  to  them. 
 
 While  the  subjects  composing  the  courses  of  the  secondary 
 schools  of  Great  Britain  are  not,  in  general,  very  dilTcrcnt,  the 
 proportions  in  which  they  enter  vary  exceedingly.  The  English 
 language,  Latin  and  Greek,  one  of  the  modern  foreign  languages, 
 history,  geography,  mathematics,  and  writing,  are  to  be  found  in 
 most  of  the  programmes,  and  to  these  are  added,  in  some,  natural 
 philosophy  and  chemistry,  natural  history,  drawing,  and  music. 
 In  some  systems,  the  ancient  languages  are  relied  on  almost 
 exclusively  for  mental  culture,  and  English,  with  a  little  mathe- 
 
 •  Carlisle  describes  four  hundred  and  scvcnly-fivo  institutions  in  iiis  work 
 entitled  "A  Concise  Description  of  the  Endowed  Crammar  Schools  of  England 
 and  Wales,"  ^c.     London,  isjR. 
 
SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.  3G7 
 
 matics,  history  and  geography,  are  admitted  into  the  course; 
 in  others,  the  French  is  introduced,  and  tiie  branches  subordinate 
 to  the  classics  are  raised  somewhat  in  importance;  in  others, 
 the  modern  languages,  mathematics,  and  a  knowledge  of  nature, 
 are  made  prominent,  the  classics  and  English  being,  however, 
 the  basis  of  instruction;  in  others,  the  leading  principle  of  or- 
 ganization appears  to  be  to  restrict  the  instruction  in  the  dead 
 languages,  as  far  as  may  be  done  consistently  with  giving  a 
 sufficient  knowledge  of  them  for  future  use,  with  a  view  to 
 dwell  especially  upon  the  modern  languages  and  the  sciences. 
 There  are  instructive  examples  of  all  these  classes  of  secondary 
 schools  in  Great  Britain,  and  of  many  varieties  between  them, 
 specimens  of  some  of  which  I  shall  endeavour  to  select.  In 
 weighing  the  advantages  of  the  several  plans  of  education,  it 
 would  be  exceedingly  satisfactory  could  the  data  be  obtained  for 
 following,  in  life,  so  many  of  the  pupils  from  establishments  of 
 the  different  kinds,  as  to  form  an  average  estimate  of  the  results 
 which  each  can  produce.  In  the  absence  of  these  conclusive 
 documents,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  which  is  too  obvious  to 
 need  pointing  out,  I  have  endeavoured  to  procure  such  general 
 information  as  was  possible  of  the  results  of  the  systems,  to 
 state  fairly  where  this  information  is  defective^  and  to  supply 
 the  deficiency,  as  far  as  practicable,  by  general  reasoning. 
 
 Information  in  regard  to  the  results  of  plans  for  moral  and 
 physical  education  is  chiefly  to  be  sought  in  schools  in  which 
 the  pupils  live,  as  well  as  receive  instruction.  These  afford, 
 especially  in  their  government  and  discipline,  varieties  not  less 
 marked  than  those  in  the  plans  of  instruction  themselves.  I 
 shall,  therefore,  introduce  notices  of  some  of  these  schools,  with 
 a  special  view  to  these  characteristic  differences. 
 
 It  is  impossible  to  look  with  an  unprejudiced  eye  upon  the 
 present  state  of  secondary  instruction  preparatory  to  the  uni- 
 versities in  Great  Britain,  and  to  compare  it  with  what  is  record- 
 ed of  its  former  condition,  without  perceiving  that  it  has  slowly 
 changed  for  the  better.*     It  is  in  fact  even  now  changing. 
 
 *  Improvements  will  probably  become  more  rapid  under  the  cnlig-Jitcned  re- 
 gulations of  the  London  University,  recently  established  by  act  of  parliament. 
 
3G8  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  other  great  branch  of  secondary  education  for  the  liigher 
 occupations,  for  commerce,  the  arts  and  trades,  will,  I  have  no 
 doubt,  be  efTiciently  introduced  before  many  years.  In  fact,  the 
 steps  taken  by  the  University  of  Durham,  by  King's  College,  and 
 by  the  London  University  College,  for  introducing  courses  of 
 civil  engineering,  constitute  an  important  era  in  this  grade  of 
 i)ublic  instruction. 
 
 In  giving  an  account  of  the  secondary  schools,  I  shall  begin 
 with  those  of  Scotland  and  of  the  north  of  Ireland,  which  are 
 closely  connected  w^ith  them,  then  proceed  to  the  i)ublic  schools 
 of  England,  and  finish  by  the  private  schools  of  the  same 
 country.  For  reasons  before  stated,  when  speaking  of  the 
 materials  of  instruction,  and  for  others  which  will  appear  in 
 the  notices  of  the  schools,  I  have  selected  the  following  for 
 description:  in  Scotland,  the  Edinburgh  Academy  and  the 
 Glasgow  High  School,  both  public  institutions,  and  the  Hill- 
 street  Institute  of  Edinburgh,  a  private  school ;  in  Ireland,  the 
 Belfast  Academy  and  academical  department  of  the  Belfast 
 Institution;  in  England,  the  grammar  schools  of  Rugby  and 
 Harrow,  and  the  private  schools  of  St.  Domingo  House,  near 
 Liverpool,  and  of  Bruce  Castle,  near  London. 
 
 EDINBURGH  ACADEMY. 
 
 Edinburgh  has  two  public  classical  schools,  which  are  quite 
 celebrated,  the  High  School  and  the  Academy.  The  latter, 
 which  I  visited  under  circumstances  more  favourable  to  the 
 understanding  of  its  arrangements,  may  serve  as  the  type  of 
 both.  With  this  I  shall  compare  the  Glasgow  High  School, 
 and  the  Belfast  Academy  and  Academical  Institution. 
 
 The  Edinburgh  Academy  was  founded  in  IS^Jl,  to  supply 
 the  demand  produced  by  the  increase  of  the  population  and  extent 
 of  the  city  of  Edinburgh.  It  seems  also  to  have  been  an  object 
 with  the  founders  to  require  more  thorough  teaching  in  the 
 branches  of  an  English  education,  than  was  then  the  case  in 
 classical  schools  generally.     Their  choice  of  a  rector*  shows, 
 
 *  Tlic  venerable  AicliUeacoii  William,  mi  OaIuicI  bcliokr. 
 
EDINBURGH   ACADEMY.  369 
 
 however,  that  there  was  no  design  to  diminish  the  amount  of 
 attention  paid  to  the  ancient  languages. 
 
 The  government  of  the  academy  is  vested  in  a  board  of 
 directors,  who  manage  the  concerns  of  the  institution  generally. 
 They  are  elected  by  the  proprietors,  who  meet  annually  for 
 this  purpose,  three  of  them  retiring  each  year.  The  special 
 superintendence  of  the  school  is  delegated  to  the  rector,  who 
 is  also  head  master,  and  gives  instruction  in  the  two  higher 
 classes.  He  is  expected  to  visit  the  rooms  of  the  different 
 masters,  devoting  at  least  two  hours  per  week  to  this  duty. 
 Indeed,  the  directors  have  found  it  to  the  advantage  of  the  in- 
 stitution to  free  him  as  much  as  possible  from  teaching,  that  he 
 may  give  more  of  his  time  to  the  superintendence  of  the  other 
 teachers. 
 
 There  are  four  masters  beside  the  rector,  and,  in  addition,  a 
 special  teacher  of  English,  one  of  mathematics,  one  of  writing, 
 and  one  of  French.  Each  regular  master  has  charge,  on  the 
 average,  of  about  forty-nine  pupils,  giving  them  instruction 
 principally  in  Latin,  Greek,  geography,  history,  and  English. 
 
 The  writing-master  has  also  charge  of  the  younger  classes 
 in  arithmetic,  and  teaches  book-keeping.  The  whole  school, 
 however,  is  divided  into  seven  classes,  the  three  higher  of 
 which  are  taught  the  classics  by  the  rector,  with  one  of  the 
 regular  masters  as  an  assistant  for  each  class. 
 
 It  is  required  of  pupils  admitted  to  this  academy  that  they 
 have  completed  their  elementary  studies,  and  are  prepared  to 
 begin  the  ancient  languages.  They  are  from  seven  to  nine 
 years  of  age,  and  must  have  attainments  equal  to  those  of  the 
 highest  boys'  class  of  the  Circus  Place  school,  already  described. 
 The  number  of  pupils  in  1835  was  three  hundred  and  forty-four. 
 
 The  following  were  the  courses  taught  in  1835  and  1836,  with 
 the  distribution  of  them  among  the  seven  classes. 
 
 FIRST  CLASS. 
 
 Latin.     Rudiments  willi  the  rules  of  syntax,  and  vocabulary  of  conjugated 
 verbn.     Delectus  conuncnccd.     Grammatical  exercises  commenced. 
 
 Geography.     Outlines  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  with  the  par- 
 ticular geography  of  England  and  Scotland 
 47 
 
870  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 HisTonr.    Simpson's  History  of  Scotland. 
 
 ScniPTuiiE  BioGiiAPHY,  Commenced. 
 
 Recitation  of  poetry. 
 
 AniTiiMETic.     Four  ground  rules.     Reduction,  compound  addition,  Sec. 
 
 SECOND  CLASS. 
 
 Latin.  Rudiments  revised.     Irrcjrular  verbs  and  rules  for  genders  of  nouns. 
 
 Delectus  and  grammatical  exercises  continued. 
 GEOGBAPnY.    Portugal,  Spain,  PVance,  Holland,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Italy, 
 
 Austria,  the  smaller  German  states,  Prussia,  and  Denmark. 
 History.  Simpson''s  History  of  England,  commenced. 
 Scripture  Biography  and  Recitation,  continued. 
 
 Arithmetic,  continued  through  compound  addition,  &:c.  Reduction  of  weights 
 and  measures,  vulgar  fractions,  the  ground  rules. 
 
 THIRD  CLASS. 
 
 Latin.  Crt'sar,  Books  1st  and  2d,  Gallic  war.  Electa  ex  Ovidio.  Grammatical 
 exercises.  Rudiments,  with  the  Latin  rules  for  the  genders  of  nouns  and 
 prosody.    Third  book  of  the  Gallic  war  read  by  the  highest  thirty  pupils. 
 
 Greek.  Rudiments  through  the  verb.     Extracts. 
 
 Geography.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  Russia,  Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia, 
 Arabia,  Persia,  Ilindostan,  Eastern  Peninsula,  China,  Thibet,  Tar- 
 tary,  Russia  in  Asia,  and  Asiatic  Islands. 
 
 History.  Simpson's  Roman  History. 
 
 Scripture  Biography  and  Recitations,  continued. 
 
 Arithmetic.  Revision,  througli  simple  proportions. 
 
 FOURTH  CLASS. 
 
 Latin.  Virgil,  1st  eclogue.     iEneid,  1st  and  2d  books.    Sallust. 
 Mair's  Introduction,  commenced. 
 
 Rudiments,  with  rules  for  gender  and  prosody.     Written  exercises,  in 
 prose  and  verse. 
 
 Greek.  Extracts.     Rudiments,  revised.     (Two  divisions  of  Ihc  class  in  une- 
 qual progress.) 
 
 Geography.  Modern  Geography,  completed. 
 
 History.  Simpson's  History  of  Greece. 
 
 ScRiPTuiiE  BiofjRAPiiv,  AND  RECITATIONS,  continucd. 
 
 Arithmetic  Practice.     Simple    and    compound    proportions.      Interest.     Dis- 
 count.    Partnership.     Profit  and  loss.     Fractions. 
 
 FIFTH  CLASS. 
 Latin.  Virgil.  iEncid,  2d  book    and  Gth  eclogue.     Horace's  Odes,  1st  and 
 2d  books.     Livy,  part  of  21st    book.     Introduction  and  rudiments, 
 continucd. 
 Greek.  Xenophon's  Anabasis,    1st  book   and  part  of  2d.     Homer's  Ihad,  1st 
 book.      Dunhar's  Introduction.     Creek  Testament.     St.  Joiin.     Creek 
 rudiments,  revised.     Exercises,  in  prose  and  verse. 
 
EDINBURGH  ACADEMY.  871 
 
 Geography.  Modern  Europe,  revised.     Roman  Empire. 
 
 English.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  read.     Elementary  Science. 
 
 Arithmetic.  Revision.     Vulgar  and  decimal  fractions;  duodecimals,  square 
 
 and  cube  root. 
 Geometry.  Euclid,  book  1st. 
 
 SIXTH  CLASS. 
 
 Latin.  Horace's  Odes,  books  3d  and  4th.      Virgil,  2d  antf  4th  Qeorgics. 
 Livy,  21st  book,  completed.     Part  of  22d  book.     Exercises. 
 
 Greek.  SandforcVs  Homeric  Exercises,  Part  2d,  Homer's  Iliad,  2d  book. 
 Xenophoii's  Anabasis,  4th  and  5th  books.  Sophocles'  (Edipus  Tyran- 
 nus.     Greek  Testament,  St.  Mark.     Exercises,  in  prose  and  verse. 
 
 Geography.  Greece,  Macedonia,  Thrace,  Grecian  Islands. 
 
 English.   Campbell's  Pleasures  of  Hope.     Tragedies  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Co- 
 riolanus.     Irving's  Elements  of  English  Composition. 
 
 Arithmetic.  Revised. 
 
 Geometry.  Euclid,  1st  four  books. 
 
 Algebra,  to  Quadratic  Equations. 
 
 French.  Levizac's  Grammar.     Cours  de  Litterature. 
 
 SEVENTH  CLASS. 
 
 Latin.  Horace's  Epistles  and  Ars  Poetica.     Cicero,  Selected  Orations,  &c. 
 Terence,  the  Adelphi.      Tacitus,  Germany  and  Agricola.      Adams' 
 Antiquities. 
 Greek.  Homer,  9th  book  of  Iliad.     Sophocles,  Antigone.     Part  of  Herodotus.- 
 
 Exercises. 
 Geometry.    Euclid,    six    books.     Trigonometry.     Surveying.     Navigation. 
 
 Mensuration.     Algebra. 
 French.  Levizac's  Grammar.     Cowper's   Letters,    translated    into   French. 
 Cours  de  Litterature.     Fables.     Tragedies  of  Cinna,  Iphigenia,  and 
 Zaire. 
 
 The  Bible  is  read  for  an  hour  every  Monday  morning,  and 
 the  school  is  opened  with  prayer.  The  following  table,  com- 
 piled from  the  report  of  the  rector  to  the  directors  of  the 
 academy  in  1836,  gives — though  not  so  definitely  as  might 
 be  desired — an  idea  of  the  proportion  of  time  allotted  to  differ- 
 ent objects  of  study. 
 
372 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Distribution  of  lime  in  the  prinripal  departments  of  study  in  llic  Edinburgh 
 
 Academy. 
 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 OP 
 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 NU.MBKR  OF 
 
 HOURS 
 
 PKR   WEKK. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 'in 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 ■5 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 O 
 
 § 
 
 u 
 
 m  CO 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 Latin  and  Greek,  -     - 
 
 18* 
 
 15t 
 
 18At 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 14i§ 
 
 117 
 
 English,||      .... 
 
 •1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 Gi^^ 
 
 25 
 
 Freneli, 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 Arithmetic  &  Geometry, 
 
 G 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3** 
 
 30 
 
 Natural  Philosophy,    - 
 
 n 
 
 .T 
 
 Scripture  Biography, 
 
 .T 
 
 li 
 
 Geography,  .... 
 
 o 
 
 1.' 
 
 li 
 
 «.} 
 
 Writing, 
 
 Total,     - 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3tt 
 
 IG 
 
 30 
 
 ^>9 
 
 30^ 
 
 29^ 
 
 303 
 
 28i 
 
 The  general  system  of  teaching  is  that  usual  in  the  English 
 and  Scottish  schools.  Text-books  are  multiplied,  and  the  pupils 
 come  to  the  institution  mainly  to  be  examined  on  the  lessons  learn- 
 ed out  of  it.  The  lower  portion  of  a  class,  however,  probably 
 obtain  the  greater  part  of  their  knowledge  by  the  drilling  which 
 lakes  place  in  the  recitation.     The  extent  of  this  drilling,  and 
 
 *  Includes  geography  and  composition. 
 
 t  Includes  composition. 
 
 t  Besides  geograpliy. 
 
 §  Latin  alone. 
 
 II   Liclndc's  history. 
 
 ^  Includes  Scripture  Biography  and  spelling. 
 
 *•  Arilhiiictic  and  writing  are  tf)gether  set  down  at  six. 
 
 +t  Writinjr  and  arithmetic,  hI.x  liours. 
 
 tt  In  forming  the  total,  the  nunibers  of  tiie  sixth  column  have  been  doubled. 
 
EDINBURGH  ACADEMV.  373 
 
 amount  of  extra  information  communicated,  depend  upon  the 
 master,  and  upon  the  character  of  the  course.  For  example, 
 in  the  rector's  class  I  heard  an  excellent  extemporaneous  lec- 
 ture, or  conversation,  on  ancient  geography,  introduced  during 
 a  recitation  upon  a  lesson  in  Livy,  and  these  occasions  are 
 always  rendered  available  by  collections  of  maps  and  models 
 which  belong  to  the  academy.  The  system  is,  however,  essen- 
 tially one  of  recitations  of  fixed  portions  of  a  text-book,  the 
 book,  and  not  the  teacher,  being  looked  to  as  the  principal 
 source  of  information.  In  arithmetic  the  black-board  is  much 
 used,  and  the  English  department  has  the  advantage  of  the 
 superintendence  of  Sheriff  Wood,  one  of  the  directors,  and  will, 
 I  doubt  not,  come,  in  the  end,  to  be  more  appreciated  than  at 
 present. 
 
 The  stimulants  to  exertion  are,  besides  the  approbation  of 
 the  teacher,  changes  of  place  in  the  classes  during  the  daily 
 recitation,  places  at  the  end  of  the  session,  and  public  examina- 
 tions, with  the  award  of  prizes.  A  register  is  made  at  inter- 
 vals of  the  places  of  the  pupils,  and  the  result  of  its  summa- 
 tion determines  the  standing  of  the  individual  at  the  close  of 
 the  session.  Recently,  the  practice  of  examining  in  writing  has 
 been  introduced  in  the  seventh  or  highest  class,  in  addition  to 
 the  usual  viva  voce  method.  Questions  previously  prepared  by 
 examiners  not  connected  with  the  academy,  on  the  different 
 subjects  of  study,  were  placed  before  the  class  to  be  answered, 
 and  the  result  is  stated  to  have  been  satisfactory.  This  excel- 
 lent method  is  adopted  from  the  English  universities. 
 
 In  order  to  show  the  results  of  the  system  of  education  in 
 a  particular  school,  it  is  usual  to  have  recourse  to  the  arbitrary 
 standard  of  the  success  of  certain  pupils  in  higher  institutions. 
 Average  success  in  after  life  would  afford  some  test  of  the  va- 
 lue of  the  education,  but  that  of  a  few  distinguished  individuals 
 proves  chielly  that  men  of  superior  intolHgence  have  at  some 
 time  or  other  been  connected  with  the  school,  and  that  tlicy 
 have  not  lost  their  powers  by  the  course,  without  showing  that 
 their  education  has  been  the  best  possible.  When,  instead  of 
 considering  general  success  in  life,  the  more  limited  standard 
 
374  GENERAL  EDUCATIOfT.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 of  success  in  a  higher  institution  is  assunficd,  then  it  shows 
 rather  the  adaptation  of  the  lower  education  to  the  higher,  than 
 that  the  lower  is  good  in  itself.  Tiie  test  is,  therefore,  essen- 
 tially defective,  but,  by  extending  the  comparison  to  the  ca- 
 reer of  many  pupils,  in  a  number  of  institutions,  each  of  a  dif- 
 ferent scope,  it  becomes  of  some  value. 
 
 The  cases  presented  by  the  directors  of  the  Edinburgh 
 Academy,  in  their  reports  for  1835  and  1836,  as  tests  of  the 
 condition  of  the  institution,  apjicar  to  me  too  few  to  give  a  cor- 
 rect notion  of  the  average  success  of  pupils  for  cither  of  these 
 years,  the  greatest  number  of  pupils  spoken  of,  from  any  one 
 class,  being  eight,  or  but  about  one-sixth  of  the  class.  The 
 number  of  higher  institutions  in  which  they  have  gained  honors 
 is,  however,  more  satisfactory  than  the  number  of  cases,  em- 
 bracing the  Universities  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Cambridge, 
 Oxford  and  Dublin,  the  London  University  and  Haylebury 
 Colleges,  and  the  Military  School  at  Sandhurst.  The  number 
 of  diflerent  departments  in  which  they  have  gained  distinction 
 is  also  quite  satisfactory,  and  the  inference,  on  the  whole,  is 
 certainly  favourable  to  the  intellectual  development  which  may 
 be  obtained  at  this  institution. 
 
 The  discipline  of  the  school  is  generally  mild,  and  there  is  an 
 eflbrt  made  to  bring  the  influence  of  the  parents  to  bear  upon 
 the  progress  and  general  deportment  of  the  child. 
 
 HIGH  SCHOOL  OF  GLASGOW. 
 
 Having  described  the  Edinburgh  Academy  somewhat  mi- 
 nutely, I  shall  confine  myself,  in  the  notice  of  the  High  School 
 of  Glasgow,  chieily  to  the  peculiarities  of  arrangement  in  the 
 latter,  which  result  from  certain  differences  in  the  objects  of  the 
 two  schools.  Though  the  High  School  of  Glasgow  stands  in 
 the  same  relation  to  the  university  of  that  city  as  the  academy 
 does  to  that  of  Edinburgh,  and,  indeed,  is  more  intimately  con- 
 nected with  it,  the  former  institution  has  also  other  objects, 
 namely,  to  aflbrd  elementary  instruction,  and  to  educate  youth 
 for  the  pursuits  of  commerce,  manufactures,  and  the  arts.  The 
 iiigh   scho(»i  has  separate  courses  of  English,  classics,  matlie- 
 
EDINBURGH  ACADEMY.  875 
 
 matics,  writing,  and  drawing,  any  one  of  which  may  be  fol- 
 lowed alone,  or  several  at  a  time.  The  hours  of  recitation  are 
 so  arranged  as  to  admit,  as  far  as  possible,  that  a  pupil  may 
 pursue  those  courses  which  it  is  thought  should  be  simultaneous. 
 In  the  academy,  as  has  been  seen,  the  course  is  indivisible,  and 
 all  its  branches  must  be  pursued  by  the  student.  The  principle 
 of  equality  among  the  teachers  is  carried  out  so  impartially  at 
 the  high  school,  that  as  two  classical  masters  are  required  for 
 the  number  of  pupils  who  pursue  that  course,  those  who  enter 
 each  alternate  year  constitute  the  class  of  its  two  masters  re- 
 spectively. The  plan  of  organization  is  attended  with  the  defect 
 of  want  of  uniformity  in  methods,  and  of  adaptation  to  each 
 other  in  the  several  departments,  but  it  has  the  advantage  of 
 enabling  pupils  who  are  intended  for  different  pursuits  in  life  to 
 follow  the  studies  most  appropriate  to  them,  and  thus  supplies, 
 in  part,  the  place  of  the  two  establishments  of  Germany,  the 
 gymnasium  and  the  real  school.  The  future  merchant,  manu- 
 facturer, and  mechanic,  may  pursue  together  the  courses  of 
 English,  French,  mathematics,  drawing,  and  chemistry;  the 
 first  may  continue  French  and  enter  the  commercial  school, 
 the  second,  mathematics  and  drawing,  and  enter  the  same 
 school,  while  the  third  continues  mathematics,  drawing,  and 
 chemistry.  This  arrangement  of  the  school  adapts  it  to  the 
 wants  of  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  city,  though  I  am 
 satisfied  that  two  schools,  each  with  a  fixed  course  of  instruc- 
 tion, would  answer  the  end  proposed  much  better. 
 
 The  classical  depaiiment  prepares  for  the  University  of  Glas- 
 gow, and  as  pupils  may  enter  there  at  an  early  age,  and  require 
 no  very  advanced  attainments  for  admission,  the  studies  of  this 
 school  are  comparatively  elementary.  The  course  lasts  four 
 years,  and  a  private  class  may  be  followed  for  a  fifth,  by  those 
 who  do  not  intend  to  pursue  an  academical  career,  or  who  wish 
 to  begin  it  better  prepared  than  is  usual.  Greek  is  begun  in  the 
 third  year. 
 
 The  English  department  answers  two  purposes;  it  prepares 
 very  young  pupils  for  the  other  classes,  and  it  carries  forward 
 
370  CKXERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 the  more  a<lvanccd  through  tiic  higher  courses  of  grammar, 
 loiiric,  and  belles  Icttrcs. 
 
 This  admirable  course  may  be  thus  arranged,  according  to 
 the  subjects: 
 
 I.  ALniABET  Class.  Rcadinj^  and  spcllin"^  taufjlit.  Lessons  on  objects.  Class 
 books.  Wood's  Elementary  Books.     Elliot's  Natural  History. 
 
 II.  E.NnLisH  Reading  Class.  Bible  tcacliinjr  and  traiuini(  as  the  foundation  of 
 moral  and  reli^-ious  knovvledi^c.  Rcadin/rs  in  Bio;:rrnpliy,  Natural,  and  Civil  His- 
 tory, Elementary  Science,  t^c.  Grammar  for  beginners.  Spcllinfr,  meaninjj,  and 
 derivation  of  words.  Class  books.  The  Bible,  Companion  to  the  Bible,  Wood's 
 Instructive  Extracts,  First  Grammar,  English  Etymologist. 
 
 III.  English  Reading  Class.  Lessons  in  Natural  History,  Manufactures, 
 &c.  illustrated  by  specimens  and  experiments.  Grammar  incidentally.  Spelling 
 orally  and  by  dictation.  Elements  of  composition  by  weekly  practice  in  letter 
 writing.  Class  books.  Book  of  Trades,  English  Etymologist,  Parley's  Natural 
 History. 
 
 IV.  History  Class.  Familiar  Lectures,  Ancient  History  and  Biography, 
 Modern  History. 
 
 V.  Readings  from  the  British  Classics.  Grammar  and  composition.  Recita- 
 tions. 
 
 VI.  Grammar.  Science  and  art  of  grammar.  Pronunciation.  Orthography, 
 by  dictation.  Derivation  of  words.  Synonyms.  Punctuation.  Composition. 
 Practice  in  letter  writing,  and  in  the  analysis  of  narrative  and  descriptive  pieces. 
 Class  books.  M'Culloch's  Grammar.  Booth's  or  Irvine's  Composition.  Carpen- 
 ter's Synonyms. 
 
 VII.  Higher  parts  of  Grammar.  General  Grammar.  Outlines  of  Logic, 
 with  exercises  in  composition.  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres, 
 English  Literature.  Class  books.  Crombie's  Etymology  and  Syntax.  Dun- 
 can's Logic,  or  Abridgment  of  Whately's  Logic.  Abridgment  of  Blair's  Lec- 
 tures. 
 
 Each  of  these  classes  has,  in  general,  one  hour  of  recita- 
 tion every  day,  but  the  more  advanced  pupils  attend,  usually, 
 more  than  one  of  them.  The  methods  of  teaching  adopted 
 by  the  English  master*  are  among  the  best  which  I  saw 
 abroad.  lie  has  combined  the  knowledge  of  things  with  that 
 of  words.     His  pupils  are  as  well  trained  in  the  knowledge 
 
 •  Mr.  Al(  xande  J.  Dorscy,  who,  having  travelled  on  the  continent  and  at  home 
 for  iinprovetnent  in  methods  of  teaching,  has  adojited  an  eclectic  uicthoil,  whirh 
 produces  excellent  results.  He  has  especially  studied  the  sgcrct  of  the  great 
 success  in  the  more  modern  German  schools,  and  has  followed  out  tlicir  methods. 
 
i;las(jo\v  men  school.  877 
 
 of  realities  as  in  a  school  of  a  disciple  of  Pestalozzi,  and  in 
 verbal  knowledge  as  those  of  Mr.  Wood.  He  relies  more  on 
 the  training  of  the  school-room  than  is  usual  in  England,  and 
 yet  does  not  neglect  the  encouragement  of  study  at  home. 
 
 The  lessons  on  objects  are  illustrated  by  neat  cabinet  speci- 
 mens of  minerals,  geological  specimens,  objects  of  art,  &c. 
 Mineralogy  is  early  introduced,  as  affording  a  pleasant  stimulus 
 during  the  walks  of  the  pupils.  Practical  geology  is,  to  a  cer- 
 tain extent,  useful  in  the  same  way ;  but  I  cannot  assent  to  the 
 introduction  of  theoretical  generalizations,  which  are  received 
 by  the  pupils  as  established  principles,  and  which  make  it  diffi- 
 cult for  them,  in  after  life,  to  separate  the  theories  of  the 
 science  from  its  facts.  A  knowledge  of  trades  forms  a  second 
 part  of  this  instruction,  and  the  various  establishments  of  Glas- 
 gow are  visited  by  the  teacher  and  pupils.  Habits  of  observa- 
 tion, of  analysis,  and  of  order  are  thus  inculcated,  while  much 
 knowledge,  not  only  of  art,  but  of  the  people  among  whom 
 they  are  to  move,  is  acquired. 
 
 The  method  of  teaching  orthography  seems  to  me  an  im- 
 provement upon  that  of  the  German  schools.  Besides  the  ordi- 
 nary system  of  dictation,  the  master  writes  upon  the  black- 
 board, by  direction  of  one  of  the  class,  a  word  which  is  to  be 
 spelled,  the  pupil  naming  the  letters.  Criticism  is  called  for 
 from  the  class,  and  among  those  who  signify,  by  a  sign,  that 
 they  wish  to  make  a  correction,  the  master  selects  one.  He 
 alters  the  w^ord,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  pupil,  submits 
 it  anew  to  criticism,  and  so  on.  The  whole  class  is  thus  kept 
 alive,  a  result  which  marks  the  ability  of  a  teacher,  in  a  way 
 not  to  be  mistaken.  The  same  words  are  parsed  in  the  gram- 
 mar class,  the  use  of  the  black-board  enabling  the  teacher  tu 
 make  the  instruction  really  simultaneous,  w^hcrc,  otherwise,  it 
 would  be  individual. 
 
 Themes,  or  short  essays,  intended  to  introduce  words  as- 
 signed by  the  teacher,  and  more  advanced  essays,  upon  speci- 
 fied subjects,  are  written  by  the  pupils,  and  read  in  the  class, 
 attention  being  roused  by  permitting  criticism  by  the  pupils  them- 
 selves. In  the  reading  lessons,  correction  by  any  one  of  the 
 48 
 
878  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 class  is  allowed,  the  successful  corrector  taking  the  turn  of  the 
 reader.  These,  and  various  other  applications  of  the  same  gen- 
 eral principle,  of  rendering  the  instruction  simultaneous,  make 
 this  school  very  remarkable.  The  arrangement  of  the  school- 
 room, with  benches  on  raised  platforms,  is  an  important  aid  in 
 the  use  of  the  method.  The  paraphrases  of  Whately's  Logic, 
 and  other  exercises  in  this  branch,  which  I  heard  from  the  elder 
 pupils,  were  very  good.  The  historical  lessons  were  illustrated 
 by  numerous  drawings,  calculated  to  convey  accurate  general 
 information,  and  to  impress  the  memory  through  the  eye.  The 
 pupils  change  places,  as  in  other  schools,  though  this  forms  by 
 no  means  the  main  dependance  of  the  teacher  for  securing 
 attention.     Corporal  punishment  is  not  at  all  resorted  to. 
 
 Between  each  hour  of  recitation  is  an  interval  of  ten  minutes 
 for  recreation,  during  which,  also,  the  air  of  the  school-room  is 
 thoroughly  changed.  Both  these  are  important  details,  and  are 
 very  commonly  overlooked. 
 
 The  commercial  and  mathematical  department^  besides  uniting 
 in  a  complete  course  with  the  classical  and  English  depart- 
 ments, gives  special  instruction  to  clerks,  book-keepers,  sur- 
 veyors, navigators,  &c.  The  branches  taught  are  geography 
 (principally  to  pupils  from  nine  to  twelve  years  of  age,  from  the 
 other  departments),  physical  geography,  and  the  elements  of 
 astronomy,  arithmetic,  geometry,  trigonometry,  heights  and  dis- 
 tances, mensuration,  algebra,  including  quadratic  equations,  and 
 logarithms.  The  higher  mathematics,  including  the  dinbrcn- 
 tial  and  integral  calculus,  and  the  elements  of  natural  philo- 
 sophy. The  department  of  foreign  languages  furnishes  instruc- 
 tion in  French  and  German.  The  writing  and  drawijjg  de- 
 paj'tments  are  each  under  the  charge  of  a  separate  master,  and 
 the  first  is  subsidiary,  in  a  degree,  to  the  general  objects  of  the 
 school.  A  chemical  course  has  recently  been  added  to  the  fore- 
 going, on  a  plan  to  which  I  shall  refer  more  particularl}-  here- 
 after, in  which  the  pupils  manipulate.  It  is  intended  for  boys 
 from  seven  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  Tlie  high  school  pos- 
 sesses a  library  and  an  increasing  collection  in  natural  iiislory. 
 It  furnishes,  by  the  jtrivate  exertions  of  its  teachers,  to  the  in- 
 
BELFAST  ACADEMY.  379 
 
 habitants  of  Glasgow,  in  addition  to  the  regular  courses  for 
 youth,  others  for  adults,  which,  in  some  departments,  are  well 
 attended. 
 
 While  this  freedom  of  choice  among  the  courses  has  advan- 
 tages over  the  exclusive  system,  which  allows  no  variation  in 
 the  studies,  even  where  pupils  are  intended  for  diflercnt  lines  of 
 life,  I  confess  that  I  should  much  prefer  a  more  simple  arrange- 
 ment, the  parallel  courses  in  the  different  schools  being  so  regu- 
 lated that  the  choice  of  branches  of  study  would  not  devolve 
 upon  parents,  who  are  most  generally  unwilling,  and  often  unable, 
 to  judge  in  such  matters.  The  destination  of  the  pupil  having 
 determined  which  of  the  parallel  schools  he  will  enter,  he  should 
 find  a  regulated  course  for  him  to  follow.  A  facility  of  transfer 
 from  one  school  to  another  would  remedy  mistakes,  or  enable 
 changes  of  purpose  to  take  place.  Such  establishments  might 
 be  under  a  common  head,  or  be  governed  by  a  board  of  teach- 
 ers, if  it  were  considered  desirable  to  unite  them,  and  thus  to 
 realise  the  advantages  which  result  from  uniformity  of  methods 
 in  the  different  schools. 
 
 BELFAST  ACADEMY. 
 
 The  Belfast  Academy  has  all  the  advantages  of  a  general 
 superintendence,  with  that  of  the  division  into  particular  schools. 
 It  consists,  in  fact,  of  four  schools,  a  classical,  mathematical, 
 English,  and  writing  school.  Over  each  of  them  is  a  master, 
 chosen  by  the  trustees  of  the  academy,*  and  the  whole  is  super- 
 intended by  a  principal,  who  has  the  chief  direction  of  the  dis- 
 
 *  Formerly,  the  choice  of  masters  was  vested  in  the  principal,  wlio  has  re- 
 cently preferred  to  rehnquish  this  right,  as  making  the  masters  more  independent, 
 and,  therefore,  securing  better  men.  The  principal  of  this  academy,  Dr.  Bryce, 
 is  among  the  most  enlightened  teachers  of  Great  Britain,  and  his  experience  is 
 equal  to  his  talents  in  his  vocation.  A  thorough  classical  scholar,  and  upholder 
 of  a  complete  classical  culture,  where  it  is  attempted,  he  freely  admits  the  claims 
 of  natural,  mathematical,  and  mental  science  to  a  place  in  a  full  course,  as 
 deductions  from  both  theoretical  and  practical  grounds.  In  giving  instruction  to 
 teachers,  Dr.  Bryce  labours  to  inculcate  principles  rather  than  methods,  and  in 
 selecting  a  teacher,  places  more  stress  upon  the  ability  to  teach,  than  upon  actual 
 knowledge.  Dr.  Bryce  proposes,  for  the  science  and  art  of  education,  the  term 
 Pcdcutics. 
 
380  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 ciplinc  and  instruction.  The  principal  is  also  the  classical 
 master,  and  has  the  privilege  of  taking  boarders  in  liis  family,  so 
 that  this  may  be  considered,  in  part,  as  a  boarding-school. 
 
 The  discipline  is  of  a  mild  and  paternal  character,  though 
 negligence  is  by  no  means  tolerated,  and  corporal  chastisement 
 is  resorted  to  when  milder  punishments  have  proved  unavailing. 
 
 The  classical  course  prepares  for  entrance  into  Trinity  Col- 
 lege, Dublin,  or  carries  the  pupil  through  the  higher  studies,  in- 
 cludinfT  the  Hebrew. 
 
 It  would  be  useless  to  go  into  a  recapitulation  of  the  authors 
 read,  an  example  of  a  school  of  this  grade  having  already  been 
 given;  and  I  should  not  succeed  in  conveying  in  writing  an  idea 
 of  the  spirit  of  the  Principal,  which  constitutes  the  excellence  of 
 his  method.  It  carries  out  individual  teacliinrr  to  a  m-eat  defj^ree 
 of  perfection;  w^atching  studiously  the  workings  of  the  pupil's 
 mind,  and  entering  it  by  the  avenue  where  it  is  found  most  ac- 
 cessible, illustrating,  reasoning,  and  repeating,  unfolding  to  the 
 understanding  before  asking  the  memory  to  take  cognizance; 
 encouraging  to  self-exertion,  reproving,  and  persuading — com- 
 paring the  pupil  frequently  with  himself,  that  he  may  see  the 
 progress  which  he  has  made.  This  system  of  individual  teach- 
 ing is  as  remarkable  as  the  simultaneous  method  of  the  English 
 department  of  the  Glasgow  High  School. 
 
 The  experience  of  this  institution  may  be  confidently  appealed 
 to  in  favor  of  the  introduction  of  the  elements  of  natural  history 
 into  similar  schools;  it  has  not  only  been  found  to  act  favourably 
 by  a  direct  development  of  the  intelligence,  but  to  react  also 
 as  a  stimulus  to  the  classical  studies,  from  the  terminology  which 
 must  be  enii)loycd  even  in  the  elements  of  the  science.  Under 
 the  direction  of  the  mathematical  master,  the  pupils  have  a  na- 
 tural history  society,  which  has  collected  a  very  tolerable 
 museum,  and  which  serves  to  induce  exertion  out  of  the  school- 
 room. 
 
 In  the  writing  school,  a  substitute  has  been  tried  with  suc- 
 cess for  the  usual  practice  of  determining  places  in  the  class 
 by  comparative  trials  of  skill  between  different  indivitUials, 
 namely,  in  fix  tho  plnccs  ac(*r)iding  to  the  dcgnn^  of  improve- 
 
BELFAST  INSTITUTIOIV.  381 
 
 ment  of  each  member  of  the  class.  In  general,  the  head  master 
 of  this  institution  is  opposed  to  the  system  which  acts  entirely 
 through  emulation.  Comparison  of  the  same  individual  at  dif- 
 ferent periods  with  himself  he  considers  more  correct  in  prin- 
 ciple, as  doubtless  it  is,  and  where  individual  teaching  can  be 
 practised,  it  may  be  used  to  a  great  extent.  Where  a  school  is 
 efficiently  conducted,  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  to  rely  ex- 
 clusively upon  emulation  as  the  governing  motive,  though  I  do 
 not  believe  that  it  can  be  safely  laid  aside  entirely  even  then, 
 or  that  a  character  formed  without  its  influence  will  be  fitted 
 for  after  life.  Besides  the  method  just  referred  to  above,  and  by 
 which  the  pupils  are  graded  at  stated  intervals,  the  constant 
 practice  is  to  hear  from  them  a  criticism  on  their  own  writing 
 lesson,  consisting  in  a  comparison  of  what  they  have  produced 
 with  the  copy  which  has  been  set  them  to  imitate. 
 
 In  addition  to  the  natural  history  society,  there  is  another 
 among  the  pupils  of  this  school  for  declamation,  &c.,  the  ex- 
 ercises of  which  are  found  beneficial. 
 
 ROYAL  BELFAST  ACADEMICAL  INSTITUTION. 
 
 There  is  a  second  institution  in  Belfast,  which,  while  it  covers 
 the  same  ground  as  the  academy,  extends  its  courses  into  the 
 domain  of  superior  instruction.  It  presents  some  peculiarities 
 of  government  and  arrangement,  and  which,  as  far  as  they  be- 
 long to  the  lower,  or  academical  department,  should  be  noticed 
 here. 
 
 This  department  consists  of  the  following  schools :  "  Eng- 
 lish and  geography,"  "  arithmetic  and  mathematics,"  writing, 
 classics,  "  French  and  Italian,"  and  drawling.  Each  school  is 
 under  a  head  master,  who  has  assistants  when  required.  The 
 masters  form  a  board,  over  which  one  in  turn  presides,  for  the 
 regulation  of  the  whole,  subject  to  the  inspection  and  control 
 of  the  visitors  and  managers  of  the  institution.  Certain  of  the 
 teachers  are  allowed  to  take  private  pupils  as  boarders,  who 
 are,  in  regard  to  the  domestic  concerns,  entirely  under  their  con- 
 trol. The  Board  of  Masters,  with  a  Principal,  would,  it  ap- 
 pears to  me.  unite  the  various  advantages  which  I  have  pointed 
 
382  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 out  in  describing  the  diiTcrent  kinds  of  organization  for  govern- 
 ment and  discipline. 
 
 The  method  of  free  courses  is  combined  with  that  of  a  regular 
 gradation  of  instruction.  The  Board  of  Masters  recommends 
 a  certain  course  to  be  pursued,  consisting  of  the  English,  wri- 
 ting, and  arithmetical  departments,  or,  when  the  pupil  is  further 
 advanced,  of  the  English  and  writing,  classical  and  mathema- 
 tical departments,  and  including  the  modern  languages  and 
 drawing,  wdien  desired.  At  the  same  time  the  courses  arc 
 entirely  free,  and  if  the  parents  do  not  abide  by  the  recom- 
 mendation of  the  board,  the  responsibility  of  a  choice  in  the 
 departments  rests  with  them.  The  time  from  ten  o'clock  A. 
 M.  to  three  P.  M.  is  divided  into  four  periods  of  an  hour  and  a 
 quarter  each,  and  a  pupil  attends  the  schools  in  rotation,  or  may 
 attend  one  for  the  whole  four  periods.  The  classical  and  Eng- 
 lish schools  arc  those  to  which  the  arranc^ement  of  the  rest  is 
 subordinate:  they  have  regular  classes,  and  the  irregularities 
 are  made  to  fall  upon  the  writing  and  mathematical  schools,  in 
 which  there  are  no  fixed  divisions  of  classes.  The  teachers  of 
 French  and  of  drawing  hold  their  exercises  at  hours  w^hich  do 
 not  interfere  with  those  of  the  other  masters.  The  course  of 
 drawing  includes  the  higher  kinds  of  drawing  and  painting,  as 
 well  as  the  elements. 
 
 There  is  a  natural  history  society  formed  among  the  pupils, 
 under  the  direction  of  the  mathematical  master,  wdiich  has  been 
 found  useful. 
 
 The  number  of  pupils  in  attendance  is  about  two  hundred, 
 under  six  masters  and  ten  assistants,  averaging  thirteen  to  a 
 teacher, 
 
 EDINBURGH  INSTITUTION  FOR  LANGUAGES,  MATHEMATICS,  &c., 
 IIILL-STREET. 
 
 This  institution  was  undertaken  by  its  principal*  to  ascertain 
 
 *  Robert  Cunninn^liam,  A.  M.,  formerly  lie;id  master  of  George  Watson's  Hos- 
 pital, I'AliMhurgli.  This  gentleman  is  now  Professor  of  Languages  in  Lafayette 
 College,  Easton,  Pennsylvania.  The  Hill-street  institution  ut  Edinburgh  con- 
 tinues to  be  sustained  ui>on  the  plans  wliich  lie  liad  adopted. 
 
EDmBURGH    INSTITUTION. 
 
 383 
 
 whether  a  much  greater  amount  of  instruction  in  science,  and 
 in  the  branches  commonly  called  those  of  an  English  education, 
 together  with  the  modern  languages,  might  not  be  communi- 
 cated, without  injury  to  a  thorough  classical  culture.  In  de- 
 scribing it,  I  propose  first  to  state  the  general  arrangement  of 
 the  institution,  and  then  to  enter  into  a  comparison  of  its 
 courses,  as  to  character,  extent,  and  results,  with  those  of  the 
 Edinburgh  Academy. 
 
 There  are  two  distinct  courses  of  study,  one  intended  for 
 those  who  wish  to  become  professional  men,  the  other  for  those 
 of  more  hmited  views.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  both 
 courses,  which  extend  over  a  period  of  about  eight  years,  the 
 pupil  being  supposed  to  enter  between  seven  and  ten  years  of 
 age. 
 
 PUPILS  ATTENDING  THE  LATIN  AND  GHEEK 
 CLASSES. 
 
 Age. 
 7  to  10  yrs.  English,  Latin,  arithmetic, 
 
 and  writing-. 
 9  to  11  yrs.  Latin,  English,  reading  and 
 grammar,  geography,  na- 
 tural history,  and  writing. 
 11  to  14  yrs.  Latin,     French,     English, 
 reading    and    grammar, 
 geography,   history,  and 
 writing. 
 13  to  IG  yrs.  Latin,  Greek,  French,  Ger- 
 man,  English    composi- 
 tion,  history,   mathema- 
 tics, elementary  science. 
 
 PUPILS  NOT  ATTENDING  THE  LATIN 
 
 AND  gheee  classes. 
 
 English,  including  lessons  on  ob- 
 jects, arithmetic,  and  writing. 
 
 English,  French,  geography,  arith- 
 metic, natural  history  and  writ- 
 ing. 
 
 English,  French,  German,  English 
 reading  and  grammar,  geogra- 
 phy, history,  arithmetic,  and 
 writing. 
 
 English,  French,  German,  Italian, 
 English  reading,  composition 
 and  grammar,  geography,  his- 
 tory, matliematics,  elementary 
 science,  architectural  and  engi- 
 neering drawing. 
 
 The  first  of  these  courses  is  designed,  like  that  of  the  Edin- 
 burgh Academy,  to  prepare  pupils  for  the  universities,  the  age 
 on  terminating  it  being,  on  tlie  average,  about  seventeen.  The 
 second  is  intended  to  prepare  for  practical  life,  and  is  similar 
 to  that  of  a  German  "real  school."  I  confine  my  attention  at 
 present  to  the  first  of  these.  The  courses  may  be  divided  into 
 classical,  including  Latin  and  Greek;  English,  including  read- 
 ing, grammar,  composition,  geography,  and  history;  foreign 
 
381  GE\ERAL  EDUCATION.       SECOXDAHY  PERIOJ*. 
 
 modern  languages,  including  French  and  German;  science, 
 including  arithmetic,  geometry,  the  lower  mathematics  and 
 elementary  natural  history,  natural  [)hilosophy,  and  chemistry. 
 
 The  attention  of  the  pupil  is  called  to  more  objects  than  in 
 the  academy.  Is  he  able  to  pay  sufficient  attention  to  each? 
 This  may  be  determined,  in  part,  by  examining  the  progress 
 made  in  the  several  branches,  and  as  the  Enghsh  instruction  is 
 the  basis  of  the  whole,  it  will  be  proper  to  begin  the  examina- 
 tion with  it. 
 
 First,  as  to  the  time  occupied:  The  academy  devotes  twen- 
 ty-nine and  three-quarters  hours  per  W'eek,  in  seven  classes,  to 
 English,  including  geography  and  history;  the  Edinburgh  insti- 
 tution thirty-nine,  in  five  classes,  which  cover  nearly  the  same 
 ground  as  lo  age.  Next,  as  to  the  progress  made  in  the  two 
 schools:  Between  the  1st  of  October,  1835,  and  the  26th  of 
 July,  183G,  the  folio w^ing  studies  were  completed  in  the  Edin- 
 burgh Institution: 
 
 First  Exglisii  Class.  Read  and  analyzed  the  sessional  school  collection. 
 M'Culloch's  English  Grammar.  Etymology.  Geography  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
 and  America,  and  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Lessons  on  Objects,  pail 
 first.     Poetry,  committed  to  memory. 
 
 Second  English  Class.  Read  and  analyzed  two  hundred  and  forty  pages  of 
 Wood's  Extracts.  M'Culloch's  Grammar.  Etymology.  Latin  and  Greek  prefixes. 
 Geography  of  Africa,  North  and  South  America,  and  of  England  and  Ireland, 
 France,  Belgium,  Holland,  Spain  and  Portugal,  Switzerland  and  Italy.  Natural 
 history. 
 
 Third  English  Class.  Ilirrlicr  division.  Wood's  Instructive  Extracts  read  and 
 analyzed.  Lennic's  Grammar.  Geography  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and 
 France;  studied  maps  of  Holland,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Italy,  British  America, 
 and  the  United  States.  Outlines  of  natural  history.  Written  exercises  on  the 
 weekly  lectures  of  natural  history,  and  outlines  of  geology  and  mineralogy. 
 
 HisTonr  and  Geo(;iiaimiy  Class,  Minute  geography  of  Portugal,  Spain, 
 France,  Belgium,  and  Holland,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  the  Austrian  empire,  (he 
 smaller  German  states,  and  Prussia. 
 
 Academy  Geoffraphij.  Denmark,  Germany,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Western  Rus- 
 sia, Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia,  Hindostan.  Decline  and  subdivision  of  the 
 Western  Roman  empire.  Rise  of  the  kingdoms  established  on  its  ruins.  Eastern 
 empire.     Kingdom  of  the  Franks.     England  and  Scotland. 
 
 History  of  the  progress  and  extension  of  the  Mahometan  jiower.  France,  lo 
 tlie  death  of  Louis  IX.  German  empire  and  Italian  slates,  from  Charlenuigne 
 to  Uio  death  of  Frederick  II.     Norman  dynasty  in  Italy.     Spain,  to  the  expul 
 
EDINBURGH  INSTITUTION.  385 
 
 sion  of  the  Moors.  England,  to  Edward  I.  Scotland,  to  Alexander  111.  Turks, 
 crusades,  and  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
 
 Occasional  essays  and  regular  exercises  twice  a  week. 
 
 Mathematical  and  Phtsical  Geography. 
 
 English  Litehature  and  Composition.  Read  and  analyzed  Thompson's 
 Seasons,  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  Books  4th,  5th,  and  6th.  Chambers's  English 
 Literature.    Paley's  Natural  Theology  and  Written  Exercises.    Original  Essays. 
 
 The  greater  extent  of  this  programme  is  in  proportion  to  the 
 greater  amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  English  studies  in  this 
 school  than  in  the  academy,  especially  in  the  lower  classes, 
 which  are  also  those  where  the  excess  in  time  is  the  greatest. 
 To  be  more  minute — the  courses  of  geography,  history,  higher 
 English  reading,  and  composition,  do  not  differ  materially  in 
 extent  in  the  two  schools,  but  the  elementary  course  of  gram- 
 mar and  reading  of  the  institution,  the  frequent  verbal  analyses 
 and  etymological  exercises,  render  its  studies  in  this  department 
 much  more  complete  than  those  of  the  academy;  indeed, they 
 form  the  basis  of  a  superstructure  which  must  be  imperfectly 
 raised  in  the  fifth  class  of  the  academy  without  them.  From 
 my  own  observation,  I  am  sure  that  the  ordinary  Latin  and 
 Greek  exercises  are  not  a  substitute  for  the  etymological  exer- 
 cises introduced  by  Mr.  Wood.  The  former  exercises  render 
 the  latter  very  easy,  and  give  great  advantages  in  a  complete 
 understanding  of  them,  but  the  latter  cannot  be  dispensed  with, 
 or  left  to  the  unaided  ingenuity  of  the  pupil  to  follow  out. 
 Experience  proves  that  he  requires  to  be  directed  in  this  valu- 
 able application  of  ancient  language;  and  in  the  extension 
 given  to  this  subject,  the  course  at  the  institution  had  a  supe- 
 riority, in  1836,  which  it  is  possible  it  may  not  retain,  since  the 
 English  department  of  the  academy  has  now  been  for  several 
 years  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  Wood.  The  mode  of  teaching 
 history  by  conversational  lectures,  combined  with  the  study  of 
 a  text-book,  and  illustrated  by  maps,  drawings,  &c.,  used  in  the 
 institution,  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  dryer  method  of  the 
 study  of  a  text-book  and  recitation,  em})loycd  at  the  academy. 
 The  frequent  recurrence  of  the  names  of  the  same  countries  in 
 the  list  of  geographical  exercises  of  the  institution,  is  to  be  ex- 
 plained by  the  mode  of  studying  geography  adopted,  in  which 
 49 
 
38G  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 the  particular  countries  arc  dwelt  upon  with  various  degrees  of 
 minuteness,  in  successive  courses,  according  to  the  interest 
 which  may  be  supposed  to  attach  to  them;  the  first  lessons  con- 
 taining^ a  cjcneral  outline  of  the  whole. 
 
 It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  this  superior  development  in 
 the  English  studies  is  consistent  with  a  due  attention  to  other 
 branches.  Of  these,  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages  ranks 
 next  upon  the  programme.  In  the  academy,  these  studies  oc- 
 cupy from  fifteen  to  twenty  hours  per  week,  in  the  diflerent 
 classes,  and  in  the  institution,  from  ten  to  fifteen.  The  greatest 
 disproportion  is  in  the  lower  classes.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
 programmes  of  the  Latin  studies  in  the  five  classes  of  the  insti- 
 tution are  almost  exactly  the  same  with  those  of  the  first  five 
 of  the  academy:  the  books  read  and  the  amount  of  study  in 
 the  several  years  being  also  nearly  the  same.  But,  then,  in  the 
 academy  there  are  two  classes  which  have  not  their  parallels 
 in  the  institution,  namely,  the  sixth  and  seventh;  so  that,  what- 
 ever advantac^es  are  to  be  derived  from  the  hiiiher  classical 
 studies,  must  be  reckoned  against  those  of  the  institution  in 
 other  courses.  In  this  will  be  found  the  true  difficulty  of 
 the  estimate,  for  though  I  believe  that  with  teachers  of  equal 
 abilities  the  same  progress  will  be  made  in  fewer  hours  if  the 
 studies  are  not  exclusively  classical,  yet  this  cannot  be  carried 
 beyond  a  certain  point,  and  we  cannot  have  the  advantages  of 
 ancient  and  modern  languages,  and  of  mathematical  and  phy- 
 sical science,  without  extending  the  time  for  the  course  of  edu- 
 cation.    Such  is  the  experience  of  many  classical  teachers. 
 
 In  composing  the  courses  in  the  modern  languages,  those  of 
 the  institution  a])pcar  to  have  decided  advantages.  There  arc 
 two  classes  for  the  French  in  both  the  academy  and  institu- 
 tion. In  the  former  school  four  hours  and  a-half  per  week  arc 
 allotted  on  the  average,  and  in  the  latter  five  hours,  to  each  of 
 the  courses.  In  the  latter  school  there  is  also  a  class  for  the 
 German  language,  to  which  three  hours  per  week  arc  devoted. 
 There  appears  no  where  to  be  any  variance  of  oj)inion  as  to 
 the  fact,  that  the  modern  languages  are  inferior,  as  means  of 
 intellectual  training,  to  the  ancient.  They  arc,  in  fact,  not  intra- 
 
EDINBURGH  INSTITUTION.  387 
 
 ckiced  into  the  coiirscs;  mainly  for  this  purpose.  The  object  is, 
 usually,  to  acquire  a  facility  in  reading  them;  the  power  of 
 using  them  for  conversation,  and  in  writing,  is  further  some- 
 times aimed  at,  though  the  time  allotted  to  them  seldom  allows 
 the  attainment  of  such  a  result.  The  methods  of  teaching 
 them  are,  generally,  and  should  always  be,  adapted  to  these  ends, 
 and  hence  essentially  different  from  those  appropriate  to  the 
 dead  languages.  All  experience  shows  that  the  earlier  they 
 are  attended  to,  the  greater  facility  there  is  in  their  acquisi- 
 tion, and  they  should,  therefore,  by  no  means  be  postponed 
 longer  than  the  period  of  secondary  instruction;  and,  indeed, 
 when  it  is  practicable,  there  would,  I  believe,  be  great  gain  in 
 beginning  them  in  the  elementary  course.  It  should  be  remem- 
 bered, that  the  reflecting  faculties  are  naturally  little  developed 
 in  early  youth,  while  the  memory  for  words,  as  well  as  for  things, 
 is  strong,  and  instruction  at  this  period  should  be  directed  accord- 
 ingly. It  is  true,  that  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  lends  great  aid 
 to  the  study  of  the  modern  languages,  but  I  am  persuaded  that 
 the  gain  is  not  equivalent  to  the  loss  from  postponement.  If 
 the  object  be  to  learn  to  speak  a  language  as  well  as  to  read  it, 
 the  flexibility  of  the  organs  of  speech  in  early  youth  renders  a 
 beginning  at  that  period  almost  essential  to  success. 
 
 The  courses  of  science  are  raised  into  high  comparative  im- 
 portance in  the  institution.  The  attention  paid  to  arithmetic 
 is  much  greater  than  in  the  academy.  In  the  first  three  classes 
 of  the  former  five  hours  per  week,  and  of  the  latter  but  three, 
 are  devoted  to  this  branch,  so  that  in  the  higher  classes  the  course 
 of  the  academy  falls  decidedly  behind  that  of  the  institution.  If 
 it  were  in  the  amount  of  progress  only  in  which  the  academy 
 was  behind,  I  should  make  but  little  objection  to  it,  for  it  seems 
 to  me  that  the  higher  branches  of  mathematics  are  better  re- 
 served  for  superior  instruction,  unless  in  special  schools ;  but, 
 then,  the  amount  of  intellectual  culture  to  be  gained  by  the  ex- 
 ercises of  arithmetic  and  algebra,  appears  to  me  to  be  under- 
 valued. Arithmetical  analysis,  if  not  as  important  an  intellec- 
 tual habit  as  that  of  language,  is  by  no  means  to  be  neglected, 
 and,  in  addition  to  the  rcadv  use  of  figrures,  or  the  art  of  the 
 
388  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 accountant,  forms  a  most  important  part  of  education.  Mental 
 arithmetic  I  have  already  often  remarked  upon  as  a  most  useful 
 branch,  and  I  do  not  think  tlie  time  devoted  to  this,  and  to  the 
 practice  of  written  arithmetic  in  the  institution,  at  all  too  great 
 Tiie  course  of  geometry  in  the  two  schools  is  the  same.  The 
 time  spent  in  the  study  of  trigonometry,  and  the  applications 
 to  mensuration,  &c.,  in  the  academy,  is  too  small  to  secure  any 
 considerable  progress. 
 
 The  course  of  mathematics  in  the  institution  is  as  follows : 
 
 First  Class  of  Arithmetic.  The  ground-rules  and  reduction.  Compound 
 addition,  &lc. 
 
 Second  Class.  Simple  and  compound  division.  Proportions  and  fractions. 
 Practical  arithmetical  exercises.  (Ingram's  Arithmetic,)  practice.  Decimal  frac- 
 tions.    Compound  proportions. 
 
 Third  Class.  Compound  rules.  Reduction.  Practice.  Simple  and  compound 
 proportions.  Vulgar  and  decimal  fractions.  Interest.  Equation  of  payments. 
 Stocks.     Loss  and  gain. 
 
 Fourth  Class.  Cunningham's  Arithmetic.  Vulgar  and  decimal  fractions. 
 Practicp.  Proportions.  Commission.  Interest.  Chain  rule.  Stocks.  Loss  and 
 gain.     Barter.     Distributive  proportion.     Insurance  and  exchange. 
 
 Fifth  Class.  Algebra.  Primary  rules.  Simple  equations.  Problems.  Alge- 
 braic fractions. 
 
 First  Class  of  Geometry.  In  three  divisions.  The  highest,  studies  six  books 
 of  Euclid's  Elements,  and  tlie  Appendix  of  Playfair.  Mensuration  and  plane  tri- 
 gonometry from  Davidson's  Practical  Mathematics.  Ileiglits  and  distances.  Ex- 
 amples and  problems. 
 
 Second  Claps  of  Geometry.  Revise  5th  and  6th  books  of  Euclid.  Trigonometry, 
 from  Playfair's  Appendix.  Mensuration  from  Davidson.  Simple  and  quadratic 
 equations  from  the  same.  Wallace's  Conic  Sections.  Mensuration  of  solids  and 
 specific  gravities,  from  Davidson's  Practical  Mathematics.  Spherical  trigono- 
 metry.    Geographical  and  astronomical  problems. 
 
 The  higher  mathematics,  and  even  in  a  much  greater 
 amount  tiian  the  one  just  stated,  is  indispensably  necessary  to 
 a  course  intended  for  such  occupations  of  practical  life  as  those 
 of  the  civil  engineer,  architect,  or  mechanician,  but  I  doubt  the 
 importance  of  it  in  a  general  course,  preparatory  to  a  college  or 
 university.  The  advantages  which  a  special  professor,  devoting 
 all  iiis  energies,  will  have  in  the  powers  of  communicating  such 
 instruction  over  a  teacher  who  is  occupied  with  many  other 
 things  in  addition,  is  too  obvious  to  need  discussion.     As  an 
 
EDINBURGH  IIVSTITUTION^.  389 
 
 instrument  of  general  training,  under  these  circumstances,  the 
 higher  mathematics  are,  in  my  opinion,  of  inferior  value  to  other 
 branches. 
 
 The  courses  of  the  elements  of  natural  philosophy  and  of 
 natural  history  in  the  institution  are  very  appropriate.     That 
 of  chemistry,  as  taught  by  Dr.  D.  B.  Reid,  of  Edinburgh,  is  one 
 of  the  most  usef^jl  and  interesting  exercises  of  the  student.    The 
 professor  assembles  a  class  from  the  institution  in  his  laboratory, 
 places  them  at  tables,  with  the  materials  for  experiment  before 
 them,  orders  different  experiments  by  the  several  groups  into 
 which  the  class  is  divided,  receives  their  explanation  of  the 
 operations  in  the  hearing,  and   inspects  the  results  of  each 
 within  the  view  of  the  whole  class,  and  thus  exercises  the  per- 
 ceptive and  reflective  faculties  and  mechanical  skill  of  the  stu- 
 dent, and  accustoms  him  to  describe  as  well  as  to  execute  and 
 observe.*      When  treated   in  this   way,   chemistry  becomes 
 highly  worthy  of  a  place  in  a  general  system  of  education. 
 The  plan  is  very  similar  to  that  in  use  at  the  La  Martiniere 
 school  at  Lyons,  already  described,  though,  very  properly,  the 
 tendency  here  is  more  general  than  practical.     Dr.  Reid  has 
 many  classes,  besides  this  one  of  the  institution,  under  a  similar 
 course  of  instruction. 
 
 The  morning  of  every  Saturday  is  devoted  in  this  school  to 
 religious  instruction.  The  pupils  are  divided  into  four  classes, 
 the  youngest  of  which  read  the  Scriptures,  and  are  examined 
 upon  them,  and  on  Wood's  Biography  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
 taments. The  oldest  class  have  lectures  upon  the  Evidences  of 
 Christianity,  and  read  the  Scriptures,  with  explanations  by  the 
 principal. 
 
 In  a  general  review  of  this  comparison,  it  appears  that  the 
 courses  of  the  institution  are  more  numerous,  and  all,  except  the 
 classical  course,  cultivated  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  the  aca- 
 demy.     The  deficiency  in  the  latter  appears  chiefly  due  to  the 
 
 *  All  the  experiments  are  made  upon  a  small  scale,  and,  in  general,  with  such 
 common  apparatus  as  slips  and  rods  of  glass,  paper,  &c.  The  chemical  tests 
 are  used  in  very  small  quantities.  Hence  the  expense  of  these  lectures  is  quite 
 triflmg-.  ' 
 
300  GENERAL  EDUCATIOxV.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 considerable  cfTort  made  to  extend  the  instruction  in  mathe- 
 matics into  the  higher  branches,  and  to  the  introduction  of 
 two  modern  languages.  The  general  arrangement  of  the 
 courses  in  the  institution  resembles  that  of  the  gymnasia  or 
 grammar  schools  of  nortliern  and  central  Germany,  but  in  the 
 very  points  just  stated,  in  reference  to  classics,  mathematics, 
 and  the  modern  languages,  differs  from  them.  An  appeal, 
 therefore,  to  the  results  of  those  admirable  schools  induces  me 
 to  prefer  the  restriction  of  these  courses,  for  youth  preparing 
 for  the  professions,  within  the  limits  necessary  to  the  full  devel- 
 opment of  the  classical  course.  At  the  same  time,  I  consider 
 that  the  importance  given  to  the  English  exercises  in  the  insti- 
 tution, the  general  extension  of  the  studies  in  the  lower  mathe- 
 matics and  in  elementary  science,  all  of  which  I  believe  to  be 
 compatible  with  the  attention  to  the  languages,  are  real  advan- 
 tages which  may  be  claimed  by  the  institution. 
 
 GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  AT  RUGBY. 
 
 The  grammar  schools  in  England  which  have  attained  the 
 highest  distinction,  are  of  the  class  which  receive  boarders. 
 Of  these  the  school  at  Rugby  now  stands  among  the  first,  from 
 the  character  of  its  head  master*  and  his  associates.  I  have 
 compiled,  from  my  notes  of  information  derived  at  Rugby,  and 
 from  the  account  given  in  print  by  the  principalf  himself,  a 
 
 *  The  Rev.  Dr.  Arnold.  I  visited  Rugby  with  letters,  which  produced  much 
 courtesy  and  frankness  of  intercourse,  but  found  that  custom — the  law  of  the 
 school — did  not  admit  of  the  presence  of  a  stranger  at  the  recitations  of  tlie 
 classes,  or  his  visits  to  the  rooms  of  the  pupils  while  at  study.  This  seemed  to 
 mc  so  strange,  after  being  admitted  freely  even  to  private  schools,  that  I  stated 
 my  wishes  to  the  Rev.  Head  Master,  and  understood  distinctly  from  him  that  he 
 had  never  heard  of  such  a  thing  as  the  presence  of  a  visitor  during  the  recita- 
 tion of  an  English  grammar  school.  Mr.  Bowning  Price,  one  of  tlie  masters  to 
 whom  I  was  addressed,  received  me  with  much  hospitality,  and  very  kindly  gave 
 me  the  information  which  I  asked,  but  even  in  his  house  etiquette  did  not  per- 
 mit him  to  introduce  me  into  the  study-rooms  of  his  pupils. 
 
 I  had  occasion  to  verify  Dr.  Arnold's  remark,  in  the  case  of  two  other  gram- 
 mar scliools  into  which  I  endeavoured,  without  success,  to  obtain  admission;  at 
 Clirist's  Hospital,  however,  which  ranks  with  the  public  grammar  schools,  I  was 
 freely  admitted  to  all  parts  of  the  institution,  as  has  already  been  stated. 
 
 t  Rugby  School.     Quarterly  .Journal  of  Education,  vol.  vii.     London,  1831. 
 
RUGBY  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL.  891 
 
 sketch  of  the  education  received  at  this  school,  considering 
 that  the  authentic  nature  of  the  materials  authorized  me  so  to 
 do,  though  I  can  say  little  from  personal  observation  as  to  the 
 results  of  the  system. 
 
 Purpose  of  the  school,  general  government,  <^c.  The  school  is 
 intended  for  preparing  students  for  the  universities.  It  receives 
 pupils  of  two  different  classes;  the  one  called  "foundationers" 
 must  be  children  of  parents  who  have  resided  for  two  years  in 
 Rugby,  or  in  certain  parts  of  the  adjacent  country.  These  are 
 educated  gratuitously,  and  their  number  is  not  limited.  They 
 may  enter  at  the  age  of  seven,  though  eleven  is  considered  a 
 more  suitable  period.  The  others  pay  for  their  education,  and 
 are  limited  to  two  hundred  and  sixty  in  number.*  In  case  the 
 parent  of  a  foundationer  does  not  live  in  the  town  of  Rugby, 
 the  pupil  must  board  with  one  of  the  masters,  and  is  thus  on  the 
 same  footing  as  the  other  students. 
 
 The  buildings  containing  the  dwelling  of  the  head  master, 
 the  chapel,  library,  recitation  rooms,  &c.,  are  in  the  Eliza- 
 bethan Gothic  style,  very  prettily  arranged,  and  have  an  exten- 
 sive common  or  play-ground  at  the  back  of  them.  The  other 
 masters  provide  their  own  dwellings,  which  are  in  different 
 quarters  of  the  town. 
 
 The  school  is  governed  by  a  body  of  trustees,  who  hold 
 annual  meetings  at  Rugby,  but  who  may  be  summoned  to  spe- 
 cial meetings,  when  required,  at  other  places.  In  general  their 
 authority  is  delegated  to  the  head  master,  W'ho  is  elected  by 
 them,  and  the  few  laws  enacted  for  the  government  of  the 
 institution  are  contained  in  the  act  of  incorporation.  The 
 assistant  masters  serve  as  a  council  to  the  head  master,  by 
 whom  they  are  appointed,  and  besides  holding  regular  meet- 
 ings once  a  week,  for  the  discussion  of  the  affairs  of  their 
 classes,  may  be  convened  at  the  pleasure  of  the  head  master. 
 
 Moral  education.  This  is  supposed  to  centre  in  the  head  mas- 
 ter, upon  whose  character  its  success  essentially  depends,  and 
 
 *  The  masters  have,  besides,  established  a  scholarship,  by  subscription  among 
 themselves,  of  j£25  per  annum,  which  may  be  held  for  six  years. 
 
392  GENERAL  EDUCATlOiV.       SECONDARV  PERIOD. 
 
 who  is  the  pastor  as  well  as  teacher  and  governor.  He  has 
 charge  of  the  instruction  of  the  highest  class,  called  the  sixth 
 form,  and  from  the  important  part  which  they  play  in  the  dis- 
 cipline of  the  school,  has  in  this  a  high  responsibility.  The 
 other  masters  are  charged  with  maintaining  order  in  their  seve- 
 ral rooms,  but  the  head  master  alone  has  the  authority  to 
 sanction  corporal  chastisement.  He  can  suspend  or  dismiss  a 
 bad  student,  and  corresponds  frequently  with  the  parents,  that 
 their  influence  may  be  brought  in  aid  of  his.  When  necessary, 
 he  advises  the  withdrawal  of  a  pupil,  but  usually,  when  dismis- 
 sion is  required,  or  in  cases  of  ditlicult  investigation^  calls  in 
 the  board  of  masters  as  council.  It  was  stated  to  me  tliat  the 
 system  of  "  rights  and  privileges"  of  the  pupils  prevailed  to  a 
 very  injurious  extent  at  this  school,  before  the  present  adminis- 
 tration, but  by  a  calm,  temperate,  and  free  use  of  authority, 
 the  features  considered  most  objectionable  have  been  done 
 away.  The  fact  exemplifies  the  theory  of  the  influence  of  the 
 head  master  as  the  moral  centre  of  the  school. 
 
 The  several  masters  take  boarders,  the  number  being  only 
 restricted  by  the  accommodations  of  the  houses.  Some  of  the 
 pupils  have  separate  sleeping  and  study  rooms,  others  room 
 together. 
 
 The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  the  discipline  of  the  institu- 
 tion is  to  be  found  out  of  school  hours,  when  the  main  body  of 
 the  pupils  are  freed  from  the  direct  control  of  the  masters.  The 
 whole  of  the  pupils  residing  in  one  house  are  then  under  the 
 charge  of  the  boys  of  the  sixth  form,  or  highest  class,  living  with 
 them,  and  are  subject  to  their  control  during  both  play  and  study 
 hours.  These  members  of  the  sixth  form,  called  at  Rugby 
 prepustci's  (propositi  viri),  are  required  to  regulate  the  rising, 
 attendance  on  prayers,  meals,  and  recitations  of  those  under 
 them ;  to  preserve  order,  and  to  prevent  absence  or  visiting 
 during  study  hours  ;  to  aid  the  younger  members  in  their  studies, 
 and  to  afford  them  good  counsel  and  example.  To  enable  the 
 preposters  to  preserve  their  authority,  they  are  invested  with  the 
 right  to  punish,  by  setting  tasks,  by  confining  to  the  study  room, 
 
RUGBY  GRAxMMAR  SCHOOL.  393 
 
 and  otherwise  cutting  off  privileges.  Besides  this,  they  assume 
 the  right  to  chastise  corporally,  and  have,  by  usage,  many 
 pnyileges  not  conferred  by  the  regulations  of  the  school,  and 
 which  give  them  great  power  over  the  comfort  and  welfare  of 
 the  junior  pupils.* 
 
 This  is  the  system  known  as  "  fagging"  at  Eton  and  West- 
 mmster,  and  though  I  was  informed  that  it  does  not  bear  this 
 name  at  Rugby,  even  among  the  pupils  themselves,  yet  it  is 
 essentially  the  same  in  its  rules,  if  not  in  its  practices. 
 
 Though  the  preposters  have  privileges  by  rule,  they  are 
 yet  subject  to  punishments  from  the  masters,  which  arc  how 
 ever,  usually  of  a  different  grade  from  those  of  the  junior  pu- 
 pils, to  mark  their  station  even  in  the  results  of  deviation  from 
 duty.  These  pupils  are  not  selected  for  their  office,  but  acquire 
 It  by  right  of  seniority,  every  member  of  the  sixth  form,  or 
 highest  class,  being  a  preposter.  When  it  happens  that  too  few 
 of  this  form  live  with  a  particular  master,  or  that  those  who 
 reside  with  him  are  young,  then  transfers  may  be  made  from 
 among  those  living  with  others,  to  secure  the  better  action  of 
 the  system.  The  fifth  form  are  exempt  from  the  control  of  the 
 sixth,  but  have  themselves  no  charge  of  discipline. 
 
 The  spirit  awakened  by  the  head  master  in  tlie  pupils  com- 
 posing the  sixth  form,  must,  as  before  remarked,  determine  the 
 character  of  this  system  of  education,  the  master  in  whose 
 house  the  pupils  reside  giving  them  up  almost  entirely  to  this 
 artificial   arrangement.     There  is  a  porter,  who  has,  amoncr 
 other  duties,  that  of  preventing  disorder,  but  he  appeals  for 
 support  to  the  preposters,  and  only  in  flagrant  cases  to  the 
 master,  who  thus  steps  in  merely  as  a  last  resort,  and  is  not  the 
 constant  guardian  of  the  youth   nominally  under  his  charo-e. 
 The  teachers  who  approve  of  this  system  lay  it  down  as  a  prTn- 
 ciple,  that  the  pupil  must  be  superintended  either  by  preposters, 
 
 *  Amon^  these  usurped  riglits,  the  consequence  of  tlic  law  of  the  stron«-est 
 are  the  sending  of  their  juniors  upon  errands,  and  imposing  certain  disao-reethlJ 
 duties  upon  them  in  tlieir  games.  One  of  these  latter,  of  which  there  arc  many 
 was  found  so  injurious,  tliat  it  was  stopped  by  authority  :  it  was  oWigin<r  thJ 
 lesser  boys  to  leap  tlie  line  at  leap-frog,  instead  of  Uic  preposter.  I  mention  if 
 to  show  the  character  whicli  tliis  tyranny  assumes 
 50 
 
394  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 or  by  ushers,  and  that  all  experience  has  shown  the  inefficiency 
 of  tiie  latter  mode  of  government.  These  methods,  however,  ap- 
 pear to  me  to  form  two  extremes,  neither  of  which  is  good.  If 
 the  selection  of  the  preposters  was  made  on  account  of  peculiar 
 fitness  for  their  office,  the  theory  of  this  form  of  school  govern- 
 ment might  be  plausible;  if  they  were  required  to  act  according 
 to  rules  emanating  from  the  masters,  and  deprived  of  their  pre- 
 sent usurped  authority,  the  system  would  be  less  objectionable ; 
 and  if,  in  addition,  they  were  controlled  by  the  active  and  con- 
 stant superintendence  of  the  masters,  we  should  then  have  the 
 enlightened  system  which  is  substituted  for  that  of  fagging  in 
 many  of  the  best  boarding-schools  of  Germany ;  without  such 
 changes  the  theory  and  practice  cannot  accord.  It  is  ad- 
 mitted, even  by  those  who  uphold  it,  to  be  readily  liable  to  great 
 abuse,  and  to  foster  the  dangerous  spirit  of  the  love  of  power. 
 I  am  persuaded  it  never  could  have  been  suffered  to  exist  as  a 
 system,  in  the  schools  of  our  country,  and  that  it  cannot  con- 
 tinue under  the  reforms  which  must  gradually  be  introduced 
 into  those  of  England.  Enlightened  masters,  intrusted  by 
 parents  with  the  care  and  guidance  of  youth,  cannot  always 
 be  blinded  by  custom  to  the  true  nature  of  their  responsibilities, 
 or  willing  to  transfer  them  to  those  who  are  neither  fitted  by 
 age  nor  by  habit  for  the  important  charge. 
 
 The  care  of  the  pupils  on  Sunday  is  principally  with  the  mas- 
 ters with  whom  they  board,  and  morning  prayers  are  said  at 
 the  house  before  going  to  church.  Some  masters  encourage 
 the  pupils  to  visit  in  their  families,  and  hold  religious  lectures 
 on  Sunday,  after  the  public  duties  of  the  day  arc  over.  At 
 Rugby  the  attendance  of  the  elder  pupils  on  the  communion  is 
 not  made  a  matter  of  rule,  but  in  general  the  sixth  form,  and 
 many  of  the  fifth,  are  communicants  of  the  church.  Tiie  younger 
 pupils  are  not  encouraged  to  come  forward. 
 
 Pecuniary  allowances  are  distributed  regularly  by  the  mas- 
 ters, who  feel  bound  to  check  extravagances,  when  known  to 
 ihem,  by  correspondence  with  the  parents. 
 
 The  following  is  the  order  of  the  day  in  the  boarding  houses, 
 varying  somewhat  with  the  season  : — The  pupils  rise  at  six  and 
 
RUGBY   GRAMMAR   SCHOOL.  395 
 
 a-half,  and  go  to  prayers  in  the  school  at  seven ;  breakfast  at 
 eight,  dine  at  one,  take  tea  at  seven,  and  must  be  in  the  house 
 in  winter  at  a  quarter  before  eight,  the  time  varying  with  the 
 season;  have  evening  prayers  in  the  boarding-house  at  eight 
 o'clock,  retire  at  a  quarter  before  ten,  and  the  lights  must  be 
 out  on  the  porter's  visit  at  ten  o'clock. 
 
 On  half-holidays  there  is  a  roll  called  at  three  and  five, 
 P.  M.,  to  prevent  the  pupils  from  going  too  far  beyond  the 
 school  bounds.  On  Sundays  they  rise  at  half  past  eight,  and 
 attend  prayers  in  the  houses. 
 
 Intellectual  education.  So  far  as  this  is  connected  with  the 
 arrangements  for  study  in  the  boarding-houses,  it  has  been 
 already  described.  For  purposes  of  instruction,  the  whole  num- 
 ber of  pupils,  about  three  hundred,  is  divided  into  eight  classes 
 or  forms,  each  of  which  is  instructed  by  one  of  the  assistant 
 masters,*  or  by  the  head  master.  These  classes  are  designated 
 as  first,  second,  and  third  form,  lower  remove,  fourth  form, 
 upper  remove,  fifth  and  sixth  form  ;  the  object  of  this  nomen- 
 clature being  to  preserve,  for  the  highest  or  eighth  class,  the 
 name  of  sixth  form,  which  has  long  been  applied  to  it  in  the 
 English  grammar  schools  ;t  a  fact  which  may  serve  to  illustrate 
 the  tenacity  with  which  old  customs  are  adhered  to  in  these 
 institutions.  The  pupils  remain,  in  general,  longer  than  a  year 
 in  each  class.  The  subjects  of  study  are  divided  into  three  de- 
 partments, that  of  classical  literature,  arithmetic  and  mathe- 
 matics, and  French.  The  members  of  all  the  classes  below 
 the  sixth  form  are  distributed  in  these  three  departments,  ac- 
 cording to  their  proficiency  in  each,  the  same  pupils  being  thus 
 usually  not  in  the  same  form  in  all :  but  in  the  sixth  form  the 
 same  individuals  are  associated  in  all  the  departments,  so  that 
 on  reaching  the  sixth  form  in  classical  literature,  the  pupil 
 passes  at  once  to  the  same  division  in  all  the  studies.  This 
 arrangement  would  be  nearly  impracticable  if  the  mathematical 
 and  French  departments  were  considered  of  high  importance. 
 
 *  Each  of  the  assistant  masters  receives  a  salary  and  perquisites  of  £200,  and 
 Ihs  income  from  various  sources  rises  to  about  2/)00  dollars. 
 t  The  "  magic  name  of  sixth  form," 
 
39G  GENERAL  EDUCATION'.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Each  master  teaches  in  the  three  departments,  though  lie  may 
 not  instruct  the  same  form  in  each.  It  is  obvious,  from  this 
 plan,  that  very  moderate  attainments  are  possible  in  the  aux- 
 ihary  branches,  the  classical  department  being  tlie  one  upon 
 which  the  strength  of  the  school  is  exerted.  This,  in  fact,  essen- 
 tially gives  rank  to  the  pui)ils  while  at  the  institution,  and  on 
 entering  the  university.  The  system  of  special  masters  for  the 
 subsidiary  departments  was  tried  some  years  since,  but  failed, 
 from  causes  wiiich  I  did  not  exactly  understand. 
 
 Each  half  year  is  divided  into  two  ecjual  periods,  called 
 "language  time,"  and  "history  time."  The  books  read  in  these 
 two  periods  vary  in  several  instances,  the  poets  and  orators 
 being  read  principally  during  the  former,  and  history  and 
 geography  being  chiefly  studied  during  the  latter.  This  will 
 be  more  clearly  seen  from  the  following  table  of  the  general 
 occupation  of  the  school  for  a  whole  year."^  It  does  not  include, 
 however,  the  exercises  in  Greek  and  Latin  prose  and  verse 
 which  arc  re([uired. 
 
 FinST  FORM. 
 
 Classical  division.  Lav[[uage  time.  Latin  grammar  and  Latin  delectus. 
 History  time.  Markham's  Eng^land,  vol.  i.  Scriptural  instruction,  ^-c.  Church 
 catechism  and  abridgment  of  New  Testament  History. 
 
 Mathematical  ditision.  Tables.  Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and 
 division,  simple  and  compound.     Reduction. 
 
 FiiExcH  DIVISION.     Ilamcl's  Exercises,  up  to  the  auxiliary  verbs. 
 
 SECONO  FORM. 
 
 Classical  pivision.  Lnvfrnnrrc  time.  Latin  grammar  and  Latin  Delectus 
 Kutropius.  History  lime.  Markham's  Ijigland,  vol.  ii.  Scriptural  instruction, 
 c^r.     St.  Luke.     Genesis. 
 
 Mathematical  division.  The  work  done  in  the  first  form  repeated.  Rule 
 of  three.     Practice. 
 
 FiiKNCU  division.  Ilamcrs  Exercises.  Auxiliary  verbs.  Regular  conjuga- 
 tions and  some  of  the  irregular.     Gaultier's  Geography. 
 
 Tin  111)  FonM. 
 Classical  division.     Lam^unge  lime.     Greek  grammar  (Matthitr,  Abridg- 
 ment).     Vulpy's   (ireck    Exercises.      Valpy's   Greek    Delectus.      Florilegiuni. 
 Translations    into  Latin.      History    time.       Eutropius.       Physical   geography. 
 
 •  .Tonrnnl  of  Eduration,  vol.  vii.,  p.  235,  &,c.  The  article  is  understood  to  be 
 an  nuthori/ed  publication,  and  from  Uie  pen  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Arnold. 
 
RUGBY  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL.  397 
 
 (Useful  Knowledge  Society.)  Scriptural  instruction,  Sfc  Exodus.  Numbers. 
 Judges,  i.  and  ii.     Samuel.     St.  Matthew. 
 
 Mathematical  division.  Rule  of  three.  Practice.  Vulgar  fractions.  In- 
 terest. 
 
 FnExcH  DivisioN^.  Hamcl's  Exercises,  first  part,  continued.  Irregular  verbs. 
 Elizabeth,  ou  les  Exiles  en  Siberie. 
 
 LOWER  REMOVE. 
 
 Classical  hivision.  Language  time.  Greek  grammar  and  Valpy's  Excr- 
 cises.  Rules  of  the  Greek  Iambics.  Easy  parts  of  the  Iambics  of  the  Greek  tra- 
 gedians.  Virgil's  Eclogues.  Cicero  de  Senectute.  History  time.  Parts  of 
 Justin.  Parts  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis.  Markham's  France,  to  Philip  of  Valois. 
 Scriptural  instruction,  Sfc.  St.  Matthew,  in  Greek  Testament.  Acts,  in  the  Eng- 
 lish  Bible. 
 
 Mathematical  division.  Vulgar  fractions.  Interest.  Decimal  fractions. 
 Square  root. 
 
 French  division.  Hamel  continued  and  repeated.  Jussieu's  Jardin  des 
 Plantes. 
 
 fourth  form. 
 
 Classical  division.  Language  time.  ^Eschylus,  Prometh.  Virgil,  ^n.  ii. 
 and  iii.  Cicero  de  Amicitia.  History  time.  Part  of  Xenophon's  Hellenics. 
 Florus  from  iii.  21  to  iv.  11.  History  of  Greece.  (U.  K.  S.)  Markham's 
 France,  from  Philip  of  Valois.  Detailed  geography  of  Italy  and  Germany.  Scrip- 
 tural instruction,  SfC.  Acts,  in  the  Greek  Testament.  '  St.  John,  in  the  English 
 Bible.     Old  Testament  History. 
 
 Mathematical  division.  Decimals.  Involution  and  evolution.  Addition, 
 subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  algebra.  Binomial  tlieorem.  Euclid, 
 Book  i.,  Prop.  1  to  15. 
 
 French  division.  Hamel's  Second  Part,  chiefly  syntax  of  the  pronouns. 
 La  Fontaine's  Fables. 
 
 upper  remove. 
 
 Classical  division.  Language  time.  Sophocles'  Philoct.  -iEschyl.  Eume- 
 nid.  Homer's  Iliad,  i.,  ii.  Virgil  Mn,,  iv.,  v.  Parts  of  Horace,  Odes  i.,  ii.,  iii. 
 Parts  of  Cicero's  Epistles.  History  time.  Parts  of  Arrian.  Parts  of  Patcrculus, 
 Book  ii.  Sir  J.  Mackintosh's  England.  Scriptural  instruction.  St.  John,  in 
 Greek  Testament.  Deuteronomy  and  Epistle  of  St.  Peter.  Selections  from  the 
 Psalms. 
 
 Mathematical  division.  Equation  of  payments.  Discount.  Simple  equa- 
 tions.    Euclid,  Book  i.,  from  15  to  end. 
 
 French  division.  Translation  from  English  into  French.  La  Fontaine's 
 Fables. 
 
 LOWER  FIFTH. 
 
 Classical  division.  Language  time,  .^schyl.  Sept.  Contra  Thebas.  So- 
 phocles, O^d.  Tyr.  Homer's  Iliad,  iii.,  iv.  Virgil's  IF.uexd,  vi.,  vii.  Extracts  from 
 Cicero's  Epistles.    Parts  of  Horace.    History  time.    Parts  of  Ai-rian.    Hero- 
 
398  GEN-ERAL  EDUCATION-.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 dotus,  iii.,  1,  38,  61,  G7,  88,  110,  Livy,  parts  of  ii.  and  iii,  Ilalkm's  Middle 
 Ages.  France,  Spain,  Greeks,  and  Saracens.  Pliysical  and  political  geography 
 of  all  Europe.  Scriptural  instruction.  St.  John.  Epistles  to  Timothy  and 
 Titus.     Bible  history,  from  1  Kings  to  Nehemiah,  inclusive. 
 
 Mathematical  division.  Exchange.  Alligation.  Simple  equations  with 
 two  unknown  qualities,  and  problems.     Euclid,  Book  iii. 
 
 French  division-.  Syntax  and  idioms.  A  play  of  Moli^re,  to  construe,  and 
 tlieii  to  turn  from  English  into  French. 
 
 FIFTH  Fonar. 
 
 Classical  urvisioy.  Language  time.  iEschyl.  Agamemnon.  Homer's 
 Iliad,  v.,  vi.;  Odyssey,  ix.  Demosthenes'  Leptines  in  Aphobum  i.  Virgil's 
 JEii.  viii.  Parts  of  Horace.  Cicero  in  Verrem.  History  time.  Parts  of  Hero- 
 dotus and  Thueydides.  Parts  of  Livy.  Hallam's  Middle  Ages.  State  of  society. 
 Scriptural  instruction,  Sfc.     Epistles  to  the  Corinthians.     Palcy's  Horae  Paulinoe. 
 
 Mathematical  division.  Quadratic  equations.  Trigonometry.  Euclid,  to 
 tlie  end  of  Book  vi. 
 
 French  divisiow.  Pcnsecs  dc  Pascal.  Translations  from  the  English  into 
 French. 
 
 SIXTH  FORM. 
 
 Classical  division.  Language  time.  Various  parts  of  Virgil  and  Homer. 
 Some  one  or  more  of  the  Greek  tragedies.  One  or  more  of  the  private  orations 
 of  Demosthenes.  Cicero  against  Verres.  Parts  of  Aristotle's  Ethics.  History 
 time.  Parts  of  Thueydides  and  Arrian.  Parts  of  Tacitus.  Parts  of  Russell's 
 Modern  Europe.  Scriptural  instruction,  Sfc.  One  of  the  prophets  in  the  Scp- 
 tuagint  version.     Different  parts  of  the  New  Testament. 
 
 Mathematical  division.  Euclid,  iii.,  vi.  Simple  and  quadratic  equations. 
 Plane  trigonometry.     Conic  sections. 
 
 FiiENCH  DIVISION.  Parts  of  Guizot's  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'Anglcterre, 
 and  Mignet's  Histoire  dc  la  Revolut.  Frangais. 
 
 A  comparison  of  this  course  with  tliat  of  one  of  the  grammar 
 schools  still  adhering  closely  to  the  old  system,  will  serve  to 
 show  how  far  it  is  in  advance;  I  select  an  authorized  account 
 of  the  courses  at  Harrow  for  the  comparison.* 
 
 THinD  FORM. 
 
 Evongclia.  Ovid's  Epistles.  Selecta  c  profanis.  Greek  grammar.  Exempla 
 Minora.  Two  sets  of  Latin  verses  and  one  Exempla  Minora,  during  each  week, 
 as  exercises.  Monita  Christiana.  Hartley's  Geography.  Scriptures  read  on 
 Sundays. 
 
 *   Quarterly  Juiirn.il  of  I'duralion,  vol.  iii.  p.  1,  \-r.     London. 
 
HARROW  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL.  309 
 
 fotthth  torm. 
 
 Repetition  of  Ovid's  Epistles.  Ovid's  Mcfamorphoseg.  Excerpta  from  Virgil 
 and  Horace.     Turselini  Hist.    Caesar  and  Monita  Christiana. 
 
 Repetition  of  Greek  grammar.  Greek  Testament.  Poesis  Graeca.  Two 
 copies  of  Latin  verses  and  one  translation  from  the  Praxis  of  Dr.  Butler,  per 
 week,  as  exercises. 
 
 A  map  to  be  copied  and  shaded,  as  a  weekly  exercise  in  geography.  St.  Mat- 
 thew's and  St.  Mark's  gospels.  Wake's  Catechism,  with  Scripture  proofs,  for 
 Sundays. 
 
 SHEIL  FORM. 
 
 Historia  Romana.  Cornelius  Nepos.  Virgil's  iEneid.  Horace's  Odes,  Epis- 
 tles, or  Satires.  Latin  theme.  Latin  lyrics.  Latin  hexameters  or  elegiacs.  Greek 
 Testament.  Musa  Graeca.  Xenophon's  Anabasis.  Retranslation  of  Xenophon 
 into  Greek.  Homer's  Iliad.  Repetition  of  Greek  and  Latin  verse.  Geography. 
 St.  Luke's  and  St.  John's  gospels.  Watts'  Scripture  History.  Doddridge's  Ser- 
 mons on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,  for  Sundays. 
 
 FIFTH  FORM. 
 
 Historia  Romana.  Virgil's  iEneid  and  Georgics,  the  latter  in  the  way  of  lec- 
 ture, and  with  repetition.  Horace's  Odes,  construed,  explained,  and  comments 
 entered  in  common  place  book.  Repetition  of  Horace's  Odes.  Horace's  Epis- 
 tles and  Satires.  Latin  theme.  Latin  verse,  hexameter  or  elegiac  (tliirty^the  com- 
 pulsory number  per  week).  Latin  lyrics.  Musa  Graeca.  Homer's  Iliad.  Thucydi- 
 des.  Demosthenes.  Philosophia  Graeca.  Greek  plays,  and  lectures  on  the  Metres 
 and  Greek  theatre.  Grecian  history  and  chronology.  Ancient  geography. 
 Modern  geography.     Lecture  on  literature. 
 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Paley's  Evidences.  Watt's  Scripture  Geography,  for 
 Sundays. 
 
 SIXTH  FORM. 
 
 Virgil's  iEneid.  Horace's  Odes,  Epistles,  and  Satires.  Historia  Romana. 
 Latin  themes.  Written  translations.  Latin  lyrics.  Latin  hexameter  and  pen- 
 tameter verses. 
 
 Parts  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts.  Musa  Graeca.  Homer's  Iliad.  Thucydides. 
 Demosthenes.  Philosophia  Graeca.  Greek  plays.  Greek  prose  exercises  and 
 verses. 
 
 Greek  history.     Modern  history.     English  essays. 
 
 Bcausobre  on  the  New  Testament.  General  Scripture  history.  Euclid.  Vul- 
 gar and  decimal  fractions.     Logic. 
 
 New  Testament.  Newton  on  the  Prophecies.  Lectures  on  the  Articles  of  the 
 Church  of  England,  with  Scripture  proofs,  for  Sundays. 
 
 Admitting  that  by  the  arrangements  at  Rugby  the  mathe- 
 matical and  French  divisions  will  be,  in  general,  imperfectly 
 taught,  which  does  not  seem  to  be  liable  to  a  doubt  in  theory, 
 
400  GEN'ERAL  EDUCATION.      SECONDARY  rERIOD. 
 
 and  which  tlic  fact  is  said  to  confirm,  how  vastly  superior  is 
 its  mere  classical  division  to  that  which  occupies  the  time  of 
 the  Harrow  student.  In  that  division  the  ancient  languages, 
 leavinc^  out  of  consideration  the  modern  history,  and  reasoning 
 upon  the  acquisition  of  these  studies  for  themselves,  are  as  fully 
 taught,  and  with  materials  which  appear  to  me  more  rational, 
 connected,  and  better  chosen  than  those  of  Harrow.*  If  no 
 literature  existed  beyond  that  of  Greece  and  llornc;  if  no  dis- 
 coveries in  mathematics  or  physics,  in  art  or  nature;  if  no  na- 
 tions had,  by  the  advance  of  civilization,  come  into  greater 
 relative  importance  than  in  the  days  of  Rome's  prosperity,  the 
 course  of  Harrow  might  be  well  adapted  to  train  up  British 
 youths  of  the  provinces  in  the  learning  of  the  capital.  As  it  is, 
 the  exclusion  of  all,  or  nearly  all,  that  characterises  modern 
 civilization,  brings  discredit  upon  the  system,  and  the  worst 
 foes  of  the  legitimate  use  of  classical  culture  are  those  who 
 profess  to  be  its  best  friends.  The  success  which  the  pupils  of 
 Rugby  have  had  in  the  univ^ersities,  the  standard  by  which  all 
 the  public  schools  in  England  are  tried,  proves  conclusively 
 that  it  has  lost  nothing  on  the  score  of  classical  instruction  by 
 introducing  some  modern  improvements  into  its  course.  The 
 success,  in  the  same  field,  of  the  Edinburgh  Academy,  which 
 has  also  adopted,  and  actually  gone  further  in  these  improve- 
 ments, shows  that  an  eflicient  arrangement  may  carry  out  the 
 modern  courses  without  interrupting  the  progress  of  the  ancient 
 languages.  When  we  come  to  consider  the  gymnasia  of  Ger- 
 many, we  shall  have  additional  examples  of  the  same  kind, 
 cmbracincr  a  still  further  extension  of  modern  branches,  with- 
 out  injury  to  the  classical  departments.  This  grade  of  progress 
 in  England,  and  even  in  Scotland,  has  yet  been  too  recent  to 
 allurd  the  desired  experience  as  to  its  results. 
 
 The  masters  at  Rugby  are  at  liberty  to  give  private  instruc- 
 tion in  any  branches  not  forming  a  part  of  the  regular  course, 
 but  in  fact  have  few  private  pupils.  The  practice  of  giving 
 j)rivate  lessons  of  revision  of  the  daily  exercises,  or  of  prcpara- 
 
 •  I  subjoin  in  the  Appendix,  No.  XII.,  the  remarks  understood  to  he  from  the 
 pen  of  Dr.  Arnold,  on  tlic  Use  and  Mclliod  of  the  Study  of  tlic  Ancient  Languages. 
 
RUGBY  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL.  401 
 
 tion  for  them,  is  not  allowed  here,  while  at  Harrow  each  pupil 
 IS  required  to  have  a  private  tutor. 
 
 The  stimulus  of  taking  places  in  the  class  is  used  in  all  the 
 forms  below  the  sixth;  the  classes  below  the  lower  fifth  taking 
 places  according  to  proficiency  at  each  recitation.    There  is  a 
 general  examination   before  the  Christmas  holidays,  and  the 
 names  of  the  pupils  who  distinguish  themselves  are  printed.   The 
 students  have  the  privilege  of  presenting  themselves  for  exami- 
 nation on  books  which  they  have  read  out  of  school,  and  this 
 readmg  counts  in  the  determination  of  standing.    The  fifth  and 
 sixth  forms  are  examined  by  the  head  master  in  classics  once 
 a  month,  and  at  the  June  examination  of  the  fifth  form  they 
 are  rated  according  to  the  marks  of  the  last  half  year.     The 
 sixth  form  is  limited  in  number,  and  hence  only  those  in  some 
 degree   proficients  in  the   fifth,  enter  it.      A  pupil   who  has 
 not  reached  the  fifth  form  at  eighteen,  or  the  sixth  at  nineteen, 
 IS   generally   allowed   to    withdraw.      The    members   of  the 
 sixth  form  are  not  stimulated  by  daily  comparison  with  each 
 other,  and  indeed  Dr.  Arnold  is  understood  to  be  very  cautious 
 HI  exciting  the  principle  of  ambition.     There  are,  how^ever, 
 prizes,   consisting  of  payments   called   "exhibitions,"  of  sixty 
 pounds  (nearly  three  hundred  dollars)  a-year  for  seven  years, 
 which  may  be  awarded  to  pupils  entering  and  residing  at  either 
 of  the  universities  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge.    Of  those  who  leave 
 Rugby  for  the  English  universities,  by  far  the  greater  number, 
 perhaps  nearly  two  to  one,  go   to  Oxford,  indicating  by  this 
 selection  that  they  are  conscious  of  full  attainment  in  classical 
 knowledge.    The  pupils  remain  ordinarily  in  the  sixth  form  two 
 years,  their  age  at  terminating  the  course  being  eighteen  or 
 nineteen,  on  the  average. 
 
 The  regular  lessons  of  the  school  employ  five  hours  and 
 a-half  per  day  on  three  days  of  the  week,  and  four  hours  and 
 a-half  on  three  others,  which  are  half-holidays.  They  are  dis- 
 tributed as  follows:  from  seven  to  eight,  A.  M.,  nine  and 
 a-quarter  to  eleven,  two  and  a-quarter  to  five,  P.  M.,  on  three 
 days;  and  the  same  hours  between  seven  and  eleven,  A.  M., 
 with  from  eleven,  A.  M.  to  one.  P.  M.,  on  three  other  dav^ 
 
 :>i  *"" 
 
402  GENERAL  EDUCATIUX.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  distribution  of  time  for  recreation  seems  to  me  better  than 
 that  at  Harrow,  where  the  whole  of  Tuesday  is  a  holiday,  and 
 Tliursday  and  Saturday  half-holidays. 
 
 Physical  education.  This  branch,  though  not  specially  regu- 
 lated in  the  English  schools,  is  usually  in  an  excellent  condition. 
 There  is  always  a  spacious  play-ground  or  common  attached 
 to  every  public  school  of  this  grade,  and  the  relish  which  pupils 
 display  for  games  requiring  skill  and  strength,  and  giving  exer- 
 cise to  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  is  very  great.  I  have 
 already  alluded  to  the  common  or  play-ground  at  Rugby.  The 
 amusements  are,  in  general,  never  interfered  with,  the  pupils 
 being  without  superintendence,  an  attempt  at  which  would 
 be  resented  as  an  infringement  of  privilege.  In  many  private 
 schools  it  has  been  thought  better  that  the  teachers  should  be 
 present,  and  in  some  they  even  mingle  with  the  pupils  at  play; 
 but  the  relative  position  of  the  master  and  pupil  in  most  of  the 
 public  schools  does  not  permit  this  mode  of  combining  moral 
 with  physical  education.  The  whole  tone  of  mind  of  a  pupil 
 of  an  English  public  school  is,  in  this  respect,  peculiar,  and  the 
 effect,  in  reference  to  conduct,  has  its  good  and  evil  features. 
 A  spirit  of  independence  is  fostered,  but  frequently  at  the  cost 
 of  neglect  of  moral  principle. 
 
 ST.  DOMINGO-HOUSE  SCHOOL,  EVERTON,  NEAR  LIVERPOOL. 
 
 In  visiting  private  establishments  for  education,  my  inquiries 
 were  necessarily  limited  by  the  disposition  shown  to  fur- 
 nish me  with  information.  It  frequently  happened,  however, 
 that  every  thing  was  thrown  open  without  reserve,  and  every 
 endeavour  shown  to  enable  me  to  judge  for  myself  of  the  results 
 of  the  system.  Such  opportunities  I  enjoyed  through  the  kind- 
 ness of  the  heads  of  the  private  schools  of  which  I  am  about  to 
 give  a  sketch. 
 
 Mr.  Voelcker's  institution  is  established  in  a  large  mansion, 
 called  the  St.  Domingo- house,  in  the  village  of  Everton,  near 
 the  city  of  Liverpool.  The  situation  is  elevated,  the  house  con- 
 venient, and  the  grounds  am})le  for  the  purposes  of  the  estab- 
 lishment.    It    consists,   in    fact,  of    two    schools    in    ditVerent 
 
ST.  DOMINGO-HOUSE  SCHOOL.  403 
 
 buildings,  one  a  day-school,  the  other,  of  which  I  speak,  a 
 boarding-school.  The  institution  is  intended  for  the  threefold 
 purpose  of  preparing  young  men  for  the  universities,  for  the 
 army,  navy,  and  engineering,  and  for  trade.  At  a  certain  pe- 
 riod the  courses  divide  according  to  the  future  destination  of 
 the  pupils. 
 
 The  views  of  Mr.  Voelcker  in  education  are  understood  to 
 coincide  with  those  of  many  of  the  most  intelligent  of  the  dis- 
 ciples of  Pestalozzi.  His  plans  are  very  different  from  those 
 of  the  grammar  schools  which  have  just  been  noticed,  and, 
 therefore,  afford  experience  in  reference  to  points  not  reached 
 by  them.  These  points  are  principally  the  following,  the  inter- 
 course and  relation  between  the  teachers  and  pupils,  and  be- 
 tween the  pupils  themselves,  both  affecting  the  ground-work  of 
 moral  education :  the  result  of  postponing  the  study  of  the 
 ancient  languages,  and  of  preceding  them  by  the  study  of  mo- 
 dern languages ;  of  introducing  a  knowledge  of  nature  and  art 
 throughout  the  course;  and  of  dispensing  with  emulation  as  a 
 means  of  exciting  to  intellectual  exertion. 
 
 Moral  education.  Besides  the  means  of  religious  instruction 
 commonly  used  for  developing  the  moral  sentiments,  there  is  here 
 a  constant  endeavour  to  promote  the  influence  of  the  teacher, 
 by  cultivating  friendly  feelings  and  intercourse  between  him 
 and  his  pupils.  The  younger  classes  have  female  superinten- 
 dence. The  elder  ones  are  accompanied  in  their  play,  and 
 superintended  in  their  studies,  by  the  younger  assistant  teachers. 
 The  principal  and  some  of  the  teachers  take  their  meals  with 
 the  pupils,  partaking  at  the  same  table  of  the  same  fare.  Some 
 of  the  assistant  teachers,  also,  sleep  in  the  rooms  with  the 
 pupils,  and  thus,  as  in  the  German  schools,  exercise  a  powerful 
 influence  in  reference  to  their  moral  education.  Experience, 
 here  and  elsewhere,  has  shown  that  this  intercourse  is  compati- 
 ble with  a  due  maintenance  of  discipline,  and  that  it  tends 
 materially  to  lessen  the  necessity  for  punishments.  The  princi- 
 pal makes,  from  time  to  time,  a  communication  to  parents,  in 
 which  he  states  the  progress  and  conduct  of  their  children. 
 The  school  is  assembled  at  the  close  of  the  morning  and  after- 
 
404  GENERAL   EDUCATIOV,       SEfOVDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 noon  recitations,  and  a  report  made  to  llie  principal  by  each 
 teaciier.  Private  admonition  is  given,  if  required  by  the  nature 
 of  the  report,  and  frequent  offences  are  followed  by  an  appeal 
 to  the  parents,  and  if  this  fails  to  produce  the  desired  effect,  or 
 in  the  case  of  flagrant  offences,  by  removal  from  the  school. 
 Corporal  punishment  is  rarely  resorted  to. 
 
 IntelkctaaJ  education.  The  pupils  are  divided  into  six 
 classes,  in  general  according  to  age.  Each  class  contains 
 from  eight  to  thirteen  or  even  fifteen  pupils,  under  the  charge 
 of  a  teacher,  who  devotes  himself  to  some  particular  branch 
 or  branches.  The  teaching  is,  therefore,  individual,  except  in 
 certain  subjects,  as  drawing,  natural  philosophy,  and  chemistry, 
 when  two  or  three  classes  are  united.  The  lessons  are  pre- 
 pared under  the  direction,  and,  if  necessary,  with  the  assistance 
 of  the  masters. 
 
 The  following  is  a  general  statement  of  the  studies  of  the 
 different  classes  on  which  I  shall  remark  in  passing : 
 
 First  Class.  Age  of  the  pupils  from  six  to  eight  years.  Religion.  Duties 
 to  God,  to  parents  and  teachers,  to  fellow  pupils.  Views  of  man  and  nature,  and 
 of  their  author.  Suitable  verses  from  the  Bible  and  hymns  committed  to  memory. 
 Exercises  of  the  perceptive  faculties.  Properties  of  different  natural  and  artificial 
 bodies  derived  from  induction,  by  the  pupils.  Language.  Correct  speech  and 
 pronunciation,  connected  with  the  foregoing  exercises.  Practical  grammar. 
 Reading,  Mental  arithmetic.  Nunicration  and  the  ground  rules  taught  with 
 sensible  objects.  Examples  in  denominate,  or  concrete,  numbers  only.  Vit'riting. 
 Letters  formed.  Significant  words,  from  the  foregoing  exercises,  written.  Form 
 and  drawing.  Tracing  of  straight  and  curved  lines,  variously  directed  and 
 combined.  Simple  objects  delineated.  The  number  of  hours  of  instruction  is 
 about  five  per  day. 
 
 The  pupils  of  this  class  being  quite  young,  their  power  of 
 continued  attention  is  small,  and  hence  the  subjects  of  recita- 
 tion are  frequently  varied,  and  the  hours  are  divided  by  intervals 
 of  exercise.  1  had  an  opportunity  of  verifying  the  good  effects 
 of  this  judicious  arrangement.  The  variety  of  subject  which 
 pleases  the  child  of  this  age,  induces  due  mental  effort,  and  con- 
 tributes to  lead  to  a  habit  of  attention,  which  is  to  be  cultivated 
 by  gradual  steps  in  the  after  classes.  I  saw  no  experience, 
 anv  whore,  which  indirntod  that  tu  render  insli-nclinu  disagree- 
 
ST.  DOMmCO-HOUSE  SCHOOL.  405 
 
 able,  to  overfatigue  the  mind  of  the  child,  and  his  body,  were 
 successful  methods  of  developing  either,  or  to  support  the  idea 
 that  the  education  of  young  children  may  be  marred  by  ren- 
 derinf]^  their  instruction  too  a2jrceable. 
 
