J^^^^,y-
s^-*
* APR 1 1902
CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES
EDITED BY
WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON
THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE
OLD TESTAMENT
BY
WILLIAM R. HARPER
Constructive Studies
IN
THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT
IN THE
OLD TESTAMENT
AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY
FOR USE IN ADK4NCED BIBLE CLASSES
WILLIAM R. HARPER
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Chicago
REVISED EDITION
CHICAGO
(Cbc lUntversfts of Cbfcago press
Copyright igo2
By William R. Harper
PREFACE.
This treatment of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament is intended
to serve as a guide for students who wish to take up the questions relating to
the subject from an historical point of view. The materials for a preliminary
study of the various topics are gathered together, and arranged with sugges-
tions as to order and method of procedure.
It is thought that the work proposed is within the reach of the more
mature pupils in the Sunday school, although the needs of college and theo-
logical students have been kept especially in mind.
The general results of modern historical criticism have been taken as a
basis for the work, since it is only from the point of view of history that
these subjects may now be considered intelligently. Each special topic con-
nected with the general subject of the Priestly Element furnishes a beautiful
illustration of the growth and development of Israelitish and Jewish thought
under the controlling influence of a conception of God which became more
and more pure with the advancing centuries.
Three methods of treatment have been employed, each being deemed
best adapted to the case in hand, viz.: in Chapter I, a systematic statement of
the scope of the Priestly Element ; in Chapters II-IV, an historical statement
covering in barest outline the story of the Priestly Element as a whole, in its
progress and development; in Chapters V-XI, a classified and comparative
examination (indicated by questions and suggestions based upon the material
presented) of the more important special factors which, taken together,
constitute the Priestly Element.
Some effort has been made to indicate definitely and fully the more acces-
sible literature on each topic. I wish to express my appreciation of the
assistance rendered me by my colleague, Dr. John M. P. Smith, especially in
the arrangement and verification of the scriptural references, and the refer-
ences to the literature on the various topics. For obvious reasons the latter
have been arranged chronologically, the literature in languages other than
English being placed by itself.
A second series of studies, designed to supplement and complete the
present work, is in process of preparation. In these it is proposed to take up
(i) the priestly literature of the Old Testament, viz., the priestly histories, the
codes of legislation, the Psalms ; (2) the priestly ideas as a whole ; and (3) the
relation of the Priestly Element to the work of Old Testament Prophecy and
Wisdom.
William R. Harper.
December i, iqoi.
CONTENTS.
Part I.
THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
Chapter I. — The general scope of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament i
Part II.
THE HISTORY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Chapter II.— The history of worship in the earlier Old Testament period . . 13
Chapter III.— The history of worship in the middle Old Testament period . . 27
Chapter IV.— The history of worship in the later Old Testament period ... 42
Part III.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES OF WORSHIP.
Chapter V. — The laws and usages concerning the priest, considered compara-
tively . . 61
Chapter VT. — The laws and usages concerning the place ot worship, consid-
ered comparatively 74
Chapter VII. — The laws and usages concerning sacrifice, considered compara-
tively 83
Chapter VIII. — The laws and usages concerning feasts, considered compara-
tively 94
Chapter IX. — The laws and usages concerning the sabbath and kindred insti-
tutions, considered comparatively 108
Chapter X. — The laws and usages concerning clean and unclean, considered
comparatively '^9
Chapte"r XI. — The laws and usages concerning prayer and related forms of
worship, considered comparatively 131
Paet Fiest
I. General Scope of the Priestly Element in the Old
Testament.
CHAPTER I.
THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
§1. Three Elements Enter into Religion. — The reli-
gion of an individual or nation depends upon the promi-
nence given to one or another of these elements:
(i) ff^^rj-^z/, or, more technically, ^«//, a word which Pss. 103:1; 150.
expresses the general attitude of the individual or group
of individuals toward an outside higher world of super-
natural or divine existence, and includes the outward
acts that in various forms symbolize the inward thought.
(2) Belief, or, more technically, creed, a word which Deut.6:4;
expresses the peculiar intellectual position entertained
by an individual or group of individuals concerning cer-
tain facts supposed to be essential, and their explana-
tion.
(x\ G?//^«(:A or, more technically, ^//^/V.y, which includes Mic. 6:8;
^•^' r 1 Isa. 1:16,17;
all the acts and feelings of man in so far as they are James 1:27.
related to his duties to himself and to his fellows, and
to the fundamental ideas of right and wrong.
§2. Three Great Channels of Revelation are found in
the Old Testament ; through these, separately and
together, there has come down to us a wonderful story
of the interworking of God and man. These are :
(i) The word of the prophet, including the utter- ]^J- 'j^/^J^J
ances through centuries of that unique order established
to give to the Hebrew nation and to the world the
"word " of God.
(2\ The counsel of the saafe, including the wise say- Jer. i8:i8;
V / o ' o J Pfov. I :g, 25,
ings and philosophical teachings (in the form of proverbs, 30; 8:14.
riddles, essays, dialogues, etc.) found, for example, in the
books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes.
(3) The instruction (or law) of the priest, which forms Jer. 18:18;
the subject of consideration in this and the following
studies.
§3. The Place of Worship is First of All to be Noticed.
— In ancient times because it seemed to men that certain
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Kings 14:23;
I Chron. 21 :2g;
Exod. 19:2,3, 12.
Gen. 12:6; 13:18.
Gen. 16: 13, 14.
Gen. 31:44-54;
Gen. 28:18-22.
Exod. 20:24-26;
1 Kings 7: 48;
2 Kings 16:10-15;
Exod. 27:1-8;
I Kings 2:28-30.
Josh. 4:11;
1 Sam. 4:3-6;
2 Sam. 6:2-17;
Exod. 25:10-21;
Exod. 25: 22.
2 Sam. 7: 2-6;
Exod. , chap. 26;
Exod. 33:7-9;
Numb. 17:4, 12, 13.
I Kings 6:1,2,
14, 37, 38;
Ezek. 43:1-12;
Hag. 1:4-14;
Ezra 3:12, 13;
6:13-18.
places were more favored by the gods than were others, in
modern times because men fancy that a certain environ-
ment is especially conducive to the spirit of worship, the
place has always been a subject of greatest importance.
The place was in early days something connected with
nature:
(i) High places, or hills, were especially sought as
being the abode of God.
(2) Trees of a notable character are frequently referred
to as connected with worship.
(3) Springs, or wells, are places by the side of which
angels were thought to dwell.
(4) Sacred stones are mentioned as places to which
the god came to meet his worshiper, and on which food
was placed or libations of oil poured out.
In each of these places Jehovah had shown his pres-
ence, and it was for this reason that the hill or tree or
spring or stone was sacred. (From Numb. 22 : 41 it is to
be seen that this idea of sacred places was found among
other nations; cf. also Isa. 16: 12.)
The place was also often something of a more or less
artificial chaxdiCXtr, as is seen jn the use of —
(5) The altar, which was sometimes only of loose
earth thrown up ; at others, of unhewn stone ; at still
others, of gold and precious stones. This altar was the
refuge and asylum of him who fled the hand of ven-
geance, the witness of vows, the place on which the sac-
rifice was laid.
(6) The ark, or chest, a sacred box in which certain
sacred things were deposited ; which was used in case of
war, because it was thought to afford protection ; and
was designated as a place of communion with God.
(7) The tent, or tabernacle, a dwelling in which the
ark was preserved, and around which the holiest associa-
tions clustered. Moses made most practical use of it, and
it came to occupy an important place in Hebrew thought
and tradition.
(8) The temple, which with the progress of civilization
(the establishment of courts and the building of palaces)
took the place of the tent, as being more dignified than
GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 3
a tent. There was (a) Solomon's temple, erected at a
significant period of national development; {f) the tem-
ple of Ezekiel's vision, which was destined to play an
important part in the history of Israel's religious
thought ; and {c) the second temple, erected with some
disappointment, after the return from exile.
It is to be noted, once more, that communion with Exod. 3:8-5;
God is sought and obtained in connection with natural ^' *^'*
places (hills, trees, springs, stones) and with places
constructed by man (altars, ark, tent, temple). It will
be at a later time, when temples are destroyed, men
are scattered, groups living here and there, when the
realistic conception gives place to the idealistic, and
the material to the spiritual, that synagogues and
churches will spring into existence, and, thus in still
another form, satisfy the inward craving of humanity
for a sacred place, in which to offer worship to the unseen
powers.
§ 4. The Priest, or Minister of worship, was the second
necessity of worship, the first being the place. It was the
priest vi\vo conducted the worship.
(i) His function was threefold: to carry the ark, to Deut. 10:8;
Judg. 17:7-13}
minister to Jehovah, to bless in his name. In the earliest 18:3-6;
Lev. 8:i-io.
times the need of having some such priest was felt, his
presence being thought to be attended with peculiar
blessing.
(2) The priest-idea became so strong in Israel that Deut. 14:2;
the nation itself was understood to be a nation of priests, Ezra 7:21, 25, 26<
or a priestly nation, set apart to minister to the other
nations of the world. After the exile, kings ceased to sit
on Israel's throne ; and priests, under the form of a
hierarchy, controlled the affairs of the nation. This fact
shows how great a role the priest played in Israelitish
history.
(3) Besides the priests and prophets who served and i Kings 18:19-22;
spoke for Jehovah, there were at many times in Israel's Ezek. 8:15, 16. '
history priests and prophets whose lives were devoted to
the service of other gods. /
§5. Sacrifice was the most significant act of worship J
in ancient times.
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Gen. i8: i-8;
1 Sam. i: 3-8;
9:23-25;
Chron. 16:1-3.
Ps. 51:18,19;
Isa. i: n-17;
Lev., chaps. 1-7;
8-10; 11; 12-15;
etc.
Gen. 8:20;
Lev., chaps. 4,9.
Lev. 3: 1-6;
Judg. 20: 26.
Gen. 35:14;
Exod. 29: 40, 41;
Numb. a8: 7.
Exod. 30:1, 7-9;
Numb. 4: 16.
Lev., chaps. 5, 7,
14;
Numb. 6: 12.
(i) At first this was a social meal, a banquet in which
the offerer and his friends participated and to which the
deity was invited. There are frequent references to such
sacrificial meals in which the members of a family, or of
a clan, or, indeed, of a whole nation took part. This meal
was full of joy, sometimes boisterous. Those who par-
ticipated were eating and drinking with the deity ; it was
a communion of the worshiper and his god.
(2) In later times sacrifice became more formal, and
gradually grew into an exclusively religious act. , The
prophets strongly denounced sacrifice in which the true
spirit of worship was lacking, or which in itself, without a
proper life, was thought to gain Jehovah's favor. The
book of Leviticus is devoted to the subject of sacrifice,
viz., the method, the kinds, etc., etc. This more formal
and exclusively religious conception of sacrifice came to
prevail universally in the last centuries of Israel's history.
(3) Several different kinds of offerings or sacrifice
were distinguished, according as each expressed a par-
ticular purpose, or was presented by a particular method ;
among these were :
{a) The burnt-offering, which consisted of the burning
of a whole animal of the proper kind upon an altar as an
offering to Jehovah.
if) The peace-offering, which was also an animal sacri-
fice, but differed from the burnt-offering in that it
provided for the giving of only the blood and certain
specified parts of the animal to Jehovah, the rest being
eaten by the sacrificial guests.
{c) The drink-offering, which was a libation of wine,
or oil, usually made in connection with other offerings.
{a) The incense-offering, in which fragrant spices were
burned with the thought that the rising fragrance was
acceptable to Jehovah.
(^) The trespass-offering, which was made for the pur-
pose of expiating offenses against Jehovah and man in
which the damage could be estimated and covered by
compensation ; the blood of the animal was poured out
to Jehovah, the fat was burned on the altar, and the rest
was the perquisite of the priests.
GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 5
(/) The sin-offering, which occupied a very important Lev. 4:24-34;
, . , , , r ,. , , , . , , Lev. , chap. 16;
place m the cultus and of which the emphasis placed Numb., chap. 7;
upon the shedding of blood is a conspicuous feature ;
the specifications for this part of the ritual are very com-
plete and detailed.
ig) TAe wave-offering, consistins of certain portions Deut. 12:6-17;
r , .,. , . , . , Numb. 15: ig-ai;
of the sacrifice that were given over to the priests and Numb. 18:8-29;
111 1 r 11 1 r 1 ExOd. 29:27, 28,
were waved by them before the altar as a token of the
fact that they belonged to Jehovah, but had been given
over by him to the priests.
(4) Great care was taken as to the materials which Exod. 20:24;
29: 40; 30; i;
might enter into a sacrifice. These were in general flesh, Lev. 2: i, 4, 13;
7^ 12* 231 I3»
fine flour or meal, incense, oil, wine, cakes of dough,
salt. Here again important conceptions were associated
with each of the materials, and regulations were enacted
prescribing the exact character and amount of materials
to be used.
§ 6. The Times of Worship were an important item, for i Sam. 9:12, 13,
these were the feast occasions; these were often merely iSam.i:3,4.
the social meals of a clan ; or, in other cases, were con-
nected with a pilgrimage. They had their origin in connec-
tion with the times of the moon and the seasons, arising,
as they did, out of the pastoral or agricultural life. Men
whose hearts have the same tendencies are drawn
together, and in the act of association there is worship ;
for the more closely they are united, the nearer they may
come to God. To know more of God is itself to worship
him, and the highest form of worship is, perhaps, that
which involves communion with others as well as with
God.
(i) There were three great feasts, the first coming in Exod. as : 14-17.
the springtime, the second in the early summer, the
third in the autumn. These correspond roughly to
the more modern Easter, Pentecost, and Thanksgiving
seasons.
(2) There were also special feasts and feast days, hos.2:ii.
which in early times seem to have been' of a joyous
character.
(3) There were days, like the Day of Atonement, Lev. 16:2934.
which were days of affliction rather than of joy.
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Zech. 7:3-5;
Esther 9: 38-31.
Gen. 24: 12 fr.;
I Sam. I :io; 8:6;
I Kings 8:23-53;
Isa. 38:2, 3;
Weh. 1:4-11; 2: 4-
Judg. 11:30-39;
iSfim. 1:11;
Judg. 13:3-7;
Numb. 6: i-ia.
I Kings 6: 19;
Exod. 28:30;
Gen. 20:3; 28:
18.
153.47:9;
Jer.27:9;
Mai. 3:5;
Dan. 2:2;
Deut. 18:9-13.
Gen. 4:21;
Amos 5 : 23 ;
Isa. 30:29, 32;
Jer. 48:36;
Numb. 10: 2;
31:6;
Josh. 6:4ff ;
Pss. 137:2; 33:2;
2 Sam. 16: 14;
Exod. 15: 20;
P88.I49:3; 150:4.
(4) There were also fast days, as well as feast days,
celebrating some great calamity.
§ 7. Other Acts of "Worship. — In connection with and
forming a part of worship were several specific acts,
such as —
(i) Prayer; this was always implied in the act of
sacrifice, but very frequently it was independent of
sacrifice. If the deity is a person, and if he has real inter-
est in his clan or tribe or people, he will surely listen to
them, when in distress their heart appeals for succor ;
and also when in joy they express appreciation of some
great favor which he has shown them. Abraham's prayer
for the city in which his relatives dwelt is characteristic
of the earliest and the latest periods of civilization, and
is thoroughly typical of humanity.
(2) The vow was a kind of prayer, very common in
ancient times, and, when once made, regarded as invio-
lable. It sometimes involved a simple gift; at other
times, perhaps, as in the case of Jephthah, the sacrifice
of a human life ; and again, as in the case of the Nazirite,
it signified setting apart to the service of God.
(3) The oracle and dream, as methods of ascertaining
the divine will, must be counted as acts of worship. In
these methods, as in all the others, the Israelites did not
differ from the other ancient nations in the midst of
whom they dwelt.
(4) Sorcery was employed in many forms, for there
were diviners, augurs, enchanters, charmers, consulters
with familiar spirits, wizards, and necromancers; but acts
of this kind were always forbidden.
(5) Music and dancing wtxt z.Q.coxn'^zxiVtXitnX.'s, oi wor-
ship. If worship is the expression of the heart in com-
munion with God, it must include melody and rhythm,
sound and movement. Music has always formed a part
of worship, and in many cases dancing has accompanied,
not only festival, but worship.
§8. Songs and Hymns of Worship. — These furnish us,
perhaps, the highest product of the priest-work ; for,
although much of the Psalter is prophetic in its character,
by far the greater part is the high and holy expression
GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 7
of the soul of individual or nation in its deepest com-
munion with God ; and nowhere in all literature may
religious songs of so tender and deep a character be
found as in the Hebrew Psalter, the hymn-book of the
Hebrew temple, the work of the Hebrew priest. These
have been variously and quite minutely classified; but
here reference may be limited to —
(i) Songs of thanksgiving, in which gratitude is Pss. 103; 134; 136.
expressed for great favors received from Jehovah and his
praises are gladly sung.
(2) Songs of petition and prayer, in which the poet Pss. 80; 88; 102.
pleads for the intervention of Jehovah in behalf of
himself or of Israel, bringing deliverance from difficulty
and danger, or restoration to divine favor.
(3) Songs of penitential confession, in which the sin- Pss. 51; 116; 130.
ner pours out his confession of sin and guilt.
§ 9. Laws Regulating Worship and Life were, likewise,
largely formulated, promulgated, and executed by the
priests. Legislation, therefore, in its stricter sense, was
the function of the priests, rather than of the prophets or
sages. The priest's work included something more than
the various elements which enter into or are connected
with what we would today call worship. In those days
the religious life and the secular life were the same.
Religion and politics were the same. This means that
it was impossible to draw a line between religious life
and ordinary life. The priest's work dealt with both. It Deut. 22: 1-12;
, , , , . , , , Exod. 21:1-35;
had to do, consequently, with such matters as the treat- 22:1-27.
ment of one's neighbor's cattle, the treatment of birds,
the buildina: of a house. There were laws, for example. Lev. 19:9-37;
, , , . , , , Exod. 23: 1-9.
concernmg the harvest, the oppression of the poor, the
treatment of defectives, tale-bearing, etc., etc. These
are a few examples only, taken from the great law-
books, Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. It is to be
understood, of course, that these laws, as they were from
time to time formulated, included the teachings of the
prophets and sages, as they appeared and did their work
and passed away. But in addition to these laws of soci-
ological character there were the laws which regulated
8
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 33:18, 19;
Deut. 30: 15-20;
Lev., chap. 21.
2Chron.5:2— 7:2
cf. I Kings,
chap. 8.
Chron., chaps.
29-32;
t/. 2 Kings, chaps,
18-20.
2 Chron. 35:
tf. 2 Kings
23:21-23,
the details of worship in all respects, e. g., the priest, his
dress, his maintenance, the offerings, their material, etc.,
etc. These more strictly come into consideration in
connection with topics already discussed (cf. §§3, 7).
§ 10. The History of Worship was naturally written or
compiled by priests, and thus constitutes a part of the
priest-work of the Old Testament. The history of Israel,
as we find it in the books of Samuel and Kings, had already
I Chron., chaps, ^ggn written (about 550 B. C). This history was prepared
of divination of Joseph, and the teraphim Gen. 44:1-5-
(see p. 16).
(6) Songs and hymns, laws, and history -writing had Gen. 49:1-26;
not yet taken formal shape ; or, at all events, they have Exod'. 2o:i-i7.'
not come down to us in the form which existed in these
early days. The present literary form of pieces like
the "Blessing of Jacob," the " Song of Moses at the Red
Sea," and the " Decalogue" comes from a time later
than the settlement in Canaan.
§ 16. In the Canaanitish Stage of the Early Period the Judg. 2:1-5.
worship was greatly changed. This was due partly to the
change from nomadic to agricultural life, and partly to
contact with Canaanitish forms of worship, which were
peculiarly rich and fascinating. The name of the
Canaanitish divinity, Baal, meant "lord." It is easy to
see that the Israelite would feel that he was not doing
justice to his God, if he did not pay him every possible
honor, or at least the honors paid their gods by his
neighbors, the Canaanites. Consequently much that
was Canaanitish was now appropriated.
(i) Places and representatives; here arise —
id) The hi^h places, all over the land, which soon judg. 6:25-32;
\ t t' -r 1 Sam. 1:3.
became centers of corruption and licentiousness.
Sam. 14 : 41 ;
28 : 3-6.
18 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
judg. 3:7; 6:25, (b) The pillars and the tree trunks, or Asherim, which
30; 9:6; 10:6.
were to be found at the high places and were taken over into
the Jehovah-worship which was carried on at these places.
]udg. 2o:27f.; [c) The ark or chest, which was thought to represent
the deity, and which the people carried with them when ,
they went to battle, as in Eli's days.
cf. Exod, 32:8, {d) The image of the serpent, or of the bull, which was "^
Numb. '21: 8 f.; adopted, now and again, as the proper representation of
deity.
[e) The Urim and Thunifnim, which were carried in a
pocket of the priestly ephod, were in use as a means of ]
discovering the divine will with reference to any course
of action.
Judg. 17:7; (2) Th.Q priest W2is sometimes a professional, bearing
Judg. 18:3-5,19, , ^ ^ ^ ^ . ^ , . J ^ . r • ,
20; the name Levite, and cultivated a certain professional
Judg.6:i9;i3:i9; , , • , , • j t •. tt .
17:5; 6:25-27; tone by which he was recognized as a Levite. He f;
II : 31, 39. ■' °
seems to have been more acceptable than the patriarch /
or oldest son, who in the past had performed priestly duties, ly
The priest went about wherever he could find employ- j
ment. But the old family priesthood still continued, and
sacrifice was not restricted to any class of priests.
Judg. 6:19-21,26- (i\ Sacrifice was the same as before, an act of com-
28; 13:16-23; ^'^' ■'
I Sam. 1:3-5,9, munion with the deity. The burnt-offering seems to
13-15
have occupied a more prominent place.
I Sam. 20:5, 6, (4) Times and seasons. — Now there arose feasts of
18, 24, 27, 29 ; ^ '
Judg. 9:27;2i:i9; the moon ; the sabbath was also observed, probably as a
I Sam. 1 : 3, 13.
time of rejoicing; there were also the Feasts of Harvest
and Vintage, because Israel had now become an agricul-
tural people. These feasts furnished opportunity for
drunkenness and licentiousness.
(s) Other acts. — We read of the —
Judg. 13:8; ^ '
15:18; iSam. {a) Prayers of Manoah, Samson, and Hannah.
Judg. 11:30, 31, {b) Vows of Jephthah and of Hannah, and of the
35-40; 21:1, 7, ti-ibes of Israel against Benjamin, because of its outrage
am. I. II. upon the Levite's concubine.
Judg. 13:3-5, {c) Visions of Samson's parents, and of the child
iSam.'sri-iB. Samuel, during his sojourn in the temple at Shiloh.
I Sam. 28:7-14. {d^ Sorcery and witchcraft in connection with Saul's
attempt to learn the outcome of his contest with the
Philistines.
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 9
(e) Music and dancing in connection with the yearly Judg. 21:19-21;
I Sam. 10: 5;
feasts at Shiloh, with the sons of the prophets, and, a little 16:16-22; 18:6,
later, on the part of David. This was characteristic of
the joyous spirit that permeated the religion of these times.
(6) Songs and hvfnns are seen in the exodus sonsf, Exod. 15:1-21;
Judg. , chap. 5;
with its refrain; the song of Deborah; and the song of i Sam 2:1-10,
Hannah.
. (7) Laws were unquestionably taking form, under
divine guidance, as the codification of custom. To what
extent this was true is a matter of dispute between {a)
those who believe that the Israelitish legislation, as it
has come down to us, was the work of one generation,
and of one man, Moses, and {b) those who believe that
this legislation is the product of seven or eight centuries
of history, although based upon and growing out of the
work of Moses {cf. references to literature on § 14).
§ 17. In the Prophetic Stage of the Early Period great Amos, chap. 5;
influences were at work to purge and purify the corrup- \sl''chlv'i.'
tion which had entered into Israel's worship, and to teac h
a conception of God which, in itself, would lead to a
higher type of worship. This period begins roughly
with Samuel's work of reformation and closes just before
Josiah's reformation (621 B.C.). The great names of 2 Kings 23 : 1-3.
the period are Samuel and David; Elijah, Elisha, and
Jonah; Amos and Hosea ; Isaiah and Micah ; and, last
of all, Zephaniah and Jeremiah, in whose days the refor-
mation came. The details of this reformation belong to
the second or middle period; but the preparation for 2 Kings 23 : 4-14.
the great changes wrought in 621 B. C. was made by the
prophets of the preceding centuries. The actual prac-
tices of this sub-period were full of superstition. Let us
first note what they were and then the attitude of the
prophets toward them.
( I ) Pla ces of worsh ip .
[a) The high places were still used in different parts i Sam. 9:12-14,
of the country, as is seen in the cases of Samuel, whom iKi'ngs'3:3, 4;
Saul first met at the sacrifice on the high place; of Solo- 12': 3rf.'; 14:23;
mon, even when the temple had been built ; of Jeroboam ; 15:4; 17 '9, ",'
2Q 32 ! 18:41
of the people of Judah in Rehoboam's time and under etc.
later kings ; and of Ahaz.
20 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1 Kings 14: 23; {^) T/ig />t7/ars a»d A s/ierim occupied even a larger
10:27; 17:' 10; place than before, continuing in general use until the
Hos.3:4; 10:1,2. f T ■ i_
reign of Josiah.
2 Sam., chap. 6; (c) The ark was transferred with great solemnity
cf. I Chron. , ' s> j
chaps. 13, 15, 16. to Jerusalem, when that city became under David the
nation's capital. This supreme act of worship was
accompanied by music and dancing.
1 Kings, chaps. 5, (d) The temple was built by Solomon ; this act was
6; 7:13-8: 66; -^
c/.\ Chron., full of significance for the future history of worship.
19; ' ' ' As the king had his palace, so Jehovah was to have his
2 Chron., chaps. , _,, . , , , , ,
2-7. temple. The ceremonial would now be better organ-
ized; a basis was furnished for future development;
priests and singers must be provided for regular service.
While at this central place the worship would henceforth
be conducted in a purer form, but at the same time with
luxurious magnificence, the old routine continued in all
its corruption throughout the country at large.
I Sam. 28:1-25. (g^ The spirit of Samuel, called Elohim (/. e., God),
was thought to have been called forth after death by the
witch of Endor, in order to speak with Saul at his request.
1 Kings 12:25-33; (/) The calves setup at Bethel and Gilgal were figures
Hos. 8:5, e'. ' ' of Jehovah, intended to be worshiped by the Israelites of
the north, in order that they might not be induced to go
to Jerusalem for worship.
I Kings 12 : 31-33 ; (2) 77/^ /r/W/ now became a more important person-
I Kings 3: 15; ' age; the professional element increased. The bond
I Kings 2:26, 27; , , 1 . , , , J
2Kings 11:4, 9, between those engaged in the same work was strengthened
2Kingsi6:'i2-i6.' by association. The Levitewas gaining ground, as over
against the older patriarchal priest. The temple required
professional service. Samuel was a priest, and in his
time the monarchy took shape, which meant a separation
of the state and church. With the royal sanction the
priestly order was greatly strengthened ; but the king
maintained supremacy and, according to the old patriar-
chal idea, offered sacrifice as head. Since the priest was
judge, he formulated decisions, which in later times were
to become law.
1 Kings 8: 62-65; (3) Sacrifice was offered, sometimes upon a great
Exod. 23:18; iscale ; the old idea of communion with God continued ;
Mic. 6:7; ' and a great feature of the sacrifice was the element of
2 Kings 17: 17.
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD
joy. The sacrifice might not be offered with leavened
bread. The first-fruits of the ground were called for.
Sometimes human sacrifice was offered.
(4) Times were now more definitely fixed.
{a) The sabbath was an established institution, what-
ever may have been its origin.
{f) The beginnings of a sabbatical year were made,
in the custom of allowing the land to lie fallow every
seventh year.
(c) Three agricultural feasts, with dates dependent
upon the climate, were observed, viz.: the Feast of
Unleavened Bread (Easter time), in celebration of the
departure from Egypt ; the Feast of Harvest, when the
first-fruits were gathered ; and the Feast of Ingathering,
in the autumn.
(5) Other acts.
(a) Prayers continued to be offered, as in the case of
Samuel at Mizpah, and on the occasion of the people's
demand for a king ; of David, after Nathan had made
known to him Jehovah's purpose to establish his house
in Israel, and on the occasion of the death of Bathsheba's
child; of Solomon, at the time of the dedication of the
temple at Jerusalem ; of Elijah, for the restoration of the
widow's son to life, and on Mount Carmel ; and of Heze-
kiah, for deliverance from Sennacherib.
((5) Vows were still made, as, for example, in the case
of Absalom, and of the Nazirites.
{c) Oracles and dreams are seen in David's inquiry of
Jehovah after the death of Saul, and before the battle
with the Philistines in the valley of Rephaim ; in Jehovah's
message to David through Nathan ; in Solomon's dream
at Gibeon ; in Ahab's consultation of the prophets before
advancing upon Ramoth-Gilead ; and in the use made
of the brazen altar by King Ahaz. The visions of
Amos and Isaiah may also be mentioned in this con-
nection.
(d) Sorcery was practiced, for it was distinctly opposed
by Saul and Samuel (although Samuel himself is said to
have been called from the grave by a witch), and by later
prophets.
Exod. 20:8;
Exod. 23:12;
Hos. 2: II ;
2 Kings 4 : 23 •
11:5, 7, 9;
16:18.
Exod. 23: 10, 1
Exod. 23:14-17;
Exod. 34:22, 23;
I Kings 8:2;
12:32;
Hos. 2:11.
