PRESENTED TO THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 
 
 lY 
 
 BX -■^,' .H8 189u 
 
 Hubbard, Frederick, 1817- 
 
 1895. 
 Notes on the history of the 
 
 Church^ 
 
NOTES ON THE 
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, 
 
 H 
 
 0])ne-l5olB-aratl)olic-^postolic;' 
 
 BY 
 
 FREDERICK HUBBARD. 
 
 Ta dp^ata edrj KpareiTO. 
 
 " Quod semper, ubique et ab omnibus creditum est." 
 
 PRIVATELY PRINTED. 
 
 NEW YORK, 
 
 THOMAS WHITTAKER 
 
 2 AND 3 Bible House. 
 1896. 
 
TRINITY CHURCH SUNDAY SCHOOL, 
 
 New York, Quinquagesima, 1875. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This little book was written many years ago hy one 
 to whom the Church was as a dear and lovely mother, 
 and who, although not called to minister at her altars, 
 proved himself her most devoted son in every act of his 
 stainless, self-forgetting, generous life. Her services 
 were his delight; her chants the only music upon his 
 lips ; her litanies the inspired prayers of his own heart ; 
 her precepts his abiding law; her feasts and fasts the 
 anniversaries of his year. The world's history was her 
 history to him; and it was the better to instruct his 
 class of young men at Trinity that he compiled these 
 notes, after wide and careful reading, and with no 
 thought of their ever meeting any eyes except his own. 
 The terse, condensed sentences, which bring the record 
 by rapid leaps down the centuries from the beginning 
 of the Christian era until present times, were merely 
 so many texts, which he elaborated Sunday by Sun- 
 day in his delightful and inimitable way, lending 
 to a fluent, charming diction the spell of a delicious 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 voice, which made music of every syllable. That voice 
 is now an unforgettable memory. His peaceful, help- 
 ful, beautiful earthly life is ended; and the Church's 
 year fitly closed for him with All Saints' Day, when for 
 the last time her holy words were spoken over him in 
 that temple which he loved best, and in connection 
 with which most of his noble but unostentatious work 
 was done. We who are left still count the years 
 through all of which we must miss and mourn him. 
 But for him, time and its chronicles are finished forever 
 in the blessed measurelessness of Eternity. 
 
 G. I). L. 
 
 Washington, T>. C, 
 All Saints' Day^ 1895. 
 

 ©bituarp. 
 
 HUBBARD.— In NeAv York City, on October 30, 1895, 
 of consumption, Frederick Hubbard. Funeral ser- 
 vices at Trinity Cliurch, All Saints' Day. Burial at Utica, 
 
 N. y. 
 
 FREDERICK HUBBARD. 
 
 Entered into the rest of Paradise, at No. 20 Union 
 Square, New York City, October 30, 1895, Frederick 
 Hubbard. In the close of a completed life he has left 
 the memory of religion, pure and undefiled, to Avhich his 
 many friends may point with affectionate reverence. 
 Born June 20, 1817, in Hamilton, Madison County, of 
 Thomas H. and Phoebe Hubbard, his boyhood days were 
 passed in Utica. Graduating at Hamilton College in 1836, 
 he adopted the profession of engineering and Avas for 
 many years connected with the laying out of the early rail- 
 roads of the country, especially the Hudson River, Erie, 
 Micliigan Southern and Northern Indiana. For two 
 years he was engaged in the erection of Harlem Bridge. 
 Retiring from business some twenty-five years ago, he 
 travelled extensively and occupied himself with classical 
 reading and scientific research. Of positive conviction in 
 religion, he brought to bear his wide erudition especially 
 on Biblical studies. He long ago identified himself with 
 Trinity Church, New York, Avhere he Avas a regular Avor- 
 shipper and devout communicant, and entered into the 
 practical Avork of helping in her many actiA'ities. For 
 years he conducted a Bible-class and gave himself to in- 
 teresting young men in the guilds. Through his liberal 
 gifts he Avas practically identified Avith many parishes 
 throughout the country. Especially sympathetic Avith the 
 sick and needy, he endoAved beds in St. Luke's Hospital 
 and St. Mary's Home : but so unostentatious Avas he in 
 his charities, almost to secrecy, that their extent can only 
 be guessed at. Simple in his demeanor, yet choice in 
 his tastes, his life moved quietly on Avithout parade, con- 
 tent in the satisfaction of doing good. In that great day 
 of rcAvard many Avill rise up to call him blessed, and, 
 though he has passed from the field of his rich activities 
 here, his Avorks do folloAv him. 
 
 The funeral took place on All Saints' Day, from Trin- 
 ity Church, NcAv York. The interment Avas on Saturday 
 in the Hubbard family lot, in Forest Hill Cemetery, 
 Utica. 
 
 E. B. S. 
 
" Ecclesiam tuam, qucesumus, Domine, miser atio 
 confimcata mundet et muniat ; et, quia sine te non 
 potest salva consisterej tuo semper munere guber- 
 neter. Per Dominium nostrum Jesum Christum. 
 Amen.'' 
 
 Ancient Collect. 
 XVI. Trinity. 
 
BOOKS CONSULTED. 
 
 Robertson's " History of the Church," 4 vols. (3d 
 Ed. Rev.) London : John Murray, 1868. 
 
 Dr. Mahan's " Church History." 
 Sewel's " Church History." 
 Waddington's " Chui'ch History." 
 D'Aubigne's " History of the Reformation." 
 Hard wick's " Church History — Reformation." 
 Carwithen's " History of the Church of England." 
 
NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF 
 THE CHURCH. 
 
 A STRIKING parallelism exists between the Jewish 
 and the Christian churches. Both look — the one for- 
 ward, the other backward — toward the great central 
 fact of Christ's Atonement; the one prefiguring it by 
 sacrificial types, the other showing it forth by the 
 bloodless Sacrifice of the Christian altar. Both are 
 older than the Scriptures of their respective dispensa- 
 tions. Both were divinely founded. They had each a 
 threefold ministry. Circumcision in the one was re- 
 placed by Baptism in the other, as initiatory rites. 
 ;^toses was forty days in the Mount receiving the full 
 particulars of the Ceremonial Law. The Apostles 
 were with their Master during the '^ Great Forty 
 Days '' after His Kesurrection, wdiile ^^ He spake to 
 them of the things concerning His Kingdom." 
 
 The Jewish sacrifices were offered for fifteen hun- 
 dred years until the Antitype came; and then, when 
 Christ our Passover was sacrificed for us, and all things 
 written in the law were accomplished, the Jewish 
 
2 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 polity ceased, the sacred mysteries were ended, and the 
 Veil of the Temple was rent in twain. 
 
 Thus, in the organization which prefigured, and in 
 that which enjoyed the fulfilment, the sacred plan is 
 one. 
 
FIRST CENTURY. 
 
 The Christian Churcli dates from Pentecost. In- 
 structions to the Apostles were given before the Ascen- 
 sion — the final commission at that time. They and 
 their successors were to visit all the w^orld and preach 
 to every creature. The ministry was to be perpetual, 
 and the promise to it was: '^ I am with you alway." 
 
 The first act of the Apostles was to complete their 
 immber by the choice of Saint Matthias. Ten days 
 after (a.d. 33), on the anniversary of the giving of the 
 law on Mount Sinai, followed the descent of the Holy 
 Ghost at Pentecost to disseminate Christianity with 
 the gift of tongues. The immediate result was the ad- 
 mission into the Church by baptism of three thousand 
 converts, who continued steadfastly in the Apostles' 
 fellowship. The boldness of the Apostles was in sud- 
 den contrast with their previous timidity. 
 
 The Apostles remained in Jerusalem about twelve 
 years. In a.d. 34, the Deacons were appointed. In 
 A.D. 35, Saint James, son of Alphaeus, was made Bishop 
 of Jerusalem. Persecution began with the martyrdom 
 of Saint Stephen (a.d. 37). Soon followed the conver- 
 sion of Saul. When Saint Philip, the Deacon, bap- 
 tized at Samaria, the Apostles Peter and John were 
 sent there to confirm. In a.d. 41, Cornelius and other 
 
4: HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Gentiles were admitted by Saint Peter to the Church. 
 Saul, having been set apart for the ApostoHc office, 
 was brought out by Saint Barnabas, also of the Succes- 
 sion, with whom he laboured in Antioch, where the 
 name of Christians originated (a.d. 45). The two then 
 made a missionary journey to Cyprus and Asia Minor. 
 In A.D. 37, the Emperor Caligula banished Pilate to 
 Gaul; and tradition adds that he ended his life by 
 drowning himself in the dismal lake on the summit of 
 Mount Pilatus, and that, whenever his form was seen 
 rising from the water with the old gesture of hand- 
 washing, the mists of a gathering storm would shroud 
 the peak (Scott's " Anne of Geierstein," chap. i.). In 
 A.D. 43, Herod Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, 
 put to the sword the Apostle James (not the Bishop of 
 Jerusalem, but the brother of Saint John), and Clem- 
 ent of Alexandria relates that the person who ac- 
 cused him was so moved by his testimony to Christ that 
 he professed himself a Christian, and both were led to- 
 gether to the execution. On the way thither he craved 
 pardon of James for the wrong he had done him ; and 
 the Apostle, regarding him a while, said: ^' Peace be 
 with you,'' and kissed him. And so both were be- 
 headed together (Wordsworth, Acts xii., 2). The mis- 
 erable death of Herod followed soon after (a.d. 44). In 
 the third year of his reign he was at Csesarea, attend- 
 ing some games in honour of his imperial patron, 
 Claudius. On the second day of the games, royally 
 arrayed in a robe made all of silver wonderfully woven, 
 he came early to the theatre. There, in the first dart- 
 
FIRST CENTURY. 5 
 
 ing of the sunbeams, tlie illumined silver sparkled 
 rtiarvellously, glistening terribly, and cbilling with 
 fear those that looked on him. Instantly the flatterers 
 set up the cry, " A God ! Be favourable." The King 
 neither checked them nor repudiated the flattery. 
 Soon after, looking upward he saw the owl sitting 
 above his head on a rope. He knew it to be the angel 
 of evil. With heart-piercing agony, he fell into a vio- 
 lent sickness, and in five days was dead (Josephus, 
 '' Antiquities,'' XIX., viii., 2). The dispersion of the 
 disciples by persecution disseminated the Church. 
 Saint Matthew's Gospel was written, probably in 
 Greek, before the final separation of the Apostles, be- 
 tween A.D. 40 and 45. 
 
 In A.D. 50-52, the Council at Jerusalem, under the 
 presidency of Saint James (Acts xv.) settled the ques- 
 tion of circumcision in the Church. In a.d. 50-53, 
 Saint Paul made a wide journey, founding churches. 
 Saint Timothy and Saint Luke joined him. He settled 
 awhile in Corinth. In a.d. 54-58, he journeyed again, 
 tarried in Ephesus, then went to Jerusalem, where he 
 was seized and imprisoned for two years at Csesarea, 
 and sent to Kome. There he remained from a.d. 60 to 
 63, when he was released and travelled, as is con- 
 fidently asserted, into Spain, Gaul and Britain. The 
 first general persecution raged under Xero from a.d. 
 60 to 67. In the latter year Saint Paul returned to 
 Kome, where, with Saint Peter, he was put to death 
 (June 29). His last epistle was the Second to Saint 
 Timothy, shortly before his execution. The reign of 
 
6 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Nero (54-68) was marked by religious persecutions, 
 civil disturbances, and wars. Both Jews and Chris- 
 tians were mercilessly slaughtered. Saint James, for 
 thirty years Bishop of Jerusalem, was put to death 
 about A.D. 63. He was killed with a club, while repeat- 
 ing his Master's prayer, '^ Father, forgive them.'' 
 About the same time Saint Mark was martyred in 
 Alexandria, being seized while celebrating the Easter 
 solemnities, and dragged through the streets until he 
 died. His remains were burned, but were preserved 
 by the Christians and afterwards carried to Venice. 
 The Jews rebelled against the Romans, and were suc- 
 cessful for a time. Our Lord's prophecy of fearful 
 commotions (Matt., xxiv.) was literally fulfilled, the 
 events being fully testified to by Josephus (" Wars," 
 v., ii., 5). Solemn warnings foretold the impend- 
 ing fate of Jerusalem: a sword-like star and year- 
 long comet, the bright light in the Temple, the 
 heavy brazen doors opened, the armies in the clouds, 
 the quaking by night and the voice: " Let us remove 
 hence," one Jesus, the son of Annas, crying, " Woe!" 
 in the streets (" Wars," VL, v., 3). The fearful de- 
 struction of this devoted city took place in the year 70 
 or 72, on the same day of the week and month on which 
 Solomon's Temple had been burned by IN^ebuchadnez- 
 zar. One million one hundred thousand persons per- 
 ished in this war and bloody siege. The Christians, 
 obeying the warning of their Master (Matt, xxiv., 16), 
 escaped before the final scene. 
 
 Symeon, also a cousin of our Lord, succeeded Saint 
 
FIRST CENTURY. 7 
 
 James as Bishop of Jerusalem for forty-five years. He 
 was martyred by crucifixion, at the age of one hundred 
 and twenty, in the reign of Trajan, and was succeeded 
 by Justus. Twelve Bishops, probably all of whom 
 were martyrs, followed, with brief Episcopates. The 
 sixteenth was Marcus, a Gentile, at the time of the 
 second overthrow of the city by Hadrian, a.d. 135. 
 
 It is doubtful whether Saint Peter was Bishop of 
 Rome. Linus was Bishop l^y unquestioned authority, 
 and is said to have been appbinted in a.d. 58. He was 
 followed by Clement, who left an epistle, to the Corin- 
 thians, on discipline. 
 
 Saint John was the last survivor of the Apostles. 
 He founded the Seven Churches of Asia, and wrote to 
 them the Book of the Revelation. In the persecution 
 under Domitian, Saint John was plunged into a cal- 
 dron of boiling oil, and by a miracle, " having suffered 
 nothing,'^ escaped unharmed. On one of his visita- 
 tions, he met with a well-formed, bright-eyed, earnest 
 youth. He committed him to the care of the Bishop, 
 who educated him, and in time baptized him, and then 
 relaxed his guardianship. Falling in with evil associ- 
 ates, the young man became at length a robber chief. 
 Saint John long after returned and inquired for his 
 convert. ^' He is dead," said the Bishop, " dead to 
 God. He has proven vicious and abandoned and, worst 
 of all, a bandit. And now, instead of the Church, he 
 has seized yon mountain with armed men." Saint 
 John was beside himself with grief. Calling for a 
 horse and a guide, he went to the robber outpost and 
 
8 HISTOKY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 was taken, as lie intended, and led before tlie chief. 
 The robber, awaiting him in arms, recognized him, 
 and fled in shame. Saint John, regardless of his 
 age, pursued, crying after him: '' Why dost thou flee 
 me, unarmed and old, my child ? Pity me ! Fear not ! 
 Thou hast yet hope of life. I will intercede with Christ 
 for thee. If need be, I will willingly die for thee, as 
 the Lord for me.'' Throwing down his arms, the rob- 
 ber stood abashed. Then, weeping bitterly, he re- 
 ceived the old man and was baptized with his tears, 
 and was led back repentant into the Church. Saint 
 John wrote his Gospel shortly before his death, which 
 happened in the year 98, in the ninety-ninth year of his 
 age. 
 
 The Government of the Church was committed to 
 the Apostles and to those subsequently appointed by 
 or divinely added to them. Their authority was equal, 
 and the perpetuity of their order was divinely assured. 
 Our Lord had added seventy disciples, who were the 
 attendants and assistants of the Apostles, and from 
 whose number those selected for the higher rank were 
 appointed. They were called Presbyters or Elders. 
 Then the Deacons, at first seven only, were added to fill 
 a still more subordinate situation. Such was the Apos- 
 tolic order, wherever established. The power of ordi- 
 nation was exclusively exercised by the highest oflice. 
 The Bishops of Ephesus, Crete, Rome, Alexandria, 
 and so forth, were sent by the Apostles themselves, 
 with authority to govern, where Presbyters were set- 
 tled already. To this Apostolic order attest Clemens 
 
FIKST CENTURY. 9 
 
 of Rome and Ignatius of Antiocli in their writings, and 
 after them a cloud of witnesses in every age. 
 
 To guard against corruption of the Apostolic teach- 
 ing, they early adopted a Symbol or Creed, as a brief 
 formula of important doctrine. This is often alluded 
 to in the Scriptures as "the form of sound words ^' 
 (2 Tim. i., 13), " that form of doctrine " (Eom. vi., 
 17), " the faith which was once delivered to the 
 saints '' (Jude 3). There was little need of instruction 
 in rites and ceremonies in the Apostolic Church, famil- 
 iar as it was with the full and divine ritual of the Jew- 
 ish Church. Baptism as an act of initiation was sub- 
 stituted for circumcision. The Lord's Supper was 
 regularly celebrated on the First Day of the week. 
 The Agape, an early institution, was afterwards 
 dropped on account of abuses. The ancient act of lay- 
 ing on of hands was continued in confirmation and 
 ordination. The rise of Unction in these services was 
 probably later than the first century, but was at that 
 time employed in Visitation of the Sick. The earliest 
 liturgies were of undoubted Apostolic origin. The 
 Lord's Day took the place of the Sabbath. The 
 morality of the early Church was framed on the high 
 standard of the Sermon on the Mount. 
 
SECOND CENTURY. 
 
 Ikreligion and cruelty marked the Roman people. 
 Christians were separated from them socially, and were 
 hated for their exclusiveness. The religion of Christ 
 gained among the reflecting and among the oppressed. 
 The beginning of the second century was a period of 
 quiet growth of the Church. Saint Ignatius (a.d. 70) 
 was consecrated Bishop of Antioch, the capital of 
 Syria, a rich and luxurious city, of two hundred thou- 
 sand inhabitants. Christianity had been early planted 
 here, and the name of Christian originated in Antio3h 
 (Acts xi., 26). I gnat ins and Poltjcarp were disciples of 
 Saint John. The former had been Bishop forty years 
 when the Emperor Trajan entered Antioch. Trajan, 
 who reigned from 99 to 117 a.d., was a bigot and a 
 persecutor of Christians. Ignatius presented himself 
 to the Emperor and declared and defended his Faith. 
 He was condemned to the amphitheatre in Rome, and 
 carried thither in chains. As he tarried at Smyrna, 
 he visited Polycarp and wrote letters to several 
 churches. He was martyred by being thrown to wild 
 beasts about a.d. 117. He was a cheerful and ready 
 martyr, and a conspicuous example to the whole Cath- 
 olic Church. His Epistles urge obedience to the rulers 
 of the Church of Christ. He says: "Without the 
 
SECOND CENTURY. 11 
 
 Bishop and Presbyters, there is no Church." Secta- 
 rians in this age have vainly attacked the authenticity 
 of these letters. They are quoted by Polycarp in his 
 writings, and by others. About 111 a.d., Pliny, a 
 Eoman governor in Asia Minor, wrote to the Emperor 
 Trajan about the Christians. He speaks of their assem- 
 bling before light, and of their voavs of a holy life. 
 This letter and reply are preserved. 
 
 Hadrian was Emperor from a.d. 117 to 138. He 
 went to Judea and insulted both the Jews and the 
 Christians there, also to Alexandria, and to Athens. 
 At the latter city, the Bishop Quadratus presented him 
 a written apology for Christianity. Quadratus was a 
 disciple of the Apostles and a witness of many of their 
 miracles. Hadrian was not disposed to persecute, yet 
 there was much persecution of the Christians during 
 his reign. The Jews, led by Barcochab, a pretended 
 Messiah, rose in rebellion (a.d. 131) and were subdued 
 after great slaughter. The Christian Jews did not 
 rebel. Hadrian profaned the Holy Sepulchre and 
 changed the name of Jerusalem to ^lia Capitolina. 
 The Christians of Jerusalem now resigned all Jewish 
 rites. They chose a Gentile Bishop. Hadrian was 
 succeeded, in a.d. 138, by Antoninus Pius, who was 
 still more favourably disposed toward the Christians. 
 To him was addressed the celebrated Apology ofJustin 
 Martyr. Justin was born in Sichem about the begin- 
 ning of the second century. A man of great learning, 
 and with an ardent thirst after truth, he went to Alex- 
 andria and studied in the principal schools of heathen 
 
X* 
 
 12 HISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 pliilosophy. Dissatisfied with them all, lie met an aged 
 Christian, who instructed him and converted him to the 
 Christian faith. He went to Rome, where he com- 
 bated heresies in the Church. His " Apology," pub- 
 lished A.D. 150, describes the worship of the Christians, 
 particularly the weekly service of the Eucharist, and 
 speaks of '' Regeneration " in Baptism, of partaking 
 in the Holy Supper of the " Body and Blood," of the 
 Crucifixion on Friday and of the Resurrection on Sun- 
 day. He was an earnest student of the sacred 
 Scriptures. Probably he was never ordained to the 
 priesthood. During the persecutions of Marcus Aure- 
 lius the Emperor (a.d. 161), Justin defended some 
 who had been cruelly put to death for their faith. Re- 
 fusing to sacrifice to the gods, he, with six others, was 
 martyred at Rome by scourging and beheading about 
 A.D. 165. The Church extended itself in spite of oppo- 
 sition. ^' The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the 
 Church." 
 
 Polycarp^the disciple of Saint John and the " Angel 
 of the Church in Smyrna " (Rev. ii., 8), fell in this 
 persecution, aged eighty-six years. Between the years 
 150 and 160, he went to Rome to confer with Anicetus 
 on the subject of the time of Easter. The two Bishops 
 differed, and could not agree, but there was no inter- 
 ruption of their friendly unity. Rome had not yet 
 claimed supremacy. Persecution broke out in Smyrna. 
 Polycarp retired at the solicitation of his friends not to 
 thrust himself upon martyrdom. He was followed and 
 seized. He feasted his captors. When he was brought 
 
SECOND CENTURY. 13 
 
 before tlie magistrate, that officer, in pity of his age, 
 endeavoured to persuade him to deny Christ. He con- 
 tinued firm, in spite of every threat, refusing to deny 
 the Master whom he had served for '^ four score and six 
 years.'' He was condemned to the stake. The details 
 of his martyrdom and his prayer amid the flames are 
 given in an epistle (which is preserved) of the Church 
 in Smyrna. He suffered about a.d. 167, realizing the 
 promise in Revelation (ii., 10): ^^ Be thou faithful 
 unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life," ad- 
 dressed to the " Angel of the Church in Smyrna,'' 
 either Poly carp himself or his immediate prede- 
 cessor. 
 . .^r. Montanvs, an enthusiast (a.d. lYl), pretended to be 
 ■*^^ V •'- "^ a prophet, and troubled the Church by preaching pecu- 
 ' ^^ liar theories as to discipline. He had many followers, 
 ' .y" known as Montanists. Montanism was a severe asceti- 
 
 cism—a kind of spiritualism, encouraging pretended 
 prophetic raptures. Its author attempted to organize 
 a ministry, claimed as superior to that of the Church. 
 
 Fierce persecutions raged during this reign of Mar- 
 cus Aurelius. ITumbers were put to most cruel tor- 
 tures, and died bravely for the Faith. The story of 
 the " Thundering Legion " is laid in a.d. 174. This 
 was a Christian legion in the army of Marcus Aure- 
 lius. In answer to their prayers, a refreshing shower 
 descended upon the thirsting host, and a storm of light- 
 ning and hail discomfited their enemies, who had 
 attacked them while " thus partly disarmed and 
 quenching their thirst." At Lyons, in Gaul, Pothinus, 
 
14 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 a friend of Polycarp, was Bishop. Many were thrown 
 to the beasts there in the amphitheatre, among them 
 Sanctus, Alexander, and Blandina, a slave. Pothinus, 
 more than ninety years old, was tortured and died in 
 prison (a.d. 170-180). 
 
 The Church had a period of comparative rest under 
 the Emperor Commodus (a.d. 180-192); yet Appol- 
 onius, a Senator of Rome, was martyred by beheading 
 for the Christian Faith about the year 190. He read a 
 defence of Christianity before the Roman Senate. 
 
 Victor, Bishop of Rome (a.d. 189 or 196), endeav- 
 oured to compel other Churches to adopt the AVestern 
 rule as to the time of Easter. He was opposed by the 
 Eastern Bishops. The question caused great discus- 
 sion, but did not interrupt Christian unity. Irenseus, 
 a priest of Lyons, prevailed with Victor to amend his 
 attitude toward those who differed with him. Saint 
 \^Irenceus was born in Asia Minor (a.d. 120). He was 
 a pupil of Polycarp and Pothinus. He was a man of 
 learning, and the author of many valuable writings. 
 He defended the Catholic faith against various her- 
 esies. He named the books of the I^ew Testament as 
 inspired, and so accepted by the Church in his age. 
 He was entrusted with a letter from the martyrs in 
 prison at Lyons, directed against the Montanist heresy. 
 He was raised to the Episcopate of Lyons, and under 
 the persecution of Septimus Severus (a.d. 202) was 
 put to death for his faith. 
 
 Gnosticism in the early centuries was a mixture of 
 various religions, uniting some of the doctrines and 
 
SECOND CENTURY. 15 
 
 forms of Christianity with the subtile speculations of 
 heathen philosophy. It had many teachers and end- 
 less varieties. They pretended to superior knowledge, 
 and to interpret Scripture from an inner sense. They 
 believed in one Supreme Deity, from whom proceeded 
 JEonSy or spiritual emanations. 
 
 
 
 
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 THIRD CENTURY. 
 
 Tertullian lived from a.d. 135 (or 160?) to 217. 
 He was a learned man, an ascetic and much respected, 
 but not wholly free from the errors of the Montanists. 
 Previous to his lapse, he wrote an apology for Chris- 
 tianity. He was the leader of a party not considered 
 altogether orthodox. Many valuable treatises by him 
 are preserved. 
 
 Early in this century flourished Origen, bom a.d. 
 185, a man of ascetic habits, precocious learning, full 
 of zeal and encouraging the love of martyrdom. His 
 father was a martyr. In a.d. 203, he was chosen mas- 
 ter of the famous Christian School at Alexandria, 
 which was said to date from Saint Mark, about the mid- 
 dle of the second century. It became a seminary for 
 the training of the clergy. Many of both sexes were 
 trained up for martyrdom. He was ordained to the 
 priesthood in Palestine, where he afterwards took up 
 his residence in a.d. 230. His ordination was opposed 
 by Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria. Origen endeav- 
 oured to harmonize Christianity with heathen phi- 
 losophy. His writings are supposed to have been cor- 
 rupted by heretics in a subsequent age. He claimed a 
 mystic as well as a literal sense in the Scriptures. 
 Origen was the author of commentaries on the Script- 
 ures and numerous learned treatises. He spent many 
 
THIRD CENTURY. H 
 
 years in correcting the translation of the Greek Sep- 
 tuagint. (The elate of the Septuagint is the second 
 century before Christ.) He published a defence of 
 Christianity, and commentaries on the Prophets and 
 on the Gospel of St. Matthew. He made many con- 
 verts from heathenism. He was imprisoned during 
 the Decian persecution, and racked, and after many 
 sufferings was released and died at Tyre about a.d. 
 255. He is held by many as heretical in his specula- 
 tions. 
 
 In the early part of the century were many martyrs, 
 among them women and persons of rank. Under Sep- 
 temius Severus (a.d. 203), Perpetua of Carthage, con- 
 stant to her religion, was exposed to wild beasts and 
 finally put to death by the sword, with the slave Fe- 
 licitas and other female companions. Persecution 
 ceased on the death of this Emperor (a.d. 211). 
 
 A pupil of Origen was Gregory Thanmatiirgn,^ 
 (" the wonder Avorker ") of l^eo-Csesarea in Cappa- 
 docia, Asia Minor. A man of rank, extraordinary gifts 
 and commanding talents, he was converted by Origen 
 and afterwards (a.d. 235) consecrated Bishop of Xeo- 
 Csesarea. He was largely influential in converting 
 the heathen of his diocese. He drew up a form of 
 Creed, similar to that afterwards adopted at Mcsea. 
 Many miracles are related as having been performed 
 by him, some doubtful, some well attested. About 
 250 A.D., he is said to have been admonished by a 
 vision to escape with his people from the Decian perse- 
 cution. They retired into the wilderness, where they 
 
18 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 were said to have been miraculously concealed from 
 their enemies. Gregory lived to a great age. 
 
 The Decian persecution broke out on the accession 
 of that Emperor (a.d. 249). Alexander, Bishop of 
 Jerusalem, was tortured and died in prison. Many 
 Christians apostatized, among them Eudaemon, Bishop 
 of Smyrna. Pionius, a priest of that city, was a faith- 
 ful confessor and suffered, as Poly carp had before him, 
 at the stake. Many, particularly in Egypt, were driven 
 by persecution into the deserts, where they lived as her- 
 mits. Hence arose the spirit of anchoritism. An- 
 thony, the Hermit, born a.d. 251, was one of the most 
 celebrated of these. He was rich and noble, but gave 
 up all and spent his life in seclusion. He imagined 
 himself assaulted by demons. He lived to an extreme 
 old age, one hundred and four years. 
 
 The Episcopate was carried into North Africa about 
 the beginning of the second century. Little is known 
 of its early history there. In the year 215, seventy 
 Bishops were present at a Council in Carthage. The 
 African Church had grown lax in its discipline before 
 the time of Cyprian. Luxury invaded all classes, and 
 sometimes even the priesthood. Cyprian, born a.d. 
 200, a man of rank and wealth in Carthage, and a 
 teacher of eloquence, was converted to Christianity 
 shortly before the Decian persecution. He was ad- 
 mitted to the priesthood, and was so much beloved for 
 his holy life that the office of Bishop was pressed upon 
 him. He consented to receive it with great reluctance 
 (a.d. 248), and wisely administered its duties. He ex- 
 
THIRD CENTURY. 19 
 
 ercised strict discipline in Ins holy office. The state of 
 the Church in Carthage shows " the real working- 
 power of the Church practically distributed among 
 three classes. There were the clergy, headed by the 
 Bishop, but considerably impaired in influence by the 
 prevalence of party spirit; the laity, represented in 
 the ISTorth African Church by the senior es populi, a 
 sort of lay-elders, who acted with the Church in all 
 matters of discipline and Church business; and lastly, 
 the Martyrs, Confessors, Virgins and the like — an ir- 
 regular semi-clerical third power — the weight of 
 which was generally thrown into the scale of popular 
 opinion. Theoretically, the Bishop was the head of the 
 system. Practically, each class had a voice of unde- 
 fined potency " (Mahan, p. 231 et seq.). The impu- 
 dence of the Confessors, with whom the prisons were 
 crowded, " their insolence, self-conceit and spirit of 
 bravado were the natural accompaniments of un- 
 tutored courage. Enthusiasm became a substitute for 
 faith." ^' Flattery and adulation enveloped them in a 
 cloud of impenetrable self-delusion. Popular senti- 
 ment regarded the Confessor as nearer to God, and 
 consequently more powerful than the Bishop " (Ma- 
 han, p. 237). " The lapsed were to be shut off from the 
 Table of the Lord," until restored; but Cyprian was 
 troubled with the absurd claim of the Confessors to 
 give " full pardon to the lapsed." Cyprian went into 
 retirement awhile from the persecutors, who sought 
 his life. From his retreat he governed the Church and 
 wrote many epistles and treatises, which are carefully 
 
20 HISTOKY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 preserved and are of the greatest value. They picture 
 the state of the Church in that period, its doctrine and 
 ministry. Cyprian and Stephen, Bishop of Rome, had 
 a controversy on the subject of heretical baptism. 
 There was no claim then of Roman supremacy. This 
 baptism was condemned by a Council held in Carthage 
 in A.D. 256. The Bishop of Aries having fallen into 
 heresy, Cyprian wrote to Stephen, because of his near- 
 ness, to assist the Church there. He wrote also to cer- 
 tain Spanish churches, whose Bishops had apostatized 
 and were supposed to be supported by Rome, to stand 
 firm against its aid. Fabianus, Bishop of Rome, was 
 martyred about a.d. 249. The story of the Seven 
 Sleepers of Ephesus (Gibbon, '^ Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire," Chap, xxxiii.) is that seven noble 
 youths of Ephesus concealed themselves during the 
 Decian persecution in a cave, and by orders of the Em- 
 peror were walled in. After one hundred and eighty- 
 seven years of deep slumber they were awakened by 
 slaves who were removing the stones for building ma- 
 terial. They looked out upon a new world. When 
 they had received the wondering benediction of the 
 Bishop and the Emperor Theodosius " they at the same 
 instant peaceably expired." 
 
