J^^^^,y- s^-* * APR 1 1902 CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES EDITED BY WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT BY WILLIAM R. HARPER Constructive Studies IN THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY FOR USE IN ADK4NCED BIBLE CLASSES WILLIAM R. HARPER Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Chicago REVISED EDITION CHICAGO (Cbc lUntversfts of Cbfcago press Copyright igo2 By William R. Harper PREFACE. This treatment of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament is intended to serve as a guide for students who wish to take up the questions relating to the subject from an historical point of view. The materials for a preliminary study of the various topics are gathered together, and arranged with sugges- tions as to order and method of procedure. It is thought that the work proposed is within the reach of the more mature pupils in the Sunday school, although the needs of college and theo- logical students have been kept especially in mind. The general results of modern historical criticism have been taken as a basis for the work, since it is only from the point of view of history that these subjects may now be considered intelligently. Each special topic con- nected with the general subject of the Priestly Element furnishes a beautiful illustration of the growth and development of Israelitish and Jewish thought under the controlling influence of a conception of God which became more and more pure with the advancing centuries. Three methods of treatment have been employed, each being deemed best adapted to the case in hand, viz.: in Chapter I, a systematic statement of the scope of the Priestly Element ; in Chapters II-IV, an historical statement covering in barest outline the story of the Priestly Element as a whole, in its progress and development; in Chapters V-XI, a classified and comparative examination (indicated by questions and suggestions based upon the material presented) of the more important special factors which, taken together, constitute the Priestly Element. Some effort has been made to indicate definitely and fully the more acces- sible literature on each topic. I wish to express my appreciation of the assistance rendered me by my colleague, Dr. John M. P. Smith, especially in the arrangement and verification of the scriptural references, and the refer- ences to the literature on the various topics. For obvious reasons the latter have been arranged chronologically, the literature in languages other than English being placed by itself. A second series of studies, designed to supplement and complete the present work, is in process of preparation. In these it is proposed to take up (i) the priestly literature of the Old Testament, viz., the priestly histories, the codes of legislation, the Psalms ; (2) the priestly ideas as a whole ; and (3) the relation of the Priestly Element to the work of Old Testament Prophecy and Wisdom. William R. Harper. December i, iqoi. CONTENTS. Part I. THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. Chapter I. — The general scope of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament i Part II. THE HISTORY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. Chapter II.— The history of worship in the earlier Old Testament period . . 13 Chapter III.— The history of worship in the middle Old Testament period . . 27 Chapter IV.— The history of worship in the later Old Testament period ... 42 Part III. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES OF WORSHIP. Chapter V. — The laws and usages concerning the priest, considered compara- tively . . 61 Chapter VT. — The laws and usages concerning the place ot worship, consid- ered comparatively 74 Chapter VII. — The laws and usages concerning sacrifice, considered compara- tively 83 Chapter VIII. — The laws and usages concerning feasts, considered compara- tively 94 Chapter IX. — The laws and usages concerning the sabbath and kindred insti- tutions, considered comparatively 108 Chapter X. — The laws and usages concerning clean and unclean, considered comparatively '^9 Chapte"r XI. — The laws and usages concerning prayer and related forms of worship, considered comparatively 131 Paet Fiest I. General Scope of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament. CHAPTER I. THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. §1. Three Elements Enter into Religion. — The reli- gion of an individual or nation depends upon the promi- nence given to one or another of these elements: (i) ff^^rj-^z/, or, more technically, ^«//, a word which Pss. 103:1; 150. expresses the general attitude of the individual or group of individuals toward an outside higher world of super- natural or divine existence, and includes the outward acts that in various forms symbolize the inward thought. (2) Belief, or, more technically, creed, a word which Deut.6:4; expresses the peculiar intellectual position entertained by an individual or group of individuals concerning cer- tain facts supposed to be essential, and their explana- tion. (x\ G?//^«(:A or, more technically, ^//^/V.y, which includes Mic. 6:8; ^•^' r 1 Isa. 1:16,17; all the acts and feelings of man in so far as they are James 1:27. related to his duties to himself and to his fellows, and to the fundamental ideas of right and wrong. §2. Three Great Channels of Revelation are found in the Old Testament ; through these, separately and together, there has come down to us a wonderful story of the interworking of God and man. These are : (i) The word of the prophet, including the utter- ]^J- 'j^/^J^J ances through centuries of that unique order established to give to the Hebrew nation and to the world the "word " of God. (2\ The counsel of the saafe, including the wise say- Jer. i8:i8; V / o ' o J Pfov. I :g, 25, ings and philosophical teachings (in the form of proverbs, 30; 8:14. riddles, essays, dialogues, etc.) found, for example, in the books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. (3) The instruction (or law) of the priest, which forms Jer. 18:18; the subject of consideration in this and the following studies. §3. The Place of Worship is First of All to be Noticed. — In ancient times because it seemed to men that certain PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Kings 14:23; I Chron. 21 :2g; Exod. 19:2,3, 12. Gen. 12:6; 13:18. Gen. 16: 13, 14. Gen. 31:44-54; Gen. 28:18-22. Exod. 20:24-26; 1 Kings 7: 48; 2 Kings 16:10-15; Exod. 27:1-8; I Kings 2:28-30. Josh. 4:11; 1 Sam. 4:3-6; 2 Sam. 6:2-17; Exod. 25:10-21; Exod. 25: 22. 2 Sam. 7: 2-6; Exod. , chap. 26; Exod. 33:7-9; Numb. 17:4, 12, 13. I Kings 6:1,2, 14, 37, 38; Ezek. 43:1-12; Hag. 1:4-14; Ezra 3:12, 13; 6:13-18. places were more favored by the gods than were others, in modern times because men fancy that a certain environ- ment is especially conducive to the spirit of worship, the place has always been a subject of greatest importance. The place was in early days something connected with nature: (i) High places, or hills, were especially sought as being the abode of God. (2) Trees of a notable character are frequently referred to as connected with worship. (3) Springs, or wells, are places by the side of which angels were thought to dwell. (4) Sacred stones are mentioned as places to which the god came to meet his worshiper, and on which food was placed or libations of oil poured out. In each of these places Jehovah had shown his pres- ence, and it was for this reason that the hill or tree or spring or stone was sacred. (From Numb. 22 : 41 it is to be seen that this idea of sacred places was found among other nations; cf. also Isa. 16: 12.) The place was also often something of a more or less artificial chaxdiCXtr, as is seen jn the use of — (5) The altar, which was sometimes only of loose earth thrown up ; at others, of unhewn stone ; at still others, of gold and precious stones. This altar was the refuge and asylum of him who fled the hand of ven- geance, the witness of vows, the place on which the sac- rifice was laid. (6) The ark, or chest, a sacred box in which certain sacred things were deposited ; which was used in case of war, because it was thought to afford protection ; and was designated as a place of communion with God. (7) The tent, or tabernacle, a dwelling in which the ark was preserved, and around which the holiest associa- tions clustered. Moses made most practical use of it, and it came to occupy an important place in Hebrew thought and tradition. (8) The temple, which with the progress of civilization (the establishment of courts and the building of palaces) took the place of the tent, as being more dignified than GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 3 a tent. There was (a) Solomon's temple, erected at a significant period of national development; {f) the tem- ple of Ezekiel's vision, which was destined to play an important part in the history of Israel's religious thought ; and {c) the second temple, erected with some disappointment, after the return from exile. It is to be noted, once more, that communion with Exod. 3:8-5; God is sought and obtained in connection with natural ^' *^'* places (hills, trees, springs, stones) and with places constructed by man (altars, ark, tent, temple). It will be at a later time, when temples are destroyed, men are scattered, groups living here and there, when the realistic conception gives place to the idealistic, and the material to the spiritual, that synagogues and churches will spring into existence, and, thus in still another form, satisfy the inward craving of humanity for a sacred place, in which to offer worship to the unseen powers. § 4. The Priest, or Minister of worship, was the second necessity of worship, the first being the place. It was the priest vi\vo conducted the worship. (i) His function was threefold: to carry the ark, to Deut. 10:8; Judg. 17:7-13} minister to Jehovah, to bless in his name. In the earliest 18:3-6; Lev. 8:i-io. times the need of having some such priest was felt, his presence being thought to be attended with peculiar blessing. (2) The priest-idea became so strong in Israel that Deut. 14:2; the nation itself was understood to be a nation of priests, Ezra 7:21, 25, 26< or a priestly nation, set apart to minister to the other nations of the world. After the exile, kings ceased to sit on Israel's throne ; and priests, under the form of a hierarchy, controlled the affairs of the nation. This fact shows how great a role the priest played in Israelitish history. (3) Besides the priests and prophets who served and i Kings 18:19-22; spoke for Jehovah, there were at many times in Israel's Ezek. 8:15, 16. ' history priests and prophets whose lives were devoted to the service of other gods. / §5. Sacrifice was the most significant act of worship J in ancient times. PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Gen. i8: i-8; 1 Sam. i: 3-8; 9:23-25; Chron. 16:1-3. Ps. 51:18,19; Isa. i: n-17; Lev., chaps. 1-7; 8-10; 11; 12-15; etc. Gen. 8:20; Lev., chaps. 4,9. Lev. 3: 1-6; Judg. 20: 26. Gen. 35:14; Exod. 29: 40, 41; Numb. a8: 7. Exod. 30:1, 7-9; Numb. 4: 16. Lev., chaps. 5, 7, 14; Numb. 6: 12. (i) At first this was a social meal, a banquet in which the offerer and his friends participated and to which the deity was invited. There are frequent references to such sacrificial meals in which the members of a family, or of a clan, or, indeed, of a whole nation took part. This meal was full of joy, sometimes boisterous. Those who par- ticipated were eating and drinking with the deity ; it was a communion of the worshiper and his god. (2) In later times sacrifice became more formal, and gradually grew into an exclusively religious act. , The prophets strongly denounced sacrifice in which the true spirit of worship was lacking, or which in itself, without a proper life, was thought to gain Jehovah's favor. The book of Leviticus is devoted to the subject of sacrifice, viz., the method, the kinds, etc., etc. This more formal and exclusively religious conception of sacrifice came to prevail universally in the last centuries of Israel's history. (3) Several different kinds of offerings or sacrifice were distinguished, according as each expressed a par- ticular purpose, or was presented by a particular method ; among these were : {a) The burnt-offering, which consisted of the burning of a whole animal of the proper kind upon an altar as an offering to Jehovah. if) The peace-offering, which was also an animal sacri- fice, but differed from the burnt-offering in that it provided for the giving of only the blood and certain specified parts of the animal to Jehovah, the rest being eaten by the sacrificial guests. {c) The drink-offering, which was a libation of wine, or oil, usually made in connection with other offerings. {a) The incense-offering, in which fragrant spices were burned with the thought that the rising fragrance was acceptable to Jehovah. (^) The trespass-offering, which was made for the pur- pose of expiating offenses against Jehovah and man in which the damage could be estimated and covered by compensation ; the blood of the animal was poured out to Jehovah, the fat was burned on the altar, and the rest was the perquisite of the priests. GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 5 (/) The sin-offering, which occupied a very important Lev. 4:24-34; , . , , , r ,. , , , . , , Lev. , chap. 16; place m the cultus and of which the emphasis placed Numb., chap. 7; upon the shedding of blood is a conspicuous feature ; the specifications for this part of the ritual are very com- plete and detailed. ig) TAe wave-offering, consistins of certain portions Deut. 12:6-17; r , .,. , . , . , Numb. 15: ig-ai; of the sacrifice that were given over to the priests and Numb. 18:8-29; 111 1 r 11 1 r 1 ExOd. 29:27, 28, were waved by them before the altar as a token of the fact that they belonged to Jehovah, but had been given over by him to the priests. (4) Great care was taken as to the materials which Exod. 20:24; 29: 40; 30; i; might enter into a sacrifice. These were in general flesh, Lev. 2: i, 4, 13; 7^ 12* 231 I3» fine flour or meal, incense, oil, wine, cakes of dough, salt. Here again important conceptions were associated with each of the materials, and regulations were enacted prescribing the exact character and amount of materials to be used. § 6. The Times of Worship were an important item, for i Sam. 9:12, 13, these were the feast occasions; these were often merely iSam.i:3,4. the social meals of a clan ; or, in other cases, were con- nected with a pilgrimage. They had their origin in connec- tion with the times of the moon and the seasons, arising, as they did, out of the pastoral or agricultural life. Men whose hearts have the same tendencies are drawn together, and in the act of association there is worship ; for the more closely they are united, the nearer they may come to God. To know more of God is itself to worship him, and the highest form of worship is, perhaps, that which involves communion with others as well as with God. (i) There were three great feasts, the first coming in Exod. as : 14-17. the springtime, the second in the early summer, the third in the autumn. These correspond roughly to the more modern Easter, Pentecost, and Thanksgiving seasons. (2) There were also special feasts and feast days, hos.2:ii. which in early times seem to have been' of a joyous character. (3) There were days, like the Day of Atonement, Lev. 16:2934. which were days of affliction rather than of joy. PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Zech. 7:3-5; Esther 9: 38-31. Gen. 24: 12 fr.; I Sam. I :io; 8:6; I Kings 8:23-53; Isa. 38:2, 3; Weh. 1:4-11; 2: 4- Judg. 11:30-39; iSfim. 1:11; Judg. 13:3-7; Numb. 6: i-ia. I Kings 6: 19; Exod. 28:30; Gen. 20:3; 28: 18. 153.47:9; Jer.27:9; Mai. 3:5; Dan. 2:2; Deut. 18:9-13. Gen. 4:21; Amos 5 : 23 ; Isa. 30:29, 32; Jer. 48:36; Numb. 10: 2; 31:6; Josh. 6:4ff ; Pss. 137:2; 33:2; 2 Sam. 16: 14; Exod. 15: 20; P88.I49:3; 150:4. (4) There were also fast days, as well as feast days, celebrating some great calamity. § 7. Other Acts of "Worship. — In connection with and forming a part of worship were several specific acts, such as — (i) Prayer; this was always implied in the act of sacrifice, but very frequently it was independent of sacrifice. If the deity is a person, and if he has real inter- est in his clan or tribe or people, he will surely listen to them, when in distress their heart appeals for succor ; and also when in joy they express appreciation of some great favor which he has shown them. Abraham's prayer for the city in which his relatives dwelt is characteristic of the earliest and the latest periods of civilization, and is thoroughly typical of humanity. (2) The vow was a kind of prayer, very common in ancient times, and, when once made, regarded as invio- lable. It sometimes involved a simple gift; at other times, perhaps, as in the case of Jephthah, the sacrifice of a human life ; and again, as in the case of the Nazirite, it signified setting apart to the service of God. (3) The oracle and dream, as methods of ascertaining the divine will, must be counted as acts of worship. In these methods, as in all the others, the Israelites did not differ from the other ancient nations in the midst of whom they dwelt. (4) Sorcery was employed in many forms, for there were diviners, augurs, enchanters, charmers, consulters with familiar spirits, wizards, and necromancers; but acts of this kind were always forbidden. (5) Music and dancing wtxt z.Q.coxn'^zxiVtXitnX.'s, oi wor- ship. If worship is the expression of the heart in com- munion with God, it must include melody and rhythm, sound and movement. Music has always formed a part of worship, and in many cases dancing has accompanied, not only festival, but worship. §8. Songs and Hymns of Worship. — These furnish us, perhaps, the highest product of the priest-work ; for, although much of the Psalter is prophetic in its character, by far the greater part is the high and holy expression GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 7 of the soul of individual or nation in its deepest com- munion with God ; and nowhere in all literature may religious songs of so tender and deep a character be found as in the Hebrew Psalter, the hymn-book of the Hebrew temple, the work of the Hebrew priest. These have been variously and quite minutely classified; but here reference may be limited to — (i) Songs of thanksgiving, in which gratitude is Pss. 103; 134; 136. expressed for great favors received from Jehovah and his praises are gladly sung. (2) Songs of petition and prayer, in which the poet Pss. 80; 88; 102. pleads for the intervention of Jehovah in behalf of himself or of Israel, bringing deliverance from difficulty and danger, or restoration to divine favor. (3) Songs of penitential confession, in which the sin- Pss. 51; 116; 130. ner pours out his confession of sin and guilt. § 9. Laws Regulating Worship and Life were, likewise, largely formulated, promulgated, and executed by the priests. Legislation, therefore, in its stricter sense, was the function of the priests, rather than of the prophets or sages. The priest's work included something more than the various elements which enter into or are connected with what we would today call worship. In those days the religious life and the secular life were the same. Religion and politics were the same. This means that it was impossible to draw a line between religious life and ordinary life. The priest's work dealt with both. It Deut. 22: 1-12; , , , , . , , , Exod. 21:1-35; had to do, consequently, with such matters as the treat- 22:1-27. ment of one's neighbor's cattle, the treatment of birds, the buildina: of a house. There were laws, for example. Lev. 19:9-37; , , , . , , , Exod. 23: 1-9. concernmg the harvest, the oppression of the poor, the treatment of defectives, tale-bearing, etc., etc. These are a few examples only, taken from the great law- books, Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. It is to be understood, of course, that these laws, as they were from time to time formulated, included the teachings of the prophets and sages, as they appeared and did their work and passed away. But in addition to these laws of soci- ological character there were the laws which regulated 8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Exod. 33:18, 19; Deut. 30: 15-20; Lev., chap. 21. 2Chron.5:2— 7:2 cf. I Kings, chap. 8. Chron., chaps. 29-32; t/. 2 Kings, chaps, 18-20. 2 Chron. 35: tf. 2 Kings 23:21-23, the details of worship in all respects, e. g., the priest, his dress, his maintenance, the offerings, their material, etc., etc. These more strictly come into consideration in connection with topics already discussed (cf. §§3, 7). § 10. The History of Worship was naturally written or compiled by priests, and thus constitutes a part of the priest-work of the Old Testament. The history of Israel, as we find it in the books of Samuel and Kings, had already I Chron., chaps, ^ggn written (about 550 B. C). This history was prepared of divination of Joseph, and the teraphim Gen. 44:1-5- (see p. 16). (6) Songs and hymns, laws, and history -writing had Gen. 49:1-26; not yet taken formal shape ; or, at all events, they have Exod'. 2o:i-i7.' not come down to us in the form which existed in these early days. The present literary form of pieces like the "Blessing of Jacob," the " Song of Moses at the Red Sea," and the " Decalogue" comes from a time later than the settlement in Canaan. § 16. In the Canaanitish Stage of the Early Period the Judg. 2:1-5. worship was greatly changed. This was due partly to the change from nomadic to agricultural life, and partly to contact with Canaanitish forms of worship, which were peculiarly rich and fascinating. The name of the Canaanitish divinity, Baal, meant "lord." It is easy to see that the Israelite would feel that he was not doing justice to his God, if he did not pay him every possible honor, or at least the honors paid their gods by his neighbors, the Canaanites. Consequently much that was Canaanitish was now appropriated. (i) Places and representatives; here arise — id) The hi^h places, all over the land, which soon judg. 6:25-32; \ t t' -r 1 Sam. 1:3. became centers of corruption and licentiousness. Sam. 14 : 41 ; 28 : 3-6. 18 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT judg. 3:7; 6:25, (b) The pillars and the tree trunks, or Asherim, which 30; 9:6; 10:6. were to be found at the high places and were taken over into the Jehovah-worship which was carried on at these places. ]udg. 2o:27f.; [c) The ark or chest, which was thought to represent the deity, and which the people carried with them when , they went to battle, as in Eli's days. cf. Exod, 32:8, {d) The image of the serpent, or of the bull, which was "^ Numb. '21: 8 f.; adopted, now and again, as the proper representation of deity. [e) The Urim and Thunifnim, which were carried in a pocket of the priestly ephod, were in use as a means of ] discovering the divine will with reference to any course of action. Judg. 17:7; (2) Th.Q priest W2is sometimes a professional, bearing Judg. 18:3-5,19, , ^ ^ ^ ^ . ^ , . J ^ . r • , 20; the name Levite, and cultivated a certain professional Judg.6:i9;i3:i9; , , • , , • j t •. tt . 17:5; 6:25-27; tone by which he was recognized as a Levite. He f; II : 31, 39. ■' ° seems to have been more acceptable than the patriarch / or oldest son, who in the past had performed priestly duties, ly The priest went about wherever he could find employ- j ment. But the old family priesthood still continued, and sacrifice was not restricted to any class of priests. Judg. 6:19-21,26- (i\ Sacrifice was the same as before, an act of com- 28; 13:16-23; ^'^' ■' I Sam. 1:3-5,9, munion with the deity. The burnt-offering seems to 13-15 have occupied a more prominent place. I Sam. 20:5, 6, (4) Times and seasons. — Now there arose feasts of 18, 24, 27, 29 ; ^ ' Judg. 9:27;2i:i9; the moon ; the sabbath was also observed, probably as a I Sam. 1 : 3, 13. time of rejoicing; there were also the Feasts of Harvest and Vintage, because Israel had now become an agricul- tural people. These feasts furnished opportunity for drunkenness and licentiousness. (s) Other acts. — We read of the — Judg. 13:8; ^ ' 15:18; iSam. {a) Prayers of Manoah, Samson, and Hannah. Judg. 11:30, 31, {b) Vows of Jephthah and of Hannah, and of the 35-40; 21:1, 7, ti-ibes of Israel against Benjamin, because of its outrage am. I. II. upon the Levite's concubine. Judg. 13:3-5, {c) Visions of Samson's parents, and of the child iSam.'sri-iB. Samuel, during his sojourn in the temple at Shiloh. I Sam. 28:7-14. {d^ Sorcery and witchcraft in connection with Saul's attempt to learn the outcome of his contest with the Philistines. WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 9 (e) Music and dancing in connection with the yearly Judg. 21:19-21; I Sam. 10: 5; feasts at Shiloh, with the sons of the prophets, and, a little 16:16-22; 18:6, later, on the part of David. This was characteristic of the joyous spirit that permeated the religion of these times. (6) Songs and hvfnns are seen in the exodus sonsf, Exod. 15:1-21; Judg. , chap. 5; with its refrain; the song of Deborah; and the song of i Sam 2:1-10, Hannah. . (7) Laws were unquestionably taking form, under divine guidance, as the codification of custom. To what extent this was true is a matter of dispute between {a) those who believe that the Israelitish legislation, as it has come down to us, was the work of one generation, and of one man, Moses, and {b) those who believe that this legislation is the product of seven or eight centuries of history, although based upon and growing out of the work of Moses {cf. references to literature on § 14). § 17. In the Prophetic Stage of the Early Period great Amos, chap. 5; influences were at work to purge and purify the corrup- \sl''chlv'i.' tion which had entered into Israel's worship, and to teac h a conception of God which, in itself, would lead to a higher type of worship. This period begins roughly with Samuel's work of reformation and closes just before Josiah's reformation (621 B.C.). The great names of 2 Kings 23 : 1-3. the period are Samuel and David; Elijah, Elisha, and Jonah; Amos and Hosea ; Isaiah and Micah ; and, last of all, Zephaniah and Jeremiah, in whose days the refor- mation came. The details of this reformation belong to the second or middle period; but the preparation for 2 Kings 23 : 4-14. the great changes wrought in 621 B. C. was made by the prophets of the preceding centuries. The actual prac- tices of this sub-period were full of superstition. Let us first note what they were and then the attitude of the prophets toward them. ( I ) Pla ces of worsh ip . [a) The high places were still used in different parts i Sam. 9:12-14, of the country, as is seen in the cases of Samuel, whom iKi'ngs'3:3, 4; Saul first met at the sacrifice on the high place; of Solo- 12': 3rf.'; 14:23; mon, even when the temple had been built ; of Jeroboam ; 15:4; 17 '9, ",' 2Q 32 ! 18:41 of the people of Judah in Rehoboam's time and under etc. later kings ; and of Ahaz. 20 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 1 Kings 14: 23; {^) T/ig />t7/ars a»d A s/ierim occupied even a larger 10:27; 17:' 10; place than before, continuing in general use until the Hos.3:4; 10:1,2. f T ■ i_ reign of Josiah. 2 Sam., chap. 6; (c) The ark was transferred with great solemnity cf. I Chron. , ' s> j chaps. 13, 15, 16. to Jerusalem, when that city became under David the nation's capital. This supreme act of worship was accompanied by music and dancing. 1 Kings, chaps. 5, (d) The temple was built by Solomon ; this act was 6; 7:13-8: 66; -^ c/.\ Chron., full of significance for the future history of worship. 19; ' ' ' As the king had his palace, so Jehovah was to have his 2 Chron., chaps. , _,, . , , , , , 2-7. temple. The ceremonial would now be better organ- ized; a basis was furnished for future development; priests and singers must be provided for regular service. While at this central place the worship would henceforth be conducted in a purer form, but at the same time with luxurious magnificence, the old routine continued in all its corruption throughout the country at large. I Sam. 28:1-25. (g^ The spirit of Samuel, called Elohim (/. e., God), was thought to have been called forth after death by the witch of Endor, in order to speak with Saul at his request. 