IRELIGIOUS EDUCATION ij^3ii.i^si!i^^!ia^i^^S^!t^ ^:^ OF ?mc^ APR 7 1GS6 C:?f^LOG:CAL se^.>^ Religious Education Religious Education A COMPREHENSIVE TEXT BOOK Illustrated By the Rev. WILLIAM WALTER SMITH A.B., A.M. (Princeton); M.D. (College oj Physicians and Sur- geons; Columbia); General Theological Seminary; Graduate Studentin Teachers' College (Columbia Uniojersity) . General Secretary of the Sunday School Federation oJ the Church. Secretary oJ the Sunday School Commission, Diocese of Neav York. Secretary oJ the Neiv York Sunday School Association. Author of "The History and Use oj the Prayer Book"; "Christian Doctrine"; "The Making of the Bible"; "From Exile to Ad- "vent" ; "Sunday School Teaching," etc. With Fore-word by CHARLES WILLIAM STOUGHTON MILWAUKEE THE YOUNG CHURCHMAN CO. 1909 Copyright 1009. BY THE YOUNG CHURCHMAN CO. To My Beloved Wife Partner of my life, and Co-laborer in my Educational Work CONTENTS TART I.— THE SCOPE AND AIM OF RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. THE WHY OF TEACHING. Chapter I. — The Aim or Purpose of Education 3 Man's Five-fold Educational Inheritance — The Factors or Means — The Object or Aim of the Church School — Definitions of Education — I'rofessor Dewey's Broad Statement — Dr. Brown's Definition — Our Educational Ideal — Every Lesson Must Func- tion in Doing — Three Elements in All Education — An Ideal of Education Needful for Good Work. PART II.— THE TEACHER, HIS CHARACTER AND TRAINING. THE WHO OF TEACHING. Chapter II. — The Teacher's Work 17 The Teacher and the Child — The Teacher, His Necessary Quali- fications— Other Essential Qualifications — Some Silent Teach- ers— The Primary Peril — How a Proper System will Help Teach- ers— Teaching Is both an Art and a Science — Teachers' Meet- ings. PART III.— THE CHILD AND CHILD-STUDY, OR THE PROCESS OF MIND GROWTH. THE WHOM OF TEACHING. Chapter III.— The Nature of the Child 33 The Discovery of the Child — The Study of the Child — Heredity vs. Environment — Heredity — Personality — Infancy and Educa- tion— The New-born Child — The Symbolic Period. Chapter IV. — A Study of Psychology 42 The Old vs. the New Psychology — Self-activity — The Lowest Form of Life — Evolutionary Remains — Types of Cells — The Ner- vous System — Neurones, or Nerve Fibres — Weight of the Brain — The Localization of Functions in Cerebrum — Stream of Con- sciousness— An Illustration of the Fringe — -Thinking — Apper- ception— Realizing an Idea — Stages of Thinking. Chapter V. — A Study of Psychology (Continued) .... 74 Attention and Interest — Types of Attention — Memory — Types of Memory — The Sub-conscious Self — The Will — Deliberation — Deliberation, Reflection, and Willing — Types of Will — Opposi- tion of Knowing, Feeling, and Willing — Emotion, Intellect, and Will — Face, the Window of Mind. Chapter VI. — A Study of Psychology (Continued) .... 92 Instincts, Native and Acquired — Classification of Instincts — Instinct vs. Reason — Instincts of Educational Value — Habits — The Self — Elements of Moral Training. Chapter VII. — The Stages of Development — I. Primary Age, 1 to 6 years old 108 I. — Physical Chabacteristics : Restlessness — Activity — Love viii RELIGIOUS EDUCATION of riay— Savagery. II. — Mental Chahacteristics : Depend- ence on Others — Frankness — Faith and Trust — Personification — Self-unconsciousness — • Imitatlveness — Curiosity — Imagination Active — Concreteness — Conscience Undeveloped — Memory Weak — Sex-uuconsclousness. Hints to Parents and Teachers : Avoid Affectation — Develop Perception — Watch Child's Com- panions. Chapter VIII. — The Stages of Development — II. Later Child- hood, G to 12 years old 126 I. — Physical Characteristics : Less Restlessness — Tireless Activity — Irresistible Impulsiveness — Daring — Truant Procliv- ities. II.- — Mental Characteristics: Rising Desire for Inde- pendence— Crude Sense of Humor — Creature of the Present — Natural Imitator — Group Age — Memory Age — Desire for Affec- tion— Collecting Instinct — Rise of Conscience — Sex Repellance — ■ Need of Positive Teaching. Chapter IX. — The Stages of Development — III. Early and Mid- dle Adolescence, 12 to 18; 16 to 19 years old . . 138 I. — Bodily Changes Predominate : Sex-attraction— Novel in Age of Romance. II. — Mental Changes : Self-consciousness — Age of Ideals — Developing of Reason — Storm and Stress — Con- version Period — Curve of Conversion — Gang Age — Strengthening of Conscience — The Autljiarung — Development of Will — Ritual and Adolescence — Kthicai Dualism — Revival of Private Prayer. Chapter X. — The Stages of Development — Later Adolescence, IS to 25 years of age; Manhood, 25 years onward 172 Chief Characteristics of Adolescence — Relation Between Mind and Body — Effect of Body on Mind and Spirit — Effect of Mind and Spirit on Body — Types of Children — Sex Differences — Temperament— Reaction Time — Temperament and Christianity — Table of Temperament — A Suggestion to Teachers. PART IV.— TUE LESSON AND ITS PREPARATION. THE WHEREWITHAL OF TEACHING. Chapter XI. — How to Prepare the Lesson 193 — How to Prepare to Study the Lesson — Dr. Hervey's Directions for Study — The Herbartian or Formal Steps — Other I'oints of Importance — Elements in Review — Importance of Reviews — Ex- aminations— Adult Classes — Types in Teaching. Chapter XII.— "The Point of Contact" in Teaching .... 223 The Plane of Experience — How Much Children Know — Words as Vehicles of Thought — The Child's Vocabulary — How to Graft Unknown to Known — Rules to Find the Point of Contact. PART v.— THE CURRICULUM. THE WHAT OF TEACHING. Chapter XIII. — Grading the Sunday School 239 What is a Graded School — What Grading is Not — Practical Grading — How to Grade a Small School — Principles of a Well Rounded Curriculum — Some Standard Curricula — Order of Studies — Subjects Suggested — Analysis of each Grade — Best Practical Way to Set About Grading. PART VI.— TUE CLASS. THE HOW OF TEACHING. Chapter XIV.— Order 271 What is Order — Difference Between Securing and Maintaining Order — Securing Order — Agencies for Keeping Order — Restless- ness Causes Disorder — Emotions as Incentives — Pupils Innately Disorderly — Penalties — Disorderly Teachers. Chapter XV. — The Art of Securing Attention 289 How to Hold Attention — Law of Voluntary Attention — How not to Get Attention — Principles Involved — Will as Basis of Attention — Methods for Holding Attention — Other Suggestive CONTENTS ix Rules — Placing Scholars — Negative Variatlona of Attention — FntlKue — Signs of Fatigue. Chapter XVI. — The Proper and Improper Uses of Interest . 298 How to Secure Interest — Two Kinds of Interest — Practical Pre- tepts — Killing Interest — False Views of Interest — Some Help- ful Suggestions. Chapter XVII.— The Art of Questioning 306 I'sos of Questions — What is Effect of a Question — Method of Sunday School Questioning — Kinds of Questions — Curiosity Kindled by Questions — How to Learn to Question — Character of Questions — Adolescent ana Adult Classes. ^^ Chapter XVIII.— How to Use Stories and Illustrations . . 317 i^ Stories and Parables — Purpose of Using Stories — To What does Illustration Appeal? — Dangers in Illustration — Character- istics of a Good Illustration — Points to be Remembered in Story-Telling — Brief Rules — How to Learn How — Other Illus- trative Methods — Graded Stereoscopic Worlj. Chapter XIX. — Manual Work in the Sunday School . . 332 Manual Work — Map-Making in Relief — In Flat — Modeilc Work. Chapter XX. — Memory and Its Training 337 Memory-Training — What Kinds of Memory Wanted — Types of Memory — Chief Educational Laws of Memory — How to Mem- orize— Reasoning — Forgetting — Memorlter Work — Reasons for Written Answer Work — Question-and-Answer Work — The Cate- chism— Should Anything be Learned that is not Understood? Chapter XXI. — The Inculcation and Training of Habits 352 Habit-Forming — Habit End of School Work — Sub-conscious Field of Habit — Specialization in Habit Formation — Rules for Habit Formation — Other Suggestions — Elements of Moral Train- ing— Cultivation of Doing — Some Important Habits. Chapter XXII. — The Will in Sunday School Teaching 363 Moral Training is Will Training — Training Will — Self-denial — Desire and Will — Choice and Decision — Strengthening Will by I'ledges — Training the Judgment — Prejudice — Effect of Music on Will — Conscience — Inter-relation of Intellect, Feeling, and Will. Chapter XXIII. — Proper Recitation Balance 373 Right Method of Conducting Recitation — Review Steps — How to Secure Balance. PART VII.— THE SCHOOL AND ITS ORGANIZATION. THE WHERE OF TEACHING. Chapter XXIV. — The Scope of the Sunday School .... 383 What the Sunday School Is and Is Not — Possibilities of the Sunday School — The Organization — The School Year. Chapter XXV. — The Plan of the Sunday School 390 The Time of the Sunday School — Music In the Sunday School — Departments — Selecting Teachers — Age and Sex of Teachers — Paid Teachers — Teachers' Meetings. Chapter XXVI. — The Business Side of the Sunday School: Sug- gestions 401 Officers — Superintendents — Secretaries — Use of Rewards, In- centives, and Punishments — Inadequacy of Sunday School — Week-day Instruction. PART VIII.— THE HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. THE SOURCE OF TEACHING. Chapter XXVII. — The History of Religious Education . . 413 Chinese Education — Egyptian — Babylonian — Assyrian — Phoeni- cian— Hebrew — Education of India — Medo-Persian Education — Greek — Roman — Early Christian Schools — Education from I'-Qurth to Thirteenth Centuries. X RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Chapter XXVIII.— The History of Religious Education (Con.) 438 Origin of Third Revival — Two Chief Types of Education Seen — Other Orders In Church — Early tsclentlflc Tendency — "Nature" Tendency — Psychological Tendency — Sociological Tendency — Modern Educational Systems — Industrial Tendency. Chapter XXIX. — The History of the Sunday School Movement 469 Early Origin — Beginning of Sunday School Movement In Amer- ica— Just after Uevolutlon — Civil War Period — Rise of Amer- ican Church Sunday School Institute — International Lessons — Modern Commission Movement — Fundamental Principles of Forward Movement. Cahpter XXX. — The History of Lesson Systems .... 492 History of Lesson Systems — Uniformity of System — Possibilities and Limitations of Heuristic Method. PREFACE This Text Book is the outcome of a wide demand for a complete Handbook, covering fully all phases of Religious Education in the Church. There was no such book hitherto extant. It took a library of some thirty or more volumes to cover the necessary field, as laid down in the "Standard Course for Teacher-Training" set forth by the Joint Commission on Sunday Schools. Such reading was overwhelm- ing, unnecessary (for often but a few pages or precepts of a writer applied directly to Religious Education), and costly in the purchase of so many volumes. The author prepared a smaller book, "Sunday School Teaching," a compilation of authorities covering 175 pages, in 1903, which has gone through three large editions in five years, being the Guide Book for the training of several thousand Sunday School teachers, of all religious bodies. Even day school educators found it suggestive and illuminat- ing. It will be continued in the market. This Text Book, however, much larger and more complete, is de- signed (a) as a Manual for Instruction in Theological Seminaries, Colleges, etc.; (b) for the guidance of Leaders of Teacher-Training Classes, for whom additional authorities have been noted at the open- ing of each chapter; (c) for Clergy, Superintendents, and Lay teachers who are capable and willing to pursue deeper study than is offered by the smaller Manual. Authorities have been generally and fully quoted, because it is felt that it adds greater weight to give the statements of experts in their own language. All credit is assigned to them, and the thankful indebtedness of the world of Religious Education is unreservedly ac- corded them. Wm, Walteb Smith. June 1, 1908. FOREWORD The nal-urnl rnnn, as he walks abroad, Hoea at first only the natural world and its people, and is satisfiod to take it and them as they appear to be; or is, at least, until the AfU'rvvard of things spiritual coininences to elaiin its place in his aj)prehension. Through the long ages men have worked on in nneoncerned acceptation of things as they are, pusii- ing and hauling to make them go, while a few more lliouglitful, scatUned here and there in every generation, have turned aside to (piestion more deeply nature's close reserve and to look anew into the human heart. Ill this they may not have succeeded; they have often failed; often enough also they liave found their time unready for any advance in thought, but when the time is ready their studies open to the world new vistas of invention and accomplishment which quicken tiieir gen- eration with an insight that brings a new enthusiasm of life. As long as any unexplored province of this Afterward is left to us, some meas- ure of this enthusiasm, some extension of the fulness of life, may still bo ours. But it is only for those who will pay the price. They who con- duct research or constructive work in the laboratory, observatory, or field must, as an iiulisiH^nsablc prereijuisite, accustom tliemselves to the most sensitive adajitation of e3'es and fingers that they may work with such nicety as to permit no indication of a phenomenon, expected or unexpecttnl, to escape their observation, nor any reaction to vary in the slightest degree from the previous one without their notice. No preoccupation of mind may come between them and their work; even their personal ecpiation must at times be mad«! to know its l)lace and keep it, as a constant correction to the reading of their in- struments. A careless motion may disarrange the slowly maturing observation of weeks; the misturn of a micrometer screw throw out a whole progranune of geodetic observations. All this the scientist knows, and if he att«Mnpts to do original work he trains his senses to serve him in harmony with the extraordinary refinement of the work inulertaken and the instruments which h(> devises and uses. The casual visitor looks with res|>ect upon these shining instruments and glances helplessly through the formulas that express the results, but without a tremor of that agitation which has so often prevented the physicist FOREWORD xiii or the -ifltronoraer from completing his Cfiiculationfl as he has seen them tending toward the confirmation of a new law. Not less nice must be the adjustment of eye and ear and finger, nor less clairvoyant the perfMiption of the artist who would render the subtle harmonies of sound, of line or of color everywhere about in the world, indefinable through any formula, unsearchable by any instru- ment except the human mind. In every science and in every art they must do the works who would explore and accomplish; their knowledge must be the first- hand acquaintance of the tliorough-going lover. But in none can this intimate service lx» less spared than in the pursuit of the study upon which the book before us enters, a study which is at once a science, calling for its skilful manipulation, and an art, calling for the fine perception and sensitive rendering of an art. It has relations and agreements with these, but is other and more than this, for we are conscious of passing beyond the limitations of both science and art when the little child is set in our midst — a consciousness shining clearly in the minds of those who have not, themselves, strayed too far from the confines of the kingdom to recognize its citizens in these youngest of the angels. What training, then, in this era of overshadowing sciences shall our dull perceptions receive that we may rightly experiment with an organism so constituted, so endowed; and how shall we lead the child through our laboratory with so light a touch as not to brush away before their time the trailing clouds of glory with which it comes to us from its home? Books and lectures will teach us much in terms of other men's experience; class room work will add to them the grasp of experience, but, it must be said, the experience of limitations rather than of possibilities, dealing as we have to here with the restrained conditions of the mind in confinement, as also will often be true of the family life. But elsewhere paths through untrodden fields of original research lie open to us as straight as that one which, for Chris- tian, led from the wicket gate, and as illuminating, for the Interpreter's House to which they lead is the heart of every child. We may, per- chance, think ourselves old for this pilgrimage, but the children are always new. Let one who has the spirit for this quest and who would know for himself the possibilities, the depth, and the resources of the child-life, seek the companionship, during their period of childhood and growing up, of even a few boys and girls who have received their due inheritance of vigorous minds, high spirits, and sensitive and affectionate natures. Let such an one bring as his equipment as much of the open vision of the artist, the precision of the scientist, as he may command and with these some aptitude of the heart, which he will surely need for follow- ing the quest where their arts end and life begins. Each child thus known will be to him a new revelation with its unique and fresh per- sonality, diverging at unexpected points from the fine traits common xiv RELIGIOUS EDUCATION to them all. They will see the light of each day in the brilliant hues of morning — the morning in hues far beyond the rays of his visible spectrum ; the simplest things of nature will be mysterious to tliem, but the most mysterious things will be seen with clear and unperplexed vision and adequately explained by referring them to God. They turn this clear vision on their little world and its people, bestowing a wealth of aflfection on their friends, idealizing those whom they love, discrimi- nating acutely against others, and eager in their overflowing energy of life, joyous and wistful by turns, to apply its quality to everything about them ; to pictures which thenceforth become to them real scenes with colors which, when they chance upon them again in later years, seem to be those of a child- world of their imagining; to early poems and stories which weave themselves into life and appear, as memory turns back to them, to have been part of it. They will endue the colors of the sky, the whiteness and shapes of the clouds, with such intimate personal association that in after years the same aspects of clouds and sky will have power to bring back at unexpected moments the well- recognized vision of childhood, transforming the light of the common day into that of another and ideal world, and as quickly fading. This friend will often feel the little hand that clasps his own quiver with emotion. Tlie glow of the spirit in the eyes, the welling up of tears in the presence of sudden joy or unexpected reproof — he will see these and other changing moods flash by in expressions that bring out the inexpressible play of the tender modeling of the face and he will lose no faintest reflected light, no shadow of curls on the firm and trans- parent flesh. And yet, unless the vision that shone through his own youth is still an open one and by it he can discover and interpret these shy moods and thoughts, he will not be able to reenter the child's world: the child will never tell, and the curves of his observation, when he attempts to plot them, will as likely as not wander off into fourth dimensional space, whither he cannot follow them however acute his mind may be — strange fatality, of growing away from our own best selves, which obliges us to learn anew in formal studies what was to us in youth the spontaneous response of the heart to life. This friend will bring an unafTected interest to the discussion of the affairs which make up the child's little round of life, nor need he count the time lost nor deem it an idle experience. If he is worthy the child will know it by intuitive insight and will yield him his con- fidence, and in all their relations he will illustrate those graces whose acquiring and holding now taxes our grown-up virtue — simplicity, can- dor, sincerity, and courtesy in its finer aspects — these and others all suflfused with what the artist would call atmosphere, the indefinable charm of personality. He will presently see these qualities diminish in the growing child, its contact with the world blunting their fine edges before his eyes in the school room and the family. He will become aware, if he has not thought of it before, of the necessary change in bXJREWORD XV the child's frank outlook on the world, the turning inward more and more of the ideals, from lack of sympathy, from fear of ridicule. With the loss or secretion of this finer sensibility will also pass that in- genuousness with parents and friends — the instinctive closing of the sensitive plant against the kindly but rough touch of those about it. The world is not ingenuous with the child, why then should he continue to be frank with the world? People do not mean to be cruel nor are they to blame, in this generation, for failing in the artist's perception of beauty, or of being unconscious of the finer elements of human nature; and yet neither artist nor scientist, attempting really much less delicate reactions, would expect to work thus even with inanimate substiinces. Unthinking people having the care of the child, as serenely unconscious of the exquisite poise of the sensitive little spirit as a coal beaver might be of the adjustment of a dividing engine, will in an hour efTect a disillusionment which no teaching can ever restore. Few parents can refrain from speaking in the presence of their children, to visitors, of the awkward age and its manners, or will hesitate to refer to their early punishments. Few teachers can refrain from telling the class some story of tortures — to be lodged in the mind at its most impressionable age and held there throughout life; nor would such a teacher spare her sarcasm at the expense of some little girl whose quality of mind is yet immeasurably beyond her own point of view. In a hundred other ways which all seem to attack the child's natural acceptation of the world as virtuous, the friend of the child will see the painstaking instructions given emptied of its living content — its only point of real contact, by the inconsistency of the teacher. 0 shallow minds and hearts, unwittingly exposed to the serious eyes that front you : how would the graces flourish in the world if at the critical moment the teacher could realize the words of Christ and change places with the learner! On the other hand, in the association between the child and a friend, here assumed, withdrawn for the time from the disturbance of the world, opportunity will be given for some training at once natural and spiritual to which the child's spirit is entitled. Each will have much to learn from the other and there will be constant, if unconscious, teaching on both sides; the fine reactions under this skilful handling bringing forth results which the angels will desire to look into. Living its own inner life straight on as it surely will do, the child will form its ideals and evolve its personality, we know not whence nor how, by some unerring selection of its own. We are not to impose the limits of our notions upon it but to tjike heed lest our own notions mingle too much with it. Tlie period of morning calm, its age of faith, passes quickly into a period of questioning and thence to an age of reason. How much of daring construction of the substance of life other and different from our teaching is going on in the busy little heads during these periods and what its import in the character that will finally emerge, even the most trusted friend cannot be told, but recalling his xvi RELIGIOUS EDUCATION own constructive period he will look with awe upon this process of life in another: he will realize as never before the almost infinite possi- bilities rising within the unspoiled child, confirming thus his surmise that the child-spirit is the one rare, certain thing in the world that takes directly hold on heaven. The values of his picture of life will be restored: its proper atmosphere will return. Wordsworth's Intima- tions will no longer appear to him transcendental, nor Pater's Child in the House fanciful. He may refine on them in his thought as they refine on the Child literature of the day. He will have used the laboratory for what it teaches and return to life. The child will no longer be to him a specimen — the proper subject of expert books, nor he the teacher of old who has but seen children as bushes walking. As he leaves the Interpreter's House in this sweet companionship he will be more sure than he was at the wicket-gate of a sight of The City from the Delectable Mountains. Together they will trudge along the pilgrimage and the little child shall lead him — enlightened, inspired, by a new and living way. Chables William Stouqhton. PART I. The Scope and Aim of Religious Instruction The Why of Teaching ClIArTKli' 1. THE AIM OR PURPOSE OF EDUCATION. SUGGESTED READINGS. Note : — Soe Bibliography in (he Appendix for authors, publishers, and prices of all Reference Itooks. I'p Through Chii,i>!iooi>. IlubhtU. pp. 3-74. EnrcATiox in Rei-k!10n .\.ni) Muk.m.s. Cor. \)p. 119 — The Meamnc; oh* Eon atio.n. liutlcr. pp. :{-34. The Fou.\D.\Tin\s of PIiucation. Scilrii. pp. 172-182. Psychologic Foi^ndatio.ns ok Edtcation. Ilnrria. pp. 204-270. The Teaching ok Kihi.e Classes, .s'rc. pp. 1 ■'j. Entering on Eife. Grikir. pp. 1-20. How TO Plan the Lesson. Hrmon. Chap. 1. Educational Aims and Values, flantius. pp. 5-20. Talks to Teachers. James, pp. 29-32. Education and Like. Baker, pp. 2-18. IOducation. Sfxnecr. pp. 1-37. 119-120. Foundation Principles. Moore, pp. 9-18. Destiny ok Man. Fi.yke. pp. 3.">-70. My Pedagogic Creed, netcrii. pp. 3-4. Man's Five-Fold Educational Inheritance. President Butler has divided Man's Educational Needs into (1) His Scientific Inlicritance, by which he means the widest erudition in the knowledge of .Nature and of Scientific Develop- ment; to which dry ]\Iatlieniatics is but the lower rung of the ladder. (2) His Historical Inheritance of Literature and Bi- ography, the broad, wide vision that looks down through the Vista of the Past: to which the study of Language is l)ut the key of interpretation, (o) His Political Liheritance, those institutional factors which have influenced his place in the great family of nations : the vast element of civilization and of society under which we act. (4) His Aesthetic or Artistic Inheritance: that feeling for the sublime, the picturesque, the beautiful, which is so akin to the deepest religious life. (5) His Keligious Inheritance : that seeks a response to those high spiritual ideals, 4 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION which the toaclier is to satisfy hy lofty example and nohle precept. The Factors or Means. The factors or means hy which a child is educated accord- ing to its fivefold needs are: (1) The Family, which hy example and precept is extremely potent, and where the intimacy of con- tact is powerful in determining imitation. (2) The School, which is chielly of intellectual value. (3) Business life, leading to hahits of system and method. (4) Society, where manners and etiquette, touching social relationship and intercourse are bred as second nature. (5) The Church and Keligious Educa- tion, dealing more especially with moral knowledge. The Object or Aim of the Church School. The Purpose, or Aim, or ()l)jeci of the scliool lies at the bottom of all right Education. It is because the Aim of the Sunday School has not been clear heretofore that, in so many cases, the Sunday School has been a failure. The great dis- covery of the past century has been the Discovery of the Child. Before that there were but two factors in Education : The Teacher and the Material. Since the days of the Educational Eeformers there have been three factors: The Teacher, the Ma- trial, and the Child. With the discovery of the Ciiild came a new realization of Education. The standpoint changed. There are still many one-sided or partial aims held by some persons which, when followed, give a very imperfect and unsatisfactory Education. Some have considered that Education was for "information only," and have over-emphasized, therefore, the goal in their selection of material. If the aim of education be more knowl- edge, then the success of a school will be measured by the rapid- ity with whicli the pupils increase their stock of learning. At- tention will be paid to the mere details and facts of knowledge. The children will become encyclopaedias of general information. Like the products of many of our young ladies' "finishing schools," they will have a smattering of a great many things, thorough knowledge of none, and no vital priiuii>les. When knowledge comes first, true righteousness and the wliole range of virtues are minimized or set aside. Till-: Al.M (tli ITUroSK OF KDrCATION H Otliors would claim that the chief essential in Education is "Power." 