 Second  Class.  Eiglit  to  ten  years  of  age.  Religion.  Bible  history.  Lan- 
 guage. English  grammar.  Historical  compositions.  Geography.  General  ideas 
 of  physical  geography.  History.  Stories  from  general  history,  and  from  the 
 History  of  England.  Arithmetic.  Mental  arithmetic,  the  ground  rules,  with  con- 
 crete, abstract,  and  compound  numbers.  Fractions.  Use  of  figures,  and  appli- 
 cation to  foregoing  rules.  Forms.  Ideas  of  geometrical  figures.  Natural  History. 
 Animals.  Writing.  Sentences  relating  to  the  subjects  of  study.  Drawing. 
 Chiefly  from  real  objects. 
 
 Third  Class.  Ten  to  twelve  years  of  age.  Religion.  Historical  parts  of  the 
 Bible,  chiefly  from  the  New  Testament.  Language.  1.  English  composition, 
 historical  and  descriptive;  correct  reading.  2.  French.  3. German.  Etymology, 
 and  forms  of  the  simple  sentences,  acquisition  of  words  and  phrases.  Geography. 
 Europe  and  Great  Britain  more  in  detail.  History.  Connected  English  history. 
 Arithmetic.  Decimals,  square  root,  proportions,  fellowship,  interest,  &.c.  Geome- 
 try. Plane  figures.  Natural  Philosophy.  Inductive  exercises.  General  proper- 
 ties of  bodies.     Mechanics.    Writing  and  Drawing,  as  in  the  second  class. 
 
 The  peculiarity  before  mentioned,  of  beginning  with  the 
 foreign  modern  languages,  instead  of  the  ancient,  is  here  intro- 
 duced. The  English  is  supposed  to  be  the  language  of  com- 
 parison, and  the  French  and  German  are  taught  early,  for  the 
 sake  of  accurate  pronunciation,  and  of  acquiring  a  facility  in 
 their  use  in  conversation.  I  have  before  offered  some  remarks 
 on  this  subject  in  speaking  of  the  Hill-street  Institution,  in 
 Edinburgh.  As  many  of  the  teachers  in  this  school  are 
 foreigners,  who  speak  English  with  difficulty,  the  pupils  are 
 induced  the  more  readily  to  converse  with  them  in  their  own 
 language. 
 
 Fourth  Class.  Twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  Religion.  Reading  the 
 Scriptures.  General  views  of  the  Christian  religion.  Language.  1,  English 
 composition.  2.  French  and  German,  continued.  Committing  to  memory  pas- 
 sages  of  prose  and  verse.  3.  Latin  begun.  Etymology  and  simple  parts  of 
 syntax.  Versions  from  English  into  Latin.  Cornelius  Nepos.  Geography.  Ge- 
 neral political  and  statistical  geography.  History.  Ancient  history ;  history  of 
 the  middle  ages.  Arithmetic  and  algebra.  Cube  root.  Proportions  and  loga- 
 rithms.   Algebra,  to  f(Madratic  equations,  inclusive.     Geometry.  SoVids.    Trigono- 
 
406  GENERAL  EDrCATIOy.       SErOXDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 metry.  Natural  Philosophy.  Elements  of  Astronomy.  Mathematical  and  phy- 
 sical gcograj)liy.  Drawing.  From  models.  Copying  drawings  of  landscapes 
 and  the  human  figure. 
 
 In  tlie  French,  the  black-board  is  used  by  the  pupils  in  writ- 
 ing from  dictation,  or  in  turning  English  into  French.  Another 
 useful  method  is  the  preparation  of  written  exercises  from  a 
 book,  in  which  but  few  of  the  French  words  are  given  below 
 the  English.  These  exercises  are  afterwards  ti'anslated,  viva 
 voce,  into  English,  and  then  the  French  is  read  correctly  from 
 the  book.  In  German,  pieces  committed  to  memory  are  writ- 
 ten out  to  acquire  the  spelling. 
 
 The  natural  philosophy  lessons  are  given  in  conversational 
 lectures,  interspersed  with  questions,  to  ascertain  the  state  of 
 the  pupil's  knowledge.  The  class  take  notes,  which  are  written 
 out  subsequently  in  full,  and  presented  at  the  next  recitation  for 
 correction. 
 
 In  the  drawing  class  a  very  useful  exercise  is  introduced, 
 consisting  in  copying  drawings  upon  a  different  scale  from  the 
 original.     Latin  is  begun  in  this  class. 
 
 Fifth  Class.  Fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age.  Religion.  Reading  the  Scrip- 
 tures.  Morals  of  Christianity  compared  with  those  of  paganism.  Language. 
 1.  English  composition  and  literature.  2.  French  and  German  exercises  and 
 composition.  Committing  selected  pieces  to  memory.  3.  Latin.  Cornelius 
 Ncpos,  finished.  Ovid.  History.  Modern  history.  Natural  Philosophy.  Ele- 
 ments of  hydrostatics,  &,c.  Heat,  &-c.  Optics.  Electricity.  Galvanism  and 
 magnetism.     Chemistry. 
 
 The  branches  just  enumerated  are  common  to  all  divisions 
 of  the  class,  but  here  a  separation  takes  place,  according  to 
 the  destination  of  the  pupils  in  after  life. 
 
 For  the  first  division,  or  those  preparing  for  llie  university, 
 the  following  studies  are  added: 
 
 Latin.  Translations  from  English  into  Latin.  Cicero  and  Livy  read.  Greek. 
 Etymological  parts  of  the  grammar.     Greek  delectus.     Xenophon. 
 
 For  the  second  division,  intended  for  the  military  or  naval 
 schools,  the  following  courses  are  added: 
 
 Spherical  trigonometry.  Land  surveying.  Navigation.  Mechanics.  Tcrji- 
 nology  and  gcomrtriral  drawing. 
 
ST.  DOMINGO- HOUSE  SCHOOL.  407 
 
 For  the  third  division,  or  those  preparing  for  commerce: 
 
 Practical  arithmetic.  Book-keeping.  History  and  geography  of  commerce, 
 and  a  knowledge  of  the  chief  articles  of  trade  and  commerce. 
 
 The  chemistry  is  taught  according  to  the  method  already 
 described  as  used  by  Dr.  D.  B.  Reid,  of  Edinburgh.  It  is  diffi- 
 cult to  introduce  a  similar  system  in  regard  to  mechanics,  but 
 it  has  been  done,  partially,  as  already  stated,  at  the  La  Mar- 
 tiniere  school  of  Lyons. 
 
 The  instruction  in  regard  to  the  articles  of  trade  and  com- 
 merce is  accompanied  by  a  kind  of  practical  exercise  in  the 
 system  of  banking,  in  the  difierent  operations  of  trade,  in  the 
 mode  of  keeping  books,  &c.,  the  members  of  the  class  being 
 converted  into  an  imaginary  community,  carrying  on  supposed 
 operations  of  this  kind  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  To 
 conduct  these  exercises  properly,  requires  considerable  skill,  as 
 well  as  knowledge,  but  I  was  much  pleased  to  see  that  sound 
 instruction  was  actually  communicated,  and  the  details  of 
 business,  with  their  general  theory,  were  thus  impressed  in  a 
 way  not  easily  to  be  forgotten. 
 
 Sixth  Class.  Sixteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age.  This  class  is  only  intended 
 for  those  preparing  for  the  university. 
 
 Language.  English,  French  and  German  composition.  Extracts  from  classical 
 authors.  Latin  prosody  and  versification.  Translations  into  Greek,  continued. 
 Xenophon,  Plato,  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Homer,  Euripides  and  ^schylus.  Geo- 
 graphy. Ancient  Geography.  Mental  Fhilosophy.  Mathematics.  First  six  books 
 of  Euclid,  in  Latin. 
 
 The  propriety  of  postponing  Latin  until  the  age  of  thirteen^ 
 the  average  of  the  fourth  class,  is  a  question  which  experience 
 alone  can  determine  positively.  In  the  case  of  those  who  are 
 to  go  to  the  universities,  where  their  success  depends  in  a  great 
 measure  upon  their  being  thoroughly  trained  classical  scholars, 
 I  must  express  my  conviction  that  the  period  between  the  fourth 
 class  and  the  end  of  the  sixth  is  not  sufficient,  with  the  many 
 other  subjects  to  be  attended  to,  to  enable  youths  of  ordinary 
 abilities  to  compete  successfully  with  those  who  begin  earlier, 
 and  devote  more  of  their  time  to  the  classics.  In  the  present 
 state  of  secondary  instruction  in  England,  the  classics  must  be 
 
408  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.       SECOXDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 tlic  prominent  feature  of  every  school  which  prepares  pupils  for 
 the  universities.  That  tliere  is,  also,  ample  time  to  devote  to 
 other  studies,  I  think  experience  has  shown,  and  I  believe,  fur- 
 ther, that  the  mental  training  derived  from  the  combined  sys- 
 tem is  superior  to  that  from  the  exclusively  classical,  but  not 
 that  modern  languages  and  science  can  be  made  the  basis,  and 
 the  ancient  languages  supplementary,  consistently  with  such  an 
 acquisition  of  the  latter  as  to  enable  the  student  to  compete  for 
 stations  depending  upon  them  with  those  who  have  been  drilled 
 in  them  from  early  youth.  On  the  otiier  hand,  I  must  express, 
 "with  equal  freedom,  my  opinion  that,  as  a  preparation  for  en- 
 gineering, the  army,  navy,  commerce,  or  trade,  or  for  the 
 general  purposes  of  life,  there  cannot  be  a  reasonable  doubt 
 ■whether  a  student  should  devote  his  youth  to  the  ancient  lan- 
 guages, as  at  Harrow,  or  to  the  more  general  course  of  study, 
 as  in  the  school  under  consideration.  The  sources  of  usefulness 
 and  enjoyment  opened  by  the  latter  course  would,  in  my  opi- 
 nion, far  surpass  those  presented  by  the  former. 
 
 The  principle  of  emulation  is  not  admitted,  by  Mr.  Voelcker, 
 as  one  upon  which  the  training  of  youth  should  depend,  and, 
 accordingly,  there  is  neither  taking  of  places  in  the  recitations, 
 nor  giving  of  rank  at  examinations.  It  would  require  a  more 
 minute  inspection  of  the  system  than  I  was  able  to  give  it,  to 
 come  to  a  definitive  conclusion  as  to  the  results  of  excluding 
 emulation,  but  I  could  not  avoid  the  impression  that  the  classes 
 would,  in  many  cases,  have  been  more  lively,  had  emulation 
 been  employed.  While  it  may  be  freely  admitted,  in  a  moral 
 point  of  view,  that  a  desire  of  distinction  is  not  among  the 
 highest  motives  to  exertion,  I  question  whether  we  are  yet 
 prepared  to  dispense  with  it  in  our  schools. 
 
 P/njsical  education.  There  is  a  gymnasium,  in  which  regu- 
 lar exercises  from  the  German  system  are  practiced.  At  the 
 time  of  my  visit  this  was  deserted  for  the  play-ground  in  front 
 of  the  house,  and  the  exercises  were  abandoned  for  those  games 
 to  which  the  English  youth  are  so  much  attached. 
 
 The  order  of  Ike  day  in  the  school  is  as  follows : 
 
BRUCE  CASTLE  SCHOOL.  409 
 
 The  pupils  rise  at  half  past  six  in  autumn,  the  hour  varying 
 with  the  season,  assemble  to  prayers  at  seven,  study  in  classes 
 until  eight,  breakfast  and  recite  until  nine,  are  in  school  until 
 twelve,  and  play  until  three  in  summer  and  half  past  three  in 
 winter,  with  an  interval  at  two,  or  half  past  one,  for  dinner;  in 
 school  for  three  hours  until  six  or  half  past  six;  take  tea  in 
 winter  at  half  past  six,  in  summer  at  seven,  and  study  until 
 eight;  at  prayers  and  to  bed  at  nine. 
 
 BRUCE  CASTLE  SCHOOL,  TOTTENHAM,  NEAR  LONDON. 
 
 This  is  a  private  school  near  the  village  of  Tottenham,  ten 
 miles  from  London,  conducted  by  Messrs.  Edwin  and  Arthur 
 Hill,  and  established  by  their  father.  The  principles  and  prac- 
 tice in  their  establishment  are  the  result  of  the  study  and 
 experience  of  the  able  teachers  through  whose  hands  it  has 
 successively  passed.  The  object  of  education  is  thus  stated,  in 
 the  account  of  the  institution.* 
 
 "  The  object  which  we  have  kept  in  view,  in  forming  our 
 system  of  government  and  instruction,  is  to  render  our  pupils, 
 in  the  highest  degree,  virtuous  and  intelligent  men ;  and  at  the 
 same  time  so  to  modify  the  education  of  each,  as  to  enable  him 
 to  pass  with  honour,  success,  and  happiness,  through  that  path 
 of  Hfe  into  which  he  will  probably  be  thrown."  To  effect  this 
 it  is  deemed  essential  to  study  the  individual  pupil,  and  when 
 his  peculiar  talent  and  disposition  are  discovered,  to  direct  him 
 in  the  path  which  they  point  out  as  that  which  he  may  pursue 
 most  successfully,  and  the  parent  is  advised  accordingly.  As 
 there  are,  however,  faculties  to  be  cultivated  essential  to  every 
 man  in  a  laudable  career,  so  the  ground-work  is  general,  while, 
 after  a  certain  period,  the  education  is  varied  according  to  the 
 destination  in  life. 
 
 The  maxims  laid  down  in  relation  to  the  exercise  of  the  facul- 
 ties of  the  mind  arc  as  follows : — The  reflecting  and  inventive 
 
 *  Sketch  of  tlie  System  of  Education,  mental  and  mtellectual,  in  practice  at  the 
 F-choolf?  of  Bruce  Castle,  Tottenham,  and  Hazlewond,  near  Birniinghara.  London, 
 1 833. 
 
410  GENERAL  EDUCATION'.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 powers  should  be  as  much  as  possible  exercised,  by  throwing 
 the  pupil  upon  his  own  resources  in  the  course  of  the  acquisition 
 of  knowledge.  A  distinction,  however,  should  be  made  in  the 
 amount  and  character  of  the  assistance  rendered  to  him  be- 
 tween those  branches  which  may  be  acquired  by  patient  study 
 and  in  progressive  steps,  and  those  which  arc  in  a  great  degree 
 arbitrary,  as,  for  example,  between  mathematics  and  language. 
 The  assistance  which  is  afforded  must  be  valued  in  order  to 
 be  beneficial,  and  must  be  proportioned,  therefore,  to  the  pupil's 
 own  powers,  as  well  as  to  the  nature  of  his  studies.  The  un- 
 derstanding should  be  accustomed  to  examine  for  itself  every 
 idea  presented  to  it,  and  to  be  certain  that  it  is  fully  grasped. 
 Concentration  of  the  mind  mainly  upon  one  subject  is  essen- 
 tial to  success  in  its  attainment,  and  the  studies,  therefore, 
 should  be  only  so  far  diversified  as  to  give  the  repose  necessary 
 to  renewed  vigour.  This  concentration  cannot,  of  course,  be 
 carried  so  far  in  youth  as  in  manhood.  Order  is  essential  to 
 the  efficiency  of  both  mental  and  bodily  labour.  Desultory 
 cfiTorts  are  of  little  value,  when  compared  with  systematic 
 exertion ;  a  principle  which,  when  a  number  of  individuals 
 are  concerned,  can  only  be  carried  out  by  punctuality  on  the 
 part  of  each. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  kind  of  knowledge  to  be  communicated,  the 
 following  maxims  are  observed: — The  degree  of  attention  paid 
 to  each  study  should  be  proportioned  to  its  importance  to  the 
 welfare  and  happiness  of  society  at  large,  and  of  the  individual 
 pupil.  While,  therefore,  all  the  studies  which  form  the  basis  of 
 a  general  mental  development  are  pursued,  each  pupil  should 
 bestow  special  attention  upon  those  best  calculated  to  culti- 
 vate his  peculiar  powers.  The  formation  of  good  habits  of 
 mind,  and  the  development  of  the  mental,  as  well  as  of  the 
 bodily  strength,  is  more  to  be  regarded  than  the  early  acquire- 
 ment of  positive  knowledge.  As  far  as  possible,  however,  that 
 knowledge  should  be  preferred,  as  the  means  of  mental  culture, 
 which  will  fit  the  pupils  for  their  duties  in  after  life. 
 
 In  rcl,^ard  to  the  mode  of  communicating  knowledge,  the  ar- 
 rangement of  the  subjects  should  be  such  as  to  admit  <>f  the  most 
 
BRUCE  CASTLE   SCHOOL.  411 
 
 ready  application  of  their  principles  by  the  pupils;  and  hence 
 the  value  of  some  branches,  as  introductory  to  others,  should 
 not  be  lost  sight  of.  No  new  step  should  be  taken  without  the 
 certainty  that  the  ground  already  passed  over  has  been  secured, 
 and  constant  repetition  must  be  employed  to  make  sure  that 
 what  has  been  acquired  has  not  been  lost.  A  succession  of 
 definite  objects  should  be  presented  to  the  pupil,  and  the  time 
 necessary,  with  moderate  exertion,  to  their  acquisition  duly 
 assessed. 
 
 The  principles  of  moral  education  or  discipline,  as  laid  down 
 by  the  instructors,  are  as  follows: — "In  arranging  the  motives 
 which  we  hold  out  to  the  pupils,  for  the  acquirement  of  know- 
 ledge, of  good  habits,  and  of  virtuous  feelings,  we  place  highest 
 in  the  scale  that  which  arises  from  the  expectation  of  the  bene- 
 fits which  such  acquirements  will  confer  on  the  holder  himself, 
 and  the  power  they  will  give  him  of  benefiting  others.  Next 
 to  this  motive  we  place  love  of  employment,  then  hope  of  arti- 
 ficial reward,  and,  lastly,  fear  of  punishment."  Artificial  re- 
 w^ards  and  punishments  are  considered  as  necessary  evils,  and 
 hence  their  use  is  limited  to  the  smallest  possible  amount.  Mild 
 punishments,  inflicted  with  certainty,  are  more  efficacious  than 
 severe  ones,  from  which  there  is  a  chance  of  escape.  All  un- 
 necessary restraints  are  to  be  avoided.  If  possible,  oflfences 
 should  be  prevented  rather  than  punished. 
 
 These  principles,  as  far  as  they  cover  the  ground  of  educa- 
 tion, seem  to  me  to  be  entitled  to  a  full  assent,  and  it  will  be 
 interesting  to  trace  some  of  the  modes  of  their  application;  and, 
 first,  to  the  moral  education  and  government  of  the  pupils. 
 
 Regularity  is  insured  by  aiming  at  exact  punctuality.  Each 
 exercise  of  the  school  has  its  appointed  time,  and  rigid  con- 
 formity to  this  is  required,  without  which  time  is  lost  both  to 
 the  tardy  pupil  himself,  and,  through  his  negligence,  to  others.  It 
 is  not  uncommon  in  schools  to  allow  deviation  from  exactness 
 in  the  ringing  of  the  bell,  or  other  signals  for  exercise,  but  the 
 eftect  is  fiital  to  habits  of  punctuality.  It  appears  to  me,  from 
 observation,  that  tlie  happiest  results  are  produced  by  this  rule, 
 which  requires  the  pupil  to  be  in  a  particular  place  at  a  pre- 
 
41*-^  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       i^ECONDAkV    I'KKIOU. 
 
 else  second,  and  that  it  is  greatly  preferable  to  that  which 
 allows  a  latitude  of  several  minutes. 
 
 An  economy  of  time  is  produced  by  this  regulation,  and  also 
 by  making  the  acquisition  of  lessons  "piece-work,"  instead  of 
 "day-work."  A  certain  portion  of  time  is  allotted,  within  which 
 the  pupil  may,  by  proper  exertion,  master  his  lesson;  if  he  is 
 specially  active,  and  has  done  his  work  within  this  time,  the 
 remainder  of  it  is  at  his  own  disposal.  It  is  left  to  his  judg- 
 ment to  decide  when  the  lesson  is  acquired,  and  he  may  leave 
 his  desk;  but  he  is  responsible,  subsequently,  for  his  decision. 
 This  regulation  is  of  course  only  applied  after  the  judgment 
 necessary  to  its  execution  has  been  formed. 
 
 Good  conduct  is  encouraged  by  various  artificial  methods, 
 besides  the  natural  ones  of  approbation  and  censure,  and  the 
 fostering  of  kindly  feelings  of  the  pupils  toward  the  teachers 
 and  towards  each  other.  One  of  these  is  the  award  of  school 
 marks,  according  to  a  graduated  scale,  for  the  performance 
 of  duty,  or  extra  work,  and  their  forfeiture  for  the  infraction 
 of  rules.  The  boys  are  divided  into  circles  often,  over  which 
 an  elder  pupil,  selected  by  the  school,  presides,  under  the  title 
 of  guardian.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  guardian  to  assist  the  mem- 
 bers of  his  circle  in  all  cases  of  difficulty,  as  a  friend  and 
 adviser.  He  also  collects  the  fines  due  from  the  members  of 
 his  circle.  There  are  rewards  and  privileges  depending  upon 
 the  aggregate  conduct  of  the  members  of  a  circle,  so  that  each 
 one  may  be  considered  as  interested  in  the  good  conduct  of  all, 
 and,  therefore,  in  preventing  infractions  of  laws.  A  plan  some- 
 what similar  to  this  has  also  been  tried  at  Mr.  Fcllenberg's  insti- 
 tution in  Switzerland.  In  the  case  of  certain  boys,  the  rules 
 relating  to  rewards  and  punishments  have,  at  different  times, 
 been  suspended  with  success,  such  boys  being  bound  in  honour 
 to  enter  their  conduct  in  a  journal  provided  for  the  purpose. 
 For  the  promotion  of  good  conduct,  an  analytical  table  is  kept, 
 which  displays,  under  appropriate  and  well  subdivided  heads, 
 the  opinion  of  each  teacher  in  regard  to  cvcvy  pu])il.  On  a 
 change  of  conduct,  there  is  a  corresj^ondiiig  rhnnge  of  the  re- 
 gister.     If  the  standing  upon  this  loll  is  Lrood.  (•(^rtaiii  fa\t>urs 
 
BRUCE  CASTLE  SCHOOL.  413 
 
 are  extended  to  the  pupil,  such  as  the  use  of  a  small  garden,  an 
 excursion  of  a  day  or  more,  every  half  year,  and  the  use  of  a 
 separate  small  room  for  a  study.  A  high  place  in  the  conduct- 
 roll  requires  not  merely  the  absence  of  infractions  of  rules,  but 
 the  manifestation  of  active  good  qualities;  absolute  merit,  not 
 comparative,  is  rewarded  by  testimonials,  and  the  name  of  a 
 pupil  who  is  highly  distinguished  is  inscribed  on  a  tablet  of 
 honour.  In  extreme  cases,  temporary  or  entire  separation  of  a 
 pupil  from  his  fellows  is  resorted  to  as  a  punishment,  but  in  no 
 case  is  public  shame  or  corporal  punishment  allowed.  In  ge- 
 neral, the  intention  of  this  method  is  to  dispense,  as  far  as  possi- 
 ble, with  punishments.  Although  the  result  of  the  regulations 
 of  this  school  appeared  to  me,  in  the  main,  satisfactory,  yet 
 parts  of  them  did  not  strike  me  favourably,  as,  for  example,  the 
 admission  of  the  pupil  to  a  share  in  the  enactment  of  school- 
 laws  and  the  fixing  of  penalties,  to  which  there  are  objections, 
 founded  on  the  loss  of  time,  and  the  distraction  to  which  it  must 
 give  rise.  Well  trained  pupils  will  be  easily  satisfied  of  the 
 justice  of  mild  laws  emanating  from  the  master,  though  they 
 have  had  no  voice  in  the  enactment. 
 
 In  regard  to  intellectual  education,  it  is  given  by  instruction 
 in  the  English  branches,  French,  Latin,  Greek,  the  elements  of 
 natural  science  and  technology,  arithmetic,  and  other  branches 
 of  mathematics,  and  is  upon  a  liberal  scale.  Religious  instruc- 
 tion and  the  physical  education  of  the  pupils  are  carefully 
 attended  to. 
 
 I  propose  to  notice  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  instruction 
 in  these  branches,  and  of  arrangements  connected  with  the 
 general  subject  of  intellectual  labour.  French  is  taught  as 
 nearly  as  possible  in  the  way  in  which  a  child  might  be  sup- 
 posed to  learn  its  mother  tongue.  Phrases  of  common  use  in 
 the  school-room  are  first  taught,  and  the  pronunciation  of  them 
 made  distinct  and  accurate.  After  this,  the  language  of  the 
 class-room  is  French,  and  if  a  pupil  is  unable  to  express  him- 
 self, he  is  permitted  to  ask  of  the  teachers  the  required  phrase, 
 or  as  much  of  it  as  he  cannot  make  out  without  aid.  About 
 twenty  lessons,  of  an  hour  each,  of  familiar  phrases  are  given, 
 
414  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECO.VDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 and  these  are  repeated  simultaneously  by  the  class.  After  this 
 and  other  preliminary  exercises,  the  pupil  proceeds  to  his  first 
 reading-book,  a  translation  of  Miss  Edgevvorth's  "  Frank," 
 which  has  previously  been  read,  explained,  transcribed,  and 
 committed  to  memory  in  the  English  course.  A  paragraph 
 or  more  is  read,  great  care  being  taken  with  the  pronuncia- 
 tion; it  is  translated,  transcribed,  and  written  from  dictation, 
 rendered  from  French  into  English,  and  vice  versa,  in  writ- 
 ing. When  this  process  has  been  perfectly  performed,  it  is 
 next  committed  to  memory.  Easy  sentences  are  then  given  to 
 render  from  English  into  French.  The  class  thus  proceeds 
 through  this  book  and  the  accompanying  manuscript  exercises. 
 The  rules  of  grammar  are  introduced  from  time  to  time,  and 
 are  drawn  fron^i  the  pupil's  own  experience.  He  is  now  pre- 
 pared to  feel  the  convenience  of  learning  the  conjugations  sys- 
 tematicallv.  A  second  readins^-book  follows,  and  with  it  svs- 
 tematic  grammar  is  introduced. 
 
 While  the  instruction  in  French  is  thus  adapted  to  the  pur- 
 pose for  which  it  is  taught,  the  ancient  languages  are  pursued 
 as  in  more  exclusively  classical  schools,  except  that,  perhaps, 
 the  study  of  grammar  is  more  gradually  introduced.  Great 
 care  is  taken  that  the  exact  meaning,  as  well  as  the  language, 
 of  tlie  authors  studied  is  understood.  The  written  exercises  in 
 language  are  also  considered  as  exercises  in  penmanship,  being 
 subjected  to  the  scrutiny  of  the  writing  as  well  as  of  the  classi- 
 cal master.  Before  entering  the  Latin  class,thei'cforc,a  boy  must 
 have  made  a  certain  progress  in  his  English  educati<^n.  The 
 J^atin  is  begun  at  between  eight  and  nine  years  ol'age  bN'  those 
 who  enter  young,  and  the  experience  of  this  school  has  been, 
 that  boys  beginning  with  the  preparation,  and  at  the  age  just 
 mentioned,  arc  better  Latin  scholars  at  eleven  or  twelve  than 
 those  who  begin  earlier,  and  with  a  less  complete  preparation. 
 Greek  is  commenced  when  the  pupil  can  read  Ca:^sar.  The 
 number  of  boys  in  the  several  sections  is,  in  this  department, 
 not  suflercd  to  exceed  seven. 
 
 Geography  is  taught  n(\arly  upon  the  plan  described  in  speak- 
 ing of  the  burgher  school  of  Hallo,  in  Prussia.     When  some 
 
BRUCLi  CASTLE  SCHOOL.  415 
 
 progress  has  been  made  in  the  study,  imaginary  voyages  and 
 journies  are  made,  and  information  is  given  in  relation  to  the 
 places  visited.  An  idea  of  the  dimensions  of  the  earth  is  de- 
 rived from  comparing  upon  a  globe  its  circumference  with  the 
 longest  actual  journey  which  has  been  performed  by  the  pupil. 
 The  earth  is  next  considered  as  a  part  of  the  solar  system. 
 
 A  course  of  private  reading  is  marked  out  for  the  pupils, 
 which  they  are  encouraged  to  follow.  The  time  required  for  an 
 attentive  perusal  of  each  work  is  estimated,  and  a  number  of 
 rnarJis  proportionate  to  this  time  may  be  obtained,  provided  the 
 pupil  passes  a  satisfactory  examination  upon  its  contents.  These 
 books  are  duly  arranged  in  the  school  library,  to  which  the 
 pupils  ha\'8  access  under  certain  regulations.  The  course  con- 
 sists of  works  calculated  "gradually  to  impart  a  strong  taste  for 
 private  reading — to  lead  a  boy,  by  easy  steps,  from  the  familiar 
 story-books  of  children  to  the  standard  works  of  science  and  lite- 
 rature,— to  store  the  mind  of  the  pupil  with  the  historical  facts 
 before  exposing  him  to  the  risk  of  false  impressions  from 
 the  mixture  of  history  and  fiction — to  connect  the  study  of 
 biography  with  that  of  the  corresponding  portions  of  history — 
 and  where  authorities  disagree  in  their  views  of  important 
 events,  to  place  the  works  of  the  different  authors  as  nearly  as 
 convenient  in  juxtaposition."*  This  arrangement  has  been  at- 
 tended with  the  best  effects. 
 
 To  carry  out  the  principle,  that  clear  and  definite  objects  of 
 attainment  should  always  be  presented  to  a  pupil  during  his 
 whole  course,  schedules  of  the  studies  are  hung  up,  and  he  is 
 made  aware  that  he  cannot  proceed  to  a  higher  division  with- 
 out having  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  upon  the  subjects 
 of  that  in  which  he  is.  In  courses  depending  upon  principles, 
 as  arithmetic,  &c.,  he  must  be  able  to  correct  his  own  errrors, 
 and  in  such  as  give  mechanical  facility,  as  drawling  and  writ- 
 ing, where  exact  comparison  is  practicable,  he  must  come  up 
 to  a  certain  average  standard. 
 
 It  must  be  remembered  by  those  who  arc  disposed  to  consi- 
 
 *  Sketch  of  the  System,  «Soc.,  j).  15. 
 
416  GENERAL   EDUCATIOX.       SECONDARY   I'ERIOD. 
 
 dcr  what  arc  called  innovations  in  education  as  mere  sciieming 
 without  practical  results,  that  the  plans  which  are  spoken  of  as 
 in  operation  in  this  school  have  stood  the  test  of  a  long  expe- 
 rience, and  are  in  no  wise  liable  to  the  objections  of  naerc 
 theoretical  conclusions.  The  school  where  they  have  been 
 tried  continues  to  flourish,  and  these  results  to  speak  for  them- 
 selves, to  every  one  who  will  take  pains  to  examine  into  them. 
 
SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  TRANCE.  417 
 
 CHAPTER  XL 
 
 SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  FRANCE. 
 
 It  will  facilitate  the  understanding  of  the  notice  which  I  am 
 about  to  give  of  secondary  instruction  in  France,  to  make  a 
 few  preliminary  remarks  upon  the  general  system,  of  which  it 
 is  a  part,  and  of  the  highest  instruction  to  which  it  leads. 
 
 The  exclusive  charge  of  the  entire  system  of  education  is 
 vested  in  a  body  styled  "the  University  of  France,"*  presided 
 over  by  a  grand  master,  who  is  the  minister  of  public  instruc- 
 tion, and  president  of  a  council  of  six,  to  which  the  regulation 
 and  administration  of  the  whole  are  committed.  Each  coun- 
 cillor has  special  charge  over  one  or  more  divisions  of  public 
 instruction,  and  in  the  offices  connected  with  the  council  the 
 details  of  business  are  transacted.  Second  to  this  council  are 
 the  inspectors-general  of  the  university,  who  are  required  to 
 examine  the  institutions  of  every  grade,  and  to  report  upon 
 them  to  the  council. 
 
 The  kingdom  is  arranged,  according  to  its  political  divisions, 
 into  academies,  each  academy  embracing  one  or  more  Depart- 
 ments. The  presiding  officer  of  each  academy  is  the  rector, 
 who  is  appointed  by  the  grand  master  of  the  university,  to 
 serve  for  five  years;  the  minister  of  public  instruction  being, 
 ex  officio,  rector  of  the  Academy  of  Paris,  the  active  duties  of 
 that  post  are  performed  by  a  substitute.  The  rector  is  assisted 
 by  two  inspectors  and  a  council,  who  hav-e  the  same  duties 
 within  the  bounds  of  the  academy  as  the  inspectors-general  and 
 council  of  the  university  have  in  the  kingdom.     The  academy 
 
 *  Laws  of  1806.     Code  Universitaire,  1835.     A  very  excellent  account  of  the 
 University  of  France  is  given  by  our  countryman,  the  Rev.  Robert  Baird,  clergy- 
 man at  Paris,  in  the  American  Quarterly  Register  for  August,  1836. 
 53 
 
418  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 includes,  besides  this  executive  and  superintending  body,  the 
 teaching  corps,  or  facuhies,  viz. — the  facuUy  of  letters,  of 
 science,  of  medicine,  of  law,  and  of  theology,  all  of  which, 
 however,  do  not  actually  exist  in  every  academy;  in  some, 
 indeed,  there  is  no  faculty  organization.  These  faculties  con- 
 sist of  a  variable  number  of  professors,  one  of  whom  is  dean, 
 and  a  committee  of  whom  examine  candidates  for  degrees. 
 
 The  two  degrees  which  may  be  taken  at  the  close  of  the 
 career  of  secondary  instruction,  without  study  in  the  faculties 
 themselves,  and  which  are  introductory  to  the  others,  are  those 
 of  bachelor  of  letters  (bachelier-es-lettres)  and  of  bachelor  of 
 sciences  (bachelier-es-sciences).  The  preparation  necessary 
 for  these  degrees  may  be  made  at  home,  as  well  as  in  one  of 
 the  public  or  private  establishments  for  secondary  instruction; 
 the  examination  is,  in  a  great  measure,  the  test  according  to 
 which  they  are  bestowed,  though,  in  cases  where  the  testimo- 
 nials of  conduct  and  proficiency  are  strong,  the  examination 
 has,  of  course,  less  weight  than  in  others.  As  the  course  of 
 secondary  instruction  hinges,  in  a  measure,  upon  the  qualifica- 
 tions for  those  degrees,  it  is  proper  to  introduce  them  here. 
 
 To  be  admitted  to  an  examination  for  the  degree  of  bachelor 
 of  letters,  the  candidate  must  be  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age. 
 He  must  prove,  by  a  certificate,  that  he  has  studied  for  one 
 year,  at  least,  a  course  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy,  and 
 for  the  preceding  year,  a  course  of  rhetoric,  in  an  establishment 
 connected  with  the  university;  or  that  he  has  been  similarly 
 instructed  in  the  house  of  his  father,  brother,  or  uncle;  or  that 
 he  has  attended  the  course  of  philosophy  for  at  least  a  year,  in 
 a  faculty  of  letters,  and  has,  besides,  followed  the  lectures  of 
 other  departments.  In  the  last  mentioned  case  he  must  produce 
 a  certificate  of  regular  attendance  from  the  dean  of  the 
 fa  cult}'. 
 
 The  subjects  of  examination  arc  divided  into  three  classes, 
 Latin,  Greek,  and  rhetoric;  history  and  geography;  philosophy 
 and  the  elements  of  mathematics  and  physics.  Tiie  questions 
 on  these  several  subjects  are  arranged  beforehand,  in  divisions 
 
SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  FRANCE.  419 
 
 of  three  each,  and  the  candidate  draws,  by  lot,  one  of  these 
 divisions.  He  is  required,  also,  to  give  a  written  exercise, 
 consisting  of  a  translation  of  Latin  phrases. 
 
 The  Greek  examination  may  take  place  upon  selections  from  Lucian,  Xeno- 
 phon,  Excerptae  e  Scriptoribus  Grajcis,  Greek  Clirestomathy,  the  Thouglits  of 
 Plato,  the  Apology  of  Socrates,  Plutarch,  Eschines,  Demosthenes,  Sophocles,  Eu- 
 ripides, and  Homer. 
 
 The  Latin,  upon  selections  from  Sallust,  Livy,  Tacitus,  Quintus  Curtius,  Cice- 
 ro, Virgil,  and  Horace.  Rhetoric  is  considered  under  the  heads  of  invention, 
 arrangement,  and  elocution. 
 
 The  other  subjects  are  as  follows :  History,  divided  into  ancient  history  and 
 Roman  history,  history  of  the  middle  ages,  and  modern  history,  to  include  the 
 seven  years'  war. 
 
 Geography,  including  a  general  description  of  the  earth,  modern  geography, 
 and  especially  that  of  France. 
 
 Philosophy,  divided  into  psychology,  logic,  morals,  natural  theology,  and  the 
 history  of  philosophy. 
 
 Elements  of  mathematics,  namely,  arithmetic,  including  proportions  and  vul- 
 gar and  decimal  fractions,  partnership,  and  interest ;  algebra,  including  equa- 
 tions of  the  first  degree,  square  and  cube  root,  and  proportions ;  the  most  essential 
 propositions  of  plane  and  solid  geometry. 
 
 The  elements  of  physics  include  ideas  of  the  laws  of  gravitation,  of  heat, 
 electricity,  magnetism,  &c. 
 
 The  first  principles  of  chemistry. 
 
 A  competent  knowledge  of  these  subjects,  it  will  hereafter  be 
 seen,  may  be  obtained  by  a  collegian  without  passing  through 
 all  the  classes.  A  rigorous  examination  upon  such  a  course 
 might  be  considered  quite  sufficient  for  this  degree,  but  it  is 
 possible  that,  by  the  aid  of  manuals  ingeniously  contrived  to 
 give  the  minimum  of  information,  the  student  may  prepare  him- 
 self superficially.  After  all,  however,  this  evil  is  not  so  great 
 to  any  as  to  the  individual  himself,  and  among  the  crowds  who 
 press  forward  for  these  degrees,  the  university  can  lose  but 
 little  in  reputation  by  such  cases. 
 
 To  become  a  candidate  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
 sciences,  the  applicant  must  produce  his  diploma  of  bachelor 
 of  letters.  If  he  intends  to  devote  himself  to  giving  instruc- 
 tion in  philosophy  merely,  he  is  not  required  to  be  examined  on 
 chemistry  and  natural  history,  but  the  diploma  has  this  fact 
 
420  GEXERAL  EDUCATIOX.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 recorded  upon  it.     If  he  applies  for  the  baccalaureate  in  ma- 
 thematical science,  he  is  examined  on  the  following  subjects: 
 
 "  1st.  Arithmetic,  geometry,  plane  trig-onomctry,  spherical  trigonometry, 
 algebra,  including  the  binomial  theorem  and  the  resolution  of  numerical  equa- 
 tions, the  application  of  algebra  to  geometry,  and  the  elements  of  statics. 
 
 "2d.  The  elements  of  pliysical  science  required  of  the  candidate  for  the 
 baccalaureate  of  physical  science."* 
 
 This  examination  is  required  to  last  at  least  one  hour. 
 
 The  candidate  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  physical  science 
 is  examined — 
 
 "1st.  On  arithmetic,  elementary  geometry,  algebra,  including  problems  de- 
 pending upon  shnple  equations  with  one  or  several  unknown  quantities;  on 
 simple  machines  and  the  part  of  the  elements  of  statics  referring  to  them. 
 
 "  2d.  Tlie  elements  of  physics,  chemistry,  and  natural  history,  according  to 
 the  following  programme."* 
 
 The  programme  referred  to  includes,  in  physics,  the  general  properties  of 
 bodies,  gravity,  hydrostatics  and  hydrodynamics,  heat,  electricity  and  gal- 
 vanism, magnetism,  electro-magnelism,  molecular  action,  acoustics,  optics,  and 
 meteorology.  In  chemistry,  the  general  principles,  nomenclature,  some  of  the 
 simple  non-metallic  substances  and  their  compounds,  metals,  alloys,  oxides,  and 
 salts.     General  questions  on  zoology,  botan}',  mineralogy,  and  geology. 
 
 This  examination  must  last  not  less  than  three-quarters  of  an  jiour. 
 
 The  mathematical  course  for  the  last  named  degree,  except- 
 ing the  part  relating  to  machines  and  statics,  is  taught  in  the 
 first  year  of  philosophy  in  the  royal  colleges,  as  will  be  seen 
 hereafter. 
 
 As  no  one  can  matriculate  in  any  faculty  of  an  academy 
 without  having  taken  the  diploma  of  bachelor  of  letters,  and 
 the  career  of  medicine  requires  also  that  of  sciences,  the  prepa- 
 ration for  these  degrees  forms  a  definite  object  for  attainment 
 by  the  course  of  secondary  instruction. 
 
 The  establishments  for  pubHc  secondary  instruction  in 
 France,  are  the  royal  and  communal  colleges  (colleges  royaux 
 et  communaux),  and  the  normal  school  (^cole  normale),  and  for 
 private  instruction  the  institutions  (institutions)  and  boarding- 
 schools  (pensions).     There  are,  beside,  a  few  private  colleges. 
 
 •  Dfccrec  of  the  Royal  Council  of  Public  Instruction,  Feb.  3,  1837. 
 
SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  FRANCE.  421 
 
 the  remains  of  ancient  foundations.  The  law  defines  the  royal 
 colleges  to  be  establishments  in  which  the  following  branches 
 are  taught : — the  languages,  history,  rhetoric,  logic,  elements  of 
 mathematics,  and  physical  science  ;  the  communal  colleges  to 
 be  those  where  instruction  is  given  in  the  elements  of  the  an- 
 cient languages,  and  the  first  principles  of  history  and  science.* 
 The  first  mentioned  private  establishment  is  defined  by  the  law 
 to  be  one  resembling  the  colleges,  and  the  second  was  origi- 
 nally designed  for  a  lower  grade  of  attainment. 
 
 The  pupils  of  the  private  establishments  are  now  required  by 
 law  to  attend  the  recitations  of  the  colleges,  but  as  they  may 
 enter  a  higher  class  of  a  college  by  examination  on  the  studies 
 of  the  previous  classes,  and  even  procure  a  certificate  of  profi- 
 ciency in  all  the  courses  by  the  same  means,  the  law  may  be 
 considered  as  not  rigidly  enforced,  although,  as  a  general  rule, 
 the  attendance  is  customary. 
 
 The  royal  colleges  are  established  by,  and  in  part  supported 
 from,  funds  of  the  state  and  of  the  university.  In  turn,  they 
 contribute  to  the  treasury  of  the  university,  of  which  they  form 
 component  parts.  The  communal  colleges  are  established,  in 
 like  manner,  in  part  at  the  expense  of  the  communes.  There 
 are  upwards  of  forty  royal  colleges  in  France,  of  which  five 
 are  in  Paris  ;  besides  these,  there  are  two  private  colleges  in 
 the  same  city.  The  number  of  communal  colleges  in  the 
 kingdom  is  about  two  hundred  and  thirty.f  "  Institutions"  and 
 boarding-schools  are  licensed  by  the  university,  and  pay  for 
 this  a  yearly  sum  into  its  treasur3^  As  this  is  less  in  the  case 
 of  the  latter  than  of  the  former  establishment,  and  as  the  plan 
 of  education  for  them  is  not  specifically  laid  down,  it  acts  as  a 
 bounty  toward  the  increase  of  the  boarding-schools.  The  head 
 of  the  former  must  have,. according  to  law,  at  least  the  degree 
 of  bachelor  in  the  faculties  of  letters  and  sciences,  while  the 
 
 *  Decree  of  17th  March,  1808,  Art.  4,  quoted  in  the  Code  Universitaire,  p.  5, 
 1835. 
 
 t  Expos6  des  motifs  et  projet  de  loi  sup  I'iiistruction  secondaire  presentes  par 
 M.  Guizot,  rninistre  de  I'instruclion  puhliqnr,  dans  la  seance  de  hmdi,  ler 
 Fevrier,  1836. 
 
422  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECO.VDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 master  of  the  boarding  school  is  required  to  have  only  that  of 
 bachelor  of  letters. 
 
 These  schools  are  wholly  subsidiary  to  the  public  ones,  and 
 cannot  be  considered  as  stimulating  them  in  any  degree  by  a 
 wholesome  competition.  M.  Guizot  has  pointed  out  the  defects 
 of  the  system  as  depending  upon  the  following  causes — first, 
 that  a  special  and  discretionary  authority,  available  only  for 
 one  place,  is  necessary  to  open  such  an  establishment ;  second, 
 that  the  pupils  must  be  sent  to  the  colleges  ;  and  tliird,  that  the 
 grand  master  of  the  university  has  the  right,  after  an  academical 
 inquest,  to  close  them.*  There  are  more  than  ninety  "  institu- 
 tions," and  six  hundred  and  sixty  boarding-schools  in  France. 
 
 Since  the  organization  of  the  imperial  university,  and  con- 
 nexion of  the  lyceums  (now  royal  colleges)  with  it,  in  1806, 
 the  general  outhne  of  public  secondary  instruction  in  France 
 has  not  varied  materially.  Isolated  instances  of  modification, 
 such  as  the  establishment  of  courses  for  students  of  arts  and 
 trades,  connected  with  the  royal  college  of  Nanci,  cannot  be 
 considered  as  contravening  this  remark.  A  growing  necessity 
 appears,  however,  to  have  been  felt  for  a  secondary  education, 
 bearing  the  same  relation  to  non-professional  occupations  as 
 the  present  secondary  bears  to  the  professions.  Accordingly, 
 such  a  system  was  proposed  by  M.  Guizot  in  1836. 
 
 He  lays  down  the  principle,  that  it  is  an  abuse  of  classical 
 studies  to  extend  them  so  far  as  to  create  an  undue  tendency 
 towards  the  learned  professions,  or  to  prevent  the  timely  acqui- 
 sition of  the  habits  of  mind  and  special  knowledge  required  for 
 non-professional  occupations.  He  considers,  therefore,  that  at  a 
 certain  period,  instruction  should  assume  a  special  character, 
 being  directed  according  to  the  future  vocation  of  the  recipient 
 of  it.  This  division  of  courses  he  is  of  opinion  should  take  place, 
 either  between  the  elementary  or  grammar  classes  of  the  royal 
 colleges  and  the  higher  classes,  or  between  the  two  lower  of 
 the  literary  classes.  The  very  important  modification  thus  pro- 
 posed was  accompanied  by  another,  throwing  open  secondary 
 
 •    Alnianiic  fir  ITnivrrsitP  Rovale  rlo  Franco,  }^^i\. 
 
SECONDARY    INSTRUCTION    IN    FRANCE.  423 
 
 instruction  to  private  competition  under  suitable  regulations,  as 
 to  the  qualifications  of  the  teachers,  and  repealing  the  law  re- 
 quiring the  pupils  of  private  establishments  to  attend  the  royal 
 colleges.  The  project  embodying  these  changes  was  reported, 
 with  some  alterations,  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  June, 
 1836,  but  has  not,  I  believe,  been  yet  acted  on.  Certainly  no 
 changes  of  the  kind  contemplated  had  been  made  previous  to 
 my  visit  to  the  colleges  of  Paris  in  1837.* 
 
 While  the  general  outline  has  thus  remained  the  same,  great 
 changes  have  been  made  in  the  filling  up,  the  details  of  instruc- 
 tion having  been  much  varied  in  reference  both  to  matter  and 
 method.  Instruction  in  the  physical  and  mathematical  sciences, 
 to  prepare  for  the  courses  and  first  degrees  of  the  faculty  of 
 science,  having  been  necessarily  admitted,  the  manner  in  which 
 these  should  be  combined  with  the  classical  studies,  appears  to 
 have  been  subject  to  much  variety  of  legislation  by  the  council 
 of  the  university.  At  one  time,  science  and  letters  were  studied 
 conjointly,  then  they  were  separated,  and  science,  except  in  its 
 very  elements,  was  postponed  to  the  close  of  the  course ;  they 
 are  at  this  time  again  united,  but  with  arrangements  considered 
 to  be  very  imperfect.  If  I  may  judge  by  the  examinations  for 
 the  baccalaureate  of  sciences,  which  I  attended,  this  opinion, 
 which  came  to  me  from  more  than  one  source,  is  quite  correct. 
 The  changes  of  position  which  the  course  of  natural  history 
 has  undergone,  are  very  remarkable.  In  1802  it  was  directed 
 that  the  elements  of  natural  history  should  be  taught  in  the 
 lowest  class  of  mathematics,  corresponding  to  the  next  to  the 
 lowest  in  the  classics.  In  1814  this  subject  formed  a  part  of 
 the  courses  of  the  third  and  second  classes.  In  1830  it  still 
 continued  part  of  the  course  of  the  third  class,  and  in  1832 
 was  transferred  to  the  sixth  or  lower  grammar  class,  where  it 
 is  even  now  considered  a  surplus  study.  The  modern  lan- 
 guages have  been  introduced  as  voluntary  branches  with  the 
 usual  result,  where  the  honours  of  the  institution  are  reserved 
 
 *  I  am  indebted  for  letters  of  admission  to  the  colleges  of  Paris  to  the  Minis- 
 ter of  Public  Instruction,  M.  Salvandy. 
 
424  GEXERAL  EDUCATION.       SKCOXDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 for  the  regular  courses.  While  the  studies  in  science  have 
 not  aflbrded  the  results  which  similar  ones  in  other  schools  of 
 France  are  daily  producing,  the  lessons  of  philosophy  have 
 succeeded  in  rivalling,  in  the  attention  of  the  students,  those  of 
 the  languages,  and  now  constitute  a  striking  portion  of  the  col- 
 lege course. 
 
 In  describing  the  details  of  this  system,  I  shall  confine  my 
 remarks  to  the  royal  colleges,  as  the  institutions  by  which  the 
 secondary  instruction  of  France  must  be  judged.  It  will  be 
 convenient  to  consider  these  institutions  under  the  heads  of, 
 1st,  their  government  and  the  admission  of  pupils;  2d,  their 
 discipline;  3d,  their  courses  of  instruction;  4th,  the  arrange- 
 ments for  domestic  economy. 
 
 Government.  The  royal  colleges  are  superintended  by  an 
 officer,  called  a  provisor  (proviseur),  assisted  by  a  censor  (cen- 
 seur).  These  officers  must  be  at  least  licentiates  in  the  facul- 
 ties of  letters  or  of  sciences.  The  provisor  has  the  general 
 direction  of  the  college.  All  the  other  officers  are  subordinate 
 to  him,  and  he  has  the  appointment  of  some  of  them.  It  is  his 
 duty  to  visit  frequently  the  infirmary,  refectory,  study-halls, 
 dormitories,  and  other  parts  of  the  establishment.  Accom- 
 panied by  the  censor,  he  is  present,  from  time  to  time,  at  the 
 lessons  of  the  professors.  If  he  observe  negligence  on  the  part 
 of  any  officer,  he  communicates  with  him  through  the  censor. 
 Every  evening  he  receives  from  the  latter  the  class  lists,  con- 
 taining the  remarks  of  the  professors  during  the  day,  and 
 every  morning  has  such  students  as  require  admonition  sum- 
 moned before  him.  On  Sunday  he  attends,  with  the  censor,  a 
 meeting  of  the  classes,  at  which  the  remarks  of  the  week  are 
 recapitulated.  Once  a  month  he  meets  the  censor,  chaplain, 
 and  professors,  to  discuss  the  aflairs  of  the  college.  Every 
 quarter,  at  least,  he  communicates  with  parents  in  regard  to 
 the  health,  ])rogress,  and  conduct  of  their  sons.  Twice  a  year 
 he  reports  to  the  council  of  his  academy  a  detailed  list  of  the 
 pupils,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  state  of  the  college. 
 
 The  censor  is  the  immediate  superintendent  of  instruction 
 and  discipline,  and  has  charge  of  the  library.    He  superintends 
 
KOYAL  COLLEGES  OF  FRANCE.  425 
 
 in  person  the  rising  and  going  to  bed  of  the  pupils,  their  going 
 to  and  coming  from  the  classes  and  meals,  their  walks,  and 
 their  reception-room.  He  furnishes  the  class-lists  for  the  day, 
 and  their  recapitulation  for  the  week,  to  the  provisor.  He  re- 
 places the  provisor,  in  case  of  the  absence  or  sickness  of  the 
 latter.  In  point  of  fact,  when  the  provisor  is  a  man  of  energy, 
 the  office  of  censor  is  not  of  very  great  importance,  but  when 
 not  so,  and  the  censor  has  the  requisite  character,  he  is  likely 
 to  be  the  real  provisor. 
 
 The  chaplain  (aumonier)  holds  the  same  rank  as  the  censor. 
 He  is  nominated  by  the  provisor,  and  appointed  by  the  rector 
 of  the  academy,  with  the  advice  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese. 
 He  has  charge  of  the  religious  instruction  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
 lic pupils,  and  of  the  religious  services  on  Sunday.  In  the  col- 
 lege of  Louis-le-Grand,  at  Paris,  and  in  some  establishments  out 
 of  the  capital,  there  is,  besides,  a  chaplain  for  the  Protestant 
 students. 
 
 The  professors,  whose  branches  will  be  stated  hereafter,  are 
 chosen  from  among  the  adjuncts  (agreges).  Each  one  has 
 charge  of  a  division  of  a  class,  which  should  not,  by  law,  ex- 
 ceed twenty-five  in  number.  In  case  of  an  excess,  the  pupils 
 should  be  so  distributed  between  the  professor  and  his  adjunct, 
 that  the  two  divisions  may,  as  nearly  as  possible,  contain  pupils 
 of  equal  capacity,  so  as  to  enter  into  direct  competition.  The 
 professors  make  both  daily  and  weekly  reports,  in  relation  to 
 the  pupils,  to  the  censor.  Besides  the  professors,  there  are 
 teachers  of  the  modern  languages,  of  writing,  arithmetic,  draw- 
 ing, dancing,  and  fencing.  The  first  four  named  branches  are 
 taught  at  the  expense  of  the  college. 
 
 The  adjuncts  (agreges)  are  appointed  after  a  competition, 
 which  may  take  place  in  one  or  more  of  the  following  five 
 divisions,  namely,  philosophy,  the  sciences,  the  higher  classes 
 of  letters,  history  and  geography,  and  the  grammar  classes. 
 The  competitors  must  have  passed  through  the  normal  school, 
 or  have  been  for  two  years  directors  of  studies  in  a  royal  col- 
 lege, or  teachers  in  a  communal  college,  or  have  done  the 
 duties  of  adjunct  in  a  royal  college,  for  the  same  time,  or 
 54 
 
426  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 have  served  three  years  continuously  as  repeaters  of  lessons 
 (rt'petiteurs)  in  the  institutions  or  boarding-schools  of  the  same 
 academy.  This  term  of  service  is  reduced  to  one  year  for 
 those  ^vho  have  the  degree  of  doctor  of  sciences  or  letters,  and 
 for  llie  pupils  of  the  polytechnic  school  admitted  to  the  public 
 service.  Tlie  competitors  must  also  have  certain  degrees,  viz: 
 for  the  first  named  competition,  those  of  licentiate  of  letters  and 
 bachelor  of  sciences;  for  the  second,  those  of  licentiate  of  the 
 mathcnintical  and  ])hysical  sciences;  for  the  third  and  fourth, 
 that  of  licentiate  of  letters;  and  for  the  fifth,  that  of  baciielor  of 
 letters.  The  judges  arc  named  by  the  grand  master  of  the 
 university,  on  the  nomination  of  the  rector  of  the  academy. 
 
 There  are  tliree  kinds  of  competition  (concours),  by  written 
 exercises,  by  an  argumentation  or  thesis,  and  by  a  lesson.  The 
 second  trial  lasts,  at  most,  three  hours.  The  third,  an  hour,  dur- 
 ing the  first  part  of  which  the  competitor  lectures,  and  during 
 the  second,  questions  one  of  the  others  on  the  subject  of  the 
 lecture.  The  competitors  in  })hilosophy  compose  two  disputa- 
 tions in  French,  one  on  a  philosophical  question,  the  other  on 
 a  part  of  the  history  of  philosophy.  A  thesis  is  sustained  upon 
 similar  subjects  as  the  second  part  of  the  competition.  The 
 competition  in  mathematics  and  physics  consists,  for  the  first 
 trial,  of  an  essay  on  two  subjects,  one  in  each  of  these  branches, 
 or  in  chemistry,  as  a  substitute  fur  physics;  for  the  second,  in 
 questioning  and  answering  (luestions  on  the  subjects  of  exami- 
 nation for  the  grades  of  licentiate  of  matiiematical  science,  and 
 of  licentiate  of  physical  science.  That  in  the  higher  classes  of 
 letters  consists,  for  the  first  trial,  in  composing  a  Latin  disserta- 
 tion on  some  sul)ject  of  ancient  or  modern  literature,  a  disserta- 
 tion, in  French,  on  some  subject  of  philosophy,  a  piece  of  Latin 
 poetry,  and  a  translation  of  Greek  into  French;  for  the  second, 
 in  translating,  at  sight,  passages  selected  from  a  Greek  or 
 Latin  author,  and  in  answering  any  question  of  other  competi- 
 tors on  the  subject,  or  growing  out  of  it,  and  asking  them  ques- 
 tions in  return.  The  competition  in  history  and  geograjihy 
 requires  no  special  description.  For  the  grammar  class  the 
 competitor  must,  on  his  first  trial,  translate  selected  pieces  from 
 
ROYAI,  COLLEGES  OF  FRANCE.  427 
 
 Latin  into  French,  and  vice  versa,  and  from  Greek  into  French, 
 and  vice  versa,  and  compose  Latin  verses;  for  his  second  trial 
 he  must  translate,  at  sight,  a  passage  from  a  Greek,  and 
 another  from  a  Latin  author,  into  French,  and  stand  an  ex- 
 amination upon  it  by  the  other  competitors,  or  by  the  judges. 
 
 There  are  several  adjuncts  attached  to  every  college,  who 
 supply  the  places  of  absent  professors,  and  who  take  divisions 
 of  the  classes  for  regular  instruction.  When  not  thus  attached, 
 so  that  their  stipend  is  furnished  by  a  college,  they  are  entitled 
 to  a  small  payment  from  the  university.  In  the  college  of 
 Louis-le-Grand  there  are  no  less  than  twenty  adjuncts,  besides 
 the  officers,  professors,  and  directors  of  study.  There  are,  in 
 the  same  institution,  upwards  of  one  thousand  pupils  of  differ- 
 ent classes,  more  than  five  hundred  being  boarders. 
 
 This  arrangement,  by  which  a  number  of  young  men  are 
 connected  with  public  instruction  at  their  entrance  into  life,  and 
 secured  the  means  of  devoting  themselves  to  teaching,  is  one 
 of  the  most,  if  not  the  most,  important  provision  of  all  those 
 which  regulate  the  university  of  France.  The  competition 
 prevents,  in  general,  the  connexion  of  those  who  are  deficient 
 in  capacity  to  learn  and  to  teach,  and  the  supply  of  vacancies 
 among  the  teachers  by  young  men  thus  trained  has  inestima- 
 ble advantages. 
 
 The  officers  who  superintend  the  pupils  when  not  in  the  class- 
 rooms are  called  directors  of  study  (maitres  d'etudes).  They 
 must  be  at  least  of  the  grade  of  bachelor  of  letters.  There  is 
 one  of  them  to  about  twenty-five  students.  This  officer  eats 
 with  the  students,  sleeps  in  a  room  adjacent  to  their  dormito- 
 ries, superintends  them  in  their  walks,  at  going  to  and  from 
 the  recitation-rooms,  and  when  in  their  dormitories,  assists  them 
 in  the  preparation  of  their  lessons,  and  attends  them  in  the 
 writing,  dancing,  music,  and  fencing  exercises.  After  hearing 
 the  lessons  of  the  students,  he  reports  to  the  professor  his 
 opinion  of  the  preparation  of  each,  and  to  the  censor  their 
 conduct  and  progress.  The  reports  to  the  censor  are  made 
 daily,  and  an  abstract  is  given  to  him  at  the  close  of  the  week. 
 To  assist  in  the  discipline,  the  pupils  are  divided  into  small  sec- 
 
428  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECO.VDARV  PERIOD. 
 
 tions,  over  which  the  director  appoints  one  as  the  head,  who  is 
 responsible  for  the  good  order  of  his  fellows.  These  directors 
 are  thus  not  mere  superintendents  of  the  play  hours,  as  in 
 some  of  the  institutions  already  noticed  in  other  countries,  but 
 a  lower  grade  of  teachers,  who  are  required  to  be  competent  to 
 hear  the  recitations,  to  ascertain  that  due  preparation  has  been 
 made,  and  to  assist  the  pupils,  if  necessary.  They  are  appointed 
 by  the  grand  master  of  the  university,  on  the  nomination  of 
 the  provisor,  and  receive,  at  first,  merely  a  provisional  appoint- 
 ment, during  which  time  their  nomination  may  be  recalled. 
 
 The  steward  has  charge  of  the  domestic  economy,  under 
 direction  of  the  provisor.  All  purchases  of  considerable 
 amount  are  made  by  contract,  and  according  to  the  estimates 
 sanctioned  by  the  council  of  the  university;  smaller  purchases 
 may  be  authorized  by  the  council  of  the  academy.  The  war- 
 rant of  the  provisor  is  a  sufficient  authority  to  the  steward  for 
 expenditures  which  have  received  the  regular  sanction,  or  for 
 small  extra  ones.  The  steward  is  also  treasurer  of  the  college, 
 keeps  a  regular  account  of  receipts  and  disbursements,  and  of 
 purchases.  He  makes  up,  weekly,  an  account  of  provisions 
 received  and  issued.  Every  eight  days  the  provisor  verifies  the 
 balance  sheet,  and  inspects  the  books  once  a  month.  The 
 steward  furnishes  to  the  minister  of  public  instruction  a 
 monthly  statement  of  his  accounts,  with  the  vouchers,  which 
 arc  examined  in  the  appropriate  bureau.  Besides  this,  he  trans- 
 mits, yearly,  an  abstract  of  his  account  to  the  same  officer. 
 His  books,  and  the  state  of  the  treasury,  are  subject  to  a  quar- 
 terly inspection  by  an  officer  deputed  by  the  rector  of  the  aca- 
 demy. He  prepares  for  transmission  to  the  rector,  by  the  pro- 
 visor, a  quarterly  account  of  the  stock  on  hand.  This  officer 
 gives  bonds  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties. 
 
 The  servants  of  the  college  are  under  the  special  charge  of 
 the  steward.  Some  of  them  sleep  in  rooms  connected  with  the 
 dormitories.  Every  night  one  keeps  watch,  that  there  may  be 
 assistance  at  hand  in  case  of  sickness,  two  servants  dividing 
 the  night  watch  between  them.  During  the  day,  one  of  them  is 
 required  to  go  the  rounds  of  the  halls,  court,  and  stairs,  to  see 
 
ROYAL  COLLEGES  OF  FRANCE.  429 
 
 that  all  is  in  order,  and,  during  play  hours,  another  is  always  in 
 attendance  at  the  door  of  the  receiving-room,  to  call  those  stu- 
 dents whose  friends  desire  to  see  them. 
 
 The  officers  of  the  colleges,  from  the  provisor  to  the  professors 
 inclusive,  are  appointed  by  the  grand  master  of  the  university. 
 The  different  officers  are  paid  according  to  the  grade  of  in- 
 stitution to  which  they  belong,  a  classification  having  been 
 made  for  that  purpose.  When  the  salaries  are  small,  as  in  the 
 case  of  inferior  officers,  they  are  secured  an  increase  accord- 
 ing to  the  term  of  service.  All  who  enter  into  obligations  to 
 serve  in  the  career  of  public  instruction  for  ten  years,  are  ex- 
 empted from  regular  military  service,  though  not  from  jury- 
 duty,  and  service  in  the  national  guard.  All  receive  pensions 
 for  long  continued  and  faithful  discharge  of  duty,  and  these  in- 
 crease with  the  time  during  which  they  are  enjoyed.  Their 
 emoluments  are,  in  general,  not  confined  to  the  salaries  which 
 they  receive,  but  also  depend,  in  part,  upon  the  number  of  stu- 
 dents under  their  charge,  each  one  having  a  certain  proportion- 
 ate interest  in  the  fees  paid  to  the  college,  according  to  his  re- 
 sponsibility. When  the  college  has  a  surplus  income  over  and 
 above  its  expenditures,  it  is  divided  among  the  officers,  under 
 the  direction  of  the  university  council.  The  provisor,  censor, 
 chaplain,  and  directors  of  studies,  are  required  to  live  in  the  col- 
 lege. Rooms  are  in  some  cases  provided  for  the  professors,  but 
 no  allowance  is  made  for  quarters  to  those  who  reside  out  of  the 
 institution.  The  directors  of  studies  and  chaplain  are  boarded 
 by  the  college.  A  physician  and  surgeon  visit  the  college  once 
 a-day.     The  nursing  is  done  by  sisters  of  charity. 
 
 Admission.  The  pupils  are  of  two  classes,  boarders  (inter- 
 nes), and  day-scholars  (externes),  from  the  "  institutions"  and 
 boarding-schools.  To  be  admitted,  a  youth  must  have  attained 
 eight  years  of  age,  and  produce  a  certificate  of  vaccination. 
 In  addition,  to  be  received  as  a  boarder,  he  must  know  how  to 
 read  and  write,  and,  as  a  day-scholar,  to  read,  write,  and  cypher. 
 The  provisor  alone  has  the  authority  to  grant  admission. 
 
 The  boarders  are  divided  into  three  divisions.  The  first  con- 
 sists of  the  eighth  and  seventh  classes,  and  forms  the  petty-col- 
 
430  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 lege  (petit-coll6ge).  The  second  of  the  sixth,  fifth,  fourth,  and 
 third.  The  third  of  the  second  and  rlietoric  class,  and  of  the 
 philosophy  classes.  Each  class  has  its  dormitories,  with  sepa- 
 rate beds  for  every  pupil.  There  is  a  special  superintendence 
 for  each  of  these  divisions. 
 
 Among  the  boarders,  part  receive  both  maintenance  and  in- 
 struction gratuitously,  having  the  benefit  of  the  royal  or  com- 
 munal bursaries  (bourses)  founded  for  that  purpose.  Others 
 have  aid  from  parts  of  bursaries.  The  expenses  for  books  and 
 for  the  studies  of  those  who  are  full  bursars  are  defrayed,  as 
 well  as  for  their  clothing,  maintenance,  and  instruction.  The 
 royal  bursars  are  appointed  by  the  minister  of  public  instruc- 
 tion, the  communal  by  the  municipal  councils  of  the  towns  who 
 hold  the  bursaries.  These  pupils  are  admitted  between  the 
 ages  of  nine  and  twelve,  and  may,  according  to  law,  be  sent 
 away  from  the  college  if  they  do  not  pass  a  satisfactory  exami- 
 nation at  the  close  of  any  year. 
 
 Order  of  the  daij.  From  five  A.  M.  to  six  the  pupils  rise, 
 dress,  wash,  and  attend  prayers.  Six  to  seven,  the  directors  of 
 studies  examine  their  written  exercises,  in  succession,  the  pupils 
 being  meanwhile  at  study.  Seven  to  half  past  seven,  the  pupils 
 recite.  Half  past  seven  to  eight,  breakfast.  Eight  to  ten,  les- 
 sons of  the  professors.  Ten  to  eleven,  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
 drawing.  Eleven  to  twelve,  preparation  of  lessons.  Twelve 
 to  half  past  one,  P.  M.,  dinner  and  recreation.  Half  past  one 
 to  half  past  four,  lessons  of  the  professors.  From  half  past  four 
 to  five,  luncheon  and  recreation.  Five  to  half  past  seven,  pre- 
 paration of  lessons.  Half  past  seven  to  eight,  supper.  Eight 
 to  nine,  recreation,  reHgious  reading,  prayers,  and  to  bed. 
 During  meals  a  ])upil  reads  a  lesson  pointed  out  by  the  provisor. 
 
 Discipline.  The  form  of  the  discipline  is  military;  the  pupils 
 march  in  regular  order,  and  are  taught  the  more  simple  parts 
 of  the  drill.     All  the  signals  are  given  by  the  beat  of  drum. 
 
 The  students  are  allowed  to  receive  visits  from  their  parents 
 or  guardians,  or  friends,  with  express  permission  of  the  pro- 
 visor. These  visits  are  restricted  to  the  period  from  dinner- 
 time to  half  j)ast  one,  on  ordinnrv  davs,  and  on  Sundnvs  and 
 
ROYAL  COLLEGES  OF  FRANCE.  431 
 
 holidays  from  dinner-time  to  three  o'clock.  As  a  reward  for 
 good  conduct,  they  may  be  permitted  to  leave  the  college  on 
 Thursdays  at  ten  o'clock,  and  on  Sundays  and  festivals  after 
 service,  to  remain  until  seven  in  the  evening  in  winter,  and 
 eight  in  the  summer.  One  of  their  parents,  or  some  person  of 
 credit,  must  leave  the  college  and  return  with  them.  They  are 
 required  to  wear  the  uniform  while  out. 
 
 The  porter,  who  receives  their  permits  to  go  out,  marks  upon 
 them  the  time  of  their  return,  and  overstaying  the  time  is  at- 
 tended with  the  forfeiture  of  one  or  more  turns  of  leave.  These 
 permissions  to  leave  the  grounds  can  only  be  granted  twice  a 
 month.  Great  doubt  was  expressed  to  me,  by  a  high  authority, 
 of  their  efficacy,  and  of  the  expediency  of  permitting  visits  to 
 be  received.  In  a  country,  however,  where  the  ties  of  domestic 
 life  are  very  feeble,  the  practice  of  placing  boys  in  the  colleges 
 tends  to  weaken  them  still  further,  and  they  might  be  quite  sun- 
 dered if  no  communication  took  place  between  parent  and  child 
 during  the  whole  ten  years  of  the  collegiate  course. 
 
 Pupils  are  allowed  to  correspond  with  their  parents  only,  or 
 with  persons  approved  by  them,  and  the  letters  pass  through 
 the  hands  of  the  provisor.  Their  pocket-money  is  regulated 
 by  the  provisor;  there  is  an  understanding  on  the  subject  with 
 the  parents,  who  are  not  allowed  to  furnish  money  directly  to 
 their  children. 
 
 The  day-scholars  are  marched  to  and  from  the  college  by 
 the  heads  of  the  houses  where  they  reside,  or  by  a  responsible 
 substitute.  They  enter  the  class-rooms  and  leave  them  at  a 
 different  time  from  the  boarders,  so  as  to  cut  off  unnecessary 
 communication.  In  case  of  absence,  the  censor  reports  the 
 pupil  to  the  master  of  his  school  or  to  his  parents.  A  pro- 
 fessor may  suspend  a  day-scholar,  but  the  provisor  alone  can 
 dismiss  him.  The  day-scholars  are  not  allowed  to  wear  the 
 uniform  of  the  boarders. 
 
 The  punishments  recognised  by  law  for  the  boarders  are^ 
 deprivation  of  recreation  and  extraordinary  task,  dc])rivation  of 
 the  opportunity  of  walking  out,  retrenchment  in  diet,  refusals 
 of  leave  to  go  out,  or  to  receive  their  friends,  imprisonment. 
 
432  GENERAL  EDUCATIO^.       SECONDARY  I'ERIOD. 
 
 with  a  task,  deprivation  of  the  uniform,  and  occupation  of  a 
 particular  place  in  the  class-room,  study-halls,  &c.,  deprivation 
 of  vacations,  and  dismission.  None  of  the  punishments  but  tiie 
 last  is  permitted  to  interfere  with  the  attendance  on  the  lessons 
 of  the  professors.  Nothing  can,  however,  be  worse  conceived 
 than  the  public  shame  put  on  a  pupil  by  changing  his  dress,  and 
 its  concomitant  circumstances.  Whether  extra  tasks  are  ad- 
 missible in  an  enliglitened  system  of  instruction,  seems  to  me 
 more  than  doubtful;  they  serve  fully  to  secure  the  disgust  of  the 
 pupil  to  what  he  should  rather  be  induced,  if  possible,  to  Hke. 
 The  last  four  named  punishments  can  only  be  inflicted  by  the 
 provisor,  the  others  may  be  inflicted  by  order  of  the  censor, 
 professors,  or  directors  of  studies.  In  the  case  of  a  royal  bursar, 
 the  provisor  has  the  right  of  suspension,  and  must  report  the 
 circumstances  to  the  minister;  they  are  examined  by  an  in- 
 spector, who  reports,  and  by  the  result  the  case  is  decided:  the 
 explanation  of  this  delicacy  towards  the  royal  bursars  is,  that 
 their  parents  have  usually  earned  these  places  for  their  children 
 by  some  service,  and  hence  that  they  sliould  not  be  deprived  of 
 their  reward  but  upon  the  strongest  grounds. 
 
 Instruction.  The  courses  of  the  colleges  are  intended  to  fit 
 their  pupils  for  the  first  degree  in  letters  and  science,  and  for 
 pursuing  the  course  of  the  diflerent  faculties  in  the  academies, 
 to  enable  them  to  enter  a  literary  or  scientific  career,  or  the 
 profession  of  theology,  law,  or  medicine. 
 
 It  has  been  a  subject  much  agitated,  whether  the  instruction 
 in  letters  and  science  should  be  combined  or  successive,  and 
 the  law  at  difl^ercr.t  times  has,  as  already  stated,  varied  on  this 
 point;  that  both  letters  and  science  were  to  be  embraced  in  the 
 courses  does  not  seem,  for  many  years,  to  ha\e  been  at  all 
 doubted.  The  law  of  180G,  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
 basis  of  the  present  system,  connected  them;  that  of  18*21 
 severed  them,  and  confined  instruction  in  the  mathematical 
 and  physical  sciences  to  the  last  year  of  the  course.  In  1826 
 they  were  again  united.  Great  difliculty  has  been  found,  appa- 
 rently, in  determining  the  extent  and  in  giving  a  place  to  certain 
 branches,  and  natural  liistory  has  thus,  as  we  have  seen,  been 
 
ROYAL  COLLEGES  OF  FRANCE.  433 
 
 transferred  Irequently  from  one  part  of  the  course  to  another, 
 and  has  probably  never  been  efficiently  taught. 
 
 The  branches  are  divided  into  two  sets,  those  which  are  obli- 
 gatory upon  all,  and  those  which  may  be  pursued  or  not,  at  the 
 option  of  the  parent  of  the  student.  Some  of  these  latter,  as,  for 
 example,  the  modern  languages,  are  furnished  by  the  college 
 without  charge,  and  the  others  must  be  paid  for  extra.  The 
 obligatory  courses  are  those  of  French,  Latin,  Greek,  geo- 
 graphy, history,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  mathematics,  physics, 
 chemistry,  and  natural  history. 
 
 There  are  nine  classes,  which  are  subdivided  into  sections, 
 according  to  the  number  of  pupils.  Not  more  than  twenty-five 
 should,  according  to  law,  be  in  a  division  and  under  one  in- 
 structor, though  this  number  is  frequently  exceeded,  rising  as 
 high,  including  the  day  scholars,  as  sixty,  and  even  seventy. 
 Some  colleges  have  a  preparatory  class,  or  classes  below  the 
 eighth,  for  very  young  pupils.  The  following  is,  according  to 
 the  latest  laws  on  the  subject,  an  outline  of  the  instruction  in 
 the  different  classes: 
 
 Elemkntart  Classes.  These  are  two  in  number,  and  are  taught  sacred 
 history,  French  and  Latin  grammar,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  writing.  A 
 lesson  every  morning,  and  one  in  the  afternoon,  three  times  a  week,  are  devoted 
 to  the  French  and  Latin  grammar.  Two  lessons  a  week  to  sacred  history,  geo- 
 graphy, and  arithmetic. 
 
 Sixth  Class.  The  Sunday  Gospels  in  Latin.  SelectsE  6  Profanis,  Cornelius 
 Nepos.  iEsop's  Fables  compared  with  those  of  La  Fontaine.  Geography  com- 
 menced.  Jewish  and  Christian  morals.  Sacred  history.  History  commenced. 
 Writing  and  arithmetic  continued.     Natural  history  once  a  week. 
 
 The  classics  and  French  occupy  five  lessons  in  the  morning  and  three  in  the 
 afternoon,  per  week.    One  afternoon  lesson  is  devoted  to  geography  and  mythology. 
 
 Fifth  Class.  New  Testament,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Selectae  6  Profanis. 
 Phaedrus'  Fables.  Greek  roots.  Extracts  from  Lucian's  Dialogues,  ^lian. 
 Isocrates.  Themes.  Ancient  history  one  afternoon  per  Aveek.  Geography. 
 Telemachus.     Writing  and  arithmetic  continupd.     Natural  history. 
 
 French  and  the  classics  occupy,  per  week,  five  morning  and  three  afternoon 
 lessons.  History  and  geography  one  lesson.  Natural  history  one  afternoon  class 
 and  an  extra  morning  class. 
 
 Fourth  Class.  New  Testament  in  Greek.  Quintus  Curtius.  Ceesar. 
 Cicero  de  Amicitia  et  de  Senectute.  Greek  roots.  Xenophon's  Cyropaedia. 
 Plutarch's  Lives.  Selections  from  Ovid  and  from  Virgil's  Bucolics  and  Georgics. 
 Latin  prosody.  Latin  versification  commenced.  Selections  from  Fenelon. 
 Charles  XIL  History,  by  a  special  professor,  once  a  week.  Roman  history. 
 55 
 
434  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 Arithmetic.    Linear  drawing-,  and  drawing  of  the  human  figure  commenced,  and 
 continued  in  the  other  classes. 
 
 The  morning  liours,  and  three  of  the  aflernoon  lessons,  are  devoted  to  the 
 classics  and  to  French,  one  afternoon,  besides  an  extra  morning  lesson,  to  geo- 
 graphy and  history,  and  one  to  arithmetic. 
 
 TniKD  Class.  New  Testament,  Saint  Luke  (Greek  text).  Cicero's  Orations. 
 Virgil.  Latin  versification.  Plutarch  (morals).  Homer.  Selections  from  Masil- 
 lon,  Buflibn,  and  Boilcau.  History,  by  a  special  professor,  twice  a  week.  His- 
 tory  of  the  Middle  Ages.     Age  of  Louis  XIV.,  by  Voltaire. 
 
 All  the  morning  and  two  of  the  afternoon  lessons  are  occupied  with  French, 
 Latin,  and  Greek.  One  afternoon,  and  one  extra  morning  lesson,  arc  devoted  to 
 history.     Two  to  geometry. 
 
 Second  Class.  New  Testament  (Greek  text).  Livy.  Cicero  de  OfFiciis  ct  dc 
 Oratore.  Tacitus.  Virgil.  Horace's  Odes.  Philippics  of  Demosthenes.  Plato. 
 Homer.  A  tragedy  of  Sophocles  or  Euripides.  Oration  of  Chrysostom.  The 
 Rise  and  Fall  of  Rome.  The  Universal  History  of  Bossuet.  Modern  history. 
 Rousseau.  Introductory  exercises  to  the  course  of  rhetoric.  Narratives  in 
 French  and  Latin.     Arithmetic,  in  its  various  branches,  two  lessons  per  week. 
 
 The  morning  lessons  and  two  of  tlie  afternoon  lessons  are  occupied  in  classics 
 and  French.  Two  of  the  afternoon  lessons  are  devoted  to  history  and  one  to 
 chemistry. 
 
 Rhetoric  Cl.\ss.  New  Testament,  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Greek  text).  Con- 
 clones  6  Latinis  Scriptoribus  Excerptae.  Cicero's  Orations.  Tacitus.  Horace. 
 Virgil.  Lucan.  Demosthenes,  oration  for  the  crown.  Conciones  Graecae.  Homer. 
 Pindar.  A  tragedy  of  Sophocles  or  Euripides.  Rhetoric.  Funeral  Orations,  by 
 Bossuet  and  Fleclii6re.  La  Bruy6rc.  French  dramatic  classics.  Boileau. 
 The  Henriade.  Latin  and  Greek  versification  and  composition.  History  of 
 France.     Elements  of  Geometry.     Plane  Trigonometry. 
 
 Five  morning  lessons  and  four  of  the  afternoon  are  devoted,  per  week,  to  French 
 and  classics,  and  one  afternoon  to  history.  One  extra  morning  class  to  cosmo- 
 grai)hy,  preceded  by  a  review  of  arithmetic  and  geometry. 
 
 Philosophy  Class.  First  year.  Mental  and  moral  philosophy.  Written 
 compositions  in  Latin  and  French,  on  subjects  of  metaphysics,  logic,  or  morals. 
 Geometry  reviewed.  Algebra  to  quadratic  equations,  with  a  review  of  the 
 rules  of  arithmetic.  Trigonometry.  Elementary  ideas  of  the  system  of  the 
 world.     Physical  science  commenced. 
 
 Four  lessons  arc  devoted  to  elementary  mathematics,  and  one  to  elementary 
 physics.  Five  to  philosophy.  Once  a  week  there  is  an  extra  lesson  on  physics 
 and  chemistry.     Tiic  lectures  on  philosophy  are  given  in  F'rench. 
 
 Philosophy  Class.  Second  Year.  The  elements  of  algebra  completed.  Ap- 
 plication of  algebra  to  geometry.  Principles  of  descriptive  geometry,  five  hours 
 per  week.  In  the  first  halfj'car  the  elements  of  physical  science,  and  the  gene- 
 ral principles  of  chemistry,  are  completed,  and  in  the  second  the  elements  of 
 chemistry  and  mineralogy.  These  occupy  four  hours  per  week.  Six  classes  of 
 niatlieinalics,  those  of  physics,  and  the  study  hours  of  the  day  are  devoted  to 
 these  sciences.     Alternate  compositions  on  physical  and  mathematical  subjoets. 
 
 lii'li'^ious  Instrvction.  Besides  the  study  of  tiic  New  'J  estament  in  a  Latin 
 translation  and  in   the  original  Greek  version,  there  are   special  lessons  by  the 
 
ROYAL  COLLEGES  OF  FRA^CE.  435 
 
 Catholic  and  Protestant  chaplains  to  the  students  of  their  respective  creeds. 
 There  are  prayers  at  rising  and  going  to  bed.  Graces  at  meals;  and  a  short 
 extract  is  read  from  a  religious  work  before  retiring,  at  night. 
 
 The  modern  languages  are  taught  in  the  fifth,  fourth,  third,  and  second  classes. 
 In  the  fifth  two  hours  and  a-half,  in  the  other  classes  two  hours  per  week  are 
 occupied  with  them.  A  study-hall  is  provided  for  learning  the  lessons  given  by 
 the  teachers  of  modern  languages,  and  the  pupils  are  superintended  during  the 
 study  hours  by  a  director  of  studies. 
 
 The  English  and  German  are  the  modern  languages  taught. 
 
 In  comparing  these  courses  with  the  acquisitions  necessary 
 for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  letters  and  of  branches  of  sciences, 
 it  will  be  seen  that,  in  general,  the  student  must  have  passed 
 through  one  year  of  the  philosophy  class  to  be  able  to  stand 
 an  examination  upon  the  subjects  enumerated  as  essential  to 
 receiving  the  former,  and  two  years  of  the  same  class  for  the 
 latter. 
 
 A  student  who  has  entered  at  nine  years  of  age,  and  gone 
 regularly  through  the  nine  years'  courses,  including  the  first 
 year  of  philosophy,  may  commence  at  eighteen  the  study  of 
 law  or  theology,  and  by  the  addition  of  another  year  in  col- 
 lege, or  by  extra  study,  that  of  medicine.  It  appears,  then,  that 
 besides  the  direction  towards  a  general  mental  training,  the 
 studies  pursued  in  the  colleges  of  France  have  a  direct  bearing 
 upon  the  career  which  the  student  is  to  follow  in  after  life. 
 
 I  proceed  next  to  consider  the  means  taken  to  stimulate  to 
 exertion.  These  consist  mainly  in  places  in  the  class,  in  ex- 
 aminations, and  prizes. 
 
 Examinations,  These  ought  to  take  place,  according  to  law, 
 at  the  end  of  the  fifth  and  tenth  months  of  the  courses.  The 
 law  further  provides  that  all  those  of  Paris  shall  be  held  at  the 
 same  time,  or  nearly  so,  in  the  difierent  colleges,  by  committees 
 of  examiners  appointed  by  the  rector  of  the  academy,  one 
 committee  being  for  each  class,  examining  separately,  and 
 holding  their  sessions  for  five  hours  on  two  successive  days. 
 The  examinations  to  be  viva  voce,  the  written  compositions 
 which  have  gained  the  highest  place  from  the  beginning  of  the 
 course  being  submitted  to  these  examiners.  The  committees 
 are  directed  to  report  to  the  inspector-general,  and  the  result 
 of  the  examinations  should   be  made  known  through  the  pro- 
 
43G  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.        SECONDAKY  PERIOD. 
 
 visor  1o  the  students.  The  examination  at  the  close  of  the  tenth 
 month  should  determine  whether  ih,c  pupil  may  pass  to  a  higher 
 class  or  not;  and  if  then  found  deficient,  he  lias  the  privilege  of 
 re-examination  at  the  close  of  the  vacation,  and  if  he  have 
 made  up  the  deficiency,  may  be  permitted  to  rejoin  his  class. 
 In  fact,  the  law  in  regard  to  examinations  is  not  executed,  and 
 the  pupils  are  regularly  advanced,  every  year,  until  they  reach 
 the  fourth  class,  where  they  arc  obliged  to  pass  a  satisfactory 
 examination  before  they  can  enter  the  third.  This  is  considered 
 a  defect,  since  there  is  no  method  of  stopping  the  idle  or  incom- 
 petent at  the  threshold.  The  neglect  of  the  prescribed  examina- 
 tions, at  the  end  of  each  year,  produces  evils  which  have  been 
 severely  censured  by  those  most  competent  to  judge,  from  their 
 connexion  with  public  instruction  in  France.* 
 
 Prizes.  The  college  year  is  closed  by  the  distribution  of  prizes 
 which  have  been  gained  in  the  various  classes.  These  are 
 awarded  after  the  examination  of  all  the  compositions  of  the 
 half  year,  which  are  valued  according  to  a  system  of  marks. 
 They  are  given  in  a  public  meeting  of  the  college,  and  with 
 much  ceremony.  The  highest  prizes  in  philosophy  and  rheto- 
 ric are  called  prizes  of  honour  (prix  d'honneur),  and  have 
 attached  to  them  the  substantial  privilege  of  exemption  from 
 regular  military  service.  In  each  class  there  is  a  first  and 
 second  prize,  which  cannot  be  divided,  and  the  number  of 
 "accessits"  must  not  exceed  eight.  The  books  to  be  given  as 
 prizes  are  determined  by  the  rector. 
 
 There  is,  at  Paris,  a  second  distribution  of  prizes,  resulting 
 from  a  competition  (concours)  among  the  colleges  of  Paris  and 
 Versailles;  this  distribution  is  made  with  much  ceremony  by 
 the  grand  master  of  the  university,  in  presence  of  the  officers 
 of  that  body,  the  assembled  students  of  the  colleges,  and  the 
 public.  The  pupils  of  the  classes  above  the  sixth  compete  for 
 these  prizes,  which  embrace  the  circle  of  their  diflerent  col- 
 legiate studies.  At  the  same  meeting,  a  list  of  those  who  have 
 gained  the  prizes  in  the  colleges  is  read. 
 
 •  See  M.  Cousin,     hfur  I'Inslruction  Sccondaire  dw  PrusiC.     Paris,  1S37. 
 
ROYAL  COLLEGES  OF  FRANCE.  437 
 
 The  system  of  emulation  is  probably  carried  further  in  these 
 institutions  than  in  any  others  which  I  visited.  Indeed,  it  is  the 
 basis  of  all  exertion;  the  great  motive  which  is  placed  before 
 the  student,  and  which  he  obeys.  He  is  constantly  under  this 
 artificial  stimulus  during  his  college  residence,  and  the  result 
 affects  his  character  in  after  life.  The  present  social  condition 
 of  the  literary  and  scientific  ranks  in  France,  as  a  class,  is  pro- 
 duced by  the  results  of  a  competition,  which  extends  from  the 
 beginning  to  the  end  of  their  career. 
 
 The  great  stress  which  is  laid  upon  composition,  especially 
 that  in  the  French  language,  by  making  the  prizes  hinge  upon 
 it,  cultivates  this  art  to  a  high  degree,  and  creates  the  ready 
 writers  who  are  constantly  issuing  from  these  colleges,  and 
 engaging  in  literary  pursuits  for  a  subsistence. 
 
 Holidays.  The  vacations  are  for  about  six  weeks,  from  the 
 close  of  the  month  of  August  until  the  middle  of  October. 
 During  these  periods  the  students  may  go  home,  or  may  visit 
 such  families  as  their  parents  indicate.  Those  who  remain  in 
 the  college  are  occupied,  during  part  of  the  time,  in  regular 
 studies,  under  the  charge  of  an  adjunct  or  of  a  director  of 
 studies.     They  take  frequent  walks  during  these  vacations. 
 
 There  are,  beside,  during  term-time,  days  on  which  there  are 
 no  lessons,  when,  however,  the  students,  in  general,  do  not  re- 
 turn home.  On  New  Years'  day  all  have  permission  to  leave 
 the  college.  On  the  Monday  and  Thursday  before  Lent,  and 
 the  Wednesday  after  Easter  Monday,  on  Whit-Monday,  &c., 
 those  who  have  received  special  permission  may  leave  the 
 premises.  On  Sundays,  and  some  of  the  other  holidays,  the 
 pupils  take  walks,  at  the  discretion  of  the  provisor,  weather 
 permitting. 
 
 Domestic  economy.  As  the  economical  arrangements  of  these 
 institutions  have  been  the  subject  of  much  consideration  and 
 trial,  I  have  thought  that  a  brief  sketch  of  them,  as  laid  down 
 in  the  laws,  might  be  profitable. 
 
 The  expenditures  of  the  colleges  are  divided  into  the  follow- 
 ing six  heads:  first,  diet;  second,  rej)airs  and  w^ashing;  third, 
 
438  GEXERAL  EDUCATIO.V.       SECOXDARV  PERIOD. 
 
 clotfiing;  fourth,  emoluments;  fiflh,  petty  expenses;  sixth,  mis- 
 cellaneous and  extra  expenses.  The  first  includes  provisions 
 for  the  supply  of  the  students,  chaplain,  directors  of  studies, 
 and  servants,  fuel,  &c.,  for  the  kitchen.  The  second,  the  wash- 
 ing and  repairs  of  the  clothing  of  the  pupils.  The  third,  the 
 purchase  of  new  clothes.  The  fourth,  the  emoluments  of  the 
 officers,  the  salaries  of  inferior  officers,  and  the  wages  of  the 
 servants  and  workmen.  The  fifth  includes  the  expenses  of 
 lighting  and  warming  the  college,  of  books  for  studies,  of  re- 
 pairs of  furniture,  and  of  tiie  infirmary,  &c.  The  sixth  needs 
 no  explanation.  The  amounts  estimated  as  necessary  for  each 
 of  these  expenditures  are  submitted  by  the  provisor  to  the  rec- 
 tor of  the  academy,  and  the  councils  decide  in  relation  to 
 authorizing  them.  They  also  determine  if  proposals  shall  be 
 received  for  supplying  the  articles  required,  or  if  they  sliall  be 
 purchased  by  agreement,  or  at  the  market  prices.  In  the  first 
 two  cases,  the  approbation  of  the  council  is  necessary  to  con- 
 clude the  bargain,  and  in  the  last,  the  authority  of  the  provisor 
 is  sufficient  to  enable  the  steward  to  make  the  purchase. 
 
 The  steward  has  charge  of  all  the  goods  and  chattels  of  the 
 college,  and  is  intrusted  with  the  receipts  and  disbursements, 
 giving  bonds  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties.  He  pays 
 no  bill  without  an  order  from  the  provisor,  whose  authority 
 entitles  him,  also,  to  use  the  sums  which  may  be  necessary 
 for  the  daily  expenses  of  the  house,  and  to  whom  he  must  ac- 
 count at  least  once  a  fortnight ;  the  reccij)ts  constitute  his 
 vouchers.  lie  keeps  the  following  books: — 1st,  A  register  of 
 all  moneys  received,  stating  the  purpose  for  which  they  were 
 pnid  in.  2d,  A  journal  of  receipts  and  disbursements.  3d,  A 
 ledger,  in  which  the  accounts  are  posted  under  the  heads  of 
 debtor  and  creditor.  4th,  A  record  of  the  receipts  and  issues 
 of  provisions,  divided  into  as  many  accounts  as  there  are  dif- 
 ferent kinds  of  supplies,  stating,  also,  the  use  to  which  each 
 article  has  been  applied.  On  the  last  day  of  every  quarter 
 the  steward  balances  this  account  and  makes  an  inventory  of 
 the  stock  on  hand.     The  provisor  and  commissaries,  appointed 
 
ROYAL  COLLEGES  OF  FRANCE.  439 
 
 by  the  rector  from  the  academic  council,  verify  this  inventory 
 by  the  accounts  in  the  book. 
 
 The  provisor  examines  the  steward's  statement  of  the 
 balance  on  hand  every  eight  days.  At  the  close  of  the  month, 
 he  inspects  all  his  books,  and  ascertains  that  they  agree,  or 
 reports  any  deficiency  to  the  minister.  He  also  verifies, 
 monthly,  the  account  of  stock.  The  state  of  the  steward's 
 accounts  is  further  examined,  quarterly,  by  the  rector  of  the 
 academy  to  which  the  college  belongs,  or  by  a  deputy,  who 
 reports  to  the  minister.  At  the  same  time,  this  officer  ascer- 
 tains if  the  provisor  has  discharged  his  duties  in  regard  to  the 
 accounts.  Every  month  the  steward  transmits  to  the  minister 
 a  literal  copy  of  his  register  of  moneys  received,  and  a  state- 
 ment of  his  receipts  and  expenditures,  with  his  vouchers.  He 
 also  forwards,  quarterly,  his  account  of  stock. 
 
 Before  the  close  of  the  month  of  March,  the  provisor  furnishes 
 to  the  rector  of  his  academy,  a  statement  of  the  accounts  of  the 
 year,  with  a  report  upon  this  department  of  the  college  service. 
 These  are  referred  to  a  committee  of  the  academic  council, 
 who  report  in  May,  and  their  report,  with  the  original  docu- 
 ments, and  the  remarks  of  the  rector  upon  them,  are  forwarded 
 to  the  minister  of  public  instruction. 
 
 Every  year,  about  the  first  of  January,  the  steward  prepares 
 a  statement  of  the  receipts  and  disbursements,  exhibiting  the 
 balance  on  hand  at  the  close  of  the  last  year;  the  sums  received 
 and  expended  during  the  year,  w^ith  a  statement  of  their  pur- 
 poses, and  the  balance  on  hand.  Also,  an  account  of  the  stock 
 on  hand  at  the  date  of  the  last  report,  the  receipts  and  issues 
 during  the  year,  and  the  amount  on  hand.  The  steward  certi- 
 fies these  accounts,  which  are  examined  and  approved  by  the 
 provisor,  and  forwarded  to  the  minister. 
 
 When  the  monthly  accounts  of  the  steward  are  received  in 
 the  office  of  the  minister,  they  are  examined,  and  if  mistakes  in 
 the  figures,  or  omissions,  are  detected,  or  modifications  are 
 necessary,  the  accounting  officer  is  at  once  informed  of  it. 
 The  vouchers  remain  on  file  in  the  office  until  the  close  of 
 the  year,  w^hen  they  are  appended   to  the  general  account. 
 
440  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 The  annual  statements  having  been  duly  verified,   are  trans- 
 mitted to  the  court  of  accounts. 
 
 Thus  there  are  two  sets  of  checks,  one  from  the  academic 
 council  and  rector,  the  other  from  the  ministerial  bureau,  and 
 both  are  revised  by  the  court. 
 
 NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE. 
 
 The  "  normal  school,"  intended  to  furnish  professors  for 
 colleges,  was  established  in  1704,  by  the  same  convention 
 which  created  the  polytechnic  school.  The  organization  pro- 
 posed by  the  law  was  upon  a  scale  entirely  beyond  the  wants 
 to  be  supplied,  and  notwithstanding  the  exertions  of  its  eminent 
 professors,  the  school  had  but  a  temporary  existence,  and  ill 
 success,  mainly  from  the  unprepared  state  of  the  pupils  who 
 had  entered  it,  and  to  whom  the  kind  of  instruction  was  entirely 
 unadapted.  There  were  thirteen  courses  of  lectures,  and  among 
 the  professors  were  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Ilauy,  Monge,  Ber- 
 thollet,  Volney,  Bernardin  St.  Pierre,  Sicard,  and  Laharpe. 
 The  school  was  suppressed  by  a  decree  of  April,  1795,  and  its 
 pupils  dispersed.  After  the  re-organization  of  the  university,  in 
 1800,  the  expediency  of  reviving  the  normal  school  appears  to 
 have  been  felt,  and  it  was  reorganized  in  1808.  The  number 
 of  pupils  provided  for  in  the  new  plan,  was  three  hundred;  but 
 from  1810  to  1826  there  were  never  more  than  fifty-eight 
 actually  in  attendance.  According  to  the  plan  of  instruction, 
 lectures  were  to  be  attended  out  of  doors,  and  interrogations 
 and  study  to  take  place  within  the  school,  under  the  charge 
 of  the  elder  pupils.  The  recitations  of  the  pupils  to  each  other 
 were  called  conferences,  a  name  which  is  still  preserved,  being 
 applied  to  the  lessons  given  by  the  teachers,  who  arc  called 
 masters  of  conferences.  The  duratic^n  of  the  course  of  instruc- 
 tion was  limited  at  Hrst  to  two  years,  but  subsequently  extended 
 to  three.  The  school  was  a  second  time  suppressed,  in  1822, 
 and  in  182G  an  institution,  termed  a  "preparatory  school,"  was 
 substituted  for  it,  which  in  its  turn  was  abolished,  and  the  old 
 normal  school  revived  by  a  decree  of  the  lieutenant-general  of 
 the  kingdom,  on  the  6th  of  August,  1830.     A  report  was  made 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  PARIS.  441 
 
 by  M.  Cousin,  Secretary  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction, 
 in  October,  1830,  the  recommendations  of  which  were  adopted 
 substantially.  New  regulations  for  the  course  of  study,  the 
 general  arrangements  and  discipline,  have  been  gradually  pre- 
 pared, and  the  school  has  commenced  a  career  of  usefulness 
 which  it  bids  fair  to  prosecute  with  increasing  success. 
 
 The  chief  purpose  of  the  normal  school  is  to  give  its  pupils 
 ample  opportunities  of  preparation  for  the  competition  for  places 
 of  adjuncts  in  the  colleges  (cours  d'agregation),  and  its  arrange- 
 ments are  all  subordinate  to  this  object.  In  this  competition, 
 however,  the  pupils  of  the  school  meet  on  an  equal  footing, 
 merely,  with  all  other  candidates. 
 
 The  officers,  in  1837,  were,  the  director,*  who  did  not  reside 
 at  the  school,  nor  take  part  in  the  instruction;  the  director  of 
 studies,  the  resident  head  of  the  establishment  ;t  eight  masters 
 of  conferences  for  the  section  of  letters;  six  masters  of  confer- 
 ences, and  one  for  the  drawing  department,  for  the  section  of 
 sciences;  two  preparers  (preparateurs) ;  a  sub-director,  charged 
 with  a  general  superintendence  of  the  pupils;  and  two  assistants, 
 called  superintending  masters.  The  masters  of  conferences  have, 
 in  general,  equivalent  duties  to  the  professors  in  the  colleges. 
 In  1837  there  were  eighty  pupils  in  the  school,  of  whom  forty- 
 nine  were  supported  entirely  by  the  funds  allowed  by  the  go- 
 vernment, and  eighteen  had  half  their  expenses  defrayed. 
 
 The  normal  school  at  present  occupies  a  part  of  the  build- 
 ings belonging  to  the  Royal  College  of  Louis-le-Grand,  and 
 the  college  furnishes  the  food  and  clothing  of  the  pupils  by 
 agreement  with  the  school.  This  connexion  has  advantages, 
 and  among  them  that  of  enabling  the  pupils  to  have  some  prac- 
 tice in  teaching,  but  they  are  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
 disadvantages,  and  the  friends  of  the  school  are  earnest  in  their 
 endeavours  to  procure  a  separate  domicile  for  it.  The  accom- 
 modations for  lodging,  study,  instruction,  and  exercise,  as  far 
 as  the  building  and  its  scite  are  concerned,  are  certainly  of  a 
 most  limited  kind. 
 
 *  M.  Cousin,  peer  of  France,  secretary  of  the  council  of  the  university,  &c. 
 t  M.  Viguicr. 
 
 56 
 
442  GENERAt  EDUCATION.       SECOiNDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Admission.  Tlie  number  of  pupils  who  may  be  admitted  is  de- 
 termined every  year  by  the  probable  number  required  to  fill  the 
 vacancies  in  secondary  instruction.  The  admissions  are  made 
 by  competition,  and  for  the  most  successful  competitors  a  limited 
 number  of  bursaries  (bourses),  are  established,  divisible  into  half 
 bursaries,  which  are  distributed  to  those  who  require  assistance. 
 The  candidates  enter  tlicir  names  at  the  academy  nearest  to 
 their  residence,  between  the  fifteenth  of  June  and  of  July,  every 
 year.  Each  candidate  deposites  the  following  certificates,  viz. 
 of  the  date  of  birth,  showing  tliat  he  is  over  seventeen  and  under 
 twenty-three  years  of  age;  of  having  been  vaccinated;  of  moral 
 conduct;  of  having  completed,  or  being  about  to  complete,  his  stu- 
 dies, including  philosophy,  and  if  he  intends  to  become  a  teacher 
 of  science,  a  course  of  special  mathematics  and  of  physics;  a  de- 
 claration from  his  parent  or  guardian,  if  the  candidate  is  a 
 minor,  that  he  will  devote  himself  for  ten  years,  from  the  period 
 of  admission,  to  public  instruction.  These  lists  are  forwarded  by 
 the  rectors  of  the  several  academies,  with  their  remarks,  to  the 
 council  of  pubHc  instruction,  which  returns,  before  the  first  of 
 August,  a  list  of  those  persons  who  may  be  examined  for  admis- 
 sion. This  examination  is  made  in  the  several  academies,  with  a 
 view  to  select  the  most  prominent  candidates,  whose  cases  are 
 to  be  ultimately  decided  by  competition  at  the  school  in  Paris. 
 It  consists  of  compositions  upon  subjects  which  arc  the  same  for 
 all  the  academies,  and  of  interrogations  and  oral  explanations. 
 For  the  candidates,  as  future  instructors  in  letters,  the  written 
 exercises  are  a  dissertation,  in  Frcncli,  on  some  points  of  phi- 
 losophy, an  essay  in  Latin,  an  essay  in  Frencli,  a  Latin  and  Greek 
 version,  and  Latin  verses.  The  oral  examinations  turn  upon 
 the  classical  authors  read  in  college,  and  upon  the  elements  of 
 philosophy,  rhetoric,  and  history.  The  candidates  in  science 
 have  the  same  written  exercises  in  philosophy  and  in  Latin 
 versions,  and  in  addition,  must  solve  one  or  more  questions 
 in  mathematics  and  physics.  The  oral  examinations  arc  upon 
 subjects  of  mathematics,  physics,  and  philosophy,  taught  in 
 the  philosophy  class  of  the  colleges.*     All  the  written  cxer- 
 
 •  See  tliia  Report,  p.  431. 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  PARIS.  443 
 
 cises  and  notes  of  the  oral  examinations  are  forwarded  to 
 the  minister  of  public  instruction,  and  submitted  severally  to 
 a  committee  of  letters  and  a  committee  of  science,  taken 
 from  among  the  masters  of  the  normal  school,  the  director 
 being  chairman  of  each  committee.  These  committees  decide 
 whether  the  candidates  are  fit  to  be  allowed  to  present  them- 
 selves for  examination  at  the  school,  and  those  who  are  deemed 
 worthy,  receive  a  notice  to  report  themselves  on  or  before  the 
 fifteenth  of  October.  Previous  to  this  competition  the  candi- 
 dates are  required  to  present  their  diploma  of  bachelor  of  let- 
 ters or  of  sciences.  The  masters  of  the  normal  school  are 
 divided  into  two  committees,  one  of  letters  and  the  other  of 
 science,  for  conducting  these  examinations,  which  are  oral,  and 
 the  result  of  which  determines  the  admission  or  rejection  of  the 
 candidate.  On  admission,  the  pupil  makes  an  engagement  to 
 devote  himself  to  public  instruction  for  ten  years. 
 
 Instruction.  The  present  arrangement  of  the  courses  of  in- 
 struction can  only  be  regarded  as  provisional,  improvements 
 being  gradually  introduced,  as  observation  shows  their  neces- 
 sity. The  principle  declared  by  the  director,  M.  Cousin,  to  be 
 that  of  the  school  in  this  respect,  is  worthy  of  all  commendation. 
 "When,"  says  M.  Cousin,  in  his  Report  of  1835-6,*  "experi- 
 ence shows  the  necessity  or  utility  of  a  measure  which  the  fun- 
 damental regulations  of  the  school  have  not  provided  for,  it  is 
 by  no  means  proposed  at  once  to  the  royal  council  for  adoption 
 as  an  article  of  the  regulations;  authority  is  asked  to  put  it  to 
 the  test  of  practice,  and  it  is  only  when  found  repeatedly  suc- 
 cessful that  it  is  deemed  prudent  to  convert  it  into  a  regulation." 
 A  close  observation  of  the  merits  and  defects  of  the  system  is 
 thus  made  to  pave  the  way  for  judicious  changes. 
 
 The  full  course  of  the  school,  at  present,  occupies  three 
 years.  The  pupils  are  divided  into  two  sections,  that  of  let- 
 ters and  of  science,  which  pursue  separate  courses.  In  the 
 section  of  letters,  the  first  year  is  devoted  to  a  revision,  and 
 the  second  to  an  extension,  of  the  higher  courses  of  the  col- 
 
 *  Ecole  Normalc.     R^glements,  programmes,  ct  rapports.     Paris,  1837. 
 
444  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 leges,  and  the  third  is  especially  employed  in  fitting  the  pupils 
 to  become  professors.  In  fulfilling  this  object,  however,  no 
 instruction  in  the  science  or  art  of  teaching  is  given  in  the 
 establishment,  nor  is  it  obligatory  upon  the  pupils  to  teach,  so 
 that,  as  far  as  systematic  practice  goes,  they  derive  no  direct 
 benefit  from  the  school;  it  is  a  privilege,  however,  which  many 
 enjoy,  to  be  called  to  give  lessons  in  some  of  the  royal  colleges, 
 particularly  in  that  with  which  the  school  is  now  connected  by 
 its  locality.  When  the  pupil  intends  to  devote  himself  to  teaching 
 in  the  grammar  classes  of  the  colleges,  or  is  found  not  to  have 
 the  requisite  ability  for  taking  a  high  rank  in  the  body  of  in- 
 structors, he  passes  at  once  from  the  first  year's  course  to  the 
 third,  and  competes,  accordingly,  in  the  examination  of  ad- 
 juncts (agreges).  The  consequences  of  the  low  esteem  in  which 
 the  grammar  studies  are  held,  have  been  much  deplored  by  the 
 present  director  of  the  school,*  and  a  reform  in  regard  to  them 
 has  been  attempted,  with  partial  success. 
 
 The  courses  are  conducted  by  teachers  called  masters  of 
 conferences,  who  seldom  lecture,  but  question  the  pupils  upon 
 the  lessons  which  have  been  appointed  for  them  to  learn,  give 
 explanations,  and  are  present  while  they  interrogate  each  other, 
 as  a  kind  of  practice  in  the  art  of  teaching.  In  some  cases, 
 the  students  themselves  act  as  masters  of  conferences. 
 
 The  course  of  letters  of  ihofn^st  year  comprised,  in  1836-7,t 
 
 1.  Greek  language  and  literature,  three  lessons  per  week.  2.  Latin  and 
 French  literature,  three  lessons.  3.  Ancient  history  and  antiquities,  three  les- 
 sons. 4.  A  course  of  philosophy  higher  than  that  of  the  colleges,  three  lessons. 
 5.  General  physics,  one  lesson.  Chemistry,  one  lesson,  the  courses  being  in- 
 troduced chiefly  to  keep  up  the  knowledge  of  tiiese  subjects.  6.  German  and 
 English  language,  each  one  lesson. 
 
 The  conferences,  or  lessons,  on  general  physics,  chemistry, 
 and  the  modern  languages,  are  by  pupils  who  gi\'e  instruction 
 and  explanations  to  their  comrades. 
 