 The ^N^ovatian Schism broke out at Rome (a.d. 251), 
 fomented by some who were the personal enemies of 
 Cyprian and men of evil life. N^ovatian procured con- 
 secration as Bishop, and set himself in opposition to 
 Cornelius, Bishop of Rome. The case was submitted 
 to Cyprian, who in council decided against the schis- 
 
THIBD CENTUEY. 21 
 
 matics. They lingered as a party for a while, and were 
 even joined by several Bishops. 
 
 In A.D. 252, a plague broke out in Alexandria and 
 Carthage. The panic of the heathen contrasted with 
 the courage of the Christian. Cyprian set an example 
 of care for the sick. Persecutions arose again under 
 the Emperor Valerian (a.d. 254-259). Stephen and 
 several other Bishops were put to death in Rome, and 
 Christians sought refuge in a life in the Catacombs. 
 Cyprian was brought before the Proconsul in Africa. 
 He confessed his faith and was banished to a town fifty 
 miles from Carthage. He was afterwards permitted to 
 return, but on more stringent orders from the Em- 
 peror was seized, and, refusing to sacrifice to the gods, 
 was beheaded (a.d. 258). The cruel Valerian, de- 
 feated in a battle in Persia, was taken prisoner and 
 flayed alive. In a.d. 247, Dionysius the Great was 
 Bishop of Alexandria. He was a distinguished up- 
 holder of the Catholic faith against dawning heresies, 
 Xystus (or Sixtus), Bishop of Rome, and his deacon. 
 Saint Lawrence, were martyred a.d. 259. Many stories 
 are related of the constancy of the martyrs at this time. 
 The child Cyril at Caesarea in Cappadocia could not be 
 dissuaded by threats or blows, by expulsion from his 
 father's house, by the annoyances of his mates, nor by 
 the leniency of the judge from confessing Christ. The 
 sight of the fire did not weaken him. ^^ I rejoice to 
 bear your reproaches," he said. " I go to a better house 
 and more excellent riches,'' and went joyfully to his 
 death. 
 
22 HISTORY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 In Antioch, Sapricius, a presbyter, and Mcephorus, 
 a layman, once friends, liad become estranged. IN^i- 
 cephorus, after a time, relented and songlit reconcilia- 
 tion in vain. In the sndden persecution, Sapricius 
 promptly avowed bis faith in '^ our King, Jesus Christ, 
 who is the true God and the Creator of heaven and 
 earth.'' Nicephorus persisted in being led with him to 
 the execution, though unforgiven. At the last mo- 
 ment, the presbyter recanted, while Nicephorus, who 
 boldly declared, " I believe in the !N^ame of the Lord 
 Jesus Christ, whom he hath renounced," was be- 
 headed (Milner, Cent. III., Chap. xvi.). Saint Baby- 
 las, Bishop of Antioch, was martyred by the sword 
 (a.d. 250), singing songs of triumph: " Return unto 
 thy rest, O my soul, for the Lord has dealt bountifully 
 with me " (Mahan, p. 279). 
 
 Paul of Samosata was Bishop of Antioch (a.d. 262). 
 Ambitious and frivolous, fond of popular applause 
 and encouraging applause of preachers, a man of the 
 world, he permitted scandals in the church. He intro- 
 duced female singers into the Church services. He 
 denied the Divinity of Christ, and was condemned and 
 deposed by a Council held in Antioch (a.d. 269). The 
 Council sent a general letter on the subject to all the 
 churches. Eusebius took part in the Council. Paul 
 refused to submit to his deposition, and organized a 
 sect. 
 
 Lucian the martyr (a.d. 283) was starved in prison 
 at Antioch. He was not wholly free from the doctrinal 
 errors of Paul of Samosata. 
 
THIRD CENTURY. 23 
 
 Diocletian became Emperor a.d. 284. Fierce perse- 
 cutions again broke out, about a.d. 298, rendering the 
 close of the third century eminently the ^' Age of Mar- 
 tyrs." Peter, surnamed " the Martyr," Bishop of 
 Alexandria, was put to death. Eusebius as an eye- 
 witness relates how the Christians were everywhere 
 slaughtered or subjected to the most cruel tortures. 
 In the Diocletian persecution, the attempt was made to 
 exterminate the sacred Scriptures. About 285 a.d., 
 Diocletian burned a church with all its worshippers on 
 Christmas Day. Alban, a noble Koman in Britain, 
 protected a persecuted Christian priest, by whom he 
 was converted. Alban, refusing to give him up, was 
 seized, confessed his faith, and suffered by the sword. 
 The Church in Britain is supposed to have been 
 founded by Saint Paul. In the year 180, the Bishop 
 of Eome, Eleutherius, sent missionaries there. There 
 were three British Bishops at a Council in Aries (a.d. 
 314), whose names are preserved. The story of the 
 Theban legion is laid in a.d. 286. Of over six thou- 
 sand Christians, it lay encamped near the modern St. 
 Maurice, in Switzerland. Learning that the object of 
 their march was to join in the persecution, and refus- 
 ing to bear arms against their brethren, they were 
 twice decimated. " But this cruelty was unable to 
 shake the firmness of the survivors; and Maurice, in 
 the name of his comrades, declared to the Emperor 
 that, while ready to obey him in all things consistent 
 with their duty to God, they would rather die than 
 violate that duty. The other troops then closed around 
 
24 HISTOEY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 them, and the remnant of the legion was martyred by 
 order of Maximian." 
 
 !N'ear the close of the century, Meletius, Bishop of 
 Lycopolis, in Egypt, was deposed for apostasy. He or- 
 ganized a sect that spread rapidly at first. The Mani- 
 chean heresy, starting from Manes, broke ont in Persia 
 (a.d. 270). It was a sect professing a gross mixture of 
 heathen and Christian doctrines, not unlike the teach- 
 ing of the Gnostics. 
 
 There were at this period at least one hundred Epis- 
 copal sees in l!^orth Africa. As many more were de- 
 pendent upon the Patriarchate of Alexandria. Syria 
 had eighty sees. At the end of the century, Christian- 
 ity extended throughout the Roman Empire. Tertul- 
 lian, who died in a.d. 217, speaks of it as existing in 
 Britain and other remote regions. 
 
 Previous to the Diocletian persecutions, the Church 
 enjoyed the forty years' peace, under Galienus (a.d. 
 268) and Aurelian (a.d. 275). 'New and costly 
 churches were built every^^bere. The Roman Empire 
 was now at the zenith of its power. For the life and 
 worship of the early Church, we may consult Mahan, 
 p. 326 et altra. 
 
 Corruption in the Church followed the forty years' 
 peace. The Emperor Diocletian, desiring rest, divided 
 his Empire. One of his associates, Galerius, stimulated 
 him to persecute the Church. This persecution raged 
 ten years, extending into the fourth century. Large 
 and costly churches were destroyed, and the greatest 
 cruelties were inflicted on the Christians. !N'ine Bishops 
 
THIED CENTURY. 25 
 
 and thousands among their flocks were put to cruel 
 deaths. The tyrant Galerius died by a horrible disease, 
 having first, in fear of death, issued an edict of tolera- 
 tion. The same was done by Maximin, another of the 
 persecuting associate Emperors. He died by poison, 
 self-administered (a.d. 313). The martyrdom of Saint 
 Sebastian and Saint Agnes took place under Diocle- 
 tian. Sebastian was a soldier, who concealed his Chris- 
 tianity to help the martyrs in Kome, and rose high in 
 favor with the Emperor. Condemned at length on his 
 confession, he was pierced with arrows and left for 
 dead. Eescued by a Christian lady, he was restored. 
 Condemned again, he was clubbed to death and his 
 body flung into a sewer, where it was discovered and 
 carried to the Catacombs known by his name (Ency- 
 clop.). Saint Agnes, of noble family and of great 
 beauty, of the age of thirteen, rejected many suitors to 
 devote herself to the Church. Refusing to sacrifice to 
 the gods, she was sentenced to death after infamy. She 
 overawed every one who approached her, save the reck- 
 less son of Simpronius, and his rudeness was punished 
 with blindness and prostration. Intercession by her 
 restored him. She was then slain with a spear (Yan 
 Ajitwerp, Hist., I., 163). 
 
FOURTH CENTURY. 
 
 CoNSTANTiNE, son of the Emperor Constantius, was 
 desired by his dying father to favour the Christians. 
 lie waged war against his rival, Maxentius. Advanc- 
 ing against Rome, he prayed for Divine direction, and 
 in answer saw the sign of the Cross in the heavens with 
 the motto — 
 
 'Ev TOVT(0 VL/ca. 
 
 4, 
 
 Eusebius relates this, as told him by the Emperor. 
 The following night, the same sign was shown him in a 
 dream, with the command to bear it on his banner in 
 war. This was the Labarum, surmounted by the Chi 
 llho. Constantine conquered, embraced Christianity 
 (a.d. 312), and issued an edict of toleration. Great 
 rejoicing followed the protection of the Christians. 
 The spirit of persecution was extinguished suddenly 
 and completely; yet no retaliation was sought. Though 
 Constantine firmly supported the authority of the 
 Church, yet his character was not unimpeachable. In 
 A.D. 321, the edict of Constantine for the observance 
 of Sunday and, some say, of Friday was published. 
 
 The Donatist schism was brought about in a.d. 311, 
 by a party opposed to the election of Caecilianus as 
 Bishop of Carthage. They procured the consecration of 
 
FOURTH CENTURY. 27 
 
 their favourite by Donatus and other African Bishops. 
 The question was submitted to Constantine. The arbi- 
 trators appointed by him condemned the Donatists 
 (a.d. 313). This decision was sustained by the Council 
 at Aries, in Gaul, where about two hundred Bishops 
 met in a.d. 314. The Donatists then left the com- 
 munion of the Catholics. They had, at one time, it is 
 said, four hundred Bishops. A fanatical sect of Dona- 
 tists, called Circumcellions, from begging around the 
 cells or cottages of the country people, poor and igno- 
 rant, combining zeal with drunkenness and lust, roamed 
 about, terrorizing the country, claiming to be the 
 Lord's champions, and roaring " Praises to God ! "' 
 At last they rose in revolt, and were defeated in battle 
 and suppressed. 
 
 A greater and more lasting trouble distinguished 
 this century, namely the heresy of Arius. It began in 
 A.D. 319. Arius was a priest over one of the principal 
 churches in Alexandria, and a disappointed candidate 
 (though some doubt this) for the Episcopate of that 
 see. He published his heresy to oppose the Bishop, 
 Alexander, and maintained that Christ was less than 
 divine. Alexander, in a provincial council of one hun- 
 dred Bishops, deposed him in the year 321. Alexander 
 was warmly supported by Athanasius, then a young 
 Deacon of his household. Arius, being a brilliant man 
 and of persuasive eloquence, organized a party, and his 
 principles spread rapidly, creating divisions and trou- 
 bles in the Church. Pride of opinion promoted popu- 
 lar controversy. Captious sifting of revealed truth 
 
28 HISTOEY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 opposed the simple tradition of tlie Cliurcli. Logic was 
 the ^^ peculiar weapon of Arius. His mind was in- 
 capable of any speculation which rose into a higher 
 region." The mystery of the Holy Trinity was to be 
 tried in the alembic of human reason. His tendency 
 was towards philosophic Atheism. The term " Cath- 
 olic ^' distinguished the old faith from the new heresy. 
 Arius withdrew from Alexandria, but left many ad- 
 herents. He had numerous friends in Syria, including 
 some Bishops. Even Eusebius, the historian, Bishop 
 of Caesarea, was favourable to him. Eusebius was a 
 semi-Arian. Another Eusebius, Bishop of Nicome- 
 dia, favoured Arius. Constantine in vain endeavoured 
 to appease the dissensions. He sent Hosius, a Bishop of 
 Cordova, to mediate, who sided with the orthodox. 
 The Emperor at length called a General Council of all 
 the Bishops of the Church to meet at Nicsea, where his 
 court was then held (a.d. 325). Three hundred and 
 eighteen Bishops convened. The Council was called, 
 not for disputation but to witness to the Faith of the 
 Church. They came with their attendant Presbyters 
 and Deacons. Their names and sketches of their lives 
 are preserved. Alexander and his deacon, Athanasius, 
 were prominent. The latter was powerful in debate. 
 Constantine presided in person. A few Bishops openly 
 favoured the Arian heresy. They admitted the Script- 
 ures quoted by the Catholics, but gave them a private 
 interpretation. Arius was allowed to defend his doc- 
 trine. The general cry in answer was: "We have 
 neither learned nor taught it.'' After long discussion. 
 
FOUETH CENTURY. 29 
 
 a Confession, or Symbol, was resolved upon. It was 
 tlie Mcene Creed, nearly as we now have it, save what 
 follows the words " I believe in the Holy Ghost." Ac- 
 cording to Eusebius, Constantine himself proposed the 
 term " Consubstantial," over which there was great 
 disputation and objection by the Arian party. The 
 final draft of the Creed was by Hosius. Most of the 
 Arians finally subscribed it, two only holding out 
 against the Catholic faith, who, with Arius, were ban- 
 ished by the Emperor. 
 
 The Council, which sat over two months, also fixed 
 the rule (as we now have it) for determining Easter 
 Day. A decree on the rights of Metropolitan Bishops 
 began: " Let the ancient customs prevail," TA AR- 
 XAIA E&H KPATEirn. To ordain a Bishop, the 
 consent of the Metropolitan and of a majority of the 
 provincial synod must be given. Three prelates must 
 assist at such ordination. 
 
 All decrees of the Council were written out and 
 signed and sent to the principal sees. That sent to 
 Egypt is still extant. After the Council, the Emperor 
 entertained the prelates in a grand banquet, Eusebius, 
 the historian, delivering an oration. 
 
 Constantine built Constantinople (a.d. 330) and the 
 Church of St. Sophia. Saint Helena, his mother, went 
 to the Holy Land (a.d. 326), and built churches at 
 Bethlehem and elsewhere. The Emperor then went to 
 Jerusalem, and aided in removing the Mound of 
 Hadrian from the Holy Sepulchre, and erecting the 
 church there. 
 
30 HISTOKY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 Athanasiiis became Bishop of Alexandria in a.d. 
 326. It is of him that the legend of the child baptized 
 on the seashore in solemn play is related. Eusebius and 
 others of the Arian party, pretending to submit to the 
 Nicene doctrines, intrigued for the recall of Arius 
 from banishment. The Emperor sent him (a.d. 331) 
 to Alexandria, to be received into the communion of 
 the Church. Athanasius stoutly withstood him. The 
 Arians, by false charges, caused the deposition of some 
 of the Catholic Bishops. Athanasius was unjustly ac- 
 cused, but made his case clear before Constantine. He 
 was nevertheless deposed by an Arian Council (a.d. 
 335). He appealed to Constantine, who, wavering, 
 finally decided not to depose but to banish him. He 
 Avas sent into Gaul, and received with honour by the 
 whole Church. Arius pretended to subscribe the Ni- 
 cene Creed. He was favoured by the Emperor, who 
 ordered the venerable Alexander, Bishop of Constanti- 
 nople, then nearly one hundred years old, publicly to 
 receive the heretic and admit him to communion. He, 
 too, resisted the unjust decree, and prayed before the 
 altar for the interposition of Heaven. When Arius, 
 with several of his party, including a Bishop, was on 
 his way to the Cathedral to enforce the order of the 
 Emperor, he was struck down by a sudden illness, and 
 in a short time died (a.d. 336). 
 
 Constantine was baptized only a short time before 
 his death (a.d. 337). Arianism became a mixture of 
 Church and State intrigues among Constantine's suc- 
 cessors. The heretics were the Court party, and were 
 
FOURTH CENTURY. 31 
 
 aided by the civil power. They held numerous Coun- 
 cils, and framed various Creeds, all evasive of the 
 Nicene expressions. Commotions at Constantinople 
 between rival Bishops (a.d. 339) were suppressed only 
 by military force. The Arians became split up into 
 sects or schools. Athanasius, who, in a respite, had 
 returned to his see, was a second time exiled (a.d. 
 341). The Arians procured the consecration of Greg- 
 ory in his place, a coarse and violent man, who perse- 
 cuted the Catholics. Heresy increased at the East, 
 while Rome stood out bravely for the Ancient Faith. 
 Athanasius was restored in a.d. 349, but in 356 was 
 compelled by the persecution of his enemies, assisted 
 by the State power, to fly into concealment. He was 
 protected by the monks of Upper Egypt, among whom 
 Saint Anthony, a brave defender of the Catholic Faith, 
 had just died. Fierce contests arose between the two 
 parties. The Arians at Antioch issued several forms 
 of the Creed, generally orthodox, but evading the test 
 word " homoousios " (" consubstantial "). There was 
 an almost universal lapse into heresy. It was ^^ Athan- 
 asius against the world.'' Even the aged Hosius was 
 forced to subscribe a compromise Creed. The Em- 
 peror allowed Eudoxius, a man of evil life, " noted for 
 the coarseness and profanity of his ^ atheism,' " to be 
 installed Bishop of Constantinople. The reaction be- 
 gan. " The lapse of the Church," " almost immedi- 
 ately repented of and repudiated," proved the " down- 
 fall of the heresy, before which it stumbled." 
 
 Julian, the Apostate, became Emperor in a.d. 361. 
 
32 HISTOEY OF THE CHUKCH. 
 
 He had been educated a Christian, and was even a can- 
 didate for the sacred ministry. He was admitted to the 
 order of readers. Among the heathen philosophers of 
 Athens, he became imbued with their Atheistic no- 
 tions, and apostatized to paganism, which he endeav- 
 oured to restore, with imposing rites. Julian restored 
 to temporary importance the sect of Donatists in ISTorth 
 Africa, who, having become turbulent, had been sub- 
 dued by Constans in 349. He endeavoured to extirpate 
 the religion of the " Galileans,^' as he called the Chris- 
 tians. He insulted and again banished Athanasius, 
 confiscated the property of the Church, and in every 
 Yv^ay annoyed the Christians, although without resort- 
 ing to persecutions as violent as those of the reigns 
 before Constantino. Arianism lost spirit under Julian, 
 being deprived of imperial support. 
 
 The Grove of Daphne at Antioch had been famous 
 in pagan times as a paradise of beauty and a Sodom of 
 iniquity. Amid " primeval cypresses," " hills laurel- 
 crowned," ^' secluded valleys and springs," " the wor- 
 ship of Apollo had sanctified the frivolity of a pleasure- 
 loving people and had spread a mystic veil over scenes 
 of unblushing voluptuousness and audacious crime. 
 On the triumph of the Cross, it had been cleansed, in 
 some measure, of its abominations," and the removal of 
 the remains of Saint Babylas, the martyr, the twelfth 
 Bishop of Antioch, had been made thither. " When 
 Julian came to Antioch he was mortified to find the old 
 temple almost forsaken." " The Christians were or- 
 dered to remove their relics. They obeyed the order, 
 
FOURTH CENTURY. 33 
 
 but converted it into a triumph, singing the Christian 
 Psalm, ' Confounded be all they that worship carved 
 images and that delight in vain gods.' " In the opposi- 
 tion to his retaliatory persecutions we see the failure 
 of his attempt to revive a popular love of paganism, 
 lie favoured the Jews, and made an attempt to rebuild 
 the Temple (a.d. 361-3). The work was supernatur- 
 al ly checked. He was wounded and died in a battle 
 with the Persians (a.d. 363). Theodoret tells us his 
 last cry was " Galilsee, vicisti! '' 
 
 Jovian succeeded, and reigned eight months. He 
 restored Christianity, which was also favoured by the 
 next Emperor, Yalentinian (a.d. 364). His brother 
 and associate, Yalens, was a bitter Arian, and perse- 
 cuted the Catholics. He banished eighty priests, and 
 destroyed them by burning their ship. 
 
 Arianism brought a train of minor sects and heresies, 
 which troubled the Church throughout this century. 
 About 378 A.D., they began to doubt the Divinity 
 of the Holy Ghost. " The Creed of Saint Athana- 
 sius '' has been used in the offices of the Church for at 
 least one thousand years. Its authorship is uncertain. 
 Athanasius died a.d. 373. 
 
 Saint Jerome was bom in about the year 342. He 
 was a learned and austere man, an ascetic, and favoured 
 celibacy. He was ordained priest at Antioch in 378, 
 previous to which he had retired into the desert and 
 studied Hebrew. He came to Eome in 382 and studied 
 there. He went to Bethlehem in 385, and remained in 
 the Monastery of the l^ativity nearly forty years, until 
 
34 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 his death in 420. He wrote the Latin Vulgate, being 
 a translation of the Old Testament and a revised trans- 
 lation of the [N^ew. He engaged in controversies, re- 
 lating to Origen and others. He was accompanied by 
 Paula, a Roman matron of rank, who gave all her 
 wealth to found monasteries. She died in 404. He is 
 called a Confessor and Doctor of the Church. He 
 wrote against the errors of Pelagius, whose heresy is 
 referred to in the ninth of the Thirty-Nine Articles 
 as follows: '^ Original sin standeth not in the following 
 of Adam (as the Pelagians do vainly talk)." He died 
 in 420 at about the age of seventy-eight. 
 
 Saint Basil, Bishop of Csesarea, in Cappadocia, and 
 Saint Gregory Nazianzen were champions of the or- 
 thodox faith. Both were born in the year 329. When 
 young, they had studied together in Athens, some part 
 of the time in company with Julian. They lived to- 
 gether a while in retirement. Saint Basil founded 
 monasteries and other charities, remarkable for their 
 order and good regulations. He taught the monks 
 agriculture. He was consecrated Bishop in 371. He 
 laboured for peace in the Church. After the death of 
 Athanasius, when Arianism gained even in Alexan- 
 dria, he was the acknowledged leader of the Catholics. 
 The Arian Emperor Yalens wished to expel him from 
 his see; but, Basil being firm, the Emperor yielded. 
 Basil died in 378. Gregory, whom Basil had ap- 
 pointed to the uncongenial see of Sasima, and who had 
 since withdrawn into retirement at Nazianzus, was 
 called to a little mission in Constantinople, then an 
 
FOURTH CENTURY. 35 
 
 Arian city, where lie was opposed at first, but was ul- 
 timately successful. " By prayers,'' " by untiring 
 labours," by eloquence, by " systematized efforts," '^ he 
 gathered about himself all that was good in Constan- 
 tinople, till there was no place to receive them," and 
 thus promoted the revival of Catholic truth. He built 
 the Church of the Anastasia, or " the Resurrection 
 of the true faith." This was afterwards enlarged into 
 a splendid church. He was aided by Theodosius, who 
 became Emperor in 379. Churches were restored to 
 the orthodox. 
 
 The Second General Council was held at Constanti- 
 nople, in 381. One hundred and fifty Catholic Bishops 
 were present. Gregory was enthroned Bishop of Con- 
 stantinople, but afterwards resigned. The Council 
 completed the Mcene Creed as it now stands (except 
 the " filioque " — " and the Son " — which was inter- 
 polated by a local Council at Toledo in 589). Among 
 the canons passed was one by which Bishops were for- 
 bidden to act outside of their sees. The Western 
 Church was not represented in this Council, but finally 
 acquiesced in its decrees. 
 
 Saint Martin (born 316) was consecrated Bishop of 
 Tours in 372. He was the founder of Monasticism in 
 the West. He devoted himself with his monks to 
 converting the neglected peasantry from heathenism. 
 He was tender-hearted and forgiving, and opposed 
 superstition and intolerance. He was of great influ- 
 ence among the uncultivated. ISTumerous miracles are 
 related of him, the subsequent growth of a credulous 
 age. 
 
36 , n HISTOEY OF THE CHUKCH. 
 
 )• ^aint AmlrosCy then a civil governor, was called by 
 the popular voice to the vacant Episcopate of Milan 
 (a.d. 374), which was contested by Catholics and 
 Arians. While both parties were on the verge of 
 violence, the voice of a child called : " Ambrose, 
 Bishop," and the whole assemblage took up the cry. 
 He was of a family of rank. He was thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with the Holy Scriptures. He devoted him- 
 self earnestly to the duties of his sacred office, and 
 restored Milan to the ISTicene faith, of which he was a 
 stout defender. Ambrose favoured the celibate life, 
 and induced many, particularly young women, to em- 
 brace it. The Emperor Valentinian II. ordered him 
 to yield one of the churches to the Arians. He refused 
 (a.d. 385), and opposed the attempt until the Emperor 
 yielded. The contest was renewed the next year, with 
 the like result. During the vigils, while guarding the 
 church, he introduced the Eastern practice of anti- 
 phonal singing by the whole congregation. In 388 
 the Emperor Theodosius came to Milan. Intruding 
 into the chancel, he was required by Ambrose to with- 
 draw to a position at the head of the laity. In 390, 
 Theodosius, enraged with the people of Thessalonica 
 for an unreasonable tumult and murder of officers, or- 
 dered a slaughter of seven thousand citizens. The 
 bloody order having been obeyed, Ambrose wrote a re- 
 proachful letter to the Emperor, excluding him from 
 the services of the Church. The Emperor, attempting 
 to enter the church, was met at the threshold and re- 
 pulsed by the Bishop. The master of the world yield- 
 
FOUETH CENTURY. 37 
 
 ed, and was admitted to the sacred privilege only after 
 a penance of eight months. Ambrose died on Easter 
 Eve, 397. 
 
 In 383, Theodosius called a conference of Catholics 
 and Arians, to bring about an agreement if possible. 
 The story of the old Bishop and the Emperor's son is 
 told by Sozomen, that the " old and homely man, 
 Bishop of an inconsiderable town, after having sa- 
 luted Theodosius with great reverence, turned to the 
 heir of the Empire, Arcadius, who had lately been de- 
 clared Augustus, stroked his head, and spoke to him, 
 as if he were a boy of ordinary rank. The Emperor, 
 indignant at this disrespect, ordered that the Bishop 
 should be turned out; whereupon the old man told 
 him that even so would the Heavenly Father be of- 
 fended with those who refused to His Son the honour 
 they pay to himself. Theodosius saw the Bishop's 
 meaning " and begged his forgiveness, and the Arians 
 '•'were kept at a distance." During the remaining 
 years of the reign, severe edicts were issued against 
 heretics. 
 
 In 385 took place the execution of Priscillian and 
 others, for heresy, under Maximus. The act was 
 strongly condemned by Saint Martin and Saint Am- 
 brose. At this time ^' the fathers were against punish- 
 ing heresy with death." 
 
 In 391, the Serapeum, the Temple of Serapis, in 
 Alexandria, was destroyed by order of the Emperor. 
 When the enormous idol, adorned with jewels and 
 overlaid with gold and silver, was struck, a swarm of 
 
38 HISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 rats issued from the head and derision succeeded con- 
 sternation. Paganism had been tolerated by the 
 (Christian Emperors, but, seeking recognition and priv- 
 ileges from Theodosius, was met and defeated by Am- 
 brose. Theodosius afterward, in 392, forbade heathen 
 rites. The heathen religion gradually failed, about 
 the close of the fourth century, by the withdrawal of 
 public aid, a striking contrast to Christianity, which, 
 on the other hand, gained under persecution. 
 
 Christianity spread even during the polemical trou- 
 bles of the fourth century. It was established in 
 Iberia (between the Black and Caspian Seas). It was 
 also planted in Persia, where it was persecuted, and 
 tliousands were martyred. Saint Athanasius sent a 
 Bishop into Abyssinia, which had been Christianized 
 by captives. The story of two youths spared from a 
 massacre gives the origin of its conversion. Early in 
 the fourth century, a scientific expedition to that coun- 
 try was returning. Landing in search of water, the 
 party was attacked, and all but two youths were slain. 
 They were advanced to office, and finally to the re- 
 gency. One then returned to Tyre, where he became 
 a presbyter. The other, who had already introduced 
 Christianity, applied to Athanasius for a Bishop, and 
 himself was consecrated. 
 
 Monasticism grew rapidly in the fourth century. 
 Large communities flourished in Egypt and Syria. 
 The extravagance of the Solitaries is seen in such tasks 
 as struggling to remove a huge rock, watering a dry 
 stick twice a day from a distance of two miles, overcom- 
 
 P 
 
 ^(.^^^ 
 
 U-S^-^-Tlu:^ 
 
 r 
 
 ^■*T..*.«>^^ 
 
 lX Vt 
 
FOURTH CENTURY. 39 
 
 ing natural affection, burning letters from home, and 
 living like wild beasts in the desert, proceeding even to 
 self-torture. 
 
 Community life, originating with Pachomius, 
 enjoined absolute obedience to the abbot and a 
 common ownership. Manual labor was required 
 among the Egyptian monks. The salutary rules of 
 Saint Basil required their living in community, with a 
 formal profession at entrance, combining practical in- 
 dustry with religious exercises, and missionary work 
 among the heathen. Popular reverence for extreme 
 asceticism caused many pretenders. Assuming to at- 
 tain perfection, they would feign madness, and show, 
 by absurd behaviour, their contempt for the world. 
 Wild beggars played the part of fanatics. The most 
 curious extreme was shown in the pillar-saints, or 
 Stylites, about the beginning of the fifth century. 
 Symeon Stylites, the first of these, dismissed from his 
 monastery because he bound himself so tightly and so 
 long with a rope around his body that the blood was 
 forced out and then refused to have the wounds 
 healed, withdrew to a place near Antioch, where, after 
 living ten years in a narrow pen, he built a pillar and 
 dwelt on top of it, in a space a yard in diameter. He 
 removed from one pillar to another, always increasing 
 the height, until the last of them reached to forty 
 cubits, about sixty feet. In this way he lived thirty- 
 seven years, offering up prayers. His neck was loaded 
 with an iron chain. In praying he bent his body, with 
 the forehead almost to the feet, with incessant repeti- 
 
40 HISTOKY OF THE CHUKCH. 
 
 tions of the movement. He ate once a day sparingly, 
 and fasted tlirougli Lent. Tempted once by the devil 
 to ascend up to heaven, Elijah-like, he raised one foot 
 to enter the chariot, when, as he made the sign of the 
 cross, the tempter vanished, leaving him with an ulcer 
 in his thigh, and ever after for penance Symeon sup- 
 ported himself on one leg. He died at the age of 
 seventy-two. His fame attracted crowds. His body 
 was carried to Antioch to serve as a defence in place of 
 the wall, overthrown by an earthquake. An imitator, 
 Daniel, near Constantinople, lived thirty-three years 
 from the year 461 on a similar pillar, until he died at 
 the age of eighty. His feet were covered with sores 
 and ulcers. 'No one knew how he was fed. The winds 
 sometimes stripped him of his rags and almost blew 
 him off. Sometimes he was covered with ice and snow 
 until Leo built a shed over him. He was regarded as 
 an oracle and visited by kings. 
 
 The chief sees in the early centuries were Rome, 
 Alexandria, and Antioch. In the fourth century Con- 
 stantinople was added. The rise of the Papal power 
 was because of its seat at the Capital. And chiefly, 
 through Arianism and other divisions of the Christian 
 Church, every party courting the alliance of the West, 
 and the Eoman Bishop being the chief pastor in the 
 Western Church, there was reference to Rome as arbi- 
 trator. Rome was steadily orthodox. The jurisdiction 
 of the Bishop of Rome was middle and lower Italy 
 and adjacent islands. 
 