11' power be sought, then the doing side must be emi)liasized and a general enlargement of the narrow range of information be ado])ted. As Coe has put it: "Instead of the clear, cold logic-engine, which mere intellectualism regards as the proper product of education, the drift of popular thought is now toward another kind of mental engine, the kind that keeps the practical machinery of life in motion." Average Sunday .School Teachers are very a])t to select some one aim in religious education and over-emphasize it. One school will lay over-stress upon the Catechism and subordinate the other elements of a well- rounded education to the study of this Formula of the Faith. Another school will pay little regard to the Catechism and hold the essential of the sciiool to be a knowledge of the Bible, and will test the results of the Teachers' work by the examinations held. Still another scliool will gauge the efficiency of the Sun- day School by the number brought to Christ in (\)nfirmation, and will expect a direct ratio l)etween the Sunday School and the Confirmation class. All these aims are partial and imperfect. Education is a broader and wider thing than any one or two of these elements would indicate. We are concerned with the whole child, the whole man, in his attitude toward life, not merely with his atti- tude toward the Confirmation class or toward Religion, or the Churcli. Definitions of Education. There are other definitions of Education which indit-ate a broader process. Here is one from Webster's Dictionary: "Education implies not so much the communication of knowl- edge, as the discipline of the intellect, the establishment of the principles, and the regulation of the heart." Here we have a practical division under the old trinity, Intellect, Feelings, and Will, the three angles of a complete triangle. Dr. Wickersham gives another: "Education is the process of developing or draw- ing out the faculties of the individual man, and training him for the various functions of life." Tomkins puts it this way : "Teach- ing is the process by which one man from set purposes produces the life-unfolding process in another." The late Bishop Hunt- 6 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION inF KDlt 'ATK »\ 9 ^^'(■ have Hot, liowcMT, vet dcdiicd what is meant by tlii' word, Mhicli we all have so i"ro(|nontl_y upon our lii)s to-day. .lacotot o.\])lain(Ml that "to teach is to cause another to learn." This is an incomplete definition, because nothing more is imi)lied tlum a cane and a lesson-l)ook ; whereas every good teacher endeavors to dis})eiise with both oi' these ancient aids to learning. To "cause a pupil to learn" is only half of the teacher's duty, the other half consists in teaching. It is part of one's duty to ensure that one's pupils learn, hut the other and no less important ])art of one's busiiiess is to practise the art of teaching. The writer, when in a certain class at one of our great public schools, was com])elled to learn Euclid. But it was not until he moved uj) into another class that any attempt was made to teach him Euclid. Thus in the former case he was forced to learn by heart certain words, which conveyed no mean- ing to him ; in the latter he was taught to enjoy exercising his reasoning powers, and he acquired knowledge. In the latter case alone was he taught Euclid. Someone has said that "every self-educated man had a fool for his schoolmaster." This is true of those who regularly at- tended school, rather than of those who did not. Calling one's self a schoolmaster, and claiming to be a teaclier, are not the same as knowing how to teach. There is a vulgar proverb which tells us "not to judge an article by the label on the box." Professor Hart im])roved upon Jacotot's definition of teach- ing, when he explained that it consists in Causing another to know. A better description still, however, would be, Taking one living idea at a time from one's own mind, and planting it so that it will grow in the mind of another. To teach is not to force another to cram up certain words, but rather to impart artistically living and growing ideas, together with the wisdom to employ those ideas usefully. "Tlie chief difference between the teaching of Jesus Christ, and that of the ecclesiastics of His day, was that Christ im- planted germinal thoughts in the souls of men, whereas the Scribes and Rabbis quoted words from the Talmud." Professor See says: "It is necessary to distinguish between the science and art of teaching. In science we know that we 10 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION may know. In art, we know that we may produce. The science of teachinf? has to do with the formulated principles of teach- ing. The art of teaching has to do with the application and use of those principles in the actual instruction of students. A teacher may know the art of teaching without the science. The ideal teacher will have both. As James says, sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. The science of logic never made a man believe rightly and the science of ethics never made a man ])ehave rightly. The most such sciences can do is to help us to catch ourselves up and check ourselves more ar- ticulately after we have made mistakes." Dr. Brown's Definition. Dr. Marianna C. Brown, in her l)0()k, How to Plan rut: Lesson, says: "What, then, is our end or aim in Sunday School teaching? Let us for the present express it as, 'To quicken spiritual life and insight, and to give knowledge and understand- ing of the means of spiritual growth.' Our aim, then, is spir- itual. Geography and history, as such, are not necessarily spir- itual. Bible geography and Bible history can be taught as mere geography and history, without any spiritual significance. If, then, our aim in Sunday School teaching is to give spiritual thoughts and spiritual truths, we see that geography, history, and literature, even though they be Bible geography, liistory, and literature, can only be means to our end. It is our work to find the spiritual thought which we wish to convey to our scholars, and to so study and use our historical or other material that it becomes a means or vehicle for conveying that thouglit." Professor Thorndike urges that : "Education as a whole should make human beings wish each other well, should increase the sum of human energy and happiness and decrease the sum of discomfort of the imman beings that are or will be, and should foster the higher, impersonal })leasures. The oppor- tunities of the school may be grouped as: (1) Opportunities for training in moral action itself through behavior in the class- room and in connection with other school activities over which the teacher has some degree of control. (8) Opportunities for specific moral instruction other than training in moral action itself, and (3) Opportunities for training in moral appreciation and ideals through the regular school studies." THE AIM on ruuro.sE of education ii Kuskin, in his Traffic, strikes the same key-note: "The entire otgect of true education is to make people not merely do tiie right things, but enjoy tlie riglit things — not merely indus- trious, but to love industry — not merely learned, but to love knowledge — not merely pure, hut to love purity — not merely just, hut to hunger and thirst after justice." Our Educational Ideal. I'rdft'ssor Thriiig, the English educator, gives a definition whicli best e\})resses our ideal. It is that the ''Purpose of Ke- ligious Education is to build up a character ellicient for tlie best." What is Character ? William James, the great })sychologist, the man who writes psychology as interestingly as a novel, de- fines Character as: "a bundle of habits." What is "Force of Characfer"? Suppose a social gathering of young people into wliich some young lady whom all have known has entered. She has nodded to her friends and then strangely gone aside by herself alone. Someone asks, "Why?" The reply is that, though she is a very nice young lady, she has no force of character. The trouble with the Sunday Sehools in the ])ast had been this very failure to gras]) the essential ob- ject of the Sunday School, i.e., the development of a "character efficient for the best." Brotherhood means social service. Xo one will go to Heaven alone; no one will save himself alone. The whole idea of Christianity and of the Gospel is service. Now service cannot be learned by precept, by sermon.s, by intellectual mandates. Christian living can only be learned by Christian doing, and Christian character, i.e.. Christian habits, must lie done and lived day by day if tlie child is to he a real Christian, that is, a Christ man. "If a man does what is useful and right, he will soon gain proper ideas of social efliciency and (»f morals. If he learns to do the right thing in a thousand particular situations he will, so far as he is ca])able, gain the power to see what act a new situation demands." As Tiiorndike puts it: "'{'here is no way of becoming self-controlled e.\ce])t, by to-day, to-morrow, and all the days in each conflict, controlling one's self. Xo one becomes honest save by telling the truth, or trustworthv save bv 12 RELKJIOUS EDUCATION fulfilling each obligation which he accepts. No one may win the spirit of love and service, who does not day by day and hour by hour do each act of kinchiess and help which chance puts in his way or his own tlioughtfulness can discover. The mind does not give something for nothing. The price of a disciplined intellect and will is eternal vigilance in the formation of habits." Every Lesson Must Function in_JiaH*9» The application of the principles behind the definition of Education as the building up of a "character efficient for the best/' means that every lesson taught in the Day School or the Sunday School must function in the daily present-day life of the scholar. It is not a lesson of principles and precepts for some far-off day in life, but it is a lesson of application to the daily life between Sundays, to the life before ne.ri_Blind^fr-"lt means tiiat the teacher should deliberately supply outlets for self-activity, opportunities for gervice, applications oTthe lesson to the child's own personal conduct inHionesty, truthfulness, purity, and right-mindedness. There may be any amount of "Education," in the old sense of knowledge, without the slight- est result in the building of Christian character. Character, therefore, is being, imt talking; is living, not knowing. Three Elements in All Education. It has l)een said that the old Education stood for the Heart- side, while the new Education stands for tbe Head-side. In one way this is a mistake — the new Education does not stand merely for the Head-side. All Education should stand for the three- fold, or rounded. Education of the complete man in his Feelings (Heartside), Intellect (Head-side), and Will (Doing-side). A locomotive might be a perfect mechanism of tbe Baldwin loco- motive Works. It might have cost $20,()()0. It might be a splendid mass of iron and steel and wood, and yet that engine would be worse than useless, a mere waste of money, if standing cold on the tracks. There must be a fire in the firebox. That fire corresponds to tbe Heart-side. All (Christians should be whole-hearted. But that engine with the Heart-side only, without intelligent guidance, with the fire in the fire-box turn- ing the water into steam, would only run wild ujwn the track. Tin: AIM OK riRPosK of kdicatiox 1M would uiily meet its own (lestriictioii. Heart-rule is .Mob-rule the world over. Over the Heart must stand the Head, and so over the fire in the engine sits the engineer with his hand npon the lever. And still he may say, "11" I open that lever, the engine will go." Hut he may never open it. There may he no eonnection hetween right- feeling and right-thinking. A lessoji may be taught in the school which stirs the })upil and which gives him intellectual material, but it may never function in liis life. .\ congregation may hear a stirring missionary address. They may learn a considerable amount about the mission field, but the connection may not be mad(> which will secure an adequate col- lection. As Dr. Duhring puts it facetiously: "The dead Indian may drop into the plate, instead of the live Goddess of Liberty," the copper penny in place of the silver coin. There should be tlie parallelogram of forces, right-feeling plus right-thinking, the resultant right-doing, i.e., character. And so the engineer pulls over the lever and the engine goes out upon the track, pulling the train after it. The feelings, the emotions in life correspond to the ])ush given to the coasting-bob upon the hill, the starter to set it going. After the start comes the intellectual guidance, and the combination of the two gives the result. These three elements — intellect, feeling, and will — should characterize all Education. Without all three, any lesson is but partially taught. An ideal of Education Needful for Good Work. Every Teacher must have some definite ideal before he be- gins the work of religious education ; otherwise he works to no purpose. Professor Page has used the illustration of the sculp- tor, freeing the exquisite statue from the uncarved block of marble, an image standing out clear and life-like to him before ever he touches the block with his cliisel. Knowing beforehand precisely what he wants, he directs each stroke with consummate skill, making no mistakes, pruning off no chips that might mar his finished work. But tiie pseudo-artist, the bungler, cuts where he should not, and leaves many a rough protuberance of un- sightly deformity. The one sees his ideal of beauty before it is liberated from the stone. The other only knows perfection when it is presented to him, having no conception to guide him in its production. The Sunday School Teacher who sets to work to 14 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION produce a fully developed Cliaraeter, will watch every oj)por- tunity of right influence, or right teaching, or right subject- matter, or right method, bringing to his aid all the correlated secular and home influence, wliich will assist in develo])ing riglit principles in the child's social, moral, and spiritual natures. QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCISSK )\. [sUCi(iKSTEI) BY PROK. HritUKLL.T 1. What Aim would you set for Sunday School Tcacliinj;? For F'du- eation? 2. Discuss the Essentials of a Chariictcr "dficicnt for f^ood." 3. "Education is self-evolution." Explain. 4. Why is it that some reliiiious persons arc very unpleasant in their own homes V n. When you jiive a Sunday School Lesson, are you meeting a need of the child's nature? Does he think so? Why or why not? PART II. The Teacher, His Character and Training The Who of Teaching CHAPTER II. THE TEACHER'S WORK. SUGGESTED READINGS. •The Sunday School Tbacheu. Hodges. •The Training of the Twhj. DraichrUlnv. Chap. VIII. •The Teacheu that Teaiiie.s. Wells. Chaps. I. and III. •I'l- TiiuoroH Chu.diiood. Huhhell. pp. 77-108. Some Silent Teachers. JlarrUton. '1"he I'i.ace and Fcn'TIOn im- Tiir, SI•NI>A^ Sciioni,. Pant. •The Teacheu and the Child. Mark. pp. 134-154. The Tiieouy and Puacticb of Teaching. Thrinti. Chap. X. *Tea]: for (Jod at all is worth doiiif;^ well. As Drawbridge says: "In those Sunday Sciiools where little or nothing is ex- pected of the teachers, they get bored and soon leave. And their classes have usually anticipated their departure. Where the ideal is a high one, and the leader of the school is an enthusiast, the teachers discover that teaching is very interesting. Their l)U})ils simultaneously begin to appreciate Sunday Sciiool. It is a very great mistake to have a low ideal for those wliom one would influence, on the ground that it is easy to expect too much from them. The fact is that peo])le always endeavor to rise to one's estimate of them, and they respond to a high ideal much more readily than to a low one. There is much more heroism and self-sacrifice in human nature than pessimists suppose. That is a mean and foolish proverb which says, 'Blessed is he that expecteth nothing, for he will not be disapj)ointed.' Those who expect most of their fellows are the ones least disappointed in them. "At the same time some teachers will undoubtedly leave the school rather than entertain a noble ideal of their work. What then? Others will come forward to take their places, just be- cause the work is no child's play; and those who previously were indifferent teachers will rapidly become worth twice as much as they were before. Therefore at the worst they could teach the few remaining pupils of the classes left vacant by the de- serters, as well as their own classes. "Sunday School Teachers resemble hens' eggs in one re.'jpect, viz., that one good one is worth any number of bad ones. The good teacher can successfully teach a whole room full of chil- dren— especially if assisted by one or two members of the Teachers' Training Class. The latter can keep order, mark the books, etc. The value of all religious work is to be measured, not by its quantity, but by its ([uality. It is the latter rather than the former which is deficient in our Sunday Sc-hools. Then, again, the quantity cannot very well be greatly increased, but the quality can be indefinitely improved. ^loreover, it is quite pos- sible, and even common, for a score of Sunday School teachers to teach practically nothing in a twelvemonth; but it is impos- 20 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION sible for one good teaclior to do otherwise than teach a great deal in one hour. It is not the volume of sound, but the amount of learning, wliieli makes the difference. Then, again, one teaclier who is very much in earnest is worth vastly more, as an inspiring agent, than a couple of score who are nothing of the kind. One of the chief difficulties in Sunday School work is getting rid of those teachers whose presence is worse than use- less, '^rhe latter not only do no good in their own class, but (by the uproar they allow) interfere with the work of half a dozen neighboring classes. By all means let the loafers desert, be- cause there is no room in a well-ordered Sunday School for any but workers. In an article on The Discouraged Teacher, I came across the following advice: 'If the discouraged teacher does not attend the teachers' meeting, discourage him a little more.' All teachers cannot l)e either great theologians, or skilled educationalists, but all can be very much in earnest." Heart Enough. — There is tlie personal element of sympathy and love without which no Teaclier can be a success. It is "the smile that won't come off." It is the quality that Dean Hodges calls Cheerfulness. In his little l)rochure on the Sunday Scliool Teacher, he says: "The good teacher has a bright face. All good Christians are good-looking. The teacher, wlio re])resents the Christian religion, ought of all ])eople to have a cheerful countenance. That is a vital part of liis instruction. S. Paul showed his profound knowledge of human nature wlien he en- joined those wlio show mercy to do it with cheerrulness. He knew very well how the long face, the sombre manner, the arti- ficial pathos and piety of some benevolent ])ersons spoil their gifts. There is a look in the faces of some of the peo])le wlio are seen in electric cars carrying limp-covered Bibles under their arms which is of itself an argument against the Christian re- ligion. The natural man, beholding sucli disciples, says within himself, 'From this religion, good Lord, deliver us.' It is true that the warning, 'Be not righteous overmuch," is written in the book of Ecclesiastes, which is not the best book in the Bible. If we take righteousness to mean simple, interior goodness, it is not possible to be righteous overmuch. Noliody can be too good. It is quite possible, however, to be rigliteous overmuch in the matter of expression. There is an oppressive goodness which THE TKACIIKKS WORK 21 defeats its own purposes. It is liighly ilesirahle, in order to give effective instruetioii, tliat the Sunday School Teacher be a hu- man l)einr of our teachers are so i)oorly prejiared for their work does not reflect upon them, but upon the })arishes that have failed to provide for their training. A parish that is unwilling to spend anything for the training of its teachers does not de- serve to live. Usually it does not live, although it may have a starved, half-dead existence for several years before it becomes defunct." QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. tsr(i(;KSTKl) BY PROF. HUBBELL.] 1. What is ;i teacher's workV 2. What arc the chief characteristics of a jjood teacher — (r/) of iiiaiincr; (/>) of education; (c) of characterV :5. What is meant by "personality"' in the teacherV IIow may this ho cultivated V 4. What do you consider your lireatest daiif^er in teachin.;;? AVhat your chief fault V 5. How does the profession of teaching;- compare with that of physi- cian, lawyer, artist, carpenter, or nnisicianV PART III. The Child and Child Study, or the Process of Mind Growth The Whom of Teaching CllArTKR III. THE NATURE OF THE CHILD. SUGGESTED READINGS. *'l"iii: CiiruciiJiAx'.s Manual. Butler, pp. 1-1.5. 'I'm: Child and Keligion. Stephens. Chap. 1. So.Mi: Silent Teachers. Harrison. ♦Social Law in the Spiritual World. Jones. I'svciioLOGic Fou.ndatidns of Education. Harris. Chap. III. *l"i' TiiuouGii CuiLDiiooD. IluhbeU. Chap. IV. The Meaning of Education. Butler, pp. 3-20. The Excursions op an Evolutionist. Fi-skc. pp. ,'!<)0-;no. The Destinv of Man. Fiske. pp. 35-76. Sunday School Science. Holmes, pp. 17-20. Foundations of Education. Moore, pp. 33 40. *Teacher Training. Roads, pp. 171S. *The Mind of a Child. Richmond. (;iiaps. I. and II. The Teacher, the Child, and the Book. Schatifflrr. p. 141. p. l.'t.';. *riRST Three Years of Childhood. Perez. ruINCII'LES OF IjELIGlorS ElM CATION. p. 1()5. The Discovery of the Child. Dr. Alloi'd A. JJutlcr in liis ]\Ian-ual of Methods ix tiii-: Sunday School says: "The nineteenth century was the age of research in all departments of knowledge. The greatest find in the educational field was the discovery of the child as a factor, the essential factor, in the educational prohlein. It was dis- covered that facts arc not tauglit for their own .'^ake, that the tuat'lier's training is not for himself, that the juirpose of his ]i]'c]taration is not to teach a lesson, nor to instruct a class. When we remember that the religious training of the chiM de- cides the strength or weakness of all his after life: ihnl a chihrs early impressions are those which no later experience can ever wholly obliterate; and when we I'omember that it is the child's moral and spiritual training A\hich decides his own character, his iniinence upon the characters of his companions, and that character here means destiny hereafter." we can seo llic im- portance of early religious instruction. :i4 RELIGIOUS EDlTATrOX The work of the educational rororiuers, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Herbart, and Horace Mann^ opened a new vista in tlie educa- tional domain. The Study of the Child. In tlie life of every plant, of every lowe-r animal, and of man there are two things which go to make up his Character: (1) The individual himself, that is his hereditary constitution and tendencies; and (2) His environment or surroundings, of which Education is one, the others being the licune, society, business. and all other influences in the woi-Jd around him, such as cli- mate, health, etc. Heredity versus Environment. If, ten years ago, two men had stood side by side, the one a physician, representing the scientific attitude, the other the so- cial worker, representing education, and if you had asked them the same question : "Which do you consider of the more im- portance, Heredity or Environment?'' you would have received opposite answers. The scientist would have claimed Heredity as of greater potency; the sociologist would have urged the in- fluence of Enviroinnent. To-day they would probably stand side by side in mental as well as in physical proximity, agreeing that, of the two, Environment counts for more. Some people think that Heredity or Xatural Character is more important than the Personal Training of the Child and his Environment. How is the Child affected by Environment? A stone is not affected unless it be frangible and so broken to pieces. But a Child is different from a stone. It is not only affected by its Environment, but it reacts upon and alters its action according to impressions received from its Environment. It is sensitive, receptive, responsive. If there is no reaction there is no Education. TJ. S. Commissioner Harris, in his Psychologic Foundations of Education, has pointed out this fundamental principle of Education, and calls it "self-activity" ; of which we shall speak more fully further on. It used to be considered that the Child absorbed teaching. Locke spoke of the Child's mind as though it were a blank paper upon which we would write. Others pictured it as the "pouring in"' of in- formation and facts. It is rather the "drawinu' out" if we con- THE NATLRI-: UF J UK LlJIIJ) .}.") trust it with the old *"lnf()niiati()n."' Bettor still, it is takiiij.^ hold of the lloreditarv iinpid.-rs and activities with wliich the intense Child is already fairh- biihhling over, and turning, and training, and educating these activities in the riglit direction. The dilference between the old education and the new consists largely in the fact that the old education attempted to interest the Child in those things that he would use thirty years hence; while the new education believes that his interests will be best met by exercising his mental and ])hysical powers upon those things which meet his need to-chiy. Elizabeth Ilarrisoti in her So.me Silent Teachers writes: "But over and above the too exclusive study of heredity, which leads to fatalism, down below the exclusive study of environment, which leads to despondency, shines the light of the thought that ■>^('//'-activity is greater than any barriers placed by ancestry or by surroundings. 'Man is a limit-lranscending being/ is ihe watchword of the new education " It lies not in our start, but in ourselves, 'Svlicthci- we shall end life with dia- dems upon our heads or fagots in nm- hands. Xo one who has read Booker T. Washington's autobiogi'aphy will ever say again that heredity or environment stand unconquerable before the self-activity of the human soul. There we see the man with the hoe slowly transforming himself into a prince among men by his constant determined choosing of kingdom and stars rather than of herbs and apples." Dr. !^[cComb's recent article on Heredity and \\'ill Power states: ''The fact of heredity is one of the most firmly estab- lished conclusions of modern science. Says lluxley: 'We may stiV that the moral and intellectual essence of a man does pass over from one fleshly tabernacle to another. In the new-born infant the character of the stock lies latent: and the ego is a bundle of potentialities.' Xow. we must distinguish between the fact and the theory of heredity. Xo one doubts the fact, but scientists have not reached any agreement as to theory. The fact may be expressed thus : There is a biological law found operating throughout the whole organic world whereby beings tend to re- peat themselves in their descendants, or whereby an individual receives from his parents his chief vital forces and tendencies, his physical and spiritual capital. 3G ][i:j.lLilUU,S EDUCATIUX "About iliis fafi a vast amount of popular misunderstandiug has gathered. ]\It'ii and Avomen settle down in fatalistic fashion under moral and ])hysical weaknesses on ilic jilea that these things are inherited from some ancestor who was a hard drinker and ]-)crhaps amused himself ])y beating his wife! In reality, a little exercise of the will, a strong appeal io dormant energies, would suffice to shake off these disabilities and restore normal health. Or again, people argue, 'Tjike father, like son'; if the father has tuberculosis his child will fall a victim to the same disease. It should be clearly understood that the most recent researches disprove this notion. What the father transmits to his child is not a disease; it is a condition of nei'vous instabilit}' which may ])i'('dispose to, but (hu's not necessitate, this or that disease. h"or example, I know a young woman whose father died fi'om consumption, yet she hei>elf is fi'ce from the slightest tubercular taint. On the other hand, she is ])roMe to hypo- chondriacal depression and afllicts herself with all sorts of inuiginary ills, ^^'hat we iidiei'it may be described as instability of the nerve-tissue, whereby we have less of power of resistance against the various stresses and troubles of life. '"Xow. it is generally admitted that one of the main factors in producing nervous troubles is the predisposition with which people are born. One individual comes into the world with a nervous system less under control than is the case with others. He is not responsible for this fact; it is an original element in his particular constitution. For example, the younger Coleridge was not responsible for inheriting from his fatlier an unstable nervous system. S. T. Coleridge was an o]uum-eate]-. and in all the relations of life his will was hopelessly uiulermined. The son, Hartley, had no inclination to opium, but he became a slave to alcohol. "Yet this is only half the truth. We must distinguish be- tween a predisposing and an exciting cause. If we. could exam- ine the brains of our fellows, we would be astonished to discover how many potential madmen are abroad. Insanity may lurk in the blood, but it needs a favorable environment ere the sleeping evil is aroused. Predisposition may be there, but before disorder can declare itself, other causes miist be at work. What are some of these? A\'orry holds the first ]ilace in the hierarchy of mis- TJIJ-: NATL UK OF TllK CHILD 'M cliiof. 