1 Kings 12:25-33; (/) The calves setup at Bethel and Gilgal were figures Hos. 8:5, e'. ' ' of Jehovah, intended to be worshiped by the Israelites of the north, in order that they might not be induced to go to Jerusalem for worship. I Kings 12 : 31-33 ; (2) 77/^ /r/W/ now became a more important person- I Kings 3: 15; ' age; the professional element increased. The bond I Kings 2:26, 27; , , 1 . , , , J 2Kings 11:4, 9, between those engaged in the same work was strengthened 2Kingsi6:'i2-i6.' by association. The Levitewas gaining ground, as over against the older patriarchal priest. The temple required professional service. Samuel was a priest, and in his time the monarchy took shape, which meant a separation of the state and church. With the royal sanction the priestly order was greatly strengthened ; but the king maintained supremacy and, according to the old patriar- chal idea, offered sacrifice as head. Since the priest was judge, he formulated decisions, which in later times were to become law. 1 Kings 8: 62-65; (3) Sacrifice was offered, sometimes upon a great Exod. 23:18; iscale ; the old idea of communion with God continued ; Mic. 6:7; ' and a great feature of the sacrifice was the element of 2 Kings 17: 17. WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD joy. The sacrifice might not be offered with leavened bread. The first-fruits of the ground were called for. Sometimes human sacrifice was offered. (4) Times were now more definitely fixed. {a) The sabbath was an established institution, what- ever may have been its origin. {f) The beginnings of a sabbatical year were made, in the custom of allowing the land to lie fallow every seventh year. (c) Three agricultural feasts, with dates dependent upon the climate, were observed, viz.: the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Easter time), in celebration of the departure from Egypt ; the Feast of Harvest, when the first-fruits were gathered ; and the Feast of Ingathering, in the autumn. (5) Other acts. (a) Prayers continued to be offered, as in the case of Samuel at Mizpah, and on the occasion of the people's demand for a king ; of David, after Nathan had made known to him Jehovah's purpose to establish his house in Israel, and on the occasion of the death of Bathsheba's child; of Solomon, at the time of the dedication of the temple at Jerusalem ; of Elijah, for the restoration of the widow's son to life, and on Mount Carmel ; and of Heze- kiah, for deliverance from Sennacherib. ((5) Vows were still made, as, for example, in the case of Absalom, and of the Nazirites. {c) Oracles and dreams are seen in David's inquiry of Jehovah after the death of Saul, and before the battle with the Philistines in the valley of Rephaim ; in Jehovah's message to David through Nathan ; in Solomon's dream at Gibeon ; in Ahab's consultation of the prophets before advancing upon Ramoth-Gilead ; and in the use made of the brazen altar by King Ahaz. The visions of Amos and Isaiah may also be mentioned in this con- nection. (d) Sorcery was practiced, for it was distinctly opposed by Saul and Samuel (although Samuel himself is said to have been called from the grave by a witch), and by later prophets. Exod. 20:8; Exod. 23:12; Hos. 2: II ; 2 Kings 4 : 23 • 11:5, 7, 9; 16:18. Exod. 23: 10, 1 Exod. 23:14-17; Exod. 34:22, 23; I Kings 8:2; 12:32; Hos. 2:11. 1 Sam. 7:5, 8, 9J 8:6; 12:23; 2 Sam. 7: 18-28; 12:16; I Kings 8 : 22-54 ; 1 Kings 17:20-22; 18:36,37; 2 Kings 19:15-19. 2 Sam. 15:7, 8; Amos 2:12. 2 Sam. 2:1; 5:23, 24; 2 Sam. 7:4; iKingS3:5ff. ; 22 : 5-28 ; 2 Kings 16: 15; Amos 7:1-9; 8:iff.; Isa., chap. 6. I Sam. 28:3-40; Isa. 8:19; 19:3; Mic. 5: 12. 22 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT I Sam. 10:5; {e) J/«jzV <2«^/^ were greatly developed in con- a Sjun/e^'s/i-J, nection with the feasts and the worship on the high places, lsa.'3o:29; and the regular services of the temple at Jerusalem which ingsi.4o. contributed much to the enrichment of the worship of Jehovah. I Sam. 18:7; (6) Songs were sung, sometimes of a secular character, 2Sam'. 3:33f^V as when the women of Israel praised the warlike deeds of a Sam?; chap. 82 Saul and David, and when David lamented the death of ^' ^^" Saul and Jonathan, or that of Abner, or of Absalom ; at other times of a religious character, as perhaps when David sang upon the occasion of his deliverance from Saul (but see §19). § 18. The Prophets' Attitude toward the actual prac- tice of the people, as it was conducted by the priests, was that of undisguised opposition. It is asserted many times that — Amos 7:9; (i) The high places were an occasion of sin, and M^c! i°s;' aroused Jehovah's anger, and must therefore be destroyed. I Kings 14:22,23. r^^^^ ^gj.g Qj^g Qf jj^g j^Qgj. effective channels of corrup- tion to the worshipers of Jehovah. Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1; (2) The priests were altogether corrupt and self-seek- mK:!!; ing; they were the leaders in sin, going to the farthest zeph. 3:4. extremes of debauchery and licentiousness, and carry- ing the people down to destruction along \vith them- selves. Amo84:4; 5:22; (3) Sacrifice was displeasing to Jehovah, since the Hos.4:i3,^m;, people were multiplying offerings with the thought that this was all that was necessary to secure Jehovah's bless- ing; whereas justice and mercy were alone pleasing to him. Amos 5:21; (4) Feast days and seasons had become occasions of orgiastic revelry and must be brought to an end. These were in large measure borrowed from the Baal-worship, and were not yet wholly purified. (5) Prayer was in vain, no matter how fervent and frequent, since it came from people whose hearts were evil, and their hands red with blood, isa. 8:19; 19:3; (6) Sorcery and witchcraft were condemned and regarded as unworthy of a people whose worship should be given to Jehovah. ia:ii Mic. 6:6-8 6:4-6; Isa. i:is; Mic. 3:4. Mic. 5: WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 23 § 19. The Songs and Hymns of the Early Period furnish one of the most difficult questions within the entire realm of biblical study. Modern scholars, for the most part, teach (i) that the law is the prod- uct of many centuries of history conducted by God in such a manner as to produce that law, the basis being found in the work of Moses ; and (2) that to ascribe the whole to Moses permits no opportunity for gradual unfolding of the divine plan. So they teach (i) that most of the seventy-three psalms ascribed by tradition to David belong to a later age, when ideas of God were higher and purer than in David's times, and when the worship of God by leaders and people had become pure and spiritual; and (2) that to ascribe these psalms, or most of them, to David is to turn the history of Israel's religious thought wrong side foremost, and to presuppose in David's times a condition of spiritual life on the part of David and the people which could not have existed until centuries later. This very serious and important ques- tion may not be taken up here. It is to be noted, however, that in the case of the psalms, as in the case of the law, whatever may have been the date of origin, the people never reached a position in which they could use these psalms (with a few exceptions) as the expression of their spiritual communion with God, until {a) the prophets had preached long centuries, {I)) the priests themselves had united to purge and purify a corrupt worship, (c) the city of Jerusalem was destroyed and the land laid waste, {d) the inhabitants were carried away into a for- eign country, and (i'//y in its character, for {a) a king no longer sits on Judah's throne ; {b) the prophet's voice and authority are now largely a thing of the past ; Zech. 3:1-7; while {c) it is the high-priest who occupies the place of ^■"' supremacy alike in church and state. In Israel's earli- est days the king acted as priest ; now the priest acts as king. (3) It is distinctly an ecclesiastical situation which presents itself to our view ; in fact, we are studying the history of a church, not that of a state. Neh.,chap. 8. (4) In view of all this, it is natural enough to find that the great event which characterized this period, the 42 WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 43 event which the sacred historians chronicled with especial emphasis, was the promulgation of the Levitical laiv by Ezra, With this we may compare the giving of the Deuteronoihic law, in its relationship to the middle period (§28). § 38. The Situation Culminating with the Building of the Temple, 516 B. C, presents the following, among other, elements which may be taken as directly grow- ing out of the exile and leading tip to this later period : (i) Jeremiah's teaching of individualism, which empha- Jer. 31 :29-34; sized the fact that each individual sustained a distinct Deut.'24:i6.' personal relation to Jehovah in addition to his relation to him as a part of the nation. Each man is responsible for his own sins and for those only, and his acceptance with God depends upon himself alone. (2) Ezekiel's teaching of the new communiiy , 2i ntvf Ezek., chaps. 40- city in which no government will be needed, for there ''^' will be no crime and no injustice. God will be judge. He will bestow upon the people all that they need. The city will have no obligation to provide for the wel- fare of the people. God will fight Israel's battles, and Ezek. 39:1-16; Israel's only work will be to bury the corpses of the '^^'illi%^X^-^o. slain. What, now, will prince and people do ? Engage in worship, continual worship. The only object of care will be the temple and its materials ; the only taxes will be church taxes. This is Ezekiel's vision of the kingdom of God on earth. (3) There is general recognition of the idea that Ezek., chap. 18; Israel's religion, and, indeed, its national existence, was '^^^^■^■^°-^'^- not dependent upon a monarchy, nor, indeed, upon any particular form of government. (4) There exists a more general readiness to accept zech. 1:15; the teachings of the prophets, which at the time of their f/joei2:28,29. utterance were unheeded or rejected. (5) The necessity for meeting together in small groups Ezek. s : i ; for worship, and the nature of the exercises possible cf!vs^n- 8 under the circumstances, viz., public reading of scrip- ture and prayer, are leading to the organization of syna- gogues. 4 4 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Eiod. 20:23- (6) With the book of the Covenant (§ 20), and the book of Deuteronomy (§ 25) which had become the adopted code of religious life, and the more recent and more elabo- Ezek., chaps. 40- rate program of worship suggested by Ezekiel (§31), all p,vi-e.s, Magic, Divina- tion and Demonology, p. 75; Ryle, Ezra and Mehemiah (Cambridge Bible Series), p. 33 ; NOWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 93 f.; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 382, 407 f.; Baudissin, Die Geschichte des alttestament- lichen Priesterthu?ns untersucht, pp. 26 f.; Stade, Geschichte des Vulkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 156, 471-3, 505 f., 5171. 66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT §6i. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid- ered, write a paper on "The Priest in Early Israelitish History," observing the following suggestions: (i) include only what can be corroborated by references to the literature of this period (see above); (2) use great caution in making general statements upon the basis of few facts ; (3) remember that much may be gained by ascertaining what did not exist. §62. The Priest of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described {a) in the laws of Deuteronomy, {b) in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings, and {c) by the prophets of the Deuter- onomic period/ 1. The Levites, that is, the priests, become a distinct class. Deut. 10:8; 18 : 1 ; i Sam. 2 : 28 ; Jer. i : 18; 8:1; 13:13; 23 : 33 f.; 26 : 7 f., II, 16 ; 28 : I, 5 ; 33 : 21 ; 34 : 19. 2. The service rendered by "the priests the Levites." Deut. 10 :8 ; 21 : 5 ; 33:8-10; 26 : 3 ff . ; 27:14; 17:18; 31:9; 17:8, 9, 12 ; 19 : 17 ; 20 : 2 ; 24 : 8 ; Jer. 18 : 18. 3. The prophets' estimate of the priest. Jer. 2:8; 5:31 ; 6:13; 14:18; 23 : 11 ; 32:32; Zeph. 3:4. 4. A later view of the wickedness of Eli's sons. 1 Sam. 2 : 27-36. 5. The relative authority of priest and prophet. Jer. 29: 25 f.; 5 : 31 ; 20 : I ff. ; 11: 18-23 \ g?,) ; Hummelauer, Das vormosaische Priesterthutn in Israelii 899); VAN HooNACKER, Le Sacerdoce levitique (1899), ^"d " Les Pretres et les Ldvites dans le livre d'Ezekiel," Revue bibligue, 1899, pp. 177-205. See also the commentaries of Delitzsch, Dillmann, Holzinger, and Gunkel on Genesis ; of Dillmann, Holzinger, and Baentzsch on Exodus ; of Dillmann and Baentsch on Leviticus; of Steuernagel and Bertholet on Deuteronomy; and of Davidson, Bertholet, and Kraetzschmar on Ezekiel. §72. Supplementary Topics . 1. Consider that the Psalter was the songbook of the temple, and from an examination of Pss. 78 : 64 ; 99 : 6 ; 105 : 26 ; 106 : 16, 30 f. ; no: 4; 115 :io, 12; 118:3; 132:9.16; 133:2; 134:1-3; 135:19^ formulate the thought relating to the/r/^j-/ which is found in the Psalter. 2. Why do no direct references to the work and life of the. priest occur in the Wisdom Literature, /. e., in Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs ? 3. Consider briefly the subject of the priest in New Testament writings, ^. ^., Matt. 2:4;8:4; 12:4 f. ; 16:21; 20: 18; 21:15; 26 :3; 27:1; Mark 2 : 26 ; Luke i : 5, 8, 9 ; 10:31; 17:14; John i : 19; 72 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Acts 4 : 1, 36 ; 6:7; Heb. 2:17; 3:1; 4 : 14 f. ; 5 : i, 5 f., 10 ; 6 : 20 ; chap. 7; 8:i,3f.; 9:6 f., 11, 25; 10:11,21; 13:11; i Peter 2 : 5, 9 ; Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20 : 6 ; etc., and indicate such points of difference, as compared with the position and work of the priest in the Old Testa- ment, as seem most important. 4. Compare roughly the place of the priest among the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points of similarity and differ- ence as compared with that of the priest among the Hebrews. See W. R. Smith, article " Priest" in Encyclopedia Britannica ; the articles " Pontifex" and " Sacerdos " in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities; Martha, Les Sacerdoces atheniens. 5. Consider the original meaning and exact usage of the words for priest, in Hebrew "IJlS, Greek i(.pvo^,'L,2X\Xi sacerdos. Cf. W. R. Smith, article "Priest " in Encyc. Brit., Vol. XIX, p. 746 ; Nowack, Hebr. Arch., Vol. II, pp. 89 f. ; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, pp. 130 f. 6. Consider the place of the priest among the Assyrians, the Arabs, and the Canaanites, who were closely related Semitic nations, and note points of similarity and difference as compared with his place among the Hebrews. See especially Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria {Index) ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites {Index); McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments {Index) ; Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Cus- toms, pp. 249 ff.; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff. 7. Consider the conception which existed among the Israelites that their nation was a kingdom of priests {cf. Exod. 19:6), the basis of this conception, the extent to which it was held, the influence which it exerted, and its connection with other Israelitish ideas, e. g., with the idea of God, with the idea of the Day of Jehovah, and with their con- ception of their relation to the world. 8. Consider, in general, what may be called the outside fu fictions of the priest,/.*?., those functions which were not distinctly priestly; e.g., his place in war, Deut. 20:2; Numb. 10:1-9; i Sam. 4:4, 11; in education, Lev. 10: 11; Neh. 8 : 2, 9, 13; in administration of justice, Deut. 17 : 8 f., 12 ; 19 : 17 ; 21 : 5 ; in prophecy, Deut. 33 : 8 ; Jer. 1:1; Ezek. 1:3; 4:14. 9. From a study of the books of Maccabees prepare a statement showing what were the place, the function, the character, the influence, the dress, the place of residence, and the maintenance of ihe priesthood about 165 B. C. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 73 See, ^. i^., I Mace, chap. 2 ; 3 : 45-51 ; 4 : 38, 42 f.; 5 : 6 f.; 7 : 9, 14 £f.^ 20-25, 33-38; io:2of., 32; 11:23-27, 57 f.; 12:5-23; 13:36 ff., 42; 14 : 20, 23, 27-49 ; 15 : 1 f., 6, 21, 24 ; 16: 11 ff., 24 ; 2 Mace, i ; 15 ff., 19-36 ; 2:17; 3:1, 9, 15 f., 21, 32-36; 4:7ff-. 24, 29; 11:3; 14 : 3. 7. 13 ; 15 : 12. 10. Take up more seriously the general relation of the priest to the prophet ; e. g., (a) Was there an early time and a later time when the two offices were not clearly distinguished ? (^) What were the circumstances, in each case, which led to this lack of distinction ? (c) How far may the priest be said always to have been engaged in struggle with the prophet ? (d) What was the relation of each to the other (i) in order of time, (2) in order of thought ? 11. Consider the significance of the priest as a mediator between God and the people. What influences led to the idea that this class of men could obtain access to God more readily than other men ? What was the relation between the growth of the idea of priestly medi- ation and the acceptance of larger ideas of God ? CHAPTER VI. THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP, CONSID- ERED COMPARATIVELY. §73. The Place of Worship in the Early Period, that is, as described in (a) tlie Covenant Code, (/;) the historical material of J and E, (c) the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and(^ the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i). 1. The only reference in the Covenant Code.' Exod. 20 :24ff. 2. The patriarchs had sanctuaries in various places, according to convenience. Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24 i.; 28:17, 22; 35:14; Judg. 20 : 18, 26 ff.; 21 : 4. 3. A tent of meeting was used as the place for seeking God. Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; Numb. II : 16 f., 24 £.; 12:4-10; i Kings 2 : 28-30. 4. There was a chest or ark which contained articles emblematic of the divine presence. Numb. 10 : 33-36 ; Josh., chap. 3 ; Judg. 20 : 27. 5. There were local shrines, at which offerings were made. Exod. 3: i; 20 : 24; Numb. 23:1-6, 14-17 ; Judg. 6 : 18-26 ; 13:15- 23 ; 20 ; 18, 26 ff.; 21:4; i Sam. i : 3, 21 ; 2:14; 3 : 1-21 , 10:8; 14 : 35 ; I Kings 3:4; 18 : 30-38 ; Deut. 27 : 5-7. 6. In course of time a temple was built for the worship of Jehovah. 2 Sam. 7:1-7; 24:21-25; I Kings 6:1-38; 2 Kings 12:4-16; 15:35^/ 18: 15 f. 7. The altar was used as a place of refuge, and as such was sacred. I Kings 2 : 28-30. 8. The prophets make reference to places of worship. Amos 2:8;3:i4;4:4; 5:5; 7:9, 13; 8:14; 9:1; Isa. i: 12 ; 6: i, 4; 8:14; Hos. 4 :i3, 15; 8:1; 9: 4, 8, 15; 10: 8; 12: ii; Mic. 3 : 12. §74. Questions and Suggestions. I. Consider, in reference to Exod. 20: 24-26, (a) the meaning of the emphasis laid on ear//i as the material for the altar; {d) the reason 'The following are J-references: Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24!.; 35:14; Exod. 33: 7-11 (?); Numb, ii: 16 f.,24 f.; Josh., chap. 3 (in the main); Numb. 23: 1-6, 14-17 (?). The following are E-references : Gen. 28:17, 24; Exod. 20:24£f.; Numb. 12:4-10; 10:33-36; Exod.3:i; Deut. 27:5-7. 74 LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 75 for objection to stone as a material ; (c) the reason for objection to steps ; and [d) the general primitive character of the whole regulation. (C/.§i5.) 2. What connection was there between this primitive form of the altar and the custom of the patriarchs to build an altar wherever they pitched their tents ? (Cf. § 15 (i) .) 3. Consider the occasions on which reference is made to the tent of meeting, and note the uses made of it. 4. Was the use made of the ark or chest one which elevated Israel, or one which, upon the whole, encouraged a low conception of God ? 5. Was there anything to indicate that this or that place should be used as a shrine or place of worship ? Was there danger that in the use of these widely scattered shrines corrupt practices might be intro- duced ? (C/:§i8(i).) 6. What were the political and social factors that were connected with the building of the temple ? What immediate effects upon wor- ship might be expected to follow ? {C/. § 17 (i-) (d) .) 7. On what principle did the use of the altar as an asylum or place of refuge rest ? Was this a usage among other nations ?' 8. What impression does one gather from the references made by the prophets to places of worship ? § 75. Place of Worship in the Middle Period, that is, as described in (a) the laws of Deuteronomy, (d) the utterances of the Deuteronomic prophets, and (c) the Deuteronomic histories. 1. All local sanctuaries are prohibited.^ Deut. 12 : 2-4, 13, 17 ; 16 : 5 ; 2 Kings 23 : 1-20. 2. Jerusalem is the only authorized place for worship. Deut. 12:5-8, II, 12, 14, 18, 26 f.; 14:23-26; 15 : 19 f.; 16:2, 5-7, II, 15 f.; 26:2 ; I Kings 12 : 25 — 13 : 6 ; 21:7; 22 : 3-8. 3. The temple at Jerusalem becomes the supreme court of justice. Deut. 17 : 8 ff. 4. The ark is the receptacle of the two stone tables of the law. Deut. 10: 1-5, 8. 5. The prophets' teaching concerning the temple. Jer. 7 : 1-5, lo-i 5 ; 12:7; 17 : 12, 26 ; Zeph. 3:4; Hab. 2 : 20. - Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 148 f.; G. F. Moore, article "Asylum" in Encydop(Edia Bibhca; J. G. Frazer. " The Origin of Totemism and Exogamy," Fortnightly Review, K-^rW, 1899; Stengel, article "Asylon" in Realeh- cyclopddie der dassischen Alterthumswissenschaft ; Barth, De Asylis Graccis. 3 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron- omy. 76 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 6. The destruction of Solomon's temple. 2 Kings 25 :q, 13-16. § 76. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Consider the circumstances which, in the course of centuries, led to the prohibition of local sanctuaries. What was to be gained by this revolution in practice ? {Cf. § 28 (3).) 2. What must have been the sociological changes which followed the centralization of worship in one place, e. g., its effect on commerce ; on the general intelligence of the people ; on the relative position of men and women ; on habits of life ? {Cf. § 28 (7).) 3. What would naturally follow such a change of practice in the relative desirability of city and country life, and what would be the effect upon Jerusalem as the center of political and judicial life? 4. Consider the material of which the chest was made and the use to which it was put. 5. Note how in this period the temple had fallen into disrepute in the opinion of the prophets, and why this happened. 6. Consider the details and the significance of the destruction of Solomon's temple. § 77. The Place of Worship in Ezekiel. 1. There is evidence of the existence of irregular altars. Ezek. 6 : 3, 4. 6, 13. 2. The temple at Jerusalem is represented as the only lawful sanctuary. Ezek, 20 : 40. 3. The temple is desecrated by those who profane its use. Ezek. 8:3-18; 23:38 £.; 44:6-8. 4. Feeling toward those who took part in the destruction of the temple. Ezek. 25:3. 5. The future temple. Ezek. 37:26-28; 40:5 — 43: 17; 44:9; 45 =3; 46 : 1-3; 46: 19-24; 48:8 f., 21. § 78. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Consider the fact that at so late a time as that of Ezekiel there still existed irregular altars, and what was involved in this fact. 2. Note Ezekiel's statement as to the proper place of worship in the future {cf. § 31 {a)). 3. What were the prophet's feelings as to the abuse of the temple in his times ? LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 7/ 4. Consider the relation of Ezekiel's temple {i. e., the temple of his vision) to that of Solomon, {a) architecturally, {b) in the promi- nence it is to occupy in the routine of worship. § 79. The Place of Worship in the Later Period, that is, as described {a) in the laws of the Levitical Code, {i>) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. 1. Worship may be conducted only at one central sanctuary.** Lev. 17:1-9; Exod. 29 : 42-45 ; 2 Chron. 11:16; Neh. 8:16; cf. Isa. ig : ig. 2. Ancient sanctuaries are condemned. Lev. 26 : 27-31 ; Josh. 22 : g-34 ; Isa. 27 : g; i Chron. 21 : 28 f.; 2 Chron. i : 1-5 ; 32 : 12 ; 33 : 17. 3. Description of the tabernacle and its furnishings. Exod. 25:8 — 27:19; 35:4 — 40:38; Numb. 8:1-4; Exod. 27 : 20 f.; Lev. 24:1-4; Numb. 7:1-83. 4. Description of the ark. Exod. 25 : 10-22 ; 37 : 1-9 ; 2 Chron. i : 1-5, 5. The building of Solomon's temple. 1 Chron. 17 : I ff.; 2i:i5£f.; 21:28 f.; 22:6£f.; 23:iff.; 28:1-3 1 1-2 1 ; 2 Chron. 2 : 1 — 5 : i ; chaps. 6 and 7. 6. The building of the second temple. Ezra I :2ff.; 2 :68 ; 3 :8-i3 : 5 : 2-5 ; 5 :6 £f.; 6 : 3 ff., 14 £f.; 7 : ig-23 7. A later view of the place of the tabernacle in religious life. Numb. 9 : 15-23. 8. Later views of the place of Solomo.n's temple in Israel's wor- ship. 2 Chron. 20 : 28 ; 24:4-15; 27:2f.; chap. 2g. 9. The sanctuary as the place of God's self-manifestation. Exod. 25 : 22 ; 2g : 43 ; Numb. 16:41 £f.; Mai. 3:1; Numb. 7 :89. 10. The altar of burnt-offering. Lev. 1:10 ff.; 6:9-13; Numb. 16:36-40; 7:84-88. 11. The prophets' attitude toward the sanctuary. Isa. 56 : 7 ; 60 : 7 ; Hag, i : 2-4, 7 £.; 2 : 3, g ; Zech. 1:16; 4 : g ; 6:12-15; 8:g; I4:i6ff.; Mai. 3 : i ; Mic. 4 : 1-4 ; Joel i : g, 13 f. 16 ; Dan. 8:11; g : 17 ; 11:31. 12. Holiness of the sanctuary. Lev. 26:2; 19:30; 8:iof.; Numb. 3:31!. ; 4:4-15; Neh. 6:10 f.; 13 : 4 ff.; 2 Chron. 33 : 4. 7, 15 ; 36:17 ; Dan. 8:11; g:i7; 11:31. * References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 78 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT § 80. Questions and Suggestions. I. Note that what was represented as a matter of reform in the middle period, viz., the restriction of worship to a single central sanctuary, now appears as a fundamental principle, everywhere taken for granted. - 2. Consider the attitude of writers of this period to the sanc- tuaries which had existed in earlier times. 3. Note (a) the great detail with which the tabernacle is described; (d) the elaborate character of the tabernacle from an artistic point of view ; and consider whether this description is to be taken (i) literally, a tent of this kind having actually existed in the earliest times, or (2) as a piece of splendid idealization, similar in some respects to Ezekiel's vision. What is involved in each of these propositions? 4. What, in general, was the ark, and what, in particular, was the purpose it was intended to serve? 5. Compare the references in Chronicles to the building of Solo- mon's temple with those in Kings (§73(6)), and classify the results of the comparison. 6. Consider in the case of the second temple (a) the date of its erection ; {^) its relative size and character in comparison with the first ; (c) the special circumstances under which it was built. 7. What was the later view of the place of the tabernacle in Israel's religious life, as seen in Numb. 9: 15-23? 8. Consider later views also as to the place of Solomon's temple in Israel's worship. 9. To what extent was Israel's God believed to use the sanctuary as a place for manifesting his presence? 10. What was the altar of burnt-offering and its peculiar function? I I. How did the later prophets regard the sanctuary and its service? 12. What is meant by the holiness of the sanctuary, and in what did this consist ? § 81. Literature to be Consulted. James Fergusson, article "Temple " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863) ; EWAI.D, The Antiquities of Israel {t,A ed. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. 