 *  Rapport  sur  les  travaux  de  Tccolc  normale  pendant  I'annee,  1S35-G.  Par  I\I. 
 Cousin. 
 
 t  The  distribution  of  subjects  is  taken  from  a  manuscript  kindly  furnished  to 
 me  by  the  director  of  studies,  M.  Viguier ;  it  does  not  agree  precisely  witli  tlie 
 plan  marked  out  in  tho  regulations. 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  PARIS.  445 
 
 At  the  end  of  the  first  year  there  are  examinations,  according 
 to  the  result  of  which  the  student  passes  to  the  courses  of  the 
 second  year,  or,  in  the  case  before  stated,  to  those  of  the  third 
 year,  or  leaves  the  school.  These  examinations  are  conducted 
 by  inspectors-general  of  the  university,  named  for  the  purpose 
 by  the  minister.  Pupils  who  have  passed,  may  present  them- 
 selves at  the  university  as  candidates  for  the  degree  of  licentiate 
 of  letters. 
 
 The  second  yearns  course  of  letters  does  not  necessarily  in- 
 clude any  scientific  studies. 
 
 The  courses  of  language  and  philosophy  go  into  the  history  of  these  subjects. 
 They  consist  of — 1.  Lectures  on  the  history  of  Greek  literature,  three  lessons 
 per  week.  2.  On  the  history  of  Roman  literature,  two  lessons.  3.  On  the 
 •history  of  French  literature,  one  lesson.  4.  English  language,  one  lesson. 
 5.  On  the  history  of  philosophy,  two  lessons.  6.  Continuation  of  the  histori- 
 cal course,  two  lessons.  The  recitations  are  accompanied  by  suitable  written  ex- 
 ercises. 
 
 At  the  end  of  the  year  the  pupils  are  examined.  Those  who 
 have  not  already  obtained  the  degree  of  licentiate  of  letters  are 
 now  required  to  do  so,  or  to  leave  the  school. 
 
 The  examinations  for  this  degree  consist  of  compositions  in  French  and  Latin 
 prose,  on  different  days.  Latin  verses  and  Greek  themes.  Explanations  of  se- 
 lected passages  from  the  second  book  of  Herodotus,  the  speech  of  Pericles  in 
 Thucydides,  the  Gorgias  of  Plato,  the  speech  of  Demosthenes  against  Leptines, 
 the  chorusses  of  ffidipus  at  Colonos,  the  Hecuba  of  Euripides,  the  combat  of 
 Hercules  and  Amycus  in  Theocritus,  the  hymns  of  Synesius,  Cicero  de  Oratore 
 and  de  legibus,  the  Germany  of  Tacitus,  the  Treatise  of  Seneca  de  beneficiis,  the 
 last  two  books  of  Quintilian's  Rhetoric,  the  fifth  book  of  Lucretius  de  natura  re- 
 rurn,  the  first  book  of  Horace's  Epistles,  the  second  book  of  Horace's  Odes,  the 
 Troas  of  Seneca. 
 
 These  books  are  liable  to  be  changed,  from  time  to  time,  on 
 notice  being  given.  The  candidate  is  expected  to  answer  the 
 questions  on  philosophy,  literature,  history,  and  philology,  to 
 which  the  reading  of  the  author  may  give  rise. 
 
 In  the  third  year  of  letters,  the  courses  are  special,  the  divi- 
 sions corresponding  with  the  courses  of  the  royal  colleges,  and 
 consisting  of  grammar,  humanities  and  rhetoric,  history  and 
 philosophy.    Each  pupil  takes  his  place  in  one  or  other  of  these 
 
446  GENERAL  EDUCATIOy.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 divisions,  and   is  not  required  to  follow  the  courses  of  the 
 others. 
 
 Tho  lectures  and  recitations  constituting  the  entire  course  of  letters  of  liie 
 third  year  were,  during  the  second  half  year  of  1836-7: — 1.  Latin  lan- 
 guage and  grammar,  three  lessons.  2.  Greek  language,  two  lectures  and  one 
 lesson.  3.  Latin  literature,  two  lectures  and  one  lesson.  4.  Greek  literature, 
 two  lectures  and  one  lesson.  5.  Latin  eloquence,  two  lectures.  6.  Latin  poetry, 
 two  lectures.  7.  French  literature,  one  lesson.  8.  History  of  the  philosophy 
 of  the  ancients,  two  lectures.  9.  Ancient  geography,  two  lectures.  10. 
 Philosophy,  one  lesson.  11.  Natural  history,  one  lesson.  The  lectures  al- 
 ludcd  to  are  tiiose  attended  hy  the  pupils  at  the  Sorbonne. 
 
 The  following  were  the  courses  of  the  different  years  in  the 
 section  of  science  during  the  same  term,  the  lectures  being 
 those  of  the  faculty  of  sciences  of  the  university. 
 
 First  year.  1.  Astronomy,  two  lessons  per  week.  2,  Descriptive  Geometr)% 
 two  lessons.  3.  Chemistry,  two  lectures,  one  lesson,  and  four  hours  of  manipula- 
 tion. 4.  Botany,  one  lesson.  5.  Philosophy,  two  lessons.  6.  German  language, 
 one  lesson.     7.  Drawing,  one  lesson  during  the  week,  and  one  on  Sunday. 
 
 Second  year.  1.  Physics,  two  lectures,  two  lessons,  and  one  hour  of  manipu- 
 lation. 2.  Chemistry,  two  lectures.  3.  Botany,  one  lesson.  4.  Vegetable  phy- 
 siology, two  lectures.  5.  Calculus  of  probabilities,  two  lectures.  6.  DitTcrcntial 
 and  integral  calculus,  two  lectures  and  two  lessons.  7.  Drawing,  one  lesson  dur- 
 ing the  week,  and  one  on  Sunday. 
 
 Third  year.  1.  Mechanics,  four  lectures  and  two  lessons.  2.  Chemical  ana- 
 lysis,  two  lectures  and  one  hour  of  manipulation.  3.  Chemistry,  one  lecture. 
 4.  Natural  history,  two  lessons.  5.  Geology,  one  lesson.  6.  Botany,  one  lesson. 
 7.  Drawing,  one  lesson.  On  Sunday,  the  pupils  make  botanical  and  geological 
 excursions  into  the  environs. 
 
 The  pupils  undergo  similar  examinations  to  those  of  the 
 section  of  letters,  and  before  presenting  themselves  as  candi- 
 dates for  the  place  of  adjunct,  they  must  have  taken  at  least 
 the  degree  of  licentiate  of  sciences.  They  are,  however,  spe- 
 cially relieved  from  the  necessity  of  matriculating  in  those 
 courses  at  the  university  which  they  attend  in  the  school,  and 
 which  otherwise  would  be  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  de- 
 gree of  licentiate.  These  are,  fur  the  mat.hematical  sciences, 
 the  diflcrential  and  integral  calculus  and  mechanics;  for  the 
 physical  sciences,  physics  and  chemistry;  and  for  the  natural 
 sciences,  geology,  botany,  &c.    The  examination  for  the  degree 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  PARIS.  447 
 
 of  licentiate  of  mathematical  science  may  be  made  at  the  end 
 of  the  second  year,  by  pupils  of  this  section  of  the  normal 
 school,  and  that  for  licentiate  of  physical  science,  at  the  close  of 
 the  third  year. 
 
 The  programmes  of  the  several  lessons*  in  both  sections  are 
 prepared  by  the  masters,  and  submitted  to  the  council  of  public 
 instruction  every  year  before  the  beginning  of  the  course. 
 
 Besides  these  lectures  and  recitations,  the  pupils  are  required 
 to  attend  such  other  lectures  at  the  faculty  of  letters  or  of 
 sciences  of  the  university,  or  any  other  public  institution,  as 
 may  be  designated  to  them.  At  the  termination  of  the  third 
 year's  course,  in  the  month  of  July,  they  are  examined  in  the 
 school,  and  present  themselves  as  competitors  for  the  places  of 
 adjuncts,  according  to  the  special  studies  which  they  have  pur- 
 sued. 
 
 The  courses  of  the  school  are  arranged  in  reference  to  the 
 competition  for  these  places,  an  account  of  the  examinations 
 for  which  has  already  been  given  in  the  general  description  of 
 secondary  instruction  in  France.f  In  this  competition  they  are 
 brought  in  contact  with  the  best  talent  which  has  chosen  a 
 different  road  to  preferment  from  that  offered  by  the  normal 
 school.  Success  in  this  trial  is,  of  course,  not  always  a  fair  cri- 
 terion of  the  state  of  the  school,  but  certainly  offers,  on  the  ave- 
 rage, an  idea  of  the  merits  of  its  different  departments,  and  is 
 so  used  in  directing  their  improvement.  It  may  be  of  interest, 
 therefore,  to  give  the  results  of  one  of  these  competitions,  namely, 
 that  for  1836.  The  judges  of  the  competition  for  the  places  of 
 adjuncts  in  philosophy  report  ten  candidates  for  the  six  places; 
 of  these,  five  of  the  successful  ones  were  from  the  normal  school, 
 but  the  first  was  from  another  institution.  For  six  vacancies 
 in  the  higher  classes  of  letters  there  were  thirty  candidates  ex- 
 amined, and  of  these,  two  of  the  successful  ones,  including  the 
 first  upon  the  list,  were  pupils  of  the  school.  For  adjuncts  in 
 he  sciences  there  w^ere  eight  places  and  nineteen  candidates, 
 
 •  A  series  of  programmes  is  given  in  full  in  M.  Cousin's  work,  before  referred 
 to. 
 
 t  See  this  Report,  pp.  426-7. 
 
448  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 the  school  furnishing  six  of  the  successful  competitors,  and 
 among  them  the  first  on  the  list.  In  history  and  geography 
 there  were  eight  candidates  for  five  places;  the  institutions  from 
 which  they  came  arc,  however,  not  stated.  In  grammar,  there 
 were  forty-one  candidates  for  eight  places ;  of  the  successful 
 competitors  the  school  sent  five,  and  among  them  the  first  on 
 the  list. 
 
 The  keen  nature  of  this  competition,  while  it  excites  the  pu- 
 pils of  tlie  school  to  great  exertion,  produces  a  most  deleterious 
 effect  upon  the  health  of  the  more  feeble.  Indeed,  their  general 
 appearance,  w^hen  compared  with  those  of  other  young  men  of 
 the  same  age,  is  far  from  favourable.  It  is  part  of  a  system 
 which  is  considered  adapted  to  the  national  character,  but 
 which  is  certainly  by  no  means  a  necessity  for  men  in  general, 
 since  the  teachers  of  the  German  gymnasia  are  prepared  with- 
 out its  severe  pressure. 
 
 The  collections  subsidiary  to  the  instruction  are: — 1st.  A 
 library  of  works  relating  to  education  and  to  the  courses  of 
 study,  which  is  open  for  two  hours  every  day,  and  from  which 
 the  students  may  receive  books.  This  library  is  under  the 
 charge  of  the  sub-director  of  studies.  The  students  are,  be- 
 sides, furnished  with  the  books  which  they  use  in  their  classes 
 at  the  expense  of  the  school,  and  which,  unless  injured,  are 
 returned  by  them  after  use.  2d.  A  small  collection  of  physi- 
 cal apparatus.  3d.  A  collection  of  chemical  apparatus  con- 
 nected with  a  laboratory,  for  practice  in  manipulation.  The 
 courses  of  manipulation  are  not,  however,  carried  out  to  their 
 due  extent,  and  the  study-rooms  are  common  to  many  indivi- 
 duals. The  pupils  are  divided  into  two  sections  for  study,  each 
 of  which  is  in  charge  of  one  of  the  superintending  masters. 
 
 Discipline.  Though  there  are  minute  regulations  for  disci- 
 pline, the  age  of  the  |)upils  and  the  character  of  their  pursuits 
 and  expectations  render  the  exercise  of  severity  but  little  neces- 
 sary. At  tiic  time  of  my  visit  to  the  school,  in  1837,  the  youngest 
 pupil  was  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  there  were  but  four  of 
 between  eighteen  and  nineteen  connected  with  it. 
 
 Much  dilference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  whether  the  fre(juent 
 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  PARIS.  449 
 
 permissions  to  individuals  to  leave  the  premises  should  not  be 
 replaced  by  excursions  made  by  the  whole  of  the  pupils,  under 
 the  supervision  of  an  officer.  At  present,  Sunday  is  a  day  of 
 general  leave  of  absence,  and  on  Thursday  afternoon  indivi- 
 dual permissions  are  freely  granted  by  the  director  of  studies. 
 This  institution  occupies  the  same  rank  with  those  attached 
 to  some  of  the  Prussian  universities,  and  intended  to  prepare 
 masters  for  the  gymnasia.  It  has  an  advantage  over  them  in 
 the  spirit  produced  by  the  greater  numbers  of  its  pupils,  and 
 by  the  closer  connexion  with  the  school,  which  results  from 
 their  studying  and  residing  within  its  walls.  It  is,  in  turn,  in- 
 ferior to  the  seminaries  for  secondary  teachers  at  Berlin,  in  the 
 absence  of  arrangements  for  practical  teaching,  and  in  even  a 
 more  important  respect,  namely,  the  want  of  that  religious  mo- 
 tive of  action,  which  forms  the  characteristic  of  the  Prussian 
 system.  The  deficiencies  of  this  great  school,  in  regard  to  both 
 religious  and  practical  education,  struck  me,  I  must  confess,  very 
 forcibly.* 
 
 *  In  the  general  tenour  of  tlie  foregoing  remarks,  I  have  the  sanction  of  M. 
 Cousin,  in  the  preface  to  his  account  of  the  normal  school,  already  referred  to. 
 
 57 
 
450  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  TERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER  XII. 
 
 SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA. 
 
 It  is  usual  to  confine  tlic  title  of  secondary  schools  to  those 
 which  prepare  for  the  learned  professions,  and  in  this  view  the 
 only  secondary  instruction  in  Prussia  is  given  in  the  gymnasia. 
 But  there  is  another  class  of  institutions,  which,  according 
 to  the  opinion  already  expressed,  are  as  much  entitled  to 
 be  considered  establishments  for  secondary  instruction  as  the 
 learned  schools.  These  are  the  "  real  schools"  (realschulen), 
 of  which  the  classes  arc  parallel  with  those  of  the  gymnasia  in 
 regard  to  age  and  attainment,  and  which  prepare  their  pupils 
 to  engage  in  the  business  of  life,  in  commerce  or  trade,  or  to 
 pass  to  the  special  schools  of  architecture,  engineering,  manu- 
 factures, &c.*  The  institution  at  Berlin,  known  as  the  trade 
 school  (gewcrbschule),  will,  I  think,  be  admitted  to  belong  to 
 the  same  class,  and  to  present,  in  its  own  peculiar  line,  a  de- 
 velopment quite  as  much  above  that  afforded  by  the  primary 
 schools,  as  is  furnished  by  the  gymnasia.  These  institutions 
 can  by  no  means  be  classed  with  the  higher  burgher  schools, 
 which  have  been  already  described,  differing  from  them  essen- 
 tially in  the  extent  of  their  courses  and  the  age  of  their  pupils. 
 It  is  important  not  to  confound  the  trade  school  just  mentioned 
 with  other  establishments,  bearing  the  same  name,  in  the  pro- 
 vinces of  Prussia,  and  connected  with  llie  special  school  of 
 mechanic  arts  and  manufactures,  called  the  trade  institute 
 (gewcrbinstitut),  at  Berlin. 
 
 *  M.  Guizot,  in  his  reasons  for  the  ministerial  project  of  a  law  on  secondary 
 instruction  in  France,  supports  the  view  wliich  is  taken  ahovc,  tliat  secondary 
 instruction  is  not  confined  to  prej)aration  for  the  learned  professions,  while  M. 
 Cousin,  in  his  IVIenioir  on  Secondary  Instruction  iii  Prussia,  docs  not  admit  the 
 **  real  schools"  into  the  secondary  class. 
 
SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA.  451 
 
 DIVISION    FIRST. 
 
 SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA. 
 
 The  public  educational  establishments  of  Prussia,  though  in 
 general  regulated  by  law,  are  not  reduced  to  uniformity  by  it, 
 the  spirit  of  system  not  being  allowed  to  check  the  growth  of 
 what  is  good.  Thus  it  appears  to  me  out  of  the  question  to 
 consider  secondary  instruction  as  uniform,  either  as  regulated 
 by  law  or  as  existing  in  fact ;  and  a  very  imperfect  view  would 
 be  given  of  even  one  branch  of  it,  that  which  prepares  for 
 the  learned  professions,  by  attempting  thus  to  present  it.  The 
 very  fact  that  the  gymnasia  are  made  provincial  institutions, 
 and  not  immediately  dependant  on  the  cental  authority,  implies 
 varieties  in  the  interior  organization,  as  contemplated  by  the 
 law  itself  After  a  sketch  of  the  general  system  of  secondary 
 instruction,  I  shall,  therefore,  give  examples  of  different  gymna- 
 sia, which  represent  fairly  the  range  of  variety  in  these  schools, 
 and  then  establish  a  comparison  between  them  and  others  of 
 the  same  grade,  which  have  been  under  discussion.  Proceeding 
 to  the  second  division  of  this  period  of  instruction,  I  shall  furnish 
 an  example  of  the  real  school,  and  of  the  secondary  trade  school. 
 
 The  immediate  authority  superintending  secondary  instruc- 
 tion is  the  school-board  (schul-collegium)  of  the  province  in 
 which  the  gymnasium  is  situated.  It  will  be  recollected,  that 
 this  school-board  is  a  branch  of  the  provincial  consistory,  of 
 which  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  province,  the  higher  presi- 
 dent (ober-president),  is  the  head.  One  of  the  councillors  of 
 the  ministry  of  pubUc  instruction,  at  Berlin,  is  specially  charged 
 with  the  concerns  of  all  the  gymnasia,*  and  is  the  channel 
 through  which  the  provincial  authorities  communicate  w^ith  the 
 ministry.  The  school-board  consists  of  the  president  and  vice 
 president  of  the  provincial  government,  and  of  two  school- 
 councillors,  and  holds  its  meetings  in  the  chief  town  of  the  pro- 
 vince.    They  regulate  the  details  of  instruction  and  discipline 
 
 *  To  tliis  gentleman,  Counsellor  John  Scliulzc,  I  am  indebted  for  introductions 
 •to  the  schools  of  Berlin. 
 
452  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.      SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 in  the  gymnasia,  correspond  with  the  directors,  appoint  the 
 teachers,  except  the  director,  who  is  appointed  by  the  minis- 
 ter, make  visits  of  inspection,  and  attend  the  examinati(jns, 
 especially  those  for  passing  to  the  university,  and  authorize 
 the  books  to  be  used  in  the  school  and  placed  in  the  library. 
 Tiie  inspection  of  religious  instruction  belongs  to  the  ecclesias- 
 tical functionaries  of  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  churches 
 severally.*  The  royal  gymnasia  are  supported  from  the  funds 
 of  the  state  and  the  payments  of  their  pupils,  and  their  receipts 
 and  expenditures,  are  under  the  charge  of  a  special  olTicer,  or 
 of  the  director.  The  funds  of  those  which  are  otherwise  en- 
 dowed, are  usually  under  the  direction  of  a  committee,  or  of 
 one  of  the  officers.  In  183i  there  were  one  hundred  and 
 twenty-four  gymnasia  in  Prussia,  attended,  during  the  summer 
 term,  by  twenty-four  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-one  stu- 
 dents; seven  hundred  and  thirty-eiglit  students  passed  from  their 
 classes  to  the  universities,  twenty-three  hundred  and  twenty-six 
 to  other  occupations.  There  were  thirteen  hundred  and  thirty- 
 four  teachers  in  these  establishments,  or  one  teacher  for  about 
 eighteen  pupils.  Although  private  institutions  of  this  kind  are 
 allowed,  they  do  not  exist.  The  wants  of  the  community  are 
 well  supplied  by  the  public  establishments,  some  of  which,  as 
 in  the  cities,  are  day,  and  others  boarding-schools.  Private 
 secondary  instruction  is  also  permitted,  the  admission  to  the 
 university  depending  upon  qualifications  shown  on  examination, 
 and  not  on  certificates  of  attendance  at  particular  schools. 
 
 Certain  strictures  upon  the  system  pursued  in  the  Prussian 
 gymnasia  induced  a  close  inquiry  by  the  ministry  of  public 
 instruction  into  its  eflxjcts  upon  mental,  moral,  and  physical  de- 
 velopment, the  result  of  wiiich  was  a  series  of  regulations, 
 transmitted  in  1837f  to  the  provincial  authorities,  accompanied 
 by  remarks  on  the  existing  system.  By  following  the  current 
 of  the  regulations  and  remarks,  a  good  idea  may  be  obtained 
 
 •  Slalislisches  llandhuch  der  dcutsclicn  Gymnasicn  hcrausgegehcn,  von  Prof. 
 Dr.  Brauns  und  Dr.  Tliiobald. 
 
 t  I  am  indebted  for  this  recent  document,  obtained  in  MS.  while  at  Berlin, 
 to  the  kindness  of  the  Honourable  Ilenr}'  Wheaton,  Minister  of  the  United  States 
 to  Prussia. 
 
GYMNASIA  OF  PRUSSIA.  453 
 
 of  the  spirit  in  which  the  former  are  framed,  of  the  arrange- 
 ments which  they  are  designed  to  eflect,  and  of  the  objec- 
 tions really  existing,  or  urged  unnecessarily,  against  the  sys- 
 tem of  the  gymnasia.  This  document  embodies  the  expe- 
 rience of  this  class  of  schools,  and  when  accompanied  by  an 
 account  of  the  regulations  for  the  final  examinations  at  the 
 gymnasia,  and  of  the  means  for  providing  teachers,  it  furnishes 
 a  good  idea  of  the  general  organization  of  secondary  instruc- 
 tion. The  regulations  embrace  the  following  heads: — 1.  Ad- 
 mission of  pupils.  2.  Subjects  of  instruction.  3.  Distribution 
 of  the  teachers  and  of  the  subjects  of  the  lessons.  4.  The 
 number  of  hours  of  teaching.  5.  Studies  out  of  school  hours. 
 6.  Duration  of  the  courses.  7.  Remarks  on  the  regulations  for 
 the  examinations.  8.  Remarks  on  the  supposed  defects  of 
 teachers,  methods  of  instruction,  &c.  9.  Physical  education. 
 10.  Religious  instruction.  The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the 
 remarks  upon  these  subjects: 
 
 1.  Admission.  Experience  has  fully  proved  that  the  admission 
 of  pupils  at  a  very  early  age  into  the  gymnasia  is  prejudicial  to 
 the  individuals  themselves,  as  w^ell  as  to  the  institutions.  Neither 
 the  mental  nor  physical  development,  nor  the  attainment,  at  an 
 early  age,  are  adequate  to  the  pursuit  of  the  courses  appro- 
 priate to  a  gymnasium,  and  hence  the  admission  of  very  young 
 pupils  induces  an  improper  lowering  of  the  standard  of  instruc- 
 tion in  these  establishments.  The  ministry,  therefore,  recom- 
 mends that  pupils  be  not  admitted  at  an  earlier  age  than  ten 
 years,  and  that  the  following  qualifications  be  required:  1.  Fa- 
 cility in  logical  and  rhythmical  reading,  both  in  German  and 
 Roman  text,  and  the  rudiments  of  grammar  and  orthographic 
 writing.  2.  Writing  from  dictation.  3.  Practice  in  the  four 
 ground  rules  of  arithmetic,  with  abstract  numbers,  and  first 
 principles  of  fractions.  4.  Elements  of  geography,  particu- 
 larly that  of  Europe.  5.  Stories  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
 life  of  Christ.    6.  Elementary  notions  of  drawing  and  of  form. 
 
 Two  errors  on  the  part  of  parents  are  pointed  out  by  the 
 ministry,  the  influence  of  whose  advice  is  directed  against 
 them: — The  first  is,  that  children  of  feeble  bodily  constitutions 
 should  be  devoted  to  literary  pursuits:  the  second,  that  young 
 
454  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 men  wiio  have  passed  the  appropriate  age  for  instruction  may 
 be  advantageously  puslied  into  one  of  the  learned  professions, 
 even  if  they  are  required  to  teach  in  order  to  obtain  the  needful 
 education. 
 
 2.  Subjects  of  msiruciion.  As  the  ground-work  of  higher  in- 
 struction, the  following  subjects  are  recommended  to  be  pur- 
 sued in  the  gymnasia: — 1.  Religious  instruction.  2.  German. 
 3.  Latin.  4.  Greek.  5.  Mathematics.  6.  Physics.  7.  Natural  his- 
 tory. 8.  Geography.  9.  History.  10.  Writing.  11.  Drawing. 
 12.  Vocal  music.  Experience  has  shown  that  these  subjects 
 are  particularly  calculated  to  develope  the  intellectual  powers, 
 and  to  give  a  systematic  and  practical  preparation  for  the 
 higher  studies.  The  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  Hebrew,  the 
 study  of  which  is  specially  appropriate  only  to  theologians.  A 
 knowledge  of  the  French  is  not  considered  essential  to  the  true 
 purpose  of  a  gymnasium.  This  language  has  been  made  a 
 subject  of  public  instruction  on  account  of  its  usefulness  in 
 after  life,  and  not  of  its  correctness  or  purity.  With  the  ex- 
 ception of  these  two  languages,  the  subjects  enumerated  above 
 have  always  been  taught  in  the  gymnasia,  though  in  variable 
 proportions.  No  one  of  them  could,  with  propriety,  be  omit- 
 ted, and  propositions  to  that  eflect  will  receive  no  countenance. 
 The  ministry  does  not  fear  that  injury  will  result  to  the  mental 
 or  physical  development  of  the  pupils,  by  pursuing  all  the 
 branches  in  their  appropriate  degree,  but  teachers  are  cau- 
 tioned against  attempts  to  push  one  subject  at  the  expense  of 
 another;  being  reminded  that  the  course  should  be  viewed  as  a 
 whole,  which  must  sutler  by  the  unequal  forcing  of  its  parts. 
 The  directors  of  gymnasia  are  especially  required  to  attend  to 
 this  point,  and  the  scho(.)l-boards  arc  requested  to  relieve  them 
 from  teaching,  as  far  as  may  be  necessary  to  the  inspection 
 thus  rcfjuircd. 
 
 If  the  sul)jects  of  instruction,  as  here  laid  down,  be  compared 
 with  those  of  the  secondary  schools  of  England,  it  will  be 
 f(jund  that  what  is  there  regarded  as  innovation,  has  been  suc- 
 cessfully used  as  the  course  of  grammar  school  instruction  in 
 Germany.  That  the  efficiency  of  the  course  is  confirmed  by 
 long  experience,  and  that  the  subjects  arc  rocommendcil,  auc'.v;^ 
 
GYMNASIA  OF  PRUSSIA.  455 
 
 as  the  future  course  of  those  institutions.  While  ancient  letters 
 are  successfully  cultivated,  other  subjects  are  not  neglected,  but 
 their  equal  importance  with  the  former  is  clearly  asserted,  and 
 as  clearly  proved  by  results.  While  the  Germans  have  lost 
 nothing  in  general  hterary  culture  by  this  system,  they  have 
 gained  much  in  other  departments  of  knowledge. 
 
 The  scholastic  year  is  divided  into  two  terms,  or  half  years, 
 at  the  close  of  each  of  which  there  is  an  examination.  At 
 the  end  of  the  second  half-year,  the  examinations  for  passing 
 from  one  class  to  another  are  held.  The  usual  vacations  are 
 two  weeks  at  Easter,  one  at  Whitsuntide,  three  in  August,  one 
 at  Michaelmas,  and  two  at  Christmas. 
 
 3.  Distribution  of  the  teachers  and  of  the  subjects  of  instruc- 
 tion. There  are,  in  general,  six  classes  in  a  gymnasium,  of 
 which  the  lowest  is  called  sixth,  and  the  highest  first.  To  pro- 
 duce a  harmony  in  the  methods  and  degree  of  instruction, 
 notwithstanding  the  variety  of  subjects  taught,  it  has,  for  some 
 time,  been  the  custom  in  the  Prussian  gymnasia  to  assign 
 several  subjects  of  instruction  to  the  same  teacher,  in  the  same 
 class.  This  arrangement  is  confirmed  in  the  document  under 
 discussion.  It  is  recommended  that  similar  subjects  of  instruc- 
 tion be  classed  together,  to  constitute  a  department,  as,  for 
 example,  German  and  Latin;  history,  geography  and  natural 
 history;  and  mathematics  and  physics.  That  then  the  instruc- 
 tion of  one  or  more  classes,  in  one  department,  be  consigned  to 
 one  teacher:  as  the  instruction  of  the  lower  classes  in  German 
 and  Latin;  of  the  two  middle  classes  in  Latin,  Greek,  and 
 French ;  of  the  two  higher  in  German,  Greek,  and  French ;  of 
 the  lower  and  middle  classes  in  history  and  geography ;  of  the 
 higher  classes  in  mathematics,  physics,  and  mental  philosophy. 
 The  number  of  teachers  would  thus  be,  in  general,  in  a  gym- 
 nasium of  six  classes,  two  for  the  two  lower  classes,  three  for 
 the  two  middle,  and  four  for  the  two  higher  classes. 
 
 The  ministry  further  recommended  that  kindred  subjects  be 
 taught  in  different  parts  of  the  same  term,  rather  than  on  dif- 
 ferent days  of  the  same  week,  as  geography  at  the  beginning 
 of  a  term,  and  history  at  the  close ;  a  Latin  and  Greek  prose 
 
456  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 author  at  the  beginning  of  a  ternn,  and  a  poetical  author  at  the 
 close  of  the  term,  (fee. 
 
 With  a  view  to  induce  teachers  to  take  upon  themselves 
 the  arduous  duties  of  a  department,  or  class  teacher,  as  just 
 explained,  the  school-board  are  recommended  to  promote 
 teachers  according  to  merit,  not  confining  their  promotion  to 
 the  institution  in  which  they  may  be,  but  taking  the  entire 
 range  of  the  ])rovince.  A  promise  is  made  by  the  ministry  to 
 pay  strict  attention  to  this  rule,  in  promoting  to  vacant  situa- 
 tions of  directors  of  jrymnasia.  The  class  teachers  are  to  have 
 the  title  of  "  upper  teachers"  (ober-lehrer),  the  others  being 
 designated  simply  as  "  teachers." 
 
 It  is  obvious  that  very  varied  attainments  are  thus  required  of 
 the  regular,  or  class  teachers,  and  that  the  difficulty  of  finding  per- 
 sons competent  to  discharge  these  duties  increases  very  much 
 as  the  grade  of  instruction  becomes  more  elevated.  Hence  the 
 practice  in  the  gymnasia  varies  very  materially  from  this 
 recommendation.  It  is  so  desirable,  in  the  higher  classes,  that 
 the  teacher  should  devote  much  time  to  his  own  improvement 
 in  the  knowledge  of  his  branch  of  instruction,  and  that  he 
 should  have  a  strong  taste  for  its  cultivation,  that  in  general  it 
 is  found  advisable  to  confine  his  attention  to  a  single  subject, 
 or  to  subjects  much  nearer  akin  than  those  which  arc  classed 
 together  in  the  enumeration  just  made.  This  is  particularly 
 the  case  in  the  mathematics,  beyond  the  mere  elements,  the 
 physics  and  physical  geograpiiy,  the  natural  history,  the  less 
 elementary  parts  of  drawing,  and  vocal  music.  In  the  case  of 
 the  French  language,  a  special  teacher,  from  the  very  begin- 
 ning, is  absolutely  necessary,  if  the  instruction  in  it  is  to  be  any 
 thing  more  than  a  matter  of  form. 
 
 4.  Number  of  hours  of  recitation.  This  is  fixed  at  thirty- 
 two  per  week ;  a  number  which  experience  has  shown  may 
 with  propriety  be  exacted  of  students,  and  which  is  requisite  to 
 complete  the  course  of  studies.  In  the  French  colleges  there 
 arc  but  twenty  hours  of  regular  obligatory  instruction  per 
 week.  Tills  dillcrence  alone  would  go  fiir  to  explain  the  rea- 
 son for  the  fact,  thai   in   the  gvmnasin.  the  written  course  of 
 
GYMNASIA  Of  PRUSSIA.  457 
 
 studies  is  closely  followed  in  all  its  departments,  while  in  the 
 royal  colleges  it  is  but  partially  carried  out.  That  in  the  for- 
 mer, all  branches  are  deemed  worthy  of  attention,  while  in  the 
 latter,  in  practice,  some  are  treated  as  if  they  were  not  appro- 
 priate parts  of  a  regular  course  of  studies.  The  Prussian 
 ministry  asserts,  very  justly,  that  four  hours  every  morning,  and 
 two  hours  in  the  afternoon,  four  times  a  week,  may  be  passed 
 in  a  well  ventilated  school-room,  without  injury  to  health.  The 
 condition  in  regard  to  ventilation  is,  however,  essential  to  the 
 truth  of  the  proposition ;  it  is  easily  realized  in  the  gymnasia, 
 on  account  of  the  small  number  constituting  each  class.  I  found, 
 in  fact,  generally,  but  little  objection  to  the  arrangements,  in  this 
 respect,  in  these  institutions. 
 
 I  had  reason  to  remark,  in  the  city  gymnasia  of  Prussia, 
 in  general,  that  the  appearance  of  the  upper  classes  betokened 
 a  higher  state  of  health  than  that  of  the  lower,  which  would 
 not  have  been  the  case  had  they  been  overworked.  The  men- 
 tal labour,  on  the  part  of  the  student,  indicated  by  thirty-two 
 hours  per  w^eek  spent  in  school,  is  less  than  it  would  be  from  the 
 same  time  in  an  English  grammar  school,  or  in  one  of  our 
 own  establishments  of  the  same  grade,  from  the  mode  of  teach- 
 ing. Much  of  the  instruction  is  communicated  by  conversa- 
 tion and  by  lecture,  during  the  school  hours,  which  are  thus 
 devoted  to  acquiring  knowledge  as  well  as  to  reciting  what  has 
 been  learned  by  study  at  other  times.  The  school-boards  are 
 requested  not  to  allow  this  time  of  thirty-two  hours  per  week 
 to  be  exceeded,  and  a  general  plan  for  the  distribution  of  time, 
 which  will  be  given  below,  is  appended  to  the  instructions.  This 
 plan,  however,  may  be  modified  according  to  the  circum- 
 stances of  the  institution  to  which  it  is  to  be  adapted,  preserv- 
 ing, however,  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  religious  instruc- 
 tion, to  the  languages  and  mathematics,  as  cardinal  points  in 
 the  system.  It  is  deemed  unnecessary  to  begin  the  French 
 earlier  than  in  the  third  class,  which  would  postpone  it  as  late  as 
 thirteen  years  of  age.  Natural  history  may  be  substituted  for 
 physics  in  the  second  class,  and  a  general  review  of  that  branch, 
 as  studied  in  the  previous  years,  is  recommended.  Drawing 
 58 
 
458 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 and  vocal  music  arc  intended  to  be  carried  so  far  as  that  the 
 upil  may  follow  them  to  advantage  if  his  tastes  incline  that  way. 
 The  ministry  recommends  that  where  several  hours  per 
 week  are  devoted  to  a  subject,  more  than  one  each  day  should 
 be  given  to  it,  so  as  to  concentrate  the  attention  upon  a  few 
 branches  every  day. 
 
 Plan  of  studies  arranged  for  the  Gymnasia  of  Prussia  by  the  Ministry  of  Pub- 
 lic Instruction,  October  24th,  1837. 
 
 SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY,  &c. 
 
 NUMBER  OF  HOURS  PER   WEF.K. 
 
 O  ^ 
 
 Latin,      -..-.-..- 
 
 Greek, 
 
 German, -     - 
 
 French,  
 
 Religious  Instruction,     .     -     -     - 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 Arithmetic  and  Elements  of  Form, 
 
 Physics, 
 
 Philosophy, 
 
 History  and  Geography,      -     -     • 
 
 Natural  History, 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 Writing, 
 
 Vocal  Music, 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 3:2 
 
 [Itbrcw  for  the  future  Theologians, 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
GYMNASIA  OF  PRUSSIA.  459 
 
 After  tracing  the  particulars  of  the  courses  of  some  of  the  Ger- 
 man gymnasia,  we  shall  be  better  able  than  now  to  make  a  com- 
 parison between  them  and  the  institutions  already  described,  as 
 the  extent  and  distribution  of  the  several  courses,  in  addition  to 
 the  time  devoted  to  each,  will  then  be  known.  I  may  remark,  in 
 the  mean  time,  however,  that  the  subjects  taught  are  not  very 
 different  from  those  constituting  the  course  of  the  French  col- 
 leges, and  that  in  reference  to  British  schools,  the  amount  of 
 time  devoted  to  different  subjects,  as  well  as  the  choice  of  sub- 
 jects, more  nearly  resembles  the  Edinburgh  Institution,  already 
 described,  than  one  of  the  endowed  English  grammar  schools. 
 
 5.  Study  out  of  school  hours.  On  this  subject  the  ministry  re- 
 marks, that  while  it  is  highly  important  that  the  pupil  should 
 have  preparation  to  make,  requiring  the  exercise  of  his  own 
 resources,  it  is  not  less  so  that  the  amount  of  private  study 
 should  not  be  carried  to  an  injurious  extent.  The  regulations, 
 therefore,  provide  that  at  the  beginning  of  each  term  there 
 shall  be  a  conference  of  the  teachers,  to  determine  the  due 
 amount  of  such  work  in  the  different  classes,  in  detail.  Every 
 teacher  should  keep  a  book,  in  which  the  exercises  actually 
 given  are  accurately  noted,  so  that  the  director  may  see  at 
 any  time  how  far  the  decisions  of  the  conference  have  been 
 conformed  to.  The  written  exercises  of  the  pupils  must  be 
 regularly  corrected  by  the  teachers,  and  at  least  once  a  month 
 they  must  review  the  exercise-books,  to  ascertain  the  progress 
 and  the  propriety  of  the  exercises.  German  and  Latin  compo- 
 sitions are  to  be  especially  attended  to.  Themes  on  subjects 
 with  which  the  pupils  are  not  acquainted,  so  that  they  must 
 labour  both  for  the  matter  and  language,  are  forbidden.  The 
 teacher  should  not  only  select  subjects  known  to  the  pupils  for 
 these  exercises,  but  should  also  explain  the  manner  in  which  he 
 expects  them  to  be  treated. 
 
 C.  Duration  of  the  courses.  The  six  classes  should,  accord- 
 ing to  rule,  be  passed  through  in  nine  years;  the  three  lower, 
 each,  in  one  year,  and  the  three  higher,  each,  in  two  years;  thus 
 a  pupil  entering  at  ten  would  leave  the  gymnasium  at  nineteen. 
 The  provincial  school-board  may  determine  the  period  of  the 
 
460  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 year  for  the  examinations  for  passing  from  class  to  class.  In 
 tiie  gymnasia,  where  the  classes  are  subdivided  on  account  of 
 numbers,  and  the  pupils  pass  from  one  section  to  another  at 
 the  end  of  six  months,  the  arrangement  is  permitted  to  be  con- 
 tinued. 
 
 Superior  excellence  in  a  few  departments  is  not  to  warrant 
 the  promotion  of  the  pupil  to  a  higher  class;  he  must  be  reason- 
 ably proficient  in  all. 
 
 7.  Examination  for  the  univei^sily.  The  regulations  of  1834, 
 on  this  subject,  are  confirmed  by  the  present;  certain  erroneous 
 constructions,  which  have  been  put  upon  the  former,  being  point- 
 ed out.  The  first  of  these  is,  the  supposition  that  the  amount 
 which  the  pupils  are  able  to  go  over,  during  the  time  fixed  for 
 examination,  determines  the  character  of  their  certificate  of  ca- 
 pacity, while,  on  the  contrary,  this  is  given  for  the  general  know- 
 ledge of  the  subjects  which  they  show.  The  fact  that  this  ex- 
 amination requires  a  previous  attendance  of  two  years  in  the  first 
 class,  is  considered  as  indicating  positively  that  the  course  of  that 
 class  cannot  be  intended  to  drill  for  the  examination.  The  next 
 refers  to  the  specific  direction  in  regard  to  the  extent  of  exami- 
 nation on  the  different  subjects,  which  being  intended  as  a 
 general  guide  to  the  examiners,  has  been  misconstrued  so  far 
 as  to  be  supposed  to  furnish  teachers  who  are  preparing  pupils 
 the  means  of  imparting  the  least  amount  of  knowledge  consistent 
 with  their  passing.  The  ministry  considers  that  the  qualifica- 
 tions for  the  final  examination  liave  stood  the  test  of  experi- 
 ence, having  been  found  not  too  high  and  calculated  to  promote 
 sound  instruction  and  not  hasty  preparation.  As,  however,  the 
 excitement  of  these  examinations  appears  to  act  injuriously  on 
 certain  temperaments,  the  ministry  authorizes  the  examining 
 commissions  to  reduce  the  viva  voce  parts  of  the  examination, 
 in  cases  where  they  see  cause  to  do  so.  The  ministry  declines 
 omittinix  the  examination  on  the  course  of  reliu^ious  instruction. 
 
 8.  Supposed  (h'fccts  of  teachers,  cj-c.  The  ministry  states, 
 as  the  remark  of  many  intelligent  persons,  that  while  so  mucli 
 progress  has  been  miule  within  the  last  twenty  years  in  the 
 elementary  schools,  many  of  the  teachers  of  the  gymnasia,  ne- 
 
GYMNASIA  OF  PRUSSIA.  461 
 
 glecting  the  progress  of  the  science  of  teaching,  still  follow  the 
 old  routine  methods;  that  the  teachers  overrate  the  importance 
 of  their  special  branches,  and  thus  destroy  the  harmony  of  the 
 system:  that  they  imitate  the  style  of  lecturing  of  the  university 
 professors,  which  renders  their  explanations  ill  adapted  to  the 
 age  and  state  of  progress  of  their  pupils,  and  when,  in  conse- 
 quence, their  pupils  get  on  slowly,  instead  of  seeing  in  this  fact 
 the  necessity  for  a  change  of  method,  they  charge  the  fault  upon 
 the  classes.  The  ministry  remarks  that  it  has  not  the  means 
 of  judging  personally  whether  such  criticisms  are  well  founded 
 or  not,  but  that  the  provincial  school-boards,  to  whom  they  have 
 been  submitted,  are  of  opinion  that,  in  general,  they  are  too 
 severe.  They  are  made  public,  however,  that  the  teachers  of 
 the  gymnasia  may  reflect  upon  them. 
 
 No  specific  method  of  instruction,  it  is  remarked,  applicable 
 to  all  varieties  of  age,  preparation,  and  subjects  of  study,  can 
 be  pointed  out.  Every  teacher  should  observe,  closely,  the 
 results  of  his  instruction,  and  adopt  freely  the  advice  or  exam- 
 ple of  teachers  of  known  ability  in  their  art.  The  directors  of 
 gymnasia  are  especially  enjoined  to  visit  the  classes  of  their 
 teachers  frequently,  and  to  make  such  suggestions  as  may  seem 
 to  be  required ;  they  are  further  expected  to  set  an  example 
 themselves  of  thorough  teaching.  The  ministry  considers  that 
 the  system  of  class  teachers,  already  described,  facilitates  the 
 course  of  observation  recommended,  by  giving  the  teacher  a 
 thorough  acquaintance  with  all  the  members  of  his  class.  The 
 importance  of  making  the  science  of  teaching  one  of  observa- 
 tion is  thus  directly  inculcated. 
 
 The  probation  of  a  year,  required  by  the  decree  of  Septem- 
 ber 26th,  1836,  before  the  admission  of  a  teacher  to  full  standing, 
 being  intended  to  prevent  the  admission  of  incompetent  teach- 
 ers, the  provincial  school-boards  arc  enjoined  to  give  cflcct  to 
 the  provision,  by  promoting  to  the  situations  of  ordinary  or 
 class  teachers  (ordinarii),  those  only  who  have  shown  decided 
 capability  in  their  art.  The  ministry  promises  to  give  such  an 
 extension  to  the  normal  schools  for  teachers  of  gymnasia,  as 
 shall  insure  an  adequate  supply  from  them. 
 
462  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.       SECONDARY   PERIOU- 
 
 Tlie  provincial  boards  arc  enjoined  to  sec  that  suitable  books 
 are  provided  for  the  gymnasia,  and  to  attend  to  regulating 
 the  details  of  the  programmes  of  the  different  classes.  Tliis 
 authority  obviously  leaves  the  most  essential  points  of  instruc- 
 tion within  their  power. 
 
 9.  Physical  education.  On  this  subject,  the  document  from 
 the  ministry  states  that  representations  have  been  made  from 
 many  of  the  directors  and  teachers  of  gymnasia,  that  physical 
 education  should  be  introduced  as  an  essential  part  of  their 
 systems.  Tlie  necessity  for  due  physical  development  is  ad- 
 mitted ;  but  it  is  argued,  that  in  the  gymnasia  which  receive 
 day  scholars  alone,  an  attention  to  it  fornjs  no  part  of  the  duty 
 of  the  teacher,  who  is  merely  bound  to  furnish  the  requisite 
 time  for  recreation,  and  to  take  care  that  the  health  of  the 
 pupils  is  not  injured  during  the  hours  of  recitation  by  causes 
 depending  upon  the  school.  In  the  boarding  gymnasia  the  case 
 is  admitted  to  be  diflerent.  A  continuance  of  gymnastic  exer- 
 cises in  these  establishments,  when  they  have  been  tried  and 
 found  beneficial,  is  allowed,  but  the  compulsory  attendance 
 of  day  scholars  upon  them  is  not  permitted.  When  regular 
 gymnastic  exercises  are  introduced,  it  is  made  the  duty  of  the 
 school-board  to  see  that  a  proper  teacher  is  provided,  and  tiie 
 exercises  must  be  conducted  under  charge  of  the  director  of 
 the  institution. 
 
 I  confess,  that  the  idea  of  leaving  the  physical  education  of 
 children  entircl}^  to  their  parents,  especially  in  the  cities  and 
 towns  where  the  day  gymnasia  are  usually  established,  seems 
 to  me  very  unwise;  particularly  so  in  Prussia,  where  all  else 
 is  regulated,  and  where  the  youth  are  always  glad  to  engage 
 in  gymnastic  exercises,  wiien  the  means  are  furnished  to  them. 
 10.  Religious  t'ducaiion.  It  is  enjoined  that  this  contain  the 
 whole  doctrine  of  Christian  faith,  and  that  the  instruction  bo 
 given  according  to  a  regular  plan. 
 
 The  j)rovincial  autliorities  are  charged  with  the  communica- 
 tion of  the  foregoing  regulations  to  the  directors  and  teachers 
 of  th(^  gymnasia,  aiitl  with  the  su)>criiitcnde?)C('  of  their  execu- 
 tion. 
 
tJYMiVASIA  OF  PRUSSIA.  463 
 
 The  circular,  of  which  I  have  just  given  an  abstract,  is  silent 
 in  regard  to  the  subject  of  the  discipline  of  the  gymnasia,  proba- 
 bly because  it  was  considered  by  all  as  in  a  satisfactory  state. 
 In  general  it  is  very  mild.  Each  instructor  manages  his  class 
 in  his  own  way,  subject  to  the  advice  of  the  director,  and 
 hence,  of  course,  there  is  considerable  variety.  Harsh  punish- 
 ments, and  personal  violence,  are  discountenanced  in  all  the 
 classes.  Appeals  to  the  moral  sentiments  and  feelings,  and 
 admonitions,  are  the  favourite  methods  of  discipline.  I  no  where 
 saw  the  discipline  in  better  condition  than  in  these  schools,  the 
 youth  of  the  upper  class,  especially,  going  through  their  duties 
 without  the  necessity  for  more  than  occasional  admonition,  and 
 exhibiting  the  decorum  of  gentlemen  in  whatever  situation  I 
 met  them.  The  director  is  the  supreme  resort  when  a  teacher 
 fails  in  being  able  to  produce  proper  conduct  on  the  part  of  a 
 pupil,  and  he  may  dismiss  from  the  institution.  This,  however, 
 I  was  informed,  is  rarely  necessary. 
 
 From  the  remarks  on  the  part  which  the  director  of  a  gym- 
 nasium takes  in  the  discipline,  and  the  references  made  to  his 
 relation  to  the  teachers  in  their  several  departments,  the  organ- 
 ization of  the  institution  may  be  inferred.  The  director,  in 
 fact,  represents  the  central  authority,  from  which  his  appoint- 
 ment emanates,  and  the  teachers  are  directly  responsible  to 
 him,  holding  meetings  only  for  specific  purposes  in  regard  to 
 the  regulation  of  the  course  of  studies.  The  system  of  organ- 
 ization of  the  school  resembles  that  of  the  government. 
 
 The  means  of  securing  attention  to  study  do  not  differ  from 
 those  in  other  countries,  and  already  often  alluded  to.  The 
 system  of  excitement  is  carried  to  a  far  less  extent,  in  gene- 
 ral, than  in  the  French  colleges.  Emulation  is  encouraged, 
 but  not  stimulated  into  ambition.  In  the  lower  classes,  the 
 pupils  change  places  during  the  daily  recitations;  afterwards, 
 they  are  arranged  by  monthly  trials  of  composition,  and  at  the 
 examinations;  and  in  the  higher  classes,  from  the  same  com- 
 positions, and  from  the  results  of  their  marks  for  daily  recita- 
 tion, and   at  the  half  vearlv  cxauiinalions.      Prizes  are  not 
 
464  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 given  as  a  general  rule,  though  there  are  some  special  ones  in 
 certain  gymnasia. 
 
 This  outline  of  the  system  of  the  gymnasia,  as  regulated  by 
 the  central  authority,  requires,  as  already  stated,  to  complete 
 it,  some  account  of  the  regulations  for  tiie  linal  examination 
 prior  to  passing  to  the  university  (abiturienten-priifung),  and  of 
 the  means  of  providing  teachers.  The  regulations  for  the  final 
 examination  occupy  fifty  sections,  and  enter  into  very  minute 
 details;  it  will  be  sufficient  for  the  present  purpose  to  present  an 
 abstract  of  the  more  important  of  them  under  the  following 
 heads: — 1.  The  persons  to  be  examined,  the  object,  place,  and 
 time  of  the  examination.  2.  The  authorities  by  whom,  and 
 under  whose  direction,  the  examination  is  to  be  conducted. 
 3.  The  character  and  subjects  of  the  examination.  4.  The 
 kind  of  certificate  obtained  on  passing  the  examination  satis- 
 factorily, and  the  privileges  attached  to  it. 
 
 First.  The  persons  to  be  examined,  &c.  Those  who  in- 
 tend to  embrace  one  of  the  professions  requiring  a  course  of 
 three  or  four  years  at  a  university,  must,  before  matriculating 
 at  the  university,  pass  the  ordeal  of  this  examination;  the  object 
 beincr  to  ascertain  whether   the  candidate  has  made  himself 
 
 o 
 
 duly  master  of  the  subjects  required  for  successful  entrance 
 upon  his  university  career.  The  examination  must  be  made  in 
 a  regular  gymnasium,  and  in  some  part  of  the  last  two  months 
 of  the  scholastic  year. 
 
 To  be  admitted  to  the  examination,  a  pupil  of  a  gymnasium 
 must  have  been  in  its  first  class  at  least  three  terms  of  half  a 
 year  each,  except  in  cases  where  pupils  have  especially  distin- 
 guished themselves  during  a  year  in  this  class.  Three  months' 
 notice  of  their  intention  to  stand  this  examination  is  to  be  given 
 by  the  pupils  to  the  director  of  tlie  gymnasium,  who  advises 
 w  ith  them  on  their  intention,  but  has  no  right  to  prevent  any 
 pupil  of  three  terms'  standing  in  the  first  class  from  coming 
 forward. 
 
 Persons  w  ho  are  educated  in  private  undergo  tliis  same  ex- 
 amination in  any  gymnasium  which  llieir  ])arents  may  select. 
 They  are  required  to  present  beforehand  the  certificate  of  their 
 
GYMNASIA  OF  PRUSSIA.  465 
 
 masters  as  to  moral  conduct  and  proficiency,  and  arc  examined 
 at  a  different  time  from  the  regular  students. 
 
 Second,  By  whom  the  examination  is  conducted.  There  is 
 a  committee  for  each  gymnasium,  consisting  of  the  director,  the 
 masters  who  have  charge  of  the  higher  classes,  a  member  of 
 the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  the  place,  and  a  member  of  the 
 provincial  consistory.  This  latter  member  presides,  and  his 
 appointment  must  be  approved  by  the  ministry  of  public  in- 
 struction. The  ecclesiastical  member  must  be  approved  by  the 
 provincial  consistory.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  royal  commis- 
 sion appointed  by  the  ministry,  and  consisting  of  professors  of 
 the  university  and  others,  who  are  present  as  inspectors  at  the 
 examination.  The  teachers  of  the  gymnasium  and  the  local 
 authorities  of  the  school  are  also  present  at  the  oral  exami- 
 nations. 
 
 Third.  Character  and  subjects  of  examination.  The  exami- 
 tions  are  of  two  kinds,  written  and  oral.  The  subjects  are,  the 
 German,  Latin,  Greek,  and  French  languages,*  for  students  in 
 general,  and  in  addition,  the  Hebrew  for  those  who  intend  to 
 study  theology.  Religion,  history  and  geography,  mathematics, 
 physics,  natural  history,  and  the  elements  of  mental  philosophy. 
 The  subjects  of  the  written  examination  are  chosen  by  the 
 royal  commissary  present,  from  a  list  furnished  by  the  director 
 of  the  gymnasium.  These  subjects  must  be  such  as  have 
 never  been  treated  specially  in  the  class-room,  but  not  beyond 
 the  sphere  of  instruction  of  the  pupils.  All  the  candidates  re- 
 ceive the  same  subjects  for  composition,  which  are  given  out  at 
 the  beginning  of  the  examination.  The  candidates  are  assem- 
 bled in  one  of  the  halls  of  the  gymnasium,  and  remain  there 
 during  the  period  allotted  for  their  exercises  under  the  charge 
 of  one  or  other  of  the  examining  teachers,  who  relieve  each 
 other.  The  only  books  allowed  them  are  dictionaries  and  ma- 
 thematical tables.  The  written  exercises  consist,  first,  in  a 
 German  prose  composition,  the  object  of  which  is  to  discern 
 the  degree  of  intellectual  development,  and  the  style  of  com- 
 
 *  In  the  grand  duchy  of  Poscn,  tlic  Polisli  language  is  also  one  of  tiic  subjects, 
 59 
 
466  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECX)NDART  PERIOD. 
 
 position  of  the  candidate.  Second:  of  a  Latin  extempore*  and 
 a  Latin  composition  on  some  subject  which  has  been  treated  in 
 the  course,  tlie  special  reference  in  this  exercise  being  to  the  cor- 
 rectness of  the  style.  Third :  a  translation  from  a  Greek  author, 
 which  has  not  been  read  in  tlie  course,  and  from  Latin  into 
 Greek.  Fourth:  a  translation  from  the  German  into  the  French. 
 Fifth:  the  solution  of  two  questions  in  geometry,  and  of  two  in 
 analysis,  taken  from  the  courses  in  those  subjects.  Candidates 
 who  desire  it,  may  be  examined  further  than  is  required  for 
 passing. 
 
 Those  wdio  intend  to  study  theology  or  philology,  translate 
 a  portion  of  one  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 or  a  psalm,  into  Latin,  adding  a  grammatical  analysis.  The 
 time  allowed  for  the  several  written  exercises  is  as  follows: — 
 For  the  German,  five  hours;  Latin  composition,  five  hours; 
 Latin  extempore,  one  hour;  Greek  translation,  three  hours; 
 translation  from  Latin  into  Greek,  two  hours;  French  composi- 
 tion, four  hours;  mathematical  exercises,  five  hours;  Hebrew 
 exercises,  when  required,  two  hours.  Four  days  are  allowed 
 for  the  examination  in  these  subjects,  and  they  must  not  imme- 
 diately follow  each  other.  The  viva  voce  examination  is  con- 
 ducted by  the  masters  who  have  given  instruction  in  the  first 
 class  on  the  subjects  of  examination,  unless  the  royal  commis- 
 sary directs  otherwise.  The  subjects  are,  first,  the  general 
 grammar  and  prosody  of  the  German  language,  the  chief 
 epochs  of  national  history  and  literature,  and  the  national  clas- 
 sics. Second:  the  translation  and  analysis  of  extracts  from 
 Cicero,  Sallust,  Livy,  Virgil,  and  Horace;  the  ability  of  the 
 candidates  to  render  the  author  with  judgment  and  taste  being 
 put  to  the  test,  as  well  as  their  grammatical  and  archeological 
 acquirements;  parts  of  the  examination  are  conducted  in  the 
 Latin  language.  Third:  the  translation  and  analysis  of  Greek 
 prose  and  of  portions  of  Homer,  with  questions  upon  Greek 
 grammar,  Grecian   history,   arts,   and  mythology.      Fourth: 
 
 •  An  exercise  in  which  the  master  speaks  in  German  to  the  pupil,  who  muat 
 render  Uic  German  into  Latin,  in  writing. 
 
GYMNASIA  OF  PRUSSIA.  467 
 
 translations  from  the  French  classics,  during  which  an  oppor- 
 tunity is  given  to  the  pupil  to  show  how  far  he  can  speak  the 
 language.  Fifth:  questions  upon  the  Christian  doctrines,  dog- 
 mas and  morals,  the  principal  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  Chris- 
 tian church,  and  the  Bible.  Sixth:  arithmetic,  the  elements  of 
 algebra  and  geometry,  the  binomial  theorem,  simple  and  quad- 
 ratic equations,  logarithms  and  plane  trigonometry.  Seventh: 
 in  history  and  geography,  on  ancient  history,  especially  that  of 
 Greece  and  Rome,  and  modern  history,  especially  that  of  the 
 country,  on  physical,  mathematical,  and  political  geography. 
 Eighth:  in  natural  history,  on  the  general  classification  of  its 
 subjects.  Ninth:  in  such  portions  of  physics  as  can  be  treated 
 by  elementary  mathematics,  and  on  the  laws  of  heat,  light, 
 magnetism,  and  electricity.  Tenth ;  on  the  elements  of  moral 
 philosophy,  psychology,  and  logic.  The  future  theological  stu- 
 dent must,  besides,  translate  and  analyse  a  portion  of  one  of 
 the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 
 Fourth.  The  kind  of  certificate  obtained,  and  the  privileges  at- 
 tached to  it.  When  the  examination  is  closed,  the  board  already 
 alluded  to  as  conducting  and  superintending  it,  deliberates  upon 
 the  notes  which  have  been  taken  during  its  course,  each  mem- 
 ber having  a  vote.  Those  students  who  are  deemed  to  have 
 passed  a  satisfactory  examination,  receive  a  certificate  called  a 
 "certificate  of  maturity"  (maturitats-zeugniss),  the  others  are 
 remanded  to  their  class,  and  may  present  themselves,  after  an 
 interval  of  six  months,  for  another  examination,  unless  they 
 are  deemed  entirely  incompetent  to  continue  a  literary  career. 
 Proficiency  in  all  the  subjects  of  examination  is,  in  general,  re- 
 quired to  entitle  a  candidate  to  a  certificate,  but  exception  is 
 sometimes  made  in  favour  of  those  who  show  great  attainments 
 in  the  languages  or  mathematics;  and  in  the  case  of  students  of 
 a  somewhat  advanced  age,  the  direct  bearing  of  the  different 
 subjects  upon  the  profession  which  they  intend  to  embrace  is 
 considered.  The  daily  records  of  the  class-rooms  are  presented 
 by  the  director  of  the  gymnasium  to  the  examiners,  as  showing 
 the  character  of  the  candidates  in  regard  to  progress  and  con- 
 duct, these  points  being  specially  noted  in  the  certificate.    Tlic 
 
468  GEI^ERAL   EDUCATIOV.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 certificate  of  maturity  contains,  besides,  the  name  and  address  of 
 the  pupil,  and  of  his  parent  or  guardian;  the  time  during  which 
 he  has  been  at  the  gymnasium,  and  in  its  first  class;  the  con- 
 duct of  the  pupil  towards  his  fellows  and  masters,  and  his 
 moral  deportment  in  general;  liis  character  for  industry,  and 
 his  acquirements,  as  shown  at  the  examination,  specifying  the 
 result  in  each  branch,  and  adding  a  statement  from  the  mas- 
 ters of  drawing  and  music  of  his  proficiency  in  their  respective 
 departments;  the  studies  which  he  proposes  to  prosecute  at  the 
 university,  and  to  commence  which  he  leaves  the  gymnasium. 
 These  certificates  are  delivered  in  an  assemblage  of  the  stu- 
 dents of  the  gymnasium  with  suitable  remarks.  The  certificate 
 of  maturity  is  necessary  to  enable  a  youth  to  be  matriculated 
 in  either  of  the  faculties  of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  phi- 
 lology, in  one  of  the  national  universities,  to  be  admitted  to 
 examination  for  an  academic  degree,  to  be  appointed  to  oflice 
 in  state  or  church,  or  to  obtain  one  of  the  royal  bursaries  at 
 the  universities.  Special  exception  in  regard  to  matriculation 
 may  be  made  by  authority  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction. 
 Students  who  have  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination,  and 
 whose  parents  demand  it,  are  entitled  to  a  certificate,  stating 
 the  branches  in  which  they  are  deficient;  they  may  enter  the 
 university  with  this,  and  are  registered  accordingly.  This 
 registry  enables  them,  if  they  subsequently  obtain  a  certificate 
 of  maturity,  and  the  special  permission  of  the  minister  of  public 
 instruction,  to  have  their  matriculation  dated  from  the  time  of 
 inscription.  Pupils  who  have  passed  through  the  third  class  of 
 a  gymnasium  are  entitled  to  claim  one  year  of  voluntary  mili- 
 tary service,  provided  they  report  themselves  at  a  specified 
 time  during  their  twentieth  year. 
 
 There  are  two  kinds  of  schools  devoted  to  the  preparation  of 
 teachers  for  the  gymnasia,  called  respectively  philological  and 
 pedagogical  seminaries  (philologische  seminare,  piidagogische 
 scminare).  One  of  the  first  kind  is  attached  to  the  universities 
 of  Berlin,  Bonn,  Breslaw,  Ilalle,  Konigsberg,  and  Greifswalde, 
 and  one  of  the  second  is  placed  at  Berlin,  Stettin,  Breslaw, 
 Halle,   Koni^sbcM-rr,  and   Miinster.     Besides  these,  there  is  a 
 
GYMNASIA  OF  PRUSSIA.  469 
 
 seminary  for  teachers  of  natural  philosophy  and  the  natural 
 sciences,  at  Bonn.*  The  number  of  students  in  these  semina- 
 ries is  limited,  not  exceeding  eight  in  general,  and  as  their 
 organization  will  doubtless  be  much  changed  when  the  pro- 
 mise contained  in  the  circular  to  the  provincial  authorities, 
 with  an  abstract  of  which  this  article  begins,  is  performed,  I 
 have  concluded  to  omit  any  special  description  of  them.  Candi- 
 dates, as  instructors  in  the  gymnasia,  are  examined  by  a  royal 
 scientific  commission,  in  behalf  of  the  provincial  school-board. 
 This  commission  is  composed  of  professors  of  the  universities. 
 The  examinations  are  of  different  grades,  but  of  these  only  the 
 first  is  obligatory;  the  teacher  being  thus  enabled  to  enter  the 
 career  of  instruction,  in  which  he  shows  his  powers  quite  as 
 wxll  as  by  examination.  First,  for  license  to  teach  (pro  facul- 
 tate  docendi),  the  teacher  being  attached  or  unattached.  This, 
 when  complete,  includes  an  examination  in  the  German  lan- 
 guage, Greek,  Latin,  French,  Hebrew,  mathematics,  physics 
 and  natural  history,  history  and  geography,  philosophy,  peda- 
 gogy and  theology,  with  specimens  of  reading.  The  grade  of 
 examination  differs  according  to  whether  the  candidate  wishes 
 authority  to  teach  in  the  lower,  middle,  or  higher  classes. 
 After  passing  this  examination,  a  year's  trial  is  necessary  be- 
 fore the  teacher  can  be  confirmed  in  any  place.  This  year  of 
 probation  may  dispense  with  the  following  or  second  exami- 
 nation, which,  however,  cannot  take  place  before  its  expiration. 
 The  second  examination  is  for  a  place  (pro  loco),  in  which 
 the  fitness  of  the  candidate  for  a  particular  situation  is  tried. 
 The  third  is  for  promotion  (pro  ascensione),  and  consists 
 usually  in  a  conference  with  the  members  of  the  commission. 
 The  fourth  is  for  the  directorship  (colloquium  pro  rectoratu). 
 These  three  examinations  may  be  necessary,  in  certain  cases, 
 to  protect  the  schools  on  the  one  hand,  and  individual  teachers 
 on  the  other,  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that  in  general  they  may  be 
 dispensed  with,  and  this,  in  fact,  is  usually  done. 
 
 *  Statistisches  Handbuch  dcr  deutschen  Gymnasien,  vcn  Prof.  Dr.  Braunsund 
 Dr.  Theobald,  1837,  p.  4G. 
 
470  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 The  latitude  allowed  by  the  Prussian  regulations  to  the  inte- 
 rior organization  of  the  gymnasia,  produces  varieties  which  will 
 be  illustrated  by  describing  the  courses  of  three  gymnasia,  of 
 which  one  (the  gymnasium  at  Pforta),  leans  very  far  towards 
 the  strict  classical  system ;  a  second  (the  Frederick  William 
 gymnasium  at  Berlin),  represents  the  average  system  of  the 
 Prussian  institutions  of  this  grade,  and  a  third  (the  real  gym- 
 nasium of  Berlin),  is  the  opposite  of  the  first.  The  Frederick 
 William  gymnasium  of  Berlin  is  the  representative  of  a  class 
 containing  no  less  than  five  individuals  in  the  capital  itself, 
 while  the  real  gymnasium  stands,  thus  far,  alone  in  its  arrange- 
 ments. Both  these  gymnasia  are  day-schools,  while  that  of 
 Schulpforta,  one  of  the  old  Saxon  "  prince  schools,"  is  a  board- 
 ing-school, and  will  ailbrd  some  useful  hints  in  regard  to  internal 
 organization. 
 
 Some  of  the  philologists  of  Germany,  especially  of  southern 
 Germany,  consider  that  injurious  changes  have  been  made  in. 
 the  pure  classical  system  of  the  gymnasia  by  the  Prussian 
 schools,  while  some  of  the  reformers  consider  them  as  not 
 going  far  enough  in  their  changes.  Reason  will  be  found,  as 
 usual,  between  the  extremes  of  party  opinions,  and  sustains  the 
 plan  of  the  Prussian  schools. 
 
 Frederick  William  Gymnasium  of  Berlin. — This  institution 
 dates  from  1797,  and  was  at  first  an  appendage  to  the  "real 
 school"  of  Mr.  Ilccker.  It  is  now  a  royal  institution,  and 
 is  independent  of  the  real  school,  except  so  far  that  it  has 
 the  same  director,*  and  that  the  preparatory  classes  are  in 
 the  real  school,  in  which,  or  in  other  equivalent  schools,  the 
 pupils  are  taught  until  ten  years  of  age.  The  qualifications 
 for  admission  are  those  contained  in  the  general  account  of 
 the  gymnasia.  This  gymnasium  had,  in  1837,  four  hundred 
 and  thirty-seven  pupils,  divided  into  six  classes,  and  instructed 
 by  fourteen  teachers  and  six  assistants.  The  second  and 
 third  classes  are  subdivided  into  two  parts,  called  upper  and 
 
 »  Director  Bpilloko,  to    whom   I   nm   indebted  for  opportunities    of  visiting 
 )[x)th  institutions,  and  for  printed  and  MS.  documents  relating  to  thcni. 
 
FREDERICK  WILLIAM  GYMNASIUM  OF  BERLIN^  471 
 
 lower,  pursuing  different  courses,  and  both  divisions  of  the 
 third  class  are  again  subdivided  into  two  others,  for  the  con- 
 venience of  instruction.  The  course  in  each  class  occupies  a 
 year,  except  in  the  first,  which  is  of  two  years.  Pupils  who 
 enter  in  the  lowest  class,  and  go  regularly  through  the  studies, 
 will  thus  remain  nine  years  in  the  gymnasium.  The  numbers 
 of  the  several  classes  in  1837  were,  in  the  first,  fifty-four;  in 
 the  upper  second,  thirty-two ;  lower  second,  forty-seven ;  upper 
 third  division,  first,  or  A,  thirty-six;  second  division,  or  B, 
 thirty-six ;  lower  third,  division  first,  or  A,  thirty-eight;  division 
 second,  or  B,  thirty-two;  fourth  class,  fifty-five;  fifth,  fifty- 
 seven  ;  and  sixth,  fifty.  Each  division  averages,  therefore,  nearly 
 forty- four  pupils,  who  are  at  one  time  under  the  charge  of 
 one  teacher.  One  hundred  and  eight  were  admitted  during 
 the  year,  and  the  same  number  left  the  gymnasium;  of  these, 
 twenty-one  received  the  certificate  of  maturity  to  pass  to  the 
 university,  viz.,  ten  who  intended  to  study  law,  three  medicine, 
 five  theology,  one  theology  and  philology,  one  philosophy,  and 
 one  political  economy,  finance,  &c.,  (cameralistic).  Of  these  all 
 but  five  were  two  years  in  the  first  class;  out  of  this  number  two 
 were  tw^o  years  and  a-half  in  the  first  class,  and  three  more  had 
 been  in  the  gymnasium  less  than  two  years,  having  entered  it  in 
 the  first  class.  The  average  age  at  leaving  the  gymnasium 
 was  nearly  nineteen  years,  and  the  greatest  and  least,  respect- 
 ively, twenty-two  and  between  sixteen  and  seventeen  years.  It 
 appears,  thus,  that  on  the  average,  the  pupils  actually  enter  at 
 ten,  and  remain  nine  years,  as  required  by  rule. 
 
 The  Cologne  Real  Gymnasium. — This  name  is  explained, 
 the  former  part  by  the  quarter  of  the  city  of  Berlin  in  which  the 
 institution  is  placed,  and  the  term  "real"  from  the  introduction 
 of  a  greater  amount  of  the  scientific  branches,  called  "  real," 
 than  is  contained  in  the  courses  of  the  gymnasia  in  general. 
 This  institution  was  placed  upon  its  present  footing  in  1824, 
 and  received  its  full  development  in  1829.* 
 
 *  It  was  founded  by  Professor  Fischer,  well  known  by  his  work  on  physics, 
 and  is  now  directed  by  his  son-in-law,  Dr.  August,  who  has  followed  in  the  steps 
 of  Fischer  in  matters  both  of  science  and  education. 
 
472  GENEHAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  admission  of  pupils  takes  place  twice  a-year,  namely, 
 at  Easter  and  in  October.  The  limits  of  age  beyond  wliich  a 
 youth  cannot  enter  are  eight  and  thirteen  years.  The  qualifi- 
 cations are  nearly  those  already  referred  to. 
 
 There  were,  in  183G-7,  three  hundred  and  ninety-nine  pupils 
 in  this  institution,  divided  into  six  classes,  and  instructed  by 
 eleven  teachers  and  ten  assistants.  The  second,  third,  and 
 fourth  classes  are  divided  into  two  parts,  forming,  in  fact,  like 
 the  divisions  in  the  other  gymnasium,  distinct  classes.  The 
 number  of  the  several  classes  are:  first  class,  twenty-one;  upper 
 second  class,  twenty-three;  lower  second  class,  fourteen;  upper 
 third  class,  forty;  lower  third,  sixty-six;  fourth  class,  division  A, 
 sixty-nine;  fourth  class,  division  B,  sixty-four;  fifth  class,  fifty- 
 nine  ;  sixth  class,  forty-three.  There  is  the  mark  of  a  rising  in- 
 stitution in  the  large  numbers  of  the  lower  classes.  In  1835, 
 eight  pupils  passed  to  the  university,  and  in  183G  four,  and 
 at  the  same  time,  the  same  number  went  to  other  avocations 
 with  certificates. 
 
 The  Gym\asium  of  Pforta  originated  in  the  sequestration  of 
 the  funds  of  a  monastery,  by  the  electoral  Prince  Maurice  of 
 Saxony,  to  the  purposes  of  education.  The  first  pupils  were 
 admitted  in  1543.  In  1815  the  school  passed  under  the  autho- 
 rity of  the  Prussian  government,  and  the  courses  were  assimi- 
 lated to  those  of  the  other  gymnasia  of  Prussia.*  The  founda- 
 tion yields  a  revenue  of  about  thirty  thousand  dollars  per  an- 
 num. The  number  of  pupils,  in  1838,  was  one  hundred  and 
 eighty,  to  which  it  is  restricted.  Of  these  one  hundred  and 
 sixty-nine  are  in  part  or  entirely  beneficiaries.  These  are 
 called  "alumni,"  or  "  intrancrs,"  while  the  others,  termed  "ex- 
 traners,"  receive  their  education  free,  but  lodge  in  the  houses 
 of  the  professors.f 
 
 Pupils  are  admitted  by  the  provincial  school-board  at  Mag- 
 
 »  To  the  present  rector,  Dr.  Kirchner,  I  am  indebted  for  a  very  kind  recep- 
 tion at  tills  Bcliool,  the  more  acceptable  that,  duringf  the  winter,  at  which  time 
 my  visit  was  made,  the  villapfe  near  is  quite  out  of  tl»c  way  of  ordinary  travel, 
 and  but  scantily  provided  with  accommodation  adapted  to  tlie  season. 
 
 t  Payinjj  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  dollars  per  aimum  for  lodging,  &,c. 
 
GYMNASIUM   AT  SCHULPFORTA.  473 
 
 deburgh,  in  part  on  direct  application,  and  in  part  on  the  pre- 
 sentation of  certain  communes  of  the  province  of  Saxony,  who 
 have  a  right  to  the  places.  The  rules  of  application  having 
 been  fulfilled,  and  the  claim  of  the  applicant  found  valid,  he  is 
 sent  by  the  school-board  to  Pforta  for  examination.  This  re- 
 quires the  qualifications  for  the  third  class  of  an  ordinary  gym- 
 nasium, only  the  three  upper  classes  existing  in  this  school,  and 
 is  very  rigid. 
 
 The  two  lower  classes  of  the  school  are  subdivided  in  the 
 same  manner  as  the  second  and  third  in  the  gymnasia  gene- 
 rally. The  instructors  are  a  rector,  an  inspector,  six  professors, 
 and  four  adjuncts,  besides  four  masters  for  vocal  music,  writing, 
 drawing,  and  dancing.  The  course  in  each  entire  class  is  two 
 years,  so  that  in  six  years  an  intelligent  and  industrious  pupil 
 may  pass  through  the  gymnasium.  The  numbers  of  these 
 classes  and  divisions  w^ere,  in  1837,  after  the  Easter  examina- 
 tion— first  class,  thirty-five;  second  class.  A,  twenty-one;  second 
 class,  B,  thirty-one;  third  class.  A,  forty-two;  third  class,  B, 
 forty-four;  total,  one  hundred  and  seventy-three.  In  the  same 
 year  there  were  tw^enty-two  graduates;  of  these,  seven  passed 
 to  the  university  to  study  medicine,  four  to  study  law,  four  law 
 and  political  economy,  three  theology,  one  law  and  philosophy, 
 one  philology,  one  philology  and  natural  philosophy,  and  one 
 philology  and  mathematics. 
 
 To  give  the  pupils  of  the  highest  class  an  opportunity  to 
 review  the  minutiae  of  their  grammar  studies  in  the  classics,  as 
 well  as  to  relieve  the  professors,  six  hours  of  special  recitation 
 are  made  by  each  of  the  two  divisions  of  the  third  class,  four 
 in  Latin  and  two  in  Greek  to  members  of  the  first  class.  For 
 nine  days  before  the  half-yearly  examinations  there  are  no 
 recitations,  the  pupils  being  employed  in  preparation  in  their 
 study-rooms. 
 
 The  collection  of  models  for  the  course  of  drawing  and  of 
 physical  apparatus  is  small,  but  is  increased  annually  by  means 
 of  a  special  appropriation. 
 
 The  pupils  are  divided  for  study  into  twelve  groups,  each 
 60 
 
474  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 one  of  which  occupies  a  room.  The  study-rooms  contain, 
 in  proportion  to  their  size,  a  number  of  tables,  conveniently  ar- 
 ranged for  the  books  and  papers  of  the  pupils,  each  table  having 
 seats  at  it  for  four.  One  of  the  first  class  sits  at  each  study- 
 table,  and  has  charge  of  the  others  at  his  table,  his  duty  being 
 to  assist  them  in  their  lessons,  as  well  as  to  keep  order;  in  these 
 oiTices  he  is  aided  by  a  member  of  the  second  class.  The  other 
 two  seats  are  occupied  by  members  of  the  lower-second  and  of 
 the  two  divisions  of  the  third  class.  A  pupil  of  the  first  class 
 is  selected  to  superintend  each  room,  under  the  direction  of  a 
 professor,  who,  in  weekly  turn,  from  which  the  director  and 
 ecclesiastical  inspector  arc  excepted,  has  special  charge  of  the 
 discipline  and  studies,  and  who  occupies,  during  this  week  of 
 duty,  a  room  in  the  building  with  the  pupils.  The  selected 
 pupils,  called  inspectors,  have  a  right  to  punish  so  far  as  to 
 confine  a  pupil  to  the  study-room  during  play-hours,  but  are 
 required,  in  grave  cases,  to  report  to  the  professor  on  duty 
 (hcbdomedarius),  or  to  the  director.  No  violence  is  allowed 
 from  them  to  the  other  pupils.  They  are  chosen  every  six 
 months  by  the  professors.  The  professor  on  duty  conducts  the 
 prayers  in  the  morning,  and  visits  the  dormitories  and  study- 
 rooms  after  the  pupils  have  risen  and  after  they  retire,  presides 
 at  the  table,  and  superintends  the  special  recitations  made  by 
 the  younger  to  the  elder  pupils. 
 
 In  the  dormitories,  the  pupils  are  divided  into  six  sections, 
 each  one  composed  of  two  study-divisions,  and  occupying  a 
 dormitory.  The  two  inspectors  of  studies  have  charge  of  these 
 rooms,  one  of  them  alternately  superintending  the  rising  and 
 retiring  of  the  pupils.  Both  sleep  in  tlie  room  with  their  divi- 
 sions, and  one  retires  with  them.  The  same  arrangement  is 
 followed  in  washing.  The  pui)ils  bring  water  for  their  rooms, 
 but  other  menial  oflices  are  done  by  servants.  The  pupils 
 who  board  in  the  institution  (intraners,  or  alumni)  are  so  ar- 
 ranged at  meals  as  to  intermingle  the  dilTerent  classes;  thus, 
 one  from  the  first  class,  then  one  from  the  second,  then  one 
 from  the  third,  are  next  to  each  other,  and  so  on,  throughout  the 
 
GYMNASIUM  AT  SCHULPFORTA.  475 
 
 school,  as  far  as  the  unequal  numbers  of  the  classes  permit. 
 The  first  class  pupils  carve,  and  distribute  the  Sunday's  allow- 
 ance of  wine. 
 
 Simple  cases  of  discipline  are  disposed  of  by  the  inspectors, 
 or  the  professor  on  duty  (hebdomedarius),  or  the  rector,  or,  if 
 occurring  in  the  recitation-room,  by  the  professor  in  whose 
 room  it  occurs.  More  difficult  ones  are  reported  to  the  board 
 of  professors,  which  meets  for  this  purpose,  and  to  discuss  the 
 general  concerns  of  the  institution,  once  a  week.  The  highest 
 punishment,  consistent  with  retaining  the  pupil,  is  solitary  con- 
 finement, with  a  regimen  of  bread  and  water;  for  offences  re- 
 quiring great  severity,  dismission  is  applied.  The  inspectors  of 
 studies  are  allowed  to  be  present  at  the  weekly  meetings  of  the 
 professors.  The  rector  presides  at  them,  and  reports  are  re- 
 ceived from  the  hebdomedarius  and  inspectors,  and  instructions 
 are  issued  to  them.  The  following  provision  of  discipline  has 
 been  found  highly  beneficial.  Every  pupil,  on  his  admission, 
 is  assigned  to  the  guardianship  of  a  professor,  who  is  ex- 
 pected to  look  to  his  well-being  in  every  respect,  to  keep  his 
 accounts,  and  correspond  with  his  parents.  The  extraners 
 dwell  entirely  with  the  professors,  having  study-rooms  in  their 
 houses. 
 
 The  physical  education  of  the  pupils  receives  much  attention. 
 A  fine  garden  is  attached  to  the  school,  in  which  gymnastics 
 are  practised.  Frequent  walks  are  taken,  when  the  weather 
 permits,  under  the  charge  of  a  teacher,  and  the  pupils  bathe  in 
 a  neighbouring  stream.  Twice  in  the  course  of  the  summer 
 long  excursions  are  made  to  the  mountains  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood, with  the  professors  and  their  families. 
 
 The  domestic  economy  of  the  establishment  is  controlled  by  a 
 steward,  who  is  directly  responsible  to,  and  whose  accounts  are 
 inspected  by,  an  agent  from  the  ministry  of  finance  of  tlie  king- 
 dom. The  farm  is  rented  to  an  individual,  who  takes  charge 
 of  the  supply  of  the  common  table. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day  in  winter  is  as  follows.  Rise  at  6i 
 A.  M.,  have  prayers  at  6^,  and  breakfast.  Instruction  begins 
 at  7.     Study  from  8  to  9.     Recitation  from  9  to  10.     Study 
 
476  GENERAL  EDUCATIOIV.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 from  10  to  11.  Recitation  from  11  to  12.  At  12  dine,  and 
 have  recreation  until  2  P.  M.  Recitation  from  2  to  4.  Study 
 and  teaching  of  the  third  class  by  the  first,  from  4  to  5.  Study 
 from  5  to  7.  Supper  at  7,  and  prayers.  Study  until  0.  The 
 under  classes  retire,  and  the  first  class  study  until  10.  In  sum- 
 mer the  pupils  rise  an  hour  earlier,  and  have  gymnastic  exer- 
 cises, and  go  to  bathe  between  5  and  7,  instead  of  studying. 
 
 In  this  arrangement  the  study  and  recitation  hours  succeed 
 each  other  in  tnrn,  and  such  is  the  general  rule,  which  is,  how- 
 ever, broken  in  upon  by  the  voluntary  courses,  and  also  by 
 those  of  the  higher  mathematics  and  Hebrew,  which  are  not 
 attended  by  all  the  pupils. 
 
 Courses  of  instruction  in  the  three  foregoing  gymnasia.  The 
 subjects  of  instruction  are  nearly  the  same  in  all  three  of  these 
 gymnasia,  viz.,  Latin,  Greek,  German,  French,  religious  in- 
 struction, mathematics  (including  arithmetic,  algebra,  and 
 geometry),  natural  philosophy  and  natural  history,  history, 
 geography,  writing,  drawing,  vocal  music,  and  Hebrew  for 
 theologians.  In  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium  there  is  a 
 course  of  the  elements  of  philosophy.  In  the  real  gymnasium 
 there  are  courses  of  English,  of  technology,  and  of  chemistry. 
 At  Pforta,  dancing  is  taught  as  tlie  means  of  giving  an  easy 
 carriage,  and  with  gymnastics  and  swimming,  in  their  appro- 
 priate seasons,  as  a  means  of  health.  So  diflerent  are  the  ideas 
 which  prevail  in  Germany  from  those  which  have  the  ascend- 
 ancy among  us,  that  in  this  institution,  directed  by  a  clergy- 
 man, and  under  clerical  authority  in  its  minuter  regulations, 
 occasional  balls  are  given,  in  which  the  first  class  are  allowed 
 to  take  a  part. 
 
 For  the  sake  of  crivinix  a  full  view  of  the  diflerenccs  in  the 
 courses  of  instruction  in  these  institutions,  I  have  placed  their 
 details*  in  parallel  columns  upon  the  same  page,  reserving  re- 
 marks upon  them  until  the  close  of  this  exposition.  This  ab- 
 stract of  the  courses  will  be  folluwcd  by  a  comparison  of  the 
 
 •  Taken  from  tlic  projiframmcs  for  the  summer  term  of  183G,  and  llio  winter 
 of  183G-7,  kindly  furnislicd  mo  on  my  visits  fn  the  several  schools,  hy  IIk 
 directors  Sj)illf!k(>,  Auijusl,  and  Kirchner. 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA.  477 
 
 time  occupied  in  each  branch  during  the  entire  course  of  in- 
 struction. The  numbers  attached  to  the  names  of  the  different 
 classes  show  the  number  of  hours  of  study  per  week  in  the 
 regular  branches  in  which  the  division  of  classes  takes  place. 
 In  like  manner,  the  numbers  attached  to  the  several  subjects  of 
 study  show  how  many  hours  are  occupied  per  week  in  each 
 of  the  subjects  by  the  several  classes.  The  course  of  the  Pforta 
 school  begins  only  with  the  third  class,  and  hence  the  right 
 hand  column  is  vacant  in  the  lower  classes.  The  four  lower 
 classes  of  the  real  gymnasium  may  be  taken  as  equivalents  to 
 the  three  of  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium;  the  classes  do 
 not  precisely  correspond,  but  the  leading  features  of  the  courses 
 of  all  above  the  lower  third  are  similar. 
 
 The  extemporaUa  spoken  of  in  the  courses  of  language,  con- 
 sist of  written  translations  made  on  the  spot  by  the  pupils  into 
 a  foreign  language,  of  sentences  spoken  in  the  vernacular  by 
 the  teacher.  These  sentences  are,  of  course,  adapted  to  the 
 progress  of  the  pupil,  and  are  prepared  beforehand  by  the 
 teacher  who  renders  them,  especially  in  the  early  parts  of  the 
 course,  the  application  of  the  rules  of  grammar  on  which  the 
 pupil  is  engaged,  or  of  peculiarities  of  idiom  to  which  his  atten- 
 tion is  called. 
 
 FrederickWilliam        Real  Gymnasium.  Gymnasium  of 
 
 Gymnasium.  Sciiulpforta. 
 
 Sixth  Class,  thirty  hours.      Sixth  Class,  thh-ty  hours. 
 
 Latin,  ten  hours.  Latin,  four  hours. 
 
 Inflections    of  nouns,  Inflections  of  tlie  parts 
 
 &c.    Comparisons.    Con-  of  speech   preceding   the 
 
 jugation  of  the  indicative  regular     verbs      in     Olto 
 
 moods  of  regular  and  of  Schulz's  school  grammar, 
 
 some     irregular     verbs.  A  written  exercise  once  a 
 
 Translation  from  Blume's  week, 
 elementary  book.     Exer- 
 cises from  Blume.     Ex- 
 temporalia. 
 
 German,  four  hours.  German,  four  hours. 
 
 Etymology   and    syn-  Grammar.         Syntax, 
 
 tax.  Exercises  in  writing     Reading  exercises  in  Au- 
 
478 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Frederick  William 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 upon  subjects  previously 
 narrated.  Exercises  in 
 orthography,  reading,  and 
 declaiming'. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 
 Etymology,  to  include 
 the  auxiliary  verbs,  in 
 Herrmann's  grammar. 
 Oral  and  written  exer- 
 cises. Reading  and  trans- 
 lation. Exercises  on  the 
 rules  from  the  grammar. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 
 Bible  history  of  the 
 Old  Testament.  Com- 
 mitting to  memory  se- 
 lected verses. 
 
 Geography,  two  hours. 
 Delineation  of  the  out- 
 lines of  Europe,  Africa, 
 Asia,  and  America,  from 
 determinate  points  given. 
 Divisions  of  the  coun- 
 tries, with  their  principal 
 cities,  rivers,  and  moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Arithmetic,  four  hours. 
 7^he  four  ground  rules, 
 with    denominate    whole 
 numbers.    Their  applica- 
 tions. 
 
 Writing,  three  hours. 
 
 Elements  of  round  and 
 running  hand.  Dictation. 
 Writing  from  copy-slips. 
 
 Drairing,  two  hours. 
 Exercises   in   drawing 
 lines. 
 
 Real  Gymnasium. 
 
 gust's  reader.  Narration 
 of  stories  told  by  the 
 teacher.     Declamation. 
 
 French,  four  hours. 
 Elements   of  grammar 
 to  the  regular  verbs.  Read- 
 ing    and     translation    in 
 Hecker's  Reader. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 
 Bible  history.  Explana- 
 tion of  Luther's  Catechism. 
 Committing  to  memory 
 Bible  stories  and  verses. 
 
 Geography,  four  hours. 
 
 General  geography,  ac- 
 cording to  A.  HOrschel- 
 mann's  outline. 
 
 History,  two  hours. 
 Biographies  from  gene- 
 ral history. 
 
 Arithmetic,  five  hours. 
 Tlic    elementary    rules 
 with  whole  numbers. 
 
 Writing,  three  hours. 
 
 Elements  of  forms  of 
 writing.  Writing  from 
 copy-slips. 
 
 Drav'inu,  two  hours. 
 
 Drawing  of  lines  and 
 other  exercises  of  tho 
 hand.  Drawing  from  en- 
 gravings. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 sciiulpforta. 
 
COMPARISON  OP  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA. 
 
 479 
 
 Frederick  William      Real  Gymnasium.  Gymnasium  op 
 
 Gymnasium.  Schulpforta. 
 
 Fifth  Class,  twenty-nine 
 hours. 
 
 Latin,  ten  hours. 
 Etymolog-y.  Use  of  the 
 prepositions.  The  ac- 
 cusative before  an  infini- 
 tive, practised  orally  and 
 in  writing,  and  extem- 
 pore, and  in  exercises. 
 Translations  from 
 Blume's  Reader. 
 
 German,  four  hours. 
 
 Parsing,  reading,  and 
 declamation.  Exercises 
 on  narrations. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 
 Etymology,  by  oral 
 and  written  exercises. 
 Easier  stories  from  Herr- 
 mann's Reader. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 
 Explanation  of  the  gos- 
 pels, according  to  St. 
 Matthew  and  St.  Luke. 
 Committing  to  memory 
 the  principal  facts. 
 
 Geography,  two  hours. 
 Review  of  the  last 
 year's  course.  Rivers  and 
 mountains  of  Europe, 
 and  chief  towns,  in  con- 
 nexion. 
 
 Arithmetic,  four  hours. 
 Review  of  the  preced- 
 ing.   Fractions. 
 
 Fifth  Class,  thirty  hours. 
 
 Latin,  six  hours. 
 Inflections  of  words,  in- 
 cluding tlie  verbs,  from 
 Schulz's  grammar.  Trans- 
 lations in  August's  and 
 Gedike's  Reader. 
 
 German,  four  hours. 
 Syntax.     Weekly  writ- 
 ten  exercises.     Orthogra- 
 phy.    Declamation. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 Irregular  verbs.  Trans- 
 lations  from  German  into 
 French,  and  vice-versa. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 Explanation  of  Luther's 
 Catechism.  Excerpts  from 
 the  New  Testament.  Com- 
 mitting to  memory  facts 
 and  verses. 
 
 Geography,  one  hour. 
 Review  of  the  last  year's 
 
 History,  three  hours. 
 Extracts  from  Bottiger's 
 General  History,  relating 
 to  ancient  history  and  the 
 middle  ages. 
 
 Arithmetic,  three  hours. 
 Review     of     fractions. 
 Loss  and  gain.     Easy  ex- 
 amples   of    interest    and 
 
480 
 
 (JENEIIAL  EDUCATION.       SECOXDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 FrederickWilliam 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 WrUincr,  two  hours. 
 Runninir-hand       from 
 copy-slips. 
 
 Drawing,  two  Lours. 
 
 Drawing  from  bodies, 
 terminated  by  planes  and 
 straight  lines. 
 
 Fourth   Class,   twcnty- 
 eiglit  hours. 
 
 Latin,  ten  hours. 
 Review  of  etymology. 
 The  principal  rules  en- 
 forced by  oral  and  writ- 
 ten exercises  and  extem- 
 poralia.  Translation  from 
 Jacob's  Reader  and  Corn. 
 Ncpos. 
 
 German,  three  hours. 
 
 C/ompositions  on  sub- 
 jects previously  read.  De- 
 clamation. Reading  from 
 Kaliscirs  Reader.  Pars- 
 ing. 
 
 French,  two  hours. 
 
 Review  of  etymology. 
 Irregular  verbs.  Reci- 
 procal verbs.  Anecdotes 
 nnd  narrations  from 
 Herrmann's  Grammar, 
 and  committing  the  prin- 
 cipal to  memory. 
 
 Real  Gymnasium. 
 
 practice.  Mental  arithme- 
 tic, the  four  ground  rules 
 in  whole  numbers  and 
 fractiouii.  Solution  of  easy 
 questions. 
 
 Geometry,  two  hours. 
 Introductory  exercises. 
 
 Writinrr,  two  hours. 
 As  in  the  sixth  class. 
 
 Drawing,  two  hours. 
 As  in  the  sixtli  class. 
 
 Singing,  two  hours. 
 Knowledge  of  notes. 
 
 Lower  Foprtii,  thirty -two 
 hours. 
 
 Latin,  six  hours. 
 Exercises,  from  Au- 
 gust's Practical  Exercises, 
 in  inflections.  Syntax  from 
 August's  Guide  to  Trans- 
 lation. Written  exercises, 
 cxtemporalia.  Translation 
 of  the  more  difficult  parts 
 of  Blume's Reader.  Irregu- 
 lar inflections. 
 
 German,  three  hours. 
 Grammar,     with      oral 
 and  written  exercises. 
 
 Frcneh,  three  hours. 
 Irregular  declensions. 
 Translation  from  Ilcckcr'a 
 Reader.  Traivslat  ions  from 
 Duvinagc.  Rules  from 
 Kncbcl's  Grammar. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 schulpforta. 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA. 
 
 481 
 
 FrederickWilliam 
 
 Gy3INASIUM. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 
 Gospel,    according    to 
 St.  Matthew,    explained. 
 Verses  and  psalms  com- 
 mitted to  memory. 
 Geography,  three  hours. 
 
 Political  geography  of 
 Germany,  and  of  the  rest 
 of  Europe.  Review  of 
 the  geography  of  the 
 other  parts  of  the  world. 
 
 Arithmetic,  three  hours. 
 Review  of  fractions. 
 Simple  and  compound 
 proportion.  Partnership. 
 Simple  interest. 
 
 Geometry,  one  hour. 
 Knowledge  of   forms, 
 treated  inductively. 
 
 Writing,  two  hours. 
 Running-hand,      from 
 copy-slips. 
 
 Drawing,  two  hours. 
 
 From  bodies  bounded 
 by  curved  hnes. 
 
 61 
 
 Real  Gymnasium. 
 
 Religion,  one  hour. 
 Bible  history  of  the  Old 
 Testament.         Exercises. 
 Verses  learned  by  heart. 
 
 Geography,  one  hour. 
 
 Germany  in  particular. 
 Asia,  Africa,  America,  and 
 Australia. 
 
 History,  two  hours. 
 General  history.      Mo- 
 dern history,  with  special 
 reference  to  German  his- 
 tory. 
 
 Arithmetic,  two  hours. 
 
 Loss  and  gain.  Interest. 
 August's  Complete  Manual 
 of  Mathematics,  parts  1 
 to  7. 
 
 Geometry,  four  hours. 
 Parts  1  to  7  of  August's 
 Manual  of  Mathematics. 
 
 Natural  History,  four 
 hours. 
 
 General  view  of  the 
 three  kingdoms  of  nature. 
 Natural  history  of  the 
 mammalia,  with  demon- 
 strations at  the  royal  mu- 
 seum. 
 
 Writing,  one  hour. 
 
 As  in  the  sixth  class. 
 
 Drawing,  two  hours. 
 
 From  drawings  by  the 
 teacher. 
 
 Singing,  two  hours. 
 Two  and  three  parts. 
 
 Gymnasium  op 
 
 ScHULPrORTA. 
 
482  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 FkedertckWilliam      Real  "Gymnasium.  Gymxasittm  or 
 
 GrMNASIUM.  SCHULPFORTA. 
 
 Upper  Fourth  Class, 
 thirty  hours. 
 
 Latin,  six  hours. 
 Declensions.  Transla- 
 tion from  Gcdike's  Chrcs- 
 tomalliy.  Exercises  from 
 August's  Guide.  Extcm- 
 poralia. 
 
 German,  tlu"ee  hours. 
 
 Particles.  Synonima. 
 Exercises  of  style.  Oral 
 expositions. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 
 Translation  from  tlic 
 French  of  Duvinage's 
 Guide.  From  the  Ger- 
 man  of  Beauvais.  First 
 part  of  Knebcl's  Gram- 
 mar. Exercises  and  cx- 
 temporalia. 
 
 Religion,  one  hour. 
 Chief  truths    of  Chris- 
 tianity and  morals.    Exer- 
 cises.  History  of  the  New 
 Testament.     Exercises. 
 
 Geography,  two  hours. 
 The  Germanic  Confcd. 
 The  Austrian  states. 
 
 History,  two  hours. 
 History    of    Germany, 
 and  sketch  of  the  French 
 revolution. 
 
 Arithmetic,  two  hours. 
 Partnership.      Interest. 
 Exchange. 
 
 Geometry,  four  hours. 
 Parts  5  to  9  of  August's 
 Manual. 
 
 Natural  History,  four 
 
 hours. 
 Terminology  of  l>otany 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA. 
 
 283 
 
 FrederickWilliam 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Lower  Third,  thirty 
 hours. 
 
 Latin.,  eight  hours. 
 
 Syntax.  Rules  of  cases 
 from  Zumpt.  Exercises 
 and  extemporalia.  In- 
 flections formerly  learn- 
 ed reviewed.  Cornelius 
 Nepos. 
 
 Greek.,  six  hours. 
 Etymology,  from  Batt- 
 mann's  Grammar  to  re- 
 gular verbs,  inch  Trans- 
 lation from  Greek  into 
 German  from  .Jacob's, 
 from  German  into  Greek 
 from  Hess's  Exercises. 
 
 German.,  two  hours. 
 
 Compositions  in  narra- 
 tion and  description.  De- 
 clamation. 
 
 French,  two  hours. 
 
 Repetition  of  inflec- 
 tions, and  exercises  by 
 extemporalia  and  in  writ- 
 ing. Translation  of  the 
 fables  from  Herrmann's 
 Reading  Book,  2d  course. 
 
 Real  Gymnasium. 
 
 Natural  history  of  birds, 
 witli  demonstrations  at  the 
 royal  museum. 
 
 Wriling-j  one  hour. 
 As  in  the  sixth  class. 
 Drawing,  two  hours. 
 As  in  the  sixth  class. 
 
 Singing,  two  hours. 
 This  class  is  voluntary. 
 
 Lower  Third,  thirty-one 
 hours. 
 
 Latin,  seven  hours. 
 Gedike's  Chrestomathy. 
 Grammar,  from  August's 
 Guide.  Exercises  and  ex- 
 temporalia. O.  Schulz's 
 Latin  Anthology. 
 
 Greek,  four  hours. 
 Inflections  to  the  verbs 
 in   fAt.     Translation  from 
 Buttmann's  Compendium. 
 
 German,  three  hours. 
 
 Principles  of  versifica- 
 tion, from  Wakkernagel's 
 collection  of  the  German 
 poets.  Selections  from  the 
 grammar.     Essays. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 Ancient     and     modern 
 Greece      of      Duvinagc. 
 Grammar.    Exercises  and 
 extemporalia. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 schulpfoeta. 
 
 Lower  Third,  thirty 
 hours. 
 
 Latin,  fourteen  hours. 
 
 Ceesar  B.  Gall,  book  5 
 and  book  L  Corn.  Nep. 
 Atticus.  Treface.  Milt. 
 Themistoc.  Ovid's  Me- 
 tarn  or  piloses,  books  8 
 and  2,  expurg.  Prosody. 
 Zumpt's  Grammar.  Ex- 
 ercises and  extemporalia. 
 
 Greek,  five  hours. 
 Translation  from  Ja- 
 cob's Elements.  Geogra- 
 phical division  of  Europe 
 and  Africa.  Inflections 
 to  irregular  verbs,  from 
 Buttmann's  Exercises. 
 
 German,  two  hours. 
 Written  and  oral  exer- 
 cises.   Declamation. 
 
 French. 
 See  remarks  at  the 
 close,  the  class  divisions 
 in  this  course  not  corres- 
 ponding witli  those  of  tlie 
 others. 
 
484 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 FrederickWilliam 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Religion^  two  hours. 
 Morals  and  Christian 
 faitli. 
 
 Ceoo^raphrj,  two  hours. 
 Physical      geography. 
 Europe    and    the    other 
 parts  of  tlie  world. 
 
 History,  two  hours. 
 General    view    of  an- 
 cient and  modern  history. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 
 Lcgcndre's  Geometry, 
 book  1.  Decimals.  Al- 
 gebra. Square  and  cube 
 root 
 
 Drawing,  two  hours. 
 Introduction    to    land- 
 scape  drawing. 
 
 Real  Gymnasium. 
 
 Religion,  one  hour. 
 Catechization     on     the 
 gospel    according    to    St. 
 Luke. 
 
 Geography,  one  hour. 
 General    geography    of 
 Europe. 
 
 History,  three  hours. 
 
 Roman  history.  An- 
 cient geography  from 
 Schmidt.  Ancient  history 
 from  Schmidt. 
 
 Mathematics,  five  hours. 
 
 August's  Geometry, 
 parts  10  and  11.  Algebra. 
 Powers.  Square  root. 
 Simple  equations.  Solution 
 of  examples. 
 
 Natural    Philosophy,  two 
 hours. 
 Elements  of  physics  and 
 of  chemistry. 
 
 Natural  History,  two 
 hours. 
 
 Amphibii  and  fishes. 
 Linnfean  system.  Excur- 
 sions. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 schulpforta. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 
 History  of  David,  part- 
 ly from  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment, partly  related.  Gos- 
 pel according  to  St.  Luke 
 read  and  explained.  Com- 
 mitting to  memory  verses 
 from  the  Bible.  Exami- 
 nation on  the  sermon. 
 
 Geography,  three  hours. 
 General  Exposition. 
 America  and  northern 
 and  middle  Asia.  South- 
 ern Asia  and  Africa. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 
 Vulgar  and  decimal 
 fractions.  Similarity  of 
 triangles,  and  proposi- 
 tions depending  upon 
 these  properties. 
 
 Iksidcs  these  rofrular  studies  in  the  real  {ryinnasium,  occupying  thirty-one 
 hours  per  week,  there  arc  those  wliich  may  be  substituted  for  CJrcek,  or  assumed 
 voluntarily,  viz. — Knglish,  two  hours.  Inflections  of  diifercnt  parts  of  speech. 
 Irregular  verb?.     Reading  from  Ilort's  Reader  and  from  Heussi's  New  English 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA. 
 
 485 
 
 Reader.  Writing  and  drawi.ig,  two  hours  each,  for  those  pupils  who  do  not 
 take  a  part  in  the  singing  lessons  of  two  hours,  wliicli  will  be  more  fully  spoken 
 of  at  the  close.     The  same  exercises  are  continued  in  the  following  class. 
 
 FrederickWilliam      Real  Gymnasium. 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Upper  Third  Class, 
 thirty  hours. 
 
 Latin,  ten  hours. 
 Division  I.  Syntax, 
 from  Zumpt.  Review  of 
 the  preceding-  course. 
 Oral  exercises  in  con- 
 struction of  sentences. 
 Written  exercises  and  ex- 
 temporalia.  Caesar  Bell. 
 Gall.,  books  1,  2,  and  7, 
 in  part.  Ovid's  Meta- 
 morphoses, extracts  from 
 books  7  and  8.  Prosody, 
 rules  from  Zumpt. 
 
 Greek,  six  hours. 
 
 Division!,  Etymology, 
 from  Buttman's  Gram- 
 mar.  Oral  and  written 
 exercises  and  extempora- 
 lia.   Jacob's  Reader. 
 
 German,  two  hours. 
 
 Examination  of  exer- 
 cises on  historical  sub- 
 jects. Poetical  selections 
 for  declamation. 
 
 French,  two  hours. 
 
 Exercises  in  transla- 
 tion. Written  exercises. 
 Extemporalia. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 Principal  passages  from 
 
 Upper  Third  Class, 
 tliirty-onc  hours. 
 
 Latin,  seven  hours. 
 August's  Libamenta. 
 Courses,  three  and  four. 
 Syntax.  Exercises  and  ex- 
 temporalia.  Ovid's  Meta- 
 morphoses, books  1,  2,  3, 
 and  4,  excerpts.  Writ- 
 ten translations.  Commit- 
 ting to  memory  remark- 
 able passages.  Prosody. 
 Theory  of  hexameters. 
 
 Greek,  four  hours. 
 Review  and    extension 
 of  the  preceding  course. 
 MatthisR's  Greek  Reader. 
 
 German,  three  hours. 
 
 Reading  and  comment- 
 ing on  the  German  classics. 
 Exercises,  with  rules  for 
 style.     Free  delivery. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 
 Selections  from  Mignet, 
 Thiers,  &c.,  and  from 
 Herrmann  and  Biichner's 
 Manual.  Exercises  in 
 speaking  and  writing. 
 Extemporalia. 
 
 Religion,  one  hour. 
 Gospel,  according  to  St. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 sciiulpforta. 
 
 Upper  Third  Class, 
 thirty  hours. 
 
 Latin,  fourteen  hours. 
 
 Cicero,  Laelius,  Cato 
 major.  Csesar,  Bell.  Civ., 
 books  2  and  3,  in  part. 
 Ovid's  Metamorphoses, 
 books  4, 5,  and  6,  excerpt. 
 Zumpt's  Grammar.  In- 
 flections. Syntax.  Exer- 
 cises and  extemporalia. 
 Exercises  in  prosody. 
 
 Greek,  five  hours. 
 
 Xenophon,  Cyrop.,  ex- 
 tracts from  books  2  and 
 3.  Buttmann's  Gram- 
 mar. Irregular  verbs,  &c. 
 Ditfurt's  Vocab.  Greek 
 Exercises. 
 
 German,  two  hours. 
 
 Correction  of  exercises. 
 Declamation.  Prosody, 
 from  Heise.  Rules  for 
 formation  of  sentences. 
 
 French. 
 See  close  of  this  list 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 History  of  the  Old  and 
 
48G 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 FhederickWilliam      Real  Gymnasium. 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 the  jTospcls  gone  over. 
 General  view  of  the  Old 
 Testament  writings. 
 
 History  and  Geography^ 
 four  hours. 
 
 Roman  history,  from 
 the  Punic  Wars  to  the 
 destruction  of  the  west- 
 ern empire.  History  of 
 the  middle  ages,  three 
 hours.  Review  of  the 
 five  general  divisions  of 
 tlie  world,  one  hour. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 Geometry.  Lcgendre, 
 books  1  and  2,  and  part 
 of  3.  Algebra,  with  exer- 
 cises from  Meyer  Hirseh. 
 
 Mark,  with   catecliizalion 
 upon  it. 
 
 History   and    Gcograjyhy, 
 three  hours. 
 
 History  of  the  middle 
 ages.  Review  of  geogra- 
 phy- 
 
 Lower  Second  Class, 
 thirty-one  hours. 
 
 Latin,  eight  hours. 
 
 Extracts  from  Livy  and 
 CcBsar  dc  Bell.  Giv.  Re- 
 view of  Bell,  Gall.,  books 
 2  and  3.  Syntax.  Exer- 
 cises and  extemporalia. 
 Committing  to  memory 
 cxercibes  from  Livy  and 
 Caesar.  Ovid's  Metamor- 
 phoses, Ixjoks  11  to  14. 
 
 Greek,  six  hours. 
 
 Homer's  Odys.,  11, 1-, 
 
 13,   and    11.     Exercises 
 
 on    the    dialects.     Xcno- 
 
 phon'H    Aiuib.   1,   2,    nnil 
 
 Mathematics,  six  hours. 
 Simple  and  quadratic 
 equations.  Theorems  from 
 general  theory  of  equa- 
 tions. Mensuration  of  re- 
 gular polygons  and  circles. 
 
 Natural  History,  four 
 hours. 
 
 Botany,  according  to  the 
 natural  system.  Natural 
 history  of  worms. 
 
 Lower  Second  Class, 
 thirty  hours. 
 Latin,  seven  hours. 
 Half  the  year  with  up- 
 per third.  The  other  half: 
 Salhisf,  Bell.  Jug.,  book  1. 
 Virgil's  yEncid,    books    1 
 and  2.    Exercises  and  ex- 
 temporalia. 
 
 GreeJ;,  four  liours. 
 As  in  the  upper    third 
 
 class. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 
 Sl  JlULPrORTA. 
 
 New  CoxcnantP,  with  re- 
 ferences to  the  Bible. 
 
 Geography  and  History, 
 three  hours. 
 