'Xot work, but worry kills/ is a true proverb. Tiie man wlio works M'itli liis brain moderatel}' has the best safet-'nard against nervous trouble. On the other hand, worr\' is sheer and unmiti,!i'ated evil.'' Heredity. Professor lU'iiry Jones says that Heredity can be explained only on the theoi-y of the germ-plasin; and Ihe theory of the germ-plasm implies, in the last resort, not only that life is con- tinuous, but that from the first it contains, in some way, the tendency towards the variations which reveal themselves in the successive stages of animal life. Outward environment only elicits or restrains, stimulates or represses, what is already ])res- ent; but it can add nothing that is new. Biologists do not hesitate to draw this eonclusidii. •"in the lowest known organism, in which not even a nucleus can be seen, is found potential) v all that makes the world varied and beau- tiful." That is to sav, one's education is the opening of his ])owers of converting that which originally was external to him into con- stituent elements of himself, ^\'hcn he has readied the stage at whicli his development ceases, one can say with much truth that all his environment is within him. And social reformers, as their experience grows, tend more and more to despair of doing anything real for the man. and to tui-n I heir forces of improvement more and more upon the child. It follows in tlie next place that what a child inherits are not actual tendencies, but potential faculties, lliologists some- times speak as if it were possible for parents to transmit tenden- cies or propensities towards good or evil to their offspring. The process of evolution is said to be one by which evil is being jierpetually eliminated or subjugated, and evil cannot, therefore, be regarded as a primary principle. ''But, if it be true that acquired characters are not trans- mitted, then even tendencies to good or evil cannot come by in- heritance. No child is born vicious or virtuous. It is only by his own action that he can become the one or the other. He is not even. predisposed to virtue or vice, unless, indeed, we identify the former with the innate impulse towards self-realization, char- 38 ■ KELTnious i<:dl:c;atiun actcristic of all life. Not eveu the most unfortiiDatc of human beings is born with a moral taint. A\'hat he inherits are powers, and these undeniably may vary both in a relative and in an aljso- Inte sensO;, so that the appeal of the cm ironnicnt may mean very different things to dilfercnt childi-cn. and the education of the child into a virtuous manhood mny be iniicb more dilllcult in one case than in another." Professor llufus M. Jones (Pj'ofessor of Philosophy, llaver- ford College), says: "Slowly the facts are compelling us to ad- mit that the range and scope of inheritance have been over- emphasized. ^Fuch ()[' wliicb was thought to ])e transmitted by heredity we now know is gained by iinitalion, both unconscious and conscious." Professor J. M. Baldwin states: "No one. of course, be- lieves now, if indeed anyone did in Locke's tiuie, in iuiuite ideas. There is no such complex furniture in the infant's mind at birth as the general idea; even what Kant called the forms of intuition, space, and time, modern psychology has shown to be the outcoiiie of elal)orate synthesis. The infant's experience be- gins in raw .-eiisat ions, feelings ol' ])lcasure and pain, and the motor adaptal iiuis lo wliicli tliese lend. "Jnasnineh as instincts are automatic, consciousness being present at all instinctive actions only as a spectator, as it were, and not as a guide, it is obvious that no ethical attribute such as %ood' or 'bad' can 1)e a])])liod to Ihem, or, at least, to the in- fant for possessing them."" Personality. In the discussion which Rufus Jones undertakes in his SociAi. Law in the Spiritual World he elicits the fact that "It is impossible to see what eiul there could be to person- ality. As far as we can follow it out we discover only increas- ing possibilities. It seems like a number system, in which how- ever fa I' you have counted, you can always add one more num- ber. There never could be a last number. There could no more be a terminal limit to personality. To bo a person is to see something beyond the present attainment. If we were, as per- sons, nothing but curious functions of bodies, then of course we shoidd cease with the dissolution of the body, as the iridescent TIM-: \A'I11;K ok IIIK CIIILI) ;!;» • ^^s" "■>, i:' -■ . , . ■ ■ . . - ■ colors vanish when the bubble bursts. JiuL if rather the body is. only a medium for giving temporal manifestation to that which is essentially spirit, tlic falling away of the body may be only a .«tage in the process, like the bursting of the clirysalis by the insect which was meant to have wings and to live on flowers. Tlie fact is. personality gets no snffieient origin in the phenom- enal world. Nothing here explains it. From the first it trails clouds of glory. "AH changes, so far as we know. l)elo\\' the realm of S(.'lf- consciousness are changes which are caused by a force acting fro]n behind — a tergo, i.e., a force which acts through a causal link. Thus the engine draws the train. The moon moves the tide. The wind blows down the tree. The forces of nature develop the plant. None of these things select or choose. They are caused from without. They are the effects of causes which can be described, and they are effects which can be accurately predicted. 'A\'hen wo pass over from causation acting from belli nd to clumges j)]'oduccd by ideals in front, we cross one of the widest chasms in the world. It is one of those facts which dis})roves the easy proverb, 'Nature abhors breaks.' It seems like a pas- sage from one world-system to a totally different sort. In one case the moving cause is an actual, existing situation antecedent to the effect; in the other, the moving cause is an unrealized ideal — something which as yet does not exist in the world of descriljable things at all. We act to realize something which has induced us to act before it existed in the world of things. The entire spiritual development of persons is of this front type. BeloAv man everything is moved by coercion. If things are mov- ing toward a goal, they themselves know nothing about it, and it ]mist be either accounted for as an accident or we must admit that from a deeper point of view all causation would be discov- ered to be toward a goal in front. In this case the end and goal would be present from the first as a directive force in the entire process of evolution." Infancy and Education. l)oth Professor Hill and President Butler have pointed out the sisrnificance of infancv. Savs the former: "The lower ani- 40 i;i:ij(;i()rs i';i)i catidn iiials are l)orn willi an ahiiost coni]jlete adaptation for the pcr- i'oriiiaiiec of their h rc-runctions. Tlie colt stands when only a few hours old. At the age of three, he can do almost all he can ever do in his life-time. Jt is not so with a hnman infant. For years it is ahsolutely dependml npon others for the continuance of its exislencc. No living ti'eature is more ignorant, more de- fenceless, more entirely at the mercy of l)cings other than itself. Destined U)\- Ihe highest attainments of intelligence, the infant j)Ossesscs the least automatic adaptation to the conditions of life. Everything has to he learned from the heginning. Instinct is at (he minimum; intellect, undeveloped, hut potential, is at the maximum. Almost everytliing done hy the child is done l)y con- scious physical reaction, not mechanically.'"' And President But- ler has added: "The meaning of the period of helplessness or itifamy, lies, as I see it, at the bottom of any scientific and philo- sophical understanding of the part played hy education in human life. Infancy is a })eriod of plasticity: it is a period of adjust- metd ; it is a period of fitting the organism to its environments; first, physical adjustment, and then adjustment on a far larger and broader scale." The New-Born Child. Caswell j'lllis. Fellow in Psychology of Clark University, calls attention to the significant fact that for some time after liirth the child cannot sec, hear, feel, properly smell, or taste. He is not conscious of his own existence, of acts whicli are reflex, for the first week. There is innate in him. though latent, im- pulses or instincts, dormant, gradually unfolding and develop- ing into activity; not all at oiu;e, but in dilferent stages and periods of life. The hereditary trails of character will he the foundation Ijases of his life, which it is the function of Education to train and exercise, and which, when thus alTinted and developed, so it may be absorbed, or diminished, by his environment, will result ill the adult man. These hereditary trails, while ue\cr transmitting disease or absolute mental or nu)ral habits. un can also ereep and crawl. In liis second }ear, he lias learned to stand and walk', to speak some words and to understand the meaning of a great many more. An act is educative when it is learned, and then only. After it has become a lial)it it is a second nature, and is no longer t'dueative. '^J'lie more man is ediu-aled tlie nioi'e does he become "a bundle of habits."" In the lliii'd and fonuli yeai's. the child. lia\ing learne(| t(_) speak, is con-tanlly asking questions, gaining infoi-malion as the result (d' older peo})le's observations. The imitative faculty, ^which is so strong in the child, has the form of self-activity that strives to enuinci})ate Self from its natural impulses and heredity, by assimilating the results of the experiences of others. Only souls can imitat(\. and the lower we go from man, the less we sec of imitation. It is the first step, the lowest phase, in the evolution and development of spiritual achievements. With language and imitation begin the ehihrs contemplation of Ideals, seeing the real with the possi- bilities of the ideal being realized. The full life of Ideals does not appear until }»nberty com- mences; but its germ is liere. QUKSTtOXS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. 1. What is meant by ''the di.scovery of the cliild"? 2. Why is it at all necessary to study child-nature? 3. Discuss Heredity r.s. EnvironnieiU. 4. What is the significance of Infancy? 5. How does it affect the process of I'ldueatieu? G. Is Infancy becoming lengthened? 7. What are the factors concerned in character-formation? Explain. Give concrete examples of the inlluence of each in your life. CHAi'TKlJ 1\-. A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY. Self-AciivUij, Brain, Consciousness, Tliinl-ing, Ideas, Amicrception. SUGGESTED READIXCJS. Self-Activity: ♦Meaning ov Education. Butler, pp. 43-47. *Up TiiKOUGii Childhood. Iluhbell. 130 ff. Psychologic Foundation of Education. JIanis. pp. 20-30. Body and Brain: Physiology. Kirkc. I'SYCiiOLOGY. t/rt»K'.s. Vol. I. Bi-aiu. M'.LEMENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY. Tlionidikc. Xorvous System. Consciousness. ♦Talks to Teacheus. Jarnea. pp. 14-21. *Xe\v Psychology. Gordy. Index. *I!i;ii:fei; Couuse. James. Index. Thinking: FouND.VTiONS oi'' EDUCATION. Harris, pp. 32-37. lis. 20i;-227. *TJp Through Childhood. Iluhhctl. pp. 2. *The Xew Psychology. Gordti. pp. 3Ui-:i17. *B]tiEFEK CouHSE. Jaiiics. Index. Kensoninn- Ideas, Acquisition and Association: ♦Talks to TEACiiEns. Jannx. pi». 144-1.".", 7!)-'.)l. ♦Priefeu Course. Jame.^. Index. Apperception: *Tiie Mind of a Child. Riclimoiul. Elements op Child Psychology. Bahlahi. pp. 11-12. *Up Through Childhood. Iluhbell. pp. 104-10."). How to Conduct the Recitation. MvMurruy. pp. S-'J. Teacher Training. Roads, p. 07. ♦Talks to Teachers. Jamoi. pp. 154-168. ♦The New Psychology. James, pp. 34G-353. ♦Briefer Course. James, p, 120. The Old versus the New Psychology. Two men have, to a large extent made the iloclern Psychol- oo-Y. One is the great leader, Professor William James, the A SJ"l])Y t)l'' PSY(l]OLO(iV 4:5 Other is the Lite l*rofessor Corc^y, of New York University. Gordy's cliief text book is called The New Psychology. This does not mean that Gordy wrote an Old Psychology and then later another book; but the term, the New Psycholoo-y, is the definite term for the newer view of tlic woi-kings of man. Tlie Old Psychology is what we might term Divisional Psychology, the New P.sycliology is Unitary. The great fault of the Old Psychology was to set up the Soul as an absolute Spiritual Being, witli a certain faculty of its own. by which the several activities of renu'nil)ering, imagining, reasoning, loving, etc.. were ex- ]t]ained without reference to the peculiarities of the woi-ld with which they dealt. It was par excellence a Faculty Psychology. The New Psychology treats the mind as a unit, and (■s])eoially emphasizes the conviction that mental life is ])riinarily what James calls Teteological ; that is to say, that our various ways of feeling and thinking have grown to what they are because of their utility in shaping our reactions on the other world. This is the essence of the New Psychology. Self-Activity. The great fact to be kept constantly in mind in the study of Psychology is the existence everywhere of Self-Activity. Self-Activity means the Self-Originating Activity found in all life which works from within to accomplish certain results on the eii\ imminent without. A\'e see it in Nature, in the plant consuming its food supply from without. ^Ye see it in a higher degree in tlie animal world, which not only takes in food from without, but reproduces and constructs with the additional pow- ers of locomotion and feeling. Still higher comes man, having all the preceding powers, with reasoning and creative faculties added. The highest Self-Activity is God, the only absolute Self- Originating Activity, the ultimate well-spring of Self-Activity below. "We may even go further than this, and speak of intelligence in all creation. It may be one of the forces in crystallization under which every crystal assumes its own form the world over, and that form so definite and so absolute that no two crystals of ditferent salts are absolutely alike. The crystal of sodium chloride or common salt (NaCl.), differs absolutely from that 44 RKIJClors KDICAIIOX of sodium .sul|)liate. So again the inorganic crystals dilVcr from the oi'gaiiic. W'lielhor we call I his force a Vis Inlernus or r/.s Exlenius. it makes no matter, ll is a kind of intelligence - — not mentality, but intelligence — a kind of self-activity. In the A'egetable Kingdom it is clearly seen. Professor ]\[ark Baldwin produced a book on Intelligence in Plants AND AxniAi.s. Some ])lants have a highly organized nervous sys- tem, like the sensitive plant. The roots of a willow tree will travel a loiig distance in the ground in search of water. A root will api)roach a stone and turn before touching it, with a layer of earth betweeii it and the stone. It is said by botanists that each plant has its own angle peculiar to itsell', at which every twig at first branches off. The branches may turn upward or downward or sideways later, according to the results of environ- ment, as, for example, to gain the light or to avoid another tree, or a house, but the hereditary angle is always the same. Thus in every stage of nature in her evolution, we see self-originating power. The great practical residt of this |ii'imary doctrine of self-activity is that no Impression can cwv be received by any living thing without a corresponding Expression. Xothing is ever seen, felt, touched, tasted, heard, known through any of the five senses that does not at some time, in some way, result in an Expression. Without il there could be no Education. Evolutionary Remains. I're.-ident G. Stanley Hall said in TiiK rjuxcirLKs of Ke- LiGious Education: "Now when we look at tlie Child, what do we find? We iind this great result, which came with surprise to many of us as it slowly dawned, aiul as the hand mounted up it became so formidable that not one single person here can look the facts in the face and get the common information that is now available, without accepting it. It is this: that the child normally represents the history of the human race. That is, it has, in its early stages, a grjsat deal of the animal about it. There is a great deal in its physical and psychical nature that suggests the higher animals. We know that every child has at least 133 rudi- mentary organs in its body (so-called), which are atrophied, and which suggest that something a little like what the evolutionists tell us must be ti'uc Whv is it, for instance, that a few months A sri l)V OF I'SVCllOLOaV 4."> • k'!'"'!'*' liirlii 1 li;i(l ;iii iiiiJiH'iist,' oriiaii Tor bix>;ilhiii,i^- in llic wjiIlt — i-()iii|i|cir <:ill< — wliich gradually transformed, so thai soon afUM- l)ii-ili ilif u|i|)('r ])ai't of tlicni had been twisted around int. ihc lower |(ari had l)crn lurutMl around and grown inlo voeal chords, another part had l)een spiralled around into coehlea, or the organs of hearing? Why is it that I was a gill-l)reathing animal at one time, suggesting aquatic life? Why is it. too, that the infant has all the caudal appendages? Why is it that we have the vermiform a^jpendix, and why all these loo dilferent organs, of absolutely no use, but many of them a positive dis- advanlagc in our human stage? What do they mean? Thev mean thai wc pass up the whole histoi-y of animal life, and lliat from th(> time a few months before birth, uj) to maiui'itv. every child I'epresents in his history every stage of animal life as rcpcatc(| since the world began. You and 1 have all bcm a union of similar organs: those organs have divided, and those halves divided again, until at last it has appeared that W" were going lo be an iinei'tebrate. then a |)rotovei"tebi'al('. then a niclazoau. then a ■\ci'tebrate. and then one of the higher \ei'- tcbi'alcs. ami then a (piadrumanal. and then a Ijimanal crcat ui'o. and linally a num. and then, perhajjs, a man of high character."" This is known as tlie liecapilulation Tliconj, and will be referred to jnore fully later on. Its significance here is to -hiiw the continuity of life in its (levelo])menr. The Lowest Form of Life. The lowest form of lib'. |)i-act ically s])eakiug. would be a singU'-celled animal, like the jelly fish, one of the moiiera. In it we can see in embryo many of the ])owei-s later developed and s]»ecialized in the higher stages of (■\()lution. Picture a tiny jelly lish under the cover glass of a microscope, a mere bit of proto- jilasm. I'lace near it. but not touching it. a tiny crundj of Ijread. The jelly fish is merely prot()])lasm and niteleus. It has no eyes, no fingers, no hands. It presently senses the crundj of bread. Out shoot the pseudo-pods, its false legs, reallv i)ortions Cut No. 1. An Amoeba. 40 l!I-:iJ(;i()l S KDICATJOX of its own l)it(l_v. As it pi'oject.s iti^oH' towards the bread, it di-aws a eon-espdiidiiig mass of protoplasm from its former position. Presently the bread is surrounded, and in a short time begins to disappear, becoming homogeneous with the pi-otopasm of the jelly fish. Tims, .sa/i,s eyes, sans hands, sans mouth, smtx leeili. sans knife and fork, Mr. Jelly Fish has devoured Ids meal. This is the lowest form of life, of self-activity. As we go Ingher iii the scale, cells ai'c not only massed together and muUiplied. I)ut differentiated in cliaractcr. Tliei'e are various ways of self-growth and muhiplication. The most common way, however, is by simple iision or division Cl'T No. 2. Cell — iJlvinioii ami Dvrdojniiciit. ( After Frcjj.) — as the single cell divides in half, then those halves again di- vide, making four, then eight, etc., until the cell wall contains a mass of tiny cells resembling granulations. In the animal kingdom there are several hundred kinds of cells, each with its peculiar cliaracteristic formation and its inicleus. One of the great essential laws of reproduction is that cells can oidy rein-odnce tlieir kind. Livei- cells can reproiluce liver cells only; spleen cells, spleen cells — liver cells never reproducing . Ittnlll 'lifisuc. ( shuiiicji.) ri T .No. s. Arlii-iiliir ('(III iliii/c. (A. E. Schdfer.) J.t't US see liow llie same kind oi' c-i'lls arc planned to woi-k together. Here is a group of ciliated cells, such as are found in the lungs, the nose, and certain other jiortions of the l)ody. 'riic little ciliae move in rhythm, lirsl lurning toward the lluid or solid lo he pushed along, the one cell hi'inging it over to the second, the second to the third, until in jjerfect rhyrr-e it is passed ah)ng. The same action is seen in the oesophagus and Cut No. 10. Ciliiited Cells of till Tiiacli ". (KoUiker.) Clt No. 11. Hair Follicle, Show- ing Hair. Root and Sweat and Sebaceaus Glands. {Gray.) the intestines, where rhythmic muscle-motion, like the stripping of a hand in milking, passes the material along. (Fig. 10.) Still again avc find the assemblage of different kinds of cells for a single specialized work. In the accompanying dia- A STl 1)\- dl' |•S^ ( IK i|.( n.\ 49 i:i-;iin (if ;i luiir I'dllicic, \\i' .-cc llic hair, its j-iioK the rally tis.-iic around it. ihr (oiincclive tissue, llic liltic oil gland and liie sweat iiland. all uiiihMl foi- a dofinilt' work. ( I'"io-. H.) In the next lliiH'c |iictuivs are shown ilir union eells of simi- lar or dilTciiiii charai'ter in an organ; tirsl, a cross section of the Thyroid (Hand, ihen the Salivary (ilands, and third, the wonder- ful Ixc'tina of the Kve, where nvei- tweiilv layers of difl'ei'cnl colls (,"i T No. 1: Thynj'ul (ilaiiil. {Alcock.) are massed in the tiny, tissue-like layer on which the images of the eye impinge. (Figs. 12, 13, 14.) Tt is as if we had a regiment composed of white men and yelli>w- men and hlack men; of large men and snuill men; of Engli.sh. and French, and Italians, and Kussians, and Indians, and Chinese, and Japanese, and Africans; of fat men and thin men ; of tall men and short men, of all languages and races, yet, as one man, under the one general, obeying the one word of com- mand. So we have in our l)ody thousands of millions of cells of many different kinds, with \ai'vint:- functions, all uiulei' the 50 ]!I-:li(;I(»i s i;im ( aiion Ci-T No. i::. SdHrnr)/ (Ihiiiil. i Kiillikcr.) _^_ " rN" " -. -■"." .'*'~~^"^,*^ ^JSS^'P"^'^**^ 1 ' •(! < v:: C' '' -^ \Q iff. 1 * j^ L »ag gi^bi .^* ("IT Xd. 11. Tlif Huuiun h'rIiiKi. yl'iic.) Physiolu^ical Fsyclwlor Cut No. 16. Scctinnx of Ihr f^pinal Cord. iThomannA Cut Xo. 15. Brain and Spinal Cord. { \''in (lihiicUli n.\ A STll)^ (IK l'S\( ll()L(t(;\ \ ■•'\SjS:b [ ^.f OSTMO- •_-;,• ■-■ ' 3€^-ti IDJHG, b ■'^^ "-^'^-1^ q' ^^ / rt-ft ^<. ,■ .r • ^ / / ii*. , 1 %:^l 'i \:i^A-^ Cut Xo. IT. ScctlOMH of the Spinal Cord. (A. E. Srhiifcr.i IMll.KMdl S i:i)l CATIOX iiiaiKlalc of one ]'^. Hi. K.) If we consider the evolntion of the brain, we shall lind that it is reallv the spinal cord turned in upon itself, after the fash- ion of a cockle-shell wound around in a -|iiral. Looking at the cross-section (Fig. "^1 ). the daik gray matter is shown in the margin, and ihc white matter, really the fibres of the luain cells, is in the centre. In the very centre is seen the hollow canal which runs all through the spinal cord. Looking again at the sjiiral and keeping in mind that it represents the s])inal cord as seen at the cross-section, one can ]-eadily understand how the gray matter will he found on the surface or cortt'X and in the interior. All the while matter will be I'onnd, therefore, in layers around the hol- :■ tli vision of the canal in the brain. As a matter of fact, germs can travel in the fluid of the canal from the loAvest portion of the spinal cord to the centre of the brain. Cut No. IS. The Evolution of ■ the Spinal Conl. (Smith.) lows formed bv tl Cut No. 19. Cerebrum p-om Ahove. (Van Gchiichtcn.) Cut No. 20. Cerebrum from Si(l(. {Van Oehuchten.) A sTi i)\ (iF i's\ I ih •l.(t(;^■ 5H I he hrain IS siKiwii ;llli| afl. TIlc l\\ II licllli.--|ilicl'( ;in l'Jii;lisli wiiliuil. cMciiliiii:' •^^ idiii ;il)n\i' (low iiwards and I'roiii forc I'loiii al((i\c (Inwmvarils resemble lal llic cDiivolut ions are not tlie same. The convolu- tions are indicated where the gray matter dips down into the win to matter in folds. 'I' I II' cross-sect ion shows low tlial dipping oc- cni-s and indicates r(!iii;Iily how the fd)res run. W'hih' the weight o|' llic cnlire brain is only about one forty- second of the weight of the entire body, it Cut No. 21. ''■'" been calculated A Section of the Ccrehnnn. {Afl(r l-Jdiiii/ir.) that the SUpplv of blood is one-eighth of that used by the whole body, llow essential this su|t|)ly of blood is becomes evident it it is in any way inlei'l'ereil with. Stop any one of the great arteries leading to the brain and consciousness is at once dissipated. Dr. Lombard found that the temperature varies rajiidly, though sliglitly. during waking hours. He found tliat a noise or anything that attracted attention would produce an elevation of temperature. The rise of temperature is also produced by thought or emotion. ^Mosso. tlie Italian in- vestigator, found, with careful balances, that the weight of the head increased in direct jiroportion to the profundity of thought, sliowing that the l)lood Hows more rapidly to the brain when one is tliiiddng. Weight of the Brain. .Al. .Mathie<:a. an anthropologist of Prague, has settled by experiment beyond doubt the long asserted fact that the weight of the brain of educated persons is urealer than that of the common crowd. ]Ie took the brains of 235 persons between the ages of 20 and GO years, of varying occupations and intel- lectual culture, and for.nd that the brain of the day laborer 54 llELIGIOUS EDUCATION weighed I.IOO grammes; workmen and unskilled laborers, 1,423; porters, guardians and watchers, 1,-J3G; mechanics, 1,450; busi- ness men and photographers' assistants, 1,4C8, and physicians and professors, 1,500. These statistics show that the weight of the brain increases in gradual ])rogression. True also is the fact that the sale of alcoholic di-inks is not conducive to cerebral development, as shown by the light weight of the brains of brewers, beer-sliop keepers, and waiters. Madison C. Peters says: ''The number of bones in the human body is variously estimated, say, two hundred and forty (the bones vary in different periods of life, several, separated in youth, being united in old age) ; these bones have forty distinct indentations, four hundred and forty-six muscles within, so that the bones and muscles have ujiwards of fourteen thousand in- dentations. There are not loss than ten thousand nerves, with an equal number of veins and arteries, one thousand ligaments, four thousand lacteals and lympliatics, one hundred thousand glands, and the skin contains not less than two hundred millions of pores, all of which are so many avenues of health or sickness, life or death. "The heart, about ten ounces in weight, contracts about four thousand times every hour, and through it during that period passes two hundred and fifty pounds of blood, while within tlie compass of a day it makes more than one hundred thousand pulsations and in a year more than thirty-six millions; it performs more than one-fifth of the mechanical work of the body, exerting a force that would lift its own weight 13,000 feet every hour.'' Neurones or Nerve Fibres. J I W(ndd be hopeless to try to describe the practical infini- tude of the nerve cells or neurones that transmit stimuli here and there. Even if we knew the exact arrangement of each neurone in a man's brain, it would take a model as large as S. Paul's Cathedral to make them visible to the naked eye. Consider that, counting at the rate of fifty a minute, it would take a man working twelve hours every day over two hundred vcars mcrclv to ccnint the nerve cells of one man. Dr. Thorn- A sri j)v ui' I'.'-VLJioi.o'iV dike's latest figures are that the nerves, as estimated, nuniljer three lliousand luillioiis (if neurones. "Each of those is itself :i complex organ, and is often capable of ]nany e. .1 Section 'Through the Brain Carter, Shoiriiu/ Xcrre Connections. Diugrainntutiv. (Kiillikrr.) 56 IM'M.K.Ktl S i;i)l('.\Tl(>N are not on one shown. Jt is ;i apples: <'iit ](■ .-iiiiH' |il;mc. we j'cally .-ccurc a i)irturf like this (('ill -il.j il' we wei'e In (lri\c a clcavei' thi-ouali a basket of won 111 be cut through the skin, another through the stem, aiiolbn- .me would be shaved oft at the lower end, the rmirtb would be cul through the centre one way. and the lii'tli through the centre aimllier way, and the sixth half-way be- iwcei). Si) that we woubl really get all -ba[)('s in (Uir sections. Cell bodies are rni bodied in the general mass of the brain coi'lex. or I'ather of the margin of the spinal (Di'd as it has been wound around in the >]iii'al cMiJution of the brain. Look- ing again al I lie diagrammatic scheme of I lie connection of the brain cells, it will be -^(■(■n that any cell theoretically can reach any other cell. Theoretically speaking von can go lo any local country telegraph ollicc and reach any oilier >lalion in the entire world. ]'olenlially you are in con- ned ion -with the world. So potentially an\- cell of ilie body of any kind can lie I'eacbed by sending cm-rents from any oth- er cell, ^'on can almost direct your blood bv your mental |io\\er lo any ])orli(in of the body. The impressions from the most I'emote section are received promptly ibrougb our ner\i)us telephone system at beadquariei's. acted upon, and the corre- sponding command oi- judgment tele- phoned back to the sending section, fibres are shown, indicating the Insulat- Clx Nu. '24. The layei''i of ffic cortical gran matter of the ccri\irii)i\. ( Mcijiurt. > Indiviilual nerve ing Sheaib. the ^Medulla and the Xodes (ISTodes of l>anvier). Each section of a nerve is called a neurone. We see a direct analogy in our present telegraph and fele]du)ne systems, under which we have our wires with their insulation and the relay sta- tions at every little distance. (Cut 'lb.) A s■^^l)^■ ok i'sv( iioLoCjiY 57 \,, _•.,. Illillhllill ,-inii'ini, _M liflinC COIIIK-Cll OSTERIOR ROOT CiT No. 26. Diagram Showing Ascviidiiig ami Descending Columns. (A. E. Schafer.) 