1 Sam. 7:5, 8, 9J
8:6; 12:23;
2 Sam. 7: 18-28;
12:16;
I Kings 8 : 22-54 ;
1 Kings 17:20-22;
18:36,37;
2 Kings 19:15-19.
2 Sam. 15:7, 8;
Amos 2:12.
2 Sam. 2:1; 5:23,
24;
2 Sam. 7:4;
iKingS3:5ff. ;
22 : 5-28 ;
2 Kings 16: 15;
Amos 7:1-9;
8:iff.;
Isa., chap. 6.
I Sam. 28:3-40;
Isa. 8:19; 19:3;
Mic. 5: 12.
22 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
I Sam. 10:5; {e) J/«jzV <2«^<^««>/^ were greatly developed in con-
a Sjun/e^'s/i-J, nection with the feasts and the worship on the high places,
lsa.'3o:29; and the regular services of the temple at Jerusalem which
ingsi.4o. contributed much to the enrichment of the worship of
Jehovah.
I Sam. 18:7; (6) Songs were sung, sometimes of a secular character,
2Sam'. 3:33f^V as when the women of Israel praised the warlike deeds of
a Sam?; chap. 82 Saul and David, and when David lamented the death of
^' ^^" Saul and Jonathan, or that of Abner, or of Absalom ; at
other times of a religious character, as perhaps when David
sang upon the occasion of his deliverance from Saul (but
see §19).
§ 18. The Prophets' Attitude toward the actual prac-
tice of the people, as it was conducted by the priests,
was that of undisguised opposition. It is asserted many
times that —
Amos 7:9; (i) The high places were an occasion of sin, and
M^c! i°s;' aroused Jehovah's anger, and must therefore be destroyed.
I Kings 14:22,23. r^^^^ ^gj.g Qj^g Qf jj^g j^Qgj. effective channels of corrup-
tion to the worshipers of Jehovah.
Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1; (2) The priests were altogether corrupt and self-seek-
mK:!!; ing; they were the leaders in sin, going to the farthest
zeph. 3:4. extremes of debauchery and licentiousness, and carry-
ing the people down to destruction along \vith them-
selves.
Amo84:4; 5:22; (3) Sacrifice was displeasing to Jehovah, since the
Hos.4:i3,^m;, people were multiplying offerings with the thought that
this was all that was necessary to secure Jehovah's bless-
ing; whereas justice and mercy were alone pleasing to
him.
Amos 5:21; (4) Feast days and seasons had become occasions of
orgiastic revelry and must be brought to an end. These
were in large measure borrowed from the Baal-worship,
and were not yet wholly purified.
(5) Prayer was in vain, no matter how fervent and
frequent, since it came from people whose hearts were
evil, and their hands red with blood,
isa. 8:19; 19:3; (6) Sorcery and witchcraft were condemned and
regarded as unworthy of a people whose worship should
be given to Jehovah.
ia:ii
Mic. 6:6-8
6:4-6;
Isa. i:is;
Mic. 3:4.
Mic. 5:
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 23
§ 19. The Songs and Hymns of the Early Period furnish one of the
most difficult questions within the entire realm of biblical study.
Modern scholars, for the most part, teach (i) that the law is the prod-
uct of many centuries of history conducted by God in such a manner
as to produce that law, the basis being found in the work of Moses ;
and (2) that to ascribe the whole to Moses permits no opportunity for
gradual unfolding of the divine plan. So they teach (i) that most of
the seventy-three psalms ascribed by tradition to David belong to a
later age, when ideas of God were higher and purer than in David's
times, and when the worship of God by leaders and people had become
pure and spiritual; and (2) that to ascribe these psalms, or most of
them, to David is to turn the history of Israel's religious thought wrong
side foremost, and to presuppose in David's times a condition of
spiritual life on the part of David and the people which could not have
existed until centuries later. This very serious and important ques-
tion may not be taken up here. It is to be noted, however, that in the
case of the psalms, as in the case of the law, whatever may have been
the date of origin, the people never reached a position in which they
could use these psalms (with a few exceptions) as the expression of
their spiritual communion with God, until {a) the prophets had preached
long centuries, {I)) the priests themselves had united to purge and
purify a corrupt worship, (c) the city of Jerusalem was destroyed and
the land laid waste, {d) the inhabitants were carried away into a for-
eign country, and () the nation was taught, once for all, what had
many times been said, but never actually believed, viz., that there was
one God, and one only. The psalms as a distinct part of the priests'
work will receive further consideration in a later chapter.
See EwALD, Commentary on the Psalms, Vol. I, pp. 60-71 ; Perowne, Book of
Psalms (second edition), Vol. I, pp. 1-21 ; Murray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms,
pp. 127-43; Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter, pp. 190-225;
KiRKPATRiCK, The Psalms (^Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. xxxi-xxxviii ; Driver,
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 373-80 ; Stanley,
Lectures on the Histo7-y of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXV; articles on "David" in
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible and Cheyne's Encycloptsdia Biblica.
The views of some of the most important commentators concerning the number
of psalms that may be assigned to David are :
(i) Binney, all, or nearly all, assigned by tradition.
(2) Olshausen, Lengerke, Cheyne, Baethgen, Duhm, Wellhausen, probably none.
(3) Hitzig, 3-19, except 5, 6, 14.
(4) Ewald, 3, 4, 7, 8, II, 18, 19, 24, 29, 32, loi, and some fragments.
(5) Delitzsch, 3-19, 22-24, 25, 28-30, 32, 34, 36-39, 41, 51, 52, 54, 56-63, and some
others doubtful.
24
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 20:1-17;
Deut. 5:6-21;
Exod. 34: 10-28;
Exod. 20:22—
23:33.
(6) Perowne grants that some of those ascribed to David cannot have been
written by him, but thinks that he " personally contributed more than any other indi-
vidual" to the Psalter, and was the founder of a school of sacred poetry. Similarly
also Kirkpatrick.
§ 20. The Laws of the Early Period may be classified
under three heads: the decalogue, in two editions ; the
small book of the covenant; and the larger book of the
covenant. Before considering these separately, a few
points may be suggested concerning them as a whole :
(a) However early or late they may have taken on
their present literary form, they themselves certainly go
back to the period of Israel's earliest history.
(3) They contain much material which, of course, had
an existence long before the days of Moses ; . g., there
had been prohibition of murder and of stealing centuries
before Moses.
(c) They reflect, in general, an early and, indeed,
primitive stage of society; but this stage is the agricul-
tural, and therefore later than the nomadic.
(a) They are arranged in groups of ten, or of five.
(i) T/ie decalogue.
(a) It is said to have had its origin in different ways ;
e. g., as having been (i) spoken by God, (2) given through
angels, (3) written by the finger of God.
{b) It is given different names ; . ^., (i) the ten words,
(2) the words of the covenant, (3) tables of the cove-
nant, (4) covenant, (5) testimony, (6) two tables of testi-
mony.
{c) It has two forms, viz., that in Exod. 20 : i-i 7, and
that in Deut. 5 : 6-21 ; and although both are said to have
been engraved on stone, there are many differences ; e. g.,
(i) the first word of the fourth commandment; (2) the
reason assigned for observance of the fourth command-
ment, viz., the creation and rest of God in the one, the
bringing of Israel out of Egypt in the other; (3) the two
additional clauses in the one form of the fifth command-
ment; (4) the different order of the first two clauses and
the addition of " his field " in the tenth commandment.
{d) It has been suggested that originally all the com-
mandments consisted, like the sixth, seventh, and eighth,
Exod. 20:1,
Exod. 24: 12
Deut. 5:4;
Acts 7
Gal. 3
Heb. 2
Exod. 34:28, 29;
Deut. 4:13;
Deut. 5:2; 9: 5;
Exod. 20:8;
cf. Deut. 5:12
Exod. 20: 12;
cf. Deut. 5: If
Exod. 20: 17;
cf. Deut. 5 : 21
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 2$
of one or two words, and that the remainder, e. g., in the
second, third, and fifth, was added at a later time.
(i'//y in its character, for {a)
a king no longer sits on Judah's throne ; {b) the prophet's
voice and authority are now largely a thing of the past ;
Zech. 3:1-7; while {c) it is the high-priest who occupies the place of
^■"' supremacy alike in church and state. In Israel's earli-
est days the king acted as priest ; now the priest acts as
king.
(3) It is distinctly an ecclesiastical situation which
presents itself to our view ; in fact, we are studying the
history of a church, not that of a state.
Neh.,chap. 8. (4) In view of all this, it is natural enough to find
that the great event which characterized this period, the
42
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 43
event which the sacred historians chronicled with especial
emphasis, was the promulgation of the Levitical laiv by
Ezra, With this we may compare the giving of the
Deuteronoihic law, in its relationship to the middle
period (§28).
§ 38. The Situation Culminating with the Building of
the Temple, 516 B. C, presents the following, among
other, elements which may be taken as directly grow-
ing out of the exile and leading tip to this later
period :
(i) Jeremiah's teaching of individualism, which empha- Jer. 31 :29-34;
sized the fact that each individual sustained a distinct Deut.'24:i6.'
personal relation to Jehovah in addition to his relation
to him as a part of the nation. Each man is responsible
for his own sins and for those only, and his acceptance
with God depends upon himself alone.
(2) Ezekiel's teaching of the new communiiy , 2i ntvf Ezek., chaps. 40-
city in which no government will be needed, for there ''^'
will be no crime and no injustice. God will be judge.
He will bestow upon the people all that they need.
The city will have no obligation to provide for the wel-
fare of the people. God will fight Israel's battles, and Ezek. 39:1-16;
Israel's only work will be to bury the corpses of the '^^'illi%^X^-^o.
slain. What, now, will prince and people do ? Engage
in worship, continual worship. The only object of care
will be the temple and its materials ; the only taxes will
be church taxes. This is Ezekiel's vision of the kingdom
of God on earth.
(3) There is general recognition of the idea that Ezek., chap. 18;
Israel's religion, and, indeed, its national existence, was '^^^^■^■^°-^'^-
not dependent upon a monarchy, nor, indeed, upon any
particular form of government.
(4) There exists a more general readiness to accept zech. 1:15;
the teachings of the prophets, which at the time of their f/joei2:28,29.
utterance were unheeded or rejected.
(5) The necessity for meeting together in small groups Ezek. s : i ;
for worship, and the nature of the exercises possible cf!vs^n- 8
under the circumstances, viz., public reading of scrip-
ture and prayer, are leading to the organization of syna-
gogues.
4 4 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Eiod. 20:23- (6) With the book of the Covenant (§ 20), and the book
of Deuteronomy (§ 25) which had become the adopted
code of religious life, and the more recent and more elabo-
Ezek., chaps. 40- rate program of worship suggested by Ezekiel (§31), all
p,vi-e.s, Magic, Divina-
tion and Demonology, p. 75; Ryle, Ezra and Mehemiah (Cambridge Bible Series),
p. 33 ; NOWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 93 f.; Benzinger,
Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 382, 407 f.; Baudissin, Die Geschichte des alttestament-
lichen Priesterthu?ns untersucht, pp. 26 f.; Stade, Geschichte des Vulkes Israel, Vol. I,
pp. 156, 471-3, 505 f., 5171.
66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§6i. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid-
ered, write a paper on "The Priest in Early Israelitish History,"
observing the following suggestions: (i) include only what can be
corroborated by references to the literature of this period (see above);
(2) use great caution in making general statements upon the basis of
few facts ; (3) remember that much may be gained by ascertaining what
did not exist.
§62. The Priest of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described {a)
in the laws of Deuteronomy, {b) in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings, and {c) by the prophets of the Deuter-
onomic period/
1. The Levites, that is, the priests, become a distinct class.
Deut. 10:8; 18 : 1 ; i Sam. 2 : 28 ; Jer. i : 18; 8:1; 13:13; 23 : 33 f.;
26 : 7 f., II, 16 ; 28 : I, 5 ; 33 : 21 ; 34 : 19.
2. The service rendered by "the priests the Levites."
Deut. 10 :8 ; 21 : 5 ; 33:8-10; 26 : 3 ff . ; 27:14; 17:18; 31:9; 17:8,
9, 12 ; 19 : 17 ; 20 : 2 ; 24 : 8 ; Jer. 18 : 18.
3. The prophets' estimate of the priest.
Jer. 2:8; 5:31 ; 6:13; 14:18; 23 : 11 ; 32:32; Zeph. 3:4.
4. A later view of the wickedness of Eli's sons.
1 Sam. 2 : 27-36.
5. The relative authority of priest and prophet.
Jer. 29: 25 f.; 5 : 31 ; 20 : I ff. ; 11: 18-23 \ • i : i-
6. Differences of rank within the priestly order.
2 Kings 23 : 4, 8, 9 ; Jer. 52:24; 29 : 25 f .; 19:1; Deut. 18 : 6 f.
7. Maintenance of "the priests the Levites."
Deut. 10:9; 12:12; 18:1-8; 14:27,29.
8. Residence of priests.
Deut. 18 : 6, 7 ; Jer. i : i ; g?,) ; Hummelauer, Das vormosaische Priesterthutn in Israelii 899);
VAN HooNACKER, Le Sacerdoce levitique (1899), ^"d " Les Pretres et les Ldvites dans
le livre d'Ezekiel," Revue bibligue, 1899, pp. 177-205.
See also the commentaries of Delitzsch, Dillmann, Holzinger, and Gunkel on
Genesis ; of Dillmann, Holzinger, and Baentzsch on Exodus ; of Dillmann and
Baentsch on Leviticus; of Steuernagel and Bertholet on Deuteronomy; and of
Davidson, Bertholet, and Kraetzschmar on Ezekiel.
§72. Supplementary Topics .
1. Consider that the Psalter was the songbook of the temple, and
from an examination of Pss. 78 : 64 ; 99 : 6 ; 105 : 26 ; 106 : 16, 30 f. ;
no: 4; 115 :io, 12; 118:3; 132:9.16; 133:2; 134:1-3; 135:19^
formulate the thought relating to the/r/^j-/ which is found in the Psalter.
2. Why do no direct references to the work and life of the. priest
occur in the Wisdom Literature, /. e., in Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
and Song of Songs ?
3. Consider briefly the subject of the priest in New Testament
writings, ^. ^., Matt. 2:4;8:4; 12:4 f. ; 16:21; 20: 18; 21:15; 26 :3;
27:1; Mark 2 : 26 ; Luke i : 5, 8, 9 ; 10:31; 17:14; John i : 19;
72 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Acts 4 : 1, 36 ; 6:7; Heb. 2:17; 3:1; 4 : 14 f. ; 5 : i, 5 f., 10 ; 6 : 20 ;
chap. 7; 8:i,3f.; 9:6 f., 11, 25; 10:11,21; 13:11; i Peter 2 : 5, 9 ;
Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20 : 6 ; etc., and indicate such points of difference,
as compared with the position and work of the priest in the Old Testa-
ment, as seem most important.
4. Compare roughly the place of the priest among the Egyptians,
the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points of similarity and differ-
ence as compared with that of the priest among the Hebrews.
See W. R. Smith, article " Priest" in Encyclopedia Britannica ; the articles
" Pontifex" and " Sacerdos " in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and
Antiquities; Martha, Les Sacerdoces atheniens.
5. Consider the original meaning and exact usage of the words
for priest, in Hebrew "IJlS, Greek i(.pvo^,'L,2X\Xi sacerdos.
Cf. W. R. Smith, article "Priest " in Encyc. Brit., Vol. XIX, p. 746 ; Nowack,
Hebr. Arch., Vol. II, pp. 89 f. ; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill,
pp. 130 f.
6. Consider the place of the priest among the Assyrians, the Arabs,
and the Canaanites, who were closely related Semitic nations, and note
points of similarity and difference as compared with his place among
the Hebrews.
See especially Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria {Index) ; W. R. Smith,
Religion of the Semites {Index); McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments
{Index) ; Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Biblical
Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Cus-
toms, pp. 249 ff.; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.
7. Consider the conception which existed among the Israelites that
their nation was a kingdom of priests {cf. Exod. 19:6), the basis of this
conception, the extent to which it was held, the influence which it
exerted, and its connection with other Israelitish ideas, e. g., with the
idea of God, with the idea of the Day of Jehovah, and with their con-
ception of their relation to the world.
8. Consider, in general, what may be called the outside fu fictions of
the priest,/.*?., those functions which were not distinctly priestly; e.g.,
his place in war, Deut. 20:2; Numb. 10:1-9; i Sam. 4:4, 11; in
education, Lev. 10: 11; Neh. 8 : 2, 9, 13; in administration of justice,
Deut. 17 : 8 f., 12 ; 19 : 17 ; 21 : 5 ; in prophecy, Deut. 33 : 8 ; Jer. 1:1;
Ezek. 1:3; 4:14.
9. From a study of the books of Maccabees prepare a statement
showing what were the place, the function, the character, the influence,
the dress, the place of residence, and the maintenance of ihe priesthood
about 165 B. C.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 73
See, ^. i^., I Mace, chap. 2 ; 3 : 45-51 ; 4 : 38, 42 f.; 5 : 6 f.; 7 : 9, 14 £f.^
20-25, 33-38; io:2of., 32; 11:23-27, 57 f.; 12:5-23; 13:36 ff., 42;
14 : 20, 23, 27-49 ; 15 : 1 f., 6, 21, 24 ; 16: 11 ff., 24 ; 2 Mace, i ; 15 ff., 19-36 ;
2:17; 3:1, 9, 15 f., 21, 32-36; 4:7ff-. 24, 29; 11:3; 14 : 3. 7. 13 ; 15 : 12.
10. Take up more seriously the general relation of the priest to
the prophet ; e. g., (a) Was there an early time and a later time when
the two offices were not clearly distinguished ? (^) What were the
circumstances, in each case, which led to this lack of distinction ?
(c) How far may the priest be said always to have been engaged in
struggle with the prophet ? (d) What was the relation of each to the
other (i) in order of time, (2) in order of thought ?
11. Consider the significance of the priest as a mediator between
God and the people. What influences led to the idea that this class
of men could obtain access to God more readily than other men ?
What was the relation between the growth of the idea of priestly medi-
ation and the acceptance of larger ideas of God ?
CHAPTER VI.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP, CONSID-
ERED COMPARATIVELY.
§73. The Place of Worship in the Early Period, that is, as described
in (a) tlie Covenant Code, (/;) the historical material of J and E, (c)
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and(^
the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).
1. The only reference in the Covenant Code.'
Exod. 20 :24ff.
2. The patriarchs had sanctuaries in various places, according to
convenience.
Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24 i.; 28:17, 22; 35:14; Judg.
20 : 18, 26 ff.; 21 : 4.
3. A tent of meeting was used as the place for seeking God.
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; Numb. II : 16 f., 24 £.; 12:4-10; i Kings 2 : 28-30.
4. There was a chest or ark which contained articles emblematic
of the divine presence.
Numb. 10 : 33-36 ; Josh., chap. 3 ; Judg. 20 : 27.
5. There were local shrines, at which offerings were made.
Exod. 3: i; 20 : 24; Numb. 23:1-6, 14-17 ; Judg. 6 : 18-26 ; 13:15-
23 ; 20 ; 18, 26 ff.; 21:4; i Sam. i : 3, 21 ; 2:14; 3 : 1-21 , 10:8;
14 : 35 ; I Kings 3:4; 18 : 30-38 ; Deut. 27 : 5-7.
6. In course of time a temple was built for the worship of Jehovah.
2 Sam. 7:1-7; 24:21-25; I Kings 6:1-38; 2 Kings 12:4-16;
15:35^/ 18: 15 f.
7. The altar was used as a place of refuge, and as such was sacred.
I Kings 2 : 28-30.
8. The prophets make reference to places of worship.
Amos 2:8;3:i4;4:4; 5:5; 7:9, 13; 8:14; 9:1; Isa. i: 12 ; 6: i, 4;
8:14; Hos. 4 :i3, 15; 8:1; 9: 4, 8, 15; 10: 8; 12: ii; Mic. 3 : 12.
§74. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider, in reference to Exod. 20: 24-26, (a) the meaning of
the emphasis laid on ear//i as the material for the altar; {d) the reason
'The following are J-references: Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24!.; 35:14;
Exod. 33: 7-11 (?); Numb, ii: 16 f.,24 f.; Josh., chap. 3 (in the main); Numb. 23: 1-6,
14-17 (?). The following are E-references : Gen. 28:17, 24; Exod. 20:24£f.; Numb.
12:4-10; 10:33-36; Exod.3:i; Deut. 27:5-7.
74
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 75
for objection to stone as a material ; (c) the reason for objection to
steps ; and [d) the general primitive character of the whole regulation.
(C/.§i5.)
2. What connection was there between this primitive form of the
altar and the custom of the patriarchs to build an altar wherever they
pitched their tents ? (Cf. § 15 (i) .)
3. Consider the occasions on which reference is made to the tent
of meeting, and note the uses made of it.
4. Was the use made of the ark or chest one which elevated Israel,
or one which, upon the whole, encouraged a low conception of God ?
5. Was there anything to indicate that this or that place should
be used as a shrine or place of worship ? Was there danger that in the
use of these widely scattered shrines corrupt practices might be intro-
duced ? (C/:§i8(i).)
6. What were the political and social factors that were connected
with the building of the temple ? What immediate effects upon wor-
ship might be expected to follow ? {C/. § 17 (i-) (d) .)
7. On what principle did the use of the altar as an asylum or place
of refuge rest ? Was this a usage among other nations ?'
8. What impression does one gather from the references made by
the prophets to places of worship ?
§ 75. Place of Worship in the Middle Period, that is, as described in
(a) the laws of Deuteronomy, (d) the utterances of the Deuteronomic
prophets, and (c) the Deuteronomic histories.
1. All local sanctuaries are prohibited.^
Deut. 12 : 2-4, 13, 17 ; 16 : 5 ; 2 Kings 23 : 1-20.
2. Jerusalem is the only authorized place for worship.
Deut. 12:5-8, II, 12, 14, 18, 26 f.; 14:23-26; 15 : 19 f.; 16:2, 5-7,
II, 15 f.; 26:2 ; I Kings 12 : 25 — 13 : 6 ; 21:7; 22 : 3-8.
3. The temple at Jerusalem becomes the supreme court of justice.
Deut. 17 : 8 ff.
4. The ark is the receptacle of the two stone tables of the law.
Deut. 10: 1-5, 8.
5. The prophets' teaching concerning the temple.
Jer. 7 : 1-5, lo-i 5 ; 12:7; 17 : 12, 26 ; Zeph. 3:4; Hab. 2 : 20.
- Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 148 f.; G. F. Moore, article
"Asylum" in Encydop(Edia Bibhca; J. G. Frazer. " The Origin of Totemism and
Exogamy," Fortnightly Review, K-^rW, 1899; Stengel, article "Asylon" in Realeh-
cyclopddie der dassischen Alterthumswissenschaft ; Barth, De Asylis Graccis.
3 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron-
omy.
76 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
6. The destruction of Solomon's temple.
2 Kings 25 :q, 13-16.
§ 76. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider the circumstances which, in the course of centuries, led
to the prohibition of local sanctuaries. What was to be gained by this
revolution in practice ? {Cf. § 28 (3).)
2. What must have been the sociological changes which followed
the centralization of worship in one place, e. g., its effect on commerce ;
on the general intelligence of the people ; on the relative position of
men and women ; on habits of life ? {Cf. § 28 (7).)
3. What would naturally follow such a change of practice in the
relative desirability of city and country life, and what would be the
effect upon Jerusalem as the center of political and judicial life?
4. Consider the material of which the chest was made and the use
to which it was put.
5. Note how in this period the temple had fallen into disrepute in
the opinion of the prophets, and why this happened.
6. Consider the details and the significance of the destruction of
Solomon's temple.
§ 77. The Place of Worship in Ezekiel.
1. There is evidence of the existence of irregular altars.
Ezek. 6 : 3, 4. 6, 13.
2. The temple at Jerusalem is represented as the only lawful
sanctuary.
Ezek, 20 : 40.
3. The temple is desecrated by those who profane its use.
Ezek. 8:3-18; 23:38 £.; 44:6-8.
4. Feeling toward those who took part in the destruction of the
temple.
Ezek. 25:3.
5. The future temple.
Ezek. 37:26-28; 40:5 — 43: 17; 44:9; 45 =3; 46 : 1-3; 46: 19-24;
48:8 f., 21.
§ 78. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider the fact that at so late a time as that of Ezekiel there
still existed irregular altars, and what was involved in this fact.
2. Note Ezekiel's statement as to the proper place of worship in
the future {cf. § 31 {a)).
3. What were the prophet's feelings as to the abuse of the temple
in his times ?
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 7/
4. Consider the relation of Ezekiel's temple {i. e., the temple of
his vision) to that of Solomon, {a) architecturally, {b) in the promi-
nence it is to occupy in the routine of worship.
§ 79. The Place of Worship in the Later Period, that is, as described
{a) in the laws of the Levitical Code, {i>) by the priestly prophets, and
{c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles.
1. Worship may be conducted only at one central sanctuary.**
Lev. 17:1-9; Exod. 29 : 42-45 ; 2 Chron. 11:16; Neh. 8:16; cf.
Isa. ig : ig.
2. Ancient sanctuaries are condemned.
Lev. 26 : 27-31 ; Josh. 22 : g-34 ; Isa. 27 : g; i Chron. 21 : 28 f.; 2
Chron. i : 1-5 ; 32 : 12 ; 33 : 17.
3. Description of the tabernacle and its furnishings.
Exod. 25:8 — 27:19; 35:4 — 40:38; Numb. 8:1-4; Exod. 27 : 20 f.;
Lev. 24:1-4; Numb. 7:1-83.
4. Description of the ark.
Exod. 25 : 10-22 ; 37 : 1-9 ; 2 Chron. i : 1-5,
5. The building of Solomon's temple.
1 Chron. 17 : I ff.; 2i:i5£f.; 21:28 f.; 22:6£f.; 23:iff.; 28:1-3
1 1-2 1 ; 2 Chron. 2 : 1 — 5 : i ; chaps. 6 and 7.
6. The building of the second temple.
Ezra I :2ff.; 2 :68 ; 3 :8-i3 : 5 : 2-5 ; 5 :6 £f.; 6 : 3 ff., 14 £f.; 7 : ig-23
7. A later view of the place of the tabernacle in religious life.
Numb. 9 : 15-23.
8. Later views of the place of Solomo.n's temple in Israel's wor-
ship.
2 Chron. 20 : 28 ; 24:4-15; 27:2f.; chap. 2g.
9. The sanctuary as the place of God's self-manifestation.
Exod. 25 : 22 ; 2g : 43 ; Numb. 16:41 £f.; Mai. 3:1; Numb. 7 :89.
10. The altar of burnt-offering.
Lev. 1:10 ff.; 6:9-13; Numb. 16:36-40; 7:84-88.
11. The prophets' attitude toward the sanctuary.
Isa. 56 : 7 ; 60 : 7 ; Hag, i : 2-4, 7 £.; 2 : 3, g ; Zech. 1:16; 4 : g ;
6:12-15; 8:g; I4:i6ff.; Mai. 3 : i ; Mic. 4 : 1-4 ; Joel i : g, 13 f.
16 ; Dan. 8:11; g : 17 ; 11:31.
12. Holiness of the sanctuary.
Lev. 26:2; 19:30; 8:iof.; Numb. 3:31!. ; 4:4-15; Neh. 6:10 f.;
13 : 4 ff.; 2 Chron. 33 : 4. 7, 15 ; 36:17 ; Dan. 8:11; g:i7; 11:31.
* References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type.
78 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 80. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Note that what was represented as a matter of reform in the
middle period, viz., the restriction of worship to a single central
sanctuary, now appears as a fundamental principle, everywhere taken for
granted.
- 2. Consider the attitude of writers of this period to the sanc-
tuaries which had existed in earlier times.
3. Note (a) the great detail with which the tabernacle is described;
(d) the elaborate character of the tabernacle from an artistic point of
view ; and consider whether this description is to be taken (i) literally,
a tent of this kind having actually existed in the earliest times, or (2) as a
piece of splendid idealization, similar in some respects to Ezekiel's
vision. What is involved in each of these propositions?
4. What, in general, was the ark, and what, in particular, was the
purpose it was intended to serve?
5. Compare the references in Chronicles to the building of Solo-
mon's temple with those in Kings (§73(6)), and classify the results of
the comparison.
6. Consider in the case of the second temple (a) the date of its
erection ; {^) its relative size and character in comparison with the
first ; (c) the special circumstances under which it was built.
7. What was the later view of the place of the tabernacle in Israel's
religious life, as seen in Numb. 9: 15-23?
8. Consider later views also as to the place of Solomon's temple in
Israel's worship.
9. To what extent was Israel's God believed to use the sanctuary
as a place for manifesting his presence?
10. What was the altar of burnt-offering and its peculiar function?
I I. How did the later prophets regard the sanctuary and its service?
12. What is meant by the holiness of the sanctuary, and in what
did this consist ?
§ 81. Literature to be Consulted.
James Fergusson, article "Temple " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863) ;
EWAI.D, The Antiquities of Israel {t,A ed. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. 1 17-30; KuENEN,
The Religion of Israel {i^bg f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. I, pp. 96-100, 241 f., 256-60, 305
f., 328 ff., 334-9, 390-95 ; Oehi.er, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp.
250-58; EuERSHEiM, The Temple, its Ministry and Services as They Existed in the
Time of Jesus Christ (1874); Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v.
" Sacred Springs, etc.;" Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel [li'j^),
pp. 17-51; CoNDER, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1882, pp. 75
ff.; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (1st ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 79
"Sanctuaries;" H. P. Smith, "The High Place," The Hebretv Student, 1883, pp.