 Geography  and  history 
 of  European  states,  par- 
 ticularly of  the  German 
 Confederation,  from  Dit- 
 tcubciircr's  Instructor. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 Algebra.  Simple  equa- 
 tions. Equality  of  plane 
 rectilinear  figures,  from 
 Swindcn.  Exercises. 
 
 Lower  Second  Class, 
 thirty  hours. 
 
 Latin,  twelve  hours. 
 
 Cicero  Orationes  in 
 r  it.,  pro  lege  Manil.,  pro 
 Archia.  Cic.  Selected 
 epistles  from  Mattliia?. 
 Exercises  from  Ovid,  fas- 
 tis, and  Terence  Adcl- 
 phi.  Zumpt's  Grammar. 
 Particles.  Syntax  Orn. 
 Exercises.  Extemporalia. 
 liatiii  verses. 
 
 Greek,  five  hours. 
 Xcnoplion's  Anab.,    1, 
 2,  and  part  of  3.  Ilomcr'a 
 Odys.,  21  to  21.     Exer- 
 cises. 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA. 
 
 487 
 
 FrederickWilliam      Real  Gymnasiu^i. 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 "part  of  3.  Excerpts  from 
 the  grammar  reviewed. 
 Exercises  and  extempo- 
 ralia.  Syntax. 
 
 IlehretLi,  two  hours. 
 
 Grammar,  ending-  with 
 irregular  verbs.  Easier 
 parts  of  historical  books 
 of  Scripture  translated. 
 Vocabulary  learned  by 
 rote.  Exercises  on  rcgu- 
 iar  and  irregular  verbs 
 out  of  the  recitation  room. 
 
 German^  two  hours. 
 
 Correction  of  written 
 exercises  and  essays. 
 Exercises  of  delivery. 
 
 Gymnasium  op 
 Schulpforta. 
 
 French^  two  hours. 
 
 Voltaire's  Charles  XII. 
 Exercises  and  extempora- 
 lia. 
 
 Religion^  t\yo  hours. 
 
 Explanation  of  the 
 principal  parts  of  tlie 
 Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  with 
 historical  sketches,  and  a 
 view  of  the  life  of  early 
 Christian  communities. 
 
 History^  three  hours. 
 
 Roman  history,  from 
 the  Punic  Wars.  History 
 of  the  middle  ages  con- 
 eluded.  General  view  of 
 history. 
 
 German,  three  hours. 
 
 In  summer  combined 
 with  upper  third  class.  In 
 winter,  reading  German 
 classics.  Delivery.  Es- 
 says. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 
 In  summer,  with  upper 
 third.  Selections  from 
 Briichner's  Reader.  Gram- 
 matical exercises,  and 
 translation  from  Knebcl's 
 Grammar.    Extemporalia. 
 
 Reli 
 
 lion,  one 
 
 hour. 
 
 In  summer,  with  upper 
 third.  In  winter.  Chris- 
 tian system  of  morals. 
 
 Geography  and  History, 
 
 three  hours. 
 In  summer,  with  upper 
 third.  In  winter,  with 
 upper  second.  Modern 
 history,  from  1G60  to  1S15, 
 General  geography  of  Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 Hebrew^  two  hours. 
 
 Elements  of  grammar 
 from  Gesenius.  Exer- 
 cises in  reading  and  writ- 
 ing. Paradimes.  Vocabu- 
 lary learned. 
 
 German,  two  hours. 
 
 View  of  the  principal 
 epochs  in  the  history  of 
 the  German  language. 
 Principles    of  inflection. 
 
 Essays. 
 
 French. 
 See  close  of  this  list. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 
 Gospel  according  to  St, 
 Mark,  with  suitable  illus- 
 trations. Acts  of  the 
 Apostles,  in  part. 
 
 History,  three  hours. 
 
 History  of  the  East 
 and  of  the  Greeks,  with 
 ancient  geography  from 
 Lorcntz's  work. 
 
488 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 FrederickWilliam 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 MathematicSy  four  liours. 
 
 Gcom.  to  proportions 
 and  simple  figures.  Ele- 
 ments of  algebra.  Loga- 
 rithms. 
 
 Natural  History,  two 
 hours. 
 
 Mineralogy.     Botany, 
 especially  of  native  plants. 
 
 Real  Gymnasium. 
 
 Mathematics,  five  hours. 
 
 Simple  and  quadratic 
 equations.  Powers.  Roots. 
 Logarithms.  Review  of 
 planimetry.  Stereometry. 
 Algebraic  exercises. 
 
 Natural  History,  two 
 hours. 
 
 Cryptogamic  plants. 
 Propagation  of  the  princi- 
 pal cultivated  plants.  Mi- 
 neralogy. 
 
 Physics,  two  hours. 
 
 General  properties  of 
 bodies.  Solids,  from  Fisch- 
 er's  Natural  Philosophy. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 SciiuLrroRTA. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 
 Proportions.  Powers 
 and  roots.  Similarity  of 
 figures.  Circles,  from 
 Swinden.     Exercises. 
 
 The  courses  of  English,  of  writing,  and  drawing,  arc  as  in  the  upper  third 
 class.  Besides  these,  two  hours  are  set  apart  for  conversation  in  the  French  lan- 
 guage, and  exercises  in  extempore  writing. 
 
 Upper  Second  Class, 
 thirty-two  hours. 
 
 Latin,  nine  hours. 
 
 Cicero's  Orations,  pro 
 Rose.  Amer.,  de  Amic, 
 de  Senectute.  Livy,  books 
 22  to  25,  inclusive.  Vir- 
 gil's iEncid,  books  1  and 
 2.  Some  eclogues  and 
 excerpts  from  Georgics. 
 Exercises  and  extempo- 
 ralia. 
 
 Greek,  six  hours. 
 
 Homer's  Iliad,  books  4 
 to  11,  inclusive.  Arrian 
 Alex,  expedition,  books  1 
 and  2.  Buttmann's Gram- 
 mar, with  exercises  and 
 cxtcmiKjraliu. 
 
 Upper  Second  Class, 
 thirty-two  hours. 
 
 Latin,  seven  hours. 
 
 Livy,  books  29,30,31, 
 and  32.  Terence,  Andria. 
 Virgil's  iEncid,  books  7, 
 8,  9,  and  10.  Cicero  de 
 Amic.  Grammatical  ex- 
 ercises and  extemporalia. 
 
 Greek,  four  hours. 
 
 Homer's  Odys.,  books 
 9  to  11.  Arrian  expcd. 
 Alex.,  books  2  and  3. 
 Grammatical  exercises 
 and  extemporalia. 
 
 Upper  Second  Class, 
 twenty-nine  hours. 
 
 Latin,  eleven  hours. 
 
 Cicero,  in  Verrem,  Act 
 ii.  book  4.  Excerpts. 
 Livy,  parts  of  books  22 
 and  23.  Tacitus.  Ger- 
 mania  excerpts.  Virgil's 
 ^neid,  books  9,  11,  and 
 12.  Exercises  and  ex- 
 temporalia. 
 
 Greek,  six  hours. 
 
 Herodotus,  parts  of 
 books  6  and  7.  Plutaich. 
 Excerpts  from  Alexander. 
 Homer's  Iliad,  books  4 
 and .').  Exercises  and  ex- 
 temporalia. 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA. 
 
 489 
 
 FrederickWilliam 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Hebrew,  two  hours. 
 
 Books  of  Judges  and 
 of  Ruth,  with  exercises 
 of  syntax.  Easy  exer- 
 cises, and  committing 
 vocabulary  to  memory 
 out  of  the  class-room. 
 
 German,  two  hours. 
 Essays.     Delivery. 
 
 French,  two  hours. 
 
 Excerpts  from  Herr- 
 mann and  Briichner's 
 Manual  of  the  more  re- 
 cent French  literature. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 Christian  faith  and  mo- 
 rals. 
 
 History,  three  hours. 
 
 Review  of  ancient  his- 
 tory and  geography,  using 
 the  Latin  language. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 Arithmetical  geometry 
 and  plane  trigonometry. 
 Algebraic  exercises.  Po- 
 lygons.  Stereometry. 
 
 Simple     and     quadratic 
 equations. 
 
 Physics,  two  hours. 
 General  physics.  Elec- 
 tricity  and  magnetism. 
 
 Real  Gymnasiu3i. 
 
 Hebrew,  two  hours.* 
 Historical  pieces  from 
 Gcscnius's  Reader.  Book 
 of  Genesis.  Exercises  in 
 vowels  from  Hantschke's 
 Reader.   Syntax. 
 
 German,  three  hours. 
 
 Varieties  of  prose  and 
 poetry,  with  examples. 
 History  of  National  Lite- 
 rature. Essays.    Delivery. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 
 Parts  of  the  Manual  of 
 Ideler  and  Nolte,  viz. — ex- 
 tracts from  Rollin,  Lc  Sage, 
 Moliere,  Delavigne,  &lc. 
 Exercises  and  extempora- 
 lia. 
 
 Religion,  one  hour. 
 Christian  system  of  re- 
 ligion and  morals. 
 
 History,  three  hours. 
 
 Modern  history,  from 
 1500  to  1815.  General 
 geography  of  Europe. 
 
 Mathematics,  six  hours. 
 Plane  trigonometry  from 
 Legendre.  Theory  of  the 
 circle.  Logarithms.  Ste- 
 reometry from  Legendre. 
 Binomial.    Powers. 
 
 Physics,  tliree  hours. 
 
 Electricity  and  magnet- 
 ism. Ilcatjlight,  and  sound, 
 from  Fischer's  Physics. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 schulpforta. 
 
 Hebrew,  two  hours. 
 
 Gesenius's  Reader, 
 parts  1  and  2.  Vocabu- 
 lary. Gesenius's  Gram- 
 mar. Verbs  and  adverbs. 
 Writing  of  Hebrew  cha- 
 racters. 
 
 German,  two  hours. 
 Elements  of  versifica- 
 tion,    with    essays    and 
 poetical  exercises. 
 
 French. 
 
 See  at  the  close  of  this 
 list. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 
 Acquaintance  with  the 
 sacred  writings,  and 
 books  of  the  evangelical 
 church.    Essays. 
 
 History,  two  hours. 
 
 History  of  Rome  to  the 
 monarchy,  with  a  geo- 
 graphical introduction 
 from  Lorentz. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 Progressions  and  loga- 
 rithms, with  applications. 
 Stereometry  and  plane 
 trigonometry.   Exercises. 
 
 62 
 
 Vuluntarv- 
 
490 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 Frederick  William 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Real  Gymnasium. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 
 ScHULrFOKTA. 
 
 Chemistry,  two  hours. 
 
 Metalloids,  acids,  alka- 
 lis, earths,  from  Wohlcr's 
 Principles.  Two  liours  of 
 voluntary  practice  in  the 
 lahoratory. 
 
 Tlie  course  of  Eng-lish  in  the  real  gymnasium,  in  this  class,  is  continued  by 
 reading  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  and  by  exercises  from  the  grammar  of  Burckhardt 
 and  Jost.  There  is  a  voluntary  course  of  technology,  in  the  same  institution,  in 
 this  class,  two  hours  per  week,  including  a  discussion  of  the  uses  of  animal  and 
 vegetable  products  in  the  arts,  oils,  resins,  starch,  sugar,  «^c.  Methods  of  making 
 acids,  salts,  glass,  cartlienware,  «fcc.  Tliis  class  is  attended  by  those  who  do  not 
 study  Greek.  The  courses  of  writing,  drawing,  &.c.  are  continued  as  in  the  lower 
 third  class. 
 
 First  Class,  thirty-one 
 hours. 
 
 Latin,  eight  hours. 
 
 Horace's  Odes,  books 
 3  and  4.  Cicero  against 
 Verres.  Tacitus,  Annals, 
 books  11  and  12,  and  ex- 
 tracts from  3  to  6.  Cice- 
 ro, Tusc.  quest.  Extem- 
 pore translations  from 
 German  into  Latin.  Ex- 
 ercises.   Declamation. 
 
 Greek,  six  hours. 
 Homer's  Iliad,  book 
 16,  Odyssey,  books  9  to 
 16,  inclusive.  Ilippias 
 Major,  Charm  ides,  and 
 Gorgias  of  Plato  (ex- 
 cerpts). Soplioclcs'  Edip. 
 tyr.and  Antigone.  Gram- 
 matical exercises.  Butt- 
 niann's  Grammar. 
 
 Hebrew,  two  hours. 
 
 Second  Book  of  Kings. 
 Genesis.  Psalms,  GI  to 
 100.  Grammatical  criti- 
 cisms of  historical  cx- 
 ccrptfl,  or  of  psalius,  as  an 
 exercise  at  home. 
 
 First  Class,  thirty-two 
 hours. 
 
 Latin,  six  hours. 
 Horace's  Odes,  from 
 books  2  and  3.  Cicero  de 
 Officiis.  Tacitus,  Annals, 
 books  1,  2,  and  3.  Extern- 
 poralia.  Written  transla- 
 tions from  German  into 
 Latin.  Disputations. 
 
 Greek,  four  hours. 
 Homer's  Iliad,  books  5 
 to  9  and  10  to  14.  Thu- 
 cydides,  book  2.  Sopho- 
 clcs's  iEdip.  tyr.  Plato, 
 apolog.     Grammatical  tx- 
 
 Hehrew,  two  hours. 
 Exodus,  and  selections 
 from  the  other  historical 
 books  read.  The  Psalms. 
 Exercises  froni  Ilantschke. 
 Silections  from  tiic  New 
 Testament   in  Greek  iiito 
 
 First  Class,  twenty-nine 
 liours. 
 
 Latin,  ten  hours. 
 Horace's  Odes,  book  4. 
 Carm.  Stec.  Epist.,  book 
 1.  Cicero  Tusc.  disput., 
 books  1  and  4.  Tacitus, 
 Annals,  book  1.,  Plautus 
 captiv.  Extern  poralia. 
 Written  translations  from 
 German  into  Latin.  La- 
 tin disputations. 
 
 Greek,  six  hours. 
 Homer's  Iliad,  books 
 7  and  8.  Sophocles'  Phi- 
 loctetes  and  Ajax.  De- 
 mosthenes'Orations,Phil. 
 1,  Olynth.  1,  2,  3,  for 
 peace.  Greek  exercises 
 and  cxtemporalia. 
 
 Hebrew,  two  hours. 
 
 Psalms,  46  to  .'il.  Book 
 second  of  Samuel,  (gram- 
 mar (Gescnius)  and  ex- 
 ercises. 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA. 
 
 491 
 
 FrederickWilliam      Real  Gymnasium. 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 German^  one  hour. 
 Criticism  of  comiK)si- 
 tions.  General  grammar, 
 and  history  of  the  Ger- 
 man Grammar  and  lite- 
 rature. 
 
 French,  two  hours. 
 Selections  from  Scribe 
 and    Dclavigne.      Exer- 
 cises and  extemporalia. 
 
 Religion,  two  liours. 
 
 History  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Church,  to  the  times 
 of  Gregory  VII. 
 
 History,  three  hours. 
 Modern    history,    and 
 review. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 Plane  trigonometry 
 and  application  of  alge- 
 bra to  geometry.  Alge- 
 bra. Mensuration  and 
 conic  sections.  Binomial 
 theorem.  Exponential 
 and  trigon.  functions. 
 
 Physics,  two  hours. 
 Pliysical      geography. 
 Mechanics. 
 
 Philosophy,  one  hour. 
 Propaedeutics.    Logic. 
 
 Hebrew.   Written  transla- 
 tions of  Psalms. 
 
 German,  three  hours. 
 Composition   and    criti- 
 cism of  German  authors. 
 
 French,  three  hours. 
 
 Selections  from  Moli6re, 
 Scribe,  Delavigne,  and 
 Pascal.  Written  and  oral 
 translations  from  German 
 into  French,  from  Rabe^ 
 ner's  Letters,  Wieland, 
 and  Schiller.  Extempo- 
 ralia. 
 
 Religion,  one  hour. 
 The  religions  of    anti- 
 quity.  The  Bible. 
 
 History,  three  hours. 
 Ancient     and     modern 
 history,  from  Schmidt. 
 
 Mathematics,  five  hours. 
 Review  of  plane  trigo- 
 nometry. Spherical  trigo- 
 nometry. Geometry,  con- 
 structions, equations  of  the 
 third  and  fourth  degrees. 
 Numerical  equations  of 
 higher  degrees. 
 
 Physics,  three  hours. 
 
 Properties  of  the  gases. 
 Electricity.  Liglit.  Co- 
 lours. 
 
 Chemistry,  two  hours. 
 The  metals. 
 
 Gymnasium  of 
 schulpforta. 
 
 German,  two  hours. 
 
 General  history  of  Ger- 
 man literature,  from  the 
 middle  of  the  fourteenth 
 to  the  second  quarter  of 
 the  eighteenth  century. 
 Ballads  fromGothe.  Com- 
 positions. 
 
 French. 
 See  the   close  of  this 
 list. 
 
 Religion,  two  hours. 
 Vogel's    Instructor   in 
 Christian  Knowledge. 
 
 History,  two  hours. 
 
 Of  the  middle  ages, 
 from  Gregory  VII.  to  the 
 Reformation. 
 
 Mathematics,  four  hours. 
 Conic  sections.  Per- 
 mutations and  combina- 
 tions. Diophantine  ana- 
 lysis. Exercises  in  trigo- 
 nometry and  geometry. 
 
 Physics,  one  hour. 
 General  phj^sics.  Gene- 
 ral properties  of  bodies. 
 Magnetism. 
 
492  GEXERAL  EDUCATION.       SECOXDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  course  of  Englisli  in  the  real  gymnasium  inclufles  the  rcadingf  of  Shaks- 
 poarc's  Cirsar  and  Hamlet,  exercises,  extcmporalia,  and  conversation.  That  of 
 teclinolog-y  is  the  same  as  described  for  tiic  upper  second  class.  Those  of  draw- 
 ing, <Scc.  arc  the  same  as  for  the  lower  third,  and  are  continued  or  not,  at  the  option 
 of  the  student. 
 
 The  instruction  in  vocal  music  in  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium  has  not 
 been  inserted  in  the  list,  because  the  classes  do  not  correspond  precisely  with 
 those  in  the  other  branches,  especially  the  upper  classes.  There  are  five  classes 
 for  vocal  music,  the  fiAh  receiving  two  hours  of  instruction  in  musical  notation 
 and  singing  by  ear.  The  fourth,  time  and  cliffs,  &c.  Exercises  in  the  natural 
 scale,  and  harmony.  Songs  and  chorals  with  one  part.  The  third,  two  hours, 
 formation  of  the  scale  of  sharps,  running  the  gamut  with  difficult  intervals,  com- 
 bined with  the  practical  exercises  of  the  last  class.  The  second,  two  hours,  repe- 
 tition of  tones;  sharps,  and  flats.  Formation  of  the  scale  of  flats.  Exercises  of 
 songs  and  chorals,  in  two  parts.  The  first  class  is  an  application  of  what  has 
 been  learned,  as  well  as  a  continuation  of  the  science  and  art,  and  all  the  pupils 
 do  not,  of  course,  take  part  in  this  stage  of  the  instruction.  The  course  is  of  four 
 hours  per  week,  two  for  soprano  and  alto,  one  for  tenor  and  bass,  and  one  for  the 
 union  of  the  four  parts.  The  proficiency  is  indicated  by  the  fact,  that  the  pupils 
 perform  very  creditably  such  compositions  as  Haydn's  "  Creation,"  and  Handel's 
 "  Messiah." 
 
 In  the  real  gymnasium  there  are  four  singing-classes,  in  the  fourth  of  which 
 all  the  members  of  the  fiflii  class  of  the  gymnasium  must  enter  for  elementary 
 instruction.  In  the  first  or  higher  class,  the  Missa  of  Mozart,  Te  Deum  of  Haydn, 
 Hymn  of  Mozart,  Sampson  of  Handel,  Dc  Profundis  of  Gluke,  and  the  Storm  of 
 Haydn,  are  practised.  Opportunities  are  also  alTorded  of  learning  instrumental 
 music. 
 
 In  the  gymnasium  of  Pforta  there  arc  five  classes,  which  have  six  regular  hours 
 of  instruction  and  several  extra  hours  every  week,  besides  practisings  of  particu- 
 lar  parts  by  individuals  and  in  the  choir. 
 
 The  course  of  drawing  in  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium  is  similar  to 
 that  in  the  real  school,  which  I  shall  describe  hereafter  as  to  the  method  of  teach- 
 ing. At  Pforta  there  are  three  classes,  formed  from  the  upper  and  lower  second 
 classes,  pursuing  the  same  general  method.  The  upper  and  lower  tliird  classes 
 of  this  same  school  are  subdivided  into  four  sections,  each  having  one  hour's 
 instruction  per  week.  All  the  pupils  receive  dancing  lessons,  and  are  divided 
 for  this  purpose  into  twelve  or  thirteen  sections,  each  of  which  has  an  hour  of 
 instruction  per  week.  The  same  teacher  assists  in  the  charge  of  the  gymnastic 
 exercises. 
 
 The  courses  of  writing,  drawing,  and  music,  are  classed  in  the  real  gynnia- 
 sium  under  the  head  of  dexterity  in  art  (Kunstftlhigkeitcn),  and  in  that  of  Pforta 
 as  arts  (Kilnsten). 
 
 The  course  of  French  language  at  Pforta  is  confined  to  tlie  three  upper  classes, 
 which  are  divided  into  five  sections  for  this  instruction.  In  the  fillh  class  the  course 
 consists  of  inflcetions  of  the  diflercnt  parts  ofppcccli  from  Hir/.d's  Grainninr,  and 
 
COMPARISON  or  PRUSSIAN-  GYMNASIA.  493 
 
 reading  two  hours.  In  the  fourth  class,  inflections  continued,  and  pronouns  from 
 Hirzel.  Charles  XII.  beg-un.  Exercises,  two  hours.  In  the  third  class,  Charles 
 XII.  continued ;  syntax ;  grammar  continued ;  exercises,  two  hours.  In  the  second 
 class  grammatical  exercises  from  Hirzel,  and  correction  of  written  exercises; 
 selections  from  Ideler  «fc  Nolte's  Reader,  two  hours.  In  the  first  class  written 
 exercises  and  cxtemporalia;  poetical  part  of  Ideler  &  Nolte's  Reader. 
 
 In  a  review  of  the  courses,  as  laid  down  in  the  foregoino- 
 abstract,  the  guiding  principle  of  each  of  the  three  schools 
 shows  itself  completely  by  characteristic   differences  in  the 
 instruction,  while  their  subordination  to  a  general  scheme  ap- 
 pears by  their  never  divergi'ng  from  each  other  beyond  cer- 
 tain limits.     To  permit  this  variety  is,  to  my  apprehension, 
 more  judicious  than  to   require   strict   uniformity  in  the  dif- 
 ferent schools.     It  allows  a  latitude  for  youth  of  different  tastes 
 and  powers  of  mind  to  choose,  without  departing  from  a  pro- 
 fessional career.     The  advocates  of  an  exclusively  classical 
 system  would  find  too  much  of  innovation  even  in  the  school 
 at  Pforta,  while  those  who  take  a  more  moderate  view  would 
 consider  it  as  presenting  an  example  of  a  close  classical  train- 
 ing, with  accessaries  from  the  modern  languages  and  sciences. 
 The  real  gymnasium  is  the  other  extreme  of  this  class  of  secon- 
 dary schools;  the  modern  languages  and  sciences  are  brou^-ht 
 more  prominently  forward,  but  wdth  a  sincere  desire  on  the 
 part  of  its  founder  and  director  to  effect  what  they  consider  a 
 due  equilibrium;  hence  the  classical  course  diflers  principally 
 in  quantity  from  that  of  the  other  schools,  following  them  closely 
 in  the  authors  read  and  in  the  quality  of  the  instruction.     The 
 character  of  these  schools,  which  their  programmes  thus  indi- 
 cate, is  borne  out  by  inspection.     There  is  no  disposition  to 
 neglect  science  at  Pforta,  nor  to  neglect  the  ancient  languages 
 at  the  real  gymnasium.     At  the  former  the  lessons  in  mathe- 
 matics are  most  admirable,  and  at  the  latter  the  classics  of  the 
 highest  class  which  I  heard  were  excellent.     This  spirit  of  tole- 
 ration, if  it  may  be  so  called,  is  fully  manifested  also  in  the 
 Frederick  William  gymnasium.     It  constitutes  a  peculiar  part 
 of  the  excellence  of  the  Prussian  gymnasia,  and  is  one  source 
 of  the  superior  mental  training  which  they  afford. 
 
494  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  courses  themselves  presenting  this  variety  in  these  schools, 
 the  same  may  be  naturally  expected  in  regard  to  the  methods  of 
 instruction.  In  fact,  the  metiiods  of  teaching  the  same  subject 
 vary  even  in  the  same  school,  each  teacher  being  allowed 
 to  pursue  his  own  plan,  under  advice  of  the  director.  The 
 power  of  a  method  depends  so  much  upon  the  peculiar  manner 
 of  applying  it  by  the  teacher,  that  this  latitude  is  favourable  to 
 progress;  the  regular  conferences  which  take  place  among  the 
 teachers,  and  the  supervision  of  the  director,  keeping  the  diversity 
 within  reasonable  bounds. 
 
 In  the  classical  course,  the  oral  and  written  exercises  are 
 varied  in  their  relative  proportions  to  each  other.  The  trans- 
 lation from  Latin  or  Greek  into  German,  and  vice  versa,  the 
 grammatical  exercises,  Latin  compositions  or  essays,  the  ex- 
 temporalia  before  explained,  the  practice  in  versification,  &c., 
 are  varied  in  amount  in  the  different  classes,  according  to  the 
 views  of  the  instructor.  At  Pforta,  the  exercises  of  the  first, 
 or  highest  class,  are  carried  on  chiefly  in  Latin,  and  the  amount 
 of  reading  in  the  classics  is  greater  than  in  the  other  schools. 
 The  Greek  is  begun  in  the  low^r  third  class  of  all  of  these  schools, 
 but  while  it  is  obligatory  in  the  others,  may  be  omitted  in  the 
 real  gymnasium,  an  omission  which,  however,  supposes  a  desti- 
 nation different  from  that  of  the  other  pupils.  One  character- 
 istic dificrcnce  between  the  classical  instruction  in  the  higher 
 classes  and  in  those  of  similar  schools  in  England  and  our 
 country,  is  that,  in  general,  it  supposes  the  grammatical  minutiaj 
 to  have  been  fully  impressed  in  the  lower  classes,  and  discusses 
 philological  questions,  varieties  of  reading  and  collateral  sub- 
 jects of  antiquities,  history,  biography,  and  geography.  The 
 students  receive  much  oral  instruction,  which  they  are  re- 
 quired to  record.  The  same  is  the  practice  to  even  a  greater 
 extent  in  the  other  departments  of  instruction,  and  the  students 
 thus  acquire  a  facility  in  taking  notes  which  they  turn  to  good 
 account  in  the  university  lectures,  and  which  strikes  a  stranger 
 with  surprise  on  first  witnessing  it.  None  of  the  iiigher  authors 
 are  read  at  Pforta  without  these  oral  exj^ositions  being  given  re- 
 gularly, and  usually  extempore,  by  the  j)rofessors,  at  slalcil  hours. 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA.  495 
 
 In  general,  I  believe  the  plan  of  instruction  is  sufficiently  appa* 
 rent  from  the  programme,  but  in  the  case  of  the  Latin,  in 
 the  lowest  class  of  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium,  which 
 struck  me  as  particularly  appropriate,  does  not  appear  to  be 
 there  developed.  The  inflections  of  the  nouns  of  the  first  de- 
 clension is  first  taught,  then  of  adjectives  of  one  termination, 
 then  of  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation ;  these  are  then  illustrated 
 by  a  variety  of  written  and  oral  exercises,  consisting  of  sentences 
 made  up  of  them.  The  knowledge  of  the  pupil  is  thus  rendered 
 at  once  available,  and  the  application  is  close  to  the  theory, 
 which,  at  the  age  of  pupils  of  the  sixth  class,  is  especially  desir- 
 able. Most  of  the  pupils  in  all  these  schools  begin  their  classi- 
 cal course  at  nine  or  ten  years  of  age,  and  yet,  judging  by  the 
 progress  shown  in  the  programme  of  the  first  class,  and  by  the 
 scholars  which  the  universities  of  northern  Germany  turn  out, 
 and  which  arc,  in  fact,  formed  in  the  gymnasia,  the  proficiency 
 is  all  that  can  be  desired.  It  is  what  a  youth  of  nineteen  issu- 
 ing  from  one  of  our  colleges  would  be  proud  of,  and  clearly 
 proves  that  the  classics  are  not  begun  too  late. 
 
 The  mother  tongue  and  French  are  both  taught  in  these 
 institutions,  in  combination  with  the  classical  studies.  These 
 languages  are  not  merely  entered  upon  the  programme,  but 
 are  actually  more  or  less  thoroughly  taught,  according  to 
 the  time  which  is  allotted  and  tlie  skill  of  the  teacher.  The 
 course  of  German  would  seem  calculated  to  make  both  writers 
 and  speakers,  and,  probably,  if  the  demand  for  the  latter  were 
 equal  to  that  of  the  former,  this  would  prove  true  in  the  latter 
 case,  as  it  does  in  the  former.  The  French  is  treated  essen- 
 tially in  a  difiTerent  way  from  the  ancient  languages,  and  it  is 
 considered  no  objection  that  the  two  diflbrent  methods  should 
 be  practised  in  the  same  school.  The  best  instruction  which  I 
 saw  was  given  by  a  native  teacher,  who  more  than  made  up 
 for  the  want  of  perfect  accuracy  of  pronunciation  by  the  tho- 
 rough knowledge  of  the  vernacular  idiom,  which  enabled  him 
 to  anticipate  and  remove  the  dilRculties  of  his  pupils.  In  re- 
 gard to  usefulness  in  common  life,  and  to  aflbrding  a  variety 
 of  structure  for  comparison,  the  French  ranks  before  the  Eng- 
 
496  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 lish  for  the  purposes  of  the  German  scholar.  The  latter  lan- 
 guage is  pursued,  however,  by  many  pupils  of  the  real  gymna- 
 sium, and,  with  other  modern  languages,  may  be  studied  pri- 
 vately at  the  other  gymnasia,  generally. 
 
 The  religious  characteristic  of  these  schools  is  a  striking  one, 
 and  important  in  its  eflccts.  The  Bible  is  taught  rather  than  a 
 particular  creed,  though  from  the  fact  that  the  pupils  are  nearly 
 all  of  one  creed,  this  forbearance  is  not  essential,  and  is  not 
 always  exercised.  The  separation  of  religious  from  other 
 instruction  can  but  have  a  most  injurious  tendency,  and  their 
 connexion,  as  in  these  schools,  on  the  contrary,  a  happy  influ- 
 ence. Religious  knowledge  is  classed  with  the  sciences  in  the 
 formal  division  of  the  subjects  of  study. 
 
 The  courses  of  geography  and  history  in  the  three  schools 
 selected  as  examples,  are  all  thorough,  but  dilTer  in  arrange- 
 ment and  method.  The  constant  reference  to  the  black-board 
 for  the  delineation  of  maps,  which  occurs  in  the  geographical 
 course  of  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium,  is  productive  of 
 the  best  results.  The  student  is  interested  and  furnished  with 
 an  additional  means  of  impressing  the  facts  upon  his  memory. 
 A  similar  course,  in  regard  to  history,  is  only  partially  in  use, 
 and  would  be  a  decided  improvement.  The  introduction  of 
 biography,  as  the  foundation  for  history,  is  practised  in  the  real 
 gymnasium  with  great  success. 
 
 The  mathematical  course  of  all  these  schools  is  of  a  highly 
 respectable  character,  and  is  executed  to  the  extent  which 
 appears  in  the  programme.  That  of  the  real  gymnasium  is 
 very  thorough,  as  the  time  devoted  to  the  ditlcrent  parts  shows, 
 while,  as  far  as  the  same  subjects  are  studied  in  the  Frederick 
 William  gymnasium,  it  is  scarcely  behind  the  former  institution. 
 The  instruction  is  much  more  thorough  than  that  given  in  the 
 similar  courses  of  the  French  and  English  schools  of  this  grade. 
 
 The  courses  of  physics  and  natural  history  are  much  more 
 extended  in  the  real  gymnasium  than  in  cither  the  Frederick 
 William  or  Pforta  gymnasium,  the  latter  course,  perhaps,  too 
 much  so.  The  course  of  physics  at  Schulpforta  is  very  meagre, 
 and  natural  history  is  not  taught  at  all,  an  omission  which  its 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA.  497 
 
 country  locality  renders  the  more  remarkable.  The  elements 
 of  chemistry  are  taught  regularly  in  the  real  gymnasium,  and 
 practice  in  the  laboratory  may  be  had  by  those  who  have  time 
 for  it  from  their  other  studies.  The  students  have  also  an 
 opportunity  to  attend  a  course  of  lectures  on  technology.  The 
 courses  of  physics  of  the  real  gymnasium  and  of  the  Frederick 
 William  gymnasium  are  exceedingly  well  calculated  to  fulfil 
 their  object,  to  give  general  ideas  of  natural  phenomena,  with- 
 out going  into  what  may  be  considered  technical  minutiae;  in 
 the  latter  school  physics  is  connected  with  an  excellent  course  of 
 physical  geography.  It  seems  to  me  doubtful  whether,  in  the 
 natural  history  course,  more  than  a  general  outline  of  the  sub- 
 ject, is  necessary,  with  the  prosecution,  practically,  of  such 
 branches  as  the  locality  of  the  institution  may  render  applica- 
 ble for  improving  the  habits  of  observation  and  discrimination. 
 The  scientific  details  of  the  different  branches  belong  rather  to 
 special  purposes  of  study  than  to  general  education.  The  ex- 
 perience of  these  institutions  may,  however,  be  appealed  to  as 
 proving  the  entire  compatibility  of  such  instruction  with  an 
 otherwise  sound  system,  and  the  entire  possibihty  of  accom- 
 plishing it  without  neglecting  other  more  important  branches. 
 
 Drawing  and  vocal  music,  which  form  parts  of  the  regular 
 courses  of  all  these  institutions,  have  not  yet  found  their  way 
 into  the  systems  of  other  nations  on  the  same  footing  with  the 
 regular  studies.  As  a  part  of  physical  training,  they  are  im- 
 portant, and  as  offering  a  relief  from  severer  pursuits,  further 
 recommend  themselves  in  this  connexion.  In  the  system  of 
 drawing  especially  recommended  by  the  Prussian  ministry, 
 models  alone  are  used;  this  method,  however,  is  not  fully  carried 
 out  in  many  schools.  The  old  system  of  copying  from  draw- 
 ings or  engravings  having  obtained  a  foothold,  cannot  be  very 
 easily  displaced  by  the  new  one,  which  requires,  besides  a  change 
 in  the  method  of  the  master,  an  expenditure  for  a  new  set  of 
 apparatus.  The  Frederick  William  gymnasium  has  a  course  on 
 the  elements  of  philosophy  and  logic,  which  is  wanting  in  the 
 others,  but  it  occupies  a  very  small  share  of  attention. 
 
 It  will  be  my  object  next  to  compare  the  time  considered 
 63 
 
498  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 necessary  for  the  several  courses  in  these  tlirec  schools-,  and  as 
 the  Pforta  gymnasium  has  no  classes  below  the  third,  this  will 
 require  a  comparison  between  all  the  classes  of  the  others 
 above  the  third  and  those  of  Pforta,  while  betw^een  the  two 
 other  schools  the  comparison  of  the  entire  course  will  be  most 
 satisfactory. 
 
 The  following  table  contains  the  numbers  for  these  compa- 
 risons. In  the  first  column  the  subjects  of  study  are  stated;  in 
 the  second  and  third  columns  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to 
 these  subjects  respectively,  during  the  whole  course,  at  the 
 Frederick  William  and  real  gymnasia.  Those  exercises  which 
 are  voluntary,  or  where  one  hour  of  a  particular  subject  may 
 be  exchanged  for  an  hour  of  some  other,  at  the  option  of  the 
 student,  or  of  his  parents,  are  marked.  The  following  three 
 columns  contain  the  sum  total  of  the  hours  of  study  in  the 
 five  classes  above  the  third  of  the  Frederick  William  and  of 
 the  real  gymnasium,  and  the  total  in  the  five  classes  of  that  of 
 Schulpforta. 
 
COMPARISON  OP  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA. 
 
 499 
 
 Comparative  Table  of  the  time  occupied  by  the  classes  In  three  Prussian 
 
 Gymnasia. 
 
 SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY,  &c. 
 
 Latin,  .  .  .  . 
 Greek,  .... 
 Hebrevy,*  .  .  - 
 German,  -  -  . 
 French,  -  -  -  . 
 English,       -     -     - 
 
 Religion,  -  -  - 
 Geography,  -  - 
 History,  .  ,  -  - 
 Mathematics,  -  - 
 Physics,  -  -  -  - 
 Chemistry,  ... 
 Practical  Chemistry, 
 Technology,  -  - 
 Natural  History,  - 
 Philosophy,       -     - 
 
 Writing,  .     .     - 
 
 Drawing,  ... 
 
 Singing,  -     -     . 
 
 Dancing,  ... 
 
 Sum  of  all 
 the  hours  per 
 week. 
 
 Sum  of  the 
 hours  of  the 
 five       upper 
 classes. 
 
 Sum    of   the 
 hours  of  the 
 five  classes. 
 
 U 
 
 "13 
 P4 
 
 is 
 
 S  2 
 
 a 
 
 li 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 B 
 
 it 
 
 75 
 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 33 
 
 61 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 6t 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 6t 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 43 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 4t 
 2t 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 4t 
 2t 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8t 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 6§ 
 
 3t 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 611 
 
 2 
 
 7t 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 8t 
 
 8 
 
 4t 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 *  For  theological  students. 
 
 +  Voluntary  studies,  or  exchangeable  for  the  same  number  of  hours  of  the 
 Greek  course. 
 
 t  Besides  eight  hours  of  voluntary  or  exchangeable  lessons. 
 
 §  Besides  three  voluntary  hours. 
 
 (I  Besides  eight  hours  of  voluntary,  or  exchangeable  instruction. 
 
500 
 
 OEXERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 The  annexed  diagram  represents  these  results,  and  enables 
 the  eye  to  take  in  the  proportion  of  the  several  courses  in  these 
 same  five  classes.  The  lengths  of  the  vertical  lines  from  the 
 marks  F,  R,  and  P,  to  the  horizontal  line,  00,  below,  at  which 
 they  all  end,  shows  the  proportion  of  time  occupied  in  five 
 classes  of  the  Frederick  William  and  real  gymnasia,  and  at 
 Pforta  respectively.  For  exami)]c,  the  proportion  of  the  Latin 
 in  the  three  institutions  is  expressed  in  the  left  hand  column  by 
 the  lengths  from  P  to  0,  from  F  to  0,  and  from  11  to  0,  respec- 
 tively, and  similarly  for  the  other  courses  in  the  other  columns 
 or  upright  lines.* 
 
 Hours  65" 
 BO- 
 SS- 
 
 50- 
 45- 
 40- 
 35 
 30 
 25- 
 so- 
 la 
 10- 
 5 
 0. 
 
 T^n 
 
 -Br 
 
 =  PF 
 
 5*n5^ 
 
 m 
 
 s 
 
 Go  hours. 
 60 
 55 
 50 
 45 
 40 
 35 
 30 
 25 
 20 
 15 
 10 
 5 
 '   0 
 
 The  respective  characters  of  Ihese  schools  appear  even  in 
 higher  relief,  from  an  examination  of  the  foregoing  table,  than 
 they  did  from  the  programme  of  studies,  for  though  the  same 
 works  may  be  read,  the  amount  of  Latin  which  it  is  possible  to 
 read  thoroughly  in  seventy-live  hours  must  be  very  diflcrent 
 from  that  in  forty-nine,  and  the  proportions  of  forty-three,  thirty- 
 three,  and  sixty-one,  cannot  express  equal  degrees  of  attainment 
 
 •  Tho  voluntary  studies  in  the  real  gymnasium  arc  omitted,  and  the  propor- 
 tions of  wrilin;^,  drawing,  <Scc.,  incliulo  all  the  liours  devoted  to  these  branches. 
 
COMPARISON  OF  PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIA.  501 
 
 in  that  language,  though,  as  already  shown  in  a  former  part  of 
 this  Report,  the  proportional  proficiencies  are  not  accurately  in- 
 dicated by  similar  numbers.  The  figures  in  the  columns  for  the 
 Frederick  William  and  Pforta  gymnasia  will  be  found  to  be 
 much  more  nearly  equal  to  each  other  than  those  for  either  of 
 the  others.  The  same  result  appears  from  inspecting  the  dia- 
 gram, where  the  letters  F  and  P  are  quite  near  to  each  other. 
 In  general,  F  is  between  the  two  others,  substantiating  the  re- 
 mark already  made  of  the  average  position  taken  in  regard  to  the 
 languages  and  sciences  by  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium. 
 
 In  the  comparison  of  the  department  entitled  "  arts,"  begin- 
 ning with  writing,  and  including  also  drawing,  music,  and 
 dancing,  the  whole  of  the  regular  hours  of  instruction  in  all  the 
 classes  of  the  three  schools  are  compared  with  each  other; 
 this  being  the  most  accurate  mode  of  comparison,  since  these 
 exercises  may  be  taught  to  nearly  the  same  advantage  at  any 
 period  of  the  course,  and  are,  in  fact,  introduced  into  the  lower 
 classes  of  the  two  schools  which  begin  with  the  sixth  class. 
 
 Considering  the  studies  of  the  five  upper  classes  of  the  three 
 schools,  and  omitting  the  voluntary  exercises,  there  are  devoted 
 to  the  ancient  languages,  in  the  first  courses  noted  in  the  table, 
 eighty-one  hours,  in  the  second,  fifty-seven  hours,  in  the  third, 
 ninety-five  hours.  To  the  modern  languages  in  the  first,  nine- 
 teen hours,  in  the  second,  thirty  hours,  and  in  the  third,  sixteen 
 hours.  To  both  ancient  and  modern  languages,  in  the  first,  one 
 hundred  hours,  in  the  second,  eighty-seven  hours,  and  in  the  third, 
 one  hundred  and  eleven  hours;  showing  that,  notwithstanding 
 the  minor  variations  of  opinion  as  to  the  relative  importance  of 
 the  modern  and  ancient  languages,  the  average  of  attention  to 
 the  entire  department  of  language  approaches  to  an  equality  in 
 all.  The  time  devoted  to  the  mathematical  and  natural  sciences, 
 including  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  courses  given  in  the  first 
 column,  is  twenty-six  hours,  in  that  of  the  second,  forty-nine 
 hours,  and  in  that  of  the  third,  twenty-one  hours.  To  the  reli- 
 gious instruction,  geograph}^  history,  and  philosophy,  ranked 
 with  mathematics  and  physics  as  sciences,  in  the  courses  of  the 
 first  column,  twenty-eight  hours,  of  the  second,  twenty-one  hours, 
 
502  GENERAL  EDUCATION'.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 and  of  the  third,  twenty-five  hours.  To  the  whole  group  of 
 sciences  in  the  first,  fifty-four  hours,  in  the  second,  seventy  hours, 
 in  the  third,  forty-six  hours.  In  all  the  classes  of  the  arts,  the 
 time  devoted  to  the  courses  in  the  Frederick  Wilham  and  real 
 gymnasia,  compared  with  that  given  to  the  same  courses  at 
 Pforta,  is,  in  the  first,  twenty-seven  hours,  in  the  second,  twenty 
 hours,  in  the  third,  seventeen  hours.  The  total  number  of  hours 
 of  study  thus  compared  is  nearly  the  same,  being  for  the  first 
 mentioned  school,  one  hundred  and  eighty-one,  for  the  second, 
 one  hundred  and  seventy-seven,  and  for  the  third,  one  hundred 
 and  seventy-four. 
 
 It  is  plain,  from  inspecting  the  number  of  hours  of  recitation 
 in  the  diflerent  classes  of  these  schools,  that  they  have  not  been 
 arranged  with  any  reference  to  the  supposed  capability  of  the 
 pupils  to  receive  instruction  of  one  kind  more  appropriately  at 
 a  particular  age  than  at  another,  but  with  reference  to  a  nearly 
 equal  distribution  of  the  whole  time  allotted  to  each  particular 
 study,  in  as  nearly  equal  proportions  among  the  different  classes 
 as  the  requirements  of  preHminary  information  for  the  particu- 
 lar branch,  and  other  points  of  detail,  would  permit.  It  may 
 well  be  doubted  w^hether  this  is  not  a  defect,  but  the  point  is  a 
 delicate  one  to  touch  theoretically.  As  far  as  I  have  seen  the 
 trial  made  elsewhere,  there  is,  however,  a  real  advantage  in 
 such  a  distribution,  whether  we  have  regard  to  general  intel- 
 lectual culture,  or  to  the  most  advantageous  mode  of  communi- 
 cating positive  knowledge. 
 
 By  comparing  the  number  of  hours  of  instruction  in  the  dif- 
 ferent classes  in  these  three  schools  with  that  recommended 
 in  tiie  ministerial  circular  already  presented,*  it  will  be  found 
 that,  in  general,  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium  presents 
 the  nearest  coincidence  of  arrangement  in  its  courses.  This  is 
 true  in  relation  to  the  Latin,  the  Greek,  the  German,  the  French, 
 the  religious  instruction,  the  matiiematics,  the  physics,  and  the 
 philosophy.  The  time  devoted  to  the  historical  and  geographi- 
 cal courses  at  Pforta  approaches  the  nearest  to  the  new  model. 
 While   the  time   devoted   to   natural  history  and  to  writing, 
 
 *   Pago  458  of  this  Kc|)nrt. 
 
GENERAL  REMARKS  AND  COMPARISONS.  503 
 
 drawing  and  vocal  music,  in  the  real  gymnasium,  is  almost 
 precisely  equal  to  that  recommended:  we  may  infer  from  this 
 that  experience  has  shown  no  considerable  want  of  balance  in 
 the  studies  as  now  arranged  at  the  Frederick  William  gymna- 
 sium, but  that,  notwithstanding,  an  increased  attention  to  natu- 
 ral history  and  to  philosophy  is  judged  advisable.  It  should  be 
 remarked,  that  the  attention  to  be  paid  to  the  French  language, 
 according  to  the  new  scheme,  is  much  less  than  according  to 
 the  plan  of  either  of  these  gymnasia,  the  study  being  confined 
 to  the  three  upper  classes  and  their  divisions.  If  this  change 
 should  be  introduced  generally,  the  result  must  be,  in  time,  that 
 the  French  will  cease  to  be  generally  spoken  by  liberally  edu- 
 cated persons  in  Prussia.  The  recommendation  proceeds,  most 
 probably,  from  political  considerations,  which  it  would  be  out 
 of  place  here  to  do  more  than  merely  to  suggest.  I  cannot 
 believe  that  it  depends  upon  a  true  want  of  intrinsic  usefulness 
 in  the  acquisition. 
 
 GENERAL   REMARKS   ON   SECONDARY    INSTRUCTION,    PREPARA- 
 TORY   TO    THE    PROFESSIONS. 
 
 The  variable  nature  of  the  circumstances  bearing  upon  the 
 secondary  instruction  of  different  countries,  renders  comparison, 
 except  in  a  general  way,  very  difficult.  A  single  example 
 will  serve  to  illustrate  this  position.  The  school  into  which 
 the  pupil  is  to  be  introduced,  preparatory  to  professional  life, 
 though  called  by  the  same  name,  is  essentially  different  in  dif- 
 ferent countries.  An  English  university,  in  its  objects  and 
 aims,  and  consequently  in  its  organization,  is  very  unlike  the 
 faculties  of  France,  or  a  university  of  Germany,  and  the  se- 
 condary schools,  which  serve  as  feeders  to  these  institutions, 
 must  be  modified  accordingly. 
 
 There  are,  however,  high  general  purposes  to  be  served  in  the 
 mental  training  of  youth,  on  the  more  or  less  successful  modes  of 
 applying  which,  comparison  will  throw  the  light  of  experience. 
 If  a  satisfactory  intellectual  education  at  Berlin  requires  the 
 study  of  Latin,  Greek,  the  vernacular,  French,  geography  and 
 history,  mathematics,  physics,  natural  history,  and  intellectual 
 
604  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.        SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 philosophy,  it  is  not  hkely  that  the  same  can  be  accompHshed 
 elsewhere  by  the  study  of  Latin,  Greek,  geography,  a  small 
 portion  of  history,  and  less  of  arithmetic  and  geometry.*  If 
 it  is  possible  at  Berlin  to  devote  sufficient  time  to  the  branches 
 enumerated  in  the  Prussian  programme,  to  make  them  really 
 sources  of  mental  culture  and  of  positive  knowledge,  consist- 
 ently with  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  classics,  it  must  be  so 
 in  the  same  interval  of  time  any  where  else.  Hence  there 
 need  be  no  apprehension  even  on  the  part  of  those  who  consi- 
 der the  attainment  of  classical  knowledge  for  itself  as  the  great 
 end  of  instruction,  in  regard  to  the  effects  of  an  increased  atten- 
 tion to  other  branches  of  knowledge,  unless  it  can  be  shown 
 that  the  German  youth  are  inferior  in  these  attainments,  which 
 has  never,  I  believe,  been  even  attempted,  or  unless  it  can  be 
 proved  that  they  are  naturally  of  higher  intellectual  powers  than 
 those  of  other  countries. 
 
 To  turn  the  details  already  given  of  secondary  instruction  to 
 account,  and  to  compare,  in  as  brief  a  manner  as  possible,  the 
 Prussian  gymnasia  just  described  with  the  institutions  for  secon- 
 dary instruction  in  the  two  other  countries,  some  of  the  schools 
 of  which  have  been  noticed,  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium 
 may  be  assumed  as  representing  an  average  of  the  Prussian 
 gymnasia.  There  being  nothing  which  can  be  considered 
 as  a  system  of  secondary  instruction  in  Great  Britain,  it  is 
 only  by  the  comparison  of  single  instances  that  an  appre- 
 ciation of  the  whole  can  be  made.  This  comparison  is  ren- 
 dered easy,  and,  in  fact,  reduced  to  ascertaining  which  of 
 the  schools  of  Great  Britain  most  nearly  resembles  the  Prus- 
 sian gymnasium,  by  the  detailed  comparison  already  made  of 
 the  several  schools  with  each  other.  After  completing  the 
 course  just  marked  out,  it  will  be  my  object  to  compare  some 
 of  the  features  of  the  Prussian  and  French  systems  of  secon- 
 dary instruction,  and  a  Prussian  gymnasium  with  a  French 
 college.  I  would  gladly  have  preceded  this  view  by  a  com- 
 parison of  the  gymnasia  of  Prussia  with  those  of  some  ol 
 
 •  .Sec  tlic  prugramiuc  of  the  Harrow  bchool,  pp.  380,  361  of  this  Report. 
 
GENERAL  REMARKS  AND  COMPARISONS*.  505 
 
 the  other  German  states,  as  Wurtemberg  or  Bavaria,  and 
 Austria,  and  that  of  the  free  town  of  Franixfort  on  the  Maine,  and 
 even,  subsequently,  have  extended  the  comparison  to  the  Latin 
 schools  of  Holland,  and  the  colleges  or  gymnasia  of  Switzer- 
 land, but  it  would  have  been  in  vain  to  attempt  this  within  the 
 limits  of  the  present  Report.  In  the  documents  and  notes  which 
 my  tour  has  furnished,  I  have  ample  means  for  such  a  purpose, 
 which  I  may  at  a  future  day  accomplish,  as  it  would  throw  the 
 light  of  further  experience  on  our  operations. 
 
 Among  the  British  institutions  which  I  have  described  in  more 
 or  less  detail,  no  one  approaches  so  closely  to  the  Prussian 
 gymnasia,  in  the  outline  of  its  course  of  studies,  and  in  the  time 
 devoted  to  the  different  subjects,  as  the  Hill-street  Institution  of 
 Edinburgh.  There  are,  it  is  true,  strongly  marked  differences 
 in  the  two  courses,  but  not  so  great  as  between  those  of  the 
 Prussian  institutions  and  of  the  more  exclusively  classical  schools. 
 It  is  certainly  remarkable,  that  what  is  an  established  system 
 in  one  country,  should  by  many  be  considered  as  an  innovation 
 of  doubtful  expediency  in  the  other.  The  pupils  enter  and  leave 
 the  Scottish  institution  earlier  than  the  Prussian,  hence  the 
 courses  must  be  forced,  and  the  mature  knowledge,  the  regular 
 and  progressive  development  which  marks  the  pupils  of  the 
 Prussian  schools,  cannot  be  acquired.  The  crowning  courses 
 of  language  are  wanting,  and  the  mathematics  and  physics  are 
 imperfectly  learned,  in  general,  from  the  too  early  youth  of 
 the  pupil  of  the  Scottish  school.  The  two  years  between  seven- 
 teen and  nineteen  spent  in  a  Prussian  gymnasium,  are  invalu- 
 able to  both  master  and  pupil.  It  must  be  observ^ed,  also,  that 
 one  being  a  private  school,  and  of  recent  establishment,  labours 
 under  disadvantages  in  regard  to  procuring  teachers  which 
 the  public,  long  tried,  and  assured  existence  of  the  other,  pre- 
 vents their  being  subject  to.  With  the  advantages  which  the 
 English  grammar  schools  have  in  the  age  of  their  pupils,  and 
 the  duration  of  their  courses,  over  any  private  school,  the  in- 
 troduction of  the  branches  of  knowledge  considered  essential 
 in  Germany,  might  be  effected  with  comparative  ease  in  them. 
 I  am  convinced  that,  as  soon  as  teachers  were  trained  up  for 
 04 
 
506  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 the  change,  and  the  pupils  had  bcconie  accustomed  to  it,  the 
 results  would  be  most  strikinj^,  and  I  do  not  consider  the  par- 
 tial failure  of  the  attempt,  to  which  1  have  alluded,  at  Rugby,  as 
 at  all  conclusive.  An  experienced  teacher  in  England  made  the 
 remark  to  me,  as  a  justification  of  the  tendency  to  exclusively 
 classical  instruction  in  the  secondary  schools  of  Great  Britain, 
 that  the  nation  having  naturally  a  disposition  to  advance  in 
 material  subjects,  should  be  drawn  away  from  them,  and  to- 
 wards the  ideal,  by  education;  this  was  equivalent  to  saying 
 that  a  nation  should  be  educated  against  its  nature  and  tenden- 
 cies, which  remark,  it  seems  to  me,  need  only  be  applied  to  the 
 individuals  forming  the  nation  to  show  its  fallacy. 
 
 In  support  of  my  inference  as  to  the  character  of  the  classi- 
 cal instruction  in  the  Prussian  schools,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to 
 observe,  that  if  the  nearly  exclusively  classical  example  which 
 I  have  given  in  Harrow  school,  be  compared  as  to  its  course 
 of  studies  in  classics  with  a  Prussian  gymnasium,  it  will  be 
 found  that,  except  in  the  article  of  Greek  and  Latin  verse, 
 which  is  in  little  or  no  repute  in  most  of  the  gymnasia,  the 
 classical  studies  of  these  latter  are  fully  equivalent  to  those  of 
 the  former.  I  take  it  for  granted  that  at  Harrow  the  course  is 
 thoroughly  acquired,  and  know  that  such  is  really  the  case  in 
 the  gymnasia  which  I  visited. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  methods  of  the  British  and  Prussian  schools 
 in  general,  the  recitation  upon  a  lesson  which  has  been 
 studied  from  a  text-book  out  of  the  school,  used  in  the  for- 
 mer, tends  to  foster  habits  of  self-reliance,  while  that  of  min- 
 gling much  oral  instruction  with  the  recitations  used  in  the  lat- 
 ter, renders  the  instruction  more  interesting  to  the  pupils. 
 When  the  latter  method  is  employed,  much  less  artificial  sti- 
 mulus from  hope  of  reward  or  fear  of  punishment  is  necessary, 
 and,  if  I  may  be  permitted  to  judge  from  the  examples  which 
 came  under  my  notice  in  both  countries,  there  is,  on  the  ave- 
 rage, more  exertion  on  the  part  of  a  class  in  Prussia  than  in 
 Great  Britain.  The  prizes  held  out  at  the  English  grammar 
 schools,  in  the  way  of  schularshij)S  at  the  universities,  to  those 
 who  distinguish  themselves  especially,  insure  a  great  amount  of 
 
GENERAL  REMARKS  AND  COMPARISONS.  507 
 
 exertion  on  the  part  of  young  men  of  talent,  whose  subsequent 
 success  is  appealed  to  as  an  evidence  of  the  soundness  of  the 
 system  of  instruction,  with  which  it  has  little  or  nothing  to  do. 
 The  students  find  a  similar  stimulus  at  the  university;  a  scho- 
 larship may,  if  the  time  be  duly  improved,  lead  to  a  fellowship, 
 and  thus  to  an  honourable  provision  for  life.  With  such  strong 
 motives  to"  great  individual  exertion,  a  youth  of  talent  might 
 succeed  in  educating  himself  even  without  aid,  or  were  the 
 school  system  ever  so  bad. 
 
 In  relation  to  the  discipline  in  the  similar  secondary  schools 
 of  Prussia  and  Great  Britain,  I  would  venture  the  remark,  that 
 in  the  former,  it  is  generally  much  more  advanced  in  its  me- 
 thod, motives,  and  results,  than  in  the  latter.  There  are,  of 
 course,  exceptions  to  this  remark.  The  kind  of  relation  exist- 
 ing habitually,  especially  in  boarding-gymnasia,  between  the 
 pupil  and  the  teacher,  in  Prussia,  is  not  unknown  in  Great 
 Britain,  but  is  an  exception,  and  not  the  rule.  In  this  respect, 
 no  doubt,  a  change  is  taking  place,  which  will  accelerate  as  it 
 advances,  and  ultimately  the  principle  will  prevail,  that  the  best 
 interest  of  both  pupil  and  teacher  is  to  be  found  in  the  culti- 
 vation of  mutual  regard. 
 
 The  organization  of  the  systems  of  public  instruction  in 
 Prussia  and  in  France  propagates  a  central  influence  through 
 all  parts  of  each,  but  by  different  means.  Theoretically,  the 
 university  of  France  is  an  empire  within  itself,  with  the  grand 
 master,  actually  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  as  the  head, 
 assisted  by  the  university  council.  The  academies,  presided 
 over  by  their  rectors  and  councils,  constitute  the  divisions 
 of  this  empire.  The  execution  of  the  university  law,  as  regards 
 the  establishments  of  secondary  instruction,  is  vested  directly 
 in  the  governments  of  the  academies,  who  legislate  merely  in 
 certain  matters  of  detail.  The  minister  of  public  instruction  is 
 also  the  central  authority  in  Prussia,  but  the  legislative,  as  well 
 as  the  executive  power,  belong  to  the  school-board  emanating 
 from  the  consistory  of  each  province.  It  is  true,  that  general 
 laws  made  by  the  central  authority  cannot  be  contravened, 
 but  the  very  general  nature  of  these  laws  leaves  much  for 
 
508  GENERAL  EDUCATION'.       SECOXDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 regulation  by  the  local  authorities,  as  has  been  seen  in  the 
 diverse  plans  of  the  diflerent  gymnasia  which  have  been  pre- 
 sented in  this  Report. 
 
 The  institutions  introductory  to  the  universities  may,  accord- 
 ing to  law,  in  either  country,  be  public  or  private;  but  in  Prus- 
 sia, the  private  institutions  have  been  obliterated  by  the  public 
 ones,  and  in  France,  are  held  in  a  misei-able  state  of  de{)endance 
 upon  thcin.  Great  eflbrts  have  been  made,  and  are  making,  in 
 the  latter  country,  to  free  private  secondary  instruction  from  its 
 trammels,  and  to  enable  it  so  far  to  compete  with  public  instruc- 
 tion, as  to  keep  this  latter  in  a  sound  state.  There  are  two 
 grades  of  public  institutions  in  France,  namely,  the  royal  and 
 communal  colleges,  and  only  one  in  Prussia,  the  gymnasia;  the 
 former  plan  leading,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  to  the 
 recognition  of  establishments  entirely  incompetent  to  fulfil  the 
 objects  of  this  kind  of  instruction. 
 
 The  arrangement  of  academic  degrees  in  Prussia  and  in 
 France  differs  essentially,  producing  peculiarities  in  the  intro- 
 ductory institutions.  The  academic  grades  in  the  faculty  of 
 letters  and  of  sciences,  after  the  lowest  grade,  or  bachelor,  are 
 entirely  distinct  in  the  university  of  France.  The  bachelor  of 
 sciences  must  have  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  letters  to  qualify 
 him  for  the  lowest  degree  in  that  department,  but  this  degree 
 once  taken  by  a  member  of  the  highest  class  of  a  college,  he 
 need  never  enter  the  faculty  of  letters  of  the  university.  The 
 qualifications  of  the  literary  man  in  science,  and  of  the  scientific 
 man  in  letters,  are  not  necessarily  so  high  in  the  French  arrang- 
 ment  as  in  the  Prussian,  where  there  is  but  one  set  of  degrees 
 for  both.  The  plan  of  degrees  in  the  university  of  France  has 
 the  advantage  which  the  variation  allowed  in  the  courses  in 
 the  Prussian  secondary  schools  supplies,  in  part,  of  allowing 
 minds  of  different  complexions  to  choose  their  career.  As  it  is 
 not  incumbent  on  the  man  of  science  to  pursue  the  course  of 
 letters  in  a  faculty,  the  courses  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy 
 would,  in  general,  be  lost  to  him,  if  they  were  not  placed  in  the 
 college  course:  the  close  study  of  these  branches  in  the  colleges, 
 and  their  entire  omission,  or  the  little  attention  paid  to  them  in 
 
GENERAL  REMARKS  AND  COMPARISONS.  509 
 
 the  gymnasia,  are  striking  differences  in  the  two  systems  of 
 instruction.  The  academic  degrees  of  Prussia  can  only  be 
 taken  by  study  in  the  facuhies  of  the  university,  of  which  the 
 secondary  schools  form  no  part:  the  corresponding  ones  in 
 France  are  accessible  to  the  youth  leaving  the  colleges. 
 
 The  examinations,  which  in  Prussia  must  precede  the  matri- 
 culation at  the  university,  are  made  in  the  gymnasia  themselves, 
 but  under  the  direction  of  a  special  committee,  while  those  for 
 the  degrees  obtainable  on  leaving  a  French  college  are  made 
 in  the  university  itself,  and  entirely  by  its  authorities.  The 
 Prussian  examinations  are  conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  ren- 
 der the  system  of  manuals,  by  which  pupils  may  be  worked  up 
 to  the  precise  minimum  of  attainment,  almost  impossible.  The 
 candidates  are  known  to  at  least  a  part  of  the  examiners, 
 their  former  teachers,  and  their  attainments  have  been  accu- 
 rately ascertained  by  them  in  the  class-rooms,  before  coming 
 to  this  test.  The  actual  examining  bodies  having,  in  general, 
 only  the  pupils  of  one  gymnasium  before  them,  are  physically 
 able  to  make  the  examination  a  thorough  one.  On  the  con- 
 trary, the  examination  for  degrees  in  France,  corresponding 
 to  those  for  the  matriculation  certificate  in  Prussia,  are  made 
 in  the  university,  by  persons  who  are  usually  strangers  to  the 
 pupils  and  their  attainments,  who  have  the  arduous  task  of  con- 
 ducting the  examination  of  all  the  candidates,  and  who  are  from 
 these  causes  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  rendering  the  examina- 
 tion less  thorough,  and  more  formal,  and  hence  of  allowing  the 
 opportunity  for  superficial  preparation  by  manuals.  The  mode 
 adopted  in  Prussia  would  undoubtedly  give  the  public  institu- 
 tions a  great  advantage  over  private  ones,  did  any  such  exist 
 as  independent  establishments. 
 
 The  use  of  w^ritten  examinations  in  mathematics  is  adopted 
 in  the  Prussian  system,  and  not  in  the  French,  and  with  an 
 originally  strong  prepossession  in  favour  of  the  oral  method.  I 
 now  believe,  from  the  facts  which  inquiry  has  brought  before 
 me,  that  the  written  form  is  a  most  valuable  one,  and  that  the 
 two  must  be  combined  to  give  a  thorough  examination. 
 
 The  subjects  of  secondary  instruction  in  France  and  Prussia 
 
510  GENERAL  EDUCAT10?f.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 are  essentially  the  same,  but  tlie  manner  of  introducing  them 
 differs  in  most  important  particulars.  The  branches  taught  in 
 a  Prussian  gymnasium  are  all  obligatory;  only  the  degree  of 
 study  in  some  minor  ones  is  left  to  the  student,  and  the  Hebrew 
 language  is  reserved  for  those  who  intend  to  study  theology; 
 the  Latin,  Greek,  German,  French,  religious  instruction,  geo- 
 graphy, history,  mathematics,  physics,  natural  history,  writing, 
 drawing,  and  vocal  music,  are  all  studies  to  be  regularly  fol- 
 lowed. While  these  branches  are  equally  component  parts  of 
 the  course  of  the  French  colleges,  with  the  exception  of  vocal 
 music,  and  with  the  addition  of  chemistry,  the  modern  foreign 
 language,  drawing,  and  writing,  do  not  enter  into  the  regular 
 course,  but  are  voluntary,  being,  however,  furnished  at  the  ex- 
 pense of  the  college.  The  branches  which  are  not  thus  fur- 
 nished can  hardly  be  considered  as  parts  of  the  instruction, 
 being,  as  it  were,  merely  tolerated. 
 
 The  manner  in  which  the  same  materials  of  instruction  are 
 combined  in  the  programme  of  a  French  college  and  of  a  Ger- 
 man gymnasium  is  so  diflcrent,  that  it  appears  like  attempting 
 to  compare  things  not  homogeneous  with  each  other,  to  bring 
 them  together  for  such  a  purpose.  A  glance  at  the  arrange- 
 ments of  any  one  class  in  the  two  cases  will  show  better  what 
 I  mean  than  any  description  of  this  peculiarity.  The  German 
 programme  aj^pears  to  have  been  carefully  studied,  the  propor- 
 tion of  its  parts  to  have  been  carefully  elaborated,  the  arrange- 
 ments as  to  order  of  study  and  time  of  study  to  have  been 
 carefully  considered,  and  the  whole  presents  a  better  matured 
 and  more  finished  system  than  that  of  the  French  college.  It 
 does  not  appear  in  the  recent  annals  of  this  kind  of  instruction 
 in  Prussia,  to  have  been  doubtful  whether  letters  and  science 
 shall  be  taught  simultaneously  or  successively,  or  whether  na- 
 tural history  shall  be  taught  in  the  beginning,  middle,  or  end  of 
 the  course.  The  entire  arrangement  appears  to  me  to  be  more 
 compact  and  better  ordered.  It  will  not  recjuire  a  lengthened 
 discussion  to  substantiate  these  views;  attention  need  be  called 
 only  to  a  few  points  in  illustration  of  them.  The  Prussian  sys- 
 tem lavs  down  for  the  rcfijular  studies  thirty  to  thirtv-two  hours 
 
GENERAL  REMARKS  AND  COMPARISONS.  51 1 
 
 per  week  for  each  class;  the  French  includes  but  twenty-two 
 hours.  If  from  the  thirty-two  hours  be  taken  the  tinne  allotted 
 to  studies  considered  voluntary  in  a  French  college,  namely, 
 six  hours  per  week,  the  remainder,  twenty-six  hours,  will  still 
 exceed  by  four  hours  the  time  occupied  in  the  college  reci- 
 tations or  lectures.  The  greater  number  of  hours  thus  occu- 
 pied is  a  real  advantage  in  favour  of  the  Prussian  schools,  since 
 experience  shows  that  thirty-two  hours  per  week  may  be  de- 
 voted to  recitation,  and  the  private  study  requisite  for  prepara- 
 tion be  made  by  the  student,  without  injury  to  his  health.  It 
 cannot  be  doubted,  from  this  comparison,  that  the  branches 
 composing  the  course  of  a  gymnasium  arc  more  closely  ex- 
 amined than  those  of  a  college.  The  details  of  the  distribution  of 
 time  in  the  separate  classes  confirm  this  deduction;  for  example, 
 the  time  occupied  per  week  by  Latin,  Greek,  and  German,  in 
 the  upper  third  class  of  a  Prussian  gymnasium,  is  eighteen 
 hours,  and  in  the  lower  third  and  upper  second  class,  each, 
 seventeen  hours,  while  in  the  parallel  classes  of  a  French  col- 
 lege, in  Latin,  Greek,  and  French,  but  fourteen  hours  per  week 
 are  employed.  Further,  the  classical  course  is  dropped  entirely 
 after  the  rhetoric  class  in  the  college,  while  in  the  gymnasium 
 it  extends  to  the  close  of  the  student's  career.  In  regard  to  the 
 scientific  courses  of  the  French  colleges,  the  following  points 
 appear  particularly  worthy  of  notice.  No  instruction  is  given 
 in  mathematics  higher  than  arithmetic,  except  tw^o  hours  a 
 week  of  geometry  in  the  third  class,  until  the  pupil  has  reached 
 the  second  class,  in  which,  if  he  entered  college  at  nine  years  of 
 age,  he  arrives  in  his  sixteenth  year;  and  then  all  that  he  learns 
 higher  than  this,  if  he  follow  the  career  of  letters,  :s  compressed 
 into  two  years.  Physics  and  chemistry  for  the  student  in  this 
 same  career  are  taught  in  two  lessons  per  week  in  the  philosophy 
 class.  Natural  history  is  thrown  into  the  course  of  the  sixth 
 and  fifth  classes.  A  comparison  of  these  defective  arrange- 
 ments with  the  regular  instruction  of  the  same  branches,  in  their 
 appropriate  places  in  a  Prussian  gymnasium,  fully  justify  the 
 remarks  with  which  this  paragraph  commenced.  Having  at- 
 tended the  examination  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  sciences 
 
512  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       bECONDARV  I'ERIOD. 
 
 at  Paris,  and  heard  recitations  in  the  Prussian  gymnasia,  I  am 
 satisfied  tliat  the  conclusions  in  regard  to  the  superiority  of  the 
 Prussian  instruction  in  science  are  entirely  just.  The  suhject 
 of  religious  instruction  is  one  of  such  peculiar  delicacy,  that  I 
 am  most  happy  to  be  able  to  submit  the  views  of  a  high  au- 
 thority in  public  instruction  in  France,  instead  of  my  own,  in 
 regard  to  it,  merely  observing  that  I  coincide,  on  this  point,  en- 
 tirely in  opinion  with  the  authority  to  which  I  refer.  M.  Cousin 
 says: — "  There  is  no  class  in  the  Prussian  gymnasium  which  has 
 not  a  course  of  religious  instruction,  as  it  has  of  classical  or  of 
 mathematical  instruction.  I  have  before  said,  and  now  repeat, 
 that  worship,  with  its  ceremonies,  can  never  be  sufficient  for 
 young  men  who  reflect,  and  who  are  imbued  with  the  spirit 
 of  the  times.  A  true  religious  instruction  is  indispensable,  and 
 no  subject  is  better  adapted  to  a  regular,  full,  and  varied  in- 
 struction than  Christianity,  with  a  history  which  goes  back  to 
 the  beginning  of  the  world,  and  is  connected  with  all  the  great 
 <3vents  in  that  of  the  human  race,  with  its  dogmas,  which 
 breathe  a  sublime  metaphysics,  its  morality,  which  combines 
 severity  with  indulgence,  with  its  general  literary  monuments, 
 from  Genesis  to  the  universal  history."*  Such  an  instruction 
 M.  Cousin  demands  for  the  colleges  of  his  country,  declaring 
 that,  though  established  by  law,  it  does  not  now  exist  in  them. 
 The  courses  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  to  which  a  considerable 
 portion  of  time  is  given  for  the  last  two  years  of  the  student  of 
 letters,  and  an  introduction  to  which  begins  even  in  the  second 
 class,  are  the  chief  ornaments  of  the  course  of  the  French 
 colleges,  and  the  sacrifices  required  by  their  introduction  are 
 amply  compensated  by  their  eflect.  The  Prussian  system  post- 
 pones these  courses  to  the  university  period,  and  requires  every 
 student  who  wishes  to  matriculate  in  other  faculties,  to  go 
 through  them.  The  bachelor  of  letters,  on  leaving  a  French 
 college,  may  begin  at  once  the  study  of  theology  or  of  law, 
 and  the  bachelor  of  sciences  that  of  medicine.     The  German 
 
 *  Cousin.    Momoirc  sur  rinstruction  scconduirc  dans  Ic  royaunie  dc  Prussc. 
 Paris,  1837,  p.  M3. 
 
GENERAL  REMARKS  AND  COMPARISONS.  513 
 
 student  must  pass  through  the  faculty  of  philosophy  before  he 
 can  begin  the  study  of  either  of  these  professions.  In  regard 
 to  modern  languages,  the  new  recommendations  for  the  Prus- 
 sian gymnasia  appear  to  me  to  place  the  French  on  a  worse 
 footing  than  before,  but  still  a  better  one  than  that  occupied  by 
 English  and  German  in  the  French  colleges.  I  cannot  help 
 hoping  that  this  movement  will  not  be  followed  up,  and  that  the 
 reasons  for  retaining  the  modern- languages,  as  parts  of  a  liberal 
 education,  will  be  found  too  strong  to  ^dmit  of  their  being  so 
 easily  disposed  of  as  appears  to  be  assumed  in  the  circular  from 
 the  Prussian  ministry,  which  does  not  appear  to  have  put  forth 
 its  strength  upon  this  question. 
 
 The  methods  of  instruction  in  the  French  colleges,  in  the 
 lower  classes,  resemble  those  of  the  English  schools,  with  the 
 advantage,  that  the  pupils  have  the  directors  of  studies  to  aid 
 them  when  necessary.  Thci'e  are  lectures,  as  well  as  recita- 
 tions, in  the  higher  classes,  as  in  the  gymnasia.  In  both  the 
 French  and  Prussian  institutions  there  is  a  want  of  apparatus 
 for  illustration.  In  the  courses  of  physics  and  natural  history, 
 it  having  once  been  determined  that  such  instruction  is  essential, 
 the  implements  necessary  to  teach  to  the  best  advantage  should 
 not  be  left  wanting. 
 
 The  government  of  the  French  colleges  differs  essentially 
 from  that  of  the  boarding-gymnasia  of  Prussia.  The  question, 
 whether  it  is  advantageous  to  establish  a  boarding  system  in 
 the  midst  of  the  residences  of  the  parents  of  pupils,  as  in  France, 
 or  to  establish  day-schools,  as  the  Pussian  gymnasia,  is  one 
 that  depends  much  upon  national  manners.  My  own  convic- 
 tions are,  in  the  general,  in  favour  of  the  Prussian  system  in 
 this  respect,  and  of  encouraging  the  means  of  strengthening  do- 
 mestic tics,  by  leaving  youth  under  parental  control.  The  chief 
 officer  of  the  Prussian  gymnasia,  boarding  as  well  as  others,  the 
 director,  or  rector,  is  a  teacher  as  well  as  a  governor,  while 
 the  provisor  of  the  French  college  does  not  teach.  The  former 
 arrangement  has  the  advantage  of  bringing  the  director  into 
 contact  with  the  pupils  more  closel}';  the  latter  allows  a  more 
 thorough  superintendence  of  instruction,  discipline,  and  police. 
 65 
 
514  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 When  the   number  of  puj)ils    is   not  very  great,  the  former 
 arrangement  is,  I  believe,  the  more  advantageous.     It  is,  how- 
 ever, a  matter  almost  of  necessity,  in  institutions  having  such  a 
 numerous  body  of  students  as  the  Parisian  colleges  in  general, 
 that  the  presiding  officer  should  have  no  other  charge  than  that 
 of  superintendence,  and  it  may  further  be  desirable  that  he 
 should  be  assisted  by  a  censor,  the  second  ofliccr  of  the  French 
 college.      There  are  no  equivalent  officers  in   the  boarding- 
 gymnasia  of  Prussia  to  the  directors  of  studies,    who  have 
 charge  of  the  pupils  during  the  study  hours  in  the  French  col- 
 leges.    One  of  the  teachers,  as  at  Schulpforta,  takes  a  weekly 
 turn  to  superintend  the  pupils,  dwelling  near  them  during  the 
 period  of  duty.     This  arrangement  answers  well,  with  the  aid 
 of  the  pupils  selected  to  superintend  sections,  for  a  small  num- 
 ber of  students,  but  would  be  entirely  inefficient  in  a  Parisian 
 college.    The  directors  of  studies  are  most  important  officers  in 
 these  institutions,  especially  as  they  are  required  to  be  compe- 
 tent to  teach  as  well  as  to  superintend,  and  the  selection  of 
 them  from  among  the  adjuncts  (agn'gcs),  who  are  expectants 
 of  promotion,  is  an  excellent  arrangement.     The  professors 
 and  teachers  in  the  French  colleges,  in  Paris,  are  on  the  foot- 
 ing of  the   instructors  in  the  Prussian  day-gymnasia,  living 
 out  of  the  institution,  and  having  nothing  to  do  with  the  dis- 
 cipline  out   of  the   recitation  hours.      This  system    has,   no 
 doubt,  advantages,  but  the  controlling  disadvantage  is  the  di- 
 minution of  the  moral  influence  of  the  teacher  over  the  pu- 
 pil.   It  is  especially  necessary,  in  establishments  where  young 
 men  arc  crowded  together,  and  separated  from  the  whole- 
 some restraints  of  home  and  domestic  discipline,  to  foster,  by 
 all  means,  the  moral  influence  of  the  teacher,  and  to  bring 
 the  pupil  as  near  to  him  as  possible.     This  is  not  done  when 
 the  professor  merely  meets  the  student  in  the  recitation  or  lec- 
 ture-room lor  a  few  hours  every  day,  and  during  the  remainder 
 of  the  time  has  no  active  care  of,  or  interest  in,  his  welfare.    The 
 existence  of  directors  of  studies  is  by  no  means  incompatible 
 with  such  a  supervision  by  the  professors.     In  both  the  French 
 and  Prussian  institutions  the  highest  officer,  the  provisor  or 
 
GENERAL  REMARKS  AND  COMPARISONS.  515 
 
 director,  administers  the  discipline,  and  the  tone  of  it  depends 
 upon  his  character.  The  superintendence  by  pupils  of  sections 
 of  their  fellows,  is  not  allowed  to  degenerate  into  the  "fagging 
 system,"  the  pupils  being  selected  for  the  office,  and  constantly 
 superintended  by  the  teachers.  From  the  location  of  the  Parisian 
 colleges,  the  details  of  their  arrangements  are  not  comparable 
 with  those  of  a  Prussian  country  gymnasium. 
 
 The  inducements  to  study  are  of  a  much  more  exciting  kind 
 in  the  French  colleges  than  in  the  Prussian  gymnasia.  Both 
 have  a  system  of  places  in  the  class,  differently  arranged  for 
 the  higher  and  lower  classes,  and  both  grade  the  pupils  on  leav- 
 ing the  institution.  But  in  the  French  college  there  is  a  most 
 powerful,  I  may  say  an  excessive,  stimulus  from  prizes,  not  only 
 in  the  establishment,  but  from  a  comparison  with  others,  and 
 public  attention  is  called  to  the  successful  youth,  who  is  rewarded 
 under  the  notice  of  the  community  of  scholars,  the  university, 
 and  the  public  at  large:  his  career  depends  upon  successful  com- 
 petition from  one  step  to  another,  until  he  has  reached  the  higher 
 places  of  society,  and  his  selfish  feelings  are  constantly  and 
 directly  stimulated.  It  is  more  easy  to  feel  than  to  describe 
 the  influence  of  the  minute  particulars  which  constitute  public 
 scholastic  sentiment,  and  which  produce  a  very  different  atmo- 
 sphere in  the  two  classes  of  institutions.  Emulation  is  not  dis- 
 couraged in  the  gymnasia,  and  intellectual  and  moral  qualities  are 
 held  in  due  esteem;  but  the  development  of  mind  is  controlled  by 
 that  of  the  moral  sentiments,  and  there  is  in  consequence  less  of 
 strong  personal  rivalry  than  in  the  colleges.  The  reciprocal  ac- 
 tion of  national  character  and  education  is  so  powerful,  that  it 
 would  be  rash,  without  a  much  deeper  examination  than  I  can 
 profess  to  have  made,  to  say  how  far  these  differences  are  effects 
 or  causes.  It  is  my  duty  to  note  them,  and  to  comment  freely 
 upon  them  for  our  advantage,  leaving  the  judgment  to  more 
 competent  minds. 
 
 With  all  the  stimulus  of  the  French  colleges,  there  is  one  pre- 
 caution neglected,  which  strikes  at  the  root  of  the  competency 
 of  the  mass  of  students.  The  law  in  regard  to  stated  half-yearly 
 examinations  is  not  executed.     Incompetent  students,  unless 
 
516  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       sECOXDARY   PERIOD. 
 
 grossly  so,  pass  regularly  forward  with  the  competent  uito  the 
 higher  classes.  There  is  one  period,  in  passing  from  the  fourth 
 to  the  third  class,  at  which  an  examination  has  been  applied, 
 and  with  advantage;  but  there  are  three  classes  before  the 
 fourth,  through  which  the  students  pass  as  a  matter  of  course. 
 It  is  obvious,  that  with  so  loose  a  system,  the  examinations  for 
 degrees  must  be  relaxed,  or  the  examiners  tal<e  upon  themselves 
 a  heavy  responsibility.  The  regular  examinations  of  the  Prus- 
 sian gymnasia  afford  the  means  of  discovering  the  incompetent 
 year  by  year,  a  result  favourable  both  to  the  youths  who  are 
 thus  thrown  into  other  careers,  and  to  those  who  remain  con- 
 nected with  these  institutions. 
 
 The  means  for  supplying  teachers  for  secondary  instruction 
 must,  I  think,  be  admitted,  so  far  as  the  normal  school  is  con- 
 cerned, to  be  superior  in  France  to  those  of  Prussia.  The 
 central  normal  school  of  Paris  is  certainly  more  advantageous 
 than  the  detached  philological  and  pedagogical  seminaries  of 
 Prussia.  This  school  is  kept  in  vigour  by  competition  from 
 without,  which,  while  it  opens  the  career  of  instruction  to 
 those  young  men  who  may  not  be  able  from  circumstances 
 to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  the  normal  school, 
 reacts  favourably  upon  the  school  itself.  The  candidate  for 
 the  normal  school  must  be  at  least  a  bachelor  of  letters,  and 
 must  compete  for  his  place.  After  going  through  its  courses, 
 he  again  passes  through  the  severe  ordeal  of  a  competition  for 
 the  place  of  adjunct  (agivge),  in  which  he  may  be  attached  to 
 some  particular  institution  or  not.  In  this  place  the  powers 
 of  a  young  man  are  developed,  and  from  it,  if  meritorious,  he 
 may  rise  in  his  career.  The  equivalent  plan  in  Prussia  secures 
 competent  instructors,  but  does  not  offer  to  them  the  advantages 
 of  the  normal  school. 
 
 In  both  France  and  Prussia,  teachers  arc  exempted  from 
 regular  military  service,  and  are  entitled  to  retiring  pensions 
 in  [)rnportion  to  their  services.* 
 
 »  I  do  not  speak  of  llie  relative  compensation  of  the  oHiccrs  of  colleges  and 
 gryninasia,  because,  as  before  stated,  they  arc  most  fallacious  tests,  unless  ex- 
 amined in  connexion  with  a  variety  of  statistical  matters,  whieli  make  the  unit 
 of  compensation  of  difilrcnl  values  in  ditUrent  counlriis. 
 
REAL  SCHOOLS  OF  BERLIIV.  517 
 
 DIVISION   SECOND. 
 
 SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA. 
 
 In  continuation,  I  propose  to  give  an  account  of  two  schools 
 at  Berlin,  which  furnish  secondary  instruction  of  a  kind  in- 
 tended to  prepare  youth  for  professions  not  included  in  the  list 
 of  those  called  learned,  and  for  other  occupations  requiring  a 
 considerable  intellectual  training,  with  the  acquisition  of  spe- 
 cial preparatory  knowledge. 
 
 ROYAL  REAL  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN. 
 
 The  first  of  these,  in  point  of  date,  is  the  Royal  Real  School 
 of  Berlin.  It  was  founded  as  early  as  1747,  by  Counsellor 
 Hecker,  whose  name  has  already  been  used  in  connexion  with 
 some  of  the  education  reforms  by  Frederick  the  Great.  At  the 
 period  in  which  this  school  was  founded,  Latin  and  Greek 
 w^ere  the  exclusive  objects  of  study  in  the  learned  schools,  and 
 the  avowed  purpose  of  this  establishment  was  that  "  not  mere 
 words  should  be  taught  to  the  pupils,  but  realities,  explanations 
 being  made  to  them  from  nature,  from  models  and  plans,  and 
 of  subjects  calculated  to  be  useful  in  after  life."  Hence  the 
 school  was  called  a  "  real  school,"  and  preserves  this  name, 
 indicative  of  the  great  educational  reform  which  it  was  in- 
 tended to  promote,  and  the  success  of  which  has  been,  though 
 slow,  most  certain. 
 
 The  successor  of  Hecker,  in  17G9,  divided  this  flourishing 
 school  into  three  departments,  the  pedagogium,  or  learned 
 school,  the  school  of  arts,  and  the  German  school:  the  whole 
 establishment  still  retaining  the  title  of  real  school.  The  first 
 named  department  was  subsequently  separated  from  the  others, 
 constituting  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium;  the  school  of 
 arts,  and  the  German,  or  elementary  school,  remain  combined 
 under  the  title  of  the  royal  real  school.  The  same  director, 
 however,  still  presides  over  the  gymnasium  and  the  real  school. 
 
 The  question  has  been  mucii  agitated,  whether  the  modern 
 
518  GE\ERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 languages  should  be  considered  in  these  schools  as  the  substi- 
 tutes for  the  ancient  in  intellectual  education,  or  whether  ma- 
 thematics and  its  kindred  branches  should  be  regarded  in  this 
 light.  Whether  the  original  principle  of  the  "  realities"  on 
 which  the  schools  were  founded,  was  to  be  adhered  to,  or  the 
 still  older  of  verbal  knowledge,  only  with  a  change  of  languages, 
 to  be  substituted  for  it.  In  this  school  the  lan^ua^es  will  be 
 found  at  present  to  occupy  a  large  share  of  attention,  while  in 
 the  similar  institution,  a  description  of  which  follows  this,  the 
 sciences  have  the  preponderance. 
 
 In  the  royal  real  school  the  branches  of  instruction  are — reli- 
 gion, Latin,  French,  English,  German,  physics,  natural  history, 
 chemistry,  history,  geography,  drawing,  writing,  and  vocal 
 music.  The  Latin  is  retained  as  practically  useful  in  some 
 brances  of  trade,  as  in  pharmacy,  as  aiding  in  the  nomenclature 
 of  natural  history,  and  as  preventing  a  separation  in  the  classes  of 
 this  school  and  that  of  the  gymnasium,  which  would  debar  the 
 pupils  from  passing  from  the  former  to  the  latter  in  tlie  upper 
 classes.  It  must  be  admitted  that,  for  all  purposes  but  the  last, 
 it  occupies  an  unnecessary  degree  of  attention,  especially  in  the 
 middle  classes. 
 
 The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of  time  among  the 
 courses.  There  are  seven  classes  in  numerical  order,  but  ten, 
 in  fact,  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  being  divided  into  two ;  the 
 lower  fourth  is  again,  on  account  of  its  numbers,  subdivided 
 into  two  parallel  sections.  Of  these,  the  seventh,  sixth,  and 
 fifth  are  elementary  classes,  the  pupils  entering  the  seventh  at 
 between  five  and  seven  years  of  age.  In  the  annexed  table  the 
 number  of  hours  of  recitation  per  week  of  each  class  in  the 
 several  subjects  is  stated,  and  the  vertical  column  separating  the 
 elementary  classes  from  the  others,  contains  the  sum  of  the  hours 
 devoted  to  each  branch  in  the  higher  classes,  excluding  the 
 lower  section  of  the  fourth  class,  which  has  not  a  distinct  course 
 from  that  of  the  other  division. 
 
A  REAL  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN. 
 
 510 
 
 Table,  showing  the  number  of  hours  of  recitation  per  week,  of  each  class,  in  the 
 subjects  taug-ht  in  the  Royal  Real  Scliool  of  Berlin. 
 
 Proportion      of 
 other  studies  to 
 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 OF 
 
 STUDY. 
 
 < 
 1   §  ^ 
 
 Third  Class,  B. 
 Fourth  Class,  A. 
 
 3:5  S 
 
 J  ^ 
 1  1 
 
 'co    2 
 
 i  1 
 II 
 
 28 
 
 j    Fifth  Class,  A. 
 I    Fifth  Class,  B. 
 1    Sixth  Class. 
 
 German  in  the 
 
 Seventh  Class. 
 Royal    Real    School. 
 
 1  = 
 CO  -a 
 
 "^  S 
 
 o    >» 
 
 Latin, 
 
 4   4 
 
 4    5    6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 3 
 
 French,      .... 
 
 4   4 
 
 4   3    3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 45 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 English,     .... 
 
 2    2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0.3 
 
 German,     .... 
 
 3    3 
 
 3    4   3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 8   8  1C 
 
 10    1.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.0 
 
 Religion,    .... 
 
 2   2 
 
 2    2    2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2   3   S 
 
 >   2    O.G 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.8 
 
 Mathematics,*    -    - 
 
 6   6 
 
 5    6    7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 43    ( 
 
 )    6    1.7 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 Natural  History, 
 
 3    2 
 
 2    2 
 
 9 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.1 1 
 
 0.1 
 
 Physics,     .... 
 
 2   2 
 
 2    2 
 
 8 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.2t 
 
 0.2 
 
 Chemistry,      -     -     - 
 
 2   2 
 
 2    2 
 
 8 
 
 0.4 
 
 Geography,    .    .    - 
 
 3    3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 2    2    i 
 
 2         0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 History,     .     -     -     . 
 
 3    3 
 
 3    2    2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 2    2    i 
 
 2         0.7 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 Drawing,  .... 
 
 2   2 
 
 2    2   2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 Writing,    .... 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4    4 
 
 6   8    0.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 Singing,     .... 
 
 1                     Total,     - 
 
 2     4 
 
 3    2   2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 26  26  2 
 
 0.7 
 6  26 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 36  36 
 
 35  35  32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 *  Including  arithmetic,  geometry,  algebra,  and  trigonometry, 
 t  These  numbers  include  the  entire  course. 
 
520  GENERAL  EDUCATlOxV.       SECONDARY  I'ERIOD. 
 
 Pupils  who  enter  this  school  between  five  and  seven  years  of 
 age,  and  go  regularly  through  the  elementary  classes,  are  pre- 
 pared at  ten  to  pass  to  its  liigher  classes,  or  to  enter  the  lowest 
 of  the  gymnasium.  It  is  thus  after  the  fifth  class  that  a  com- 
 parison of  tlie  two  institutions  must  begin.  The  studies  of  the 
 real  school  proper,  and  of  the  gymnasium,  have  exactly  the  same 
 elementary  basis,  and  they  remain  so  far  parallel  to  each  other 
 that  a  pupil,  by  taking  extra  instruction  in  Greek,  may  pass  from 
 the  lower  third  class  of  the  former  to  the  lower  third  of  the  latter. 
 This  fact  alone  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  real  schools  must 
 be  institutions  for  secondary  instruction,  since  their  pupils  have 
 yet  three  classes  to  pass  through  after  reaching  the  point  just 
 referred  to.  It  serves  also  to  separate  the  real  schools  from 
 the  higher  burgher  schools,  since  the  extreme  limit  of  the  courses 
 of  the  latter,  with  the  same  assistance  in  regard  to  Greek, 
 only  enables  the  pupil  to  reach  the  lower  third  class  of  the 
 gymnasium.  In  general,  a  pupil  would  terminate  his  studies 
 in  the  real  school  at  between  sixteen  and  eighteen  years  of 
 age.  The  difference  between  the  subjects  of  instruction  in  the 
 real  school  and  the  Frederick  Williani  gymnasium,  consists  in 
 the  omission  in  the  former  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  philosophy, 
 and  the  introduction  of  English  and  chemistry.  The  relative 
 proportions  of  time  occupied  in  the  same  subjects  in  the  two 
 schools,  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  two  columns  next  on 
 the  right  of  the  numbers  for  the  seventh  class,  in  the  table  just 
 given.  The  first  of  these  columns  contains  the  proportion  of 
 the  number  of  hours  per  week  devoted  to  the  ditlcrent  subjects 
 in  the  six  classes  of  the  real  school  above  the  elementary,  the 
 number  of  hours  devoted  to  the  German  being  taken  as  unity; 
 and  the  second,  the  same  proportion  for  six  classes  of  the  gym- 
 nasium, beginning  with  the  lowest,  the  same  number  of  hours 
 being  taken  as  the  unit,  as  in  the  preceding  column.  To  bring 
 the  natural  history  and  i)hysics  into  comi)arison,  I  have  taken 
 the  numbers  for  the  upper  classes  of  the  gymnasium  in  which 
 these  branches  are  taught.  Of  the  courses  common  to  the  two 
 schools,  those  to  which  nearly  equal  attention  is  j>aid  in  both 
 
A  REAL  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN.  521 
 
 institutions  are — the  religious  instruction,  the  German,  geogra- 
 phy and  history,  writing,  and  vocal  music.  The  French,  ma- 
 thematics, physics,  and  natural  history,  predominate  in  the  real 
 school,  the  Latin  in  the  gymnasium.  The  effect  of  reckoning 
 the  first,  second,  and  upper  third  classes  of  the  gymnasium  does 
 not  materially  change  the  proportionate  numbers  for  the  courses 
 which  are  common  to  the  two  schools,  except  as  to  Latin  and 
 mathematics.  To  show  this,  the  column  on  the  extreme  right 
 of  the  table  is  introduced,  containing  the  proportions  for  all  the 
 nine  classes  of  the  Frederick  William  gymnasium. 
 
 There  were,  in  1838,  five  hundred  and  ten  pupils  in  this  real 
 school,  under  the  charge  of  fourteen  regular  or  class  masters, 
 teaching  several  subjects  in  the  lower  classes,  and  of  six  other 
 teachers.  Each  of  the  eleven  class  divisions  thus  averages 
 about  forty-six,  who  are  under  the  charge  of  one  teacher  at  a 
 time. 
 
 The  elementary  course  in  the  real  school  is  similar  to  that 
 described  in  the  burgher  schools,  beginning  with  the  phonic 
 method  of  reading,  the  explanations  of  all  the  words  and  sen- 
 tences being  required  at  the  same  time  that  the  mechanical  part 
 of  reading  is  learned.  Written  and  mental  arithmetic  are  taught 
 together  in  the  lowest  class.  The  religious  instruction  consists 
 of  Bible  stories  adapted  to  their  age;  and  verses  are  committed 
 to  improve  the  memory  of  words.  The  exercises  of  induction 
 are  practised,  but  in  a  way  not  equal  to  that  with  objects,  intro- 
 duced by  Dr.  Mayo  in  England.  Some  of  the  pupils  are  able 
 to  enter  the  gymnasium  after  going  through  the  two  lowest 
 classes. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  real  classes  proper,  as  I  propose  to  enter 
 into  the  particulars  of  the  course  of  study  of  the  trade  school,  I 
 shall  here  merely  make  a  few  remarks  upon  tw-o  of  the  branches 
 studied  in  them,  namely,  French  and  drawing.  The  remarks  in 
 regard  to  the  French  will  serve  to  show  how  great  a  latitude  a 
 teacher  is  allowed  in  the  arrangement  of  his  methods,  the  result  of 
 which  is,  that  those  w  ho  have  talent  are  interested  in  improving 
 their  art  by  observation  and  experiment.  The  French  teacher  to 
 
522  GEI^ERAL  EDUCATIO.V.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 whom  I  allude*  had  been  able  to  secure  the  speaking,  as  well 
 as  the  reading,  of  French  from  his  pupils.  From  the  very 
 beginning  of  the  course  this  had  been  a  point  attended  to,  and 
 translation  from  French  into  German  had  been  accompanied  by 
 that  from  German  into  French:  the  conversation  on  the  business 
 of  the  class-room  was  in  French.  The  pupils  were  exercised 
 especially  in  the  idioms  of  the  language  in  short  extempore  sen- 
 tences, and  the  ditTerences  of  structure  of  the  French  and  their 
 own  language  were  often  brought  before  them,  and  the  dif- 
 ficulties resulting  from  them  anticipated.  DilTicult  words  and 
 sentences  were  noted  by  the  pupils.  Declamation  was  prac- 
 tised to  encourage  a  habit  of  distinct  and  deliberate  speaking, 
 and  to  secure  a  correct  pronunciation.  The  chief  burthen  of 
 the  instruction  was  oral.  Without  the  stimulus  of  change  of 
 places,  the  classes  under  this  gentleman's  instruction  were  en- 
 tirely alive  to  the  instruction,  and  apparently  earnestly  engaged 
 in  the  performance  of  a  duty  which  interested  them.  If  such 
 methods  should  fail  in  communicating  a  greater  amount  of 
 knowledge  than  less  lively  ones,  which  I  believe  cannot  be  the 
 case,  they  will  serve,  at  least,  to  break  down  habits  of  intel- 
 lectual sloth  and  to  promote  mental  activity,  the  great  aim  of 
 intellectual  education. 
 
 The  drawing  department  of  this  school  is  superintended  by  a 
 teacher  who  has  introduced  a  new  method  of  instruction,  par- 
 ticularly adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  drawing  is  to  be 
 applied  in  common  life  and  in  the  arts;  a  method  which  is 
 found  to  enable  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  pupils  to  make 
 adequate  progress  than  the  ordinary  one  of  copying  from  draw- 
 ings.-j-  In  this  method  the  pupil  begins  by  drawing  from  sim- 
 ple geometrical  forms,  those  selected  being  obtained  from  mo- 
 dels in  wood  or  plaster,  of  a  square  pillar,J  a  niche,  and  a  low 
 cylinder  (the  form  of  a  mill-stone).    The  square  pillar  separates 
 
 *  Mr.  Herrmann. 
 
 t  Mr.  Peter  Schmidt,  who  now,  in  his  old  apfc,  has  received  from  tlie  frovcin- 
 mcnt  a  pension  in  return  for  the  introduction  of  his  nictliod,  and  the  instruction 
 in  it  of  a  certain  number  of  teachers. 
 
 t  Seven  and  a-half  inches  high,  and  one  inch  and  a-half  in  its  square  section. 
 
CITY  TRADE  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIPT.  523 
 
 in  joints,  affording  a  cube  and  parallelepipeds  of  different  heights. 
 The  hemisphere  which  caps  the  niche  may  be  removed,  leav- 
 ing the  concave  surface  of  its  cylindrical  part.  Tiie  exercises 
 of  the  pupil  run  thus: — First,  to  place  upon  a  board,  or  upon  his 
 paper  or  slate,  a  point  vertically  above  another,  or  so  that  the 
 lines  joining  the  tv^o  shall  be  parallel  to  the  right  or  left  hand 
 edge  of  the  board,  paper,  or  slate.  Second,  to  join  them.  Third, 
 to  place  a  point  horizontally  from  the  second,  and  at  a  distance 
 equal  to  that  between  the  first  and  second  points.  Fourth,  to 
 place  one  vertically  over  the  third,  and  at  a  distance  equal  to 
 that  below  the  first,  and  to  join  the  third  and  fourth.  The  first 
 and  fourth  being  then  joined,  a  square  is  formed.  After  prac- 
 tice in  this,  the  simple  elevation  of  the  cube  is  drawn.  Next,  a 
 perspective,  by  the  use  of  a  small  frame  and  silk  threads,  such 
 as  is  common  in  teaching  the  elements  of  this  subject,  and  by 
 means  of  which  the  pupil  acquires  readily  a  knowledge  of  the 
 practice.  The  drawing  of  lines  in  various  positions,  and  w^ith 
 various  proportions,  terminates  this  division  of  the  subject.  The 
 niche  and  cylinder  afford  a  similarly  graduated  series  of  lessons 
 on  the  drawing  of  curved  lines,  and  the  drawing  of  lines  of  dif- 
 ferent degrees  of  strength  and  of  shadows  is  introduced.  This 
 is  accompanied  with  some  of  the  more  simple  rules  of  shadow 
 and  shade.  More  difficult  exercises  of  perspective  follow  from 
 natural  objects  and  from  works  of  art  or  mechanism,  accord- 
 ing to  the  direction  to  be  given  to  the  pupil's  attainments  and 
 the  amount  of  taste  which  he  displays.  This  method  of  teach- 
 ing has  been  introduced  quite  generally  in  Prussia,  and  with 
 the  best  results  as  to  the  formation  of  accuracy  of  eye  and  of 
 hand. 
 
 CITY  TRADE  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN. 
 
 This  school  was  founded  to  give  a  more  appropriate  educa- 
 tion for  the  mechanic  arts  and  higher  trades  than  can  be  had 
 through  the  courses  of  classical  schools.  It  is  a  great  point 
 gained  w^hen  the  principle  is  admitted,  that  different  kinds  of 
 education  are  suited  to  different  objects  in  life;  and   such  an 
 
524  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 admission  belongs  to  an  advanced  stage  of  education.  As  a 
 consequence  of  a  general  sentiment  of  this  kind,  numerous 
 schools  for  the  appropriate  instruction  of  those  not  intended  for 
 the  learned  professions  grow  up  by  the  side  of  the  others.  The 
 youth  is  thus  secured  a  suitable  education,  no  matter  what  may 
 be  his  intended  calling,  and  is  not  forced  to  accept  a  training 
 necessarily  imperfect,  from  the  time  which  he  can  devote  to  it, 
 and  furnishing  him  with  but  little  of  the  knowledge  which  he 
 requires  in  his  pursuits.  This  sentiment  prevails  extensively  in 
 Prussia,  and,  indeed,  throughout  Germany,  and  as  a  conse- 
 quence of  it,  there  are  better  opportunities  for  the  instruction  of 
 young  men,  not  intended  for  the  learned  professions,  than  in 
 any  other  part  of  Europe. 
 
 The  city  of  Berlin  is  the  patron  of  the  trade  school  which  I 
 am  about  to  notice,  as  the  king  is  of  the  real  school,  already 
 spoken  of.  Its  stability  is  thus  secured,  and  the  means  of  fur- 
 nishing it  with  the  necessary  materials  for  instruction  are 
 liberally  provided.*  The  trade  school  is  a  day-school,  and 
 consists  of  five  classes,  of  which  the  lowest  is  on  the  same 
 grade  as  to  age  and  qualification  at  admission  as  the  fourth 
 class  of  a  gymnasium.  It  is  assumed  that  at  twelve  years  of 
 age  it  will  have  been  decided  whether  a  youth  is  to  enter  one 
 of  the  learned  professions,  or  to  follow  a  mechanical  employ- 
 ment, or  to  engage  in  trade,  but  the  higher  classes  are  not 
 closed  against  pupils.  Of  the  five  classes,  four  are  considered 
 necessary  or  desirable  for  certain  pursuits,  and  the  whole 
 five  for  others;  the  courses  of  all  but  the  first  class  last  one 
 year,  that  of  the  first,  two  years — a  youth  leaving  the  school 
 at  from  sixteen  to  seventeen  or  eighteen  years  of  age,  accord- 
 ing to  circumstances.  During  the  year  1836-7,  the  number 
 of  pupils  in  the  several  classes  were — in  the  first  class, 
 eleven;  in  the  second,  twenty-nine;  in  the  upper  third,  forty- 
 three;  in  the  lower  third,  fifty-two;  in  the  fourth,  fifty;  total  one 
 
 •  Thu  prisent  director  of  this  pcliool,  Mr.  KMi'ii,  was  formerly  director  of  the 
 higher  bvirgher  school  at  Potsdam,  and  is  one  of  tlie  most  distiiitruished  teachers 
 in  his  line  in  Prussiu. 
 
CITY  TRADE  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIIf.  625 
 
 hundred  and  eighty-five;  from  which  numbers  it  appears  that  a 
 considerable  proportion  of  the  pupils  leave  the  school  without 
 entering  the  first  class.  The  number  of  teachers  is  nineteen, 
 five  being  regular  or  class  teachers,  and  fourteen  assistants. 
 The  director  gives  instruction. 
 
 The  following  list  of  the  callings  to  which  pupils  from  this 
 school  have  gone  on  leaving  it,  will  show  that  it  is  really  what 
 it  professes  to  be,  a  school  for  the  instruction  of  those  who 
 intend  to  follow  occupations  connected  with  "commerce,  the 
 useful  arts,  higher  trades,  building,  mining,  forestry,  agriculture, 
 and  military  life;"  and  further,  that  its  advantages  are  appre- 
 ciated by  the  class  for  whom  it  is  intended.  The  list  includes 
 the  pupils  who  have  left  the  school  from  the  first  and  second 
 classes  in  the  years  1830,  1832,  1833,  and  1837.  From  the 
 first  class,  two  teachers,  five  architects,  one  chemist,  twenty-six 
 merchants,  one  machinist,  two  calico-printers,  two  glass-work- 
 ers, one  cloth-manufacturer,  one  silk-manufacturer,  one  miner, 
 thirteen  agriculturalists,  eight  apothecaries,  two  gardeners,  one 
 painter,  one  mason,  one  carpenter,  one  tanner,  one  miller,  one 
 baker,  one  potter,  one  saddler,  one  soap-boiler,  one  cabinet- 
 maker, two  soldiers,  one  musician,  five  to  public  oflices,  one  to 
 the  trade  institution,  six  to  a  gymnasium.  From  the  second 
 class,  forty-one  merchants,  one  teacher,  one  chemist,  one  ma- 
 chinist, one  ship-carpenter,  nine  agriculturalists,  one  sugar- 
 refiner,  three  dyers,  one  tanner,  one  brewer,  two  distillers,  one 
 miner,  two  lithographers,  one  die-sinker,  three  apothecaries, 
 one  dentist,  two  painters,  two  gardeners,  three  masons,  five 
 carpenters,  one  miller,  four  bakers,  one  butcher,  one  to  the 
 trade  institution,  three  to  public  offices,  two  to  a  gymnasium, 
 one  musician,  one  veterinary  surgeon,  one  soldier — being  ninety 
 from  the  first  class,  and  ninety-seven  from  the  second,  in  the 
 period  of  four  years. 
 
 In  the  course  of  instruction  the  sciences  and  kindred  branches 
 are  made  the  basis,  and  the  modern  languages  are  employed 
 as  auxiliaries,  the  ancient  languages  being  entirely  omitted. 
 The  subjects  embraced  in  it  are — religious  instruction,  German, 
 
526  GENERAL  EDUCATION.      SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 French,  English,  geography,  history,  mathematics,  physics, 
 chemistry,  technology,  natural  history,  writing,  drawing,  and 
 vocal  music. 
 
 The  time  apportioned  to  each  of  these  subjects  in  the  five 
 classes  will  be  seen  in  the  following  table,  which  contains  be- 
 sides, a  comparison  of  the  time  devoted  to  the  different  branches 
 in  this  school,  with  five  classes  nearly  corresponding  to  them, 
 of  the  real  school,  and  the  same  number  of  the  Frederick  Wil- 
 liam gymnasium.  In  this  comparison  the  number  of  hours  of 
 religious  instruction,  which  is  nearly  the  same  in  the  three,  is 
 assumed  as  the  unit  of  the  proportion.  In  other  respects  the 
 table  is  arranged  as  the  foregoing,  and  the  headings  of  the 
 several  columns  indicate  the  nature  of  the  numbers  contained 
 in  them. 
 
CITY  TRADE  SCHOOL  OF  BERLlST^ 
 
 527 
 
 Table  of  the  distribution 
 with  a  comparison  with 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 of  studies   in   the  City  Trade   School  of  Berlin, 
 the  Royal  Real  School  and  the  Frederick  William 
 
 NO.  OF  HOURS 
 
 PER 
 
 WEEK 
 
 Proportion   of  the 
 
 courses  to  the  re- 
 
 ligious      instruc- 
 
 tion in  the  Trade 
 
 School,  as  unity. 
 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 OF 
 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 si 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ■el 
 
 1-^ 
 
 In  five  classes  of  the 
 Frederick  William 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Religion,       -     -     -    . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 German, 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.2 
 
 French,    -    -    -    -    . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 English, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 Arithmetic,  .... 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 2.0 
 
 ^3.3 
 
 ^2.1 
 
 Geometry,    .    -     -    - 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 1.6 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 Geography,  -    -     -     - 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.7 
 
 History, 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 Natural  History,     -    - 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.2* 
 
 Physics, 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.4* 
 
 Chemistry,    -    .    -    - 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 r 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 Technology,      -    -    - 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 0.4 
 
 Writing, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 Drawing,       .    .     -    - 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 Vocal  Music,     ... 
 Total,     - 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 ♦  The  entire  course. 
 