58 ItELIGIOLS EDUCATION 111 Cut No. 26 we are given an idea of a single nerve inmk ill wliicli are seen bundles of nerve fibres. Some of these nerve fibres arc ascending; that is, afferent, or going towards the brain; and some arc descending, that is, efferent, or going away from flic l)i-;iiii. In I lie |»icturc of a cross section of a spinal cord, we have iiidicalcd how these dilTercnt fibres are placed in a diitcrent lo- calily, so tliat were we to cut a section of the cord witli a l^uife, tlie resulting- dccav or degeneration of llie nerve fibres would Cut No. 27. Xcrrr Trunk Sliuirini/ ]iuittiidy and e\])erinients. There is a consensus of opinion thai tlic iliiii gi'ay I'iiid (d' the cortex is definitely specialized. 'l"wo faci> have been })ro\c(l : ibc higher an animal stands in the gi'adc of iiilclligcnce i\w nioi'(> nuinerous are the folds and convolutiojis of the coricx (ilicrc art', however, a few exceptions to this I'ulc) : ihc cerebral funt-tions have been definitely localized akmg ci'rlain portions of the coi'tex. There are sensoiy and motor jierves. that is. tliose tiiat minister to sen- sation and those that minister to motion. Some of the efferent nerves are motor and some are not. Some of the motor nerves arc voluntary and some are involuniai-y. Moi-eover each motor nerve is connected witli some |»aiiieuhii' muscle, not with the muscles in general, and precisely as the motor nerves are each 00 KKI.Kilors Kl)r( AlloX III' llicin coiiiicchMl willi some particular muscles, so they have ihcii- iiriiiiii ill (lilTci-fiil ))arts of the Itraiu. CFiir. '3!). ) ('i;t Xo. 2'.). Association Fibrca in the Ccrcbnil JlcinispUcre. tSliafir after Mrynert.) Two (liau'raiiis of (he localizaiiou of these moloi' fiiiietions are shown, the (Hic showina- tlic locniizalidii on the interior sur- ClT No. ?,0. ClT No. ."'.1. Localization of Crrrbral I'mictioiis. ( SrluKfrr and Horslrij.) face of the eerehi-nin. and ihe other aloiiy the median line as the corte.x dips down inlo iho lieini>i)liei'es. A STl l)N OK l'S^( ll()|J)GY (il Stream of Consciousness. ri'uJV'.-.-ur Jaiiic.-. llic oi'iiiiiialor oi' iliu iiio-l >lrikiii1 C'LT Xo. Xi. (tililitll. tliought is always complex. Sensations of our body, memories of distance, feelings, desires, all grow into one general thought of the moment. One can stand on the shore and fix the eve 62 RELIGIOUS EDUCA'lloX upon a particular stick, as it floats along. Tlial represents the thought in the Focus or Centre of attention. So in the evor-tlowing stream, tlie mosl slriking thought is the hrightest in the centre, while the others are grouped around it in the fading margin — other sticks, as it "were, further down the stream. 'J^his M(ir(j\n or Friiifje. which is faint at (irst and hazy, is liable at an_y moment to be seized on by our attention and brought inlo the centre. Giving attention to any subject is bringing it into the focus of our attention and holding it there. Tico great laws can be illustrated by this idea. (1) The thoughts that are present in this ever-flowing stream lune been c-auscd l)y ihe thoughts that have gDnc. This seem- easy to understand. One can trace back, step by step, eacli thought from the present one, and see how I'ach in ini-ii has Itcen caused by and is dependent upon its predecessor. (2) But the second law is harder to understaiul at first. It is. the thoughts that arc coming have hovu iidluence more universally true than others. Triangles have three sides is a statement that is always true, while to the statement dininkards are poor, there ai'c some exceptions. Yet it is very convenient to use general statements, even if they are not true in every case. Tt is worth while knowing and saying that drunkcuness usually ends in poverty and degradation, even if all di'unkai-ds do not reach these lowest depths. So valuable are geni'ral statements, that it is no unfair test of the intellectual standing of an individual or a society to note the proportion between particular and gen- eral statements in conversation. If the talk is all about ]iar- ticuhii- ])ersons and things, and es])ecially if it is full of persiuial A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 65 pronouns, it is not of ;i high land. Thoughtful people are never content till they can speak in general terms; their conversation consists in stating general rules and examining their truth. The knowledge that is power is the knowledge of laws, not of ])arlii-ulnrs." Our Education or Life Experience — in fact, our Environ- ment— tills the mind with a vast army of ideas, and in one sense Education is but the grouping of a useful type of ideas, and the lack of Education is having failed to acquire them. A certain definite order is pursued by Nature in the way our minds group these ideas, so to say, for the entree of certain ideas before a definite age. We shall deal with this order under stages of mental develojnnent. False, crude, fantastic ideas are conveyed by too early and injudicious teaching. "Forcing" a child is dangerous, not merely to the health, but to the mind as well. When Ideas come into the mind they are associated. We will see this under the illustration of the aj)ple in Appercep- tion. The Stream of Consciousness is ever flowing on, and every wave in it is, in some way or other, determined by the character of the waves just passed; and it, itself, influences the waves that follow. These ideas seem to be selected according to (1) Similarity and Analogy, where the mind calls upon an idea in the stream, because there is some likeness, or repetition, or analogy in it to something in the thought just passing. We flow along, rapidly flitting from thought to thought ; so that we can frequently trace back clear connection between our ideas. (2) Contiguity, where the mind tells us that the objects thought of in a particular thought were next to the object recalled from a previous experience. The Alphabet and the Lord's Prayer are familiar examples, cited here by James. We thus build up useful systems of association by the orderly acquisition of new ideas, and readjustment of thoughts already acquired. As an illustration of thinking, let us make a diagram of a small Cross Section of the Brain, and let each dot stand for one element in an idea. Let us suppose that a small child has already become acquainted with a large gray rubber ball. We now introduce him to a small red apple. The thing that strikes 06 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION liis eye first is the color, then the shape, and as he relates the new to the old (and nothing can be known save by comparisons with former knowlcdo-c), he is about to say that this is a red rubber ])a]l. The size does not bother him, because he merely thinks it is a small red rubber ball. Lines of association, telephone wires /Rubber Ball fi < Q U » -^ st"' <- t^ C\c N<^>A/ "Id. Cut No. 35. (Smith.) as it were, are set up between the cells containing the ideas of redness and roundness of the apple and the cells containing ideas of the grayness and roundness of the rubber ball. E cell is connected with every other cell, and so he proceeds to ; to his knowledge the slight differences in shape between a])])le and the rubber ball, as by the stem and lower end of apple; the new knowledge given in the smell as compared w the smell of Ihc rubber ball; the smoothness of the rubber b as compared with the stickiness of the apple; the incompre bility of the apple, as compared with the compressibility of rubber ball, and finally the taste of the one as compared w the the :ich uM uic the ili\ all. ssi- the ilh A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 67 the tut;le ol' the oilier. Comparing it with the other, he lirst sees the resemblances (synthesizes), then he sees the differences (analyzes), and finally learns by this comparison that an apple is different from a rubber ball. In the same way he might learn about an orange, and compare that again with the apple and the rubber ball. All knowledge, therefore, comes from grafting the unknown to the known. Apperception. Gregory explains it this way: "Knowledge cannot be passed from mind to mind like apples from one basket to another, but must in every case be re-cognized, re-thought by the receiving mind. All telling, explaining, or other acts of so-called teach- ing, are useless except as they servo to excite and direct the pupil's voluntary mental powers. The teacher is a sympathizing guide, whose familiarity with the subjects to be learned enables him to direct the learner's efforts, to save him from the waste of time and strength, or needless or insuperable difficulties, and to keep him from mistaking truth for error. But no aid of school or teacher can change Nature's modes in mind work, or take from the learner the lordly prerogative and need for know- ing for himself. The eye must do its own seeing, the ear its own hearing, and the mind its own thinking, however much may be done to furnish objects of sight, sounds for the ear, and ideas for the intelligence." Roark writes : "It is only classified knowledge — that is, knowledge placed in its real relations — that can be most ef- fectively retained and produced for use. Unclassified knowledge is almost useless. Some minds seem to be mere junk-shops of knowledge, filled with fragments and scraps of learning, tumbled together as they came, with no orderliness or method in their arrangement. Others are like a well-arranged, well-kept mu- seum, where everything is properly named and classified, and where everything can be got without delav and with small effort." Perhaps the clearest explanation of all is given by Miss Slattery in her well-known illustration: "One winter night I hurried around the corner through the drifting snow into the chapel, where the warmth and light, the flowers and pretty G8 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION dresses made a most interesting contrast to the cold and dark- ness outside. It was a monthly social, and after an hour of conversation and refreshment there was an entertainment, to which I failed to listen except now and then, though it was a good one. I did not listen because I had learned a lesson in psychology that evening in a new and forceful way, and I could not resist thinking about it. "I had noticed as the different people entered the room how each hesitated a moment on the threshold and looked about him. Perhaps he nodded to one or another, then, entering, sought some interesting group, joined it, and in a few moments became a part of it, sharing its laughter and fun. Some of the groups were large, others of two or three. Some stood about in the cen- tre of the room, and others took chairs and withdrew to a corner. Here and there were the 'wanderers' drifting about from group to group, spending a few moments with each. But I was es- pecially interested in a man who came in alone, hesitated quite a long time at the open door, walked about, put his hands in his pockets and stood quietly observing it all. When I thought of him again half an hour later he was passing through the hall and went out the side door. My lesson began. "The room was no longer a room, but the human brain with its mystical 'grayish matter and cells' of which we speak so easily that we forget the marvel of it all. And the people were no longer people, but Ideas hesitating at the threshold. I saw each new arrival from the world without entering the brain. Here was an Idea coming alone, waiting a moment, then joining quickly and easily the group in the centre, soon to become a part of it. I saw another Idea join itself to a small group in the farthest corner, and a third wandering about, associating with first one and then another of the central groups. Yes, and I saw a fourth enter, stop a moment beside the various groups, hurrying on each time, until when I looked for it, lo, it had gone through some side door. Why had it gone ? For the very same reason that the man left the chapel. It found no group in which it belonged, no associates, nothing to which it might at- tach itself. There seemed to be no place for it, and it went out. "As I thought about it, I seemed to see as a new revelation the old law of 'Association of Ideas' with which I had been so A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 69 long familiar — an explanation of the reason why children seem- ing to know, and even to repeat, certain facts in history, geography or Bible study, knew nothing about them two days later. The fact had gone, the knowledge poured in had van- ished, largely because it was unconnected, isolated material un- able to find any group with which to associate itself. If this be true, what must I do ? The answer is plain — attempt to teach in such a way that the new Idea which I present shall be asso- ciated with some Idea already in the mind, that when it enters it may find a group of kindred Ideas ready to welcome it." Apperception Explained. This is rather a hard name for a simple thing. It is merely the process by which new knowledge is introduced into the mind by connecting it with that already there. An impression no sooner enters our Consciousness than it is drafted off in various directions, making associations with former knowledge and im- pressions already there. If I mention the word "Apple," it will recall to your mind the taste, appearance, and form, either of all apples in general, or of some particular apple that you remember. You can only understand what I mean by the term "Apple"' by having this previous knowledge. If you have never experienced an apple, I can only make myself understood by comparing the apple to some fruit you have known about. This process of joining the new to the old is called Apperception. It is really the point of proceeding from the known to the un- known. In later life, the tendency to leave the old impressions undisturbed by new ideas leads to what we call "Old Fogyism," or Conservatism. (The chapter in James' book, dealing with this subject, is most delightful reading.) We might put it in another way by saying that a new idea corresponds to a new person coming into a room unacquainted with anyone there. Step by step, he is introduced to this one and to the next and to the third, until he has met everyone there. When he is fully introduced to everyone, he is known by everyone. He is the new idea received by and amalgamated with the old ideas already present. This process of Apperception really means the association of ideas 70 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Realizing an Idea. As Professor Adams says : "We may be said to realize an idea when we give it our full attention, and let it develop its full meaning, and exercise its full force upon us. Some ideas realize themselves within the mind itself: they exhaust them- selves by becoming distinct and vivid: they require nothing further. If we have a clear and vivid idea of red, for example, wc are satisfied, we ask no more; the idea leads to nothing be- yond itself. But if the idea of an action becomes vivid in the mind, there is a strong tendency for that idea to pass over into action. If we think earnestly about a certain action, we find ourselves impelled to perform that action. If you make a clear picture in your mind of yourself performing some action, you will find that the longer you dwell on this picture the stronger becomes your inclination to perform the action, and if you retain the picture long enough, the inclination becomes practically irre- sistible. This fact explains whatever is genuine in those parlor tricks generally known as Thought-reading. "To the teacher the moral application is obvious. Tempta- tion really consists in the effect of an idea to realize itself. If the idea is evil, then the temptation is to evil; but the teacher ought to remember that the same force may be used towards good. We may be tempted to good as well as to evil. The teacher's fight must be to put good ideas into the mind, and keep them there; he must be concerned more with good ideas than with evil ones. The moment the teacher speaks of an evil idea, he increases its presentative activity, and thus, to some extent, aids it to realize itself. We must fight evil indirectly by sup- plying ideas of good. This is the teaching of S. Paul when he says, 'All uncleanness or covetousness, let it not be once named among you.' We must nurture the mind with ideas of good, and starve it in respect of ideas of evil. "Not only must a place be prepared for the new idea, but, if possible the need for it should be made prominent. Ad- vertisers understand this principle. Some years ago the whole country was flooded with large placards on which was printed nothing but a large Oxford frame in black. A week or two later the placards were replaced by others in which the words were printed within the frame : 'Watch this frame.' In due A STUDY OF rSYCHOLOGY 71 course, a third placard appeared, containing a simple advertise- ment that would, under other circumstances, have attracted little attention, hut that, thanks to this careful preparation, had a wonderful ell'ect.' ' Dr. Scripture of Columhia University states the same truth even more forcibly: "Every idea of a movement hrings an im- pulse to movement. This is especially prominent in the many iiitlividuals who cannot keep a secret. The very reading and thinking about crimes and scandalous action produces a ten- dency to commit them. In some persons this influence is quite irresistible. As soon as one bomb-thrower attacks a rich banker, everybody knows that in a week half a dozen others will do the same. No sooner does one person commit suicide in such a way that it is strikingly described in the newspapers, than a dozen others go and do likewise." Stages of Thinking. When sensations come into the mind through perception, they go through the several processes of Attention, Analysis, and Association. We can represent this process by the four di- visions of thought. (1) Setise perception. — This is the first stage of thinking and cannot properly be called "thinking," for, though our minds are acting, it concerns sensation practically sub-conscious and never entered into real consciousness. When, however late, the small child realizes its sensations, it at first does not combine them. Each sensation stands alone and un- related. )2) Understanding analyzes and combines sensations (Synthesis), and secures Perceptions. Thus, I see a pear. Its weight and smoothness reach my mind through the touch; its size, color, etc., enter my mind through the avenue of the eye; and its taste through the mouth; and so I receive my idea of a pear as one of the fruits by the -combination of the multitude of single sensations. We gather the general idea with each kind of sensations acting from a particular point. Thus no reader sees all the words on the page, nor more than one-half of the letters in these words. (3) The next stage of thought is Reflection, combining Analysis and Synthesis. It reaches principles and laws. It is the clearing-up time, the Aufhldrung of the Ger- mans. It asks, "How ?" and "Why ?" (4) The highest stage of 72 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION reason is Philosophic Insight, which sees the cause of all things, namely, God. It sees the world as explained by the principle of Absolute Person. Eeflection does not begin much before adolescence, tliat is twelve or thirteen, while Philosophic Insight is seen about seventeen or eighteen. It may be well for a moment to see how tliis explains the diverse forms of belief and religion existing: {a) The lowest stage of thought is Atheistic or Atomistic, finding each thing sufficient for itself. (&) The stage of Understanding is Pan- theistic, finding everything finite and relative ; an unknown and unknowable force. Thus, Buddhism and Brahmanism are re- lated to the Understanding, (c) Reason is Theistic; and Chris- tianity is essentially the Religion of Reason. It teaches by Authority the view-of-the-world that Reason thinks. Professor Pratt, in his Psychology of Religious Be- lief, states : "This tendency, seen in so many children, to reason back to a first cause is certainly innate, and suggests the ques- tion whether or not the reason alone, without any aid from authority or external suggestion, would be enough to bring about belief in God. On the whole, there can be little doubt that in some cases at least, the reason and imagination, if left entirely to themselves and without external help, would build up a belief in some kind of a God. There are certain anti-religious beliefs which take particularly strong hold on the popular imagination and with which critical thought can very well deal. The best example of these is, of course, materialism, and the service which reason has rendered to religion in warding off its attack is of great importance. Thanks to it, materialism scarcely poses any longer as a serious attempt completely to explain the uni- verse. Haeckel stands almost alone in defending it. His cour- age is as admirable as that of the boy who 'stood on the burning deck, whence all but him had fled.' So much for belief in gen- eral. "Now the three phases or kinds of belief which we have been discussing are particularly marked in the history of man's faith in the divine. Religious belief may be mere primitive credulity which accepts as truly divine whatever is presented to it as such : it may be based on reasoning of various sorts ; or it may be due to a need of the organism, or to an emotional experience or A STL J)Y OF i'iSVCUOLOGY 73 intuition — an unreasoned idea springing from the background and bearing with it an irresistible force of emotional conviction. As these three types of religious belief are to form the central part of our entire discussion, I shall refer to them respectively as the Religion of Primitive Credulity, the Religion of Thought, or of Understanding, and the Religion of Feeling." A strong testimony to the reasonableness of religion is borne by Professor James in his new volume on Pragmatism. "I firmly disbelieve, myself, that our human experience is the highest form of experience extant in the universe. I believe rather that we stand in much the same relation to the whole of the universe as our canine and feline pets do to the whole of human life. They inhabit our drawing-rooms and libraries. They take part in scenes of whose significance they have no inkling. They arc merely tangent to curves of history, the be- ginnings and ends and forms of which pass wholly beyond their ken. So we are tangent to the wider life of things. But just as many of the dogs' and cats' ideals coincide with our ideals, and the dogs and cats have daily living proof of the fact, so we may well believe, on the proofs that religious experience affords, that higher powers exist and are at work to save the world on ideal lines similar to our own." QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. 1. What is Self- Activity, and how is it manifested throughout all life? 2. What wonderful evolution in unitary assemblage of cell life does man show? 3. Draw the Nervous System of Man and Explain. 4. Describe the Brain and its work. Wliat is Localization? 5. Give James' Idea of The Stream of Consciousness. Explain "Focus," "^Margin," etc. 6. Give the Stages of Tliinking, and illustrate each concretely. 7. Why does a landscape suggest one thing to one observer, and something wholly different to another? 8. A man receives no new ideas after the age of thirty. Discuss What has Apperception to do with your teaching? CHAPTER V. A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY (Continued). Attention — M emory — Will. SUGGESTED READINGS. Attention and Interest: •Talks to Teachers. James, pp. 91-116. *The Relation op Interest to Will, 3rd Herbart Yr. Bk. Dcivcy. •New Psychology. Oordy. Index, Attention. How to Conduct the Recitation. McMurray. pp. 11-12. The School and Society. Dewey, p. 54. •Up Through Childhood. Hubbell. pp. 155-1G3. Memory: ♦New rsYCHOLOGY. Oordy. Index. Sub-Conscious Self: Social Law. Joticfi. Index. rsYCiiOLOOY. 2 Vols. JamcH. Index. •Religion and Medicine. Wnrrestcr. Index. •Hypnotic Therapeutics. Quackcnbo.s. The Porch of Mind. Schofleld. Mental Treatment of Nervous Disorders. Du Bois. Will: Talks to Teachers. James, pp. 109-184. Character Building. Colcr. pp. 00-70. New Psychology. Oordy. Index. Up Through Childhood. HubhcU. pp. 204-251. Attention and Interest. Attention is fixing the mind upon a particular idea, bring- ing that idea or thought into the centre or focus of the mind, and then persistently holding it there. There arc two kinds of attention, (a) Involuntary, and (h) Voluntary; or Attention that is spontaneous and without effort, and that with effort; the one passive, the other active. The attention with effort is the process of fixing the mind, with deliberation, on objects uninteresting or less interesting in themselves. Voluntary at- tention cannot be continuously sustained. It comes in beats, A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 75 and each beat, each cfTort, expends itself in the single act and must be renewed by a deliberate pulling of our minds back again. Interest is the outcome of Attention. It is the Self-activity of our Impulses seeking to find satisfactory outlet for their desires and yearnings. Attention is the basis of all Education. As Gordy puts it, "Without attention there is no sensation; the sensation of which we are conscious depends upon attention." Professor Car- penter gives some remarkable examples of this. Before the in- troduction of chloroform, patients sometimes went through se- vere operations without giving any sign of pain, and afterwards declared that they felt none, having concentrated their thoughts upon some subject, by a powerful effort of abstraction which held them engaged throughout. WJiat ive perceive depends upon at- tention. Let a botanist and geologist take the same walk, and the botanist will see the flowers, while the geologist notes the rocks, because each sees what he attends to. What we remember depends upon attention. Most of our past lies in a barren region of forget fulness, swallowed up in oblivion. Here and there are little green spots of memory like oases in the desert of the past. This accounts for the fact that the events of youth are so well remembered in later years, for in the far-off happy time when our hearts were light and our minds were free, trivial events received attention sufficient to stamp them on our memories forever. What we recall depends upon attention. All recalling is remembering, but all remembering is not recalling. Recalling is remembering by an effort of the will. Eecalling a friend's name, which has slipped the memory, by an effort of attention is this kind of remembering. What reasoning we do depends upon attention, and very often great truths have been evolved by simple reasoning. What we feel depends upon atten- tion. Frequently the most important and pathetic statements may be only half perceived and their serious import often unfelt, because sufficient attention has not been directed to them. What we will to do depends upon attention, and attention is so im- portant that practically to Will is merely to pay attention, and, if we pay attention to an act steadily and persistently, we are bound to do that act. All this shows how important attention is in life. The 76 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION chief difference between the Educated and the Uneducated man is the capacity of the first for close, continuous, and concentrated attention. Newton thought that the sole difference between himself and ordinary men consisted in his greater power of attention. This probably, however, overdraws it. How can we train attention? Precisely as we cultivate other powers, by forcing ourselves to attend. The rules for gaining and holding attention, both for ourselves and for our pupils, will be considered more fully in Chapter XV, Types of Attention. There is a native difference or variety among individuals in the concentrativeness of their attention; in other words, in the intensity and scope of their field of consciousness. It is un- likely, thinks James, that those who lack it can gain it to any extent. It is probably a fixed characteristic. Both mind-wan- dering, and the rapt-attention class are types that remain. However, it is the total mental condition that counts in life, not one side of it. Memory. Miss Slattery defines the word Memory to be as follows: "Memory is the act of the mind by which it retains and repro- duces ideas which it has gained. Every act of memory really includes three acts. First, the mind takes hold of an idea; this is called apprehension ; then the idea is kept hidden away in the mind, which is retention; finally it is brought back when de- sired, and this is reproduction. Have you ever used a carbon paper and lead-pencil in making copies ? If you have, you know tlie liarder you press on it, the deeper impression and clearer reproduction you get. In some measure this is true when you write upon the minds of children. There is this difference, however : carbon paper is made very much alike ; it is passive. But the brain material of these boys and girls of ours is en- tirely unlike, and it reacts. The thing which will make a deep impression, be retained and reproduced clearly by the child with excellent memory, meets a different fate with the faithful plodder who takes in slowh', requires endless repetition, but in the end retains, and reproduces slowly and painfully. It meets still a different fate with the really dull child, or with the child A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 77 who takes in quickly, reproduces easily, but has no power of retention, and cannot tell to-morrow what he seemed to know to-day. As we have seen in our previous study, to work to the greatest advantage, we must know the children." White defines memory as "the power of the soul to represent and re-know ob- jects previously known or experienced." There are three ele- ments in this definition, the retaining of that which has passed