1 17-30; KuENEN, The Religion of Israel {i^bg f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. I, pp. 96-100, 241 f., 256-60, 305 f., 328 ff., 334-9, 390-95 ; Oehi.er, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp. 250-58; EuERSHEiM, The Temple, its Ministry and Services as They Existed in the Time of Jesus Christ (1874); Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v. " Sacred Springs, etc.;" Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel [li'j^), pp. 17-51; CoNDER, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1882, pp. 75 ff.; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (1st ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 79 "Sanctuaries;" H. P. Smith, "The High Place," The Hebretv Student, 1883, pp. 225-34 ; CONDER, Heth and Moab (1883), chaps, vii, viii ; Perrot AND Chipiez, His- tory of Art in Phoenicia (1885) ; E. C. Robins, The Temple of Solomon (1887); Conder, Syrian Stone Zcr^ (1887), pp. 42 f., 70; KiTTEL, History of the Heire7vs {iS8S-g2, transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " Robertson, Early Religion of Israel {i%S()), see Index, s. v. "Sanctuaries," "Tabernacle," "Temple," etc.; W. R. Smith, article "Temple" in Encyclopedia Britannica (1889); W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites {isi ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), PP- 140-212; H. Sully, The Tem- ple of EzekieVs Prophecy (1889); Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in fudcea (1890) ; J. Pollard, "On the Baal and Ashtoreth Altar Discovered .... in Syria," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, 1891, pp. 286 ff.; Duff, Old Testa- ment Theology (1891-1900), see Indexes, s. z*. " Altar," "Place," " Sanctuary," etc.; ScHULTZ, Old Testametit Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. " Sanctuary," " Tabernacle," "Temple," etc.; C. B Ahi^iNG, /erusalew's Temple (1892); Montefiore, i?f/«^zo« of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index, s. v. " High Places," "Temple ; " J. Strong, "The Tabernacle," Biblical World, Vol. I (1893), pp. 270-77; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vols. I-HI (1895-1901), see Index, s. v. " Temple ; " Driver, Deuteron- omy (1895), pp. xliii-li; W. G. Moorehead, Studies in the Mosaic histittitions (1S96), pp. 31-90 ; Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant {i8g6), pp. 1-164; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), pp. 200-206; H. B. Greene, " Hebrew Rock Altars," Biblical World, Vol. IX (1897), pp. 329-40 ; A. BiJCHLER, "The Fore- Court of Women and the Brass Gate in the Temple of Jerusalem," Jewish Quarterly Review, 1898, pp. 678-718 ; J. A. Seiss, "The Great Temples at Baalbec," Lutheran Church Review, 1898, pp. 27 1-93 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia ana Assyria (iSgS), see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " G. C. M. Douglas, " Ezekiel's Temple," Expository Times, 1898, pp. 365 ff., 420 ff., 468 ff., S15-19; A. S. Kennedy, article "Altar" in Hastings' Z>?V^w«arj/ of the Bible (1898); C. Schick, " Remarks on the Taber- nacle Controversy," Palestine Exploration Eund Quarterly Statement, 1898, pp. 241-3; Em. Schmidt, "Solomon's Temple," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 164-71; A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs (1899), pp. 246 ff.; W. E. Addis, article "Altar" in Encyclopczdia Biblica (1899); W. C. Allen, article " High Place" in Yix^lVAGi^ Dictionary of the Bible (1899); Benson and Gourlay, The Temple of Mut in Asher, etc. (1899) ; T. F. Wright, " Was the Tabernacle Oriental ?" Journal of Biblical Literature, 1899, pp. 195-8; Th. G. Soares, "Ezekiel's Temple," Biblical World, Yol.XlV (1899), pp. 93-103; S. I. Curtiss, "The High Place and Altar at Petra," Palestine Exploration Eund Quarterly Statement, 1900, pp. 351-5 ; L. W. Batten, " The Sanctuary at Shiloh," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 29-33; G. Allen, "Sacred Stones," Eortnightly Revie7v,]a.i\-az.Yy, 1900; Stibitz, " The Centralization of Jehovah Worship in Israel," Reformed Church Review, January, 1900; JOHN Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle: Studies in the Priesthood and the Sanctuary of the Jews (1901); G. F. MooRE, article " High Place" in Encyclo- pcedia Biblica (1901). Bahr, Der salomonische Tempel, mit Beriicksichtigung seines Verhdltnisses zur hebrdischen Architektur iiberhaupt{i8^8)\ Merz, article " Tempel " m Real-Encyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (ist ed. 1854-68, 2d ed. 1877 ff.) ; Balmer- RiNCK, Des Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel (1858); Kamphausen, " Bemer- kungen iiber die Stiftshiitte," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1858, pp. 97-121 ; 80 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 1859, pp. 110-20; Fries, "Zu Kamphausen's Bemerkungen iiber die Stiftshiitte," ' Theologische Stiidien und Kritiken, 1859, pp. 103-10; Poi'PER, Der biblische Bericht iiber die Stiftshiitte (1862); RiGGENBACH, " Die mosaische Stiftshiitte : Seibstanzeige," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1863, pp. 36 1-8 ; H. Pierson, Z)i? /^«7/^^ steenen in lsrael{\Zbi, ff.) ; H. OORT, " De heiligdommen van Jehovah te Dan en te Bethel voor Jerobeam I.," Theologisch Tijdschrift, \'ib'], ■^■\^. i^^-iob; T)vy\.m, Die Theologie der Propheten (1875), pp. 312-20: Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol.11 (1878), pp. 143-269; KiJHN, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel der Vollen- dungszeil," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1882, pp. 601-88; Kohlbrugge, Die Stiftshiitte und ihre Gerdthe (1882); Stade, "Der Text des Berichtes iiber Salomos Bauten, I Ko. 5-7," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamenihche Wissenschaft, 1 883, pp. 129-77; Smend, " Ueber die Bedeutung des jerusalemischen Tempels in der alttestamentlichen Religion," Theologische Studien uttd Kritiken, 1884, pp. 689-740 ; SCHURER, article " Tempel Salerno's" in Riehm's Handw'orterbuch des biblischen Alter- thums (1884); H. Pailloux, Monographie du temple de Salomon (1885); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887 i.). Vol. I, pp. 325-43, 446-67; Vol. II, pp. 45 ff., 113-28, 245-51 ; Wellhausen, /?este des arabischen Heidenthutns (1887), pp. 42-60, 98-105, 113, 171; Th. Friedrich, Tempel und Palast Salomos ti. s. w. (1887); O. Wolff, Der Tempel von Jerusalem und seine Maasse (1887); H. L. Schouten, De tabernakel Gods heiligdom by Israel (1888); C. Chipiez et G. Perrot, Le temple de Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Libanon, restitues d'apris Ezechiel et le livre des Kois (1889); F. V. Andrian, ZJ^r Hdhenkult asiatischer und europdischer V'dlker (1891); Piepenbring, "Histoire des lieux de culte et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de Phis- toire des religions. Vol. XXIV (1891), pp. 1-60, 133-86; E. de Broglie, "La loi de I'unitd de sanctuaire en Israel," Compte rendu du congris scientifique international des catholiques, 1892, 2d sect., pp. 69-89; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischeft Reli- gion (1897), pp. 27-31, 98-103; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions- geschichte {is\. ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), pp. 128-38; Benzinger, Ilebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 243-9,364-404; ^OVJ ACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie {\8gt\), Vol.11, pp. 1-86; Dlhl.U AN'N, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie {\8<^^), %&& /wfl'ifjf, J. z/. "Tempel;" H. A. "^oy-YJ-,, Le sanctuaire de Kirjath-Jeariin (1895); S. A. Fries, Den israelitiska kultens centralisation (1895) > E. SCHURE, Sanctuaires d'Orient, £gypte, Grice, Palestine (1898); Aug. Freiherr von Gall, Altisraelitische Kult- stdtten (1898); B. A., "Die heiligen Statten in Palastina," Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung (1898), No. 221 ; F. Tournier, "Notes sur les temples paiens de furvi&re a r^poque romaine," D Universite catholique, 1899, pp. 361-92; Basset, "Les sanctu- aires du Djebel Nefousa," Journal asiatique, 1900; Meinhold, Die Lade Jahves (1900); Ernst Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde nach dem babylonischen Exil, Vol. II (1901). pp. 44-56 ; B. Stade, " Die Kesselwagen des salomonischen Tempels, X Kb. 7 : 27-39," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche IFis- senschaft. Vol XXI (1901), pp. 145-90; K. Budde, "Die urspriingliche Bedeutung der Lade Jahwe's," ibid. (1901). §82. Supplementary Topics. I. Consider the following citations from the book of Psalms : 5 : 7; 11:4; 20:2; 22:25; 24:3; 26: 6-8, 12 ; 27 : 4-6 ; 28 : 2 ; 29 19 ; 36 : 8 ; 40 : 9; 42 : 4 ; 43: 3 f.; 46 : 4 ; 48: i f-, 8 f.; 51 : 18 f.; 52 :8 ; 55 : 14 ; 61 : 4; 63 : 2 ; 65 : i, 4 ; 66 : 13; 68 : 1 5-1 7, 24, 29 ; 69 : 9 ; LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 8 1 73:17; 74:2 ff.; 76:2; 77:13; 78:54, 58, 60, 68 f.; 79:1-13; 84; 87; 92 : 13 ; 93 : 5 ; 96 : 6-8 ; 99 : 9 ; 100 : 4 ; 102 : 13 ff.; 114:2; 122; 125:1; i27:i(?); 132; 134; 135: if.; i38:2;and formulate a statement concerning the place of worship as it stands related to the idea of worship as expressed in the Psalter. 2. Examine the allusions to the place of worship found in the apoc- ryphal books, e. g., I Mace. 4 : 36-59 ; 5 : i, 68 ; 6:7, 18, 26, 51, 54 ; 7:33-38 ; 9:54-57 ; 10:41-44; II : 37; 13: 3, 6; 14: 15, 48 : 16 : 20; 2 Mace. I : 8, 15 ff., 18, 32-34 ; 2 : i ff., 17-19, 22 ; 3:2, 12, 14 ff.; 4:14; 5:15-21; 6:2-5; 8:17; 9:16; 10:1-8,26; 13:8,23; 14 : 4, 31-33, 36 ; and note any important modifications which seem to have been made. 3. Consider the place of worship as it is referred to in the New Testament, e. g., in Matt. 4:3; 6:2,6; 9:35; 12: 4-6, 9 ; 13:54; 21:12-14, 23; 23: 16-22, 35;24:iff., 15; 26:61; 27:5; Mark 1 : 21-29 ; 3:1; 5:22, 35 ff.; 6:2 ff.; 11:15 ff., 27; 12:41 ff.; 13:1 ff., 9 ; 14 : 58 ; Luke i : 8-23 ; 2 : 22 ff., 41 ff.; 4 : 16, 20, 28, 33, 38, 44; 6:6; 8 : 41, 49 ; 13 : 10 ; 19 : 45 ff.; 21 : 1-6, 37 f.; 22 : 52 f.; John 2 : 13-22 ; 4 : 19-24 ; 7:14, 28; ii:55ff.; 16:2; Acts i : 13 f.; 2 : I ff., 46 ; 3 : I ff.; 4:1; 6 : 13 f.; 9 : i f., 20 ; 13 : 14 f., 43 ; 14:1; 16:16; 17: 1 ff., 10, 17; 18:4,8,19; 19 : 8 f.; 20 : 7 ff.; 21:26ft.; 22:19; 25:8; 28:3of.; 1 Cor. 8 : 10 ; 16:19; Eph. 2:19-22; i Tim. 3 : 15; Philem., vs. i ; Heb. 8 : i f.; 9 : 1-12, 24 f.; 10 : 19 f.; 12 : 18 ff.; 13 : 10 ff.; Rev. 8:3; 9:13; ii:if., 19; 14:15, 18; 15 : 5-8; 21 : 3, 22; and formulate the points of difference which appear. 4. Study the origin and development of the synagogue, noting (a) its relation to the temple, (/^) the different character of its services as compared with those of the temple, (c) its origin in response to a great religious need, and (d) its historical significance as the forerunner of the church, the Christian place of worship. See, e. g., Ezek. 8:1: 20 : 1-3 ; Ps. 74 : 8 ; Matt. 9 : 35 ; 12:9; Mark 5 : 35 ; 6 : i ff.; Acts 9 : I ff.; 13 : 13 ff.; 14:1; 17:1, etc.^ 5. Study the causes which led to the building of the Samaritan sSee article " Synagogue " in Encyclopedia Britannica ; E. H. Plumptre, article "Synagogue " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. I, pp. 428 ff.; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (see Index, s. v. " Synagogue ") ; Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Div. II, Vol. I, pp. 52-83 ; Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Vol. I, pp. 430-50; Ferguson, The Synagogue Service in the Ti?ne of Christ ; Kent, A History of the Jewish People (see Index). 82 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT temple on Mount Gerizim. Was this movement a source of strength or of weakness to the Jewish community in Jerusalem? What was the attitude of Jesus toward the Samaritan temple? See, e. g., Ezra, chap. 4 ; Neh. 2 : 18-20 ; 4 : 1-23 ; 6 : 1-19 ; 13 : 28 ; John 4 : 19-24 {cf. § 45). 6. Consider the causes which have led to the change of view as to the function of the place of worship seen in the fact that originally a temple was looked upon as the abode of the deity, while now it is regarded primarily as a meeting-place for worshipers. CHAPTER VII. THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE, CONSIDERED COMPARA- TIVELY. §83. Sacrifice in the Early Period, that is, as described in (a) the Covenant Code, (^) the historical material of J and E, (c) the pre- Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and (d) the pre- Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i). I. Kinds of offerings.' Gen. 28 :i8; 35 : 14; Exod. 8: 20 f.; 10: 24 ff.; 18 :I2 ; 20 : 24 ; 24 : 5 ; Judg. 6 : 26 ; i Sam. 10:8; 21:6; i Kings 3:4; 12 : 26-35 J 2 Kings 16:12 f.; Isa. 1:11-13; Hos. 4:13; 9:4; 11:2. (^2. Materials of sacrifice. Gen. 4:3; 15 :9 ff.; 8 :2o £f.; 22 : 1-13 ; 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14 ; Exod. 20 : 24; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14; Judg. 13 : 16-19 ; 6:18-24,26; iSam. 7:9f.; 21:6; I Kings 8 : 5. 3. Manner of sacrifice. Exod. 34 : 25 ; 23 : 18 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 ; i Sam. 2 : 13-17 ; 2 Sam. 6:13; I Kings 18 : 30-38; 2 Kings 16:12 f. / 4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. > Gen. 46:1^/ Exod. 2^:isc,- 34:20^/ Numb. 23:1-4, 14; Judg. 6:18-24; 13:16-19; I Sam. i:3ff.; 6:15; 7:9f.; 11:15; 20:29; 2 Sam. 6: 13, 17 f.; 24:22-25; i Kings 8:5; 18 : 30-38. 5. Sacrifice was often a social or family meal. Gen. 18:1-8; 31 : 54 ; Exod. 18:12; Numb. 22 : 40 ; Deut. 27 :6d,7; I Sam. I : 3 ff.; 9: 12 f.; 16 : 2, 5 ; 20: 29. '^6. Human sacrifice was not unknown. Gen. 22:1-13; Hos. I3:2(?). 7. Sacrifice to idols was common. Exod. 32:6; I Kings 12:26-33; 2 Kings 5:i7(?); 10:19, 24 f.; Hos. 4:13; 11:2. 8. The priest was given a share of the sacrifice. I Sam. 2 : 13-17. 'The following are J-references : Gen. 4 : 3 ; 8:20 £f.; 18: 1-8; 35 = 14; Exod. 8 :20 f.; 34 : 20c, 25 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 {?); Deut. 27 : 6d, 7 (?). The following are E-references : Gen. 15 :9 £f.; 22:1-13, 28:18; 31:54; 46 : i-^ / E-xod. 10 : 24 ff.; 18:12; 20:24; 23: I5<-, 18; 24: 5; 32:6; Numb. 22:40. 83 84 PRIKSTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 9. The prophets' attitude toward sacrifice. Amos 4:4f-; 5:22-25; Hos. 3:4; 4:13,19; 6:6; 8:13; 9:4; 11:2; 13:2; Isa. I : 1 1-13 ; 34 : 6. § 84. Questions and Suggestions. 1. What were the various kinds of offerings made in this period ? What significance attached to each kind — for example, what was the meaning of the burnt-offering ? of the peace-offering ? of the pass- over offering ? Consider to what extent (a) sacrifice in this period was equivalent to a social meal ; (^) the eating of meat was a sacrificial act ; [c) the spirit of joy accompanied the act. 2. Note the kinds of material used in sacrifice, for example, the flesh of animals (what animals? animals of what age?), oil, wine, meal. What was the reason underlying the use of each of these kinds of material ? 3. Why was leavened bread not to be used in connection with a sacrifice ? Why was no part of the sacrifice to be left over until the morning of the following day ? What points concerning sacrifice may be noted in connection with Balaam's sacrifice (Numb. 23: 1-4, 14, 27-30)? Consider the custom of the priests in Samuel's time, and what it involved. Study Elijah's sacrifice on (iilgal, and note the bearing of the details on the subject. 4. Upon what occasion, and under what circumstances, were sacri- fices offered ? What purpose lay in the mind of the offerer ? What was sought for in the act ? 5. When sacrifice was only a social or family meal, what was the religious element? Was the deity ever thought to partake of the meal? Was the deity ever supposed to be related to the family ? What was the connection between this social act and the spirit of joy which, in early times, seems to have characterized the act of sacrifice? 6. Consider the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, and what was involved in this willingness ? Explain to yourself the custom of human sacrifice ; how could it have arisen ? what wrong ideas did it rest upon ? 7. Note some of the instances in which sacrifice was offered to idols. Since the idols were believed to represent deities, either that of Israel or those of other nations, was this not something clearly to have been expected ? 8. Note that in this period the priest, whatever other kind of support he may have received, was given a share of the sacrifice. 9. Formulate a statement containing the substance of the prophet's LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 85 attitude toward sacrifice; and consider whether the prophet was opposing (a) the act of sacrifice itself; or (3) a cold, indifferent, hypo- critical spirit, with which men in those days had become accustomed to offer sacrifice; or (c) the feeling, which had become quite general, that sacrifice was enough to gain Jehovah's pleasure, that this was all that he expected, and that this, without reference to conduct, con- stituted religion. §85. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on sacrifice in the early period, embodying the material presented above. § 86. Sacrifice in the Middle Period, that is, as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuter- onomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings. 1. Kinds of offerings.^ Deut. 12 : 4-7, 16 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 17 : 26 ; 33 : 1 1, 18. 2. Materials of sacrifice. Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 6 : 20 ; Isa. 43 : 23 £f,; i Sam. 2 : 27. 3. Manner of offering. Deut. 12 : 27; 16 : 7; Jer. 33 : 18; i Sam. 2 : 27. 4. Occasion and purpose of offerings. Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; i Sam. 3 : 1 4 ; Jer. 33 : 1 1 . 5. Social element in sacrifice. Deut. 12 : 4-14 ; i Kings 3:15. 6. Slaughter and sacrifice are no longer synonymous terms. Deut. 12 : 15, 20-28. 7. Priest's portion of the sacrifice. Deut. 18 : 3, 4 ; i Sam. 2 : 28, 36. 8. Human sacrifice still existed. Mic. 6: 6-8. 9. Prophets' attitude toward sacrifice. Zeph. I : 7, 8 ; Mic. 6 :6-8 ; Jer. 6 :2o ; 7 : 21 f., 29; 17 :26 ; 33 : 1 1 ,81 ; 46 : 10 ; Isa. 43 : 23 f. §87. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Note in Deut. 12:4-7 ip) the kinds of offerings mentioned (including tithe, heave-offering, free-will offering), and {b) the spirit of rejoicing in which these offerings are to be made. Consider in Mic. 6 : 6-8 {a) the possibilities of sacrifice (including that of one's own child), (I)) the purpose of sacrifice, and {c) the requirement of Jehovah. 2. Consider the materials used in sacrifice, as mentioned in passages ' References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteronomy, 86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT cited above, and note any variations in comparison with those used in the earlier age. 3. Consider (a) the use made of the blood ; its pouring on the altar ; {f} the roasting of the flesh ; (c) the eating of the flesh; (d) the employ- ment of men "to burn meal-offerings and to do sacrifice." 4. Consider the connection of the Passover with the going-up of Israel out of Egypt, (a) in relation to time (was there not a spring feast celebrated by the ancient nations before the exodus ?) ; (3) in relation to ceremony (why was unleavened bread to be used ?) ; (c) in relation to the purpose of the act. Was the sacrifice intended to purge or purify from sin ? Was sacrifice intended also to be an expression of gratitude for some favor already received ? 5. Is the social element still to be seen in this period, that is, does the family or clan meal, with all its social accompaniments, constitute a sacrifice ? 6. What new distinction has arisen as between the slaughter of ani- mals and the act of sacrifice ? Wherein does the distinction consist? What led to the making of the distinction? What, naturally, will follow as a result of making this distinction ? 7. Note (a) the particular portions of each animal sacrificed, which are assigned as the portion of the priest, that is, for his maintenance; (d) the additional perquisites he receives in the way of grain, oil, wine, and meal ; and (c) the ground for these gifts. 8. What evidence is there that in this period human beings are still used for sacrifice ? 9. Consider the attitude of the prophets of this period toward sac- rifice, and determine (see §84, 9) the real meaning of this attitude. §88. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a statement which will contain, in some detail, the differences between the usages of the middle period in respect to sacrifice, and those of the early period. §89. Sacrifice as Presented by Ezekiel. 1. Kinds of offerings. Ezek. 40:39; 42:13; 46:12; 45:13-17; 20:40. 2. Materials of sacrifice. Ezek. 44 ■• 15 ; 46:4-7- 3. Manner of sacrifice. Ezek. 40:38-43; 44 : II. 15 ; 46 : 4-1 5. 24. 4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. Ezek. 46:4-15; 43:18-27; 45:13-25- LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 8/ 5. Sacrifice was still thought of as a banquet. Ezek. 39 : 17-20 ; 46:24. 6. Sacrifice was still offered to idols. Ezek. 20 : 28-31. 7. Human sacrifice. Ezek. 16 :20 £.; 23 :39. 8. Priests retained a share of the sacrifice. Ezek. 42 : 13. §90. Constructive Work. — ^ Consider the various allusions to sacri- fice in Ezekiel, under the topics suggested above, and prepare a statement covering (a) the points of resemblance and difference in comparison with the facts of the early and middle periods ; (^) the more formal and ofificial character with which sacrifice seems to be invested by Ezekiel ; (c) the exceedingly elaborate system of sacrifice provided for, e. g., in 46 : 4-15 ; {d) the fact that, notwithstanding all this, the earlier idea of sacrifice as a banquet still exists (39 : 17-20 ; 46 : 24). §91. Sacrifice in the Later Period, that is, as described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code, [b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Neheraiah, Chronicles. 1. Kinds of offerings.^ Lev. 7:1,11; 6:8, 14, 25 ; 8 : 22 ; 23: 10b, 11, 13 ; Exod. 25 : 30; 30 : 7 ; Numb. 15 :i9 ; 5 : 11-31. 2. Materials of sacrifice.- Lev. I : 1-3, 10, 14 ; 2:1,4 f., 7, 11, 13-15 ; 3 : i, 3 f ., 6 f ., 9 f ., 12, 14 f., 16 f.; 5 :6 f., II ; 6 : 1-7, 15, igf.; 7 : 3-5, 11 fE.; 9 : 1-4 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 14: 10, 49 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 15 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 1-3, 22 f., 38-42 ; Numb., chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 34-38 ; Lev. 22 : 18-25, 27 f.; 23: 10^-14. 3. The fat and blood are regarded as especially sacred. Lev. 7 : 22-27 ; 8 : 15, 23 f.; 9 : 19-21 ; 17 : 6 ; etc. 4. Manner of sacrifice. Lev. I : 3-9, 11-13, 15-17 ; 2 : 1 f., 4-16 ; 3 : 1-17 ; 4 : 1-35 ; 5 : 8 f., 12 ; 6 : 1-7, 8-13, 14-18, 19-23, 24-30 ; 7 : I ff., 11-21 ; 8 : 14-30 ; 9 : 8-11, 12-14, 15-24; 14:10-32, 49-53; 16 : 3-28 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 5 : 11-31; 19 : 1-22 ; Exod. 29 : 10-42 ; 30 : 7-10 ; Lev. 22 : 29 f.; 19 : 5-8. 5. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. Lev. 4 : 1-3, 13 f., 20, 22-28, 31, 35 ; 5 ; 1-6, 13-15. 17-19 ; 6 : 1-7, 30 ; 9:7; 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 20, 31, 53 ; 15 : 13-15, 28-30 ; 23 : 10*^-21 ; Numb. 5 : 11-31 ; 15 : 17-21, 22-28 ; 19 : 1-22 ; chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 7-10. 3 References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 6. The priests' share of the sacrifice. Lev. 2:3,10; 5:13; 6 : 16-18, 26, 29 ; 7 : 6-10, 14, 28-38 ; 8:31; 10 : 12- 20; Numb. 5:5-10; Exod. 29:27-32; Numb. 18:8-20. 7. All slaughter is sacrificial. Lev. 17: 1-9. 8. Fevv references to idolatrous sacrifices. Lev. 17:7. 9. Attitude of the prophets toward sacrifice. Isa, 1 9 : 2 1 ; 56:7; 66 : 3 ; Mai. i : 7-9 ; 3 : 3-5 ; Joel 1:9, 13; 2:14; Dan. 9 : 27. 10. Sacrifice is given a large place in the later histories. I Chron. 15 : 26 ; 16: i ; 21 : 26 £f.; 29 : 21 f.; 2 Chron. 1:5; 2:4; 5:6; 7 : 4 £f.; 8 : I2f.; 1 1 : 16; 13 : 11; 15:11; 24 : 14 ; 29 : 20-36 ; 30: 15 ff.; 3i:2ff.; 33:i6f.; Ezra3:2ff.; 6:17; 7:17; 8:35; 10:19; Neb. io:33f.; I2:43f. 11. Prominence of the idea of sin in connection with sacrifice. Lev. 4:35; chap. 16; 9:3; io:i6ff.; Numb. 15: 22-31; 19:1-9. §92. Questions and Suggestions. — How much in detail the various topics concerning sacrifice in the later period shall be taken up will be determined in some measure by one's archaeological interests. In any case, these topics deserve consideration because of their sociological, as well as their religious, bearing : 1. Prepare a list of the kinds of offerings, viz., burnt-offering, peace-offering, sin-offering, etc., including vows, the offering involved in Naziritism, the offering of purification. From the passages describ- ing each, and from a study of the name (in English and, if possible, in Hebrew), differentiate these various offerings from each other and determine what was distinctly characteristic in each case. Consider, now, whether any principle of classification exists ; e. g. : [a) Are they, in each case, voluntary or obligatory? {b) Are they, in each case, self-dedicatory, eucharistic, or expiatory? Suggest any other possible bases for classification. 2. Take up, one by one, the materials which might be used in sac- rifice, noting, [a] in reference to animal offerings: (i) the particular animals which were deemed acceptable ; (2) the possible explanations of the selection of these animals with the rejection of others ; (3) whether the distinction between clean and unclean animals* was in any way connected with the choice for sacrifice ; {b) in reference to vegetable * Cf. Lev., chap. 1 1 ; Deut. 14 : 3-21 ; and see G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," §8, in Encyclopedia Biblica, and chap. x. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 89 offerings: (i) the particular vegetables authorized ; (2) the reason or reasons for this selection ; (c) the character of offerings worthy of being accepted ; (d) other possible gifts outside of animals and vegetables, ) he deserved any longer to be classed with the widow and orphan, as in Deuteronomy. 7. Note that all slaughter of animals for purposes of eating is sacrificial ; that every animal must be formally presented at the appointed place; and that punishment is to be inflicted upon those who do not recognize this fact. 8. Observe that offerings to idols have almost fallen into disuse. 9. Consider the attitude of the later prophets toward sacrifice; are they hostile? or indifferent? 10. Make a list of the events narrated in the later histories with which sacrifice is connected, and note (a) how large a place sacrifice is given; (<5) how much more frequently the priest-writers recount the act of sacrifice than do the prophetic writers of Samuel and Kings ; (c) the significance of this in connection with the greater in:iportance attached to sacrifice in this later period. 11. Consider (a) the intimate connection, whether expressed or implied, between all this detail of ceremonial and the idea of si/i ; {b) the intimate connection between the idea of sin thus expressed and the conception of God which had come to exist in this period ; {c) the suggestive fact that, side by side with this objective expression of the appreciation of sin and of longing for communion with God, there should have been written so many of the psalms, which express sub- jectively and spiritually the same idea. §93. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will present in the form of a summary the essential differences between the later and preceding periods in reference to sacrifice, including {a) the chief points of practice, and (b) the essential principles involved. § 9 4. Literature to be Consulted. J. H. Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament (1863); Alfred Barry, articles " Sacrilice," "Sin-Offering," "Meat-Offering," "Burnt-Offering," etc., in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863); EWALD, The Antiquities of Israel {2,6. ed. 1S66, transl. 1S76), pp. 23-11 1; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus (1867-72), Part I, pp. I -416; Part ir, pp. 9, 217 ff., 290 ff.; KuENEN, j^tf/?>?0M of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1S74 f.). Vol. I, pp. 236 f.; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1SS3), pp. 261-323; Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" Savce, "On Human Sacrifice among the Babylonians," Transactions of the Society of Biblical /^^r/^f^fp/o^j/, Vol. IV (1876), pp. 25-31 ; E. Park, "On the Question of the Divine Institution of Sacrifice," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1876, pp. 102-32 ; A. Cave, The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement {iSjy) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel {\%']%'),Y^. 