225-34 ; CONDER, Heth and Moab (1883), chaps, vii, viii ; Perrot AND Chipiez, His-
tory of Art in Phoenicia (1885) ; E. C. Robins, The Temple of Solomon (1887); Conder,
Syrian Stone Zcr^ (1887), pp. 42 f., 70; KiTTEL, History of the Heire7vs {iS8S-g2,
transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " Robertson, Early Religion
of Israel {i%S()), see Index, s. v. "Sanctuaries," "Tabernacle," "Temple," etc.; W.
R. Smith, article "Temple" in Encyclopedia Britannica (1889); W. R. Smith,
Religion of the Semites {isi ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), PP- 140-212; H. Sully, The Tem-
ple of EzekieVs Prophecy (1889); Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in fudcea
(1890) ; J. Pollard, "On the Baal and Ashtoreth Altar Discovered .... in Syria,"
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, 1891, pp. 286 ff.; Duff, Old Testa-
ment Theology (1891-1900), see Indexes, s. z*. " Altar," "Place," " Sanctuary," etc.;
ScHULTZ, Old Testametit Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. " Sanctuary," " Tabernacle,"
"Temple," etc.; C. B Ahi^iNG, /erusalew's Temple (1892); Montefiore, i?f/«^zo« of
the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index, s. v. " High Places," "Temple ; " J. Strong,
"The Tabernacle," Biblical World, Vol. I (1893), pp. 270-77; Menzies, History
of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the
Monuments, Vols. I-HI (1895-1901), see Index, s. v. " Temple ; " Driver, Deuteron-
omy (1895), pp. xliii-li; W. G. Moorehead, Studies in the Mosaic histittitions (1S96),
pp. 31-90 ; Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant {i8g6), pp. 1-164; Wiedemann,
Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), pp. 200-206; H. B. Greene, " Hebrew
Rock Altars," Biblical World, Vol. IX (1897), pp. 329-40 ; A. BiJCHLER, "The Fore-
Court of Women and the Brass Gate in the Temple of Jerusalem," Jewish Quarterly
Review, 1898, pp. 678-718 ; J. A. Seiss, "The Great Temples at Baalbec," Lutheran
Church Review, 1898, pp. 27 1-93 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia ana Assyria (iSgS),
see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " G. C. M. Douglas, " Ezekiel's Temple," Expository
Times, 1898, pp. 365 ff., 420 ff., 468 ff., S15-19; A. S. Kennedy, article "Altar"
in Hastings' Z>?V^w«arj/ of the Bible (1898); C. Schick, " Remarks on the Taber-
nacle Controversy," Palestine Exploration Eund Quarterly Statement, 1898, pp. 241-3;
Em. Schmidt, "Solomon's Temple," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 164-71;
A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs (1899), pp. 246 ff.; W. E.
Addis, article "Altar" in Encyclopczdia Biblica (1899); W. C. Allen, article " High
Place" in Yix^lVAGi^ Dictionary of the Bible (1899); Benson and Gourlay, The
Temple of Mut in Asher, etc. (1899) ; T. F. Wright, " Was the Tabernacle Oriental ?"
Journal of Biblical Literature, 1899, pp. 195-8; Th. G. Soares, "Ezekiel's Temple,"
Biblical World, Yol.XlV (1899), pp. 93-103; S. I. Curtiss, "The High Place and
Altar at Petra," Palestine Exploration Eund Quarterly Statement, 1900, pp. 351-5 ; L.
W. Batten, " The Sanctuary at Shiloh," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX
(1900), pp. 29-33; G. Allen, "Sacred Stones," Eortnightly Revie7v,]a.i\-az.Yy, 1900;
Stibitz, " The Centralization of Jehovah Worship in Israel," Reformed Church Review,
January, 1900; JOHN Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle: Studies in the Priesthood and
the Sanctuary of the Jews (1901); G. F. MooRE, article " High Place" in Encyclo-
pcedia Biblica (1901).
Bahr, Der salomonische Tempel, mit Beriicksichtigung seines Verhdltnisses zur
hebrdischen Architektur iiberhaupt{i8^8)\ Merz, article " Tempel " m Real-Encyklopddie
fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (ist ed. 1854-68, 2d ed. 1877 ff.) ; Balmer-
RiNCK, Des Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel (1858); Kamphausen, " Bemer-
kungen iiber die Stiftshiitte," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1858, pp. 97-121 ;
80 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1859, pp. 110-20; Fries, "Zu Kamphausen's Bemerkungen iiber die Stiftshiitte,"
' Theologische Stiidien und Kritiken, 1859, pp. 103-10; Poi'PER, Der biblische Bericht
iiber die Stiftshiitte (1862); RiGGENBACH, " Die mosaische Stiftshiitte : Seibstanzeige,"
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1863, pp. 36 1-8 ; H. Pierson, Z)i? /^«7/^^ steenen
in lsrael{\Zbi, ff.) ; H. OORT, " De heiligdommen van Jehovah te Dan en te Bethel voor
Jerobeam I.," Theologisch Tijdschrift, \'ib'], ■^■\^. i^^-iob; T)vy\.m, Die Theologie der
Propheten (1875), pp. 312-20: Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte,
Vol.11 (1878), pp. 143-269; KiJHN, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel der Vollen-
dungszeil," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1882, pp. 601-88; Kohlbrugge,
Die Stiftshiitte und ihre Gerdthe (1882); Stade, "Der Text des Berichtes iiber
Salomos Bauten, I Ko. 5-7," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamenihche Wissenschaft, 1 883,
pp. 129-77; Smend, " Ueber die Bedeutung des jerusalemischen Tempels in der
alttestamentlichen Religion," Theologische Studien uttd Kritiken, 1884, pp. 689-740 ;
SCHURER, article " Tempel Salerno's" in Riehm's Handw'orterbuch des biblischen Alter-
thums (1884); H. Pailloux, Monographie du temple de Salomon (1885); Stade,
Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887 i.). Vol. I, pp. 325-43, 446-67; Vol. II, pp. 45 ff.,
113-28, 245-51 ; Wellhausen, /?este des arabischen Heidenthutns (1887), pp. 42-60,
98-105, 113, 171; Th. Friedrich, Tempel und Palast Salomos ti. s. w. (1887); O.
Wolff, Der Tempel von Jerusalem und seine Maasse (1887); H. L. Schouten, De
tabernakel Gods heiligdom by Israel (1888); C. Chipiez et G. Perrot, Le temple de
Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Libanon, restitues d'apris Ezechiel et le livre des Kois
(1889); F. V. Andrian, ZJ^r Hdhenkult asiatischer und europdischer V'dlker (1891);
Piepenbring, "Histoire des lieux de culte et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de Phis-
toire des religions. Vol. XXIV (1891), pp. 1-60, 133-86; E. de Broglie, "La loi de
I'unitd de sanctuaire en Israel," Compte rendu du congris scientifique international
des catholiques, 1892, 2d sect., pp. 69-89; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischeft Reli-
gion (1897), pp. 27-31, 98-103; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions-
geschichte {is\. ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), pp. 128-38; Benzinger, Ilebrdische Archdologie
(1894), pp. 243-9,364-404; ^OVJ ACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie {\8gt\),
Vol.11, pp. 1-86; Dlhl.U AN'N, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie {\8<^^), %&&
/wfl'ifjf, J. z/. "Tempel;" H. A. "^oy-YJ-,, Le sanctuaire de Kirjath-Jeariin (1895); S. A.
Fries, Den israelitiska kultens centralisation (1895) > E. SCHURE, Sanctuaires d'Orient,
£gypte, Grice, Palestine (1898); Aug. Freiherr von Gall, Altisraelitische Kult-
stdtten (1898); B. A., "Die heiligen Statten in Palastina," Beilage zur Allgemeinen
Zeitung (1898), No. 221 ; F. Tournier, "Notes sur les temples paiens de furvi&re a
r^poque romaine," D Universite catholique, 1899, pp. 361-92; Basset, "Les sanctu-
aires du Djebel Nefousa," Journal asiatique, 1900; Meinhold, Die Lade Jahves
(1900); Ernst Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde
nach dem babylonischen Exil, Vol. II (1901). pp. 44-56 ; B. Stade, " Die Kesselwagen
des salomonischen Tempels, X Kb. 7 : 27-39," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche IFis-
senschaft. Vol XXI (1901), pp. 145-90; K. Budde, "Die urspriingliche Bedeutung
der Lade Jahwe's," ibid. (1901).
§82. Supplementary Topics.
I. Consider the following citations from the book of Psalms : 5 : 7;
11:4; 20:2; 22:25; 24:3; 26: 6-8, 12 ; 27 : 4-6 ; 28 : 2 ; 29 19 ;
36 : 8 ; 40 : 9; 42 : 4 ; 43: 3 f.; 46 : 4 ; 48: i f-, 8 f.; 51 : 18 f.; 52 :8 ;
55 : 14 ; 61 : 4; 63 : 2 ; 65 : i, 4 ; 66 : 13; 68 : 1 5-1 7, 24, 29 ; 69 : 9 ;
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 8 1
73:17; 74:2 ff.; 76:2; 77:13; 78:54, 58, 60, 68 f.; 79:1-13;
84; 87; 92 : 13 ; 93 : 5 ; 96 : 6-8 ; 99 : 9 ; 100 : 4 ; 102 : 13 ff.; 114:2;
122; 125:1; i27:i(?); 132; 134; 135: if.; i38:2;and formulate
a statement concerning the place of worship as it stands related to the
idea of worship as expressed in the Psalter.
2. Examine the allusions to the place of worship found in the apoc-
ryphal books, e. g., I Mace. 4 : 36-59 ; 5 : i, 68 ; 6:7, 18, 26, 51, 54 ;
7:33-38 ; 9:54-57 ; 10:41-44; II : 37; 13: 3, 6; 14: 15, 48 : 16 : 20;
2 Mace. I : 8, 15 ff., 18, 32-34 ; 2 : i ff., 17-19, 22 ; 3:2, 12, 14 ff.;
4:14; 5:15-21; 6:2-5; 8:17; 9:16; 10:1-8,26; 13:8,23;
14 : 4, 31-33, 36 ; and note any important modifications which seem
to have been made.
3. Consider the place of worship as it is referred to in the New
Testament, e. g., in Matt. 4:3; 6:2,6; 9:35; 12: 4-6, 9 ; 13:54;
21:12-14, 23; 23: 16-22, 35;24:iff., 15; 26:61; 27:5; Mark
1 : 21-29 ; 3:1; 5:22, 35 ff.; 6:2 ff.; 11:15 ff., 27; 12:41 ff.; 13:1
ff., 9 ; 14 : 58 ; Luke i : 8-23 ; 2 : 22 ff., 41 ff.; 4 : 16, 20, 28, 33, 38,
44; 6:6; 8 : 41, 49 ; 13 : 10 ; 19 : 45 ff.; 21 : 1-6, 37 f.; 22 : 52 f.;
John 2 : 13-22 ; 4 : 19-24 ; 7:14, 28; ii:55ff.; 16:2; Acts i : 13 f.;
2 : I ff., 46 ; 3 : I ff.; 4:1; 6 : 13 f.; 9 : i f., 20 ; 13 : 14 f., 43 ; 14:1;
16:16; 17: 1 ff., 10, 17; 18:4,8,19; 19 : 8 f.; 20 : 7 ff.; 21:26ft.;
22:19; 25:8; 28:3of.; 1 Cor. 8 : 10 ; 16:19; Eph. 2:19-22; i
Tim. 3 : 15; Philem., vs. i ; Heb. 8 : i f.; 9 : 1-12, 24 f.; 10 : 19 f.;
12 : 18 ff.; 13 : 10 ff.; Rev. 8:3; 9:13; ii:if., 19; 14:15, 18;
15 : 5-8; 21 : 3, 22; and formulate the points of difference which
appear.
4. Study the origin and development of the synagogue, noting (a)
its relation to the temple, (/^) the different character of its services as
compared with those of the temple, (c) its origin in response to a great
religious need, and (d) its historical significance as the forerunner of
the church, the Christian place of worship. See, e. g., Ezek. 8:1:
20 : 1-3 ; Ps. 74 : 8 ; Matt. 9 : 35 ; 12:9; Mark 5 : 35 ; 6 : i ff.; Acts
9 : I ff.; 13 : 13 ff.; 14:1; 17:1, etc.^
5. Study the causes which led to the building of the Samaritan
sSee article " Synagogue " in Encyclopedia Britannica ; E. H. Plumptre, article
"Synagogue " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz, Old Testament Theology,
Vol. I, pp. 428 ff.; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (see Index, s. v.
" Synagogue ") ; Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Div.
II, Vol. I, pp. 52-83 ; Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Vol. I, pp.
430-50; Ferguson, The Synagogue Service in the Ti?ne of Christ ; Kent, A History
of the Jewish People (see Index).
82 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
temple on Mount Gerizim. Was this movement a source of strength
or of weakness to the Jewish community in Jerusalem? What was the
attitude of Jesus toward the Samaritan temple? See, e. g., Ezra, chap.
4 ; Neh. 2 : 18-20 ; 4 : 1-23 ; 6 : 1-19 ; 13 : 28 ; John 4 : 19-24 {cf. § 45).
6. Consider the causes which have led to the change of view as to
the function of the place of worship seen in the fact that originally a
temple was looked upon as the abode of the deity, while now it is
regarded primarily as a meeting-place for worshipers.
CHAPTER VII.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE, CONSIDERED COMPARA-
TIVELY.
§83. Sacrifice in the Early Period, that is, as described in (a) the
Covenant Code, (^) the historical material of J and E, (c) the pre-
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and (d) the pre-
Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).
I. Kinds of offerings.'
Gen. 28 :i8; 35 : 14; Exod. 8: 20 f.; 10: 24 ff.; 18 :I2 ; 20 : 24 ; 24 : 5 ;
Judg. 6 : 26 ; i Sam. 10:8; 21:6; i Kings 3:4; 12 : 26-35 J 2 Kings
16:12 f.; Isa. 1:11-13; Hos. 4:13; 9:4; 11:2.
(^2. Materials of sacrifice.
Gen. 4:3; 15 :9 ff.; 8 :2o £f.; 22 : 1-13 ; 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14 ; Exod. 20 : 24;
Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14; Judg. 13 : 16-19 ; 6:18-24,26; iSam. 7:9f.;
21:6; I Kings 8 : 5.
3. Manner of sacrifice.
Exod. 34 : 25 ; 23 : 18 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 ; i Sam. 2 : 13-17 ; 2 Sam.
6:13; I Kings 18 : 30-38; 2 Kings 16:12 f.
/ 4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
> Gen. 46:1^/ Exod. 2^:isc,- 34:20^/ Numb. 23:1-4, 14; Judg.
6:18-24; 13:16-19; I Sam. i:3ff.; 6:15; 7:9f.; 11:15; 20:29;
2 Sam. 6: 13, 17 f.; 24:22-25; i Kings 8:5; 18 : 30-38.
5. Sacrifice was often a social or family meal.
Gen. 18:1-8; 31 : 54 ; Exod. 18:12; Numb. 22 : 40 ; Deut. 27 :6d,7;
I Sam. I : 3 ff.; 9: 12 f.; 16 : 2, 5 ; 20: 29.
'^6. Human sacrifice was not unknown.
Gen. 22:1-13; Hos. I3:2(?).
7. Sacrifice to idols was common.
Exod. 32:6; I Kings 12:26-33; 2 Kings 5:i7(?); 10:19, 24 f.;
Hos. 4:13; 11:2.
8. The priest was given a share of the sacrifice.
I Sam. 2 : 13-17.
'The following are J-references : Gen. 4 : 3 ; 8:20 £f.; 18: 1-8; 35 = 14; Exod.
8 :20 f.; 34 : 20c, 25 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 {?); Deut. 27 : 6d, 7 (?). The following are
E-references : Gen. 15 :9 £f.; 22:1-13, 28:18; 31:54; 46 : i-^ / E-xod. 10 : 24 ff.;
18:12; 20:24; 23: I5<-, 18; 24: 5; 32:6; Numb. 22:40.
83
84 PRIKSTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
9. The prophets' attitude toward sacrifice.
Amos 4:4f-; 5:22-25; Hos. 3:4; 4:13,19; 6:6; 8:13; 9:4;
11:2; 13:2; Isa. I : 1 1-13 ; 34 : 6.
§ 84. Questions and Suggestions.
1. What were the various kinds of offerings made in this period ?
What significance attached to each kind — for example, what was the
meaning of the burnt-offering ? of the peace-offering ? of the pass-
over offering ? Consider to what extent (a) sacrifice in this period
was equivalent to a social meal ; (^) the eating of meat was a sacrificial
act ; [c) the spirit of joy accompanied the act.
2. Note the kinds of material used in sacrifice, for example, the
flesh of animals (what animals? animals of what age?), oil, wine,
meal. What was the reason underlying the use of each of these kinds
of material ?
3. Why was leavened bread not to be used in connection with a
sacrifice ? Why was no part of the sacrifice to be left over until the
morning of the following day ? What points concerning sacrifice
may be noted in connection with Balaam's sacrifice (Numb. 23: 1-4,
14, 27-30)? Consider the custom of the priests in Samuel's time, and
what it involved. Study Elijah's sacrifice on (iilgal, and note the
bearing of the details on the subject.
4. Upon what occasion, and under what circumstances, were sacri-
fices offered ? What purpose lay in the mind of the offerer ? What
was sought for in the act ?
5. When sacrifice was only a social or family meal, what was the
religious element? Was the deity ever thought to partake of the
meal? Was the deity ever supposed to be related to the family ?
What was the connection between this social act and the spirit of joy
which, in early times, seems to have characterized the act of sacrifice?
6. Consider the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac,
and what was involved in this willingness ? Explain to yourself the
custom of human sacrifice ; how could it have arisen ? what wrong
ideas did it rest upon ?
7. Note some of the instances in which sacrifice was offered to
idols. Since the idols were believed to represent deities, either that
of Israel or those of other nations, was this not something clearly to
have been expected ?
8. Note that in this period the priest, whatever other kind of
support he may have received, was given a share of the sacrifice.
9. Formulate a statement containing the substance of the prophet's
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 85
attitude toward sacrifice; and consider whether the prophet was
opposing (a) the act of sacrifice itself; or (3) a cold, indifferent, hypo-
critical spirit, with which men in those days had become accustomed
to offer sacrifice; or (c) the feeling, which had become quite general,
that sacrifice was enough to gain Jehovah's pleasure, that this was all
that he expected, and that this, without reference to conduct, con-
stituted religion.
§85. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on sacrifice in the
early period, embodying the material presented above.
§ 86. Sacrifice in the Middle Period, that is, as described in the laws
of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuter-
onomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings.
1. Kinds of offerings.^
Deut. 12 : 4-7, 16 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 17 : 26 ; 33 : 1 1, 18.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 6 : 20 ; Isa. 43 : 23 £f,; i Sam. 2 : 27.
3. Manner of offering.
Deut. 12 : 27; 16 : 7; Jer. 33 : 18; i Sam. 2 : 27.
4. Occasion and purpose of offerings.
Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; i Sam. 3 : 1 4 ; Jer. 33 : 1 1 .
5. Social element in sacrifice.
Deut. 12 : 4-14 ; i Kings 3:15.
6. Slaughter and sacrifice are no longer synonymous terms.
Deut. 12 : 15, 20-28.
7. Priest's portion of the sacrifice.
Deut. 18 : 3, 4 ; i Sam. 2 : 28, 36.
8. Human sacrifice still existed.
Mic. 6: 6-8.
9. Prophets' attitude toward sacrifice.
Zeph. I : 7, 8 ; Mic. 6 :6-8 ; Jer. 6 :2o ; 7 : 21 f., 29; 17 :26 ; 33 : 1 1 ,81 ;
46 : 10 ; Isa. 43 : 23 f.
§87. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Note in Deut. 12:4-7 ip) the kinds of offerings mentioned
(including tithe, heave-offering, free-will offering), and {b) the spirit
of rejoicing in which these offerings are to be made. Consider in
Mic. 6 : 6-8 {a) the possibilities of sacrifice (including that of one's own
child), (I)) the purpose of sacrifice, and {c) the requirement of Jehovah.
2. Consider the materials used in sacrifice, as mentioned in passages
' References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteronomy,
86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
cited above, and note any variations in comparison with those used in
the earlier age.
3. Consider (a) the use made of the blood ; its pouring on the altar ;
{f} the roasting of the flesh ; (c) the eating of the flesh; (d) the employ-
ment of men "to burn meal-offerings and to do sacrifice."
4. Consider the connection of the Passover with the going-up of
Israel out of Egypt, (a) in relation to time (was there not a spring
feast celebrated by the ancient nations before the exodus ?) ; (3) in
relation to ceremony (why was unleavened bread to be used ?) ; (c) in
relation to the purpose of the act. Was the sacrifice intended to
purge or purify from sin ? Was sacrifice intended also to be an
expression of gratitude for some favor already received ?
5. Is the social element still to be seen in this period, that is, does
the family or clan meal, with all its social accompaniments, constitute
a sacrifice ?
6. What new distinction has arisen as between the slaughter of ani-
mals and the act of sacrifice ? Wherein does the distinction consist?
What led to the making of the distinction? What, naturally, will
follow as a result of making this distinction ?
7. Note (a) the particular portions of each animal sacrificed, which
are assigned as the portion of the priest, that is, for his maintenance;
(d) the additional perquisites he receives in the way of grain, oil, wine,
and meal ; and (c) the ground for these gifts.
8. What evidence is there that in this period human beings are still
used for sacrifice ?
9. Consider the attitude of the prophets of this period toward sac-
rifice, and determine (see §84, 9) the real meaning of this attitude.
§88. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a statement which will contain,
in some detail, the differences between the usages of the middle period
in respect to sacrifice, and those of the early period.
§89. Sacrifice as Presented by Ezekiel.
1. Kinds of offerings.
Ezek. 40:39; 42:13; 46:12; 45:13-17; 20:40.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Ezek. 44 ■• 15 ; 46:4-7-
3. Manner of sacrifice.
Ezek. 40:38-43; 44 : II. 15 ; 46 : 4-1 5. 24.
4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
Ezek. 46:4-15; 43:18-27; 45:13-25-
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 8/
5. Sacrifice was still thought of as a banquet.
Ezek. 39 : 17-20 ; 46:24.
6. Sacrifice was still offered to idols.
Ezek. 20 : 28-31.
7. Human sacrifice.
Ezek. 16 :20 £.; 23 :39.
8. Priests retained a share of the sacrifice.
Ezek. 42 : 13.
§90. Constructive Work. — ^ Consider the various allusions to sacri-
fice in Ezekiel, under the topics suggested above, and prepare a
statement covering (a) the points of resemblance and difference in
comparison with the facts of the early and middle periods ; (^) the more
formal and ofificial character with which sacrifice seems to be invested
by Ezekiel ; (c) the exceedingly elaborate system of sacrifice provided
for, e. g., in 46 : 4-15 ; {d) the fact that, notwithstanding all this, the
earlier idea of sacrifice as a banquet still exists (39 : 17-20 ; 46 : 24).
§91. Sacrifice in the Later Period, that is, as described in {a) the
laws of the Levitical Code, [b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the
priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Neheraiah, Chronicles.
1. Kinds of offerings.^
Lev. 7:1,11; 6:8, 14, 25 ; 8 : 22 ; 23: 10b, 11, 13 ; Exod. 25 : 30; 30 : 7 ;
Numb. 15 :i9 ; 5 : 11-31.
2. Materials of sacrifice.-
Lev. I : 1-3, 10, 14 ; 2:1,4 f., 7, 11, 13-15 ; 3 : i, 3 f ., 6 f ., 9 f ., 12, 14 f.,
16 f.; 5 :6 f., II ; 6 : 1-7, 15, igf.; 7 : 3-5, 11 fE.; 9 : 1-4 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 14: 10,
49 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 15 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 1-3, 22 f., 38-42 ; Numb.,
chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 34-38 ; Lev. 22 : 18-25, 27 f.; 23: 10^-14.
3. The fat and blood are regarded as especially sacred.
Lev. 7 : 22-27 ; 8 : 15, 23 f.; 9 : 19-21 ; 17 : 6 ; etc.
4. Manner of sacrifice.
Lev. I : 3-9, 11-13, 15-17 ; 2 : 1 f., 4-16 ; 3 : 1-17 ; 4 : 1-35 ; 5 : 8 f., 12 ;
6 : 1-7, 8-13, 14-18, 19-23, 24-30 ; 7 : I ff., 11-21 ; 8 : 14-30 ; 9 : 8-11,
12-14, 15-24; 14:10-32, 49-53; 16 : 3-28 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 5 : 11-31;
19 : 1-22 ; Exod. 29 : 10-42 ; 30 : 7-10 ; Lev. 22 : 29 f.; 19 : 5-8.
5. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
Lev. 4 : 1-3, 13 f., 20, 22-28, 31, 35 ; 5 ; 1-6, 13-15. 17-19 ; 6 : 1-7, 30 ;
9:7; 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 20, 31, 53 ; 15 : 13-15, 28-30 ; 23 : 10*^-21 ; Numb.
5 : 11-31 ; 15 : 17-21, 22-28 ; 19 : 1-22 ; chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 7-10.
3 References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type.
88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
6. The priests' share of the sacrifice.
Lev. 2:3,10; 5:13; 6 : 16-18, 26, 29 ; 7 : 6-10, 14, 28-38 ; 8:31; 10 : 12-
20; Numb. 5:5-10; Exod. 29:27-32; Numb. 18:8-20.
7. All slaughter is sacrificial.
Lev. 17: 1-9.
8. Fevv references to idolatrous sacrifices.
Lev. 17:7.
9. Attitude of the prophets toward sacrifice.
Isa, 1 9 : 2 1 ; 56:7; 66 : 3 ; Mai. i : 7-9 ; 3 : 3-5 ; Joel 1:9, 13; 2:14;
Dan. 9 : 27.
10. Sacrifice is given a large place in the later histories.
I Chron. 15 : 26 ; 16: i ; 21 : 26 £f.; 29 : 21 f.; 2 Chron. 1:5; 2:4; 5:6;
7 : 4 £f.; 8 : I2f.; 1 1 : 16; 13 : 11; 15:11; 24 : 14 ; 29 : 20-36 ; 30: 15 ff.;
3i:2ff.; 33:i6f.; Ezra3:2ff.; 6:17; 7:17; 8:35; 10:19; Neb.
io:33f.; I2:43f.
11. Prominence of the idea of sin in connection with sacrifice.
Lev. 4:35; chap. 16; 9:3; io:i6ff.; Numb. 15: 22-31; 19:1-9.
§92. Questions and Suggestions. — How much in detail the various
topics concerning sacrifice in the later period shall be taken up will be
determined in some measure by one's archaeological interests. In any
case, these topics deserve consideration because of their sociological, as
well as their religious, bearing :
1. Prepare a list of the kinds of offerings, viz., burnt-offering,
peace-offering, sin-offering, etc., including vows, the offering involved
in Naziritism, the offering of purification. From the passages describ-
ing each, and from a study of the name (in English and, if possible,
in Hebrew), differentiate these various offerings from each other and
determine what was distinctly characteristic in each case. Consider,
now, whether any principle of classification exists ; e. g. : [a) Are they,
in each case, voluntary or obligatory? {b) Are they, in each case,
self-dedicatory, eucharistic, or expiatory? Suggest any other possible
bases for classification.
2. Take up, one by one, the materials which might be used in sac-
rifice, noting, [a] in reference to animal offerings: (i) the particular
animals which were deemed acceptable ; (2) the possible explanations of
the selection of these animals with the rejection of others ; (3) whether
the distinction between clean and unclean animals* was in any way
connected with the choice for sacrifice ; {b) in reference to vegetable
* Cf. Lev., chap. 1 1 ; Deut. 14 : 3-21 ; and see G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and
Unclean," §8, in Encyclopedia Biblica, and chap. x.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 89
offerings: (i) the particular vegetables authorized ; (2) the reason or
reasons for this selection ; (c) the character of offerings worthy of being
accepted ; (d) other possible gifts outside of animals and vegetables,
) he deserved any longer to be classed with the
widow and orphan, as in Deuteronomy.
7. Note that all slaughter of animals for purposes of eating is
sacrificial ; that every animal must be formally presented at the
appointed place; and that punishment is to be inflicted upon those
who do not recognize this fact.
8. Observe that offerings to idols have almost fallen into disuse.
9. Consider the attitude of the later prophets toward sacrifice; are
they hostile? or indifferent?
10. Make a list of the events narrated in the later histories with
which sacrifice is connected, and note (a) how large a place sacrifice is
given; (<5) how much more frequently the priest-writers recount the
act of sacrifice than do the prophetic writers of Samuel and Kings ; (c)
the significance of this in connection with the greater in:iportance
attached to sacrifice in this later period.
11. Consider (a) the intimate connection, whether expressed or
implied, between all this detail of ceremonial and the idea of si/i ; {b)
the intimate connection between the idea of sin thus expressed and the
conception of God which had come to exist in this period ; {c) the
suggestive fact that, side by side with this objective expression of the
appreciation of sin and of longing for communion with God, there
should have been written so many of the psalms, which express sub-
jectively and spiritually the same idea.
§93. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will present
in the form of a summary the essential differences between the later
and preceding periods in reference to sacrifice, including {a) the
chief points of practice, and (b) the essential principles involved.
§ 9 4. Literature to be Consulted.
J. H. Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament (1863); Alfred Barry,
articles " Sacrilice," "Sin-Offering," "Meat-Offering," "Burnt-Offering," etc., in
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863); EWALD, The Antiquities of Israel {2,6. ed. 1S66,
transl. 1S76), pp. 23-11 1; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus (1867-72), Part I, pp.
I -416; Part ir, pp. 9, 217 ff., 290 ff.; KuENEN, j^tf/?>?0M of Israel (1869 f., transl.