through the mind, the reproduction of it, and the recognition of it. Consciousness has to do with the present, memory with the past. Without consciousness we should have no "to-day," without memory, no "yesterday." Locke said that "without memory man is a perpetual infant." Memory is of two kinds, verbal and logical, according as that which is recalled is in the exact words or in the association of ideas. An accurate verbal memory is often-times associated with inferior mentality, and is not the type to be cultivated with the greatest assiduity. Memory is due to attention. It is not in any way a faculty. Memory is due to the fact that our brains are wax to receive and marble to retain. Names, dates, and what-not leave their impressions on our brain cells, become inter-related, correlated, welded together, and are indelibly retained. Practically nothing is totally forgotten. Professor Ebbinghaus has proved that the process of forgetting is vastly more rapid at first than later. Xo matter how long ago we have learned a poem, and no matter how complete our inability to reproduce it now may be, yet the first learning will still show its lingering effects in the abridg- ment of time required for learning it over again. Things which we are quite unable to definitely recall have nevertheless im- pressed themselves in some way upon the structure of the mind. We are different for having once learned them. Our conclusions from certain premises are probably not just what they would be if those modifications of the brain cells were not. The very fact that when we re-learn, we recognize that we have known the fact before, shows that it has not been totally forgotten. Memory depends upon five factors : (1) Attention, which in turn depends upon (a) our Personal Interest, and (h) our Paying Attention, (2) Retention, (3) Recall, (4) Recognition, 78 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION and (5) Localization. Any one of these may fail, althougli the failure in most cases depends upon the Eeeall. A — ttcntion, E — etention, E— ecall, E — ecognition, L — oealization. Definite Attention may be lacking on the part of the learner, and the memory in itself may be weak, but generally the trouble has been that we have not thought enough about the subject, have not formed enough connections, have not made a good associa- tion of ideas, have not really woven the unknown to the known, and so cannot rapidly Recall. Becognition fails in a few cases, thougli rarely, and when it does it is generally due to some form of disease, known as Amnesia. In such cases a person may see a knife and not recognize it, or see a word and not know it, or hear a word and not interpret it, or finally we can conceive of a man with tlie power to reproduce and re-know past experiences, but without the power to locate them. They are all in the past, but where is not recalled. An example of recalling: — Suppose a lady went to a recep- tion held in Mrs. Jones' parlor. Let us now have one dot to represent a great many brain cells. We will put a dot (a) for Mrs. Jones' parlor — that takes in the fittings of the room, the floor, the tapestries, furniture, and people in general. We will put another dot (h) to represent the corner of the room where the piano is and where Mrs. Smith is standing as a guest. The third dot (c) will represent Mrs. Jones in her evening attire, introducing Mrs. Smith to a lady, ]\rrs. Brown. We will put four dots for pai'ticular facts concerning Mrs. Brown — (d) for her face; (e) for her high, squeaky voice; (/) for her name, and (g) for her evening costume. (See Cut 35, next page.) The next day Mrs. Smith meets Mrs. Brown on the street, and is greeted elTusively. An invitation is given by Mrs. Brown for Mrs. Smith to call on her At Home day, Wednesday. Mrs. Smith cannot recall her name. There is, first of all, the same face, represented by (d'). There is her high, squeaky voice (e'), but a different costume (g'), which, of course, does not resemble her former costume. Her name (/) cannot be recalled. Mrs. A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 79 Sinltli meditates, '"Who is she? Where did I meet her? Where liavc I seen that face and heard that voice?" And, after iimch thinking as they part, she recalls the corner of the room (6), where the piano stood, and Mrs. Jones (c), introducing her to iijonio lady who liad a hi^li voice and the same face. Suddenly Tnvt>. Sn->ye t> p3-\>\«x- o Cut No. 35. (Smith.) Mrs. Smith recalls that it struck her at the time that the names were very similar, that is, they were all common names. She thinks, "My name is Smith. My hostess' name was Jones. Now what other names were there — Rohinson, Brown, Taylor, etc. Oh, I have it now ! It was — Brown." Thus in this roundahout way, the mind went from the face and voice (d') and (c'), to the name (/), whereas it should have 80 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION gone directly to the Name, and would have, iC the Face, Voice, and Name had been thought about, paid attention to, and prop- erly associated at the introduction. Thus again we see that memory depends upon the proper association of ideas. Types of Memory. There is a native type, or quality, of rctentiveness of mem- ory, just as there is in attention. Feeble memories, desultory minds, scatter-brains, are due to deficient native rctentiveness. There can only be improvement of our memory, or rather of our memories, for special systems of associated things, that is there are really faculties of memory. Says Leibniz : "No idea leaves the mind, but each idea may become invisible for a time or permanently." The Sub-Conscious Self. Much of the Fringe belongs to the Sub-Conscious or Sub- limial Self. In his Social Life in the Spiritual World, Professor Jones devotes a chapter to the newly discovered ele- ment in our nature, the Sub-Conscious Self, that Self which is so much below the threshold of consciousness. If we were to draw a truncated cone we would find that one-eighth of our life is conscious and seven-eighths belongs to the Sub-Conscious realm. It is the Sub-Conscious Self that is acted upon in Sug- gestion, in Hypnotism, that is ever active in our dreams, that is permanent in certain diseases and when our conscious mental powers have been weakened by the final sickness. It is the Self that is acted upon in Mental Healing, in IMental Therapeutics, in Christian Science, in Divine Healing, in New Thought, and to-day in the so-called Emmanuel Church movement in Boston. Du Bois, the leading French neurologist of Paris, in his newly translated book. The Psychic Treatment of Nervous Disorders, goes so far as to say that probably nine-tenths of all functional disorders are mental, rather than physical, and can be cured by influencing the sul)-conscious self. Tliis sub- ject is a study by itself, but a few facts of additional interest should be here given. Dr. Pratt, in his book already referred to, says: "These things are in the background or fringe region. They are not neotic, objective, defined, and communicable, but subjective and A STUDY OF rSYCllUJ.()(JY 81 private. As soon as we fix attention upon them and thus take thoin out of the fringe region, tliey become neotic and com- municable, but not till then. That we are really conscious of them l)of()re fixing our ntlontion upon thorn — I.e., that they () / , A' Cut No. 36. {Smith after Jones.) "It is impossible to put facts of the 'inner life' into a diagram," says Prof. Jones. "But a 'pictoral image' may possibly suggest the idea here a little better. In the figure (a) shows the 'peak' of consciousness. Around it (b) are the 'dying peak' and the 'dawning peak,' i.e., the one which has just now prevailed, and the one which will succeed next. The thought of any moment is influenced by what is just dying out and by what is just coming in. This makes the 'fringe' around the peak. Then (c) represents the 'threshold' or horizon of consciousness. Submerged below this line there lies (d) the vast realm of the sub-conscious, which, for all we know, borders upon the infinite Life, rises out of it, and may receive 'incursions' from it." belong to the fringe and are not purely physiological and un- conscious— is shown by the fact that we notice their cessation. If the clock, which we did not 'hear,' suddenly stops, we feel that something has happened ; our total consciousness undergoes a change. Thus, while still in the fringe region and while as yet unnoticed and unknown, they have an effect upon the general tone of our consciousness, they color our life — and this not in an intellectual but in an effective way. In this conscious back- ground belong also the fringes which weave themselves about our clearest ideas; 'feelings of tendency'; the vague meanings which are yet no meanings, and which are neither ideas nor feelings. "And one thing more may, perhaps, be added : namely, that 82 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION as Professor James has suggested, this region seems to have another environment besides the conscious one; it seems to point to a Beyond. "For the one thesis which I wish to defend, the one conten- tion for which I really care, is that the whole man must be trusted as against any small portion of his nature, such as reason and perception. These latter should, of course, be trusted, but they should have no monopoly of our confidence. The ideals which have animated and guided the race, the senti- ments and passions which do us the most honor, the impulses which raise us above the brutes and which have been the motive forces of history, the intuitions which have marked out the saviors and saints and the heroes of our earth, have not come from the brightly illuminated center of consciousness, have not been the result of reason and of logic, but have sprung from the deeper instinctive regions of our nature. The man as a whole and the instinctive origin of much that is best in him deserves more consideration than it has sometimes received. For the instinctive part of our nature, in part conscious, in part uncon- scious, is ultimately the dominating factor in our lives and the source of most of our real ideals. 'There is in us,' says Maeter- linck, 'above the reasoning portion of our reason, a whole region answering to something different, which is preparing for the surprises of the future, which is awaiting the events of the un- known. This part of our intelligence, . . .' . in times when, so to speak, we knew nothing of the laws of nature, came before us, went ahead of our imperfect attainments, and made us live, morally, socially, and sentimentally, on a level very much superior to that of those attaimnents.' " Cole says: "Every act of perception focuses consciousness on some definite object which seems to fill the thought, but it is easy to show that this object in consciousness always has its fringe or margin. In our field of vision there is always more than we know we see. Objects or circumstances which do not come to clear consciousness make their influence felt and get a standing, though their presence is not acknowledged. The blueness of the sky, or the heavy mist of the day, is present in the background of our consciousness throughout the day, and though we may not once make sky or mist the subject of conver- A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 83 sation, or definite object of thought, it will contribute to our mood, influence our decisions and be a factor in all we do or think." Gordy holds sensations exist before they are known. "But although knowledge takes its rise in sensation, it by no means follows that the first experience of sensations constitutes the beginning of knowledge. If we consider what knowledge is, we shall see that, in the nature of the case, the mind must have sensations before it knows it has them. I do not mean merely that a fact must exist in order to be known. That, of course, is true of sensation, but more than that is true. Sensations not only must exist in order to be known, but they may exist — and often do — for a considerable period before they are known ; and 1 think, if we realize what knowledge is, we shall sec that in the nature of tiie case this must be so." C. L. Raymond of the George Washington University has just published another book on the Psychology of Inspika- Tiox. In it he writes : "There is no proof that hypnotism does any more than furnish opportunity, availing itself of w^hich the sub-conscious can exercise its influence in a way normal to itself, yet not ordinarily observed because hidden behind the activities of consciousness. The germs of thought from which^ the con- ceptions of the hypnotic patient are developed are often very elementary in character. Subjects possessing no oratorical gifts, for instance, are told to personate some famous public speaker, and at once they set out, and, with apparent ease, deliver ad- dresses closely resembling not only in method but phraseology some speech of this man which they have previously heard or read, though only in an extremely superficial and heedless way. The author himself knows of a reasonably authentic instance, being personally acquainted with all the parties concerned, in which — though in the presence, indeed, of one familiar with the Italian language, which fact may have influenced the result — a man who knew nothing of this language, when hypnotized by another, who also knew nothing of it, was made to sing, with correct Italian words and pronunciation, a song which the sub- ject had heard but once, and this years before. "Tiiis occult action of the mind, of which we are speaking, is not confined, however, to memory. If it were, its results 84 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION could all be allied to the ordinary phenomena of recollection, of which it would merely be an unusual development. Similar action is evident in connection with logical and mathematical processes, and even with those involving skill, which would ap- pear, at first thought, especially dependent upon conscious direc- tion. "The fact of the existence, side by side, of mental action both sub-conscious and conscious is much more easy to prove than most of us are aware. How often have we heard a friend unconsciously hum or even sing aloud in perfect time and tune a song, while his conscious energies were directed toward the ac- complishment of a task entirely different in character ! We are all more or less familiar, too, with the conditions under which a conscious action, or series of actions, may be made to become unconscious. Every one who has acquired skill in any depart- ment knows that it is a result of practice continued until the mind has become enabled to superintend a large number of de- tails without having any of them clearly in consciousness." The Will. Since Character is conduct, and conduct comes from willing, all new habits being primarily formed by willing, it is necessary to examine Will. Will is used in two senses. (1) All our ca- pacity for active life, even automatic habits, unconscious in na- ture, can be called willing, in the broadest application. (2) In the narrow terminology, it refers to such acts as cannot be in- attentively performed — that is, that require a deliberative fiat on the part of the mind, in order to be executed. All thought tends to become an act; all attention tends to eventuate in Willing, in a motor reaction, that is. It may only be an alteration of the heart-beats, or a blush or a sob or what-not. It may be the outcome of a single idea, or the result of weighing a number of ideas; a contest or battle of motives, the result of deliberation. This deliberation results in a choice, a fiat, a decision. There are two sorts of nerves: (a) those of inhibition or arrest, that stop or prevent an action; and (&) those of motor action, that perform. The contest, the weigh- ing, is the balancing of ideas. Hesitation is the deadlock of A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 85 ideas. It may result in action through Motor nerves; or refrain- ing from action, through the nerves of Inhibition. The nerves are very delicate, and a strong idea in the focus may become utterly neutralized by faint contradictory ideas coming in from the margin, and replacing the focal thought, which, if retained, would have resulted in a very different action. Our conduct, then, is the result of the compounding of our impulsions and inhibitions. In Pratt's Psychology of Keligious Belief, it says: "The will itself, or conation, as distinct from the other psychical elements, always eludes our grasp. The truth is, if you look for will as an element, you can never find it; for it is a com- pound— the most inclusive of all psychic compounds. It is a matter of the succession of states of consciousness and is not to be found in any cross-section of the stream. You can never single it out from its psychic content, as you can feeling, and say, 'This is pure will.' You can never put your finger on it. It is no more a given matter which you find than association is. Will and association occur; they are not given. They are pro- cesses, not elements. To include will in an enumeration of the elements of psychic life is like saying the competitors in a race were A, B, C, and swiftness; or like speaking of the circulatory system as containing venous blood, arterial blood, and circu- lation." Deliberation. "The word Deliberation is used in ordinary speech to mean any state of mind in which some topic is considered attentively. It then means little more than a state of attention. In a more restricted sense it describes a state of Will, with mental choice between one or more possibilities of action. In such cases the state of mind is likely to include diiierent and more or less op- posed methods. We think over the alternatives, have ideas favoring this or the other, and balance the Pros and Cons. From the inside, it is the presence of images and pictures, plus emotions of doubt and uncertaint}'. From the outside, it is a state of hesitation before action. The termination of this hesi- tation or conflict of ideas is sometimes marked by a feeling of decision or choice. We must not confuse the fact of decision 86 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION with the feeling of decision. The fact of decision means that one motive has conquered, that one idea or act has prevailed, and it may have little or no feeling of choice accompanying it. The term fiat of the will is applied to a feeling which may be analyzed as a sort of, Go ahead, let the act occur. The feelings concerned in the life of conduct are, in the main, made of intel- lectual and emotional stuff. The only ends which follow imme- diately upon our willing, seem to be movements of our own bodies. Whatever feelings and havings we may will to get come in as results of preliminary movements, which we make for the purpose. The only direct outward effects of our will are bodily movements." Deliberation, Reflection, and Willing. Let us make a diagrammatic scheme to illustrate this process. In the drawing herewith, let us suppose that "y^: the reader were the guest of a lady at din- /' I *•. ner. The menu has proceeded to the des- ,/'" ; "\ sert course, and a tidy waitress enters the '■''' , ■.:,...■. 'l.. rooms with a tray of plates containing pieces of cold mince pic. It chances to be that you have been afflicted with chronic dyspepsia, and that the physician has forbidden your eating pie, and especially cold mince pie. The sensations and ideas enter- ing the mind that have nothing to do with the argument under which you decide whether or not to eat that particular piece of mince pie, we will call the indifferent arguments, and number them a' b' etc., in the drawing. They would be such things as the sight of the waitress, the tray, the pattern of the plates, the fork beside you, with which to consume the pie. Your first im- pression, then, would probably be a feeling: "Oh, here comes pie, mince pie, just what I love." "The pie, mince pie, just what I love," would correspond to the arguments a, b, and c Pro, that is, the arguments in behalf of the act. There arise at once opposition arguments, that we will call a", b", and c". They would be such as "Yes, but the Doctor said I mustn't eat pie, and especially mince pie, and especially cold mince pie." At once some other arguments Fro enter the mind, so that there ensues a mental dialogue about as follows : "But then I have not A STL'DY OF PSYC'IIOJ.OGY 87 boon sick in three months, and ma}'!)© it won't hurt me. Well, but when I was sick, I was sick in bed for two weeks and I had the doctor every day, and it cost me $2 a visit. Oh ! but this is such a small piece of mince pie, and then I am so very hungry. I was leaving space for the dessert, and you know I cannot be impolite to my hostess, and, and, and," to a prolonged extent. "Yes, but when I was sick, I was very, very sick, and I suffered so terribly that I resolved that I would never again take the risk of eating mince pie, and most of my suffering has been caused by mince pie." Meanwhile your mental and visible eye have both been centered on the piece of pie. Eemember that we said in a previous section that the moment one looks at or pays attention to the idea of an act, there is a tendency for that act to realize itself. Moreover, the situation is never a fair one. One is al- ways prejudiced, and when prejudiced the tendency invariably is, even when one strives to be just, to minimize the arguments against the act and magnify the arguments for it. In fact, you can put it down as a rule that if the arguments seem equal for any act in life, the thing that you should do is what you do not want to do, because of the almost certainty of a biased view of the arguments. So that, gazing at the pie, you presently re- mark to yourself, a remark that really constitutes the act of decision, "Well, anyhow my digestive organs are my own, and it is nobody's business if I do suffer. I will take the risk." With that final remark, and perhaps a mental toss of the head, you look away from the arguments Con until they are practically obliterated from the mind, and you focus your attention on the strength of the arguments Pro, with the inevitable result that down goes the mince pie. That is Willing. Types of Will. There are types of Will, just as of Attention. They are (a) Precipitate, and (b) Obstructed. The former type is seen in the maniac ; the latter in certain melancholiacs, where perfect "abulia," or inability to will an act, is present. Eaces differ in types of Will. The Southern races are impulsive; the North- ern, as the English, are repressive. The former is the lowest type, for it has few scruples, and acts regardless of consequences. The strongest minds will weigh consequences, deliberate, con- 88 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION sider jiros and cons. The Balky Will is the extreme of deadlock. The balance of ideas refuses to be broken. The child or the horse cannot act, however hard he tries. The Will refuses to break the deliberation. So long as the inhibiting machinery is active the child finds the obstacle insurmountable and im- passable. "Then make him forget, drop the matter for a time, springing it suddenly on him later in some other way, before he has time to recognize it, and likely as not he can act. Don't try to 'break his Will.' Better break his neck than his Will," says James. Allowance must be made in the case of those children whose wills verge toward the extreme impulsive type or toward the extreme pondering type. A teacher must not irritate the former by forever checking their natural tendency to jump at actions or the latter by hurrying them on to what seems to them im- possibly hasty decisions. Too vigorous opposition to their nat- ural bent will make the one class confused and sulky and the other nervous and tearful. We must bring each toward the golden mean of action that is neither rash nor tardy by sympa- thetic and ingenious treatment. With a pupil of the impulsive extreme, get him to agree to the simple rule that before he acts in any important situation he is to write on a bit of paper what he is going to do and why he is going to do it. "When in great doubt, do either or both," is a maxim which these pondering children are often quite willing to follow, and which soon improves greatly the power of prompt attention. It should be their guide in all unimportant decisions and is not a bad rule for them even in really vital questions. Just as there are two types of Will, there are tivo types of Inhibition — that by repression or negation and that by substi- tution. The latter is the one to select. Eeplace the deadlock by a new inhibiting idea — the former quickly gives up and vanishes from the field. Action is better than repression. "He whose life is based on the word 'No,' is in an inferior position in every respect to what he would be if the love of truth and magnanimity possessed him from the outset." Build up Char- acter by a positive, not by a negative. Education. Thus it is that James gives us the rule that "Voluntary action is, at all times, the resultant of the compounding of our A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 89 iiiijnilsioiis witli our inhibitions." The matter of training the will and the rules for doing so will be considered by us in a subsequent eliaj)ter. We will merely say here, in answer to the question : '*ln what does a moral act consist when reduced to its simplest and most elementary form," that the moral act con- sists in the effort of attention by Avhich we hold fast an idea which but for tliat ell'ort of attention would be driven out of the mind by the other psychological tendencies that are there. "To think is the secret of will, just as it is the secret of memory." This is the happy way in which it is expressed by James. The Opposition of Knowing, Feeling, and Willing. It is like the tiiree angles of a triangle — no two are on the top at the same time. Therefore we cannot Know intensely, and Feel intensely and Will intensely at the same time. If the feelings are uppermost, the intellect and will are in abeyance. Mob rule is an example of this. If the intellect is uppermost, the head has gained control of the feelings, and the emotions are therefore in abeyance, and the result is cold intellectuality and self-control. When we will, we will have some emotion and some intellect, but the willing is the uppermost act. That is why we call an angry man mad, because his knowing powers have become disarranged. When Carpenter was lecturing he forgot his pain, because pain is a feeling, and when he was lectur- ing he was exercising his intellect very vigorously. The expres- sion "wild with grief" illustrates the same law. One does not make much progress in those studies where the interest is so lit- tle that we have to put forth a great deal of effort to keep our minds on them. The will is used so energetically to concentrate the attention that there is little energy left for knowing. So that when your pupils are amused they learn little, because amusement, a feeling, is a hindrance to that concentration of mind that is study or knowing, and yet there is a certain inter- dependence between knowing, feeling, and willing. When we feel we know, and when we know we feel. Bodily wishes and pains, all feelings, in fact, depend upon knowing. Emotion, Intellect, and Will. Hack Tuke's classic work on the connection of mind and body divides the action of tlu; mind into that produced l)y intel- 90 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION led, emotion, and will ; and out of the whole numhor of special instances given we find that 36 per cent, are due to the intellect, 56 per cent, to the emotions, and 8 per cent, to the will. He points out that the intellect appears to influence the vascular tissues most; emotion the glands and organs, specially the heart; and the will the so-called voluntary muscles. Some emo- tions, he adds, act specially on definite organs — as grief on the lachrymal glands; some in certain regions, as shown in the skin of the face; and some more on the voluntary muscles — as wonder on the facial muscles, says Dr. Schofield. The Face the Window of the Mind. Speaking of the direct action of the mind with most of the ordinary functional diseases, Laycock says: "Study well the physiognomy of the disease — that is to say, all these external characteristics in the patient that reach the unaided senses and which are associated — associated, I would point out, chiefly through the brain cortex — with morbid states, whether they be sounds or odors or visible and tangible modifications of form, complexion, expression, and modes of functional activity, taking cognizance of minute modifications, as well as of the more ob- vious, for tliey are only minute in a popular sense. If this is done, it is truly as 'scientific' a inode of diagnosis as any stetho- scopic or chemical investigation. Ko doubt some persons are more tell-tale physiognomically than others; that is, there is in them a closer and more constant relationship between the organic and sensory centers in the cortex, and the mental and motor centers that control the face and attitudes; their mental reflexes are, in fact, more acute. "In considering these close sympathies of mind and body, we are reminded here of an interesting point lately raised as to whether the mind can remain undefiled after voluntary physical immoralities. It seems to me that the fact of evil thoughts being written physically upon the face shows that evil deeds are written psychically upon the mind; and, indeed, every consideration of the close interdependence of soul and body must tend to drive from the minds of serious thinkers this mischievous philosophical antinomianism, which has lately re- appeared in Europe, into which even a Maeterlinck, so great in A STUDY OF rSYCHOLOGY 91 many deparlnicnts of thought, has permitted himself to be be- guiled; and wliich teaches that the soul of a prostitute or of a murderer may preserve its purity in the midst of atrocious bodily acts. The soul may, indeed, remain pure while most hideous violences arc oll'ered to the body ; but to absolve it from partici- pation in voluntary action is surely a misconception of every- thing." This holds even more surely a fact when we consider the effect of conscience and mind upon the face of a criminal or hypocrite. QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. 