52-82; R. CoLi.iNS, "An Essay on Sacrifice," in The Pulpit Com- mentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xiv ; Alfred Cave. "The Levitical Sacrifices LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE QI Lileially Considered," in The Pulpil Connnentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xxxi; H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant [I'i^iS), see. Index, s.v." Sacrifice ; " Leighton, The Jewish Altar (1SS6); A. Hovey, •' Shekkar and Leaven in Mosaic Offerings," Old Testament Student, 1886, pp. 11-16; H. CROSBY, "The Sacrifices," Old Testament Student, 1886, pp. 249 f.; W. R. Smith, article "Sacrifice" in Encyclopedia Britannica (1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 77-82; F. Gardiner, "On the Reason for the Selection of Certain Animals for Sacri- fice," Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1888, pp. 146-50; W. H. Ward, "On Some Babylonian Cylinders, Supposed to Represent Human Sacrifices," Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, May, 1888, pp. xxviii-xxx ; KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews (1888-92, transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice ;" W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 213-340 ; Robertson, Early Religion of Israel {iS8g), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" P. A. Nordell, "Old Testament Word-Studies: 7. Sacrifice and Worship," Old Testatnent Student, Vol. VIII (1889), pp. 257 ff.; W. M. Rodwell, The Mosaic Sacrifices in Lev. I-III {\?,q6); ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. "Sacri- fice;" Duff, Old Testametit Theology (1891-1900), see Indices to Vols. I and II; Th. E. SchmaucK, "The Paschal Lamb," Lutheran Church Revieiv, 1891, pp. 127-63; C. J. Ball, "Glimpses of Babylonian Religion. 1: Human Sacrifices," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. XIV (1892), pp. 149-53; MoNTEFiORE, Religion of the Aticient Hebrews (1892), see Index; H. B. Tristram, "Sacrifices in Babylonia and Phoenicia," Sunday School Tif7tes, 1894, No. i ; H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (lig^), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" A. Harper, "The Prophets and Sacrifice," Expositor, 1894, pp. 241-53; T. K. Cheyne, "The Date and Origin of the Ritual of the Scz.'pegoa.t,'' Zeitschrift ficr die alttesta- mentliche Wissenschaft, 1895, PP- '53-6; Ph. J. Hoedemaker, "The Atonement Money," The Thinker, 1895 ; A. A. Berle, " The Real Meaning of Semitic Sacrifice," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1895, PP- 342-6; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), see Index, s. V. "Sacrifice;" Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (iSgb), see Index, s. v. "Sacri- fice;" Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. "Offerings;" Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifices;" A. Fairbanks, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Homeric Poems," The Nezu World, June, 1898, pp. 335-48; A. F. Scot, Offering attd Sacrifice: An Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development (1899); Trumbull, The Covenant of Salt (1899), pp. 83-96; Boys-Smith, "Sacrifice in Ancient Religion and in Christian Sacrament," Expository Times, December, 1899; January, 1900 ; S. R. Driver, article "Offer, Offering, etc.," in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1900); Gast, " Idea of Sacrifice as Developed in the Old Testament," A'f/orwfo' Church Review, January, 1900; Hermann Schultz, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," A?nerican Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-31^; Davis, "The Sin-Offering," Bible Student, February, 1900; Edward Day, The Social Life of the Hebrews {iqoi),}pY>- 39-46; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monu- ments (1895-1901), §§ 738, 1006 f., 1014 ; D. McKenzie, Exposition of Old Testament Sacrifice (1901). V. Thalhofer, ZJ/^ unblutigen Opfer des mosaischen Cultus (1848); Heng- stenberg, Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift (1852) ; Riehm, " Ueber das Schuldopfer," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1854, pp. 93-121; S. W. Rinck, "Ueber das Schuldop- fer," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1855. pp. 369-81; A. Stof.ckt , Das Opfer, nach 92 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT seinetfi Wesen und seiner Geschichle (i860); Okhi.er, revised by von Orelli, article "Opferkultus des A. '\ '^,'' KealEncyklopddie fitr protestantische Theol. und Kirche (2d ed., 1883); Menant, " Les sacrifices sur les cylindres chaldeers," Gazette archeologique, 1883, Nos. 7-9; Franz Delitzsch, article "Opfer" in Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen A/terthut/is (1884); Wellhausen, Kes/e des arabischeti Heidenthums [liSl), pp. IIO-28; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel {I'ii'] f.),Vol. 1, pp. 492-8; Vol. 11, pp. 253-64; L. Glahn, "Soningen i den gammeltestamentlige Offerkultus," Festskrift Borcks Colleg., pp. 281-3 (1889); Friedr. Nitzsch, Die Idee und die Stufen des Opferkultus (1889) ; C. PlEPENBRiNG, " Histoire des lieux de culle et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de I histoire des religions, 1891, pp. 1-60, 133-86; Th. Naville, Les sacrifices levitiques et Vexpiation (1891); A. Schmoller, "Das Wesen der Suhne in der alttestl. Opferthora," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1891, pp. 205-88; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestl. Religionsgeschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), pp. 138-45 ; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archaologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 203- 75; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archaologie (1894), PP- 431-64 ; P. Schanz, " Der Opfer- begriff," Theol. Quartalschrift, 1894, pp. 179-222; G. A. SlEGRlST, L'ide'e du sacrifice dansVA. 7^.(1894); Di-L-lua^-^, Handbuch der alttestl Theologie (i8gS), see Index, s. v. "Opfer;" Stade, "Die Eiiempienhora.," Zeitschri/t/iir die alttestl. IVissenscha/t, 1895, pp. 166-78 ; Kamphausen, Das Verhdltnis des Menschenopfers zur israelitischen Reli- gion (1896) ; Marti, Geschichte der israelii. Religion (1897), pp. 103-7, 225-31 ; Levi, La doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahmdnas (1898); G. DE Alviella, "La theorie du sacrifice et les recherches de Robertson Smith," Revue de Vuniversite de Bruxelles, April, 1898; M. Lambert, " Le mot '\^\" Journal asiatique, Vo]. XI (1898), pp. 326 f.; C. Schmidt, Die Entwickelung der alttestamentlichen Opferidee (1899); A. LoisY, "Notes sur la Gen&se. VI: Le sacrifice d'Isaac : Gen. 22 : 1-19," Revtte de P histoire et de la litterature religieuses, 1899, pp. 458-62; P. VOLZ, "Die Handauf- legung beim Opfer," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, igoi ; Lefebure, " Le sacrifice humain d'apres les rites de Busiris et d'Abydos," Sphinx, Vol. Ill, No. 2 ; Chwolson, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, Vol. II, pp. 142-55. §95. Supplementary Topics. 1. Study the principal references to sacrifice found in the Psalter, e.g., Pss. 4:5; 20:3; 40:6; 50:5,8-14, 23; 5i:i6f., 19; 54:6; 56:12; 66:13, 15; 96 :8; 106:28, 37 f.; 107:22; 116:17; 118:27; and consider {a) the attitude in general of these song-writers; {b) how far they have spiritualized the subject; (c) the relationship between the Levitical ceremonial and the spirit of the Psalms. 2. What did the sage have to say about sacrifice ? Cf. Job 1:5; 22:27; 42 : 8 f.; Prov. 7:14; 15:8; 21:27; Eccles. 9 : 2. 3. From an examination of the books of Maccabees — e. g., i Mace. 5 : 54; 7 :33; i i : 34 ; 12:11; 2 Mace, i : 8, 18, 23, 26, 31 ; 2 :9ff.; 3 : 3, 6,32 ; 4: 14 ; 6:7; 9 : 16 ; i 2 : 43 ; 13: 23; 14 : 31— determine the spirit in which sacrifices were offered during the Maccabaean period, and note any changes that present themselves. 4. Consider the subject of sacrifice as it appears in the epistle to LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 93 the Hebrews, e. g., Heb. 5 : 1-3 ; 7 : 26 f.; 9 : 6 ; 10 : 18, 26 ; 11:17; 13 : 10-16. 5. Consider the meaning and usage in the several documents of the various Hebrew words for sacrifice, viz., n^T ; nnD7J ; tlbi}' ; D'^'-bllJ ; Dm; pnp; n^^t^n; min ; nm3; Tics.t'nm'; ri)2T\T\; nsV^n; T T It :'t t - T T t: 1 v v v • t : t ; yb3. Cf. S. R. Driver, article " Offer, Offering, Oblation," in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. 6. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and note points of similarity and difference as compared with the usages of the Hebrews. See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopedia Britannica. 7. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Assyrians, the Arabs, and the Canaanites, and note points of similarity and dif- ference as compared with the usages of the Hebrews. See especially Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria {Index, s. v. "Sacrifice "); W. R. Smith, Religion of the Scfnites; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.; A. H. Sayce, Babylotiians and Assyrians, pp. 245-9. 8. Consider the question of the origin of sacrifice. See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopcedia Britannica ; A. F. Scot, Offering and Sacrifice: An Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development. 9. Prepare a definition of sacrifice which may be considered biblical. 10. Consider the teachings inculcated by sacrifice, and whether these teachings {a) constituted the purpose and end of the Jewish service, or {b) pointed to something beyond and above. 11. ("onsider the relation of sacrifice, as it is represented in the Old Testament, to the Christ of the New Testament. CHAPTER VIII. THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS, CONSIDERED COMPARA- TIVELY. § 96. The Feasts of Early Times, that is, as described in {a) the Covenant Code; (^) the historical material of J and E; (c) the pre- Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and (d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see §59, note i).' 1. The Feast of Unleavened Bread.^ Exod. 34 : 18 ; 23 : 15 ; 13:3-10. 2. The Feast of Weeks. Exod. 34 : 22 ; 23 : i6a. 3. The Feast of Tabernacles. Exod. 34:22<^,- 23:16^; i Kings 8:2, 65 f.; 12:32; Judg. 9:27; 21 : 19 ff. 4. There were three feasts at which attendance was required by law. Exod. 34 : 23 f.; 23 : 14-17 ; i Kings 9:25; i Sam. i : 3. 5. The feasts were connected with agriculture. Exod. 23: 15 f.; 34:22 ; Judg. 21 . 19 ff. 6. The feasts were always of a joyous and social character. Exod. 32 : 5 f.; Judg. 21 : 19 ff.; i Sam. i : 3, 7, 13 ff. 7. A feast often involved a pilgrimage to some shrine. Exod. 10:9; Judg. II : 40 (?) ; i Sam. i : 3, 7 ; 2:19. 8. The Passover. Exod. 34 : 25; 12:21-27. 9. The Feast of the New Moon. Hos. 5:7(?); iSam. 2o:5f.; 18 : 24 ff.; 2 Kings 4 : 23. 10. Special feasts were held, e.g.: the Feast of Sheep-Shearing; the Feast of Jephthah's Daughter. I Sam. 25:2; 2 Sam. 13:23; Judg. 1 1 : 40. 11. Idolatrous feasts. Exod. 32 : 5 ; i Kings 1 2 : 32 f.; 2 Kings 10 : 20. 12. Attitude of the early prophets toward the feasts. Amos 5:21; 8:10; Hos. 2:11; S:7(?); 9:5; 12:9; Isa. i : 1 3 f. "The following references are from J : Exod. 34 : 18-25 ; 12:21-27; 13:3-10; 10 : 9 ; the following are from E : Exod. 23 : 10-17 ; 32 : 5. ' References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 94 LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 95 §97. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Unleavened Bread, (a) the duration ; {i>) the date (to what part of our year did Abib cor respond?); (c) the nature and significance of " unleavened breai;" (d) the meaning of the phrase, "none shall appear before me empty;" (e) the association of this feast with the exodus from Egypt, and the point of connection ; (/) the seeming identification of two entirely different things, viz., the Passover (see below) and the Feast of Unleavened Bread. 2. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Weeks, (a) other names for the same feast, viz., Harvest, First-Fruits (Pentecost, c/. Acts 2:1; 20 : 16; I Cor. 16 : 8) ; {d) the duration (cf. Deut. 16 : 9-12) ; (c) the date ; (d) the connection of this feast with the close of the grain harvest; {e) the fact that there is no historical mention in the Old Testament of its observance (but c/. 2 Mace. 12:32 and the New Testament passages indicated above). 3. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles, {a) other names, viz.. Booths (Deut. 16:13), Ingathering; (b) the duration {cf. Deut. 16 : 13-15) ; {c) the date, late in the autumn ; (^) the connection of this feast with the completion of the harvest of fruit, oil, and wine; ((?) the lack of any specific regulations in the earlier legislation ; (/) the fact that historical mention is made of only this feast among the three great feasts (i Sam. i : i ff.; i Kings 12:32; 6:38); {£) the fact that this feast seems to have had its origin among the Canaan- ites (Judg. 9 : 27); {Ji) the important religious significance involved in the idea that the deity was the lord of the land and the dispenser of its fruits. 4. Consider, in reference to these meetings for festal purposes, {a) the number; {f) the distribution of these throughout the year; {c) the class of persons who were expected to be present; {d) the meaning of the phrase " appear before the Lord ; " {e) the guarantee given of safety upon the journeys involved in attending the feasts; (/) the custom in Solomon's times. Are any places mentioned as the seats of a festival ? 5. To what extent were these feasts of an agricultural character, that is, connected with agricultural pursuits, e. g., harvest, ingathering of fruit, etc.? or how far were they solar feasts, that is, connected with certain seasons of the year? What was the usual time for harvest in Palestine? When did the end of the Jewish year come, and with what feast was it connected ? Consider the connection of the feast at Shiloh with the vineyards near at hand. What particular characteristics 96 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT are associated with agricultural as distinguished from historical feasts ? Would the climate, for example, to some extent determine the date ? Would the harvest feast take place at the same time in localities in which there was a difference of two or three weeks in the period of the ripening of grain ? What kind of feasts would be expected among people leading a pastoral life, as distinguished from an agricultural life? If these feasts are of agricultural origin, could Israel have observed them before becoming an agricultural people, that is, before settling in Canaan ? 6. Are not harvest and vintage feasts generally occasions for joy? Are not eating and drinking and dancing the usual accompaniments of a feast ? How far did the idea that the deity was sharing in the festivities contribute to the joyousness of the occasion ? Did not the eating, etc., contribute to this end ? Was not the very purpose a joyous one? Was there yet any conception of God or sin such as would interfere with this interpretation ? Was there, at this time, any feeling of the need of an atonement? 7. (i) Does a man ordinarily feast by himself ? (2) If the social element is important, would it be necessary to have places at which many might conveniently come together ? Would this not necessarily involve a pilgrimage? (3) Consider the use of sacred places, like Shiloh, for such meetings. (4) What would be the social and politi- cal influence of such pilgrimages? 8. Consider (i) whether the Passover, although forming a part of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, is not treated independently of that feast; (2) whether, in its very nature, it is not pastoral (that is, of nomadic origin), rather than agricultural ; (3) the meaning of the name "Passover;"^ (4) the time of year in which it was observed; (5) the evidence in Exod. 7:16; 10 : 24, that the Hebrews observed a spring festival with offerings from their flocks before the days of Moses ; (6) the original significance of the Passover, viz., a sacrificial meal in which those who partook united themselves more closely and came into closer communion with their God — all this, for greater security; (7) the connection of this very early festival at a later time {a) with the historical event of the exodus, and {b) with the Feast of Tabernacles. ^Cf. article "Passover" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; J. Muller, Kri- tischer Versuch iiber den Ursprung des Pesach-Mazzothfestes ; NoWACK, Hebtiiische Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 147 ff., 172 ff.; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 470 ff.; RiEUEL, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX, pp. 319-32; Staue, ibid., pp. 333-7; C. II. Toy, "The Meaning of nOB," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVI, pp. 178 f. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 97 9. Is the Feast of the New Moon agricultural, or rather astronomi- cal ? Is it recognized in the earlier legislation ? Consider (i) its wide observance among Semitic peoples;" (2) its association with ancient family sacrifices ; (3) its connection with the sabbath; (4) its possible use by prophets as a time for religious assembly; (5) its mention by the prophets (see below); (6) its great antiquity. 10. Consider the Feast of Sheep- Shearing: (i) Was not this, like the Feast of the New Moon, a pastoral rather than an agricultural feast ? (2) Was it recognized in legislation ? (3) Could it be observed elsewhere than in a cattle-producing portion of the country? (4) How late in Israel's history does it appear to have come down ? (5) Did it ever take on any special religious significance? (6) What, in general, did it celebrate ? Consider the mourning-feast in connec- tion with the devotion of Jephthah's daughter to a life of perpetual virginity, and compare the similar cases in other history. ^ 11. Notice how special feasts are celebrated in addition to those which became authorized, as in the case of (i) Aaron and the calf, (2) Jeroboam at Bethel, (3) Jehu in honor of Baal. 12. Consider now the place occupied in the religious life by these feasts, and their influence : (i) To what extent did the feasts consti- tute the religion of the people? (2) How far would men postpone religious observances until the time of a feast ? (3) How much store did the ordinary Israelite set by the feasts ? Would the threat of their extinction disturb him ? (4) In what way would such feasts serve to develop national feeling ? to provide an education for the people? to encourage the spirit of unity? (5) To what extent would these assemblies serve to increase facilities for business transactions ? (6) Is there any evidence that, in this period, the people as a whole {cf. later times) engaged in a great feast or festival ? Or is it rather the custom of families and households? (7) What did the prophet say of the religious value of the feasts ? To what did he make objection ? (a) the lack of heart manifested ? {b) or the fact that they were held in honor of other gods ? or (c) the fact that the people thought the holding of these feasts to constitute the whole of religion, and neglected all that seemed pure and good in a religious life ? "" Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, see Index, s. v. Moon," " Zag-muk," "Festivals," etc.; I. Abrahams, article "New Moon" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. See also Hommel, Aufsdtze tind Abhandliengen (1900), pp. 149-65. scy. GOLDZIHER, Mythology among the Hebrews, pp. 96 ff., 104; Stade. 6^^- schichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, p. 68 ; G. F. MoORE, A Critical and Exegeticat Commentary on Judges, pp. 304 f. gS PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT § 98. Constructive Work. — Prepare a tabular statement which will present in systematic form the facts concerning the feasts of the earlier period, as follows: (i) name, (2) origin, (3) date, (4) duration, (5) characteristic ritual, (6) meaning of name, (7) religious significance. § 99. Feasts of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described {a) in the laws of Deuteronomy, {b) in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings, and {c) by the prophets of the Deutero- nomic period.* 1. Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread are now combined. Deut. 16 : 1-8, 2. Feast of Weeks. Deut. 16 : 9-12. 3. Feast of Tabernacles. Deut. 16 : 13-15 ; 31 : 10 f. 4. All feasts must be held at the one central sanctuary. Deut. 16 : 5-7, II, 16 ; 31:11. 5. The law still requires attendance at three feasts. Deut. 16 : 16 f . 6. Feasts are still occasions of joy. Deut. 12 : 8 ; 14 : 26 ; 16 : 11, 14 f .; 24 : 1 1 ; Isa. 9 : 3. 7. Feasts are still on an agricultural basis. Deut. 16 : 9, 13 ; cf. 16 : i. 8. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts. Nah. I : 1 5 ; Jer. 51 : 39 ; Lam. 1:4, 15; 2 : 6 f ., 22. 9. Josiah's Passover. 2 Kings 23 : 21-23. § 100. Questions and Suggestions. I. Concerning the Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread, consider (i) that the two feasts, distinct in origin, are now observed together; (2) the association of the Passover with the exodus; (3) the connection of this rite with that of the firstlings (Deut. 15 : 19 ff.); (4) the duration ; (5) the lack of any designation of the day of the month ; (6) the significance of the unleavened bread, and its historical connec- tion ; (7) the treatment of any remaining flesh; (8) the place at which this feast shall be observed; (9) the change in ritual and conception which takes place in the case of the Passover feast, and the reason for this; (10) the circumstances leading to the coalescence of the two feasts. * References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 99 2. Concerning the Feast of Weeks, notice (i) that the time is fixed in connection with that of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, viz., seven weeks, the fiftieth day; (2) the duration ; (3) the persons who are to be invited to the feast; (4) the place; (5) the joyous character; (6) the historical reminiscence suggested. 3. Concerning the Feast of Tabernacles, consider (i) the name and its origin {cf. i Sam. i : 8); (2) the time (no particular day designated); (3) the persons who are to participate; (4) the duration ; (5) the place; (6) the motive ; (7) the joyous character. 4. Consider the meaning of the constantly recurring phrase, " in the place which Jehovah thy God shall choose to cause his name to dwell there;" is it (i) a place, at one time in one locality, at another time in another locality, and consequently, in the course of time, are several places thus designated ? Or (2) is it one central place for all time, viz., Jerusalem ? (3) Consider some of the consequences which would follow such centralization ; e. g.: (a) Would the feast thus transferred to Jerusalem continue its agricultural or pastoral character ? (fi) If a particular day is fixed, could the harvest feast any longer be connected with the harvest, which, on account of difference of climate, occurred at widely separated dates ? (e) Would the historical be likely to sup- plant the natural interpretation of the feast ? (d) Would the original ritual also lose its significance ? (e) Could the firstlings actually be taken to Jerusalem to be sacrificed ? (/) Could the head of a family take the entire family and dependents to Jerusalem ? (g) Would he sell his own animal or grain, and then go to Jerusalem and buy (Deut. 14 : 24-26)? Would this affect commerce? (/i) Could a man, in this case, arrange a sacrificial meal in Jerusalem and have his family and friends with him, as in the village or country? (/) Would not this lead to an entire change in the feeling connected with the observance of the feast ? Would the observance become more general and less individual, more formal and serious, and less joyous ? 5. Although the law still required attendance at these feasts, is it possible to suppose that any considerable proportion of the people could leave their homes and their work, and go to Jerusalem three times in a year? Would this have the effect of depriving these people of religious privileges? 6. Although the feasts are represented as still continuing their joyous character, could the old feeling actually have existed under the new regime, cut off as the worshiper was from friends and familv, lost as he must have been in the great crowds gathering at Jerusalem ? 100 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 7. Although feasts are still nominally on • an agricultural basis (cf. the names, the method of determining the date, etc.), will it be possible for the agricultural character to be long maintained in view of (i) the detachment of the feasts from the exact season (one time being fixed for the entire country, although the harvest took place at different dates on account of climate); (2) their association with his- torical events and the emphasis thus placed on the idea of com- memoration ; (3) the necessary sale of one's own effects, and the purchase of others for the purpose of the feast ? 8. Upon the supposition that the prophets themselves had to do with the formulation of the policy presented in Deuteronomy, and in view of the opinions expressed by Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, what may we understand to have been their general position on the subject of these feasts and festivals ? Did they represent the feasts as being an essential element in the religious life ? Did they wish to see them modified in their character ? Was it for this reason that they joined with the priests in those reforms, recorded in Deuteronomy, which in the end largely revolutionized the whole system ? Did they think that the people were placing a false value upon these feasts in comparison with a pure and simple life? 9. Upon the acceptance of the book of Deuteronomy by Josiah and his people in 621 B. C, (i) what attitude was taken by the king toward the various corrupt forms of worship which existed at that time (f/. Deut. 23 : 4-20) ? (2) What was the command issued as to the observance of the Passover ? Does this mean that it had fallen into disuse ? If so, how is such disuse to be explained ? (3) What was the character of the Passover observed on this occasion ? § 10 1. Constructive Work. — Write a statement covering three points : (i) the feasts which now no longer seerii to be observed, and the rea- sons ; (2) the modifications which have come to exist in the feasts transmitted from the earlier period, and an explanation of these modifications; (3) the progress, if any, which has been made in the adaptation of the ceremonial of worship (so far as it concerned feasts) to the religious life ; or, to use the form of a question, was Israel in a better or worse position for the cultivation of the religious life, with the changes which had now come about ? §102. Constructive Work. — From Ezek. 36:38; 45:17. 18-21, 22-25 j 46 : I, 3, 6 ff., 9, consider (i) whether, in general, Ezekiel has much to say upon the subject. Is this because his development lies along other lines, or because the development has already reached its LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 10 1 highest point? (2) Is there evidence (if so, what?) that the Deutero- nomic system of feasts is accepted ? (3) In what cases are definite dates now given, in which, hitherto, the time has been left undesig- nated ? (4) What, now, is the relation of the Feast of the Passover to that of Unleavened Bread ? (5) Present the evidence, if any is to be found, that the feasts have now lost their joyous character. (6) Is the centralization of worship involved in the arrangements which Ezekiel proposes ? § 103. The Feasts in the Later Period, that is, as described (a) in the laws of the Levitical code, {/>) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.' 1. Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread. Lev. 23 : 4-8 ; Numb. 28 : 16-25 ; 9 : 1-14 ; Exod. 12 : 1-20, 43-50 ; 2 Chron, 8:13; 30:13-27; 35:1-19; Ezra 6: 19-22. 2. Feast of Weeks. Lev. 23 : 15-21 ; Numb. 28 : 26-31 ; 2 Chron. 8:13. 3. Feast of Tabernacles. Lev. 23:34-36, 39-44; Numb. 29:12-38; 2 Chron. 5:3!?.; 7:8-10; 8: 13; Ezra 3:4; Neb. 8: 13-18. 4. Feast of the New Moon. Numb. 28: 11-15; I Chron. 23 :3i ; 2 Chron, 8:13; 31 : 3; Ezra 3:5; Neh. 10:33. 5. Feast of Trumpets. Lev. 23 : 23-25 ; Numb. 29 : 1-6 ; 10 : 10. 6. Definite dates are fixed. Lev. 23 : 5, 6, 23, 27, 34, 39 ; Numb., chaps. 28, 29; Esther 9:21. 7. Agricultural significance is wholly lost. Lev. 23 : 42 f . 8. Celebration of feasts at Jerusalem is taken for granted. Zech. 14 : 16-19 ; i Chron. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chron. 35 : 1-19. 9. Sacrifices are multiplied in connection with feasts. Numb., chap. 29 ; 15 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 2:4; 30 : 24 ; 35 : 7-9. 10. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts. Zech. 14 : 16-19; Joel 1:14; 2:15. 11. Thought of sin predominant in feasts. Lev. 23:19; chap. 16; Numb. 28:15, 22, 30; 29:5. ". 16. ^9> 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 38 ; Exod. 30 : 10. 12. Day of Atonement. Lev. 23: 27-32 ; chap. 16 ; Numb. 29 : 7-1 1 ; Exod. 30: 10. 7 References in bold-face type are froni the Levitical code of laws. 102 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 13. Feast of Purim. Esther 8:17; 9 : 15-32. § 104. Questions and Suggestions. 1. In the later regulations and references relating to the Feast of \\\^ Passover and Unleavetied Bread, note (i) the new phrases, "set feasts," "holy convocations," "appointed seasons;" (2) the exactness with which the date is fixed; (3) the absence of "servile work ;" (4) the burnt-offering, and the meal-offering prescribed, the sin-offering which accompanies, and all this beside the continual burnt-offering; (5) that in time {cf. Exod. 12 : 1-20) the opinion comes to prevail that the Passover had been established before the exodus "in order that Jehovah might spare the firstborn of Israel, not because he had spared them;" (6) the restrictions placed upon participation in the Passover (Exod. 12:43-50); (7) the observance according to Chronicles (2 Chron. 30:13-27) of the Feast of Unleavened Bread in Hezekiah's times; (8) Josiah's Passover (2 Chron. 35: 1-19); (9) Ezra's Passover; (10) the place of all these observances; (11) their general character; (12) that the offerings have the nature of fixed dues, rather than of voluntary gifts. 2. In the references to the Feast of Weeks, note (i) that the same general characteristics appear as in the case of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (see above) ; (2) that after the fall of Jerusalem it becomes a feast commemorating the giving of the law on Sinai, and is no longer considered a nature feast. 3. In the references to the Feast of Tabernacles, note (i) the same points as were considered above in the case of the preceding feasts, viz., fixing of date, multiplication of various kinds of offerings for each day, no servile work, etc.; (2) the chronicler's account of Solomon's observance of this feast in connection with the bringing up of the ark (2 Chron. 5:3ff.); (3) Solomon's dedication of the temple in con- nection with this same feast (2 Chron. 7 : 8-10); (4) the observance in connection with the beginning of the second temple (Ezra 3:4); (5) the dwelling in booths in Ezra's time (Neh. 8: 13-18). 4. The system of feasts now includes more definitely the Feast of the New Moon, concerning which it may be noted, (i) that a regular ceremonial is instituted; (2) that frequent mention is made of it in connection with the sabbath. Consider (3) what has led to this larger emphasis. 5. Consider, in the case of the Feast of Tnnnpets, (1) its connec- tion with the sabbatical system;® (2) the provisions given for its ^See chap. ix. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO3 observance ; (3) the general provision for the blowing of trumpets with various feasts. 6. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that now the exact day of the month is prescribed ; (2) the significance of this fact, as compared with the looser designations of earlier regulations. 7. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that the agri- cultural significance has been lost ; (2) the fact that, even in the case of the Feast of Tabernacles (the last of all to receive this treatment), a historical meaning has been suggested and adopted; (3) the signifi- cance of these facts as seen in the routine of the ceremonial and the general character of the feasts. 8. Consider (i) whether, although no explicit statement occurs in the legislative material covering the point, it is not everywhere taken for granted that all feasts shall be celebrated at one place, viz., Jerusa- lem ; and (2) whether this is not the understanding of the prophets and historians of the period. 9. Consider, in the case of all the feasts, (i) whether the largest emphasis is not now placed upon the sacrifice; (2) whether, in fact, with the great multiplication of sacrifices, everything else is not prac- tically ignored; (3) the influence of this upon the people; (4) the explanation of it. 10. What appears to have been the attitude of the later prophets toward these feasts? Is there any longer indifference, lack of appre- ciation, or hostility? Why has this change of attitude come about? Does Judaism (Israel's religion after the exile) adopt an entirely new policy in reference to feasts, as compared with prophetism (Israel's religion before the exile)? Were the prophets of this period really priests, and, in consequence, in sympathy with everything priestly ? Had prophecy now died ? 11. Is it a fact that the idea of sin is now everywhere promi- nent ? that, indeed, this idea is the controlling idea? that, therefore, confession instead of rejoicing is the order of the day ? If this is the fact, how is it to be explained ? 12. Concerning the Day of Atonement, one may undertake to answer the following questions: (i) Was it observed in the early or middle period, or did its observance arise only in the later period? (2) Is there any connection between it and Ezekiel's days of atonement (45:18-20)? (3) Or with the days of fasting held in commemoration of national calamities mentioned in Zech. 7 : 35 ; 8 : 19 ? (4) Or with the day of fasting (the twenty-fourth day of the month) mentioned in 104 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Neh. 9:1? (5) What was the fundamental idea in this observance? Was propitiation thought of as being made in behalf of the individual or of the nation? Were the sanctuary and the land also included ? (6) What evidence does the ritual furnish as to the fundamental idea ? (7) What is the meaning of the phrases "sabbath of solemn rest," "afflict your souls" (Lev. i6: 31)? (8) What conception of God gave rise to the idea of sin involved in this institution ? 13. In the case of the Feast of Purim consider (i) its origin and occasion; (2) its date; (3) the question of its connection (a) with a Persian feast, {B) with a Babylonian feast ; (4) the meaning of the name ; (5) the method of observance.^ § 105. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show the more important differences in the observance of the feasts between the usage of the middle period and that of the later period. § 106. Literature to Be Consulted. A, P. Stanley, Lectures on the Histo?y of the Jewish Church, Vol. I, Appendix xxi — The Samaritan Passover (1862); S. Clark, article "Passover," Smith's Dic- tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893) ; Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. 348-80; SCHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, 5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892), Vol. I, pp. 359-69; II, 87-100, 402 ff.; KuENEN, Religion of Israel {\%tq f., transl. 1874), Vol. I, pp. 242-5, 262-7 ; H, PP- 28-30, 89-94, 253 U 271-3; III, pp. 148-53; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1873, transl. 1883), §§140, 141, 144-6, 150, 153-6; Edersheim, The Temple: Its Ministry and Services (1874), pp. 144-300; W.R.Smith, article "Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread," Encyclopcedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, transl. 1885), pp. 83-120; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed.), pp. 240, 269 ; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel (ist ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Feasts;" Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (ist ed. 1883), see Index, s. v. "Dedication," "Feasts," "Passover," etc.; W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses Concerning the Pentateuch (1885); E. ScHURER, History of the Jewish People in the Time of cyzrw/(i885, transl. 1890), passim; Piepenbring, Theology of the Old Tes- tament (1886, transl. 1893), see Index, s. v. "Feast," " Passover," etc.; Sayce, Reli- gion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 64-9; Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta,Yo\. I (1888), pp. 50-84, 190-214; W. R. Sunn, Reli- gion of the Semites (isted. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 252-8; RoB^KTSO-a, Early Religion of Israel {iSSg), pp. 363, 372, 378, 385, 397, 401; W. St. Chad Boscawen, "The 9 Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 686 ff.; ZlMMERN, Zeitschrift fit r die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI, pp. 157-69; De Lagarde, Purim — Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Religion; Sayce, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Arc hcEology, Vol. XIX, pp. 280 ; Jensen, Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes,Vo\. VI, p. 70; C. II. Toy, "Esther as a Babylonian Goddess," iW'w World, Vol. VI, pp. 130-45 ; Alexander Kohut, American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV, pp. 192 f. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO5 Babylonian and Jewish Festivals," Babylonian and Oriental Record, Vol IV ( 1890), pp. 34-8 ; C. J. Ball, article "Festivals," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); H. C. Trumbull, Tlie Blood Covejtatit {i'i()2>)t see Index, s. v. "Feasting;" idem. Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), see Index, s. v. "Feast;" idem. The Threshold Covenant {iSg6), pp. 203-12, 266; H. B, Tristram, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands, (1894), pp. 69-86; Sayce, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. XIX (1897), pp. 280 f.; E. E, Harding, article "Feasts and Fasts," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article "Day of Atonement," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); A. Kohut, "The Talmudic Records of the Persian and Babylonian Festivals Critically Illustrated," American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV (1898), pp. 182-94 {cf. Revue des etudes j'uives, Vol. XXIV, pp. 256-71); Morris Jastrow ,]r.. Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. "Festivals;" C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of TXC^,'' Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVI (1898), pp. 178 f.; I. Benzinger AND T. K. Cheyne, article " Day of Atonement," ^«0'f/o/^?a'2a Biblica (iSgg); W. W. Fowler, 77^,? Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic {\%gg); Warren, "Dates on Which Paschal Full Moons Occur," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, October, 1900; Fairbanks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical Review, November, 1900; Frazer, "The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," ^or^- nightly Review, October and November, 1900; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. "Feasts;" I. Abrahams, article "Nevi^ Moon," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1900); I. Benzinger, article "Feasts," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); Willis, The Worship of the Old Covenant, pp. 190-214; Watson, Catrtbridge Co?npanion to the Bible, pp. 411-17 ; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. II, pp. 648 f. ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), see Indtx, s. V. " Feasts." J. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686), III, Diss, viii; J. Meyer, De festis Hebraeorum (1724); F. C. Baur, "Ueber die urspriingliche Bedeu- tung des Passahfestes und des Beschneidungsritus," Tiibinger Zeitschrift, 1832, I, 40-124; idem, " Der hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des mosaischen Cultus," ibid., 1832, III, 123-92 ; Vatke, Die Religion des Alien Testamentes (1835), Vol. I, pp. 492-8 ; J. F. L. George, Die dlteren jiidischen Feste{\'i},^); H. Ewald, in Gbttingischer Gelehrter Anzeiger, 1835, pp. 2025 f.; 1836, pp. 678 f.; H. Ewald, in fahrbiicher der biblischen IVissenschaft, Vol. IV, pp. 131 f.; VIII, p. 223; IX, pp. 257 f.; F. HiTZiG, Ostern und PJingsten (1837); BAhk, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. II, pp. 664 ff.; H. Ewald, " De feriarum hebraearum origine et ratione," Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes,Yo\. HI (1840), pp. 410-41; H. Hupfeld, De primi- tiva et vera festorum apud Hebraeos ratione ex legum Mosaicarum eruenda (1851-65); Redslob, Die biblischen Angaben iiber Stiftung und Grund der Passahfeier {i^^d); W. ScHULTZ, "Die innere Bedeutung der alttestamentlichen Yesie," Deutsche Zeit- schrift fiir christliche Wissenschaft utid christliches Leben, 1857, pp. 23-30; JoH. Bachmann, Die Festgesetze des Pentateuch aufs neue kritisch untersucht (1858); Dillmann, article "P'este," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon (1869); H. Oort, "De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\.X {i^-]b), pp. 142-65; D. Hoffmann, in Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. i ff. ; idem, Abhandlungen iiber die Pentateuch- Gesetze,Yo\.l (1878); idem, in Magazin fir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1879, PP- 99 ff. ; Franz DelitzscH, in Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft u>i,t kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83,621 ff. ; Kuenen, in Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\. I06 PRIESTLY ELEMENT JN THE OLD TESTAMENT XVII (1883), pp. 207-12; '^ijl.l.-e.^, Krieisc/ier Versuck iiber den Ursprung des Pesach- Mazzothfestcs (1883); Adler, " Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel, sein Ursprung und seine Bedeutung," Z^ilschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,'Wo\. Ill (1883) pp. 178-85 ; Orelli, articles " Passah," "Pfingstfest," Rcalencyklopddie fiir protestan- tische Theologie imd Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Franz Delitzsch, article "Passah,' Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Riehm, article " Feste,' Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Oreli.i, article "Ver- sohnungstag," Rcalencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (7.^ ed. 1885); De Lagarde, " Purim ; ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte," Mittheilungen, Vol. II (1887), pp. 378 £f.; IV, p. 147, note i; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums {—Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 1887), pp. 75-98; B. SThVi-E, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887 f.), Vol. I, pp. 497-503; II, pp. 182, 258-60; I. Benzinger, " Das Gesetz iiber den grossen Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fiir die alitestatnent' liche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX (1889), pp. 65-88; RiEHM, Alitesiatnetitliche Theologie (1889), pp. 121-3; H. ZiMMERN, "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge des Purimfestes," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft^ 1 891, pp. 157-69; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Feste;" W. NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdoiogie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 138-203; I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdoiogie (1894), pp. 464-78; Eerdmans, "Der Ursprung der Ceremonien des Hosein-Festes," Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, Vol. IX (1894), pp. 290 f . ; S. Karppe, "Melanges de critique biblique et d'assyrio- logie," Revue semitique. Vol. II (1894), pp. 146-51 ; Dillmann, Alttestamentliche Theologie (1895), see Index, f. v. "Feste," "Passah;" K. Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see /waV.af, j. z/. " Feste," " Pesach," "Laubhiittenfest." etc.; F. Buhl, "Gottesdienstliche Zeiten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (1899); Schaefer, Das Passah- Alazzoth Fest (1900); Erbt, Purimsage in der Bibel {igoo); MOSSA, "Bedeutung des Passahfestes," Saat auf Hoffnung, 1900, No. 2; RiEDEL, "Miscellen 5. 6.: HCS, HdlUn ni523," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX (1900), pp. 319-32; B. Stade, "Nachwort zu Lie. W. Riedel's 5. Miscelle: HOD," ibid., pp. 333-7; C. Brockelmann, " Das Neujahrsfest der Jezidis," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen- Idndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. LV (1901), pp. 388 ff. §107. Supplementary Topics. 1. Consider the few references to the celebration of feasts and feast days in the Psalter, viz., Pss. 4:7; 81:3; and note especially the so-called Psalms of Ascents, viz., 120-134, and their use in worship.'" 2. Put together the references to feasts in the books of Maccabees, viz.: I Mace, i : 39, 45 ; 4 : 52-59 ; 7 : 49 ; 10 : 34 ; 13 : 50-52 ; 2 Mace. I : 9, 18; 2 :9, 16; 6:6f.; 7 142; 8 : 33 ; 10 : 5-8 ; 12 : 31 f.; 15 : 36 ; and make such a stateme-nt as the material thus examined will warrant. 3. Consider the principal references to feasts in the New Testa- ment, viz.: Matt. 26:2, 5, 17 ff.; 27:15; Mark 14: if., 12, 14, 16; '°67. Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms — A New English Translation, p. 210; KiRKPATRiCK, The Psalms, Books //,///(" Cambridge Bible"), p. xxv ; Mur- ray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, pp. 292-5 ; Perowne, Book of Psalms, Vol. I, pp. 86f.; Smith, "The Songs of the Ascent," Expository Times, November, 1900. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 10/ 15:6; Luke 2:4if.; 22:1-15; 23:17; John 2:13, 23; 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 7:2-14,37; 10:22; ii:55f.; 12:1,12,20; 13:1,29; 18 : 2S, 39 ; 19:14; I Cor. 5:7; Heb. 11:28. 4. Take up for critical study the principal Hebrew words used to designate the feasts, viz.: tiCS , jn, niyT^U jm , 'H^llpn jH ; jH -f cb^n ; trozri :" ; inn ; Tr\-i-2 T d^^ib ; etc. 5. Compare, in a very general way, the usage concerning feasts among the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points of similarity and difference." 6. Consider the place of feasts among the Assyrians, noticing especially the great number of them and the many points of similarity existing between the usages of Assyrian feasts and those of Hebrew feasts, e. g., the pervading spirit of joyousness, the agricultural con- nection of some of them, the similarity between the feast of Zag- muk and the Jewish New Year's festival, and the Babylonian origin of the Feast of Purim.'^ 7. Study the Hebrew feasts in their relation to (a) the Arabic feasts or pilgrimages, (d) the Canaanite agricultural feasts.'^ 8. Consider comparatively the three great factors entering into and controlling the origin and development of feasts, viz., the element involved in a nomadic or pastoral life, that in an agricultural life, and that in a city life. 9. Consider (i) the conception of God which had come to be supreme in Israel after the exile, viz., holiness; (2) the relation of this conception to the teaching concerning sin prevalent in the same period ; and (3) the influences of these conceptions upon the devel- opment of the feast system. " See W. W. Fowler, T/ie Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic; Fair- banks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical Review, '^o\emhtr, 1900 ; Frazer, •'The Saturnalia and Kindred YesiwaXs,'' Fortnightly Review, Ociohcr and Novem- ber, 1900 ; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. "Festivals." "Cyi especially Morris Jastrow, Jr., A'f//o-/i7« of Babylonia and Assyria, i&t Index, s. v. "Festivals." '3 See Snouck Hurgronje, Het Mekkaansche Fest; Doughty, Traveh in Arabia Deserta; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums ; and other literature cited in § 106. CHAPTER IX. THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH AND KINDRED INSTITUTIONS, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY. § 1 08. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Early Period, /. e., as described in {a) the Covenant Code, {b) the historical material of J and E, [c) the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Sanauel, and Kings, and {d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).' 1. The law of the sabbath. '^ Exod. 34 : 21 ; 20 : 8-11 ; 23 : 12. 2. Customs connected with the sabbath. 2 Kings 4:23; II : 5, 7, 9. 3. Attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath. Amos 8:5; Hos. 2:11; Isa. 1:13. 4. The law of the sabbatical year. Exod. 23 : 10 f.; 21:2-11. § 109. Questions and Suggestions. I. Consider, in examining the statements made concerning the sabbath, (i) why the sabbath is the only religious institution men- tioned in the decalogue ; (2) the first word, remember, and compare the first word in Deut. 5:12, observe. (3) Was either of these in any sense a warning equivalent to "take care," "be on the lookout for" ? (4) What is the logical relation of the fourth commandment to the third, second, and first? Does this consist in its having originally had to do with the deity, as do the preceding ? (5) Are there other variations between the two forms of the commandment given in Exod., chap. 20, and Deut., chap. 5 ? What are the variations? How shall we explain the existence of any variations at all ? Is it possible that Exod. 20 : 9-1 1 and Deut. 5 : 13-15 are later additions made at differ- ent times to an earlier form, which, as in the case of the sixth, seventh, and eighth commandments, consisted of only two or three words, •The following references are from E : Exod. 20 : 8-10 ; 23:10-12; 2i:2-ii; the only reference in J is Exod. 34 : 21. 'References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 108 LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH 1 O9 "Observe (or remember) the sabbath day to keep it holy "?^ (6) What was involved in the command to keep it holy ? (7) What may be said of the antiquity of the sabbath ? Was it probably observed by the Hebrews in Egypt? (8) Was it originally connected with the new moon ? (9) What are the chief considerations offered to show that it was originally a day for securing the good-will of the deity, /. e., a day on which Jehovah rested from his anger, and was, therefore, more easy to propitiate ; a day, however, which might prove to be unfavor- able, but which might be changed to a favorable day by doing or not doing certain things?'' (10) What, if this view is adopted, would be understood in particular to be the meaning of the word rest? of the word observe? (11) How did such strong emphasis come to be placed upon the idea of cessation from labor? 2. In respect to the usages which connected themselves with the sabbath, consider (i) the custom of visiting the man of God on the sab- bath ; (2) the custom of dividing the temple guard according as it came in or went out on the sabbath; (3) other early (?) customs, codified in later times, e. g., remaining inside the house (Exod. 16 : 29), kindling no fire (Exod. 35 : 3), no gathering of wood for the fire (Numb. 15 : 32- 36), no baking or cooking (Exod. 16:23). (4)80 far as the ^ar/y records are concerned, are there any other ideas than those of cessa- tion from labor and of humanitarian motive? 3. What is to be gathered from the few allusions to the sabbath made by the prophets? (i) What are the people desiring to make of the sabbath, according to Amos? What restraint is evidently upon them? (2) Does Hosea's statement seem to place the sabbath in the same category with days of rejoicing and mirth ? (3) What is the significance of the frequent association (as in Isa. i : i3)of the sabbath with the new moon ? 4. Consider (i) regulations relating to the release of Hebrew servants after six years of labor ; did this imply a regularly recurring seventh year in which all servants were released ? Had this any- thing to do with a sabbatical year ? (2) The regulations prescribing that the crop of every seventh year shall be given to the poor and the beasts; does the regulation say that all land was to lie fallow in the 3 This is the view held, for example, by Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. II, p. 159 ; DiLLMANN, J5'x^af^<^, p. 201; Speaker's Commentary, p. 336; Driver, Introduction, etc., p. 34; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, pp. 181-7; Marti, Ge- schichte der israelitischen Religion; et al. ■•Jastrow, American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52. no PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT same year ? Was this the recognition of a sabbatical year ? (3) The motives underlying these regulations. § no. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will indicate the most important factors entering into the significance of the sab- bath, and its characteristics as it appears in the earliest period. §111. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Middle Period, /. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings.s 1. The law of the sabbath in the Deuteronomic decalogue. Deut. 5 : 12-15. 2. The attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath. Jar. 17 : 19-27; Isa. 56: 2, 4, 6; 58 : 13, 14 ; 66 : 23 ; Lam. 1:7; 2:6. 3. The law of the sabbatical year. Deut. 15 : 1-18 ; 31 : 10. 4. Release of slaves in Jeremiah. Jer. 34:8-17. § 1 12. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Consider now in detail the Deuteronomic version of the sabbath law, including (i) the word observe, (2) the reference to Jehovah's former command (vs. 12), (3) the provision for the rest of the servants, (4) the reason given for the observance of the sabbath, viz., the deliv- erance from the bondage of Egypt; is this an implication that the sabbath was not observed by the Israelites in Egypt ? How is it to be reconciled with the reason given in Exod. 20 : 11 ? (5) the effect upon the observance of the sabbath of the centralization of worship at Jerusalem ; would this not take away the ritualistic observance and emphasize the humanitarian idea? 2. In an examination of the prophetic and historical allusions to the observance of the sabbath, consider (i) the small number of such references; is there any satisfactory reason ? (2) the several items said by Jeremiah to have been commanded by Jehovah, viz., {a) as to bur- dens, {b) as to work, {c) as to hallowing the day; (3) the attitude of the people (Jer. 17 :23); (4) the promises and threats in reference to its observance (Jer. 17 : 24-27) ; (5) the position assigned to the sabbath in connection with the observance of the covenant (Isa. 56: 2, 4, 6); (6) the meaning of the phrases from doing thy pleasure, and call the sabbath a delight {Isa.. 58: 13), and the rewards offered ; (7) the sabbath 5 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron- omy. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I I 1 as a time, like the new moon, for worship (Isa. 6^ : 23); (8) the forget- ting of the sabbath in the exile. 3. Consider, in comparison with the regulations cited above (§§108, 4 ; 109,4), the Deuteronomic regulations concerning (i) the year of release of debts : (a) to whom it shall and shall not apply; (d) does it mean that the debt, if not paid, will be forgiven or become outlawed ; or that no interest will be exacted during this seventh year ; or that no proceedings will be taken against the debtor during that year? (c) the reward promised; (d) the motive for this law; (e) does it imply an advanced commercial development ? (/) is the year a fixed seventh year ? (g) would it encourage or discourage business ? (2) the regulations for the release of the Hebrew servant, noting the slight variations from the law given in Exodus; (3) whether Deuteron- omy has any regulation concerning the rest of the land (cf. Exod. 23 : 10 f.); (4) the reading of the law prescribed for the Feast of Tab- ernacles during the year of release at the end of every seven years. 4. Consider the points involved in the story of the release of slaves in Jeremiah's time. §113. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement showing the nature of the changes which are being made, and the general trend. § 1 1 4. The Sabbath as Described by Ezekiel. 1. The purpose of the sabbath. Ezek. 20 : 12, 20. 2. The sabbath a /lo/y day. Ezek. 44 : 24. 3. General profanation of the sabbath. Ezek. 20 : 13-24 ; 22 : 8, 26 ; 23 : 38. 4. Special worship and sacrifices for the sabbath. Ezek. 45 : 17 ; 46 : 1-5, 12. 5. The year of liberty. Ezek. 46 : 17. § 115. Questions and Suggestions. 1. What, according to Ezekiel, was the original purpose which the sabbath was to subserve ? Compare the purpose also of the statutes (Ezek. 20: ti), and the way in which both statutes and sabbaths had been treated by Israel. 2. What, in Ezekiel's time, was meant by hallowing or keeping holy the sabbath ? 