1S74 f.). Vol. I, pp. 236 f.; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1SS3), pp.
261-323; Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" Savce,
"On Human Sacrifice among the Babylonians," Transactions of the Society of Biblical
/^^r/^f^fp/o^j/, Vol. IV (1876), pp. 25-31 ; E. Park, "On the Question of the Divine
Institution of Sacrifice," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1876, pp. 102-32 ; A. Cave, The Scriptural
Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement {iSjy) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
of Israel {\%']%'),Y^. 52-82; R. CoLi.iNS, "An Essay on Sacrifice," in The Pulpit Com-
mentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xiv ; Alfred Cave. "The Levitical Sacrifices
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE QI
Lileially Considered," in The Pulpil Connnentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xxxi;
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant [I'i^iS), see. Index, s.v." Sacrifice ; " Leighton,
The Jewish Altar (1SS6); A. Hovey, •' Shekkar and Leaven in Mosaic Offerings,"
Old Testament Student, 1886, pp. 11-16; H. CROSBY, "The Sacrifices," Old Testament
Student, 1886, pp. 249 f.; W. R. Smith, article "Sacrifice" in Encyclopedia Britannica
(1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp.
77-82; F. Gardiner, "On the Reason for the Selection of Certain Animals for Sacri-
fice," Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1888, pp. 146-50;
W. H. Ward, "On Some Babylonian Cylinders, Supposed to Represent Human
Sacrifices," Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, May, 1888, pp. xxviii-xxx ;
KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews (1888-92, transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice ;"
W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 213-340 ;
Robertson, Early Religion of Israel {iS8g), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" P. A.
Nordell, "Old Testament Word-Studies: 7. Sacrifice and Worship," Old Testatnent
Student, Vol. VIII (1889), pp. 257 ff.; W. M. Rodwell, The Mosaic Sacrifices in
Lev. I-III {\?,q6); ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. "Sacri-
fice;" Duff, Old Testametit Theology (1891-1900), see Indices to Vols. I and II;
Th. E. SchmaucK, "The Paschal Lamb," Lutheran Church Revieiv, 1891, pp.
127-63; C. J. Ball, "Glimpses of Babylonian Religion. 1: Human Sacrifices,"
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. XIV (1892), pp. 149-53;
MoNTEFiORE, Religion of the Aticient Hebrews (1892), see Index; H. B. Tristram,
"Sacrifices in Babylonia and Phoenicia," Sunday School Tif7tes, 1894, No. i ; H. C.
Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (lig^), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" A.
Harper, "The Prophets and Sacrifice," Expositor, 1894, pp. 241-53; T. K. Cheyne,
"The Date and Origin of the Ritual of the Scz.'pegoa.t,'' Zeitschrift ficr die alttesta-
mentliche Wissenschaft, 1895, PP- '53-6; Ph. J. Hoedemaker, "The Atonement
Money," The Thinker, 1895 ; A. A. Berle, " The Real Meaning of Semitic Sacrifice,"
Bibliotheca Sacra, 1895, PP- 342-6; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), see Index,
s. V. "Sacrifice;" Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (iSgb), see Index, s. v. "Sacri-
fice;" Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v.
"Offerings;" Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v.
"Sacrifices;" A. Fairbanks, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Homeric Poems,"
The Nezu World, June, 1898, pp. 335-48; A. F. Scot, Offering attd Sacrifice: An
Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development (1899); Trumbull, The
Covenant of Salt (1899), pp. 83-96; Boys-Smith, "Sacrifice in Ancient Religion
and in Christian Sacrament," Expository Times, December, 1899; January, 1900 ;
S. R. Driver, article "Offer, Offering, etc.," in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
(1900); Gast, " Idea of Sacrifice as Developed in the Old Testament," A'f/orwfo'
Church Review, January, 1900; Hermann Schultz, "The Significance of Sacrifice
in the Old Testament," A?nerican Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-31^;
Davis, "The Sin-Offering," Bible Student, February, 1900; Edward Day, The Social
Life of the Hebrews {iqoi),}pY>- 39-46; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monu-
ments (1895-1901), §§ 738, 1006 f., 1014 ; D. McKenzie, Exposition of Old Testament
Sacrifice (1901).
V. Thalhofer, ZJ/^ unblutigen Opfer des mosaischen Cultus (1848); Heng-
stenberg, Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift (1852) ; Riehm, " Ueber das Schuldopfer,"
Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1854, pp. 93-121; S. W. Rinck, "Ueber das Schuldop-
fer," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1855. pp. 369-81; A. Stof.ckt , Das Opfer, nach
92 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
seinetfi Wesen und seiner Geschichle (i860); Okhi.er, revised by von Orelli, article
"Opferkultus des A. '\ '^,'' KealEncyklopddie fitr protestantische Theol. und Kirche
(2d ed., 1883); Menant, " Les sacrifices sur les cylindres chaldeers," Gazette
archeologique, 1883, Nos. 7-9; Franz Delitzsch, article "Opfer" in Riehm's
Handworterbuch des biblischen A/terthut/is (1884); Wellhausen, Kes/e des arabischeti
Heidenthums [liSl), pp. IIO-28; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel {I'ii'] f.),Vol. 1,
pp. 492-8; Vol. 11, pp. 253-64; L. Glahn, "Soningen i den gammeltestamentlige
Offerkultus," Festskrift Borcks Colleg., pp. 281-3 (1889); Friedr. Nitzsch, Die Idee
und die Stufen des Opferkultus (1889) ; C. PlEPENBRiNG, " Histoire des lieux de culle
et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de I histoire des religions, 1891, pp. 1-60, 133-86;
Th. Naville, Les sacrifices levitiques et Vexpiation (1891); A. Schmoller, "Das
Wesen der Suhne in der alttestl. Opferthora," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1891, pp.
205-88; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestl. Religionsgeschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899),
pp. 138-45 ; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archaologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 203-
75; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archaologie (1894), PP- 431-64 ; P. Schanz, " Der Opfer-
begriff," Theol. Quartalschrift, 1894, pp. 179-222; G. A. SlEGRlST, L'ide'e du sacrifice
dansVA. 7^.(1894); Di-L-lua^-^, Handbuch der alttestl Theologie (i8gS), see Index, s. v.
"Opfer;" Stade, "Die Eiiempienhora.," Zeitschri/t/iir die alttestl. IVissenscha/t, 1895,
pp. 166-78 ; Kamphausen, Das Verhdltnis des Menschenopfers zur israelitischen Reli-
gion (1896) ; Marti, Geschichte der israelii. Religion (1897), pp. 103-7, 225-31 ; Levi,
La doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahmdnas (1898); G. DE Alviella, "La theorie du
sacrifice et les recherches de Robertson Smith," Revue de Vuniversite de Bruxelles,
April, 1898; M. Lambert, " Le mot '\^\" Journal asiatique, Vo]. XI (1898), pp.
326 f.; C. Schmidt, Die Entwickelung der alttestamentlichen Opferidee (1899); A.
LoisY, "Notes sur la Gen&se. VI: Le sacrifice d'Isaac : Gen. 22 : 1-19," Revtte de
P histoire et de la litterature religieuses, 1899, pp. 458-62; P. VOLZ, "Die Handauf-
legung beim Opfer," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, igoi ; Lefebure,
" Le sacrifice humain d'apres les rites de Busiris et d'Abydos," Sphinx, Vol. Ill,
No. 2 ; Chwolson, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, Vol. II, pp. 142-55.
§95. Supplementary Topics.
1. Study the principal references to sacrifice found in the Psalter,
e.g., Pss. 4:5; 20:3; 40:6; 50:5,8-14, 23; 5i:i6f., 19; 54:6;
56:12; 66:13, 15; 96 :8; 106:28, 37 f.; 107:22; 116:17; 118:27;
and consider {a) the attitude in general of these song-writers; {b) how
far they have spiritualized the subject; (c) the relationship between
the Levitical ceremonial and the spirit of the Psalms.
2. What did the sage have to say about sacrifice ? Cf. Job 1:5;
22:27; 42 : 8 f.; Prov. 7:14; 15:8; 21:27; Eccles. 9 : 2.
3. From an examination of the books of Maccabees — e. g., i Mace.
5 : 54; 7 :33; i i : 34 ; 12:11; 2 Mace, i : 8, 18, 23, 26, 31 ; 2 :9ff.;
3 : 3, 6,32 ; 4: 14 ; 6:7; 9 : 16 ; i 2 : 43 ; 13: 23; 14 : 31— determine
the spirit in which sacrifices were offered during the Maccabaean period,
and note any changes that present themselves.
4. Consider the subject of sacrifice as it appears in the epistle to
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 93
the Hebrews, e. g., Heb. 5 : 1-3 ; 7 : 26 f.; 9 : 6 ; 10 : 18, 26 ; 11:17;
13 : 10-16.
5. Consider the meaning and usage in the several documents of the
various Hebrew words for sacrifice, viz., n^T ; nnD7J ; tlbi}' ; D'^'-bllJ ;
Dm; pnp; n^^t^n; min ; nm3; Tics.t'nm'; ri)2T\T\; nsV^n;
T T It :'t t - T T t: 1 v v v • t : t ;
yb3.
Cf. S. R. Driver, article " Offer, Offering, Oblation," in Hastings' Dictionary
of the Bible.
6. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Egyptians,
Greeks, and Romans, and note points of similarity and difference as
compared with the usages of the Hebrews.
See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopedia Britannica.
7. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Assyrians,
the Arabs, and the Canaanites, and note points of similarity and dif-
ference as compared with the usages of the Hebrews.
See especially Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual,"
Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria {Index, s. v. "Sacrifice "); W. R. Smith, Religion of the Scfnites; L. W.
King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.; A. H. Sayce, Babylotiians and
Assyrians, pp. 245-9.
8. Consider the question of the origin of sacrifice.
See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopcedia Britannica ; A. F. Scot,
Offering and Sacrifice: An Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development.
9. Prepare a definition of sacrifice which may be considered biblical.
10. Consider the teachings inculcated by sacrifice, and whether these
teachings {a) constituted the purpose and end of the Jewish service,
or {b) pointed to something beyond and above.
11. ("onsider the relation of sacrifice, as it is represented in the
Old Testament, to the Christ of the New Testament.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS, CONSIDERED COMPARA-
TIVELY.
§ 96. The Feasts of Early Times, that is, as described in {a) the
Covenant Code; (^) the historical material of J and E; (c) the pre-
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and (d) the
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see §59, note i).'
1. The Feast of Unleavened Bread.^
Exod. 34 : 18 ; 23 : 15 ; 13:3-10.
2. The Feast of Weeks.
Exod. 34 : 22 ; 23 : i6a.
3. The Feast of Tabernacles.
Exod. 34:22<^,- 23:16^; i Kings 8:2, 65 f.; 12:32; Judg. 9:27;
21 : 19 ff.
4. There were three feasts at which attendance was required by
law.
Exod. 34 : 23 f.; 23 : 14-17 ; i Kings 9:25; i Sam. i : 3.
5. The feasts were connected with agriculture.
Exod. 23: 15 f.; 34:22 ; Judg. 21 . 19 ff.
6. The feasts were always of a joyous and social character.
Exod. 32 : 5 f.; Judg. 21 : 19 ff.; i Sam. i : 3, 7, 13 ff.
7. A feast often involved a pilgrimage to some shrine.
Exod. 10:9; Judg. II : 40 (?) ; i Sam. i : 3, 7 ; 2:19.
8. The Passover.
Exod. 34 : 25; 12:21-27.
9. The Feast of the New Moon.
Hos. 5:7(?); iSam. 2o:5f.; 18 : 24 ff.; 2 Kings 4 : 23.
10. Special feasts were held, e.g.: the Feast of Sheep-Shearing;
the Feast of Jephthah's Daughter.
I Sam. 25:2; 2 Sam. 13:23; Judg. 1 1 : 40.
11. Idolatrous feasts.
Exod. 32 : 5 ; i Kings 1 2 : 32 f.; 2 Kings 10 : 20.
12. Attitude of the early prophets toward the feasts.
Amos 5:21; 8:10; Hos. 2:11; S:7(?); 9:5; 12:9; Isa. i : 1 3 f.
"The following references are from J : Exod. 34 : 18-25 ; 12:21-27; 13:3-10;
10 : 9 ; the following are from E : Exod. 23 : 10-17 ; 32 : 5.
' References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code.
94
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 95
§97. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Unleavened Bread,
(a) the duration ; {i>) the date (to what part of our year did Abib cor
respond?); (c) the nature and significance of " unleavened breai;" (d)
the meaning of the phrase, "none shall appear before me empty;" (e)
the association of this feast with the exodus from Egypt, and the point
of connection ; (/) the seeming identification of two entirely different
things, viz., the Passover (see below) and the Feast of Unleavened
Bread.
2. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Weeks, (a) other
names for the same feast, viz., Harvest, First-Fruits (Pentecost, c/. Acts
2:1; 20 : 16; I Cor. 16 : 8) ; {d) the duration (cf. Deut. 16 : 9-12) ; (c)
the date ; (d) the connection of this feast with the close of the grain
harvest; {e) the fact that there is no historical mention in the Old
Testament of its observance (but c/. 2 Mace. 12:32 and the New
Testament passages indicated above).
3. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles, {a) other
names, viz.. Booths (Deut. 16:13), Ingathering; (b) the duration {cf.
Deut. 16 : 13-15) ; {c) the date, late in the autumn ; (^) the connection
of this feast with the completion of the harvest of fruit, oil, and wine;
((?) the lack of any specific regulations in the earlier legislation ; (/)
the fact that historical mention is made of only this feast among the
three great feasts (i Sam. i : i ff.; i Kings 12:32; 6:38); {£) the
fact that this feast seems to have had its origin among the Canaan-
ites (Judg. 9 : 27); {Ji) the important religious significance involved in
the idea that the deity was the lord of the land and the dispenser of
its fruits.
4. Consider, in reference to these meetings for festal purposes, {a)
the number; {f) the distribution of these throughout the year; {c) the
class of persons who were expected to be present; {d) the meaning of
the phrase " appear before the Lord ; " {e) the guarantee given of safety
upon the journeys involved in attending the feasts; (/) the custom in
Solomon's times. Are any places mentioned as the seats of a festival ?
5. To what extent were these feasts of an agricultural character, that
is, connected with agricultural pursuits, e. g., harvest, ingathering of
fruit, etc.? or how far were they solar feasts, that is, connected with
certain seasons of the year? What was the usual time for harvest in
Palestine? When did the end of the Jewish year come, and with what
feast was it connected ? Consider the connection of the feast at
Shiloh with the vineyards near at hand. What particular characteristics
96 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
are associated with agricultural as distinguished from historical feasts ?
Would the climate, for example, to some extent determine the date ?
Would the harvest feast take place at the same time in localities in
which there was a difference of two or three weeks in the period of the
ripening of grain ? What kind of feasts would be expected among
people leading a pastoral life, as distinguished from an agricultural
life? If these feasts are of agricultural origin, could Israel have
observed them before becoming an agricultural people, that is, before
settling in Canaan ?
6. Are not harvest and vintage feasts generally occasions for joy?
Are not eating and drinking and dancing the usual accompaniments
of a feast ? How far did the idea that the deity was sharing in the
festivities contribute to the joyousness of the occasion ? Did not the
eating, etc., contribute to this end ? Was not the very purpose a
joyous one? Was there yet any conception of God or sin such as
would interfere with this interpretation ? Was there, at this time, any
feeling of the need of an atonement?
7. (i) Does a man ordinarily feast by himself ? (2) If the social
element is important, would it be necessary to have places at which
many might conveniently come together ? Would this not necessarily
involve a pilgrimage? (3) Consider the use of sacred places, like
Shiloh, for such meetings. (4) What would be the social and politi-
cal influence of such pilgrimages?
8. Consider (i) whether the Passover, although forming a part of
the Feast of Unleavened Bread, is not treated independently of that
feast; (2) whether, in its very nature, it is not pastoral (that is, of
nomadic origin), rather than agricultural ; (3) the meaning of the name
"Passover;"^ (4) the time of year in which it was observed; (5) the
evidence in Exod. 7:16; 10 : 24, that the Hebrews observed a spring
festival with offerings from their flocks before the days of Moses ; (6)
the original significance of the Passover, viz., a sacrificial meal in
which those who partook united themselves more closely and came
into closer communion with their God — all this, for greater security;
(7) the connection of this very early festival at a later time {a) with the
historical event of the exodus, and {b) with the Feast of Tabernacles.
^Cf. article "Passover" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; J. Muller, Kri-
tischer Versuch iiber den Ursprung des Pesach-Mazzothfestes ; NoWACK, Hebtiiische
Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 147 ff., 172 ff.; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 470 ff.;
RiEUEL, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX, pp. 319-32;
Staue, ibid., pp. 333-7; C. II. Toy, "The Meaning of nOB," Journal of Biblical
Literature, Vol. XVI, pp. 178 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 97
9. Is the Feast of the New Moon agricultural, or rather astronomi-
cal ? Is it recognized in the earlier legislation ? Consider (i) its wide
observance among Semitic peoples;" (2) its association with ancient
family sacrifices ; (3) its connection with the sabbath; (4) its possible
use by prophets as a time for religious assembly; (5) its mention by
the prophets (see below); (6) its great antiquity.
10. Consider the Feast of Sheep- Shearing: (i) Was not this, like
the Feast of the New Moon, a pastoral rather than an agricultural
feast ? (2) Was it recognized in legislation ? (3) Could it be observed
elsewhere than in a cattle-producing portion of the country? (4)
How late in Israel's history does it appear to have come down ? (5)
Did it ever take on any special religious significance? (6) What, in
general, did it celebrate ? Consider the mourning-feast in connec-
tion with the devotion of Jephthah's daughter to a life of perpetual
virginity, and compare the similar cases in other history. ^
11. Notice how special feasts are celebrated in addition to those
which became authorized, as in the case of (i) Aaron and the calf, (2)
Jeroboam at Bethel, (3) Jehu in honor of Baal.
12. Consider now the place occupied in the religious life by these
feasts, and their influence : (i) To what extent did the feasts consti-
tute the religion of the people? (2) How far would men postpone
religious observances until the time of a feast ? (3) How much store
did the ordinary Israelite set by the feasts ? Would the threat of
their extinction disturb him ? (4) In what way would such feasts
serve to develop national feeling ? to provide an education for the
people? to encourage the spirit of unity? (5) To what extent would
these assemblies serve to increase facilities for business transactions ?
(6) Is there any evidence that, in this period, the people as a whole
{cf. later times) engaged in a great feast or festival ? Or is it rather the
custom of families and households? (7) What did the prophet say
of the religious value of the feasts ? To what did he make objection ?
(a) the lack of heart manifested ? {b) or the fact that they were held
in honor of other gods ? or (c) the fact that the people thought the
holding of these feasts to constitute the whole of religion, and
neglected all that seemed pure and good in a religious life ?
"" Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, see Index, s. v.
Moon," " Zag-muk," "Festivals," etc.; I. Abrahams, article "New Moon" in
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. See also Hommel, Aufsdtze tind Abhandliengen
(1900), pp. 149-65.
scy. GOLDZIHER, Mythology among the Hebrews, pp. 96 ff., 104; Stade. 6^^-
schichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, p. 68 ; G. F. MoORE, A Critical and Exegeticat
Commentary on Judges, pp. 304 f.
gS PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 98. Constructive Work. — Prepare a tabular statement which will
present in systematic form the facts concerning the feasts of the earlier
period, as follows: (i) name, (2) origin, (3) date, (4) duration, (5)
characteristic ritual, (6) meaning of name, (7) religious significance.
§ 99. Feasts of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described {a) in
the laws of Deuteronomy, {b) in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings, and {c) by the prophets of the Deutero-
nomic period.*
1. Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread are now combined.
Deut. 16 : 1-8,
2. Feast of Weeks.
Deut. 16 : 9-12.
3. Feast of Tabernacles.
Deut. 16 : 13-15 ; 31 : 10 f.
4. All feasts must be held at the one central sanctuary.
Deut. 16 : 5-7, II, 16 ; 31:11.
5. The law still requires attendance at three feasts.
Deut. 16 : 16 f .
6. Feasts are still occasions of joy.
Deut. 12 : 8 ; 14 : 26 ; 16 : 11, 14 f .; 24 : 1 1 ; Isa. 9 : 3.
7. Feasts are still on an agricultural basis.
Deut. 16 : 9, 13 ; cf. 16 : i.
8. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts.
Nah. I : 1 5 ; Jer. 51 : 39 ; Lam. 1:4, 15; 2 : 6 f ., 22.
9. Josiah's Passover.
2 Kings 23 : 21-23.
§ 100. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Concerning the Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread,
consider (i) that the two feasts, distinct in origin, are now observed
together; (2) the association of the Passover with the exodus; (3) the
connection of this rite with that of the firstlings (Deut. 15 : 19 ff.); (4)
the duration ; (5) the lack of any designation of the day of the month ;
(6) the significance of the unleavened bread, and its historical connec-
tion ; (7) the treatment of any remaining flesh; (8) the place at which
this feast shall be observed; (9) the change in ritual and conception
which takes place in the case of the Passover feast, and the reason for
this; (10) the circumstances leading to the coalescence of the two
feasts.
* References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book
of Deuteronomy.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 99
2. Concerning the Feast of Weeks, notice (i) that the time is fixed
in connection with that of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, viz., seven
weeks, the fiftieth day; (2) the duration ; (3) the persons who are to be
invited to the feast; (4) the place; (5) the joyous character; (6) the
historical reminiscence suggested.
3. Concerning the Feast of Tabernacles, consider (i) the name and
its origin {cf. i Sam. i : 8); (2) the time (no particular day designated);
(3) the persons who are to participate; (4) the duration ; (5) the place;
(6) the motive ; (7) the joyous character.
4. Consider the meaning of the constantly recurring phrase, " in the
place which Jehovah thy God shall choose to cause his name to dwell
there;" is it (i) a place, at one time in one locality, at another time in
another locality, and consequently, in the course of time, are several
places thus designated ? Or (2) is it one central place for all time,
viz., Jerusalem ? (3) Consider some of the consequences which would
follow such centralization ; e. g.: (a) Would the feast thus transferred
to Jerusalem continue its agricultural or pastoral character ? (fi) If a
particular day is fixed, could the harvest feast any longer be connected
with the harvest, which, on account of difference of climate, occurred
at widely separated dates ? (e) Would the historical be likely to sup-
plant the natural interpretation of the feast ? (d) Would the original
ritual also lose its significance ? (e) Could the firstlings actually be
taken to Jerusalem to be sacrificed ? (/) Could the head of a family
take the entire family and dependents to Jerusalem ? (g) Would he
sell his own animal or grain, and then go to Jerusalem and buy (Deut.
14 : 24-26)? Would this affect commerce? (/i) Could a man, in this
case, arrange a sacrificial meal in Jerusalem and have his family and
friends with him, as in the village or country? (/) Would not this lead
to an entire change in the feeling connected with the observance of
the feast ? Would the observance become more general and less
individual, more formal and serious, and less joyous ?
5. Although the law still required attendance at these feasts, is it
possible to suppose that any considerable proportion of the people
could leave their homes and their work, and go to Jerusalem three
times in a year? Would this have the effect of depriving these people
of religious privileges?
6. Although the feasts are represented as still continuing their
joyous character, could the old feeling actually have existed under the
new regime, cut off as the worshiper was from friends and familv, lost
as he must have been in the great crowds gathering at Jerusalem ?
100 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
7. Although feasts are still nominally on • an agricultural basis
(cf. the names, the method of determining the date, etc.), will it be
possible for the agricultural character to be long maintained in view
of (i) the detachment of the feasts from the exact season (one time
being fixed for the entire country, although the harvest took place at
different dates on account of climate); (2) their association with his-
torical events and the emphasis thus placed on the idea of com-
memoration ; (3) the necessary sale of one's own effects, and the
purchase of others for the purpose of the feast ?
8. Upon the supposition that the prophets themselves had to do
with the formulation of the policy presented in Deuteronomy, and in
view of the opinions expressed by Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, what may
we understand to have been their general position on the subject of
these feasts and festivals ? Did they represent the feasts as being an
essential element in the religious life ? Did they wish to see them
modified in their character ? Was it for this reason that they joined
with the priests in those reforms, recorded in Deuteronomy, which in
the end largely revolutionized the whole system ? Did they think that
the people were placing a false value upon these feasts in comparison
with a pure and simple life?
9. Upon the acceptance of the book of Deuteronomy by Josiah and
his people in 621 B. C, (i) what attitude was taken by the king
toward the various corrupt forms of worship which existed at that time
(f/. Deut. 23 : 4-20) ? (2) What was the command issued as to the
observance of the Passover ? Does this mean that it had fallen into
disuse ? If so, how is such disuse to be explained ? (3) What was the
character of the Passover observed on this occasion ?
§ 10 1. Constructive Work. — Write a statement covering three points :
(i) the feasts which now no longer seerii to be observed, and the rea-
sons ; (2) the modifications which have come to exist in the feasts
transmitted from the earlier period, and an explanation of these
modifications; (3) the progress, if any, which has been made in the
adaptation of the ceremonial of worship (so far as it concerned feasts)
to the religious life ; or, to use the form of a question, was Israel in a
better or worse position for the cultivation of the religious life, with
the changes which had now come about ?
§102. Constructive Work. — From Ezek. 36:38; 45:17. 18-21,
22-25 j 46 : I, 3, 6 ff., 9, consider (i) whether, in general, Ezekiel has
much to say upon the subject. Is this because his development lies
along other lines, or because the development has already reached its
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 10 1
highest point? (2) Is there evidence (if so, what?) that the Deutero-
nomic system of feasts is accepted ? (3) In what cases are definite
dates now given, in which, hitherto, the time has been left undesig-
nated ? (4) What, now, is the relation of the Feast of the Passover to
that of Unleavened Bread ? (5) Present the evidence, if any is to be
found, that the feasts have now lost their joyous character. (6) Is the
centralization of worship involved in the arrangements which Ezekiel
proposes ?
§ 103. The Feasts in the Later Period, that is, as described (a) in the
laws of the Levitical code, {/>) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the
priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.'
1. Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread.
Lev. 23 : 4-8 ; Numb. 28 : 16-25 ; 9 : 1-14 ; Exod. 12 : 1-20, 43-50 ; 2
Chron, 8:13; 30:13-27; 35:1-19; Ezra 6: 19-22.
2. Feast of Weeks.
Lev. 23 : 15-21 ; Numb. 28 : 26-31 ; 2 Chron. 8:13.
3. Feast of Tabernacles.
Lev. 23:34-36, 39-44; Numb. 29:12-38; 2 Chron. 5:3!?.; 7:8-10;
8: 13; Ezra 3:4; Neb. 8: 13-18.
4. Feast of the New Moon.
Numb. 28: 11-15; I Chron. 23 :3i ; 2 Chron, 8:13; 31 : 3; Ezra 3:5;
Neh. 10:33.
5. Feast of Trumpets.
Lev. 23 : 23-25 ; Numb. 29 : 1-6 ; 10 : 10.
6. Definite dates are fixed.
Lev. 23 : 5, 6, 23, 27, 34, 39 ; Numb., chaps. 28, 29; Esther 9:21.
7. Agricultural significance is wholly lost.
Lev. 23 : 42 f .
8. Celebration of feasts at Jerusalem is taken for granted.
Zech. 14 : 16-19 ; i Chron. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chron. 35 : 1-19.
9. Sacrifices are multiplied in connection with feasts.
Numb., chap. 29 ; 15 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 2:4; 30 : 24 ; 35 : 7-9.
10. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts.
Zech. 14 : 16-19; Joel 1:14; 2:15.
11. Thought of sin predominant in feasts.
Lev. 23:19; chap. 16; Numb. 28:15, 22, 30; 29:5. ". 16. ^9> 22, 25,
28, 31, 34, 38 ; Exod. 30 : 10.
12. Day of Atonement.
Lev. 23: 27-32 ; chap. 16 ; Numb. 29 : 7-1 1 ; Exod. 30: 10.
7 References in bold-face type are froni the Levitical code of laws.
102 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
13. Feast of Purim.
Esther 8:17; 9 : 15-32.
§ 104. Questions and Suggestions.
1. In the later regulations and references relating to the Feast of
\\\^ Passover and Unleavetied Bread, note (i) the new phrases, "set
feasts," "holy convocations," "appointed seasons;" (2) the exactness
with which the date is fixed; (3) the absence of "servile work ;" (4)
the burnt-offering, and the meal-offering prescribed, the sin-offering
which accompanies, and all this beside the continual burnt-offering;
(5) that in time {cf. Exod. 12 : 1-20) the opinion comes to prevail that
the Passover had been established before the exodus "in order that
Jehovah might spare the firstborn of Israel, not because he had spared
them;" (6) the restrictions placed upon participation in the Passover
(Exod. 12:43-50); (7) the observance according to Chronicles (2
Chron. 30:13-27) of the Feast of Unleavened Bread in Hezekiah's
times; (8) Josiah's Passover (2 Chron. 35: 1-19); (9) Ezra's Passover;
(10) the place of all these observances; (11) their general character;
(12) that the offerings have the nature of fixed dues, rather than of
voluntary gifts.
2. In the references to the Feast of Weeks, note (i) that the same
general characteristics appear as in the case of the Feast of Unleavened
Bread (see above) ; (2) that after the fall of Jerusalem it becomes a
feast commemorating the giving of the law on Sinai, and is no longer
considered a nature feast.