 Celibacy, in the fourtli century, was voluntary. 
 
FOURTH CENTURY 41 
 
 An unsuccessful attempt was made to enforce it at tlie 
 Council of l^ice. 
 
 Churclies at first were copies of Roman basilicas. 
 The cruciform plan, witli cupola over the intersection, 
 arose in Constantinople. 
 
 John (Chrysostom) was born at Antioch about the 
 year 347. He was educated by a pious mother, An- 
 thusa. He was ordained Deacon in 381, and Priest in 
 386. He was noted for his eloquence. Selected by 
 the Emperor for Bishop of Constantinople, he was con- 
 secrated in 398. He was greatly influential in con- 
 verting Arians and pagans, reformed luxury in the 
 Church, devoted his ovm income to charity, lived in 
 the utmost simplicity, and made enemies by attacking 
 the vices of the Court. Theophilus, an unworthy 
 Bishop of Alexandria, was jealous of Chrysostom, and 
 held a Council of his partisans near Constantinople, 
 which condemned him. The Emperor ratified the 
 sentence and banished him, but alarmed by the out- 
 cries of the people soon recalled him (a.d. 403). 
 Again accused on various pretexts by his en- 
 emies, he was again banished by the Emperor (a.d. 
 404), and sent to the mountains near the eastern limit 
 of the Empire. Here he remained three years, en- 
 gaged in missionary labors and corresponding with 
 the Church in various lands. He was upheld by the 
 Bishop of Rome. His enemies caused him to be sent 
 to a more secluded place, and on the way he died from 
 exposure (a.d. 407) at the age of sixty. His remains 
 were transferred to Constantinople in the year 438. 
 
FIFTH CENTURY. 
 
 '^' Augustine, born in 354 in a city of ISTumidia, in 
 Africa, was trained by a devout mother, Monica, and 
 thorouglily educated. For a while he embraced the 
 doctrines of the Manichgeans, and then became a scep- 
 tic. He resided a while in Rome, and then went to 
 Milan as a teacher of rhetoric. His mother joined him 
 there, solicitous for his conversion. Here he fell under 
 the influence of Saint Ambrose. He was led to the 
 study of the Scriptures, and was baptized by Ambrose, 
 Easter Eve, 387. He returned to Africa, lived three 
 years in retirement, was ordained Priest in 391, made 
 Bishop of Hippo in 395, and held the see for thirty-five 
 years. He was a voluminous writer of Christian trea- 
 tises. " De Civitate Dei " was his greatest work. He 
 held controversies with the Donatists, who had manv 
 Bishops. This sect was strong, but much divided. A 
 conference of Catholics and Donatists was called by the 
 Emperor at Carthage in the year 411. About two 
 hundred and eighty Bishops assembled on either side. 
 No agreement was arrived at. The Donatists were 
 condemned by the civil power, and thenceforward lost 
 their prominence. Augustine held a controversy with 
 Pelagius, whose heresies relating to original sin trou- 
 bled the Church. Pelagius was born in Britain. He 
 
FIFTH CENTURY. 43 
 
 had many adherents; but they were condemned by 
 synods in various parts of the Church. Augustine 
 taught predestination and election. He died in the 
 year 430, during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals. 
 
 In 410, Eome was sacked by the Goths, who were 
 Arians, under Alaric. 
 
 Theodosius II. (or The Younger), a weak but just 
 prince, who reigned from 408 to 450, made war with 
 Persia to protect the persecuted Christians there. 
 
 'Nestor ins, Bishop of Constantinople in 428, perse- 
 cuted the heretical sects. He denied the title OeoroKo^ 
 (mother of God) to the Blessed Virgin. Great contro- 
 versy arose on this subject. Cyril, Bishop of Alexan- 
 dria, an envious and severe man, but orthodox, bitterly 
 opposed him, and persuaded the Bishop of Rome to 
 condemn him. Many Bishops engaging in the dis- 
 putes, Theodosius called the Third General Council, 
 which met at Ephesus at Whitsuntide in the year 431, 
 about two hundred Bishops being present. The Coun- 
 cil was turbulent. i^Testorius was condemned. The 
 sentence was ratified by the Emperor, influenced by 
 Cyril. ITestorius was banished and died in exile. His 
 opinions, however, spread through the East, particu- 
 larly in Persia. 
 
 In the year 448, Eutyches, abbot of a large monas- 
 tery near Constantinople, was accused and condemned 
 of heresy in relation to the two natures of Christ. In 
 449 a Council of one hundred and twenty Bishops met 
 at Ephesus, presided over by Dioscurus, Bishop of 
 Alexandria, a corrupt and arbitrary man. The coun- 
 
44 HISTOKY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 oil was violent in its character. It acquitted Eutyches, 
 and rouglily condemned his opponents. It was called 
 the " Latrocinium/' or Robber Council. 
 
 The Fourth General Council was held at Chalcedon 
 in 451, six hundred and thirty Bishops being present. 
 Leo of Rome endeavoured to have it held in Italy, but 
 was overruled. Dioscurus was deposed and banished, 
 on account of his heresy and of his injustice and im- 
 moralities. The Council confirmed the Creed of 
 Nicsea, and defined the Church's doctrine in regard to 
 the two natures of Our I^ord. Canons were passed 
 regulating precedence of sees. Leo (the Great), who 
 was present by legates, afterwards objected to these 
 canons as affecting the dignity of Rome, but was final- 
 ly pacified. He held the see from 440 to 461. He 
 laboured to increase its power, which was much ad- 
 vanced in this century. Claims of universal suprem- 
 acy now began to be made, which Africa stoutly re- 
 sisted. The Eastern Church was much weakened by 
 its dissensions. 
 
 In 452, Attila, invading Italy, was induced to with- 
 draw by Leo, who paid him large sums of money. In 
 455, Rome was sacked by the Yandals. Leo obtained 
 some grace for the vanquished. Captives were carried 
 to Africa, where the Bishop of Carthage ministered to 
 their wants. 
 
 There were British Bishops at a Council in Aries in 
 the fourth century. Some doubt their having been at 
 the Council of Mce. Britain was orthodox. The 
 Saxon invasion of the fifth century drove the Chris- 
 
FIFTH CENTUKY. 45 
 
 tians into the mountains of the West. The conversion 
 of Ireland was accomplished during the first half 
 of the fifth century, by Patrick. He had been car- 
 ried captive to Ireland at the age of sixteen, and re- 
 leased after six years (a.d. 431). He was consecrated 
 Bishop of the Irish, and returned to Ireland and 
 laboured among the heathen with great success until his 
 death in 493. 
 
 Saint Severin laboured to preserve the Faith in 
 Southern Germany (454-482). He declined the Epis- 
 copate. 
 
 In 4 57, the Emperor Leo was crowned by a Patri- 
 arch, the first instance of such solemnity. He obtained 
 by correspondence (without the inconvenience of a 
 Council) a general expression of the provincial Bish- 
 ops in favour of the decisions of the Council of Chalce- 
 don, which were disputed in Alexandria. 
 
 In 484, Eelix III. of Kome, in a dispute over rival 
 candidates for the see of Alexandria, undertook to 
 anathematize and depose Acacius, Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople. A schism between the East and West 
 followed for thirty-five years, until 519. 
 
 In 493, the Goths became masters of Italy. 
 
 In 496, Clovis, the founder of the French mon- 
 archy, was converted to the orthodox Christian faith. 
 His Queen, Clotilda, was a Christian. 
 
 The Yandals, who were Arians, invaded Africa, and 
 cruelly oppressed the Catholics in the last half of the 
 fifth century. Many Bishops were banished, and 
 Arianism was forced upon the people. This rule ended 
 in 534. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY. 
 
 In 512, riot broke out in Constantinople from an 
 attempted addition to the Trisagion. More than fifty 
 years before this, the story arose that, during prayer 
 on account of an earthquake, a child was miraculously 
 caught up and heard the heavenly host singing, ^' Holy 
 God, Holy Mighty One, Holy Immortal," to which 
 form Peter, the Fuller, a Monophysite (maintaining 
 one nature only in Christ), added the words ^' Who 
 was crucified for us." The attempt to introduce these 
 additions in 512 caused a tumult. Processions singing 
 one form met bands singing the other, and the parties 
 fell to blows. A monk's head stuck on a pole was 
 paraded about as that of an enemy to the Trinity. 
 Houses were destroyed. The Emperor was almost 
 forced to abdicate. 
 
 In 525, the Emperor Theodoric, an Arian, sent 
 John, Bishop of Rome, to Constantinople to obtain 
 from the Emperor Justin toleration for Arians. John 
 was received with great honours. 
 
 In the period between 533 and 540, the Yandals, 
 enervated by luxury, were conquered in Africa by 
 Belisarius, and with their extermination, Arianism, 
 which they professed, was extinguished there. 
 
 In 554, the Gothic monarchy in Italy was over- 
 
SIXTH CENTURY. 47 
 
 thrown, and with it Arianism disappeared from that 
 country for a time. 
 
 The Emperor Justinian, in 544, dedicated Saint 
 Sophia, which had been burned after its original con- 
 struction by Constantine. The dome of the church 
 was afterwards injured by an earthquake, and he re- 
 paired and rededicated it in 562. Justinian troubled 
 the Church by edicts against old errors, condemning 
 writings a century old and reopening settled questions. 
 To determine them the Fifth General Council met at 
 Constantinople, under Justinian, in 553. One hun- 
 dred and sixty-five Bishops attended. The " Three 
 Articles " were condemned. They were certain treat- 
 ises written by writers suspected of ISTestorianism. 
 Pope Yigilius, who was detained in the East, refused 
 to be present, but afterwards gave his consent to the 
 decrees. 
 
 In 551, tumults and bloodshed took place in Alex- 
 andria between the rival sects of Monophysites. 
 Agreeing as to one nature in the Divine Christ, they 
 quarrelled on the question whether our Lord's body 
 were incorruptible, the same before as after the Eesur- 
 rection, as maintained by the Aphthardocetae, or cor- 
 ruptible as held by the Phthartolatrae, " the worship- 
 pers of the corruptible." The Eastern Bishops for the 
 most part professed " that in all blameless affections 
 the Saviour's body was like to ours." A great part of 
 the city was burned down. Such dissensions induced 
 the decline of the Egyptian Church, which was largely 
 Monophysite. Thenceforth it became Coptic (Egyp- 
 
48 HISTORY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 tian), leaning to divers heresies and alienated from the 
 rest of tlie Cliiircli. In like manner, the Syrian 
 churches were disturbed by differences on minor 
 points relating to the Incarnation, and were alienated 
 from the Greek and Western Churches. The liturgies 
 in these times of discord were the great conservative 
 element. 
 
 ISTestorian Christianity was established in Persia in 
 the sixth century. Persian missionaries were sent into 
 various parts of Asia, even into China. A E'estorian 
 monk, in his travels, in 522 found Bishops and clergy 
 of his sect in India. 
 
 Saint Benedict, in Italy, lived from 480 to 543. At 
 the age of fourteen, he took refuge in a cave and spent 
 three years in retirement. He was elected abbot of a 
 monastery, but gained the ill-will of the monks, by his 
 efforts to reform them. Wlien they attempted to 
 poison him, he left them. He built the monastery of 
 Monte Cassino, on the site of a heathen temple. In 
 529, he established the " Benedictine Rule," a wise 
 regulation for the monks, which was extensively 
 adopted. He prescribed manual labour, the order of 
 ser^sdces, etc., temperance in living, obedience to su- 
 periors. In later ages, the Benedictine cloisters were 
 great conservators of learning. 
 
 In 563, the Lombards conquered l^orthern Italy, 
 bringing back Arianism, which, at the same time, de- 
 clined in Spain. 
 
 In 563, Saint Cohimha, an Irish abbot, went to 
 Scotland, and laboured as a missionary until his death 
 
SIXTH CENTURY. 49 
 
 in 597. He established a famous monastery and school 
 in the island of lona. 
 
 The power of Rome increased in the fifth and sixth 
 centuries. This resulted from its increase in wealth, 
 from its steady orthodoxy, making it an arbiter while 
 the East was distracted by dissensions, and from the 
 overweening ambition of its Patriarchs. The title of 
 Pope was not exclusively given to the Bishop of Rome 
 at this time. 
 
 During the fifth and sixth centuries, corruptions 
 in living crept into the Church of the West. Celibacy 
 of the clergy grew in favour. It was not absolutely en- 
 joined, except locally, in some synods. Saint-worship 
 and reverence of images began to be introduced, as 
 well as the worship of the Blessed Virgin (perhaps a 
 reaction from J^estorianism), and many other super- 
 stitions. The later corruptions of the Roman Church 
 in regard to the Lord's Supper had not yet been gener- 
 ally introduced. Chrysostom, during exile, had de- 
 clared in his writings against such doctrines. Pope 
 Gelasius (about 492) condemned communion in one 
 kind. 
 
 Learning declined from about the middle of the fifth 
 century. 
 
 In 589, an Irish monk, Columban (born 560), went 
 into Gaul and founded monasteries in regions where 
 the ancient Christianity had decayed. He established 
 strict rules, e.g., the entire mortification of the indi- 
 vidual will and corporal chastisement. He went also 
 on a mission into Switzerland. He died in 615. 
 
50 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Gregory the Great was born in 540, of a family of 
 rank and wealth. He gave all to found monasteries. 
 He gave his family mansion at Rome for a monastery, 
 where he lived and practised great austerities. With 
 great reluctance to receive the office, he was conse- 
 crated Pope in 590. The age was one of great depres- 
 sion in Church and State. The Lombard invasion 
 wasted the land. Their destruction of churches and 
 monasteries produced a general decay of morals and 
 discipline. Gregory laboured for the interest of re- 
 ligion. Some eight hundred and fifty of his letters are 
 preserved. He regulated the services and music of the 
 Church. His Sacramentary reduced into one volume 
 the sacramental rites of the Church, including the 
 Liturgy, to which it gave substantially the form since 
 observed. In it he embodied the collects of the An- 
 cient Church, improving old and adding new ones. 
 He introduced the Gregorian Tones. His simplicity 
 of living was monastic. With the wealth of his see 
 at his command, he extended his charities systemat- 
 ically. He widened the papal power, but was remark- 
 ably free from personal ambition. He treated the 
 Eastern Patriarchs as independent and equals. In 
 594, he wrote to the other Patriarchs, objecting to the 
 title " oecumenical '' assumed by the Bishop of Con- 
 stantinople. He claimed that none of them should call 
 himself " Universal Pope." He was successful in 
 bringing back separatists to the Church. His tolera- 
 tion extended in general to those not members of the 
 Church. He protected the Jews in their religion. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY. 51 
 
 British Cliristianity had been almost extinguished 
 by the Saxon invaders. The story of Gregory and the 
 Anglo-Saxon captives is laid in the period before his 
 consecration. Seeing some comely youths exposed 
 for sale in the Forum, he was told they were " An- 
 gles." " In truth, they have angelic countenances,'^ 
 he answered, " and it is a pity they should not be co- 
 heirs with angels in heaven. What is the province,'' 
 he asked, " whence they come? " '' Deira," was the 
 reply, that is, l^orthumberland. " It is well," said 
 he. " De ir^, snatched from the wrath of God and 
 called to the mercy of Christ. What is the name of 
 their King? " " Ella." " Alleluia should be sung to 
 God in those regions." He offered himself to go to 
 them as missionary; but not until he was Pope and 
 Ethelbert's marriage with the Christian princess Ber- 
 tha opened a way for missionary work in England, 
 could he carry out his wishes, and then Gregory sent 
 Augustine and forty other monks there in 597. They 
 entered Canterbury, where they found already built a 
 church of the Eoman-British period, dedicated to 
 Saint Martin. There they worshipped. The King 
 was baptized, and great numbers were converted. Au- 
 gustine was consecrated the first Bishop of Canter-' 
 bury. Liberal instructions were given him by the 
 Pope, desiring him " to select from the usages of any 
 churches such ^ right, religious and pious ' things as 
 might seem suitable for the new Church of England, 
 ^ for we must not love things on account of places, but 
 places on account of things.' " In 603, conference 
 
52 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 was held with a number of British Bishops. Augustine 
 wished them to adopt the Roman rule for Easter, and 
 would permit them otherwise to retain their own cere- 
 monies and customs. They disagreed. 
 
 Gregory left several important treatises. He con- 
 demned image worship. He died in 604. 
 
 The end of the sixth century divides early and 
 mediaeval Church History. 
 
SEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Jerusalem was ravaged by tlie Persians about the 
 year 611. Ninety tlioiisand Christians were slain. 
 Cburcbes were destroyed. The Patriarch was carried 
 off into Persia, with the relic venerated as the true 
 Cross. In 615, the Emperor Heraclius defeated the 
 Persians, and restored the Cross to Jerusalem. '' The 
 event was commemorated by a new festival/' the 
 Feast of the " Exaltation " of the Cross. 
 
 MaJiomet was born at Mecca in or about the year 
 570. His visionary character showed itself in a tem- 
 per " naturally mystical and enthusiastic. He was 
 subject to fits and melancholy. In lonely meditation 
 in a cave, he was excited to declare himself a revelator. 
 Perhaps he was self -deceived. The Koran is taken 
 partly from the Jewish and Christian Scriptures. It 
 insists on the unity of the Godhead. Mahomet ad- 
 mitted the Messiah as a prophet, but inferior to him- 
 self. He inculcated austere virtues and limited 
 polygamy. Persecuted by the Arabs, he fled to Me- 
 dina in 622, being "the Hegira," or flight, and 
 there his power increased. He propagated his faith 
 by the sword, and in 630 took Mecca. His promises 
 to his warriors included not only rapine and lust, but 
 the assurance of bliss in a sensual paradise. "Wonder- 
 
54 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 ful successes crowned their enthusiasm. Mahomet 
 died in 632, but Syria and Egypt were subdued by his 
 successors. Jerusalem fell in 637, and the Mosque of 
 Omar was built on the site of the Temple. Then Per- 
 sia and Asia Minor were conquered. Carthage and 
 North Africa were subdued in 698. 
 
 A wide discussion arose, about 616, on the subject 
 of " Monothelism," or one will in Christ. East and 
 West were opposed on the doctrine. In order to avert 
 a rupture with the Monophysites, which would be 
 politically disastrous, the Emperor favoured the belief 
 in the " one will.'' One side — the Monothelite — as- 
 serted that " as the Saviour's person is one. He could 
 have but one will." The other answered: " As He is 
 both God and man, each of his own natures must have 
 its proper will." In 649, Pope Martin held the First 
 Lateran Council, in which the Monothelite doctrine 
 was condemned, and those who held it severely anath- 
 ematized. Among them were Paul of Constantinople 
 and many others. The civil authority being offended 
 by this open contempt of the imperial position, Pope 
 Martin was imprisoned, cruelly treated, and died in 
 exile. 
 
 The dissensions increasing, Constantino TV. called 
 the Sixth General Council, which met at Constanti- 
 nople (a.d. 680), nearly two hundred Bishops attend- 
 ing. This Council was remarkable for its quiet and 
 dignity. The Patriarch of Constantinople was in 
 agreement with Rome against the. doctrine of only one 
 will in Christ. The attempted miracle of a Monothe- 
 
SEVENTH CENTUEY. 55 
 
 lite monk is curious. He undertook to prove tlie truth 
 of his cause by raising a dead man to life. He claimed 
 to have seen in a vision a " person of dazzling bright- 
 ness and terrible majesty," who told him " that wlioso- 
 ever did not confess a single will and theandric opera- 
 tion was not to be acknowledged as a Christian." A 
 corpse was then brought in. " Polychronius laid his 
 creed on the dead man's breast, and for a long time 
 whispered in his ears; no miracle, however, followed." 
 Persisting in his confidence, the old monk was deposed 
 amid shouts of anathema. Monothelism was con- 
 demned, and among others Honorius, a former Pope, 
 who had died in 638, and held the doctrine, was an- 
 athematized. Popes did not then claim to be infallible. 
 Leo II. and his successors for a thousand years ac- 
 cepted and repeated this anathema. The next Em- 
 peror, Justinian II., called a synod, which passed 
 many canons, some of them displeasing to Pome. This 
 alienated the Western Church. 
 
 A usurping Emperor, in 711, was a Monothelite, 
 and favoured the heretics. He imposed the doctrine 
 on the Eastern Church, which easily submitted, but 
 the Western resisted. Catholicism was restored in the 
 East in Y13. Thenceforth the condemned heresy was 
 supported only by the community called the Maron- 
 ites, in Syria. They afterwards conformed to the 
 Latin Church in 1182, at the time of the Crusades. 
 
 In spite of Gregory's disavowal of supremacy, in 
 594, it was assumed by Pope Agatho at the time of 
 the Sixth General Council (about G80), and thencefor- 
 
56 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 ward by his successors. The Emperors in the East, 
 occupied with the Saracen invasions, left more power 
 in the hands of the Popes, who now began to act like 
 princes. The Spanish Church, after its reformation 
 from Arianism (cwc. 570), was independent of Home. 
 After the Mahometan conquest (710) of Spain, the 
 Christians there, in their distress, sought a closer alli- 
 ance with Rome. 
 
 The Church in France was also independent during 
 the seventh century. It grew corrupt, however, and 
 wealthy, mingling in political affairs, its wealth invit- 
 ing unworthy persons into the ministry. 
 
 In England, the Ancient and the Roman clergy, 
 though differing in ceremonies, united in converting 
 the Anglo-Saxons. Paulinus I., Archbishop of York, 
 withdrew from his see in 633, and the Kingdom of 
 York relapsed into heathenism. Oswald, a Christian, 
 became King in 635. He invited a Bishop from lona, 
 in Scotland, a stern man, who remained but a short 
 time and retired discouraged with their obstinacy. 
 The Fathers of lona then caused the gentle and pa- 
 tient Aidan, one of their number, to be chosen and 
 consecrated Bishop. He came to Oswald, who aided 
 him in his missionary labours. A monastery similar to 
 lona was established in the island of Lindisfarne. 
 Many of the clergy came down from Scotland to join 
 in the work. The high character of the Bishop and 
 clergy, " their zeal, gentleness, humility and sim- 
 plicity, study of Scripture, freedom from selfishness 
 and avarice, boldness in dealing with the great, tender- 
 
SEVENTH CENTUEY. 57 
 
 ness and charity toward the poor, their strict and self- 
 denying life " obtained the reverence of the people. 
 Their great success in evangelizing a large part of 
 England followed. 
 
 Collisions with the Roman clergy, chiefly in regard 
 to the date of Easter, were inevitable. A conference 
 was held. The King decided for the Romans, on the 
 ground that to Saint Peter were given the " Keys of 
 the Kingdom of Heaven." 
 
 In 668, Theodore, a native of Asia Minor, was con- 
 secrated Archbishop of Canterbury. The churches of 
 the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms were united under him. 
 He established schools, and cultivated the arts. Wil- 
 frid, Bishop of !N'orthumbria, having fallen under his 
 and the King's displeasure, Theodore superseded him, 
 divided his diocese and appointed new Bishops for the 
 sees. Wilfrid went to Rome for redress. He was sus- 
 tained by the Pope, and sent back to England, but 
 was imprisoned by King Egfrid, of N^orthumbria, who 
 resisted the Papal decrees. 
 
 Disputes as to the time of Easter ceased in the 
 eighth century, the British Church conforming to the 
 general usage. 
 
 During the seventh century, large stone churches 
 were built and monasteries endowed, some of which 
 became corrupt. 
 
 The Venerable Bede lived from 6Y3 to 734. He 
 spent his whole life in the Abbey of Wearmouth. He 
 was distinguished for his labours in the department of 
 Church History and of general literature. 
 
68 HISTORY OF THE OHUEOH. 
 
 In the seventh century, missionaries from France, 
 Britain, and Ireland laboured among tlie heathen Ger- 
 manic tribes. An Irish Bishop, Kilian, was murdered. 
 Amandus, a Frenchman, retired in discouragement. 
 Eligius was long noted for his sanctity and charity. 
 Many were martyrs. 
 
EIGHTH CENTUKY. 
 
 The veneration of pictures and images having be- 
 come excessive, the Emperor Leo HI., the Isaurian, 
 undertook a forcible reformation. In 724, he issued 
 an edict against images. It roused the popular indig- 
 nation. Germanus, Patriarch of Constantinople, de- 
 fending them, resigned his see (Y30). The clergy 
 were roused, and the Emperor shut up the schools. A 
 famous champion of images was John of Damascus, 
 who afterwards became a monk of the monastery of 
 Saint Sabbas. Pope Gregory II. rejected the edict, 
 and took high ground against the Emperor, who was 
 politically weak in Italy. Disturbances arose. Ex- 
 archs were expelled or killed. Leo could only confis- 
 cate some of the Pope's revenues. He was succeeded 
 in 741 by his son Constantino Y. (Copronymus), an 
 able and cruel Emperor. He wished to assemble a 
 General Council in 754, but gathered only the local 
 Bishops, without any of the Patriarchs. They were all 
 in his interest, and denounced the use of pictures and 
 images, requiring that all such should be removed. 
 They anathematized religious art. The Emperor issued 
 decrees to that effect, and rigidly enforced them. He 
 Avas resisted by the monks, who were cruelly perse- 
 cuted. Monasteries were destroyed, and their inmates 
 
60 HISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 insulted and sometimes put to death. The Patriarch 
 Constantine was tortured and murdered. The Em- 
 peror died in 775. 
 
 Saint Boniface, Apostle of Germany, originally 
 named Winfrid, was born in Devonshire about 680, of 
 a rich and noble family. Early imbued with the mis- 
 sionary spirit, he went in 716 to Frisia; but political 
 disorders compelled him to return. He declined the 
 office of Abbot of his monastery. Assisted by Daniel, 
 Bishop of Winchester, he went to Rome in 717. The 
 Pope sent him with authority to Germany. Among 
 the wild tribes he made many thousand converts. The 
 Pope recalled him and consecrated him Bishop. He 
 returned to Germany with letters to Charles Martel 
 (who in 732, by his victory at Poitiers, drove back the 
 Saracens from France). Charles received him coldly, 
 but allowed him to labour beyond the Rhine. He was 
 troubled by irregular missionaries from France and 
 Ireland. He cut down the sacred oak of the Hessians, 
 and with it erected a chapel. He met with rapid suc- 
 cess. He was made Archbishop, and established 
 churches and monasteries, and organized dioceses. He 
 founded the Abbey of Fulda in 742, under a rigid 
 rule. Here he intended to remain and be buried; but 
 after his seventieth year he went out again as a mis- 
 sionary Bishop among the pagans of Frisia (Holland). 
 He baptized many converts, but was set upon and mas- 
 sacred, with all his companions, in 755. His body was 
 taken to Fulda. ISTotwithstanding his zeal for the 
 Papal See, he remonstrated with the Roman Church 
 
EIGHTH CENTURY. 61 
 
 for some errors in its teaching and practice. In 740, 
 Pope Gregory III. urged Charles Martel to send him 
 aid against the Lombards, who threatened Rome. In 
 754, Pope Stephen applied personally to Pipin, King 
 of the Prankish nation, who sent relief. The Papacy 
 became independent of the Eastern Emperors. 
 
 Charlemagne, son of Pipin, overthrew the Lom- 
 bard dominion in 773, and became master of Italy. 
 In 800, he was crowned Emperor of the Franks by Leo 
 III. (at Saint Peter's). His noble character was in 
 general " mild, open and generous." He subdued the 
 Saxons (785), who were afterwards Christianized. 
 Revival of learning took place under Charlemagne. 
 He invited Alcuin from England to teach the royal 
 school, and provided also for popular education. His 
 care provided for multiplying correct copies of the 
 Holy Scriptures, also for the Ritual of the Church. 
 The hymn, " Yeni, Creator,'' has been attributed to 
 him. He paid great deference to the Popes, but re- 
 tained the political power for himself. 
 
 On the death of Copronymus, in 775, his wife Irene 
 reigned. She opposed the Iconoclasts, and procured a 
 Council to be summoned, which met at ISTicsea in 786. 
 The only Patriarch there was Tarasius of Constanti- 
 nople. Bishops of opposite views were not in^dted. 
 The Pope sent delegates. The views of Constantino'.^ 
 Iconoclastic Council were denounced. Declarations 
 were set forth in favour of reverence of images. The 
 " images " were paintings and mosaics, not sculptures. 
 There were then no representations of the Trinity. 
 
62 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Irene was a woman of detestable character, who 
 caused her own son to be dethroned. Commotions be- 
 tween the parties favouring and denouncing images 
 continued. 
 
 The decrees of the Second Council of Mcsea were 
 sent to Charlemagne, who, with Bishop Alcuin and 
 the English Bishops, opposed them and issued a treat- 
 ise against them, called the '' Caroline Books,'' full of 
 wise and temperate reasoning. A Council at Frank- 
 fort, in 794, set forth the same views against image- 
 worship, in opposition to Home and to the Eastern 
 Church. The heresy of " Adoptionism '' appeared in 
 Spain in 783, in reference to the incarnation of Christ. 
 It asserted that our Lord's humanity was adopted to 
 Divine Sonship. The " Eilioque " had been added to 
 the Creed at the Third Council of Toledo, in 589. In 
 809, a synod in Aix approved the addition, but the 
 Pope, Leo III., though agreeing with the doctrine, op- 
 posed its insertion into the Creed. 
 
 The heresy of Paulicianism flourished from 653 to 
 871, chiefly near the Euphrates. A sect was formed 
 without a regular ministry, but with many doctrines 
 derived from Christianity. They were persecuted by 
 the Catholics. Becoming political enemies, they were 
 finally conquered by the Emperor Basil. In the 
 eighth or ninth century, a forgery appeared, which as- 
 serted a donation of civil authority to the Popes from 
 Constantino I. 
 
 Organs were used in Church service about 660. 
 One was erected in Winchester Cathedral in the tenth 
 
EIGHTH CENTURY. 63 
 
 century, whicli required seventy men to blow it. Bells 
 were introduced by Sabinian, the successor of Saint 
 Gregory (604-6). Their baptism was forbidden in 789. 
 Great strictness was enforced in the seventh and 
 eighth centuries, in the observance of the Lord's Day, 
 which was honoured, not as the Sabbath, but as a Chris- 
 tian festival. The growth of superstition showed itself 
 in the adoration of saints, in the passion for relics, in 
 pilgrimages to Rome, to the Holy Land or to shrines, 
 in penances, and in ordeals to decide questions by com- 
 bats and like tests. 
 
NINTH CENTURY. 
 
 Charlemagne died in 814. He was succeeded by 
 his son, Louis, the Pious, an amiable but rather weak 
 prince. Louis crowned himself from the altar. The 
 Pope objected, and on assuming some princely func- 
 tion was reproved by the Emperor. Reconciliation 
 followed the Pope's apology. 
 
 Louis made reforms in Church and State. He re- 
 stored property alienated from the Church, and 
 checked pomp in the clergy. In 823, Lothair was ap- 
 pointed to succeed his father, Louis. He was crowned 
 both by the Emperor and by the Pope. Louis checked 
 the pretensions of the latter, and corrected some abuses 
 of the Papal administration. He reserved to himself 
 the choice of the Pope in contested elections. His sons 
 rebelled against him, and he was deposed for a third 
 time, but was restored. He died in 840. 
 