1. Discuss the part Attention plays in life. 2. What is the Educational Advantage of depending, so far as may be, on Passive Attention ? 3. Why is the teacher who has to secure attention by command, wasteful of mental forces? 4. Which, among the devices known of for securing voluntary atten- tion, have you tried? 5. How may a review of last Sunday's Lesson be made to help llie present Lesson on the basis of Attention? 6. What light does this Chapter throw upon the common Sunday School practice of going over, year after year, precisely the same lessons ? 7. Discuss Definitions of Memory. 8. On what five points does it depend? Illustrate. 9. What part does the "Sub-conscious Self" play? 10. Discuss Will. 11. Picture and illustrate Deliberation. CHAPTER VI. A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY (Continued). Instincts — Habit — Character. SUGGESTED READINGS. Instincts: ♦Talks to Tbaciieks. James, pp. 22-63. Psychologic Foundations of Education. Harria. pp. 160-166. ♦Briefer Course. James. Index. ♦New I'STCHOLOGY. Oordy. pp. 188-200. ♦Churchman's Manual. Butler, p. 106. Psychology of Inspiration. Raymond, p. 78 — I'RiNciPLES OF Psychology. Thomdikc. pp. 27, 179 — Habit: Character Building. Coler. p. 108. ♦Tub Foundations of Education. Seelcy. pp. 84-92. ♦Talks to Teachers. James, pp. 64-79. ♦Syllabus to Above. Hcrvey. The Self: ♦Briefer Course. James. Index. Instincts, Native and Acquired. All consciousness, all thoughts, all ideas lead to action. No sensation or impression or perception is received that does not bear results in action. No impression without expression. No stimulus (either from without — external; or from within — purely mental) without reaction. This action may be negative, not to speak, act, etc. The return act helps to clinch the impres- sion, fix, and deepen it; and so the act comes back as a still further impression. Hence in education, especially in training motives and ideals, try to provide for a reaction or expression. (See section on Habit and Doing under The Class.) Our educa- tion implies, therefore, the acquisition of a mass of tendencies, of possibilities of reaction. Every reaction is either native, the outcome of Instinct; or acquired, the result of training of In- A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 93 etincts, the substitution or alteration of native Tendencies to Reaction. Without the original or native tendencies, the teacher would have no hold on the child whatever. "He must do something before you can get your purchase on him, that something may be good or bad. A bad reaction is better than no reaction at all ; for, if bad, you can couple it with consequences, which awaken him to its badness." A child that is so dead that he reacts in no way is beyond the preliminary steps of education. Thorndike says : "Instincts, as now commonly defined, in- clude reflexes and all other connections or tendencies to con- nections amongst thoughts, feelings, and acts which are un- learned— are in us apart from training or experience. Anything that we do without having to learn to do it, in brief, is an instinct. Thus, crying when pain is felt, starting at a sudden noise, feeling fear at large, strange, moving objects seen in the dark, feeling anger when food is snatched away from one and laughing when tickled, are instincts of babyhood; to feel jeal- ousy when rivalled by one of the same sex, and to act con- spicuously when attracted by one of the opposite sex, are in- stincts of youth. The common usage of the words instinct and instinctive differs from the psychologist's usage. People com- monly say that they do or feel certain things instinctively when they act or feel without deliberation or forethought or clear con- sciousness of what or why; e.g., 'He instinctively lifted the glass to his lips.' 'By instinct I realized tliat the only way of escape was directly through the fire.' Neither of these cases would be called instinctive by the psychologist. For to him an instinct means an act that is the result of mere inner growth, not of training, or experience." Thus we see that, character or conduct being a bundle of habits, and habits being the result of either (1) developing instincts and training them, or (2) altering them by substitu- tion of other actions, or (3) by repressing or killing them, in- stinct lies at the bottom of all life. Every habit, every action, or, as James puts it "every acquired reaction as a rule is either a complication grafted on the native reaction or a substitute for the native reaction, which the same subject originally tended to provoke. The teachers' art consists in bringing about the sub- 94 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION stitution or complication of reactions," impressions from without, that is, environment. Classification of instincts. The following classification of the Feelings, Instincts, De- sires, Emotions (all of which are the same thing really) is tabu- laled below and is taken from Sully's description in his hand- book of Psychology, the feelings noted in parentheses being additions to the author's classification: (1) Bodily feelings — sense feelings: (a) Organic, as feeling warmth and cold. (b) Special sense, as feeling from touching objects, soft and smooth, or hard and rough. (2) Mental feelings — emotions: (a) Instinctive or egoistic — Fear, anger, rivalry, love of activity, of approbation (envy, jealousy, hate, shame, pride, ambition). (h) Social — Love, sympathy ( imitativeness, pity, philan- thropy, patriotism). (c) Sentiments — (a) Intellectual — Wonder, curiosity. Object, truth. (&) Aesthetic — Tastes. Object, the beautiful, (c) Moral — Eeverence for duty and moral law. Object, moral goodness. TJie spontaneous Religious Interests or Instincts of chil- dren according to Dr. K. M. Hodge are as follows: 1. Avidity for stories is manifest from the second to the ninth year. (a) Stories of simple obedience are called for until the seventh year. (b) Stories of the reasonableness of obedience for the eighth and ninth j'^ears. 2. The History-and-Gcography-loving period begins with the tenth year, (a) Histories of the reasonableness of obedience are re- quired from the tenth to the twelfth year. Here be- longs the National History of the Hebrews. A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 95 (h) Fondness for history concerning the higher life, the life controlled hy love of God and man, is pro- nounced from tlic thirteenth year, the period of al- truism and conversion. Here are to be assigned the biograjihies of Jesus and the Apostles. 3. Desire for rules of conduct, grounded upon the authority of common experience is manifested by the eleventh year. For two or thn^e years Biblical Proverbs and similar say- ings are more welcome than at any other period. 4. The development of the constructive imagination becomes pronounced by the eighteenth year. This calls for the study of the discourses, letters, and ways of working of social reformers, such as the Old Testament Prophets, the Apostles and Christian leaders since their time. 5. Rudimentary anticipations of the interests which dominate later periods of child development arc to be nourished as soon as manifested, by introducing into the earlier parts of the curriculum more or less of the material which, as a whole, is reserved for the periods when these respective interests become the controlling ones. For this reason, and on account of the extreme simplicity of Christ's revelation of Cod and human conduct, stories of Jesus' life and teachings should be assigned among the earliest Bible lessons for children. According to Professor Thorndike: "So also envy, jealousy, fear, delight in cruelty and the like must be eliminated, as well as ignorance or disobedience. Good teaching will substitute honest rivalry and sympathy for envy and jealousy, and inhibit delight in cruelty by cultivating the opposing habits of care and protection. Ambition, pride, anger and the other emotions which are good or bad according to their objects should be directed as carefully as the capacities to observe, remember, and argue. "To hate aright is as necessary as to infer aright. 'The great secret of education,' says Adam Smith, 'is to direct vanity to proper objects.' " Instincts of Educational Value. Instincts are really controlling motives, and this list will be referred to again when we come to consider Incentives to Order. 96 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Animals have been considered the creatures of instinct, and yet it is likely that men have a far larger assortment of native impulses. The entire list is too enormous to enumerate. A few are, however, im2:)ortant, that we may either repress, educate, or increase them. Fear. — This is one of the earliest motives to appear, and one of the lowest to use, for it paralyzes spontaneity of character and produces servility. For certain classes of children, usually low in breeding and accustomed to punishment, it may be the only motive that will appeal to the understanding. It is never suited to any save undeveloped moral natures. Love. — A strong and Godlike impulse. Use it wisely and well. Almost the strongest power in the Sunday school is the personal affection that exists for the teacher. It is well that this is so, even though it often prove a barrier to proper grading, and the transference of pupils to other classes. The bond of sympathy, the power of affection and personal example, the heart-side of education is God-like, and should never be despised. The teacher who has lost the sympathy and affection and respect of the children, had better resign the class at once. For teachers they love, children will do a great deal to manifest their affec- tion. Order, even under a dry subject and pretty lifeless teach- ing, may be secured and maintained for a long time by a teacher who is beloved. It is perhaps not the theoretically ideal basis on which order is securable; but it is one of the very best and high- est that small children can be possessed of. Mrs. Loud remarks that : "It may seem an unnecessary strictness to oblige a child to be accurate in the small details of arranging his work orderly on paper or slate. But the teacher who allows slipshod methods of work to pass through her hands, is aiding that child along a slipshod path of morality. Accept nothing but the best work of a pupil, and you are establishing a stable character, which will not only give the child a grip on material things, but will give the child a strength of character in ethical matters as well. Teach the child that nothing is right that is not exactly right, and you are training him in a respectful observance of moral duties that will keep him from imbibing the atmosphere of careless indifference to moral obligations that A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 97 has niado these duties seem of so much less moment now, than they were believed formerly to be." Curiosity. — In the best sense it is a desire to know, the seek- ing after truth. It is one of the very best instincts to be culti- vated. The Inquiring Attitude, wliich we speak of later on, is the foundation stone of all education and scholarship. In childhood it confines itself to material objects, the con- crete, theoretic curiosity about rational relations does not awaken until adolescence is reached. Answer a child's everlasting inter- rogation point, especially as to concrete knowledge, and you need never trouble about order. His absorption will be absolute and complete. Curiosity is universal. There is no question of arous- ing it. Only supply material to satisfy it. Moreover, remember that "curiosity in the child will become love of the truth in the man." It is met by taking the child by the hand and leading him into the wide, wondrous realm of truth-investigation. It is Longfellow's : "Come and wander with nie. Into regions yet untrod; And read what still is unread In the manuscripts of God." x\nd this attitude toward curiosity marks the trend of the entire method we should pursue in all education. Follow truth, no matter where she leads, only be certain that it is the truth, and that sure foundations underlie the path we tread to her abode. Drawbridge says: "Curiosity, which may be defined as 'the hunger of the mind,' is one of the chief characteristics of child- hood. Tlie teacher should make full use of this indispensable instinct. In the first place he should raise curiosity, and then concentrate it on the subject in hand. It is impossible to teach without the interest and attention of the pupil, and the best -way of securing these is to raise his curiosity in the subject. The child is then anxious to learn what the teacher is eager to teach." Imitation. — Man especially imitates, animals do not, to any great extent. We nuike use of it in every phase of education. "Watch me, see how I do or say it," is a standard phase. This is especially true of all types of manual work, whore learning by doing, that is by imitation, is almost invariably the best way of nS RELrOFOL'S ElKXJATION teaching. It is also true regarding personal habits, such as reverence, love of trulli, honesty, loyalty, etc. Emulation, the impulse to imitate another so as not to seem inferior. ]t was developed largely by the Jesuits. When it does not engender strife, it is a good motive. It is manifested in rivalry, in group-work, in the emj)loy]nent of incentives as prizes, honors, rewards, etc. The tone of a class or school is kept up by the spirit of emulation, the pride in keeping traditions alive. All individual improvement results from the basal instinct of rivalry. There is both a selfish and noble rivalry; and James assures us that "it is the noble and generous form that is par- ticularly common in childhood." Ambition is perhaps a pro- nounced form of pride and emulation. Pugnacity is still another exhibition of it. Make the child ashamed of being downed by difficulties, because you make him anxious to keep up to his possible self, to do his hcst because it is his best and because he is capable of it. So long as the bond of human sympathy exists, a proper kind of emulation will always appear. Much can be accomplished in maintaining order by emulation, both between individual scholars and between neighboring classes. Competition, which is similar to emulation, and which, if it be not allowed to degenerate into rivalry, is of benefit in stimu- lating flagging energies and keeping that eagerness which secures healthy order. Love of Activity, numifested by want of change, change of posture, or of subject, or of method of recitation. Dullness and sameness are fatal to good order. Therefore make frequent alteration both in the position of the children (the more frequent the younger they are), in the method of teaching the lessons, varying from a routine plan each week or so; and in the subject, or at least in its treatment, so far as may be. Consciousness of Power. — This is not the same as Emula- tion, Ambition, etc. It is the feeling of advance in control and discipline, self-mastery, such as one experiences after accom- plishing a difficult piece of work. When a child comes to feel that he has a special power he is responsible for, he seldom neg- lects to make use of it. Professor James in a magazine article on the "Powers of Men" in the American for ISTovember, 1907, speaks of getting A STL'DY OF PSYCHOLOGY 99 one's second wind. ''Everyone knows,"' lie says, ''what it is to start a piece of work, either intellectual or muscular, feeling stale — or cold, as an Adirondack guide once put it to me. And everybody knows what it is to 'warm up' to his Job. The process of warming up gets particularly striking in the phenomenon known as 'second wind.' On usual occasions we make a practice of stopping an occupation as soon as we meet the first effective layer (so to call it) of fatigue. We have then walked, played, or worked 'enough,' so we desist. That amount of fatigue is an efficacious obstruction on this side of whi(;h our usual life is cast. But if an unusual necessity forces us to press onward, a sur- prising thing occurs. The fatigue gets worse up to a certain critical point, when gradually or suddenly it passes away, and we are fresher than before. We have evidently tapped a level of new energy, masked until then by the fatigue-obstacle, usually obeyed. There may be layer after layer of this experience. A third and a fourth 'wind' may supervene. Mental activity shows the phenomenon as well as physical, and in exceptional cases we may find, beyond the very extremity of fatigue-distress, amounts of ease and power that we never dreamed ourselves to own, sources of strength habitually not taxed at all, because habitually we never push through the obstruction, never pass those early critical points. "It is evident that our organism has stored-u}) reserves of energy that are ordinarily not called upon, but that may be called upon: deeper and deeper strata of combustible or explosible material, discontinuously arranged, but ready for use by any- one who probes so deep, and repairing themselves by rest as well as do the superficial strata. Most of us continue living unneces- sarily near our surface. Our energy-budget is like our nutritive budget. Physiologists say that a man is in 'Nutritive Equili- brium' when day after day he neither gains nor loses weight, l^ut the odd tiling is that this condition may obtain on aston- ishingly different amounts of food. Take a man in nutritive equilibrium, and systematically increase or lessen his rations. In the first case he will begin to gain weight, in the second case to lose it. The change will be greatest on the first day, less on the second, still less on the third; and so on, till he has gained all that he will gain, or lost all that he will lose, on that 100 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION altered diet. lie is in nutritive equilibrium again, but with a new weight ; and this neither lessens nor increases because his various combustion-processes have adjusted themselves to the changed dietary. ITc gets rid, in one way or another, of just as much N. C. H. etc., as he takes in per diem. "Just so one can be in what I might call efficiency-equilib- rium (neither gaining nor losing power when once the equilib- rium is reached), on astonishingly different quantities of work, no matter in what direction the work nuiy be measured. It may be physical work, intellectual work, moral work, or spiritual work. "Of course, there are limits; the trees don't grow into the sk}^ But the plain fact remains that men the world over possess amounts of resource, which only very exceptional individuals push to their extremes of use. But the very same individual, pushing his energies to their extreme, may in a vast number of cases keep the pace up day after da}?-, and find no 'reaction' of a bad sort, so long as decent hygienic conditions are preserved. His more active rate of energizing does not wreck him ; for the organism adapts itself, and as the rate of waste augments, aug- ments correspondingly the rate of repair. "I say the rate and not the time of repair. The busiest man needs no more hours of rest than the idler. Some years ago Professor Patrick, of the Iowa State University, kept three yoTing men awake four days and nights. When his observations on them were finished, the subjects were permitted to sleep themselves out. All awoke from this sleep completely refreshed, but the one who took longest to restore himself from his long vigil only slept one-third more time than was regular with him." Ownership. — This instinct arises in the second year of life. Private ownership cannot be practically abolished until human nature is changed. Loan a child a lead pencil, and he will use it mechanically; give it to him, and he will use it with still more interest; let him buy it, and it is at once suffused with the halo of ownership. That is the reason why it is advised that, no matter how poor or wealthy a school may be, the children be required to bu}'' the picture-mounting-book or note book, while the school supplies the pictures. In the same way in distributing Bibles and Prayer A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 101 Books, it is far better to let the children pay, say one-half the cost, in order that they may value it. Ownership, if it costs something, creates interest of a very strong kind. In some schools even the lesson books are sold to the scholars, just as in many public schools to-day. Magazines which we receive free we seldom read. Those that we pay for, we read to get our money's worth. The Accumulating, Collecimg, Acquisitive Instinct makes "collections" of stamps, coins, postmarks, eggs, and the like. Use it. Turn it into the right directions. Suggest the forma- tion of a school collection of religious pictures, of scrap books or files, of models, or of Bible illustrative material. Neat, clean lesson books, careful notes, etc., may be secured in this manner. Constructivencss. — Up to the eighth or ninth year, children do little else than handle things, tear apart, explore, which is the early stage of construction. Later, they put together, when they have learned how to do it. So education seizes on the early years for construction and object-teaching. Certainty. — The Instinct for Certainty appears soon after the child begins to learn and know. It is one of the earliest instincts of intelligent life, often seen before the third year. While the child is very credulous he is being prepared for an after life of investigation, proof, and certainty. The instinct for certainty is strong during the childhood stage. Children first want empirical proof, testing by the use of sensations and the muscles. Authority and testimony are appealed to soon after. They quote others as witnesses. Asseveration is a com- mon mode of bringing assurance — "honest, truly, deed and double, honor bright, hope to die, sure as fate, honest and true, black and blue, lay me down and cut me in two," are a few of the many terms of adjuration children invent to satisfy their instinct for the true. Instincts of Pugnacity. — The fighting instinct offers a use- ful illustration of the general superiority of substitution over repression as a means of inhibiting instincts ! If punishing boys for fighting would cure them of it, the instinct would be its own cure, for the fighting itself brings physical pain enough. As we all know, mere repression is here a most uneconomical pre- ventive, whereas the substitution of orderly boxing and wrestling. 102 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION football, basket-ball and the like, often succeeds admirably. You cannot push the Niagara river back into Lake Erie and keep it there, but you can, by creating new channels for it, make it drive the wheels of factories in the service of man. So often with the impulses of human nature. Other Instincts. — Many other instincts are scon, such as Shyness, Secretiveness, etc. They are apparent as traits of Character. The point is that we recognize them as Instincts to be trained; and not think that because a child possesses a given trait that is undesirable, it must necessarily retain it always. It is ours to educate it out of him. Transitorincss of Instincts. — James gives us the law of the transitoriness of instincts : "Many instincts ripen at a certain age and then fade away. A consequence of this law is that if, during the time of such an instinct's vivacity, objects adequate to arouse it are met with, a liahit of acting on them is formed, which remains when the original instinct has passed away; but that if no such objects are met with, then no habit will be formed ; and, later on in life, when the animal meets the objects, he will altogether fail to react, as at the earlier epoch he would instinctively have done. Xo doubt such a law is restricted. Some instincts are far less transient than others — those con- nected with feeding and self-preservation may hardly be tran- sient at all, and some, after fading out for a time, recur as strong as ever; e. g., the instincts of pairing and rearing young. To detect the moment of the instinctive readiness for the sub- ject is, then, the first duty of every educator. As for the pupils, it would probably lead to a more earnest temper on the part of college students if they had less belief in their unlimited future intellectual potentialities, and could be brought to realize that whatever physics and political economy and philosophy they are now acquiring are, for better or worse, the physics and political economy and philosophy that will have to serve them to the end." Thorndike puts it in a more concise manner: "If an in- stinct does not accord with our notions of desirable behavior, we may and do get rid of it. If it is advantageous, we must take pains to provide the conditions to call it into use and to allow its action to result in pleasure. Instincts are a fund of capital loaned to us by nature for a period, not given outright. Only A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 103 on condition that thoy are used and bring satisfaction do they become our permanent property." Habits. Tendencies to reaction or response which are formed in whole or in part by experience or training are called Habits. The instincts become habits as soon as experience focuses or alters them. Practically all of human behavior is a series of habits. The essential nature is the same whether the habit is partially formed and rarely used, or fully formed and always used. Any tendency for anything to go with anything else, mental or physical, is cither a case of pure instinct or of habit. Habits not in action, and the possibilities of forming habits, are called Powers. The inborn qualities which are the partial basis for the development of mental powers, as it were instincts of possibility, are called Capacities. As Miss Slattery says : — "Behind every habit lies a motive, so that when the teacher begins to plan the formation of good habits and the destruction of bad ones in his children, the first step is a search for motive. 'Why does the child do this?' is a constant question. Here is a child who lies every time he is accused of anything. 