3. In the references to the Feast of Tabernacles, note (i) the same
points as were considered above in the case of the preceding feasts,
viz., fixing of date, multiplication of various kinds of offerings for each
day, no servile work, etc.; (2) the chronicler's account of Solomon's
observance of this feast in connection with the bringing up of the ark
(2 Chron. 5:3ff.); (3) Solomon's dedication of the temple in con-
nection with this same feast (2 Chron. 7 : 8-10); (4) the observance in
connection with the beginning of the second temple (Ezra 3:4); (5)
the dwelling in booths in Ezra's time (Neh. 8: 13-18).
4. The system of feasts now includes more definitely the Feast of
the New Moon, concerning which it may be noted, (i) that a regular
ceremonial is instituted; (2) that frequent mention is made of it in
connection with the sabbath. Consider (3) what has led to this larger
emphasis.
5. Consider, in the case of the Feast of Tnnnpets, (1) its connec-
tion with the sabbatical system;® (2) the provisions given for its
^See chap. ix.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO3
observance ; (3) the general provision for the blowing of trumpets
with various feasts.
6. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that now the
exact day of the month is prescribed ; (2) the significance of this fact,
as compared with the looser designations of earlier regulations.
7. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that the agri-
cultural significance has been lost ; (2) the fact that, even in the case
of the Feast of Tabernacles (the last of all to receive this treatment),
a historical meaning has been suggested and adopted; (3) the signifi-
cance of these facts as seen in the routine of the ceremonial and the
general character of the feasts.
8. Consider (i) whether, although no explicit statement occurs in
the legislative material covering the point, it is not everywhere taken
for granted that all feasts shall be celebrated at one place, viz., Jerusa-
lem ; and (2) whether this is not the understanding of the prophets
and historians of the period.
9. Consider, in the case of all the feasts, (i) whether the largest
emphasis is not now placed upon the sacrifice; (2) whether, in fact,
with the great multiplication of sacrifices, everything else is not prac-
tically ignored; (3) the influence of this upon the people; (4) the
explanation of it.
10. What appears to have been the attitude of the later prophets
toward these feasts? Is there any longer indifference, lack of appre-
ciation, or hostility? Why has this change of attitude come about?
Does Judaism (Israel's religion after the exile) adopt an entirely new
policy in reference to feasts, as compared with prophetism (Israel's
religion before the exile)? Were the prophets of this period really
priests, and, in consequence, in sympathy with everything priestly ?
Had prophecy now died ?
11. Is it a fact that the idea of sin is now everywhere promi-
nent ? that, indeed, this idea is the controlling idea? that, therefore,
confession instead of rejoicing is the order of the day ? If this is the
fact, how is it to be explained ?
12. Concerning the Day of Atonement, one may undertake to
answer the following questions: (i) Was it observed in the early or
middle period, or did its observance arise only in the later period?
(2) Is there any connection between it and Ezekiel's days of atonement
(45:18-20)? (3) Or with the days of fasting held in commemoration
of national calamities mentioned in Zech. 7 : 35 ; 8 : 19 ? (4) Or with
the day of fasting (the twenty-fourth day of the month) mentioned in
104 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Neh. 9:1? (5) What was the fundamental idea in this observance?
Was propitiation thought of as being made in behalf of the individual or of
the nation? Were the sanctuary and the land also included ? (6) What
evidence does the ritual furnish as to the fundamental idea ? (7) What
is the meaning of the phrases "sabbath of solemn rest," "afflict your
souls" (Lev. i6: 31)? (8) What conception of God gave rise to the
idea of sin involved in this institution ?
13. In the case of the Feast of Purim consider (i) its origin and
occasion; (2) its date; (3) the question of its connection (a) with a
Persian feast, {B) with a Babylonian feast ; (4) the meaning of the
name ; (5) the method of observance.^
§ 105. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show
the more important differences in the observance of the feasts between
the usage of the middle period and that of the later period.
§ 106. Literature to Be Consulted.
A, P. Stanley, Lectures on the Histo?y of the Jewish Church, Vol. I, Appendix
xxi — The Samaritan Passover (1862); S. Clark, article "Passover," Smith's Dic-
tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893) ; Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed.
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 348-80; SCHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869,
5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892), Vol. I, pp. 359-69; II, 87-100, 402 ff.; KuENEN, Religion
of Israel {\%tq f., transl. 1874), Vol. I, pp. 242-5, 262-7 ; H, PP- 28-30, 89-94, 253 U
271-3; III, pp. 148-53; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1873, transl. 1883),
§§140, 141, 144-6, 150, 153-6; Edersheim, The Temple: Its Ministry and Services
(1874), pp. 144-300; W.R.Smith, article "Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread,"
Encyclopcedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel
(1878, transl. 1885), pp. 83-120; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish
Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed.), pp. 240, 269 ; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel (ist ed.
1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Feasts;" Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus
the Messiah (ist ed. 1883), see Index, s. v. "Dedication," "Feasts," "Passover," etc.;
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses
Concerning the Pentateuch (1885); E. ScHURER, History of the Jewish People in the
Time of cyzrw/(i885, transl. 1890), passim; Piepenbring, Theology of the Old Tes-
tament (1886, transl. 1893), see Index, s. v. "Feast," " Passover," etc.; Sayce, Reli-
gion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 64-9; Doughty,
Travels in Arabia Deserta,Yo\. I (1888), pp. 50-84, 190-214; W. R. Sunn, Reli-
gion of the Semites (isted. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 252-8; RoB^KTSO-a, Early Religion
of Israel {iSSg), pp. 363, 372, 378, 385, 397, 401; W. St. Chad Boscawen, "The
9 Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 686 ff.;
ZlMMERN, Zeitschrift fit r die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI, pp. 157-69; De
Lagarde, Purim — Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Religion; Sayce, Proceedings of
the Society of Biblical Arc hcEology, Vol. XIX, pp. 280 ; Jensen, Wiener Zeitschrift fiir
die Kunde des Morgenlandes,Vo\. VI, p. 70; C. II. Toy, "Esther as a Babylonian
Goddess," iW'w World, Vol. VI, pp. 130-45 ; Alexander Kohut, American Journal
of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV, pp. 192 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO5
Babylonian and Jewish Festivals," Babylonian and Oriental Record, Vol IV ( 1890), pp.
34-8 ; C. J. Ball, article "Festivals," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893);
H. C. Trumbull, Tlie Blood Covejtatit {i'i()2>)t see Index, s. v. "Feasting;" idem.
Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), see Index, s. v. "Feast;" idem. The Threshold
Covenant {iSg6), pp. 203-12, 266; H. B, Tristram, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands,
(1894), pp. 69-86; Sayce, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol.
XIX (1897), pp. 280 f.; E. E, Harding, article "Feasts and Fasts," Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible (1898); S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article "Day of
Atonement," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); A. Kohut, "The Talmudic
Records of the Persian and Babylonian Festivals Critically Illustrated," American
Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV (1898), pp. 182-94 {cf. Revue
des etudes j'uives, Vol. XXIV, pp. 256-71); Morris Jastrow ,]r.. Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. "Festivals;" C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of
TXC^,'' Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVI (1898), pp. 178 f.; I. Benzinger
AND T. K. Cheyne, article " Day of Atonement," ^«0'f/o/^?a'2a Biblica (iSgg); W.
W. Fowler, 77^,? Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic {\%gg); Warren,
"Dates on Which Paschal Full Moons Occur," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly
Statement, October, 1900; Fairbanks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical
Review, November, 1900; Frazer, "The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," ^or^-
nightly Review, October and November, 1900; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol.
II (1900), see Index, s. v. "Feasts;" I. Abrahams, article "Nevi^ Moon," Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible (1900); I. Benzinger, article "Feasts," Encyclopedia Biblica
(1901); Willis, The Worship of the Old Covenant, pp. 190-214; Watson, Catrtbridge
Co?npanion to the Bible, pp. 411-17 ; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. II,
pp. 648 f. ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), see Indtx,
s. V. " Feasts."
J. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686), III, Diss, viii; J.
Meyer, De festis Hebraeorum (1724); F. C. Baur, "Ueber die urspriingliche Bedeu-
tung des Passahfestes und des Beschneidungsritus," Tiibinger Zeitschrift, 1832, I,
40-124; idem, " Der hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des mosaischen Cultus,"
ibid., 1832, III, 123-92 ; Vatke, Die Religion des Alien Testamentes (1835), Vol. I, pp.
492-8 ; J. F. L. George, Die dlteren jiidischen Feste{\'i},^); H. Ewald, in Gbttingischer
Gelehrter Anzeiger, 1835, pp. 2025 f.; 1836, pp. 678 f.; H. Ewald, in fahrbiicher
der biblischen IVissenschaft, Vol. IV, pp. 131 f.; VIII, p. 223; IX, pp. 257 f.; F. HiTZiG,
Ostern und PJingsten (1837); BAhk, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. II,
pp. 664 ff.; H. Ewald, " De feriarum hebraearum origine et ratione," Zeitschrift fiir
die Kunde des Morgenlandes,Yo\. HI (1840), pp. 410-41; H. Hupfeld, De primi-
tiva et vera festorum apud Hebraeos ratione ex legum Mosaicarum eruenda (1851-65);
Redslob, Die biblischen Angaben iiber Stiftung und Grund der Passahfeier {i^^d);
W. ScHULTZ, "Die innere Bedeutung der alttestamentlichen Yesie," Deutsche Zeit-
schrift fiir christliche Wissenschaft utid christliches Leben, 1857, pp. 23-30; JoH.
Bachmann, Die Festgesetze des Pentateuch aufs neue kritisch untersucht (1858);
Dillmann, article "P'este," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon (1869); H. Oort, "De groote
Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\.X {i^-]b), pp. 142-65; D. Hoffmann, in
Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. i ff. ; idem, Abhandlungen iiber die Pentateuch-
Gesetze,Yo\.l (1878); idem, in Magazin fir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1879, PP-
99 ff. ; Franz DelitzscH, in Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft u>i,t kirchliches
Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83,621 ff. ; Kuenen, in Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\.
I06 PRIESTLY ELEMENT JN THE OLD TESTAMENT
XVII (1883), pp. 207-12; '^ijl.l.-e.^, Krieisc/ier Versuck iiber den Ursprung des Pesach-
Mazzothfestcs (1883); Adler, " Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel, sein Ursprung und
seine Bedeutung," Z^ilschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,'Wo\. Ill (1883)
pp. 178-85 ; Orelli, articles " Passah," "Pfingstfest," Rcalencyklopddie fiir protestan-
tische Theologie imd Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Franz Delitzsch, article "Passah,'
Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Riehm, article " Feste,'
Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Oreli.i, article "Ver-
sohnungstag," Rcalencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (7.^ ed. 1885);
De Lagarde, " Purim ; ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte," Mittheilungen, Vol. II
(1887), pp. 378 £f.; IV, p. 147, note i; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums
{—Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 1887), pp. 75-98; B. SThVi-E, Geschichte des
Volkes Israel (1887 f.), Vol. I, pp. 497-503; II, pp. 182, 258-60; I. Benzinger, " Das
Gesetz iiber den grossen Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fiir die alitestatnent'
liche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX (1889), pp. 65-88; RiEHM, Alitesiatnetitliche Theologie
(1889), pp. 121-3; H. ZiMMERN, "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge des Purimfestes,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft^ 1 891, pp. 157-69; Smend, Lehrbuch
der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v.
"Feste;" W. NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdoiogie (1894), Vol. II, pp.
138-203; I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdoiogie (1894), pp. 464-78; Eerdmans,
"Der Ursprung der Ceremonien des Hosein-Festes," Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,
Vol. IX (1894), pp. 290 f . ; S. Karppe, "Melanges de critique biblique et d'assyrio-
logie," Revue semitique. Vol. II (1894), pp. 146-51 ; Dillmann, Alttestamentliche
Theologie (1895), see Index, f. v. "Feste," "Passah;" K. Marti, Geschichte der
israelitischen Religion (1897), see /waV.af, j. z/. " Feste," " Pesach," "Laubhiittenfest."
etc.; F. Buhl, "Gottesdienstliche Zeiten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie fiir
protestantische Theologie und Kirche (1899); Schaefer, Das Passah- Alazzoth Fest
(1900); Erbt, Purimsage in der Bibel {igoo); MOSSA, "Bedeutung des Passahfestes,"
Saat auf Hoffnung, 1900, No. 2; RiEDEL, "Miscellen 5. 6.: HCS, HdlUn ni523,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX (1900), pp. 319-32; B.
Stade, "Nachwort zu Lie. W. Riedel's 5. Miscelle: HOD," ibid., pp. 333-7; C.
Brockelmann, " Das Neujahrsfest der Jezidis," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen-
Idndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. LV (1901), pp. 388 ff.
§107. Supplementary Topics.
1. Consider the few references to the celebration of feasts and feast
days in the Psalter, viz., Pss. 4:7; 81:3; and note especially the
so-called Psalms of Ascents, viz., 120-134, and their use in worship.'"
2. Put together the references to feasts in the books of Maccabees,
viz.: I Mace, i : 39, 45 ; 4 : 52-59 ; 7 : 49 ; 10 : 34 ; 13 : 50-52 ; 2 Mace.
I : 9, 18; 2 :9, 16; 6:6f.; 7 142; 8 : 33 ; 10 : 5-8 ; 12 : 31 f.; 15 : 36 ;
and make such a stateme-nt as the material thus examined will warrant.
3. Consider the principal references to feasts in the New Testa-
ment, viz.: Matt. 26:2, 5, 17 ff.; 27:15; Mark 14: if., 12, 14, 16;
'°67. Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms — A New English Translation, p.
210; KiRKPATRiCK, The Psalms, Books //,///(" Cambridge Bible"), p. xxv ; Mur-
ray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, pp. 292-5 ; Perowne, Book of Psalms, Vol. I,
pp. 86f.; Smith, "The Songs of the Ascent," Expository Times, November, 1900.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 10/
15:6; Luke 2:4if.; 22:1-15; 23:17; John 2:13, 23; 4:45;
5:1; 6:4; 7:2-14,37; 10:22; ii:55f.; 12:1,12,20; 13:1,29;
18 : 2S, 39 ; 19:14; I Cor. 5:7; Heb. 11:28.
4. Take up for critical study the principal Hebrew words used to
designate the feasts, viz.: tiCS , jn, niyT^U jm , 'H^llpn jH ; jH
-f cb^n ; trozri :" ; inn ; Tr\-i-2 T d^^ib ; etc.
5. Compare, in a very general way, the usage concerning feasts
among the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points
of similarity and difference."
6. Consider the place of feasts among the Assyrians, noticing
especially the great number of them and the many points of similarity
existing between the usages of Assyrian feasts and those of Hebrew
feasts, e. g., the pervading spirit of joyousness, the agricultural con-
nection of some of them, the similarity between the feast of Zag-
muk and the Jewish New Year's festival, and the Babylonian origin of
the Feast of Purim.'^
7. Study the Hebrew feasts in their relation to (a) the Arabic feasts
or pilgrimages, (d) the Canaanite agricultural feasts.'^
8. Consider comparatively the three great factors entering into
and controlling the origin and development of feasts, viz., the element
involved in a nomadic or pastoral life, that in an agricultural life, and
that in a city life.
9. Consider (i) the conception of God which had come to be
supreme in Israel after the exile, viz., holiness; (2) the relation of
this conception to the teaching concerning sin prevalent in the same
period ; and (3) the influences of these conceptions upon the devel-
opment of the feast system.
" See W. W. Fowler, T/ie Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic; Fair-
banks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical Review, '^o\emhtr, 1900 ; Frazer,
•'The Saturnalia and Kindred YesiwaXs,'' Fortnightly Review, Ociohcr and Novem-
ber, 1900 ; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v.
"Festivals."
"Cyi especially Morris Jastrow, Jr., A'f//o-/i7« of Babylonia and Assyria, i&t
Index, s. v. "Festivals."
'3 See Snouck Hurgronje, Het Mekkaansche Fest; Doughty, Traveh in Arabia
Deserta; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums ; and other literature cited
in § 106.
CHAPTER IX.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH AND KINDRED
INSTITUTIONS, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY.
§ 1 08. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Early Period,
/. e., as described in {a) the Covenant Code, {b) the historical material
of J and E, [c) the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Sanauel, and
Kings, and {d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59,
note i).'
1. The law of the sabbath. '^
Exod. 34 : 21 ; 20 : 8-11 ; 23 : 12.
2. Customs connected with the sabbath.
2 Kings 4:23; II : 5, 7, 9.
3. Attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath.
Amos 8:5; Hos. 2:11; Isa. 1:13.
4. The law of the sabbatical year.
Exod. 23 : 10 f.; 21:2-11.
§ 109. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider, in examining the statements made concerning the
sabbath, (i) why the sabbath is the only religious institution men-
tioned in the decalogue ; (2) the first word, remember, and compare
the first word in Deut. 5:12, observe. (3) Was either of these in any
sense a warning equivalent to "take care," "be on the lookout for" ?
(4) What is the logical relation of the fourth commandment to the
third, second, and first? Does this consist in its having originally
had to do with the deity, as do the preceding ? (5) Are there other
variations between the two forms of the commandment given in Exod.,
chap. 20, and Deut., chap. 5 ? What are the variations? How shall
we explain the existence of any variations at all ? Is it possible that
Exod. 20 : 9-1 1 and Deut. 5 : 13-15 are later additions made at differ-
ent times to an earlier form, which, as in the case of the sixth, seventh,
and eighth commandments, consisted of only two or three words,
•The following references are from E : Exod. 20 : 8-10 ; 23:10-12; 2i:2-ii;
the only reference in J is Exod. 34 : 21.
'References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code.
108
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH 1 O9
"Observe (or remember) the sabbath day to keep it holy "?^ (6) What
was involved in the command to keep it holy ? (7) What may be said
of the antiquity of the sabbath ? Was it probably observed by the
Hebrews in Egypt? (8) Was it originally connected with the new
moon ? (9) What are the chief considerations offered to show that it
was originally a day for securing the good-will of the deity, /. e., a day
on which Jehovah rested from his anger, and was, therefore, more
easy to propitiate ; a day, however, which might prove to be unfavor-
able, but which might be changed to a favorable day by doing or not
doing certain things?'' (10) What, if this view is adopted, would be
understood in particular to be the meaning of the word rest? of the
word observe? (11) How did such strong emphasis come to be placed
upon the idea of cessation from labor?
2. In respect to the usages which connected themselves with the
sabbath, consider (i) the custom of visiting the man of God on the sab-
bath ; (2) the custom of dividing the temple guard according as it came
in or went out on the sabbath; (3) other early (?) customs, codified
in later times, e. g., remaining inside the house (Exod. 16 : 29), kindling
no fire (Exod. 35 : 3), no gathering of wood for the fire (Numb. 15 : 32-
36), no baking or cooking (Exod. 16:23). (4)80 far as the ^ar/y
records are concerned, are there any other ideas than those of cessa-
tion from labor and of humanitarian motive?
3. What is to be gathered from the few allusions to the sabbath
made by the prophets? (i) What are the people desiring to make of
the sabbath, according to Amos? What restraint is evidently upon
them? (2) Does Hosea's statement seem to place the sabbath in the
same category with days of rejoicing and mirth ? (3) What is the
significance of the frequent association (as in Isa. i : i3)of the sabbath
with the new moon ?
4. Consider (i) regulations relating to the release of Hebrew
servants after six years of labor ; did this imply a regularly recurring
seventh year in which all servants were released ? Had this any-
thing to do with a sabbatical year ? (2) The regulations prescribing
that the crop of every seventh year shall be given to the poor and
the beasts; does the regulation say that all land was to lie fallow in the
3 This is the view held, for example, by Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. II, p. 159 ;
DiLLMANN, J5'x^af^<^, p. 201; Speaker's Commentary, p. 336; Driver, Introduction,
etc., p. 34; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, pp. 181-7; Marti, Ge-
schichte der israelitischen Religion; et al.
■•Jastrow, American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52.
no PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
same year ? Was this the recognition of a sabbatical year ? (3) The
motives underlying these regulations.
§ no. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will indicate
the most important factors entering into the significance of the sab-
bath, and its characteristics as it appears in the earliest period.
§111. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Middle Period,
/. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic
prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel
and Kings.s
1. The law of the sabbath in the Deuteronomic decalogue.
Deut. 5 : 12-15.
2. The attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath.
Jar. 17 : 19-27; Isa. 56: 2, 4, 6; 58 : 13, 14 ; 66 : 23 ; Lam. 1:7; 2:6.
3. The law of the sabbatical year.
Deut. 15 : 1-18 ; 31 : 10.
4. Release of slaves in Jeremiah.
Jer. 34:8-17.
§ 1 12. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider now in detail the Deuteronomic version of the sabbath
law, including (i) the word observe, (2) the reference to Jehovah's
former command (vs. 12), (3) the provision for the rest of the servants,
(4) the reason given for the observance of the sabbath, viz., the deliv-
erance from the bondage of Egypt; is this an implication that the
sabbath was not observed by the Israelites in Egypt ? How is it to
be reconciled with the reason given in Exod. 20 : 11 ? (5) the effect
upon the observance of the sabbath of the centralization of worship at
Jerusalem ; would this not take away the ritualistic observance and
emphasize the humanitarian idea?
2. In an examination of the prophetic and historical allusions to
the observance of the sabbath, consider (i) the small number of such
references; is there any satisfactory reason ? (2) the several items said
by Jeremiah to have been commanded by Jehovah, viz., {a) as to bur-
dens, {b) as to work, {c) as to hallowing the day; (3) the attitude of
the people (Jer. 17 :23); (4) the promises and threats in reference to
its observance (Jer. 17 : 24-27) ; (5) the position assigned to the sabbath
in connection with the observance of the covenant (Isa. 56: 2, 4, 6);
(6) the meaning of the phrases from doing thy pleasure, and call the
sabbath a delight {Isa.. 58: 13), and the rewards offered ; (7) the sabbath
5 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron-
omy.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I I 1
as a time, like the new moon, for worship (Isa. 6^ : 23); (8) the forget-
ting of the sabbath in the exile.
3. Consider, in comparison with the regulations cited above
(§§108, 4 ; 109,4), the Deuteronomic regulations concerning (i) the
year of release of debts : (a) to whom it shall and shall not apply; (d)
does it mean that the debt, if not paid, will be forgiven or become
outlawed ; or that no interest will be exacted during this seventh year ;
or that no proceedings will be taken against the debtor during that
year? (c) the reward promised; (d) the motive for this law; (e) does
it imply an advanced commercial development ? (/) is the year a
fixed seventh year ? (g) would it encourage or discourage business ?
(2) the regulations for the release of the Hebrew servant, noting the
slight variations from the law given in Exodus; (3) whether Deuteron-
omy has any regulation concerning the rest of the land (cf. Exod.
23 : 10 f.); (4) the reading of the law prescribed for the Feast of Tab-
ernacles during the year of release at the end of every seven years.
4. Consider the points involved in the story of the release of slaves
in Jeremiah's time.
§113. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement showing the
nature of the changes which are being made, and the general trend.
§ 1 1 4. The Sabbath as Described by Ezekiel.
1. The purpose of the sabbath.
Ezek. 20 : 12, 20.
2. The sabbath a /lo/y day.
Ezek. 44 : 24.
3. General profanation of the sabbath.
Ezek. 20 : 13-24 ; 22 : 8, 26 ; 23 : 38.
4. Special worship and sacrifices for the sabbath.
Ezek. 45 : 17 ; 46 : 1-5, 12.
5. The year of liberty.
Ezek. 46 : 17.
§ 115. Questions and Suggestions.
1. What, according to Ezekiel, was the original purpose which the
sabbath was to subserve ? Compare the purpose also of the statutes
(Ezek. 20: ti), and the way in which both statutes and sabbaths had
been treated by Israel.
2. What, in Ezekiel's time, was meant by hallowing or keeping holy
the sabbath ?
112 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
3. What was meant by profaning and hiding the eyes from the
sabbath ? Did the Israelites simply ignore it, or did they intentionally
do that which brought it into disrepute ?
4. Note the special character of the offerings indicated in Ezekiel's
scheme for the sabbath day. What was the significance of this ? Con-
sider how the sabbath is still associated with the new moon.
5. Note the contents of the single reference in Ezekiel to the year
of release or liberty.
§ 116. Constructive Work. — Summarize the position of Ezekiel, and
indicate the relation of Ezekiel's attitude on this question to his gen-
eral place in prophecy.
§ 117. Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Later Period, i. e., as
described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code, {i>) by the priestly
prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah,
Chronicles.
1. The law of the sabbath.^
Lev. 23 : 3 ; Exod. 31 : 12-17 ; 35 : i-3-
2. Special days observed as sabbaths.
Lev. 23 : 7 f., 24-32, 39 ; 16 : 29-31 ; Numb, 28 : 11-15, 18, 25 f . ; 29 : i, 7,
12, 35-
3. Reasons assigned for the observance of the sabbath.
Gen. 2 : 2 f. ; Exod. 20 : 1 1 ; 31 : 12 f., 17.
4. Special offerings made on the sabbath.
Lev. 23 :38; Numb. 28:9!; i Chron. 23 : 3i;2Chron. 2:4:8:13; 31:3;
Neb. 10 : 33.
5. Emphasis laid on observance of the sabbath.
Lev. 19: 3(5, 30a; 26 :2a /Exod. 16:22-30; 31:14-16; 35:2; Numb.
15 : 32-36 ; Neh. 10:31; 13:15-22.
6. Use of the sabbath as a fixed point of time.
Lev. 23 : 15 f.; 24 : 8 ; i Chron. g ; 32 ; 2 Chron. 23 : 4, 8.
7. Sabbath made known on Sinai.
Neh, 9:14.
8. Law of the sabbatical year.
Lev. 25 : 1-7 ; 26 : 34, 35.
9. Exile conceived of as a sabbath for the land.
Lev. 26 : 34 f . ; 2 Chron. 36:21.
10. Law of year of jubilee.
Lev., chap. 25 ; 27 : 17-24 ; Numb. 36 : 4.
* References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II3
§ 118. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider (i) the form of the sabbath observance which must
have existed during the exile, viz., the humanitarian and not the ritu-
alistic ; the adaptation of this to the possibilities of worship in this
period, and the distinctive character which it must have given the
Jewish community. (2) What is the meaning of the new phrases sol-
emn rest, holy convocation, sabbath unto Jehovah? (3) What is the
purpose of the sabbath {cf. Ezekiel) ? the penalty for its non-obser-
vance ? the connection between sign and perpetual covenant ? (4) The
reason assigned for its establishment {cf. Exod. 20: 11)? (5) Why
should the kindling of fire have been prohibited in particular ?
2. Note how the idea of rest now attaches itself to other days, viz.,
first day of the Passover, first day of the Feast of Trumpets, first and
eighth days of the Feast of Booths, the Day of Atonement.
3. Consider the reasons assigned for the sabbath's observance: (i)
because God rested on the seventh day; was there any connection
between this reason and the fact that the teaching concerning God as
Creator is greatly emphasized in the exilic and post-exilic periods?
(2) because it is to serve as a sign between God and Israel ; did this
mean that it distinguished Israel from other nations which did not
•observe it ?
4. Note the details and significance of the special offering made on
the sabbath.
5. Consider the rigidity with which the sabbath law was now to be
enforced : (i) on the same plane with the honoring of father and mother,
and the reverencing of a sanctuary; (2) penalty of death imposed
for non-observance ; (3) the story of the man who gathered sticks on
the sabbath day and suffered death by stoning ; (4) the gathering of a
double amount of manna on the sixth day and the absence of manna
on the sabbath ; (5) the agreement to refrain from commercial deal-
ings on the sabbath ; (6) Nehemiah's judicial procedure in the case of
those violating the law.
6. Note how the sabbath, having become a fixed date, every seventh
day, is used as a point from which to calculate other feasts.
7. Note the tradition preserved by Nehemiah that the sabbath was
(first ?) made known on Sinai.
8. Study the details of the law of the sabbatical year: (i) Is all
agriculture to be remitted ? (2) What is to be the disposition of the
fruit and grain that grows of itself? (3) Was Palestine a land subject
to severe famines? If so, could such a law have been observed?
114 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(4) Could it have been observed while the people were mainly agri-
culturists, /. e., before trade and commerce had come in ? How would
the people living in rural districts spend their time ? (5) Is there any
evidence that it was observed before the exile ? or that it was not {cf.
Lev. 26:34, 35)? (6) Did not its observance in later times cause
great distress (i Mace. 6:49, 53)? (7) What connection was there
between this sabbatical year, with its fixed time of recurrence, and the
year of release for slaves and debt in Deuteronomy (§§ 11 1, 3; 112, 3)?
9. Consider the idea suggested that the entire period of exile is a
period of sabbaths, now enforced because formerly unobserved.
10. Concerning the Year of Jubilee, consider (i) the meaning of the
name ; (2) the time fixed ; was it the fiftieth year following the seventh
sabbatical year, that is, was it the second of two successive years of
rest? or did it coincide with the forty-ninth year? (3) the procedure;
was it, in general, like the sabbatical year ? (4) what was the regulation
concerning sowing, reaping, gathering ? (5) concerning the restoration
of real property ? (6) the special provision concerning dwelling-houses
in walled cities ; the houses of the Levites ; (7) the regulation concern-
ing Hebrew and non-Hebrew slaves ; (8) concerning land dedicated to
Jehovah and its redemption ; (9) concerning the inheritance of daugh-
ters as affected by these laws. (10) How were the people to live dur-
ing this period of abstinence from work? (11) Is it possible that the
law of the jubilee year is an outgrowth of the law of the sabbath ? (12)
What led to the choice of the fiftieth year? (13) Is there any evidence
that this law existed before the time of the exile ? (14) Was the Year
of Jubilee ever observed ? (15) Was it a practical law, or an ideal law?
(16) What, in general, is meant by ideal legislation ?
§ 119. Constructive "Work.