 Leo Y., the Emperor in the East, in 813, renewed 
 the Iconoclastic troubles, taking part against images. 
 He was opposed by a priest, Theodore, the Studite. 
 Conferences and controversies arose between them. 
 Nicephorus, the Patriarch, was deprived, and an un- 
 worthy successor appointed. Theodore, being defiant 
 and irrepressible, was banished and cruelly treated. 
 Harsh measures were used by the Emperor's party 
 
NINTH CENTURY. 65 
 
 against their opponents. Michael, the Stammerer, a 
 general of Leo, a coarse, illiterate man, excited a con- 
 spiracy in which the Emperor was murdered in chapel 
 on Christmas Day, 820. Michael was crowned Em- 
 peror, with the exultation of Theodore. The new 
 Emperor refused to decide between the parties, and 
 tolerated them both. Theodore became violent again, 
 was banished, and died in exile. 
 
 In 829, Michael was succeeded by his son, Theophi- 
 lus, who had been well educated. An Iconoclast, he 
 ordered the removal and destruction of pictures and 
 images, and cruelly treated their advocates. He died 
 in 842. 
 
 Under Theodora, his Empress, Iconoclasm was sup- 
 pressed, and the opposite party favoured. Since then, 
 reverence of images (not sculpture) has been retained 
 in the Eastern Church. 
 
 In this controversy, the Church in France took mid- 
 dle ground, and endeavoured to mediate. In 814, 
 Claudius, Bishop of Turin, a fierce Iconoclast, rejected 
 all pictures, crosses, etc., from his churches. 
 
 About the middle of the sixth century, a standard 
 collection had been made of the canons of General and 
 other important Councils, including certain decrees of 
 the Bishop of Eome. Between 830 and 850 were pub- 
 lished the ^' False Decretals/^ an addition to the above, 
 pretending to be letters and decrees of the earlier 
 Popes. They contain anachronisms, but were by 
 many received as genuine. They greatly exalted the 
 Papal power, and set up the hierarchy beyond the 
 
66 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 reach of the civil law. The extraordinary claims of 
 the Papacy rest largely upon these forgeries. 
 
 The breaking up of the Frankish Empire, about the 
 middle of the ninth century, added to the political 
 power of the Popes, who became arbiters in contro- 
 versies. About this time occurred the ravages of the 
 I^orthmen, piratical crews who were a terror to the 
 coasts of Europe, plundering everywhere, destroying 
 churches and monasteries, and almost driving out 
 Christianity. Jealousies among the Prankish nobles 
 prevented their making head against the common 
 enemy. 
 
 In the South, the Saracens pressed their conquests 
 by way of Sicily, penetrating even to Rome. 
 
 The Eucharistic controversy began in 831. A 
 monk, Paschasius Radbert, wi'ote a treatise, improved 
 in 834, setting forth the doctrine of Transubstantia- 
 tion. He was opposed by another monk, Ratramn, 
 and by most of the theologians of the age, but was sup- 
 ported by Hijwmar, a prominent French ecclesiastic, 
 born in 806, and consecrated Archbishop of Rheims in 
 845. He was a powerful defender of the rights of the 
 Church and of his sovereign against the growing 
 claims of the Papacy. 
 
 In the controversy as to Predestination, Gotte- 
 schalk, a student of Saint Augustine's works, stub- 
 bornly maintained the doctrine. Hincmar bitterly 
 opposed him, and caused him to be punished by flog- 
 ging and imprisonment. The treatise of John Scotus 
 was the most remarkable against predestination. 
 
NINTH CENTURY. 67 
 
 Much feeling was excited by this controversy. In 869, 
 Gotteschalk died in prison, where he had been defiant 
 twenty years. 
 
 Mcolas I. became Pope in 858. A man of great 
 force of character, he advanced the Papal over the 
 political power. He appealed to the forged decretals 
 to support his assumed authority over Kings and dis- 
 tant Metropolitans. His successor, Adrian II., at- 
 tempting to interfere in political affairs of Prance, was 
 boldly rebuked by Hincmar, and forced to retract 
 (869). The case of Irenseus, in the second century, 
 exhorting Victor to moderation in his imperious 
 claims (Robertson, I., v., 73) was a precedent for such 
 mediation. Pope Adrian soon after drew down upon 
 himself another rebuke from Hincmar and Charles the 
 Bald, on his interference in behalf of an unworthy 
 Bishop, Hincmar the Younger, nephew of Archbishop 
 Hincmar. In this affair, the Archbishop wrote a de- 
 nial of the Papal claims, as resting on the forged 
 decretals. 
 
 Charles the Bald was crowned Emperor by Pope 
 John VIII. in 872. In 876, Hincmar and other 
 French Bishops successfully resisted the attempted 
 encroachments on their rights by this Pope, with 
 whom the Emperor sided, and who appointed a 
 primate over Hincmar and ordered appeals to Pome. 
 
 During the reign of the Eastern Emperor Michael 
 III., called " the drunkard," Ignatius, Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, who was consecrated in 846, fell un- 
 der the displeasure of a corrupt Court and was ban- 
 
68 HISTOEY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 ished. Photius, a man of great learning, was appointed 
 to his place. An irregular deposition removed Igna- 
 tius, who would not resign, and was beaten and impris- 
 oned. An appeal was made to Rome by the partisans 
 of both Bishops. Pope IN^icholas wrote in an arrogant 
 style, provoking opposition from the Eastern Emperor 
 and Church. Violent correspondence and mutual 
 anathemas were exchanged. The Pope favoured Ig- 
 natius. 
 
 The Bulgarians had recently been converted to 
 Christianity. Their King, baptized by Photius, after- 
 wards sent to the Pope for Bishops and missionaries. 
 Photius strongly resented the Roman intrusion, and 
 summoned a synod (867), which condemned the ac- 
 tion of the Pope. 
 
 Basil the Macedonian murdered Michael and 
 usurped the throne in 867. Photius was deposed, and 
 Ignatius reinstated. His cause was affirmed by a 
 Council, the Latins assisting. Soon after, Ignatius 
 sent an Archbishop into Bulgaria, and ejected the 
 Latin clergy, which gave rise to more sharp disputes 
 with Rome, and " a violent collision would probably 
 have ensued " had not Ignatius died in 877. Photius, 
 who had been reconciled to Ignatius, was reappointed 
 Patriarch. A Council was held, to which the Pope 
 sent delegates with assumptions and demands, which 
 were quietly set aside. John YIII. was violent, and 
 sent a Legate to Constantinople, to insist that Bulgaria 
 should be restored to Rome. The Legate was impris- 
 oned for a month, and returned without success. 
 
NINTH CENTURY. 69 
 
 Christianity in Spain was tolerated by the Ma- 
 hometan conquerors. In 850, a bitter persecution 
 broke out, marked by bigotry on both sides. Many 
 Christians courted martyrdom, in the fanatical spirit 
 condemned by Saint Cyprian in the third century. 
 
 Moravia was Christianized from Bulgaria. Two 
 brothers, Cyril and Methodius, were sent as mission- 
 aries from Constantinople, and met with great success. 
 They translated the liturgy and portions of the Script- 
 ure into the Slavonic tongue. In 868, the Pope conse- 
 crated Methodius Archbishop of the Moravians. After 
 some disputes, in 880, the liturgy in the local language 
 was permitted by the Pope. 
 
 Christianity was introduced among the Danes and 
 Swedes by efforts of Louis the Pious, the successor of 
 Charlemagne. Ehho was sent to Denmark in 822. 
 He baptized the King. Anskar, the " Apostle of the 
 ISTorth " (born 801), carried on the work there and in 
 Sweden. He was a monk of enthusiastic character, 
 who fancied he saw visions. He was consecrated 
 Archbishop at Hamburg in 831. His church and 
 monastery were burned by Northmen. He then went 
 to Sweden, where he had great success. He died in 
 865. 
 
. .J^^ 
 
 c^' i.:^ '^^-^ 
 
 TENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The tenth century, although unmarked bj theo- 
 logical controversies, was a time of general religious 
 decline. About the end of the ninth and beginning of 
 the tenth, the Hungarians, a savage and pagan nation, 
 overran a large part of Europe. The Carolingian 
 dynasty fell to pieces by its own weight. Great power 
 was held by the nobles, who were petty tyrants. 
 Troubles from the !N^orsemen continued. In 911, 
 Charles the Simple ceded to them E^ormandy, v/here 
 they settled, and in time became a Christianized and 
 civilized people. Corruption increased. The tempor- 
 alities of the Church were made political rewards, and 
 sees were objects of rival contention. The Papacy 
 was also contested and occupied by men of evil life. 
 Intrigues and murders disgraced the See of Saint 
 Peter. " A rapid succession of Popes now took place." 
 In a space of fifty years — from 904 to 955 — there 
 were twelve. It was the period of the " Pornocracy, 
 when dissolute women held the disposal of the See." 
 From 955 to 963, the Papal chair was held by John 
 XII., a man openly corrupt and debauched. He broke 
 faith with Otho, Emperor of Germany, who called a 
 Council and deposed him. Then followed a time of 
 commotion between rival Popes and parties, mixed 
 
TENTH CENTUEY. Yl 
 
 with state intrigues. Popes made with the Emperor^s 
 consent were opposed by Antipopes of the popular 
 choice. Cruel punishments w^ere inflicted upon their 
 rivals by victorious parties. 
 
 Arnulf, Bishop of Rheims, broke his solemn oath of 
 allegiance to Hugh Capet, and treacherously delivered 
 that city to his enemy, Charles of Lorraine. In 990, 
 the French Bishops appealed to the Pope against the 
 treachery. John XY., influenced by presents from 
 the accused, neglected the appeal. A Council was 
 called near Pheims. Bold speeches were made against 
 the Papal usurpations and corruptions. Arnulf was 
 deposed and imprisoned. Gerbert, a man of high char- 
 acter and great learning, was appointed in his place. 
 In 994, the Pope issued a mandate to the deposing 
 Bishops, which was neglected; but the next year, he 
 caused a Council to be held, which reinstated Arnulf. 
 
 In 999, Gerbert was raised to the Papacy by Otho 
 III., Emperor of Germany, who had been his pupil. 
 He took the title of Sylvester 11. He died in 1003. 
 From his astronomical and mechanical skill, he was 
 accused of magic. 
 
 The Second Advent and the end of the world were 
 expected in the year 1000, which was now near at 
 hand. Men's minds were drawn away from their 
 ordinary occupations. Some became reckless. Others 
 gave heed to reform and charity. Multitudes made 
 pilgrimages to Palestine, where the Lord was expected 
 to appear. 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 In 1002, Henry II. was chosen King of Germany. 
 A pious prince, lie Avished to become a monk. The story 
 is told of the Abbot of Saint Yanne's that he admitted 
 Henry " as a member of his own community, and im- 
 mediately charged him, by his vow of monastic obedi- 
 ence, to return to the administration of the Empire, 
 which had been committed to him by God.'' Political 
 and ecclesiastical discords brought him to Italy, where 
 he received the imperial crown. He put down a rival 
 King and an Antipope. The E"ormans settling in 
 Italy continued their robberies. 
 
 In 1033, Benedict IX. was made Pope. He was but 
 ten or twelve years old. He was shamefully corrupt. 
 In 1044, Benedict was expelled by Sylvester III. He 
 then sold out to Gregory YL, and again resumed his 
 see. Thus, three Popes at one time claimed the chair. 
 Great disorders prevailed, revenues fell off, churches 
 were in ruins. Henry III., the Emperor, interfered 
 and set them all aside (1046). 
 
 Dunstan was born in 925. In early life, he was an 
 ascetic. The story is related of his conflict with the 
 devil, who put in his head at the window and suggested 
 evil thoughts while the Saint was at his forge. Dun- 
 stan waited until the tongs were red hot, when he 
 caught him by the nose and held him. He became 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. ^ 73 
 
 Primate at Canterbury in 960. He reformed the 
 clergy and monasteries. He resisted the Pope, who 
 ordered him to restore an Earl, excommunicated for 
 an unlawful marriage, for which he had bought the 
 Pope's mandate, permitting it. 
 
 Ireland had been overrun by the Danes in the tenth 
 century. The Danes of Dublin were afterwards Chris- 
 tianized. About 1040, they sent to England for 
 Bishops, and thus was introduced the Church of 
 Rome. 
 
 Russia was converted by the Greek Church about 
 the end of the tenth century. In 1051, a native Rus- 
 sian was made Primate. 
 
 Iceland was colonized from ISTorway in 874. Chris- 
 tianity, which half-civilized princes had attempted to 
 plant by violence, did not prevail until propagated by 
 Saint Olave, with milder measures, in 1000. It had a 
 fixed Episcopate in 1056. About the same time, the 
 Church was carried to Greenland. In 1276, it had 
 sixteen Bishops. In the fifteenth century, the colony 
 was wasted by pestilence, and exterminated by the 
 Esquimaux; and Greenland was forgotten to Europe. 
 
 Church building revived in the Eleventh century. 
 Saint Mark's, Venice, was finished in 1071. 
 
 Chivalry grew up in this age. 
 
 Henry III., Emperor of the Western Empire, 
 claimed the privilege of nominating the Pope. On a 
 vacancy in 1048, he appointed Bruno, who unwill- 
 ingly accepted the insignia of office and set out for 
 Rome. AtBesanpon, he was met by Hildehrand, a 
 
74 HISTOEY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 monk of Cluny, wlio induced him to decline the ap- 
 pointment as from the Emperor, and submit himself 
 to the free choice of the Italian priests and people. 
 He did this publicly at Rome, entering the city as a 
 pilgrim without the ensigns of the apostolic office, and 
 was hailed as Pope, and known as Leo IX. (1049). 
 Hildebrand was a reformer of the Church, chiefly 
 from the corruptions arising from its civil connections. 
 
 A prominent man among the Roman clergy at this 
 time was Peter Damiani (born 1007, died 1060). He 
 was noted for his austerities. He practised and taught 
 self-flagellation and clerical celibacy. He was elo- 
 quent. He wrote the life of one Dominic, who was 
 given to excessive self-torture and to multiplied recita- 
 tions of the Psalms, laying off his iron shirt only to 
 chastise himself at the rate of a thousand lashes to ten 
 Psalms, working off a year of penance with three thou- 
 sand lashes, and five years with the whole Psalter, 
 which he went through twice, in Lent three times, 
 often ten, and once twelve times and over in twenty- 
 four hours, accomplishing in a week the equal of a 
 hundred years of penance for the sins of other men. 
 
 Leo IX. was active in reform. He enacted canons 
 against simony, including fees and presents, and 
 against marriage of the clergy. He set out on a tour 
 of personal visitation and reformation. The story of 
 Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine, illustrates his power. 
 Godfrey was a rebel against Henry III. He had 
 burned the Cathedral of Yerdun. Leo excommuni- 
 cated him. The prince, who had defied the Emperor, 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 75 
 
 bowed as a suppliant to the Vicar of Christ. Over- 
 awed by his presence, he submitted to public scourging 
 before the altar that he might be readmitted to the 
 Church. He obeyed the command to rebuild the 
 Cathedral which he had burned, and himself laboured 
 as a common workman at the masonry. Leo went to 
 Rheims, entering the French King's dominion with- 
 out his leave, and consecrated the Abbey Church of 
 Saint Remigius to hold the sacred bones of the 
 " Apostle of the Franks.'' He had summoned a synod 
 to meet him there (1049). Bishops and clergy from 
 England were present. Some Bishops were deposed 
 for simony. A canon was passed, ordering that a 
 Bishop should be the choice of clergy and people. 
 
 Leo at first obtained aid from the Emperor against 
 the ITormans, who were settled in Southern Italy and 
 thence invaded the Papal dominions. The aid Avas 
 soon withdrawn, and Leo himself led an army of his 
 own against them; but was defeated and taken pris- 
 oner. The victors, however, approached him with 
 awe, and he was well treated. He granted his captors 
 certain privileges, including the lands they held or 
 might conquer. Returning to Rome after nine months 
 of ^^ honorable captivity," he spread his couch in Saint 
 Peter's, near his tomb, and died there before the altar, 
 April 19, 1054. 
 
 An attempt was made in 1053 to compose the differ- 
 ences between the Greek and Latin Churches, such as 
 common bread or unleavened in the Eucharist, modes 
 of fasting, married or celibate clergy. Commissioners 
 
76 HISTOEY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 were sent from Rome to Constantinople, but became 
 violent against their opponents and anathematized 
 them, and the separation continued (1058). 
 
 Clerical marriage had been the practice of the 
 Church in Milan, whose clergy were a superior body 
 of men to the rest of the Italian Church. Some fa- 
 natics, in 1056, began denouncing publicly this liberty 
 of the clergy, and exciting mobs against them. The 
 Pope sent Peter Damiani to hold a synod there. Great 
 excitement arose on the part of the Milanese to defend 
 the independence of the Church of Saint Ambrose. 
 The synod, however, prevailed, through the eloquence 
 of Peter, and established the Roman rule and prac- 
 tises. 
 
 A Council held at Rome in 1059, prohibited mar- 
 riage to the clergy, and enacted that the election of a 
 Pope should be first by the Cardinals, being then the 
 seven Bishops of the Papal province, twenty-eight 
 chief parish Priests of Rome, and afterwards some 
 deacons, the whole number in 1586 being fixed at 
 seventy. 
 
 After the death of Mcholas II. in 1061, there were 
 intrigues over a new election. The Roman party, un- 
 der Hildebrand, chose and installed Alexander II. A 
 Lombardy party in the imperial interest chose Hono- 
 rius II. There were bloody conflicts between the two 
 parties, but a synod in 1062 decided for Alexander. 
 
 Great excitement was occasioned again in Milan, 
 and also in Florence, in 1066, with bloodshed, over the 
 question of a married clergy. 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 77 
 
 A noted man in those days was Adalbert, Arch- 
 bishop of Bremen, who had great power over the King, 
 Henry TV. Learned and influential, he was inordi- 
 nately ambitions, and became very corrupt, selling 
 preferments. He died in 1072. 
 
 Hildebrand, who had long exercised great power 
 over the Papacy, was consecrated Pope in 1073, under 
 the title of Gregory YII. He advanced the claims of 
 the Papacy even beyond those of the false decretals. 
 Bishops were to be deposed at his will, even Kings 
 and Emperors also, and their subjects released from 
 allegiance. There was to be no appeal from his de- 
 cision. He boldly denounced the offences of sove- 
 reigns, requiring their reformation under penalties. 
 In Council, he passed canons against simony and cler- 
 ical marriage. Violent opposition and commotions 
 were produced in France and Germany. To the dis- 
 solute Philip I. of France, he wrote severely, threaten- 
 ing to excommunicate and interdict him; but the 
 lOng, while avoiding a conflict, opposed a sullen resist- 
 ance, and no reformation followed. " At one time all 
 the Archbishops of France were under excommunica- 
 tion." Henry lY., King of Germany, quarrelled with 
 the Pope, who threatened him mth excommunication 
 if he were contumacious. The King, in indignation, 
 caused a Council in 1076 to pronounce sentence of 
 deposition against him. An insolent letter from the 
 King was delivered to the Pope at a Papal Council. 
 Gregory saved the messenger from violence, but ex- 
 communicated Henry and all the Bishops of his party, 
 
78 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 deposing the one and suspending the others. Dis- 
 turbances " rent all Germany into two hostile parties/' 
 Henry's power was on the wane. He determined to 
 submit to save his throne. He went to Italy and, after 
 deep humiliation at Canossa, was received by Gregory 
 and absolved on hard conditions. Civil war broke out 
 in Germany. There was a royal and a Papal party. 
 As Henry had ^' resumed the insignia of royalty," the 
 Papal party summoned a diet, and Rudolph was set up 
 as King. The Pope supported him (1080), and re- 
 peated his anathemas against Henry. Henry retali- 
 ated by calling a Council, which elected an Antipope, 
 Clement III. Eudolph was slain in battle. Gregory 
 was alarmed, and relaxed some of his too rigid rules to 
 conciliate sundry European powers. Henry besieged 
 Pome three years, and entered it in 1084. The Anti- 
 pope was enthroned, and Henry was crowned as Em- 
 peror. Gregory still held out in the Castle of Saint 
 Angelo, and sent for aid to the ITormans in Southern 
 Italy. They suddenly appeared with a large army, 
 before which Henry retreated. Pome was sacked and 
 burned. Gregory afterwards retired to Salerno, 
 where he died in 1085. 
 
 A controversy arose in the eleventh century in ref- 
 erence to the doctrine of Transubstantiation. One 
 Berengar opposed the doctrine of a material change in 
 the elements, while admitting a spiritual change. He 
 was opposed by -Lanfranc, the controversy being 
 marked by much bitterness. Their treatises are ex- 
 tant. Berengar was condemned by several Councils, 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 79 
 
 and even forced to retract. He continued, however, 
 to teach his doctrines, and had many followers. His 
 teachings w^ere a renewal of those of Ratramn in 834. 
 Gregory, although not a supporter of Berengar's opin- 
 ions, treated him kindly. 
 
 Severe conflicts between the Pope (Victor III.) and 
 Antipope occurred about 1087, each in turn holding 
 Eome. 
 
 Pilgrims to the Holy Land had long been greatly 
 oppressed by Turkish bigotry. Peter the Hermit, 
 about 1093, began to preach a crusade, and roused 
 great enthusiasm. The Pope, Urban IL, in 1095, 
 held Councils on this subject in Italy, and also in 
 France. Plenary indulgence was promised to the 
 Crusaders. A fever of excitement ran through Eu- 
 rope. Disorderly crowds swarmed toward the East. 
 The Jews were oppressed on the way. There was 
 neither discipline nor military preparation. The first 
 battle was fought near Mcsea. The Turks were vic- 
 torious. Numerous victims fell to bigotry and false 
 zeal. 
 
 More regular forces were then organized. Godfrey 
 of Bouillon, with others from Germany and France, 
 and I^ormans from Italy, set out. Nicsea was be- 
 sieged, and taken in 1097. After a painful march 
 through Asia Minor, Antioch was taken the next year; 
 but provisions were recklessly wasted, and when the 
 city was reinvested by the Turks, there was great dis- 
 tress among the Christians. Suddenly came the dis- 
 covery of " the Sacred Lance,'' which had pierced the 
 
80 HISTOEY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Eedeemer's side. With this borne in front, a success- 
 ful sally was made, and tlie dispersion of the enemy 
 was effected. 
 
 The next year, the advance to Jerusalem was begun. 
 I'he first attack was repulsed. Towers and battering 
 rams were constructed and used, and Jerusalem was 
 taken by assault July 15, 1099, Friday, 3 p.m. Tearful 
 massacres and cruelties were inflicted on the part of 
 the victors. A kingdom was organized, of which God- 
 frey was chosen King. He refused to be crowned with 
 gold, where his Master had been crowned with thorns. 
 His kingdom was established throughout Palestine. 
 He adopted wise laws, famous as the " Assizes of Jeru- 
 salem." He died the next year, and was succeeded by 
 his brother Baldwin. 
 
 In 1099, the Antipope was finally driven from 
 Rome. 
 
 Henry, the son of the Emperor Henry IV. of Ger- 
 many, rebelled, treacherously imprisoned his father, 
 and compelled his abdication. The Emperor escaped. 
 Civil war arose. The hostile armies of son and father 
 were approaching each other, when suddenly Henry 
 lY. died, on the eve of a battle, in 1106. 
 
 After the E'orman Conquest of England (1066), 
 the sees were filled with foreign Bishops, to the injury 
 of the best interests of the Church. Lanfranc (vid. 
 ante). Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1071, made 
 great reforms. He favored clerical celibacy; but very 
 many English Priests were married. William the 
 Conqueror would not acknowledge the full claims oi 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 81 
 
 the Pope. He would not promise fealty, nor allow his 
 Bishops to be summoned to Rome. The Pope cited 
 Lanfranc to the Papal city in vain. William impris- 
 oned his brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, against the 
 remonstrances of the Pope. His successor, Rufus, 
 plundered the Church, leaving bishoprics vacant that 
 he might seize their revenues. 
 
 Lanfranc was succeeded by Anselm, a learned theo- 
 logian of high personal character (1093). He ac- 
 cepted the Primacy unwillingly. There w^ere con- 
 stant disagreements with King Pufus, who wished to 
 extort money from the Church. The King often came 
 to an agreement and afterwards broke faith. Disputes 
 in reference to homage due continued with his succes- 
 sor, Henry I. Anselm spent much time in Prance in 
 retirement from his Archiepiscopate. He was every- 
 where highly respected. He died in 1109. 
 
 There were quarrels between the Pope and Henry 
 V. in reference to the relations of the civil and ecclesi- 
 astical authority, such as the investing of Bishops by 
 the King, and the seizing of Church revenues. The 
 Emperor secured the concession that Bishops should 
 be vassals of the crown, and not of the Papacy. 
 
 William of Hirschan reformed German monasteries 
 (1069-91). He encouraged architecture, music, and 
 the arts of ecclesiastical decoration among the monks. 
 Xew monastic orders were founded, that of the Car- 
 thusians by Bruno in 1084. The legend is told of the 
 cause of his retirement from the world that, when a 
 pious and learned doctor was being carried to the 
 
82 HISTOEY OF THE CHUKCH. 
 
 grave, the dead body raised itself and exclaimed : " By 
 God's righteous judgment, I am accused." The rites 
 were suspended for a day. On their renewal, he 
 moaned: ^^ By God's righteous judgment, I am 
 judged.'' A day passed, and again he cried: "By 
 God's righteous judgment, I am condemned." Rigid 
 rules of coarse dress and spare diet, of flagellations, 
 silence, and poverty were laid down for the order. 
 They built the splendid monastery of the Certosa, near 
 Pavia, in 1396. Though they became wealthy, they 
 did not degenerate. The Cistercian order was widely 
 diffused. It was distinguished by white dresses, and 
 observed plainness of living and simple rites. Saint 
 Bernard was an Abbot of this order. The order of 
 the Hospitallers originated in Jerusalem about the 
 middle of the eleventh century, in the hospital for the 
 relief of pilgrims. During the Crusades, the brethren 
 of the hospital became independent of their monas- 
 tery, and formed an order, whose costume was a black 
 dress with a white cross on the breast. They lived 
 monastically, under vows, in 1113. About the same 
 time, arose the military order of the Temple of Jeru- 
 salem. The Templars originated, in 1118, in a band 
 of nine French Knights, who defended pilgrims going 
 from Jerusalem to bathe in the Jordan. They lived 
 under a discipline, half military, half monastic. The 
 order soon numbered thousands of brave warriors, 
 under one master. Rivalry revived a martial spirit in 
 the Hospitallers, now become wealthy and strong. 
 They were divided into Knights, Clergy and Serving 
 
ELEVENTH CENTUEY. 83 
 
 Brethren. They showed valor, but also became arro- 
 gant, and were expelled from the Holy Land for insult- 
 ing the Patriarch and for non-payment of dues. 
 
TWELFTH CEXTURY. 
 
 ]jr 1110, Henry V., of Germany, entered Italy with 
 an army, and imprisoned the Pope and Cardinals. The 
 Pope submitted, and agreed not to excommunicate the 
 Enif^eror: but afterwards sanctioned siich excom- 
 munication, when pronounced by others. Henry re- 
 turned to Pome, and the Pope fled and soon after died. 
 A new Pope and Antip^pe carried on the feud. In 
 Henry's absence, discords appeared in Germany be- 
 tween the imperial and Papal parties. A concordat 
 was completed in 1122. both parties making conces- 
 sions. 
 
 Henrv died in 1125, learino: no natural heir. A 
 great assemblage of nobles and people met to elect his 
 successor. Lothair was chc>sen. In 1130, rival Popes 
 were chosen by Poman factions, ^iz. : Anacletus II. 
 and Innocent II. The former is held as Antipope. 
 Anacletus was corrupt, and gained the power in Pome. 
 Innocent went to France. He was supported by Peter 
 the Venerable, Abbot of Clunv, and bv Saint Ber- 
 vard. Abbot of Clairvaux. 
 
 Bernard, bom 1091, was devoted to a religious life 
 by a pious mother. He persuaded his whole family to 
 the monastic life. He founded Clairvaux, an offshoot 
 from the Cistercian Abbey. He adopted a rigorous 
 rule. The excessive mortification of Bernard ren- 
 
TWELFTH CENTCTiY. 85 
 
 dered his life in danger. He was powerfully eloquent, 
 and of great influence. 
 
 The disputes of the rival Popes came before Lothair. 
 Innocent was acknowledged bv the Emperor, whom 
 he crowned. Lothair accompanied him to Rome. 
 Bernard favoured Innocent, and aided him by his elo- 
 quence. The death of the Antipope in 1138 left Inno- 
 cent's claims unquestioned. 
 
 Bernard opposed the brilliant Abelard. a popular 
 teacher of philosophy and a speculator in theology, 
 and caused him to be condemned for heretical opinions 
 by a Council and by the Pope. 
 
 Arnold of Brescia, bom in 110.5, preached against 
 the corruptions of the clergy. He would strip the 
 Church of its great wealth and privileges. His doc- 
 trines were received by the people at Home. Eepubli- 
 canism ** of the ancient Roman model "' grew there, 
 and led to a revolt against the Pope (1143). Eugenius 
 HI. was expelled from Rome in 1146. 
 
 Dissensions and luxury weakened the Latin king- 
 dom in the East. Edessa was captured by the Mussul- 
 mans, and great slaughter of the Christians was car- 
 ried on in 1144. Pope Eugenius announced a new 
 Crusade. Bernard eLx^uently preached it in France 
 and Germany, and met with renewed enthusiasm. 
 Louis \ 11.. of France, assimied the Cross. In Ger- 
 many, Bernard protected the Jews from the popular 
 anger. He persuaded the Emperor Conrad to go on 
 the Crusade. Miracles attributed to Bernard in- 
 creased his power. 
 
86 HISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 In 1147, Conrad descended the Danube with a 
 large force. The jealousy of the Greek Empire pro- 
 voked quarrels on their way through that country. 
 The French force followed later in the same year. In 
 Asia Minor, the Germans, deceived by their Greek 
 guides, were defeated by the Turks and driven back 
 on ISTicsea, where the French had arrived. Louis was 
 checked near Attalia, and his vanguard cut to pieces; 
 but he embarked with the remnant of his forces for 
 Antioch, and reached Jerusalem more like a pilgrim 
 than a warrior. Here he met Conrad. A siege of 
 Damascus was begun, but failed through jealousies 
 among the Christians, when Louis returned home in 
 disgust with less than three hundred men. 
 
 At the request of Pope Eugenius III., Bernard drew 
 up a treatise " on Consideration '' in which he set 
 forth the responsibilities and obligations of the Pope. 
 Bernard died in 1153. 
 
 Frederick I. (Barbarossa) succeeded to the German 
 crown in 1152. He gained his point in a contest with 
 the Pope relative to the appointment of the Arch- 
 bishop of Magdeburg. In 1154, he entered Italy, 
 with a large army, to check the tendency of the Roman 
 cities towards independence. ISTicolas Breakspear, 
 an Englishman, was then Pope, under the name of 
 Adrian TV. He repudiated the republican govern- 
 ment, and punished the consequent rebellion of the 
 Romans by placing the city under an interdict. Ar- 
 nold of Brescia fled, but was given up to Frederick, 
 and Adrian caused him to be put to death. Frederick 
 
TWELFTH CENTURY. 87 
 
 entered Kome, and was crowned by the Pope. An 
 outbreak of the Komans was defeated by the Germans. 
 
 A fierce quarrel arose between the Emperor and tlie 
 Pope, relative to their political rights. The Emperor 
 was provoked because the Pope had entered into an al- 
 liance with the Sicilians without his consent. The 
 Pope was displeased with the Emperor's irregular 
 marriage. These, with misunderstandings and differ- 
 ences, threatened a rupture, which, however, was ter- 
 minated by the death of Adrian in 1159. 
 