'I didn't do it,' falls from his lips before the accusation is finished. The lie of imagination is entirely different from the lie of convenience. Why does he lie? In his particular case he lies to save himself from punishment. He is a coward. He is afraid of punishment, but not of lying. As I study his case I may find that he has been severely and unjustly punished and has come to the conclusion that it is better to lie and escape. My task is then clear. I must make him despise his cowardice and give him a profound fear of a lie, while I do my best to introduce into his make-up courage enough to take his punishment, even though severe, rather than lie. When Ananias fell dead 'great fear' came upon all who knew, a fear of lying and deceit, and it had a tremendous influence upon those who constituted the Church in the first few years. One of the worst things which can happen to a child is to tell a lie and not get caught. I am glad when I find a child who is afraid to lie." 104 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Habits are thus acquired reactions, and, when formed, become second nature, or as the Duke of Wellington said, "ten times nature." An acquired habit, from the psychological point of view, is nothing but a new path-way of discharge formed in the brain by which certain in-coming currents ever after tend to escape. James states: "The moment one tries to define what habit is, one is led to the fundamental properties of matter. The laws of Nature are nothing but the immutable habits which the dif- ferent elementary sorts of matter follow in their actions and re- actions upon each other. In the organic world, however, the habits are more variable than this. Even instincts vary from one individual to another of a kind ; and are modified in the same individual, as we shall later see, to suit the exigencies of the case. On the principles of the atomistic philosophy the habits of an elementary particle of matter cannot change, because the particle is itself an unchangeable thing; but those of a com- pound mass of matter can change, because they are in the last instance due to the structure of the compound, and either out- ward forces or inward tensions can, from one hour to another, turn that structure into something different from what it was. That is, they can do so if the body be plastic enough to maintain its integrity, and be not disrupted when its structure yields. The change of structure here spoken of need not involve the out- ward shape ; it may be invisible and molecular, as when a bar of iron becomes magnetic or crystalline through the action of cer- tain outward causes, or india-rubber becomes friable, or plaster 'sets.' All these changes are rather slow; the material in ques- tion opposes a certain resistance to the modifying cause, which it takes time to overcome, but the gradual yielding whereof often saves the material from being disrupted altogether. When the structure has yielded, the same inertia becomes a condition of its comparative permanence in the new form, and of the new habits the body then manifests. Plasiiciiy, then, in the wide sense of the word, means the possession of a structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at once. Each relatively stable phase of equilibrium in such a structure A STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 105 is marked b}- what we may call a new set of habits. Organic matter, especially nervous tissue, seems endowed with a very extraordinary degree of plasticity of this sort; so that we may Avithout hesitation lay down as our first proposition the follow- ing: that the phenomena of habit in living beings are due to the plasticity of the organic materials of wliicli their bodies arc composed." Thus, M. Leon Dumont writes : "Every one knows how a garment, after having been worn a certain time, clings to the shape of the body better than when it was new ; there has been a change in the tissue, and this change is a new habit of cohesion. "A lock works better after being used some time ; at the out- set more force was required to overcome certain roughness in the mechanism. The overcoming of their resistance is a phenome- non of liabiiualion. It costs less trouble to fold a paper when it has been folded already x\nd just so in the nervous system the impressions of outer objects fashion for themselves more and more appropriate paths, and these vital phenomena recur under similar excitements from without, when they have been interrupted a certain time." Ennis Richmond here is ideally inspiring: "Do we put be- fore the children in our charge such an ideal that their educa- tion includes a gradual training of their instinctive desire to worship something into a clear knowledge of what is worthy of worship? It seems almost too obvious a platitude to say that only by making ourselves worthy of the respect of all, can we hope to earn for ourselves the true respect of even the youngest child, and yet it appears to be a necessary ingredient of my argu- ment, for we are so incurably apt to assume that age, as such, de- mands respect, just as we are apt to assume that age, as such, demands obedience." There is only one firm foundation for real obedience of any kind, and that foundation is Trust, and any other kind of obedi- ence which we must enforce while the real lesson is being learned are only steps toward the acquiring of true obedience, that which means that we trust the dispenser of rule. 106 RKLrOTOUS EDUCATION The Elements of Moral Training. Tliorndikc s;iys: "The training of character is corres- pondingly complex. Useful instincts must be given a chance to exercise themselves and become liabits. Harmful instinctive re- sponses must be inhibited through lack of stimulus, through the substitution of desirable ones, or through actual resultant dis- comfort, as best fits each special case. The mind must be sup- plied with noble ideas through the right examples at home, in school, in the world at large, and in books. These ideas must be made to issue in appropriate action, or they may be worse than useless. The capacity to examine any situation, and see what is the essential fact in it which should decide action, must be constantly exercised and guided. The habits of letting 'It is right,' or 'It is best,' or 'It will be for the real welfare of the world,' or the like. I)e an absolutely final warrant for action must be firmly fixed. '^Phe will must be prevented alike from precipi- tate responses and from dawdling indecision. The power to ban- ish from the mind attractive but unworthy ideas, and to go on one's way regardless of the effort involved in so doing, must be gradually built up. Especially important is the actual formation of definite habits. If a man is made to obey a thousand particular 'This is right's,' and 'That is right's,' he will, so far as he has the capacity, come to connect respect and obedience with the ab- stractly right and true. If he does what he has to do well, and treats his fellow-beings as he should in the thousands of situa- tions of the ordinary course of life, he will gain the power to conquer attractive counter-impulses." The Self. This is a rather abstract subject, but we dare not pass over at least a mention of the philosophic treatment of the Self, or the Ego. James, in his Briefer Course (page 176 ff.) deals with its various aspects clearly and logically. It is a chapter well worth reading. He takes up the Self as Known, dividing it into the Material Me, the Social Me, and the Spiritual Me; and the Self Knower or Thinker, that is, the pure Ego. The chief im- portance of the Self to us is the Interests which appear in the A STITDY OF rSYCHOLOGY 107 cliild and upon which wo can play. He gives them in tabuhir form as follows : MATERIAL SOCIAIi SPIRITUAL Self- Seekiug. Bodily Appe- tites and Instincts, Love of Adorn- ment, Foppery, Ac- quisitiveness, Con- structlveness, Love of Home, etc. Desire to Please, be Noticed, Ad- mired, etc. Socia- l)i!ity. Emulation, Envy, Love, I'ur- sult of Honor, Am- bition, etc. Intellectual, Mor- al, and Ueiigious Aspirations, Con- scientiousness. Self- Estimation. Personal Van- ity, Modesty, etc., Pride of Wealth, Fear of Poverty. Social and Fam- ily Pride, Vain- Klory, Snobbery. Humility, Shame, etc. Sense of Moral or Mental Supe- riority, Purity, etc. Sense of Inferior- ity or of Guiit. Strictly speaking they are instincts which we use in forming habits, the motives to which we can appeal. QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. What are Instincts? Why important? What, if any, diflerence is there between Sunday School Teaching and other teaching in tlie use of the native reaction of Fear? Of Love? How does the assignment of special work to individuals in a class appeal to the "ambitious impulses"? Illustrate. In what ways may the instinct of Ownership, or the Collecting Impulse, be turned to account in Sunday School work? What connection between the tendency to Constructiveness and the concrete or dramatic presentation of a lesson or character is there ? Explain "Habit." What particular habits would you strive to form at each age? What Instincts are of special value to the Sunday School Teacher? What possible "Selves" liave we? CHAPTER VII. THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. Primary Age. SUGGESTED HEADINGS. The Stages: ♦Up Through Childhood. Hubhell. pp. 111-131. Teachku Training. Roads, pp. 22-24. Sunday School Science. Holmes, pp. 17-21. rsvcHoi.oGic EouNUATioN.s OF EDUCATION. Harris, pp. 300-321. •TALK.S TO Teachehs. Jamcs. pp. 146-150. Hints on Child Tkaining. Trumbull. Chap. XIV. ♦I'Jducation in Religion. Coe. pp. 220-300/^. *TiiE Chukchman's Manual. Butler, pp. 8-30. The Primary Age: Teacher Training. Roads, pp. 25-30. The Teacher, the Child, and the Hook. Schaufflcr. p. 103. Character Building. Color, p. 188. Philosophy ok the Unconscious. Varlyle. •The Mind of a Child. Richmond. •Pedagogical Piulb School. Haslett. pp. 102-114, 246-248. •Education in Religion. Coe. pp. 133, 229. •A Study in Child Nature. Harrison. All. •The I'oiNT OF Contact. Dulioia. All. •The Churchman's Manual. Butler, pp. 109-136. The Hook op the Child. Hoio. All. Newer Methods. Lee. pp. 32, 34, 35, 37. Stages or Divisions of Child-Development. We have seen that the instincts, motives, impulses, desires, interests of the child have a definite method of development, and unfold at well recognized stages or periods in life. Not only is his bodily growth an orderly progress, but his mental activity is, as well. Both of these determine our Method and our Curriculum. Our Point of Contact is the child at each particular stage of development, his needs, his interests, the environment that will be best adapted to the well rounded un- folding of his powers. These definite stages or steps reach from infancy to manhood. The line of demarcation separating them is not by any means clear and distinct. These divisions are: THE STACHvS OK l)KVKLOl\MENT 109 (1) Infancy, or Babyhood, the suckling period, only to the first year. (2) Early Childhood, the Primary Age, from one to six years, sonietinies called the Kindergarten Age. These two stages are divided by Dr. Alvord Butler into the Age of Instinct, from one to three, and the Age of Impulse from three to six. (3) Childhood, from six to twelve years of age, sometimes divided into the primary school age, from six to eight and one- half or nine (t. e. Third grade Day School). Dr. Butler again makes two divisions of this period, from six to nine, the Age of Imitation, and from nine to twelve, the Age of Habit. (4) Youth or Adolescence, from twelve to eighteen or nineteen years of age, sometimes divided into Early Adolescence, from twelve to sixteen, the Age of Moral Crises, and Middle Adolescence, from sixteen to nineteen, tlie Age of Komancc and Ideality. (5) Later Adolescence, from eighteen to twenty-five, the age of Decision. (6) Manhood, from twenty-five years onward. We shall now consider the stages of Child Development, bearing in mind constantly the two points already elucidated : The mental powers develop in a definite order, thus Per- ception, Memor}^, Imagination, Eeflection, and Insight (these being the former stages of Perception, Analysis, Synthesis, Rea- son and Philosophic Insight). The Instincts, that great, crowding army of hereditary de- sires and impulses, generally rise to maturity and then either remain constant as Habits, or wane and die out; though not all at once, nor in the same order in every child. I. — The Primary Age, One to Six Years Old. 1-3, Age of Instinct; 3-6, Age of Impulse. 1. Physical Characteristics. Restlessness. — The small child can keep still about fifty seconds, the teacher probably thinks it is less than that. There- fore, the Kindergarten School will provide for movement and motion ; opening and closing hymns will be marching songs ; the offertory will be taken to a marching collection hymn; Motion hymns will be used ; the children will be encouraged to come for- ward and point out people and objects in their pictures, on the sand table, or the blackboard. There will be constant motion every few minutes for the wee children. 110 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Activity. — The child must be doing or he cannot grow. "Growth advances from the more general or fundamental mus- cles to those that are secondary or accessory. A child uses its larger muscles, those that move the large joints and limbs, and develops them before it trains the smaller muscles that move the smaller joints. A child can run, jump, roll, skip, kick, strike, leap, push, and pull before it can write, sew, carve, draw, tie, knit, and manijjulate a musical instrument skillfully, march, or dance gracefully. The skillful use of tlie hands and feet is acquired after the general and untrained use of the same has been developed," says Ilaslett. He is by nature rhythmical and loves music. He Avill move his body constantly in response to the music. About the third year is the beginning of a nascent stage for singing. Music may well consume the major portion of the instruction hour. Pictures, models, blackboard, sand table, action exercises, and stories may occupy the remainder. In Har- rison's Study or Child Nature it says: "Making a restless child keep still is a repression of this nervous energy, which irri- tates the whole nervous system, causing illtemper, moroseness, and general uncomfortableness. If this force could be properly expended, the child would be always sunny-tempored. This legitinuite and natural investigative activity needs only to be led from the negative patli of destruction into the positive one of construction. Instead of vainly attempting to suppress the new- born power of the young pioneer, or searcher after truth, guide it aright. Give him playthings which can be taken to pieces and put together again without injury to the material. The positive method of training builds up the cheering, optimistic character which is so much needed. Who are the men and women that are lifting the world upwards and onwards? Are they not those who encourage more than they criticise ?" Love of Play, which to the child is serious and earnest work. The educational value of play is now fully recognized by the Day School. Coe says : "The plays of the young, since they reveal the spontaneous interests, have become a clue to educa- tional problems; and since spontaneous interest has become the leverage of the teacher in the education of the child, the con- scious effort of teachers has been to make the work of the school- room somewhat like the work of the playground. There is no TIIK STAGES OF DKNKLOl'.M KM' 111 absolute dividing line between llie two kinds of work. Nor is this all. For play itself turns out to be a first-class educational process. The play instinct is Nature's way, and so God's way, of developing bod}', mind and cliaracter. Quickness and accuracy of perception; coordination of the muscles, which puts the body at the prompt service of the mind; rapidity of thought; accuracy of judgment; promptness of decision; self-control; respect for others; the habit of cooperation; self-sacrifice for the good of a group — all these products of true education are called out in play and games. Further, the play instinct varies with the dif- ferent species and with the two sexes, so that its specific forms prepare the individual for his specific functions. The plays of a lamb prepare for the activities of a grazing animal ; those of a lion's whelp foretell the pursuit and killing of prey. The plays of a girl look forward to motherhood; those of a boy to protect- ing, building, acquiring. In short, play is a part of jSTature's school. "Eelation of Play to h'cligious Education. The relation of play to religious education demands a specific word. Just as the gap between the school and play is being filled up, so the home and the Church should now at last awake to the divine significance of the play instinct and make use of it for the pur- pose of developing the spiritual nature. The opposition be- tween the play spirit and the religious spirit is not real, but only fancied ; just as that between play and schooling in general. Through our ignorance we have put asunder that which God hath joined together. Here is the secret of much of our lack of power with young people. We teach children to think of their most free and spontaneous activities, their plays, as having no affinity for religion, and then we wonder why religion does not seem more attractive to them as they grow toward maturity ! We mask the joy and freedom of religion by our long faces, our perfunctory devotions, our whispers and reticences, and then we find it strange that young people are so inordinately fond of worldly pleasures !" As late as the year 1900 a prominent Sunday school leader insisted upon Keeping up this paralyzing distinction. "It is wrong," he said, "to talk about the kindergarten of the Bible school. Wise primary workers are averse to turning any part of 112 IIEI.IGIOUS EDUC^ATION ilie Bible school into a kindergarten because the tboiiglit of play should be kept for places otlier than God's house, and for times other than the Txjrd's day. The little ones should be taught reverence very early in life." As long as such notions prevail, we should expect children to exclude God from their plays, think of religion as unnaturnl, and either grow up indifferent to re- ligion or else reserve their reverence for the Lord's Day and the Lord's House. Unless we discover the unity of play with edu- cation in religion as v/cU as with so-called education, we shall never secure control of the whole child or the whole youth for Christ. Savagery. — In his life history a child repeats the history of the race, physically and psychically, socially and religiously. This is what is known as the Recapitulation Theory. It is ex- pounded very fully by Haslett (pp. 318 to 225). Little children are savages. They manifest such unthink- ing cruelty at times that any explanation of it is difficult apart from the theory of savage characteristics of ancestors being repeated in the children. Instincts are inherited habits. They are our ancestors' ways of doing things handed on to their off- spring. They are individual habits that have become racial. The Culture Epochs Theory attempts to determine what those interests are and the time of their natural appearance and the proper food for their nourishment. Passing through the stages of racial history in its pre-human development ; the child ascends from savagery to civilization in a broad and general way, with, of course, individual variations. Dr. Coriat writes : "This evolution, and consequent mental and moral development, is the result of experience, environment, and the acquisition of knowledge, even knowledge of the most abstruse and philosophical kind, for no one to-day holds to the doctrine of innate ideas. I have said that children resemble savage and primitive man; that is, they are over-credulous, plas- tic, simple, open to and reacting to all kinds of suggestions. A blind, non-selective belief is the chief characteristic of child- hood. As is well known, children assent to everything. Imagi- nation runs riot in them ; they have a maze of ideas without THE sta(;es ok dknklim'.mkxt ii;; (Icfinito plan, as must have been perceived by all readers of Pierre Loti's admirable Story oi'^ a Child." 2. Mental Characteristics. Dependence on Others. — The child clings to its mother and teacher and gladly follows every suggestion made by them. It shows lovingness to an extreme degree. All coldness or harsh- ness will at once drive the child of this period away. Only a person of very low moral qualities will deceive or be harsh with a child. Well has Scripture said : "Whosoever offendeth one of these little ones who believe in Me, it were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck and that he were drowned in the midst of the sea." Franhness and Artlessness, in his Doings and Sayings. — Not seeing cause and effect he is outspoken in his statements and eagerly tells everything he knows. Failh and Trust. — Ideal faith is noticed especially along Eeligious, Symbolic, and Mystical lines. The child has its fetiches, which it often deifies and appears to worship. The con- tents of a small child's pockets will show a collection of fetiches closely akin to the age of savagery. It is intensely anthropomor- phic. God is literally to him an old "Man." He knows Jesus Christ as a person with a body, and does not at all realize that God the Father, and God the Son are pure spirit. In fact he cannot appreciate what a spirit is. A great many adults have crude ideas of God. The mother of a little three year old child told the writer that she had not instructed her little girl about God at all, waiting until it became older, that she might under- stand better. Someone else, however, told the child, and the little girl came to her mother for fuller information. Then the mother told her fully. The little child had been taken some weeks previous to the circus to see Buffalo Bill. Ever since that visit her ideal and hero had been Buffalo Bill. She talked of him constantly, and when she set chairs for her dolls at play- ing tea, she set an empty chair for Buffalo Bill, pretending that he was present. When told about God, the child looked up at her mother and said: "Well, mamma, then I must set a chair for God, mustn't I?*' The mother took her literally, and said "yes." The next time the child was playing, there were two ]]} KELKUULS Ein (ATIOX cliairs set, one for God and one for Buffalo Bill. No harm is done, probably, by this kind of anthropomorphism, and the child outgrows it in time. Professor Pratt writes: ''It is, of course, impossible to say at just what age the period of childish credulity above described comes to an end. It differs with different children. Earl Barnes thinks that the tenth year is generally the turning point, and in this he is probably right. Still, the questioning spirit which finally puts an end to the child's naive acceptance of what is told him manifests itself in many children long before this." It is important to interpret this symbolism of the small child aright in our Sunday school teaching, or we may utterly miss the mark. Miss Anna W. Williams, Superintendent of the Public Kindergartens in Philadelphia, says: "The object or 'symbol," as it is falsely called, as generally applied in Sunday school, does not give a child a clearer vision of truth, but rather leads him away from it. We confuse the application of symbol to the adult and the child's interpretation of it. Symbolism to the adult is the representation of spiritual truth by means of material things; to the child the symbol stands for an object. For instance, 'Thy word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my path,' referred to the custom of wearing lamps on the feet to prevent the bite of serpents, and to avoid dangers. This illustration is meaningless to any human being, whether adult or child, who has not felt the guidance of God's word in a dark hour of life, and the need of such. A cliild must have the ex- perience before he can interpret the symbol. Showing him a foot with a lamp on it does not give experience, which is the es- sential element of the story; it simply tells him the method of lighting the path in Oriental countries. "The idea must be gained through life experience, through feeling, before the symbol means anything. 'If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from thee.' No child could feel the meaning of this figure of speech, since he has had no life experience of gangrenous sickness and the corrupting power of sin. Children do not look beyond the immediate sin, while the adult does realize the mass of corrupting evil that grows from what we call 'minor sins,' such as speaking ill of one's neigh- bors, leading to greater sin, such as neglect of prayer. THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 115 "A child's use of symbolisni is a totally dilTerent one. lie explains one thing by another thing. He makes a chair (a thing) represent a train of cars (another thing), his father's cane a horse. He would never put the cane for something he did not understand. He makes one thing he understands repre- sent another thing he understands. For instance, he would never of himself use the spiritual expression, 'My soul doth magnify the Lord' by the use of a magnifying glass in his hand, as has been done in illustrating a Sunday school lesson. 'Magnify' — to nuike great, larger in size than a common glass can do — in no way expresses Mary's feelings of exaltation in the greatness and loving-kindness of God, and the honor given to her, as she ex- presses it in the Magnificat.'' Persotiification. — Xot only does the child personify religion to a marked degree, demanding clear definite personal teaching about God, but it personifies concrete inanimate objects. Jjiter- ally it talks to the sun, moon, and stars. To its playthings it attributes life. On a railroad train the other day a little four- year-old youngster was looking at a freight train and had been talking to its mother about this kind of a train. As the passen- ger car pulled away from the freight, the child looked out of the window and said "Good-by, Mr. Freight Train." Similar in- stances are constantly found with children of this age. Utter Self -Unconsciousness. — A small child is seemingly self-assertive, and "pushes himself forward." For example he is not afraid of front pews in Church, while adults are exasper- atingly averse to them. Many parents and teachers are apt to chide children for this self-assertion. It is not that the child is self-assertive, rather it is self-unconsciousness. It would be a good thing if he could keep that self-unconsciousness. Imitativeness which reproduces even bad actions. In the kindergarten and primary ages the children imitate their par- ents. In the next age, Childhood, they imitate their companions. In adolescence, they imitate noble deeds, ideals. This early stage of imitation is frequently lost sight of, and attributed to hered- ity. The note on heredity in a previous chapter explains why the child is termed a "chip off the old block." Curiosity. — It is the child's period of accumulation. He is gathering in facts. The whole vista of a new world is open be- IIG IIELIGIOUS EDUCATION fore him. Until adolescence he will ask "fact questions" and constantly, "Who ? Where ? What ?" will be on his lips. Without curiosity he could never learn. First he is destructive, and then constructive ; first he pulls apart to see what things are ; later on, but not before ten or eleven, he puts together. Imagination is very active and the perceptions are crowding on him so that he prefers to live in the life of make-believe rather than in that of reality. While his perceptions are active, they are not keen, nor accurate. His imagination is almost uncontrol- lable; fancy runs riot in his growing brain, and the world of make-believe is often more real than the world he sees and hears. The stories that he tells which we call falsehoods are true stories from his world of make-believe, in which he is living, and they should be treated accordingly. Every writer on Childhood, with scarcely a single exception, James, Butler, Coe, Harrison, Bir- ney, Richmond, Forbush, Hall, How, all say that the child's so- called "lies" are disturbed imagination and seldom intentional. This wonderful imagination is no doubt closely allied with the early portions of memory. Many a child has suffered at the hands of his parents for words which they have ruthlessly called "lies," though so closely prompted by a vivid imagination and seeming true to the utterer. "It is one of the most difficult things," says How, "to define exactly where the knowledge of untruthfulness comes in. Probably no two children are alike in this, and it requires the utmost tact and the utmost knowledge of the particular child's character to determine the point where the one thing ends and the other begins." Most children's lies are simply the work of the imagination. They intend no harm or deception whatever. At this age they are unable to distinguish between fact and fancy, and the imagination uses both inter- changeably. The child unconsciously colors the story in the telling. He is more or less inclined towards superstition the first four or five years of this period. The wilder and more un- reasonable the superstitious stories, the readier is the child to take them up and nourish his marvel-enjoying mind upon them. Says Haslett, quoting from Oppenheim: "He naturally in- clines to superstition because its beliefs titillate his wonder- loving cast of mind. . . . It is Just as easy for him to be- lieve that God will kill bad little boys by a thunderbolt as it is to THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 117 recognize the orderly working of an electric current. There is no doubt that he would rather believe a tale of miracles than a recital of plain facts. A tale of fairies and dwarfs is just as real to him as the recital of holy events which concern the acts of the good angels and Satan." Much of folk lore and mythology can be explained when we thus recognize that the adult nations, as well as individuals, have frequently never gotten beyond this imagination stage. Egoistic Feelings are very prominent in early childhood. "A little child is self-centered, because he has not learned to think of others or to work for others. He early manifests pride, and self-love, and self-pity, and self-approbation, and selfishness, and something akin to greed. Fear, delight, love, curiosity, wonder, sympathy, and love of approbation are feelings that the teacher and parent may wisely observe in the instruction of little children." Miss Harrison wisely says : "The love which instinctively comes from a child to its mother is usually shown in the caressing touch of the baby hands, the tremendous hug of the little arms, the coaxing kiss of the rosy lips, and is to the fond mother an inexpressible delight. Nor need she rob herself of one such moment; while her child is in the loving mood, let her ask of him some little service, very slight at first, but enough to make him put forth an effort to aid her. Thus can she transform the mere selfish love of the child into the beginning of that spirit- ual love which Christ commended when He said, 'If ye love Me, keep My commandments.' " Concreteness. — At first the child can appreciate only the concrete, that is, only some thing, some picture, some object, some story, which will give him a mental image, or mental pic- ture actually portraying the thing in his mind. He cannot appreciate the abstract. Professor Adams says concerning the Fundamental dif- ference between the developed and the undeveloped mind : "This difference may be roughly expressed by saying that the undevel- oped mind deals more with the concrete, the developed with the abstract. The child deals with things as they stand, rather than in their relations to one another. He does most of his thinking by pictures or by types. When we talk of a dog, he thinks of his 118 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION dog, and makes it stand for all the rest. All a child's senses are at least as keen as those of an adult, and yet the adult seems to see and hear more than the child does. The explanation is that we see with our minds as well as with our eyes, we see the present thing in the light of all we have seen before, so that the adult brings to his observation much that is still unknown to the child. "For a similar reason, adults seem to remember things better than children, and yet children have the advantage in the way of memory. Perhaps the period between seven and ten years of age is that at which memory is at its best. At that age children find it easiest to learn things by rote. The memory is plastic, and can take