Prepare a statement including {a) an explanation of the fact that
such an exceedingly large place is occupied by the sabbatical system
in the legislation and thought of this period; (<5) an enumeration of
the various points of difference between the laws and usages of this
period and those of the Deuteronomic period ; and (c) a brief study of
the development of the sabbatical idea in the course of Israel's history.
§ 120. Literature to be Consulted.
Jennings, yifWiVi Antiquities (1808), pp. 320 f.; Ewald, History of Israel {i%\. ed.
1843-59, transl. 1883), Vol. I, pp. 88 {.; II, pp. 209 f.; V, pp. 166 f., 343, 400, 416;
IvEM, Antiquities 0/ Israel {lSS4, transl. 1876), pp. 97-107; Kalisch, Commentary on
Exodus (1855), in loc. 20:8-11; Hessey, On the Sabbath ("Bampton Lecture,"
i860, 3d ed. 1866); GiLFlLLAN, On the Sabbath (1862); KuRTZ, Sacrificial Worship
of the Old Testament (1862, transl. 1863), pp. 342 ff.; Johnstone, Sunday and the
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II5
Sabbath (1863); R. S. PoOLE, article "Chronology," see section on "Sabbatical and
Jubilee Years," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Cox,
Literature of the Sabbath Question (1865); ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed.
1869, transl. 1892), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath," "Sabbatical Year," "Jubilee;"
KUENEN, The Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1894), Vol. I, pp. 286 f.; II, pp.
278-84 ; Sayce, Records of the Past, Vol. I (1873), pp. 164 f.; Oehler, Theology of
the Old Testament (ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), pp. 328-45 ; Sayce,
Records of the Past, Vol. VII (1876), p. 157; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the
History of Israel {1878), pp. 112-20; J. Y^^TO^, Early Hebrew Life (1880), pp. 24-6,
29-32, 64-70; W. D. Love, "The Sabbath, etc.," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1880, pp. 153-78,
355-89,419-39, 661-S5; 1S81, pp. 254-85,524-52, Schrader, Cuneiform Inscrip-
tions and the Old Testament {2d ed. 1882, transl. 1885), Vol. I, pp. 18 ff.; W. R.
Sunn, Prophets of Israel {ist ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), pp. 385 f.; Francis Brown,
"The Sabbath in the Cuneiform 'R&cotAs," Presbyterian Review, 1882, pp. 688-700;
Dillmann, Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1886, transl. 1897 f.), in loc. chap, i;
SCHURER, History of the Jewish People in the Tifue of Jesus Christ{i8?>t, transl. 1891),
Div. II,Vol. II, PP..96-105 ; W. R. Smith, articles "Jubilee," "Sabbath," Encyclopcedia
Britannica (1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians {" Hibbert Lectures,"
1887), pp. 70-77; Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888), Vol. I, pp. 151, 366;
II, pp. 225. 306 ; McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and
Ecclesiastical Literature (1891), articles "Jubilee," "Sabbath," and "Sabbatical
Year ; " Jensen, " The Supposed Babylonian Origin of the Week and the Sabbath,"
Sunday School Zi'wfj-, January 16, 1892; Alice M. Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan
New England {"jih. ed. 1893); F. Garden, article "Sabbatical Year," Smith's Dic-
tionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); S. Clark (revised by J. M. Fuller), article
"Jubilee," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); W. E. Addis, Docu7nents of
the Hextateuch, 2 vols. (1893-98), see Index, s. v. "Jubilee," " Sabbath," etc.; Sayce,
Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1S93), pp. 74-7; Montefiore,
The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures," 1893), see Index, s. v.
"Sabbath;" Davis, Genesis and Sejuitic' Tradition (1894), pp. 23-35; Driver, A
Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), pp. 174-81 ; Hirschfeld,
" Remarks on the Etymology of Sa.hhd.t.h.,'" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1896, pp.
354 f.; Abrahams, /^wm/z Life in the Middle Ages {lig"]), see Index, s. v. " Sabbath ; "
Morris Jastrow, Jr., "The Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American
Journal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp. 312-52 ; Cheyne,/(?ww// Religious Life after
the Exile (1898), pp. 66 f.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, The Book of Leviticus —
a New English Translation (Polychrome Bible, 1898), pp. 97-100; E. A. W. Budge,
Egyptian Magic (1899), pp. 224-8; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and
Customs (1899), p. 245 ; Kent, A History of the Jewish People During the Babylonian,
Persian, and Greek Periods (1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath;" Sinker, Essays and
Studies (1900); J. Estlin-Carpenter and G. Harford Battersby, The Hexa-
teuch (1900), Vol. II, p. 112 ; T. F. WRIGHT, "Sabbath," New Church Review, Janu-
ary, 1900; W. R. Smith and I. Benzinger, article "Jubilee," Encyclopedia Biblica
(1901); McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill (1901), pp. 376 f.;
Morris Jastrow, Jr., " Hebrew and Babylonian Accounts of Creation," Jewish
Quarterly Review, Yo\. XIII (1901), pp. 648-50; H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the
Sabbath (Golden Lectures for 1900-1901); C. F. Kk^t, Biblical World, Vol. XVIII
(1901), pp. 344-8.
Il6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
J. Spencer,/?^ le gibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686); Wagenseil, De anno
^ubilaeo Hebraeorum (1700); J. H. Mai, Maimonidis tract, de juribus anni septimi et
ntbilaei {170S); Van der Kardt, Dt-j'ubi/aeo Mosis {1^28); Reineccws, De origine
^ubilaeorum (1730); Carpzov, De anno jubilaeo (1730); Hebenstreit, De sabbato
ante leges Mosis existente (1748); Meyer, De temporibus et diebus Hebraeoruni (1755),
pp. 341-60; Michaelis, Comm. in leg. Mosis (1775-80), Vol. I, pp. 76-419; Franke,
Novum systema chro7iologiae fu7idamentalis (1778); 11 UG, " Ueber das mosaische
Gesetz vom Jubeljahr," Zeitschrift fiir das Erzbisthum, I, I; De Wette, Lehrbuch der
hebrdisch-jiidischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1814, 4th ed. 1864), pp. 21 1 f.; Baur, " Uer
hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des Mosaischen Kultus," Tiibinger Zeit-
schrift, 1S32, pp. 125 f.; Vatke, Die Religion des Alien Testanientes (1835), Vol. I,
pp. 198 f.; Kranold, De anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1835); G. WOLDE, De- anno
Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des ?nosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. I, pp.
572 f.; II, pp. 569 f., 601 f.; Winer's Biblisches Realwdrterbuch (3d ed. 1847), articles
"Sabbath," etc.; Ewald, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgetildndischen Gesellschaft,
Vol. I (1847), pp. 410 ff.; BrugsCH, ibid.,^o\.\\\ (1849), pp. 271 ff.; Proudhon,
De la celebratiofi du Dinianche ( 1850); OsCHWALD, Die christliche Sonntagsfeier ( 1850);
Liebetrut, Die Sonntagsfeier das Wochenfest des Volkes Gottes (1851); Herzfeld,
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1855), pp. 458-65 ; Saai.SChOtz, Archdologie der
Hebrder, Vol. II (1856), pp. 224 ff., 308 ff.; Zuckermann, Sabbathjahrcyclus und
fubelperiode (1857); HuPFELD, Commentatio de Hebraeorum festis. Part III (1858);
Keil, Handbuch der biblischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1858 f., 2d ed. 1875), Vol. I, §§77
ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka (transl. from Dutch 1864), pp. 34 f.; Kukel,
" Die sociale und volkswirtschaftliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testamentes," Theo-
logische Studien und Kritiken, 1871, pp. 760 ff.; Steiner, article "Jubeljahr" in
Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Schrader, "Der babylonische Ursprung
der siebentagigen Woche," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343 ff..
Mangold, articles "Sabbat" and "Sabbatsjahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,
Vol. V (1875); KOHLER, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte, Vol.1 (1875), pp. 431 ff.;
Klostermann, "Uber die kalendarische Bedeutung des Jobeljahres," Theologische
Studien und Kritiken, 1880, pp. 720-48; Dillmann, Die Biicher Exodus und
Leviticus (2d ed. 1880), pp. 602 ff.; Budde, Die hiblische Urgeschichte (1883), pp. 495
ff.; \.OTZ, Quaestiones de historia sabbathi {l?>'ij,)\ Hoffmann, " Versuche zu Amos,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 120 f.; Oehler,
articles "Sabbath" and "Sabbath- und Jobeljahr," revised by von Orelli, in A'^a/-
encyklopddie fiir protesta7itische Theologie und Kirche {zd ed. 1884); RiEHM, articles
"Jobeljahr," "Sabbath," "Sabbathjahr " in KlEHU's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen
Alterthums (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. 1893 f.); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I
(1887), pp. 498 f.; Wellhausem, Composition des Hexateuchs (2d ed. 1889), pp. 187 f.;
]KKSKT:i, Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,\o\. IV (1889), pp. 274 ff.; H. L. Strack, Z>p.
201 f., 464 ff., 473 f.; GUNKEL, Schopfung und Chaos (1895), pp. 13!., II4-17 ; DiLL-
mann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr"
and "Sabbat;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II7
"Sabbat" and "Jobeljahr; " Holzinger, Exodus {Kurzer Hand-Commentar zutn
Alien Testament'), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath" (1900); Bertholet, Leviticus {Kurzer
Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr," "Sabbat,"
(1901).
See also the Mishnah tracts on "The Sabbath" and "The Book of Jubilees,"
chap. 50.
§ 12 1. Supplementary Topics.
1. Study the meaning of the word "sabbath," its derivation, its
usage.
2. Examine the following texts in which the root DniD occurs, with
a view to determining the meaning of the root, viz.: Gen. 2 : 2 f.; 8:22;
Exod. 16 : 30; 12 : 15 ; 23 : 12; 34 : 21 ; Josh. 5:12; Isa. 13: 11; 14 : 5 ;
30 : 7 ; Ps. 8 : 3 ; Prov. 20 : 3.
3. Study the passages in which the word ■pn^lT (ordinarily trans-
lated "solemn rest") occurs, viz.: Lev. 23:3, 24, 32, 39; 16:31;
25 : 4; Exod. 16 : 23 ; 35 : 2 ; 31 : 15, with a view to determining its
meaning.
4. Examine the words b^^ ("jubilee"), llm ("liberty").
5. From an examination of i Mace. 1:39, 43, 45; 2:32-41;
6 :49 ; 9 : 43 ff.; 10 : 34; 2 Mace. 5 : 24-26; 6 : 6, 1 1 ; 12 : 38 ; 15:1-5,
prepare a statement concerning the sabbath in Maccabean times.
6. Is the sabbath referred to in the Wisdom books, or in the
Psalms {cf. the title of Ps. 92)? Why not?
7. From a study of the following references from the New Testa-
ment discuss the attitude of Jesus and the several New Testament
writers toward the sabbath : Matt. 12 : i f., 5, 8, 10 ff.; 24:20; 28:1;
Mark 1:21; 2 : 23 f., 27 f.; 3 : 2, 4 ; 6:2; 15 : 42 ; 16:1; Luke 4 : 16,
31 ; 6 : I ff., 5 ff., 9 ; 13 : 10, 14 ff.; 14 : i, 3, 5 ; 23 : 54, 56 ; John 5 : 9 f.,
16, 18 ; 7 : 22 f.; g : 14, 16 ; 19:31; Acts 1:12; 13 : 14, 27, 42, 44;
15:21; 18:4; 21:27; 28 : 14 ; Col. 2:16; Heb. 4:4; Rev. i : 10.
8. Compare, in general, the observance of special rest-days among
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and determine whether there is
any possible connection between these days and the sabbath.'
9. Compare, in general, the observance, on the part of the Assyrians,
"> Cf. Maspero, Romans et Poesies au Papyrus Harris, No. ^00, pp. 38 f. 41;
Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et nefastes de Pannee egyptienne; WIEDEMANN,
Religion of the Egyptians, pp. 263 f . ; Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew
Sabbath," American Journal of Theology, NoX. II, p. 350, note 116; Budge, Egyptian
Magic, pp. 224-8; Ihering, Vorgeschichte der Indo-Europder, pp. 145, 309-58 ff.
(in English translation = 7%,? Evolution of the Aryan, New York, 1897); H. Cohen,
"Der Sabbath in seiner culturgeschichtlichen Bedeutung," Zf?V^^'?5/( Milwaukee, Wis.),
1881, pp. 4ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka, pp. 34 f.; KUENEN, Religion of Israel,
Il8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Arabs, and Canaanites, of special rest-days, and determine whether
there is any connection between these days and the sabbath.^
10. Consider, in general, the whole sabbatical system, and show
(a) its origin, {^) its various stages of development, {c) its social bear-
ings, (d) its religious significance, (e) its idealism, (/) its practical
character.
11. Consider the relation of the sabbath to the moon, the new-
moon feast, etc. Was the sabbath originally a lunar festival ? Cf.
§§97 (9), 104 (4)-
12. Consider the origin and significance of the use of the number
seven in the Old Testament, as seen, e. g., in the sabbatical system, in
the proceedings connected with the capture of Jericho, in the Hebrew
verb "to swear, take oath" (literally = " to seven oneself" or "be sev-
ened"), in the seven kine of Pharaoh's dream, etc.
13. What is the relation of the Old Testament sabbath to the
"Lord's day" of the New Testament, (a) as to the day observed, (d) as
to the spirit characteristic of the observance -*
Vol. I, pp. 262 f.; Lepsius, Chronologie der Aegypter, Vol. I, pp. 22, 132 £f. ;
Brugsch, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Geselhchaft, Vol. Ill, p. 271 ;
NOWACK, Hebrdische Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 141!.
^ Cf. Morris Jastrow, "Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American
Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life
and Customs, p. 245 ; SCHRADER, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343-53;
Francis Brown, " The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review,
1882, pp. 688-700. (See also § 120.)
CHAPTER X.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, CONSIDERED
COMPARATIVELY.
§ 122. The Clean and Unclean in the Early Period, /. ., as described
in (a) the Covenant Code ; (^) the historical material of J and E ; (c)
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and
(d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).'
1. Traces of totemism.
Gen. 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 8 : 26.
2. Distinction between clean and unclean is ancient.
Gen, 7:2,8; 8 : 20.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Gen, 35 :2 ; 2 Sam. 11:4; 2 Kings 5 : 10-14 ; Isa. 30: 22.
4. Non-Israelitish lands are unclean.
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9 : 3.
5. Forbidden food.
Exod. 23 : igiJ,- 34: 26(5,- 22:31.^
6. Cleanness is necessary to participation in religious exercises.
Gen. 35 : 2 ; Exod. 3:5; 19:10; i Sam. 20:26 ; Judg. 13:4, 7, 14 ;
Isa, 6 : 5 ; 2 Kings 10: 22 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 14.
7. Attitude of prophets toward clean and unclean.
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9:3; Isa. 1:16; 6:5; 30 : 22,
§ 123. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider (i) the meaning of " every shepherd is an abomination
unto the Egyptians," and what is involved in the statement ; (2) the
meaning of "sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians;" (3) whether
that which is called an "abomination" may have been something sacred
or holy, /, e., something worshiped, for example, an animal ; (4) whether,
as a matter of fact, there existed in Israel cases of special association
between certain kinds of animals and certain tribes or certain towns ;^
' The following references are from J : Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20 ; 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod,
8 : 26 ; 34 : 26(5. The following are from E : Gen. 35 : 2 ; Exod. 22 : ^id; 23 : iQiJ,
' These references are from the Covenant Code,
3 C/. Nun (Fish), Exod. 33 : " ; Terah (Ibex), Gen, 11 : 27 ; Leah (Wild Cow),
Gen, 29 : 16 ; and see R. G. MURISON, "Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblicat
World, Vol. XVIII, pp. 170 ff.
120 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(5) whether there are not cases in which animals are regarded as
having superhuman power;'* (6) whether the second commandment
does not imply that the Israelites were addicted to animal-worship ]
(7) whether actual historical proof of this is not found in the story of
the worship of the calf (Exod. 32 : 7-24) and of the brazen serpent
(Numb. 21 : 8 f.; 2 Kings 18:4); (8) the meaning and significance of
2. Note (i) the distinction between clean and unclean animals made
in the narrative of the deluge, and consider (2) whether the words
unclean and sacred may not be used synonymously; that is, was not
the unclean thing (whether animal or person or object) something in
connection with which " a superhuman agency of a dangerous kind "
was supposed to be acting, and which, therefore, was, from one point
of view, sacred, from another, unclean ? (3) whether this is not to be
closely associated with the usage existing among many nations and
called taboo!'
3. Consider the source of uncleanness in the case of (i) Jacob's
household, (2) Bathsheba, (3) Naaman the Syrian, (4) the graven
images (Isa. 30 : 22) ; and formulate a statement which will {a) classify
these sources and {J?) explain the idea of uncleanness in each case.
4. Consider the idea that for an Israelite any other land than his
own was unclean, and explain the basis on which this idea rests.
5. Note the prohibition of eating (i) a kid boiled in its mother's
milk,' (2) the flesh torn of beasts ; and explain the significance of the
usage in each case. Are there in the Covenant Code other prohibi-
tions concerning the eating of food ?
6. Explain (i)the "washing of garments" in Exod. 19 : 10 ; (2) the
reason assigned by Saul for Jonathan's absence (i Sam. 20:26); (3)
the connection of "eating no unclean thing" with the Nazirite (Judg.
13:4); (4) Isaiah's confession of unclean lips (Isa. 6:5); (5) the
putting off of shoes (Exod. 3 : 5); (6) the use of the vestments (2
Kings 10 : 22); (7) the use of the linen ephod (2 Sam. 6 : 14).
7. How far were the current ideas concerning clean and unclean
-» Cf. Gen. 3 : i ff.; Numb. 21:8 f.; Ezek. 8 : 10 f.
sSee especially J. G. Frazer, Totemism; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites
(2d ed.), pp. 125 ff. ; and other literature cited in § 134.
* See especially J. G. Frazer, article " Taboo," Encyclopedia Britannica ; W. R.
Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 152 £f., 446 ff.
7 See Kalisch, Commentary on Exod. 23:I9/^and W. R. Smith, Religion of
the Semites (2d ed.),- p. 221.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 121
accepted by the prophets? Consider, for example, (i) the view held
concerning foreign lands ; (2) the exhortation to wash and become
clean (Isa. 1:6); (3) Isaiah's feeling concerning himself (6 : 5); (4)
the treatment of graven images (Isa. 30 : 22).
§124. Constructive Work. — From the material furnished prepare a
general statement upon the idea of the clean and unclean in the
earliest period.
§125. The Usages and Laws Concerning Clean and Unclean in the
Middle Perioi, /. ., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the
Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings.^
1. Traces of totemism.
Deut. 32:17; 2 Kings 22:12; Jar. 36:10; cf. 2 Kings 18:4 and
Ezek, 8 : 7-12.
2. Forbidden food.
Deut. 12 : 16, 23 ff.; 14 : 3-21 ; 15 : 23.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Deut. 21 : 22 f.; 23: 10 f.; 23 : 12-14 ; 7 : 25 f.; Jar. 16:18; Lam. 4 : 14 f.
4. Cleanness necessary to participation in religious exercises.
Deut. 12 : 15 ; 15 : 21 f.; 26 : 13 f.; Isa. 52 : i, 11.
5. Prophetic attitude toward clean and unclean.
Jar. 2 :7, 23 ; 13 : 27 ; 16:18; 33 : 8 ; Lam. 4 : 14 f.; Isa. 52 : i, 11.
§ 126. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Note that individuals and heads of clans still bear the names of
animals, e. g., Shaphan (=Rock Badger), Achbor (= Mouse). What is
the significance of this in view of the fact that as recently as the days
of Hezekiah the image of a serpent was still being worshiped, and
that Ezekiel testifies to the existence of similar worship just prior to
the exile ?
2. Consider (i) the regulation concerning the eating of blood, and
the ground on which it rests; (2) whether in this case the principle of
taboo is not clearly found ; (3) the general command concerning eat-
ing anything "abominable:" (4) the animals which might be eaten,
and their general characteristics; (5) the animals which might not be
eaten, and their general characteristics ; (6) the general principles
which seem to underlie the selection; (7) the character of a selection
arising in this way ; (8) the fact that the number of clean quadrupeds
is ten; (9) whether this distinction was something objective imposed
* References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter-
onomy.
122 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
upon the people for a purpose (if so, was this purpose (a) to train the
people in obedience, or (d) to provide hygienic dietary laws, or (-2i ; 4:11 f.;
6 : 10 f.; 16 : 19 ; Numb. 6 : 6-9 ; 18 : 11, 15 ; 8 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 36 ;
2 Chron. 23 : 19 ; 30 : 17-20 ; 29 : i 5 f., 18 f.; Neh. 13 : 9, 22 ; Isa.
66 : 20.
7. Exemption from the requirement of cleanness is made in the
case of the Passover.
2 Chron. 30 : 17-20 ; Numb. 9 : 6-14.
8. Non-Israelitish land is unclean, and Israel's land also is unclean.
Josh. 22:19; Ezra 9 : 1 1 ; Numb. 35 : 33 f . ; Zech. 13:1 f .
9. All foreigners are unclean.
Isa. 35:8; Ezra 9:11; Neh. 13 : 30.
10. Instruction as to clean and unclean is an important part of
priestly functions.
Lev. 10 : 10 f.; 20 : 25 f.
11. Traces of ancestor-worship.
Lev. 19 : 28, 32.
§ 132. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Observe (i) that the old totem-sacrifice still survives in the
sacrificial eating of swine, mice, and other abominable animals; did
they eat these because they thought that in so doing they were eating
the flesh of the deity, and that this meant participation in the virtues
" References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code of laws.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 25
of the deity, as well as in the mystic life of the tribe ? (2) that the
old customs of cutting the flesh and of tattooing exist ; were these
associated with the old idea of ancestor-worship, and was ancestor-
worship connected with totemism ?
2. (i) Classify according to the later usage, the various kinds of
food forbidden ; and (2) compare closely the lists of clean and unclean
animals given in Leviticus with that of Deuteronomy (see §§125, 2,
and 126, 2); (3) note what is implied in the case of Daniel and his
companions.
3. Note and classify the sources of uncleanness as they are indi-
cated in the writings of this period.
4. Consider (i) the various cases of uncleanness {e. g., leprosy,
plague, bodily issue, unclean food, etc.), and the fact that a person or
object, when brought into contact with an unclean thing, itself became
unclean. (2) What was the underlying thought of this usage, and its
practical working? (3) In what way did a holy thing, when brought
into contact with persons or objects, convey its holiness to them ?
5. Arrange and classify the various ways adopted in this period for
securing purification from uncleanness, and compare them in general
with the methods of the middle period.
6. Consider now the extreme emphasis laid upon ceremonial clean-
ness : (i ) the injunctions to this end ; (2) the historical facts cited ; (3)
the practical working out of these commands ; (4) the rigidity of the
ceremonial as now maintained, in comparison with that of earlier days
and other peoples; (5) the explanation of the origin of this rigid cere-
monial, viz., the desire to secure the favor of God and the fulfilment of
the prophetic promises (which, for the most part, still remained unful-
filled) by bringing the individual Israelite into such a state of piety
and obedience as would literally compel God to fulfil his promises ;
(6) the relation to all this ceremonial of the highly spiritual element
found in the Psalter, which was largely the product of this period ; (7)
the conception of God which was implied in this ceremonial, which,
indeed, permeated the ceremonial.
7. Consider (i) the exemption from ceremonial cleanness made in
the case of the Passover feast, and (2) the explanation of it ; (3) the
historical case cited in 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20.
8. Observe that (i) the idea of the uncleanness of non-Israelitish
land still prevails; and also that (2) the land of Israel itself has
become unclean ; but (3) for what reason ?
9. Note that the spirit of exclusivism has become so strong that
126 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
all foreigners are regarded as unclean. Consider the part played by
this idea in the conflict which later arose between Judaism and Hel-
lenism.
10. Observe (i) that it is now a most important function of the
priest to give instruction concerning the clean and unclean, and con-
sider (2) how difficult it must have been to educate all the people in
this regard, in view of the great multitude of details involved ; and
(3) the general effect upon the priesthood of such an occupation of
their time and attention.
11. Is there still a survival of the old tendency toward ancestor-
worship in (i) the custom of cutting themselves for the dead, which is
prohibited, and in (2) the special command to revere the old men ?
§133. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show
the new points which characterize the later period in the development
of the idea of the clean and unclean.
§134. Literature to be Consulted.
Henry Hayman, articles " Unclean Meats " and " Uncleanness," Smith's Dic-
tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed.
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 144-60; ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869,
transl. 1892), Vol. II, pp. 65-78; J. F. McLennan, Fortnightly Review, 1869 f.;
KuENEN, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. II, pp. 94-7; Kalisch,
Commentary on Leviticus, Part II (i87i),pp. 1-163; Oehler, Old Testament Theology
(ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§ 142 f.; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture
(1871, 2d ed. -1873), see Index, s. v. "Totem Ancestors;" Idem, Early History of
Mankind {2d ed. 1878), pp. 284 f.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology (1879), Vol. I,
p. 367; W. Robertson Smith, "Animal Worship and Animal Tribes among the
Arabs and in the Old Testament," Journal of Philology, Vol. IX (1880), pp. 75 ff.;
Idem, Old Testament in the fewish Church (ist ed. 1S81, 2d ed. 1892), p. 366; Idem,
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885), chap, vii ; ScHURER, A History of the
Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (1885, transl. 1890), see Index, s. v. "Clean
and Unclean;" Joseph Jacobs, " Are there Totem-Clans in the Old Testament?"
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. Vlll (1885), pp. 39-41; Andrew
Lang, Custom and Myth (2d ed. 1885), pp. 260 ff.; Piepenbring, The Theology of the
Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), pp. 73-9; Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and
Religion (ist ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Tabu," "Totem," etc.; Sayce^
Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the
Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), see Index, s. v. "Clean and Unclean,"
"Totemism;" Bennett, Diseases of the Bible (ist ed. 1887, 3d ed. 1896); J. G.
Frazer, Totemism (with numerous references to literature; 1887); Idem, articles
"Taboo" and "Totemism," Encyclopadia Britannica (1887); W. R. Smith, article
"Sacrifice," ibid. (1887), Vol. XXI, p. 135 ; Idem, Religion of the Semites (ist ed.
1889, 2d ed. 1894), additional notes A. B, C, and I; J. G. Frazer, Golden
Bough (1890), see Index, s. v. "Taboo," "Totem," etc.; F. VV. Davies, "Bible
Leprosy," Old and New Testament Student, Vol. XI (1890), pp. 142-25;
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 27
McClintock and Strong's CyclopcEciia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesias-
tical Literature, articles on "Unclean" and " Uncleanness " (1891); J. Lubbock,
Origin of Civilization (1892), p. 260; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews
(Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 473 ff.; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), PP-
S5> 71. 131. 275; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy
(1895), PP- 70, 164, 291 f.; J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (1896),
pp. 492-569; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. I (1896) pp. 88-101;
Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. "Animals,"
etc.; J. Hastings, article "Clean," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898);
Morris Jastrow, Jr., /f^/e^zow of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), pp. 397 f., 662 f.;
J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism," Fortnightly Review, April and May, 1859;
BvBGE, Egyptian Magic {iHgg), pp. 232 £f.; Paul Haupt, "Medical and Hygienic
Features of the Bible," The Independent, New York, July 13, 1899, pp. 1906 f.; G. A.
SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1899); F.J. Schamberg,
"The Nature of the Leprosy of the Bible," Biblical World, Vol. XHI (1899), pp.
162-9 ; Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Bib-
lical Literature, Vol. XIX (1901), p. 60, and note II3; McCURDY, article " Animal-
Worship, "/««w/i Encyclopedia {1901); Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901),
pp. 257-69 ; R. G. MuRisoN, " Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical World, Vol.
XVIII (1901), pp. 176-84 ; E. Clodd, Myths and Dreams, pp. 99 f.
Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus {\']'i']\, Hebenstreit, De cura sanit.
publ. (1783), Vol. II, pp. 15 f.; Beyer, De haemorrh. ex lege Mosis impuris (1792);
Bleek, " Beitrage zu den Forschungen iiber den Pentateuch," Theologische Studien
U7id Kritiken, 1831, pp. 498 f.; Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus (1839), Vol. II,
pp. 159 ff., 462 ff.; Sommer, Biblische Abhandlungen (1846), pp. 183-367; Saalschutz,
Das mosaische Recht mit Beriicksichtigung des spdtern jiidischen (ist ed. 1846, 1848;
2d ed. 1853), chaps. 22-32 ; Kurtz, "Ueber die symbolische Dignitat des in Num. 19
zur Tilgung der Todesunreinigkeit verordneten Ritus," Theologische Studien und
Kritiken, 1846, pp. 629 ff.; Danielssen et Boeck, Traite de la Spedalskhed [Nor-
wegian = leprosy] ou Elephantiasis des Grecs (transl. from the Norwegian, 1847);
Chwolsohn, />?> Ssahier und der Ssabismus (1856), Vol. I, pp. 146 ff.; C. WoLFF,
"Die Lepra Arabum," in ViRCHOW's Archiv fiir path. Anatomie und Physiologie,
Vol. XXVI (1861); S. FiNALY, "Ueber die wahre Bedeutung des Aussatzes in der
Bibel," Archiv fiir Dermatologie und Syphilidologie (1870); ScHENKEL, article
" Reinigkeit," Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der
biblischen Geschichte, Vol. I (1875), PP- 409-19; L. KoTELMANN, Die Geburtshilfe bei
den alien Hebrdern (1876); Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte,
Vol.11 (1878), pp. 100 ff.; Frantz Delitzsch, "Die Aussatztora des Leviticus,"
Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 3-10;
E. K5nig, article " Reinigungen," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und
Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Kamphausen, article "Reinigkeit und Reinigungen,"
Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Frantz Delitzsch,
article " Reinigungsopfer," ibid.; Noldeke, "Robertson Smith's Kinship and Marriage
in Early Arabia," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XL
(1886), pp. 157-69; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel,No\. I (1887), pp. 481 ff.;
Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums { = Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, III, 1st
ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 52, 106, 156, 176 ff.; M. Sandreczky, "Studien iiber
Lepra," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), PP- 34-40
128 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(from the English in The Lancet, London, August 31, 1889); Riehm, Alttestamentliche
Theologie (1889), pp. 124 ff.; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode{\%<^2), see Index,
s. V. "Taboo " and " Unrein ; " Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch (1892), pp. 105 f.; G. N.