 Kival elections to the Papacy followed, with great 
 contentions between the Popes Alexander III. and 
 Victor lY., the latter supported by the Emperor. The 
 rivals excommunicated each other. Milan, which was 
 opposed to the Emperor, naturally favoured Alexander. 
 It was besieged by the Emperor, and, after three years, 
 surrendered in 1162, when, with the exception of 
 churches and monasteries, it was razed to the ground. 
 The relics of the Magi, " the Three Kings," were sent 
 to Cologne. Alexander took refuge in France, where 
 he was supported by the clergy of France and Eng- 
 land. Pope Alexander returned to Rome in 1165. In 
 1167, the Emperor again entered Italy with an army, 
 advanced to Rome, and gained possession of the Papal 
 city. He enthroned Paschal III. the successor to Vic- 
 tor, and was crowned by him on August 1st. Alexan- 
 der escaped. A sudden pestilence broke out in the 
 German army. It was looked upon as a Divine judg- 
 ment. Frederick returned north, barely escaping with 
 his life through the hostile mountains. 
 
88 HISTOKY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 In 1170, Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was murdered at the instance of Henry II., of 
 England, who afterwards purchased peace with the 
 Church by humble penance at Becket's tomb, all of 
 which gave Alexander greater power. 
 
 Frederick recrossed the Alps in 1174, to avenge 
 himself on the Lombards, but was defeated, humbled 
 himself before Pope Alexander, and accepted terms of 
 peace at Venice. Alexander returned to Kome, and 
 his claim was no longer contested. 
 
 The next Pope, Lucius III., having been chosen by 
 the Cardinals alone without the concurrence of the 
 Romans, was rebelled against and driven from Home. 
 
 The Mussulman power advanced in the East, on ac- 
 count of the great depravity of the Latin kingdom. 
 The rise of Saladin effected a change of rule. His 
 noble character was conspicuous for " justice, mag- 
 nanimity, generosity, courtesy and truth." He was 
 noted for his " skill in arms and personal bravery and 
 accomplishments." His Mahometan ^^ piety and or- 
 thodoxy " were ^^ free from intolerance." He invaded 
 the Holy Land in 1187, and gained a signal victory at 
 Tiberias. The Cross, which had been sent from Jeru- 
 salem to inspire the Christians, was lost. The Holy 
 City was besieged and taken, after being held by the 
 Latins for eighty-eight years. The generosity of Sala- 
 din offered liberal terms of ransom to all, and gave to 
 the Christians free passage to Europe or allowed them 
 to remain on payment of tribute. Tyre was the only 
 place which remained unconquered, and was left to 
 
TWELFTH CENTURY. 89 
 
 the Christians. Preaching of a new Crusade had been 
 begun in Europe in 1184. The capture of Jerusalem 
 excited all Europe. The Emperor Frederick, now 
 sixty-seven years old, assumed the Cross and set out 
 with an army in 1189. There was renewed trouble 
 with Greeks, who withheld promised supplies. Fred- 
 erick took several of their cities, and compelled their 
 aid. He crossed the Hellespont, with eighty-three 
 thousand men. In the disastrous march through Asia 
 Minor, amid treachery and famine, he preserved dis- 
 cipline, and with diminished forces obtained an over- 
 whelming victory at Iconium, when he was drowned 
 in crossing a river near Tarsus. Panic demoralized 
 the army, and only five thousand reached Acre, then 
 besieged by the Christians. 
 
 Richard of England (Coeur de Lion) raised money 
 by the sale of preferments and by the plunder of 
 churches. He made a compact with Philip of France, 
 and both Kings went on the Crusade, and joined Leo- 
 pold of Austria before Acre. The jealousies of the 
 different nations, and the overbearing character of 
 Richard, bred discord. After two years' siege, and 
 great loss on both sides. Acre surrendered in 1191. 
 Eight thousand persons were afterwards massacred 
 by the Christians, in the sight of Saladin. Dissensions 
 among the Christians broke up the army. Philip re- 
 turned home. Richard remained another year, and 
 gained most of the coast from Saladin ; but the army, 
 weakened by sickness and internal quarrels, was un- 
 able to advance against Jerusalem. Richard returned 
 
90 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 in 1192, after making a truce for three years. In pass- 
 ing through Austria, he was imprisoned by Leopold, 
 who transferred him to the Emperor of Germany. 
 The latter released him, after fourteen months, on 
 payment by the English of a heavy ransom. Saladin 
 died in 1193. A feeble attempt to revive the Crusades 
 was made near the close of the century, but ended dis- 
 astrously, and on the death of the Emperor, Henry 
 YL, the project was abandoned. 
 
 The Greek Church remained in a state of torpor 
 during this century, being under the control of the 
 civil authority. An unsuccessful attempt was made 
 to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches, the 
 disputed points being: the procession of the Holy 
 Ghost, leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist, 
 and the Papal supremacy. 
 
 The fierce and Avarlike Pomeranians were converted 
 to Christianity by Bishop OthOy in the early part of 
 the twelfth century. 
 
 The corruption of the clergy prepared the way for 
 sectarianism in the Western Church. Early in the 
 century, several teachers appeared in Germany and 
 elsewhere, denying the Church and its sacraments, 
 preaching an invisible Church, and many of the errors 
 of a later age. They were successful only for a limited 
 time. Some of these preachers were charged with 
 self-aggrandizement and viciousness of life. One 
 Henry excited the people to plunder the clergy, and 
 worked much mischief in the South of France, until 
 Saint Bernard appeared as his opposer. 
 
TWELFTH CENTURY. 91 
 
 Heresies now began to spread more widely through 
 Europe. They appeared under an organization called 
 Catharism. This followed in many respects the orien- 
 tal Manicheeism of the third century (a mixture of 
 Christianity and heathenism). In France and G(n-- 
 many, heretics were sometimes burned. Henry II., of 
 England, would not allow such persecution, and Ber- 
 nard preached powerfully against it. Catharism 
 gained chiefly in the South of France, where the peo- 
 ple were luxurious and the clergy lax. The heretics 
 were organized, and at one time had a pretended Pope 
 of their own in Bulgaria. Eminent men of the Church 
 were sent to confer with them in 1177, but with little 
 success. In 1179, some more forcible measures were 
 tried, with like result. The Catharists held the doc- 
 trine of predestination, and denied the offices and 
 priesthood of the Church. They condemned the use 
 of the cross, and insulted it as an emblem. For the 
 sacraments, they substituted a mystical rite called con- 
 soJamoitum, '' the true baptism of fire, which restored 
 to each man his heavenly soul and the gift of the con- 
 soling Paraclete," and which atoned for all the previ- 
 ous irregularities of life. They claimed there could be 
 no salvation out of their sect. 
 
 The W aide uses, though claiming higher antiquity, 
 Avere founded by Peter Waldo, of Lyons, in 1170. Al- 
 though very ignorant, they claimed the right to 
 preach, and called down the anathema of the Pope, 
 Lucius III. Their sect increased rapidly in France 
 and Lombardy. They denounced the Church, claimed 
 
92 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 the right to ordain, and limited salvation to them- 
 selves. They were greatly superior to the Catharists, 
 and were generally pure in their morality and practice. 
 
 The power of the Popes was still more exalted from 
 the time of Gregory YII. They usurped the author- 
 ity of Metropolitan Bishops by the appointment of 
 Legates. They claimed that all ecclesiastical power 
 resided in themselves. The Church, by degrees, in- 
 vaded the province of the State, claiming jurisdiction 
 over numerous classes of offences. Discipline failed, 
 and morality was lowered by reason of Papal interfe- 
 rence with Episcopal duties. Pighting Bishops Avere 
 the outcome of the Crusades, and were engaged in 
 other wars. In full armor in the thick of the fight one 
 day, they would be arrayed in pontificals and cele- 
 brate mass the next. The story is told of Kichard and 
 Philip, the Count Bishop of Beauvais, how Richard 
 took him prisoner, and on the Pope's interference sent 
 Philip's coat of mail, saying: '' Know whether it be 
 thy son's coat or no! " Clerical celibacy was not ab- 
 solutely settled in this century. 
 
 Disputations took place between the Cistercians 
 and the Cluniacs, championed relatively by Bernard 
 and Peter the Venerable, the first blaming the latter 
 for their easy rules, rich clothing and elegant 
 churches, while the latter retaliated by accusing the 
 other of lack of charity and pleaded excuses of climate 
 and of discretion. The rivalry proceeded to enmity, 
 in which a Cistercian abbey was burned down. The 
 Cistercians afterwards degenerated greatly from the 
 
TWELFTH CENTURY. 93 
 
 observance of their rigid rules. E^early all the monas- 
 tic orders became corrupt. They were in constant dis- 
 pute with the Bishops, from whose control the Popes 
 had in great measure exempted them. 
 
 In the early Church, the term Sacrament was ap- 
 plied to many religious rites. In the sixth century, 
 the Eastern Church recognized six, and the AYestern 
 seven, to wit : 
 
 Eastern: Baptism, Eucharist, Chrism, Ordination, 
 Rites for the Dead, Monastic Profession. 
 
 Western: Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Ordi- 
 nation, Extreme Unction, Matrimony, Penance. 
 
 The Festival of Trinity Sunday was added in this 
 century. Extreme reverence for the Blessed Virgin 
 increased. The Festival of the Immaculate Concep- 
 tion was instituted in Lyons, in 1140. Bernard and 
 others opposed the doctrine, and held that Christ 
 alone was conceived without sin. It was only de- 
 finitely settled in the Poman Church by Pius IX., in 
 1854. 
 
 The passion for relics increased, materials being 
 supplied from the Crusades. The '^ Holy Dish '' of 
 tlie Last Supper, presumably of emerald, though 
 really of green glass, brought from Csesarea, was re- 
 vered by the Genoese. Tlie " Handkerchief '' of Saint 
 Veronica (fera icon), said to have been miraculously 
 impressed with Christ's countenance, wlien, on His way 
 to Calvary, he wiped the sweat from His brow with 
 her veil, which she offered Him, and to have been 
 brought to Italy to cure the leprosy of Tiberius, was ex- 
 
04 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 hibited in Saint Peter's. The " Holy Coat " '' without 
 seam, woven from the top throughout " (St. John xix., 
 23), claimed to have been found by the Empress Helena, 
 was treasured in Treves. The legend of the eleven 
 thousand virgins, martyred for their chastity by the 
 Huns, sanctified the relics of their bones in Cologne. 
 Pilgrimages were rewarded by indulgences, which the 
 people understood to be forgiveness of sins without any 
 conditions of repentance or charity. 
 
 Increase of learning and the foundation of universi- 
 ties marked the century. Among them were those of 
 Paris and Oxford. 
 
 A compilation of canon law was drawn up by Gra- 
 tian, a monk of Bologna, and called '^ The Decretum," 
 and of theology by Peter Lombard, Bishop of Paris, 
 and called " The Sentences." 
 
 In 1198, Innocent III., a man of high character 
 and will, became Pope. He advanced the claims of 
 the Papacy to the greatest extremes. He was literary 
 and a lover of music. The hymns " Yeni Creator '' 
 and " Stabat Mater '^ are attributed to him, though 
 the first is also ascribed to Charlemagne and " seems 
 to be older " (Encyclo.), while the ^^ Stabat Mater " 
 has been assigned to Jacopone in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury (ihid.). He reformed the luxury of the Papal 
 Court, and strengthened the political power of the 
 Papacy. 
 
 When Philip, son of Barbarossa, and Otho were 
 both crowned as rival Emperors in Germany, the Pope 
 decided for Otho. This provoked a ten years' civil 
 war and confusion in Church and State. 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The Pope's decision in favor of Otho, published at 
 Cologne in 1201, was unsuccessful in inducing other 
 Kings to co-operate with him. Pliilip's cause gained 
 in power, but he was murdered in 1208. Otho was 
 crowned at Rome by Innocent in 1209. Immediately, 
 notwithstanding his pledge to respect the rights of the 
 Church, he quarrelled with the Pope, refused to pay 
 the usual donative, plundered pilgrims, and seized the 
 Pope's towns. He was anathematized. Becoming 
 personally unpopular, he was abandoned by the Ger- 
 mans, who received and finally crowned, as rival, 
 1 rederick II. 
 
 Philip II., King of France (1180-1223), married 
 Ingeburga, a Danish princess, but put her away with- 
 out cause and married another wife. The Pope inter- 
 fered, and on the King's obstinacy laid all France 
 under an interdict (1200). Churches were closed, 
 and no Christian rites were permitted. This lasted for 
 seven months, when the King relented. 
 
 In 1205, a quarrel arose between Innocent and 
 King John, of England, in relation to the appointment 
 of an Archbishop of Canterbury. Setting aside the 
 elections at Canterbury, Innocent held an election in 
 Rome, and consecrated Stephen Langton, against the 
 
96 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 King's protest. John would not receive him, uttered 
 threats against the Pope, and plundered the monas- 
 tery at Canterbury. The Pope put England under an 
 interdict in 1208. The King retorted by banishing 
 and plundering most of the clergy. John was excom- 
 municated, and his subjects released from fealty to 
 their sovereign. The King continued obstinate, and 
 carried on the war by confiscating the revenues of the 
 Church. The Pope at last incited the French King to 
 a descent on England, as a kind of crusade. An inva- 
 sion was organized, when John relented (1213), and 
 agreed to pay tribute to Rome and hold his kingdom 
 in vassalage to the See of Saint Peter. The interdict 
 was then (1214) removed. 
 
 In 1215, the English Barons forced John to sign 
 the Magna Charta at Runnymede. " This established 
 the supremacy of the law of England over the will of 
 the monarch." (Chambers's Encyclo.) It declared: 
 " The Church of England shall be free, and shall have 
 her liberties uninjured." (Robertson.) 
 
 Innocent incited a new Crusade against the infidels. 
 Great numbers enlisted. It was determined first to at- 
 tack Egypt. A contract was made with the Venetians 
 to furnish ships. In 1201, the Crusaders appeared at 
 Venice, but were unable to pay the stipulated price. 
 The Venetians then, as an equivalent, persuaded the 
 Crusaders to assist them in the capture of Zara, a 
 Christian city in Dalmatia. This they did, in opposi- 
 tion to the Pope's commands, and, in 1203, sailed 
 against Constantinople, which was also subdued by the 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 97 
 
 allies. The rightful Emperor was restored; but 
 hatred arising between the Greeks and Latins, the 
 Latins next year conquered the city for themselves. 
 Great outrages were committed, and the Greek 
 churches plundered. The breach between the East- 
 ern and Western Church was widened. 
 
 The Pope continued his efforts to excite an expedi- 
 tion to the Holy Land. About 1213, a Children's 
 Crusade was organized in Erance. Some thirty thou- 
 sand arrived in Marseilles and sailed for the East. 
 Part were wrecked, and part sold into slavery by the 
 treacherous shipmasters. 
 
 The Waldenses are heard of occasionally as a weak 
 party in Erance at the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. Their vernacular Bibles were burned and their 
 opinions extinguished. The Cathari were more nu- 
 merous, especially in the South of Erance, and were 
 persecuted, and were themselves sometimes the perse- 
 cutors. The Pope sent Legates to dispute with 
 the heretics, with little success. 
 
 A crusade against heresy was proclaimed, and an 
 army raised in 1209. The town of Beziers in Erance 
 was sacked, and the inhabitants slaughtered. When 
 the Abbot Arnold was asked how the soldiers might 
 distinguish Catholics (who also defended their city) 
 from heretics, he answered: ^' Kill them all! the Lord 
 knoweth them that are His." Civil war, called theAl- 
 bigensian, followed, marked by bigotry, intolerance, 
 and great barbarities on both sides, with conspicuous 
 breaches of faith. Toulouse, the refuge of surviving 
 
98 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 heretics, was captured in 1215. The crusade was suc- 
 cessful in crushing heresy, but left a bad feeling on 
 account of its cruelties and excesses. 
 
 The new mendicant orders arose in the time of In- 
 nocent III., viz.: the Dominicans and the Francis- 
 cans, to combat heresy by preaching to the poor, which 
 bad been " almost disused in the Church, while culti- 
 vated by heretics.'' The Dominicans were severe, 
 the Franciscans genial. 
 
 KSaint Dominic^ born in 1170, was a man of pure 
 character, charitable and ascetic. He founded a 
 preaching order in 1206, choosing the rule of Saint 
 Augustine. The order made rapid progress. The 
 friars dressed in white with a black cloak. They had 
 no endowments, and professed absolute poverty. 
 There were also nuns of this order. Dominic died in 
 1221, and was canonized in 1223. 
 
 Saint Francis, born at Assisi in 1182, had raptures 
 and visions. He gave away everything in charity. 
 His care of lepers extended to kissing their sores, 
 washing their feet, and consorting with them. He 
 assumed a condition of poverty, and founded an order 
 of mendicants about 1210. The Pope made them lay 
 preachers. A sisterhood of this order was established 
 by Saint Clara. Francis enjoined the strictest humil- 
 ity. They were to be called Little Brethren (frati- 
 celli) and Minorites, as " less than all others." " Yet 
 he forbade extreme austerity." He discouraged 
 learning, lest it should minister to pride. His love of 
 animals is illustrated by curious stories. He bought off 
 
THIKTEENTH CENTUEY. 99 
 
 lambs on the way to slaughter. He kept a sheep that 
 would kneel and bleat in the service. He preached to 
 birds on thankfulness to their Creator. Once he was 
 interrupted by the chattering of swallows, and ad- 
 dressed them: " Sisters, you have spoken enough for 
 the present, and it is my turn; be silent and listen to 
 tlie Word of God." He spoke to fishes, worms and 
 flowers. He called his body, " Brother Ass." He 
 Avent out fearlessly to meet a ravenous wolf, spoke to 
 him as " Brother Wolf," persuaded him of his wicked- 
 ness and promised that the citizens would support 
 him if he would desist. The wolf put out his paw into 
 the Saint's right hand, and went to the town, where he 
 lived happily to old age. Many miracles were attrib- 
 uted to Francis. He is said to have received the " Stig- 
 mata," the Saviour's Avounds, in his hands and feet, 
 tlie flesh hardening into nail heads and points. The 
 order grew rapidly to over five thousand in the first ten 
 years. He died in 1226, and was canonized in 1228. 
 
 A great Council, called the Fourth Lateran, was 
 held by Innocent III. in 1215. It imposed Transub- 
 stantiation, and required every one to confess once a 
 year. Innocent died in 1216. A review of his char- 
 acter shows him noble and blameless, wise and gentle, 
 the ideal of a Pope. His dignity was calm, his views 
 gTand and comprehensive. With all his generosity 
 and amiability, " he was dreaded by all, above all the 
 Popes who for many years had gone before him." A 
 review of the results of his pontificate reveals the 
 Papacy at its highest mark of power. " Exorbitant 
 
100 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 pretensions " were met by " humble deference." Yet 
 his very successes had in them the seeds of a decline. 
 He set up an Emperor '^ to the detriment of his succes- 
 sors. He founded the Latin power in the East, only 
 for rapid decay. He exterminated heretics, but left 
 a spirit of hatred in the people. He instituted the 
 mendicant orders, whose excesses at last brought on 
 the revolt of the Reformation." 
 
 Honorius III. became Pope in 1216. He projected 
 a Crusade, to which there was but a feeble response. 
 The Latin Empire of Constantinople was too weak to 
 aid. A considerable force was raised, sailed for Egypt, 
 and besieged Damietta, which, after sixteen months, 
 was reduced in 1219. Quarrels among the Crusaders 
 demoralized the army. They advanced against Cairo, 
 but were encountered and defeated, and obliged to 
 make terms with the Sultan, who treated them with 
 humanity. Thirty-five thousand Christians perished 
 in this expedition. 
 
 Frederick II., the Emperor, found that his Lom- 
 bard cities were turbulent. Milan rebelled against 
 both Pope and Emperor. Frederick was crowned at 
 Saint Peter's in 1220. He had taken the Cross, but 
 delayed the fulfilment of the vow under many pre- 
 texts. His consequent quarrels with the Pope were 
 terminated by the death of Honorius in 1227. 
 
 Gregory IX., a man of strong character and pas- 
 sions, succeeded. Frederick was fond of literature 
 and science, and tolerant in religion, but of dissolute 
 habits, against which the Pope remonstrated. Fred- 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 101 
 
 erick at lengtli sailed on the Crusade in 1227; but, 
 temporarily abandoning tlie expedition on the plea of 
 sickness, was excommunicated by the Pope. The peo- 
 ple of Rome favoured the Emperor, and drove the Pope 
 from their city. Frederick continued his enterprise 
 the next year, the Pope now opposing his expedition 
 because he was excommunicate. He landed at Acre, 
 found the Moslem power weak, and made a treaty 
 with the Sultan in 1229, by which Jerusalem and 
 other places were ceded to the Christians. He crowned 
 himself King of Jerusalem, the clergy refusing to 
 crown an excommunicate person. The Pope opposed 
 him in everything, and caused an invasion of his home 
 kingdom. Frederick suddenly returned, surprised 
 his enemies, turned the feeling in his favour, and com- 
 pelled the Pope to remove his anathemas and to make 
 peace (1230). The two powers, temporal and spir- 
 itual, remained in agreement a while; but each en- 
 acted a code of laws favouring its own supremacy. 
 Both strongly denounced the heretics. 
 
 A revolt of the Lombard cities was signally quelled 
 by Frederick in 1237. The Pope's jealousy of the 
 Emperor again culminated in a violent excommunica- 
 tion in 1239, for which a variety of reasons were 
 given: breach of oaths, plotted seditions, hindering 
 travel to Rome, Church vacancies, oppression of the 
 clergy, plundering churches, preventing the recovery 
 of the Holy Land. His subjects were released from 
 their allegiance, and his places of residence were 
 cursed. The Emperor justified himself, and appealed 
 
102 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 to Christian princes. The Pope retorted with charges 
 of infidelity against the King. The Papal insolence, 
 as well as its late extreme assumptions, caused popular 
 sympathy for the Emperor, who entered Italy with an 
 army. The Pope, in alarm, summoned a General 
 Council. The Emperor's forces captured a fleet which 
 was bringing many Bishops and dignitaries as envoys 
 to Rome (1241). He was advancing against the city 
 when the Pope suddenly died. The vacancy in the 
 Papacy lasted about two years by reason of the dissen- 
 sions among the Cardinals. An irruption of the Tar- 
 tar hordes into Europe had taken place in 1226. Kow 
 Erederick aided in their repulse. 
 
 The new Pope, Innocent lY., was consecrated in 
 1243. He was arbitrary and ambitious, and quar- 
 relled with the Emperor from the first. Negotiations 
 followed. Innocent, alarmed by an advance of the 
 Emperor, fled to Lyons, where he held a General 
 Council in 1245, to which the Emperor sent envoys. 
 N^umerous charges were made against the Emperor, 
 Avho was condemned and declared deposed. He re- 
 sisted. Both were violent. The Pope attempted to set 
 up rival Emperors. There was bitter war. Innocent 
 raised funds by taxing clerical property, and by selling 
 indulgences. The Emperor failed in some of his 
 campaigns in Lombardy. He died in 1250. The 
 Pope interfered in the succession against Conrad, son 
 of Erederick. Innocent died in 1254. 
 
 In England, the tyranny of Rome was strong at this 
 period. Taxation was heavy. Large sums demanded 
 
THIETEENTH CENTURY. 103 
 
 for the Crusades were otherwise spent, and many 
 benefices were enjoyed by non-resident foreigners. 
 Deputations sent to Eome were without result. 
 
 Edmond Eich (Saint Edmond of Canterbury), 
 made Archbishop in 1231, and greatly revered for 
 sanctity and learning, appealed to the Pope in his dif- 
 ficulties in vain. He was canonized in 1246. His 
 successor, Boniface, plundered the estates of his see 
 and spent its revenues abroad. 
 
 Robert Grossetete, Bishop of Lincoln in 1235, was 
 learned and very zealous. He reformed many evil 
 practices in the discipline of the Church of Eome, and 
 employed the mendicant orders in reaching the poor. 
 
 The Albigensian war again broke out in the south 
 of France in 1216, with barbarities and breaches of 
 faith. Louis YIIL, Xing of France, went on a Cru- 
 sade against the heretics, and captured Avignon in 
 1226. Severe laws against heresy were enacted. The 
 Inquisition was established in 1233. At first, it was 
 committed to the Dominicans. Cruel practices caused 
 the people to revolt. The milder Franciscans were 
 thereupon associated with the Dominicans. 
 
 Louis IX. (Saint Louis), King of France in 1226, 
 v/as noted for his pure, religious character, self- 
 denial, simplicity of life, and love of justice. He re- 
 stored certain territories to England. He built Sainte 
 Chappelle in Paris for the " Crown of Thoras." He 
 made the clergy subject to the civil law. France had 
 invited the Inquisition when he was but sixteen, but 
 he himself took no part in persecutions. 
 
104 HISTOKY OF THE CHUKCH. 
 
 In tlie Holy Land, tlie Templars and Hospitallers 
 were often at war. The invasion of the Mongols, who 
 captured Jerusalem in 1244, occasioned great slaugh- 
 ter and violation of holy places. Europe was tired of 
 crusading. Saint Louis took the cross as a vow in 
 sickness, and set out in 1248. He rendezvoused in 
 Cyprus. The next year, he took Damietta in Egypt. 
 He advanced toward Cairo, but was defeated and 
 forced to surrender in 1250. He was greatly re- 
 spected by his captors. 
 
 ** Like some bright angel o'er the darkling scene, 
 Through court and camp, he holds his heavenward course 
 serene." — Keble. 
 
 Ransomed with his companions, he went to Acre. 
 The Pope, engaged in his contest with the Emperor, 
 was too busy to care for the capture of Louis. Louis 
 returned to France in 1254. 
 
 In 1260, Europe was excited by a fanatical sect 
 called the ^' flagellants,'' bands of penitents parading 
 the streets, whipping themselves in frenzy and shout- 
 ing: " Holy Lady Mary, receive us sinners, and pray 
 Jesus Christ to spare us." 
 
 Latin rule in Constantinople lasted fifty-seven 
 years, when, in 1261, the city was reconquered by the 
 Greeks. 
 
 King Louis' saintly government founded the lib- 
 erties of the Galilean Church. By force of his per- 
 sonal character, he resisted many of the encroach- 
 ments of the Papacy. He incited a new Crusade, and 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 105 
 
 set out ill 1270, in spite of failing health, and landed 
 at Tunis. In an unhealthy climate, fatal to many of 
 the Crusaders, Saint Louis died August 3, 1270. The 
 crusade, however, was successful in making favourable 
 terms with the Sultan. 
 
 After three years of vacancy in the Papacy, Greg- 
 ory X. was consecrated in 1272. He had been crusad- 
 ing with Edward of England, at Acre, now the only 
 city remaining to the Christians. Gregory caused 
 Kudolph of Hapsburg to be crowned King of Ger- 
 many. He endeavoured to stir up a new crusade, and 
 summoned a General Council at Lyons for that pur- 
 pose, and also to unite the Greek and Latin Churches. 
 It met in 1274, an imposing assemblage, with Greek 
 ambassadors present. There was a temporary recon- 
 ciliation of the churches, the Greeks acknowledging 
 the Eoman primacy. The Pope endeavored to reform 
 the vicious lives of some of the clergy. A canon was 
 passed as to election of Popes, compelling the Cardi- 
 nals to a choice. Gregory died suddenly in 1276, and 
 his labours in a great measure came to naught. 
 
 John XXL, Pope in 1277, was killed by the falling 
 of a tower, which he was surveying with pride, and 
 his death was regarded as a judgment for his dislike 
 of monks. 
 
 Mcholas III. was involved in the intrigues between 
 Eudolph of Hapsburg and Charles, the French King 
 of Sicily. Commotions at his death arose over the 
 election of a successor. Martin IV., who succeeded, 
 was a tool of Charles. He quarrelled with the Eastern 
 
106 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Emperor and renewed the discord between the 
 Churches of East and West; for Charles had designs 
 against Constantinople and was favoured by the Pope. 
 Corrupt French rule in Italy permitted outrages which 
 excited the sudden revolt of the ^' Sicilian Vespers " 
 on Easter Tuesday, 1282. As people were going to 
 vespers, and others were dancing under shade trees, 
 an insult to a high-born maiden by a French soldier 
 provoked her lover to kill him on the spot. The in- 
 stant cry, " Death to the French," led to a general 
 massacre of the French, men, women, and children. 
 The fury was abated only by the extermination of the 
 hated race in Sicily. The crown was given by the 
 Sicilians to Peter of Arragon. Charles and Martin 
 both died in 1285, after the latter had vainly tried to 
 organize a crusade against Sicily. War resulted be- 
 tween France and Spain. England mediated between 
 them, by a combat to be fought between the rival 
 Kings. Peter appeared in the lists alone and claimed 
 that Charles had failed to meet him, and so was certi- 
 fied; while Charles ^' on another day went through " 
 a like " farce," " and each declared the other a dastard 
 and coward." 
 
 The Papacy mixed in political intrigues. The 
 Saracens retook Acre in 1291. The crusading spirit 
 was extinguished. 
 
 After a vacancy of over two years, due to the 
 Cardinals' not agreeing, one Peter of Murrone, an 
 austere hermit, seventy-two years old, was chosen and 
 consecrated as Celestine Y. He was honest and re- 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 107 
 
 tiring, but entirely unfit for the office, and became a 
 tool of ambitious men. After a few months, he re- 
 signed in 1294. He is stigmatized in the " Inferno " 
 (III., 30) as the one, " che fece per viltate il gran re- 
 fiuto." He was succeeded by Boniface VIII., a crafty 
 and ambitious man. He imprisoned his predecessor, 
 and, it is even said, caused his death. Proud, imperi- 
 ous, and cruel, he mixed in political intrigues, more 
 prince than Pope. 
 
 England and France were at war in 1290, under 
 Edward I. and Philip IV. (the Fair). Both Kings 
 imposed heavy taxes on the Church. Boniface issued 
 a bull against them. A compromise was at last effected 
 in England. Philip retorted on the Pope, by forbid- 
 ding the exportation of gold, etc., from the realm, 
 thus largely reducing the Papal revenue. Long argu- 
 ments were had between them, the King protesting 
 against Papal assumptions, and declaring the rights 
 of the laity in the Church. The Pope at length soft- 
 ened his tone and compromised, being afraid of alien- 
 ating France. Boniface tried to mediate between 
 France and England. IS^either would accept his official 
 authority to do so as Pope, but only as a private per- 
 son. Yet the Pope issued the decision as a bull. 
 
 In 1300, Boniface VIII. proclaimed a Jubilee Year, 
 granting extraordinary indulgences to all who visited 
 the tombs of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. Thousands 
 from all Latin Christendom thronged into Rome. Im- 
 mense wealth flowed into the Papal coffers. The Pope 
 assumed the crown and style of a sovereign, declaring 
 himself Caesar and Emperor. 
 
108 HISTORY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 Boniface interfered in 1299 between England and 
 Scotland, declaring the latter independent, and re- 
 ferring the settlement to his court at Rome. Edward 
 I. indignantly summoned a parliament, which declared 
 that the Pope had no right to interfere. 
 
 In the quarrel renewed with France in 1301, the 
 Pope claimed the temporal power. Insulting messages 
 passed in both directions. The King burned the Papal 
 bull. He called an assembly of nobles, clergy, and 
 commons, who took strong ground against the Pope. 
 The latter summoned a Council, including French 
 Bishops. The King recalled them, and held a second 
 assembly, which declared that Boniface should be tried 
 for sundry crimes. The Pope excommunicated the 
 King ; but his messengers were seized and imprisoned. 
 He prepared a bull, deposing the King; but before it 
 was published, Boniface was attacked by a small force 
 of his personal enemies in Italy, insulted and impris- 
 oned. On the second day he was released by a superior 
 force of his friends. His death occurred soon after, in 
 1303, some say by poison; others that it was in a 
 frenzy. "No successor has ever attempted to push the 
 power of the Papacy to the extreme to which Boniface 
 carried it. 
 
 Attempts were made in the thirteenth century, by 
 Saint Louis and by some of the Popes, to convert the 
 Asiatic nations, with very little success ; also to recon- 
 cile the ITestorian and Armenian with the Latin 
 Church, with like result. 
 