112 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 3. What was meant by profaning and hiding the eyes from the sabbath ? Did the Israelites simply ignore it, or did they intentionally do that which brought it into disrepute ? 4. Note the special character of the offerings indicated in Ezekiel's scheme for the sabbath day. What was the significance of this ? Con- sider how the sabbath is still associated with the new moon. 5. Note the contents of the single reference in Ezekiel to the year of release or liberty. § 116. Constructive Work. — Summarize the position of Ezekiel, and indicate the relation of Ezekiel's attitude on this question to his gen- eral place in prophecy. § 117. Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Later Period, i. e., as described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code, {i>) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. 1. The law of the sabbath.^ Lev. 23 : 3 ; Exod. 31 : 12-17 ; 35 : i-3- 2. Special days observed as sabbaths. Lev. 23 : 7 f., 24-32, 39 ; 16 : 29-31 ; Numb, 28 : 11-15, 18, 25 f . ; 29 : i, 7, 12, 35- 3. Reasons assigned for the observance of the sabbath. Gen. 2 : 2 f. ; Exod. 20 : 1 1 ; 31 : 12 f., 17. 4. Special offerings made on the sabbath. Lev. 23 :38; Numb. 28:9!; i Chron. 23 : 3i;2Chron. 2:4:8:13; 31:3; Neb. 10 : 33. 5. Emphasis laid on observance of the sabbath. Lev. 19: 3(5, 30a; 26 :2a /Exod. 16:22-30; 31:14-16; 35:2; Numb. 15 : 32-36 ; Neh. 10:31; 13:15-22. 6. Use of the sabbath as a fixed point of time. Lev. 23 : 15 f.; 24 : 8 ; i Chron. g ; 32 ; 2 Chron. 23 : 4, 8. 7. Sabbath made known on Sinai. Neh, 9:14. 8. Law of the sabbatical year. Lev. 25 : 1-7 ; 26 : 34, 35. 9. Exile conceived of as a sabbath for the land. Lev. 26 : 34 f . ; 2 Chron. 36:21. 10. Law of year of jubilee. Lev., chap. 25 ; 27 : 17-24 ; Numb. 36 : 4. * References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II3 § 118. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Consider (i) the form of the sabbath observance which must have existed during the exile, viz., the humanitarian and not the ritu- alistic ; the adaptation of this to the possibilities of worship in this period, and the distinctive character which it must have given the Jewish community. (2) What is the meaning of the new phrases sol- emn rest, holy convocation, sabbath unto Jehovah? (3) What is the purpose of the sabbath {cf. Ezekiel) ? the penalty for its non-obser- vance ? the connection between sign and perpetual covenant ? (4) The reason assigned for its establishment {cf. Exod. 20: 11)? (5) Why should the kindling of fire have been prohibited in particular ? 2. Note how the idea of rest now attaches itself to other days, viz., first day of the Passover, first day of the Feast of Trumpets, first and eighth days of the Feast of Booths, the Day of Atonement. 3. Consider the reasons assigned for the sabbath's observance: (i) because God rested on the seventh day; was there any connection between this reason and the fact that the teaching concerning God as Creator is greatly emphasized in the exilic and post-exilic periods? (2) because it is to serve as a sign between God and Israel ; did this mean that it distinguished Israel from other nations which did not •observe it ? 4. Note the details and significance of the special offering made on the sabbath. 5. Consider the rigidity with which the sabbath law was now to be enforced : (i) on the same plane with the honoring of father and mother, and the reverencing of a sanctuary; (2) penalty of death imposed for non-observance ; (3) the story of the man who gathered sticks on the sabbath day and suffered death by stoning ; (4) the gathering of a double amount of manna on the sixth day and the absence of manna on the sabbath ; (5) the agreement to refrain from commercial deal- ings on the sabbath ; (6) Nehemiah's judicial procedure in the case of those violating the law. 6. Note how the sabbath, having become a fixed date, every seventh day, is used as a point from which to calculate other feasts. 7. Note the tradition preserved by Nehemiah that the sabbath was (first ?) made known on Sinai. 8. Study the details of the law of the sabbatical year: (i) Is all agriculture to be remitted ? (2) What is to be the disposition of the fruit and grain that grows of itself? (3) Was Palestine a land subject to severe famines? If so, could such a law have been observed? 114 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (4) Could it have been observed while the people were mainly agri- culturists, /. e., before trade and commerce had come in ? How would the people living in rural districts spend their time ? (5) Is there any evidence that it was observed before the exile ? or that it was not {cf. Lev. 26:34, 35)? (6) Did not its observance in later times cause great distress (i Mace. 6:49, 53)? (7) What connection was there between this sabbatical year, with its fixed time of recurrence, and the year of release for slaves and debt in Deuteronomy (§§ 11 1, 3; 112, 3)? 9. Consider the idea suggested that the entire period of exile is a period of sabbaths, now enforced because formerly unobserved. 10. Concerning the Year of Jubilee, consider (i) the meaning of the name ; (2) the time fixed ; was it the fiftieth year following the seventh sabbatical year, that is, was it the second of two successive years of rest? or did it coincide with the forty-ninth year? (3) the procedure; was it, in general, like the sabbatical year ? (4) what was the regulation concerning sowing, reaping, gathering ? (5) concerning the restoration of real property ? (6) the special provision concerning dwelling-houses in walled cities ; the houses of the Levites ; (7) the regulation concern- ing Hebrew and non-Hebrew slaves ; (8) concerning land dedicated to Jehovah and its redemption ; (9) concerning the inheritance of daugh- ters as affected by these laws. (10) How were the people to live dur- ing this period of abstinence from work? (11) Is it possible that the law of the jubilee year is an outgrowth of the law of the sabbath ? (12) What led to the choice of the fiftieth year? (13) Is there any evidence that this law existed before the time of the exile ? (14) Was the Year of Jubilee ever observed ? (15) Was it a practical law, or an ideal law? (16) What, in general, is meant by ideal legislation ? § 119. Constructive "Work. Prepare a statement including {a) an explanation of the fact that such an exceedingly large place is occupied by the sabbatical system in the legislation and thought of this period; (<5) an enumeration of the various points of difference between the laws and usages of this period and those of the Deuteronomic period ; and (c) a brief study of the development of the sabbatical idea in the course of Israel's history. § 120. Literature to be Consulted. Jennings, yifWiVi Antiquities (1808), pp. 320 f.; Ewald, History of Israel {i%\. ed. 1843-59, transl. 1883), Vol. I, pp. 88 {.; II, pp. 209 f.; V, pp. 166 f., 343, 400, 416; IvEM, Antiquities 0/ Israel {lSS4, transl. 1876), pp. 97-107; Kalisch, Commentary on Exodus (1855), in loc. 20:8-11; Hessey, On the Sabbath ("Bampton Lecture," i860, 3d ed. 1866); GiLFlLLAN, On the Sabbath (1862); KuRTZ, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament (1862, transl. 1863), pp. 342 ff.; Johnstone, Sunday and the LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II5 Sabbath (1863); R. S. PoOLE, article "Chronology," see section on "Sabbatical and Jubilee Years," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Cox, Literature of the Sabbath Question (1865); ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, transl. 1892), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath," "Sabbatical Year," "Jubilee;" KUENEN, The Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1894), Vol. I, pp. 286 f.; II, pp. 278-84 ; Sayce, Records of the Past, Vol. I (1873), pp. 164 f.; Oehler, Theology of the Old Testament (ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), pp. 328-45 ; Sayce, Records of the Past, Vol. VII (1876), p. 157; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel {1878), pp. 112-20; J. Y^^TO^, Early Hebrew Life (1880), pp. 24-6, 29-32, 64-70; W. D. Love, "The Sabbath, etc.," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1880, pp. 153-78, 355-89,419-39, 661-S5; 1S81, pp. 254-85,524-52, Schrader, Cuneiform Inscrip- tions and the Old Testament {2d ed. 1882, transl. 1885), Vol. I, pp. 18 ff.; W. R. Sunn, Prophets of Israel {ist ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), pp. 385 f.; Francis Brown, "The Sabbath in the Cuneiform 'R&cotAs," Presbyterian Review, 1882, pp. 688-700; Dillmann, Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1886, transl. 1897 f.), in loc. chap, i; SCHURER, History of the Jewish People in the Tifue of Jesus Christ{i8?>t, transl. 1891), Div. II,Vol. II, PP..96-105 ; W. R. Smith, articles "Jubilee," "Sabbath," Encyclopcedia Britannica (1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians {" Hibbert Lectures," 1887), pp. 70-77; Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888), Vol. I, pp. 151, 366; II, pp. 225. 306 ; McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature (1891), articles "Jubilee," "Sabbath," and "Sabbatical Year ; " Jensen, " The Supposed Babylonian Origin of the Week and the Sabbath," Sunday School Zi'wfj-, January 16, 1892; Alice M. Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England {"jih. ed. 1893); F. Garden, article "Sabbatical Year," Smith's Dic- tionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); S. Clark (revised by J. M. Fuller), article "Jubilee," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); W. E. Addis, Docu7nents of the Hextateuch, 2 vols. (1893-98), see Index, s. v. "Jubilee," " Sabbath," etc.; Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1S93), pp. 74-7; Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures," 1893), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath;" Davis, Genesis and Sejuitic' Tradition (1894), pp. 23-35; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), pp. 174-81 ; Hirschfeld, " Remarks on the Etymology of Sa.hhd.t.h.,'" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1896, pp. 354 f.; Abrahams, /^wm/z Life in the Middle Ages {lig"]), see Index, s. v. " Sabbath ; " Morris Jastrow, Jr., "The Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American Journal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp. 312-52 ; Cheyne,/(?ww// Religious Life after the Exile (1898), pp. 66 f.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, The Book of Leviticus — a New English Translation (Polychrome Bible, 1898), pp. 97-100; E. A. W. Budge, Egyptian Magic (1899), pp. 224-8; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs (1899), p. 245 ; Kent, A History of the Jewish People During the Babylonian, Persian, and Greek Periods (1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath;" Sinker, Essays and Studies (1900); J. Estlin-Carpenter and G. Harford Battersby, The Hexa- teuch (1900), Vol. II, p. 112 ; T. F. WRIGHT, "Sabbath," New Church Review, Janu- ary, 1900; W. R. Smith and I. Benzinger, article "Jubilee," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill (1901), pp. 376 f.; Morris Jastrow, Jr., " Hebrew and Babylonian Accounts of Creation," Jewish Quarterly Review, Yo\. XIII (1901), pp. 648-50; H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the Sabbath (Golden Lectures for 1900-1901); C. F. Kk^t, Biblical World, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 344-8. Il6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT J. Spencer,/?^ le gibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686); Wagenseil, De anno ^ubilaeo Hebraeorum (1700); J. H. Mai, Maimonidis tract, de juribus anni septimi et ntbilaei {170S); Van der Kardt, Dt-j'ubi/aeo Mosis {1^28); Reineccws, De origine ^ubilaeorum (1730); Carpzov, De anno jubilaeo (1730); Hebenstreit, De sabbato ante leges Mosis existente (1748); Meyer, De temporibus et diebus Hebraeoruni (1755), pp. 341-60; Michaelis, Comm. in leg. Mosis (1775-80), Vol. I, pp. 76-419; Franke, Novum systema chro7iologiae fu7idamentalis (1778); 11 UG, " Ueber das mosaische Gesetz vom Jubeljahr," Zeitschrift fiir das Erzbisthum, I, I; De Wette, Lehrbuch der hebrdisch-jiidischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1814, 4th ed. 1864), pp. 21 1 f.; Baur, " Uer hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des Mosaischen Kultus," Tiibinger Zeit- schrift, 1S32, pp. 125 f.; Vatke, Die Religion des Alien Testanientes (1835), Vol. I, pp. 198 f.; Kranold, De anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1835); G. WOLDE, De- anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des ?nosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. I, pp. 572 f.; II, pp. 569 f., 601 f.; Winer's Biblisches Realwdrterbuch (3d ed. 1847), articles "Sabbath," etc.; Ewald, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgetildndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. I (1847), pp. 410 ff.; BrugsCH, ibid.,^o\.\\\ (1849), pp. 271 ff.; Proudhon, De la celebratiofi du Dinianche ( 1850); OsCHWALD, Die christliche Sonntagsfeier ( 1850); Liebetrut, Die Sonntagsfeier das Wochenfest des Volkes Gottes (1851); Herzfeld, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1855), pp. 458-65 ; Saai.SChOtz, Archdologie der Hebrder, Vol. II (1856), pp. 224 ff., 308 ff.; Zuckermann, Sabbathjahrcyclus und fubelperiode (1857); HuPFELD, Commentatio de Hebraeorum festis. Part III (1858); Keil, Handbuch der biblischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1858 f., 2d ed. 1875), Vol. I, §§77 ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka (transl. from Dutch 1864), pp. 34 f.; Kukel, " Die sociale und volkswirtschaftliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testamentes," Theo- logische Studien und Kritiken, 1871, pp. 760 ff.; Steiner, article "Jubeljahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Schrader, "Der babylonische Ursprung der siebentagigen Woche," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343 ff.. Mangold, articles "Sabbat" and "Sabbatsjahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); KOHLER, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte, Vol.1 (1875), pp. 431 ff.; Klostermann, "Uber die kalendarische Bedeutung des Jobeljahres," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1880, pp. 720-48; Dillmann, Die Biicher Exodus und Leviticus (2d ed. 1880), pp. 602 ff.; Budde, Die hiblische Urgeschichte (1883), pp. 495 ff.; \.OTZ, Quaestiones de historia sabbathi {l?>'ij,)\ Hoffmann, " Versuche zu Amos," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 120 f.; Oehler, articles "Sabbath" and "Sabbath- und Jobeljahr," revised by von Orelli, in A'^a/- encyklopddie fiir protesta7itische Theologie und Kirche {zd ed. 1884); RiEHM, articles "Jobeljahr," "Sabbath," "Sabbathjahr " in KlEHU's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. 1893 f.); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 498 f.; Wellhausem, Composition des Hexateuchs (2d ed. 1889), pp. 187 f.; ]KKSKT:i, Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,\o\. IV (1889), pp. 274 ff.; H. L. Strack, Z>p. 201 f., 464 ff., 473 f.; GUNKEL, Schopfung und Chaos (1895), pp. 13!., II4-17 ; DiLL- mann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr" and "Sabbat;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II7 "Sabbat" and "Jobeljahr; " Holzinger, Exodus {Kurzer Hand-Commentar zutn Alien Testament'), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath" (1900); Bertholet, Leviticus {Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr," "Sabbat," (1901). See also the Mishnah tracts on "The Sabbath" and "The Book of Jubilees," chap. 50. § 12 1. Supplementary Topics. 1. Study the meaning of the word "sabbath," its derivation, its usage. 2. Examine the following texts in which the root DniD occurs, with a view to determining the meaning of the root, viz.: Gen. 2 : 2 f.; 8:22; Exod. 16 : 30; 12 : 15 ; 23 : 12; 34 : 21 ; Josh. 5:12; Isa. 13: 11; 14 : 5 ; 30 : 7 ; Ps. 8 : 3 ; Prov. 20 : 3. 3. Study the passages in which the word ■pn^lT (ordinarily trans- lated "solemn rest") occurs, viz.: Lev. 23:3, 24, 32, 39; 16:31; 25 : 4; Exod. 16 : 23 ; 35 : 2 ; 31 : 15, with a view to determining its meaning. 4. Examine the words b^^ ("jubilee"), llm ("liberty"). 5. From an examination of i Mace. 1:39, 43, 45; 2:32-41; 6 :49 ; 9 : 43 ff.; 10 : 34; 2 Mace. 5 : 24-26; 6 : 6, 1 1 ; 12 : 38 ; 15:1-5, prepare a statement concerning the sabbath in Maccabean times. 6. Is the sabbath referred to in the Wisdom books, or in the Psalms {cf. the title of Ps. 92)? Why not? 7. From a study of the following references from the New Testa- ment discuss the attitude of Jesus and the several New Testament writers toward the sabbath : Matt. 12 : i f., 5, 8, 10 ff.; 24:20; 28:1; Mark 1:21; 2 : 23 f., 27 f.; 3 : 2, 4 ; 6:2; 15 : 42 ; 16:1; Luke 4 : 16, 31 ; 6 : I ff., 5 ff., 9 ; 13 : 10, 14 ff.; 14 : i, 3, 5 ; 23 : 54, 56 ; John 5 : 9 f., 16, 18 ; 7 : 22 f.; g : 14, 16 ; 19:31; Acts 1:12; 13 : 14, 27, 42, 44; 15:21; 18:4; 21:27; 28 : 14 ; Col. 2:16; Heb. 4:4; Rev. i : 10. 8. Compare, in general, the observance of special rest-days among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and determine whether there is any possible connection between these days and the sabbath.' 9. Compare, in general, the observance, on the part of the Assyrians, "> Cf. Maspero, Romans et Poesies au Papyrus Harris, No. ^00, pp. 38 f. 41; Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et nefastes de Pannee egyptienne; WIEDEMANN, Religion of the Egyptians, pp. 263 f . ; Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American Journal of Theology, NoX. II, p. 350, note 116; Budge, Egyptian Magic, pp. 224-8; Ihering, Vorgeschichte der Indo-Europder, pp. 145, 309-58 ff. (in English translation = 7%,? Evolution of the Aryan, New York, 1897); H. Cohen, "Der Sabbath in seiner culturgeschichtlichen Bedeutung," Zf?V^^'?5/( Milwaukee, Wis.), 1881, pp. 4ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka, pp. 34 f.; KUENEN, Religion of Israel, Il8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Arabs, and Canaanites, of special rest-days, and determine whether there is any connection between these days and the sabbath.^ 10. Consider, in general, the whole sabbatical system, and show (a) its origin, {^) its various stages of development, {c) its social bear- ings, (d) its religious significance, (e) its idealism, (/) its practical character. 11. Consider the relation of the sabbath to the moon, the new- moon feast, etc. Was the sabbath originally a lunar festival ? Cf. §§97 (9), 104 (4)- 12. Consider the origin and significance of the use of the number seven in the Old Testament, as seen, e. g., in the sabbatical system, in the proceedings connected with the capture of Jericho, in the Hebrew verb "to swear, take oath" (literally = " to seven oneself" or "be sev- ened"), in the seven kine of Pharaoh's dream, etc. 13. What is the relation of the Old Testament sabbath to the "Lord's day" of the New Testament, (a) as to the day observed, (d) as to the spirit characteristic of the observance -* Vol. I, pp. 262 f.; Lepsius, Chronologie der Aegypter, Vol. I, pp. 22, 132 £f. ; Brugsch, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Geselhchaft, Vol. Ill, p. 271 ; NOWACK, Hebrdische Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 141!. ^ Cf. Morris Jastrow, "Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs, p. 245 ; SCHRADER, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343-53; Francis Brown, " The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review, 1882, pp. 688-700. (See also § 120.) CHAPTER X. THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY. § 122. The Clean and Unclean in the Early Period, /. -2i ; 4:11 f.; 6 : 10 f.; 16 : 19 ; Numb. 6 : 6-9 ; 18 : 11, 15 ; 8 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 36 ; 2 Chron. 23 : 19 ; 30 : 17-20 ; 29 : i 5 f., 18 f.; Neh. 13 : 9, 22 ; Isa. 66 : 20. 7. Exemption from the requirement of cleanness is made in the case of the Passover. 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20 ; Numb. 9 : 6-14. 8. Non-Israelitish land is unclean, and Israel's land also is unclean. Josh. 22:19; Ezra 9 : 1 1 ; Numb. 35 : 33 f . ; Zech. 13:1 f . 9. All foreigners are unclean. Isa. 35:8; Ezra 9:11; Neh. 13 : 30. 10. Instruction as to clean and unclean is an important part of priestly functions. Lev. 10 : 10 f.; 20 : 25 f. 11. Traces of ancestor-worship. Lev. 19 : 28, 32. § 132. Questions and Suggestions. I. Observe (i) that the old totem-sacrifice still survives in the sacrificial eating of swine, mice, and other abominable animals; did they eat these because they thought that in so doing they were eating the flesh of the deity, and that this meant participation in the virtues " References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code of laws. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 25 of the deity, as well as in the mystic life of the tribe ? (2) that the old customs of cutting the flesh and of tattooing exist ; were these associated with the old idea of ancestor-worship, and was ancestor- worship connected with totemism ? 2. (i) Classify according to the later usage, the various kinds of food forbidden ; and (2) compare closely the lists of clean and unclean animals given in Leviticus with that of Deuteronomy (see §§125, 2, and 126, 2); (3) note what is implied in the case of Daniel and his companions. 3. Note and classify the sources of uncleanness as they are indi- cated in the writings of this period. 4. Consider (i) the various cases of uncleanness {e. g., leprosy, plague, bodily issue, unclean food, etc.), and the fact that a person or object, when brought into contact with an unclean thing, itself became unclean. (2) What was the underlying thought of this usage, and its practical working? (3) In what way did a holy thing, when brought into contact with persons or objects, convey its holiness to them ? 5. Arrange and classify the various ways adopted in this period for securing purification from uncleanness, and compare them in general with the methods of the middle period. 6. Consider now the extreme emphasis laid upon ceremonial clean- ness : (i ) the injunctions to this end ; (2) the historical facts cited ; (3) the practical working out of these commands ; (4) the rigidity of the ceremonial as now maintained, in comparison with that of earlier days and other peoples; (5) the explanation of the origin of this rigid cere- monial, viz., the desire to secure the favor of God and the fulfilment of the prophetic promises (which, for the most part, still remained unful- filled) by bringing the individual Israelite into such a state of piety and obedience as would literally compel God to fulfil his promises ; (6) the relation to all this ceremonial of the highly spiritual element found in the Psalter, which was largely the product of this period ; (7) the conception of God which was implied in this ceremonial, which, indeed, permeated the ceremonial. 7. Consider (i) the exemption from ceremonial cleanness made in the case of the Passover feast, and (2) the explanation of it ; (3) the historical case cited in 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20. 8. Observe that (i) the idea of the uncleanness of non-Israelitish land still prevails; and also that (2) the land of Israel itself has become unclean ; but (3) for what reason ? 9. Note that the spirit of exclusivism has become so strong that 126 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT all foreigners are regarded as unclean. Consider the part played by this idea in the conflict which later arose between Judaism and Hel- lenism. 10. Observe (i) that it is now a most important function of the priest to give instruction concerning the clean and unclean, and con- sider (2) how difficult it must have been to educate all the people in this regard, in view of the great multitude of details involved ; and (3) the general effect upon the priesthood of such an occupation of their time and attention. 11. Is there still a survival of the old tendency toward ancestor- worship in (i) the custom of cutting themselves for the dead, which is prohibited, and in (2) the special command to revere the old men ? §133. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show the new points which characterize the later period in the development of the idea of the clean and unclean. §134. Literature to be Consulted. Henry Hayman, articles " Unclean Meats " and " Uncleanness," Smith's Dic- tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. 144-60; ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, transl. 1892), Vol. II, pp. 65-78; J. F. McLennan, Fortnightly Review, 1869 f.; KuENEN, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. II, pp. 94-7; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus, Part II (i87i),pp. 1-163; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§ 142 f.; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (1871, 2d ed. -1873), see Index, s. v. "Totem Ancestors;" Idem, Early History of Mankind {2d ed. 1878), pp. 284 f.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology (1879), Vol. I, p. 367; W. Robertson Smith, "Animal Worship and Animal Tribes among the Arabs and in the Old Testament," Journal of Philology, Vol. IX (1880), pp. 75 ff.; Idem, Old Testament in the fewish Church (ist ed. 1S81, 2d ed. 1892), p. 366; Idem, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885), chap, vii ; ScHURER, A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (1885, transl. 1890), see Index, s. v. "Clean and Unclean;" Joseph Jacobs, " Are there Totem-Clans in the Old Testament?" Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. Vlll (1885), pp. 39-41; Andrew Lang, Custom and Myth (2d ed. 1885), pp. 260 ff.; Piepenbring, The Theology of the Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), pp. 73-9; Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (ist ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Tabu," "Totem," etc.; Sayce^ Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), see Index, s. v. "Clean and Unclean," "Totemism;" Bennett, Diseases of the Bible (ist ed. 1887, 3d ed. 1896); J. G. Frazer, Totemism (with numerous references to literature; 1887); Idem, articles "Taboo" and "Totemism," Encyclopadia Britannica (1887); W. R. Smith, article "Sacrifice," ibid. (1887), Vol. XXI, p. 135 ; Idem, Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), additional notes A. B, C, and I; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough (1890), see Index, s. v. "Taboo," "Totem," etc.; F. VV. Davies, "Bible Leprosy," Old and New Testament Student, Vol. XI (1890), pp. 142-25; LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 27 McClintock and Strong's CyclopcEciia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesias- tical Literature, articles on "Unclean" and " Uncleanness " (1891); J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (1892), p. 260; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 473 ff.; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), PP- S5> 71. 131. 275; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), PP- 70, 164, 291 f.; J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (1896), pp. 492-569; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. I (1896) pp. 88-101; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. "Animals," etc.; J. Hastings, article "Clean," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Morris Jastrow, Jr., /f^/e^zow of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), pp. 397 f., 662 f.; J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism," Fortnightly Review, April and May, 1859; BvBGE, Egyptian Magic {iHgg), pp. 232 £f.; Paul Haupt, "Medical and Hygienic Features of the Bible," The Independent, New York, July 13, 1899, pp. 1906 f.; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1899); F.J. Schamberg, "The Nature of the Leprosy of the Bible," Biblical World, Vol. XHI (1899), pp. 162-9 ; Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Bib- lical Literature, Vol. XIX (1901), p. 60, and note II3; McCURDY, article " Animal- Worship, "/««w/i Encyclopedia {1901); Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901), pp. 257-69 ; R. G. MuRisoN, " Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical World, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 176-84 ; E. Clodd, Myths and Dreams, pp. 99 f. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus {\']'i']\, Hebenstreit, De cura sanit. publ. (1783), Vol. II, pp. 15 f.; Beyer, De haemorrh. ex lege Mosis impuris (1792); Bleek, " Beitrage zu den Forschungen iiber den Pentateuch," Theologische Studien U7id Kritiken, 1831, pp. 498 f.; Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus (1839), Vol. II, pp. 159 ff., 462 ff.; Sommer, Biblische Abhandlungen (1846), pp. 183-367; Saalschutz, Das mosaische Recht mit Beriicksichtigung des spdtern jiidischen (ist ed. 1846, 1848; 2d ed. 1853), chaps. 22-32 ; Kurtz, "Ueber die symbolische Dignitat des in Num. 19 zur Tilgung der Todesunreinigkeit verordneten Ritus," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1846, pp. 629 ff.; Danielssen et Boeck, Traite de la Spedalskhed [Nor- wegian = leprosy] ou Elephantiasis des Grecs (transl. from the Norwegian, 1847); Chwolsohn, />?> Ssahier und der Ssabismus (1856), Vol. I, pp. 146 ff.; C. WoLFF, "Die Lepra Arabum," in ViRCHOW's Archiv fiir path. Anatomie und Physiologie, Vol. XXVI (1861); S. FiNALY, "Ueber die wahre Bedeutung des Aussatzes in der Bibel," Archiv fiir Dermatologie und Syphilidologie (1870); ScHENKEL, article " Reinigkeit," Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte, Vol. I (1875), PP- 409-19; L. KoTELMANN, Die Geburtshilfe bei den alien Hebrdern (1876); Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol.11 (1878), pp. 100 ff.; Frantz Delitzsch, "Die Aussatztora des Leviticus," Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 3-10; E. K5nig, article " Reinigungen," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Kamphausen, article "Reinigkeit und Reinigungen," Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Frantz Delitzsch, article " Reinigungsopfer," ibid.; Noldeke, "Robertson Smith's Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XL (1886), pp. 157-69; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel,No\. I (1887), pp. 481 ff.; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums { = Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, III, 1st ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 52, 106, 156, 176 ff.; M. Sandreczky, "Studien iiber Lepra," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), PP- 34-40 128 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (from the English in The Lancet, London, August 31, 1889); Riehm, Alttestamentliche Theologie (1889), pp. 124 ff.; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode{\%<^2), see Index, s. V. "Taboo " and " Unrein ; " Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch (1892), pp. 105 f.; G. N. Munch, Die Zara'ath der hebrdischen Bibel. Einleitung in der Geschichte des Atissatz, in Dermatologische Studien, by G. Unna (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Tabu," "Totemismus;" H. Schurtz, Die Speiseverbote (1893); A. EiNSLER, " Beobachtungen iiber d. Aussatz im heiligen Lande," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina- Vereins, Vol. XVI (1893), Heft 4 ; NovvACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I, pp. 116 £f.; II, pp. 275-99 ; 'QKiiZl^GKK, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 152,297, 478-89; T>\\AM.h^'ti,Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie {\Zq^),%e.& Index, s. v. "Reinheit," "Unrein," etc.; Zinsser, " Bemerkungen iiber den jetzigen Stand der Lepraforschungen," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina- Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), pp. 41-4; A.WiENKK, Die j'iidischen Speisegesetze {iSgS); A. Sack, Was ist die Zaraatk der hebrdischen Bibel? (ViRCHOw's Archiv fiir path. Anatomic und Physiologie, Band 144, Supplementheft, 1896); Stade, Theologische Litteratur-Zeitung, 1896, No. I, col. 10; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Judeti zu den Fremden (1896), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Reinigung ;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), pp. 24 f., 30, 42, 104, 193, 221 f.; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult im alten Israel (1898), pp. 173-87; N. COHN, Die Vorschrift betreffs die Zar'ath nach dem Kitab al Kafi (1898); D. H. MuLLER, Sudarabische Altertiimer im kunsthistorischen Museufn zu Wien (1899); J. PiKLER AND F. Somlo, Der Ursprung des Totemismus (1899); J. C. Matthes, " De begrippen rein en onrein in het Oude Testament," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Vo\. XXXIII (1899), pp. 293-318; J. Halevy, Revue semiiique. Vol. VII {1899), pp. 267 ff.; GruNEISEN, Ahtienkultus und Urre- ligion Israels (1900); Ebstein, Die Aledizin im Alten Testavient {igoi). See also the treatises in the Mishnah entitled Niddah, Parah, Tehoroth, Zabbim, Celim, Miscath Arlah; and the commentaries on Lev., chaps. ii-iS, especially those of Dillmann (1880), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1900), and Driver and White {Polychrome Bible, 1898). §135. Supplementary Topics. 1. Consider the following references to clean and unclean in the Psalter: 73:1,13; 19:9,12; 51:2,7,10; 24:4; 18:20; 119:9; and summarize their teachings. 2. Examine the following references in the books of Job and Proverbs; Job 11:4; 33 : 9 ; 17:9; ^5 : M ff-; 25 :4; 9 : 30 ; 37 : 21; 36: 14 ; Prov. 14:4; 16:2; 20 :9 ; and also Eccl. 9:2; and summarize their teachings. 3. Study the allusions to clean and unclean in the books of the Maccabees and formulate a statement covering them : i Mace, i : 37, 46 ff., 54,62 f.; 2 : 12; 3:51 ; 4:38,43 f-, 48 f., 54; 13=47 f-; 2 Mace. I : 18, 33, 36 ; 2:8, 16, 19 ; 3:12; 4:14; 5:27; 6 : 2, 5, 7 f., 18 ff.; 7:1 ff.; 10:3, 5; 11:24; 12: 40; 13:8; 14: 36. 4. What, in general, is the attitude of New Testament writers toward the idea of clean and unclean as gathered from a study LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 29 of the principal allusions: Matt. 8 : 2 f.; 10:1,8; 11:5; 12:43; 23 : 25-27 ; Mark i : 23, 26 f., 40-44 ; 3 : 1 1, 30 ; 5 : 2, 8, 13 ; 6:7; 7:25; Luke 4:27; 5:12 ff.; 6:18; 7:22; 8:29; 4:33, 36; 9 : 42 ; II : 24, 39, 41 ; 17 : 14, 17 ; John 15:3; Acts 5:16; 8:7; io:i4f., 28; ii:8f.; Rom. 1:24; 6:19; 14:14; i Cor. 7:14; 2 Cor. 6:17; 7:1; 12:21; Gal. 5:19; Eph. 4:19; 5:3, 5, 26; Col. 3 : 5 ; I Thess. 2:3; 4:7; Heb. 9:13; James 4 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 10 ; I John I : 7, 9 ? 5. Make a study of the Hebrew words for "clean," viz., "dilp, nin^ , ^:n , ^^t , and " unclean," viz., ^•z'o ; cf. nn2?in , yjDTJD , *pp-i , etc.; trace their usage in the cognate languages (especially Assyrian and Arabic), and endeavor to determine their primary meaning and their exact significance in Hebrew literature. See especially Baudissin, Studien zur setnitischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II, pp. 1-40; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and \]\\c\ea.n,'" Encychpcedia Biblica; ZiM- MERN, Beitrdge zur Assyriologie, Vol. I, p. 105 ; Whitehouse, Thinker, 1892, p. 52; and the various lexicons. 6. Compare the similarities between the usages connected with clean and unclean and those connected with the ban ■^'^'^T^. How may these be most satisfactorily explained ? See § 146, and cf. W. H. Bennett, article " Ban," EncyclopcEdia Biblica. 7. Study the phenomena similar to the Hebrew " clean and unclean " found in other Semitic nations, e. g., the prohibition among the Syrians against eating swine ; the putting off of ordinary everyday garments while engaged in sacred acts at Mecca and other ancient Arabic sanc- tuaries ; the Arabian custom and method of removing the impurity of widowhood; the impurity of menstruation, which is recognized by all Semites; and the many parallels found in Egyptian customs and wor- ship. What is the common basis of all these customs ? See especially W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 441-56 ; W. Max MiJLLER, article "Egypt," §19, Encyclopcedia Biblica; Frazer, articles "Taboo" and "Totemism," Encyclopadia Britannica. 8. Consider the possible bases of classification of the clean and unclean animals, birds, fish, etc. Is the hygienic motive satisfactory ? Is the idea that certain things are prohibited because of an instinctive feeling of abhorrence for them applicable to all cases? Does the pro- hibition of certain things have any connection with their sacrificial or non-sacrificial character? Can certain cases be explained as due to a belief that the animals in question were inhabited by demons? Can 130 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT any clearly marked line of demarcation be drawn between clean and unclean beasts, etc.? Is a combination of motives probable ? See especially Driver, Deuteronomy, p. 164 ; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the Jewish Church, pp. 365 f. and note ; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encydopcedia Biblica; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. I, pp. 1 16-19. 9. Study the idea of "holiness" carefully in the light of the teach- ing concerning " clean and unclean." Was it thought of originally as a relation sustained to the deity, or as an inherent quality ? What is the history of the conception from this point of view ? 10. Consider the close relationship of the idea of "clean and unclean " to the idea of God, and the mutual influence of the two ideas. Note that in the earliest times everything thought to be asso- ciated with the deity was regarded as unclean, and that in the later period the exalted idea of God's holiness was expressed concretely by a wide extension of the circle of " uncleanness." Trace the parallel development of these two conceptions through the course of Israel's history. CHAPTER XI. THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER AND RELATED FORMS OF WORSHIP, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY. § 136. With prayer, offered at times to secure deliverance from trouble or danger, at other times to obtain the presence of the deity and his guidance, there may be associated, for purposes of classifica- tion, (i) the vow, which was a promise made to the deity in case of the granting of a request; (2) blessings and curses, which were prayers for good or evil to one's friends or enemies; (3) the ban or sentence to destruction, which was a formal curse or anathema; (4) the oath, which was an invocation of the deity, or a solemn statement in the name of the deity. The following may also be regarded as indirectly connected with prayer, viz.: (5) fasting, a means of making impression upon the deity, and thus securing favor ; (6) consultation through oracles, Urim and Thummim, the ephod, and the lot, which were various means of ascertaining the divine will ; (7) practice in connec- tion with sorcery, or witchcraft, or magic, or divination, all of which was, likewise, effort to communicate with the spirit or deity and to secure knowledge of the divine will; (8) mourning customs, many of which had their origin in the superstition that the departed spirit had power for evil or good over those who were living, a power to be pro- pitiated or averted by certain acts ; (9) circumcision, which was an act of dedication to the deity. It might be said that every act of worship was xt.2i\\j prayer ; that is, approach to the deity. Sacrifice, for example, was acted prayer. § 137. Prayer. I. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.' (a) Divine mercy and aid are sought through prayer. Gen. r8 : 22-33 ; 19 : 18-22 ; 20 : 7, 17(E); 25 : 21 ; 30:6, 17(E), 22 ; 32:9-12; 35 :3(E); Exod. 3 : 7. 9 : 5 : 22 f.; 8:8, 12, 29 ff.; 9:28 £f.; 10:17 ff.; 14:10, 15(E); 15 : 25 ; 17:4, 8-1 5(E); 32 : 11-14 ; 32 : 30-32 (E); Numb. 11:1-3 (E), 10-15,18; I2:I3(E); I4:i3-I9(E); 21:7 (E); 23 : 10(E); Josh. 7 :6-9; 10:12-14; 24: 7(E); Judg. 10:10, 14 f.; 15 : 18; 16:28 ; I Sam. 7:8 f.; 15:11; 2 Sam. 15:31 ; 24 :io, 17; 2 Kings 4 : 33; 6 : 17-20; 19:1,4,14-20. *A11 the references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E). 131 132 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Study different typical cases of prayer for mercy and aid, and con- sider (i) the persons who are represented as praying; (2) the nature of the petitions offered, e. g., requests for healing, for children, for relief from frogs, hail, etc., for rescue from Pharaoh, for deliverance of Israel from immediate destruction after sin has been committed ; (3) the character of the prayers — simple, informal, naive; (4) the basis on which request is made; (5) the elements of prayer which seem to be lacking in these cases ; (6) the indications of a primitive stage of religious development; (7) the typical and fundamental ele- ments of prayer which are involved. {b) Divine presence and guidance are sought through prayer. Gen. 24:12-14; Exod. 33:7-ii(E); 34 :9; Numb. 10:35 f-: i Sam. 8 : 6, 18, 21; 12: 17 f.; 2 Sam. 7 : 18-29; i Kings 3 :6-9; 18 : 24-40; 2 Kings 19:2-7, 15-19. Study, from the same points of view, another class of prayers, in which request is made for the presence of the divine spirit and for its guidance. 2. The middle period: readings, questions, and suggestions.' Deut. 9:18-20,25-29; 10:10; 26:15; 2 Kings 22:19; Jer. 3:21; 10 : 23-25 ; 14 : 7-9, 19-22 ; 15 : 15-18 ; 18 : 19-23; 20 : i 2 ; 42 : 1-6; Judg. 3:9,15; 4:3; 6:6; 2 Kings 20 : 3 ; i Kings 8 : 22-6 1 . Consider (i) the circumstances attending Moses' prayers for the people, his fear of Jehovah, the ground of intercession, the element of confession, the naive appeal to the estimate which strangers may make of Jehovah's ability, or of his purpose; (2) the reasons given by the prophetess Huldah for Jehovah's favorable answer to Josiah, viz., humility, supplication ; (3) the spirit of dependence seen in Jeremiah's prayer (10:23-25), and its request; (4) Jeremiah's confession and passionate appeal (14 : 7-9, 19-22); (5) Jeremiah's personal complaints (15 : 15-18; 18 : 19-23; 20 : 12); (6) the request of the people that Jere- miah would pray for them, and his consent (Jer. 42 : 1-6); (7) the crying of Israel to Jehovah in their distress; (8) the basis of Heze- kiah's appeal for preservation from death (2 Kings 20 : 3); (9) Solomon's prayer (i Kings 8 : 20-53) ^^ the dedication of the temple (as expanded and presented by the Deuteronomic editor) — its form, its contents, its spirit, its presuppositions. 'References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- onomy. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 33 3. The later period : readings, questions, and suggestions. ^ Gen. 17: 18 ; Exod. 2 : 23 f.; 6:5; Numb. 16 : 20-24 ; Judg. 20 : 18, 23 ; 21:2 f. ; Ezra 8 : 21 £f.; g :$ — 10 : i ; Neh. i : 4-1 1 ; 2:4; 4 : 4 f . 4:9; 5: 19; 6:9, 14; 9:5-38 ; 13: 14. 22, 30; Isa. 63: 15—64: 12. Consider (i) that an ejaculation (Gen. 17:18), the cry under oppression, is really prayer ; (2) the form and thought of the prayer ascribed to the congregation (Numb. 16 : 20-24) ; (3) the various prayers recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, noting the form, the content, the spirit, the entirely different tone as compared with those of preceding periods; (4) the exact particulars in which this difference of tone consists. § 138. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a brief statement, covering (i) the general content of scriptural prayers; (2) the peculiarities of form ; (3) the essential elements which make up such prayers; (4) any differ- ences which appear as characterizing the prayers of different periods; (5) the place of prayer in worship ; (6) the usage of prayer (a) in the Psalms,4 (^) in the wisdom literature,^ (c) in the apocryphal books,* (d) in the New Testament,' (5ifw^j (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer," etc.; Jastrow, Religion 3 All the references to the Hexateuch are from the P document. *See, e. g., Pss. 5 ; 12 ; 51 ; 55 ; 69. SSee, e. g., Job 22 :27; 33 : 26 ; 41 : 3; 42:8, 10 ; Prov. 15:8; 28:9. «See,^. g-., I Mace. 3:44-54; 4:10,30-34,38-40; 5=31-34; 2 Mace. 1:5 f., 8. 23-30; 13:10-12; 14:33-36; 15:21-24; Ecclus. 18:23; chap. 51. 7 Matt. 6 : 9 ff.; 17:21; 21 : 13, 22 ; 23 : 14 ; John, chap. 17. ^See literature cited in § 139. 134 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. " Prayers," etc.; T. K. Cheyne, Tewish Religious Life after the Exile {\%()%), p. 251; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. " Prayer, etc.; " Day, The Social Life of the Hebrews (1901), pp. 2I5f. Gass, article " Gebet," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 487 ff.; RiEHM's Handivorterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (2d ed. 1893 f.). Vol. I, pp. 484 ff.; J. A. Knudtzon, Assyrische Gebete an den Sonnengott fiir Staat und konigliches Haus aus der Zeit Asarhaddons und Assurbanipals, 2 vols. (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions- geschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Gebet ; " Benzinger, Hebrd- ische Archdologie {\%()i\),^^. ^t2&.; ^OVVKCK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. il (1894), PP- 259 ff.; DiLLMANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), pp. 184,481; Marti, Geschichte der israeliiischen Religion (1897), see Index, J. z*. " Gebet," etc.; F. Buhl, article "Gebet im Pi.\t&n'Y&i,\.2SVi&v\.t^'' Realencyklopddie fiir prot. Theologie und Kirche, Vol. VI (1899). § 140. The Vow. 1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions. Gen. 14:21 ff.; 28:2off. (E); 31 : 13(E); Judg. 11 :2gff., 39; I3:4f., 7, 14 ; I Sam. 1:11,21; 2 Sam. 15 17 f.; Numb. 21:1-3 (J); Isa. 19:21, 25. Examine the narratives which record the vows of Abraham, Jacob, Jephthah, the Nazirite, Hannah, Absalom, Israel in connection with Arad, as typical cases of vows, and note in each case (i) the implica- tion of dependence upon and recognition of the power of the deity; (2) the motive actuating the individual to make the vow; (3) the form of expression employed. 2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. Deut. 12:6, n, 17, 26; 23: 18, 22 f.; Nah. 2:1; Isa. ^^■.^l\ Jer. 44:25. Examine the references to vows and note (i) the characteristics of each case presented ; (2) the close association of the vow with the free- will offering; (3) the prohibition of the use of the harlot's hire; (4) the obligation to pay a vow once made ; (5) the making of a vow, wholly voluntary; (6) the prophetic point of view. 3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.' Numb. 6:1-21; 15:3.8; 29:39; 30:1-16; Mai. 1:14; Jon. 1:16; 2:10; Lev. 7 : 16 ; 27 : 2, 8 ; 22 : 18, 21, 23 ; 23 : 38. Examine the references cited and note (i) the special cases cited; (2) the increase in complexity of arrangement; (3) the details of the law of the Nazirite ; (4) the circumstances under which the vow of a 9 References in bold-face type are from the P document. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 135 woman is obligatory or otherwise ; (5) the distinction made between the vow and the free-will offering. § 141. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the vow, which will take up (i) the religious and psychological basis of the usage; (2) the various kinds of motives which are seen to have exerted influence; {3) the words employed and their significance; (4) the relationship of the vow to the free-will offering; (5) the relation to the oath; (6) the modifications in usage which come in later times; (7) the difference in principle between vows of devotion and vows of abstinence ; (8) the place of the Nazirite order '° in Old Testament history; (9) the making of vows among other ancient peoples;" (10) the attitude of the prophets ; (11) the representations in the Psalms ;" (12) the representa- tions in wisdom literature;'^ (13) the representations in apocryphal literature;'* (14) the representations in the New Testament ;'5 (15) the relation to prayer and sacrifice. §142. Literature to be Consulted. H. W. Phillott, article " Vows," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; SCHULTZ, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 191 f., 371 f.; W. R. Smith, articles "Nazarite" and "Vow," Encyclopedia Britannica (1875); Idem, Rel. of Sent., see Index, s. v. "Vows," "Naza- rite," '■etc.; Menzies, op. cit., p. 74; G. F. Moore, Judges (" International Criti- cal Commentary," 1895), pp. 232, 279, 380 ff.; Driver, The Books of Joel and Amos (Camb. Bible, 1897), pp. 152 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 189, 254; G. B. Gray, "The Nazirite," Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. I (1900), pp. 201 ff.; D. Eaton, article "Nazirite," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. III. Vilmar, "Die symbolische Bedeutung des Naziraergeliibdes," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1864, pp. 438 ff.; SCHRADER, article "Geliibde," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon; DiLLMANN, article "Nasiraer," ibid.; Oehler and Orelli, article " Nasiraat," Realencyklopddie {zA ed.); Grill, " Ueber Bedeutung und Ursprung des Nasiraergeliibdes," Jahrbiicher fiir prot. Theologie, 1880, pp. 645 ff.; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthu7ns (1883) pp. 147-53; Riehm, //a«t/- worterbuch, articles "Geliibde" and "Nasiraer;" Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, Vol. I (1888), pp. 23 f.; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Geliibde;" NowACK, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 263 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Bann," "Geliibde," etc.; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 141 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 87, 107; Buhl, article " Geliibde im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. VI. '°See article "Nazirite" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. III. "See article "Vow," Encyc. Brit.; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, p. 117; Jastrow, op. cit., pp. 668 f. "See, e. g., Pss. 22:25; 50:14; 56:12; 61:5,8; 65:1; 66:13; 76:11; 116:14, 18; 132 : 2. '3See, e. g., Eccl. 5 : 4 f.; Job 22 : 27 ; Prov. 7 : 14 ; 20 : 25 ; 31 : 2. '♦See, e. g., 2 Mace. 3 : 35 ; 9: 13 ff.; Ecclus. 18 :22. 'SSee, ^. g-., Act3 18: 18; 21:23!. 136 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT § 143. Blessings and Cursings. 1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions.'* Gen. 3:14, 17; 4:11; 9:25 f.; 12 : 3; 27:27-29, 35 (E), 39 f- (E) 48: 15 f.; 49: 1-27 ; Exod. 12 :32 ; 21 :i7(E);'7 23 :2i (E), 25-31 (E) Numb. 22 :6; 24 : 9 ; i Sam. 2 : 20 ; 14 : 24, 28 ; 17 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 28 f. 19: 39; Deut. 33 : 1-29 (E); Judg. 9:57; 21 : 18. Study and classify the material on blessings and cursings as fol- lows : (i) words used in blessing and cursing; (2) forms of expres- sion used, e.g., Judg. 21:18; i Sam. 2:20; Deut., chap. 33; (3) important cases of blessings or cursings, ^. ^., (a:) Jacob's last words (Gen., chap. 49), ib) Moses' last words (Deut., chap. 33), {c) David's curse on Joab (2 Sam. 3 : 28, 29) ; (4) the peculiar lack of the moral element in the case of Esau (Gen. 27 : 35) ; (5) the cursing of a hostile nation, e. g., by Balak (Numb. 22 : 6), by Goliath (i Sara. 17 : 43) ; (6) the con- nection with the oath ; (7) the blessing and curse pronounced in connection with the Covenant Code (Exod. 23: 21, 25-31). 2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'^ Gen. 49 : 25 f., 28 ; Deut. 11:26-30; 27:11-26; 28:1-68; 29:19-21; 30:1, 7, 19; Josh. 8:34 ; Jer. 29:18; Ezek. 34:26; i Kings 18 : 14 f., 55 f.; ^/. Ps. 68:1-3. Make a similar classification of the material coming from the middle period, noting as cases of special interest (i) the arrangement for blessings and curses to be announced from Mounts Gerizim and Ebal (Deut. 27:11-26); (2) Joshua's reading of the blessings and the curses (Josh. 8 134); (3) the old xo^dX form of blessing (i Kings 8 : 14 f., 55 f.); (4) d,form of national blessing {cf. Ps. 68:1-3); (5) prophetic use of curse (Jer. 29 : 18) and blessing (Ezek. 34 : 26); (6) the blessings and curses announced in connection with the Deuteronomic Code (Deut. 28:3-14, 15-68). 3. The late period: readings, questions, and suggestions." Gen.28:3f.; Lev. 9:22; 25:21; chap. 26 ; Numb. 5 :i2-3i; 6 :22-26; Neh. 10 :29 ; 13:2; 2 Chron. 34 :24 ; Isa. 24 : 6 ; Zech. 5:3; Mai. 2:2; 3:9; Pss. 1 09 ; 37 : 36 ; Prov. 26 : 2 ; Dan. 9:11. Classify likewise the material of the late period, noting as cases of '* All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E). '7 This reference is from the Covenant Code. •8 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- onomy. "References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 37 special interest (i) Isaac's blessing of Jacob (P) (Gen. 28 :3 f.); (2) the priestly form of blessing (Numb. 6:22-26); (3) the forms of doxology used in later worship {cf. Pss. 134; 150); (4) the blessings and curses announced in connection with the Levitical Code (Lev. 26:3-12, 16-45); (5) the thought even in later times that "it was worth while to curse a bad man" {cf. Ps. 109); but (6) the feeling also that only the good might be blessed {cf. Ps. 37 : 26), and that causeless curses were of no avail {cf. Prov. 26 : 2). §144. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on blessings and cursings, including the following points : (i) the words translated blessing and curse; (2) the forms of expression used ; (3) stereotyped formulas of benediction ; (4) the religious idea or superstition under- lying the usage — was it really a "spell, pronounced by a holy per- son " ? (5) how was this usage related to magic and sorcery {cf. the curse-producing water)? (6) the more important patriarchal blessings — were they cursings as well as blessings? (7) the threefold classifica- tion : {d) one nation by another, {b) one individual by another, {c) as attached to laws to secure their better observance ; (8) a comparison of the three sets of blessings and cursings connected respectively with the Covenant Code, the Deuteronomic Code, and the Levitical Code ; (9) a comparison of the usage as it is found in the three periods, the modifications which are made; (to) a comparison of the New Testa- ment representations on this subject^" — are blessings and curses found in the speeches of Jesus ? if so, how are they to be understood? (11) this usage among the Arabians;" (12) this usage among the Assyri- ans ;''^ (13) the relation of this usage to prayer. § 145. Literature to be Consulted. EWALD, Op. cit., pp. 76-9 ; SCHULTZ, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 335 ff., 346 ff.; Briggs, Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 115-20; VV. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1887), pp. 53, 263; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent., p. 164; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic aftd Sorcery (iSgt); J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' ZJzV- tionary, Vol.1 (1898); W. F. Adeney, article "Blessing," ibid.; T. K. CHeyne, article "Blessings and Cursings," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); Henry Hayman. " The Blessing of Moses : Its Genesis and Structure," American Journal of Semitic Lan- guages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106. '°See, e. g., Matt. 5 : 44 ; 14 : 19 ; 26 : 26 ; Mark 10: 16; Luke 2 :'28, 34; 9 : 16; 24:50!.; Acts 3: 26; 23:12,14; Rom. 12:14; Cal.3:i3; Mark 7 : 10 ; ii::i; Matt. 15:4; 25 :4I. "Cf. GoLDZiHER, Muhammedanische Studien. ^^ Cf. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, passim. 138 PRIESTLY ELEM?:iNT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Merx, articles "Fluch" and " Fluchwasser," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikoti, Vol. II (1869); SCHENKEL, article "Segen," Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Burger, article "Segen, Segnung," Realencyklopddie, 2d ed., Vol. XIV (1884); Riehm, article "Fluch," Handivorterbuch des bibl. Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 126; SCHWALLY, " Miscellen," Zeitschrift fiir die altlestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI (1891), pp. 170 ff.; NowACK, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 251 f., 261 f.; Benzinger, op. cit., p. 146; Marti, o/. cit., pp. 91, 116. §146. The Ban. ■ I. The early period. Exod. 22:19; (E);« Numb. 21: 2 (J); Josh. 8: 26(E); Judg. 1:17; 21:11; I Sam. 15 : 3, 8, 15, 18, 20. 2. The middle period.'* Josh. 2:10; 6:18; 10:28, 35, 40; ii:ii f., 21; Mic. 4:13; Isa. 43:28; Deut. 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 26; i3:i7f.; 20:17; Jer. 25:9; 50:21, 26; 51:3. 3. The late period.''^ Isa. 34 : 2, 5 ; Mai. 4:6; Lev. 27 :2i, 28 f.; Numb. 18 : 14 ; Isa. 11:15 ; Zech. 14:11; I Chron. 2:7; 4:41; 2 Chron. 