Munch, Die Zara'ath der hebrdischen Bibel. Einleitung in der Geschichte des Atissatz,
in Dermatologische Studien, by G. Unna (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen
Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Tabu,"
"Totemismus;" H. Schurtz, Die Speiseverbote (1893); A. EiNSLER, " Beobachtungen
iiber d. Aussatz im heiligen Lande," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina- Vereins, Vol.
XVI (1893), Heft 4 ; NovvACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I,
pp. 116 £f.; II, pp. 275-99 ; 'QKiiZl^GKK, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 152,297,
478-89; T>\\AM.h^'ti,Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie {\Zq^),%e.& Index, s. v.
"Reinheit," "Unrein," etc.; Zinsser, " Bemerkungen iiber den jetzigen Stand der
Lepraforschungen," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina- Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895),
pp. 41-4; A.WiENKK, Die j'iidischen Speisegesetze {iSgS); A. Sack, Was ist die Zaraatk
der hebrdischen Bibel? (ViRCHOw's Archiv fiir path. Anatomic und Physiologie, Band
144, Supplementheft, 1896); Stade, Theologische Litteratur-Zeitung, 1896, No. I, col.
10; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Judeti zu den Fremden (1896),
see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Reinigung ;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen
Religion (1897), pp. 24 f., 30, 42, 104, 193, 221 f.; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und
Seelenkult im alten Israel (1898), pp. 173-87; N. COHN, Die Vorschrift betreffs
die Zar'ath nach dem Kitab al Kafi (1898); D. H. MuLLER, Sudarabische Altertiimer im
kunsthistorischen Museufn zu Wien (1899); J. PiKLER AND F. Somlo, Der Ursprung
des Totemismus (1899); J. C. Matthes, " De begrippen rein en onrein in het Oude
Testament," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Vo\. XXXIII (1899), pp. 293-318; J. Halevy,
Revue semiiique. Vol. VII {1899), pp. 267 ff.; GruNEISEN, Ahtienkultus und Urre-
ligion Israels (1900); Ebstein, Die Aledizin im Alten Testavient {igoi).
See also the treatises in the Mishnah entitled Niddah, Parah, Tehoroth, Zabbim,
Celim, Miscath Arlah; and the commentaries on Lev., chaps. ii-iS, especially those
of Dillmann (1880), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1900), and Driver and
White {Polychrome Bible, 1898).
§135. Supplementary Topics.
1. Consider the following references to clean and unclean in the
Psalter: 73:1,13; 19:9,12; 51:2,7,10; 24:4; 18:20; 119:9;
and summarize their teachings.
2. Examine the following references in the books of Job and
Proverbs; Job 11:4; 33 : 9 ; 17:9; ^5 : M ff-; 25 :4; 9 : 30 ; 37 : 21;
36: 14 ; Prov. 14:4; 16:2; 20 :9 ; and also Eccl. 9:2; and summarize
their teachings.
3. Study the allusions to clean and unclean in the books of the
Maccabees and formulate a statement covering them : i Mace, i : 37,
46 ff., 54,62 f.; 2 : 12; 3:51 ; 4:38,43 f-, 48 f., 54; 13=47 f-; 2 Mace.
I : 18, 33, 36 ; 2:8, 16, 19 ; 3:12; 4:14; 5:27; 6 : 2, 5, 7 f., 18 ff.;
7:1 ff.; 10:3, 5; 11:24; 12: 40; 13:8; 14: 36.
4. What, in general, is the attitude of New Testament writers
toward the idea of clean and unclean as gathered from a study
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 29
of the principal allusions: Matt. 8 : 2 f.; 10:1,8; 11:5; 12:43;
23 : 25-27 ; Mark i : 23, 26 f., 40-44 ; 3 : 1 1, 30 ; 5 : 2, 8, 13 ; 6:7;
7:25; Luke 4:27; 5:12 ff.; 6:18; 7:22; 8:29; 4:33, 36;
9 : 42 ; II : 24, 39, 41 ; 17 : 14, 17 ; John 15:3; Acts 5:16; 8:7;
io:i4f., 28; ii:8f.; Rom. 1:24; 6:19; 14:14; i Cor. 7:14;
2 Cor. 6:17; 7:1; 12:21; Gal. 5:19; Eph. 4:19; 5:3, 5, 26;
Col. 3 : 5 ; I Thess. 2:3; 4:7; Heb. 9:13; James 4 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 10 ;
I John I : 7, 9 ?
5. Make a study of the Hebrew words for "clean," viz., "dilp,
nin^ , ^:n , ^^t , and " unclean," viz., ^•z'o ; cf. nn2?in , yjDTJD , *pp-i ,
etc.; trace their usage in the cognate languages (especially Assyrian
and Arabic), and endeavor to determine their primary meaning and
their exact significance in Hebrew literature.
See especially Baudissin, Studien zur setnitischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II,
pp. 1-40; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and \]\\c\ea.n,'" Encychpcedia Biblica; ZiM-
MERN, Beitrdge zur Assyriologie, Vol. I, p. 105 ; Whitehouse, Thinker, 1892, p. 52;
and the various lexicons.
6. Compare the similarities between the usages connected with
clean and unclean and those connected with the ban ■^'^'^T^. How
may these be most satisfactorily explained ?
See § 146, and cf. W. H. Bennett, article " Ban," EncyclopcEdia Biblica.
7. Study the phenomena similar to the Hebrew " clean and unclean "
found in other Semitic nations, e. g., the prohibition among the Syrians
against eating swine ; the putting off of ordinary everyday garments
while engaged in sacred acts at Mecca and other ancient Arabic sanc-
tuaries ; the Arabian custom and method of removing the impurity of
widowhood; the impurity of menstruation, which is recognized by all
Semites; and the many parallels found in Egyptian customs and wor-
ship. What is the common basis of all these customs ?
See especially W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 441-56 ; W. Max
MiJLLER, article "Egypt," §19, Encyclopcedia Biblica; Frazer, articles "Taboo"
and "Totemism," Encyclopadia Britannica.
8. Consider the possible bases of classification of the clean and
unclean animals, birds, fish, etc. Is the hygienic motive satisfactory ?
Is the idea that certain things are prohibited because of an instinctive
feeling of abhorrence for them applicable to all cases? Does the pro-
hibition of certain things have any connection with their sacrificial or
non-sacrificial character? Can certain cases be explained as due to a
belief that the animals in question were inhabited by demons? Can
130 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
any clearly marked line of demarcation be drawn between clean and
unclean beasts, etc.? Is a combination of motives probable ?
See especially Driver, Deuteronomy, p. 164 ; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the
Jewish Church, pp. 365 f. and note ; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean,"
Encydopcedia Biblica; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. I, pp.
1 16-19.
9. Study the idea of "holiness" carefully in the light of the teach-
ing concerning " clean and unclean." Was it thought of originally
as a relation sustained to the deity, or as an inherent quality ? What
is the history of the conception from this point of view ?
10. Consider the close relationship of the idea of "clean and
unclean " to the idea of God, and the mutual influence of the two
ideas. Note that in the earliest times everything thought to be asso-
ciated with the deity was regarded as unclean, and that in the later
period the exalted idea of God's holiness was expressed concretely by
a wide extension of the circle of " uncleanness." Trace the parallel
development of these two conceptions through the course of Israel's
history.
CHAPTER XI.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER AND RELATED FORMS OF
WORSHIP, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY.
§ 136. With prayer, offered at times to secure deliverance from
trouble or danger, at other times to obtain the presence of the deity
and his guidance, there may be associated, for purposes of classifica-
tion, (i) the vow, which was a promise made to the deity in case of the
granting of a request; (2) blessings and curses, which were prayers for
good or evil to one's friends or enemies; (3) the ban or sentence to
destruction, which was a formal curse or anathema; (4) the oath,
which was an invocation of the deity, or a solemn statement in the
name of the deity. The following may also be regarded as indirectly
connected with prayer, viz.: (5) fasting, a means of making impression
upon the deity, and thus securing favor ; (6) consultation through
oracles, Urim and Thummim, the ephod, and the lot, which were
various means of ascertaining the divine will ; (7) practice in connec-
tion with sorcery, or witchcraft, or magic, or divination, all of which
was, likewise, effort to communicate with the spirit or deity and to
secure knowledge of the divine will; (8) mourning customs, many of
which had their origin in the superstition that the departed spirit had
power for evil or good over those who were living, a power to be pro-
pitiated or averted by certain acts ; (9) circumcision, which was an act
of dedication to the deity.
It might be said that every act of worship was xt.2i\\j prayer ; that
is, approach to the deity. Sacrifice, for example, was acted prayer.
§ 137. Prayer.
I. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'
(a) Divine mercy and aid are sought through prayer.
Gen. r8 : 22-33 ; 19 : 18-22 ; 20 : 7, 17(E); 25 : 21 ; 30:6, 17(E), 22 ;
32:9-12; 35 :3(E); Exod. 3 : 7. 9 : 5 : 22 f.; 8:8, 12, 29 ff.; 9:28 £f.;
10:17 ff.; 14:10, 15(E); 15 : 25 ; 17:4, 8-1 5(E); 32 : 11-14 ; 32 : 30-32
(E); Numb. 11:1-3 (E), 10-15,18; I2:I3(E); I4:i3-I9(E); 21:7
(E); 23 : 10(E); Josh. 7 :6-9; 10:12-14; 24: 7(E); Judg. 10:10, 14 f.;
15 : 18; 16:28 ; I Sam. 7:8 f.; 15:11; 2 Sam. 15:31 ; 24 :io, 17; 2 Kings
4 : 33; 6 : 17-20; 19:1,4,14-20.
*A11 the references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E).
131
132 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Study different typical cases of prayer for mercy and aid, and con-
sider (i) the persons who are represented as praying; (2) the nature
of the petitions offered, e. g., requests for healing, for children, for
relief from frogs, hail, etc., for rescue from Pharaoh, for deliverance
of Israel from immediate destruction after sin has been committed ;
(3) the character of the prayers — simple, informal, naive; (4) the
basis on which request is made; (5) the elements of prayer which
seem to be lacking in these cases ; (6) the indications of a primitive
stage of religious development; (7) the typical and fundamental ele-
ments of prayer which are involved.
{b) Divine presence and guidance are sought through prayer.
Gen. 24:12-14; Exod. 33:7-ii(E); 34 :9; Numb. 10:35 f-: i Sam.
8 : 6, 18, 21; 12: 17 f.; 2 Sam. 7 : 18-29; i Kings 3 :6-9; 18 : 24-40;
2 Kings 19:2-7, 15-19.
Study, from the same points of view, another class of prayers, in
which request is made for the presence of the divine spirit and for its
guidance.
2. The middle period: readings, questions, and suggestions.'
Deut. 9:18-20,25-29; 10:10; 26:15; 2 Kings 22:19; Jer. 3:21;
10 : 23-25 ; 14 : 7-9, 19-22 ; 15 : 15-18 ; 18 : 19-23; 20 : i 2 ; 42 : 1-6;
Judg. 3:9,15; 4:3; 6:6; 2 Kings 20 : 3 ; i Kings 8 : 22-6 1 .
Consider (i) the circumstances attending Moses' prayers for the
people, his fear of Jehovah, the ground of intercession, the element of
confession, the naive appeal to the estimate which strangers may make
of Jehovah's ability, or of his purpose; (2) the reasons given by the
prophetess Huldah for Jehovah's favorable answer to Josiah, viz.,
humility, supplication ; (3) the spirit of dependence seen in Jeremiah's
prayer (10:23-25), and its request; (4) Jeremiah's confession and
passionate appeal (14 : 7-9, 19-22); (5) Jeremiah's personal complaints
(15 : 15-18; 18 : 19-23; 20 : 12); (6) the request of the people that Jere-
miah would pray for them, and his consent (Jer. 42 : 1-6); (7) the
crying of Israel to Jehovah in their distress; (8) the basis of Heze-
kiah's appeal for preservation from death (2 Kings 20 : 3); (9) Solomon's
prayer (i Kings 8 : 20-53) ^^ the dedication of the temple (as expanded
and presented by the Deuteronomic editor) — its form, its contents, its
spirit, its presuppositions.
'References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter-
onomy.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 33
3. The later period : readings, questions, and suggestions. ^
Gen. 17: 18 ; Exod. 2 : 23 f.; 6:5; Numb. 16 : 20-24 ; Judg. 20 : 18,
23 ; 21:2 f. ; Ezra 8 : 21 £f.; g :$ — 10 : i ; Neh. i : 4-1 1 ; 2:4; 4 : 4 f .
4:9; 5: 19; 6:9, 14; 9:5-38 ; 13: 14. 22, 30; Isa. 63: 15—64: 12.
Consider (i) that an ejaculation (Gen. 17:18), the cry under
oppression, is really prayer ; (2) the form and thought of the prayer
ascribed to the congregation (Numb. 16 : 20-24) ; (3) the various prayers
recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, noting the form, the content, the
spirit, the entirely different tone as compared with those of preceding
periods; (4) the exact particulars in which this difference of tone
consists.
§ 138. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a brief statement, covering (i)
the general content of scriptural prayers; (2) the peculiarities of form ;
(3) the essential elements which make up such prayers; (4) any differ-
ences which appear as characterizing the prayers of different periods;
(5) the place of prayer in worship ; (6) the usage of prayer (a) in the
Psalms,4 (^) in the wisdom literature,^ (c) in the apocryphal books,* (d)
in the New Testament,' () among Assyro-Babylonians, Egyptians, etc.^
§ 139. Literature to be Consulted.
Alfred Barry, article " Prayer," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863,
2d ed. 1893); EwALD, Antiquities of Israel (-^A ed. 1866, transl. 1876), see Index, s.v.
"Prayer," etc.; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, 5th ed. 1896, transl.
1892), Vol. I, pp. 371 f.; H. Fox Talbot, "A Prayer and a Vision," Transac-
tions of the Society of Biblical ArchcBology, Vol. I (1872), pp. 346 ff., and Records of the
Fast,Yo\. VII (1876), pp. 65 ff.; 'E.^.Ty'LOK, Primitive Cttlture {1874), see Index,
s. V. " Prayer," "Oracles ; " H. Fox Talbot, "Assyrian Sacred Poetry," Records of the
Past, Vol. Ill (1874), pp. 131-8 ; A. H. Sayce, " Fragment of an Assyrian Prayer after
a Bad Dream," Records of the Past, Vol. IX (1877), pp. 149-52; B. T. A. Evetts,
"An Assyrian Religious Text," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol.
X (1888), pp. 478f.; D. G. Lyon, " Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Prayers," Pro-
ceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1888, pp. xciii, xciv ; S. A. Strong, "A
Prayer of Assurbanipal," Records of the Past, new series, Vol. VI (1892), pp. 102-6 ;
Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), pp. 505 f.; J. A. Craig,
"Prayer of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal," Hebraica, Vol. X (1893), PP- 75-87 ;
Menzies. History of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer ; " J. L. Nevius, Demon
Possession and Allied 7>5ifw^j (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer," etc.; Jastrow, Religion
3 All the references to the Hexateuch are from the P document.
*See, e. g., Pss. 5 ; 12 ; 51 ; 55 ; 69.
SSee, e. g., Job 22 :27; 33 : 26 ; 41 : 3; 42:8, 10 ; Prov. 15:8; 28:9.
«See,^. g-., I Mace. 3:44-54; 4:10,30-34,38-40; 5=31-34; 2 Mace. 1:5 f., 8.
23-30; 13:10-12; 14:33-36; 15:21-24; Ecclus. 18:23; chap. 51.
7 Matt. 6 : 9 ff.; 17:21; 21 : 13, 22 ; 23 : 14 ; John, chap. 17.
^See literature cited in § 139.
134 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. " Prayers," etc.; T. K. Cheyne,
Tewish Religious Life after the Exile {\%()%), p. 251; Duff, Old Testament Theology,
Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. " Prayer, etc.; " Day, The Social Life of the Hebrews
(1901), pp. 2I5f.
Gass, article " Gebet," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Stade,
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 487 ff.; RiEHM's Handivorterbuch des
biblischen Alterthums (2d ed. 1893 f.). Vol. I, pp. 484 ff.; J. A. Knudtzon, Assyrische
Gebete an den Sonnengott fiir Staat und konigliches Haus aus der Zeit Asarhaddons
und Assurbanipals, 2 vols. (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions-
geschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Gebet ; " Benzinger, Hebrd-
ische Archdologie {\%()i\),^^. ^t2&.; ^OVVKCK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie,
Vol. il (1894), PP- 259 ff.; DiLLMANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie
(1895), pp. 184,481; Marti, Geschichte der israeliiischen Religion (1897), see Index,
J. z*. " Gebet," etc.; F. Buhl, article "Gebet im Pi.\t&n'Y&i,\.2SVi&v\.t^'' Realencyklopddie
fiir prot. Theologie und Kirche, Vol. VI (1899).
§ 140. The Vow.
1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions.
Gen. 14:21 ff.; 28:2off. (E); 31 : 13(E); Judg. 11 :2gff., 39; I3:4f.,
7, 14 ; I Sam. 1:11,21; 2 Sam. 15 17 f.; Numb. 21:1-3 (J); Isa.
19:21, 25.
Examine the narratives which record the vows of Abraham, Jacob,
Jephthah, the Nazirite, Hannah, Absalom, Israel in connection with
Arad, as typical cases of vows, and note in each case (i) the implica-
tion of dependence upon and recognition of the power of the deity;
(2) the motive actuating the individual to make the vow; (3) the form
of expression employed.
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.
Deut. 12:6, n, 17, 26; 23: 18, 22 f.; Nah. 2:1; Isa. ^^■.^l\ Jer. 44:25.
Examine the references to vows and note (i) the characteristics of
each case presented ; (2) the close association of the vow with the free-
will offering; (3) the prohibition of the use of the harlot's hire; (4)
the obligation to pay a vow once made ; (5) the making of a vow,
wholly voluntary; (6) the prophetic point of view.
3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'
Numb. 6:1-21; 15:3.8; 29:39; 30:1-16; Mai. 1:14; Jon. 1:16;
2:10; Lev. 7 : 16 ; 27 : 2, 8 ; 22 : 18, 21, 23 ; 23 : 38.
Examine the references cited and note (i) the special cases cited;
(2) the increase in complexity of arrangement; (3) the details of the
law of the Nazirite ; (4) the circumstances under which the vow of a
9 References in bold-face type are from the P document.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 135
woman is obligatory or otherwise ; (5) the distinction made between
the vow and the free-will offering.
§ 141. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the vow, which
will take up (i) the religious and psychological basis of the usage; (2)
the various kinds of motives which are seen to have exerted influence;
{3) the words employed and their significance; (4) the relationship of
the vow to the free-will offering; (5) the relation to the oath; (6) the
modifications in usage which come in later times; (7) the difference
in principle between vows of devotion and vows of abstinence ; (8) the
place of the Nazirite order '° in Old Testament history; (9) the making
of vows among other ancient peoples;" (10) the attitude of the
prophets ; (11) the representations in the Psalms ;" (12) the representa-
tions in wisdom literature;'^ (13) the representations in apocryphal
literature;'* (14) the representations in the New Testament ;'5 (15) the
relation to prayer and sacrifice.
§142. Literature to be Consulted.
H. W. Phillott, article " Vows," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; SCHULTZ,
op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 191 f., 371 f.; W. R. Smith, articles "Nazarite" and "Vow,"
Encyclopedia Britannica (1875); Idem, Rel. of Sent., see Index, s. v. "Vows," "Naza-
rite," '■etc.; Menzies, op. cit., p. 74; G. F. Moore, Judges (" International Criti-
cal Commentary," 1895), pp. 232, 279, 380 ff.; Driver, The Books of Joel and
Amos (Camb. Bible, 1897), pp. 152 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 189, 254; G. B. Gray,
"The Nazirite," Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. I (1900), pp. 201 ff.; D. Eaton,
article "Nazirite," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. III.
Vilmar, "Die symbolische Bedeutung des Naziraergeliibdes," Theologische
Studien und Kritiken, 1864, pp. 438 ff.; SCHRADER, article "Geliibde," Schenkel's
Bibel-Lexikon; DiLLMANN, article "Nasiraer," ibid.; Oehler and Orelli, article
" Nasiraat," Realencyklopddie {zA ed.); Grill, " Ueber Bedeutung und Ursprung des
Nasiraergeliibdes," Jahrbiicher fiir prot. Theologie, 1880, pp. 645 ff.; Maybaum, Die
Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthu7ns (1883) pp. 147-53; Riehm, //a«t/-
worterbuch, articles "Geliibde" and "Nasiraer;" Goldziher, Muhammedanische
Studien, Vol. I (1888), pp. 23 f.; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Geliibde;"
NowACK, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 263 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Bann,"
"Geliibde," etc.; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 141 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 87, 107; Buhl,
article " Geliibde im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. VI.
'°See article "Nazirite" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. III.
"See article "Vow," Encyc. Brit.; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol.
Ill, p. 117; Jastrow, op. cit., pp. 668 f.
"See, e. g., Pss. 22:25; 50:14; 56:12; 61:5,8; 65:1; 66:13; 76:11;
116:14, 18; 132 : 2.
'3See, e. g., Eccl. 5 : 4 f.; Job 22 : 27 ; Prov. 7 : 14 ; 20 : 25 ; 31 : 2.
'♦See, e. g., 2 Mace. 3 : 35 ; 9: 13 ff.; Ecclus. 18 :22.
'SSee, ^. g-., Act3 18: 18; 21:23!.
136 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 143. Blessings and Cursings.
1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions.'*
Gen. 3:14, 17; 4:11; 9:25 f.; 12 : 3; 27:27-29, 35 (E), 39 f- (E)
48: 15 f.; 49: 1-27 ; Exod. 12 :32 ; 21 :i7(E);'7 23 :2i (E), 25-31 (E)
Numb. 22 :6; 24 : 9 ; i Sam. 2 : 20 ; 14 : 24, 28 ; 17 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 28 f.
19: 39; Deut. 33 : 1-29 (E); Judg. 9:57; 21 : 18.
Study and classify the material on blessings and cursings as fol-
lows : (i) words used in blessing and cursing; (2) forms of expres-
sion used, e.g., Judg. 21:18; i Sam. 2:20; Deut., chap. 33; (3)
important cases of blessings or cursings, ^. ^., (a:) Jacob's last words
(Gen., chap. 49), ib) Moses' last words (Deut., chap. 33), {c) David's curse
on Joab (2 Sam. 3 : 28, 29) ; (4) the peculiar lack of the moral element
in the case of Esau (Gen. 27 : 35) ; (5) the cursing of a hostile nation,
e. g., by Balak (Numb. 22 : 6), by Goliath (i Sara. 17 : 43) ; (6) the con-
nection with the oath ; (7) the blessing and curse pronounced in
connection with the Covenant Code (Exod. 23: 21, 25-31).
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'^
Gen. 49 : 25 f., 28 ; Deut. 11:26-30; 27:11-26; 28:1-68; 29:19-21;
30:1, 7, 19; Josh. 8:34 ; Jer. 29:18; Ezek. 34:26; i Kings 18 : 14 f.,
55 f.; ^/. Ps. 68:1-3.
Make a similar classification of the material coming from the
middle period, noting as cases of special interest (i) the arrangement
for blessings and curses to be announced from Mounts Gerizim and
Ebal (Deut. 27:11-26); (2) Joshua's reading of the blessings and the
curses (Josh. 8 134); (3) the old xo^dX form of blessing (i Kings 8 : 14 f.,
55 f.); (4) d,form of national blessing {cf. Ps. 68:1-3); (5) prophetic
use of curse (Jer. 29 : 18) and blessing (Ezek. 34 : 26); (6) the blessings
and curses announced in connection with the Deuteronomic Code
(Deut. 28:3-14, 15-68).
3. The late period: readings, questions, and suggestions."
Gen.28:3f.; Lev. 9:22; 25:21; chap. 26 ; Numb. 5 :i2-3i; 6 :22-26;
Neh. 10 :29 ; 13:2; 2 Chron. 34 :24 ; Isa. 24 : 6 ; Zech. 5:3; Mai. 2:2;
3:9; Pss. 1 09 ; 37 : 36 ; Prov. 26 : 2 ; Dan. 9:11.
Classify likewise the material of the late period, noting as cases of
'* All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E).
'7 This reference is from the Covenant Code.
•8 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter-
onomy.
"References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 37
special interest (i) Isaac's blessing of Jacob (P) (Gen. 28 :3 f.); (2) the
priestly form of blessing (Numb. 6:22-26); (3) the forms of doxology
used in later worship {cf. Pss. 134; 150); (4) the blessings and curses
announced in connection with the Levitical Code (Lev. 26:3-12,
16-45); (5) the thought even in later times that "it was worth while to
curse a bad man" {cf. Ps. 109); but (6) the feeling also that only the
good might be blessed {cf. Ps. 37 : 26), and that causeless curses were
of no avail {cf. Prov. 26 : 2).
§144. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on blessings and
cursings, including the following points : (i) the words translated
blessing and curse; (2) the forms of expression used ; (3) stereotyped
formulas of benediction ; (4) the religious idea or superstition under-
lying the usage — was it really a "spell, pronounced by a holy per-
son " ? (5) how was this usage related to magic and sorcery {cf. the
curse-producing water)? (6) the more important patriarchal blessings
— were they cursings as well as blessings? (7) the threefold classifica-
tion : {d) one nation by another, {b) one individual by another, {c) as
attached to laws to secure their better observance ; (8) a comparison
of the three sets of blessings and cursings connected respectively with
the Covenant Code, the Deuteronomic Code, and the Levitical Code ;
(9) a comparison of the usage as it is found in the three periods, the
modifications which are made; (to) a comparison of the New Testa-
ment representations on this subject^" — are blessings and curses found
in the speeches of Jesus ? if so, how are they to be understood? (11)
this usage among the Arabians;" (12) this usage among the Assyri-
ans ;''^ (13) the relation of this usage to prayer.
§ 145. Literature to be Consulted.
EWALD, Op. cit., pp. 76-9 ; SCHULTZ, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 335 ff., 346 ff.; Briggs,
Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 115-20; VV. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in
Early Arabia (1887), pp. 53, 263; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent., p. 164; L. W. King,
Babylonian Magic aftd Sorcery (iSgt); J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' ZJzV-
tionary, Vol.1 (1898); W. F. Adeney, article "Blessing," ibid.; T. K. CHeyne,
article "Blessings and Cursings," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); Henry Hayman. " The
Blessing of Moses : Its Genesis and Structure," American Journal of Semitic Lan-
guages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106.
'°See, e. g., Matt. 5 : 44 ; 14 : 19 ; 26 : 26 ; Mark 10: 16; Luke 2 :'28, 34; 9 : 16;
24:50!.; Acts 3: 26; 23:12,14; Rom. 12:14; Cal.3:i3; Mark 7 : 10 ; ii::i;
Matt. 15:4; 25 :4I.
"Cf. GoLDZiHER, Muhammedanische Studien.
^^ Cf. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, passim.
138 PRIESTLY ELEM?:iNT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Merx, articles "Fluch" and " Fluchwasser," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikoti, Vol. II
(1869); SCHENKEL, article "Segen," Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Burger, article
"Segen, Segnung," Realencyklopddie, 2d ed., Vol. XIV (1884); Riehm, article
"Fluch," Handivorterbuch des bibl. Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 126;
SCHWALLY, " Miscellen," Zeitschrift fiir die altlestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI
(1891), pp. 170 ff.; NowACK, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 251 f., 261 f.; Benzinger, op. cit.,
p. 146; Marti, o/. cit., pp. 91, 116.
§146. The Ban.
■ I. The early period.
Exod. 22:19; (E);« Numb. 21: 2 (J); Josh. 8: 26(E); Judg. 1:17;
21:11; I Sam. 15 : 3, 8, 15, 18, 20.
2. The middle period.'*
Josh. 2:10; 6:18; 10:28, 35, 40; ii:ii f., 21; Mic. 4:13; Isa.
43:28; Deut. 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 26; i3:i7f.; 20:17; Jer. 25:9;
50:21, 26; 51:3.
3. The late period.''^
Isa. 34 : 2, 5 ; Mai. 4:6; Lev. 27 :2i, 28 f.; Numb. 18 : 14 ; Isa. 11:15 ;
Zech. 14:11; I Chron. 2:7; 4:41; 2 Chron. 32:14; Ezra i o : 8 ; Dan.
11:44.
Examine the passages cited in the various periods, and classify the
material thus gathered as follows: (i) words used to mean ban or
destruction, and their significance ; (2) classes of persons or objects sub-
ject to ban, e. g., (a) idols, (^) individuals regarded as enemies of the
nation, (c) cities or nations regarded as hostile (the Canaanites), (d)
individuals personally objectionable, (e) metals; (3) the regulations at
various times relating to the ban ; (4) the modifications which are made
from period to period, e. g.. Josh. 6 : 24 ; Numb. 18:14; Ezek. 44 : 29.