628  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   FEKlOD. 
 
 The  courses  of  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  philosophy,  of  the 
 gymnasium,  are  replaced  in  this  school  by  English,  chemistry, 
 and  technology,  with  an  increased  attention  to  the  kindred 
 branches.  Thus  the  French  occupies  double  the  time  devoted 
 in  the  parallel  classes  of  the  gymnasia;  and  if  the  whole  of  the 
 eight  gymnasial  classes  be  reckoned,  the  proportion  will  still 
 be  as  twenty  to  eighteen  in  favour  of  the  trade  school.  Mathe- 
 matics, in  like  manner,  occupies  more  time  in  the  trade  school, 
 in  the  parallel  classes,  in  the  proportion  of  3.6  to  :2.1 ;  natural 
 history,  in  that  of  1.4  to  0.2;  physics,  of  1.0  to  0.4;  drawing, 
 of  1.6  to  0.4. 
 
 The  courses  are  fully  laid  down  in  the  following  list,*  be- 
 ginning with  the  studies  of  the  lowest,  or  fourth  class. 
 
 Fourth  Class. 
 
 Religious  Instrvction.i  The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Luke  and  the  Acts  of  the 
 Apostles  explained,  with  a  catechetical  development  of  the  trutiis  of  religion  and 
 ethical  applications.     Two  hours  per  week. 
 
 German.     Grammatical  exercises  in  writing.     Recital  of  poetical  pieces. 
 
 French.  Grammatical  exercises.  Regular  and  irregular  verbs.  Reading  from 
 Laurens'  Reader.     One  hour  of  conversation.     Four  hours.t 
 
 Arithmetic.  Mental  and  written,  including  proportions  and  fractions,  with  the 
 tlieory  of  the  operations.     Four  hours. 
 
 Geometry.     Introductory  course  of  forms.     Two  hours. 
 
 Geography.    Elementary,  mathematical,  and  physical  geography.    Two  hours. 
 
 Natural  History.  In  the  summer  term,  elements  of  botany,  with  excursions. 
 In  the  winter,  the  external  characters  of  animals.     Two  hours. 
 
 Physics.  Introductory  instruction.  General  properties  of  bodies.  Forms  of 
 crystals,  specific  gravity,  6cc.     Two  hours. 
 
 Writing.     Two  hours. 
 
 Drawing.  Outline  drawing  and  shadows,  from  models  and  copy-boards.  Two 
 hours. 
 
 Vocal  Music.     Two  hours. 
 
 IjOwer  Third  Class. 
 
 Religious  Instruction.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles  read  and 
 explained.     Two  liours. 
 
 *  Taken  from  the  programme  for  183()-7,  for  which,  with  other  documents 
 mentioned  in  the  Appendix,  and  a  full  opportunity  to  visit  lliis  interesting  school,  I 
 am  indrbtc-d  to  director  Kl<klen. 
 
 t  Roman  Catholic  pupils  are  not  required  to  take  part  in  this  instruction, 
 which  is  communicated  by  a  Protestant  clergyman. 
 
 t  The  same  Uaclier  instructs  Uiis  class  to  whose  course  I  ha\c  referred  in  the 
 notice  of  the  Royal  Real  School. 
 
CITY  TRADE  SCHOOL  OF  BERLm.  529 
 
 German.  Grammar,  with  special  reference  to  orthography  and  etymology. 
 Written  exercises  upon  narrations  made  by  the  teacher.  Delivery  of  poetical 
 pieces.     Four  hours. 
 
 French.  Translation  from  French  into  German,  from  Gedike's  Chrestomathy. 
 Grammar;  irregular  verbs.  Extemporalia,  and  translations  from  German  into 
 French.     Four  hours. 
 
 Arithmetic.  Partly  abstract,  partly  practical,  from  Diesterweg's  Instructor. 
 Four  hours. 
 
 Geometry.  Determination  of  angles  in  triangles  and  polygons.  Equality  of 
 triangles.  Dependance  of  angles  and  sides  of  triangles.  Constructions.  Three 
 hours. 
 
 Geography.  Physical  description  of  the  parts  of  the  earth,  except  Europe.  Two 
 hours. 
 
 Natural  History.  Mineralogy.  In  summer,  botany,  the  class  making  excur- 
 sions for  practical  exercise.     Man.     Three  hours. 
 
 Physics.  General  properties  of  bodies  and  solids  in  particular.  Doctrines  of 
 heat,  and  their  application  to  natural  phenomena  and  the  arts.     Two  hours. 
 
 Chemistry.  Introduction.  Atmospheric  air.  Experimental  illustrations  of 
 chemistry,  applied  to  the  arts.     Two  hours. 
 
 Writing.  Two  hours.  Architectural  and  topographical  drawing.  Two  hours. 
 Drawing  by  hand,  for  those  who  do  not  take  part  in  the  other.     Two  hours. 
 
 Vocal  Music.    Two  hours. 
 
 Upper  Third  Class. 
 
 Religious  Instruction.  Christian  morals,  from  Luther's  Catechism.  Two 
 hours. 
 
 German.  Simple  and  complex  sentences.  Compositions  on  special  subjects. 
 Poems  explained  and  committed.     Four  hours. 
 
 French.  Translation  from  Gedike's  Chrestomathy,  oral  and  in  writing. 
 Written  translations  from  Beauvais'  Introduction,  from  German  into  French. 
 Grammar,  examples  treated  extempore.     Four  hours. 
 
 Arithmetic.  Properties  of  numbers.  Powers.  Roots.  Decimal  fractions. 
 Practical  arithmetic  from  Diestcrweg.     Four  hours. 
 
 Geo?netry.  Similar  figures.  Geometrical  proportion.  Exercises.  Mensura- 
 tion of  rectilinear  figures.     Three  hours. 
 
 Geography.  Physical  geograpliy  of  Europe,  and  in  particular  of  Germany  and 
 Prussia.     Two  hours. 
 
 Natural  History.  Continuation  of  the  mineralogy  of  the  lower  third  class. 
 Review  in  outline  of  zoology  and  the  natural  history  of  man  in  particular.  Bo- 
 tany, with  excursions  in  summer.     Three  hours. 
 
 Physics.     Electricity  and  magnetism,  with  experiments.     Two  hours. 
 
 Chemistry.     Water  and  non-metallic  bodies,  with  experiments.     Two  hours. 
 
 Writing.  Two  hours.  Architectural  and  topographical  drawing.  Two 
 hours.    Some  of  the  pupils,  during  this  time,  are  engaged  in  ornamental  drawing. 
 
 Vocal  Music.    Two  hours. 
 
 Second  Class. 
 Religious  Instruction.     Explanation  of  the  first  three  Gospels.     History  of  the 
 Christian  religion  and  church,  to  the  Reformation.     Two  hour.s. 
 67 
 
530  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       SECONDARY   TKRIOD. 
 
 German.  Correction  of  exercises  written  at  home,  upon  Bubjccts  assigned  by 
 the  teacher.  Oral  and  written  exercises.  Introduction  to  the  history  of  German 
 poetry.     Three  hours. 
 
 French.  Grammar;  extemporalia  for  the  application  of  the  rules.  Written 
 and  oral  translations  from  German  into  French,  from  Beauvais'  Manual,  and  vice 
 versa,  from  Ideler  and  Nolte's  Manual.     Four  hours. 
 
 Ewrlish.  Exercises  in  reading  and  speaking.  Translation  into  German,  from 
 Burkhardt.     Dictation.    Verbs.     Two  hours. 
 
 Arithmetic.  Commercial  arithmetic.  Algebra,  to  include  simple  and  quadratic 
 equations.     Logarithms.     Three  hours. 
 
 Geometry.     Circles.     Analytical  and  plane  trigonometry.     Three  hours. 
 
 Geography.  The  States  of  Europe,  with  special  reference  to  their  population, 
 manufactures,  and  commerce.     Two  hours. 
 
 History.  Principal  events  of  the  history  of  the  middle  ages  and  of  later  times, 
 as  an  introduction  to  recent  history.     One  hour. 
 
 Natural  History.    Mineralogy.     Physiology  of  plants.     Three  hours. 
 
 Chemistry.  Metallic  bodies  and  their  compounds,  with  experiments.  Three 
 hours. 
 
 Architectural,  topographical,  and  plan  drawing.  Drawing  with  instruments. 
 Introduction  to  India  ink  drawing.  Beginning  of  the  science  of  constructions. 
 Two  hours. 
 
 Drawing.     From  copies,  and  from  plaster  and  other  models.     Two  hours. 
 This  kind  of  drawing  may  be  learned  instead  of  the  above. 
 Vocal  Music.    Two  hours. 
 
 First  Class. 
 
 Religious  Instruction.  History  of  the  Christian  religion  and  church  continued. 
 References  to  the  Bible.     One  hour. 
 
 German.  History  of  German  literature  to  recent  times.  Essays.  Exercises 
 of  delivery.     Three  hours. 
 
 French.  Reading  from  the  manual  of  Biichncr  and  Herrmann,  with  abstracts. 
 Classic  authors  read.  Review  of  Grammar.  Exercises  at  home  and  extempo- 
 ralia.    Free  delivery.     Correction  of  exercises.     Four  hours. 
 
 Enrrlish.  Syntax,  with  written  and  extempore  exercises  from  Burkhardt. 
 Reading  of  classic  authors.     Writing  of  letters.     Exercises  in  speaking. 
 
 Arithmetic.  Algebra.  Simple  and  quadratic  equations.  Binomial  and  poly- 
 nomial theorems.  Higher  equations.  Commercial  aritlimctic  continued.  Three 
 hours. 
 
 Geometry.  Plane  trigonometry  and  its  applications.  Conic  sections.  De- 
 scriptive geometry.     Three  hours. 
 
 History.  History  of  the  middle  ages.  Modern  history,  with  special  reference 
 to  the  progress  of  civilization,  of  inventions,  discoveries,  and  of  commerce  and 
 industry.     Three  hours. 
 
 Natural  History.  In  summer,  botany,  the  principal  families,  according  to  tlie 
 natural  pystem.  In  winter,  zoology.  The  pupils  arc  taken,  for  the  pur]X)sc  of 
 examining  Bpccimcns,  to  the  Royal  Museum. 
 
 Physics.  In  smnmer,  optics  with  ex|x;riments.  In  wmtcr,  tJic  system  of  the 
 world.     Tlu-co  hours. 
 
CITY  TRADE  SCHOOL  OF  BERLIN".  531 
 
 Technology.  Chemical  and  mechanical  arts  and  trades  described  and  illus- 
 trated by  models.     Excursions  to  visit  the  principal  work-shops.     Four  hours. 
 
 Architectural  and  machine  draioing.  Two  hours.  Those  pupils  who  do  not 
 take  part  in  this,  receive  lessons  in  ornamental  drawing  from  plaster  models. 
 
 Vocal  Music.     Two  hours. 
 
 The  pupils  of  this  class  are,  besides,  engaged  in  manipulating  in  the  laboratory 
 of  the  institution  several  hours  each  week. 
 
 The  courses  require  a  good  collection  of  apparatus  and  spe- 
 cimens to  carry  them  out,  and  this  school  is,  in  fact,  better 
 furnished  than  any  other  of  its  grade  which  I  saw  in  Prussia, 
 besides  which,  its  collections  are  on  the  increase.  The  facilities 
 for  the  courses  are  furnished  by  a  collection  of  mathematical 
 and  physical  apparatus,  a  laboratory,  with  a  tolerably  complete 
 chemical  apparatus  and  series  of  tests,  a  collection,  of  speci- 
 mens of  the  arts  and  manufactures  (or  technological  collection), 
 a  collection  of  dried  plants,  and  of  engravings  for  the  botanical 
 course,  with  a  small  garden  for  the  same  use,  a  collection  of 
 minerals,  a  collection  of  insects,  a  collection  in  comparative 
 anatomy,  a  series  of  engravings  for  the  drawing  course,  and  of 
 plaster  models,  a  set  of  maps,  and  other  apparatus  for  geo- 
 graphy, some  astronomical  instruments,  and  a  library.  The 
 pupils  are  taken,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  admirable  museum 
 attached  to  the  university  of  Berlin,  for  the  examination  of  zoo- 
 logical specimens  especially. 
 
 That  this  school  is  as  a  preparation  for  the  higher  occupa- 
 tions, and  for  professions  not  ranking  among  the  learned,  the 
 equivalent  of  the  gymnasium  is  clearly  shown  by  the  subjects 
 and  scope  of  its  courses,  and  by  the  age  of  its  pupils.  Some  of 
 these  occupations  require  no  higher  instruction,  others  that  the 
 pupils  shall  pass  to  the  special  schools  introductory  to  them.  So, 
 also,  many  of  the  pupils  of  the  gymnasia  pass  at  once  into 
 active  life,  others  enter  the  university. 
 
 The  class  of  schools  to  which  the  two  last  described  be- 
 long, are  most  important  in  their  influence.  In  many  coun- 
 tries, an  elementary  education  is  the  limit  beyond  which  those 
 intending  to  enter  the  lower  grades  of  the  occupations  enume- 
 rated in  connexion  with  the  City  Trade  School  of  Berlin,  do 
 not  pass;  and  if  they  are  inclined  to  have  a  better  education, 
 
532  GENERAL  EDUCATIOJT.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 or  if  intending  to  embrace  a  higher  occupation,  ihey  desire  to  be 
 better  instructed,  they  must  seek  instruction  in  the  classical 
 schools.  The  training  of  these  schools  is,  however,  essen- 
 tially different  from  that  required  by  the  tradesman  and  me- 
 chanic, the  verbal  character  of  the  instruction  is  not  calculated 
 to  produce  the  habits  of  mind  in  which  he  should  be  brought 
 up,  and  the  knowledge  which  is  made  the  basis  of  mental  train- 
 ing is  not  that  which  he  has  chiefly  occasion  to  use.  Besides, 
 were  the  course  ever  so  well  adapted  to  his  object,  the  time  at 
 which  he  must  leave  school  only  permits  him  to  follow  a  part 
 of  it,  and  he  is  exposed  to  the  serious  evils  which  must  flow 
 from  being,  as  it  were,  but  half  taught. 
 
 In  fact,  how^ever,  he  requires  a  very  different  school,  one  in 
 which  the  subjects  of  instruction  are  adapted  to  his  destination, 
 while  they  give  him  an  adequate  intellectual  culture;  where  the 
 character  of  the  instruction  will  train  him  to  the  habits  which 
 must,  in  a  very  considerable  degree,  determine  his  future  use- 
 fulness; and  where  the  course  which  he  pursues  will  be  tho- 
 rough, as  far  as  it  goes,  and  will  have  reached  before  he  leaves 
 the  school  the  standard  at  which  it  aims.  Such  establishments 
 are  furnished  by  the  real  schools  of  Germany,  and  as  the  wants 
 wdiich  gave  rise  to  them  there  are  strongly  felt  every  where,  this 
 class  of  institutions  must  spread  extensively.  In  Germany  they 
 are,  as  has  been  seen,  no  new  experiment,  but  have  stood  the 
 test  of  experience,  and  with  various  modifications  to  adapt  them 
 to  differences  of  circumstances  or  of  views  in  education,  they 
 are  spreading  in  that  country.  As  they  become  more  diflused, 
 and  have  emj)Ioyed  a  greater  number  of  minds  in  their  orga- 
 nization, their  plans  will,  no  doubt,  be  more  fully  developed. 
 
 It  is  certainly  highly  creditable  to  Germany  that  its  "gym- 
 nasia," on  the  one  hand,  and  its  "  real  schools"  on  the  other,  oiler 
 such  excellent  models  of  secondary  instruction  in  its  two  depart- 
 ments. The  toleration  which  allows  these  dissimilar  establish- 
 ments to  grow  up  side  by  side,  admitting  that  each,  though 
 good  for  its  object,  is  not  a  substitute  fur  the  other,  belongs  to 
 an  enlightened  state  of  sentiment  in  regard  to  education,  and  is 
 worlliN  nffho  hinrhcst  commendation. 
 
FITZTHUM  GYMNASIUM.  533 
 
 FITZTHUM  GYMNASIUM  AND   BLOCHMAN  SCHOOL  AT 
 DRESDEN. 
 
 It  is  not  my  intention  to  go  into  a  description  of  the  second- 
 ary instruction  in  Saxony,  but  merely  to  give  a  brief  notice  of 
 one  of  its  institutions  which  ranks  among  the  first  in  Germany, 
 and  which  combines  within  itself  a  classical  and  a  "  real  gym- 
 nasium," and  a  preparatory  school,  or  "progymnasium."* 
 
 This  institution  partakes  both  of  a  public  and  private  charac- 
 ter, being,  on  the  one  hand,  under  the  direction  of  the  govern- 
 ment authorities  as  a  public  school,  and  on  the  other,  a  private 
 foundation  of  the  Fitzthum  family.  It  is  also  both  a  boarding 
 and  day  school. 
 
 Pupils  are  received  into  the  progymnasium  at  nine  or  ten 
 years  of  age,  and  wdth  the  attainments  of  the  elementary 
 period.  In  this  school,  which  has  two  classes,  they  remain 
 until  from  thirteen  to  fourteen.  Its  courses  are  the  following: — 
 Bible  history  and  religion,  the  German  language,  the  Latin, 
 French,  history,  arithmetic,  knowledge  of  forms,  geography, 
 natural  history,  drawing,  and  writing.  From  the  upper  class 
 of  the  progymnasium,  the  pupils  pass  to  the  gymnasium,  in  which 
 there  are  four  classes.  The  courses  are  of  religion,  Latin, 
 Greek,  German  language  and  literature,  French,  mathematics, 
 history,  geography,  natural  philosophy,  natural  history,  music, 
 and  drawing.  From  the  fourth  or  lowest  class  of  the  gymna- 
 sium, the  pupil  who  is  not  intended  to  go  to  the  university  en- 
 ters the  "  real  gymnasium,"  or  scientific  school,  in  which  there 
 are  two  classes,  and  the  duration  of  the  studies  of  which  is  one 
 year  less  than  that  of  the  classical  gymnasium.  In  this  the 
 French  and  English,  and  the  scientific  studies,  replace  the  clas- 
 sics, except  a  portion  of  Latin,  which  is  still  kept  up.     Tiie 
 
 *  Dr.  Blochman,  who  established  this  institution,  in  1827,  was  a  collaborator 
 with  Pestalozzi  in  tlie  palmy  days  of  his  establislimcnt  at  Yverdiin,  and  is  deeply 
 imbued  with  his  method.  Thou;^h  ill  when  I  visited  Dresden,  he  was  most 
 kind  and  cordial,  and  opened  every  part  of  his  interesting  school  to  my  examina- 
 tion. 
 
534  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SECONDARY  PERIOD. 
 
 courses  consist  of  religion,  German  language  and  literature, 
 Latin,  French,  English,  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  natu- 
 ral history,  mechanics,"  history,  geography,  drawing,  and  music. 
 The  distribution  of  the  time  of  study  in  the  principal  branches 
 agrees  entirely  with  that  of  the  two  upper  classes  of  the  Royal 
 Real  School  at  Berlin,  already  described. 
 
 The  arrangements  for  the  superintendence  of  the  pupils  in 
 this  institution  are,  in  the  main,  like  those  of  Pforta.  Pupils 
 called  inspectors  are  selected,  and  superintend  their  fellows 
 when  in  the  play-ground  and  at  study,  and  there  are  two  mas- 
 ters always  on  duty  as  superintendents.  The  physical  educa- 
 tion of  the  pupils  is  very  well  attended  to,  and  the  alternations 
 of  exercise  and  study  have  a  very  good  effect.  These  alterna- 
 tions will  appear  by  the  following  order  of  the  day  : 
 
 The  boarders  rise  at  six  o'clock,  and  breakfast  at  a  quarter  to 
 seven.  From  a  quarter  to  seven  to  a  quarter  to  eight,  study  under 
 the  superintendence  of  the  tw^o  teachers  on  duty.  Pupils  living 
 out  of  the  house  join  in  this  study  hour.  Prayers.  From  eight  to 
 a  quarter  to  ten,  instruction.  Quarter  to  ten  to  quarter  after  ten, 
 play  in  the  garden,  and  a  light  second  breakfast.  Quarter  after 
 ten  to  twelve,  instruction.  Twelve  to  one,  instruction  in  instru- 
 mental and  vocal  music,  gymnastic  exercises,  dancing,  or  free 
 to  play  in  the  grounds  under  the  charge  of  the  two  superin- 
 tendents. At  one,  the  day  scholars  leave  the  institution.  Quar- 
 ter after  one  to  two,  dinner.  Two  to  three,  play  under  charge 
 of  the  inspectors.  Three  to  quarter  of  five,  instruction.  On 
 Wednesday  and  Saturday,  walks.  Quarter  to  five  to  quarter 
 after  five,  lunch  and  recreation.  Quarter  after  five  to  eight, 
 study  under  charge  and  aided  by  the  inspectors.  Eight,  supper. 
 At  nine  the  younger  pupils  retire,  the  older  ones  study  until  ten. 
 
 The  mathematical  instruction  in  this  school  is  continued,  even 
 in  the  higher  branches,  upon  the  inductive  plan,  and  is  the  most 
 effective  which  I  have  ever  seen.  It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  ex- 
 planation and  question,  and  of  oral  and  written  exercises  in  the 
 class-room.  The  recitations  are  upon  the  previous  lessons, 
 and  upon  questions  given  to  be  solved  out  of  the  class-room, 
 and  the  written  exercises  are  solutions  of  questions  and   notes 
 
riTZTHUM  GYMNASIUM.  535 
 
 of  the  explanation  of  the  previous  lesson.  The  collections  in 
 natural  history  arc  superior  to  those  possessed  by  any  other 
 gymnasium  which  I  visited.  Both  this  and  the  physical  appa- 
 ratus  afford  very  considerable  means  of  illustration  in  these  de- 
 partments. The  chemical  laboratory,  in  a  building  apart  from 
 the  house,  is  very  conveniently  arranged,  both  for  instruction 
 and  experiments  by  the  pupils. 
 
536  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER  XIII. 
 
 SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION. 
 
 In  a  regular  system  of  education,  primary  and  secondary 
 lead  to  superior  instruction,  with  which  the  student's  career  is 
 terminated.  The  period  of  life  usually  embraced  by  it  abroad, 
 is  from  seventeen  or  eighteen  to  twenty  or  twenty-one.  The 
 schools  which  furnish  it  are  of  two  classes,  those  qualifying  for 
 entrance  into  the  learned  professions,  and  those  preparing  for 
 occupations  requiring  a  considerable  extent  of  special  know- 
 ledge for  their  successful  prosecution.  The  universities  consti- 
 tute the  first  class  of  these  special  schools ;  the  second  have 
 various  names,  as  schools  of  arts,  manufactures  and  commerce, 
 trade  institutes,  and  polytechnic  institutions;  the  last  mentioned 
 title  may  be  conveniently  used  as  referring  to  the  entire  class. 
 The  special  schools  of  architecture,  engineering,  mining,  &c., 
 and  the  military  and  naval  schools,  also  belong  to  this  class. 
 The  universities  not  only  serve  as  special  schools  for  the  learned 
 professions,  but  are  also  intended  to  give  the  highest  grade  of 
 intellectual  culture,  to  form  the  scholar  and  man  of  letters,  or 
 of  science.  They  had  their  origin  in  the  wants  of  an  early 
 period  of  civilization,  and  have  continued  to  be  as  necessary  in 
 its  progress,  recjuiring  great  changes,  how'ever,  to  enable  them 
 to  keep  pace  with  the  times.  Schools  of  arts,  or  polytechnic 
 schools,  have  originated  in  the  requirements  of  modern  times,  in 
 which  occupations  have  risen  in  standing  and  importance,  or 
 have  been  actually  created,  by  the  progress  of  science  and  the 
 arts.  Considered  as  special  schools,  the  universities  have  very 
 different  objects  from  those  which  the  founder  of  the  Girard 
 College  intended  as  the  aim  of  his  institution,  while  the  pur- 
 poses of  the  polyle(!hnic  schools  are  strictly  in  accordance  with 
 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS.  537 
 
 those  which  his  will  points  out  for  the  highest  department  of 
 his  college.  This  being  the  case,  a  description  of  foreign  uni- 
 versities would,  I  conceive,  be  out  of  its  place  in  this  Report. 
 From  the  character  of  my  associations,  before  leaving  home, 
 which  naturally  led  to  similar  associations  while  abroad,  I  felt 
 highly  interested  in  this  class  of  institutions,  and  it  is  with  re- 
 luctance I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  not  to  give  some  descrip- 
 tion of  them  in  my  Report.  While  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
 to  judge  of  the  results  of  university  systems  of  different  countries, 
 especially  so  from  the  amount  of  talent  arrayed  in  favour  of, 
 and  even  positively  against,  different  systems,  and  I  should  make 
 no  pretensions  to  offer  such  a  judgment,  the  institutions  are  by 
 no  means  difficult  to  describe,  so  that  a  reader  may  conceive 
 the  form  of  the  system,  and  endow  that  form  with  spirit,  in  pro- 
 portion to  the  force  of  his  own  natural  powers  and  his  expe- 
 rience. The  differences  between  the  university  systems  of  Great 
 Britain,  France,  and  Germany,  afford  interesting  subjects  of 
 reflection  to  those  whose  pursuits  and  dispositions  lead  them  to 
 efforts  for  the  improvement  of  "superior  education."  Con- 
 sidering these  different  systems  as  so  many  experiments  made 
 under  different  circumstances,  the  study  of  their  results,  and  the 
 modifying  effect  of  circumstances,  is  no  less  interesting  than 
 useful.  The  field  is,  however,  vast;  the  varieties  in  Great  Bri- 
 tain alone  would  require  much  space  for  due  description,  as 
 a  few  words  will  suffice  to  show.  The  Scotch  and  English 
 universities  difler  very  much  in  their  organization,  discipline, 
 and  instruction,  and  even  the  several  Scotch  universities  are  not 
 alike.  At  Glasgow,  and  the  academical  institution  at  Belfast, 
 founded  upon  its  model,  the  pupils  enter,  in  general,  in  very  early 
 youth.  The  lectures  are,  therefore,  mixed  with  recitations  held 
 by  the  professors,  which,  however,  the  large  classes  at  Glas- 
 gow prevent  from  being  efficacious.  The  students  do  not  reside 
 in  either  of  these  institutions.  At  Edinburgh,  the  average  age 
 of  the  student  is  greater,  and  the  medical  department  assumes, 
 relatively  to  that  of  letters,  an  importance  which  modifies  the 
 character  of  the  school.  The  lesser  universities  of  St.  Andrews 
 68 
 
538  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.      SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 and  Aberdeen  difTcr  more  frona  the  others  in  tl 
 ment  ofdisciphne,  resulting  from  the  residence  of  a  part  of  the 
 stLidents  in  the  colleges  composing  them,  than  in  the  character 
 of  the  instruction.  In  the  larger  English  universities  of  Cam- 
 bridge and  Oxford,  composed  of  colleges  and  halls,  in  the  build- 
 ings of  whicii  the  students  generally  reside,  the  discipline  of 
 each  college  may  be  said  to  be  its  own,  with  a  general  con- 
 formity to  that  of  the  university.*  The  same  is  true  in  regard 
 to  the  instruction,  with  this  diflcrence,  that  as  all  the  courses 
 tend  towards  the  preparation  for  university  degrees  and  uni- 
 versity honours,  there  is  a  general  conformity  in  the  several 
 colleges  in  the  subjects  taught  and  methods  of  teaching.  The 
 instruction  given  by  the  tutors  in  the  colleges  is  upon  the  same 
 general  plan,  a  mixture  of  lecture  and  recitation;  and  as  the 
 attendance  upon  the  lectures  of  the  university  professors  is  not 
 obligatory,  forms  the  real  basis  of  the  intellectual  part  of  the 
 university  education.  The  inducements  held  out  to  exertion  in 
 these  schools  by  the  rewards  which  the  fellowships  and  the 
 stations  to  which  they  may  lead  hold  forth,  and  which  bring 
 into  them  the  greater  part  of  the  best  talent  of  England,  pro- 
 duce results  which  are  of  the  highest  order,  but  which  cannot 
 fairly  be  considered  as  depending  mainly  upon  the  system  of 
 instruction  and  discipline.  It  must  require  a  very  accurate 
 knowledge  of  facts,  with  an  entire  absence  of  prejudice,  to  rea- 
 son as  to  the  general  results  of  the  various  parts  of  the  complex 
 system,  which  has  grown  with  the  growth  of  these  institutions 
 themselves,  and  is,  therefore,  now  very  deeply  rooted. 
 
 I  consider  the  opportunity  which  I  enjoyed  of  witnessing 
 some  of  the  written  examinations  at  Cambridge  as  of  the  highest 
 value,  and  am  no  longer  surprised  at  the  attachment  to  this 
 method  which  is  there  felt.  It  is  accurate  and  expeditious  in  its 
 results,  removes  all  possibility  of,  or  temptation  to,  show,  and  even 
 the  suspicion  of  partiality,  in  the  distribution  of  important  places. 
 
 •  A  very  accurate  account  of  tlic  universities  of  Canibridftc  and  Oxford  is  to 
 be  found  in  the  report  to  tlic  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
 by  Philip  II.  Nicklin,  Esq.,  one  of  its  members. 
 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS.  539 
 
 While  I  am  not  yet  persuaded  that  it  can  supersede  the  viva 
 voce  method,  or  be  employed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  sink  the 
 use  of  the  latter  into  comparative  insi<Tnificance,  yet,  if  the 
 choice  lay  between  the  use  of  the  one  or  other  method  exten- 
 sively, I  should  now  prefer  the  former. 
 
 At  the  university  of  Dubhn  (Trinity  College),  the  advantages 
 of  the  tutorial  system  are  combined  with  that  of  the  lectures  by 
 professors,  which  the  students  are  enjoined  to  attend,  and  the 
 same  is  the  case  at  the  recently  erected  university  of  Durham. 
 This  university  has  set  the  example  of  adding  instruction  in 
 civil  engineering  to  its  literary  courses,  and  has  admitted  the 
 modern  languages  into  the  latter.  King's  College  and  London 
 University  College  have  hardly  yet  taken  the  form  which  time 
 must  impress  upon  them  in  their  new  connexion  with  the  Lon- 
 don University;  the  enactments  of  this  recent  corporation,  in  re- 
 gard to  the  requirements  for  degrees,  must  ultimately  regulate  the 
 higher  studies  of  these  and  other  institutions,  presenting  candi- 
 dates for  them.  This  bare  enumeration  will  serve  to  show,  that 
 to  give  any  thing  like  an  idea  of  institutions  so  various  in  their 
 character,  would  require  much  time  and  more  space  than  could 
 properly  be  bestowed  in  a  report,  to  the  purpose  of  which  the 
 greater  part  of  the  particulars  would  be  found  inappropriate. 
 No  doubt  useful  hints  might  be  gathered,  but  by  far  the  greater 
 part  of  the  matter  would  be  entirely  inapplicable  to  our  purpose. 
 For  example,  the  system  of  university  degrees,  by  which  en- 
 couragement is  given  to  general  effort,  and  of  the  privilege  to 
 teach,  or  of  stations  without  actual  duty,  by  which,  in  many 
 establishments,  individual  exertion  is  stimulated  and  rewarded, 
 are  entirely  inapplicable  to  the  circumstances  of  our  institution. 
 Again;  the  tone  and  modes  of  discipline,  both  in  those  institu- 
 tions where  the  pupils  reside  and  in  those  where  they  merely 
 come  at  stated  times  to  receive  instruction,  are  inapplicable  to 
 our  case,  and  the  general  organization  and  government  are  not 
 less  so.  Further,  the  instruction,  as  far  as  it  is  of  a  special  cha- 
 racter, qualifying  for  admission  to  the  learned  professions,  as 
 in  the  continental  system,  has,  of  course,  no  bearing  upon  our 
 arrangements,  and  leaves  for  profitable  study  the  subjects  of  at 
 
540  GENfclKAL   EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 most  two  faculties.  In  these  the  titles  of  the  branches  them- 
 selves would  be  all  that  could  serve  us;  for  the  mode  of  lecturing 
 being  universally  adopted,  the  treatment  of  the  subject  depends 
 upon  the  individual  professor. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  institutions  of  the  class  preparatory  to  higher 
 trades,  to  the  arts,  manufactures,  mining,  engineering,  com- 
 merce, navigation,  &c.,  as  they  furnish  examples  of  schools 
 specially  intended  to  prepare  for  the  pursuits  of  life,  towards 
 which  our  founder  has  plainly  signified  his  wish  that  the  pupils 
 of  the  Girard  College  should  be  directed,  I  shall  devote  the 
 chief  part  of  the  remainder  of  my  Report  to  describing  such 
 examples  of  them  as  are  most  highly  approved,  having  best  ful- 
 filled the  objects  for  which  they  were  founded.  I  shall  describe 
 in  turn,  more  or  less  minutely,  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Paris, 
 which,  originally,  as  the  Central  School  of  Public  Works,  was 
 the  parent  of  this  class  of  institutions ;  the  School  of  Arts  and 
 Manufactures  of  Paris,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  establish- 
 ments, originating  in  private  enterprizc;  the  Institute  of  Arts  at 
 Berlin,  and  the  Polytechnic  Institution  at  Vienna,  both  supported 
 by  government,  and  the  two  most  successful  institutions  of  their 
 class  in  Germany;  and  the  School  of  Mines  at  Freyburgh,  in 
 Saxony,  which,  though  specially  devoted  to  one  branch  of  prac- 
 tical life,  belongs  to  the  same  class  in  its  studies.  I  shall  also 
 briefly  notice,  in  connexion  with  the  Polytechnic  School  of 
 France,  the  civil  schools  of  application  to  which  it  leads,  namely, 
 those  of  mines,  and  of  roads  and  bridges;  in  connexion  with  the 
 Institute  of  Arts  at  Berlin,  the  Industrial  Schoolsof  Prussia  gene- 
 rally;  and  further,  after  the  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  of 
 Paris,  the  private  Industrial  and  Commercial  Boarding  Institute 
 at  Charonne.  As  our  founder  has  intimated  that  the  profession 
 of  a  navigator  is  one  of  those  towards  which  he  wishes  the 
 pupils  to  be  directed,  I  annex  the  programme  of  the  studies  of 
 one  of  the  best  naval  schools  in  Europe,  that  of  Venice.  The 
 officers  of  the  Austrian  navy,  though  they  have  limited  oppor- 
 tunities of  practice,  arc  distinguished  as  well  instructed  in  the 
 science  of  their  profession,  and  in  all  its  collateral  branches. 
 
 There  are  special  schools,  which,  after  some  consideration, 
 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS.  541 
 
 I  have  referred  to  other  branches  of  this  Report.  Although 
 they  educate  youth  for  particular  callings,  and  correspond  in 
 general  in  regard  to  age  with  the  superior  period,  yet,  as  they 
 belong  essentially  in  their  grade  of  instruction  to  the  primary 
 or  secondary  classes,  and  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the 
 schools  composing  tliem,  I  have  thought  it  better  to  rank  them 
 accordingly.  In  this  view  the  rural  schools  of  Switzerland, 
 which  may  be  considered  as  special,  in  so  far  as  they  train  their 
 pupils  as  farmers,  and  the  age  of  the  pupils  of  which  extends 
 beyond  the  usual  primary  period;  the  Agricultural  School  at 
 Templemoyle,  in  Ireland,  the  Rural  School  of  Ealing,  and  the  La 
 Martiniere  Industrial  School  of  Lyons,  have  been  placed  under 
 the  head  of  primary  instruction.  The  primary  normal  schools 
 of  Weissenfels,  Berlin,  Versailles,  Dijon,  Haarlem,  and  Zurich, 
 have  been  ranked  under  the  same  general  division,  though  they 
 are  special  schools  so  far  as  they  prepare  for  the  profession  of 
 a  teacher,  and  belong  to  the  secondary  and  superior  periods  in 
 the  age  of  their  pupils.  The  Normal  School  of  Paris  has,  in 
 like  manner,  been  ranked  with  secondary  schools,  in  reference 
 to  the  grade  of  its  instruction.  I  refer  to  them  here,  lest  it 
 might  be  inferred,  from  their  not  appearing  in  what  at  first 
 may  appear  their  natural  place,  that  no  account  is  given  of 
 them.  The  School  of  Agricukure  and  Forestry  at  Hohenheim, 
 in  Wurtemburg,  is  a  true  agricultural  university,  at  least  in  its 
 principal  departments,  and  I  have  therefore  retained  it  in  this 
 chapter. 
 
 With  these  remarks  I  proceed  to  the  description  of  the  spe- 
 cial schools  above  enuirierated,  merely  adding,  that  if  there  is 
 less  of  general  inference  and  comparison  found  connected 
 with  these  institutions  than  with  others,  it  results  from  the 
 fact  that  the  schools  are  special  in  their  nature,  and  when 
 their  objects  are  not  entirely  diilerent,  so  as  absolutely  to  pre- 
 vent any  comparison  of  their  plans,  they  are  usually  sufficiently 
 so  to  make  comparison  of  little  value.  I  have  endeavoured  to 
 point  out  these  objects,  and  especially  in  cases  where  charac- 
 teristic modifications  in  the  plans  result  from  them. 
 
542  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE. 
 
 This  celebrated  institution  was  organized  in  1794,  during  the 
 existence  of  the  republic  of  France,  by  a  decree  of  the  conven- 
 tion, under  the  name  of  central  school  of  public  works;  this 
 title  was  subsequently  changed,  in  1795,  to  that  of  polytechnic 
 school,  which,  with  the  prefixes  of  imperial  in  1806,  and  of 
 royal  since  1814,  the  institution  has  since  borne,  and  under 
 which  it  has  acquired  its  celebrity.  Among  the  first  professors 
 of  the  school  were  Lagrange,  Monge,  Hachette,  Hassenfratz, 
 and  Guyton  de  Morveau.  The  way  for  the  school  was  opened 
 by  a  preparatory  school,  in  which  a  certain  number  of  pupils 
 were  trained  to  act  as  assistants,  under  the  charge  of  the  pro- 
 fessors already  appointed.  The  organization  of  the  school  with 
 a  large  number  of  pupils  was  thus  rendered  possible,  and  was 
 begun  in  May,  1795.* 
 
 At  first  the  school  was  chiefly  intended  to  supply  officers 
 for  certain  branches  of  the  military  and  civil  services.  The 
 report,  however,  of  M.  Fourcroy  to  the  convention,  and  the 
 law  organizing  the  school  adopted  in  consequence  of  it,  recog- 
 nise the  principle  that  the  institution  has  a  more  general  purpose, 
 namely,  the  diflxision  of  mathematical,  physical,  and  chemical 
 science,  and  of  the  "graphic  arts."  This  important  principle 
 is  now  adopted  as  its  basis,  and  its  pupils  are  not  obliged  to 
 enter  any  branch  of  the  government  service.  While  the  recog- 
 nition of  the  principle  is  important,  it  happens,  in  point  of  fact, 
 that  few  young  men  who  enter  the  school  do  not  take  service, 
 either  military,  naval,  or  civil.  The  branches  of  service  among 
 which  the  graduates  have  a  right  of  choice  to  fill  vacancies 
 are,  in  the  department  of  the  minister  of  war,  the  artillery,  the 
 
 *  Notwithstanding  this  piece  of  foresifrht,  which  was,  however,  carried  no 
 further  than  the  preparation  of  pupils  to  take  part  in  the  instruction  and  disci- 
 pline,  the  expenses  incident  to  the  sudden  reception  of  numerous  untrained  stu- 
 dents with  the  untried  organization,  amounted  the  first  year  to  nearly  three  times 
 the  sum  to  which  they  were  reduced  after  an  experience  of  two  years;  the  num- 
 ber of  pupils  having  been  reduced  in  the  mean  time  only  in  the  proportion  of  391 
 to  21)0.  The  expenses  include,  however,  those  for  individuals  employed  upon 
 the  collections  of  models,  apparatus,  and  drawings. 
 
POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF    TRAXCE.  543 
 
 engineers,  the  staff,  the  manufacture  of  saltpetre  and  powder, 
 and,  under  certain  circumstances,  the  infantry;  in  the  navy  de- 
 partment, the  nav^al  artillery,  naval  engineers  or  the  general 
 naval  service,  and  the  hydrographical  engineers;  in  the  depart- 
 ment of  the  interior,  the  corps  of  roads  and  bridges,  and  of 
 mines;  in  that  of  finance,  the  administration  of  tobacco.  The 
 pupils  have  also  a  right  of  admission  to  the  school  of  forestry, 
 and  to  attend  the  courses  of  other  public  special  schools. 
 
 Government.  From  1795  to  1830  this  school  was  in  the  de- 
 partment of  the  minister  of  the  interior,  and  since  that  time  has 
 been  under  the  charge  of  the  war  department.  The  minister 
 of  war  has  always  had,  however,  a  certain  share  of  patronage 
 and  influence  in  the  institution,  owing  to  the  military  form 
 of  the  interior  organization;  from  1S04  to  1816  this  was 
 strictly  military,  the  pupils  having  been  enrolled,  armed,  and 
 equipped. 
 
 The  details  of  interior  organization  have  been  so  often  varied, 
 that  if  the  reasons  of  the  changes  not  resulting  from  political 
 causes  could  be  understood,  they  would  prove  no  doubt  most 
 valuable  as  guides.  While,  however,  the  changes  are  chronicled 
 with  care,  the  motives  for  them  do  not  appear,  and  the  minute 
 record  of  them  is  not  followed  by  its  highest  appropriate  result. 
 The  eighth  organization  of  this  institution  took  place  in  1832, 
 and  was  in  general  in  full  force  when  I  visited  it  in  1837.  The 
 special  regulations  of  the  school  are  subordinate  to,  and  in  con- 
 formity with,  the  decree  of  1832. 
 
 The  immediate  control  of  the  institution  is  vested  in  a  military 
 commandant,  a  general  officer,  who  must  have  been  a  pupil  of 
 the  school.  He  is  responsible  for  the  execution  of  the  rules  and 
 regulations  relating  to  instruction,  police,  and  administration, 
 and  reports  directly  to  the  minister  of  war.  He  is  assisted  in 
 his  duties  by  the  second  commandant,  who  has  special  charge 
 of  the  police  and  discipline.  The  commandant  is  president,  and 
 the  second  in  command  a  member  of  all  boards  or  councils. 
 The  other  members  of  the  military  staff  are  four  captains,  hav- 
 ing the  title  of  inspectors  of  studies  and  military  exercises,  and 
 commanding  the  pupils  when  under  arms;  one  captain,  called 
 
544  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 instructor,  avHo  has  the  immediate  direction  of  the  military  ex- 
 ercises, and  the  clothing,  arms,  and  fjiiarters;  and  four  adjutants, 
 who  have  chart^e  of  the  details  of  the  internal  police  of  the  in- 
 stitution and  of  the  military  exercises.  The  king  appoints  the 
 two  commandants  on  the  nomination  of  the  minister  of  war; 
 the  other  officers  are  appointed  by  the  minister  directly.  The 
 arrangements  for  the  superintendence  of  instruction,  of  the  do- 
 mestic economy,  &c.,  will  be  noticed  under  their  appropriate 
 heads. 
 
 Admission.  The  number  of  pupils  admitted  each  year  de- 
 pends upon  the  probable  vacancies  in  the  several  corps  sup- 
 plied by  the  school,  and  is  stated  at  the  time  of  the  annual  pub- 
 lication of  the  conditions  of  admission.  The  averaGjc  number 
 admitted  yearly,  from  179G  to  1837,  was  about  one  hundred 
 and  thirty-four,  and  the  number  in  1830  was  one  hundred  and 
 twenty-six.  The  total  number  in  the  two  classes  of  the  school 
 has  fluctuated  considerably,  but,  since  1831,  has  averaged 
 rather  more  than  three  hundred  and  one.  Every  native  of 
 France,  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  seventeen,  may  be  a 
 candidate  for  admission,  and  special  exceptions  are  made,  until 
 twenty-five  years  of  age,  in  favour  of  those  who  belong  to  the 
 military  service.  Each  applicant  registers  his  name  at  the  pre- 
 fecture of  the  department  in  which  he  resides,  and  is  examined 
 for  admission  in  the  district  to  which  he  belongs,  or  where  he 
 is  under  instruction.  With  this  registry  is  deposited  the  certi- 
 ficate of  the  date  and  circumstances  of  birth,  a  certificate  of  vac- 
 cination or  of  having  had  the  small-pox,  and  of  general  health, 
 and  an  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  parent  or  guardian  to  pay 
 tlie  sum  of  one  thousand  francs  (about  two  hundred  dollars) 
 yearly  to  the  school,  in  case  of  admission. 
 
 The  subjects  upon  which  a  candidate  is  examined  are — 1. 
 Arithmetic,  in  all  its  branches.  2.  Elementary  geometry.  3. 
 Algebra.  4.  Plane  trigonometry.  5.  Statics  treated  syntheti- 
 cally. 6.  Elements  of  analytical  geometry.  7.  The  use  of  the 
 logarithmic  tables.  8.  Latin,  as  far  as  it  is  taught  in  the  rhetoric 
 class  of  the  colleges,  and  French  composition.  9.  Drawing, 
 with  the  crayon  and  with  instruments.     If  the  candidate  pos- 
 
POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE.  545 
 
 sesses,  in  addition,  a  knowledge  of  physics,  chemistry,  Ger- 
 man, and  of  India  ink  drawing,  they  are  taken  into  the  ac- 
 count. From  the  great  excess  in  the  number  of  appHcations 
 over  the  numbers  of  pkiccs,  the  competition  is  necessarily  very 
 severe,  and  it  appears  from  the  register  of  applications  and 
 admissions,  that  since  179G,  fourteen  thousand  one  hundred  and 
 sixty-four  candidates  have  been  examined,  and  only  five  thou- 
 sand five  hundred  and  two  admitted.  The  proportion  is  even 
 smaller  in  later  years;  in  183G,  of  six  hundred  and  eighteen 
 pupils  examined,  one  hundred  and  twenty-six,  or  only  about 
 one-fifth,  were  admitted.  All  who  apply  do  not  come  forward 
 to  these  examinations:  in  1836,  seven  hundred  and  forty-six 
 names  were  inscribed,  and  but  six  hundred  and  eighteen  candi- 
 dates presented  themselves,  so  that  the  number  of  original  appli- 
 cants, in  1836,  was  actually  six  times  that  of  the  places  to  be  filled. 
 There  are  four  examiners  appointed  annually  by  the  minister 
 of  war,  on  the  nomination  of  the  council  of  instruction  of  the 
 school.  These  divide  between  them  the  different  districts  in 
 which  the  examinations  are  to  be  held,  and  repair,  at  a  stated 
 time,  between  the  first  of  August  and  tenth  of  October,  to  the 
 place  appointed.  The  performance  of  the  candidates  is  re- 
 gistered according  to  a  scale  of  marks,  as  nearly  uniform  as 
 the  judgment  of  different  individuals  allows;  these  registers 
 being  compared,  the  candidates  are  admitted  in  the  order 
 of  merit,  thus  determined,  as  far  as  the  number  of  vacancies 
 permits,  the  admission  being  made  by  the  decision  of  a  board, 
 the  composition  of  which  will  be  presently  stated.  Thus  this 
 truly  national  institution  is  thrown  open  to  all  of  suitable  age, 
 and  their  admission  depends  solely  upon  their  talents  and  ac- 
 quirements. The  successful  candidates  are  informed  of  the 
 result  of  their  examination,  and  join  the  school  early  in  No- 
 vember. They  are  received  by  a  board  (jury)  of  examiners, 
 who  subject  them  to  a  second  examination,  intended  to  verify 
 the  first,  and  to  the  inspection  of  a  surgeon.  This  board  con- 
 sists of  the  two  commandants,  the  director  of  studies,  the  two 
 permanent  examiners  attached  to  the  school,  and  the  four  ex- 
 aminers for  admission. 
 69 
 
546  GENERAL  EDUCATION.        SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 While  pupils  are  admissible  to  this  school  as  early  as  sixteen 
 years  of  age,  they  are  usually  older  on  entering;  of  one  hun- 
 dred and  twenty-six  pupils  admitted  in  183G,  seventy-four  were 
 twenty  years,  and  thirty-six  nineteen  years  of  age.  There  are 
 twenty-four  gratuitous  places  for  pupils  whose  families  arc  in 
 needy  circumstances;  of  these,  twelve  are  at  the  disposal  of  the 
 minister  of  war,  eight  of  the  minister  of  commerce,  and  four  of 
 the  minister  of  marine.  These  bursaries  may  be  halved.  No 
 pupil  who  is  lower  than  two-thirds  from  the  head  of  the  list,  in 
 the  order  of  merit  at  admission,  is  eligible  to  a  bursary  or  half 
 bursary. 
 
 Besides  the  students  thus  regularly  entering  the  school,  a 
 certain  number  of  youths  are  permitted  to  attend  the  lectures 
 (auditcurs  libres).  The  majority  of  these  are  foreigners.  There 
 were  thirty-three  such  "auditeurs"  in  1835-6,  and  forty-five  in 
 1836-7.  Among  these  were  Englishmen,  Belgians,  Germans, 
 Poles,  Italians,  Greeks,  Wallachians,  Turks,  Egyptians,  Mexi- 
 cans, and  Brazilians.  Not  one  citizen  of  the  United  States 
 was  enjoying  this  privilege. 
 
 Instruction.  The  highest  executive  authority  in  matters  of  in- 
 struction, is  the  director  of  studies.*  This  ofhce  was  created 
 in  1804,  previous  to  which  time  the  council  of  instruction  had 
 discharged  its  duties.  The  director  of  studies  oversees  the 
 details  of  instruction,  being  immediately  responsible  to  the  com- 
 mandant of  the  school.  He  is  appointed  by  the  king,  on  the 
 joint  nomination  of  the  council  of  instruction  of  the  school 
 and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  is  a  member  of  all 
 boards  convened  in  rclati(jn  to  its  aflhirs.  A  council,  termed 
 the  council  of  instruction  (conseil  d'instruclion),  and  composed 
 of  the  two  commandants,  the  director  of  studies,  the  professors 
 of  the  school,  one  master,  appointed  annually  by  the  teachers 
 from  among  their  number,  and  the  librarian,  who  acts  as  se- 
 cretary, meets  once  a  month  for  the  discussion  of  business  re- 
 lating to  instruction.     When  changes  are  rccjuired  in  the  courses 
 
 *  To  the  director  of  studies,  the  eminent  pliilosoplier  INI.  l.)ulon<r,  whose  loss 
 has  since  been  so  deeply  deplored  by  the  scientific  world,  I  am  indebted  for  an 
 opportunity  of  visitinp  tlio  school,  and  of  being  present  at  its  examinations. 
 
POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE.  547 
 
 or  in  the  examinations,  they  are  discussed  in  this  council  and 
 referred  to  a  second,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  chief 
 legislative  body,  in  regard  to  the  subjects  composing  the  in- 
 struction. 
 
 This  council,  termed  the  council  of  improvement  (conseil 
 de  perfectionnement),  consists  of  the  two  commandants,  the 
 director  of  studies,  the  five  examiners  in  the  school,  one  ex- 
 aminer for  admission,  three  members  of  the  Academy  of 
 Sciences,  three  professors  in  the  school,  and  a  member  from 
 each  of  the  branches  of  the  public  service  into  which  the  gra- 
 duates enter. 
 
 The  officers  directly  concerned  in  instruction  are,  the  pro- 
 fessors and  the  repeaters  (repetiteurs).  The  professors  and 
 masters  are  appointed  by  the  minister  of  war  on  the  joint  no- 
 mination of  the  council  of  instruction  and  of  the  particular  Aca- 
 demy of  the  Institute  in  which  the  subject  of  instruction  is 
 classed.  The  professors  communicate  instruction  by  lecture 
 and  by  general  interrogations  of  the  pupils.  The  repeaters 
 conduct  the  special  interrogations,  and  give  aid  to  the  pupils 
 while  engaged  in  study.  The  title  of  "repeater"  is,  no  doubt, 
 derived  from  the  original  duty  of  these  teachers  having  been  to 
 go  over  the  lessons  of  the  professors.  The  repeaters  do  the 
 more  laborious  work  of  instruction,  and  since  their  substitution 
 for  the  pupil  teachers,  who  were  employed  in  the  earlier  period 
 of  the  existence  of  the  school,  have  been  considered  most  im- 
 portant officers.  There  were  attached  to  the  institution,  in  1837, 
 ten  professors,  five  masters,  and  twelve  repeaters.  Some  of 
 the  most  distinguished  professors  have  risen  from  the  rank  of 
 repeaters. 
 
 There  are  two  divisions  of  the  pupils  for  instruction,  corres- 
 ponding to  the  two  years'  duration  of  the  courses.  No  pupil 
 is  allowed  to  remain  in  one  of  these  divisions  more  than  two 
 years,  nor  in  the  school  more  than  three.  To  proceed  from 
 the  first  division  to  the  second,  or  to  graduate,  an  examination 
 must  be  passed  upon  the  studies  of  the  year  then  just  elapsed. 
 Until  1798,  these  examinations  were  conducted  by  the  profes- 
 sors, but  now  tliere  are  examiners,  who  are  not  connected  with 
 
548  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR   PERIOD. 
 
 the  school.  Two  of  these  are  permanent,  and  appointed  by  tlie 
 minister  of  war  on  the  joint  nomination  of  the  Coun  :il  of  In- 
 struction and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  three  are  ap- 
 pointed annually  on  the  recommendation  of  the  council.  The 
 examinations  on  mathematics  and  analytical  mechanics,  and 
 of  members  of  the  graduating  class,  which  I  attended,  were 
 decidedly  superior  to  any  which  I  saw  abroad,  except  in  a 
 single  instance.  The  courses  of  the  first  year  are — analysis, 
 geometry,  mechanics,  descriptive  geometry,  application  of  ana- 
 lysis to  geometry,  physics,  chemistry,  French  composition, 
 topographical  drawing,  drawing  of  the  human  figure,  land- 
 scape drawing,  and  India  ink  drawing.  Those  of  the  second 
 year  are — a  continuation  of  the  analysis,  geometry,  mechanics, 
 physics,  chemistry,  and  drawing  of  the  first  year,  besides  ma- 
 chines, geodesy  and  social  arithmetic,  architecture,  and  the 
 German  language.  Up  to  1814,  there  were  courses  of  civil 
 engineering,  fortification,  and  the  science  and  art  of  war,  but 
 these  were  then  transferred  to  the  special  school  of  application 
 to  which  they  appropriately  belong.  The  dificrent  branches 
 are  not  all  taught  at  the  same  time,  and,  therefore,  do  not  all 
 extend  throughout  the  w  hole  of  the  year.  Instruction  is  given 
 in  physics  and  chemistry,  in  both  classes,  from  early  in  No- 
 vember to  the  middle  or  end  of  June,  or  the  beginning  of  July, 
 and  in  topographical  drawing,  from  November  to  the  begin- 
 ning of  June.  Iti  the  first  year's  courses  of  architecture  and 
 French,  and  in  the  second  year's  course  of  German,  from  the 
 same  date  to  the  close  of  June  or  the  first  week  in  July.  The 
 courses  of  analysis  and  geometry,  and  of  statics  and  dynamics, 
 in  the  first  year,  follow  each  other  in  succession,  as  also 
 those  of  descri[)tive  geometry  and  the  application  of  analysis. 
 The  same  is  the  case  in  the  second  year  with  the  courses  of 
 analysis  and  geometry,  of  mechanics  and  machines,  and  of 
 geodesy  and  social  arithmetic.  The  lectures  are  followed  by 
 revisions  and  general  interrogations,  to  which  the  closing  por- 
 tion of  the  period  of  the  course  is  devoted.  The  number  of  lec- 
 tures in  each  course  is  stated  in  the  followinir  table: 
 
POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE. 
 
 549 
 
 Table  of  the  number  of  lessons  in  the  different  departments  of  study  in  the  Po- 
 lytechnic School. 
 
 SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY. 
 
 Analysis  and  Geometry, 
 
 Mechanics,      .-- 
 
 Machines, 
 
 Descriptive  Geometry, 
 
 Analytical  Geometry, 
 
 Geodesy,      ...  
 
 Social  Arithmetic,     -     - 
 
 Physics, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Architecture, 
 
 French  Composition, 
 
 German  Language, 
 
 Topographical  Drawing, 
 
 Drawing  of  Human  Figures  &  Landscapes, 
 India  Ink  Drawing, 
 
 52* 
 33* 
 
 68 
 14 
 
 32 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 45 
 22 
 
 .2  ^ 
 
 '.2  "^ 
 
 44* 
 41* 
 22t 
 
 29t 
 6t 
 30 
 36 
 34 
 
 32 
 30 
 45 
 20 
 
 *  The  lessons  of  analysis  and  of  mechanics  include  lectures,  revisions,  and 
 general  interrogations  of  the  whole  class.  These  courses  belonging  to  the  same 
 department,  the  lectures  on  analysis  and  interrogations  upon  thein  occupy  one 
 part  of  the  year,  and  the  statics  and  dynamics  the  other.  The  courses  of  lectures 
 are  followed  by  a  general  review,  consisting  of  interrogations  by  the  professor 
 and  repeaters. 
 
 t  The  courses  of  machines,  geodesy,  and  social  aritlunctic,  in  the  second  year, 
 belong  to  the  same  department,  and  the  remark  just  made  in  relation  to  the  courses 
 of  analysis  and  mechanics  applies  also  to  them. 
 
550  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.       SUPERIOR  PKRIOD. 
 
 There  are  two  professors  of  mechanics  and  four  repeaters 
 for  the  course  of  analysis  and  mechanics,  and  two  professors 
 and  two  repeaters  for  that  of  chemistry.  The  courses  of  geo- 
 desy and  topography,  machines,  and  social  arithmetic,  are  un- 
 der the  same  professor,  who  has  a  repeater  as  an  assistant. 
 There  are  four  masters  for  the  drawing  department,  comprising 
 that  of  the  human  figure,  of  landscapes,  and  in  India  ink.  Each 
 of  the  other  subjects  have  a  professor  or  master  in  charge  of 
 them,  and  each,  except  the  master  of  topographical  drawing, 
 has  a  repeater. 
 
 1  fear  that  even  a  sketch  of  the  ample  programme  of  this 
 school  may  be  considered  as  leading  into  too  much  detail,  but 
 will  endeavour,  as  briefly  as  possible,  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
 nature  of  the  courses,  since  I  cannot  omit  what  are  justly  con- 
 sidered as  models  in  their  several  ways. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 First  Year.  Differential  and  integral  calculus,  to  include  the  rectification  and 
 quadrature  of  plane  curves,  and  of  curved  surfaces,  and  the  cubature  of  solids. 
 
 Second  Year.  Differential  and  intcg-ral  calculus  continued.  Elements  of  the 
 calculus  of  variations  and  of  finite  differences.     Formula)  of  interpolation,  &,c. 
 
 Mechanics. 
 
 First  Year.  Statics. — Composition,  and  equilibrium  of  forces.  Tlicory  of  pa- 
 rallel forces.  Of  the  centre  of  gravity.  Attraction  of  a  point  by  a  homogeneous 
 sphere.  Dynamics. — General  formula)  of  motion.  The  pendulum.  Projectiles. 
 Problems  in  physical  astronomy. 
 
 Second  Year.  Statics  continued.  Forces  applied  to  an  invariable  system. 
 Principle  of  virtual  velocities.  Application  to  simple  mechanics.  Dynamics. 
 D'Alcmbert's  principle.  Collision.  Moment  of  inertia,  &c.  Hydrostatics. 
 Hydrodynamics. 
 
 Every  lecture  of  analysis  or  mechanics  is  preceded  or  followed  by  intcrroga- 
 tions  by  the  professor.  Problems  are  given  out  for  solution.  The  repeaters 
 interrogate  the  pupils  three  times  per  week.  After  the  completion  of  the  course, 
 general  interrogations  take  place,  u[)on  the  whole  subject,  by  the  professors  and 
 repeaters. 
 
 Desckiptive  Geometry. 
 
 Problems  relating  to  the  right  line  and  j)lanc  (twelve  problems).  Tangent 
 planes  and  normals  to  curved  surfaces  (tour  problems).  Intersections  of  surfaces 
 (seven  problems).     Miscellaneous  problems  (seven). 
 
 Applications  of  Descriptive  (ieometry.     Problems  with  a  single  plane  of  pro- 
 
POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE.  551 
 
 jection,  and  a  scale  of  declivity.     Linear  perspective  (three  problems).     Shadows 
 (three  problems).     Stone  cutting  (seven  problems).     Carpentry  (four  problems). 
 India  ink  drawing.     Elements  in  four  examples. 
 
 Analytical  Geometry. 
 
 The  right  line  and  plane.     Curved  surfaces. 
 
 The  professor  may  precede  or  follow  his  lectures  by  interrogations.  During 
 the  course  the  class  is  examined  by  the  repeaters,  and  at  the  close  of  the  studies 
 of  Analytical  Geometry  there  is  a  general  review. 
 
 Machlnes,  Astronomy,  Geodesy,  and  Social  Arithmetic. 
 
 Elements  of  machines.  Machines  for  transporting  burthens  and  for  pressure. 
 For  raising  liquids.  Moved  by  air,  by  water,  by  steam.  Useful  effect  of  ma- 
 chines. 
 
 Astronoimj  and  Geodesy.  Formula?  of  spherical  trigonometry.  Measurement 
 of  space  and  time.  Of  the  celestial  bodies.  Of  the  earth.  Elements  of  physical 
 geography  and  hydrography.  Geodesy.  Instruments.  Figure  of  the  earth. 
 Projection  of  maps  and  charts. 
 
 Elements  of  the  calculation  of  probabilities.  Tables.  Insurances.  Life  in- 
 surance, &.C. 
 
 Interrogations  by  the  professor  accompany  the  lessons.  Those  by  the  repeater 
 must  be  at  least  as  frequent  as  those  by  the  professor.  At  the  close  of  the  princi- 
 pal courses  there  is  a  general  review,  in  the  way  of  interrogation,  by  the  professor 
 and  repeater. 
 
 Physics. 
 
 First  Year.  1.  General  properties  of  bodies.  Falling  bodies.  Principle  of 
 equilibrium  of  fluids.  Specific  gravities.  2.  Heat.  Radiation,  conduction,  &,c. 
 Vapours.  Latent  heat.  3.  General  constitution  of  the  atmosphere.  Hygrome- 
 try.  4.  Molecular  attraction.  Capillary  action.  5.  Electricity.  Laws  of  attrac- 
 tion, repulsion,  distribution,  &c.  Atmospheric  electricity.  Modes  of  developing 
 electricity. 
 
 Second  Year.  6.  Magnetism.  Phenomena  and  laws  of  magnetism.  Instru- 
 ments. Reciprocal  action  of  magnets  and  electrical  currents.  Electro-djmamics. 
 Mutual  actions  of  electrical  currents.  Thermo-electric  phenomena.  7.  Acous- 
 tics. Of  the  production,  propagation,  velocity,  &c.,  of  sound.  Acoustic  instru- 
 ments.    8.  Optics.     Mathematical  and  physical  optics.     Optical  instruments. 
 
 During  the  whole  course  the  repeaters  interrogate  each  division  twice  every 
 week;  they  go  through  the  study-rooms,  and  give  any  explanations  which  may 
 be  required  by  the  pupils. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 First  Year.  General  principles.  Division  of  the  course.  Examination  of  the 
 principal  simple  substances.  Mixtures  and  binary  compounds.  Laws  of  definite 
 proportions,  &c.  Ilydracids.  Oxacids  and  oxides.  Bases.  Neutral  binary 
 compounds.     Salts.     Principal  metals. 
 
 Second  Year.  Reciprocal  action  of  acids  and  oxides.  Action  of  water  upon 
 salts.  Laws  of  Ecrthollet  discussed.  General  properties  of  the  carbonates,  and 
 special  study  of  some  of  the  more  important.     Borates  and  silicates.     Glass  and 
 
552  OENEKAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR   PERIOD. 
 
 pottery.  Nitrates.  Gunpowder.  Phosphates,  «Sl,c.  Sulphates.  Chlorates. 
 Chromatcs  and  other  classes  of  salts,  with  details  as  to  the  more  important.  Ex- 
 traction of  the  metals  from  their  ores,  methods  of  refining,  &,c.  Organic  che- 
 mistry.    Vegetable  substances.     Animal  substances. 
 
 This  course  is  accompanied  by  manipulations  in  the  laboratory  of  the  institu- 
 tion, in  which  the  most  useful  preparations  of  the  course  are  made  by  the  pupils 
 themselves.  They  arc  also  taught  the  principles  of  analysis,  both  mineral  and 
 organic,  practically. 
 
 Architecture. 
 
 Component  parts  of  edifices.  General  principles.  Materials.  Foundations. 
 Strength.  Forms  and  proportions  of  the  parts  of  buildings.  Floors.  Roofs, 
 arches,  «fcc.  General  principles  of  the  compositions  of  parts  of  edifices.  Illustra- 
 tions of  the  different  varieties  of  parts,  as  porticos,  porches,  vestibules,  halls,  «fcc. 
 Composition  of  an  edifice.  Varieties  of  buildings— as  colleges,  hospitals,  prisons, 
 barracks,  &c. 
 
 The  pupils  copy  from  the  board  the  sketches  of  the  professor,  and  draw  them 
 carefully  when  required.  At  the  close  of  the  lectures  there  are  four  different  sub- 
 jects  assigned,  upon  each  of  which  there  is  a  competition.  The  pupils  are  classi- 
 fied according  to  the  result  of  these  competitions,  and  of  the  marks  for  their  gra- 
 phic exercises  during  the  course.  The  best  designs  are  exhibited.  Three  India 
 ink  drawings  are  made  on  architectural  subjects  during  this  course. 
 
 French  Composition. 
 
 The  course  consists  principally  in  tlie  writing  of  essays  and  compositions  by 
 the  pupils,  which  arc  subsequently  criticised  during  the  recitations. 
 
 German  Language. 
 
 Elements  of  tlie  language.  Grammar  reading.  Themes  and  versions.  Every 
 lecture  is  followed  by  an  examination  of  an  hour  and  a-half  in  duration,  by  tlie 
 professor  or  repeater.  There  are,  besides,  exercises  of  pronunciation  and  common 
 conversation. 
 
 Topography. 
 
 Exercises  in  tojwgraphical  drawing.  Different  modes  of  representing  the 
 ground  by  horizontal  curves,  the  projections  of  lines  of  greatest  declivity,  and  by 
 shading.  Conventional  signs.  Lettering.  The  exercises  of  the  second  division 
 are  preceded  by  lessons  from  the  professor  of  geodesy,  explanatory  of  the  tlieory. 
 
 Drawing  of  the  Human  Figure  and  Landscape  Drawing. 
 
 In  the  first  branch  tlic  pupils  are  divided  into  two  classes,  one  of  which  copies 
 engravings,  and  the  oilier  draws  from  models.  On  entering  the  school  the  pupils 
 are  classified  according  to  the  drawings  which  they  made  at  the  examination  for 
 admission.  They  are  then  divided  into  two  sections,  of  as  nearly  equal  strength 
 as  possible,  and  assigned,  each  one,  to  a  master,  with  whom  tliey  remain  during 
 their  course.  One  of  the  drawing-mastcrs  is  specially  charged  with  the  course  of 
 drawing  from  caats  and  from  nature.  At  the  beginning  of  the  second  year,  the 
 highcBt  third  of  the  pupils  of  each  section  of  the  former  first  division  go  to  tlie 
 
POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE.  553 
 
 teacher  of  drawing  in  water  colours,  and  remain  for  two  months.  They  return 
 to  their  sections,  and  are  replaced  by  the  next  division,  each  pupil  occupying'  a 
 third  of  the  second  year  in  this  kind  of  drawing.  Tlie  merits  of  the  drawings 
 are  judged  every  two  months.  After  the  first  of  May  the  ordinary  drawing  les- 
 sons are  replaced  by  those  in  water  colours. 
 
 Besides  these  regular  studies,  there  are  from  twelve  to  fifteen  lectures  on  ana- 
 tomy and  physiology,  given  towards  the  close  of  the  second  year,  during  hours 
 not  devoted  to  the  regular  branches,  and  which  it  is  optional  with  the  pupils  to 
 attend  or  not.     Fencing,  music,  and  dancing  lessons,  are  also  given. 
 
 During  the  interrogations  by  the  professors  and  repeaters, 
 notes  are  taken  of  the  merit  of  the  answers  of  the  pupils,  accord- 
 ing to  a  uniform  scale  of  marks.  These  are  communicated 
 with  the  subjects  of  each  lecture  or  recitation  to  the  director  of 
 studies,  and  placed  upon  record,  as  assisting  in  determining  the 
 merit  of  the  pupils.  The  examiners  mark  according  to  the 
 same  scale.  The  pupils  are  classified  after  the  examinations  in 
 the  several  departments,  and  in  taking  the  average  for  the  stand- 
 ing in  general  merit,  a  diflferent  weight  is  allowed  to  the  difl^erent 
 courses.  Mathematics  counts  most,  and  then  the  graphic  exer- 
 cises, descriptive  geometry  and  geodesy  united,  and  the  con- 
 duct of  the  pupils,  count  the  same — ^^then  physics  and  chemistry. 
 The  graphic  exercises  of  the  course  occupy  a  very  considerable 
 part  of  the  time  of  the  pupils;  indeed,  by  some  intelligent  indi- 
 viduals, friends  of  the  school  and  of  its  general  arrangements, 
 this  portion  of  the  course  is  thought  to  have  received  too  great 
 an  extension. 
 
 The  examinations  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  two  years  of  study 
 are  divided  into  four;  the  first,  on  the  courses  of  the  first  year, 
 including  analysis,  part  of  analytical  geometry,  and  mechanics; 
 the  second,  on  chemistry;  the  third,  on  physics;  the  fourth,  on 
 descriptive  geometry  and  its  applications,  and  part  of  analytical 
 geometry.  The  examination  at  the  close  of  the  second  year  is 
 divided  as  follows: — First,  analysis,  analytical  geometry,  me- 
 chanics, effects  of  machines  and  social  arithmetic.  Second, 
 chemistry.  Third,  physics.  Fourth,  geodesy,  description  of 
 machines,  and  architecture.  The  examinations  on  analysis 
 and  its  applications,  and  mechanics,  are  conducted  by  the  two 
 permanent  examiners.  The  pupils  are  examined  singly  and 
 70 
 
654  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 without  the  presence  of  their  comrades,  and  each  examiner 
 occupies  a  separate  room.  Where  the  branches  admit  of  it, 
 the  examinations  are  viva  voce,  the  student  using  the  black- 
 board when  rc(juired. 
 
 After  the  examinations  are  completed,  the  results  are  report- 
 ed to  a  Board,  wlio,  with  all  the  materials  before  them  from  the 
 examiners  and  from  the  school,  decide  whether  the  pupils  may- 
 pass  to  the  higher  division,  or  arc  admissible  into  the  public 
 service,  according  to  the  division  to  which  they  belong.  This 
 board  ("jury")  consists  of  the  two  commandants,  the  director  of 
 studies,  the  two  permanent  and  three  temporary  examiners. 
 
 Few  of  the  pupils  do  not  pass  these  examinations,  severe  as 
 they  are,  which  is  attributable  to  the  closeness  of  the  examina- 
 tions for  admission.  In  1836,  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-one 
 pupils  examined  in  each  of  the  divisions,  only  eight  in  the  higher 
 and  five  in  the  lower  were  required  to  go  over  their  courses. 
 This  is  a  great  gain  to  the  institution  in  every  resj>ect,  on  the 
 score  of  moral  and  intellectual  progress,  as  well  as  of  discipline 
 and  economy. 
 
 The  arrangement  of  the  time  allotted  to  study,  like  the  simi- 
 lar points  in  regard  to  instruction,  is  a  matter  of  very  minute 
 regulation.  The  pupils  study  in  large  rooms,  conveniently  fitted 
 up  for  the  purpose,  and  where  they  receive  by  lot,  at  entrance, 
 places  which  they  retain,  in  general,  during  the  course.  The 
 interrogations  or  recitations  take  place  in  rooms  adapted  to  that 
 purpose,  separate  from  the  larger  lecture  halls.  These  recitation- 
 rooms  are  also  open  to  the  pupils  in  winter,  during  recreation 
 hours,  and  after  supper;  and  in  summer,  whenever  the  weather  is 
 bad,  so  as  to  prevent  them  from  spending  the  time  in  the  open  air, 
 besides  at  certain  stated  periods  belore  the  examinations.  The 
 superintendence  of  studies,  so  far  as  entrusted  to  the  pupils,  will 
 be  described  under  the  head  of  discipline.  The  repeaters  are 
 present  during  the  periods  devoted  to  the  studies  of  their  seve- 
 ral departments,  and,  excei)t  in  the  cases  of  the  graphic  exer- 
 cises, where  it  is  not  allowed,  are  expected  to  give  assistance 
 to  the  pupils  who  ask  for  it. 
 
 The  order  of  the  day  in  the  institution  is  arranged  with  a 
 
POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE.  555 
 
 view  to  bring  the  lectures,  recitations,  and  studies  of  particular 
 branches,  together.  Besides  this,  there  are  study-Iiours,  called 
 free,  in  which  the  student  may  employ  himself  as  he  pleases 
 otherwise  than  in  drawing  of  any  kind  (graphic  exercises)! 
 The  following  table,  which  contains  the  order  of  the  day  for 
 the  lower  class  during  the  first  half  of  the  year,  with  the  subse- 
 quent remarks  giving  the  variation  from  it  in  the  second  pe- 
 riod, will  show  sufficiently  the  principle  of  arrangement.  The 
 dotted  lines  in  the  vertical  columns  signify  that  the  duties  are 
 not  necessarily  according  to  the  order  of  time  as  laid  down  in 
 the  table,  but  that  one  may  take  the  place  of  the  other. 
 
556 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 ;^ 
 
 s 
 
 = 
 
 >< 
 
 ? 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 5" 
 
 1 
 
 §■ 
 
 v; 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 a" 
 
 1 
 
 >5 
 
 G  to  6i 
 
 Rise  at  SIX.    Roll  call  in  the  study-rooms  at  half  past  six. 
 
 o'clock. 
 6.i  to  8 
 
 Frti-  study  in  the  study-rooms. 
 
 Rreakfast. 
 
 8io8i 
 
 r- 
 
 Police. 
 
 IV" 
 
 5  if 
 
 Pf' 
 
 >r 
 
 ^5  ^ 
 
 ^cP 
 
 5* 
 •2 
 
 c          — 
 
 c 
 
 § 
 
 3-       "• 
 
 Sgcr, 
 
 -    £    C 
 
 CD 
 
 5- 
 
 g 
 
 SS    - 
 
 r  - 
 
 £  5 
 
 t-^ 
 
 "5  s 
 
 2.  E 
 
 •;<  5 
 
 a 
 
 i^  s 
 
 -1  - 
 
 p 
 
 w   -• 
 
 "c  "" 
 
 ^.  '~ 
 
 it'  ~- 
 
 "3    — 
 
 ?? 
 
 c  ? 
 
 1    1 
 
 t* 
 
 %  7 
 
 rt  7 
 
 ?=- 
 
 pr  ^ 
 
 ?=  - 
 
 -     r»           ^ 
 
 ?;i 
 
 5?s. 
 
 ^  -  - 
 
 ^irs. 
 
 n  ;:•■< 
 
 ^  s -^ 
 
 »!'••-< 
 
 "  - 
 
 '^  c 
 
 -0   = 
 
 ^5H 
 
 O 
 
 0 
 
 •C   3 
 
 fes^ 
 
 o 
 
 i=- 
 
 *   <:=5 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 o 
 
 E:2 
 
 pj 
 
 P 
 
 ? 
 
 c-J 
 
 ?.  =■=-. 
 
 to 
 
 p 
 
 0^^ 
 
 ?^- 
 
 c^:=- 
 
 ?':?^ 
 
 —  c 
 
 C    r. 
 
 cP;3=,  ? 
 
 ?  ST 
 
 i    IS 
 
 ?  7  7 
 
 5" 
 
 3 
 
 :ri  -s'2'i. 
 
 r'c' 
 
 |l| 
 
 "^-i 
 
 o 
 
 =  c^  2 
 
 c  —  t»  s 
 
 ^•?- 
 
 •    c 
 
 f^ 
 
 i=  r.j; 
 
 1    .         .- 
 
 =5  "  « 
 
 " 
 
 •iii' 
 
 c 
 
 ;;: 
 3? 
 
 3  *"  :;• 
 
 si 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
 lO 
 
 DiniRT. 
 
 2i>  to  3. 
 
 Recnatio 
 
 rt.  Exercise.  Fencir 
 
 ip.  Music 
 
 I 
 
 )aiicing.  Library. 
 
 3  to  5. 
 
 ^2.^■ 
 
 i-!? 
 
 ?r 
 
 3-^S 
 
 i- 
 
 *5  3^ 
 
 '  ii 
 
 p 
 
 *   c 
 
 a: 
 
 11; 
 
 £    S   3 
 
 o" 
 
 ;? 
 
 c  S 
 
 *-< 
 
 3-s:    — 
 
 ?H 
 
 ;-! 
 
 3 
 
 c   _ 
 
 '='=• 
 
 —    -  -    -- 
 
 C    S    -■ 
 
 n'3-- 
 
 7  =' 
 
 c- 
 
 s 
 
 D 
 
 1     I     1 
 
 •      1     1 
 
 _.»_-T 
 
 ^s? 
 
 £"-     T 
 
 -.--►^ 
 
 o_ 
 
 l=i 
 
 -. 
 
 3 
 
 ^-  *■ 
 
 •  S-g^ 
 
 E  5  p 
 
 r    i    C 
 
 1ft 
 
 "5- 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 •< 
 
 m 
 
 o" 
 
 Supper  at 
 
 ir 
 
 1 
 
 I? 
 
 B  «:  O 
 
 nine.     Uoll-rall  ii 
 
 1  thr  dor 
 
 iiitoim  Ht  half  jxnt  mnc.      lo  b«tl 
 
 OtolO 
 
 
 
 and  lights  uut  at  (< 
 
 •11,  or  on 
 
 Suiidny  at  half  past  l<  n. 
 
 o'clock. 
 
POLYTECHNie  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE.  557 
 
 The  alterations  in  this  programme,  between  the  first  of  May 
 and  the  end  of  the  scholastic  year,  are  very  trifling.  The 
 courses  of  analysis  have  been  completed,  as  well  as  that  of 
 analytical  geometry,  and  hence  are  no  longer  to  be  found  in  the 
 list  of  duties.  The  study-hours,  from  five  to  seven  on  Tuesday 
 and  Friday,  are  transferred  to  from  seven  to  nine,  and  the  two 
 hours,  from  five  to  seven,  are  occupied  in  water-colour  draw- 
 ings. 
 
 There  is  probably  no  school  richer  than  this  in  the  means  of 
 illustrating  the  various  courses  which  are  taught  in  it.  It  has 
 extensive  collections  of  physical  and  chemical  apparatus,  of 
 models  of  machines,  of  mathematical  instruments,  of  drawings 
 and  models  in  descriptive  geometry  and  its  applications,  and 
 in  topography,  and  of  drawings,  engravings,  and  casts  for  the 
 courses  of  drawing.  The  cabinets  of  apparatus  and  models 
 are  under  the  charge  of  three  curators  (conservateurs),  who 
 are  expected  not  only  to  keep  in  order  the  existing  collections, 
 but  to  add  to  them,  under  the  direction  of  the  professors. 
 
 While  such  ample  provisions  are  made  for  the  intellectual 
 education  of  the  pupils,  and  their  physical  education  is  attended 
 to  in  at  least  a  reasonable  degree,  I  am  not  aware  that  any  pro- 
 vision is  made  for  moral  or  religious  instruction  within  the 
 walls  of  the  institution,  or  for  regular  attendance  upon  such  du- 
 ties without  the  walls. 
 
 Discipline,  The  discipline  of  the  school  is  thoroughly  military, 
 and  the  means  of  carrying  it  out  in  all  its  strictness  are  provided. 
 The  regulations  are  very  minute,  and  fix,  in  detail,  the  pun- 
 ishment considered  equivalent  to  each  ofl^ence,  as  well  for 
 those  against  morals  as  transgressions  of  the  regulations  them- 
 selves. The  punishments  are — 1.  Private  admonition  by  the 
 commandant  or  vice-commandant.  2.  Public  reprimand  before 
 the  corps  of  pupils.  3.  Confinement  to  the  walls  of  the  institu- 
 tion, or  stoppage  of  leave.  4.  Confinement  to  the  house.  5. 
 Imprisonment  within  the  walls.  6.  Military  imprisonment.  7. 
 Dismission.  The  usual  punishment  for  trivial  oflences  is  the 
 stoppage  ("sortie"),  one  of  which  is  equivalent  to  a  deprivation 
 of  the  general  leave  of  absence  for  half  a-day.     This  may  be 
 
558  GEJfERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 awarded  by  an  officer  as  low  as  an  adjutant.  It  follows  cer- 
 tain specified  offences,  as  overstaying  a  leave,  when  the  num- 
 ber of  stoppages  is  in  proportion  to  the  time  of  overstaying  the 
 leave,  and  is  even  assigned  for  a  failure  in  recitation.  Im- 
 prisonment within  the  walls  can  only  be  awarded  by  the  com- 
 mandant, vice-commandant,  or  director  of  studies,  and  excludes 
 the  student  from  the  recitation-room.  Confinement  in  the  mi- 
 litary prison  requires  the  order  of  the  commandant,  who  reports 
 the  case  at  once  to  the  minister  of  war.  Dismission  cannot 
 take  place  without  the  sanction  of  the  minister.  Cases  of  dis- 
 cipline, supposed  to  involve  dismission  or  the  loss  of  a  bursary, 
 are  referred  to  a  board  called  the  council  of  discipline,  and 
 composed  of  the  two  commandants,  the  director  of  studies, 
 two  professors,  two  captain  inspectors,  the  captain  instructor, 
 and  one  administrate '. 
 
 For  military  exercises,  and  the  general  furtherance  of  dis- 
 cipline, the  pupils  form  a  battalion,  divided  into  four  companies, 
 each  division  of  the  school  forming  two  companies.  From 
 each  company  eight  petty  officers,  called  sergeants,  are  taken, 
 according  to  the  order  of  the  merit-roll  of  the  division,  making 
 thirtv-two  in  the  whole  battalion.  These  serojeants  are  distin- 
 guished  by  appropriate  military  badges.  The  sergeants  have 
 charge  of  the  other  pupils  in  the  study-rooms,  halls,  recitation- 
 rooms,  refector}^  laboratories,  and  lecture-rooms,  and  two  of 
 them  in  turn  are  joined  with  a  higher  officer,  an  adjutant,  in  the 
 inspection  of  the  food.  They  have  charge  in  general  of  the  de- 
 tails of  police.  The  second  sergeants  are  entrusted  with  the  col- 
 lection of  the  money  due  by  their  comrades  for  letters  and  other 
 authorized  expenses.     These  officers  are  appointed  once  a-year. 
 
 On  Wednesday,  from  half  past  two  in  the  afternoon  to  half 
 past  eight,  in  the  summer,  and  to  nine  in  the  winter,  and  on 
 Sunday,  from  after  inspection  to  ten  at  night,  the  jnipils  are 
 allowed  to  be  absent  from  the  institution.  They  arc  required 
 to  wear  their  uniform  when  abrc^ad.  On  their  return  they  sign 
 their  name  to  a  list  kept  by  the  porter,  who  marks  and  reports 
 the  lime  of  their  return.  A  certain  number  of  stoppages  is  as- 
 signed for  a  breach  of  punctuality,   according  to   its  extent. 
 
POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  OF  FRANCE.  569 
 
 On  certain  afternoons  the  parents  and  relations  of  pupils  are 
 permitted  to  see  them  in  the  parlour,  from  three  to  a  quarter  to 
 four.  The  pupils  do  not  perform  any  duties  of  police;  their 
 arms  are  cleaned  and  kept  by  an  armourer,  and  barrack-keep- 
 ers are  appointed  for  the  police  of  the  quarters — provisions  which 
 I  look  upon  as  defects. 
 
 Graduation.  As  already  stated,  the  board  of  examination 
 decide  formally  upon  the  claims  of  the  pupils  of  the  second  year 
 to  be  graduated,  and  arrange  the  rolls  in  the  order  of  merit. 
 The  pupils  then,  in  turn,  choose  the  department  of  the  public 
 service  which  they  wish  to  enter,  and  in  case  there  is  no  va- 
 cancy in  this  department,  are  still  entitled  to  priority  of  choice 
 in  other  branches  over  those  below  them.  The  school  has 
 supplied,  between  the  years  1795  and  183G,  four  thousand  and 
 thirty-six  members  to  the  public  service,  or  an  average  of  more 
 than  ninety-six  annually.  Of  these,  the  following  numbers  have 
 entered  the  different  branches  of  the  military  service,  namely: 
 the  artillery,  sixteen  hundred  and  ninety-six;  engineers,  nine 
 hundred  and  seventeen;  staff,  twenty-five;  geographical  engi- 
 neers, one  hundred  and  eight;  the  manufacture  of  saltpetre  and 
 powder,  nineteen:  the  infantry,  or  line  of  the  army,  one  hundred 
 and  nineteen;  total,  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  seventy- 
 six.  Besides  these,  there  have  entered  the  naval  service:  in  the 
 artillery,  fifty-five;  engineers,  one  hundred  and  eighteen;  hydro- 
 graphical  engineers,  thirteen;  navy  proper,  one  hundred  and 
 five;  total,  two  hundred  and  ninety-one.  Also  the  civil  service: 
 in  the  corps  of  mines,  one  hundred  and  thirty-six;  roads  and 
 bridges,  seven  hundred  and  eighteen;  tobacco,  seven;  total,  eight 
 hundred  and  sixty-one. 
 
 There  are  at  least  one  hundred  of  the  graduates  of  the  school 
 in  the  higher  branches  of  public  instruction,  but  as  they  have 
 left  the  services  just  enumerated  for  these  stations,  they  are 
 included  in  the  list  just  given.  In  1836,  of  one  hundred  and 
 twenty-one  graduates,  nine  only  did  not  enter  the  public  service. 
 As  an  additional  means  of  making  the  school  useful  to  the 
 country,  it  has  been  proposed  that  a  corps  of  architects  should 
 be  formed,  to  be  supplied  from  the  school,  and  further  to  exempt 
 
560  '        GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 those  graduates  who  wish  to  enter  the  career  of  scientific  in- 
 struction fronn  the  exannination  for  the  baccalaureate  of  sciences. 
 
 On  entering  these  several  services,  the  graduates  pass  to  the 
 schools  of  application,  or  special  schools,  intended  to  give  the 
 technical  preparation  necessary;  a  notice  of  those  which  prepare 
 for  civil  pursuits  will  be  found  at  the  close  of  this  article. 
 
 Madame  Laplace  has  recently  founded  a  prize,  to  be  given 
 to  the  first  on  the  list  of  graduates  fronn  the  school  every  year, 
 and  designed  to  testify  the  great  interest  which  her  deceased 
 husband  took  in  its  welfare.  Laplace  was  one  of  the  first  ex- 
 aminers of  the  candidates  for  graduation,  in  1796. 
 
 Domestic  Economy.  The  administration  of  the  fiscal  affairs 
 of  the  school  is  committed  to  a  board  consisting  of  the  com- 
 mandant and  vice-commandant,  the  director  of  studies,  two 
 professors,  designated  by  the  council  of  instruction,  two  inspec- 
 tors of  studies  in  turn,  according  to  rank,  the  administrator  or 
 steward  as  reporter  (rapporteur),  the  treasurer  as  secretary. 
 The  last  two  named  agents  are  consulting  members  only.  This 
 board  meets  twice  every  month.  It  prepares  the  estimates  for 
 the  expenses  of  the  school,  which  are  submitted  to  the  minister 
 of  war.  The  form  of  these  and,  indeed,  of  all  the  accounts, 
 is  laid  down  minutely  in  regulations. 
 
 The  payment  made  by  parents  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
 pupils  does  not  go  into  the  treasury  of  the  institution,  but  into 
 the  general  central  treasury  of  the  country.  The  school  fur- 
 nishes the  pupil,  for  a  stipulated  sum,  with  his  board,  lodging, 
 clothing,  and  petty  expenses.  For  repairs  of  clothing  and  petty 
 expenses,  a  special  sum  is  set  aside,  of  which  the  student  re- 
 ceives an  account.  Parts  of  the  supply  of  clothing,  (S:c.,  at  en- 
 trance, may  be  furnished  by  the  parents,  but  the  rest  is  supplied 
 by  the  schoul  at  the  parents*  expense. 
 
 The  steward  (administrateur)  is  the  executive  officer  of  the 
 domestic  economy  of  the  school — prepares  all  matters  of  busi- 
 ness for  the  consideration  of  the  council  of  administration,  and 
 the  estimates  of  every  kind,  regular  and  contingent;  presents 
 the  plans  and  estimates  of  the  architect  of  the  school  for  repairs 
 or    new   buildings,    and    superintends    their  execution    when 
 
SCHOOL  OF  ROADS  AND  BRIDGES  OF  FRANCE.  561 
 
 authorized;  makes  contracts  and  receives  the  articles  contract- 
 ed for;  has  charge  of  the  issue  of  all  articles,  of  the  storehouses, 
 and  of  the  servants ;  superintends  the  infirmary :  he  nominates 
 the  subordinate  persons  employed  in  his  department,  and  is  re- 
 sponsible directly  to  the  council,  in  virtue  of  the  authority  of 
 whicn  he  is  supposed  to  act. 
 
 Under  this  officer  are  the  treasurer  of  the  school,  who  also 
 acts  as  secretary  to  the  council  of  administration,  and  the  store- 
 keeper. The  librarian  and  curators  are  responsible  also  for 
 the  several  collections  under  their  charge.  A  physician,  at- 
 tached to  the  school,  makes  a  regular  daily  visit,  and  is  called 
 in  whenever  required.  He  has  two  health  officers  under  him, 
 for  the  service  of  the  infirmary,  and  the  sisters  of  charity  act 
 as  nurses. 
 
 Schools  of  Practice  into  which  the  Graduates  of  the 
 Polytechnic  School  pass. 
 
 It  will  be  recollected  that  the  services  into  which  the  gradu- 
 ates are  received  are  the  military,  naval,  and  civil.  There  are 
 special  schools  of  practice  for  the  land  artillery  and  engineers, 
 and  for  the  staff  or  topographical  engineers.  The  officers  who 
 have  charge  of  the  manufacture  of  powder  are  sent  to  the  dif- 
 ferent government  establishments  for  practice.  The  graduates 
 intended  for  the  naval  artillery  go  to  the  school  of  practice  for 
 the  land  artillery  at  Metz;  those  for  the  naval  engineers,  to  a 
 special  school  at  L'Orient.  The  hydrographical  engineers  enter 
 at  once  upon  the  actual  discharge  of  their  duties  in  subordinate 
 situations.  The  courses  in  these  schools,  or  the  apprenticeship 
 to  the  duties  of  the  service,  vary  from  two  to  three  years,  ac- 
 cording to  the  branch.  The  civil  services  have  the  schools  of 
 practice  for  the  corps  of  roads  and  bridges,  and  of  mines,  and 
 for  the  manufacture  of  tobacco. 
 
 SCHOOL  OF  ROADS  AND  BRIDGES. 
 
 The  corps  of  civil  engineers,  entitled  Corps  of  Roads  and 
 Bridges  (corps  de  ponts  et  chauss^es),  have  in  charge  all  the 
 71 
 
662  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 works  of  this  class,  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  which 
 the  government  is  responsible.  Their  special  school  at  Paris 
 was  founded  as  early  as  1747,  and  embraced  some  of  the  ac- 
 quisitions now  made  at  the  polytechnic  school.  Its  organiza- 
 tion, however,  appears  to  have  been  exceedingly  imperfect,  the 
 pupils  being  admitted  without  examination,  and  receiving  part 
 of  their  instruction  out  of  the  school.  At  present,  the  regular 
 pupils  are  admitted  from  the  polytechnic  school,  and  go  through 
 a  course  of  three  years.  The  branches  taught  consist  of  ap- 
 plied mechanics,  civil  architecture,  constructions,  mineralogy, 
 geology,  administrative  jurisprudence,  drawing,  and  the  English, 
 German,  and  Italian  languages.  There  are  examinations  at  the 
 close  of  each  year.  The  lectures  occupy  the  period  from  the 
 20th  of  November  to  the  1st  of  May.  During  the  intervening 
 time,  from  May  to  November,  the  students  of  the  second  and 
 third  years  are  sent  into  the  field  for  practice,  under  the  de- 
 partmental engineers.  The  pupils  receive  pay,  as  aspirants 
 (aspirans),  from  the  government  while  at  the  school,  and  may 
 rise  to  the  rank  of  engineer  of  the  second  class  in  three  years 
 from  the  period  of  leaving  it 
 
 SCHOOL  OF  MINES. 
 
 The  corps  of  mines  is  charged  with  the  execution  of  all  laws 
 relating  to  mines,  miners,  quarries,  and  furnaces,  and  with  the 
 promotion,  by  advice  or  personal  exertion,  of  the  branches  of 
 the  arts  connected  with  mining.  They  superintend  the  work- 
 ing of  mines,  and  are  responsible  for  the  safety  of  the  workmen, 
 the  due  preservation  of  the  soil,  and  the  economy  of  the  work. 
 They  also  have  the  special  superintendence  of  the  execution  of 
 the  laws  relating  to  the  safety  of  the  steam-engine.  They  have 
 two  schools  of  practice,  one  at  Paris,  called  the  school  of 
 mines,  the  other  at  St.  Eticnne,  called  the  school  of  miners.  The 
 duties  of  instruction  in  both  these  schools  are  confided  to  mem- 
 bers of  the  corps.  That  at  Paris  is  considered  to  rank  among 
 the  first  of  the  special  schools  of  France. 
 
 The  regular  pupils  of  the  school  of  mines  are  divided  into 
 
SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF  PARIS.  563 
 
 two  classes,  according  to  the  pay  received  from  the  govern- 
 ment. The  pupils  from  the  polytechnic  school  enter  the  se- 
 cond of  these  classes.  They  remain  at  the  school  not  less  than 
 two  nor  more  than  four  years.  During  the  winter  there  are 
 courses  of  mineralogy,  geology,  the  working,  refining,  and 
 assaying  of  metals,  the  working  of  mines,  drawing,  and  the 
 English  and  German  languages.  At  the  close  of  these  courses 
 the  pupils  are  examined. 
 
 The  students  of  the  first  year  are  employed  during  the  sum- 
 mer in  chemical  manipulation  in  the  laboratories  of  the  school, 
 which  are  admirably  provided  for  this  purpose,  in  making  geo- 
 logical excursions  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  and  in  the  use 
 of  surveying  instruments.  During  the  similar  periods  of  the  fol- 
 lowing years,  the  students  are  sent  into  the  departments,  and 
 sometimes  abroad,  to  make  particular  examinations  in  relation 
 to  their  profession,  and  on  their  return  are  expected  to  present 
 a  memoir  descriptive  of  their  investigations. 
 
 The  students  of  the  first,  or  highest  class,  are  present  at  the  sit- 
 tings of  the  general  council  of  mines,  to  familiarise  them  with  the 
 business  of  the  corps.  After  their  final  examination  they  are  class- 
 ed in  the  order  of  merit,  and  receive  their  first  promotion  accord- 
 ingly. The  scientific  collections  of  this  school  are  of  the  highest 
 interest.  Those  made  by  the  members  of  the  corps  of  mines, 
 and  specially  applicable  to  their  service,  could  not  be  replaced. 
 
 CENTRAL  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF  PARIS.* 
 
 This  school  was  founded  in  1829,  for  the  purpose  of  provid- 
 ing suitable  instruction  for  young  men  intending  to  become  civil 
 engineers,  superintendents  of  manufactories  and  work-shops, 
 architects,  machinists,  &c.  It  is  intended  to  aflxtrd  instruction 
 of  a  character  similar  to  that  of  the  polytechnic  school,  but 
 applicable  to  the  arts  in  general.     The  school  has,  since  its 
 
 *  M.  Lavallee,  director,  to  whose  kindness  I  am  indebted  for  an  opportunity 
 to  examine  the  scliool.  MM,  Dumas,  Peclet,  Paycn,  and  Milne  Edwards,  are 
 among  the  professors  of  this  institution. 
 
564  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 establishment,  been  recognised  by  the  government,  who  have 
 supplied  funds  for  the  admission  of  pupils  from  different  parts 
 of  France;  in  183G-7,  twenty-eight  pupils  were  thus  admitted, 
 whose  expenses  were  defrayed  entirely,  or  in  part,  from  a  spe- 
 cific appropriation  by  the  chamber.  The  society  for  the  en- 
 couragement of  national  industry,  in  France,  has  also  given 
 their  sanction  to  the  school,  by  establishing  six  half  bursaries, 
 to  be  filled  every  three  years. 
 
 Government  of  the  school  This  is  vested  in  a  general  director 
 and  council  of  studies,  who  delegate  a  portion  of  their  authority 
 to  a  director  of  studies.  The  director  has  the  general  administra- 
 tion of  the  establishment,  residing  in  it;  conducts  the  correspon- 
 dence, and  appoints  the  officers,  the  higher  ones  being  nominated 
 by  the  council.  The  council  of  studies  is  composed  of  the  di- 
 rector of  studies  and  of  a  certain  number  of  professors.  They 
 regulate  every  thing  relating  to  the  courses  of  instruction,  to 
 admissions,  to  examinations,  and  certificates  on  leaving  the 
 institution.  They  elect  their  president  and  secretary,  and  hold 
 monthly  meetings.  During  the  recess  of  this  council  they  are 
 replaced  by  a  council  of  order,  consisting  of  the  director  of 
 studies  and  at  least  one  professor,  w^ho  meet  weekly. 
 
 The  officers  of  the  school,  besides  the  general  director  and 
 the  director  of  studies,  are  the  professors  and  masters,  repeat- 
 ers (rept'titeurs),  and  preparers  (preparateurs).  The  repeaters 
 hear  the  recitation  upon  the  subjects  on  which  the  professors 
 have  lectured;  the  preparers  get  ready  the  experimental  part 
 of  the  lectures  on  chemistry  and  physics.  There  are  thirteen 
 professors,  two  masters,  and  six  repeaters,  besides  the  two  di- 
 rectors and  other  officers. 
 
 General  arrangements.  The  school  is  for  day-scholars  only, 
 but  when  requested,  the  director  recommends  a  place  of  resi- 
 dence for  the  pupil,  and  there  is,  in  fact,  a  boarding-house  in 
 the  neighbourhood  especially  established  for  the  reception  of 
 pupils  of  the  school  and  of  candidates  for  admission.  The  in- 
 stitution is  open  every  day,  except  Sunday  and  Thursday,  from 
 eight  until  four  o'clock;  on  Thursday,  from   eisjjht   until   one. 
 
SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  xMANUFACTURES  OF  PARIS.  565 
 
 Parents  who  reside  out  of  Paris  are  required  to  designate  a 
 friend  residing  there  as  guardian  to  their  son  at  his  entrance 
 into  the  school.  Implicit  obedience  to  the  regulations  and  to  the 
 orders  which  they  may  receive  is  required  of  the  pupils,  who, 
 if  they  consider  themselves  aggrieved,  have  recourse  to  the 
 council  of  studies. 
 
 Admission.  Pupils  may  be  admitted  at  sixteen  years  of  age, 
 if  they  have  the  necessary  attainments,  but  as  a  general  rule, 
 it  is  found  that  youths  at  this  early  period  have  not  sufficient 
 maturity  of  intellect  to  follow  the  courses  of  the  school  to  the 
 best  advantage.  The  examinations  for  admission  are  both  viva 
 voce  and  in  wi'iting.  Those  at  Paris  are  made  by  a  special  ex- 
 aminer, designated  by  the  council  of  studies:  in  other  parts  of 
 France  they  may  be  made  by  a  professor  of  mathematics  in  a 
 royal  or  communal  college,  and  in  other  countries  by  a  profes- 
 sor of  mathematics  in  a  university.  In  these  latter  cases  the 
 examiners  must  forward  certain  statements ;  among  these  must 
 be  a  certificate  that  at  least  twelve  questions  from  the  pro- 
 gramme of  the  school  have  been  answered  by  the  candidate 
 in  the  oral  examinations,  the  questions  being  specified,  and  a 
 number  appended  to  each  to  designate  the  character  of  the  an- 
 swer; another,  that  three  questions  from  the  same  source  have 
 been  answered  in  the  written  examination,  without  the  aid  of 
 books,  except  only  logarithmic  tables,  if  required.  There  must 
 further  be  a  certificate  of  the  moral  character  of  the  can- 
 didate. These  examinations  should  be  made  in  time  to  trans- 
 mit the  result  to  Paris  before  the  twenty-fifth  of  October.  The 
 applicants  are  informed  of  the  result  at  their  residence,  and  if 
 admitted,  must  join  the  school  before  the  tenth  of  November. 
 
 The  qualifications  for  admission  are  given  in  detail,  to  meet 
 the  requisition  above  stated;  they  may  be  stated,  generally,  as 
 follows : 
 
 Arithmetic.  The  four  ground  rules.  The  general  theory  of 
 numbers.  Vulgar  and  decimal  fractions.  Theory  of  fractions. 
 Decimals.     Svstem  of  weisjhts  and  measures. 
 
 Algebra.  The  ground  rules.  Simple  and  quadratic  equations. 
 Resolution  of  problems.    Proportions.    The  extraction  of  roots 
 
566  GENERAL   EDUCATION.       SUrERIOR   PERIOD. 
 
 and  raising  of  powers.     The  binomial  theorem.     Powers  and 
 root  of  polynomials.     Logarithms.     Progressions. 
 
 Geo7?2etry.  The  principal  propositions  of  plane,  superficial, 
 and  solid  geometry.  The  application  of  algebra  to  geometry. 
 Mensuration. 
 
 Besides  these  necessary  qualifications,  the  council  of  the 
 school  recommend  to  candklates  the  further  study  of  the  ele- 
 ments of  descriptive  geometry,  of  plane  trigonometry,  and  of 
 analytical  geometry,  and  to  acquire  some  general  ideas  of  phy- 
 sics and  chemistry.  They  are  particularly  advised,  also,  to 
 prosecute  drawing,  and  especially  ornamental  drawing. 
 
 Instruction.  The  full  course  at  the  central  school  lasts  three 
 years,  as  at  the  polytechnic  school.  "  The  instruction  is  com- 
 posed of  lectures,  of  daily  interrogations,  of  graphic  exercises 
 or  drawing  (travaux  graphiques),  of  manipulations  in  che- 
 mistry, stone-cutting,  carpentry,  physics  and  mechanics,  of 
 constructions,  problems,  plans,  partial  competitions,  or  trials 
 of  skill  by  the  pupils,  and  of  general  examinations." 
 
 The  studies  and  exercises  of  the  first  year,  as  well  as  the  lec- 
 tures of  the  succeeding  years,  are  obligatory  upon  all  the  pupils. 
 They  are  intended  to  lay  the  foundation  upon  which  the  special 
 courses  are  to  rest,  conveying  principles  applicable  to  all  arts. 
 The  drawings  and  manipulations,  and  the  projects  or  plans  for 
 worlv,  are  divided  into  two  sections,  one  general,  the  other  spe- 
 cial. The  four  sections  of  the  special  division  are,  first,  the 
 construction  of  machines  and  the  mechanic  arts:  second,  en- 
 gineering, building,  the  physical  arts,  as  warming,  lighting,  &c.; 
 third,  chemistry  applied  to  the  arts;  fourth,  mining  and  metal- 
 lurgy, or  the  working  of  metals.  The  pupil  decides  at  the  end 
 of  the  first  half  year  of  the  second  course  to  which  of  these  sec- 
 tions he  means  to  attach  himself 
 
 There  are  three  divisions,  or  classes,  corresponding  to  the 
 three  years  of  study,  to  proceed  from  one  to  the  other  of  which 
 the  pupil  must  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  on  the  subject  of 
 the  preceding  year. 
 
 The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  courses  of  the  three 
 years. 
 
SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF  PARIS.  56T 
 
 First  Ykar. 
 
 Descriptive  Geometry.  Tlicory,  and  applications  to  perspective,  sliades  and 
 shadows,  stone-cuttin<r  and  carpentry.  Tlie  pupils  reduce  the  demonstrations  to 
 writing-,  and  sketch  the  diagrams.  A  few  selected  problems  only  are  drawn 
 with  instruments. 
 
 Analytical  Geometry  and  Rational  (theoretical)  Mechanics.  Trig-onometry, 
 analytical  g-eometry.     Statics.     Dynamics,  liydrostaties,  hydrodynamics. 
 
 Theory  of  Machines. 
 
 General  Physics.  General  discussions.  Solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  bodies. 
 Heat.     Electricity.     Magnetism.     Light. 
 
 The  pupils  are  exercised  in  determining-  specific  gravities,  in  the  construction 
 of  the  thermometer,  the  use  of  the  hygrometer,  and  in  the  determination  of 
 heights  by  the  barometer. 
 
 General  Chemistry.  General  doctrines.  Simple  non-metallic  substances. 
 Selections  from  their  compounds,  with  oxygen.  Compounds  with  hydrogen. 
 The  metals.  General  properties  of  chlorides,  &c.  The  salts.  Organic  che- 
 mistry.    Vegetable  and  animal  substances. 
 
 Hygiene  and  Natural  History  applied  to  the  Arts.  The  first  part  of  the 
 course  is  composed  of  the  principles  of  physiology  and  hygiene.  The  second, 
 of  the  natural  history  of  organized  beings  which  yield  substances  useful  in  the 
 arts. 
 
 Second  and  Third  Years. 
 
 Descriptive  Geometry.  Explanations  by  the  professors,  and  modelling '  pro;, 
 blems  in  stone-cutting  in  plaster. 
 
 Rational  Mechanics.  Conclusion  of  the  course  begun  in  the  first  year,  with 
 numerous  applications,  and  the  solution  of  problems. 
 
 Theory  of  Machines.  This  course  is  divided  into  two  parts,  which  are  taught 
 alternately  every  two  years,  to  the  united  first  and  second  classes.  Section  A. 
 Elementary  machines.  Animal  power.  Hydraulic  machines.  Section  B.  Ap- 
 plication of  theory  to  the  machines  for  raising  water  or  transmitting  pressure. 
 Wind-mills  and  blowdng  machines.     Strength  of  materials. 
 
 Students  of  the  second  class  submit  elementary  plans  for  machinery  as  appli- 
 cations of  the  course,  and  those  of  the  first  class  more  enlarged  projects,  with 
 drawings,  calculations,  estimates,  and  descriptions. 
 
 Construction  of  Machines.  Section  A.  On  the  materials  used  in  the  con- 
 struction of  machines.  On  the  composition  of  machines  and  their  elementary- 
 parts.     Section  B.     On  the  erection  of  machines. 
 
 The  students  present  plans,  as  in  the  course  just  described. 
 
 Physics  applied  to  the  Arts.  Section  A.  Strength  of  materials.  Balances. 
 Heating.  Motion  of  air  in  pipes,  &,c.  Vaporisation.  Construction  of  lightning-- 
 rods.  Section  B.  Distillation.  Evaporation,  Dyeing.  Heating  of  gases  and 
 liquids.     Cooling  of  bodies.     Lighting. 
 
 These  lectures  occupy  the  first  half  of  each  year  in  these  two  classes.  The 
 plans,  drawings,  and  descriptive  memoirs  of  the  kind  before  referred  to  are 
 discussed  by  the  professor,  with  sections  of  the  class,  who  meet  twice  a  week  for 
 the  purpose.     The  pupils  also  construct  models  of  the  chimneys  and  furnaces 
 
568  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 described  in  the  course,  with  prisms  of  plaster,  of  one-fourth  tlic  size  of  ordinary 
 bricks.  These  are  executed  under  the  superintendence  of  the  professor  and 
 repeater. 
 
 Analytical  Chemistry.  The  course  consists  of  twenty  lessons  in  mineral  analy- 
 sis, and  sixteen  in  or<Tanic  analysis.  During'  tlie  course,  special  laboratories  are 
 open,  in  which  the  pupils,  in  turn,  practice  the  processes  most  useful  in  their  in- 
 tended callings. 
 
 Chemistry  applied  to  the  Arts.  Each  section  of  tlic  course  occupies  a  year, 
 and  consists  of  twelve  lectures.  Section  A.  Tlic  materials  drawn  from  tiie  earth 
 and  applicable  to  all  tlie  arts;  the  manufacture  of  mineral  preparations;  the  pre- 
 paration of  plaster,  lime,  and  mortar;  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  enamel,  and 
 glass;  the  extraction  of  metals;  the  composition  of  alloys;  the  different  applica- 
 tions of  raw  or  residual  matters  in  tlie  arts,  agriculture,  and  domestic  economy. 
 The  same  method  of  requiring  plans  and  memoirs,  as  above  described,  is  followed 
 in  this  course. 
 