 Prussia was Christianized in the early part of the 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 109 
 
 century, partly by the employment of tlie military 
 orders with the privileges of a Crusade. 
 
 Kussia suffered greatly from the Mongols, who de- 
 stroyed churches and murdered the clergy. Innocent 
 lY., in this juncture, tried to unite the Kussian with 
 the Latin Church, but without success. 
 
 Burning of heretics, opposed in the last century, 
 was now justified by the clergy, as in the interest of 
 religion. The Inquisition was fully estabhshed in 
 Spain in 1248. Conrad of Marburg, the cruel Con- 
 fessor of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, was Inquisitor 
 in Germany. His severities spread such terror that 
 he was murdered in 1233. 
 
 Popular use of the Holy Scriptures was discouraged 
 as leading to heresy. It was forbidden by the Council 
 of Toulouse, in 1229, to have a Bible, especially in the 
 vernacular. 
 
 In 1233, the Stedingers, a tribe of Frisian origin, 
 were crusaded against, on a doubtful charge of heresy, 
 and thousands of all conditions were slain. 
 
 Several fanatical sects arose in this age, and suffered 
 more or less persecution; among them, the " Apostoli- 
 cals," holding strange doctrines and scandalous prac- 
 tices, were exterminated by a crusading force in 1306. 
 
 The Popes in this age exalted the spiritual far above 
 the regal power, and styled themselves " Vicars of 
 
 God." 
 
 The mendicant orders interfered with the duties of 
 the regular clergy. They soon degenerated and 
 evaded their vows of simplicity and poverty. They 
 
110 HISTORY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 becaaiie popular preachers. The Franciscans were 
 divided into two parties, the strict and the lax. 
 
 Doubts arose as to Transubstantiation. The doc- 
 trine led to withdrawal of the Cup and to infrequency 
 of communicating. The Festival of Corpus Christi 
 grew out of the custom of adoring the Host, as it was 
 carried through the streets. A nun saw in a vision an 
 obscured moon, which signified that a special feast 
 to honor the Lord's body was wanting in the glory of 
 the Church. The vision came to the knowledge 
 of the Pope, and the Festival was decreed twenty 
 years after by Urban lY., in 1264. Indulgences 
 were now doled out from the " Treasury of Merits," 
 which the superabundant virtues and denials of saints 
 had stored up in the power of the Popes. Increased 
 veneration of the Blessed Virgin invented the rosary of 
 one hundred and fifty beads, representing Aves, divided 
 into fifteen portions, with a recitation of paternoster be- 
 tween each, accompanied by a meditation and con- 
 cluded with the Creed. Parodied Psalters were 
 adapted to her worship, e.g., " The Lord said unto Our 
 Lady, sit. My Mother, at my right hand," etc. The 
 ^' House of Loretto " was supposed to be the house of 
 the Holy Family at l^azareth, carried to Loretto by 
 angels. The hymns, " Dies Irae " of Thomas of Ce- 
 lano and the '^ Stabat Mater " of Jacopone, are of this 
 period. 
 
 Architecture advanced in the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries with the pointed arch as the characteristic. 
 Gothic cathedrals grew up in England, France, Spain, 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. Ill 
 
 etc. Cologne Cathedral was founded in 1248. The 
 decorative arts flourished. Stained glass was produced 
 in a perfection afterwards lost. Illuminations, metal 
 work, etc., added to the splendour of churches. 
 
 Aristotle, introduced through the Arabic, came to 
 be read and appreciated. Thomas of Aquino, ^^ Doctor 
 Angelicus," a Dominican, was a learned theologian of 
 the thirteenth century. He was canonized, as was also 
 Bonaventura, '^ Doctor Seraphicus," a chief of the 
 Franciscans, who lived from 1221 to 1274. Roger 
 Bacon, ^^ Doctor Mirabilis,'' was a Franciscan friar, 
 who lived from 1214 to 1292. He was learned in 
 physical science, which caused him to be accused of 
 magic, and imprisoned by his monastic superiors. 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Benedict XI., who was Pope in 1303, reversed all 
 sentences against Philip, with other decrees of Boni- 
 face. He died, it is supposed, by poison, in 1304. 
 Clement Y. was crowned Pope at Lyons in 1305. He 
 settled at Avignon, which for many years became the 
 Papal headquarters. 
 
 The Templars had gained great wealth, and enjoyed 
 many privileges. They numbered some fifteen thou- 
 sand soldiers, and had become very corrupt. They 
 were proud and arrogant towards authority, both 
 ecclesiastical and civil. Philip (the Fair) became their 
 enemy, and arrested them on the charge of heresy. 
 They met with vigorous treatment. Confessions were 
 forced from them by torture. At one time, fifty-four 
 were burned together. The order was charged with 
 denying the Christian faith at its initiations, and also 
 with many degrading ceremonies. In England, the 
 Templars were more fairly treated. 
 
 At a Council held in Yienne in 1311, a Bishop 
 urged reforms in the Church, particularly as to the 
 power of the Papacy, and desired the Eastern rule as 
 to allowing clerical marriage; but the Council took 
 little action to effect all this. Futile efforts were made 
 for a Crusade. Philip pressed on the Council thq 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 113 
 
 case of the Templars, and at length, in deference to 
 him, it declared the order dissolved. 
 
 Clement quarrelled with the Venetians, and issued 
 an outrageous bull against Venice. Clement and 
 Philip both died in 1314. 
 
 John XXII., who became Pope in 1316, settled at 
 Avignon. He persecuted sorcerers, lepers, and Jews, 
 many of whom were put to death on frivolous charges. 
 
 In 1320, the outbreak of Pastoureux started from 
 ^N^orthern France. It was a repetition of a former en- 
 thusiasm. The hungry mob at length numbered forty 
 thousand. They were surrounded and destroyed by 
 famine and the sword. The Pope had serious quarrels 
 with the Franciscans, who opposed the Papal luxury. 
 When rival Emperors were elected, and civil war arose, 
 the Pope did not interfere, until after the victory of 
 Louis IV. of Bavaria, in 1322, when he asserted his 
 authority as judge, and condemned Louis, who refused 
 to submit and was placed under violent excommuni- 
 cation. A large party of ecclesiastics and others fa- 
 voured the Emperor. There were antipapal writings, 
 denouncing the Papal usurpations. Louis went to 
 Milan, and was crowned. A large number of clergy 
 supported him, in spite of fresh thunders from Avig- 
 non in 1328. The Pope was denounced in Kome. 
 Nicholas V. was set up as Pope by the Emperor, both 
 of whom became unpopular at Rome. The Emperor 
 returned to Germany. The Antipope submitted to 
 the Pope. John XXII. was charged with heretical 
 opinions in asserting " that the saints would not enjoy 
 
114 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 the beatific vision until the end of the world, even the 
 Blessed Virgin herself would until then behold only 
 the humanity of her Son — not his Godhead." '' He 
 was brought on his death-bed (1332) to profess the 
 current doctrine ^ that purged souls being separate 
 from their bodies are in Heaven, the Kingdom of 
 Heaven, and Paradise; that they see God face to face 
 and clearly behold the Divine essence in so far as the 
 condition of separate souls permits.' " He had cor- 
 rui^tly accumulated large treasures. 
 
 Benedict XII. became Pope. He was a man of high 
 character, but much under the influence of the French 
 King. He reformed many abuses in the Church. He 
 would have made friends with Louis but for Philip. 
 Great disputes arose between papalists and imperial- 
 ists in Germany, with manifestoes and denunciations, 
 exclusion of clergy, and confiscations. Emperor Louis 
 allied himself with Edward III. of England against 
 France. Benedict died in 1342, and Avas succeeded by 
 Clement VI. The lax morality of the papal court at 
 Avignon increased by his example; and preferments 
 were given to unworthy men. The Pope renewed 
 anathemas against the Emperor Louis, and set up a 
 rival Emperor, Charles IV., who failed to receive the 
 support of the Germans. Louis died in 1347. 
 
 Rienzi assumed the title of Tribune of Rome in 
 1347. 
 
 The '' Black Death " raged in Europe (1347-8) car- 
 rying off one-quarter of the population. A revival of 
 the flagellants and a persecution of the Jews accom- 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 115 
 
 panied it. Friars ministered to the sick, and obtained 
 large bequests. 
 
 Charles IV. was established as Emperor. 
 The Jubilee of 1350 attracted an immense pilgrim- 
 age to Rome. 
 
 Innocent IV., who became Pope in 1352, reformed 
 abuses, abated the luxury of Cardinals and prelates, 
 and fortified the palace at Avignon against the '' Free 
 Companions.'^ 
 
 Urban V., who succeeded in 1362, was eminent for 
 sanctity and leairaing. His reforms abolished the 
 abused privilege of sanctuary in Cardinals' houses, 
 appointed Cardinals for merit alone, and eschewed 
 nepotism. His simple mode of living enabled him to 
 lay out vast sums in restoration and endowment. He 
 put down the Free Companions. He went to Rome, 
 where he spent three years of peace, returning to 
 Avignon just before his death. 
 
 Gregory XL was elected in 1370. A revolt in the 
 Papal States was put down by a massacre, by order of 
 the Cardinal-Legate. Gregory was induced by the 
 disorders in Italy, and by the pleading of Saint Catha- 
 rine of Siena, to return to Rome in 1377, ending the 
 seventy years of the '' Babylonish Captivity." He 
 died in 1378. 
 
 Great tumults arose over the new election, the Ro- 
 mans fearing the choice of a French Pope. Urban 
 VL, a Neapolitan, was chosen. He quarrelled with the 
 Cardinals, whose luxury he wished to reform. They 
 desired to return to Avignon. They finally rebelled. 
 
116 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 withdrew, and elected a new Pope, Clement YII., 
 in 1378. 
 
 Tlius began the Great Schism in the Papacy, which 
 lasted forty years. Europe Avas divided. France and 
 Spain were for Clement; England, Germany, and 
 Italy for Urban. Urban was passionate, cruel, and 
 perverse. He promoted unworthy men, and disgusted 
 the Cardinals, some of whom, conspiring against him, 
 he caused to be put to death. He was unpopular at 
 Kome. He died in 1389. 
 
 He was succeeded by Boniface IX., who was cor- 
 rupt, sold benefices, and used numerous exactions to 
 raise money. Traffic in indulgences increased. His 
 rival, Clement, pursued a similar course. Fitness for 
 high offices was no longer required. The English 
 clergy were indignant at these practices, and no longer 
 resorted to Rome. 
 
 The Jubilee of 1400 brought great wealth to Rome. 
 
 Efforts were made in France to heal the schism. A 
 National Council met in Paris in 1398. Envoys were 
 sent to the successor of Clement, Benedict XIII., at 
 Avignon, to procure his resignation but without ef- 
 fect. A military force was then sent, and the Pope 
 was besieged in the papal palace. After seven months, 
 he escaped, but in some political complications, which 
 brought the national assembly to determine that 
 France should return to his obedience, Benedict was 
 recalled. More negotiations between the Popes proved 
 fruitless. After the death of Boniface, a proposed 
 conference near Genoa (between Benedict and a new 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 117 
 
 Pope, Gregory XII.) was defeated by mutual distrust. 
 Benedict was renounced by France, and fled from 
 Avignon. The two bodies of Cardinals met in 1408, 
 and appointed a Council to convene at Pisa. The 
 rival Popes would not attend, but held separate Coun- 
 cils, favouring no compromise. Gregory's Council was 
 ineffectual, and Benedict's advised him to resign. The 
 Council of Pisa met in 1409. Both Popes were con- 
 demned, and declared deposed. Alexander V. was 
 made Pope. 
 
 The antipapal spirit was growing in England. John 
 Wyclif, born about 1324, defended Edward III. in 
 resisting papal claims for tribute, in 1366. He de- 
 nounced the corruptions of the Papacy. In 1377, the 
 Pope issued bulls against him. He was protected by 
 the people of London. He attacked the abuses of the 
 mendicant orders. He began his English translation 
 of Holy Scriptures in 1380. He attacked the Eomish 
 error of Transubstantiation. Wat Tyler's insurrec- 
 tion in 1381 was a communistic movement, unjustly 
 charged to Wyclif's agency. A Council of Bishops 
 denounced Wyclif ; but the reformers were supported 
 in Oxford. After issuing many tracts against the 
 errors of the papal system, "Wyclif died in 1384. His 
 opinions were in general sound, but were mixed with 
 some speculative errors. His party, called the " Lol- 
 lards," became fanatical. Many denounced the min- 
 istry and sacraments. A statute condemning them as 
 heretics was passed in 1400, under which several 
 persons suffered death. 
 
lis HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Several reformers sprang up in Prague, Bohemia, 
 during the latter part of the fourteenth century. Con- 
 rad of Waldhausen (d. 1369), Militz (d. 1374), Ma- 
 thias (d. 1394), all priests, boldly denounced the 
 corruptions of Rome in sermons and writings. The 
 relations of the royal house of Bohemia with the Eng- 
 lish throne introduced the doctrines of Wyclif into 
 Prague. John Hus, born in 1369, was Rector of the 
 Bohemian University. A man of pure life, he re- 
 buked the corruption of the clergy. He followed 
 Wyclif^s teaching, except as to Transubstantiation. 
 He attacked pretended miracles. He was supported 
 by Jerome, a noble and a layman. 
 
 There were several negotiations between the East- 
 ern and Western Churches, with a view to reunion, 
 but without result. Political considerations were in- 
 volved, as the Eastern Emperors sought aid against 
 the Turks, who were overrunning Europe. 
 
 In this century, the last heathen nations of Europe 
 were nominally converted to the Christian Faith, 
 while Christianity was almost extinguished by Mo- 
 hammedanism in Asia. The Inquisition spread through 
 Europe, except in England. Its efforts were directed 
 against heresy and witchcraft, and also against the 
 flagellants, who had many wild opinions and practices, 
 teaching that their self -scourging was a " baptism of 
 blood," superseding the baptism of the Church. 
 They fancied that the souls of Enoch and Elijah were 
 infused in those of Conrad Schmidt and another, and 
 that in 1364 Schmidt was to return to the earth as 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 119 
 
 judge. The " dancing mania '^ appeared in 1374. It 
 was called " Saint Vitus' Dance/' because to that 
 Church in Strasburg they were carried for cure. Men 
 and women joined hands and leaped about until ex- 
 hausted, calling on names of devils. In 1399, ap- 
 peared a set of fanatics, called ^' White Penitents," 
 from their dress. They numbered from ten to forty 
 tliousand. They pretended to have special revelations. 
 
 Mysticism in Germany disparaged outward forms. 
 A sect called " Friends of God," not in schism from 
 the Church, was founded by I^icholas of Basel, who 
 was burned in 1393. Other teachers were Eckart, 
 Tauler, and Suso. They were somewhat mystical and 
 extravagant, but spiritual in their doctrines and aim- 
 ing towards refornis in the Church. Gerson, a scho- 
 lastic mystic, has by some been credited with the 
 '^ Imitation of Christ," a work generally ascribed to 
 Thomas aKempis. 
 
 Papal claims to taxation of English sees and nom- 
 ination to benefices, as well as the encroachment of ec- 
 clesiastical on civil courts, were successfully resisted. 
 Richard II. banished the Archbishop of Canterbury; 
 and his -successor, Henry lY., caused Scrope, Arch- 
 bishop of York, to be beheaded for high treason, in 
 1405. 
 
 Great corruptions arose in this period from papal 
 gifts of pluralities. A vacant see, and often many of 
 them, would be ^' commended " to the care of an- 
 other. Cardinals and other favourites enjoyed the 
 revenues of numerous sees and monasteries. The 
 
120 HISTOEY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 clergy became lax in their lives. Cloistered monks 
 neglected their vows, and no longer cultivated learn- 
 ing. The mendicant orders became wealthy and cor- 
 rupt. The Franciscans were divided into two jealous 
 parties. 
 
 The Festival of Corpus Christi was established. 
 The withdrawal of the cup from the laity became gen- 
 eral. Indulgences were sanctioned by papal authority, 
 and lightly bestowed. Excessive ecclesiastical cen- 
 sures were disregarded. The multiplication of saints' 
 days encouraged idleness and debauchery. The doc- 
 trine of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed 
 Virgin became almost universal. 
 
 The arts were further advanced. William of 
 Wykeham spent lavishly on college architecture. 
 The study of Oriental languages revived. Translation 
 of the Holy Scriptures was made into modern tongues. 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The efforts of the Reformers excited the anger of 
 the clergy. AVy cliffs books were publicly burned in 
 1410, and Hus was excommunicated. The people 
 supported him. In 1412, Hus attacked a papal bull 
 proclaiming a crusade against the King of Naples. 
 Popular commotions showed the sentiment against the 
 bull, and were forbidden. Three men of Hus' party 
 interrupted a preacher of indulgences, giving him the 
 lie, and were executed. " We are all ready to do the 
 like," was the general voice, as the crowd dipped up 
 their blood. Hus was excommunicated by a Council 
 at Rome in 1413, and withdrew for a while from 
 Prague, but continued to preach and write in favour 
 of reformation. 
 
 By the election of Alexander V. at the Council of 
 Pisa in 1409, there were now three Popes. Alexander 
 favoured the friars, granting them clerical privileges 
 to receive tithes and administer sacraments. France 
 refused to obey the bull. The Pope died at Bologna 
 in 1410, it is said, by poison. 
 
 John XXIII. was chosen in his place. He was a 
 man of shamefully corrupt life. He encouraged the 
 sale of indulgences, and was immoral, despotic, and 
 cruel. His exactions at Rome drove the people into 
 
122 HISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 revolt, and they expelled him from tlieir city in 1413. 
 The papal palace was plundered. John turned for 
 support to the Emperor Sigismund, who summoned a 
 (jcneral Couitcil to meet at Constance in 11:14. John 
 repeated the summons. The Emperor invited the 
 rivals, Gregory XII. of Rome and Benedict XIII. of 
 Avignon. Numerous tracts w^ere issued about this 
 time, declaring the corruptions of the Church and 
 strongly urging reform. Intense interest was gen- 
 erally felt in this Council. It was not only to heal the 
 great schism, but to settle the question of authority 
 between the Papacy and the Council of the Church. 
 There was a large attendance of the clergy and spec- 
 tators. John attended, and was busy with intrigues. 
 His rivals did not appear personally. The Council 
 opened November 5, 1414. The Emperor Sigismund 
 arrived on Christmas. To counteract the plots of 
 John, who had undue influence, it was resolved that 
 the votes should be by nations. The English, French, 
 Germans, and Italians deliberated separately. The 
 three Popes were asked to resign. John swore to do 
 so, if his rivals would resign also. Finding the Council 
 against him, John secretly escaped from Constance 
 and continued his plots to destroy its authority. John 
 Gerson, a noted theologian of the University of Paris, 
 upheld the power of General Councils as superior to 
 that of the Pope. He boldly declared this in a sermon 
 before the Council, which supported his opinion. 
 John XXIII. was arraigned to answer charges, but 
 refused to appear. He was condemned, and solemnly 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 123 
 
 deposed. He afterwards remained some years a pris- 
 oner at Heidelbiirg, and on his release made submission 
 to the next Pope. 
 
 Hns had been called by the Emperor to Constance, 
 and promised safe conduct. He arrived before the 
 Emperor, and was treacherously entrapped and im- 
 prisoned by John. The Emperor was persuaded to 
 leave him in prison. Charges against Hus were denied 
 or explained by him. Brought before the Council, 
 he defended himself. He was condemned as holding 
 the opinions of Wyclif, which had been declared 
 heretical. Refusing to retract, he was condemned to 
 death. He was degraded from the priesthood, and 
 burned July 6, 1415. He suffered with constancy, 
 praying for his enemies. The bones of Wyclif were 
 ordered to be exhumed and cast out of consecrated 
 ground, and afterwards they were burned. 
 
 His associate, Jerome, was brought in chains to 
 Constance. He was cruelly treated, and a qualified 
 recantation extorted from him. He defended himself 
 eloquently, in a speech before his judges. He was 
 condemned arid burned, May 30, 1416. 
 
 Gregory XII. of the Roman line, more sincerely 
 desirous of the peace of the Church than his rival, 
 resigned in 1415. Benedict XIII. was cited to appear, 
 but fled to Spain. He was condemned by the Council 
 and deposed in 1416. The Papacy was now vacant. 
 The Emperor, with the English and Germans, wished 
 to have the Council effect a reformation in the Church 
 before electing a new Pope ; but they were overruled. 
 
124 HISTOr.Y OF THE CHUBCH. 
 
 Representatives of the different nations were associ- 
 ated with the Cardinals in the election. On [NTovember 
 11, 1417, the J chose Otho, a layman of Rome, of the 
 noblest rank, and a man of high and irreproachable 
 character. He was successively ordained Deacon, 
 Priest, and Bishop, and then anointed and crowned 
 as Martin Y. The Council greatly erred in not carry- 
 ing out proposed reforms before choosing a Pope. 
 Martin opposed changes, and succeeded in preventing 
 them. In 1418, he left Constance with great pomp 
 and took up his residence at Rome. 
 
 Only slight reforms resulted from the Council of 
 Constance. Rome had fallen into great disorders. 
 Martin restored ruined churches and administered 
 justice, but did not correct the abuses of the Papacy. 
 The Papal encroachments on the liberty of the Eng- 
 lish Church were resisted (1419-29). 
 
 There was indignation in Bohemia over the burning 
 of Hus. Protests were uttered. A Papal legate, sent 
 them, exasperated them further. They contended 
 for the cup in the Holy Sacrament. A communion 
 of forty-two thousand Hussites was held in the open 
 air at Tabor in 14l9. One Ziska became leader of the 
 Bohemians, and raised a body of men to enforce his 
 doctrines. The insurgents moved on Prague, sacking- 
 convents and churches. Ziska was an able leader, 
 with a genius for war. He animated his followers with 
 fanatical fury. Parties arose among the Bohemians. 
 A more extravagant sect, called Picards, Avas exter- 
 minated in blood by Ziska in 1421. Pierce war in Bo- 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY, 125 
 
 hernia was marked by great atrocities and breaches 
 of faith. Priests and monks were tortured, and the 
 coimtrj was ravaged. Pope Martin issued a bull of 
 crusade for their destruction. Sigismund sent an 
 army of one hundred to one hundred and fifty 
 thousand men, who were defeated with great slaughter 
 in 1420. Again, in the following year, two hundred 
 thousand Avere defeated. After continual victory, 
 Ziska died of the pestilence in 1424. Violent differ- 
 ences, and even battles, continued between the extreme 
 and more moderate Bohemian parties; but they united 
 against their external enemies. In 1427, a large army 
 sent against them, under Cardinal Beaufort, disgrace- 
 fully failed. 
 
 Martin Y. died in 1431, and was succeeded by Eu- 
 genius IV., who humiliated the Colonnas, the late 
 Pope's family. In the further crusade against the 
 Bohemians, in 1431, ninety to one hundred and thirty 
 thousand men were routed. When the General Council 
 met at Basel, the papal legate invited the Bohemians 
 for discussion. The Pope objected, but the legate 
 remonstrated and persisted. The Council opened in 
 December, 1431. The Pope did not attend, and en- 
 deavored in vain to postpone it. A solemn safe-conduct 
 being given to the Hussites, their delegates arrived 
 January, 1433. They were respectfully received. 
 Long discussions were held, generally in good temper. 
 A compact was drawn up, making many concessions, 
 including privilege of communion in both kinds. This 
 agreement was well received by the moderates in Bo- 
 
126 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 hernia, but rejected by the " Taborites." A fierce and 
 bloody battle between them broke the power of the 
 Taborites, May, 1434. 
 
 The Council of Basel renewed the decree of Con- 
 stance, affirming the power of Councils over Popes. 
 It summoned Eugenius to attend. He hesitated, and 
 finally sent legates, who submitted to the authority of 
 the Council. The Pope, who was unpopular at Rome, 
 escaped from an insurrection, and took refuge in 
 Florence in 1434. The Council passed numerous de- 
 crees, reforming abuses in the Church and abating 
 Papal revenues. The Pope, dissatisfied, ordered the 
 transfer of the Council to Ferrara, and opened a rival 
 Council there in 1438. Mutual denunciations passed. 
 Eugenius was condemned at Basel, and declared de- 
 posed in 1439. Felix Y. was set up as Pope, and 
 crowned in 1440. His party was weak. The Council 
 declined in numbers, and closed in 1443. By the 
 Romanists, this Council of Basel is either only partially 
 accepted or wholly disavowed. 
 
 The Pope's Council at Ferrara negotiated with the 
 Greek Emperor, who was seeking aid against the in- 
 vasion of the Turks. Projects for the union of Chris- 
 tendom were the excuse for transferring the Council 
 to a city more accessible to the Greeks. While both 
 Councils were still in session, rival envoys were sent 
 to Constantinople with rival fleets to convey the dele- 
 gates to each. The Pope's party succeeded best, and 
 secured the Emperor (John Palseologus II.), and the 
 Patriarch, who embarked with a large body of Bishops 
 and clergy and landed at Venice in 1437. At Ferrara 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 127 
 
 difficulties arose on account of precedence. The 
 Greek Patriarch refused degrading obeisance to the 
 Pope. 
 
 Long discussions took place on the doctrines of the 
 
 Eastern and Western Churches. The points of discus-- 
 sion were: 1. The Filioque; 2. Purgatory; 3. Leavened 
 or unleavened bread; 4. The primacy of the Pope. 
 Financial distresses gave rise to attempts of the Latins 
 to compel the Greeks to submission by bribery and by 
 withholding promised supplies. 
 
 The Council was transferred to Florence at the end 
 of 1438. A form of imion was at last drawn up in 
 which the Greeks gave a qualified assent to the Roman 
 doctrines, Mark, the Archbishop of Ephesus, alone 
 refusing. Solemn services were held in the Cathedral 
 in 1439, in honor of reunion. There was violent op- 
 position to the work of the Council at Constantinople, 
 in Russia and throughout the East, w^here the union 
 was popularly repudiated. 
 
 In 1443, Eugenius lY. transferred the Council to 
 Rome, where he received deputations of the Armenian 
 and other Oriental Churches; but the pretended 
 reconciliation of Christendom was unsubstantial. 
 
 In 1444, a crusade against the Turks was headed 
 by Ladislaus, King of Poland, who Avas victorious 
 over them in Bulgaria. Ten years' peace was sworn 
 by both parties. Cardinal Cesarini broke the truce, 
 absolved the Crusaders from their oath, and sent back 
 the King with a weakened army to battle. The Turks, 
 reinforced, were victorious. Ten thousand Christians 
 fell, and among them Ladislaus and Cesarini. 
 
128 HISTOEY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 Religious and political affairs were mixed together 
 in Bohemia. As the Roman doctrine prevailed, there 
 was a gradual decline of the Taborites. 
 
 In 1443, the Germans desired a new General Coun- 
 cil. The Pope declined on the ground that one was 
 already sitting in Rome. To promote an understand- 
 ing, the Emperor Frederick III. employed as agent 
 to Rome the afterwards noted ecclesiastic ^neas 
 Sylvius Piccolomini. 
 
 Eugenius IV. died in 144Y, and was succeeded by 
 Nicholas v., a man of high character, and zealous for 
 the claims of the Papacy. The antipope, whose party 
 had greatly diminished, resigned ; and the Council of 
 Basel at length, in 1449, dissolved itself. A revival 
 of letters now took place, for ITicholas was a lover of 
 peace and a patron of learning. He founded the 
 papal library in the Vatican. He encouraged Valla, 
 a noted scholar, who had incurred the anger of the 
 Inquisition by exposing the pretended " Donation 
 of Constantine.'' He encouraged the arts and re- 
 stored churches, " renewing the splendour of his city 
 and laying out the plan of a new Saint Peter's." 
 Era Angelico, the artist, a Dominican monk, paint- 
 ed in the Vatican. A translation of the whole of 
 the Scriptures was " projected and partly executed." 
 The Jubilee of 1450 in this time of security drew 
 vast numbers of pilgrims and immense wealth to 
 Rome. 
 
 In 1452, Erederick III. was crowned at Rome. It 
 was the last Roman coronation of an Emperor. Por- 
 cara's conspiracy against the Pope was defeated in 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 129 
 
 1452, by the arrest and hanging of this restless and 
 ungrateful demagogue. 
 
 Meanwhile the Turks were pressing their conquests. 
 The Eastern Emperor, Constantino XIL, offered in 
 his distress to submit to the Papacy. Some of the 
 higher clergy consented also; but the body of them, 
 as well as the people, refused with abhorrence. The 
 Turks besieged Constantinople, which fell before their 
 assault, May 24, 1453. The Emperor was slain. Saint 
 Sophia's was profaned and turned into a mosque; but 
 some churches were allowed to the conquered for a 
 while. Nicholas took measures for a crusade, but died 
 in 1455. 
 
 His successor, Calixtus III., urged the crusade. He 
 summoned the nations, ordered the bells to be rung 
 at noon for prayers for the success of the enterprise, 
 and equipped a fleet. Belgrade, which was being be- 
 sieged by the Turks in 1456, was delivered by an 
 undisciplined but enthusiastic force. The nations, 
 however, were apathetic. The nepotism of Calixtus 
 gave offices and power to the Borgias, under whom 
 Rome fell into great civil disorders. The Pope died 
 in 1458. 
 
 ^neas Silvius Piccolomini was chosen Pope as Pius 
 11. He was noted less for high character than for 
 eloquence and skill in political intrigue. He was liter- 
 ary and of simple habits. Urgent for a crusade, he 
 summoned a congress of princes at Mantua in 1459, 
 which was feebly attended, the princes being too much 
 occupied in their own wars. In 1461-62, battles were 
 
130 HISTORY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 fought between the rival Archbishops of Mentz, aris- 
 ing out of the deposition of one of them for appealing 
 to a General Council, which Pius had forbidden by 
 a bull, and the appointment of another, whose right 
 the first contested. As this bull brought out his own 
 inconsistency, he issued another '^ Bull of Retraction " 
 of his own former acts at the Council of Basel and else- 
 where. In 1461, great excitement was occasioned, 
 Avhen the head of Saint Andrew was brought to Home, 
 and an immense concourse of pilgrims gathered in its 
 honor. Pius proposed a truce among Christian na- 
 tions, and that all should join the crusade. Venice 
 and Hungary alone responded. The undisciplined 
 forces that entered Italy were so unfit that he sent 
 them home, or they resorted to brigandage. The Pope 
 in his last sickness went to Ancona, and died there in 
 1464. The crusade was abandoned. 
 
 Paul 11. was affected and vain, fond of jewelry and 
 display. He instituted the carnival and the sports of 
 the Corso. Contrary to his pledge, he was careless 
 about the crusade. He died in 1471. Under him 
 printing was introduced at Rome. 
 
 The Moravian Brethren originated about the mid- 
 dle of the century. They separated from the Church 
 about 1457, and set up an independent ministry, '^ rest- 
 ing its claims on the personal piety of the ministers." 
 
 The Conquest of Granada (1480-92) drove the 
 Moors from Spain. 
 
 Sixtus ly. pretended to zeal for defending Chris- 
 tendom against the Turks, but was chiefly known for 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 131 
 
 his excessive nepotism. He advanced unworthy rela- 
 tives, sold preferments openly, and imposed oppressive 
 taxation. He was implicated in a conspiracy to murder 
 the :Medici at Florence. When the murderers raised 
 the cry of liberty in the streets, the Florentines sup- 
 ported their rulers. The Pope interdicted them, and 
 made war against them, and they were encouraged 
 against the Pope by the European powers. 
 
 The Turks captured Otranto in 1480. Sixtus, in 
 alarm for Rome, reconciled the Florentines to the 
 Papacy, and they combined in an expedition which 
 recovered Otranto the next year. Sixtus then quar- 
 relled with the Venetians and interdicted their city. 
 They resisted the interdict successfully; and in vexa- 
 tion he died in 1484, execrated by his people. About 
 this time the order of Minims was founded by Francis 
 of Paola. 
 