§ 147. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the ban, taking
up (i) the sociological basis; (2) its relationship [a] to the vow, [b) to
the idea of clean and unclean, {c) to taboo; (3) a classification of per-
sons or things liable to the ban; (4) the changes which came in later
times; (5) the attitude of the prophets; (6) the non-appearance of the
term in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature ; (7) the New Testa-
ment development of the idea {cf. i Cor. 16:22); (8) the place of the
idea in other Semitic nations {cf. Moab, Arabia, and Assyria).*'
'3 riiis reference is from the Covenant Code.
*'' References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book of
Deuteronomy.
»s References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.
^Cf. Mesha Inscription, line 17 ; von Tornauw, Zeitsch. d. Deutschen Morgen-
Uindischen Geselhchaft, Vol. XXXVI, pp. 297 ff-: W. R. Smith, Ret. of Sent., Index, s. v.
"Ban;" Stade, Gesck., Vol. I, pp. 490 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 39
§ 148. Literature to be Consulted.
EwALD, Antiquities, pp. 75-8 ; ScHULTZ, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 390 ; II, p. 87 ; W. R.
Smith, Rel. ofSem., pp. 150,371, 453 ; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the
Books of Samuel (1890), pp. 100 ff.; McCURDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments
(1895-1901), § 550; J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dictionary, No\.\\ W.
H. Bennett, article "Ban," Encyc. Bib.,No\. I; Yi K\ , op. cit ., pp 180, 212 f.
Merx, article "Bann," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,Yo\. I (1869); Weber, Die
Lehren des Talmud (1880), pp. 138 ff.; voN ToRNAUW, Zeitschrift der Deuischen Mor-
genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXXVI (1882), pp. 297 ff.; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I
(1887), p. 490 ; Smend, op. cit., pp. 21, 39, 147 {., 288 ; NoWACK, op. cit., Vol. I, pp.
371 f.; II, pp. 266-9 ; Benzinger, op. cit., p. 363 ; Dillmann, op. cit., pp. 45, 126^
149 ; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896),
pp. 10, 89; Marti, op. cit., pp. 31, 39, 47 f.; S. Mandl, Der Bann (1898).
§ 149. Oaths.
1. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'^
Gen. 14 :22 ; 15 :8-ii, 17 f.; 21 122-24 (E); 22 : 15 (JE); 24 : 1-3, 27;
25 : 33 (E); 26 : 3 (JE), 26-31 ; 31:53 (E); 42:15 (E); 47 : 29 ; 5° : 25
(E); Exod. 13 : 19(E); Josh. 2 : 12-14, 20 ; 6 : 26 ; Judg. 21:1; i Sam.
14:24-30, 39. 44 f-; 19:6; 24:21; 30:15; 2 Sam. 3:9f.; 19:23;
21 : 1 f., 7 ; I Kings 1:13, 17, 30, 51 f.; 2 : 23f., 36-46.
Examine and classify the cases of oaths cited, determining, in each
case, (i) whether it is an oath sworn by man to man, by God to man,
or by man to God ; (2) the ritual of the oath, whether, for example,
accompanied by sacrifice of certain victims, by taking hold of the
thigh, by stretching upward the hand ; (3) the penalty expected or
prescribed in case of the violation of the oath; (4) any specially inter-
esting uses of or usages in connection with the oath, e. g., Abraham's
oath to Melchizedek, the dividing of the animals (Gen. 15: 10), the
treaty between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31 : 44-54), Rahab and the spies
(Josh. 2:12-14), Saul's adjuration (i Sam. 14 : 24-30, 39, 44 f.), David's
oath concerning Solomon (i Kings 1:13), Shimei and Solomon
(i Kings 2:42); (5) what is prohibited in Exod. 20:7, ^^^^^^ s/ialt not
take the name of Jehovah thy God in vain (blasphemy, perjury, pro-
fanity, or sorcery and witchcraft)?
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.
Jer. 4:2; 22 : 5 ; 31 :33 ; 34 : i8f.; 38 : 16 ; Ezek. 17 : i6-ig ; Deut.
19: I9£f.=8
Examine and classify as above, noting particularly points of special
interest in connection with (i) false swearing (Deut. igrigff.); (2)
'7 All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those marked otherwise, and
Gen. 14 :22, which is from an independent source.
^' This reference is from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy.
140 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
the cutting of the calf (Jer. 34 : i8 f.); (3) the new covenant (Jer.
31:33); (4) Zedekiah's oath (Jer. 38:16); (5) breaking the covenant
(Ezek. 17 : 16-19).
3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.''
Numb. 5:11-28; chap. 30; Josh. 9:15, 19 f.; Judg. 21 :5, 7; Zech.
5 : 1 ff.; Ezra 10 : 5 ; Neh. 10 : 29 ; Dan. 12:7.
Examine and classify as above, noting points of special interest
in connection with (i) the water of bitterness that causeth the curse
(Numb. 5:11 ff.); (2) vows (Numb., chap. 30); (3) the oath to the
Gibeonites (as described in Josh. 9 : 15 f., 19 f.); (4) the oath concern-
ing strange wives (Ezra 10 : 2-5); (5) the flying-roll and false swearing
(Zech. 5 : 1-4); (6) the man clothed in linen (Dan. 12:7).
§150. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a statement upon the use of
the oath among the Hebrews, taking up the following points : (i) the
significance of the usual word translated swear, viz., " to come under
the influence of seven things;" (2) the ritual; (3) the various forms of
the oath ; (4) its irrevocable character and the penalty of its violation ;
(5) its sociological basis; (6) the significance of an oath made by the
deity; (7) the meaning of the third commandment ; (8) the changes
in usage which may be noted between the three periods ; (9) the atti-
tude of the prophets ; ^° (10) the representations concerning swearing
in the wisdom literature ; 3' (11) the representations in the apocfyphal
literature ;3^ (12) the attitude of the New Testament;" (13) the use
of the oath among the Arabs ; ^^ (14) its use among the x\ssyrians and
Babykmians ; (15) its relation to prayer.^^
§151. Literature to be Consulted.
H. W. Phillott, article "Oath," Smith's Diet, of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d
ed. 1893); EwALD, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oath," etc.; Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. II,
p. 70 ; Y.. B. Tylor, article "Oath," Encyc. Brit. (1875); W. R. Smith, Kel. o/Sem., pp.
180 ff., 480 ; V. J. Coffin, " The Third Commandment, "/i:;«r«a/ of Biblical Literature.
" References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.
3° See, e.g., Hos. 4:2, 15 ; 10:4 ; Amos 4:2; 6:8 ; 8 : 7, 14 ; Isa. 14 124; 19: 18;
45 : 23 ; 48 : I ; 54 : 9 ; 62 : 8 ; 65 : 16 ; Ezek. 21 : 23.
3' See, e. g., Eccl. 8:2; 9:2.
3* See, e. g., i Mace. 6: 61 f.; 7 : 18, 35 ; 2 Mace. 14:33-36; Ecclus. 44:21.
33 See, e. g., Matt. 5:33 ff.; 14:7-9; 23:i6ff.; Mark 6:23,26; Luke 1:73;
Acts 2 :30; 23: 21 ; Jas. 5: 12.
34 Cy. Wei.lhausen, /Ceste arab. Ileidenthums, p. 122; W. R. Smith, Religion
of the Semites, see Index, s. v. " Oath."
35 Cf. Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. 94 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I4I
Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 166-88; Duff, op. cit.. Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. "Oath;"
G. Ferries, article "Oath," Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, Vol. Ill (1900); Day, op.
cit., p. 184.
Saalschutz, Das mosaische Recht (1846), pp. 615 ff.; Bruch, article " Eid,"
Schenkel's i5/3f/-Zf'xz/^c«, Vol. II (1869); Riehm, article "Eid," Handworterbuch;
Wellhausen, op. eit., p. 122 ; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s, v. " Schwur ; " NoWACK,
op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 262 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Eid ; " Frey, Tod,
Seelenglaube und Seelenkult {\%c)'?,), pp. 108 f.; Benzinger, article "Eid bei den
Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898).
§ 152. Supplementary Study on Fasting as a Means for Securing the
Divine Mercy and Help.
1. The early period.
Exod. 34:28(J), r/. 24: 18(E); i Sam. 7:5 f.; 31:13; 2 Sam.
I : 12 ; 3 : 35 ; 12 : 16-23 ; i Kings 21 : 9, 12, 27.
2. The middle period.
Deut .8:3; 9:9, 1 8-20, 25-29 ; 10:10; Jer. 14:12; 36 : 6, 9.
3. The late period.
Judg. i8:i7(?); 20:26 £f.; Ezra 8:21-23; 10:6; Neh. 1:4-11;
9:1,31; Esther 4 : 1-3, 16; Zech 7 : 1-7, 18-23; 8: 19; Isa, 58 : 3 ff.;
I Chron. 10 : 12 ; 2 Chron. 20 : 3 ; Joel 1:14; 2 : 12, 15 ; Jon. 3:5;
Dan. 9:3; Lev. 16:29, 31 .3*
§153. Questions and Suggestions.
Consider (i) the reason assigned by David in 2 Sam. 12:22 for
fasting, viz., to secure Jehovah's pity; (2) the fasting of Moses on
Sinai (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 9 : 9) as a preparation for an important act,
the receiving of the law; (3) the fasting of Elijah (i Kings ig : 8 ff.) as a
preparation for communion with God; (4) the fasting of the men of
Jabesh for Saul (i Sam. 31 : 13), and of David for Saul (2 Sam. i : 12),
that is, in mourning for the dead {cf. 2 Sam. 3:35); and determine
the original meaning of the act, /. e., an explanation with which these
various cases may be connected ; is it to raise the pity of the deity? or
in preparation for a sacrificial meal ? '^^
Consider the various cases of fasting cited and note (i) the motive
or purpose in each case, e. g., David, Ahab, Nehemiah, Ezra ; (2)
whether they were private or public {cf., in earlier and middle periods, i
Kings 21 : 9 ff.; Isa. i : i2)b (Sept.); Jer. 36 : 6 ff.; and, in later period,
Joel I : i3f.; 2 Chron. 20 : 3); (3) the change by which the act becomes
spiritualized {cf. Ahab's case, i Kings 21:29); (4) the connection
between fasting and penitence {cf. i Sam. 7:6; Neh. 9:1); (5) the
3^ This reference is from the Priestly Code.
37 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 434.
142 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
circumstances which led to greater importance being given to fasting,
and the changes in frequency of the act and in meaning which came
in the later period; (6) the conception which makes it a "meritorious
work," and the prophets' attitude toward this(Isa. 58 : 3 ff.; Zech. 7 : 5 f.).
Consider the various occasions on which, in the later period, public
fasting was observed and the events thereby commemorated : (i) in the
fourth month, the capture of Jerusalem (Jer. 52 : 6, 7); (2) in the fifth
month, the destruction of the temple and city (Jer. 52:i2f.); (3) in
the seventh month, the murder of Gedaliah (Jer, 41:1 ff.); (4) in the
tenth month, the beginning of the siege (Jer. 52 : 4) {cf. Zech. 7 : 1-7,
18-23); (5) the Day of Atonement (Lev., chap. 16), noting (a) that this
is the only fast required by the laws, {S) that there is no allusion to its
observance in any of the historical literature of the Old Testament, (<:)
the purpose of the day, {d) its relation to the religious thought and spirit
of the later times; (6) the thirteenth of Adar, the case of Haman.
Consider the usage of fasting as referred to (i) in the Psalms ; ^^
(2) in the apocryphal literature ; ^^ (3) in the New Testament f (4)
among other Semitic nations.'*'
§ 154. Literature to be Consulted.
Samuel Clark, article " Atonement, Day of," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible
(ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 367 ff., 372, 402 ff., 431 ;
Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1st ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1 891, trans). 1883), §§ 140 f.;
Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services {1874), PP- 263-88; Wellhau-
SEN, Prolegomena, pp. 1 10-12; J. S. Black, article "Fasting," Encyclopcsdia Bri-
tannica, Vol. IX (1879); KuENEN, The Hexaieuch (2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886), pp. 86,
312; W. R.Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 303, 388 ff., 433 f.; Montefiore, op.cit., pp. 509 f.;
C. J. Ball, article "Fasting and Fasts," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893) *.
H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), PP- 186, 286 ff., 383;
McCuRDY, op. cit., §§ 1 1 16, 1 118, 1346 n.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article
"Atonement, Day of," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898) ; E. E. Harding, article
"Feasts and Fasts," ?3za'., Vol. I (1898), pp. 862 f.; Cheyne, ^A cit., pp. 9-1 1; M.
Jastrow, op. cit., p. 688 ; Benzinger and Cheyne, article "Atonement, Day of,"
Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); Benzinger, article "Fasting, Fasts," Ency-
clopcedia Biblica, Vol. H ( 1901) ; Ottley, A Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman
Period {l()Ol), pp. 305 f.
38See, ^^/(7^.—Josb. 18:6,8, 10 (R<^); Isa. 34: 17; Jer. 13:25; Ezek. 24:6;
Obad. 11; Nab. 3:10; Deut. 32:9.
3. The late period.*'
{a) Oracles. — Joel 2:12; Hag. 1:9; 2:4; Zecb. 1:3; 3:9; 10:12;
12:1; Mai. 1:2; Pss. 36:1; 110:1.
{b) Urim and Thummim. — Exod. 28:30; Lev. 8:8; Numb. 27:21;
Ezra 2 163; Neb. 7 :65.
4' References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code.
144 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
{c) The lot.—lj%v. i6 : 8-10 ; Numb. 26 : 55 f.; 33 : 54 ; 34 : 13 ; 36 : 2 f.;
Josh. 14 : 2 ; 15 : I ; 17 : 1 ; 19 : I, 10, 17, 24, 32, 40, 51 ; 21 ; 4, 5 f., 8,
10,40; I Chron. 6 : 54, 61, 63, 65 ; 16:18; 24:5,7,31; 25 : 8 f.;
26: 13 f.; Neh. 10: 34 ; 1 1 : i ; Esther 3:7; 9 : 24 ; Isa. 57 :6 ; Joel
3:3; Jon. 1:7; Dan. 12 : 13.
§ 156. Questions and Suggestions.
Examine the various means of consultation with the deity which
seem to have been recognized as legitimate and proper, viz., oracles,
Urim and Thummim, ephod, and lot ; note the instances cited of
each, and consider (i) the various circumstances under which such
consultation is held; (2) the underlying motive in each case; (3) the
relative frequency in the different periods ; (4) the differences (if any)
between the usages named ; (5) the various senses in which the word
oracle is used ; (6) the different views as to the method of employing
the Urim and Thummim ; (7) the meaning of the ephod and its use;
(8) the place of the lot in connection with religious acts.
Consider whether, with the growth of religious conceptions and
the higher ideas entertained of God in later times, the use of these
external helps increases or diminishes.
Consider the use of these or similar external helps in consulting
the deity, as they may be referred to in (i) the Psalms,"' (2) the
wisdom literature,** (3) the apocryphal literature,"^ (4) the New Testa-
ment ;"' and likewise as they were employed among (5) the Egyptians,"'
(6) the Assyrians and Babylonians,*^ (7) the ancient Arabs,"' (8) the
Greeks and Romans.^"
§ 157. Literature to be Consulted.
Kalisch, Exodus (1855), pp. 540-45; E. H. Plumptre, article "Urim and
Thummim," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); W. L.
Bevan, article " Ephod," ibid, (ist ed. 1863), revised by J. M. Fuller (2d ed. 1893);
KUENEN, Religion of Israel, Vol. I (1869 f., transl. 1874), pp. 96-IOO ; W. M. Ramsay,
«See, e. g., Pss. 16:5 ; 22 : 18; 36: i; no: i; 125:3.
«See, e. g., Prov. I : 14; 16:33; 18 : 18 ; 30 : I; 31 :l.
*s Cf. Wisdom of Solomon 8 : 8.
46See, e. g., Matt. 27: 35; Mark 15 ;24; Luke 1:9; 23 : 34 ; John 19 :24; Acts
I :26; 7 :38; 8 :2l; Rom. 3:2; Ileb. 5 : 12; i Pet. 4:11.
■t' See, e. g., Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, see Index, s. v.
"Oracle, etc."
<8 See references to Pinches, Strong, and Jastrow cited in § 157.
■»9See references to W. R. Smith and Wellhausen cited in §157.
so .See, e. g., Warre Cornish, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,
s. V. " Sortes."
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I45
article "Oracle," Encyclopedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p.
130; T. G. Pinches, "The Oracle of Ishtar of Arbela," Records of the Past, Vol.
XI (1878), pp. 59-72; see also ibid.. Vol. V, new series (1891), pp. 120-40; S. F.
Hancock, "The Urim and Thummim," Old Testament Student, Vol. Ill (1884), pp.
252-56; KoNiG, Religious History of Israel (1%%^), pp. 107 ff.; W. R Smith, Rel. of
Sem., SQQ Index, s. v. "Oracles, etc.;" Kirkpatrick, The First Book of Samuel [C^mh.
Bible, 1891), pp. 217 f.; H. E. Dosker, "The Urim and Thummim," Presbyterian
and Reformed Review, 1892, pp. 717-30 ; S. A. Strong, "On Some Oracles to Esar-
haddon and Assurbanipal," ^^eVra^,? zur Assyriologie,'Q2ind II (1894), pp. 627-45 ;
J. F. McCuRDY, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" G. F. yioo^Y., Judges (Inter-
national Critical Commentary, 1895), p. 381; Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition
(1897), pp. 280 ff.; S. R. Driver, article " Ephod," Hastings' Dictionary,^ o\. I
(1898); Jastrow, ^A «V., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" T. C. Foote, " The Biblical
Ephod," Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XIX, No. 145 (1900), p. 40 ; O. C.
Whitehouse, article "Lots," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); W. Muss-
Arnolt, " The Urim and Thummim," American Journal of Seviitic Languages and
Literatures, Vol. XVI (1900), pp. 193-224; C. H. Prichard, article "Oracle,"
Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; G. F. Moore, article " Ephod," Encyclopedia
Biblica,Yo\. II (1901).
Braun, De vestitu sacerdotum (1698), pp. 462 ff.; Bellermann, Die Urim und
Thummim (1824); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus, Vol. II (1839), pp. 131-41;
G. Klaiber, Das priesterliche Orakel der Israeliten (1865); Kohler, Lehrbuch der
biblischen Geschichte des Alien Testamentes, Vol. I (1875), pp. 349 f.; Steiner, article
"Urim und Thummim," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Riehm, /i^aw^/-
worterbuch (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. by Baethgen 1893 f.), articles "Ephod" and " Licht
und Recht;" Kautzsch, article "Urim," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1885); Stade,
Geschichte, Vol. I (1887), pp. 466, 471 ; Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthians, pp.
126 f., 133, 167, etc.; Baudissin, Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums {i%%q),
pp. 70 f., 205 ff.; Lagarde, Mittheilungen, Vol. IV (1891), p. 17; Sellin, Beitrdge
zur israelitischen und jiidischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II (1897), p. 119; WlL-
helm Lotz, article "Ephod," Realencyklopddie, No\. V (3d ed., 1898); Van Hoo-
NACKER, Le sacerdoce levitique (1899), pp. 370 ff.
§ 158. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity or Super-
natural Powers through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, Witchcraft.
1. The early period.^'
{a) Magic and divination.— Q&rv. 44:5. I5(J); Exod. 22:17; Numb.
22 : 7 (J); 23 : 23; i Sam. 6:2; 28 : 8 ; Mic. 3 : 6 f ., 11 ; Isa. 2:6.
{b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 22 : 18 ; i Sam. 15 : 23 ; 2 Kings g : 22.
2. The middle period. ^^
{a) Magic and divination. — Deut. 18:9-14; Jer. 8:17; 14:14; 27:9;
29:8; Ezek. 12:24; 13:7-9, 23; 2i:2i£f., 29; 22:28; 2 Kings
17:17; Isa. 44:25; Mic.5:i2.
5' References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code.
5^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter-
<»nomy.
146 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
[d) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Deut. 18:10; Mic. 5:12; Nah. 3:4; Jer,
27:9; Isa. 47:9. 12; 57:3.
3. The late period."
(a) Magic and divination. — Josh. 1 3 : 22 ; Lev. 19 : 26, 31 ; 20 : 6, 27; Zech.
10: 2.
{b') Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 7:11; Mai. 3:5; 2 Chron. 33 :6 ;
Dan. 2:2.
§159. Questions and Suggestions.
Examine the various means of consultation with higher powers
which seem always to have been regarded as improper and illegitimate,
viz., magic, divination, sorcery, and witchcraft, noting (i) the various
circumstances under which such consultation is held ; (2) the under-
lying motive in each case; (3) the relative frequency in different
periods ; (4) the various methods thus employed ; (5) the external
sources of these influences ; (6) any internal source from which they
may have sprung; (7) the prophetic attitude in the different periods;
(8) the explanation of this attitude; (9) the relation of all this to
idolatry; (10) the essential element of injury which it contributed;
(11) the gradual disappearance, and the occasion of this disappearance.
Consider (i) the significance of references in the Psalms ;54 (2)
in the wisdom literature ;55 {^^ j^ the apocryphal literature ;5^ (4) in
the New Testament.^^
Consider the use of these methods among (i) the Egyptians ;5* (2)
the ancient Arabs ;S' (3) the Assyrians and Babylonians;*" (4) the
Greeks and Romans.*'
§ 1 60. Literature to be Consulted.
F. W, Farrar, article "Divination," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed.
1863, 2d ed. 1893); ScHULTZ, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 250 ff., 281 ff., 283 £f.; E. B.Tvlor,
article "Divination," Encyclopcedia Britannica, Vol. VII {1878); Idem, article
53 References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code.
s*See, e. g., Ps. 58 :5. 55 See, e. g., Prov. 16 : 10.
s*See, e. g., Ecclus. 34 :2-7.
57 See, f. g'., Acts 8 : 9, 1 1 ; 13:6,8; 16:16; Gal. 5 : 20 ; Rev. 9:21; 18:23;
21 : 8 ; 22 : 15.
58 See, e. g.. Budge, Egyptian Magic.
59 See, e. g., W. R. Smith, /?ei. ofSem., Index, s. v. " Omens," etc.; Wellhausen,
Reste arab. Held., pp. 135-64.
*°See, e. g., Lenormant, Chaldcean Magic; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and
Sorcery,
*' See, e, g., E. B. Tvlor, article " Magic," Rncyc. Brit.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 47
"Ua.gic," idid., Vol. XV {1SS3); W. R. Smith, ^^/. 0/ Sem., see Index, s. v. "Charms,"
" Omens," " Magic," " Witches ; " Schurer, A History of the Jewish People in the Time
of Jesus Christ, Div. II, Vol. Ill, pp. 151-5; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl.
1894), see y«a'd'x, s.v. " Magic Art," etc.; Menzies, £i/. czV., pp. 72, 91, 153; McCurdy,
op. cit. (1895-1901), §§ 644, 851 n., 858; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery,
Being " The Prayers of the Lifting of the Hand"' (1896); T. \V. Davies, Magic,
Divination and Demonology (1898); Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Magical
Texts," "Sorcer, etc.," "Witchcraft;" F. B.Jevons, article "Divination," Hastings'
Dictionary, Vol. I (1898); O. C. Whitehouse, article "Exorcism," ibid.; T. W.
Davies, article "Divination," Encyc. Bib.,Vo\. I (1899); E. A. W. Budge, Egyptian
Afagic (iSgg); Ramsay, The Expositor, July, 1899, p. 22; O. C. Whitemouse, arti-
cle "Magic," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff, op. cit.,Vo\. II, see
Index, s. v. "Divination;" Cheyne, article "Exorcists," Encyc. Bib., Vol. II (1901);
Day, op. cit., pp. 185 f., 220, 222 ; Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901).
Brecher, Das Transcendentale, Magie, ttnd magische Heilatten im Talmud
(1850); P. SCHOLZ, Gotzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alien Hebrdern und den
benachbarten Volkern (1877); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Pro-
phetenthuvis (1883), pp. 7-29; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 503 ff.; Wellhausen,
Reste arabischen Heidenthums ("Skizzen und Vorarbeiten," III), pp. 126, 135-64,
215; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Wahrsagung," "Zauberei;" Tallqvist,
Assyrische Beschwbrungsserie Maqlu (1894); Dillmann, op. cit., see Index, s. v.
"Wahrsager;" Zimmern, Beitrdge zur Kennt7iis der babylonischen Religion (1896,
1899); Marti, op. cit., p. 45 ; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult {I'igi), pp. 180,
202 ; Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei ; Blau, Das alt-jiidische Zauberwesen.
§161. Supplementary Study on Mourning Customs.
1. The early period.
Amos 1:16; 8:10; Mic. 1:8,16; Isa, 3:24; 15:2; 22:12;
2 Sam. 3:31; 21 : lo ; i Kings 21:27; 2 Kings iQ:if.; Gen.
37: 34(E), 35 (J); r/ I Kings 20 : 31 f.
2. The middle period.
Deut. 14: if-; Jer. 16:6-8; 41:5; 47:5; 49^3; 48:3?; 4:8;
6:26; Ezek. 24 : 16-17; 29 : 18 ; 27 : 31 ; 7 : 18.
3. The late period.
Lev.19 : 27f.; 21:5; Joel 1:8; Jon. 3:52.; Ezra 9:3; Dan. g : 3.
§ 162. Questions and Suggestions.
Study the references given to mourning customs, and note (i) the
custom of weeping and its significance, in contrast with the modern
conception ; (2) the more intense expression of grief, termed wailing;
(3) the beating of the breast, tearing of the hair, rending of clothes,
putting on sackcloth, and mutilation of the body, as expressions of
mourning; (4) the putting away of food to (or for) the dead (Deut.
26 : 14); (5) fasting {cf. i Sam. 31:13).
Consider, in connection with these customs, (i) to what extent they
148 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
are survivals from the age in which ancestor-worship prevailed ; (2) to
what extent, therefore, they had their origin in the effort to propitiate
the spirit of the dead, which was supposed to have power for good or
evil, rather than in the desire to express grief for the loss that had been
incurred ; (3) the reasons for forbidding certain of these customs {cf.
Deut. 14:1; 26:14; Lev. 19:28); (4) changes which seem to have
come about in the progress of history.
Consider the representations made concerning mourning customs
in the Psalms,*'' (2) in the wisdom literature,*^ (3) in the apocryphal
literature,'" (4) in the New Testament,*^ (5) among other ancient
nations.*®
§ 163. Literature to be Consulted.
Thomson, The Land and the Book (1859), see Index, s. v. "Manners and
Customs;" H. W. Phillott, article "Mourning," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible,
(ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Maspero, Egyptian Archeology (transl. 1887), pp. 108-
63; W. R. Smith, Bel. of Sem., pp. 322 f., 336, 370, 43° ;• A. P. Bender, "Beliefs,
Rites, and Customs of the Jews, Connected with Death, Burial, and Resurrection,"
Jewish Quarterly Beview, Vol. VI (1893-94), pp. 317-47. 664-71 ; Vol. VII (1894-95),
101-18, 259-69; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), pp. 306-27; E. A.
Wallis Budge, The Mummy (2^. ed. 1894); H. C. Trumbull, ^'/'wa'zVj in Oriental
Social Life {i%<^a,), pp. 143-208; Menzies, op. cit. (1895), see Index, s. v. "YuncxdA
Practices;" Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Dead," etc.; Peritz, "Woman in
the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1898), pp
137 f.; T. NicoL, article "Mourning," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff
op. cit.,Yo\. II, see Index, s. v. " Mourning and Bewailing;" Day, op. cit., pp. 204 ff.;
Wiedemann, The Bealm of the Egyptian Dead.
Perles, " Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten des nachbiblischen Judenthums," Monats-
schrift fUr Geschichte und Wissensc haft des Judenthums, Yo\.X (1861), pp. 345-55,
376-94 ; M. Geier, De Ebraeorum luctu lugentiumque ritibus (3d ed. 1868) ; Ros-
KOFF, article "Klage," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,Vo\. Ill (1871); OoRT, "De
doodenvereering bij de Israeliten," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\. XV (i88i),pp. 350 ff.;
Kamphausen, article " Trauer," Riehm's Handworterbuch,Vo\.ll{i'i?:^) \ Lehrer,
article " Trauer bei den Hebraern," Bealencyklopddie, Vol. XV (2d ed. 1885) ; Stade,
Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 387 ff.; G. A. Wilken, Ueber das Haaropfer (1886 f.) ; Well-
HAUSEN, i?ifj/f arab. Heidenthums {l^?,']), Y>p- i59ffM 178 f.; Qo-LT>7AliV.K, Muhamtne-
danische Studien (1888), Vol. I, p. 248; SCHWALLY, Das Leben nach dem Tode {iSg2);
Smend, op. cit., pp. 153 f.; Wellhausen, Israelitische und jiidische Geschichte (isted.
^ See, e. g., Pss. 35 : 14 ; 38 : 6 ; 42 : 9 ; 43 : 2 ; 88 : 9.
'3 See, e. g., Prov. 29 : 2 ; Job 2 : 11 ; 5:11; 20 : 38 ; Eccles. 3 : 4.
«4See, ^. g., Ecclus. 7 = 34 J 22: iif.; 38:i6ff.; 41 : i £f.
«5See, e g-., Matt. 2 : 18; 5:4; 9:15; u :i7; 24:30; Mark 16 :I0; Luke 6:25;
7 : 32 ; I Cor. 5:2; 2 Cor. 7:7; Jas. 4 : 9 ; Rev. 18:8, II.
**See especially the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen,
Menzies, Jastrow, and Trumbull cited in § 163.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 49
1894), p. 143; NowACK, fA cit.,Yo\. I, pp. 187-98; Benzinger, 0/.