 Architecture  and  Civil  Engineering.  Section  A.  Architecture,  elements  of 
 architectural  forms.  Discussion  of  different  buildings,  public  and  private,  ma- 
 sonry, carpentry,  joiner's  work,  lock-smith's  work,  roofing,  foundations,  esti- 
 mates, plans.  The  students  visit  different  works  in  the  course  of  erection,  and 
 arc  exercised  in  drawing  plans  and  in  taking  levels.  Section  B.  Roads ;  bridges 
 of  stone  and  wood;  suspension  bridges;  movable  bridges;  river  navigation;  canal 
 navigation;  supply  and  distribution  of  water. 
 
 Geognosy  and  Mining.  Section  A.  Geography,  phj^sical  geography,  mineralo- 
 gy, geology.  The  principal  mineral  and  geological  species  are  presented  to  the 
 students,  and  excursions  are  made  in  summer,  in  the  neighbourliood  of  Paris, 
 for  practice.  Section  B.  1.  Mining.  General  principles.  JNIeans  of  excavation. 
 Working  of  Mines.  Details  of  working.  Mining  jurisprudence.  2.  General 
 metallurgy.  Mechanical  preparation  of  the  ores.  Reduction  and  refining  of  the 
 different  metals. 
 
 Special  Metallurgy  of  Iron.  Section  A.  Smelting  furnaces  and  foundries. 
 Treatment  of  ores  to  obtain  cast  iron.  Refining  of  iron.  Section  B.  3Ianu- 
 facturc  of  iron  and  steel. 
 
 Special  Courses  for  the  Third  Year. 
 The  Steam-engine,  with  the  details  of  its  construction,  varieties,  and  applica- 
 tions. 
 
 Rail-roads.     Tlicir  construction,  and  tiic  means  of  locomotion  upon  them. 
 
 The  students  arc  examined  daily  upon  the  subjects  of  their 
 lectures,  by  the  professors  and  repeaters.  The  utility  of  this 
 latter  class  of  teachers  is  well  established  in  France,  and  they 
 arc  found  in  every  institution  in  which  lecturing  is  practised 
 to  a  great  extent  as  a  means  of  instruction;  they  prevent  tlie 
 burthen  of  teaching  from  falling  U})on  professors,  whose  duty 
 it  is  to  be  engaged  in  advancing,  as  well  as  in  propagating 
 science,  and  who  would  be  prevented  from  following  one  or 
 
SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF  PARIS.  569 
 
 Other  of  these  honourable  and  useful  careers,  by  having  the 
 duty  of  teaching  superadded  to  that  of  lecturing.  So  well 
 is  the  necessity  of  relieving  the  professor  understood,  that 
 in  all  courses  requiring  preparation,  special  persons  are  ap- 
 pointed, called  preparers,  who  take  off  this  burthen  also  from 
 the  professor.  The  result  is,  that  many  men  of  high  eminence 
 are  thus  enabled  to  diffuse  their  knowledge  among  students  by 
 lecturing,  and  are  willing  to  do  so,  though  they  have  other  and 
 more  profitable  employments,  to  which  they  would  exclusively 
 confine  themselves,  if  this  were  connected  with  teaching  by 
 interrogation  and  the  task  of  preparing  experimental  illustra- 
 tions. The  pupil  is  thus  greatly  the  gainer,  and  has  at  the 
 same  time  the  special  examination  upon  the  lectures  which  is 
 so  necessary  to  complete  the  instruction,  and  to  which  a  re- 
 peater is  entirely  competent.  Young  men  of  talent  seek  the 
 situations  of  repeaters  as  the  best  method  of  showing  their 
 particular  qualifications,  and  the  most  certain  road  to  a  pro- 
 fessorship. For  each  recitation  the  pupil  receives  a  mark,  and 
 the  roll  of  the  class  with  these  marks  being  preserved,  its  in- 
 dications are  combined  with  the  results  of  the  examination, 
 to  decide  upon  the  fitness  of  a  pupil  when  he  comes  forward 
 for  a  diploma. 
 
 The  graphic  exercises  consist  in  the  drawing  of  ornamental 
 work,  in  India  ink  drawing,  in  drawing  with  the  steel  pen  and 
 instruments,  and  in  sketching  the  diagrams  of  the  lectures  to  a 
 scale.  Great  importance  is  attached  to  this  part  of  the  course, 
 and  much  time  spent  in  it.  The  rooms  for  these  exercises  are 
 conveniently  arranged,  and  the  pupils  are  superintended  during 
 them  by  a  professor  or  a  repeater,  and  visited  occasionally  by 
 the  director  of  studies  or  his  deputies.  The  drawing-tables  are 
 so  arranged  that  the  pupils  stand  while  at  work,  which  at  their 
 age  is  very  desirable. 
 
 The  arrangements  for  chemical  manipulation  by  the  students 
 are  very  complete;  they  have  access  not  only  to  the  laborato- 
 ries of  the  two  professors,  but  to  others  which  are  devoted  to 
 special  branches.  During  the  first  year  every  student  is  em- 
 ployed in  laboratory  duty  once  a  week,  and  has  also  the  opporr 
 72 
 
570  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 tunity  of  performing  some  of  the  principal  physical  experiments. 
 They  are  superintended,  while  tlius  occupied,  by  repeaters. 
 During  the  first  half  year  of  the  second  course  the  students  are 
 called,  in  turn,  to  general  duty  in  the  laboratory;  and  during 
 the  second  half  of  the  same  year,  and  the  whole  of  the  third, 
 the  two  sections  who  follow  the  courses  of  chemistry  applied 
 to  the  arts  and  metallurgy,  are  em.ployed  in  manipulations  con- 
 nected with  them.  There  is  an  officer  for  their  superintendence, 
 called  the  director  (chef)  of  the  chemical  exercises,  who  is 
 subordinate  to  the  professor  of  chemical  analysis.  The  oppor- 
 tunities tlius  aftbrded  of  acquiring  a  general  practice  under  the 
 guidance  of  the  distinguished  professors  of  this  school  are  in- 
 valuable, and  form  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  the 
 establishment. 
 
 The  materials  for  constructing  models  of  some  of  the  more 
 useful  works,  and  apparatus  relating  to  the  arts,  are  furnished 
 to  the  pupils,  and  used  under  the  direction  of  their  instructors. 
 The  collections  of  mathematical  and  physical  apparatus,  and 
 in  technology,  are  very  respectable,  and  are  increasing,  it  being 
 clearly  understood  by  those  who  control  the  school,  that  these 
 and  similar  collections  are  of  essential  importance  to  the  suc- 
 cess of  the  courses.  There  is  a  library  of  works  relating 
 to  the  arts,  which  is  open  to  students  of  the  first  and  second 
 classes  on  stated  days,  and  during  particular  hours,  for  con- 
 sultation. 
 
 The  practical  application  of  the  subjects  taught  is  early  intro- 
 duced to  the  students  by  problems,  requiring  more  or  less  inge- 
 nuity in  their  solution;  from  these  the  next  step  is  to  require  the 
 detailed  plan  of  some  simple  work,  and  from  this  the  exercise 
 rises  to  the  drawings,  estimates,  and  descriptive  memoir  accom- 
 panying the  supposed  arrangement  of  some  complex  establish- 
 ment for  manufacturing  or  other  purpose  of  the  arts. 
 
 No  attempt  is  made  to  connect  practice  in  the  use  of  me- 
 chanical tools  with  that  in  general  mnnipulation,  even  as  a  spe- 
 cial course,  a  point  to  which  I  shall  have  occasion  to  recur, 
 as  one  of  the  (juestions  of  most  doubtful  solution  relating  to  this 
 class  of  schools. 
 
SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUrAOTURBS  Of  PARIS.  571 
 
 At  the  close  of  each  year  the  pupils  are  examined,  and  from 
 the  results  of  this  trial,  combined  with  their  marks  for  the  year, 
 and  the  graphic  exercises  which  they  present,  is  determined 
 according  to  the  class  to  which  the  pupils  belong,  whether  they 
 shall  be  allowed  to  pass  on  to  the  next  higher  class,  or  to  re- 
 ceive their  diploma.  The  course  begins  on  the  tenth  of  No- 
 vember, and  terminates  in  July.  The  examinations  are  com- 
 pleted before  the  tenth  of  August. 
 
 Graduation  of  the  pupils.  The  student  who  goes  through  the 
 courses  of  the  school  satisfactorily,  and  passes  a  final  examina- 
 tion upon  all  the  matters  required  of  him,  receives  the  diploma 
 of  civil  engineer.  One  who  does  not  come  up  to  the  require- 
 ments in  all  the  branches  may,  nevertheless,  receive  a  certificate 
 of  capacity  in  those  where  his  attainments  are  sufficient. 
 
 Students  of  the  third  class,  who  are  candidates  for  gradua- 
 tion, begin  the  exercises  for  that  purpose  on  the  fifteenth  of 
 June,  and  have  forty  days  to  prepare  them.  Each  of  the  four 
 sections  into  w^hich  the  pupils  are  divided,  namely,  mechani- 
 cians, constructors,  chemists,  and  metallurgists,  are  expected 
 to  complete  a  different  exercise,  consisting  of  a  plan  or  project 
 of  an  establishment,  the  drawings  in  relation  to  which  must  be 
 made  in  the  school,  and  which  must  be  accompanied  by  a  de- 
 scriptive memoir.  Every  student  is  examined  upon  his  work, 
 and  must  explain  and  defend  it.  The  drawings  and  memoirs 
 thus  executed  become  the  property  of  the  school,  and  are  fre- 
 quently very  useful  in  the  instruction. 
 
 The  strictness  of  the  council  of  studies,  in  exacting  high  quali- 
 fications for  diplomas,  has  had  the  effect  of  placing  the  charac- 
 ter of  this  school  in  so  fair  a  point  of  view,  that  its  graduates 
 have  no  difficulty  in  finding  places;  on  the  contrary,  indeed, 
 they  are  in  request  for  the  employments  which  the  institution 
 certifies  that  they  are  able  to  fill.  An  abstract  from  the  list  of  the 
 employments  of  students  who  had  left  the  school  with  diplomas  or 
 certificates,  within  the  six  years  preceding  1837-8,  will  serve  to 
 show  that  the  pupils  are  engaged  in  occupations  for  which  the 
 courses  were  intended  to  qualify  them,  and  that  thus  the  institu- 
 tion actually  accomplishes  what  it  professes.     The  record  does 
 
572  GENERAL  EDUCATION.      SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 not,  however,  include  all  those  who  have  left  the  school  witfi 
 its  diploma  or  certificate,  there  being  some  whose  occupations 
 have  not  been  reported  to  the  authorities.  The  number  in- 
 cluded in  the  list  is  ninety,  of  which  twenty-four  are  civil 
 engineers,  eleven  manufacturers,  eleven  machinists  and  con- 
 structors of  manufactories  of  various  kinds,  nine  miners,  eight 
 constructors  of  iron  work,  seven  engaged  in  iron  works,  six 
 professors  of  chemistry,  mathematics  and  mechanics,  four 
 manufacturing  chemists,  three  preparers  and  repeaters  in  che- 
 mical courses,  two  architects,  one  engineer  of  a  gas-works,  one 
 assayer,  three  officers  connected  with  civil  and  military  ser- 
 vice and  trade. 
 
 This  institution,  though  in  the  beginning  only  a  private  en- 
 terprise, has  been  entirely  successful,  and  supplies  to  young 
 men  who  are  out  of  the  government  civil  service,  facilities  for 
 acquiring  knowledge,  similar  to  those  which  the  Polytechnic 
 School,  and  the  Schools  of  Mines  and  Roads  and  Bridges,  do  in 
 that  service. 
 
 SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE  AND  THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS,  AT  CHA- 
 
 RONNE.* 
 
 This  institution  is  a  private  boarding-school,  furnishing  in- 
 struction in  the  usual  literary  branches,  as  well  as  those  prepa- 
 ratory to  commerce,  the  mechanic  arts,  and  manufactures. 
 The  pupils  are  divided  into  three  sections,  corresponding  to 
 these  three  purposes.  The  peculiarity  of  the  school,  which  is 
 worthy  of  especial  notice,  is  the  establishment  of  a  general 
 machinist's  shop  on  the  premises,  and  in  which  the  pupils  belong- 
 ing to  the  division  of  the  arts,  and  others,  whose  parents  desire 
 it,  are  emi^loycd  a  certain  number  of  hours  of  the  day.  As  this 
 is  a  private  undertaking,  not  aided  by  government  funds,  eco- 
 nomy in  this  last  feature  is  of  course  particularly  desirable.  On 
 trial,  it  has  been  found  only  attainable  by  leasing  the  machine- 
 shops  to  a  skilful  mechanic,  who  in  return  binds  himself  to  take 
 and  instruct  the  pupils,  under  certain  regulations.    This  arrange- 
 
 •  M,  Pinel  Grandchamp,  director. 
 
SCHOOLS  or  ARTS  OF  PRUSSIA.  573 
 
 ment  has  the  disadvantage  that,  instead  of  seeing  a  variety  of 
 work,  the  pupils  are  frequently  confined  to  one  kind,  according 
 to  the  description  of  orders  taken  by  the  lessee  of  the  shops. 
 The  plan  of  varied  work,  in  which  the  pupils  were  employed 
 during  certain  hours  of  the  day,  as  apprentices,  was  found  too 
 expensive.  The  difhculties  of  practical  education  in  these 
 branches,  out  of  the  regular  work-shops,  will  be  referred  to  again. 
 
 SCHOOLS  OF  ARTS  OF  PRUSSIA. 
 
 In  Prussia,  every  trade  in  which  a  want  of  skill  may  jeopard 
 human  life,  is  regulated  by  law;  and  before  its  exercise  can  be 
 commenced,  a  license  is  required,  to  obtain  which  an  examina- 
 tion must  be  passed.  This  requisition  of  the  law  is  considered 
 to  involve  a  reciprocal  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
 ment to  afford  the  opportunity  of  obtaining  the  necessary 
 knowledge,  and  schools  have  accordingly  been  established  for 
 the  purpose.  Twenty  of  the  regencies  of  the  kingdom  already 
 have  technical  schools  established  in  them,  where  instruction  is, 
 in  general,  given  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  or  province,  or  for 
 a  very  trifling  remuneration ;  and  it  is  the  intention  that  each 
 regency  shall  have  at  least  one  such  school  within  its  limits. 
 When  there  is  a  burgher  school  in  the  place  intended  as  the  lo- 
 cality for  one  of  these  technical  schools,  the  two  schools  are 
 connected  as  already  described:  at  Potsdam,  the  special  tech- 
 nical course  alone  being  given  in  a  separate  department.  In 
 all  cases  the  government  supplies  the  apparatus  for  the  courses 
 of  mechanics,  physics,  and  chemistry;  furnishes  the  requisite  en- 
 gravings for  the  courses  of  drawing;  and  supplies  works  for  the 
 library  and  for  instruction.  The  courses  are  intended  to  reach 
 the  grade  of  the  lower  class  of  the  Berlin  Institute  of  Arts,  to  be 
 subsequently  described,  a  purpose  which  is  actually  accom- 
 plished in  a  part  of  the  schools.  Some  of  the  communes  have 
 erected  schools  similar  to  these,  at  their  own  expense,  or  have 
 aided  in  establishing  or  improving  the  provincial  schools.  The 
 cost  of  these  twenty  schools,  annually,  is  between  seven  and 
 ten  thousand  dollars. 
 
 The  most  promising  pupils  from  the  provincial  schools  usually 
 
574  GKXEnAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 find  places  at  the  central  Institute  at  Berlin,  which  is  in  fact 
 the  university  of  arts. 
 
 There  is  a  special  school  for  shii)-builclcrs  at  Stettin,  in  Po- 
 merania. 
 
 INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS  OF  BERLIN.' 
 
 This  institution  is  intended  to  impart  the  theoretical  know- 
 ledge essential  to  improvement  in  the  arts,  and  such  practical 
 knowledge  as  can  be  acquired  to  advantage  in  a  school.  It  is 
 supported  by  the  government,  and  has  also  a  legacy,  to  be  ex- 
 pended in  bursaries  at  the  school,  from  Baron  Yon  Seydlitz. 
 The  institution  is  under  the  charge  of  a  director,t  who  has  the 
 entire  control  of  the  funds,  of  the  admissions  and  dismissions, 
 and  the  superintendence  of  the  instruction.  The  professors  and 
 pupils  do  not  reside  in  the  establishment,  so  that  the  superinten- 
 dence is  confined  to  study-hours.  There  are  assistant  profes- 
 sors, who  prepare  the  lectures,  and  conduct  a  part  of  the  exer- 
 cises, in  some  cases  reviewing  the  lessons  of  the  professors  with 
 the  pupils.  Besides  these  ofTiccrs  there  are  others,  who  have 
 charge  of  the  admirable  collections  of  the  institution,  and  of  the 
 work-shops,  offices,  &c.  The  number  of  professors  is  eight,  and 
 of  repeaters,  two.  The  discipline  is  of  the  most  simple  charac- 
 ter, for  no  pupil  is  allowed  to  remain  in  connexion  with  the 
 institution  unless  his  conduct  and  progress  are  satisfactory. 
 There  is  but  one  punishment  recognised,  namely,  dismission; 
 and  even  a  want  of  punctuality  is  visited  thus  severely. 
 
 In  the  spring  of  every  year  the  regencies  advertise  that  appli- 
 cations will  be  received  for  admission  into  the  institute,  and  the 
 
 •  Gewerbinstitut,  literally,  trade  institute.  I  am  indebted  to  tlic  director, 
 privy  eoiinsellor  Beutli,  fur  a  lithographic  outline  and  prof^rannnc  of  this  institu* 
 tion,  and  to  the  Hon.  Ilinry  Whcafon,  minister  of  the  United  States  at  Berlin, 
 for  an  account  of  the  industrial  schools  of  Prussia,  by  Captain  Bcaulieu,  Bolj^ian 
 charge  d'aftuires  at  Berlin.  M.  Beuth  gave  me  every  facility  in  visiting  the 
 institution. 
 
 t  The  director,  M.  Bcuth,  is  also  president  of  the  Royal  Technical  Commis- 
 sion of  Prussia,  and  has  the  distribution  of  the  funds  for  tlic  encouragement  of 
 industry,  aniounling  to  about  seventy-five  thousand  dollars  aninially.  M.  Beuth 
 is  also  a  privy  counstUor,  and  is  president  of  tJie  Society  for  tlio  Encouragement 
 of  National  Industry  in  Prussia. 
 
INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS  AT  BERLIN.  575 
 
 testimonials  of  the  candidates  who  present  the  best  claims  are 
 forwarded  to  the  director  at  Berlin,  who  decides  finally  upon  the 
 several  nominations.  The  pupils  from  the  provincial  schools 
 have,  in  general,  the  preference  over  other  applicants.  At  the 
 same  time  notice  is  given  by  the  president  of  the  Society  for 
 the  Promotion  of  National  Industry,  in  relation  to  the  bursaries 
 vacant  upon  the  Seydlitz  foundation.  The  qualifications  es- 
 sential to  admission  are — to  read  and  write  the  German 
 language  with  correctness  and  facility,  and  to  be  thoroughly 
 acquainted  w^ith  arithmetic  in  all  its  branches.  The  candidate 
 must,  besides,  be  at  least  seventeen  years  of  age.  Certain  of 
 the  pupils,  as  will  be  hereafter  more  fully  stated,  require  to  have 
 served  an  apprenticeship  to  a  trade.  The  Seydlitz  bursars  must, 
 in  addition,  show — 1st.  That  their  parents  were  not  artisans,* 
 relatives  of  the  founder  having  the  preference  over  other 
 applicants.  2d.  That  they  have  been  apprenticed  to  a  trade, 
 if  they  intend  to  follow  one  not  taught  in  the  institution.  3d. 
 They  must  enter  into  an  engagement  that  if  they  leave  the  me- 
 chanical career  they  will  pay  back  the  amount  of  their  bursa- 
 ries. There  are  sixty  or  seventy  gratuitous  pupils  in  the  school, 
 of  whom  eighteen  are  upon  the  Seydlitz  foundation.  Forty  are 
 admitted  annually,  this  number  having  been  adopted  because  it 
 is  found  that,  in  the  course  of  the  first  month,  about  a  fourth  of 
 the  newly  admitted  pupils  fall  away  from  the  institution.  Each 
 bursar  receives  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars  per  annum 
 for  maintenance.  The  education  is  gratuitous.  The  regular 
 pupils  enter  on  the  first  of  October,  but  the  director  is  authorized 
 to  admit,  at  his  pleasure,  applicants  w^io  do  not  desire  to  be- 
 come bursars,  but  who  support  themselves,  receiving  gratui^ 
 tously,  however,  the  instruction  afforded  by  the  institution. 
 
 The  education  of  the  pupils  is  either  solely  theoretical,  or 
 combines  theory  and  practice,  according  to  the  calling  which 
 they  intend  to  follow.  The  first  division  is  composed  of  students, 
 
 •  The  object  of  M.  Von  Seydlitz  appears  to  have  been  to  counteract,  to  the  ex- 
 tent  of  his  power,  the  tendency  to  the  increase  of  tlie  learned  professions,  at  the 
 expense  of  the  mechanic  arts,  by  an  inducement  to  a  course  exactly  contrary  to 
 the  usual  one. 
 
576  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 who  receive  ihcoretical  instruction  only,  and  who  arc  preparing 
 to  bcconne  masons,  carpenters,  and  joiners.  They  are  supposed 
 to  have  become  acquainted  with  the  practice  of  their  trade  be- 
 fore entering  the  institution,  being  required  to  have  served,  pre- 
 viously, a  part  of  their  apprenticeship.  An  excellent  reason  is 
 assigned  for  this  rule,  namely,  that  on  leaving  the  school  such 
 pupils  are  too  old  to  begin  their  apprenticeship  to  these  callings, 
 and  would,  if  they  attempted  to  do  so,  find  the  first  beginnings 
 so  irksome  as  to  induce  them  to  seek  other  employments,  and 
 thus  their  special  education  w^ould  be  lost,  and  the  object  of  the 
 school  defeated.  The  second  division  embraces  both  theoreti- 
 cal and  practical  instruction,  and  consists  of  three  classes.  First, 
 the  stone-cutters,  engravers,  lapidaries,  glass-cutters,  carvers  in 
 wood  and  ivory,  and  brass-founders.  Second,  dyers  and  manu- 
 factures of  chemical  products.  Third.  Machine-makers  and 
 mechanicians.  The  practical  instruction  is  different  for  each 
 of  these  three  classes. 
 
 The  general  course  of  studies  last  two  years,  and  the  pupils 
 are  divided  into  two  corresponding  classes.  The  first  class  is, 
 besides,  subdivided  into  two  sections.  The  lower  or  second 
 class  is  taught  first;  mechanical  drawing,  subdivided  into  deco- 
 rative drawing,  including  designs  for  architectural  ornaments, 
 utensils,  vases,  patterns  for  weaving,  &.c.,  and  linear  drawing, 
 applied  to  civil  works,  to  handicrafts,  and  to  machines.  Second, 
 modelling  in  clay,  plaster,  and  wax.  Third,  practical  arithme- 
 tic. Fourth,  geometry.  Fifth,  natural  philosophy.  Sixth,  che- 
 mistry. Seventh,  technology,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  materials, 
 processes,  and  products  of  the  arts.  The  studies  of  the  lower 
 section  of  the  first  class  are  general,  while  those  of  tiie  first  sec- 
 tion turn  more  particularly  upon  the  applications  of  science  to 
 the  arts.  In  the  lower  section,  the  drawing,  modelling,  natural 
 philosophy,  and  chemistry,  of  the  first  year,  are  continued;  and, 
 in  addition,  descriptive  geometry,  trigonometry,  stereometry, 
 mixed  mathematics,  mineralogy,  and  the  art  of  construction  arc 
 studied.  In  the  up[)er  or  first  section,  perspective,  stone-cutting, 
 carpentry,  and  merhanics  applied  to  the  arts,  are  taught,  and 
 the  making  of  }>lrins  and  estimates  for  buildings,  work-shops, 
 
INiaTlTUTE  OF  ARTS  AT  BERLIN.  577 
 
 manufactories,  machines,  &c.  These  courses  are  common  to 
 all  pupils,  whatever  may  be  their  future  destination;  but  beside 
 them,  the  machinists  study,  during  the  latter  part  of  their  stay  at 
 the  institution,  a  continuation  of  the  course  of  mechanics  and 
 mathematical  analysis.  The  examples  accompanying  the  in- 
 struction in  regard  to  plans  and  estimates  are  adapted  to  the 
 intended  pursuits  of  the  pupils. 
 
 The  courses  of  practice  are  begun  by  the  pupils  already  enu- 
 merated as  taking  part  in  them,  at  different  periods  of  their  stay 
 in  the  institution.  The  future  chemists  and  mechanics  must 
 have  completed  the  whole  range  of  studies  above  mentioned, 
 as  common  to  all  the  pupils,  while  the  others  begin  their  practice 
 after  having  completed  the  first  year's  course.  There  are  work- 
 shops for  each  class  of  pupils,  where  they  are  taught  the  practice 
 of  their  proposed  calling,  under  competent  workmen.  There  are 
 two  foundries  for  bronze  castings,  one  for  small,  the  other  for 
 large  castings,  and  the  work  turned  out  of  both  bears  a  high 
 character.  A  specimen  of  this  work  is  retained  by  the  institu- 
 tion in  a  beautiful  fountain,  which  ornaments  one  of  the  courts 
 of  the  building.  The  models  for  castings  are  made  in  the  estab- 
 lishment. In  the  first  division  of  pupils,  in  reference  to  their 
 callings,  there  are  usually  some  whose  art  is  connected  with  the 
 fine  arts  in  some  of  its  branches,  and  these  have  an  opportunity 
 during  part  of  the  week  to  attend  the  courses  of  the  Berlin  Aca- 
 demy. The  future  chemists  work  for  half  the  year  in  the  labo- 
 ratory. They  are  chiefly  employed  in  chemical  analysis,  being 
 furnished  with  the  requisite  materials  for  practice  by  the  institu- 
 tion. In  the  shops  for  the  instruction  of  mechanics  are  machines 
 for  working  in  wood  and  the  metals,  a  steam-engine  of  four  horses' 
 power,  a  forge,  tools  in  great  variety,  lathes,  &c.  The  pupils 
 have  the  use  of  all  necessary  implements,  according  to  their 
 progress,  and  are  gradually  taught,  as  if  serving  a  regular  ap- 
 prenticeship. When  capable,  they  are  enabled  to  construct  ma- 
 chines which  may  be  useful  to  them  subsequently,  as  a  lathe,  or 
 machine  for  cutting  screws,  or  the  teeth  of  wheels,  &c.,  and 
 are  furnished  with  all  the  materials  for  the  purpose,  the  machine 
 becoming  their  own  property.  In  these  work-shops,  also,  the 
 73 
 
578  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 models  for  the  cabinet  of  the  school  arc  made.  Thl^  is  by  (ar 
 the  most  complete  establishment  for  practice  which  I  met  with 
 in  any  institution,  and  I  believe  the  practice  is  both  real  and 
 eflcctual.  It  involves,  however,  an  expenditure  which  in  other 
 cases  it  has  not  been  practicable  to  command.  The  scale  of  the 
 whole  institution  is,  in  the  particular  of  expenditure,  most  gene- 
 rous. 
 
 This  is  one  specimen  of  the  various  plans  which  have  been 
 devised  to  give  practical  knowledge  of  an  art  in  connexion 
 with  theory  in  a  school.  It  is  first  most  judiciously  laid  down 
 that  certain  trades  cannot  be  taught  to  advantage  in  a  similar 
 connexion,  but  that  the  practical  knowledge  must  be  acquired 
 by  an  apprenticeship  antecedent  to  the  theoretical  studies.  There 
 are  besides,  however,  a  large  number  of  trades,  the  practice 
 of  w^hich  is  to  be  taught  in  the  institution,  and  requiring  a  very 
 considerable  expenditure  to  carry  out  the  design  properly. 
 This  could  not  be  attempted  in  a  school  less  munificently  en- 
 dowed, and  requires  very  strict  regulations  to  carry  it  through 
 even  here.  The  habits  of  a  school  work-shop  are,  in  general,  not 
 lliose  of  a  real  manufactory,  where  the  same  articles  are  made 
 to  be  sold  as  a  source  of  profit;  hence,  though  the  practical 
 knowledge  may  be  acquired,  the  habits  of  work  are  not,  and 
 the  mechanic  may  be  well  taught  but  not  well  trained.  At  the 
 private  school  of  Charonne,  work-shops  were  established,  giving 
 a  variety  of  occupation  to  the  pupils;  but  the  disposition  to  play 
 rather  than  to  work,  rendered  these  establishments  too  costly  to 
 be  supported  by  a  private  institution,  and  the  plan  adopted 
 instead  of  this,  was  to  make  the  pupils  enter  a  regular  work- 
 shop for  a  stated  number  of  hours,  to  work  for  the  proprietor 
 or  lessee.  This  plan  remedies  one  evil,  but  introduces  another, 
 that  as  the  machinist  takes  orders,  with  a  view  to  profit,  the 
 work  may  have  so  little  variety  as  only  to  benefit  a  small  class 
 of  the  pui)ils.  The  pupils  at  Charonne  are,  however,  under 
 difierent  circumstances  from  those  at  Berlin;  they  are  general- 
 ly younger,  and,  being  independent  of  the  school,  where  they 
 pay  for  their  education,  are  not  under  the  same  restraint  as  in 
 tiie  other  institution;  hence  the  experience  of  the  one  school 
 
INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS  AT  BERLIW.  579 
 
 does  not  apply  in  full  force  to  the  other.  At  Dresden,  in  a 
 school  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Berlin,  a  different  mode  from 
 either  of  those  just  mentioned  has  been  adopted.  An  arrange- 
 ment is  made  with  a  number  of  mechanics,  of  different  occupa- 
 tions, to  receive  pupils  from  the  schools  as  apprentices,  allowing 
 them  the  privilege  of  attending,  during  certain  specified  hours  of 
 the  day,  upon  the  theoretical  exercises  of  the  institution.  Where 
 such  an  arrangement  can  be  made,  the  results  are  unexception- 
 able, and  the  advantages  likely  to  accrue  to  the  mechanic  arts, 
 from  the  union  of  theory  with  practice,  will  offer  a  strong  in- 
 ducement to  liberally  disposed  mechanics  to  take  apprentices 
 upon  these  terms.  Small  work-shops,  connected  with  an  insti- 
 tution, must  necessarily  offer  inferior  advantages,  even  if  closely 
 regulated,  so  as  to  procure  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  work 
 from  the  pupils ;  this  should  not  be  done  for  the  sake  of  the 
 profit,  but  to  give  him  genuinely  good  habits. 
 
 The  difficulties  in  giving  practical  instruction  in  the  chemical 
 arts  are  not  to  be  compared  with  those  under  discussion,  and 
 -will  be  found  to  have  been  satisfactorily  obviated  in  severail 
 schools.  This  subject  will  receive  its  more  appropriate  discus- 
 sion in  connexion  with  the  polytechnic  institution  of  Vienna, 
 where  the  chemical  department,  at  least  as  far  as  manufacturing 
 chemistry  is  concerned,  is  generally  recognised  as  having  pro- 
 duced the  best  results  of  any  yet  established. 
 
 Returning  to  the  subject  of  the  theoretical  instruction  in  the 
 Berlin  institute  of  arts,  the  following  statement  will  serve  to 
 show  the  succession  of  the  courses,  with  the  time  devoted  to 
 each:— 
 
 WINTER  COURSE. 
 
 Monday.  First  Class.  First  division — drawing  and  sketching  machines,  eight 
 A.  M.  to  twelve  o'clock.  Discussion  of  machines,  estimates  of 
 power,  &c.,  two  P.  M.  to  five  P.  M.  Second  division— machine 
 drawing,  eight  to  ten.  Modelling  in  clay,  ten  to  twelve.  Phy- 
 sics, two  to  five. 
 Second  Class.  Machine-drawing,  eight  to  ten.  Modelling,  ten  to 
 twelve.  Elements  of  geometry,  two  to  four.  Repetition  of  the 
 lecture,  four  to  five. 
 Tuesday.  First  Class.  First  division — architectural  plan??  and  estimates,  eight 
 to  twelve.  Prnctiral  instruction  in  machinery,  two  to  five.  Second 
 
580 
 
 GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 division— ornamental  and  architectural  drawing,  eight  to  twelve. 
 Trigonometry,  two  to  five. 
 Secoiid  Class.    Ornamental    and    architectural  drawing,  eight  to 
 twelve.     PJiysics,  two  to  four.     Repetition  of  the  lecture,  four  to 
 five. 
 
 Wednesday.  First  Class.  First  division — original  designs,  ciglit  to  twelve.  Dis- 
 cussion of  machinery.  Second  division — mineralogy,  eight  to 
 nine.  Maciiine-drawing,  nine  to  twelve.  Trigonometry,  two  to 
 five. 
 Second  Class.  Machine-drawing,  eight  to  twelve.  Practical  arith- 
 metic,  two  to  five. 
 
 Thursday.  First  Class.  First  division — Drawing  and  sketching  machines, 
 eight  to  twelve.  Architectural  instruction,  estimates,  two  to  five. 
 Second  division — decorative  and  architectural  drawing,  eight 
 to  ten.  Modelling  iu  clay,  ten  to  twelve.  Trigonometry,  two 
 to  five. 
 Second  Class.  Decorative  and  architectural  drawing,  eight  to 
 ten.  Modelling  in  clay,  ten  to  twelve.  Physics,  two  to  four. 
 Repetition  of  the  lecture,  four  to  five. 
 
 Friday.  First  Class.   First  division — architectural  plans,  eight  to  twelve. 
 
 Practical  instruction  in  machinery,  two  to  five.     Second  divi- 
 sion— machine-drawing,  eight  to  twelve.     Physics,  two  to  five. 
 Second  Class.  Machine-drawing,  eight  to  twelve.     Elementary  ma- 
 thematics, two  to  four.     Repetition  of  the  lesson,  four  to  five. 
 
 Saturday.  First  Class.  First  division — perspective  and  stone-cutting,  eight  to 
 twelve.  Original  designs,  two  to  five.  Second  division — mi- 
 neralogy, eight  to  nine.  Decorative  and  architectural  drawing, 
 nine  to  twelve.  Trigonometry,  two  to  five. 
 Second  Class.  Decorative  and  architectural  drawing,  eight  to  twelve. 
 Practical  arithmetic,  two  to  five. 
 
 The  Slimmer  term,  which  follows  this,  embraces  the  practi- 
 cal instruction. 
 
 SUMMER  TERM. 
 
 Monday.  First  Class.  First  division — in  the  work-shops  frojn  seven  A.  M.  to 
 
 twelve, and  frotn  one  until  sevenP.  !!M.   Second  division — machine- 
 drawing,  eight  to  twelve.     Applied  mathematics,  two  to  five. 
 Second  Class.  Machine-drawing,  eight  to  ten.     Modelling,  ten  to 
 twelve.     Chemistry,  two  to  four.     Repetition,  four  to  five. 
 
 Tuesday.  First  Class.  First  division — analytical  dynamics,  eight  to  nine. 
 Drawing  of  machines  from  original  designs,  nine  to  twelve. 
 Machinery,  two  to  five.  Second  division — decorative  and  archi- 
 tectural drawing,  eight  to  twelve.  Chemistry  two  to  five. 
 Second  Class.  Decorative  and  architectural  drawing,  eight  to 
 twelve.  Elementary  matluinatics,  two  to  four.  Repetition,  four 
 to  t\\c. 
 
 Wednesday.  First  Class.  First  division — in  the  workshops  from  seven  to  twelve, 
 and   from   one  to  seven.      Second    division — maeliine-drawing, 
 
INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS  AT  BERLIN. 
 
 681 
 
 eig-ht  to  ten.     Modelling',  ten  to  twelve.    Applied  mathematics, 
 two  to  five. 
 Second  Class.  Machine-drawing-,  eight  to  twelve.     Practical  arith- 
 metic, two  to  four.     Materials  used  in  the  arts,  four  to  five. 
 
 Thursday.  First  Class.  First  division — in  the  work-shops  from  seven  to 
 twelve,  and  from  one  to  seven.  Second  division — machine-draw- 
 ing-, eight  to  ten.  Modelling,  ten  to  twelve.  Applied  mathe- 
 matics, two  to  five. 
 Second  Class.  Decorative  and  architectual  drawing,  eight  to  ten. 
 Modelling,  ten  to  twelve.  Cliemistry,  two  to  four.  Repetition 
 of  the  lesson,  four  to  five. 
 
 Friday.  First  Class.   First  division — analytical  dynamics,  eight  to  nine. 
 
 Drawing  of  a  machine  for  an  original  design,  nine  to  twelve. 
 Machinery,  two  to  five.  Second  division — chemistry,  eight  to 
 nine.  Applied  mathematics,  nine  to  twelve.  Chemistry,  two  to 
 five. 
 Second  Class.  Machine-drawing,  eight  to  twelve.  Elementary 
 mathematics,  two  to  four.    Repetition  of  the  lesson,  four  to  five. 
 
 Saturday.  First  Class.  First  division — in  the  work-shops  from  seven  to  twelve, 
 and  from  one  to  seven.  Second  division — decorative  and  archi- 
 tectural drawing,  eight  to  twelve.  Applied  mathematics,  two  to 
 five. 
 Second  Class.  Decorative  and  architectural  drawing,  eight  to 
 twelve.  Practical  arithmetic,  two  to  four.  Materials  used  i*n 
 the  arts,  four  to  five. 
 The  chemical  division  of  the  practical  classes  is  engaged  every  day  in  the 
 
 laboratory.     On  Tuesday  and  Wednesday  the  library  is  open  for  reading  from 
 
 five  to  eight,  P.  M. 
 
 The  collections  for  carrying  out  the  various  branches  of  in- 
 struction are  upon  the  same  liberal  scale  with  the  other  parts 
 of  the  institution.  There  is  a  library  of  works  on  architecture, 
 mechanics,  technology,  the  various  arts,  archeology,  &c.,  in 
 German,  French  and  English.  This  library  is  open  twice  a 
 week,  from  five  to  eight  in  the  evening,  to  the  pupils  of  the  first 
 class  of  the  school,  and  to  such  mechanics  as  apply  for  the  use 
 of  it. 
 
 There  is  a  rich  collection  of  drawings  of  new  and  useful  ma- 
 chines, and  of  illustrations  of  the  dilFcrent  courses,  belonging  to 
 the  institution.  Among  them  is  a  splendid  work,  published 
 under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Bcuth,  entitled  Models  for  Manu- 
 facturers and  Artisans  (Vorlcgcbliitter  fur  Fabricanten  und 
 Handworker),  containing  engravings  by  the  best  artists  of  Ger- 
 many, and  some  even  from  France  and  England,  applicable  to 
 
582  GENERAL  EDUCATIOX.      SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 the  dinerent  arts  and  to  architecture  and  engineering.  Among 
 the  drawings  are  many  from  original  designs  by  Shenckel,  of 
 BcrHn.*  There  is  a  second  useful  but  more  ordinary  series  of 
 engravings,  on  similar  subjects,  also  executed  for  the  use  of  the 
 school.  These  works  are  distributed  to  the  provincial  trade 
 schools,  and  presented  to  such  of  the  mechanics  of  Prussia  as 
 have  especially  distinguished  themselves  in  their  vocations. 
 The  collection  of  models  of  machinery  belonging  to  the  school 
 probably  ranks  next  in  extent  and  value  to  that  at  the  Conser- 
 vatory of  Arts  of  Paris.  It  contains  models  of  such  machines 
 as  are  not  readily  comprehended  by  drawings.  Most  of  them 
 are  working  models,  and  many  were  made  in  the  work-shops 
 of  the  school.  They  are  constructed,  as  far  as  possible,  to  a 
 uniform  scale,  and  the  parts  of  the  models  are  of  the  same  ma- 
 terials as  in  the  actual  machine.  There  is  an  extensive  collection 
 of  casts,  consisting  of  copies  of  statues,  basso-relievos,  utensils, 
 bronzes,  and  vases  of  the  museums  of  Naples,  Rome,  and  Flo- 
 rence, and  of  the  British  Museum,  and  of  the  models  of  archi- 
 tectural monuments  of  Greece,  Rome,  Pompeii,  &c.,  and  copies 
 of  models,  cameos,  and  similar  objects ;  those  specimens  only 
 have  been  selected  which  are  not  in  the  collection  of  the  Aca- 
 demy of  Fine  Arts  of  Berlin,  to  which  the  pupils  of  the  Institute 
 of  Arts  have  access.  There  are  good  collections  of  physical 
 and  chemical  apparatus,  of  minerals,  of  geological  and  techno- 
 logical specimens. 
 
 The  instruction  is  afforded  in  part  by  the  lectures  of  the  pro- 
 fessors, aided  by  text-books  specially  intended  for  the  school, 
 and  in  ))art  by  the  interrogations  of  the  professors  and  of  the 
 assistants  and  repeaters.  At  the  close  of  the  first  year  there 
 is  an  examination  to  determine  whicii  of  the  pupils  shall  be  per- 
 mitted to  go  forward,  and  at  the  close  of  the  second  year  to 
 determine  which  shall  receive  the  certificate  of  the  institute. 
 Although  the  pu])ils  who  come  from  the  provinces  are  admitted 
 
 •  A  copy  of  this  work  has  been  most  liberally  presented  to  the  Girard  College 
 by  the  Tccliiiical  Commission,  of  which  Mr.  Bcuth  is  president.  The  work  having 
 l)ecn  published  by  the  government,  is  not  sold. 
 
POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE  OF  VIENNA.  583 
 
 to  the  first  class  of  the  institute,  upon  their  presenting  a  testi- 
 monial that  they  have  gone  through  the  courses  of  the  provincial 
 schools  satisfactorily,  it  frequently  happens  that  they  are  obliged 
 to  retire  to  the  second,  especially  from  defective  knowledge  of 
 chemistry. 
 
 The  cost  of  this  school  to  the  government  is  about  twelve 
 thousand  dollars  annually,  exclusive  of  the  amount  expended 
 upon  the  practical  courses  and  upon  the  collections — a  very 
 trifling  sum,  if  the  good  which  it  is  calculated  to  do  throughout 
 the  country  is  considered.  The  comparatively  recent  existence 
 of  the  institution  does  not  admit  of  appealing  to  decided  results 
 which  have  flowed  to  the  mechanic  arts  in  Prussia  from  its 
 estabhshment,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  tendency,  and 
 its  pupils  are  already  known  to  be  making  their  way  success- 
 fully, in  consequence  of  the  advantages  which  they  have  here 
 enjoyed. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE  OF  VIENNA. 
 
 This  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  polytechnic  institutions  of 
 Germany,  and  its  characteristics  are  so  different  from  those  of 
 the  institute  at  Berlin,  that  there  is  little  danger  of  repetition  in 
 describing  this  school  also. 
 
 The  whole  institution  is  intended  to  fulfil  a  threefold  purpose — 
 as  a  school  for  the  mechanic  arts,  manufactures,  and  commerce, 
 as  a  conservatory  of  arts  and  manufactures,  and  as  an  institute 
 for  the  promotion  of  national  industry.  The  last  named  object  is 
 effected  by  public  exhibitions,  from  time  to  time,  of  the  products 
 of  manufactures,  under  the  direction  of  the  institute.  For  the 
 better  execution  of  this  object,  a  spacious  building  is  now  erect- 
 ing on  the  premises,  adapted  to  the  occasional  display  and  per- 
 manent deposite  of  specimens  of  the  mechanic  arts.  The  col- 
 lections which  form  the  conservatory  of  arts  are  also  used  for 
 instruction  in  the  school^  and  will  be  described  in  connexion 
 with  it. 
 
 The  whole  institution  is  under  the  control  of  a  director,*  who 
 
 *  M.  J.  J.  Prcchlcl,  formerly  professor  of  chemistry. 
 
681  GEXERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOU. 
 
 is  responsible  to  the  higher  authorities  of  public  instruction,  and 
 of  trade  and  manufactures.  The  director  is  the  general  super- 
 intendent of  the  business  of  the  institute  and  of  the  instruction, 
 but  does  not  teach.  He  regulates  the  admission  of  pupils  and 
 the  discipline.  The  money  concerns  are  under  the  charge 
 of  a  treasurer,  who  is  responsible  to  the  director.  The  infe- 
 rior olTiccrs  arc  responsible  to  the  same  authority.  The  dis- 
 cipline of  the  scholastic  department  is  simple  but  rigid,  no 
 pupil  being  allowed  to  remain  connected  with  it  whose  deport- 
 ment is  not  proper.  The  courses  are  gratuitous,  except  a  small 
 entrance  fee,  and  this  is  considered  as  warranting  prompt  re- 
 moval when  the  pupil  docs  not  perform  the  duties  prescribed 
 by  the  institution. 
 
 The  department  of  instruction  is  composed  of  three  schools, 
 a  technical,  a  commercial,  and  a  "  real  school."  The  last  named 
 is  a  preparatory  school  for  the  two  others,  and  may  be  entered 
 as  early  as  thirteen  years  of  age.  Its  courses  are  of  religious 
 instruction,  of  German  language,  elementary  mathematics,  geo- 
 graphy, history,  natural  history,  elocution,  calligraphy,  and 
 drawing,  and  arc  obligatory  upon  the  pupils.  Italian  and  French 
 may  be  studied  if  the  pupil  desires  it.  As  these  courses  lead  in 
 three  years  to  the  other  departments  of  the  institution,  the  candi- 
 dates for  admission  are  required  to  possess  the  elementary  at- 
 tainments necessary  to  their  successful  prosecution.  There 
 are  five  professors  and  four  teachers  connected  with  this  school, 
 which  is  superintended  by  the  vice-director  of  the  institute. 
 The  instructors  rank  by  regulation  with  those  in  the  gymna- 
 sia or  classical  schools  of  the  empire.  The  course  of  in- 
 struction is  not  as  comprehensive  as  that  in  the  Prussian  real 
 schools,  but  is  an  adequate  preparation  for  the  next  higher  divi- 
 sions, which  supply  in  part  these  deficiencies. 
 
 The  technical  and  commercial  schools  furnish  special  instruc- 
 tion according  to  the  intenrled  pursuits  of  the  pupil,  though  he 
 may,  in  fact,  select  the  courses  which  he  wishes  to  attend,  not 
 being  limited  as  to  the  munlu'r  or  cliai'aclcr  of  the  branches. 
 The  (iircctnr  advises  with  the  |»upil,  on  adiiiission,  as  to  tlie 
 studies  most  aj)propriate  to  be  followed,  if  his  intended  calling 
 
POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE  AT  VIENNA.  585 
 
 is  fixed,  and  he  is  not  allowed  to  join  the  classes,  the  courses 
 of  which  require  preparation,  without  presenting  a  certificate 
 from  the  school  at  which  he  has  been  instructed,  or  being  ex- 
 annined,  to  ascertain  his  proficiency.  In  regard  to  other  courses, 
 there  is  no  such  restriction.  The  age  for  admission  is  sixteen 
 years. 
 
 The  instruction  is  given  in  the  technical  school  by  eight  pro- 
 fessors and  two  assistants;  the  professors  lecturing,  and  in  some 
 of  the  courses,  interrogating  the  pupils.  Certain  lectures  are 
 also  gone  over  by  the  assistants  with  the  classes.  The  courses 
 which  combine  practice  witli  teaching  will  be  pointed  out  in 
 enumerating  the  subjects  of  study.  The  division  of  these  sub- 
 jects, and  the  time  devoted  to  them  during  the  week,  are  as 
 follows : 
 
 /.  General  Chemistry,  applied  to  the  arts,  five  hours. 
 
 //.  Special  Technical  Chemistry,  ten  hours.  This  course  gives  a  particular 
 account  of  all  the  processes  of  the  arts  of  which  the  principles  were  developed  in 
 the  general  lectures.  There  is  a  special  laboratory  devoted  to  the  course,  where, 
 under  the  superintendence  of  the  professor  or  of  his  assistants,  the  pupils  go 
 through  the  processes  on  a  small  scale.  Those  who  have  a  particular  object 
 in  view,  as  dyeing,  bleaching,  printing  upon  stuffs,  or  the  manufacture  of 
 chemical  preparations  or  metallurgy,  are  directed  in  their  investigations  especial- 
 ly to  the  parts  of  chemistry  which  they  will  have  to  apply.  Practice  and  theory 
 are  thus  combined.  ///.  Physics,  with  special  reference  to  its  applications,  five 
 hours,  JV,  Elementary  Mathematics,  including  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
 and  mensuration,  ten  hours.  This  course  is  intended  for  those  who  have  not 
 passed  through  the  real  school.  V.  Higher  Mathematics,  five  hours.  There  is  a 
 repetition  by  an  assistant,  also  of  five  hours.  VI.  Mechanics,  including  the 
 description  and  calculation  of  machines,  five  hours.  This  subject  is  founded  upon 
 a  course  of  machines,  considered  as  an  application  of  descriptive  geometry  and 
 drawing,  superintended  by  an  assistant.  VII.  Practical  Geometry,  including 
 land  and  topographical  surveying,  levelling,  &e.,  five  hours.  The  lectures  are  ac- 
 companied by  practice  in  the  use  of  instruments  in  the  field.  VIII.  Civil  and 
 Hydraulic  Architecture,  ten  hours.  This  includes  a  complete  course  of  engi- 
 neering, in  its  various  branches.  It  is  accompanied  by  exercises'  in  drawing. 
 IX.  Technology,  or  a  general  discussion  of  arts  and  trades,  five  hours.  The 
 subjects  wliicli  come  under  the  head  of  special  chemistry  are  omitted  in  the 
 lectures  of  this  division.  A'.  The  assistant  professor  of  chemistry  delivers  an 
 extra  lecture,  daily,  on  the  methods  of  measuring  Specific  Gravities,  during  part 
 of  the  course.  XI.  Elementary  Drawing  for  those  who  have  not  jjusscd  through 
 the  real  school,  five  hours.  There  are  extra  courses  in  the  Latin,  lioliemian,  and 
 English  languages,  for  tiiose  who  wish  to  follow  them. 
 
 The  time  devoted  to  drawing  depends  upon  the  student,  but 
 71 
 
586  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 it  is  obvious  that  iiis  knowledge  must  be  very  incomplete,  and 
 that  he  will  carry  away  from  the  school  but  an  imperfect  re- 
 cord of  descriptive  geometry  and  its  applications,  unless  he 
 devotes  a  great  deal  of  time  to  this  branch.  In  this  respect  the 
 arrangement  of  the  school  is  entirely  different  from  that  at 
 Berlin,  where  the  drawings  accompanying  the  courses  are 
 made  as  much  a  matter  of  regular  duty  as  the  attendance  upon 
 the  lectures  themselves.  This  is  certainly  the  proper  plan,  and 
 while  it  appeared  to  me  that  the  time  spent  in  the  graphic 
 exercises  at  Berlin  was  even  beyond  the  measure  of  their  im- 
 portance, I  am  decidedly  of  opinion  that  a  strict  attention  to 
 this  department  is  essential. 
 
 The  collections,  by  the  aid  of  which  these  courses  are  car- 
 ried out,  are — 1.  An  extensive  collection  of  chemical  prepara- 
 tions for  both  special  and  general  chemistry.  The  pupils  in 
 special  chemistry,  as  already  stated,  make  preparations  in  the 
 departments  of  the  art  which  they  intend  to  follow,  and  some 
 of  these  are  left  behind  them  as  specimens  of  their  skill  In 
 the  department  of  the  dyer  there  is  quite  a  large  series  of 
 specimens  collected  in  this  way.  The  laboratories  for  both 
 special  and  general  chemistry  are  admirably  adapted  to  their 
 purpose.*  2.  A  cabinet  of  instruments  for  the  course  of 
 practical  geometry.  3.  A  considerable  collection  of  physical 
 apparatus.  4.  A  collection  of  models  of  machines,  and  in 
 engineering.  5.  A  technological  cabinet  of  a  most  complete 
 character,  and  admirably  arranged;  it  contains  many  of  the 
 best  specimens  of  Austrian  arts  and  manufactures.  All  these 
 collections  are  under  the  care  of  the  professor  in  whose  de- 
 partment they  find  a  place ;  there  being,  besides,  curators  for 
 the  immediate  charge  of  them,  and  for  keeping  them  in  repair. 
 The  cabinet  of  physical  apparatus,  and  of  models  and  ma- 
 chinery, were  in  the  main  supplied  from  tiie  work-shops  of  the 
 institution.     These  shops  have  long  been  celebrated  for  the 
 
 •  The  l.ihoratory  of  the  jirofrssor  of  general  chemistry,  Professor  Mcissncr,  is 
 one  of  llic  Ijcst  arran;;ed  wliieli  I  saw  abroad.  'J'lie  funiare  operations,  and 
 others  lik«ty  to  iiieoninKxle  the  chiss,  arc  |)crfornied  behind  a  screen,  with  large 
 glass  windows,  which  allow  a  perfect  view:  tJic  space  behind  is  provided  with 
 Uio  mcaud  of  carrying  oil*  the  fuiucs. 
 
POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE  OF  VIENNA.  581 
 
 astronomical  and  geodesic  instruments  furnished  from  them. 
 They  are  still  kept  up,  though  on  a  reduced  scale,  their  chief 
 object  liaving  been  accomplished.  They  were  never  intended, 
 like  those  of  Berlin,  to  afibrd  practical  instruction  to  the  pupils. 
 The  institution,  indeed,  does  not  recognise  the  principle  that 
 this  can  be  done  to  advantage  in  the  mechanical  department 
 It  is  certain,  as  already  stated,  that  great  care  is  required  to 
 render  such  establishments  of  any  avail  beyond  the  point  of 
 giving  to  the  pupil  a  general  readiness  w^ith  his  hands,  and  that 
 even  when  well  conducted  they  are  expensive.  Success  in 
 practical  chemistry  requires  essentially  a  very  considerable 
 knowledge  of  theory;  the  processes  on  a  small  scale  repre- 
 sent, in  general,  fairly  those  upon  the  large,  and  experiments 
 thus  made  frequently  save  the  outlay  which  is  required  to  make 
 them  in  the  large  way.  The  practice  in  the  laboratory  of 
 a  school  is,  besides,  very  nearly  of  the  kind  required  for  the 
 manufactory.  These,  among  other  circumstances,  render  the 
 problem  in  regard  to  successful  preparation  for  the  arts  de- 
 pending upon  chemistry,  different  from  that  relating  to  the  art 
 of  the  machinist.  It  is  in  this  department  that  the  polytechnic 
 school  of  Vi*enna  is  particularly  strong.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
 that  Austrian  manufactures  in  general  have  received  a  great 
 impulse  through  the  medium  of  this  institution,  and  particularly 
 of  its  scholastic  department,  but  while  praise  is  yielded  to  the 
 different  courses,  the  arrangements  for  teaching  chemistry  must 
 be  considered  as  having  a  preference  over  the  others. 
 
 The  lessons  in  the  commercial  school  embrace  the  following 
 subjects: — I.  Commercial  correspondence,  three  hours  per 
 week.  II.  The  science  of  trade  (Handelswissenschaft),  three 
 hours.  III.  Austrian  laws  relating  to  trade  and  exchange, 
 three  hours.  IV.  Commercial  arithmetic,  six  hours.  V.  Book- 
 keeping, by  single  and  double  entry,  four  hours.  VI.  Account 
 of  the  materials  of  trade  (VVaarenkunde),  their  sources,  uses, 
 properties,  kinds,  adulterations  to  wliich  they  are  subject,  &c., 
 four  hours.  VII.  Commercial  geography,  three  hours.  VIII. 
 History  of  commerce,  three  hours.  There  are  five  professors 
 in  this  school. 
 
588  CEI^ERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 Once  a  week  tlie  professors  of  the  institute  meet,  under  the 
 presidency  of  the  director,  to  confer  on  the  business  of  the  in- 
 stitution. Saturday  is  appropriated  in  part  to  this  purpose,  and 
 there  are  no  exercises  for  the  students  on  that  day.  One  of 
 the  professors  is  secretary  of  the  Board.  The  professors  rank 
 ])y  regulation  witli  those  of  the  universities. 
 
 The  lectures  last  from  October  to  August  of  every  year.  At 
 the  close  of  them,  a  pupil  who  wishes  a  certificate  in  any 
 branch,  presents  himself,  and  is  examined  by  a  professor,  in 
 presence  of  the  director  and  of  two  members  of  the  imperial 
 commission  of  studies.  A  student  who  has  attended  the  lec- 
 tures, and  does  not  wish  to  be  examined,  may  receive  a  certi- 
 ficate of  attendance. 
 
 To  supply  the  place  of  a  regular  division  of  studies  for  dif- 
 ferent callings,  one  of  the  earlier  programmes  contained  a  re- 
 commendation of  certain  courses  of  study  as  preparatory  to 
 particular  occupations.  The  recommendations  were  the  follow- 
 ing:— For  tradesmen,  the  two  years  of  the  real  school,  and  one 
 year  of  the  commercial  school;  or  for  a  more  complete  educa- 
 tion, an  additional  year,  embracing  the  courses  of  chemistry, 
 physics,  and  technology  of  the  technical  school.  For  dyers, 
 printers  in  stuffs,  bleachers,  manufacturers  of  chemical  products, 
 of  salt,  of  saltpetre,  for  miners,  metallurgists,  brewers,  etc. — 
 special  chemistry,  physics,  and  technology,  with  some  of  the 
 courses  of  the  commercial  school.  For  machinists,  hydraulic 
 engineers,  mill-wrights,  foremen  in  manufactories,  and  mining 
 engineers — a  course  of  two  years  was  recommended,  the  first 
 to  embrace  mathematics,  physics,  and  drawing,  and  the  second, 
 mechanics,  machine-drawing,  and  technology.  As  a  prepara- 
 tion for  agriculturalists  and  Ibrcslers — courses  of  mathematics, 
 physics,  practical  geometry,  chemistry,  and  book-keeping.  For 
 miners — mathematics,  physics,  practical  geometry,  mechanics, 
 drawing,  and  book-kecj)ing.  For  surveyors — mathematics, 
 physics,  practical  geometry,  drawing,  and  book-keeping. 
 
 There  is  still  a  regular  course  laid  clown  for  architects  and 
 civil  engineers,  the  satisfactory  completion  of  which  entitles  to 
 a  diploma.     The  first  year  includes  elementary  mathematics, 
 
SCHOOL  OF  MINES  OF  SAXONY.  589 
 
 technology,  and  drawing;  the  second,  higher  mathenaatics, 
 physics,  and  drawing;  the  third,  the  applied  mathematics,  me- 
 chanics, practical  geometry,  and  drawing;  the  fourth,  archi- 
 tecture, engineering,  drawing,  technology,  chemistry,  and  book- 
 keeping. 
 
 The  library  of  the  institute  is  appropriated  to  the  several 
 departments,  and  is  used  by  the  students,  as  well  as  by  the  pro- 
 fessors. Yearly  appropriations,  besides  the  entrance  and  diplo- 
 ma fees,  are  devoted  to  its  increase.  The  professors  have  the 
 right  of  recommending  such  works  to  be  purchased  as  they 
 may  deem  of  use  in  their  departments.  An  annual  is  published 
 by  the  institute,  consisting  of  original  and  selected  scientific 
 articles,  by  the  professors,  and  notices  of  the  institution. 
 
 SAXON  SCHOOL  OF  MINES  AT  FREYBURG. 
 
 This  celebrated  school  is  in  one  of  the  richest  mining  districts 
 of  Saxony,  and  the  proximity  of  the  mines  permits  an  easy  com- 
 bination of  practice  with  theory.  Its  first  object  is  to  furnish 
 educated  young  men  for  the  corps  of  mines  of  the  kingdom, 
 but  it  also  admits  strangers  to  its  courses  at  a  trifling  expense 
 for  their  instruction,  the  pupils  boarding  in  the  town. 
 
 General  government.  The  school  of  mines  is  under  the  imme- 
 diate government  of  the  directory  of  mines  (oberbergamt),  and 
 is  thus  a  branch  of  the  ministry  of  finance.  The  professors 
 form  a  Board  for  the  execution  of  the  general  regulations,  and 
 one  of  them  is  specially  charged  by  the  directory  with  the 
 superintendence  of  the  instruction  and  discipline. 
 
 Admission.  Applications  for  free  admission  to  the  institution 
 are  made  to  the  directory  of  mines,  and  must  be  accompanied 
 by  certificates  that  the  applicant  is  between  sixteen  and  twenty- 
 three  years  of  age,  is  of  good  moral  character,  in  sound  health, 
 writes  German  correctly,  and  understands  the  grammar  of  the 
 language ;  has  made  some  proficiency  in  geography  and  history, 
 can  read  easy  Latin  authors,  is  acquainted  with  arithmetic,  the 
 elements  of  geometry,  and  has  made  a  beginning  in  drawing. 
 If  he  understands  the  French  or  English  language,  it  is  a  re- 
 commendation.   The  testimonials  must  be  handed  between  the 
 
690  GENERAL  EDUCATIOJT.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 months  of  Januaiy  and  June,  and  the  directory  decide  \vhich 
 of  the  applicants  may  present  themselves  for  examination  be- 
 fore the  professors  of  the  school.  Those  found  qualified  in  all 
 the  courses  enter,  and  others  may,  in  particular  cases,  be  allowed 
 to  join  the  classes,  undergoing  subsequently  an  examination  in 
 the  studies  on  which  they  were  defective.  According  to  an  edict 
 of  the  German  diet,  in  regard  to  the  attendance  of  foreigners 
 upon  the  scholastic  institutions  of  any  of  the  German  states, 
 strangers  must  apply  to  the  minister  of  finance  for  permission 
 to  attend  the  school  and  present  a  testimonial  of  character  and 
 proficiency,  and  the  written  expression  of  their  parents'  wish 
 that  they  should  attend  the  school.  Admission  is,  however, 
 freely  granted.  Those  pupils  who  are  in  part,  or  entirely,  sup- 
 ported by  the  government,  are  divided  into  two  classes.  The 
 first  division  includes  the  regular  students,  called  beneficiaries 
 (beneficianten),  who  pass  through  a  course  of  four  years  at  the 
 school,  and  become  candidates  for  the  corps  of  mines;  the  other 
 is  composed  of  those  who  enter  for  places  not  requiring  more 
 than  one  or  two  years  of  study,  or  who  have  passed  a  superior 
 examination  for  admission,  but  cannot  enter  as  regular  students, 
 in  consequence  of  the  want  of  a  vacancy  in  the  corps.  Besides 
 these  there  are  two  other  divisions,  namely,  Saxons,  who  pay 
 their  own  expenses  at  the  school,  and  foreigners.  These  diflerent 
 divisions  are  distinguished  by  characteristic  dilTerences  in  the 
 uniform  which  they  wear.  The  gratuitously  educated  students 
 come  under  an  obligation  at  entering,  in  event  of  leaving  tlie 
 service  of  the  government,  to  refund  the  pay  which  they  may 
 have  received,  and  to  pay  the  cost  of  their  tuition.  The  regular 
 pupils  receive  a  pay  proportioned  in  general  to  the  length  of 
 time  which  they  have  been  in  the  school.  The  first  class  re- 
 ceives from  twenty-two  to  thirty  dollars  per  annum;  the  second, 
 from  fifteen  to  twenty-two;  the  third,  from  seven  to  fifteen. 
 The  fourth  class  receive  only  the  compensation  to  which  they 
 may  be  entitled  for  their  work  in  the  mines.  In  1837-8  there 
 were  in  the  school  ninelccn  regular  pupils,  eighteen  extra  pupils, 
 and  others  admitted  gratis,  two  Saxon  pay  pupils,  and  eighteen 
 foreigners,  making  a  total  of  fifty-seven.    Of  the  foreigners,  five 
 
SCHOOL  OF  MINES  OF  SAXONY.  591 
 
 were  Russians,  two  South  Americans,  and  two  Englishmen. 
 This  school  is  essentially  difTerent  in  its  organization  from  the 
 school  of  mines  of  France.  The  latter  institution  is  supplemen- 
 tary to  the  polytechnic  school,  furnishing  the  special  instruc- 
 tion required  by  the  candidates  for  the  corps  of  mines  who  have 
 passed  through  the  general  courses  of  the  polytechnic  school. 
 The  Saxon  school  begins  at  a  lower  level  in  attainment  than 
 the  polytechnic  school,  and  instructs  future  miners  only,  the 
 special  object  being  never  lost  sight  of  throughout  the  student's 
 career.  In  the  opportunities  for  practice,  it  resembles  more 
 nearly  the  miners'  school  of  St.  Etienne  than  the  school  of  mines 
 at  Paris;  while,  then,  the  courses  of  instruction  here  have  neces- 
 sarily many  points  of  resemblance  to  those  of  the  polytechnic 
 school  and  the  school  of  mines  of  France,  an  acquaintance 
 with  these  institutions  would  not  serve  at  all  as  a  guide  to  the 
 arrangements  of  the  Saxon  school. 
 
 Instruction.  The  courses  of  instruction  are  divided  into  those 
 which  are  to  be  pursued  by  all  the  pupils,  or  general,  and  those 
 which  depend  upon  the  branch  to  which  they  intend  devoting 
 themselves,  or  special.  The  first  consist  of  elementary,  higher, 
 and  applied  or  mixed  mathematics,  mechanics  and  the  ma- 
 chinery of  mines,  general ,  analytical,  and  special  or  technical 
 chemistry,  physics,  drawing,  general  and  topographical,  of 
 shades,  shadows,  and  perspective,  and  of  mining  implements,  of 
 mining  and  metallurgic  machines  and  constructions,  oryctog- 
 nosy  (mineralogy),  geognosy  (geology),  crystallography  the 
 art  of  mining,  metallurgy,  civil  engineering,  mining  jurispru- 
 dence and  correspondence,  the  French  language.  The  second 
 or  special  courses  consist  of  the  surveying  of  mines  and  land 
 surveying,  the  keeping  of  books,  registers,  &c.,  of  fossil  geology, 
 for  those  who  are  intended  as  miners,  and  of  the  examination 
 of  minerals,  and  analytical  cliemistry,  with  special  reference  to 
 the  ores  of  Saxony,  for  those  who  are  to  serve  at  the  furnaces. 
 
 These  courses  are  pursued  by  the  regular  students  according 
 to  the  following  plan: — The  first  year  is  devoted  to  elementary 
 mathematics,  to  physics,  to  geognosy,  to  general  and  topogra- 
 phical drawing,  to  French,  and  to  general  practical  operations 
 
592  GENERAL  EDUCATIOiV.       SUPERIOR  rEKIOD. 
 
 of  mining  and  metallurgy.  All  these  pupils  arc  allowed  at  cer- 
 tain times  to  be  present  in  the  mines  and  at  the  furnaces,  under 
 the  charge  of  miners  and  smelters,  who  act  as  instructors,  and 
 who  report  at  the  end  of  the  year  upon  the  character  of  their 
 pupils. 
 
 During  the  second  year,  the  courses  pursued  are — higher 
 mathematics,  general  chemistry,  mineralogy,  with  practical  ex- 
 ercises, crystallography,  the  art  of  mining,  civil  engineering, 
 drawing,  French,  practical  mining,  and  geological  exercises. 
 
 After  this  year  the  student  determines  whether  he  will  devote 
 himself  to  mining  or  metallurgy,  and  receives  special  instruction 
 accordingly. 
 
 The  general  courses  of  the  third  year  arc — applied  mathe- 
 tics,  the  art  of  mining,  analytical  chemistry,  metallurgy,  tech- 
 nical chemistry,  drawing,  practical  exercises  in  mining  and  me- 
 tallurgy, geology,  with  practical  exercises,  and  fossil  geology. 
 
 The  courses  of  the  fourth  year  are — machinery  of  mines, 
 theory  and  practice,  mining  jurisprudence,  examination  of  mi- 
 nerals, analytical  chemistry,  and  practical  exercises  of  mining 
 and  metallurgy.  During  this  year,  the  pupils  who  intend  devoting 
 themselves  specially  to  mining  attend  solely  to  practice  in  that 
 branch,  and  thus  also  with  the  metallurgists.  The  particular 
 operation  in  which  they  engage  is  regulated  by  the  lectures, 
 that  the  practice  of  each  operation  may  be  acquired  at  the  same 
 time  with  its  theory. 
 
 In  relation  to  the  amount  of  study  to  be  pursued,  the  gov^ern- 
 ment  pupils  are  divided  into  three  classes,  those  who  aim  at 
 entire  qualification  for  the  corps,  and  who,  on  graduating  at  tiie 
 school,  go  to  the  university  for  one  year,  and  those  who  intend 
 to  connect  themselves  with  the  dcinirtnient  of  metallurgy. 
 
 Among  the  apparatus  for  carrying  out  these  courses  is  an 
 admirable  collection  of  models  of  machines  and  of  mines.  The 
 collection  of  minerals  and  geological  specimens  is  large,  and 
 besides  that  of  the  school,  the  students  have  the  use  of  the  ca- 
 binet of  the  celebnited  Werner,  which  is  kcjH  detached  from  the 
 other  as  a  memorial  of  that  great  man.  The  library  and  reading- 
 room,  the  collection  of  physical  and  chemical  apparatus,  and 
 
SCHOOL  OF  MINKS  OF  SAXONY.  503 
 
 the  arrangements  for  the  study  of  analytical  chemistry,  and  the 
 assay  of  minerals  and  ores,  are  all  suitable  to  their  several  ob- 
 jects. The  course  of  assaying  with  the  blow-pipe  has  become 
 quite  celebrated. 
 
 The  lectures  are  continued  from  October  to  July,  with  holi- 
 days of  from  one  to  two  weeks  at  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Whit- 
 suntide. During  the  summer  vacations,  the  regular  pupils  make 
 excursions  into  the  other  mining  districts  of  Saxony,  and  even 
 into  foreign  countries,  for  their  improvement  in  mining,  geology, 
 &c.,  and  are  expected  to  keep  a  journal  of  their  tours.  The 
 short  vacations  are  employed  at  the  school  in  practical  exer- 
 cises and  in  literary  composition,  unless  leave  of  absence  is  ob- 
 tained. There  is  also  one  day  of  each  week  on  which  there  are 
 no  lessons  (Monday),  to  allow  the  pupils  to  take  part  both  in 
 the  mining  and  smelting  operations  of  the  district  of  Freyburg. 
 
 There  are  eight  professors  and  five  teachers  attached  to  the 
 school,  among  whom  the  ditferent  departments  are  divided 
 according  to  the  following  plan,  in  which  the  number  of 
 lectures  per  week  is  also  noted: — One  professor  has  charge  of 
 the  three  departments  of  general  and  technical  chemistry  and 
 of  metallurgy,  lecturing  on  the  first,  five  hours,  on  the  second, 
 three  hours,  and  on  the  third,  three  hours.  The  professor  of 
 theoretical  and  practical  mineralogy  lectures  on  the  theory  for 
 students  of  the  first  and  second  courses,  each  three  times  a 
 week ;  gives  a  repetition  of  one  hour,  and  practical  exercises 
 two  hours  per  week.  The  professor  of  geology  and  crystal- 
 lography lectures  on  the  first,  five  hours,  and  on  the  second, 
 two  hours  per  week.  The  professor  of  physics  and  fossil  geo- 
 logy* lectures  on  the  first,  four  hours,  and  on  the  second,  two 
 hours  per  week.  The  professor  of  the  elementary  and  higher 
 mathematics  gives  instruction  in  the  first,  four  hours,  and  in 
 the  second,  two  hours  per  week.  The  professor  of  mining 
 jurisprudence  and  correspondence  gives  two  lessons  per  week 
 to  each  of  his  two  classes.     Mixed  mathematics,  mining  ma- 
 
 *  Professor  Reich,  to  wliom  I  am  indebted  for  a  copy  in  MS.  of  the  regulations 
 of  the  school. 
 
 75 
 
594  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 chinery,  and  general  surveying,  arc  under  one  professor,  \vho 
 teaches  the  first  and  second,  four  hours,  and  the  third,  two 
 hours  per  week.  Mining  surveying  is  taught  by  a  surveyor  of 
 the  corps  two  hours  per  week.  Drawing  and  civil  architec- 
 ture by  an  instructor,  the  former,  six  hours,  and  the  latter,  three 
 hours  per  week.  Registry  is  taught  by  a  superintendent  of 
 mines.  The  assay  of  minerals  by  an  overviewer,  five  hours  per 
 week.  Tiic  tcaclier  of  French  gives  four  hours  of  instruction 
 per  week. 
 
 The  subjects  arc  in  general  taught  by  lectures,  combined  with 
 interrogation  after  eacfi  lecture,  and,  when  tlie  courses  admit, 
 with  practical  exercises.  The  pupils  are  expected  to  write  out  a 
 fair  copy  of  their  notes,  and  to  keep  a  journal  of  their  practical 
 exercises;  these  are  from  time  to  time,  with  the  essays  which  they 
 are  directed  to  write,  submitted  to  the  professors,  and  are  pre- 
 sented at  the  examinations.  The  subject  of  each  recitation,  the 
 character  of  the  pupils'  answers,  and  of  the  exercises,  drawings, 
 and  journals,  are  reported  to  the  directory  of  mines  by  the  pro- 
 fessors. At  the  close  of  each  of  the  four  years  there  is  an  exa- 
 mination of  the  students  in  the  several  branches,  and  they  are 
 classified  according  to  its  results,  and  the  estimate  of  their  work 
 during  the  year.  Students  who  do  not  pass  satisfactorily,  remain 
 an  additional  year  in  the  same  class,  after  which,  if  they  are 
 not  found  proficient,  they  are  dismissed.  These  remarks  apply 
 of  course  only  to  the  regular  students.  There  are  three  prizes 
 for  proficiency  in  the  upper  classes,  and  two  in  the  fourth,  vary- 
 ing in  amount  from  two  up  to  twenty  florins  (eighty  cents  to  eight 
 dollars). 
 
 Graduation.  Graduates  of  the  school  are  candidates  for  the 
 corps  of  mines,  and  receive  the  pay  of  this  grade  until  appointed 
 in  the  corps.  Permission  may  be  obtained  to  go  to  a  university 
 for  one  year,  after  graduating,  in  which  case  the  candidate,  on 
 his  return  to  duty,  must  show  satisfactory  certificates  of  study 
 and  conduct.  This  study  of  one  year  at  a  university  is  essential 
 to  certain  situations  in  the  corps,  and  hence  is  expected  from 
 those  who  intend  to  have  the  whole  career  open  before  them. 
 
 Discipline.     The  discipline  of  the  school  is  regulated  by  law.s 
 
AGRICULTURAL  INSTITUTE  OF  WURTEMBERG.  595 
 
 emanating  from  the  directory  of  mines,  and  which  are  very  mi- 
 nute. All  the  pupils,  without  distinction,  are  subject  to  these 
 regulations.  The  means  of  repressive  discipline  consist  of  ad- 
 monitions of  various  grades,  report  to  the  directory,  mention  in 
 the  report  to  the  king,  obligatory  work  in  the  mines,  depriva- 
 tion of  pay,  and  dismission. 
 
 This  school,  from  the  character  of  its  officers,  government, 
 instruction,  and  location,  offers  great  inducements  to  students 
 who  wish  to  become  adepts  in  the  principles  of  mining  and  me- 
 tallurgy, and  the  sciences  introductory  to  them. 
 
 INSTITUTE  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY  AT  HOHENHEIM, 
 NEAR  STUTTGARD. 
 
 This  is  the  most  complete  agricultural  school  in  Europe,  and 
 extends  its  usefulness  not  only  throughout,  but  beyond,  Wurtem- 
 berg.  It  was  established  in  1817,  by  the  Agricultural  Society 
 of  Wurtemberg,  under  the  patronage  of  the  king,  who  devoted 
 a  royal  seat,  with  extensive  buildings,  to  the  purposes  of  the  in- 
 stitution. The  farm  includes  nearly  one  thousand  acres,  exclu- 
 sively appropriated  to  the  support  of  the  school,  or  the  practical 
 instruction  of  the  pupils.  In  1820  the  school  of  forestry  was 
 united  with  this,  and  the  pupils  now  follow,  in  part,  the  same 
 courses. 
 
 The  entire  institution  is  divided  into  two  departments,  one  of 
 which  is  intended  to  give  a  higher  general  and  practical  educa- 
 tion than  the  other.  In  the  higher,  the  object  is  less  the  acquisi- 
 tion of  manual  dexterity  in  the  operations  of  agriculture,  than 
 the  knowledge  required  to  superintend  them ;  while  in  the  lower, 
 the  practice  is  the  principal  end.  The  latter  department  ranks 
 with  the  rural  schools  of  Switzerland  and  the  agricultural  school 
 of  Templemoyle,  in  Ireland,  already  described.  In  the  higher 
 school,  all  the  pupils  are  expected  to  pay  for  their  education.  In 
 the  lower,  natives  of  Wurtemberg  are  admitted  gratis,  if  their 
 circumstances  require  it.  Foreigners  may  be  admitted  to  either; 
 their  payments  being,  however,  on  a  much  higher  scale  than 
 those  of  natives.* 
 
 •  For  the  yearly  courses  ai  the  liiglicr  school  natives  pay  forty  dollars,  and  fo- 
 
596  GENERAL  EDUCATION.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 The  direction  of  the  establishment  is  delegated  by  the  Agri- 
 cultLiral  Society  to  a  director  and  treasurer,  the  former  of  whom 
 has  the  general  superintendence  of  all  the  concerns  of  the  insti- 
 tution, while  the  latter  is  responsible  for  its  financial  state  to  the 
 society  and  to  the  royal  exchequer.  The  director  is  also  an 
 instructor.  There  are,  besides,  four  regular  or  ordinary  pro- 
 fessors, and  four  extraordinary  professors,  besides  an  overseer 
 and  steward,  for  the  management  of  the  farm  and  domestic  eco- 
 nomy. The  treasurer  has  a  book-keeper  and  an  assistant  in  his 
 department. 
 
 Pupils  are  admitted  at  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  are  ex- 
 pected to  possess  elementary  attainments  necessary  to  the  pro- 
 secution of  the  courses  of  the  schook  Between  1820  and  1836, 
 one  hundred  and  eighty  natives  and  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
 two  foreigners  have  been  educated  in  agriculture,  and  one  hun- 
 dred and  forty-seven  natives  and  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
 seven  foreigners  in  forestry,  making  a  total  of  five  hundred  and 
 thirty-nine  in  the  institution.  The  number  of  pupils  in  the  higher 
 school  in  183G  was  seventy-two.  That  in  the  lower  school  is 
 limited  to  twenty-seven. 
 
 The  pupils  of  the  lower  school,  in  general,  come  under  obliga- 
 tions to  remain  three  years  at  the  institution,  in  consideration  of 
 which  their  payments  for  instruction  are  diminished,  in  part,  in 
 the  second  year,  and  cease  in  the  third.  They  are  engaged  in 
 the  operations  of  the  farm,  the  garden,  and  other  parts  of  the 
 establishment,  which  will  be  hereafter  enumerated,  under  the 
 direction  of  the  workmen,  and  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
 steward,  their  time  being  so  distributed  that  they  may  acquire 
 practice  in  the  various  operations  of  farming.  They  are  also 
 required  to  attend  certain  of  the  lectures  given  to  the  higher 
 classes,  and  receive  instruction  at  times  when  they  are  not  en- 
 gaged in  agricultural  labour.  They  receive  regular  wages  for 
 work  done,  from  which  they  are  expected  to  pay  for  their  main- 
 tenance and  clothing.     Premiums  are  given  to  those  who  dis- 
 
 rei^ncrs  one  hundred  and  twenty  dollars.  For  instruction  in  forestry  only,  a  na- 
 tive pays  twenty.four  dollars,  and  a  stranjirer  seventy-two  dollars.  For  the  three 
 years  instruction  in  the  lower  sciiool,  natives  pay  forty  dollars. 
 
AGRICULTURAL  INSTITUTE  OF  WURTEMBERG.  597 
 
 play  great  sldll  and  industry.  While  in  the  house,  the  younger 
 pupils  are  under  the  charge  of  the  elder  ones,  and  all  are  under 
 the  general  superintendence  of  the  overseer.  The  same  super- 
 intendence exists  in  the  refectory  and  dormitories.  It  subserves 
 the  double  purpose  of  economy,  and  of  training  the  elder  pupils 
 in  the  management  of  men,  which  is  one  object  of  their  educa- 
 tion. The  institution  undertakes  to  find  places  for  those  pupils 
 who  have  given  satisfaction  while  in  the  school,  on  their  com- 
 pleting its  courses. 
 
 The  agricultural  course  of  the  higher  school  may  be  accom- 
 plished in  one  year,  if  the  preliminary  studies  of  the  pupil  have 
 been  directed  with  a  view  to  his  entering,  but  in  general  it  re- 
 quires two  years.  The  same  period  of  two  years  is  required 
 for  that  of  forestry.  Each  scholastic  j^ear  has  two  sessions,  the 
 one  from  the  fir&t  of  November  to  Palm-Sunday,  and  the  other 
 from  two  weeks  after  Palm-Sunday  to  the  first  of  October. 
 The  intermediate  periods  are  vacations. 
 
 The  branches  of  special  theoretical  instruction  are  as  fol- 
 lows: 
 
 First:  Agriculture.  General  principles  of  farming-  and  horticulture,  in- 
 cluding' the  culture  of  the  vine.  The  breeding  of  cattle.  Growing  of  wool. 
 Raising  of  horses.  Rearing  of  silk-worms.  Arrangement  and  direction  of  farms. 
 Estimation  of  the  value  of  farms.     Book-keeping. 
 
 Second :  Forestry.  Encyclopedia  of  Forestry.  Botany  of  forests.  Culture 
 and  superintendence  of  forests.  Guard  of  forests.  Hunting.  Taxation.  Uses  of 
 forests.  Technology.  Laws  and  regulations,  accounts,  and  technical  corres- 
 pondence relating  to  forests. 
 
 Third  :  Accessary  branches.  Veterinary  art.  Agricultural  technology,  espe- 
 cially the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar,  brewing,  vinegar  making,  and  distilling. 
 The  construction  of  roads  and  hydraulic  works. 
 
 Besides  these  special  branches,  the  following  general  courses 
 are  pursued: 
 
 First :  The  Natural  Sciences.  Geology.  Physiology  of  plants.  Botany,  as 
 applied  to  agriculture  and  forestry.  Natural  history  of  animals  beneficial  or 
 noxious  to  plants  and  trees.  General  chemistry,  and  its  applications  to  agricul- 
 ture.    Physics  and  meteorology. 
 
 Second :  Mathematics.  Theoretical  and  practical.  Geometry.  Elements  of 
 trigonometry.     Arithmetic.     Elements  of  algebra. 
 
598  GENERAL  EDUCATION'.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 The  institution  possesses  the  most  ample  means  for  the  illus- 
 tration of  these  courses  in  its  farm  and  collections.    The  farm 
 is  divided  into  arable  land,  about  five  hundred  and  one  acres; 
 meadow  land,  two  hundred  aiuJ  forty-two  acres;  fields  set  apart 
 for  experiments,  thirty-three  acres;  woodland,  thirteen  acres; 
 nursery,  sixty-seven  acres;  plantation  of  hops,  two  acres;  bo- 
 tanical garden,  fourteen  acres;  ground  for  exercising  the  pupils 
 in  ploughing,  two  acres;    garden,  one  acre;   the  remainder, 
 eighty-five  acres.     Total,  nine  hundred  and  sixty  acres.     The 
 arable  land  is  cultivated  according  to  five  different  rotations  of 
 crops,  that  the  pupils  may  have  specimens  of  the  varieties  of 
 system.    The  botanical  garden,  nursery,  and  experimental  farm, 
 are  prominent  parts  of  the  establishment.     There  is  a  large 
 stock  of  cattle  of  difierent  kinds,  foreign  and  domestic,  and  of 
 sheep,  that  the  pupils  may  acquire  practical  knowledge  of  the 
 relative  advantages  of  difierent  breeds,  the  mode  of  taking  care 
 of  the  stock  generally,  and  of  rearing  them  for  different  pur- 
 poses.    Horses  are  kept  for  a  riding-school,  as  well  as  for  the 
 purposes  of  the  farm.     The  institution  has  a  large  collection  of 
 agricultural  implements  in  use  in  Wurtemberg,  and  of  models 
 of  the  varieties  of  foreign  and  new  implements.     These  are 
 made  in  a  work-shop  attached  to  the  school,  and  aflbrd  practice 
 in  the  manufacture  to  the  pupils,  as  well  as  instruction  by  their 
 use  or  inspection,  with  the  explanations  of  the  professors.    The 
 sale  of  these  implements  and  models  also  contributes  to  the  sup- 
 port of  the  establishment.     There  are  two  collections  of  seeds 
 and  grain — one  as  specimens  for  illustrating  the  lectures,  the 
 other  in  quantities  for  sale.     The  pupils  learn  the  mode  of 
 preserving  them,  and  useful  seeds  are  distributed  through  the 
 country.     There  is  a  collection  of  soils  of  all  kinds  for  the  lec- 
 tures on  terra-culture  and  the  analysis  of  soils,  with  specimens 
 of  the  means  of  amelioration  used  in  dilTercnt  cases.     The  col- 
 lections of  natural  history,  thonijjh  small,  are  interesting,  from  the 
 precise  adaptation  of  the  sjiecimcns  to  the  objects  of  the  school, 
 Thcv  consist  of  birds,  beasts,  and  insects,  and  of  plants,  woods, 
 and  rocks.     The  woods  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  library, 
 
AGRICULTURAL  INSTITUTE  OF  WURTEMBERG.  599 
 
 the  separate  specimens  having  the  forms  of  books  given  to  them, 
 and  being  covered  in  part  with  the  bark.  The  name  is  inscribed 
 upon  the  back.  Cross  and  longitudinal  sections  are  usually  found 
 in  the  same  book,  forming  the  covers.  Between  the  covers  is 
 a  box  containing  the  seeds  and  flowers  of  the  tree,  the  parasites, 
 &LC.,  and  a  description.  There  is  a  small  collection  of  physical 
 apparatus,  a  library,  and  a  laboratory.  The  following  farming 
 and  technological  establishments  are  connected  with  the  school, 
 and  worked  by  the  pupils,  under  the  charge  of  the  teachers: 
 namely,  a  cider-press  and  appurtenances;  a  beet-sugar  manu- 
 factory, a  brewery,  a  distillery,  and  a  vinegar  manufactory. 
 Though  I  saw  better  individual  collections  than  these,  the  whole 
 suite  stands  unrivalled,  as  far  as  my  examination  extended. 
 
 Examinations  take  place  every  year,  which  are  obligatory 
 upon  those  forestry  pupils  who  intend  to  enter  the  service  of 
 the  government;  strangers  are  not  required  to  be  examined. 
 Persons  wishing  to  learn  the  details  of  the  institution,  may  be 
 received  as  visitors  for  a  period  not  exceeding  a  month,  living 
 with  the  pupils. 
 
 Each  pupil  in  the  higher  school  has  his  own  sleeping-room; 
 or,  at  most,  two  room  together.  They  bring  their  supplies  of 
 clothing,  &c.  at  entrance.  The  rooms  are  kept  in  order  by 
 the  servants,  who  receive  a  small  compensation  from  the  pupil. 
 They  take  their  dinner  and  supper  in  a  common  hall,  and  order 
 what  they  please  for  breakfast  from  the  steward's  assistant.* 
 This  institution  has  supported  itself  for  several  years,  which  is 
 readily  to  be  understood  from  the  scale  of  its  farming  operations. 
 The  success  of  the  farm  does  not  depend  exclusively  upon  the 
 productive  manual  labour  of  the  pupils.  It  is  analogous  to  the 
 support  of  a  family  on  a  large  estate,  the  members  of  the  family 
 aiding  in  the  work,  and  contributing  also  in  money  to  their  own 
 support,  but  the  working  of  the  farm  not  depending  entirely 
 upon  their  manual  exertions. 
 
 *  The  dinner  and  supper  cost  four  dollars  a  month,  which  is  paid  in  advance 
 to  the  steward. 
 
600  GENERAL  EDUCATlOiV.       SUPERIOR  PERIOD. 
 
 NAVAL  SCHOOL  OF  AUSTRIA,  AT  VENICE. 
 
 This  institution  is  for  youths  intending  to  enter  tlic  naval  ser- 
 vice of  the  empire.  They  are  received  at  about  fourteen  years 
 of  age,  and  may  pass  through  the  five  classes  composing  the 
 school  in  as  many  years.  They  are  then  appointed  in  the  navy, 
 as  vacancies  occur.  The  school  is  superintended  by  a  naval 
 officer,  whose  rank  is  that  of  captain  of  a  frigate.  The  pro- 
 fessors and  other  officers  arc  in  general  from  the  same  service, 
 though  some  of  the  former  are  citizens. 
 
 The  general  course  of  instruction  is  as  follows : — Religious 
 instruction,  mathematics,  Italian,  German,  French  and  Eng- 
 lish languages,  geography,  history,  writing,  and  drawing.  The 
 special  courses  are — of  maritime  law,  the  law  of  quarantine, 
 epistolary  correspondence,  the  science  of  artillery,  and  naval 
 tactics  and  construction.  There  are  regular  exercises  in  naval 
 manoeuvres,  rigging,  &c.,  and  in  infantry  tactics,  in  land  and 
 hydrographical  surveying,  and  in  fencing.  The  course  of 
 mathematics  includes  both  pure  and  mixed  mathematics;  name- 
 ly, aritlimetic  and  algebra,  geometry,  plane  and  spherical  tri- 
 gonometry, the  application  of  algebra  to  geometry,  conic 
 sections,  the  differential  and  integral  calculus,  hydrographic 
 surveying,  projections,  nautical  astronomy,  ship-building,  me- 
 chanics, and  physics.  The  following  table  shows  the  distribu- 
 tion of  time  among  the  different  subjects  of  study  in  the  five 
 classes,  of  which  the  fifth  class  is  the  highest: 
 
NAVAL  SCHOOL  AT  VENICE. 
 
 r.oi 
 
 Distribution  of  time  at  the  Naval  School  of  Austria,  at  Venice. 
 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 OF 
 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 Italian, 
 
 German, 
 
 French, 
 
 English, 
 
 Religious  Instruction,     -    -    - 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History, -    -    - 
 
 Maritime  and  Quarantine  Law, 
 
 Epistolary  Style, 
 
 Artillery, 
 
 Naval  Tactics,  &c.,    .... 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 Writing, 
 
 Infantry  Drill, 
 
 Practical  Exercises,   .... 
 Hydrographical  Surveying,  &.C., 
 
 Totals.    . 
 
 16i 
 
 33^ 
 
 HOURS  PER  WEEK. 
 
 15i 
 
 34J 
 
 161 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 33  i 
 
 m 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 30A 
 
 121 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 32  A 
 
 73i 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 23 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 The  following  is  the  order  of  the  day  during  the  summer  for 
 
 secular  days,  exclusive  of  Thursday: — The  pupils  rise  at  six, 
 
 A.  M.     An  hour  is  allowed  for  police  and  mass;  half  an  hour  for 
 
 breakfast.     From  half  past  seven  to  half  past  eleven  they  are  in 
 
 76 
 
602  CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 
 
 school.  There  is  then  an  intermission  of  half  an  hour.  Dinner 
 at  twelve,  and  recreation  until  one,  P.  M.  Study  fronn  one  to 
 two,  P.  M.  School  from  two  to  five.  Recreation  from  five  to 
 six.  Prayers  from  six  to  half  past  six.  Study  from  half  past 
 six  to  nine,  and  recreation  from  nine  to  half  past  nine,  and  retire. 
 On  Thursday  they  rise  at  half  past  six,  are  engaged  in  police, 
 mass,  and  breakfast,  until  eight.  The  regulations  are  read. 
 Study  and  religious  instruction  occupy  them  from  nine  until  half 
 past  eleven.  Recreation  until  twelve.  Dine,  and  have  recrea- 
 tion until  two.  Are  occupied  with  religious  instruction  and 
 study  until  five.  The  other  arrangements  of  the  day  are  as 
 above  stated.  On  Sundays  and  holidays  the  inspector  visits  the 
 rooms  at  eight,  A.  M.  Mass  and  biblical  explanations  occupy 
 until  nine.  There  is  then  a  visit  of  inspection  from  the  director. 
 Study  from  ten  to  eleven.  Recreation  until  twelve.  Dinner 
 and  recreation. 
 
 CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 
 
 I  HAVE  now  completed  the  design  of  giving  such  an  account 
 of  the  state  of  public  institutions  for  education  as  may  enable 
 the  Trustees  of  the  Girard  College  to  examine,  by  the  light  of 
 experience,  the  plan  which  it  has  been  made  my  duty,  at  a  fu- 
 ture time,  to  present  to  them  for  that  institution.  In  so  doing, 
 I  have  endeavoured  to  confine  my  remarks  and  suggestions 
 within  the  limits  which  a  strict  induction  from  facts  would  war- 
 rant. Having,  however,  been  obliged  to  make  a  selection  from 
 the  materials  accumulated  during  the  tour  made  by  the  direction 
 of  the  trustees,  I  am  conscious  that  all  the  facts  collected  are 
 by  no  means  presented.  Indeed,  a  very  close  selection  has 
 been  requisite  to  confine  this  document  within  any  reasonable 
 limits.  Again,  I  am  aware  that  the  character  of  a  report  does 
 not  permit  that  entire  freedoni  of  expression  which,  in  many 
 cases,  is  desirable;  and  hence  my  impressions  of  many  schools 
 here  described  have  a  vividness  which  the  report  on  them  by 
 
OONOLUDl.VG   REMARKS.  003 
 
 no  menns  faithfully  represents.  To  supply  these  defects,  as 
 M'ell  as  errors  of  judgment  in  my  selections,  I  have  made  an 
 arrangement  of  all  the  documents  collected  in  relation  to  the 
 schools  visited,  by  which  any  one  can  be  immediately  found, 
 or  the  whole  examined.  The  translations  of  documents  from 
 foreign  languages  into  English  have  been  similarly  arranged, 
 the  more  important  ones  having  been  transcribed,  to  render 
 them  easily  legible.  My  private  journal  relating  to  these  same 
 institutions  has,  generally,  in  like  manner,  been  transcribed  and 
 classed  with  the  other  sources  of  information.  The  papers  so 
 arranged  will  be  placed  in  the  College  library,  and  will  afford 
 the  trustees  not  only  the  means  of  appealing  to  experiment  upon 
 doubtful  points,  but  of  comparing  hereafter  our  own  institution, 
 or  others  of  our  country,  with  kindred  establishments  abroad. 
 In  order  to  enable  the  Board  to  know  exactly  what  are  the 
 documents  collected  w^hich  bear  particularly  upon  our  objects, 
 I  intend  to  present  a  list  of  them*  in  the  Appendix  to  this  Re- 
 port. Tfiis  will  enable  me  at  the  same  time  to  designate  the 
 names  of  those  gentlemen  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  the  docu- 
 ments, and  to  thank  them  for  this  and  other  kind  offices,  by 
 which  I  was  constantly  cheered  on  my  way.  In  the  Appendix 
 will  be  found,  also,  some  useful  references,  which  could  not 
 appropriately  be  embodied  in  the  Report — such  as  general 
 tables  of  occupation  and  diet  in  different  institutions;  remarks 
 of  some  eminent  teachers  upon  the  science  which  they  have 
 contributed  to  advance;  lists  of  books  used  in  certain  schools; 
 and  other  miscellaneous  matter  connected  with  the  Report. 
 
 I  proceed  to  accomplish,  as  briefly  as  possible,  the  remaining 
 part  of  my  duty,  namely,  to  give  an  account  of  the  manner  of 
 executing  my  instructions  in  regard  to  the  purchase  of  books  and 
 apparatus.  As  directed,  I  confined  my  purchases  of  books,  with 
 few  exceptions,  to  works  on  education,  or  on  kindred  subjects,  to 
 text-books,  to  such  as  w^ere  in  use  with  advantage  as  books  for 
 the  libraries  of  primary  schools,  to  school-engravings,  ordinary 
 
 *  This  list  is  exclusive  of  docnnienls  relating  to  tiie  education  of  the  deaf  and 
 dumb,  of  the  blind,  of  juvenile  delinquents,  and  to  miscellaneous  matters. 
 
004  CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 
 
 maps,  and  maps  in  relief.  In  these  departments  I  purchased 
 works  in  different  languages,  that  translations  might  be  made 
 of  those  which  it  might  be  deemed  expedient  to  introduce  into 
 the  school,  selecting  according  to  such  an  examination  as  I 
 could  give  at  the  time,  or  by  the  judgment  of  those  in  whom  I 
 had  confidence.  I  also  procured  the  stock-catalogues  of  works 
 published  in  different  countries,  within  a  few  years,  or  of  older 
 works,  and  made  arrangements  to  have  those  of  the  new  works 
 transmitted  to  the  institution.  The  Board  are  aware  that  valu- 
 able presents  of  engravings,  maps,  and  books,  were  made  to  the 
 Girard  College;  among  them  the  splendid  work  of  model  en- 
 gravings for  mechanics,  presented  by  the  Royal  Technical 
 Commission  of  Prussia,  through  the  president,  M.  Beuth ;  the 
 maps  of  the  survey  of  India,  presented  by  the  surveyor-general  of 
 India,  Major  Jervis;  the  maps  and  school  manuals,  presented  by 
 the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  National  Education  for  Ireland; 
 the  collection  of  school  books  in  use  in  the  elementary  schools  of 
 Holland,  presented  by  Director  Prinsen,  of  Haarlem;  and  the 
 books  relating  to  the  arts,  by  M.  De  Mok'on,  of  Paris.  I  have 
 also  placed  in  the  library  the  various  works  relating  to  education 
 and  kindred  subjects,  which  I  received  from  their  authors, 
 considering  that  they  were  presented  to  me  rather  as  the  repre- 
 sentative of  the  Girard  College  than  as  an  individual;  and  that 
 they  may  thus  be  rendered  more  useful  than  if  I  had  retained  them 
 with  my  own  books.  The  works  thus  brought  together  form 
 a  nucleus  for  the  educaiional  department  of  our  library,  and  to 
 the  accomplishment  of  such  an  object  my  views  were  very  pro- 
 perly limited  l)y  the  scholastic  committee.  They  are  contribu- 
 tions towards  a  collection  which  will  be  necessary  to  aid  the 
 studies  of  our  pupils  and  teachers,  and  which  is  referred  to  in 
 his  Will  by  our  founder. 
 
 In  regard  to  apparatus  and  models,  my  purchases  have  con- 
 sisted, first,  of  such  as  must  be  recjuired  in  the  lower  departments 
 of  the  College,  and  which  were  new,  or  could  not  be  so  readily 
 procured  at  home.  Second,  of  some  articles  of  the  best  appa- 
 ratus, for  illustrations  in  mechanics  and  physics,  from  different 
 makers,  to  serve  as  specimens  of  the  quality  of  their  work,  and 
 
CONCLUDING  RExMARK!).  605 
 
 of  the  grade  of  apparatus  which  seemed  to  me  suitable  for  the 
 collections  of  the  College.  In  connexion  with  these,  I  have  an 
 extensive  series  of  printed  and  written  catalogues  of  apparatus, 
 with  their  prices,  from  different  parts  of  Europe.  The  speci- 
 mens themselves  will,  I  trust,  incidentally,  by  being  open  to  the 
 inspection  of  our  instrument-makers,  promote  the  advancement 
 of  this  branch  of  art.  Third,  specimens  of  a  collection  of  mo- 
 dels of  machines,  and  of  a  technological  collection,  complete 
 cabinets  of  which  will  be  essential  in  the  higher  departments  of 
 the  institution.*  In  the  case  of  those  procured  at  Paris,  the 
 Board  are  already  aware  that  I  had  the  advantage  of  the  kind 
 offices  of  M.  Arago,  as  inspector,  and  their  acknowledgments 
 have  been  made  to  him  for  the  service  rendered.  Fourth,  such 
 instruments,  of  the  more  delicate  kind,  as  are  difficult  to  procure 
 without  personal  relations  with  their  inventors,  and  those  who 
 make  them.  All  these  classes  of  articles  but  the  first  are  expen- 
 sive, and  hence  my  purchases  have  been  necessarily  limited  in 
 extent  by  the  funds  placed  at  my  disposal.  They  are,  however, 
 merely  intended  as  specimens,  and  as  such,  will,  I  trust,  be 
 found  to  answer  their  purpose.  The  difficulty  of  getting  toge- 
 ther a  complete  collection  of  books  and  apparatus  cannot  be 
 too  plainly  insisted  upon.  The  delays  incident  to  it  are  great, 
 and,  though  they  may  be  lessened,  cannot  be  avoided. 
 
 The  Board  of  Trustees  will  readily  see,  from  the  tenor  of  this 
 Report,  that  my  examination  has  not  enabled  me  to  select  any 
 single  institution  which  fulfils  at  once  the  requisites  of  the  Will 
 of  our  founder,  and  of  the  present  state  of  education,  and  which 
 might,  therefore,  serve  as  a  model  for  the  Girard  College  for  Or- 
 phans. The  plan  to  be  presented  to  them,  as  far  as  it  is  derived 
 from  these  materials,  must  be  made  up  of  fragments,  to  be  so  mo- 
 dified as  to  adapt  them  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  College,  and  to 
 our  political  and  social  character  and  institutions.     According 
 
 *  A  quotation  from  the  Will  of  Mr.  Girard  will  serve  to  show  that  these  ideas 
 conform  to  its  express  directions.  Amonjo^  the  subjects  of  instruction  for  carry- 
 ing out  which,  he  directs  "  books,  philosophical  and  experimental  instruments 
 and  apparatus"  to  be  provided  are, — "  geography,  navigation,  surveying,  practical 
 mathematics,  astronomy,  natural,  cliemical,  and  cxjjcrimcntal  philosophy." 
 
GOG  CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 
 
 to  the  W^ill  of  ]\Ir.  Girani,  orphan  boys  arc  to  be  educated  in  his 
 College  from  the  a'^e  ot"  six  years  to  tourtcen,  sixteen,  and  even 
 eighteen  years  olage.  The  materials  of  their  instruction  nnust 
 be  "things  rather  than  words,"  and  the  degree  is  to  be  such 
 "  as  the  capacities  of  the  several  scholars  may  merit  or  war- 
 rant." I'he  first  provision,  from  the  early  age  of  admission 
 win'ch  it  enjoins,  enables  us  to  train  as  well  as  to  instruct; 
 the  second  indicates  that  the  tendency  of  our  training  should 
 be  towards  practical  life.  The  age  of  our  pupils  embraces 
 the  period  from  elementary  to  superior  instruction,  and  we 
 are  expressly  called  upon  to  develope  talent.  Our  College 
 must,  therefore,  combine  the  primary,  secondary,  and  special 
 schools  The  means  furnislied  by  our  munificent  benefactor 
 to  execute  his  intentions  are  vast,  and  if  the  benefits  thence 
 accruing  are  not  in  proportion,  the  responsibility  must  rest 
 with  those  to  whoni  they  have  been  entrusted.  The  trustees 
 of  the  College  liave  appealed  to  the  experience  of  Europe 
 to  furnish  data  necessarily  w^anting  in  a  new  country,  and  it 
 remains  for  them  to  apply  the  experimental  deductions  thus  ob- 
 tained from  the  old  world  with  tiie  vigour  characteristic  of  the 
 new.  If  their  spirit  be  proportionate  to  the  work  to  be  accom- 
 plished, there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  result.  Our  founder  has 
 furnished  them  the  means  of  establishing  a  series  of  model 
 schools  for  moral,  intellectual,  and  physical  education,  embra- 
 cing the  period  of  life  from  early  youth  almost  to  manhood,  the 
 importance  of  which  to  our  city,  and  even  to  the  country  at 
 large,  can  hardly  be  estimated. 
 
 Respectfully  submitted,  by 
 
 A.  D.  BACIIE, 
 
 President  of  the  Girani  College 
 
 fur  Orphans. 
 I'liiladdplii.-i,  May  1,  183H. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 The  following  Appendix  contains  the  titles  of  the  documents  relating  to  edu- 
 cation in  general,  collected  during  a  tour  of  two  years  through  some  of  tJie 
 principal  countries  of  Europe,  besides  miscellaneous  matter,  which  could  not  be 
 appropriately  embodied  in  the  foregoing  Report,  but  which,  nevertheless,  is  of 
 interest,  as  illustrating  particular  parts  of  it.  The  articles  of  the  Appendix  have 
 been  referred  to  by  their  numbers  in  tlie  course  of  the  Report,  and  they  will 
 now  be  preceded  by  a  statement  of  the  pages  of  the  Report,  where  the  references 
 are  to  be  found. 
 
 No.  I. 
 
 Referred  to  on  pages  9, 14,  and  603. 
 
 The  titles  of  the  different  documents  relating  to  general  education  will  be 
 found  in  the  following  pages,  classed  in  the  order  of  the  countries  wliere  they 
 were  procured.  Not  to  make  this  list  too  long,  I  have  been  obliged  to  confine  it 
 to  documents  relating  to  instruction  in  general,  omitting  those  from  the  schools 
 of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  blind,  and  from  houses  of  refuge  for  juvenile  delin- 
 quents. Works  on  education,  or  on  particular  departments  of  it,  or  methods,  are, 
 also,  in  general,  not  included  in  it.  The  documents  are  arranged  in  the  follow- 
 ing order: — first,  those  of  Great  Britain,  subdivided  into  England,  Ireland,  and 
 Scotland;  next,  those  of  France,  then  of  Switzerland,  of  Belgium,  Holland,  Ger- 
 many, and  Italy.  The  German  and  Italian  states  and  Swiss  cantons  are  classed 
 alphabetically,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  different  places  in  the  various 
 countries,  the  documents  relating  to  which  are  sufficiently  numerous  to  require 
 any  formal  classification,  [n.  the  several  divisions  the  articles  are  arranged  ac- 
 cording to  the  plan  adopted  in  the  Report,  namely,  the  eleemosynary  institutions 
 first,  then  the  infant,  primary,  secondary,  and  superior  schools;  institutions  for 
 adult  instruction  are  placed  last.  When  the  documents  refer  to  education  in  ia, 
 country  at  large,  they  arc  usually  placed  first  on  the  list. 
 
 The  chief  part  of  these  papers  were  presented  to  me  by  the  gentlemen  whose 
 names  are  attached  to  them,  and  I  bog  leave  here  to  return  to  them,  as  well  as 
 to  others  who  were  so  kind  as  to  further  the  objects  of  my  journey,  my  most 
 sincere  thanks. 
 
 77 
 
6fO  APPEIfDIX. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 1 .  Abstracts  of  the  answers  and  returns  made  pursuant  to  an  address  of  the 
 House  of  Conimons,  May  24th,  lii'.i3.  Vol.  I.,  Bedford,  Lancaster;  Vol.  II., 
 Leicester,  Suffolk;  Vol.  III.,  Surrey,  Radnor,     1835. 
 
 2.  Report  from  the  Select  Committee  on  the  State  of  Education,  with  the 
 Minutes  of  Evidence  and  Index.     Aug^ust  7th,  18.34. 
 
 3.  Report  from  the  Select  Conmiittee  on  Education  in  England  and  Wales, 
 together  with  the  Minutes  of  Evidence,  Api)endix,  and  Index.     August  3d,  1835. 
 
 4.  Report  from  the  Select  (^ommittce  on  Education  of  the  Poorer  Classes  in 
 England  and  Wales,  together  witli  the  Minutes  of  Evidence  and  Index.  13  July, 
 1833. 
 
 5.  A  bill  intituled,  "An  Act  for  Promoting  Education  and  Regulating  Chari- 
 ties, presented  by  Lord  Brougham  and  Vaux,  2d  February,  1837."  (From  W. 
 Holl,  Esq.) 
 
 6.  Prospectus  of  the  Central  Society  of  Education  in  London. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM. 
 
 1.  A  short  account  of  the  Blue-coat  Charity  School  in  Birmingham,  from  its 
 institution  in  1724,  to  1830,  and  list  of  subscribers,  &c.    (From  the  head  Master.) 
 
 2.  Memorandum  of  the  diet  of  the  children  of  the  Blue-coat  School  in  Bir- 
 mingham,  MS.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  List  of  Text-books  used  in  the  Grammar  School  of  King  Edward  VI.  (From 
 the  Rev.  Dr.  Jeune.) 
 