 Innocent YIII. was of scandalous life, and sold 
 offices and pardons to enrich his children. Rome was 
 disgraced by frequent crimes. Innocent, too, pro- 
 jected a crusade, but without result. On the death 
 of the Sultan, his sons quarrelled. The yoimger took 
 refuge with the Christians, and was received with 
 honour at Rome. To propitiate the Pope, the Sultan 
 sent him ''the Sacred Lance,'' which pierced the 
 Saviour's side. Innocent YIII. died in 1492, the year 
 of the fall of Granada and of the discovery of America. 
 
 Alexander VI., one of the Borgia family, obtained 
 his elevation corruptly. He was crafty and unscrupu- 
 lous, and openly licentious. He provided his children 
 
132 HISTORY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 and relatives with Church and State preferments. 
 Charles VIII. of France invaded Italy, compelled a 
 treaty from the Pope, and temporarily subjugated 
 Naples. The Grand Captain, Gonsalvo di Cordova, 
 assisted the Neapolitans and the Pope. 
 
 In 1497 occurred the murder of the Pope's eldest 
 son, a duke. It was attributed to the second son, Caesar 
 Borgia. He was a Cardinal, and an ambitious and 
 utterly unscrupulous man. To free himself of re- 
 straint, he was divested of clerical orders at his own 
 request. He went to France on State business with 
 extraordinary pomp. He warred against the Italian 
 princes with energy, but with treachery and cruelty. 
 
 The Pope treacherously seized and imprisoned a 
 Cardinal of the hated Orsini family, and caused him 
 to be poisoned. Lucretia Borgia, the Pope's daughter, 
 was involved with her father and brothers in infamous 
 crimes. The papal court became fearfully degraded. 
 All previous corruptions were exceeded. Cardinals 
 and others were poisoned for their wealth. Rome 
 groaned under the tyranny and terrorism of Csesar. 
 Murders were frequent. Alexander died in 1503 by 
 poison prepared for another by Csesar or himself. 
 
 Savonarola was born in 1452. He joined the Do- 
 minicans and became a learned and eloquent man and 
 a powerful preacher. He denounced the corruptions 
 of the age, and urged men to a spiritual life. He was 
 called to attend the death-bed of Lorenzo de Medici, 
 to whom he had been hostile. With the expulsion of 
 the Medici, his influence at Florence became con- 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 133 
 
 trolling. He worked social reforms in plainer dress 
 of women, and in attention to tlie serious duties of 
 religion, and checked the riotous games at the carni- 
 vals. As prior, he reformed the monastery of Saint 
 Mark's. As preacher, he denounced the vices of the 
 Roman Court. The Pope, Alexander YI., in vain tried 
 to bribe him with the Cardinalate. The ^^ Bonfire of 
 vanities," was a pile of ornaments, cards, loose books, 
 instruments, paintings, etc., of the value of over 
 twenty thousand crowns. The articles were collected 
 by religious boys calling at houses for people to give up 
 their vanities. The whole was set on fire, with hymns 
 and shouts of enthusiasm. He was excommunicated 
 by the Pope, but continued preaching. The failure 
 of an ordeal by fire, to which he had consented and 
 which was prevented by a shower of rain, angered the 
 people against him ; and he was at length imprisoned, 
 tried and condemned, although no heresy could be 
 charged against him. He was burned at Florence, 
 May 22, 1498. 
 
 In 1478 the Inquisition was established in Spain 
 by the gentle Isabella from pious motives. She was 
 influenced by her confessor, Torquemada, who was 
 made Chief Inquisitor. It was a State institution. 
 The members of the Tribunal were appointed by the 
 sovereigns. All confiscations were to the crown. It 
 became a terrible power, beyond even the control of 
 the Pope. Anonymous accusations were received and 
 torture was employed. In the first few years, two 
 thousand victims were burned in Spain. Its cruelties 
 
134 HISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 and terror caused tumults throughout the kingdom. 
 Alexander tried to sell exemptions from the Inquisi- 
 tion ; but the new power was too strong for him. The 
 Inquisition persecuted the Jews, and the King ban- 
 ished them in 1492, causing great suffering. Three 
 hundred thousand were expelled. The persecution of 
 the Moors was carried out through the agency of 
 Ximenes, a Franciscan ecclesiastic, noted for his 
 austerities and fiery zeal. He was appointed Arch- 
 bishop of Toledo and confessor to the Queen. He 
 reformed convents and gave large charities. He in- 
 sisted on the compulsory baptism of the Moors. He 
 destroyed all Arabic books, except medical works, and 
 burned five thousand copies of the Koran. In 1502 
 he caused the banishment of the Moors in spite of the 
 treaty at the surrender of Granada. The Inquisition 
 in France burned many for witchcraft until stopped 
 by the French parliament in 1491. 
 
 Several reformers arose in Germany in this century, 
 notably John of Wessel, who attacked papal abuses 
 and the faults of the clergy. He was accused of heresy 
 in 1497. His books were burned and he was forced 
 to retract. 
 
 The monastic orders became very corrupt, and re- 
 sisted reform. Miracles of " bleeding Hosts " were 
 alleged in 1451 to prove transubstantiation and justify 
 the withdrawing of the cup. The increase of indul- 
 gences came with crusades and jubilees and rebuilding 
 of churches, and was extended to the dead. Grants of 
 indulgences were especially made by Julius 11. (1503- 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 135 
 
 13) for the building of Saint Peter's. The '' Holy 
 House " of Loretto drew multitudes of pilgrims. 
 
 There was a decadence of Gothic architecture, yet 
 in this period were built Saint Ouen, the spire of Ant- 
 werp, the central tower of Canterbury and the Chapel 
 of Henry YII. The Italian "renaissance'' flour- 
 ished. The Cathedral of Florence received its mar- 
 vellous dome. Saint Peter's was begun in 1506. 
 Painting also flourished. It was the time of Michael 
 Angelo and Eaphael. Printing was invented. The 
 first complete book was the Bible in 1455. Cardinal 
 Ximenes, fifty years later, published his " Compluten- 
 sian Polyglott " Bible. A revival of classical learning 
 took place. Erasmus, born at Rotterdam in 1465, was 
 distinguished for learning. For a short time he was 
 Professor of Greek at Cambridge. He was the author 
 of many works, in which he attacked the faults and 
 superstition of the clergy. He published the :N'ew 
 Testament in Greek. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 Amid the tumults in Rome on the death of Alex- 
 ander YL, the new Pope, Pius III., was elected in 
 1503 and lived only twenty-six days, dying it is said by 
 poison. Julius II., his successor, was of somewhat less 
 scandalous life than Alexander, but ambitious and 
 mixing in political intrigues. In his quarrels with 
 Prance and with Venice, he led the army in battle as 
 a General. There was discontent with the Papacy in 
 Germany, and a list of " Gravamina '' was drawn up. 
 There was a revolt of ^ye Cardinals, which grew to 
 nine, three of whom, representing the others, called a 
 General Council to meet at Pisa in 1511. An insur- 
 rection against Julius broke out at Bologna. The 
 Pope summoned a rival Council to meet in the church 
 of Saint John Lateran in Rome, and interdicted Pisa. 
 The Council there was a failure. The Pope's Council, 
 the Fifth Lateran, was held in 1512. Julius died in 
 1513. 
 
 He was succeeded by Leo X., a man of the world, 
 fond of display and of luxury. He patronized art. 
 In many respects he was much better than his im- 
 mediate predecessors. He was noted for his nepotism. 
 Leo made a concordat with Francis I. of France, and 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 137 
 
 abolished the '^ Pragmatic Sanction/' an agreement 
 obtained by Saint Louis to secure the rights of the 
 French Church. The French people were indignant, 
 but Francis forced submission. 
 
 The Lateran Council, which had never been largely 
 attended, was dissolved in 1517. Luther began his 
 movement in the same year. 
 
 With the revival of learning in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury came a reaction against papal corruptions among 
 thinking men. The idea grew that national churches 
 must be distinct. Many evils arose from the loss of 
 organic unity and the multiplication of parties ; but the 
 primitive Faith was recovered and the spiritual con- 
 dition of mankind improved. 
 
 Luther was born in 1183. He studied tlie Holy 
 Scriptures and Saint Augustine, entered a convent, 
 and in 1507 was ordained priest. He was appointed 
 lecturer at AVittenberg, and was earnest and eloquent. 
 He went to Rome, and was disgusted by the scandals 
 at the papal court. Tetzel, the seller of indulgences, 
 came to Germany. The story of the nobleman, who, 
 having no respect for the system, bought beforehand 
 an indulgence to commit an unspecified crime and re- 
 ceived absolution on the payment of the price, and 
 then waylaid, robbed, and beat Tetzel, and explained 
 to him that this was the pardoned crime, shows the 
 disgraceful length to which the sale was carried. In 
 1517 Luther attacked the system, and posted his pro- 
 test on the door of a church. In 1518 he was cited to 
 Augsburg on the charge of heresy. He was popularly 
 
138 HISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 supported. There were violent discussions. He was 
 ordered to recant and escaped. In 1519 lie held a dis- 
 putation with Doctor Eck at Leipsic. In 1520 he was 
 excommunicated by Pope Leo. Luther burned the 
 bull and attacked the Papacy and priesthood with 
 great bitterness. Melanchthon, a learned theologian, 
 joined Luther; but urged the reform in a milder and 
 more scholarly spirit. He assisted Luther in translat- 
 ing the Bible. The Elector Frederick and other men 
 of note were gained. Luther went under the Emper- 
 or's safe-conduct to the Diet of Worms in 1521. Popu- 
 lar interest was shown in his behalf. He refused to 
 recant, and was condemned by the Diet. He retired to 
 the Castle of Wartburg, where he remained secluded 
 in disguise and wrote violent treatises against Monach- 
 ism and papal abuses. It was the scene of his fancied 
 conflicts with Satan, in one of which he imagined that 
 he saw the evil one mocking him, when he hurled his 
 inkstand at him. On the rise of ultra-protestants, pre- 
 tending to inspiration, denying the sacraments, etc., 
 and when the sect of the Anabaptists began their fa- 
 naticism, he returned to Wittenberg to stop these ex- 
 travagances. They broke out into the Peasants' War 
 in South Germany in 1524 and 1525. In the fanati- 
 cism churches and convents were destroyed. The 
 rebellion was extinguished after much bloodshed. 
 Some, who were inclined to the Reformation, were 
 disgusted by the conduct of the extremists. Among 
 them was Erasmus. The term " protestant " arose 
 from the reformers protesting at the Second Diet of 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTUKY. 139 
 
 Spires in 1529 against the threatened restoration of the 
 Papacy. 
 
 In the disputes among the Protestants, Luther op- 
 posed Carlstadt, an extremist of violent type, and also 
 Zwingli, who denied the Body and Plood in the Sacra- 
 ment. Luther maintained the Peal Presence. A 
 fruitless conference of the Protestants was held at 
 Marburg in 1529. In 1530 the Diet of Augsburg 
 met and religious discussions were held. A confession 
 of faith, called the " Confession of Augsburg,'' was 
 presented by the Lutherans to Charles V. The com- 
 position of Melanchthon, it was mildly drawn. Both 
 papists and reformers made large concessions, and 
 almost came to an agreement. Melanchthon mshed 
 to preserve unity with the Church. A similar collo- 
 quy, held at Ratisbon in 1541, was also fruitless. The 
 Emperor, Charles Y., persecuted the reforming party, 
 which was also weakened by dissensions. The papal 
 party was strengthened by the Council of Trent in 
 1545. Luther died in 1546. A peace between the 
 contending German States was concluded in 1555, and 
 in the next year the disappointed Emperor retired to 
 a convent in Spain. 
 
 ZiviiKjU was born in 1484. He was fond of the 
 classics. He had less reverence for authority than for 
 private judgment. He was a friend of the learned 
 Erasmus. As preacher at Zurich in 1519, he began to 
 declare congregational independence and to denounce 
 the Mass. He disparaged the Sacraments and excited 
 popular opposition to Indulgences. He was less vio- 
 
140 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 lent than Lutlier, but more opposed to the doctrines of 
 the Church of Rome, and was vehemently denounced 
 by Luther. In a religious war between the Cantons, 
 Zwingli took up arms, according to the ancient custom 
 that the banner of the Zurich should be borne by a 
 priest, and fell in battle in 1531, while acting as 
 chaplain. 
 
 Another reformer in Switzerland was CEcolam- 
 padius, who worked with Zwingli in 1522, and dis- 
 puted with Eck in 1526. William Farel, born in 
 France in 1489, aided the reform at Geneva and 
 Neufchatel (1530-35) with intemperate zeal. Churches 
 were sacked and altars insulted. He sided with 
 Zwingli against Luther. He circulated the Scriptures 
 in French. 
 
 John Cahnn (b. 1509, d. 1564) was studious and 
 severe. At the age of twenty-seven he wrote the 
 '^ Institutions of the Christian Religion." He despised 
 the dogmas of the Church and undervalued the Creeds. 
 In 1537, with Farel, he caused the civil authority at 
 Geneva to abjure the Church of Rome and adopt a 
 Presbyterian form. He abolished fonts and festivals. 
 He was banished in 1538, recalled in 1541, and had 
 great influence as a spiritual ruler. He caused the 
 enactment of severe laws and burned Servetus for 
 heresy in 1553. He taught predestination. He was 
 " learned, eloquent, fervent, dogmatic, and irritable." 
 Reaction set in at Geneva under its titular Bishop, 
 Francois de Sales, and Carlo Borromeo of Milan. 
 
 Reform began in France as early as 1512 under 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 14:1 
 
 Lefevre and also under the Bishop of Meaiix. It was 
 favoured by Margaret, sister of Francis I. The fanati- 
 cism of some zealots led to the bloody massacre of the 
 Yaudois of Provence in 1545, and the burning of 
 heretics. The Bishop of Meaux recanted, Lefevre fled, 
 while Erasmus, being denounced, vigorously and suc- 
 cessfully defended himself. The French Protestants 
 organized in 1555, adopting the system of Calvin, and 
 were called Huguenots, either from '' Eidgenossen," 
 i.e., confederate, or more probably from Huguet, the 
 wild huntsman, alluding to their nightly meetings. 
 They mixed in political affairs and roused civil wars. 
 The Colloquy, under the royal sanction, at Poissy in 
 1561, between Romanists and Protestants, was with- 
 out result. Civil war broke out throughout France 
 in 1562, marked on both sides by outrages and fanat- 
 ical excesses. In the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew 
 in 1572, twenty thousand fell. The Huguenots were 
 finally granted religious liberty by the Edict of :tTantes 
 
 in 1598. 
 
 The Reformation spread through Prussia (1522-60), 
 also into Denmark, N'orway, and Iceland, where a 
 quasi-Episcopate was appointed. About the same 
 time Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden, introduced re- 
 forms, suppressed monasteries, and retained a kind of 
 episcopacy. Protestantism was strong in Poland from 
 1548 to 1587, when Romanism gained the ascendancy, 
 partly through the bitter dissensions of the Swiss and 
 Saxon schools. The Moravians or United Brethren 
 of Bohemia made alliance with Luther about 1530. 
 
142 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 They were persecuted and subsequently banislied. A 
 movement towards reform in Spain was caused by a re- 
 action against the Inquisition and the corruptions of 
 the Church. It was suppressed by Charles Y. and his 
 successor, Philip II. (1559). Many were burned, and 
 the movement was entirely checked by 1570. The 
 Inquisition smothered a like attempt in Italy. The 
 Reformation in Holland was in accordance with Cal- 
 vinistic principles. 
 
 X In Scotland the first preacher of Luther anism was 
 Patrick Hamilton, who was burned in 1528. The 
 spread of reform was opposed by persecution in 1545 
 imder Cardinal Beatoun. John Knox, born in 1505, 
 was ordained priest in 1530. Of a fiery and impulsive 
 temper, he adopted reform principles. In 1546 Car- 
 dinal Beatoun was murdered by fanatics, with whom 
 Knox allied himself. Knox was dissatisfied with the 
 Reformation as conducted in England, and rejected the 
 English ritual. He went to Geneva in Queen Mary's 
 reign and adopted Calvinism. He returned to Scot- 
 land in 1559. He was revolutionary in his ideas, 
 both civil and religious. He roused the people to vio- 
 lence. Churches and monasteries were destroyed in 
 civil war. Peace was obtained in 1 5 6 . Presbyterian- 
 ism was adopted by the Scottish Parliament in 1562. 
 
 The Reformation in England was due to the opposi- 
 tion that the English people had long sho^vn to papal 
 usurpations, to the increase of learning in the Univer- 
 sities, which felt the influence of Erasmus, and partly 
 to the circulation of Luther's publications. The Eng- 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 143 
 
 lisli reformers asserted the national independence of 
 a foreign Bishop, preserved the continuity of the min- 
 istry, and retained much of the Ancient Ritual. 
 
 The Church of Rome was in full power in England 
 at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Henry 
 VIII. wrote a treatise on the Sacraments against 
 Luther and received from Leo X. the title of " De- 
 fender of the Faith." AYarham, a friend of Erasmus, 
 was then Archbishop of Canterbury. Cardinal 
 Wolsey was papal legate. In 1526 and 1527 Eng- 
 land and France were allied with the Pope, Clement 
 YIL, against Charles Y., who sent an army to Rome, 
 sacked Rome, and imprisoned the Pope. Clement es- 
 caped to Orvieto, where the case of Henry YIII. was 
 brought before him. Henry YIII. had married 
 Catherine of Aragon, his brother's widow, in 1509, 
 against the protest of Archbishop Warham. The King- 
 subsequently desiring a divorce, Wolsey persuaded the 
 Pope to grant a commission for a trial in England. A 
 protracted trial was held. Before its conclusion the 
 Pope avocated the case to Rome. The indignation of 
 Henry was suppressed. He revenged himself on Wol- 
 sey, whom he degraded in 1529. He summoned Par- 
 liament. The Reformation had already made progress 
 in England, and they passed anti-papal decrees. 
 
 Cranmer, a " fellow '' at Cambridge, wrote, by com- 
 mand of the King, a treatise, in 1530, defending the 
 divorce. To this the English and many foreign Uni- 
 versities assented, as well as many distinguished 
 reformers, who all pronounced the illegality of the 
 
144 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 marriage, as respects the Divine law. The English 
 nobles requested the Pope to annul the marriage; but 
 he answered evasively. In 1532 Parliament made 
 laws restraining the payment of tributes to Rome. 
 Fruitless negotiations were carried on on the part of 
 Henry with the papal court. On the death of War- 
 ham, Cranmer was appointed to the primacy in 1533. 
 The Pope confirmed him. A private marriage of the 
 King to Anne Boleyn first took place before the con- 
 secration of Cranmer. Parliament forbade appeals to 
 Rome. A formal sentence of the King's divorce was 
 given by Cranmer. The Pope annulled it. The 
 greater part of the English clergy were now opposed 
 to the papal power in England. Acts of Parliament 
 completed the separation of the English Church from 
 Rome in 1534. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More 
 refused assent to these changes, and were executed 
 for treason. 
 
 There were at this time a great number of religious 
 houses in England, some of which were very corrupt. 
 The monks and friars were attached to the Papacy and 
 hostile to the policy of the King. Suppression of the 
 smaller houses began in 1536. Their property was 
 confiscated to the crown. Wolsey had commenced 
 such a suppression for the benefit of colleges. Henry 
 now continued it for his own selfish ends. Latimer 
 and others protested. Of the larger houses, some sur- 
 rendered and the rest were dissolved by statute. These 
 acts were marked by great cruelty and injustice. Yain 
 efforts were made to save some establishments of high 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTUKY. 145 
 
 character and usefulness. The Order of the Knights 
 of Saint John, which was dependent on both Pope and 
 Emperor, was dissolved by Parliament in 1540. Some 
 colleges were dissolved also, and the universities were 
 hardly saved. Monastic property was largely wasted 
 upon court favourites. A small portion was given to 
 the cathedrals and to found new sees. In this sup- 
 pression churches were desecrated and valuable prop- 
 erty destroyed. Its object was plunder, the corrupt, 
 lives of some of the monks being only a pretext. It 
 was not instigated by the Reformers. Henry, in spite 
 of his enmity to the Pope, Avas a thorough Romanist 
 in doctrine, and favoured the full faith and ritual of 
 Rome. The German States endeavoured in vain to 
 attach him to a Protestant league, which adopted the 
 Confession of Augsburg. The English Bishops were 
 evenly divided as to the Reformation. Cranmer 
 favoured it earnestly but temperately. Tlie translation 
 of the Bible by the Bishops gave it to the people. The 
 King's Primer consisted of an exposition of the Ten 
 Commandments and the Creed, with a paraphrase on 
 the Lord's Prayer, the Ave Maria, the Penitential 
 Psalms, a Litany, prayers, and hymns. Articles of 
 Faith were published by the clergy and King, so 
 drawn that they were accepted both by Romanists and 
 Reformers. An explanation of the Creed, Command- 
 ments and Sacraments, and of the Clerical office was 
 issued, called the " Institution of a Christian Man." 
 In 1537 English Bibles were set up in the churches. 
 In 1538 Lambert was burned by order of the King 
 
146 HISTOKY OF THE CHUKCH. 
 
 for disputing the Corporal Presence. Gardiner, Bish- 
 op of Winchester, being at the head of the papal party, 
 procured sundry laws against reform, reading the 
 Scriptures, etc. Cranmer checked the reaction. 
 
 Erasmus and other men of note attempted, by medi- 
 ation, to secure the unity of Christendom. A confer- 
 ence was held by the English divines with the Luther- 
 ans, but without result. The " Necessary Doctrine 
 and Erudition of a Christian Man " appeared as the 
 outcome. The English Litany was authorized in 1544. 
 Henry died in 1547. 
 
 Edward VI. succeeded, aged nine years. The Duke 
 of Somerset, the Protector, favoured the Reformation, 
 but permitted some spoliation of the churches. Rid- 
 ley, Bishop of Rochester, was a learned and earnest 
 reformer, the chief adviser of Cranmer, cautious and 
 conservative, the preserver of the Apostolic Succession. 
 Some among the reforming party sided with the 
 Calvinists ; but Cranmer's views accorded more nearly 
 with Luther's theology. When preaching was re- 
 stricted, the " homilies " were published to take the 
 place of sermons. Bishops Bonner and Gardiner of the 
 papal party alone opposed them, and were imprisoned 
 for a time. 
 
 In 1548 the Reformed Communion Office was set 
 forth. Gardiner made opposition, and was again im- 
 prisoned. A catechism for the young was next set 
 forth. Then the complete Service Bool', the First 
 Prayer Book of Edward YI., was drawn up from 
 various uses in England and adopted by Parliament in 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 147 
 
 1549. It was compiled bj Cranmer and other Bishops. 
 Some of the Continental reformers coming to England 
 were well received and appointed to lectureships in the 
 universities. While several foreign Protestant min- 
 isters with their congregations were tolerated, the 
 fanatical sects of the Anabaptists and Gospellers were 
 suppressed by law. 
 
 Bishop Bonner, for disobedience in the neglect of 
 the use of the new Service Book, was deprived of his 
 bishopric and imprisoned. Gardiner met with a like 
 fate. 
 
 The Eeformation of the Ordinal abolished empty 
 pomp and acknowledged only Three Orders. 
 
 Hooper, an ardent reformer, was consecrated Bishop 
 of Gloucester. He had resided in Switzerland and 
 favored Zwinglianism. At first he refused the Epis- 
 copal vestments, but was brought to a partial con- 
 formity. He objected also to altars as implying a 
 sacrifice. 
 
 A review of the Prayer Book was called for, chiefly 
 by extremists or those leaning towards the views of 
 the Continental reformers. It was issued by a com- 
 mittee, headed by Cranmer, and is known as the 
 Second Service Book of Edward VI. It was author- 
 ized in 1552. In this the opening sentences, the Ex- 
 hortation, the Confession, and Absolution were added, 
 the Decalogue was introduced, and slight changes were 
 made in the Communion Office. The Introits were 
 omitted. The ordinal was annexed. Some ceremonies 
 were dropped, but there was no concession of Church 
 
148 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 doctrine. Revised articles, forty-two in number, were 
 drawn up by Cranmer and others and framed to coun- 
 teract extreme views in opposite directions. A revised 
 catechism was drawn. Cranmer tried without success 
 to unite the Continental reformers with the English 
 Church. The ^' Reformatio Legum," a code of ec- 
 clesiastical doctrine and discipline, was drawn up, but 
 not adopted at the time, because of the King's death 
 in 1553. 
 
 On the failure of the Earl of Warwick's attempt 
 to set Lady Jane Grey on the throne, Mary, the 
 daughter of Henry YIII. and of Catherine of Aragon, 
 was proclaimed Queen. She was a Romanist and had 
 no sympathy with the Reformation. Gardiner was 
 released, reinstated, and made Lord Chancellor. War- 
 wick was executed. Deprived Bishops were restored. 
 The statutes of Edward concerning religion were re- 
 pealed. Roman services were replaced. Some of the 
 reforming prelates fled. Cranmer was advised to flee 
 and refused, and with others was sent to prison. Many 
 thousands of priests and laity went into exile. 
 
 The English people being dissatisfied with the pro- 
 posed marriage of the Queen with Philip, son of 
 the Emperor Charles Y., Wyatt's rebellion was 
 provoked. It was the pretext for the execution of 
 Lady Jane Grey. Elizabeth was imprisoned for a 
 time. Clerical marriage was prohibited and married 
 prelates were deposed. Numbers of the clergy were 
 deprived. 
 
 In 1554 a dispute was held at Oxford on the '^ Cor- 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTUEY. 149 
 
 poral Presence," in which Cranmer, Ridley, and Lat- 
 imer, though prisoners, defended the reform doctrines. 
 Their opponents were partial and the conference tu- 
 multuous. The marriage of the Queen to Philip II. 
 of Spain took place. Cardinal Pole came to England 
 as papal legate. The kingdom was formally recon- 
 ciled to the See of Rome. Pole wished to proceed 
 mildly towards the reformed, but Gardiner was severe. 
 The Marian persecution lasted four years (1555-58). 
 In all, two hundred and eighty-eight persons were put 
 to death. The first was Rogers, a cheerful martyr. 
 Then came Bishops Hooper, Sanders, Taylor, and Fer- 
 rar. Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer were tried at 
 Oxford and condemned. The last two were burned at 
 the same time, suffering with constancy. Gardiner 
 died immediately after. Cranmer was degraded from 
 his office. In prison, under fear of death and promises 
 of pardon, he was induced to sign a recantation; but 
 the Queen determined to destroy him. He publicly 
 withdrew his recantation, denied the false doctrines of 
 Rome, and suffered on the site of Ridley's and 
 Latimer's martyrdom, holding out his offending hand 
 in the fire (1556). Pole was consecrated Archbishop 
 of Canterbury the next day. He was a conscientious 
 Romanist of high personal character, and prevented 
 the introduction of the Jesuits. He died a few hours 
 after the Queen, in 1558. 
 
 During the persecutions in England, refugees to 
 Lutheran cities were severely treated, and sometimes 
 expelled. Great troubles arose at Frankfort from dis- 
 
150 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 putes among themselves, fomented by Knox and 
 others from Geneva. The English Prayer Book was 
 denounced, and dissent from the Church of England 
 encouraged. 
 
 Attempts at reform were made by some synods of 
 the Church of Eome. In the year 1545 Paul III. 
 summoned the Council of Trent. It declared the 
 Apocryphal Books canonical, and the authority of tra- 
 dition equal to that of Holy Scripture. A few abuses 
 were reformed, but no abatement was made in the 
 papal claims. The Council, which was suspended 
 four years from the pestilence of 1547, was resumed 
 under Julius III. in 1551. It affirmed Transubstan- 
 tiation and issued decrees on penance and extreme 
 unction. Delegates from the Lutherans were allowed 
 to. plead their cause. The Council was again suspended 
 in 1552, and reopened by Pius TV. in 1562. It con- 
 sisted chiefly of Italian and Spanish Bishops. English 
 and Greek Bishops were invited, but declined to at- 
 tend. Important reforms, urged at the Council by the 
 Germans and the French, were suppressed by papal 
 agents. The Mass was declared a propitiatory sacrifice 
 for the living and the dead. Some reforms were made 
 indiscipline. The Council closed in 1563. Its decrees 
 were promulgated by the Pope. A partial reform of 
 some crying evils followed the Council of Trent. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola was born in Spain in 1491 of a 
 noble family. In his youth he was a brilliant soldier. 
 Wounded in battle in 1521, he devoted himself to a 
 religious and ascetic life. Hanging his arms in the 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 151 
 
 Benedictine monastery of Montserrat, lie began a life 
 of excessive mortifications, and had visions, in which 
 he believed the deepest mystery of the faith was re- 
 vealed to him. From a pilgrimage to the Holy Land 
 he returned to his studies at Barcelona. He reformed 
 a convent of nuns. He established the order of the 
 Jesuits, a society of knights spiritual, which was ap- 
 proved by Paul III. in 1543. It required absolute 
 obedience to the General of the Order. Its work was 
 mostly educational. In some measure it counteracted 
 the Reformation. Francis Xavier, an earnest Jesuit, 
 had wonderful success in missionary work in India 
 and the East (1542-52), both in arousing a better spirit 
 among Portuguese Christians and in converting na- 
 tives of the Eastern shores and islands and of Japan. 
 An Italian Jesuit, Ricci, at the end of the sixteenth 
 century, had a great but temporary success in China. 
 In 1710 the Society of Jesus had twenty thousand 
 members. It was suppressed between 1761 and 1767 
 in France, Spain, Portugal, and elsewhere. Its mem- 
 bers were banished from Christendom in 1773 by 
 Clement XIV. and restored by Pius VII. in 1814. 
 
 At the commencement of the German Reformation 
 a set of free-thinkers arose in Germany. Also the 
 Anabaptists, who were ignorant, impure, and de- 
 praved, appeared. They took possession of Munster 
 in 1534, whence they were finally ejected with great 
 slaughter by Papists and Reformed working together. 
 They appeared in England in the time of Henry VIII. 
 in less objectionable form, and also in Holland under 
 
152 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 the name of Mennonnites. Unitarianism or Socinian- 
 ism grew up about 1579, together with several other 
 
 sects of little importance. 
 
 The accession of Elizaheth, daughter of Anne 
 Bolejn, took place in 1558, at the age of twenty-five. 
 The Pope was offended at her illegitimacy and because 
 she was crowned without his sanction. Philip offered 
 himself in marriage to her. The Queen was in favour 
 of the Reformation, but was tolerant and wished to 
 mediate between religious parties. She proceeded 
 with prudence. Parliament, by act, restored the in- 
 dependence of the Church of England. Two Bishops, 
 who threatened to excommunicate the Queen, were 
 sent to the Tower. Some of the returned refugees 
 wished to abolish Episcopacy and the rites of the 
 Church. Elizabeth was conservative. 
 