32:14; Ezra i o : 8 ; Dan. 11:44. Examine the passages cited in the various periods, and classify the material thus gathered as follows: (i) words used to mean ban or destruction, and their significance ; (2) classes of persons or objects sub- ject to ban, e. g., (a) idols, (^) individuals regarded as enemies of the nation, (c) cities or nations regarded as hostile (the Canaanites), (d) individuals personally objectionable, (e) metals; (3) the regulations at various times relating to the ban ; (4) the modifications which are made from period to period, e. g.. Josh. 6 : 24 ; Numb. 18:14; Ezek. 44 : 29. § 147. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the ban, taking up (i) the sociological basis; (2) its relationship [a] to the vow, [b) to the idea of clean and unclean, {c) to taboo; (3) a classification of per- sons or things liable to the ban; (4) the changes which came in later times; (5) the attitude of the prophets; (6) the non-appearance of the term in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature ; (7) the New Testa- ment development of the idea {cf. i Cor. 16:22); (8) the place of the idea in other Semitic nations {cf. Moab, Arabia, and Assyria).*' '3 riiis reference is from the Covenant Code. *'' References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy. »s References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. ^Cf. Mesha Inscription, line 17 ; von Tornauw, Zeitsch. d. Deutschen Morgen- Uindischen Geselhchaft, Vol. XXXVI, pp. 297 ff-: W. R. Smith, Ret. of Sent., Index, s. v. "Ban;" Stade, Gesck., Vol. I, pp. 490 f. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 39 § 148. Literature to be Consulted. EwALD, Antiquities, pp. 75-8 ; ScHULTZ, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 390 ; II, p. 87 ; W. R. Smith, Rel. ofSem., pp. 150,371, 453 ; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel (1890), pp. 100 ff.; McCURDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), § 550; J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dictionary, No\.\\ W. H. Bennett, article "Ban," Encyc. Bib.,No\. I; Yi K\ , op. cit ., pp 180, 212 f. Merx, article "Bann," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,Yo\. I (1869); Weber, Die Lehren des Talmud (1880), pp. 138 ff.; voN ToRNAUW, Zeitschrift der Deuischen Mor- genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXXVI (1882), pp. 297 ff.; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I (1887), p. 490 ; Smend, op. cit., pp. 21, 39, 147 {., 288 ; NoWACK, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 371 f.; II, pp. 266-9 ; Benzinger, op. cit., p. 363 ; Dillmann, op. cit., pp. 45, 126^ 149 ; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896), pp. 10, 89; Marti, op. cit., pp. 31, 39, 47 f.; S. Mandl, Der Bann (1898). § 149. Oaths. 1. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'^ Gen. 14 :22 ; 15 :8-ii, 17 f.; 21 122-24 (E); 22 : 15 (JE); 24 : 1-3, 27; 25 : 33 (E); 26 : 3 (JE), 26-31 ; 31:53 (E); 42:15 (E); 47 : 29 ; 5° : 25 (E); Exod. 13 : 19(E); Josh. 2 : 12-14, 20 ; 6 : 26 ; Judg. 21:1; i Sam. 14:24-30, 39. 44 f-; 19:6; 24:21; 30:15; 2 Sam. 3:9f.; 19:23; 21 : 1 f., 7 ; I Kings 1:13, 17, 30, 51 f.; 2 : 23f., 36-46. Examine and classify the cases of oaths cited, determining, in each case, (i) whether it is an oath sworn by man to man, by God to man, or by man to God ; (2) the ritual of the oath, whether, for example, accompanied by sacrifice of certain victims, by taking hold of the thigh, by stretching upward the hand ; (3) the penalty expected or prescribed in case of the violation of the oath; (4) any specially inter- esting uses of or usages in connection with the oath, e. g., Abraham's oath to Melchizedek, the dividing of the animals (Gen. 15: 10), the treaty between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31 : 44-54), Rahab and the spies (Josh. 2:12-14), Saul's adjuration (i Sam. 14 : 24-30, 39, 44 f.), David's oath concerning Solomon (i Kings 1:13), Shimei and Solomon (i Kings 2:42); (5) what is prohibited in Exod. 20:7, ^^^^^^ s/ialt not take the name of Jehovah thy God in vain (blasphemy, perjury, pro- fanity, or sorcery and witchcraft)? 2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. Jer. 4:2; 22 : 5 ; 31 :33 ; 34 : i8f.; 38 : 16 ; Ezek. 17 : i6-ig ; Deut. 19: I9£f.=8 Examine and classify as above, noting particularly points of special interest in connection with (i) false swearing (Deut. igrigff.); (2) '7 All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those marked otherwise, and Gen. 14 :22, which is from an independent source. ^' This reference is from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy. 140 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT the cutting of the calf (Jer. 34 : i8 f.); (3) the new covenant (Jer. 31:33); (4) Zedekiah's oath (Jer. 38:16); (5) breaking the covenant (Ezek. 17 : 16-19). 3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'' Numb. 5:11-28; chap. 30; Josh. 9:15, 19 f.; Judg. 21 :5, 7; Zech. 5 : 1 ff.; Ezra 10 : 5 ; Neh. 10 : 29 ; Dan. 12:7. Examine and classify as above, noting points of special interest in connection with (i) the water of bitterness that causeth the curse (Numb. 5:11 ff.); (2) vows (Numb., chap. 30); (3) the oath to the Gibeonites (as described in Josh. 9 : 15 f., 19 f.); (4) the oath concern- ing strange wives (Ezra 10 : 2-5); (5) the flying-roll and false swearing (Zech. 5 : 1-4); (6) the man clothed in linen (Dan. 12:7). §150. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a statement upon the use of the oath among the Hebrews, taking up the following points : (i) the significance of the usual word translated swear, viz., " to come under the influence of seven things;" (2) the ritual; (3) the various forms of the oath ; (4) its irrevocable character and the penalty of its violation ; (5) its sociological basis; (6) the significance of an oath made by the deity; (7) the meaning of the third commandment ; (8) the changes in usage which may be noted between the three periods ; (9) the atti- tude of the prophets ; ^° (10) the representations concerning swearing in the wisdom literature ; 3' (11) the representations in the apocfyphal literature ;3^ (12) the attitude of the New Testament;" (13) the use of the oath among the Arabs ; ^^ (14) its use among the x\ssyrians and Babykmians ; (15) its relation to prayer.^^ §151. Literature to be Consulted. H. W. Phillott, article "Oath," Smith's Diet, of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); EwALD, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oath," etc.; Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. II, p. 70 ; Y.. B. Tylor, article "Oath," Encyc. Brit. (1875); W. R. Smith, Kel. o/Sem., pp. 180 ff., 480 ; V. J. Coffin, " The Third Commandment, "/i:;«r«a/ of Biblical Literature. " References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 3° See, e.g., Hos. 4:2, 15 ; 10:4 ; Amos 4:2; 6:8 ; 8 : 7, 14 ; Isa. 14 124; 19: 18; 45 : 23 ; 48 : I ; 54 : 9 ; 62 : 8 ; 65 : 16 ; Ezek. 21 : 23. 3' See, e. g., Eccl. 8:2; 9:2. 3* See, e. g., i Mace. 6: 61 f.; 7 : 18, 35 ; 2 Mace. 14:33-36; Ecclus. 44:21. 33 See, e. g., Matt. 5:33 ff.; 14:7-9; 23:i6ff.; Mark 6:23,26; Luke 1:73; Acts 2 :30; 23: 21 ; Jas. 5: 12. 34 Cy. Wei.lhausen, /Ceste arab. Ileidenthums, p. 122; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, see Index, s. v. " Oath." 35 Cf. Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. 94 f. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I4I Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 166-88; Duff, op. cit.. Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. "Oath;" G. Ferries, article "Oath," Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, Vol. Ill (1900); Day, op. cit., p. 184. Saalschutz, Das mosaische Recht (1846), pp. 615 ff.; Bruch, article " Eid," Schenkel's i5/3f/-Zf'xz/^c«, Vol. II (1869); Riehm, article "Eid," Handworterbuch; Wellhausen, op. eit., p. 122 ; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s, v. " Schwur ; " NoWACK, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 262 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Eid ; " Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult {\%c)'?,), pp. 108 f.; Benzinger, article "Eid bei den Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898). § 152. Supplementary Study on Fasting as a Means for Securing the Divine Mercy and Help. 1. The early period. Exod. 34:28(J), r/. 24: 18(E); i Sam. 7:5 f.; 31:13; 2 Sam. I : 12 ; 3 : 35 ; 12 : 16-23 ; i Kings 21 : 9, 12, 27. 2. The middle period. Deut .8:3; 9:9, 1 8-20, 25-29 ; 10:10; Jer. 14:12; 36 : 6, 9. 3. The late period. Judg. i8:i7(?); 20:26 £f.; Ezra 8:21-23; 10:6; Neh. 1:4-11; 9:1,31; Esther 4 : 1-3, 16; Zech 7 : 1-7, 18-23; 8: 19; Isa, 58 : 3 ff.; I Chron. 10 : 12 ; 2 Chron. 20 : 3 ; Joel 1:14; 2 : 12, 15 ; Jon. 3:5; Dan. 9:3; Lev. 16:29, 31 .3* §153. Questions and Suggestions. Consider (i) the reason assigned by David in 2 Sam. 12:22 for fasting, viz., to secure Jehovah's pity; (2) the fasting of Moses on Sinai (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 9 : 9) as a preparation for an important act, the receiving of the law; (3) the fasting of Elijah (i Kings ig : 8 ff.) as a preparation for communion with God; (4) the fasting of the men of Jabesh for Saul (i Sam. 31 : 13), and of David for Saul (2 Sam. i : 12), that is, in mourning for the dead {cf. 2 Sam. 3:35); and determine the original meaning of the act, /. e., an explanation with which these various cases may be connected ; is it to raise the pity of the deity? or in preparation for a sacrificial meal ? '^^ Consider the various cases of fasting cited and note (i) the motive or purpose in each case, e. g., David, Ahab, Nehemiah, Ezra ; (2) whether they were private or public {cf., in earlier and middle periods, i Kings 21 : 9 ff.; Isa. i : i2)b (Sept.); Jer. 36 : 6 ff.; and, in later period, Joel I : i3f.; 2 Chron. 20 : 3); (3) the change by which the act becomes spiritualized {cf. Ahab's case, i Kings 21:29); (4) the connection between fasting and penitence {cf. i Sam. 7:6; Neh. 9:1); (5) the 3^ This reference is from the Priestly Code. 37 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 434. 142 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT circumstances which led to greater importance being given to fasting, and the changes in frequency of the act and in meaning which came in the later period; (6) the conception which makes it a "meritorious work," and the prophets' attitude toward this(Isa. 58 : 3 ff.; Zech. 7 : 5 f.). Consider the various occasions on which, in the later period, public fasting was observed and the events thereby commemorated : (i) in the fourth month, the capture of Jerusalem (Jer. 52 : 6, 7); (2) in the fifth month, the destruction of the temple and city (Jer. 52:i2f.); (3) in the seventh month, the murder of Gedaliah (Jer, 41:1 ff.); (4) in the tenth month, the beginning of the siege (Jer. 52 : 4) {cf. Zech. 7 : 1-7, 18-23); (5) the Day of Atonement (Lev., chap. 16), noting (a) that this is the only fast required by the laws, {S) that there is no allusion to its observance in any of the historical literature of the Old Testament, (<:) the purpose of the day, {d) its relation to the religious thought and spirit of the later times; (6) the thirteenth of Adar, the case of Haman. Consider the usage of fasting as referred to (i) in the Psalms ; ^^ (2) in the apocryphal literature ; ^^ (3) in the New Testament f (4) among other Semitic nations.'*' § 154. Literature to be Consulted. Samuel Clark, article " Atonement, Day of," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 367 ff., 372, 402 ff., 431 ; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1st ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1 891, trans). 1883), §§ 140 f.; Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services {1874), PP- 263-88; Wellhau- SEN, Prolegomena, pp. 1 10-12; J. S. Black, article "Fasting," Encyclopcsdia Bri- tannica, Vol. IX (1879); KuENEN, The Hexaieuch (2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886), pp. 86, 312; W. R.Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 303, 388 ff., 433 f.; Montefiore, op.cit., pp. 509 f.; C. J. Ball, article "Fasting and Fasts," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893) *. H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), PP- 186, 286 ff., 383; McCuRDY, op. cit., §§ 1 1 16, 1 118, 1346 n.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article "Atonement, Day of," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898) ; E. E. Harding, article "Feasts and Fasts," ?3za'., Vol. I (1898), pp. 862 f.; Cheyne, ^A cit., pp. 9-1 1; M. Jastrow, op. cit., p. 688 ; Benzinger and Cheyne, article "Atonement, Day of," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); Benzinger, article "Fasting, Fasts," Ency- clopcedia Biblica, Vol. H ( 1901) ; Ottley, A Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman Period {l()Ol), pp. 305 f. 38See, ^^/(7^.—Josb. 18:6,8, 10 (R<^); Isa. 34: 17; Jer. 13:25; Ezek. 24:6; Obad. 11; Nab. 3:10; Deut. 32:9. 3. The late period.*' {a) Oracles. — Joel 2:12; Hag. 1:9; 2:4; Zecb. 1:3; 3:9; 10:12; 12:1; Mai. 1:2; Pss. 36:1; 110:1. {b) Urim and Thummim. — Exod. 28:30; Lev. 8:8; Numb. 27:21; Ezra 2 163; Neb. 7 :65. 4' References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code. 144 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT {c) The lot.—lj%v. i6 : 8-10 ; Numb. 26 : 55 f.; 33 : 54 ; 34 : 13 ; 36 : 2 f.; Josh. 14 : 2 ; 15 : I ; 17 : 1 ; 19 : I, 10, 17, 24, 32, 40, 51 ; 21 ; 4, 5 f., 8, 10,40; I Chron. 6 : 54, 61, 63, 65 ; 16:18; 24:5,7,31; 25 : 8 f.; 26: 13 f.; Neh. 10: 34 ; 1 1 : i ; Esther 3:7; 9 : 24 ; Isa. 57 :6 ; Joel 3:3; Jon. 1:7; Dan. 12 : 13. § 156. Questions and Suggestions. Examine the various means of consultation with the deity which seem to have been recognized as legitimate and proper, viz., oracles, Urim and Thummim, ephod, and lot ; note the instances cited of each, and consider (i) the various circumstances under which such consultation is held; (2) the underlying motive in each case; (3) the relative frequency in the different periods ; (4) the differences (if any) between the usages named ; (5) the various senses in which the word oracle is used ; (6) the different views as to the method of employing the Urim and Thummim ; (7) the meaning of the ephod and its use; (8) the place of the lot in connection with religious acts. Consider whether, with the growth of religious conceptions and the higher ideas entertained of God in later times, the use of these external helps increases or diminishes. Consider the use of these or similar external helps in consulting the deity, as they may be referred to in (i) the Psalms,"' (2) the wisdom literature,** (3) the apocryphal literature,"^ (4) the New Testa- ment ;"' and likewise as they were employed among (5) the Egyptians,"' (6) the Assyrians and Babylonians,*^ (7) the ancient Arabs,"' (8) the Greeks and Romans.^" § 157. Literature to be Consulted. Kalisch, Exodus (1855), pp. 540-45; E. H. Plumptre, article "Urim and Thummim," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); W. L. Bevan, article " Ephod," ibid, (ist ed. 1863), revised by J. M. Fuller (2d ed. 1893); KUENEN, Religion of Israel, Vol. I (1869 f., transl. 1874), pp. 96-IOO ; W. M. Ramsay, «See, e. g., Pss. 16:5 ; 22 : 18; 36: i; no: i; 125:3. «See, e. g., Prov. I : 14; 16:33; 18 : 18 ; 30 : I; 31 :l. *s Cf. Wisdom of Solomon 8 : 8. 46See, e. g., Matt. 27: 35; Mark 15 ;24; Luke 1:9; 23 : 34 ; John 19 :24; Acts I :26; 7 :38; 8 :2l; Rom. 3:2; Ileb. 5 : 12; i Pet. 4:11. ■t' See, e. g., Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, see Index, s. v. "Oracle, etc." <8 See references to Pinches, Strong, and Jastrow cited in § 157. ■»9See references to W. R. Smith and Wellhausen cited in §157. so .See, e. g., Warre Cornish, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. V. " Sortes." LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I45 article "Oracle," Encyclopedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p. 130; T. G. Pinches, "The Oracle of Ishtar of Arbela," Records of the Past, Vol. XI (1878), pp. 59-72; see also ibid.. Vol. V, new series (1891), pp. 120-40; S. F. Hancock, "The Urim and Thummim," Old Testament Student, Vol. Ill (1884), pp. 252-56; KoNiG, Religious History of Israel (1%%^), pp. 107 ff.; W. R Smith, Rel. of Sem., SQQ Index, s. v. "Oracles, etc.;" Kirkpatrick, The First Book of Samuel [C^mh. Bible, 1891), pp. 217 f.; H. E. Dosker, "The Urim and Thummim," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1892, pp. 717-30 ; S. A. Strong, "On Some Oracles to Esar- haddon and Assurbanipal," ^^eVra^,? zur Assyriologie,'Q2ind II (1894), pp. 627-45 ; J. F. McCuRDY, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" G. F. yioo^Y., Judges (Inter- national Critical Commentary, 1895), p. 381; Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition (1897), pp. 280 ff.; S. R. Driver, article " Ephod," Hastings' Dictionary,^ o\. I (1898); Jastrow, ^A «V., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" T. C. Foote, " The Biblical Ephod," Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XIX, No. 145 (1900), p. 40 ; O. C. Whitehouse, article "Lots," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); W. Muss- Arnolt, " The Urim and Thummim," American Journal of Seviitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVI (1900), pp. 193-224; C. H. Prichard, article "Oracle," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; G. F. Moore, article " Ephod," Encyclopedia Biblica,Yo\. II (1901). Braun, De vestitu sacerdotum (1698), pp. 462 ff.; Bellermann, Die Urim und Thummim (1824); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus, Vol. II (1839), pp. 131-41; G. Klaiber, Das priesterliche Orakel der Israeliten (1865); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte des Alien Testamentes, Vol. I (1875), pp. 349 f.; Steiner, article "Urim und Thummim," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Riehm, /i^aw^/- worterbuch (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. by Baethgen 1893 f.), articles "Ephod" and " Licht und Recht;" Kautzsch, article "Urim," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1885); Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I (1887), pp. 466, 471 ; Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthians, pp. 126 f., 133, 167, etc.; Baudissin, Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums {i%%q), pp. 70 f., 205 ff.; Lagarde, Mittheilungen, Vol. IV (1891), p. 17; Sellin, Beitrdge zur israelitischen und jiidischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II (1897), p. 119; WlL- helm Lotz, article "Ephod," Realencyklopddie, No\. V (3d ed., 1898); Van Hoo- NACKER, Le sacerdoce levitique (1899), pp. 370 ff. § 158. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity or Super- natural Powers through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, Witchcraft. 1. The early period.^' {a) Magic and divination.— Q&rv. 44:5. I5(J); Exod. 22:17; Numb. 22 : 7 (J); 23 : 23; i Sam. 6:2; 28 : 8 ; Mic. 3 : 6 f ., 11 ; Isa. 2:6. {b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 22 : 18 ; i Sam. 15 : 23 ; 2 Kings g : 22. 2. The middle period. ^^ {a) Magic and divination. — Deut. 18:9-14; Jer. 8:17; 14:14; 27:9; 29:8; Ezek. 12:24; 13:7-9, 23; 2i:2i£f., 29; 22:28; 2 Kings 17:17; Isa. 44:25; Mic.5:i2. 5' References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 5^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- <»nomy. 146 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT [d) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Deut. 18:10; Mic. 5:12; Nah. 3:4; Jer, 27:9; Isa. 47:9. 12; 57:3. 3. The late period." (a) Magic and divination. — Josh. 1 3 : 22 ; Lev. 19 : 26, 31 ; 20 : 6, 27; Zech. 10: 2. {b') Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 7:11; Mai. 3:5; 2 Chron. 33 :6 ; Dan. 2:2. §159. Questions and Suggestions. Examine the various means of consultation with higher powers which seem always to have been regarded as improper and illegitimate, viz., magic, divination, sorcery, and witchcraft, noting (i) the various circumstances under which such consultation is held ; (2) the under- lying motive in each case; (3) the relative frequency in different periods ; (4) the various methods thus employed ; (5) the external sources of these influences ; (6) any internal source from which they may have sprung; (7) the prophetic attitude in the different periods; (8) the explanation of this attitude; (9) the relation of all this to idolatry; (10) the essential element of injury which it contributed; (11) the gradual disappearance, and the occasion of this disappearance. Consider (i) the significance of references in the Psalms ;54 (2) in the wisdom literature ;55 {^^ j^ the apocryphal literature ;5^ (4) in the New Testament.^^ Consider the use of these methods among (i) the Egyptians ;5* (2) the ancient Arabs ;S' (3) the Assyrians and Babylonians;*" (4) the Greeks and Romans.*' § 1 60. Literature to be Consulted. F. W, Farrar, article "Divination," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); ScHULTZ, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 250 ff., 281 ff., 283 £f.; E. B.Tvlor, article "Divination," Encyclopcedia Britannica, Vol. VII {1878); Idem, article 53 References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code. s*See, e. g., Ps. 58 :5. 55 See, e. g., Prov. 16 : 10. s*See, e. g., Ecclus. 34 :2-7. 57 See, f. g'., Acts 8 : 9, 1 1 ; 13:6,8; 16:16; Gal. 5 : 20 ; Rev. 9:21; 18:23; 21 : 8 ; 22 : 15. 58 See, e. g.. Budge, Egyptian Magic. 59 See, e. g., W. R. Smith, /?ei. ofSem., Index, s. v. " Omens," etc.; Wellhausen, Reste arab. Held., pp. 135-64. *°See, e. g., Lenormant, Chaldcean Magic; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, *' See, e, g., E. B. Tvlor, article " Magic," Rncyc. Brit. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 47 "Ua.gic," idid., Vol. XV {1SS3); W. R. Smith, ^^/. 0/ Sem., see Index, s. v. "Charms," " Omens," " Magic," " Witches ; " Schurer, A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, Div. II, Vol. Ill, pp. 151-5; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), see y«a'd'x, s.v. " Magic Art," etc.; Menzies, £i/. czV., pp. 72, 91, 153; McCurdy, op. cit. (1895-1901), §§ 644, 851 n., 858; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, Being " The Prayers of the Lifting of the Hand"' (1896); T. \V. Davies, Magic, Divination and Demonology (1898); Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Magical Texts," "Sorcer, etc.," "Witchcraft;" F. B.Jevons, article "Divination," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898); O. C. Whitehouse, article "Exorcism," ibid.; T. W. Davies, article "Divination," Encyc. Bib.,Vo\. I (1899); E. A. W. Budge, Egyptian Afagic (iSgg); Ramsay, The Expositor, July, 1899, p. 22; O. C. Whitemouse, arti- cle "Magic," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff, op. cit.,Vo\. II, see Index, s. v. "Divination;" Cheyne, article "Exorcists," Encyc. Bib., Vol. II (1901); Day, op. cit., pp. 185 f., 220, 222 ; Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901). Brecher, Das Transcendentale, Magie, ttnd magische Heilatten im Talmud (1850); P. SCHOLZ, Gotzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alien Hebrdern und den benachbarten Volkern (1877); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Pro- phetenthuvis (1883), pp. 7-29; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 503 ff.; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidenthums ("Skizzen und Vorarbeiten," III), pp. 126, 135-64, 215; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Wahrsagung," "Zauberei;" Tallqvist, Assyrische Beschwbrungsserie Maqlu (1894); Dillmann, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Wahrsager;" Zimmern, Beitrdge zur Kennt7iis der babylonischen Religion (1896, 1899); Marti, op. cit., p. 45 ; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult {I'igi), pp. 180, 202 ; Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei ; Blau, Das alt-jiidische Zauberwesen. §161. Supplementary Study on Mourning Customs. 1. The early period. Amos 1:16; 8:10; Mic. 1:8,16; Isa, 3:24; 15:2; 22:12; 2 Sam. 3:31; 21 : lo ; i Kings 21:27; 2 Kings iQ:if.; Gen. 37: 34(E), 35 (J); r/ I Kings 20 : 31 f. 2. The middle period. Deut. 14: if-; Jer. 16:6-8; 41:5; 47:5; 49^3; 48:3?; 4:8; 6:26; Ezek. 24 : 16-17; 29 : 18 ; 27 : 31 ; 7 : 18. 3. The late period. Lev.19 : 27f.; 21:5; Joel 1:8; Jon. 3:52.; Ezra 9:3; Dan. g : 3. § 162. Questions and Suggestions. Study the references given to mourning customs, and note (i) the custom of weeping and its significance, in contrast with the modern conception ; (2) the more intense expression of grief, termed wailing; (3) the beating of the breast, tearing of the hair, rending of clothes, putting on sackcloth, and mutilation of the body, as expressions of mourning; (4) the putting away of food to (or for) the dead (Deut. 26 : 14); (5) fasting {cf. i Sam. 31:13). Consider, in connection with these customs, (i) to what extent they 148 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT are survivals from the age in which ancestor-worship prevailed ; (2) to what extent, therefore, they had their origin in the effort to propitiate the spirit of the dead, which was supposed to have power for good or evil, rather than in the desire to express grief for the loss that had been incurred ; (3) the reasons for forbidding certain of these customs {cf. Deut. 14:1; 26:14; Lev. 19:28); (4) changes which seem to have come about in the progress of history. Consider the representations made concerning mourning customs in the Psalms,*'' (2) in the wisdom literature,*^ (3) in the apocryphal literature,'" (4) in the New Testament,*^ (5) among other ancient nations.*® § 163. Literature to be Consulted. Thomson, The Land and the Book (1859), see Index, s. v. "Manners and Customs;" H. W. Phillott, article "Mourning," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Maspero, Egyptian Archeology (transl. 1887), pp. 108- 63; W. R. Smith, Bel. of Sem., pp. 322 f., 336, 370, 43° ;• A. P. Bender, "Beliefs, Rites, and Customs of the Jews, Connected with Death, Burial, and Resurrection," Jewish Quarterly Beview, Vol. VI (1893-94), pp. 317-47. 664-71 ; Vol. VII (1894-95), 101-18, 259-69; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), pp. 306-27; E. A. Wallis Budge, The Mummy (2^. ed. 1894); H. C. Trumbull, ^'/'wa'zVj in Oriental Social Life {i%<^a,), pp. 143-208; Menzies, op. cit. (1895), see Index, s. v. "YuncxdA Practices;" Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Dead," etc.; Peritz, "Woman in the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1898), pp 137 f.; T. NicoL, article "Mourning," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff op. cit.,Yo\. II, see Index, s. v. " Mourning and Bewailing;" Day, op. cit., pp. 204 ff.; Wiedemann, The Bealm of the Egyptian Dead. Perles, " Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten des nachbiblischen Judenthums," Monats- schrift fUr Geschichte und Wissensc haft des Judenthums, Yo\.X (1861), pp. 345-55, 376-94 ; M. Geier, De Ebraeorum luctu lugentiumque ritibus (3d ed. 1868) ; Ros- KOFF, article "Klage," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,Vo\. Ill (1871); OoRT, "De doodenvereering bij de Israeliten," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\. XV (i88i),pp. 350 ff.; Kamphausen, article " Trauer," Riehm's Handworterbuch,Vo\.ll{i'i?:^) \ Lehrer, article " Trauer bei den Hebraern," Bealencyklopddie, Vol. XV (2d ed. 1885) ; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 387 ff.; G. A. Wilken, Ueber das Haaropfer (1886 f.) ; Well- HAUSEN, i?ifj/f arab. Heidenthums {l^?,']), Y>p- i59ffM 178 f.; Qo-LT>7AliV.K, Muhamtne- danische Studien (1888), Vol. I, p. 248; SCHWALLY, Das Leben nach dem Tode {iSg2); Smend, op. cit., pp. 153 f.; Wellhausen, Israelitische und jiidische Geschichte (isted. ^ See, e. g., Pss. 35 : 14 ; 38 : 6 ; 42 : 9 ; 43 : 2 ; 88 : 9. '3 See, e. g., Prov. 29 : 2 ; Job 2 : 11 ; 5:11; 20 : 38 ; Eccles. 3 : 4. «4See, ^. g., Ecclus. 7 = 34 J 22: iif.; 38:i6ff.; 41 : i £f. «5See, e g-., Matt. 2 : 18; 5:4; 9:15; u :i7; 24:30; Mark 16 :I0; Luke 6:25; 7 : 32 ; I Cor. 5:2; 2 Cor. 7:7; Jas. 4 : 9 ; Rev. 18:8, II. **See especially the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, Menzies, Jastrow, and Trumbull cited in § 163. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 49 1894), p. 143; NowACK, fA cit.,Yo\. I, pp. 187-98; Benzinger, 0/.