 4.  Proposed  changes  in  the  system  of  the  school  of  King  Edward  VI.,  1837. 
 
 5.  Prospectus  of  the  Birmingham  and  Edgbaston  Proprietary  Day  School,  1837. 
 (From  Mr.  J.  C.  Barlow.) 
 
 6.  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Birmingham  and  Edgbaston  Proprietary  Day 
 School,  established  in  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Report  and  Resolutions  passed  at  the  first  annual  general  meeting  of  the 
 Proprietors  of  the  Birmingham  and  Edgbaston  Proprietary  School,  in  1838. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  List  of  tlic  Secretaries  of  Proprietary  Schools  in  England,  MS.  (From  tiie 
 same.) 
 
 BRISTOL. 
 
 1.  Duties  of  the  boys  of  Colston's  Hospital,  in  Bristol,  1838.  (From  the  Master.) 
 
 2.  ProsjKictus  of  Bristol  College,  1838. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 1.  Collections  of  Examination  Papers,  &c.  (From  Professor  Peacock,  Pro- 
 fessor Miller,  Mr.  Tiiurtell,  Mr.  Stokes,  and  Mr.  Mayer.) 
 
 2.  List  of  tlie  principal  Text-books  used  in  the  colleges  at  Cambridge,  MS. 
 
 CHESTER. 
 
 1.  Rules  to  be  observed  by  parents  whose  sons  are  admitted  day-scholars  or 
 green-caps,  in  the  Blue-coat  Hospital,  in  Chester.     (From  the  Master.) 
 
 2.  The  Annual  Rci>ort  of  the  Blue-coat  Hospital,  in  Chester,  for  1836.  (^From 
 llic  same.) 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  GREAT  BRITAIN.  611 
 
 DURHAM. 
 
 Education  of  Students  in  Civil  Engineering  and  Mining  in  the  University  of 
 Durham,  1838.     (From  Professor  J.  F.  W.  Johnson.) 
 
 LEEDS. 
 
 Prospectus  of  Leeds  Infant  School  Society,  1836. 
 
 LIVERPOOL. 
 
 1.  The  Annual  Report  of  the  Blue-coat  Hospital,  in  Liverpool,  for  1835,  MS. 
 Replies  to  Queries,  MS.  Rules  of  Entrance.  Form  of  Indenture.  Plan  of  In- 
 struction. Forms  for  Teachers'  Reports.  Weekly  Consumption  of  Provisions, 
 &c.  (From  Mr.  Samuel  Dickens,  assistant  master,  and  James  Aspinall,  Esq., 
 honora.y  treasurer.) 
 
 2.  A  full  report  of  the  Speeches  and  Proceedings  at  a  meeting  for  the  Promotion 
 of  Scriptural  Education  in  Liverpool,  held  July  13,  1836. 
 
 3.  Plan  of  Instruction  at  Mr.  Charles  Voelcker's  school  at  St.  Domingo-House, 
 Everton,  near  Liverpool,  1837,  MS. 
 
 LO]VDO^^ 
 
 1.  A  Description  of  the  London  Orphan  Asylum  for  the  reception  and  educa- 
 tion of  Destitute  Orphans,  particularly  those  descended  from  respectable  parents, 
 instituted  July  27,  1813,  1836.     (From  the  Rev.  Mr.  Reed.) 
 
 2.  By-laws  of  the  London  Orphan  Asylum.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Plan  of  Education  of  the  London  Orphan  Asylum  in  Clapton.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 4.  Report  of  the  London  Orphan  Asylum,  read  at  the  general  annual  meeting, 
 January  23,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Gross  expense  and  average  number  of  Children  of  the  London  Orphan 
 Asylum,  from  1831  to  1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 6.  Election  List  for  23d  January,  1837,  of  the  London  Orphan  Asylum.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 7.  Description  of  sundry  works,  intended  to  be  done  for  the  Managers  of  the 
 London  Orphan  Asylum,  in  biilding,  and  completely  finishing  the  London  Or- 
 phan Asylum  at  Clapton.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  History  of  Christ's  Hospital.     By  the  Rev.  W.  Trollope. 
 
 9.  The  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Home  and  Colonial  Infant  School  So- 
 ciety, instituted  1836,  with  an  account  of  the  proceedings  at  the  opening  of  the 
 Society's  house.  Sec.     (From  J.  S.  Reynolds,  Esq.,  Secretary.) 
 
 10.  Institution  for  the  Effective  Education  of  Youth,  and  also  a  plan  of  Infant 
 Education  for  Children  of  the  Higher  and  Middle  Classes  in  the  neiglibourhood 
 of  Fulham,  Middlesex,  1836. 
 
 11.  A  Compendious  Report  of  Proceedings  and  Operations  in  the  Central 
 School  of  tlie  British  and  Foreign  School  Society  in  London,  1836  and  1837. 
 (From  the  Secretary,  Mr.  Dunn.) 
 
 12.  Report  of  the  National  Society  for  Promoting  the  Education  of  the  Poor  on 
 the  Principles  of  the  Established  Church,  &c.  1837.  (Westminster  Model 
 School.)     (From  the  Secretary.) 
 
012  ArPEXDix. 
 
 13.  A  Concise  Description  of  the  Endowed  Grammar  Schools  of  England  and 
 Wales.     London,  1818.     By  Nicholas  Carlisle. 
 
 14.  History  of  the  Merchant  Tailors'  School.     By  the  Rev.  H.  B.  Wilson. 
 
 15.  Exercises  at  the  Puhlic  Exhihition  of  St.  Paul's  School,  May,  1837.  (From 
 Petty  Vaiighan,  Es(|.) 
 
 16.  Charter-house  Examination  of  the  Upper  School,  1837.  Approved  books 
 to  be  used  in  the  Boys'  Schf»ol.     (From  the  Rev.  Win,  Chapman.) 
 
 17.  Prospectus  of  the  T'niversity  of  London,  (London  University  College,)  and 
 the  University  College  School,  1837. 
 
 18.  Address  to  the  Proprietors  of  the  University  of  London,  by  J.  M.  Morgan, 
 Esq.,  1833.     (From  the  author.) 
 
 19.  Sketch  of  the  System  of  Education  in  practice  at  the  Schools  of  Bruce- 
 Castle,Tottenham,andIIa-/lewood,near  Birmingham,  1833.  (FromMr,  Arthur  Hill,) 
 
 20.  Blank  Forms  relating  to  Instruction  and  Disci])linc  at  Dr.  Biber's  School, 
 Coombe  Wood,  near  liondon.     (From  Dr.  Biber.) 
 
 21.  Regulations  of  the  New  University  of  London  on  the  Subject  of  Examina- 
 lions  for  Degrees  in  Arts.     (From  Dr.  Jcrrold.) 
 
 22.  Prospectus  of  the  Gresham  Lectures.  London,  1837.  (From  Petty 
 Vaughan,  Esq.) 
 
 3IAXCirESTER. 
 
 1.  Some  account  of  the  Blue-coat  Hospital  and  Public  Library  in  Manchester, 
 founded  by  Humphrey  Chcetham,  Esq.,  in  the  year  16.>1.  (From  Mr.  Crossley, 
 Governor.) 
 
 2.  Rules  of  the  Blue-coat  Hospital  in  Oldham,  near  Manchester.  Petition  for 
 admission,  Sec.     (From  Mr.  Barrett,  Master.) 
 
 3.  Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  Manchester  Statistical  Society,  on  the  State 
 of  Education  in  the  borough  of  Manchester,  in  1834.     (From  W.  Langton,  Esq.) 
 
 4.  Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  Manchester  Statistical  Society,  on  the  State 
 of  Education  in  the  Borough  of  Bury,  Lancashire,  in  1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  Manchester  Statistical  Society,  on  the  State 
 of  Education  in  the  Borough  of  Salford,  in  1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 6.  Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  Manchester  Statistical  Society,  on  the  State 
 of  Education  in  the  Borough  of  Liverpool,  1835-3G. 
 
 7.  Forms  of  Queries  and  Replies,  by  the  Manchester  Statistical  Society,  in 
 their  Inquiries  into  the  State  of  Education.     (From  W.  Langton,  Esq.) 
 
 8.  Tenth  Report  of  the Cliorlton  upon  Medlock  Central  Infants'  School  So- 
 ciety,  1830.     (From  Mr.  Bailly,  Teacher.) 
 
 9.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Royal  liancastrian  Free  School,  from  1831 
 to  18,35.     Specimen  of  writing  by  a  pupil.     (From  Mr.  Perkins,  Teacher.) 
 
 10.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Manchester  and  Salford  New  Jerusalem 
 Church  Free  Day  Schools,  established  in  1827,  for  the  years  1835  and  183G. 
 (From  Mr.  Mos.s,  Teacher.) 
 
 11.  Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  London  New  Jerusalem  Cliureh  Free 
 School  Sneiety,  togcth<T  with  the  Proceedings  at  the  Annual  General  Meeting, 
 hild  iit  K'eniiin^ton,  ]S'M].      (From  the  snrnrJ 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  IRELAND.  G13 
 
 12.  A  Description  of  the  System  of  Inquiry  and  Examination  by  the  Scliolars 
 themselves,  by  means  of  Circulating  Classes;  su!)mitted  as  an  Improvement  on 
 the  Madras  System  of  Education,  by  T.  Stoat,  of  the  Islington  Parochial  School. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 13.  A  Report  of  tlie  State  of  the  Sunday  Schools  in  Manchester  and  Salford, 
 belonging  to  the  Establislied  Church,  for  tlic  year  1634. 
 
 14.  Rules  Adopted  for  the  Government  of  Bennett  Street  Sunday  School. 
 Manchester,  1832.     (From  Mr.  Lawton.) 
 
 15.  The  Annual  Report  of  the  Stockport  Sunday  School,  183G.  (From  Mr. 
 S.  E.  Cottam.) 
 
 16.  Prospectus  of  the  Courses  of  Education  to  be  pursued  in  the  Dover  Street 
 School. 
 
 17.  Plan  of  a  University  for  the  Town  of  Manchester,  by  H.  L.  Jones,  M.  A. 
 (From  W.  Langton,  Esq.) 
 
 18.  Syllabuses  of  Courses  of  Lectures  on  Mechanical  Philosophy,  Astronomy, 
 Optics,  Acoustics,  Electricity,  &c.,  the  Steam-engine,  Chemistry,  Zoology,  Bo- 
 tany, Vegetable  Physiology,  Geology,  &lc.,  the  Modern  Languages,  &lc.,  delivered 
 at  the  Manchester  Mechanics'  Institute,  1836-37.     (From  Mr.  S.  E.  Cottam.) 
 
 NEWCASTLE. 
 
 1.  The  Twenty-sixth  Report  of  the  Jubilee  School,  and  of  the  Improved  School 
 for  Girls,  in  New  Castle-upon-Tyne,  1836.     (From  Sheriff  Nichol.) 
 
 2.  An  Outline  of  the  System  of  Education  pursued  in  Mr.  Bruce's  Academy, 
 in  New  Castle.     (From  Mr.  Bruce.) 
 
 WORKSOP. 
 Prospectus  of  Mr.  Heldenmaier's  School,  on  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  at 
 Worksop,  Nottingham. 
 
 YORK. 
 
 1.  Rules  of  the  Blue-coat  Boys'  and  Grey-coat  Girls'  Charity  Schools,  in  York, 
 1829.     (From  the  head  Master.) 
 
 2.  Report  of  the  Blue-coat  Boys'  and  Grej^-coat  Girls'  Charity  School  in  York, 
 established  1708,  for  the  year  1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 1.  Reports  from  the  Select  Committees  on  Foundation  Schools  and  Education 
 in  Ireland,  together  with  the  Minutes  of  Evidence  appended,  and  Index,  1835 
 to  1838. 
 
 2.  Report  from  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords,  on  the  New  Plan 
 of  Education  in  Ireland,  »tc.     Parts  I.  and  II.     1837. 
 
 BELFAST. 
 
 1.  Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  to  prepare  a  Plnn  of  Education  and 
 Government  for  the  intended  Academical  Institution  in  Btlfast,  1807.  (From 
 Professor  Stevelly.) 
 
014  APPENDIX. 
 
 2.  A  View  of  the  System  of  Education  in  tJic  Collegiate  Department  of  the  Royal 
 Belfast  Academical  Institution,  1832.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  The  Act  of  Incorporation  and  Bye-laws  of  the  Belfast  Academical  Institu- 
 tion, 1810.     (From  Prof«fssor  StcvcUy.) 
 
 4.  Prospectus  of  the  Belfast  Academical  Institution.  (From  the  Rev.  Dr.  Mont- 
 gomery.) 
 
 5.  Statement  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Belfast  Academy,  with  an  account  of 
 the  History  and  Present  State  of  the  System  of  Education  pursued  in  that  Semi- 
 nary.    Founded  1785.     (From  the  Rev.  Dr.  Brycc.) 
 
 6.  Prospectus  and  List  of  Books  used  in  the  Classical  Course  of  the  Af'a- 
 demical  Institution.  Questions  proposed  in  the  Mathematical  Class,  6cc.  Ca- 
 talogue of  the  Books  in  the  Library  of  the  Belfast  Academy.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Sketch  of  a  Plan  for  a  System  of  National  Education  for  Ireland,  by  Dr. 
 R.  J.  Bryce.     1828. 
 
 8.  Outline  of  a  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Education,  delivered  in 
 the  London  University,  by  the  Rev.  R.  J.  Bryce,  LL.  D.  1836. 
 
 DUBLIN. 
 
 1.  Regulations  for  the  Establishment  and  Government  of  the  Royal  Hibernian 
 Military  School  for  the  Orphans  and  Children  of  Soldiers.  Revised  in  1829. 
 (From  Major  Rowand,  Commandant.) 
 
 2.  Notes  on  tlic  Hibernian  Society  for  the  Cnre  of  Soldiers'  Children,  (MS.) 
 
 3.  Abstract  of  Officers  at  tl  e  Hibernian  School,  (MS.) 
 
 4.  Printed  forms  relating  to  the  School,  viz: — Form  of  Petition  for  Admission, 
 comprising  also  a  Register  of  Life  at  School.  Certificate  of  School  Distinction. 
 Return  of  work  done.  Morning  Report.  Weekly  Report  and  Register.  Report 
 of  Sundries,  &c.,  of  School.  Form  of  Bill  of  Expenses.  Certificate  before  bind- 
 ing  the  boys  to  service.  Form  of  Indenture  made  with  the  Governors  of  the 
 Hibernian  Soldiers'  Society,  1836.     (From  Major  Rowand.) 
 
 5.  Reports  of  the  Committee  to  the  Annual  Meetings  of  tiie  Society  for  Pro- 
 moting the  Education  of  the  Poor  of  Irela  cl,  for  the  years  1828,  1632,  1833, 
 1834,  183"),  andl83G. 
 
 6.  Reports  of  the  Commissioners  of  National  Education  in  Ireland,  for  the 
 years  1831,  ld3r),  and  183G.    (From  the  Rev.  Mr.  Carlile.) 
 
 7.  Memorial  respecting  the  Cliarity  Schools  connected  with  the  Scots  Church. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 LONDONDERRY. 
 
 1.  A  copy  of  the  last  Will  and  Testament  of  the  late  Mr.  John  Gwyn,  of  Lon- 
 dondcrry.     (From  the  Master  of  Gwyn's  Charity.) 
 
 2.  Committee  Lists,  Sec.     (From  tlic  same.) 
 
 3.  Regulations  for  promoting  Agricultural  Instruction  and  Agricultural  Em- 
 ployment, and  for  improving  tlic  condition  of  the  People  of  Lough  Ash,  by  J.  P. 
 Kennedy.     1835.     (From  Captain  Kennedy.) 
 
 4.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Seminary  at  Tcmplcmoylc,  County  of  London- 
 derry.    Established,  1h27.     (From  Sir  R.  Ferguson.) 
 
 .'>.  Sketch  of  Tcmplcmoylc  Farm. 
 
DOCUMENTS   FROM  SCOTLAND.  615 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 1.  Education  Inquiry.  Abstract  of  the  Answers  and  Returns  made  pursuant 
 to  an  Address  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  1834.     Scotland,  1837. 
 
 2.  Report  from  the  Select  Committee  on  the  state  of  Education  in  Scotland, 
 together  with  the  proceedings  of  the  Committee,  and  Appendix.   1838. 
 
 3.  Report  of  the  Commissioners  appointed  for  inquiring  into  the  state  of  the 
 Universities  and  Colleges  of  Scotland.     1832. 
 
 ABERDEEN. 
 
 1.  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Aberdeen,  1834.  (From  A. 
 Dingwall,  Esq.) 
 
 2.  Examination  of  a  Pamphlet  entitled,  "Plan  of  Education  in  the  Marischal 
 College  and  University  of  Aberdeen,  with  the  reasons  of  it,  drawn  up  by  order  of 
 the  faculty,  1765.     1826.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 EDINBURGH. 
 
 1.  A  Historical  Account  of  the  Orphan  Hospital  of  Edinburgh,  1833.  (From 
 J.  G.  Wood,  Esq.) 
 
 2.  Regulations  for  the  Orphan  Hospital,  1834.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Letter  from  J.  G.  Wood,  Esq.,  in  relation  to  the  signification  of  the  word 
 Orphan,  &-c. 
 
 4.  Form  of  Recommendation  for  Admission  to  the  Orphan  Hospital. 
 
 5.  Last  Will  and  Testament,  and  Codicil  thereto,  of  George  Heriot,  and  the 
 Original  Statutes  of  his  Hospital,  by  Dr.  Balcanqual,  1833.  (From  the  Rev.  Hec- 
 tor Holme,  House-governor). 
 
 6.  An  Act  to  explain  and  extend  the  Powers  of  the  Governors  of  George  Heri- 
 ot's  Hospital,  1836.     (From  Mr.  Bayly,  Secretary.) 
 
 7.  Regulations  for  the  internal  management  of  George  Heriot's  Hospital,  1833. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  Regulations  enacted  by  the  Governors  of  George  Heriot's  Hospital,  upon  the 
 13th  October,  1834,  as  to  the  superintendence  to  be  exercised  over  the  boys  at 
 their  leaving  the  institution  and  afterwards.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 9.  Number  of  boys  admitted  into  George  Heriot's  Hospital,  from  October, 
 1830,  to  October,  1836,  both  inclusive.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  Tabular  View  of  the  Hours  of  Employment  and  Exercise  in  George  Heri- 
 ot's Hospital.     (From  the  Rev.  Mr.  Holme.) 
 
 11.  Committees  of  Trustees  of  Heriot's  Hospital,  January,  1837,  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 12.  Tenders  for  the  furnishing  of  provisions  to  George  Heriot's  Hospital. 
 Form  of  Advertisement  for  Supplies.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 13.  The  Statutes  and  Rules  of  George  Watson's  Hospital,  1740.  (From  the 
 Rev.  Mr.  Munro,  House-governor.) 
 
 14.  Regulations  for  George  Watson's  Hospital,  1831.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 15.  Copy  of  a  Petition  for  Admission  into  George  Watson's  Hospital.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
616  APPENDIX. 
 
 16.  List  of  Applicants  for  Admission  into  George  Watson's  Hospital,  March, 
 183G.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 17.  Course  of  Study  and  Tcxt-books  used  at  George  Watson's  Hospital,  Janu- 
 ary,  1837,  (MS.)  (From  the  same.)  Notes  and  Replies  to  Queries  in  reference 
 to  George  Watson's  Hospital,  (MS.)     (From  tlie  same.) 
 
 18.  Papers  relating  to  John  Watson's  Institution  for  Destitute  Children. 
 1.  Deed  of  Settlement.  2.  Deed  of  Destination  of  the  Funds.  3.  Act  of  Par- 
 liament. 4.  Regulations  for  Management.  5.  Regulations  for  Master  and 
 Matron,  1830.    (From  the  Rev.  Mr.  Marshall.) 
 
 19.  Distribution  of  time  in  John  Watson's  Hospital,  February,  1837.  (MS.) 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 20.  A  Course  of  Education  for  the  Children  of  John  Watson's  Institution,  pro- 
 posed to  the  Directors  by  Mr.  Charles  Marshall.  (MS.)     (From  the  same.) 
 
 21.  Expenses  of  John  Watson's  Hospital,  1836. 
 
 22.  Abstract  of  the  Treasurer's  Accounts  with  John  Watson's  Institution,  Au- 
 gust  1st,  183G. 
 
 23.  List  of  occupations  of  the  parents,  the  pupils,  and  a  statement  whether 
 the  parents  arc  dead  or  alive.     (From  the  Rev.  Mr.  Marshall.) 
 
 24.  Regulations  for  tiie  Management  of  Cauvin's  Hospital,  1835.  (From  the 
 Provost  of  Edinburgh.) 
 
 25.  Statutes  of  the  Maiden  Hospital,  founded  by  the  Company  of  Merchants 
 of  Edinburgh  and  Mary  Erskine,  and  Rules  for  the  Government  and  Order  of  the 
 Hospital,  1819.     (From  Mr.  Jamison.) 
 
 26.  Regulations  for  the  Merchant  Maiden  Hospital,  1731 .   (From  the  same.) 
 
 27.  Remarks  upon  a  System  of  Education  for  the  Girard  College,  by  James 
 Simpson,  Esq.  (MS.) 
 
 28.  Third  Report  of  the  Edinburgh  Infant  School  Society,  1838.  (From  Mr. 
 Milne.) 
 
 29.  Hints  for  Lessons  on  Moral  Training,  Grammatical  Exercises,  &c.,  for  In- 
 fant Schools,  (MS.)     (From  the  same.) 
 
 30.  Report  of  the  General  Assembly's  Education  Committee,  for  the  years 
 1833-34-35.     (From  John  Gordon,  Esq.) 
 
 31.  Eleventh  Report  of  the  Directors  of  the  Circus-Place  School,  1837.  (From 
 the  Rev.  Dr.  Reid.) 
 
 32.  Annual  Report  by  the  Directors  of  the  Edinburgh  Academy,  for  the  years 
 1835-36.     (From  Rector  Williams.) 
 
 33.  List  of  Text-books  used  in  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh,  (MS.) 
 
 34.  Course  of  Studies  of  the  Hill  Street  Association  for  Languages,  Mathema- 
 tics, &,c.     (From  Mr.  Cunningham.) 
 
 35.  Report  on  Mr.  Cunningham's  Institution  for  Languages,  Mathematics,  &,c. 
 1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 36.  Pros|)cctus  of  the  Edinburgh  Southern  Academy.     (From  Mr.  (iunn.) 
 
 37.  Prospectus  of  the  Scottish  Institution  for  the  I'ducation  of  Young  Ladies. 
 (From  Dr.  D.  R.  Reid.j 
 
 38.  Course  of  Studies,  Distribution  of  Tiiiie,  and  I,ist  of  Text-lx>oks,  used 
 in  the  Scottish  Institution  for  the  Education  of  Younjr  Ladies.  (F>om  llie  same) 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  SCOTLAND.  617 
 
 39.  Report  of  the  Scottish  Institution  for  the  Education  of  Young  Ladies,  1838, 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 40.  General  Observations  on  the  Principles  of  Education,  for  the  use  of  Me- 
 chanics' Institutions,  by  Sir  G.  S.  Mackenzie,  1836. 
 
 41.  Reports  of  the  Directors  of  the  School  of  Arts,  from  1824  to  1836.  (From 
 Dr.  D.  B.  Reid.) 
 
 GLASGOW. 
 
 1.  Abstract  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  by  which  Hutcheson's  Hospital  is 
 governed,  18J0.     (From  Mr.  Hill.) 
 
 2.  State  of  the  Cases  of  Applicants  for  admission  into  Hutcheson's,  Baxter's, 
 and  Blair's  Schools,  1830.     (From  Mr.  M'Arly.) 
 
 3.  State  of  the  Cases  of  Applicants  for  admission  into  Miller's  Charity  School, 
 1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Form  of  Indenture  of  pupils  bound  out  by  the  Trustees  of  Hutcheson's  Hos- 
 pital.    (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Plan  of  Parochial  Training  Schools,  Infant  and  Juvenile,  November,  1836. 
 (From  Mr.  D.  Stow.) 
 
 6.  Letters  from  Parents  of  Infant  Schools.    (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Sketch  of  the  Building  of  the  Highlanders'  Schools,  Greenock. 
 
 8.  An  outline  of  the  Studies  pursued  in  the  High  School  of  Glasgow,  with  a 
 few  Introductory  Remarks,  1835.     (From  Mr.  D'Orsey.) 
 
 9.  Proceedings  at  the  Annual  Distribution  of  Prizes  to  the  pupils  attending  the 
 High  School,  1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  Glasgow  University  Calendar.     1834. 
 
 11.  Regulations  respecting  the  Examination  for  Degrees  in  Arts,  in  Medicine, 
 and  Surgery.     (From  the  Provost  of  the  Universit3\) 
 
 12.  Subjects  prescribed  for  Prize  Essays  at  the  University,  1836.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 13.  List  of  Text-books  used  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.     (MS.) 
 
 14.  Outline  of  the  Plan  of  Instruction  in  ihe  Class  of  Practical  Astronomy,  in 
 the  University  of  Glasgow.     (From  Professor  Nichol.) 
 
 15.  Reform  of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  considered  with  reference  to  the 
 published  Report  of  the  Royal  Commissioners  of  Visitation,  appointed  by  Sir 
 Robert  Peel,  1833. 
 
 16.  Observations  by  the  Principal  and  Professors  of  Glasgow  College,  on  the 
 Schemes  of  Reform  proposed  for  the  University  of  Glasgow.     1837. 
 
 17.  Letter  of  Dr.  John  Lee,  in  reply  to  the  foregoing. 
 
 18.  Outlines  of  the  Lectures  on  Chemistry  for  the  Mechanical  Class  of  the 
 Andersonian  University.     1836-37.     (From  Professor  Graham.) 
 
 19.  Syllabuses  of  Lectures  at  the  Glasgow  Mechanics'  Institution,  on  Me- 
 chanics, Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry,  Natural  History  and  Physiology,  His- 
 tory, Geography,  &c.     L'^37.     (From  Mr.  Hugo  Rcid.) 
 
 20.  Annual  Reports  of  the  Glasgow  Meciianics'  Institution,  for  the  years  1826, 
 1833-34-35-36.     (From  Mr.  Leadbettcr.) 
 
 21.  Prizes  olTcred  in  the  Glasgow  Mechanics'  Institution,  session  1836-37. 
 
 78 
 
G18  Al'l'K.VDlX. 
 
 22.  Prospectus  of  Andcrston  Popular  Institution  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
 Knowledge. 
 
 ST.  ANDREWS. 
 
 List  of  Text-books  used  in  tlic  English  Department  of  the  ^Madras  College. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 1.  Code  Universitaire  ou  Lois,  statuls  et  rdglemens  de  I'universite  royale  de 
 France,  1835.  Code  of  the  University,  or  Laws,  Statutes,  and  Regulations  of  the 
 Royal  University  of  France,  1835. 
 
 2.  Almanaeh  de  I'Universite  Royale  de  France,  1836.  Almanack  of  the  Royal 
 University  of  France,  1836. 
 
 3.  Bulletin  Universitaire.  Official  Bulletin  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction. 
 
 4.  Syst^me  de  I'Universite  de  France,  ou  plan  d'une  education  nationale,  par 
 M.  Rendu,  1816.  System  of  the  University  of  France,  or  plan  of  a  National 
 Education,  by  M.  Rendu,  1816. 
 
 PRIMARr  INSTRUCTION. 
 
 5.  Rapport  au  roi  par  le  niinistre  de  I'instruction  publique  sur  Texecution  de 
 la  loi  du  28  Juin,  1833,  relative  i  I'instruction  primairc.  183  1.  Report  made  to 
 the  King  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  on  the  execution  of  the  Law  of 
 the  28th  of  June,  1833,  in  reference  to  primary  instruction.    1834. 
 
 6.  Rapport  au  roi  sur  la  situation  de  I'instruction  primairc  par  le  ministre  de 
 I'instruction  publique  en  1837.  Report  to  the  King  on  the  state  of  Primary  In- 
 struction,  made  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  in  1837. 
 
 7.  Annuairc  de  I'instruction  primairc,  pour  1832-33-34.  Annual  of  Primary 
 Instruction  for  1832-3.3-34. 
 
 8.  Annuairc  de  I'lnstituteur  Primairc,  pour  1838.  Annual  for  Primary  Teach- 
 ers, in  1 83P. 
 
 9.  Bulletin  de  la  Socicte  pour  I'instruction  Elementaire,  1837.  Bulletin  of  the 
 Society  of  Elementary  Instruction. 
 
 10.  Compte  rendu  des  Travaux  de  la  Socicte  d'Encouragement  pour  Tin- 
 struction  Elementaire,  1837.  Report  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Ele- 
 mentary Instruction,  1837. 
 
 11.  Journal  Genbral  de  1' Instruct  ion  Pulilifjne,  1838.  General  Journal  of 
 Public  Instruction. 
 
 12.  Manuel  (General  d«;  I'instruction  Primairc;  Journal  Othcicl.  General 
 Manual  of  Primary  Instruction,  un  ( )niciul  Journal,  183?^. 
 
 13.  Manuel  de  rEnscignement  Siuiultane.  .Alanual  of  Sinmltancous  Instruc- 
 tion, 1H37. 
 
 14.  Manuel  de  rEnscignement  Mulucl,  l)?37.  Manual  of  Mutual  Instruction, 
 1837. 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  FRANCE.  619 
 
 15.  Programme  de  la  Society  pour  la  Propagation  de  la  Methode  Mnemoniquc 
 Polonaise,  1837.  Programme  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Polish 
 Mnemonic  Method,  1837. 
 
 16.  Guide  de  la  Methode  Wilhem,  1838.  Guide  for  the  Method  of  Wilhem, 
 1838. 
 
 ]  7.  Specimen  of  Writing  from  a  Primary  School  at  Paris, 
 
 18.  Sur  rinstruction  Priniaire  en  France.     On  Primary  Instruction  in  France. 
 
 19.  Manuel  des  Aspirants  aux  brevets  do  caj)acite  pour  I'enscignement  ele- 
 mentaire.     Manual  of  Candidates  for  tlie  diploma  of  Elementary  Teacher,  1837. 
 
 20.  Programme  des  Questions  pour  I'examen  des  aspirants  pour  I'enscigne- 
 ment primaire,  1837.  Programme  of  Questions  for  the  Examination  of  Teachers 
 for  Primary  Instruction,  1837. 
 
 21.  De  la  Congregation  des  Fr^res  de  la  Doctrine  Chretienne.  Account  of 
 the  Rules,  &.c.,  of  the  Christian  Brotherhood   (for  giving  gratuitous  instruction.) 
 
 22.  Programme  des  etudes  et  divers  exercises  aux  quels  doivent  se  livrer 
 les  eleves  de  I'ecole  normale  k  Dijon,  1837.  Course  of  Study  and  Distribution 
 of  Time  for  the  pupils  of  the  Normal  School  at  Dijon,  1837.  (From  the  Director.) 
 
 23.  De  la  Construction  des  maisons  d'ecole  primaire,  par  Bouillon,  1834. 
 On  the  Construction  of  School-houses  for  Primary  Instruction,  by  Bouillon, 
 1834 
 
 24.  Le  Visiteur  des  ecoles  par  un  Inspecteur  d' Academic,  1830.  The  Visitor 
 of  Schools,  by  an  Inspector  of  the  Academy,  1830. 
 
 25.  Expose  des  Motifs  et  Projet  de  loi  sur  1' Instruction  secondaire  presentes, 
 par  M.  Guizot,  k  la  Chambre  des  Deputes,  1836.  Motives  for  the  Proposed  Law 
 on  Secondary  Instruction.  Presented  by  Mr,  Guizot  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
 ties.    1836. 
 
 26.  Rapport  fait  au  nom  de  la  Commission  chargee  d'examiner  le  Projet  de 
 loi  sur  rinstruction  Secondaire,  par  M.  St.  Marc  Girardin.  Report  from  the 
 Select  Committee  on  the  Project  of  Law  on  Secondary  Instruction,  made  by  Mr. 
 St.  Marc  Girardin,  in  the  name  of  the  Committee. 
 
 27.  Memoire  Presente  par  la  Societe  des  Methodes  d'Enseignement.  Memo, 
 rial  presented  by  the  Society  for  Methods  of  Teaching. 
 
 28.  Arrete  du  Conseil  Royal  de  rinstruction  Publique,  1837 ;  reglant  les 
 matiercs  sur  lesquelles  seront  interroges  les  aspirants  aux  grades  de  bachelier  6s- 
 Sciences,  &c.  Decree  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction,  in  1837 ;  fixing 
 the  subjects  for  examination  for  the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  mathematical  and 
 physical  sciences. 
 
 29.  Cours  et  conferences  suivis  dans  I'Ecole  Normale  k  Paris,  en  1836.  (MS.) 
 Course  of  Study  at  the  Normal  School  of  Paris,  1836.     (From  M.  Viguier.) 
 
 30.  Reglements,  rapports  et  programme  de  I'Ecolc  Normale  k  Paris.  Rcgula- 
 lions.  Reports,  and  Programme  of  the  Normal  School  at  Paris. 
 
 31.  Manuel  des  Aspirants  au  Baccalaureat  6s-Lettres,  1836.  Manual  of  Can- 
 didates for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Lett<^rs. 
 
 32.  Manuel  des  Aspirants  au  Baccalaureat  6s-Sciences,  1837.  Manual  of  Can. 
 didates  for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Sciences. 
 
620  APPENDIX. 
 
 33.  Programmes  de  renscijo^ncment  de  I'Ecole  Royale  Polytechnique  pour  Tan- 
 nic, lc?3G-37.  Course  of  Study  of  the  Royal  Polyteclinic  School,  for  the  year 
 1836-37.     (From  Mr.  Dulong.) 
 
 34.  Annuairc  dc  rEcolc  Royale  Polytechnique,  pour  183G  et  1637.  Annual  of 
 tlie  Royal  Polytechnic  School,  for  the  years  183G-37. 
 
 35.  Ecolc  ccntralc  des  Arts  et  Manufacture?,  Paris,  1837.  Description  of  the 
 Central  School  for  Arts  and  Manufactures.     (From  Mr.  Lavallee,  director.) 
 
 36.  Profrramme  de  I'Ecole  de  Commerce  et  des  Arts  industriels  h  Charonne, 
 banlieue  de  Paris.  Prospectus  of  the  school  for  Commerce  and  Industry  at  Cha- 
 ronne, near  Paris.     (From  Mr.  Pinel  Grandchamp,  director.) 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 BERNE. 
 
 1.  Erkenntniss  der  Waiscnhaus-direction  ansehcnd  cine  andcrwartiije  Einrich- 
 tung  des  burgcrlichen  Knabcn  und  Madchen  Waiscnhauses  der  Stadt  Bern,  1799. 
 Resolution  of  the  Managers  of  the  Orphan-liouse  in  reference  to  a  new  Organiza- 
 tion of  it,  1799.     (From  the  Director.) 
 
 2.  Gcsctz  Qber  den  Privat  Unterricht,  1835.  Law  on  Private  Instruction, 
 1835.  (From  Mr.  Schneider,  Vice  President  of  the  Council  of  Public  In- 
 struction.) 
 
 3.  Instruction  filr  die  Schul  commissaricn,  1833.  Instruction  for  School  Com- 
 mittees, 1833.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Loi  sur  les  dcoles  primaires  publiques.  13  Mars,  1835.  Law  on  Primary 
 Public  Schools,  March  13,  1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Beschluss  des  grossen  Rathes  in  Beziehung  auf  das  Einkommen  des 
 Lehrers,  1837.  Resolutions  of  the  Great  Council  in  reference  to  the  Salary  of 
 Teachers.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 6.  Bericht  ilber  die  Vcrsammhing  des  Vcreins  fiir  Christlichor  Volksbildung, 
 1833,  «S:,e.  Report  of  the  Meeting  of  the  Society  for  Christian  Education,  1833. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Berichten  ilbcr  die  Erziehungs-Anstalt  fiir  armc  Kinder  auf  Battwyl  bei 
 Burgdorf,  1836-37.  Report  on  the  Establishment  for  the  Education  of  Poor  Chil- 
 dren at  Bilttwyl,  near  Burgdorf,  1836-37.  Instituted  by  the  Society  for  Chris- 
 tian Education.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  Reglemcnt  filr  die  Normalanstalt  zu  Milnchenbuehsce  bei  Bern,  1833.  Re- 
 gulations for  the  Normal  School  at  Milnchenbuehsce,  near  Berne,  1833.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 9.  Summarischer  Bericht  iiber  die  Normalanstalt  in  Mflnchenbuchsee,  1837. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  Stundenplan  der  Normalanstalt  und  der  damit  verbimdenen  Model 
 Schulc  in  Milnchcnburhsee,  1837.  Plan  of  Instruction  of  the  Normal  School, 
 and  the  Model  School  connected  with  it,  at  Miinelunbuchsee,  1837.  (From  the 
 ■ame.) 
 
 11.  Ncunzebntcr  Bericht  der  Ifauptvcrsnminlung  dor  allq-emeinen  Schulmeis- 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  SWITZERLAND.  G21 
 
 tercasse  des  Cantons  Bern,  1837.     Nineteenth  Report  of  the  State  of  the  Teach- 
 ers' Fund  of  the  Canton  of  Berne,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 12.  Bericht  iibcr  die  Leistungen  und  den  Untcrricht  im  Progymnasiura  und 
 der  damit  verbundenen  Industrie  und  Elementarsclmle,  1836.  Report  on  the  Pro- 
 gress and  Instruction  in  the  Progymnasium,  and  in  the  Elementary  and  Indus- 
 trial Schools  connected  therewith,  1836,     (From  Director  Ruetschi.) 
 
 13.  Etat  provisoire  des  lemons  de  Tecole  d'industrie,  1837.  Provisional  Ar- 
 rangement of  Studies  at  the  Industrial  School,  1837.     (From  Professor  Gerber.) 
 
 14.  Bericht  iiber  die  Leistungen  der  Real  Schule  wahrend  den  Jahren  1833-35. 
 Report  on  the  Progress  of  the  Real  School  during  the  years  1833-35.  (From 
 Counsellor  Schneider.) 
 
 15.  Bericht  iiber  die  Verflnderungen  in  der  Litterarschule,  1833.  Report  on 
 the  Changes  of  the  Grammar  School,  1833.     (From  Mr.  Ruetsclii.) 
 
 16.  Bericht  iiber  die  Leistungen  und  den  Unterricht  in  der  Litterarschule,  in 
 1833-34,  und  1831-35,  Report  on  the  Progress  and  the  Instruction  in  the  Gram- 
 mar School,  in  1833-34,  and  1834-35.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 17.  Annalen  des  Hoheren  Gymnasiums,  1836  and  1837.  Annals  of  the  Higher 
 Gymnasium,  1836  and  1837,     (From  the  same.) 
 
 18.  Ausfiihrliche  Darstellung  des  Untcrrichts  Planes  fur  das  Hohere  Gymna- 
 sium, 1835.  Full  description  of  the  Plan  of  Instruction  in  tlie  Higher  Gymna- 
 sium, 1835.     (From  Counsellor  Schneider.) 
 
 19.  Loi  sur  I'etablissement  d'un  Gymnase  et  d'une  Universite  k  Berne,  1837. 
 Law  for  the  Establishment  of  a  Gymnasium  and  a  University  at  Berne,  1837. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 20.  Reglemente  fiir  die  Hochschule,  1835.  Regulations  for  tlie  University, 
 1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 21.  Verzeichniss  der  Vorlesungen  welche  an  der  Hochschule  gehalten  worden 
 sind  wahrend  den  jahren  1834  bis  1837.  List  of  Lectures  which  have  been  de- 
 livered  in  the  University  during  the  years  1834  to  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 22.  Verzeichness  der  BehOrden,  Professoren  und  Schullehrcr,  Studierenden 
 und  Schiilcr  der  Bernischen  Akademie  und  Scliulen,  von  1834  bis  1837.  List 
 of  the  Authorities,  Professors,  Teachers,  Students,  and  Pupils  in  the  University 
 and  Schools  of  Berne,  from  1834  to  1 837.    (From  the  same.) 
 
 23.  Dekret  iiber  den  Besuch  FranzOsischer  Universitaten,  1834.  Decree  in 
 relation  to  Attendance  at  French  Universities,  1834.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 iiorwYL. 
 
 1.  Lettre  sur  la  Fete  celebree  a  Hofvvyl,  Ic  23  Mai,  1807,  par  M,  Gauteron. 
 Letter  on  the  Festival  which  was  held  at  Ilofwyl,  the  23d  of  May,  1807.  By  Mr. 
 Gauteron. 
 
 2.  Coup  d'oeil  sur  I'influence  a  espercr  des  etablissemens  d'llofwyl  quant  au 
 perfcctionnemcnt  de  I'industrie  et  des  mocurs,  par  M.  Gauteron.  On  the  In- 
 fluence which  may  be  expected  from  the  Establislnrjcnts  at  Hofwyl,  in  reference 
 to  the  promotion  of  Industry  and  Morals,  by  Mr.  Gauteron.  (From  Mr.  Fellen- 
 berg.) 
 
 3.  Lettre  sur  les  etablissemens  de  Mr.  Fellcnbcrg,  et  specialement  sur  I'ecole 
 
622  APPENDIX. 
 
 des  pauvres  h  Hofwyl,  1812,  par  M.  Charles  Pictct.  Letter  on  the  eslablishmenta 
 of  Mr.  Fellcnbcrg,  and  csijccially  on  the  Poor  School  at  Ilofwjl,  1812.  By  Charles 
 Pictct. 
 
 4.  Rapport  sur  Tinstitut  dVducation  des  panvrcs  &,  Ilofwyl,  redigd  par  M.  A. 
 Rcngi^cr.  Report  on  the  Institution  for  tiic  Educatioa  of  the  Poor  at  Hofwyl, 
 by  Mr.  A.  Ren^rrcr,  1815. 
 
 5.  Notice  sur  les  ctablisscmcns  do  Hofwyl,  par  M.  Y.  E.  B.  Crnd,  181G.  Notes 
 on  the  Establishments  at  Hofwyl,  by  Mr.  V.  E.  B.  Crud,  181 G. 
 
 6.  Darstellung  des  religiOsen  Biidungsganges  der  wissenschafllichen  Erzieh- 
 ungsanstalten  in  Hofwyl,  von  Emanuel  von  Fcllenbcrg,  1822.  Exposition  of 
 the  Religious  Instruction  given  in  the  Boarding-schools  at  Hofwyl,  by  Emanuel 
 von  Fellenbcrg,  1822.     (From  Mr.  Fcllcnbcrg.) 
 
 7.  Lcttre  sur  la  colonic  d'cnfants  indigents,  etablie  k  Meykirch  pres  dc  Hofwyl, 
 1830,  par  M.  dc  Fclleiiberg.  Letter  on  the  Colony  for  Poor  Children,  established 
 in  Maykirch,  near  Hofwyl,  by  Mr.  Von  Fcllcnbcrg,  1839.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  Extracts  of  a  Letter  from  Em.  Fcllcnbcrg  to  Lady  N  el  Fiyron,  stating  the 
 objects  of  his  Institutions  at  Hofwyl,  near  Berne.  (Translated  from  the  German.) 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 9.  Trois  Icttrcs  sur  Hofwyl  h  propos  de  la  brochure  de  M.  St.  Mare  Girardin 
 sur  I'instruction  intcrmcdiarc.  Three  Letters  on  Hofwyl,  wiitlcn  in  consequence 
 of  Mr.  St.  Marc  Girardin's  pamphlet  on  Intermediate  Instruction,  1835. 
 
 10.  Mitthcilungsblatt  fiir  die  frcunde  dcr  Schulverbcsscrung  im  Kanton  Berne, 
 1832.     Journal  of  the  Friends  of  Improvement  in  the  Schools.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 FRIBURG. 
 
 Uber  die  Bcthatigung  des  Flcisses  in  Schulen  von  Girard,  1836.  On  the  Ex- 
 citement of  Industry  in  Schools,  by  Girard,  1836.     (From  Father  Girard.) 
 
 GENEVA. 
 
 1.  Rapport  au  Conscil  Representatif  sur  un  projet  de  loi  relatif  a.  la  Direction 
 et  i  I'Administration  des  etablisscmcns  d'Instruetion  Publiquc,  par  M.  le 
 Syndic  Girod,  1833.  Report  to  the  Representative  Council  upon  a  proposed 
 Law,  in  reference  to  the  administration  of  establishments  for  Public  Instruction, 
 by  Syndic  Girod,  1833.     (From  Professor  Decan  olio.) 
 
 2.  Rapport  au  Conscil  Representatif  sur  le  projet  de  loi  rclatifi  la  direction 
 et  h  I'Administration  des  etablisscmcns  d'Instruetion  Publiquc,  fait  au  nom  de 
 la  commission  nomme6  pour  I'examincr,  par  M.  le  Prof.  A.  de  la  Rive,  1833. 
 Rcjwrt  to  the  Representative  Council  on  the  Projected  Law  in  reference  to  tJie 
 Administration  of  Establishments  for  Public  Instruction,  made  by  Professor  de  la 
 Rive,  in  the  name  of  the  committee  appointed  for  tliat  jjurposc,  1833.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 3.  lioi  sur  la  Direction  et  TAdministratirin  des  etablisscmcns  d'Instruetion 
 Publiquc,  1834.  I^aw  Regulating  the  Administration  of  Establishments  for  Pub- 
 lie  Instruction,  1834.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Rapport  au  Conscil  Repriisenlatif  sr.r  le  projet  de  loi  rclatif  aux  ecoles, 
 1835,  par  M.  le  Syndic  LuUin,  Report  to  the  Representative  Council  upon  the 
 Projected  Law  in  relation  to  Schools,  1  P3.'),  by  Syndic  Lullin.     (From  the  samr.^ 
 
DUCUMENTS  I'ROM  SUITZERLAND.  623 
 
 5.  R^glement  sur  I'lnspection  et  la  Surveillance  des  ecoles  primaires,  1834, 
 Regulations  for  the  Inspection  and  Superintendence  of  Primary  Schools,  1834, 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 6.  Rapport  au  Conscil  Representatif  sur  un  Projct  de  Loi  sur  les  ecoles  pri- 
 maires, 1835,  par  M.  Macaire  Prinsep.  Report  to  the  Representative  Council 
 on  a  Projected  Law  on  Primary  Schools,  1835,  by  Mr.  Macaire  Prinsep.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 7.  Loi  sur  les  ecoles  primaires,  1835.  Law  on  Primary  Schools,  1835.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 8.  Arrete  sur  I'Enseignement  Religieux  dans  les  ecoles  primaires,  1835.  De- 
 cree in  reference  to  Religious  Instruction  in  Primary  Schools,  1835.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 9.  Rapports  du  Comite  dc  I'ecole  rarale  de  Carra,  pour  1835  et  1836.  Re- 
 ports of  the  Committee  on  the  Rural  ScJiool  of  Carra,  for  1835  and  1836.  (From 
 the  Syndic  Vernet-Pictet.) 
 
 10.  Rapport  au  Conseil  Representatif  sur  I'Organisation  des  Colleges  de  Ge- 
 neve et  deCarouge,  1835,  par  M.  le  Syndic  Girod.  Report  to  the  Representative 
 Council  on  the  Organization  of  the  Colleges  at  Geneva  and  Carouge,  1835,  by 
 Syndic  Girod.     (From  Professor  Decandolle.) 
 
 11.  Loi  sur  les  Colleges  de  Geneve  et  de  Carouge,  1835.  Law  Regulating  the 
 Colleges  of  Geneva  and  Carouge,  1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 12.  Rapport  au  Conseil  Representatif  sur  un  Projet  de  Loi  relatif  aux  Colleges 
 de  Geneve  et  de  Carouge,  1836,  par  M.  le  Professeur  Macaire  Prinsep.  Report 
 to  the  Representative  Council  on  a  Projected  Law  in  reference  to  the  Colleges  at 
 Geneva  and  Carouge,  1836,  by  Professor  Macaire  Prinsep.      (From  the  same.) 
 
 13.  Arrete  sur  I'Enseignement  Religieux  dans  les  Colleges  de  Geneve  et  de 
 Carouge,  1836.  Decree  in  reference  to  Religious  Instruction  in  the  Colleges  of 
 Geneva  and  Carouge,  1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 14.  Reglement  sur  les  Colleges  de  Geneve  et  de  Carouge,  1836.  Regulations 
 for  the  Colleges  of  Geneva  and  Carouge,  1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 15.  Rapport  au  Conscil  Representatif  sur  le  Projct  de  Loi  relatif^  I'Organisa- 
 tion de  I'Academie,  1835,  par  M.  I'Ancien  Syndic  Fatio.  Report  to  the  Repre- 
 sentative Council  on  the  Projected  Law  in  reference  to  the  Organization  of  the 
 Academy,  1836,  by  ex-Syndic  Fatio.     (From  tJie  same.) 
 
 16.  Rapport  an  Conseil  Representatif  sur  le  Projet  de  Loi  sur  I'Academie, 
 1835,  par  M.  le  Docteur  Vaucher.  Report  to  the  Representative  Council  on  the 
 Projected  Law  on  the  Academy,  1835,  by  Dr.  Vaucher.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 17.  Loi  et  R6glement  sur  I'Academie  de  Geneve,  1835.  Law  and  Regulations 
 of  the  Academy  of  Geneva,  1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 18.  Cours  dc  I'Ecole  Industrielle,  1837.  Course  of  Study  at  tiie  School  of 
 Arts.     (From  Mr.  Prcvost  Martin.) 
 
 LAUSANNE. 
 
 1.  Lois  sur  rinstruction  Publicjue,  1833-34.  Laws  on  Public  Instruction, 
 1833-34.     (From  Professor  Chavanne-^.) 
 
 2,  Circulairc  adresseo  aux  Commissions  chargees  de  I'lnspection  des  ecoles  sur 
 
624  Al'l't-NDIX. 
 
 les  Objets  dont  Ics  6coles  doivcnt  6lre  pourvues.  Circular  addressed  to  the  Com- 
 mittces  of  Inspection  in  reference  to  the  articles  which  ought  to  be  found  in  the 
 Schools.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Circulaire  sur  rAdniinistration  dcs<^coles  adresste  aux  Commission-s  C.'om- 
 munalcs  d'Inspcctioii,  lb31.  Circular  addressed  to  the  Conimitlees  of  laspec- 
 lion  in  reference  to  the  Administration  of  the  Schools,  1834.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Instructions  pour  les  Commissions  charg'ees  de  I'lnspcction  des  ^coles, 
 1835-36-37.  Instruction  to  the  Committees  charged  with  the  Inspection  of 
 Schools,  1835-3G-37.  (From  the  same  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Council  of  Pub- 
 lic Instruction.) 
 
 5.  Loi  du  24  Janvier,  1837,  sur  les  ecoles  publiques  primaires.  Law  of  the 
 24th  of  June,  1837,  on  Public  Primary  Schools.      (From  Professor  Chavannes.) 
 
 6.  Instruction  sur  les  objets  necessaires  pour  Texposition  des  notions  elemen- 
 taires  des  sciences  naturelles  dans  les  ecoles  primaires,  1634.  Direction  in  refe- 
 rence to  the  objects  required  for  giving  elementary  notions  of  Natural  Sciences  in 
 the  Primary  Schools,  1837,     (From  tlie  same.) 
 
 7.  Rapport  sur  les  ecoles  primaires  du  Canton  de  Vaud  pour  I'annec,  1836. 
 Report  on  the  Primary  Schools  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud,  for  1836.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 8.  Questions  addresses  aux  commissions  charg^cs  de  I'inspcction  des  (5coles. 
 Questions  (blank  forms)  addressed  to  the  Committees  of  Inspection  of  the  Schools. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 9.  R6gles  de  I't^cole  (pour  les  ecoles  primaires.)  Rules  for  the  Primary  Schools. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  De  I'instruction  publiquc  dans  le  canton  de  Vaud  par  Gindroz,  1837. 
 On  Public  Instruction  in  the  Canton  of  Vaud,  by  Gindroz,  1837. 
 
 11.  Memoire  presente  d  Monseigneur  I'ev^que  de  Lausanne  et  Gendve  pjir  le 
 venerable  clcrg6  du  Canton  de  Fribourg,  au  sujet  de  la  derni^re  loi  sur  les  Ecoles 
 primaires  1830.  Memorial  prcserjtcd  to  the  Bishop  of  Lausanne  and  Geneva, 
 by  the  C'lcrgy  of  the  Canton  of  Friburg,  in  reference  to  the  last  law  on  Primary 
 Schools,  in  1834. 
 
 12.  Rapi)orl  fait  par  le  Comite  de  TEcole  Normale  Provisoire.  Report  made 
 by  the  Committee  of  the  Provisional  Normal  School,  lb35.  (From  Prof.  Cha- 
 vannes.) 
 
 13.  Rdglcmcnt  pour  I'Ecole  Normale,  du  23d  Septembrc,  1835.  Regulations 
 for  the  Normal  School,  September  23d,  1835.     (From  Rev.  Director  Gauthey.) 
 
 14.  Notice  sur  TEcole  Normale  du  Canton  de  Vaud,  par  son  Directeur  L.  F.  F. 
 Gauthey,  Pasteur,  extrait  du  Journal  de  la  Soeiete  d'Utilitc  Publique,  1835.  No- 
 tice of  the  Normal  School  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud,  by  the  Rev.  Director  L.  F.  F. 
 Gauthey,  extracted  from  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Public  Utility,  1835.  (From 
 the  author.) 
 
 15.  R(>glement  de  I'Ecole  Normale  pour  les  Institutrices.  Regulations  of  the 
 Normal  School  for  Female  Teachers.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 16.  R6glement  du  7  Aofit,  1835,  pour  les  6coles  Moycnnes.  Regulations  for  the 
 Middle  or  ladu.strial  Schools,  Augu.^t  7th,  1835.     (From  Professor  Chavannew.) 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  SWITZERLAND.  G25 
 
 LUCERNE. 
 
 1.  Gesetz  iibcr  das  ErzichunjTs  und  OfFcntliche  Schuhvcsen,  1830.  Law  on 
 Education  and  Public  Instruction,  1830.  (From  Mr.  Rietschi,  director  of  the 
 normal  school.) 
 
 2.  Gesetz  uber  die  Wicderholungs  und  Fortbildungsschulcn,  1833.  Law  on 
 the  Scliools  for  Repetition,  1833.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Vollzieimngs  Bcschluss  iibcr  das  allgemeine  Erziclmngs  Gesetz  in  Bctreflf 
 des  Primar  und  Sckundar  Schulwcsens,  1830.  Law  on  General  Education  in 
 reference  to  Primary  and  Secondary  Instruction,  1830.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Bescliluss  die  Entschadi(Tun<r  fiir  das  Lokal  dcr  Sckundar  Schulcn  regulir- 
 end,  1831.  Law  regulating  the  locality  of  secondary  schools,  1831.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 5.  Schulplan  far  die  hOhere  Central  Lchranstalt  so  wie  fur  die  Lateinischen 
 Schulcn  im  Kanton,  1830.  Plan  of  Instruction  for  the  higher  central  school,  and 
 for  all  the  Latin  Schools  in  the  Canton,  1830.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 6.  Bcschluss  die  Disziplinar  Verordnungcn  fiir  die  hohere  Central  Lchran- 
 stalt cnthaltend,  1830.  Regulations  for  the  discipline  at  the  higher  Central  school, 
 1830.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Disziplinarvcrordnung  fiir  die  hohere  Centrallchranstalt,  &-c.,  1833.  Re- 
 gulations of  the  higher  Central  normal  school,  1833.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  Bcschluss  die  Aufstellung  einer  Schuldivcction  bey  dcr  hohcrcn  Central- 
 lehranstall  cnthaltend,  1831.  Law  for  the  appointment  of  a  school  direction  for 
 the  higher  Central  school,  1831.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 9.  Organisation  der  Sclmldirection  und  Disciplinarverordnung  fiir  die  Cen- 
 trallchranstalt, 1836.  Organization  of  the  school  direction  and  regulations  for 
 discipline  at  the  Central  school,  1836,     (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  Verordnungcn  und  Studenplan  fiir  die  Z'igliiige  dcs  Lehrcr  Instituts  des 
 Kantons  Luzern.  Regulations  and  course  of  study  for  the  pupils  of  the  normal 
 school  of  the  canton  of  Lucerne.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 NEUFCHATEL. 
 Rdglemens  pour  la  Maison  des  Orpbclins  dc  Ncufchatcl.     Regulations  for  the 
 Orphan-house  at  Ncufchatcl.     (From  Mr.  Borel,  director.) 
 
 THURGOVIA. 
 
 1.  Allgcmeiner  Bericht  iibcr  den  Zustand  des  Thurgauischcn  Schulwcsens  in 
 1833-34-35.  General  report  on  the  state  of  public  instruction  in  TJmrgovia,  in 
 1833-34-35.     (From  Mr.  Wchrli.) 
 
 2.  Untcrrichtsplan  fiir  die  Elcmcntarschulcn  dcs  Kanton  Tluirgau,  1837. 
 Plan  of  instruction  for  the  elementary  schools  of  the  Canton  of  Thurgovia,  1837. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Lectionsplan  fiir  die  Normalschul  in  Kreuzlingen,  1837.  Course  of  study 
 at  the  normal  school  in  Kreuzlingen,  1837,  (MS.)     (From  the  same,) 
 
 YVERDUN. 
 Rapport  sur  I'lnstitut  dc  M.  Pcstalozzi  b.  Yverdun,  1810.     Report  on  the  Insti- 
 tution  of  Mr.  Pcstalozzi,  at  Yverdun,  1810.   (From  Fatlier  Girard,  in  Freyburg.) 
 79 
 
G2G  APPENDIX. 
 
 ziRicir. 
 
 1.  Bericht  libcr  das  Waisenhaus  in  Ziirich,  1836.  Report  on  the  Orphan-liouse 
 at  Zurich,  1837.     (From  Burgomaster  IIcss.) 
 
 2.  Gesctz  Obcr  die  Organisation  des  gesammten  Untcrrichtswescns  im  Kan- 
 ton  Zurich,  1833.  Law  on  the  Organization  of  the  general  plan  of  instruction  in 
 the  Canton  of  Zurich,  18.32. 
 
 3.  Gesch.'lflsordnung  filr  die  BezirksschuljiHcgen,  1833.  Regulations  for  the 
 committees  of  school  districts,  1833.     (From  Burgomaster  Iless.) 
 
 4.  Geschaftsordnung  filr  die  (Jcmeindsschulpflegcn,  1833.  Regulations  for 
 the  committees  of  school  communities,  1833.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Verordnung  fiir  Repetir  und  Singschulen,  1835.  Regulations  relating  to 
 schools  for  singing  and  repetition,  1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 6.  Verordnung  bctrefFend  die  licitung  von  Schulgemcindsversammlongcn, 
 1836.  Regulations  relating  to  the  meetings  of  school  comnmnities,  1836. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Verordnung  rtber  Ordnung  und  Zucht  in  den  Volksschulen,  1836.  Regula- 
 tions for  discipline  in  common  schools,  183G.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  Beschluss  bctreffcnd  die  Einfiirung  dcr  Lchrmittel  fiir  den  Gesangunter- 
 richt,  1833.  Resolution  for  introducing  the  required  means  of  instruction  in 
 singing  into  the  schools,  1833.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 9.  Der  Erziehungsrath  betreffend  die  Berichterstattung  tibcr  die  Volksschulen, 
 von  1834-5.  The  councillor  of  education  prescribing  the  form  of  report  on  pub- 
 lic schools,  for  the  years  1834-35.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  Gesctz  iiber  die  Errichtung  von  Mustcrschulen,  1834.  Law  on  the  estab- 
 lishment of  model  schools,  1834.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 11.  Gesetz  bctretfend  die  hoheren  Volksschulen,  1833.  Law  relating  to  the 
 higher  common  schools,  1833.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 12.  Ro.glcment  fiir  das  SchuUehrer  Inslitut,  1832.  Regulations  for  tlic 
 Teacher's  Institute,  1832.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 13.  Gesetz  bctreffcnd  die  Bildung  cincr  Classe  von  Prilparandcn  fOr  den 
 SchuUchrerstand,  1834.  Rcglemcnt  von  1836.  Law  relating  to  the  establish- 
 ment of  a  preparatory  class  for  candidates  for  the  profession  of  teacher,  1834. 
 Regulations  of  1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 14.  Verordnung  fiber  die  Erthcihmg  von  Ruhegehaltcn  an  Volksschullehrcr, 
 1834.  Regulations  relative  to  pensions  for  teachers  of  common  schools,  1834. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 15.  Reglemcnt  fur  die  Schullelircrconfcrcnzen,  1835.  Regulations  for  the 
 meetings  of  teachers,  1835.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 16.  Reglcment  Obcr  die  PrQfungcn  der  V^olksschuUehrcr,  1835.  Regulations 
 for  the  examination  of  teachers  for  common  schools,  1835.     (From  the  same) 
 
 17.  Rcglemcnt  iiber  die  PrUfungcn  dcr  Sekundarlehrcr,  1835.  Regulations 
 for  the  examination  of  teachers  for  secondary  schools  (higher  primary),  1835. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 18.  Gfsetz  tibcr  das  Schullehrcrscminar,  1636.  Law  on  tiic  normal  school, 
 1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
DOCUMENTS  PROM  BELGIUM.  G27 
 
 19.  Provisorisches  Reglemcnt  fiir  die  AufsichtsbehOrde  des  Schullehrer  Semi- 
 nars, 1837.  Provisory  regulations  for  the  superintending  board  for  the  normal 
 school,  183G.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 20.  Stundenverzeichniss  des  Schullehrer  Seminars,  1837.  Course  of  study  at 
 the  normal  school,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 21.  Gesetze  und  Verordnungen  fur  die  Hochschule  in  Zurich,  1832.  Laws  and 
 regulations  for  the  University  of  Zurich,  1832.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 22.*  Ansichten  iiber  den  Zustand  des  Volksschuhvescns  im  Kanton  Zurich 
 von  Sclierr,  1831.  Views  on  the  state  of  public  instruction  in  the  Canton  of 
 Zurich,  by  Scherr,  1831. 
 
 23.  Entwurf  eines  Gesetzsvorschlagcs  zur  Organisation  des  Volksschuhve- 
 scns im  Kanton  Zurich,  1832.  Sketcli  of  a  projected  law  on  the  organirzation  of 
 public  instruction  in  the  Canton  of  Zurich,  1832. 
 
 24.  Uber  Bildungsstufen,  Lehrkurse,  Klasseneintheilung  in  der  Volksschule 
 von  Scherr,  1833.  On  the  plan  of  instruction,  course  of  studies,  and  division  of 
 classes  in  common  schools,  by  Scherr,  1833. 
 
 25.  Entwurf  eines  allgemeinen  Unterrichtsplanes  fur  die  Primarschulen  des 
 Cantons  Ztirich,  183G.  Sketch  of  a  general  plan  of  instruction  for  primary 
 schools  in  the  Canton  of  Zurich,  1836.     (From  Burgomaster  Hess.) 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 BRUSSELS. 
 
 1.  Projet  de  loi  pour  I'Enseignement  publique  en  Belgique,  1832.  Projected 
 law  on  Public  Instruction  in  Belgium,  1832. 
 
 2.  Reglement  pour  I'ecole  primaire  modele  de  Bruxelles,  1836.  Regulations 
 for  the  Primary  Model  School  at  Brussels,  1836.     (From  Mr.  Ducpetiaux.) 
 
 3.  Distribution  des  Occupations  de  I'ecole  primaire  module.  Distribution  of 
 Time  in  the  Primary  Model  School,  1838,  (MS.)     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Reglement  de  la  Societe  pour  I'lnstruction  primaire  et  populaire.  Regiu 
 lations  of  the  Society  for  Primary  Instruction,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 LIEGE. 
 
 1.  Collection  de  Rapports  sur  I'lnstruction  primaire  dans  la  Province  de  Na- 
 mur,  et  en  general  sur  I'etat  de  cctte  instruction  dans  les  diverses  provinces 
 du  Royaume,  de  1825  ii  1830.  Collection  of  Reports  on  Primary  Instruction  in 
 the  Province  of  Namur,  and  on  tiie  condition  of  Primary  Instruction  in  general, 
 in  the  different  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  from  1825  to  1830.  (From  Mr.  Ar- 
 nould.) 
 
 2.  R6glenient  de  la  Societe  d'Encouragcmcnt  pour  I'lnstruction  Eleincntaire 
 dans  la  Province  de  Lidge,  1829.  Regulations  of  the  Society  for  Promoting 
 Elementary  Instruction  in  the  Province  of  Liege,  1829.  (From  Mr.  Ducj^e- 
 tiaux.) 
 
 *  These  documents  are  placed  last,  because  they  are  not  official,  but  drawn  up 
 by  an  individual :  they  have,  however,  had  great  influence  in  giving  a  form  to 
 public  primary  instruction  in  Zurich, 
 
G28  APPENDIX. 
 
 3.  Prog^rammc  des  Cours  de  I'Kcolc  dcs  Arts  ct  Manufactures  et  des  Mines, 
 183f)-37.  rrojrramnic  of  liCCturcs  at  the  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  and 
 of  Mines,  IR.IlJ-.TT.     (From  the  Rector  of  the  University,  M.  Dupont.) 
 
 4.  Pro^rramme  des  Cours  ii  rUnivcrsite  dc  h'ldgc,  en  1838-  Programme  of 
 Lectures  at  tlic  University  of  Liege,  1838.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 HOU.AND. 
 
 AMSiTERDAM. 
 
 1.  Notes  sur  la  Maison  des  Orphelins  Bourgeois  h.  Amsterdam,  1837.  Notes 
 on  tlic  Burgher  Orijhan-housc  at  Amsterdam,  1837.  (MS.)  (From  Professor 
 Den  Tex.) 
 
 2.  Ilet  Wijze  en  Wcldadige  dcr  Schoolvcrordcningcn  door's  lands  hooge 
 magten  vastgesteld,  in  het  jaar  180G.  On  the  Utility  of  tiic  Regulations  for  the 
 Schools,  as  ordered  hy  (iovernment  in  1806. 
 
 3.  Verhandeling  over  dc  volstrekt  noodzakelijke  kundigheden  welkc  in  de 
 opcnhare  en  armcnscholen  behooren  medegedeeld  te  worden,  1820.  Treatise 
 on  the  Instruction  which  should  bo  given  in  Public  and  Poor  Schools,  1820. 
 (From  Professor  DcnTex.) 
 
 4.  Scries  Lcctionum  ct  Inslitutionum  qure  habcntur  a  Professoribus  Illustris 
 Athcnrei  Amstclccdamcnsis,  1838.  List  of  Lectures  delivered  by  the  Professors 
 of  the  Athcnaiuia  in  Amsterdam,  in  1838.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Dc  la  Colonic  dc  Fredcricksoord,  par  I\I.  de  Keverberg,  1821.  On  the  Co- 
 lony of  Frcderieksoord,  by  Mr.  de  Keverberg,  1821. 
 
 6.  Iluishoudelijkc  Bcpalingcn  voor  dc  vrije  Kolonien  volgens  de  jongste  Bcs- 
 luiten  dcr  pcrmanentc  kommissie  der  Maatschappij  van  Weldadighcid,  1822. 
 Domestic  Regulations  for  the  Free  Colonics,  according  to  the  last  Resolutions  of 
 the  Committee  of  the  Society  for  Public  Utility,  1822. 
 
 7.  Verzanieling  van  ^Yettcn  en  Vcrordciiingen  der  Maatschappij  van  Welda- 
 dighcid, 1820.  Collection  of  Laws  and  Regulations  of  the  Society  for  Public 
 Utility,  1820. 
 
 Tin:  HAGUE. 
 
 1.  Namen  van  cenigc  Ilceren,  welkc  vroeger  behoord  hebl)en  tot  dc  Fondatic 
 van  de  Vrouwe  van  Rcnswoudc,  afdeeling  's  Gravcnhage,  (MS.)  Names  of  some 
 of  the  pujiils  educated  upon  the  Rcnswoude  Foundations  at  the  Hague,  (witli  their 
 occupations.)    (From  the  .blaster.) 
 
 2.  Arr6te  du  27  Mar,  L^30,  contenant  des  Modifications  aux  l)isi)()sitions  cx- 
 istantes  au  sujet  de  I'lnstruction.  Proposed  Decree  of  the  27tii  March,  1(^30, 
 containing  ^lodifications  to  the  present  Regulations  in  regard  to  Instruction. 
 (From  Insi)eet<)r  Wynbeek.) 
 
 3.  Tafclcn  van  Werkzaamhedcn  in  tc  Dag  en  Avond-school,  1837.  Course 
 of  Study  at  the  Day  and  Evening  School,  1837. 
 
 4.  Molhode  pour  ai)prendre  I'art  d'ecrirc  suivant  les  quatrc  fondamens,  1837. 
 Method  of  learniurr  to  Write,  acconiing  to  the  fotir  Fundamental  Rules,  1837. 
 
 Ct.  Verdre'.ini,'  dcr  Klassen  voor  de  Koninldijkc  Mu/ijk  School,  1837.  Divit^ion 
 of  elastics  in  the  Royal  Music  School,  1837.     (From  Mr.  Simons.) 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  AUSTRIA.  629 
 
 HAARLEM. 
 
 1.  Verslag  nopens  den  staat  der  hoogc,  niiddclbare  en  latere  scholen  in  1835, 
 gedaan  ann  do  Statcn  Gencraal  ingevolge  art  226  der  grondwct.  Report  on  the 
 State  of  Higher,  Middle,  and  Lower  Schools  in  1835,  made  to  the  States  General. 
 (From  Inspector  Wynbcek.) 
 
 2.  List  von  Boeken  voor  de  lurschool  in  Harlaem,  1837.  List  of  Books  used 
 in  the  Normal  Seminary  and  its  Elementary  School  at  Haarlem,  1837.  (From 
 Director  Prinsen.) 
 
 ROTTERDAM. 
 De  rinstruction  Primaire  en  Rotterdam,  par  Victor  Cousin,  1836.     On  Pri- 
 mary Instruction  in  Rotterdam,  by  M.  Cousin,  1836.     (From  the  Author.) 
 
 UTRECHT. 
 
 1.  Elcves  welke  sedert,  1824,  de  Fundatic  van  Renswoudc  vcrlatcn  hebben. 
 Voormalige  Eleves,  welke  nog  in  Icrer  zyn,  en  verdienster  hebben.  (MS.)  List 
 of  Pupils  who  have  left  the  Renswoude  Foundation  since  1824,  and  of  some 
 former  Pupils  of  the  Foundation.     (From  the  Director.) 
 
 2.  Course  of  Study  of  the  five  classes  of  the  Latin  School.  (MS.)  (From  Mr. 
 Van  Bolhuis.) 
 
 3.  Over  de  tegenwoordige  inrigting  der  Latijnsche  School  te  Utrcciit,  door 
 J.  H.  Van  Bolhuis,  1837.  On  the  present  arrangement  of  the  Latin  School  at 
 Utrecht,  by  J.  H.  Van  Bolhuis,  1837. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 LINTZ. 
 
 Einladung  zur  6fFentlichen  Priifung  in  der  Normal  Hauptschule,  1838.  Pro 
 gramme  for  the  Public  Examination  of  the  Model  High  School,  1838.  (From  Di- 
 rector Pauspertl.) 
 
 PRAGUE. 
 
 1.  Geschichte  des  Waiseninstituts  zum  Ilciligcn  Johann.  History  of  the  Or- 
 phan-house of  St.  John,  1785.     (From  Director  Lampa.) 
 
 2.  Darstellung  der  Verwaltung  und  Rcchnung  des  Waisenhauses  zum  Hciligen 
 Johann,  in  1834-35,  und  1835-36.  Report  on  the  Administration  and  Expenditure 
 of  the  Orphan-house  of  St.  John,  in  1834-35,  and  1835-36.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Tagesordnung,  Schulplan  und  Verhaltungs  Regein  fiir  die  Zoglinge  des 
 Waisenhauses  zum  Hciligen  Johann.  Distribution  of  Time,  Plan  of  Instruction, 
 and  Regulations  of  Discipline  in  the  Orphan-house  of  St.  John,  (MS.)  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 4.  Kurze  Ubcrsicht  des  Schulwescns  in  ()sterreich,  1838.  Sliort  View  of  Pub- 
 lic Instruction  in  Austria,  1838,  (MS.)     (From  Mr.  Parti.) 
 
 5.  Politisclie  Verfassung  der  Dcutschcn  Sclmlcn  in  den  K.  K.  Deutsclien  Erb- 
 staaten,  1828.  Plan  of  <  )rganization  of  all  the  German  Schools  in  Austria,  1828. 
 (From  the  Rev.  Mr.  Schneider.) 
 
 6.  Erster  Jahrcsbericht  iibcr  die  Klcinkinderbewahr  Anstalt  am  Ilradek,  1833, 
 First  Annual  Report  on  the  Infant  School  at  Hradek,  1833.    (From  Mr.  Sparshil.) 
 
030  APPENDIX. 
 
 7.  Einladung  zur  OfTentlichcn  PrUfung  dcr  Cluster  Ilauptschulc  in  1792, 1798, 
 und  1838.  Programme  for  the  Public  Examination  of  the  Model  High  School 
 in  1792,  1798,  and  1838.     (From  the  director.) 
 
 8.  Darstcllung  der  tcchnischen  Lehranstalt  und  Realschulc  von  Baron  von 
 Hennigcr,  1835.  Description  of  the  TecJinicul  Institution  and  Real  School,  by 
 Baron  von  Ilcnniger,  1835,     (From  Baron  Hennigcr  von  Ebcrg.) 
 
 9.  Ordnung  dcr  Vorlesungcn  in  dcr  tcchnischen  Lehranstalt  und  Schulplan 
 fiir  die  Rcalschule,  1837.  Courses  of  Lectures  in  the  Technical  Institution  and 
 Plan  of  Instruction  in  the  Real  School,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  Saramlung  dcr  Vcrordnungcn  und  Vorschriflcn  Qber  die  Verfassung  der 
 Gymnasicn,  1812.  Collection  of  Regulations  for  the  Organization  of  the  Gym- 
 nasia,  1812.     (From  Professor  Swoboda.) 
 
 11.  Personal  Stand  und  Vorlesungcn  an  der  Univcrsitat  in  1837  und  1838. 
 List  of  Professors  and  Courses  of  Lectures  at  the  University  in  1837-38.  (From 
 Professor  Hcssler.) 
 
 SALTZBURO. 
 
 1.  Einladung  zur  OfTentlichen  Prufung  in  dcr  Normal  Hauptscliule,  1838. 
 Programme  for  the  Public  Examination  of  the  Normal  High  School,  1838. 
 (From  Director  Maicr.) 
 
 2.  Ordnung  der  Dcutschen  Schulen  im  Stadtbezirke  Salzburg,  1837-38.  Plan 
 of  Instruction  in  the  Elementary  Schools  of  Saltzburg,  1837-33.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 VIENNA. 
 
 1.  Letter  from  Berlin  relating  to  the  Schools  and  the  School-books  of  Austria. 
 
 2.  Notes  on  the  Schools  of  Vienna,  (MS.) 
 
 3.  Einladung  zur  offentlichcn  Prilfung  in  dcr  Normal  Ilauptschule  bei  St. 
 Anna,  1838.  Programme  for  the  Public  Examination  of  the  Model  High 
 School  at  St.  Anna,  1835.     (From  Director  Vogl.) 
 
 4.  Specimens  of  Writing  and  Linear  Drawing,  from  the  Model  High  School. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Skizzirter  Entwurf  der  Gyninasial  Studicn  in  Ostcrreieh.  Sketch  of  a  pro- 
 jected course  of  Studies  for  the  Gymnasia  of  Austria,  1838.  (From  Vice-Direc- 
 tor Walsch.) 
 
 6.  Juventus  Caesarco  Rcgii  Gymnasii  Academici  Viennae  c  Moribus  et  Pro- 
 grcssu  in  Literis  censa  excuntc,  1837.  List  of  the  Pupils  in  the  Imperial  Gym- 
 nasium at  Vienna,  in  the  order  of  merit,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Statutcn  der  K.  K.  Thcrcsianischen  Rittcrakademie,  1802.  Statutes  for 
 the  Academy  for  Noblemen,  called  the  Thercsianum,  1802.  (From  ViccDirector 
 Brukner.) 
 
 8.  Verfassung  dcs  Poly  tcchnischen  Instituts,  1818.  Organization  of  the  Poly- 
 tcchnical  Institute,  1836.     (From  Director  Prechtl.) 
 
 9.  Vorlesungcn  am  Polytcchnischen  Institut  in  183S.  Courses  of  Lectures 
 at  the  Poly  technical  Institute  in  1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  Boricht  Ubtr  die  Verfassung  der  Ingcnicur  Akadcmie,  1837.  Report  on 
 the  Organization  of  the  Academy  for  Engineers,  1637.     (From  Uic  director.) 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  BADEX,  BAVARIA,  6CC.  031 
 
 BADEN. 
 
 HEIDELBERG. 
 
 1.  Academische  Gesetze  fur  die  Universitaten  Heidelberg  und  Freiburg.  Laws 
 and  Regulations  for  the  Universities  of  Heidelberg  and  Freyberg,  1825. 
 
 2.  Personalbcstand  und  Verzeichniss  der  Vorlesungen  an  der  Universitat 
 Heidelberg,  in  1837-38.  Professors  and  students,  and  list  of  courses  of  lectures 
 at  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  in  1837-38. 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 BAYREUTH. 
 
 Dr.  Graser's  Erzcihung's  Plan,  seine  Ansichtcn  und  Ideen.  Dr.  Grascr's 
 System  of  Instruction,  his  views  and  ideas.  (MS.) 
 
 MUNICH. 
 
 1.  Lehrbezirk  sammtlicher  Gegenstande  der  Elementarschulen.  View  of  the 
 Extent  of  the  Subjects  of  Instruction  in  the  Elementary  Schools,  1831. 
 
 2.  Uber  den  Zustand  der  Werktagsschulen  und  Verzeichniss  der  Preisvertheil- 
 ung  in  1837.  On  the  Condition  of  the  Common  Schools,  and  a  list  of  the  Distri- 
 bution of  Prizes  in  1837. 
 
 3.  Verzeichniss  der  verordneten  Schulbiicher.  Catalogue  of  Prescribed 
 School-books,  1836. 
 
 4.  Vorschriflen  die  Bildung  der  Schullehrer  betreffend,  183G.  Regulations  in 
 Relation  tc  the  Education  of  Teachers,  1836. 
 
 5.  Jahresbericht  des  K.  Gymnasiums  in  Munchen,  1837.  Annual  Report  of 
 the  Royal  Gymnasium  in  Munich,  1837.     (From  Director  Hocheder.) 
 
 6.  Verfassung  des  K.  Erziehungs  Instituts  fur  Studircnde,  1831.  Organiza- 
 tion of  the  Royal  Boarding  School  preparatory  to  the  University,  1831.  (From 
 Director  Geyr.) 
 
 7.  Jahresbericht  der  Landwirthschafl  und  Gewerbeschule,  1837.  Annual  Re- 
 port of  the  Agricultural  and  Trades'  School,  1837.     (From  Director  Pauli.) 
 
 8.  Programm  der  K.  Polytechnischenschule,  1833.  Programme  of  the  Royal 
 Poly  technical  School,  1833.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 9.  Verzeichniss  der  Vorlesungen  an  der  Universitat,  in  1836.  Courses  of  Stu- 
 dies at  the  University  in  1838. 
 
 NUREMBERG. 
 Jahresberichte  der  Handels  Gewerbeschule  in  Nurnbcrg,  von  1834  bis  1837. 
 Annual  Reports  of  the  Commercial  and  Trade  School,  from  1834  to  1837.    (From 
 Director  Monnich.) 
 
 FREE  TOWNS. 
 
 BREMEN. 
 
 1.  Anordnung  der  Lelirstunden  in  der  Vorschule,  1837-38.  Plan  of  Instruc- 
 tion in  the  Preparatory  Scliool,  1837-38.     (From  Prof.  Strack.) 
 
 2.  Verzeichniss  der  Lelirstunden  in  der  Handelschulc,  1837-38.  Plan  of  In- 
 struction  in  the  Commercial  School,  1837-38.     (From  the  ^amc.) 
 
632  APPENDIX. 
 
 TRAXKrORT  OS  JTAIXE. 
 
 1.  Ta/Tcsordnunpr,  Lcctionsphin  und  Spciscordnunjj  Jm  Waiscnhausc,  1838. 
 Distribution  of  time,  plan  of  instruction,  and  tabic  of  diet  in  Ibi;  Orplian-iiouse, 
 1838.     (From  Mr.  Schaffcr,  head  master.) 
 
 2.  Kurzc  Gcscliichtc  dcr  Mustcrschule  in  den  scclis  crstcn  Jahrcn  ihrcs  Bcste- 
 hens,  1832.  Short  account  of  the  Model  School  during  the  first  six  years  of  its 
 existence.     (From  Director  na«r;Tc.) 
 
 3.  Einladunrrschriflcn  zur  Oflentlichen  PrOfunp^  in  dcr  Mustcrschule,  1833-38. 
 Programmes  for  the  public  examination  at  the  Model  School,  1833-38.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 4.  Stundcnplan  dcr  Mustcrschule,  1837-38.  Plan  of  Instruction  in  tlic  Model 
 School,  1837-38.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Verzeichnissder  Lectionen  im  Gymnasium  liir  das  Winter-IIalbjahr,  1837-38. 
 Plan  of  Instruction  in  the  Gymnasium  for  the  winter  term,  1837-38. 
 
 HAMBURGH. 
 
 1.  A  short  account  of  the  former  and  present  organization  of  the  Orphan-house, 
 (MS.)  Reply  to  a  circular  letter,  addressed  by  the  secretary  of  the  society  for 
 Elementary  Instruction  of  Paris,  (MS.)     (From  Dr.  KrOger.) 
 
 2.  Rede  zu  seiner  fiinf  und  zwansigjahrigen  Amts-Jubclfeier,  von  Dr.  Kr<5- 
 ger,  Katccheten  am  Waisenhause.  Speech  at  the  celebration  of  the  twenty-fifth 
 anniversary  of  his  superintendence,  by  Dr.  Kroger,  catcchist  of  the  Orphan- 
 house.     With  notes  relating  to  the  establishment.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Instruction  fiir  die  Aufsehcrinncn  dcr  hicsigen  Warteschulen.  Regulations 
 for  the  sui>erintcnding  females  of  the  infant  schools. 
 
 4.  Rede  und  Bericht  des  Schul-und  Erzichungs-Wesens  in  Hamburgh,  1835. 
 Report  upon  the  schools  of  Hamburgh,  1835.     (From  Dr.  KrOger.) 
 
 5.  Darstellung  und  Beurtheilung  der  Erzichungs  systeme  von  Dr.  J.  C.  Kr<3- 
 ger.  Account  and  criticism  of  systems  of  Education,  by  Dr.  Krrjgcr.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 6.  Prospectus  der  Ilandelschule.     Prospectus  of  the  Commercial  High  School. 
 
 HANOVER. 
 
 Verzcichniss  dcr  Vorlcsungcn  an  dcr  Univcrsitilt  Gottingen  in  1838.  Courses 
 of  Lectures  at  the  University  of  Gottingen  in  1838. 
 
 NASSAU. 
 
 WISRADEX. 
 
 1.  Nacliricht  ilber  die  de  Laspce'sehc  Erziehungsanstalt,  1833.  Rojwrt  on 
 the  boarding-school  of  dc  Laspee,  1833.     (From  Mr.  Leyendecker.) 
 
 2.  Lehrplan  und  Bedingungcn  der  aufnahmc  filr  Schuler  des  dc  Laspcc'schcn 
 Instituts,  1S31.  Plan  of  instruction  and  conditions  ^of  admission  into  the  board- 
 ing-school of  de  liaspec.     (From  tin.'  same.) 
 
 3.  Programm  der  rtlfcnl lichen  Prtifimg  in  der  de  Laspcc'schcn  Erzieliungs- 
 anstalt,  HH.").  Programme  of  the  public  examination  at  de  Laspee's  boarding- 
 ■chool,  1835.     (From  tho  8ame.) 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  PRUSSIA.  633 
 
 1.  Vorsclilag^  eines  allgcmeinen  Erzichungsliauses  fiir  talcntvolle  anne  Kiui- 
 ben.  Project  of  a  boarding-school  for  intelligent  poor  boj's.  (From  Councillor 
 Albrcclit.) 
 
 5.  Die  Versuchsanlagcn  dcs  landwirthsehafllichcn  Vcroins  an  die  IJerzogl, 
 Nassauischc  Ackcrbausclmlc  in  Wisbadcn.  Description  of  the  agricultural 
 school  at  Wisbadcn  and  the  trial  plantations  of  the  agricultural  society.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 1.  Sammlung  der  auf  den  Offentliehen  Unterricht  in  Preusscn  sich  beziehcn- 
 den  Gesetze  und  Verordnungcn,  182G.  Collection  of  laws  and  regulations  re- 
 lating to  public  instruction  in  Prussia,  1826. 
 
 2.  Das  Volks  Schulwcsen  in  Preusscn,  1834.  On  public  instruction  in  Prus- 
 sia; a  collection  of  laws  in  reference  to  elementary  instruction,  1831. 
 
 3.  Regulations  from  the  ministry  on  public  instruction  in  regard  to  tlie  Gym- 
 nasiums in  Prussia,  1837,  (MS.)     (Through  the  Hon.  H.  Whcaton.) 
 
 ANNABURG. 
 
 1.  Der  Untcrrichtsplan  fur  das  Annaburger  Militair  Knaben  Institut  wic  es 
 vom  Octbr.,  1834,  an  zu  befolgen  ist.  Plan  of  Instruction  for  the  Soldier's 
 School  at  Annaburg,  as  it  will  be  carried  into  execution  in  October,  1834.  (From 
 Dr.  Harnisch.) 
 
 2.  Tagcsordnung  der  ZOglingc,  Dienstinstruction  fiir  den  Prediger  und  Schul- 
 inspector,  liir  die  sieben  Classenlchrer  und  fiir  den  Werkmeister.  Distribution 
 of  Time  for  the  Pupils,  Regulations  relating  to  the  duties  of  the  Clcrgj'nian  and 
 School  Inspector,  to  the  seven  teachers  of  the  different  classes,  and  to  tlie  work- 
 master.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Entvviirf  zu  den  vierteljahrlichen  und  Jahresberichten.  Sketch  of  Quar- 
 terly and  Yearly  Reports.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 BERLIN. 
 
 1.  Die  Wadzeck  Anstalt  in  Berlin.  Jahresbcrichte  im  Jahre,  1834-35. 
 Statuten  der  Wadzeck  Anstalt,.  1834,  Description  of  the  Wadzeck  Institution  for 
 Infants.  Yearly  Reports  for  1834  and  1835.  Statutes  of  the  Institution,  1834. 
 (From  the  Inspector  of  the  House.) 
 
 2.  Sacular  Feier  des  Schindlcrschen  Waisenhauses,  1830.  Secular  Festival  of 
 Schindlcr's  Orphan-house,  1830.     (From  Rev.  Mr.  Klodcn.) 
 
 3.  Relation  do  I'Ecole  de  Charite  ^  Berlin,  en  1836.  Accomit  of  llic  Charily 
 School  in  Berlin,  in  1836.     (From  the  Steward  of  the  French  Orphan-liou.-e.) 
 
 4.  Grundsatze  nach  wclchen  die  hiesigcn  Erwerbsehulcn  cingerichtet  sind, 
 1833.  Principles  according  to  which  the  Schools  of  Industry  liave  been  estab- 
 lished, 1833.     (From  Mr.  Neufmd.) 
 
 5.  Studenplan  der  Elementarscliulen,  Nrn.  5,  7,  und  8,  in  1837.  Plan  of  in- 
 struction in  the  Elementary  Schools,  Nos.  5,  7,  and  8,  in  1837,  (MS.)  With 
 specimens  of  writing.  (From  ]\Icssrs.  Pleiller,  Schantz,  Vogelcr,  and  Ililbcrt, 
 teachers.) 
 
 SO 
 
634  APPENDIX. 
 
 6.  Studcnplan  und  LchrbQcher  in  dcr  Dorolheenschule.  Course  of  study  and 
 text-books  used  in  the  Dorothcan  School,  in  1837,  (MS.)  Specimens  of  writing-. 
 (From  Director  Zinnow.) 
 
 7.  Nacliricht  liber  die  Einrichtung  des  Seminars  fiir  Stadtseliulen  zu  Berlin, 
 1836.  Description  of  the  Normal  School  in  Berlin  for  training  tcaciiers  for  the 
 City  Schools,  183G.     (From  Dr.  Dicstcrweg.) 
 
 8.  Zweck  und  Einrichtung  dcr  K^niglichen  Seminarscliule  in  Berlin,  1836. 
 Purpose  and  general  plan  of  the  Royal  Seminary  Sciiool  in  Berlin,  1"^3G.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 9.  Stundenplan  und  Lehrgcgenstande  am  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Gymnasium, 
 1S37.  Course  of  study  and  subjects  of  instruction  at  the  Frederick  William 
 Gymnasium,  in  1837,  (MS.)     (From  Director  Spilleke.) 
 
 10.  Lectionsplan  filr  das  Sehullehrcr  Seminar  in  Berlin,  1837.  Course  of  study 
 at  the  Normal  School  in  Berlin,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 11.  Zwcck,  Einrichtung,  und  Lchrplan  dcs  Colnisehen  Real  Gymnasium. 
 ViTzcichiiiss  dcr  Lehrbilchcr.  Nachrichten  iiber  das  Gymnasium,  1 829-30-3i}-33 
 -37.  Purpose,  plan,  and  course  of  study  at  the  Cologne  Real  Gymnasium,  16i29- 
 30-32-3.3-37.     (From  Director  August.) 
 
 12.  Uber  Zweck  und  Lehrgcgenstande  des  Gewerbcschule,  1825.  On  the  pur- 
 pose and  the  subjects  of  Instruction  in  the  Trades'  School,  1825.  (From  Direc- 
 tor Klodcn.) 
 
 13.  Nachriclit  an  das  Publikum  Uber  den  Zwcck  und  die  Einrichtungcn  der 
 Gewerbcschule.  Address  to  the  Public  on  tlic  Purpose  and  Plan  of  tlie  Trades' 
 School,  lb30.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 14.  An  die  Eltern  derjenigen  Schiller  wclclie  die  stadtische  Gewerbcschule  be- 
 suchen,  1830.  Address  to  the  Parents  of  Pupils  who  frequent  the  Trades'  School, 
 1830.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 15.  Programm  zur  Priifung  dcr  Z<'»glinge  der  Gewerbcschule,  1830-32-33-37. 
 Prospectuses  of  the  Examination  of  Pupils  of  the  Trade  School,  1830-32-33-37. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 16.  Uber  die  Fortbildung  der  Gcwerbtricbendon  ausscr  der  Schule.  On  tho 
 Continuation  of  Instruction  of  Adult  Artisans,  1827.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 17.  Vcrzeichniss  dcs  Personals  imd  dcs  Studircndcn  auf  dcr  K^iniglichcn  Fried- 
 rich  Wilhelm  Universiiat  in  1837.  List  of  OlTicers  and  Students  at  the  Royal 
 University  in  1837. 
 
 18.  Verzeichniss  dcr  Vorlesungcn  wclche  auf  dcr  Univcrsit.'U  in  1837,  gchal- 
 ten  werden.  List  of  Lectures  which  are  to  be  delivered  at  the  University  in 
 1837. 
 
 19.  Zwcck  und  Gcgcnst.'lnde  des  Untcrrirhts  in  dem  K<^nigliehenGewcrbe  In- 
 stitut.  Purpose  and  Subjects  of  Instruction  in  the  Royal  Institute  for  Arta 
 and  Manufactures.     (From  Councillor  Bcuth.) 
 
 20.  Ixctionsplan  und  Tcxtbilchcr  in  dcm  Krmiglichcn  Gewcrbc  Institut. 
 Course  of  Study  and  Text-books  used  in  the  Royal  Institute  for  Arts  and  Ma- 
 nufactures.    (From  the  same.) 
 
 21.  Nuchricht  Uber  die  Eiselenschen  Anstalten  fiir  allgcmcinc  Lcibcs  und 
 Fechtabungen,  1^31.  Description  of  Eisolon'e  Institution  for  Gymnastic*  and 
 Fencing,  1831.     (From  Mr.  Eisclen.) 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  PRUSSIA.  635 
 
 BUNZLAU. 
 
 1.  Das  Waisenhaus  zu  Bunzlau  in  Sclilcsien  in  seiner  Geschichte  von  der 
 Stiflung  bis  zum  Jahrc,  1814,  dargcstcllt.  History  of  tiie  Orphan-house  at 
 Bunzlau  since  its  origin  up  to  1814.     (From  Inspector  Kruger.) 
 
 2.  Nachricht  iiber  das  Seminar  und  die  Konighche  Waisen  und  Schulanstalt  zu 
 Bunzlau.  Notes  on  the  Normal  School,  and  the  Royal  Orphan-iiouse  and  School 
 at  Bunzlau,  from  the  year  1830  to  1834.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Geschichte  der  KOnigl.  Waisen  und  Sclmlanstalt  und  des  Seminars  zu 
 Bunzlau  nebst  kurzer  Darstellung  der  jetzigen  Einrichtung  der  ganzcn  Anstalt, 
 1837.  History  of  tlic  Royal  Orphan-house,  and  the  Normal  and  Burgher  School 
 connected  with  it,  besides  a  short  description  of  the  present  organization  of  the 
 whole  institution,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 ERFURT. 
 
 Hausordnung  und  Stundenplan  des  Konigl.  Schullehrer  Seminars  in  Erfurt, 
 1832.  Order  of  the  House,  Distribution  of  Time,  and  Course  of  Study  in  the 
 Normal  School  at  Erfurt,  1832. 
 
 HALLE. 
 
 1.  Beschreibung  des  Hallischen  Waisenliauses  und  der  iibrigen  damit  verbun- 
 denen  Frankischen  Stiflungen,  1799.  Description  of  the  Orphan-liouse  at 
 Halle,  and  of  all  the  otlier  Foundations,  by  Franke,  connected  with  it,  1799. 
 
 2.  Verzeiclmiss  aller  Anstalten  unter  dem  Namen  Frankesche  Stiftungen  und 
 Anzahl  von  Lehrern  und  Schiilern,  1837.  List  of  all  the  Institutions  under  the 
 name  of  Franke's  Foundations,  and  number  of  Teacliers  and  Pupils,  1837.  (MS.) 
 (From  Dr.  Niemeyer,  Director.) 
 
 3.  Stundenplan,  Tagesordnung,  Textbiicher  und  jahrliche  Ausgaben  des 
 Waisenhauses,  1837.  Course  of  Study,  Distribution  of  Time,  list  of  Text-books, 
 and  Yearly  Expenses  of  the  Orphan-house,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Belehrung  fiir  diejenigen  welche  die  Aufnahme  von  Vaterlosen  in  die 
 Waisenanstalt  der  Frankeschen  Stiftungen  nachsuchen,  1836.  Instruction  for 
 those  who  request  the  admission  of  Fatlierless  Cliildren  into  the  Orphan-house 
 of  Franke's  Foundations,  1836.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Ordnungen  und  Gesetze  fiir  die  Zoglinge  der  Waisenanstalt.  Laws  and 
 Regulations  for  the  Pupils  of  the  Orphan-house.     (From  Dr.  Leibmann.) 
 
 6.  Programm  der  Offentlichen  Prtifung  der  Biirgerschule  in  den  Franke- 
 schen Stiflungen,  1836.  Programme  of  the  Public  Examination  of  the  Burgher 
 School  belonging  to  Franke's  Foundations,  1836.     (From  In^;pcctor  Trotlic.) 
 
 7.  Nachricht  iiber  die  hohere  Realschule  welche  den  4ton  Mtii,  1835,  im 
 Waisenhause  zu  Halle  crOffnet  wcrden  soil.  Notice  relating  to  the  opening  of 
 a  higher  Real  School  in  tlie  Orphan-house  at  Halle,  the  4th  of  May,  1835.  (From 
 Dr.  Niemeyer.) 
 
 8.  Kurzer  Bcricht  von  dem  Einrichtung  und  den  Kostcn  in  der  mit  der  Latein- 
 schen  Schule,  und  der  hohern  Realschule  verbundenen  Erzichungsanstalt  im 
 Waisenhause  zu  Halle.  Short  Description  of  the  Organization  and  the  Expenses 
 of  the  Boarding-house  connected  with  the  Latin  School  and  the  higher  Real 
 School  in  the  Orphan  house  at  Ilalle,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
0.30  APPEXDIX. 
 
 f).  Prnn^ramm  7iir  Otrentlichcn  Pnifunr!^  im  dcr  Latcinischcn  llauptsclmie  zu 
 JIulle,  lb37.  Profrramin  of  the  Public  Examination  of  the  Latin  School  f Gym- 
 nasium) belonjriiijr  to  Frankc's  Foundations,  IKH.     (From  Dr.  Sclimidt.) 
 
 10.  OrdnunLTfi  uud  Gisctzc  fiir  die  Scholarcn  des  K6ni^lichcn  P.'ldafrnjriums. 
 Laws  and  Ilcffuhitions  for  tlie  Pupils  of  the  Royal  Pcdagogium,  (bclon{,'ing  to 
 Franke's  Foundations.)     (From  Dr.  Niemcycr.) 
 
 11.  Ubersicht  der  Winterlectionon  im  Rrtnii^Michcn  Pildafro^ium,  1837-38.  Ta- 
 bic of  the  Course  of  Lectures  during  the  Winter  Term  in  tlic  Royal  Pedagogium, 
 1837-38.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 1:2.  Schulgcsc'tze  filr  das  Konigliche  Piidagogium.  Laws  for  the  Royal  Pada- 
 gogium.     (From  tlie  same.) 
 
 13.  Iloricht  iibir  das  K^niglichc  Piidagogium  zu  Halle,  1837.  Report  on  the 
 Royal  Pedagogium  ad  IJalle,  1837.     (From  Dr.  Niemeycr.) 
 
 11.  Lide.v  Scholarum  in  Univcrsitate  Ilalensi  per  hicmem,  1837-38,  halK-nda- 
 nun.     Courses  of  liceturcs  to  be  delivered  during  the  Winter  Term  of  1837-38. 
 
 15.  Gcdanken  iiber  die  jetsige  Gymnasial  Tcrfassung  im  Ktoigreich  Preu.s- 
 pen,  von  Dr.  H.  A.  Niemeycr,  1838.  Thoughts  in  Relation  to  the  Present  Orga- 
 nization of  the  Prussian  Gymnasia,  1836,  by  Dr.  IL  A.  Niemcycr.  (From 
 the  author.) 
 
 IG.  Cber  die  Nothwcndigkcit  cincr  Reform  im  Gymnasial  Unterricht,  von  Dr. 
 M.  Schmidt,  On  the  Necessity  of  a  Reform  in  the  Studies  of  tlie  Gymnasia,  by 
 Dr.  M.  Schmidt.     (IVoni  tlie  author.) 
 
 Stundcnplan  und  Tcxtbiicher  dcs  Seminars  zu  MOrs,  1837.  Course  of  Study 
 and  List  of  Text-books  used  in  the  Normal  School  at  Mocrs,  1832.  (From  ^Ir. 
 Zahn,  Director.) 
 
 rroRTA. 
 
 1.  Die  Landcsschule  Pforta  ihrcr  gegcnwflrtigen  und  chcmaligcn  Verfassnng 
 nach  dargestellt  von  Schmidt,  L-^l  1.  Description  of  the  School  Pforta  in  its  for- 
 mcr  and  present  organization,  by  Schmidt,  181 1. 
 
 2.  Bckanntmachung  fiir  Elterji  und  Vormiuuler  die  ihrc  Kinder  dor  Landes- 
 schulc  Pforta  Qbcrgebcn  woUen,  1832.  Notice  given  to  Parents  and  Guardians 
 who  wish  to  send  their  Children  to  School  at  Pforta,  1832.  (From  Director 
 Kirchner.) 
 
 3.  Jahreshericht  ul>er  die  K^nigl.  Landcsschule  Pforta,  1837.  Yearly  Report 
 on  the  Royal  School  at  Pforta,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 rOTSDAM. 
 
 1.  Geschichtc  dcs  K<iniglichen  Potsdanischcn  MilitJlr-Waisenhauscs  von 
 Rcinor  Entstchung  bis  1821.  History  of  the  Royal  !\Iilitary  Orphan-huusc  in 
 Potsd.im,  from  its  orijjin  to  1824.     (From  the  War  DeparUnent.) 
 
 2.  Ilausordnung  dcs  Koniglichcn  grossen  Militilr-Wai.senhauses  in  Potsdam, 
 1838.  Internal  Regulations  of  the  Royal  Military  Orphan- house  at  Potsdam. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Kurzc  Dnrsfellmig  d< t  Orgnnisation  der  Ilohern  niirLrersehnle  in  Potsdam, 
 
DOCUMENTS  PROM  SAXONY.  637 
 
 1835.    Short  Description  of  tlic  Orp^anization  of  the  Higher  Burgher  School  in 
 Potsdam,  1835.     (From  Rector  Lofller.) 
 
 4.  Programm  zur  Offcntliclicn  Pnifung  im  Militar-Waiscnhaus  in  1819-22. 
 Programme  of  the  Public  Examination  in  tlic  Military  Orphan-house  in  1819- 
 22.     (From  the  Rev.  Mr.  Merkus.) 
 
 5.  Die  Civil  Waisen  Vcrsorgungs  Anstalt  zu  Potsdam,  1836.  Description  of 
 the  Institution  for  Orphans  of  Civil  Officers  in  Potsdam,  1836.  (From  Councillor 
 Von  Turk.) 
 
 6.  Die  Waisen  Vcrsorgungs  Anstalt  fdr  die  Provinz  Brandenburg  zu  Klein 
 Glienicke  bei  Potsdam,  1833-35.  Exemplare  von  Ilandschriflcn.  Statutes  of  the 
 Institution  for  Orphans  in  the  Province  of  Brandenburg  at  Klein  Glienicke, 
 near  Potsdam,  1833-35.     Specimens  of  hand-writing,  &.c.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Programm  dcr  OfTcntlichcn  Priifung  in  der  Jlc'ihern  Biirgerschule,  1836-37. 
 Programme  of  the  Public  Examination  in  the  Higher  Burgher  School,  in  1836 
 and  1837.     (From  Rector  Loffler.) 
 
 8.  Nachricht  von  der  Einrichtung  des  Schullehrcr  Seminars  zu  Potsdam,  1835. 
 On  the  Organization  of  the  Normal  School  at  Potsdam,  1835.  (From  Director 
 Hicntsch.) 
 
 WEISSENFELS. 
 
 1.  Description  of  the  Normal  School  at  Weissenfcls,  1838,  (MS.)  (From 
 Dr.  Harnisch,  Director.) 
 
 2.  List  of  Text-books  used  at  the  Normal  School,  (MS.)     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Ftir  Eltern  welche  ihre  Sohne  fiir  den  Schulstand  vorbereiten  lassen  wol- 
 len,  1837.  Address  to  Parents  who  wish  to  have  their  Sons  prepared  for  Admis- 
 sion into  the  Normal  School,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Das  Weisscnfclser  Schullehrer-Scminar  und  seine  Hiilfsanstalten,  von 
 dcm  Director  Dr.  W.  Harnisch,  1837.  The  Seminary  for  Teachers  at  Weisen- 
 fels,  and  the  institutions  connected  with  it,  1838,  by  Dr.  W.  Harnisch.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 SAXONY. 
 
 1.  Elementar  Volksschulgesetz  fiir  Sachscn,  1835.  Law  for  Elementary  In- 
 struction  in  Saxony,  1835. 
 
 2.  Die  Oblicgcnhcitcn  und  Geschiifle  der  Sachsichen  Volks  Schullehrer.  Du- 
 ties of  Elementary  Tcaclicrs  in  Saxony.     (From  Inspector  Lohrmann.) 
 
 DRESDEN. 
 
 1.  Geschichtc  und  Verfassung  des  Dresdencr  Schulwesens,  1836.  History  and 
 Organization  of  Public  Instruction  in  Dresden,  1836.     (From  Mr.  Vorwerk.) 
 
 2.  Ubersicht  allcr  C)ffcnt]ichen  Schulcn  in  Sachscn,  1833.  List  of  all  the  Pub- 
 lic Schools  in  Saxony,  1833.     (From  Inspector  Lohrmann.) 
 
 3.  Bericht  iiber  den  PiLdagogischcu  Vcreiu  zu  Dresden,  1836.  Report  of  the 
 Pedagogical  Society  at  Dresden,  1838.     (From  the  Society.) 
 
 4.  Die  Pflichtcn  der  Schulgemeinden  in  Sachscn.  Duties  of  the  School  Com- 
 munes in  Saxony. 
 
638  APPENDIX. 
 
 5.  Die  Schule  und  daa  Schullehrer  Seminar  zu  Fricdrichstadt  Dresden,  von 
 1735  bis  1835.  The  Nornnal  School  and  Ek-inentary  Schools  connected  with  it 
 ill  Dresden,  from  1785  to  1835. 
 
 6.  Staats  Ilandbuch  fur  Saclisen,  1837.  State  Manual  for  Saxony,  1837. 
 (From  Inspector  Lohrmann.) 
 
 7.  Stundenplan  filr  die  Katholische  Gyninasialanstalt  und  Hauptschule. 
 Plan  of  Instruction  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Gymnasium  and  Higli  School.  (From 
 Father  Dietrich.) 
 
 8.  Nachrichtcn  Obcr  die  Erzichungs  Anstalt  von  Dr.  Blochmann,  1637.  Re- 
 ports  on  the  Blochmann  Gymnasium.     (From  Dr.  Peters.) 
 
 9.  Or;Tanisationsplan  und  Gcsetzc  filr  Schulcr  dcr  Technischen  Bildungs  An- 
 stalt, 1835.  Organization  and  Laws  for  Pupils  of  the  Technical  Institution,  1835. 
 (From  Inspector  Lohrmann.) 
 
 10.  Programm  zui  Otfentlichcn  Priifung  in  dcr  Technischen  Bildungs  Anstalt. 
 Programme  for  the  Public  Examination  at  the  Technical  Institution,  1836  and 
 1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 11.  Lehrplan  der  Technischen  Bildungs  Anstalt,  1837.  Plan  of  Instruction  at 
 the  Technical  Institution,  1837.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 12.  Gesetze  fiir  Schulcr  der  Technischen  Bildungs  Anstalt  zu  Dresden,  1835. 
 Laws  for  the  Pupils  of  the  Technical  Institution  at  Dresden,  1835.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 13.  Regulativ  und  Stundcnplan  fur  die  K.  S.  Militair  Bildungs  Anstalt,  1838. 
 Regulations  and  Plan  of  Instruction  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  1638. 
 (From  Captain  Ortcl.) 
 
 FREYBERO. 
 
 1.  Jahrbuch  fur  den  Berg  und  IlUltcnmann,  fiir  1831-37-38.  Annual  for  Mi- 
 ners, 1831-37-33,  containing  Reports  of  the  School  of  Mines. 
 
 2.  Regulativ  fQr  die  K.  S.  Berg  Akadcraie  zu  Freybcrg,  1831.  Regulations  for 
 the  Royal  Academy  for  Miners  at  Freybcrg,  1838,  (MS.)  (From  Professor  Reich.) 
 
 3.  Inscriptionsschein  und  Vcrhaltungs  Rcgelu  fiir  die  Bencficiatcn  bey  der 
 K.  S.  Berg  Akademic  zu  Frcyberg.  Form  of  Inscription  and  Regulations  for  the 
 Free  Pupils  of  the  Royal  Academy  for  Miners  at  Frcyberg.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 LEIPSIC. 
 
 1.  Bcschreibung  der  Rathsfreischule  in  Leipzig.  Description  of  tlic  Free 
 School,  called  Rathsfreischule,  in  Lcipsic.     (From  Director  Dolz.) 
 
 2.  Erste  Nachricht  fiber  die  beabsichtigtc  Organisation  des  Bilrgcr  Schulwc- 
 sens  in  Leipzig.  Exposition  of  a  projected  Organization  of  Instruction  for  the 
 Middle  Kanks  of  licipsic,  1833. 
 
 3.  Schulerbcstand  und  Schulbdchcr  der  Bilrgerschule,  1838.  Number  of  Pu- 
 pils and  List  of  Text-bonks  of  the  Burgher  School,  1838,  (MS.)  (From  Director 
 Vogel.) 
 
 4.  Regulativ  filr  die  Schule  der  Polytechnischcn  Gesillschaft  Regulations 
 for  the  School  established  by  the  Polytechnical  Society.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Regulativ  und  Lehrplan  des  Offcntlichen  Handels  Lchranstalt.  Regulations 
 and  Plan  of  Instruction  at  the  Public  Commercial  School. 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  WEIMAR  AND  WURTEMBERG.  639 
 
 MEISSEN. 
 Jahresbericht  (iber  die  K.  Landesschule  zu  Meissen,  1837.     Annual  Report 
 of  the  Royal  Gymnasium  at  Meissen.     (From  Consul  Rivinus.) 
 