 In 1559 a committee of clergy was appointed to re- 
 vise the Prayer Book. ]^o violent changes were made. 
 Prayer for the Queen was introduced. The protesting 
 Bishops were deprived. Bonner and two others were 
 imprisoned. Parker was appointed and consecrated 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. He accepted with great 
 reluctance. He was consecrated in Lambeth Chapel, 
 according to the ritual of Edward's Prayer Book. 
 The Romanists attacked this act, and the absurd story 
 of ^' I^ag's head " was invented. The imprisoned 
 Bishops were released. N'one were severely punished. 
 Royal injunctions respecting music and decency in 
 divine service were issued. A great part of the laity 
 of the Romish Church was reconciled to the Church 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 153 
 
 of England. Preliminary articles were agreed on by 
 the Bishops, setting forth fundamental principles and 
 objections to the false teachings of Rome. A sermon 
 of Jewel, Bishop of Salisbury, challenging the Roman- 
 ists to prove their doctrines led to his dispute with 
 Harding, a Divine of the College of Louvain. In 
 1559 Pope Pius IV. endeavoured to gain Elizabeth 
 to Rome, promising large concessions. He invited 
 English Bishops to the Council of Trent. He de- 
 spatched a !N^uncio to England, who was rejected and 
 not even allowed to land. Jewel was privately urged 
 to send delegates to the Council of Trent, but refused 
 and justified the English Church in refusing. A re- 
 view of the Articles in Convocation resulted in the 
 XXXIX. Articles, drawn up chiefly by Parker and 
 Jewel. An attempt to abridge ceremonies, dispense 
 with vestments, etc., Avas defeated. Jewel wrote in 
 Latin his famous '^ Apology for the Church of Eng- 
 land." It was translated into English and into numer- 
 ous European languages. Tlie " Genevan Bible " was 
 an English translation by Knox and others, accom- 
 panied by notes against Episcopacy. The " Bishop's 
 Bible," translated by the English Bishops, was made 
 in 1562. 
 
 Puritanism arose among the English exiles in Ger- 
 many. On returning, they imported many doctrines 
 and opinions of the Protestants. Some of the English 
 clergy, in spite of the laws, refused to wear the sur- 
 plice, and they neglected other requirements. They 
 also objected to organs, to the Cathedral service, to the 
 
154 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 sign of the cross in baptism, etc. The Archbishop 
 tried to persuade them and was tolerant. The Queen, 
 however, by proclamation, required uniformity, and 
 some who refused were suspended in 1566. The Non- 
 conformists then organized and separated from the 
 Church. They rejected the Liturgy and followed 
 Genevan forms. Episcopacy was objected to, with 
 responses, festivals. Lent, organs, bowing at the sacred 
 name, the surplice, etc. The Papists took advantage 
 of the Puritan troubles and raised a rebellion to en- 
 throne Mary Queen of Scots and restore the Church 
 of Rome. It was suppressed by the dispersion of the 
 insurgents without bloodshed. On the failure of this 
 project in 1569 Pius Y. fulminated an excommuni- 
 cation against Elizabeth and all who obeyed her. The 
 thunder fell harmless. Elizabeth tolerated all Roman- 
 ists who were peaceable. Thomas Cartwright, a pro- 
 fessor at Cambridge, was a leader of the Puritan 
 party. Inveighing against the Bishops, he was ex- 
 pelled from the University. Jewel and Whitgift 
 defended the Church. The former was a man of high 
 gifts and blameless life ; although he has been bitterly 
 maligned by his enemies, both popish and puritanical. 
 The ITon-conf ormists formed several sects, the most 
 radical of which was the Brownists. In the Council 
 and in the House of Commons non-conformity had 
 friends, and many attempts were made at laws favour- 
 ing dissent. A treatise concerning these schemes 
 was put forth, charging the Bishops with corruption. 
 The authors were imprisoned. Whitgift held a con- 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTUKY. 155 
 
 troversy with Cartwriglit. In 1573 tlie first Presby- 
 terian Congregation was formed. The acts of the 
 clergy, who refused to conform, excited the displeasure 
 of the Queen, and those having benefices were 
 deprived. 
 
 Archbishop Parker died in 1577. His death was 
 a public calamity. Grindal, who succeeded him, was 
 weak and temporizing. Disobeying the royal com- 
 mands to suppress illegal associations, he was sus- 
 pended. The Puritans published scurrilous pamphlets 
 against the Church and the government. This caused 
 the passage of severe laws. 
 
 At Grindal's death, in 1584, Whitgift succeeded. 
 He w^as earnestly desirous of uniformity. The Puri- 
 tan party endeavoured to frame a new liturgy, but could 
 not agree. Continued efforts were made on their part 
 to overthrow the hierarchy. The failure of the 
 ^^paiiish Armada in 1588 strengthened the hold of the 
 Anglican Church upon the nation; but coarse attacks 
 on the Church and State were secretly printed and 
 circulated. Whitgift obtained pardon for the guilty 
 authors, who had been fined and imprisoned. Strin- 
 gent laws against separatists from the Church were 
 enacted. Some seditious persons were executed. 
 About this time was published Hooker's ^^ Ecdesias- 
 tical Polity/' a work in defence of the Church of 
 England against its Papal and Puritan enemies, and 
 setting forth the relations of Church and State, a trea- 
 tise that has secured the admiration of all posterity. 
 
 Calvinistic doctrines touching predestination trou- 
 
156 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 bled the Churcli in the latter part of the sixteenth 
 century. Some, who conformed to the Episcopal 
 order, held them. Cambridge University was the cen- 
 tre of this teaching. In 1595 the " Lambeth Arti- 
 cles," asserting the doctrine of Election, were drawn 
 up for proposed acceptance. The Queen opposed 
 them. Elizabeth died in 1603. 
 
 The Reformation never took deep hold in Ireland. 
 In Elizabeth's time the sees were partly filled by re- 
 formed prelates; but the people were ignorant and 
 for the most part attached with bigotry to the Church 
 of Rome. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Elizabeth was succeeded by James I., already King 
 of Scotland, where Presbyterianism was legally estab- 
 lished. All parties appealed to the Eng for toleration. 
 He determined to uphold the Church as Elizabeth had 
 left it. The Puritans presented a petition of griev- 
 ances, attacking the Church. The King agreed to a 
 Conference between them and the Bishops. This Con- 
 ference was held in 1604 at Hampton Court. The 
 old objections to the Litm-gy, to the sign of the cross, 
 to vestments, to the marriage ring, etc., were brought 
 up. The " Articles of Religion " were attacked, and it 
 was sought to append to them the '^ Lambeth Articles ' ' 
 on Election ; but the King was firm in refusal. A few 
 trifling changes were made in the Prayer Book; but 
 the Conference was without result to the Puritans. 
 Whitgif t died soon after. 
 
 James declared himself opposed to non-conformity, 
 either of Papist or Puritan. A Book of Canons, a 
 collection of ancient church laws, was drawn up in 
 1604. 
 
 Bancroft, who became Archbishop of Canterbuiy, 
 was zealous for conformity. The Gunpowder Plot 
 took place in 1604. The Jesuits were considered the 
 instigators. Their chief was tried and executed. An 
 oath of allegiance was proposed for the Romanists. It 
 
158 HISTOKY OF THE CHUECH. 
 
 renounced tlie papal power over Kings. Many loyal 
 Romanists accepted it. The Catechism was completed 
 by the addition relating to the Sacraments. The King 
 James^ Translation of the Bible was completed in 
 1611 by a royal commission of forty-seven divines 
 from the two Universities. Sectarian discontent, 
 which was frequently shown in Parliament, was 
 checked by the King. James placed Bishops in Scot- 
 land against the will of the people. 
 
 Abbot succeeded as Primate in 1610. About 1613 
 arose the Quin Quart ieular Controversi) in Holland 
 betAveen the Arminians and the Calvinists concerning 
 predestination. It aroused bitter feeling and persecu- 
 tion. A synod was held in Dort in 1619. It was 
 composed chiefly of the Continental reformers. Some 
 deputies were sent to it from England by King James. 
 The synod condemned Arminianism and affirmed the 
 doctrines of Calvin. Disorders and intolerance fol- 
 lowed. The proceedings were generally condemned 
 by the Church and the King in England, where doc- 
 trinal Calvinism now declined, as the intolerant 
 spirit of the system was apparent. James, look- 
 ing to a Spanish alliance, relaxed the penal laws 
 against the Papists, although Archbishop Abbot 
 remonstrated. A dispute was held between Laud and 
 others and the famous Jesuit Fisher, in which the 
 latter was v/orsted. Montagu, an eminent English 
 divine, defended the Church of England against the 
 charge of Calvinism, brought by the Jesuits. King 
 James died in 1625. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 159 
 
 The accession of Charles I. followed at the age of 
 twenty-five years. He had l)een under the influence 
 of the profligate Duke of Buckingham. He married 
 Henrietta Maria, a French princess, devoted with 
 bigotry to Romanism. Parliament asked of the King 
 laws against the Papists. It objected to Montagu's 
 defence of the Church against Calvinism and de- 
 nounced him and his book, although sanctioned by the 
 King and a commission of Bishops. Charles dismissed 
 Parliament for its interference, but was obliged to call 
 another to vote supplies for his unfortunate wars with 
 France and Spain. This also impeached Montagu, and 
 was dissolved by the King. Archbishop Abbot favoured 
 the Puritans and was suspended. The King made a 
 forced loan. He promoted Montagu to a see. He 
 called a third Parliament, which prepared an intoler- 
 ant remonstrance against popery and Arminianism, 
 of which it accused the English Church. As the King 
 was included in its censure, he angrily dissolved it. 
 Bishop Laud was associated with the King and privy 
 council in the civil government. Charles was crowned 
 in Scotland. He quarrelled with the Scottish Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 On the death of Abbot, Laud was appointed Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. The Puritans hated him, and 
 there was mutual dislike between them. He was a 
 generous patron of learning and strenuous in uphold- 
 ing the ceremonies of the Church. He maintained 
 the Catholicity of the English Church and would not 
 acknowledge the Continental sects. He encouraged 
 
160 HISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 tlie King to make a ^^ declaration " against tlie Jiidaical 
 observance of the ^^ Sabbath/' His enemies accused 
 him of leaning to Popery. He gained the popular ill- 
 will by some severe punishments of offenders against 
 the King and the Church. Charles attempted to force 
 the use of a liturgy in Scotland. It was resisted by 
 mobs. The Scottish Assembly expelled the Bishops. 
 Charles threatened war and negotiated. For want of 
 supplies he was forced to summon Parliament. It 
 failed to grant them and was dissolved. Grants of 
 money were made by Convocation. The advance of 
 the Scottish army compelled negotiations, and in 1640 
 the Long Parliament was called. They arrogated to 
 themselves the religious rule of the country and cen- 
 sured convocation. Laud was impeached by the House 
 of Commons, and with other Bishops was imprisoned. 
 Altars and pictures were ordered to be removed from 
 the churches. Petitions were presented and speeches 
 were made against Episcopacy. An attempt by the 
 Commons to remove the Bishops from the House of 
 Lords was defeated. The Commons issued a " protes- 
 iatlon,^^ covertly levelled at the Church, and arbitrarily 
 required it to be subscribed throughout the kingdom. 
 The upper House rejected it. The enraged Commons 
 impeached the whole Bench of Bishops. Charles went 
 to Scotland and there made great concessions as to 
 Church government. The Commons prohibited bow- 
 ing at the sacred name and encouraged preaching 
 against the Church. Confusion entered into religious 
 worship. London mobs were excited against the 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY. 161 
 
 Bishops and presented petitions which were favourably 
 received by Parliament, while counter-petitions of the 
 gentry were rejected. Tumults arose. The Bishops, 
 insulted and excluded from Parliament by mobs, pro- 
 tested against the validity of legislation without them, 
 and were imprisoned by the Commons for treason. 
 Meanwhile a bill for their exclusion from the Legis- 
 lature was passed in their absence and an enforced con- 
 sent obtained from the King. 
 
 Preparation for civil war was begun. Parliament 
 sought an alliance with the Scots, and passed a bill to 
 abolish Episcopacy. A majority of the House of 
 Lords, part of the House of Commons, and also the 
 two Universities, met with the King, who held his 
 court at Oxford. !N"egotiations were fruitless. The 
 loyal clergy were deprived by Parliament, which ap- 
 pointed an " Assembly of Divines " as the ecclesiasti- 
 cal government. It was bitterly opposed to the 
 Church. The " Solemn League and Covenant '^ was 
 ordered by Parliament and the Assembly to be taken 
 throughout England. It established Presbyterianism 
 and abjured Episcopacy. The King issued a counter- 
 proclamation. The struggle between the Independ- 
 ents and the Presbyterians resulted in the triumph of 
 rhe latter. Ordination was vested in a Committee of 
 the Assembly. " A Directory for public worship " 
 took the place of the Prayer Book. A fast was ap- 
 pointed on Christmas Day. Archbishop Laud was 
 tried for treason on frivolous pretences and condemned 
 
162 HISTOKY OF THE CHUKCH. 
 
 through the partiality of his judges and executed, 
 dying a true martyr to religion in 1644. 
 
 After fruitless negotiations at Uxbridge, where the 
 Xing refused to sanction the abolition of Episcopacy, 
 being without resources, he fled in disguise from Ox- 
 ford and surrendered himself to the Scottish army. 
 Quarrels then arose between the Presbyterian Parlia- 
 ment and the Independent army. The Scottish nation 
 was Presbyterian. At this time the King engaged in 
 a written controversy with Henderson, a noted Pres- 
 byterian minister, on the question of his oath to defend 
 the Church. Parliament required the King to declare 
 the abolition of Ej^iscopacy and the establishment of 
 the '^ League and Covenant," which he steadily re- 
 fused. The King was sold by the Scots to the English 
 for £400,000, paid as arrears to the army. A chaplain 
 was refused him. Parliament completed the subver- 
 sion of the hierarchy and the alienation of its revenues. 
 As Oxford was the stronghold of loyalty and of the 
 Church, proceedings were taken against it. Preachers 
 were sent there, only to show their failure. The 
 University made its declaration against the " League 
 and Covenant,'' and stubbornly resisted the Parlia- 
 mentary attacks. Tlie ofiicers and professors were at 
 length ejected and Presbyterian preachers substituted. 
 The army quarrelled with Parliament and seized the 
 King. It was Independent and opposed Presbyterian 
 intolerance. It advanced on London and seized the 
 Tower. Charles attempted to escape, but was impris- 
 oned in the Isle of Wight. Parliament again proposed 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 163 
 
 terms, which the King rejected. Kising in the King's 
 favour, a Scottish army invaded Enghmd; but the ris- 
 ing was suppressed by Cromwell. In a conference at 
 I^ewport, the King refused to betray the Church of 
 England and defended it earnestly against its enemies. 
 The army was determined to establish a popular 
 government and to crush everything in Church and 
 State that opposed the Independents. Disguised 
 Jesuits are said to have worked with them to destroy 
 the King. The trial of Charles soon followed, 
 and his execution took place January 30, 1649. 
 Church and kingdom were overthrown. Prelacy was 
 proscribed. Jeremy Taylor's fearless and temperate 
 defence of the Church was written at this time. Par- 
 liament granted liberty of worship to all but Papists 
 and Episcopalians. The Independents prevailed in 
 the Commonwealth over the Presbyterians. The 
 latter were dissatisfied with toleration. There was a 
 rise of fanatical sects, such as the Fifth Monarchy 
 men, who were opposed to Cromwell and engaged in 
 the strife for the supremacy. Cromwell's commission 
 of Triers to examine and appoint clergymen became 
 his inquisitors to secure the complete ejectment of the 
 Episcopal clergy, who were not permitted to act even 
 as private chaplains or instructors, and great distress 
 
 ensued. 
 
 In 1660 the guilty nation returned to its allegiance 
 in the restoration of the Church and monarchy. Tol- 
 eration was offered to the sects. The Presbyterians 
 opposed the Liturgy and the use of the surplice. They 
 
164 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 vainly endeavoured to influence the King. Charles II. 
 restored the use of the Prayer Book. Infidelity had 
 been fostered by the recent reign of fanaticism. There 
 was universal joy at the Restoration and at the estab- 
 lishment of toleration. Cathedral Chapters were re- 
 stored. Juxon Avas made Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Bishops were consecrated for the A^acant sees. A 
 clamor was raised against the restitution of Church 
 property. The Presbyterians appealed for a modifi- 
 cation of the Church and its ceremonies. The Bishops 
 answered them. The King issued a pacific declara- 
 tion, but made no concessions satisfactory to the discon- 
 tented parties. In 1661 the outbreak of the "" Fifth 
 Monarchy men '' against the government took place. 
 They were religious fanatics. It was a small rebel- 
 lion and soon quelled. 
 
 Charles issued a commission for a Conference be- 
 tween the Bishops and the Presbyterians. This was 
 called the " Savoy Conference.'' It was held in 1661. 
 Baxter was among the non-conformists. The Presby- 
 terians asked to drop from the Liturgy all responsive 
 parts and to leave out Lent and Saints' Days. They 
 objected to the surplice, to kneeling in the com- 
 munion, and to the sign of the cross in baptism. They 
 asked for liberty to use extempore prayers, etc. Bax- 
 ter proposed a new prayer book of his own composing. 
 There was no result to the Conference. 
 
 The new Parliament repealed the " Solemn League 
 and Covenant " and all acts passed during the usur- 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1^)5 
 
 pation. The Bench of Bishops was re-established in 
 Parliament. 
 
 A review of the Prayer Book was commanded hy 
 the King in 1661. This is the '' Last Review." l^o 
 changes in the services were made, except in the 
 addition of a few Collects and minor offices. The 
 Epistles and Gospels were taken from the New Trans- 
 lation. A few slight alterations were made in the 
 rubrics. The Book was approved in 1662. An Act 
 of Uniformity was passed, resulting in the ejectment 
 of non-conformists, who made great complaint. The 
 Act came from the House of Commons. Many good 
 men conformed. Others raised the cry of martyrdom, 
 to which they had no title, since they were intruders 
 at the ejection of Church clergy. 
 
 The King determined to establish the Church in 
 Scotland. Sharp, formerly a friend to the Presby- 
 terian interest, was made Primate of Scotland. Other 
 Bishops were consecrated. The Presbyterians made 
 great opposition. Harsh measures were used against 
 them. Their clergy were ejected. Sharp acquired 
 general hatred. 
 
 The Church in Ireland had been supplanted by 
 Covenanters and Independents through the military 
 despotism of Cromwell. Bramhall, a man of high 
 character, was made Primate, and Jeremy Taylor was 
 made a Bishop. 
 
 The King in his desire to favor the Romanists was 
 inclined to abate the rigor of the Act of Uniformity, 
 but was not supported by Parliament. 
 
166 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 In the Great Plague of 1665, Arclibisliop Sheldon 
 and the clergy generally were active in aiding the 
 sufferers. 
 
 In the war with Holland a conspiracy of the Level- 
 lers was encouraged by the treachery of the Presby- 
 terian party. It was suppressed by a severe law, called 
 the '' Five Mile Act." 
 
 The Great Fire of London, which broke out in 1666, 
 was charged on the Papists. 
 
 The licentious court of Charles 11. was rebuked by 
 Sheldon, the Archbishop, and by Clarendon, the 
 Prime Minister, whose boldness caused his fall. 
 
 An attempt made by Bishop Wilkins and Sir Mat- 
 thew Hale to compromise with the non-conformists 
 and receive them into the Church was frustrated in 
 Parliament and only occasioned further severe laws 
 against the Dissenters. These were the act of the 
 Legislature and not of the Church, a reaction against 
 the Puritanism of the late Interregnum. The King 
 encouraged the suppression of conventicles for the 
 sake of favouring Romanism, towards which he leaned, 
 but which he had not the manliness to avow. He then 
 suddenly and arbitrarily issued a declaration of indul- 
 gence, subverting the recent laws and even granting 
 pensions to dissenting preachers. Churchmen were 
 indignant at his vacillating policy and suspicious of 
 its motive. The Commons refused supplies and com- 
 pelled the King to retract his declaration. In fear of 
 the King's designs, the " Test Act " was passed, pre- 
 venting Romanists from holding places of high trust, 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 167 
 
 It was followed by struggles between the King and 
 Parliament. 
 
 The '^ Gates plot " excitement arose in 1678, started 
 by the revelation of a supposed Popish conspiracy, 
 discovered by Titus Gates. The country was divided 
 into two political parties ; the Whigs, who upheld the 
 law, and the Tories, who supported the sovereign. 
 There was strong party feeling, religious and political. 
 The Duke of York, the King's brother and heir to the 
 throne, was a Papist; and great efforts were made to 
 exclude him from the succession. The " Rye house " 
 plot, real or supposed, was a scheme to assassinate the 
 King. Charles died in 1685, refusing the ministra- 
 tions of the Bishops and accepting the Sacraments 
 from a Romish priest. 
 
 The Duke of York came to the throne as James II., 
 with a public declaration of his determination to up- 
 hold the Church ; but soon he showed his insincerity. 
 Parliament enforced the old laws against dissenters, 
 and Baxter was heavily fined. The rebellion of Mon- 
 mouth, the natural son of Charles II., and of Argyle 
 in Scotland was supported by those disaffected against 
 the Church and monarchy. The movement was soon 
 suppressed and its authors executed. The harsh 
 measures of James were carried out by his tool, Jef- 
 freys, whom he made Lord Chamberlain. The King 
 endeavoured to advance the cause of Romanism. He 
 disregarded the Test Act and attempted to fill the 
 army with Popish officers. lilTumerous converts ad- 
 hered to Romanism through interest. 
 
168 HISTOEY OF THE CHUKCH. 
 
 At this time tlie Protestant Cause was injured on 
 the Continent by the revocation of the Edict of l^antes 
 in 1685. James continued his movement towards 
 arbitrary power and the establishment of the Romish 
 Church in England. He quarrelled with Parliament, 
 which refused to abolish the Test Act. Determined 
 arbitrarily to override the laws against Popery, he 
 forbade the clergy to preach against it. They issued 
 numerous polemical tracts. The King, angry with the 
 Church, courted the dissenters and desired to intro- 
 duce Popery under the cover of universal toleration. 
 In defiance of old statutes, he introduced and set up 
 a Court of Ecclesiastical Commission to govern the 
 Church, with the infamous Jeffreys at the head. It 
 suspended the Bishop of London for refusing to sus- 
 pend a vicar, who preached against Popery. Plotting 
 the complete subversion of the liberties of the English 
 Church, James appointed Bishops to the vacant sees 
 of Oxford and Chester in his own interest. He issued 
 a declaration of general religious toleration, assuming 
 a regal power to annul all Test Acts and other such 
 laws without the concurrence of Parliament. Dis- 
 senters were suspicious, and Churchmen saw the 
 King's determination to level the Church. He then 
 attacked the Universities, and appointed a Popish 
 Bishop president of a college in Oxford, but was stout- 
 ly resisted, though in vain. He made overtures for 
 restoring all England to the Pope, who sent over a 
 IN^uncio. He endeavoured without effect to win over 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTUKY. 169 
 
 his daughter Mary, the Princess of Orange. James 
 issued a second declaration and ordered it read in the 
 churches. Sancroft, the Primate, and six other 
 Bishops petitioned against it. Most of the clergy re- 
 fused to read it. The seven Bishops were sent to the 
 Tower. Popular indignation rose at the arbitrary act. 
 They were tried at Westminster Hall and acquitted 
 amid universal rejoicing and to the discomfiture of 
 the King. In the wide national discontent, overtures 
 were made to William of Orange, the son of Mary 
 (daughter of Charles I.) and husband of his cousin 
 Mary, daughter of James II. William prepared an 
 expedition against England. James in alarm sent for 
 the Bishops. They freely offered their advice, which 
 he felt forced to accept. He annulled many of his 
 late illegal decrees. It was too late. He had forfeited 
 the respect and confidence of his people. 
 
 The Prince of Orange landed at Torbay, ISTovember 
 5, 1688. James, deserted by his army, could make 
 no opposition. He abandoned his kingdom and es- 
 caped to France. The Prince came to London, where 
 he was favourably but not enthusiastically received. 
 He summoned a convention of former members of 
 Parliament. They conferred the crown on William 
 and Mary in 1689. An Act of Toleration was passed, 
 permitting freedom of worship to dissenters; but the 
 Test Act was retained. ISTine Bishops refused the 
 oaths to the Xew Sovereign. Hence they were called 
 the non-jurors. Five of these were among those who 
 
170 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 had been imprisoned by James. The saintly Ken was 
 one of the non- jurors. They, with four hundred of the 
 clergy, formed a separate Church organization, which 
 proved weak and disappeared about the close of the 
 century. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 A KEiJGious decline set in in England during this 
 century, which was marked also by the awakening by 
 Wesley and Whitfield, the founders of Methodism. 
 
 During the reign of William and Mary in 1697, a 
 royal grant was made of the church and churchyard 
 to Trinity parish, New York. In 1705, in Queen 
 Anne's reign, a grant was made to the same parish 
 of the '' Queen's farm," a tract on the west of the 
 island, between Vesey and Christopher Streets. Doc- 
 tor Vesey was rector for fifty years. His assistants in 
 orders laboured as catechists among the blacks. Saint 
 George's, a chapel of Trinity, was opened in 1752. 
 Saint Paul's was built in 1763-66. Trinity Church, 
 with Rectory and Charity School, was burned in 1766 
 and rebuilt in 1788. The chimes were set up in 1797. 
 The present edifice was erected in 1839-46. 
 
 Seabury, the first American Bishop, was consecrated 
 by three Scotch Bishops in 1784. English Bishops 
 could not consecrate but with an oath of allegiance 
 to the English crown. Three years later, this objection 
 having been removed. Doctors White and Provoost 
 were consecrated at Lambeth. The American revi- 
 sion of the Prayer Book was adopted in 1789. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTUEY. 
 
 The Oxford Tract Movement began in England in 
 1838 and was followed by a revival of Cliurcli life. 
 In the recent movement for building and restoring 
 churches, £30,000,000 have been contributed in thirty 
 years, as well as money for charitable and missionary 
 enterprises. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL EVENTS. 
 
 FIEST CENTUEY. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 50. First Apostolic Council. 
 50-3. Christianity introduced into Europe. 
 63-7. Christianity introduced into England. 
 63. Martyrdom of Saint James and Saint Mark. 
 70-2. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 
 98. Death of Saint John. 
 
 SECOND CENTURY. 
 
 111. Pliny's Letter. 
 
 117. Ignatius martyred. 
 
 135. Tertullian born. 
 
 150. Apology of Justin Martyr. 
 
 167. Poly carp martyred. 
 
 185. Origen born. 
 
 THIRD CENTURY. 
 
 202. Irenseus martyred. 
 
 203. Perpetua martyred. 
 
 235. Gregory Thaumaturgus consecrated. 
 
 249. Decian Persecution. 
 
 251. Anthony, the Hermit, born. 
 
174 CHKONOLOGICAL EVENTS. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 248. Cyprian consecrated. 
 
 258. Cyprian martyred. 
 
 259. Saint Lawrence martyred. 
 
 FOURTH CENTURY. 
 
 312. Conversion of Coustantine, 
 325. Council of Nicsea (First General). 
 326-73. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria. 
 329. Saint Basil and Saint Gregory Nazianzen. 
 342. Saint Jerome born. 
 372. Saint Martin consecrated. 
 374. Saint Ambrose consecrated. 
 381. Second General Council. 
 395. Saint Augustine consecrated. 
 398. Saint Clirysostom consecrated. 
 Pillar Saints. 
 
 FIFTH CENTURY. 
 
 428. Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople. 
 
 431. Saint Patrick, Bishop. 
 
 431. Third General Council. 
 
 451. Fourth General Council. 
 
 SIXTH CENTURY. 
 
 529. Saint Benedict's Rule established. 
 
 553. Fifth General Council. 
 
 563. Saint Columba 
 
 590. Gregory the Great consecrated. 
 
 597. Augustine sent to England. 
 
CHKONOLOGICAL EVENTS. 175 
 
 SEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 612. Hegira of Mahomet. 
 673-732. Venerable Bede. 
 680. Sixth General Council. 
 
 EIGHTH CENTURY. 
 
 717-55. Saint Boniface. 
 
 724. Iconoclasm. 
 
 732. Victory of Charles Martel. 
 
 NINTH CENTURY. 
 
 800. Charlemagne crowned : d. 814. 
 830-50. False decretals published. 
 845. Hincinar consecrated. 
 
 Disputes between Eastern and Western Church. 
 
 TENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Religious decline, corruptions in Church of Rome. 
 960. Dunstan consecrated. 
 
 ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1071. Lanfranc. 
 
 1073. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) Pope. 
 
 Controversies over Transubstantiation. 
 1093. Anselm. 
 1095. First Crusade. 
 
176 CHKONOLOGICAL EVENTS. 
 
 TWELFTH CENTUEY. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Carthusians, Cistercians, Hospitallers, Templars. 
 1091-1153. Saint Bernard. 
 1147. Second Crusade. 
 1152-90. Frederick Barbarossa, Emperor. 
 1170. Thomas a Becket murdered. 
 1189-92. Third Crusade. 
 
 Corruption of the Church — Heresies. 
 
 THIRTEENTH CENTUEY. 
 
 1200. France interdicted seven months by Innocent III. 
 
 1208. England interdicted six years. 
 
 1213. Children's Crusade. 
 
 1215. Magna Charta signed. 
 
 1209-16. Albigensian War (against heresy). 
 
 Saint Dominic and Saint Francis. 
 1223. Inquisition. 
 1230, Inquisition in Spain. 
 1226-27. Saint Louis's (IX.) Crusades. 
 1229. Successful crusade of Frederick II. 
 1282. Sicilian Vespers. 
 
 Architecture and Decorative Arts. 
 
 FOUETEENTH CENTUEY. 
 
 1303-77. Papal Court at Avignon, France. 
 1311. Order of Templars suppressed. 
 
 Anti-papal writings. 
 1347-48. ♦* Black Death " in Europe. 
 1378. The " Great Schism " in the Papacy. 
 1324-84. Eeformer John Wyclif in England. 
 1369. Eeformer John Hus born, Bohemia. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL EVENTS. 177 
 
 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1414. Council of Constance. 
 
 1415, Burning of Hus. 
 
 1419. Insurrection of Hussites in Bohemia and victories of 
 
 Ziska. 
 1431. Council of Basle. 
 1438. Rival Council of Ferrara and Negotiations with Greek 
 
 Church. 
 1453. Fall of Constantinople. 
 1455. First Bible printed. 
 1465. Erasmus born. 
 1478. Inquisition established in Spain. 
 1480-92. Conquest of Granada. 
 1492. Discovery of America. 
 1492. Reign of the Borgias (Alexander VI.). 
 1498. Savonarola burned. 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1513. Leo X., Pope. 
 
 1517. Luther's protest against indulgences (Melancthon). 
 
 1519. Zwingli's preaching in Switzerland. 
 
 1524. Peasants' War in South Germany. 
 
 1529. Fall of Wolsey. 
 
 1533. Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 1534. Separation of the English Church from Rome and 
 
 suppression of Monasteries in England. 
 1537. English Bibles set up in churches. 
 
 Calvin at Geneva. 
 1542-52. Xavier's missionary work in India. 
 1543. Order of Jesuits established by Ignatius Loyola. 
 1545-63. Council of Trent. 
 1549. First Book of Edward VI. 
 1552. Second Book of Edward VI. 
 
178 CHKONOLOGIOAL EVENTS. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1553. Mary's reign, Eomanism restored, Cranmer, Eidley, 
 and Latimer burned. 
 
 1558. Accession of Elizabeth. English Church restored. 
 
 1559. Ee vision of Prayer-Book. 
 
 1566. Non-Conformists organized in England. 
 1569. Pope excommunicates Elizabeth. 
 1572. Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's in France. 
 1588. Spanish Armada. 
 
 Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity. 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1603. Death of Elizabeth ; accession of James I. 
 
 1604. Hami3ton Court Conference and review of Prayer-Book. 
 1611. King James' Translation of the Bible. 
 
 1619. Synod of Dort. 
 
 1625. Accession of Charles I. 
 
 1644. Execution of Archbishop Laud. 
 
 1649. Execution of King Charles. 
 Interregnum. 
 
 1660. Accession of Charles II. 
 
 1661. Savoy Conference. 
 
 1662. Last Review of the Prayer-Book. 
 
 1665. The Great Plague. 
 
 1666. The Great Fire of liondon. 
 1685. Accession of James II. 
 
 1688. Revolution. Accession of William and Mary. 
 
Date Due