 STRUPPEN. 
 
 Tagcsordung',StundcnpIan,  und  Speisezettelfiir  die  Erzichungs  Anstaltverwaise- 
 ter  Soldatcn  Kinder  in  Struppen  bei  Dresden,  1833.  Distribution  of  Time,  Plan 
 of  Instruction,  and  Table  of  Diet  at  the  School  for  Soldiers'  Orphans  in  Struppen 
 near  Dresden,  1833.    (From  the  Minister  of  War  of  Saxony.) 
 
 WEIMAR. 
 
 JENA. 
 
 Gesetze  fiir  die  Studirenden  der  Universitilt  Jena,  1831.  Laws  and  Regula- 
 tions for  the  Students  at  the  University  of  Jena,  1831. 
 
 WEIMAR. 
 
 1.  Jahresbericht  ilber  den  Zustand  und  die  Leistungen  des  Grossherzogl. 
 Waisen  Instituts  von  den  Jahren,  1829-33-37.  Annual  Report  on  the  State  and 
 Progress  of  the  Orphan  Institution,  during  the  years  1829-33-37.  (From  Dr. 
 Kohler.) 
 
 2.  Form  eines  Alimentations  Contrakts  abgeschlossen  bei  der  Direction  des 
 Waisen  Instituts.  Form  of  Contract  between  the  Direction  of  the  Orphan  Insti- 
 tution at  Weimar  and  a  Foster-master.    (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Programm  zur  OfFentlichen  Priifung  in  der  Biirgerschule,  fiir  1833-34-37. 
 Programme  for  the  Public  Examination  at  the  Burgher  School,  for  1833-34-37. 
 (From  Director  Scliweitzer.) 
 
 4.  Stundenverzeichniss  des  Seminars  und  der  Burgerschule,  1838.     Exemplare 
 von  handschriflen.  Plan  of  Instruction  of  the  Normal  School  and  Burgher  School^  j 
 1838.    Specimens  of  hand- writing.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 WURTEMBERG. 
 
 Gesetz  bctreifend  die  Volks  Schulen  in  Wurtemberg,  1837.  Law  in  relation 
 to  Common  Schools  in  Wurtemberg,  1837. 
 
 ESSLINGEN. 
 
 Statuten  und  Lehrgegenstande  des  K.  SchuUehrer  Seminars  in  Esslingen,  1831. 
 Statutes  and  Plan  of  Instruction  of  the  R.  Normal  School  at  Esslingen,  1831, 
 (From  Director  Denzel.) 
 
 HOHENHEIM. 
 
 1.  Ubersicht  iiber  die  K.  Lehranstalt  fiir  Land  und  Forstwirthschafb  zu  Hohen- 
 heim,  1834.  Description  of  the  Royal  Institution  for  Agriculture  and  Forestry 
 at  Hohenheim,  1834.     (From  Mr.  Oppel.) 
 
 2.  Nachricht  fiir  diejenigcn  welche  die  K.  Lehranstalt  zu  Hohenheim  besu- 
 ehen  wollen.  Address  to  those  who  intend  to  become  Pupils  of  the  Institution 
 at  Hohenheim.     (From  the  same.) 
 
GIO  AM'E.VDIX. 
 
 3.  Vcrzciclinissdcr  Candidatcn  zu  Ilolitnlieiin  von  1818  bi.s  183G.  List  of  Pu' 
 pils  at  Ilolicuhcim  from  the  year  1818  till  183G.     (From  llic  same.) 
 
 stettp:n. 
 
 1.  Die  Griinduntr  und  ErofTniin;!;- dcr  lOrzicliun^rsanstalt  in  Stcttcn,  1831.  Des- 
 cription of  the  cstablishuunt  of  a  Hoardini^.school  at  Sletten,  1831. 
 
 2.  liedin<run<,»'en  der  aufnahinc  von  Zofrlintjen  in  die  Erziehung^sanstalt  zu 
 Stettcn.     Conditions  for  admission  of  Pui)ils  into  the  Boarding-sehool  at  Stctten. 
 
 3.  Berichte  iiber  die  Erziohungsanstalt  in  Stctten,  1832  und  1838.  Reports 
 of  Boarding-school  at  Stctten,  for  the  j'cars  1832  and  1838. 
 
 STUTTGAKD. 
 
 1.  Nachrichlcn  von  dem  K.  Waisenliause  in  den  Jalircn,  1832  his  183G.  Re- 
 ports on  the  Orphan-house,  from  the  year  1832  to  183G.   (From  Director  Zoller.) 
 
 2.  Verzeiehniss  der  Untcrriehtsstunden  des  Obcrn  Gymnasium,  1837.  Plan  of 
 Instruction  of  the  Ili^Micr  Gymnasium,  1837.     (Fiom  Professor  Rcinbcck.) 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 BOLOGXA. 
 
 1.  Rcgolamcnto  sullc  Scuolc  pie.  Regulations  for  the  Elementary  Schools, 
 called  Pious  Schools.     (From  Professor  Gherardi.) 
 
 2.  Raeeolta  d'Istruzioni  sugli  Studii.  Collection  of  Regulations  in  relation  to 
 Instruction,  1833.     (From  tlie  same.) 
 
 3.  Regolamento  dcgli  Sludii  da  osservarsi  in  Roma,  c  in  tutto  lo  Stato  Eccle- 
 siastico,  182;).  Regulations  in  relation  to  Instruction  to  be  observed  in  Rome,  and 
 throughout  the  States  of  the  Church,  1825.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 FLORENCE. 
 
 1.  Short  Account  of  the  Orphan-house,  (MS.)  (From  Mr.  Ombrosi,  Consul 
 of  tJie  United  Slates.) 
 
 2.  Catalogus  Scholarum  Piarum.  Catalogue  of  Pious  Schools,  and  Plan  of  In- 
 struction in  them,  183U.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 3.  Plan  of  Instruction  at  the  Scuole  Pie  at  Florence.     (From  Pater  Georgi.) 
 
 4.  Statuti  c  Metodo  d'Istruzione  per  rAccadcmia  dcUe  Belle  Arti  di  Firenze, 
 1813.     Statutes  and  Method  of  Instruction  at  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  1813. 
 
 MILAN. 
 
 1.  Spcsc  degli  Asili  di  Caritii  per  I'lnfanzia  in  Milano,  1838.  E.xpcnscs  of  the 
 Infant  Schools  in  Milan,  1838.     (From  the  Marquis  Bcccaria.) 
 
 2.  Discipline  da  osservarsi  per  Ic  sale  di  Custodia  dei  Fanciulli  Minori  degli 
 anni  6.     Regulations  for  Infant  Schools.     (From  Mr.  Radaelli.) 
 
 3.  Guida  pei  Fondatori  e  Direttori  delle  Scuolc  Infantili  di  Cariti.  Guide 
 for  Founders  and  Directors  of  Infant  Schools,  1^3G.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Iiitorno  alia  Ff)nda7.ione  cd  alio  Stato  attuale  degli  Asili  di  Carilfi  per  I'ln- 
 fanzia in  Milano.  On  the  Foundation  and  Present  Condition  of  Infant  Schools 
 in  .Milan,  lt<37. 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM  ITALV.  641 
 
 5.  Maauale  di  Educazione  ed  Aiumaestraniento  pelle  Scuole  Infantili,  1833. 
 Manual  for  the  Education  and  Government  in  Infant  Schools,  1833.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 6.  Istruzioni  pei  Maestri  e  per  le  Maestro  dclle  Scuole  Elcmentari  Minori. 
 Regulations  for  the  INIale  and  Female  Teachers  of  the  Lower  Elementary 
 Schools.     (From  tlie  same.) 
 
 7.  Regolamento  ed  Istruzione  per  le  Scuole  Elcmentari.  Laws  and  Regula- 
 tions for  the  Elementary  Schools.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  Statistica  dclla  Istruzione  Elemcntare  nelle  Provincei  Austriachi  Italiane. 
 Statistics  of  the  Elementary  Instruction  in  the  Italian  Provinces  of  Austria. 
 (From  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction.) 
 
 9.  Inviti  al  Pubblico  Esame  nelle  Scuole  Maggiore,  mascliile  e  femminile  di 
 Milano,  e  della  tutta  la  Provincia  di  Lombardia,  indicante  gli  Individuc  impicgati 
 nella  Scuole  e  loro  Incumbcnzc,  le  Matcrie  d'Inscgnanicnto,  ore  Destinate  a  ci- 
 ascuna  di  esse  e  Numero  dclle  Alunne  nelle  diverse  Classi,  1836-37-38.  Pro- 
 gramme of  the  Public  Examination  of  the  Higher  and  Lower  Male  and  Female 
 Elementary  Schools  in  Milan,  and  in  the  whole  Province  of  Lombardy,  giving  a 
 list  of  all  the  Teachers,  the  Subjects  of  Instruction,  the  Time  devoted  to  each 
 Subject,  and  the  number  of  Pupils  in  the  different  Classes,  1836-37-38.  (From 
 Mr.  Cherubini.) 
 
 10.  Notice  sur  I'Histoire  de  I'lnstruction  Publique  en  Lombardie.  Historical 
 Notice  of  Public  Instruction  in  Lombardy,  (MS.)     (From  the  same.) 
 
 11.  Per  gli  Esami  degli  Scolari  ammacstrati  secondo  il  Metodo  Normale 
 nella  Chiesa  di  Brera,  1789.  Programme  of  the  Public  Examination  of  the  Pu* 
 pils  of  the  Model  School  of  the  Brcra,  1789.  (From  Mr.  Cherubini,  Director  of 
 the  High  School  at  Milan.) 
 
 12.  Istruzione  pei  Maestri  di  Disegno  nelle  Scuole  Elcmentari  Maggiori. 
 Regulations  for  the  Drawing  Masters  in  the  Higher  Elementary  Schools.  (From 
 Mr.  Radaelli.) 
 
 13.  Regolamento  per  I'lstituto  Elemental  e  e  Ginnasiale  Privilcgiato  nelle 
 Contradi  di  Brera.  Regulations  for  the  Elementary  and  Latin  Scliool  in  Brcra 
 Street,  1838. 
 
 14.  Regolamento  per  la  Scuola  Elementare  di  Poselli.  Regulations  for  Mr. 
 Boselli's  Elementary  School. 
 
 15.  Norme  per  la  Istituzione  dclla  Scuola  Ginnasiale  Privata  di  Boselli.  Re- 
 gulations and  Course  of  Studies  of  the  Private  Latin  School  of  Mr.  Boselli. 
 
 16.  Informazione  del  Ginnasio  Convitto,  Calchi  Taeggi.  Regulations  for  the 
 Convent,  called  Calchi  Taeggi,  1830. 
 
 17.  Convitto  di  Educazione  Femminile  di  Morand.  Prospectus  of  Miss  Mo- 
 rand's  Convent  for  Female  Education. 
 
 18.  Casa  di  Civile  Educazione  per  le  Fanciulle  di  Bcllotli.  Mr.  Bcllotti's  Board- 
 ing-school for  Gills. 
 
 19.  Stabilcmento  d'lstruzione  Elementare,  Ginnasiale  e  di  Commercio  di  Lam- 
 bartini,  1836.  Prospectus  of  Lambartini's  Elementary,  Latin,  and  Commercial 
 School. 
 
 81 
 
642  APPENDIX. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 1.  Specimen  of  Writing  from  the  Orphan-house  of  the  Albergo  dei  PoTcri. 
 
 2.  Kalcndariuin  Rc^ni  Arclii;ryrnna.sii  Ncopolilani,  l^'3^<.  Ahnanac  of  tlic  Royal 
 University  at  Naples,  1838.     (From  the  President  of  the  University.) 
 
 3.  Proji^etto  di  Riformc  pel  regolanunto  dclla  Pubbhca  Istruzione,  1838.  Pro- 
 jected Reform  in  tlie  Regulations  for  PubHc  Instruction,  1838.    (From  the  same.) 
 
 PADUA. 
 
 Prospetto  degli  studj  dclla  Universita  di  Padova,  1838.  Courses  of  Lectures 
 at  tlic  University  of  Padua  in  1838. 
 
 PISA. 
 
 Catalogus  Academiac  PisancB  Professorum,  1837.  List  of  the  Professors  of 
 the  University  of  Pisa,  1837.     (From  Professor  Barzelotti.) 
 
 R03IE. 
 
 1.  Kalcndarium  Collegii  Romani  Societatis  Jcsu,  1838.  Almanac  of  tlie  Ro- 
 man College  of  the  Jesuits,  for  1836. 
 
 2.  Index  Facultatum  Tradendarum  in  Romano  Societatis  Jesu  Collegio,  1829. 
 Course  of  Studies  at  the  Roman  College,  1829. 
 
 3.  Catalogus  Universitatis  Studiorum  Romanee,  1808.  List  of  the  Courses  of 
 Lectures  at  the  University  of  Rome  in  1838. 
 
 TURIN. 
 
 1.  Raccolta  dei  Sovrani  Provvcdimenti  chc  rcggono  gli  Studii  fuori  dellTIni- 
 versitJu  Collection  of  Regulations  in  relation  to  Public  Instruction,  independent 
 of  the  University,  1834. 
 
 2.  Condotta  delle  Scuole  Cristiane,  1834.  Organization  of  the  Scliools  under 
 the  Superintendence  of  the  Christian  Brethren,  1834. 
 
 3.  Calcndarium  et  Libri  ad  Usum  Scholarum  Provincialium,  1835.  Almanac 
 and  list  of  Text-Books  for  the  Provincial  Schools,  1835.  (From  Mr.  Sobrero, 
 Secretary  of  the  University.) 
 
 4.  Elenchus  Clarissimorum  Professorum  Rcgii  Archigymnasii  Taurinensis  et 
 rerum  quas  docebunt,  1837-38.  List  of  Professors  and  Courses  of  Studies  at  the 
 Royal  University,  1837-3"^.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 5.  Rcgolamento  per  Ic  University  di  Torino  c  di  Gcnova,  1823.  Regulations 
 for  the  Universities  of  Turin  and  Genoa,  1822.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 G.  Rcgii  Lettere  patenti  vietande  di  rccarsi  senza  permesso  in  paese  cstero  ad 
 intraprendervi  od  a  continuarvi  gli  studii,  1832.  Royal  Order,  prohibiting  to  study 
 at  foreign  Universities  without  special  permission,  1832.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 7.  Manifesti  del  INIagistrato  dellaRiforma  sopra  Studi,  1822  et  1834.  Regula- 
 tions made  by  the  Board  of  Reform  in  relation  to  Instruction,  1822  to  1834. 
 (From  the  same.) 
 
 8.  Calendar io  Scolastico  della  Universita,  l>37-38.  Ahnanac  of  the  Royal 
 UniverHily,  1837-38.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 9.  Slato   Numtrico  dcgli  Studenti  inscritti  sul   registro  della  rasscgna  nclla 
 
DOCUMENTS  FROM    ITALY.  643 
 
 R.  University,  1837-38.     Number  of  Students  at  the  Royal  University  in  1837- 
 38.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 10.  TarifFa  degli  Emolumcati  per  li  Gradi  Academici  e  di  varii  altri  dritti. 
 Tariff  of  Expenses  for  the  Academical  Degrees,  and  other  Expenses.  (From 
 the  same.) 
 
 11.  Matriculation  and  other  Certificates  of  the  University.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 VENICE. 
 
 1.  Oraria  della  Casa  dcgli  Orfani,  1838.  Distribution  of  Time  at  the  Orphan- 
 house,  1838.     (From  Baron  Pascatori.) 
 
 2.  Regolamento  Disciplinale-Economico  per  I'lnstituto  degli  Esposti  di  Ve- 
 nezia,  1836.  Regulations  of  the  Foundling  Hospital  of  Venice,  1836.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 3.  Regolamento  per  le  Scuole  Infantili  di  Carita  in  Venezia.  Regulations  for 
 the  Infant  Schools  in  Venice.     (From  the  same.) 
 
 4.  Numero  delle  Scuole  Maggiore  et  Minori  nclla  Villa  di  Venezia,  1838. 
 Number  of  Higher  and  Lower  Elementary  Schools  in  Venice,  1838.  (From  the 
 same.) 
 
 5.  Tabella  Generalc  indicante  le  Occupazioni  degli  Allievi  della  Scuola  Na- 
 vale,  1835-36.  General  List  of  the  Occupations  of  the  Pupils  of  the  Naval  School, 
 1835-36.     (From  Director  Bordini.) 
 
 No.  11. 
 
 EXTRACT  FROM  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  ORPHAN  HOSPITAL  OF 
 EDINBURGH. 
 
 Referred  to  on  page  12  of  the  Report. 
 
 "In  regard  to  the  original  principle  and  inherent  tendency  of  such  an  institu- 
 tion.     *     *     * 
 
 "It  is  neither  to  be  denied  nor  disguised,  that,  among  the  multitude  of  charita- 
 ble establishments  which  exist  in  this  country,  there  may  be  some,  which,  origi- 
 nating  in  a  very  sincere  but  short-sighted  philanthropy,  do  actually  not  conduce  to 
 the  real  and  permanent  interests  of  society;  by  which,  especially  in  certain  in- 
 stances, some  of  the  very  evils  may  be  multiplied  which  they  were  instituted  to 
 remedy,  and  of  which  the  strong  description  that  has  been  given  may  be  but  too 
 true — 'that  they  are  little  better  tlian  a  tax  upon  industry  for  the  support  of 
 idleness.* 
 
 "With  such  institutions,  however,  an  establishment  like  the  Orplian  Hospital  is 
 neither  to  be  confounded  nor  compared;  provided  always, that  the  original  object 
 be  steadily  kept  in  view,  and  that  it  be  fenced  and  protected  by  the  most  rigid 
 attention  to  the  nature  of  every  claim  which  is  made  upon  its  funds.  Tlie  cir- 
 cumstances of  misfortune  and  distress,  which  it  professes  to  meet,  are  such  as 
 are  involuntary,  inevitable,  and  irremediable  by  other  means.  This  statement  no 
 doubt  assumes  that  the  persons  admitted  to  the  benefits  of  the  institution  are 
 those  who,  by  any  of  the  sudden  and  overwhelming  visitations  of  Providence  to 
 which  mankind  are  liable,  have  in  early  life  been  deprived  of  their  parents,  and 
 
G44  APPENDIX. 
 
 precipitated  into  a  state  of  entire  lielplcssness  and  destitution,  without  a  relation 
 that  possesses  the  means,  or  an  individual  on  whom  the  obligation  lies  of  becom- 
 injT  their  jrnardians  and  protectors,  and  of  supplyinfj  them  the  place  of  parcnb^, 
 and  for  whose  support  and  education  no  other  provision  of  any  kind  whatever  ex- 
 ists, or  can  he  cal'  d  intoopcrntioii.  And  this  is  the  real  and  only  class  for  ichom 
 the  Orphan  Hospital  is  designed.  Wliilst  no  man  in  possession  of  his  senses  will 
 voluntarily  make  his  children  orphans — while  every  sane  man,  on  the  contrary, 
 will  strive  to  ward  oft'  that  event  by  which  they  would  become  so,  it  is  cvioent 
 that  there  exists  in  nature  itself  a  certain  safepuo-d  ag-ainst  the  extension  of  the 
 evils  for  which  such  an  institution  is  intended  to  provide  a  remedy,  and  against 
 the  spontaneous  establishment  of  a  chiim  to  a  participation  in  its  benefits.  As 
 in  the  case  of  life  insurance,  where  a  posthumous  advantage  is  secured  by  an  an- 
 nual payment,  a  man,  from  the  mere  love  of  life,  and  the  principle  of  self-preser- 
 vation, would  wish  to  make  the  worst  pecuniary  bargain  that  is  possible ;  so,  in 
 general,  will  every  human  being  struggle  to  keep  his  children,  by  the  interval  of 
 as  great  a  distance  as  he  can,  i:om  cominj"?-  within  the  range  of  the  benefit';  f^frm 
 orphan  hospital." 
 
 Nc   III. 
 
 REGULATIONS  OF  IIERIOT'S  HOSPITAL. 
 
 Referred  to  on  Page  19  of  the  Report. 
 Regulations  enacted  by  the  governors  of  George  Ileriot's  Hospital,   upon  the 
 13th  day  of  October,  1631,  as  to  the  superintendence  to  be   exercised  over  the 
 boys  at  their  leaving  the  institution  and  afterwards. 
 
 1.  That  a  list  be  made  up  and  submitted  to  the  governors  in  the  months  of 
 April  and  October,  annually,  (the  periods  of  the  election  of  new  boys,)  of  tliose 
 boys  that  are  to  leave  the  house  in  the  June  and  December  following,  witJi  a  re- 
 port  from  tiic  house-governor  applicable  to  each  boy,  of  the  progress  in  education 
 he  may  have  made,  of  his  dispositions,  and  stating  whether  any  and  what  parti- 
 cular talent  the  boy  may  have  shown. 
 
 2.  That  tlic  parents  or  other  relations  of  the  boys  that  arc  to  leave  the  house 
 in  Jime  and  December,  fchall  be  required  to  slate  to  the  treasurer,  for  the  infor- 
 mation and  approval  of  the  governors,  at  least  one  month  before  these  respective 
 periods,  what  profession  or  trade  each  proposes  tJiat  tlie  boy  they  are  connected 
 with  shall  follow — who  is  the  master  they  propose  to  bind  him  to — the  terms 
 with  the  master — and,  in  particular,  whether  the  master  is  willing  to  maintain  the 
 boy  in  his  family ;  and  no  boy  shall  be  bound  apprentice,  or  receive  any  appren- 
 tice fee,  unless  the  governors  shall  previously  approve  of  the  trade  or  profession, 
 the  terms,  and  master  priposcd. 
 
 3.  Should  the  master  not  undertake  the  charge  and  maintenance  of  the  boy  in 
 his  family,  then  the  parents  or  other  relations  of  each  boy  shall  farther  state 
 with  whom  and  by  whom  he  is  to  remain  and  be  maintained  duririg  his  appren- 
 ticeship; also  for  the  information  and  approval  of  the  governors. 
 
 4.  That  anntially,  and  before  receiving  payment  of  the  apprentice  fee,  the  mas- 
 ters of  the  boys  shall  be  required  to  give  answers  to  the  queries  of  which  a  copy 
 
ITERIOT  S  HOSPITAL.  645 
 
 is  hereto  annexed.  First,  for  the  information  of  the  g-overnors,  as  to  the  dili- 
 gence and  conduct  of  the  boy  under  his  charge  for  tlie  previous  year;  and  if  not 
 in  family  with  him,  then  tiie  person  with  whom  each  boy  stays  shall,  in  like 
 manner,  be  called  upon  to  give  answers  to  queries.  Second,  as  to  the  boy's  con- 
 duct; and  tiie  boys  themselves  shall  also  annually  be  seen  and  examined  upon 
 the  points  or  queries.  Third,  also  hereto  annexed;  and  it  shall  be  made  a  con- 
 dition in  every  indenture,  that  the  master  on  the  one  hand,  in  the  event  of  the 
 boy's  desertion,  or  being  guilty  of  any  flagrant  act,  and  the  boy  on  the  other,  in 
 the  event  of  his  being  turned  away  by  his  master,  shall,  within  eight  days,  inti- 
 mate the  same  to  the  treasurer  of  the  hospital,  otherwise  each  respectively  shall 
 forfeit  all  further  allowance  from  the  hospital. 
 
 5.  That  a  record  shall  be  kept,  by  the  treasurer,  of  the  boys  so  bound  appren- 
 tices, and  with  whom,  and  under,  whose  care  each  boy  is  to  be  during  his  ap- 
 prenticeship, in  which  the  preceding  reports,  or  answers  to  queries,  and  any 
 other  facts,  or  circumstances  which,  during  the  course  of  the  apprenticeship, 
 may  occur,  relating  either  to  the  master  or  the  boy,  shall  be  engrossed;  and 
 which  record  shall,  once  a  year  at  least,  be  laid  before  the  governors,  and  at  all 
 times  be  open  for  their  inspection. 
 
 6.  That  the  allowance  of  £5  for  clothes,  made  by  the  governors  to  the  hoys  at 
 the  end  of  their  apprenticeship,  or  any  other  allowance  which  the  governors  may 
 think  proper  to  grant,  shall  be  given  or  withheld,  as  the  governors  shall  think 
 proper,  upon  an  examination  of  the  record  as  above,  and  shall  not  be  paid,  as  at 
 present,  upon  the  discharge  of  the  indenture  at  its  termination,  by  the  master. 
 
 7.  That  the  indenture  to  be  entered  into  under  the  approval  of  the  governors, 
 shall  contain  the  precise  terms  wliicli  may  have  been  agreed  upon;  and  in  place 
 of  taking  the  master  bound,  as  at  present,  to  maintain  the  boy,  where  he  shall 
 not  agree  to  do  so,  then  the  person  who  is  to  have  charge  of  him  sliall,  either  in 
 the  indenture,  or  by  a  separate  letter  of  obligation,  undertake  to  the  governors 
 the  proper  discharge  of  that  duty. 
 
 No.  IV. 
 
 QUERIES  BY  THE  GOVERNORS  OF  HERIOT'S  HOSPITAL. 
 
 Referred  to  on  page  19  of  the  Reports,  and  in  the  foregoing  articles  of  the  Appendix. 
 
 FIRST. 
 
 Queries  to  be  answered  yearly  by  the  masters  of  boys  educated  in  George 
 Heriot's  Hospital,  during  their  apprenticeships: 
 
 1.  Is  A.  B.,  who  went  from  George  Heriot's  Hospital  to  be  your  apprentice, 
 still  in  your  service;  and,  during  the  past  year,  has  he  ever  deserted  or  been 
 absent  from  your  employment;  and,  if  he  has,  when,  for  how  long,  and  for  what 
 cause  ? 
 
 2.  How  many  hours  is  he  engaged  in  your  employment,  and  how  are  his  re- 
 maining  hours,  to  the  best  of  your  knowledge,  generally  spent? 
 
 3.  Docs  he  apply  himself  diligently  to  his  business,  and  is  he  civil,  faithful, 
 
G40  APPEXDIX. 
 
 and  oludirnt;  and  has  he  made  such  progress  in  liis  business  as  was  fairly  to  be 
 expected  of  him? 
 
 4.  Does  he  uniformly  speak  the  truth,  and  are  his  associates  proper  com- 
 panions? 
 
 5.  When  you  have  occasion  to  send  liim  out  in  the  way  of  business,  does  he 
 return  without  unnecessary  loss  of  time? 
 
 6.  If  he  resides  in  your  family,  does  he  submit  to  the  order  of  your  family, 
 keep  good  hours,  and  regularly  attend  public  worship,  and  in  what  church,  and 
 in  other  respects  conduct  himself  properly? 
 
 7.  Is  he  cleanly  in  his  person,  orderly  in  his  habits,  and  is  his  behaviour  in 
 general  quiet  and  discreet,  and  such  as  you  approve? 
 
 SECOND. 
 
 Queries  to  be  annually  answered  by  the  persons  with  wliom  the  boys  reside, 
 during  the  period  of  their  apprenticeships: 
 
 1.  Has  A.  B.,  who  was  educated  in  George  Heriot's  Hospital,  been  a  boarder 
 with  you,  and  for  how  long? 
 
 2.  Does  he  submit  to  the  order  of  your  family,  and  keep  good  hours;  and  how 
 docs  he  spend  the  hours  he  is  not  engaged  in  his  business? 
 
 3.  Is  he  cleanly  in  his  person,  and  orderly  in  his  habits? 
 
 4.  Does  he  uniformly  speak  the  truth,  and  are  his  associates  proper  com- 
 panions? 
 
 5.  Does  he  regularly  attend  public  worship,  and  in  what  church,  and  in  other 
 respects  conduct  himself  properly,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  you  approve? 
 
 THIRD. 
 
 Queries  to  be  annually  put  to  the  boys  during  their  apprenticeships: 
 
 1.  How  many  hours  arc  you  engaged  in  your  business  daily,  and  how  do  you 
 generally  spend  the  remaining  hours? 
 
 2.  What  books  have  you  read  during  the  past  year,  and  in  particular,  are  you 
 in  the  habit  of  reading  a  portion  of  the  Scriptures  daily? 
 
 3.  What  church  do  you  attend,  and  have  you  been  regular  in  your  attendance? 
 
 4.  Have  you  prosecuted  the  studies  you  attended  to  in  the  hospital,  and  have 
 you  found  any  of  these  particularly  useful  to  you  in  the  business  of  life? 
 
 5.  With  whom  have  you  resided  since  leaving  the  hospital,  and  have  you 
 found  yourself  comfortable  with  him? 
 
 C.  What  has  been  the  state  of  your  heultli  ^ 
 
 No.  V. 
 
 COURSES  OF  INSTRUCTION  AND  TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 Referred  to  on  parre  42  of  the  Report. 
 
 A  Course  of  Education  for  the  Children  of  John  Watson's  Institution,  Edin- 
 burgh, proposed  to  the  Directors  by  MrT  Charles  Marshall,  head-master. 
 
 Sixth  Year  of  Ac;e.  Alphabet,  I.cnnie's  liadder.  Seventh  Year  of  Age. 
 Reading,  Lennie's  Ladder,  Ses.sional  Reading  Book.     Writing,  on  slates.    Arith- 
 
HERIOT  S  HOSPITAL.  G-17 
 
 Tiietic,  Addition,  Subtraction,  Multiplication,  and  Division  Tables.  Eighth  Year. 
 Reading,  Sessional  School  Book,  New  Testament.  Writino-,  on  slates.  Arith- 
 77ietic,  Ground  Rules.  Geography,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  Ninth 
 Year.  Reading,  New  Testament,  First  Collection,  Thomson's  Catechism. 
 Writing,  in  copy-books.  Arithmetic,  Four  Compound  Rules  and  Reduction. 
 Geography,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  History,  Modern.  Tenth  Year.  Read- 
 ing, First  Collection,  Bible,  Shorter  Catechism.  Writing,  in  copy-books.  Arith- 
 metic, Simple  and  Compound  Proportion.  Geography,  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
 Russia.  History,  Scotland.  Drawing,  on  slates.  Eleventh  Year.  Reading, 
 Bible,  Second  Collection,  Proof  Catechism,  Grammar.  Writing,  in  copy-books. 
 Arithmetic,  Vulgar  and  Decimal  Fractions.  Geography,  Prussia,  Denmark,  and 
 Germany.  History,  England.  Drawing,  Sketcliing  with  black  lead.  General 
 Knowledge,  Science  of  Sounds.  Latin,  Latin  Rudiments  and  Delectus.  Twelfth 
 Year.  Reading,  Bible,  M'Culloch's  Collection,  Proof  Catechism,  Grammar, 
 English  Composition.  Writing,  in  Account-books.  Arithmetic,  Practice  and 
 Interest.  Geography,  France,  Austria,  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  Palestine.  History, 
 Ireland.  Drawing,  in  water  colours.  General  Knowledge,  Mechanics,  Optics, 
 Zoology.  Mathematics,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces.  Latin,  Rudiments,  Delectus, 
 Cornelius  Nepos,  Turner's  Exercises.  Thirteenth  Year.  Reading,  Bible, 
 M'Culloch's  Collection,  Proof  Catechism,  Scripture,  Biography,  Grammar,  Eng- 
 lish  Composition.  Writing,  in  Account-book  and  Ornamental  Writing.  Arith- 
 metic, Involution,  Evolution,  Exchange,  Algebra.  Geography,  Italy,  Switzerland, 
 Spain,  Portugal.  History,  France.  Draioing,  chalk  and  water  colours.  Gene- 
 ral  Knowledge,  Chemistry,  Pneumatics,  Hydrostatics.  Mathematics,  Geometry, 
 Mensuration  of  Solids,  Heights,  and  Distances.  Latin,  Rudiments,  Turner's  Ex- 
 ercises, Caesar,  Ovid.  Greek,  Rudiments.  Fourteenth  Year.  Reading,  Bible, 
 M'Culloch's  Collection,  Proof  Catechism,  Scripture  Biography,  Grammar,  Eng- 
 lish Composition.  Writing,  Ornamental  Writing  and  Book-keeping,  Algebra. 
 Geography,  Ancient.  History,  Ancient.  Drawing,  Maps,  Landscapes,  Figures. 
 General  Knowledge,  Chemistry,  Geology,  Meteorology,  Mathematics,  Practical 
 Land  Surveying,  Latin,  Rudiments,  Mair's  Introduction,  Ovid,  Virgil,  Livy. 
 Greeks  Rudiments,  New  Testament. 
 
018 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 rt 
 
 n 
 
 P- 
 
 :; 
 
 o 
 
 c; 
 
 «^ 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 '^ 
 
 — J 
 
 rt 
 
 o 
 
 E 
 
 ~ri 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Vi 
 
 '^ 
 
 X' 
 
 ■~ 
 
 Q 
 
 O 
 
 §-J 
 
 ^  I 
 
 <!^  B 
 
 ^  jf:    tp 
 
 I  8 
 ^^ 
 
 J  to 
 G  .5 
 
 <-  g 
 
 o  = 
 
 .1^ 
 
 u    22    ^ 
 
 So-  -s 
 
 ti) 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 .S 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 _o 
 
 a 
 
 (—1 
 ji 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 •5 
 1 
 
 'I'noj, 
 
 Ci 
 
 cc-^-^ 
 
 u- 
 
 " 
 
 -^  -'  — 
 
 b. 
 
 ^ 
 
 r^^.-. 
 
 F- 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^^^ 
 
 > 
 
 "^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 :^ 
 
 --^ 
 
 P-i^.-, 
 
 - 
 
 'l«J"J, 
 
 C-. -r>T--r 
 
 s 
 
 n-rr-.TtZTT 
 
 1 
 
 •pio.L 
 
 •^  T  -T 
 
 fa 
 
 CJ  C»  (TJ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 CJ  -TJ  CJ 
 
 -♦- 
 
 •Pioj. 
 
 '•- 
 
 --.  -  .r  -  -  -7 
 
 :? 
 
 c:- 
 
 r:-r^--T 
 
 » 
 
 •I^l'^J. 
 
 ^''^' 
 
 ^'i^'Z^' 
 
 w 
 
 H;'^' 
 
 .^1  -CI  -CI 
 
 •I^J"X 
 
 -<l-.?4-CI 
 
 -Cl— CI-CI 
 
 H 
 
 c^-^r-..- 
 
 C^Tr--- 
 
 H 
 
 c.T--=:- 
 
 ■•-"-••- 
 
 f 
 
 •(cjoj. 
 
 Z^'Z^'Z^' 
 
 Z^'Z- '— ' 
 
 E- 
 
 c-c.-r-.-.T 
 
 '^-'-"~ 
 
 H 
 
 OTCC-TK.-r 
 
 ec-r-..Tc:#-r 
 
 S 
 
 •l^ioj. 
 
 lO  >0              lO  »o  O 
 
 »0  «/:  CO 
 
 fa 
 
 ^,-H                „„^ 
 
 ^  —  -, 
 
 H 
 
 ""                „^„ 
 
 r-,   ^   ^ 
 
 >■ 
 
 ^^                ^^_ 
 
 '^^^ 
 
 H 
 
 rH  •— t                  r-i  r-i  1— t 
 
 ,-i,-^ 
 
 S 
 
 I— 1  i-H                  .— (  1— 1  I— 1 
 
 ,-H^r^ 
 
 X.' 
 
 •pioj. 
 
 ^ri-«              -^i-«<-tri 
 
 ^'^'^' 
 
 fa 
 
 -^n-^*              '^i-rri-c) 
 
 -TI-CI-CI 
 
 ii 
 
 --I-C1                ^'^'^' 
 
 ^ti  —CI  -«n 
 
 ?. 
 
 -:i-ct              -«i-c«— ri 
 
 .^ri-<ri-ci 
 
 1 
 
 •I^MOJ, 
 
 r-  GO  CO            «  c  ci' 
 
 CJ   1-,   rH                    ^   ^ 
 
 z:'z:'z;' 
 
 « 
 
 ^'^'-      ^r 
 
 fa 
 
 ~'c^  CT)          a  cj  cj 
 
 H 
 
 -^  CO  Cl               CI  CI  CJ 
 
 Cl  CI  CI                                1 
 
 si 
 
 -*  rs  M               CJ  C?  CI                                                                1 
 
 H 
 
 t  CO  CI              CJ  Ci  c» 
 
 CICJCI 
 
 H 
 
 ^  CO  CO              c»  o  - 
 
 nn-m-HCI 
 
 Class  i- 
 1  of            ficatioii 
 ofChil- 
 1  drcn. 
 
 •soSy 
 
 O  t-OD               05  0-^ 
 
 C)  en  -r 
 
 SU0I8IA1(J 
 
 Secl 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 III. 
 
 Sec.  2 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 «          .    • 
 
 •sjnoji 
 
 I'  00  r-.  C-.  =  -.  cf  «  r^ 
 
 2             "  —  -^ 
 
 «-  i '  X  rs  c  o  -^  CJ  -< 
 
 CO  CO  ^  «-  «-"  X  oc    ri 
 ZTro  1.0  o  I-  r^  X    oT 
 
 o  ,• 
 
 ■^  S 
 
 Ilousrhold  du- 
 ties, Tcachincr, 
 and  Play. 
 
 ■O           ,        -'        tx        bfl 
 g     .£       ,«       .S       .£ 
 
 -=  i  a,  -S  K  ;;.e-  t:.H  c 
 
 :::  ^     c^     ^     a:     ;:; 
 
 i  .f     It 
 
 E     s:     r?     £.-i.  "^ 
 
TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  HOURS  OF  EMPLOYMENT,  ifec.         649 
 
 CJ(7}  -? 
 
 CO  C3 
 
 CO  o 
 
 CO  :^ 
 
 CO  o 
 
 coo 
 
 o  o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o  o 
 
 o  o 
 
 —i    -t-s 
 
 "^ 
 
 r-   r-<  CO 
 
 Of  lO 
 
 (7}  lO 
 
 CJ  o 
 
 C>  uo 
 
 o     . 
 
 •-"     Ui 
 
 "m  " 
 
 T— 1 
 
 OJ 
 
 1-H 
 
 r-1 
 
 1 — 
 
 rt.SS 
 
 '— ' 
 
 g.1 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ;^ 
 
 o 
 
 ■-J 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 CI 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 ttw 
 
 ""• 
 
 ""^ 
 
 "" 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^M 
 
 m  §  K 
 
 Ci 
 
 o 
 
 I— 1 
 
 t— f 
 
 T-H 
 
 1  "r^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 .»^ 
 
 1-J 
 
 W  ^o 
 
 I-H 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 *"• 
 
 -t- 
 
 ^_ 
 
 . 
 
 ^  -T< 
 
 Ol  o 
 
 0(N 
 
 c 
 
 I— 1 
 
 o   O 
 
 o  o 
 
 O    O 
 
 +-1  -.J 
 
 -U    +J 
 
 ■«->  -t-J 
 
 o  CO 
 
 i-t  "* 
 
 03  i-l 
 
 I— 1 
 
 "w  r^ 
 
 i^a 
 
 c3 
 
 o  o 
 
 ^ 
 
 —  o 
 
 c5" 
 
 CO 
 
 CS!  O 
 
 o 
 
 "I& 
 
 c^t:^ 
 
 r— 1 
 
 ' — 1 
 
 "o 
 
 o 
 
 o  o 
 
 _o 
 
 O    O    jr 
 
 o  o 
 
 s 
 
 *J 
 
 -tS   ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 -w  +J 
 
 G^f 
 
 I— 1  '^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^  CO 
 
 ^2 
 
 CJ 
 
 1— 1 
 
 ■rj 
 
 <5 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 .^ 
 
 1  , 
 
 J: 
 
 M 
 
 02 
 
 >^ 
 
 >^ 
 
 b 
 
 fcX) 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O             r-^    ^ 
 
 lO   -4   -^ 
 
 -MO  -c 
 
 LO 
 
 i-2 
 
 r-i            ^r^ 
 
 f-  -u 
 
 ^        r3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 o        o  i^ 
 
 22S 
 
 o  o  o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O         O^ 
 
 •*2£ 
 
 3-^2 
 
 -* 
 
 ,^^,-^ 
 
 .^v^ 
 
 <-*-^-VJ 
 
 /— N 
 
 "^ 
 
 .s        ^ 
 
 1 
 
 2    i 
 
 s5 
 
 «+-.              o 
 
 -1-^ 
 
 o            ' — ' 
 
 a: 
 
 fcJD 
 
 r/3                       bi 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 » 
 
 * 
 
 .2 
 
 21- 
 
 l^-^l 
 
 (M  "*  "^ 
 
 Ol 
 
 CM 
 
 O    p^  o 
 
 r  o  o  ?- 
 
 O   o  3 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 .^    o  .^ 
 
 3  -^  -^  9 
 
 ■*^    "*^     y; 
 
 4-> 
 
 c:^o 
 
 a  CJ  CO  fi^ 
 
 -"£ 
 
 1-4 
 
 T-t 
 
 •-^T— 1              ^_^ 
 
 *"* 
 
 --H                    t- 
 
 o 
 
 o             c 
 
 ■^                -f 
 
 CJ 
 
 o            c:^ 
 
 ^H 
 
 2 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 o 
 
 HH   1— < 
 
 S> 
 
 K* 
 
 i_l 
 
 )_4 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 K' 
 
 r-* 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 ^K  ?:;  S^ 
 
 Scj'i-S 
 
 :e^^-:.^ 
 
 i:;   :i  -o   o 
 
 ^  CO    T"    2  ^ 
 
 =  .1 Q  "^.s: 
 
 .1  o  o  s-5 
 
 |«--^2 
 
 . 
 
 «  OD    =  «^    g 
 
 'B 
 
 •IS^J^ 
 
 M 
 
 =i  i-,  o  o 
 
 c 
 
 !-<     O     M     O 
 
 i^5.Sg 
 
 .^l?s- 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 ejp^? 
 
 0-^T3 
 
 cJ 
 
 s 
 
 TS 
 
 ^"i 
 
 '^ 
 
 S  i.    > 
 
 ^• 
 
 rrl 
 
 ^ 
 
 •g^       2 
 
 ^- 
 
 ^ 
 
 § 
 
 o              - 
 
 o 
 
 ^3 
 
 s.;  2 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 ,13 
 
 ^^  1 
 
 P. 
 
 j: 
 
 o 
 
 ri 
 
 ool 
 La 
 
 -3 
 
 "3 
 
 Sch 
 tions 
 
 in  th 
 
 i 
 
 g 
 
 bjD  w 
 
 li  §       1 
 
 11 
 
 •S^^c^i 
 
 5 
 
 c 
 
 i^-3 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^  3 
 
 St5  %^   o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ^o^^ 
 
 S    o    X  .^ 
 
 .»^ 
 
 -:5    ^  "  3 
 
 ^li 
 
 ^^^^^^  > 
 
 -^r"«    '^'^ 
 
 x/-' 
 
 -i^  '^^i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 pa  M  = 
 
 7> 
 
 £   .1,1 
 
 p--^  2- 
 
 iq 
 
 o 
 
 I-  -O  •— 1    cr 
 
 "^  "f  CO  ■§ 
 
 S^Sq 
 
 ^ 
 
 r"> 
 
 Kg       ?x 
 
 82 
 
050  APPENDIX. 
 
 LIST    OF  TEXT-BOOKS    USED    AT    IIERIOT'S    HOSPITAL,   EDIN- 
 
 BURGU. 
 
 English  Department.  Sessional  School  Books,  Nos.  1  and  2,  National  School 
 Collection,  Stewart's  History  ol'^cotland,  Ruddinian'.s  Rudiments. 
 
 The  Cirammatical  Text-books  arc  omitted  as  defective  in  the  opinion  of  the 
 teacher. 
 
 Classiral  Department.  Eutropius,  Selectee  Latini,  Mair's  Introduction, 
 Adams'  Latin  (Jrammar,  Ovid  or  Virj,al,  Horace,  Anthologia,  Dunbar's  Urcek 
 and  English  Grammar,  Minora. 
 
 House-Governor'' 8  Department.  Guy's  Geography,  Portcous'  Evidences, 
 Watt-s'  Catechism. 
 
 Mathematics.  The  instruction  is  principally  oral.     Euclid's  Elements. 
 
 LIST  OF  TEXT-BOOKS  USED  AT  GEORGE  WATSON'S  HOSPITAL, 
 
 EDINBURGH. 
 
 Enfrlish  Department.  First  Class.  Modern  Geography  of  the  Edinburgh  Aca- 
 demy,  Stewart's  English  History,  Simpson's  Scotland,  Lennie's  English  Gram- 
 mar,  Sessional  School  Collection,  Stewart's  Stories  from  the  History  of  Scotland- 
 
 Classical  Department.  Ruddiman's  Rudiments,  Eutropius,  or  Phaedrus'  Fables,. 
 CfBsar,  Sallust,  Virgil,  Mair's  Introduction,  Dunbar's  Greek  Grammar,  New  Tes- 
 tament, Xenophon. 
 
 Mathematical  Department.     Davidson's  Arithmetic. 
 
 Rcid's  Chemistry. 
 
 TEXT-BOOKS    USED  IN    THE   ENGLISH   DEPARTMENT    OF   THE 
 MADRAS  COLLEGE,  ST.  ANDREWS. 
 
 Lennie's  A.  B.  C,  Parts  First  and  Second,  Lennie's  Ladder,  Lennie's  Sequel 
 to  the  Ladder,  Connel's  Young  Scholar's  Companion,  M'CuUoch's  Introduction 
 to  his  Course  of  Reading,  Sessional  School  Collection,  M'CuUoch's  Course  of  Read- 
 ing in  Sciences,  Scott's  Beauties  of  Eminent  Writers,  History  of  England,  (out- 
 lines by  a  Committee  of  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,) 
 Campbell's  (of  Dundee)  Collection,  Thomson's  (Dr.  Andrew)  Collection,  Len- 
 nie's English  Grammar,  Connel's  Grammar,  Parker's  Elements  of  English 
 Composition. 
 
 Illustrations.  Darton's  Plates  of  Animals,  (coloured,)  Small  Cabinet  of  Speci- 
 mens of  Metals,  Ores,  <Scc.,  &.c.,  Arrowsmitli's  Maps  of  the  Four  Quarters  of  the 
 World  (large,)  Tliomson's  Map  of  the  World,  Selected  Articles  of  the  Penny 
 Magazine. 
 
 TEXT- BOOKS    USED    AND    SUBJECTS    TAUGHT    IX    Till:    Uh'.U 
 SCHOOL  OF  EDINBURGH. 
 
 Latin.  Vocabidary,  Sententire  SclecttP,  Aurelius  Victor,  Corderius,  Adams' 
 Grammar,  Phndrus,  Carson  on  the  Relative,  Buchanan's  Psalms,  Adams' Roman 
 Anliqiiifirs,  Mytli..l..'rv,  Am;i..l..!ria  I,iiinn. 
 
LIST  OF  BOOKS  USED  AT  HERIOT'S  HOSPITAL.  651 
 
 Greek.  Moor's  Grammar,  by  Tate,  Vocabulary,  Dalzcl's  Analecta  Minora, 
 Thucydidcs,  Demosthenes,  iEschylus. 
 
 Roman  History,  Outlines  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Geography,  Mental  Arith- 
 metic.  Goldsmith's  larger  Roman  History,  Malkin's  History  of  Greece,  Speci- 
 mens of  the  British  Poets,  Portcous's  Evidences,  A  Short  General  View  of  the 
 Three  Kingdoms  of  Nature.     Figures  of  Rhetoric  and  RJictorical  Arrangement. 
 
 No.  VI. 
 
 Referred  to  on  page  48. 
 
 FORM  OF  APPLICATION  FOR  ADMISSION  INTO  CAUVIN'S  HOS- 
 PITAL, EDINBURGH. 
 
 To  he  lodged  with  the  Factor  of  the  Hospital,  on  or  before  the 
 1st  day  of  April,  183 
 
 TO  THE  GOVERNORS  OF  CAUVIn's  HOSPITAL  : 
 
 Edinburgh,  183     . 
 
 Gentlemen : — As  a  general  meeting  of  the  said  governors  iiavc  resolved  to  ad- 
 mit into  the  Hospital  or  Institution  under  their  management,  on  or  about  the 
 day  of  April  next,  boys,  lawful  children,  who  were  born 
 
 betwixt  the  day  of  April,  and  the  day  of 
 
 April,  ,  inclusive;  and  for  that  purpose,  that  each  governor,  betwixt  and 
 
 the  first  day  of  the  said  month  of  April,  may,  if  so  inclined,  recommend  to  the 
 consideration  of  the  governors  one  boy,  and  no  more,  born  betwixt  the  dates 
 aforesaid,  I  beg  leave  to  recommend  , 
 
 lawful  son  of  ,  for  admission  into  the  said 
 
 institution. 
 
 In  the  event  of  the  boy  now  recommended  being  admitted  into  the  institution, 
 I  shall  at  all  times,  when  required,  transmit  to  his  relations  any  communication 
 I  may  receive  from  the  governors,  or  their  factor,  regarding  him. 
 
 The  particulars  regarding  this  boy  are  set  forth  in  the  answers  to  the  annexed 
 schedule,  and  the  documents  in  support  of  the  application  are  herewith  lodged.* 
 And  I  certif}^  that  the  circumstances,  in  answer  to  the  sixth  question  annexed, 
 are  stated  on  my  own  personal  knowledge,  or  from  information  upon  which  the 
 governors  may  rely. 
 
 I  am,  gentlemen. 
 
 Your  most  obedient  servant, 
 
 Edinburgh,  183     . 
 
 *  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  obligation  on  the  next  page  shall  be  sign- 
 ed by  a  responsible  person,  and  the  whole  documents  lodged  with  the  factor,  at 
 the  time  of  giving  in  the  application,  as  without  these  it  cannot  be  submitted  to 
 the  governors. 
 
052  APPENDIX. 
 
 Edinburgh,  183     . 
 
 I  [here  state  fully  name,  designation,  and  residence,]  engage,  in  tlie  event  of 
 the  boy  now  recommended,  being  admitted  into  Cauvin's  Hos- 
 
 pital, to  relieve  the  governors  of  the  lx»y  upon  leaving  tlic  institution,  whether 
 tiiat  shall  take  place  ui)on  the  laj)sc  of  the  six  years  from  the  date  of  his  admis- 
 sion, or  shall,  in  conseriuence  of  the  bad  health  of  the  boy,  or  other  cause,  take 
 place  at  an  earlier  period. 
 
 SCHEDULE. 
 
 The  boys  to  be  admitled  into  the  institution  must,  in  terms  of  the  Will  of  the 
 founder,  be  "  tlic  sons  of  respectable,  but  poor  teachers;  the  sons  of  poor,  but 
 honest  farmers;  whom  failing,  the  sons  of  respectable  master  printers  or  book- 
 sellers,  and  the  sons  of  respectable  servants  in  the  agricultural  line."  They 
 "must  be  descended  of  honest,  industrious,  and  well-behaved  parents,  whose  cir- 
 cumstances in  life  do  not  enable  them  suitably  to  support  and  educate  their  chil- 
 dren  at  other  scljool? ;  and  no  unhealthy  or  diseased  boy  shall,  at  any  time,  or  on 
 any  account,  be  admitted  into  the  said  hospital." 
 
 'I'hey  must,  at  the  period  of  their  admission,  be  not  less  tiian  six,  nor  more 
 than  eight  years  of  age. 
 
 Question?.  Answers. 
 
 1.  The  name  and  date  of  birth  of  the 
 boy,  per  parish  register,  or  other  satis- 
 factory evidence. 
 
 2.  Names  and  designations,  and  whe- 
 ther dead  or  alive,  in  so  far  as  known,  of 
 the  father,  mother,  j)aternal  grandfather, 
 maternal  grandfather. 
 
 3.  Present  residence  of  the  boy,  with 
 whom,  and  in  what  parish  and  county. 
 
 4.  Number  of  brothers  and  sisters  of 
 the  boy,  under  ten  years  of  age. 
 
 5.  Certificate  by  a  res])ectablc  physi- 
 cian or  surgeon,  that  the  boy  is  in  good 
 health,  of  sound  constitution,  and  free 
 from  bodily  defect,  mental  imbecility,  or 
 contagious  distemi)er. 
 
 G.  Certificate  by  the  minister  and  two 
 elders  of  the  parish  where  the  boy  and 
 his  parents  reside,  as  to  their  character 
 and  good  behaviour,  and  tiie  sound  stiiti- 
 of  the  lK)y'H  health  ;  and  that  he  is  of  one 
 or  other  of  the  classes  of  jK-rsons  above 
 mentioned,  8i)ceifying  which  class. 
 
 7.    Inventory  of  document:}  herewith  produced. 
 
TABLES  OF  DIET. 
 
 053 
 
 No.  VII. 
 
 TABLES  OF  DIET. 
 
 Meal  whitl, 
 
 1 
 
 Country. 
 
 Institution. 
 
 Kind  of  food. 
 
 it  is  intend- 
 ed lor. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Heriot's 
 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 For  each  meal. 
 
 For  the  day. 
 
 Once  a  week 
 
 8oz. 
 
 Hospital. 
 
 (( 
 
 Supper. 
 
 8oz. 
 
 16  OZ. 
 
 |)otato      soup, 
 
 (Edin- 
 
 Bread. 
 
 L'chatU. 
 
 21  oz. 
 
 19.72  oz.  pota- 
 
 burgh.) 
 
 "   at  4. 
 
 2  A  oz. 
 
 toes,  and  5  oz. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 2.'.  oz. 
 
 11  OZ. 
 
 of  bread, each. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 6.22  oz. 
 
 6.22  oz. 
 
 Once  a  week 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 u 
 
 9.8G  oz. 
 
 9.80  oz. 
 
 pea  soup,  (3. 66 
 
 Q 
 
 Barley. 
 
 (( 
 
 l:3S  oz. 
 
 1.38  oz. 
 
 oz.  peas,)  and 
 
 < 
 
 5  oz.  of  bread. 
 
 rj 
 
 Edin- 
 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 m 
 
 burgh 
 
 (( 
 
 Supper. 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 8oz. 
 
 Orplian- 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 5  oz. 
 
 Ilospital. 
 
 (( 
 
 L'ch  at  4. 
 
 2  oz. 
 
 7oz. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 4oz. 
 
 4oz. 
 
 Beef  is  given 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 3  times  a  week 
 
 of  different 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 in       summer. 
 
 kinds. 
 
 and  5  times  in 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Morning. 
 Afternoon. 
 
 J  pint. 
 \  pint. 
 
 1  pint. 
 
 winter. 
 
 Blue-coat 
 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 Once  a  week 
 
 School. 
 
 t( 
 
 Sup]ier. 
 
 3  oz. 
 
 7oz. 
 
 ricevrith  milk. 
 
 (Liver- 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Breakfast 
 
 I  pint. 
 
 8  oz.  each. 
 
 pool.) 
 
 Meat. 
 
 Supper. 
 
 1  pint. 
 
 §  pint. 
 
 On  Sunday  ev- 
 ening, cheese, 
 
 (Beef     and 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 G  oz. 
 
 6oz. 
 
 4  oz.,  beer    i 
 
 tripe.) 
 
 pint  each. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 2  pomids. 
 
 2  pounds. 
 
 Vegetables. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Q 
 
 < 
 
 g 
 
 London 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Suppcr,&c 
 
 121  02. 
 
 12^  oz. 
 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 2oz. 
 
 2oz. 
 
 Twice  a  week 
 
 ^ 
 
 Orplian 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 },  ])int. 
 
 I  pint. 
 
 barley      broth 
 
 Asylum. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 7  oz. 
 
 7  oz. 
 
 and  suet  pud. 
 
 (( 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 ding,  quantity 
 
 u 
 
 Supper. 
 
 7  oz. 
 
 7  oz. 
 
 not  fixed. 
 
 Meat. 
 
 (Beef     and 
 
 Green  vege- 
 
 mutton.) 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 8  oz. 
 
 8oz. 
 
 tables  occa- 
 sionally in 
 summer. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 Supper. 
 
 1 1  oz. 
 
 U  oz. 
 
 Once  a  week 
 
 Treacle. 
 
 " 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Not  fixed.  300     herrings 
 
 Butter. 
 
 " 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Not  fixed,   for  350  pupils. 
 
054 
 
 AITF.VniX 
 
 .M«-iii  wimh 
 
 1                         1 
 
 Country. 
 
 Institution. 
 
 Kii..iorfo<Mi. 
 
 it  i^  intt  ihI- 
 
 quantity. 
 
 K(  marks. 
 
 .  il  lor. 
 
 Ilibcr- 
 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Mreakfast. 
 
 For  each  mial. 
 
 For  the  day. 
 
 Once  a  week 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 iii.'iti 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 h  pir.f. 
 
 they  get  a  dish 
 
 Soldier's 
 
 " 
 
 Supper. 
 
 1  pint. 
 
 IJ  pint. 
 
 called  calccan- 
 
 School. 
 
 Gruel. 
 
 " 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 non.  It  is  com- 
 
 (Dublin.) 
 
 Meat. 
 
 posed  of  equal 
 
 Jkcf. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 8  oz. 
 
 8  oz. 
 
 quantities     of 
 
 Verretables 
 
 potatoes     and 
 
 of   ditVerent 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 Not  fixed . 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 greens        pre- 
 
 kinds. 
 
 pared  with  but- 
 
 rotatoe.s. 
 
 i» 
 
 li  pounds. 
 
 li  pounds. 
 
 ter  and    milk, 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Supper. 
 
 8  oz. 
 
 8  oz. 
 
 to  be  s(;asoned 
 
 Q 
 
 with  leeks  and 
 
 /^ 
 
 salt. 
 
 < 
 
 ci 
 
 Gwj'nn's 
 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 5  oz. 
 
 5  oz. 
 
 Meat  is  only 
 
 Charity. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 " 
 
 i  quart. 
 
 ?l  quart. 
 
 given  on  Sun- 
 
 (London- 
 
 Folatocs. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 3  pounds. 
 
 3  pounds. 
 
 days. 
 
 derry.) 
 
 Meat. 
 
 Once  a  week 
 
 Beef. 
 
 " 
 
 6  oz. 
 
 G  oz. 
 
 there  is  broth 
 
 Buttermilk. 
 
 (( 
 
 1  pint. 
 
 with     vegeta- 
 
 " 
 
 Supper. 
 
 1  i)int. 
 
 1  quart. 
 
 bles,   and  two 
 
 Gruel. 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 pounds  of  po- 
 tatoes for  each. 
 
 Orphan 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Hrcakfast. 
 
 1  pound. 
 
 •  House. 
 
 " 
 
 Supper. 
 
 Meat  is  given 
 
 (Frank- 
 
 xMeat. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 6oz. 
 
 G  oz. 
 
 tliree  limes   a 
 
 forton  liie 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 week. 
 
 Maine.) 
 
 of  different 
 
 kinds. 
 
 Porridge. 
 
 Supper. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 On  rare  oc- 
 casions,   roast 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 K 
 
 <  Not  fixed. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 meat  and  wine 
 
 Butter. 
 
 U 
 
 are  given. 
 
 Orphan 
 
 Beer. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 Not  f^xed. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 C   ^r           ^ 
 
 Roast    meat 
 
 -< 
 
 House. 
 
 Supper. 
 
 )  Not  fix    , 
 (_              ed. 
 
 is  given  eight 
 
 (Ham. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 i  As  much 
 
 times  a  year. 
 
 ^ 
 
 burgh.) 
 
 u 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 ^  as     they 
 
 Meat. 
 
 Supper. 
 
 f  require. 
 
 Meat  is  given 
 three   times  a 
 
 (Beef.) 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 4  oz. 
 
 week. 
 
 Military 
 
 Vegetables. 
 
 " 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Breakfast. 
 
 Herring      or 
 
 Orphan 
 
 " 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 other     fish    is 
 
 House. 
 
 u 
 
 Supper. 
 
 1  pound. 
 
 given    once    a 
 
 (Pots- 
 
 Meat. 
 
 week  for  din- 
 
 dam.) 
 
 (Beef,  tripe, 
 
 ner. 
 
 sausage.) 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 r,  oz. 
 
 5  oz. 
 
 Vegetables. 
 
 " 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
 Flour  gruel. 
 
 Supper. 
 
 Not  fixed. 
 
TABLE  OF  HOURS  OF  RECREATION,  6ZC. 
 
 655 
 
 tf 
 
 1 
 
 Sol 
 
 -*  -f 
 c    c 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 2  ' 
 
 o 
 
 2  1 
 x>  no 
 
 t-    00 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 DO 
 
 2 
 
 DO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 :r5 
 
 — 
 
 o 
 CJ 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 ?7 
 
 m 
 
 13 
 O 
 
 O 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 3 
 
 •0SI0I9X0 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 r-' 
 
 ^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 l;^ 
 
 •isoy 
 
 o 
 
 r-H 
 
 30 
 
 c^ 
 
 t- 
 
 crs 
 
 3 
 
 Xi 
 
 oo' 
 
 as 
 
 00 
 
 3^ 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 tt 
 
 - 
 
 t^ 
 
 t- 
 
 00 
 
 pUTJ  OSIOJO 
 
 -xo  ifnpoa 
 
 CX5 
 
 t-^ 
 
 CD 
 
 1-- 
 
 1—1 
 
 c^ 
 
 •o 
 
 o5 
 
 r^' 
 
 (^5 
 
 -r.\ 
 
 c: 
 
 o   cc' 
 
 •^ 
 
 -t- 
 
 i-O 
 
 t-    03 
 
 •^ 
 
 o 
 
 t^ 
 
 t-  -* 
 
 rt< 
 
 ^ 
 
 to 
 
 i^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 C5 
 
 00 
 
 j-T 
 
 •i^pms 
 
 I-l  -1- 
 
 f:lt 
 
 -{- 
 
 G^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -\-  ^ 
 
 CJ 
 
 o 
 
 l.' 
 
 io 
 
 CO 
 
 co' 
 
 0 
 
 00 
 
 •doois 
 
 o  lo 
 
 55 
 
 ci'    - 
 
 Ci 
 
 s 
 
 00  ICO 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 C5 
 
 .l. 
 
 ^ 
 
 •SOpTJJX 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 -^ 
 
 CJ 
 
 o 
 
 =h 
 
 CO 
 
 Tt            O' 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 o  c 
 
 0 
 
 sjaX-G.ij-aoT 
 
 l0dc!yS[T!3Jvi 
 
 (7^    CO 
 
 <71 
 
 -1-1 
 
 CO 
 
 r-lM 
 
 H" 
 
 ?r 
 
 (7J 
 
 •-W1 
 
 rtt 
 C^    CJ 
 
 — 
 
 r^ri 
 
 =: 
 
 0 
 
 •S0SI0I0X9 
 
 -q-jo  JO  'sDi; 
 
 1—1 
 
 o 
 
 * 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 OJ 
 
 '-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 •UOT^ 
 
 -■B9J09y; 
 
 -^ 
 
 ■* 
 
 ;.^' 
 
 CO 
 
 c^i 
 
 CO 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CI 
 
 -^ 
 
 C\? 
 
 = 
 
 oT 
 
 1-H 
 
 CO 
 
 (T} 
 
 2 
 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 1 
 
 :: 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 '3 
 3 
 
 :J 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 'i 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 .2 
 
 1 
 
 C 
 
 3 
 
 K 
 .2 
 
 c 
 .2 
 
 o 
 
 r 
 
 'o 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 a" 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 "H. 
 
 9 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 >> 
 
 .1 
 
 o 
 
 Ml 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 .2 
 
 5 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 % 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 « 
 
 "o 
 
 •-J 
 
 p 
 o 
 
 c2 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 Jit 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 >■ 
 
 73 
 
 ■J 
 
 "o 
 
 "3 
 
 1 
 
 V. 
 
 il 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 — 
 
 ■3 
 
 3 
 
 3" 
 
 i 
 
 fc/ 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 -  o 
 
 -a 
 c 
 o 
 
 K 
 
 "be 
 
 3 
 
 cr 
 
 II 
 
 ■  £ 
 
 1 
 
 "u. 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 X 
 
 In  making  tliis  tabic,  I  liavc  not  aimed  at  liqid  exactness  in  the  fractional  parts 
 of  the  hour  employed  in  Cirtain  occr.patiunt-,  but  believe  that  they  are  sufficiently 
 minute  for  the  comparison  intended. 
 
or>(;  APPENDIX. 
 
 No.  IX. 
 
 BIBLE    LESSONS    AT    THE    MODEL    INFANT    SCHOOL    OF    THE 
 GLASGOW  EDUCATION  SOCIETY. 
 
 Referred  to  on  po^re  1  GO. 
 
 The  plan  of  llic  Bible  lesson  is  thus  sketched  by  INIr.  Stow : 
 
 "After  a  short  parag^rapli  is  read,  the  cliildrcn  ought  to  be  exercised,  first  on 
 the  meaning  of  every  word  or  term  in  tlie  particular  passage;  next  on  the  lead- 
 ing points,  and  afterwards  on  the  moral  lesson  which  is  naturally  dedueiblc  from 
 it.  If  the  premises  arc  well  laid  and  understood,  the  children  themselves  will 
 generally  give  the  lesson. 
 
 "  The  general  plan  pursued  is  not  to  tell  or  inform  the  pupils  of  any  thing, 
 which  by  analysis,  comparison,  or  illustration  they  can  he  made  to  find  out  for 
 themselves ;  in  other  words,  they  arc  trained,  rather  than  taught,  to  think." 
 *  *  *  *  *  *  * 
 
 "  Pictures  ought  to  be  used  whenever  practicable,  and  the  whole  resources  of 
 natural  science  brought  to  assist  the  elucidation  of  Scripture ;  each  point  ought 
 to  be  made  a§  i)lain  and  vivid  to  the  mind  of  the  child  as  in  a  picture.  Impor- 
 tant associations  and  moral  and  religious  lessons  also  to  the  young  may  be  given 
 from  them.  We  have  for  the  naturalist,  the  lion,  Daniel  in  the  lion's  den. 
 Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  The  lamb,  and  the  promises  regarding  the  lion 
 and  the  lamb,  lying  down  in  peace  togctber.  The  serpent,  deceitfulness.  The 
 kopard  and  tiger,  cruelty,  yet  pretty  skin.  A  dog  to  his  vomit,  and  a  sow 
 that  is  washed  to  her  wallowing  in  the  m\rc,  had  Jiahits.  The  bee,  in'hisiry ; 
 witli  lessons  from  a  thousand  other  animate  and  inanimate  objects.  Sonutimcs 
 they  are  conjoined  in  one  illustration — 'As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water- 
 brooks,  so  panteth,'  Sec.  We  have  here  the  nature  and  situation  of  the  hart — 
 the  water-brooks — the  climate — tlic  heat — the  dust — the  distant  brooks — Uie 
 panting.  What  is  panting  ?  Why  pant,  &c.  Pant  is  .  .  .  Tlic  botanist,  the 
 astronomer,  the  mineralogist,  the  moralist,  may  each  exercise  their  powers  of  il- 
 lustration respectively,  on  'the  lily  of  the  valley,'  'rose  of  Siiaron,'  'sun  stand- 
 ing still  at  the  bidding  of  Joshua,'  'Orion,'  'Pleiades,'  and  the  'morning 
 star,'  'precious  stones  of  the  temple,'  'the  pearl  of  great  price,'  'Jonathan's 
 love  for  I3avid  his  rival,'  '  Absaloju's  vanity,  beautiful  hair,  and  the  cause  of  his 
 death.' " 
 
 As  an  example  of  the  illustration  of  these  principles,  the  f  )llowing  extract  may 
 sufllce.     The  lesson  is  upon  the  one  hundredth  and  fiftieth  Psalm. 
 
 *^Ver8e  1.  'The  Lord  is  my  shepherd,  I  sh:dl  not  want.'  Verse  2.  'He 
 maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures,  he  leadeth  me  beside  tlie  still  waters.' 
 We  shall  take  some  of  the  principal  words,  and  see  if  you  can  tell  me 
 their  meaning.  '  Lord,'  is  the  first  word ;  but,  as  our  limits  permit  us  to 
 give  an  exanjplo  of  only  one  or  two  words,  or,  at  most,  of  the  two  first  verses 
 of  this  I'salm,  wo  shall   take  the  tjccond  word,  which   is  more  inuucdiatcly 
 
BIBLE  EXERCISES.  657 
 
 connected  with  ^ pastures.^  Now,  children,  what  is  the  meaning  of  the  word 
 shepherd?  Takes  care  of  sheep.  The  shepherd  takes  care  of.. .sheep.  Can  you 
 tell  me  what  a  herd  means  ?  A  hoy.  No  doubt,  herds  arc  very  frequently,  per- 
 haps most  frequently,  boys,  but  could  not  a  girl  be  a  herd  as  well  as  a  boy?  Yes. 
 What  is  meant  by  a  herd?  The  children  arc  silent.  Suppose  a  boy  or  girl  or  a 
 man  took  care  of  cows  or  cittle,'  what  would  he  be  called  ?  Would  he  be  called 
 a  shepherd?  No.  A  man  that  herded  cattle  would  be  called  a  cattle... /terd.  A 
 shepherd,  therefore,  is  one  who  takes  care  of... sheep.  Now,  children,  can  you 
 tell  me  what  pasture  means?  No,  You  don't  know.  Well,  suppose  you  took 
 a  walk  into  the  country,  and  saw  a  field  with  sheep  or  cows  feeding  in  it,  what 
 would  they  be  eating?  Grass.  What,  then,  do  you  think  pasture  means?  Grass. 
 What  colour  is  grass  ?  It  is  green.  What  kind  of  pasture  does  the  Psalmist  say 
 the  shepherd  leads  his  sheep  to  lie  down  in  ?  lie  maketh  them  to  lie  down  in 
 green. .  .pastures.  Is  grass  always  green,  think  you,  children  ?  Yes.  Did  you 
 ever  see  grass  any  other  colour  than  green  ?  No.  You  never  saw  grass  any 
 other  colour  than  green  ?  No.  But,  suppose,  during  a  hot  summer,  when  the 
 sun  is  shining  very  bright  for  a  long  time,  perhaps  for  six  or  eight  weeks  at  a 
 time,  and  no  rain,  what  colour  do  you  think  the  grass  would  be  ?  Brown.  Then 
 grass  is  not  always  green ?  No,  sir.  It  sometimes  is... /vroi/jn.  Whether  do  you 
 think  that  sheep  would  like  to  eat  green. . .^rass,  which  is  full  of... sap,  or  brown 
 ...grass,  that  is  \ery.,. dry?  Green  grass.  Then  you  think  that  a  good  shep- 
 herd will  make  his  sheep  to  lie  down  in  the  green  pastures  or  green... o^rass,  in 
 preference  to  where  there  is  brown,  dry,,. grass?  Yes,  Do  you  think,  children, 
 that  the  shepherd  here  spoken  of  will  take  them  to  a  field  where  there  will  be 
 plenty  or  scarcity  to  eat  ?  Let  me  make  it  a  little  plainer.  The  shepherd  is  said 
 to  make  his  sheep  to  lie  down  in  green,.. pastures.  If  they  had  little  to  eat  do 
 you  think  that  the  sheep  would  lie  down  there  ?  No,  they  would  run  about  seek- 
 ing grass.  Then,  you  think,  they  will  have  plenty  when  they  are  made  to  lie 
 down  in  it?    Yes.     They 'shall  not... too n«."'         *#**#» 
 
 No.  X. 
 
 Referred  to  on  page  168. 
 
 "READING  DISENTANGLED,"  OR  METHOD  OF  TEACHING  TO 
 READ  USED  IN  THE  LONDON  INFANT  SCHOOL  SOCIETY'S 
 MODEL  SCHOOL. 
 
 The  method  of  teaching  to  read,  wliich  is  strongly  recommended,  after  trial  in 
 this  school,  is  an  attempt  to  apply  the  phonic  method  of  the  Gorman  schools  to 
 our  language,  so  irregular  in  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  and  in  their  combinations 
 into  syllables  and  words.  The  consonants  are  taught  first  to  be  named  by  the 
 sound  most  like  that  in  combination,  and,  besides,  arc  classified  into  families. 
 Pictures  of  objects,  the  names  of  which  begin  with  the  different  consonants,  arc 
 used  to  impress  Uicrn  upon  the  child's  memory.  Next,  the  shapes  of  tlie  conso- 
 nants are  given,  and  so  described  as  to  recal  them  by  association,  the  large  and 
 small  printed  letters  being  taught  separately.  The  children  are  next  taught  to 
 83 
 
058  APPENDIX. 
 
 form  worda,  by  putting  the  cuiisonants  before  the  vowels,  beginning  with  the 
 ehort  sound  of  a.  Next,  before  syllables  beginning  with  the  sliort  sounds  of 
 e,  t,  0,  u,  and  y,  when  replacing  i,  with  exercises  upon  the  sound  of  vowels 
 indiscriminately.  The  short  sound  in  syllables  followed  by  r.  The  placing  of  « 
 at  the  end  of  words.  More  than  one  consonant  before  a  vowel.  Silent  letters. 
 The  syllables  ih  and  qu.  Words  ending  with  two  consonants.  The  final  sylla- 
 bles, 6/p,  «fcc.  Words  ending  with  71^.  The  sound  of  c/«.  Long  vowels  followed 
 by  a  consonant.  Long  vowels  followed  by  r.  The  diphthongs  ou  and  au.  Soft 
 sound  off.  Diphthongs  of  oio  and  oy,  and  soft  sound  of  ^.  Diphthong  ci.  Sound 
 of  a  after  w,  and  some  irregular  v;ords.  Diphthong  et/,  and  some  irregular 
 words. 
 
 No.  XI. 
 
 Referred  to  on  page  307. 
 
 REMARKS  OF  M.  EMANUEL  DE  FELLENBERG,  ON  EDUCATION, 
 VERIFIED  BY  HIS  OBSERVATIONS  AT  IIOFWYL. 
 
 "  On  the  reception  of  a  new  pupil,  our  first  object  is  to  obtain  an  accurate 
 knowledge  of  his  individual  character,  with  all  its  resources  and  defects,  in  order 
 to  aid  in  its  farther  development,  according  to  the  apparent  intention  of  the  Crea- 
 tor. To  this  end,  the  individual  independent  activity  of  the  pupil  is  o^  much 
 greater  importance  tlian  the  ordinary,  busy  ofiiciousncss  of  many  who  assume 
 the  office  of  educators  and  teachers.  They  too  often  render  the  child  a  mere 
 magazine  of  knowledge,  collected  by  means  purely  mechanical,  which  furnishes 
 him  neither  direction  nor  aid  in  the  business  of  life.  The  more  ill-digested 
 knowledge  a  man  thus  collects,  the  more  oppressive  will  be  the  burden  to  its 
 possessor,  and  the  more  painful  his  helplessness.  Instead  of  pursuing  this 
 course,  we  endeavour,  by  bestowing  the  utmost  care  upon  the  cultivation  of  tlie 
 conscience,  the  understanding,  and  the  judgment,  to  light  up  a  torch  in  the  mind 
 of  every  pupil,  which  sliall  enable  him  to  observe  his  own  character,  and  shall 
 set  in  the  clearest  light  all  the  exterior  objects  which  claim  his  attention. 
 
 "A  great  variety  of  exercises  of  the  body  and  the  senses  are  employed  to  pre. 
 pare  our  pupils  for  tlie  fulfilment  of  their  destination.  It  i«  by  means  of  such 
 exercises  that  every  man  should  acquire  a  knowledge  of  his  physical  strength, 
 and  attain  confidence  with  regard  to  those  eftbrts  of  which  he  is  capable,  instead 
 of  that  fool-hardiness  which  endangers  the  existence  of  many  who  have  not  learn- 
 ed to  estimate  their  own  powers  correctly. 
 
 "All  the  various  relations  of  space  should  be  presented  to  the  eye,  to  be  ob- 
 served and  combined  in  the  manner  best  adapted  to  form  the  coup  d'oeil.  In- 
 struction in  design  renders  us  important  service  in  this  res|>cct — every  one  should 
 thus  attain  the  power  of  reproducing  the  forms  he  has  observed,  and  of  delinea- 
 ting tliem  with  facility,  and  should  learn  to  discover  the  beauty  of  forms,  and  to 
 distinguish  then»  from  their  contrasts.  It  is  only  where  the  talent  is  remarkable 
 that  the  attempt  should  be  made  to  render  the  pupil  an  artist. 
 
REMARKS  OF  M.  FELLEPTBERG  ON  EDUCATION'.  659 
 
 "  Tlie  cultivation  of  the  car  by  means  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music  is  not 
 less  important  to  complete  the  development  of  the  human  being.  The  organs  of 
 speech,  the  memory,  the  understanding,  and  the  taste,  should  be  formed  in  the 
 same  manner  by  instruction,  and  a  great  variety  of  exercises  in  language,  vocal 
 music,  and  declamation.  The  same  means  should  also  be  employed  to  cultivate 
 and  confirm  devotional  feelings. 
 
 "  In  the  study  of  natural  history  the  power  of  observation  is  developed  in  re- 
 ference to  natural  objects.  In  the  history  of  mankind  the  same  faculty  is  em- 
 ployed upon  the  phenomena  of  human  nature  and  human  relations,  and  the  moral 
 taste  is  cultivated,  at  the  same  time  the  faculty  of  conceiving  with  correctness, 
 and  of  employing  and  combining  with  readiness,  the  materials  collected  by  the 
 mind,  and  especially  the  reasoning  faculty,  should  be  brought  into  exercise,  by 
 means  of  forms  and  numbers,  exliibitcd  in  their  multiplied  and  varied  relations. 
 
 "  The  social  life  of  our  pupils  contributes  materially  to  the  formation  of  their 
 moral  character.  The  principles  developed  in  their  experience  of  practical  life 
 among  themselves,  which  gradually  extends  with  their  age  and  the  progress  of 
 their  minds,  serves  as  the  basis  of  this  branch  of  education.  It  presents  the  ex- 
 amples and  occasions  necessary  for  exhibiting  and  illustrating  tlte  great  princi- 
 ples of  morals.  According  to  the  example  of  Divine  Providence,  we  watch  over 
 this  little  world  in  which  our  pupils  live  and  act,  with  an  ever  vigilant,  but  often 
 invisible  care,  and  constantly  endeavour  to  render  it  more  pure  and  noble. 
 
 "  At  the  same  time  that  the  various  improvements  of  science  and  art  are  applied 
 to  the  benefit  of  our  pupils,  their  sound  religious  education  should  be  continually 
 kept  in  view  in  every  branch  of  study;  this  is  also  the  object  of  a  distinct  series 
 of  lessons,  which  generally  continue  through  the  whole  course  of  instruction,  and 
 whose  influence  is  aided  by  the  requisite  exercises  of  devotion. 
 
 "  By  the  combination  of  means  I  have  described,  we  succeed  in  directing  our 
 pupils  to  the  best  methods  of  pursuing  their  studies  independently ;  we  occupy 
 their  attention,  according  to  their  individual  necessities  and  capacities,  with  philo- 
 logy, the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  the  mathematics,  and  their  various 
 modes  of  application,  and  a  course  of  historical  studies,  comprising  geography, 
 statistics,  and  political  economy."* 
 
 Moral  Education. -^  The  example  of  the  instructor  is  all  important  in  moral 
 education.  The  books  which  are  put  into  the  pupils  hands  are  of  great  influence. 
 The  pupil  must  be  constantly  surrounded  with  stimulants  to  good  actions  in  order 
 to  form  his  habits.  A  new  institution  should  be  begun  with  so  small  a  number 
 of  pupils,  that  no  one  of  them  can  escape  the  observation  of  the  educator  and  his 
 moral  influence.  The  general  opinion  of  the  pupils  is  of  high  importance,  and 
 hence  should  be  carefully  directed.  Intimate  intercourse  between  pupils  and  their 
 educators  begets  confidence,  and  is  the  strongest  means  of  moral  education.  TJie 
 
 *  Extract  from  a  published  letter  oflM.  de  Fellenberg  to  Lady  Byron. 
 
 t  The  remarks  in  this  and  the  succeeding  sections  are  abstracts  from  the  ac- 
 count of  Hofwyl,  by  our  countryman  W.  C.  Woodbridge,  or  from  Conversations 
 with  M,  de  Fellenberg. 
 
000  AITENDIX. 
 
 educator  must  be  able  to  command  himself — his  conduct  must  be  firm  and  just; 
 frequent  reproofs  from  such  are  more  painful  to  the  pupil  than  punishment  of  a 
 momentary  sort. 
 
 Wliile  influences  tending  directly  to  lead  the  pupil  astray  should  be  removed 
 from  the  school,  he  nmst  be  lct\  to  the  action  of  the  ordinary  circumstances  of 
 life,  that  his  character  may  be  developed  accordingly.  The  pupil  should  be  led 
 as  far  as  possible  to  correct  his  faults  by  perceiving  the  consequences  of  them; 
 the  good  or  bad  opinion  of  his  preceptor  and  comrades  arc  important  means  of 
 stimulation.  Exclusion  from  amusements,  public  notice  of  faults,*  and  corporal 
 punishment,  are  all  admissible.  Solitary  confinement  is  efficacious  as  a  punish- 
 ment.    Rewards  and  enmlation  are  unnecessary  as  motives. 
 
 Religion  and  morality  are  too  intimately  connected  to  admit  of  separation  in 
 the  courses  inculcating  them.  The  elementary  part  of  such  a  course  is  equally 
 applicable  to  all  sects. 
 
 No  good  is  to  be  derived  from  employing  the  pupils  as  judges  or  juries,  or 
 giving  them  a  direct  share  in  awarding  punishment  for  offences.  It  is  apt  to 
 elevate  the  youth  too  much  in  liis  own  conceit. 
 
 Family  life  is  better  adapted,  than  any  artificial  state  of  society  within  an  insti- 
 tution, to  develope  the  moral  sentiments  and  feelings  of  youth. 
 
 Intellectual  Education.  A  system  of  prizes,  or  emulation,  and  the  fear  of  pun- 
 ishment, do  not  afford  the  strongest  motives  to  intellectual  exertion.  Experience 
 shows  that  places  in  a  class  may  be  dispensed  with.  It  is  possible  to  develope  a 
 taste  for  knowledge,  a  respect  and  attachment  for  teachers,  and  a  sense  of  duty 
 which  will  take  the  place  of  any  lower  motive  in  inducing  the  requisite  amount 
 of  study. 
 
 In  the  higher  departments  of  instruction  it  is  better  to  confine  the  task  of  the 
 teacher  to  giving  instruction  merely,  placing  the  pupil  under  the  charge  of  a  spe- 
 cial educator,  ^i  times  when  he  is  not  engaged  in  the  class-room. 
 
 With  the  other,  and  more  usual  branches  of  instruction,  correct  ideas  of  natu- 
 ral history  and  phenomena  should  be  communicated  to  children,  and  require, 
 first,  that  they  shall  be  duly  trained  to  observation  by  calling  the  observing  fa- 
 culties into  frequent  exercise.  Second,  that  they  shall  be  made  acquainted  with 
 the  elements  of  natural  history,  especially  in  reference  to  familiar  objects.  Third, 
 that  the  most  familiar  phenomena  of  nature,  such  as  thunder  and  lightning,  the 
 rainbow,  &.c.;  and  further,  the  most  simple  principles  of  mechanic  arts,  trades, 
 &c.,  should  be  explained  to  them.  Fourth,  they  should  be  taught  to  draw,  in 
 connexion  with  the  other  instruction.  Accuracy  of  conception  is  favoured  by 
 drawing,  and  it  is  a  powerful  aid  to  the  memory.  The  most  important  principles 
 of  physiology,  and  their  application  to  the  preservation  of  health,  siiould  form  a 
 part  of  the  instruction. 
 
 Physical  Education.  Pure  air,  a  suitable  diet,  regular  exercise  and  repose,  and 
 a  proper  distribution  of  time,  are  tlie  principal  means  of  physical  education.     It 
 
 *  This,  however,  violates  another  i)rincijilo,  which  is  to  allow  no  punishment 
 of  a  humiliatinjT  sort. 
 
REMARKS  OF  THE  REV.  DR.  ARNOLD.  6G1 
 
 is  as  essential  that  a  pupil  leave  his  studies  during  the  time  appropriated  to  relaxa- 
 tion as  that  he  study  during  the  hours  devoted  to  that  purpose.  Voluntary  ex- 
 ercise is  to  be  encouraged  by  providing  suitable  games,  by  affording  opportuni- 
 ties for  gardening,  and  by  excursions,  and  by  bathing.  Regular  gymnastic  exer- 
 cises should  be  insisted  on  as  the  means  of  developing  the  body;  a  liealthy 
 action  of  the  bodily  frame  has  an  important  influence  on  both  mind  and  morals. 
 Music  is  to  be  considered  as  a  brancli  of  physical  education,  having  powerful  mo- 
 ral influences.  The  succession  of  study,  labour,  musical  instruction,  or  play, 
 should  be  carefully  attended  to.  The  hours  of  sleep  should  be  regulated  by  the 
 age  of  the  pupil. 
 
 No.  XII. 
 
 Referred  to  on  page  400  of  this  Report. 
 
 REMARKS    OF    THE    REV.    DR.    ARNOLD,    ON    THE    STUDY    OF 
 CLASSICS  AND  OF  HISTORY.* 
 
 "  It  may  freely  be  confessed  that  the  first  origin  of  classical  education  affords 
 in  itself  no  reasons  for  its  being  continued  now.  When  Latin  and  Greek  were 
 aJmost  the  only  written  languages  of  civilized  man,  it  is  manifest  that  they  must 
 have  furnished  the  subjects  of  all  liberal  education.  The  question  therefore  is 
 wholly  changed,  since  the  growth  of  a  complete  literature  in  other  languages; 
 since  France,  and  Italy,  and  Germany,  and  England,  have  each  produced  their 
 philosophers,  their  poets,  and  their  historians,  worthy  to  be  placed  on  the  same 
 level  with  those  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
 
 "  But  although  there  is  not  the  saine  reason  now  which  existed  three  or  four 
 centuries  ago  for  the  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  yet  there  is  another 
 no  less  substantial.  Expel  Greek  and  Latin  from  your  schools,t  and  you  confine 
 the  views  of  the  existing  generation  to  themselves  and  their  immediate  predeces- 
 sors: you  will  cut  off"  so  many  centuries  of  the  world's  experience,  and  place  us  in 
 the  same  state  as  if  the  human  race  had  first  come  into  existence  in  tlie  year 
 1500.  For  it  is  nothing  to  say  that  a  few  learned  individuals  might  still  study 
 classical  literature;  the  effect  produced  on  the  public  mind  would  be  no  greater 
 than  that  which  has  resulted  from  the  labours  of  our  oriental  scholars;  it  would 
 not  spread  beyond  themselves,  and  men  in  general,  after  a  few  generations,  would 
 know  as  little  of  Greece  and  Rome  as  they  do  actually  of  China  and  Hindostan. 
 But  such  an  ignorance  would  be  incalculably  more  to  be  regretted.  With  the 
 Asiatic  mind  we  have  no  nearer  connexion  or  sympathy  than  that  which  is  de- 
 rived from  our  common  humanity.  But  the  mind  of  the  Greek  and  of  the  Roman 
 is  in  all  the  essential  points  of  its  constitution  our  own ;  and  not  only  so,  but  it  is 
 our  own  mind  developed  to  an  extraordinary  degree  of  perfection.  Wide  as  is 
 the  difference  between  us  with  respect  to  those  physical  instruments  which  mi- 
 nister  to  our  uses  or  our  pleasures;   although  the  Greeks  and  Romans  had  no 
 
 *  From  the  London  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  VII. 
 
 t  Of  course  the  secondary  schools  are  here  alluded  to.     (A.  D.  B.) 
 
G02  APPENDIX. 
 
 stcam-cnrrlnoR,  no  printinof-prcsscs,  no  mariner's  compass,  no  telescopes,  no  mi- 
 croscopes, no  punpowdcr,  yet  in  our  moral  and  political  views,  in  those  matters 
 which  most  determine  human  character,  there  is  a  perfect  resemblance  in  these 
 respects.  Aristotle,  and  Plato,  and  Thucydides,  and  Cicero,  and  Tacitus,  arc 
 most  untruly  called  ancient  writers;  they  arc  virtually  our  own  countrymen  and 
 contemporaries,  but  have  the  advantage  which  is  enjoyed  by  intelligent  travel- 
 lers,  that  their  observation  has  been  exercised  in  a  field  out  of  the  reach  of  com- 
 mon men;  and  that  having  thus  seen  in  a  manner  with  our  eyes  what  we  cannot 
 sec  for  ourselves,  their  conclusions  arc  such  as  bear  upon  our  own  circumstances, 
 while  their  information  has  all  the  charm  of  novelty,  and  all  the  value  of  a  mass 
 of  new  and  pertinent  facts,  illustrative  of  the  great  science  of  the  nature  of  civi- 
 lized man. 
 
 "  Now  when  it  is  said,  that  men  in  manhood  so  often  throw  their  Greek  and 
 Latin  aside,  and  that  this  very  fact  shows  the  usclcssncss  of  their  early  studies, 
 it  is  much  more  true  to  say  that  it  shows  how  completely  the  literature  of 
 Greece  and  Home  would  be  forgotten  if  our  system  of  education  did  not  keep  up 
 the  knowledge  of  it.  But  it  by  no  means  shows  that  system  to  be  useless,  unless 
 it  followed,  that  when  a  man  laid  asir'e  his  Greek  and  Latin  books  he  forgot  also 
 all  that  he  had  ever  gained  from  them.  This,  however,  is  so  far  from  being  the 
 case,  that  even  where  the  results  of  a  classical  education  arc  least  tangible,  and 
 least  appreciated,  even  by  the  individual  himself,  still  the  mind  often  retains  much 
 of  the  effect  of  its  early  studies  in  the  general  liberality  of  its  tastes  and  compa- 
 rative comprehensiveness  of  its  views  and  notions. 
 
 "All  this  supposes,  indeed,  that  classical  instruction  should  be  sensibly  conduct- 
 ed ;  it  requires  that  a  classical  teacher  should  be  fully  acquainted  with  modem 
 history  and  modern  literature,  no  less  than  with  those  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
 What  is,  or  perhaps  what  used  to  be,  called  a  mere  scholar,  cannot  possibly  com- 
 municate  to  his  pupils  the  main  advantages  of  a  classical  education.  The  know- 
 lodge  of  the  past  is  valuable,  because  without  it  our  knowledge  of  the  present  and 
 of  the  future  must  be  scanty;' but  if  the  knowledge  of  the  past  be  confined  wholly 
 to  itself,  if,  instead  of  being  made  to  bear  upon  things  around  us,  it  be  totally  iso- 
 lated from  them,  and  so  disguised  by  vagueness  and  misapprehension  as  to  ap- 
 pear incapable  of  illustrating  them,  then  indeed  it  becomes  little  better  Ihau 
 laborious  trifling,  and  they  who  declaim  against  it  may  be  fully  forgiven. 
 
 "To  select  one  instance  of  this  perversion,  what  can  be  more  absurd  than  the 
 practice  of  what  is  called  construing  Greek  and  Latin,  continued  as  it  often  is 
 even  with  pupils  of  an  advanced  age?  The  study  of  Greek  and  Latin,  consi- 
 dercd  as  mere  languages,  is  of  importance,  mainly  as  it  enables  us  to  understand 
 and  employ  well  that  language  in  which  we  commonly  think,  and  speak,  and 
 write.  It  does  this  because  Greek  and  Latin  are  speciiucns  of  language  at  once 
 highly  perfect  and  incapable  of  being  understood  without  long  and  minute  atten- 
 tion: the  study  of  them,  therefore,  naturally  involves  that  of  the  general  princi- 
 plcH  of  grammar:  while  their  peculiar  excdienres  illustrate  the  points  which  ren- 
 der language  clear,  and  forcible,  and  beautiful.  But  our  application  of  this 
 general  knowledge  must  naturally  be  to  our  own  language ;  to  show  us  wliat  arc 
 
REMARKS  OF  THt:  REV.  DR.  ARNOLD.  6G3 
 
 its  peculiarities,  what  its  beauties,  what  its  defects ;  to  teach  us  by  the  patterns  or 
 the  analogies  offered  by  other  lantruagcs,  how  the  effect  which  we  admire  in  them 
 may  be  produced  with  a  somewhat  different  instrument.  Every  lesson  in  Greek 
 or  Latin  may  and  ought  to  be  made  a  lesson  in  English;  the  translation  of  every 
 sentence  in  Demosthenes  or  Tacitus  is  properly  an  exercise  in  extemporaneous 
 English  composition;  a  problem,  how  to  express  with  equal  brevity,  clearness, 
 and  force,  in  our  own  language,  the  thought  which  the  original  author  has  so 
 admirably  expressed  in  his.  But  the  system  of  construing,  far  from  assisting,  is 
 positively  injurious  to  our  knowledge  and  use  of  English;  it  accustoms  us  to  a 
 tame  and  involved  arrangement  of  our  words,  an^  to  the  substitution  of  foreign 
 idioms  in  the  place  of  such  as  arc  national;  it  obliges  us  to  caricature  every 
 sentence  that  we  render,  by  turning  what  is,  in  its  original  dress,  beautiful  and  na- 
 tural, into  something  which  is  neither  Greek  nor  English,  stiff,  obscure,  and  flat, 
 exemplifying  all  the  faults  incident  to  language,  and  excluding  every  excellence. 
 
 "  The  exercise  of  translation,  on  the  other  hand,  meaning,  by  translation,  the 
 expressing  of  are  entire  sentence  of  a  foreign  language  by  an  entire  sentence  of 
 our  own,  as  opposed  to  the  rendering  separately  into  English  either  every  sepa- 
 rate word,  or  at  most  only  parts  of  the  sentence^  whether  larger  or  smaller,  the 
 exercise  of  translation  is  capable  of  furnishing  improvement  to  students  of  every 
 age,  according  to  the  measure  of  their  abilities  and  knowledge." 
 
 ******* 
 
 "  This  favourite  notion  of  filling  boys  with  useful  information  is  likely,  we 
 think,  to  be  productive  of  some  mischief.  It  is  a  caricature  of  the  principles  of 
 inductive  philosophy,  which,  while  it  taught  the  importance  of  a  knowledge  of 
 facts,  never  imagined  that  this  knowledge  was  of  itself  equivalent  to  wisdom. 
 Now  it  is  not  so  much  our  object  to  give  boys  '  useful  information,'  as  to  facili- 
 tate their  gaining  it  hereafter  for  themselves,  and  to  enable  them  to  turn  it  to 
 account  when  gained.  The  first  is  to  be  effected  by  supplying  them  on  any  sub- 
 ject with  a  skeleton  which  they  may  fill  up  hereafter.  For  instance,  a  real  know- 
 ledge of  history  in  after  life  is  highly  desirable;  let  us  see  how  education  can 
 best  facihtate  the  gaining  of  it.  It  should  begin  by  impressing  on  a  boy's  mind 
 the  names  of  the  greatest  men  of  different  periods,  and  by  giving  him  a  notion  of 
 their  order  in  point  of  time,  and  the  part  of  the  earth  on  which  they  lived.  This 
 is  best  done  by  a  set  of  pictures  bound  up  together  in  a  volume,  such,  for  instance, 
 as  those  which  illustrated  Mrs.  Trimmer's  little  histories,  and  to  which  the  writer 
 of  this  article  is  glad  to  acknowledge  his  own  early  obligations.  Nor  could  bet- 
 ter service  be  rendered  to  the  cause  of  historical  instruction  than  by  publishing 
 a  volume  of  prints  of  universal  history,  accompanied  with  a  very  short  descrip- 
 tion of  each.  Correctness  of  costume  in  such  prints,  or  good  taste  in  the  draw- 
 ing, however  desirable,  if  they  can  be  easily  obtained,  are  of  very  subordinate 
 importance:  the  great  matter  is  that  the  print  should  be  striking,  and  full  enough 
 to  excite  and  to  gratify  curiosity.  By  these  means  a  lasting  association  is  ob- 
 tained with  the  f^reatest  names  in  history,  and  the  most  remarkable  actions  of 
 their  lives:  while  their  chronological  arrangement  is  learnt  at  the  same  time 
 from  the  order  of  the  pictures;  a  boy's  memory  being  very  apt  to  recollect  the 
 
GGl  APPENDIX. 
 
 place  which  a  favourite  print  holds  in  a  volume,  whether  it  comes  towards  the 
 be^fi lining-,  middle,  or  end,  what  picture  comr's  before  it,  and  what  follows  it. 
 Such  pictures  should  contain  as  much  as  possible  the  poetry  of  history:  tiie  most 
 strikinjr  cliaracters,  and  most  heroic  actions,  whether  of  doinj^  or  of  sutfering ; 
 but  they  should  not  embarrass  themselves  with  its  philosophy,  with  the  causes  of 
 revolutions,  the  progress  of  society,  or  ihc  merits  of  great  political  questions. 
 Their  use  is  of  another  kind,  to  make  some  great  namL,  and  great  action  of  every 
 period,  familiar  to  the  mind;  that  so  in  taking  up  any  more  detailed  history  or 
 biography,  (and  education  should  never  forget  the  importance  of  preparing  a  boy 
 to  derive  benefit  from  his  accinental  reading,)  he  may  have  some  association  with 
 the  subject  of  it,  and  may  not  feel  himself  to  be  on  ground  wholly  unknown  to  him. 
 He  may  thus  be  led  to  open  volumes  into  which  he  would  otherwise  have  never 
 thought  of  looking:  he  need  not  read  them  through — indeed,  it  is  sad  folly  to  re- 
 quire  either  man  or  boy  to  read  through  every  book  tliey  look  at,  but  he  will  see 
 what  is  said  about  such  and  such  persons  or  actions;  and  then  he  will  learn  by 
 the  way  something  about  other  persons  and  other  actions,  and  will  have  his  stock 
 of  associations  increased,  so  as  to  render  more  and  more  information  acceptable 
 to  him. 
 
 "  After  this  foundation,  the  object  still  being  rather  to  create  an  appetite  for 
 knowledge  than  to  satisfy  it,  it  would  be  desirable  to  furnish  a  boy  with  histories 
 of  one  or  two  particular  countries,  Greece,  Rome,  and  England  for  instance,  writ- 
 ten at  no  great  length,  and  these  also  written  poetically  much  more  than  philo- 
 sophically, with  much  liveliness  of  style,  and  force  of  painting,  so  as  to  excite  an 
 interest  about  the  persons  and  things  spoken  of.  The  absence  of  all  instruction 
 in  politics  or  political  economy,  nay,  even  an  absolute  erroneousness  of  judgment 
 on  such  matters,  provided  always  that  it  involves  no  wrong  principle  in  morality, 
 are  comparatively  of  slight  importance.  Let  the  boy  gain,  if  possible,  a  strong 
 appetite  for  knowledge  to  begin  with;  it  is  a  later  part  of  education  which  should 
 enable  him  to  pursue  it  sensibly,  and  to  make  it,  when  obtained,  wisdom." 
 %  #  *  *  *  *  * 
 
 "  Sujiposing  a  boy  to  possess  that  outline  of  general  history  which  his  prints  and 
 his  abridgments  will  have  given  him,  with  his  associations,  so  far  as  they  go, 
 strong  and  lively,  and  his  desire  of  increased  knowledge  keen,  the  next  thing  to 
 be  done  is  to  set  him  to  read  some  first-rate  historian,  whose  mind  was  formed  in, 
 and  bears  the  stamp  of  some  period  of  advanced  civilization,  analogous  to  that  in 
 which  wc  now  live.  In  other  words,  he  should  read  Thucydides,  or  Tacitus,  or 
 any  writer  equal  to  them,  if  such  can  be  found,  belonging  to  the  third  period  of 
 full  civilization,  that  of  modern  Europe  since  the  middle  aoes.  The  particular 
 subject  of  the  history  is  of  little  moment,  so  long  as  it  be  taken  neither  from  the 
 barbarian,  nor  from  the  romantic,  but  from  the  philosophical  or  civilized  stage  of 
 human  society;  and  so  long  as  the  writer  be  a  man  of  commanding  mind,  who 
 has  fully  imbibed  the  influences  of  his  age,  yet  without  bearing  its  exclusive  im- 
 press. And  the  study  of  such  a  work,  under  an  intelligent  teacher,  becomes  in- 
 deed  the  key  of  knowledge  and  of  wisdom :  first,  it  affords  an  example  of  good 
 historical  evidence,  and  hence  the   pupil    may  be  taught  to  notice,  from  time  to 
 
REMARKS  OF  THE  REV.  DR.  ARNOLD.  665 
 
 time,  the  various  criteria  of  a  credible  narrative,  and,  by  tlio  rule  of*  contraries, 
 to  observe  what  are  the  indications  of  a  testimony  questionable,  suspicious,  or 
 worthless.  Undue  scepticism  may  be  repressed  by  showing  how  generally  truth 
 has  been  attained  when  it  has  been  lioncstly  and  judiciously  sought;  while  cre- 
 dulity may  be  checked  by  pointing  out,  on  the  other  hand,  how  manifold  are  the 
 errors  into  which  those  are  betrayed  whose  intellect  or  whose  principles  have 
 been  found  wanting.  Now,  too,  the  time  is  come  when  the  pupil  may  be  intro- 
 duced to  that  high  philosophy  which  unfolds  '  the  causes  of  things.'  The  history 
 with  which  he  is  engaged  presents  a  view  of  society  in  its  most  advanced  state, 
 when  the  human  mind  is  highly  developed,  and  the  various  crises  which  affect 
 the  growth  of  the  political  fabric  are  all  overpast.  Let  him  be  taught  to  analyze 
 the  subject  thus  presented  to  him ;  to  trace  back  institutions,  civil  and  religious, 
 to  their  origin ;  to  explore  the  elements  of  the  national  character,  as  now  exhibit- 
 ed in  maturity,  in  the  vicissitudes  of  the  nation's  fortune,  and  the  moral  and 
 physical  qualities  of  its  race;  to  observe  how  the  morals  and  the  mind  of  the  peo- 
 ple have  been  subject  to  a  succession  of  influences,  some  accidental,  others  regu- 
 lar;  to  see  and  remember  what  critical  seasons  of  improvement  have  been  ne- 
 glected, what  besetting  evils  have  been  wantonly  aggravated  by  wickedness  or 
 folly.  In  short,  the  pupil  may  be  furnished,  as  it  were,  with  certain  formula?, 
 which  shall  enable  him  to  read  all  history  beneficially;  which  shall  teach  him 
 what  to  look  for  in  it,  how  to  judge  of  it,  and  how  to  ap])ly  it. 
 
 "  Education  will  thus  fulfil  its  great  business,  as  far  as  regards  the  intellect,  to 
 inspire  it  with  a  desire  of  knowledge,  and  to  furnish  it  with  power  to  obtain  and 
 to  profit  by  what  it  seeks  for."* 
 
 No.  XIII. 
 
 ORPHAN  STATISTICS. 
 
 By  the  instructions  of  the  Scholastic  Committee,!  I  was  directed  to  collect  all 
 the  information  possible  in  regard  to  the  proportion,  in  number,  of  orphans  to  the 
 rest  of  tiie  community.  On  this  subject  I  found  it  impossible  to  obtain  satisfac- 
 tory data,  except  in  a  few  cases.  Even  where  statistical  inquiries  have  been  pur- 
 sued with  considerable  minuteness,  this  subject  does  not  appear  to  have  formed 
 a  part  of  them.  The  information  which  I  have  to  present  is  too  meagre  to  per- 
 rait  any  general  inferences,  other  than  that  the  proportion  of  destitute  orphan 
 children  to  the  rest  of  the  community,  is  exceedingly  variable  in  different  coun- 
 tries, and  even  in  diflerent  districts  of  the  same  country. 
 
 The  orphan  establishment  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar  is  administered  as  a 
 branch  of  the  government,  and  the  details  in  regard  to  it  arc  known  with  great 
 minuteness.     The  report  of  this  department!  for  1837,  shows  that  tiierc  were  423 
 
 *  It  would  be  most  desirable  tiiat  a  series  of  text-books  should  be  prepared 
 according  to  this  plan,  which  is  as  successful  in  jjractice  as  consonant  with  sound 
 theory.  (A.  D.  B.) 
 
 t  Sec  p.  vi.  of  the  Preface  to  this  Report. 
 
 t   For  which  I  am  indebted  to  tiic  director,  Dr.  Kohler, 
 84 
 
«G0  APPENDIX. 
 
 orphan  children  between  Ihc  ajjcs  of  about  «ix  and  fourteen  years,  receiving  aid. 
 Under  this  title  arc  included  children  who  have  lost  botJi  parents,  or  who  have 
 lost  their  father,  the  mother  remaining  a  widow,  and  children  deserted  by  their 
 fathers.  Of  the  total  number,  211  were  orphan  boys,  206  girls,  and  6  were 
 children  deserted  by  their  fathers.  Of  the  211  boys,  IGG  were  fatherless,  and 
 45  had  lost  both  parents;  and  of  the  200  girls,  161  were  fatherless,  and  12  had 
 lost  both  parents.  The  population  of  the  duchy  of  Saxc.Weimar  was,  in  1837, 
 about  2.'j0,000,  so  that  the  destitute  orphans  of  both  sexes  formed  about  .17  per 
 cent,  of  the  population,  and  the  destitute  orphan  boys  about  .086  per  cent  At 
 the  same  time,  the  number  of  orphans  receiving  aid  in  the  town  of  Weimar  was 
 33,  which,  in  a  population  of  12,000,  was  .275  per  cent.,  or  more  than  once 
 and  a-half  the  proportion  for  the  duchy  at  large. 
 
 The  statistics  coming  next  to  tliesc  in  point  of  minuteness,  which  I  was  able 
 to  procure,  arc  from  the  canton  of  Zurich,  in  Switzerland.*  These  give,  in 
 1836,  for  231,574  inhabitants,  3,731  orphans  of  both  sexes,  the  term  orphan  be- 
 ing understood  as  in  Weimar,  and  tiie  census  including  children  from  infancy 
 to  about  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  city  of  Zurich,  with  a  population  of  14,243, 
 had,  at  the  same  time,  229  orphans.  Thus  the  country  communes,  with  a  po- 
 pulation of  217,331,  gave  assistance  to  2,636  orphan  children,  or  1.21  per  cent., 
 and  the  city  of  Zurich  to  141,  or  .99  per  cent.  I  have  not  the  means  of  com- 
 puting exactly  the  number  of  orphans  below  five  years  and  over  fourteen,  in- 
 cluded in  this  estimate,  so  as  to  compare  it  with  the  statement  for  the  duchy  of 
 Saxc-Weimar,  but  adopting  an  approximate  estimate,  the  number  of  destitute  or- 
 phans in  the  canton  of  Zurich  to  every  one  hundred  inhabitants,  appears  to  be 
 between  four  and  five  times  as  great  as  the  number,  between  the  same  years,  in 
 the  duchy  of  Weimar. 
 
 The  director  of  the  Orphan-house  at  Stuttgard  gave  me  1600,  as  the  number 
 of  orphan  children  to  be  provided  for  in  Wurtemberg,  from  six  years  up  to 
 fourteen  or  fifteen.  Tiiis  number  gives,  in  the  whole  population  of  1,400,000, 
 almost  .115  per  cent.     This  proportion  is  somewhat  lower  than  that  for  Weimar. 
 
 In  the  absence  of  more  correct  data,  I  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  probable  num- 
 ber of  destitute  orphan  boys  in  Edinburgh,  by  summing  up  the  numbers  in  the 
 difTerent  hospitals  and  the  Charity  Work-house.  Edinburgh  is  so  well  provided 
 with  educational  charities,  nearly  all  of  which  give  a  preference,  in  their  admis- 
 sions, to  orphans,  that  it  is  not  at  all  probable  that  many  destitute  orphan  children 
 are  without  this  pale.  The  summation  of  the  numbers  obtained,  as  above  stated, 
 gives  272  for  the  number  of  male  ori)hans  supported  by  the  public,  using  the  word 
 ori)han  in  the  same  sense  as  hitherto,  and  the  age  being  between  six  and  fifteen 
 years.  The  population  of  Edinburgh  is  about  176,000,  which  would  give  nearly 
 .155  per  cent,  as  the  number  of  orphan  boys  supported  in  the  charitable  estab- 
 lishments of  the  city.  The  corresponding  projiortion  for  the  town  of  Weimar  is 
 .137  jKir  cent.,  and  for  the  town  of /urieli,  .495  per  cent. 
 
 •    Kindly  fijrnished  to  me  by  FJurgomaster  Hess. 
 
Date  Due 
 
 • 
 
 N6     - 
 
 1 
 
 M^iJttiM 
 
 mm 
 
 """^ 
 
 ^ 
 
LA622.B11 
 
 Report  on  education  m  Europe, 
 
 Princeton  Theological  Semmary-Speer  Library 
 
 lllllllllllinilllllllllliiliiiliiiiniiniiiiiiiiii 
 
 1    1012  00026  1059