in and retain all sorts of unconnected ideas. Systems of classification, therefore, arc foreign to his mind. This is pa7' excellence the Story Age, reached by stories, illus- trations, and parables.'' There should be a clear distinction drawn between story, biography, and history. A story is a detailed concrete portrayal of an event, or a portion of an event, or a man's life, or a portion of his life. The story age runs from about eight and one-half to nine years. The child never wearies of repetition. The same story told in precisely the same way is its demand, and woe betide the mother who varies a line from the story as she told it first. "Tell it the way you told it before, mamma. You have not told me just as it was," is his constant demand. Biography is less detailed, but more complete. Biography must have a be- ginning and an ending, it must be presented as a whole, the man's whole life. Dr. Butler tells the story of a little child of ten who burst out crying when his teacher told him about David and Goliath only. "You didn't tell about David as a baby," he wailed. This biography age runs from about eight and one-half years to twelve years. History is still different. History means relationships and generally rests on cause and effect. It is the man and Ids times, that is the man in the setting of his times. Thus the same Bible material may be at one time story, at another biography, and at another history, depending upon the treatment and the age of the child. The Conscience of the small child is not yet developed. His moral nature is guided by Impulses or Instincts, rather than by Conscience. Questions of conscience are not for the small child. TIJK SlA(;i:s OF DION KI.Ol'MKiNT 1 U* The cliikl oxcrcisos little ctrori in choosing between a right and wrong situation. Conscience is very vague. Conscience is de- veloped, or rather it is read and interpreted, through mental knowledge. Conscience does not appear strongly in a child until at least the age of ten. A child does not think of moral quality in the abstract. For a young child, good is what is permitted, evil is what is forbidden. His religious ideas are few and vague ; he is not immoral, he is unmoral. The second period, that from eight to twelve, is the era of conscience building. The purpose of instruction in this second grade is so to educate conscience and the whole moral nature that the child, being impressed with a deep sense of God's authority and love, should be obedient to and helpful to others, and so in right doing find his own happi- ness. Mrs. Birney says that it is in the first three years of a child's life that the habit of obedience is most easily inculcated. If parents would only bear this in mind, they would save them- selves much needless friction and anxiety. The wee toddler, just beginning to walk and talk, is quick to detect the difference be- tween the voice of authority and that of irresolute command. I believe in giving reasons as early as one can, but in the matters of nursery discipline the child must early be taught to obey, be- cause he is told to do so. The child's needs in connection with his physical well-being are much the same from day to day, while his wishes are subject to many variations. One of the simplest ways of insuring obedience to law and a willingness to accept the discipline which aids in the establish- ment of right habit and thought is by a continual direction of the child's mind to the rights of others. If he has broken his companion's toys, he should replace them Avith his own, not be- cause he will punish himself thereby, but because his little friend would have to do without them on account of his care- lessness, and that would not be right. The application of the principles of justice is, in the daily lives of children, a powerful factor in character building. In punishing cliildren the difference between penalty and discipline should be kept in mind. Penalty is the inevitable price demanded by broken law, and though it may teach knowl- edge by experience, it does not necessarily develop the moral lliU PvlOLlGJOUS EDUCATION nature of the child. True discipline is corrective, and, wlicn given by either parent or teacher in wisdom and a spirit of love, tends to strengthen the will of the child to desire the good and to avoid the evil. Choose, of course, the discipline which leads and directs rather than that which threatens and coerces through fear. Only one sanction is as yet known to the infant — that of success; the knowledge of good and evil has not yet emerged. The formation, therefore, of the earliest habits is a normal phe- nomenon. Doubtless the young child sometimes presents an ugly spectacle of apparent selfishness in the satisfaction of its appetites, and of passionate resentment to restraint in their in- dulgence. But in such behavior it is only following its "nature." Children's dislike of restraint upon pleasure, until developed intelligence discerns its reasonableness, is both natural and inevitable. In other words, sin first becomes a possibility when the child has acquired moral personality. And this it does through what is called social heredity. Conscience is made, not born; or rather, it is given. It is obtained by the child from its human environment. The growth of human personality, and especially of moral personality, has been found to be pre-eminently a matter of social suggestions. The child grows into the adult only by drawing upon the store of accomplished activities, forms, and patterns which society already possesses. Psychologists tell us that, roughly and generally speaking, tlie awakening of the moral faculty occurs somewhere about the age of three years. The rudimentary stage of conscience is called out chiefly by enforced obedience to commands — obedience compelled by punishments. It gradually learns the content of moral law, however, partly by instruction and correction, partly by imitation, and later, by reflection. Thus there grows up very slowly a moral ideal, whose fulness enlarges as experience widens. But from first to last the content of the moral law is learned from environment. And when conscience has thus been suf- ficiently developed to enable the child, unaided, to condemn its own actions, it ceases to be innocent with the innocence of good and evil. Now, for the first time, sin becomes a possibility; for THE STAGES OF DEVEI.OIWIENT 121 there is no siu without a law and an appreliension of the claim of law. The teacher's attitude toward questions of Truth, or of Eight and Wrong should be that of exactitude and precision rather than that of a moral wrong. The child will not realize the objective wrong of it to God until he knows God as Law- Giver. The question of the parent's relation to the child's relig- ion is an important one at this point. Frederick D. How, in the Book of the Child, says : "Probably one of the earliest perplex- ities that presents itself to a parent, is the question of the child's religion. And yet, it is doubtful whether in the generality of cases the matter is considered early enough. There are, evi- dently, three kinds of parents taking three separate views of the question. There are those who hold distinctly materialistic opinions, and who therefore deliberately decline to enter into the subject at all. They agree with the sentiments expressed in a French work on children, published some quarter of a century ago, in which the following passages occur: 'We may boldly assert that the sense of religion exists no more in the intelligence of a little child than does the supernatural in nature.' And again : 'In our opinion parents are very much mistaken in think- ing it their duty to instruct their little ones in such things, which have no real interest for them — as who made them, who created the world, what is the soul, what is its present and future des- tiny, and so forth.' "But, in the second place, there are some parents who are simply careless. They would be rather shocked at being told that they themselves were irreligious, but, when they forget all about their children's religion, it cannot be supposed that their own is of much more real concern to them. "Thirdly, there are the parents who desire beyond all things that their children shall lead religious lives, and are anxious to do their utmost to start the little feet on the right path. It is this class of parent who is often perplexed to know what is best. The difficulties are certainly great. Children differ so widely, that what is good for one child may be harmful for another. But in almost all cases the tendency is to put off religious teach- ing too long. The mind of a very young child — one who would be commonly described as a baby — has been proved again and 122 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION again to be remarkably receptive of evil as well as of good in- fluences and impressions, and the earlier a baby's mind can be filled with the very simplest religious truths, the less room there will be for evil, and the greater the likelihood of a firm belief in truths that have been absorbed almost with the mother's milk. "This leads to the question of how far a very young child has any direct personal religion; any feeling, that is, of a direct communication even of the most elementary kind between itself and its God, without the intervention of any human being. It would probably be true to say that at first this is impossible, but that at a very early age the sense can be imparted. To quote the words of a mother who has brought up a number of children in the fear and love of God, personal religion in children ^of course begins by being mixed up with Mother, who, if she is a real mother, is to her babies the representative of warmth, com- fort, love, and everything that they want.' When, in addition to this a child has depended for months upon its mother for food, and has constantly slept in her arms, the influence of that mother is so great that her religion naturally becomes the relig- ion of the child, who accepts every word she says absolutely. Thus, the 'God bless you,' and the words of loving prayer whicli come so often and so naturally to a mother s lips, are absorbed by the child until its faith in some unconscious way grows into its life, and becomes a real thing between itself and its God. "Observation leads at this age to a love of nature, especially in its wilder aspects. At about six the child asks who made the flowers, the grass, and the different objects of nature. It is not satisfied with the general answer: 'God made everything.' In its struggle for monotheism it seeks concrete statements. By the end of the kindergarten class period, the child knows God not only as Father, but as Creator. He must come to know the Ruler of the Universe. Like the savage he likes to read about and imitate, he worships the God of nature. "As he sees nature obey laws, so he sees the soldier and sailor obey. He has had his own first lessons in obedience. Once appreciating this, the child has a firm foundation for a moral conscience. At the beginning of this stage, although the child may not know the meaning of the word conscience, he knows the voice of right and wrong within him. THE STAGES OE DEVELOPMENT 123 "To press the cause of Christ early in this stage is a mistake. The child is only beginning to learn what a cause is. As has been suggested, during the first part of this period even in his games he plays for himself rather than for his side. His form of baseball is for individual runs. After he has learned in games to identify his interests with those of his team or side, we can urge the championship of a religious cause." The Memory is Weak. — Haslett says : "Psychologically, the child's memory is very weak. The child does not have the strong power of attention so essential in training the memory. The greater part of our childhood experiences are forgotten soon after we pass that period. But psychologically, the memory of early childhood is strong, since the brain structures in children are very sensitive to impressions. This seems to be one reason why aged people can remember the experiences of their early childhood much more distinctly than those of recent years. The experiences of later life are not so deeply set in the brain struc- tures as these are not nearly so impressionable. The childhood impressions are the most lasting and the most influential, since they touch the whole of life." Sex-unconsciousness. — During this period the children are so absolutely sex-unconscious that no one ever thinks of separ- ating them in kindergarten, or in primary school. This instinct, however, shows a most marked change during the next two periods, childhood and adolescence. During childhood there is sex-repellance. The boy says: "I wouldn't play with girls," and the girl says, elevating her little nose, "T wouldn't be seen playing with boys," and so they are separated to prevent them from fighting. During adolescence they are sex-attracted, and for the opposite reason, the school separates them, in order to get any work out of them. Hints to Parents and Teachers. Prevent Affectation. — Frederick How, who is heart and soul a child-lover, urges this caution thus: "Nothing is more sad than to see a child, at an age when his or her natural fresh- ness and simplicity should be most clearly in evidence, already cramped and artificial through an effort to copy some older per- son. A gentleman once took shelter in a house during a heavy 124 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION storm. The master and mistress were both out, but their little daughter was summoned from her A, B, C to talk to the unex- pected guest. He told her he was sorry to have brought her downstairs, to which came the simpering reply: 'Oh, pray don't mention it !' Contact with sincere and unaffected people will soon, of itself, overcome this fault. "If children be allowed to absorb the spirit that is pervading the world at the present day — the spirit of revolt against all authority, the notion, that is, that everyone is to do exactly as he or she chooses — that will of itself bring about a state of mind which is destructive of real happiness. Notions such as these are quickly picked up, and parents who themselves set all rules and authority at defiance cannot expect their children to sub- mit to control. "Then there is a second cause which is too often at work, and which does a great deal towards turning some children into disagreeable and discontented young folk. When people are con- tinually trying to emulate if not excel their neighbors in appear- ance, and in the entertainments they provide, children are quick enough to take their cue from what they see and overhear, with the result that they are miserable if they think their frocks are less fashionable than their neighbors', and are rude and discon- tented if at one party they do not get as handsome presents as at some other. This is all wrong, and distinctly diminishes the pleasure that these children might otherwise enjoy." Develop Necessary Perception. — The child should realize at this age that some things must be done in order that other things may be enjoyed. "He must get up on time, and dress on time, or he cannot eat breakfast with his father. It is most wise to cultivate this beginning of 'necessary perception,' and to emphasize it in needed discipline. The omission of discipline teaches the child to believe that nothing is necessary, except that he should do as he likes and get what he desires. This dangerous attitude is made easy, because the child's physical senses are as active as an adult's, while his understanding is only partially developed." Watch the Child's Companions. — Mrs. Birney devotes an entire chapter to this important subject. Among other advice she says: "Every child, every boy and girl who comes to your THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 125 house to sec your children, should be an object of intense inter- est to you; watch them without their knowledge;, and if you see grave faults, speak of them to your children; speak pityingly, as though you felt the wrong-doers might not know better, and urge them to stand up bravely at all times for the things that arc right, and thus by their influence and example help their companions to do right." QUESTIONS FOR TITOUCTIT AND DISCUSSION. 1. Into what General Stages is Mental Development divided? 2. What are the chief Educational Instincts to use in the Kindergarten and Primary Ages? 3. How will Restlessness and Activity Determine Method in the Kindergarten ? 4. What is the Educational Value of Play? 5. Discuss the Personification and Anthropomorphism in this age. 6. Discuss Lies of Imagination. 7. What can you say of the Small Child's Conscience? 8. What Hints are Important to Parents and Teachers? CHAPTER VIII. THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. Childhood. SUGGESTED READINGS. Childhood: Letters to a Mother. Blow. Teacher Training. Roads, pp. 30-33. ♦The Boy Problem. Forbitsh. pp. 9-20. ♦Through Boyhood to Manhood. Richmond. The Training of the Young in the Laws of Sex. Richmond. •Pedagogical Bible School. Ilaslett. pp. 127, 129-136. Education in Religion. Coe. pp. 239/f. ♦Churchman's Manual. Butler, pp. 112-113, 136-169. ♦Childhood. Birncij. Index. il. — The Second Period, Later Childhood, from Six to Twelve Years of Age. 6-9, Age of Imitation; 9-12, Age of Habit. This stage of boyhood and girlhood is the great teaching period, especially in Sunday school. The Day school succeeds in holding children a little longer, often through college courses. The Sunday school is apt to lose the children, particularly boys, just as the age of puberty approaches, the critical time when they most need religion and loving guidance. 1. Physical Characteristics: Less Restlessness. — The child can keep quiet and pay atten- tion a little longer than before. Tireless Activity. — This is not so manifest perhaps as at the Primary Age; but still it is a feature. Children love action. Doing is their first thought. The best way to teach the Bible now is by doing Christian work, bringing into play both good works and handicraft, in class illustration. Give children some- thing to do, and their interest is at once attracted and held. They may weary soon of doing the same thing. That is natural. THE STACKS OF DKVRLOPMENT 127 Change then to t^onieiliing else. His games now arc active games, sport or romping, not sedentary. Tlu; heroic attracts him botli from its phase of courage and daring and from its activity and doing. Hero-worship is manifest at every turn. Use it, then. Present Jesus Christ, the Ilero-King. Give the Old Testament Heroes and the Apostolic llccord of Brave Deeds. Let him read Miss Yonge's Book of Golden Deeds, and see how lie devours it. Tales of Travel and Adventure form the main part of his reading. It is his Old Testament time of life. The Senses are still the most noticeable feature and the highly alert child is seeking information at every source. He is "a perambulating interrogation point." Be patient with him then, for it is the learning time of life. Give him all he asks, quietly, gently, clearly, patiently. So long as he is really anxious to acquire, take time fully to explain all he can well compre- hend. His inquiries often appear foolish to you. They are not so to him, for he has not learned to see things as you see them. Mrs. Kennedy tells us that a child now "is always hungry, mentally and physically." Irresistible Imfulsiveness marks this period. The child is thoughtless to a dangerous extreme. Impulse, instinctive action, is uppermost. Conscience is just rising into power. Yet just because impulses are active, that is, action-forming, it is, yar excellence, the Habit-forming age. As such, it is of paramount significance, for character building is Habit-training. All the high moral and Christian Habits are to be formed now. Love of honesty, honor, truth, purity, faithfulness, courage, gentleness, kindness, love of study, neatness, promptness — in fact all the Personal Habits — are "set" by the end of this period. The habits of reverence, gentleness, courtesy, like their opposites, are absorbed by the child from those with whom he is most closely associated. It is in these attributes that an "ounce of example outweighs a pound of precept." The habits may alter in the upheaval of Puberty, but it is unlikely. "The boy is changing," says Forbush, "from a bundle of instincts to a bundle of habits; the trails are becoming well-travelled roads. Boyhood is the time for forming habits, as adolescence is the time for shaping ideals. It is the era for Conscience-building, as the latter is for Will- training." 128 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION According to Mrs. Birncy : " 'A place for everything, and everything in its phice,' is one of the first habits a child should be taught, for upon its exercise not only is his own comfort de- pendent, but in a greater or lesser degree, that of every house- hold of which, in the course of his natural life, he may be a member. The child who has had a lost article last should be made to look for it, all day if necessary." Miss Harrison says: "One of the mistakes of our age is, that we begin by educating our children's intellects rather than their emotions. We leave these all powerful factors, which give to life its coloring of light or darkness, to the oftentimes insuf- ficient training of the ordinary family life — insufficient, owing to its thousand interruptions and preoccupations. The results are, that many children grow up cold, hard, matter-of-fact, with little of poetry, sympathy, or ideality to enrich their lives — mere Gradgrinds in God's world of beauty. A child can be given any quantity of information, he can be made to get his lessons, he can even be crowded through a series of examinations, but that is not educating him. Unless his interest in the subject has been awakened, the process has been a failure. Once get him thoroughly interested, and he can educate himself, along that line, at least." Courage, Daring, Fearless Rechlessness. — He is adventure- some, he loves hearing and reading of such adventures. No sacrifice for man or God will be too hard for him to endure now.. Give him work to do that demands sacrifice, either in the home, or the town, or the Church. Give him tales of missionary ad- venture to read. Combine the heroic with the daring, and make him see the distinction between the two. Truant Proclivities. — According to Haslett: "Truancy is closely related to the migrating instinct. Many truant proclivi- ties begin at the eighth or the ninth year, while others end about that time. The condition of the home life, if not agreeable and proper, strengthens the truant tendency. A moral impairment is probably the most frequent cause of truancy. Well fed chil- dren are not so likely to run away." 2. Mental Characteristics. Rising Desire for Independence. — This is not so strong as THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 12?) later, but the boy does not want to be tied to hi.s mother's apron- strings. He has friendships, but not close ones. He is not chummy yet. Apron-strings are needed badly, but they must not be seen. The motlier who stands at the door on a Saturday morning, as her ten-year-old Johnny is leaving with some com- panions for a long walk in the country, and shouts out to him: "Johnny, see that you are back home by half-past twelve, or you will get no lunch," is most unwise. John's com])anions are al- most sure to say to him : "Humph ! tied to your mother's apron strings, eh?" The judicious mother will have her quiet talks with Johnny, give him advice rather than reprimand, lead him and guide him, but all behind the scenes, dealing with him alone, not even before his brothers and sisters. When he comes home from school, although he may have had his lunch at the noon hour, she gives him a little bite in the afternoon and realizes that the way to a boy's heart is often through his stomach. Punishments, especially during this period, must be along natural lines. Always follow nature's method. As Miss Harri- son puts it, "The deed brings its own result, and nowhere is arbitrary unconnected punishment inflicted. The great lesson of life is that no sin or wrong-doing can be committed that does not bring its own punislunent. Another great advantage gained is, that retributive punishment is never inflicted in anger. On the other hand, scolding, shaking, whipping, shutting up in dark closets, and various other methods of arbitrary punishment, which have no possible connection in the child's mind with the deed, are apt to rouse in him a sense of injustice, and a feeling that the parent has taken advantage of her greater physical strength. By such treatment is also violated one of the finest instincts of the child, which is that of expecting justice, absolute justice, from its parent. Another advantage of the retributive method of punishment is that each deed is punished or rewarded upon its own plane. That is, material defeats or conquests bring spiritual suffering or regard. Whereas, when this logical method of procedure is not followed, when a mere arbitrary punishment is substituted, the mistake is often made of rewarding or punish- ing spiritual efforts with material loss or gain, thereby degrad- ing and lowering such efforts in the child's eyes. "When a mother realizes the true nature of punishment, l-!0 UKI.KJIOIS KDICATIOX tlierc is never detected in the tones of her voiee what Emerson calls a lust of power. Too often children hear beneath the mere word of command the undertone which says, I'll show you that I have my way. The farther the child's self-government is ad- vanced, the higher his ideals of riglit and wrong, tlie more will he resent this assertion of your personal will-power. If possible, let the instinct of justice, which is within each child, feel that the command has been given because the thing to be done is neces- sary and right. 'Unless a man has a will within him,' says Emerson, 'you can lie him to nothing.' There is no wall or safe- guard which love can build around its ol)ject strong enough and higli eiiough to keep away temptation. The wall must be within, or else sooner or later the citadel yields to the enemy. "Caprice is allowing the desire of the moment to govern the conduct, regardless of future consequences; whereas voluntary obedience is the deed which is performed after the right stages of will-growth have been passed through. First, the individual is led to desire to do a thing; second, he thinks about it; third, he wills to do it ; and fourth, he voluntarily does it. Compulsion is the attem])t to ()])tain the fruit of voluntary doing without the planting of the right seed. The creating of the desires for right conduct makes all the difference between voluntary and forced obedience. "T firudy believe, however, that most children, when riglitly trained, can be brought into obedience without being forced into it. Character is to be praised rather than clothes; effort which helps to strengthen the character rather than any external gift or attraction wliatsoever. And little by little will come the realization that free-will is not the lilierty to do whatever one likes, but the power to compel one's self to obey the laws of right, to do what ought to be done in the very face of otherwise over- whelming impulse." As Butler puts it: "Xow comes the harder lesson of learn- ing liow to act without hurting others. To have his own rights crossed by the rights of others and not resent it, is a new hard- ship. Self-control for self's sake comes comparatively easy, but self-control for another's sake is a different matter. To what can we appeal for unselfish conduct? To his conscience? It is not yet developed. To his moral understanding? Tie has none. TiiK srA(;i-:s of dkvklui'MENT i:n 'W) his souse ol' justice to others? ilis own rights are dearer 1(1 him. Then; is only one ground for eU'ective appeal: his littk' lieart is leudt'r and sympathetie; a wise appeal there is seldom made in vain. Thus can she transform the iiuTe selfish love of the child into the heginning of that spiritual love which Christ connnended when lie said: 'If ye love Me, keel) My comniand- nients.' The relationshi]) established between parent and child is apt to become, in time, the relationship between the soul and its (lod. The thought is a solemn one, but a true one. "Of all the essentials of true character building, there is l)erliaps none more important than this: that the child should learn, through love, to give up his own will to others: for the sake of others should learn from the very beginning of life to submit to things which are unpleasant to him. It would not be ditEcult to make children obey, if this thought had been carried out from the beginning, before egotism, self-will, and selfishness had gotten fast hold upon the young heart. 'A child can no more be educated to a life of religion and faith without the exer- cise of his personal activity than heroic deeds can be accom- plished with words only.' " Authority Must he Respected. How says: "If children be allowed to absorb the spirit that is pervading the world at the present day — the spirit of revolt against all authority — the no- tion, that is, that everyone is to do exactly as he or she chooses — that wall of itself bring about a state of mind which is destruc- tive of real happiness. Notions such as these are quickly picked up, and parents who themselves set all rules and authority at defiance cannot expect their children to submit to control." Certain current phases of life in our cities are disquieting- enough, as they seem to be planned almost gratuitously, to show how proper laws may be broken at the will of selfish and incon- siderate peo])le — witness any elevated or subway station or al- most any electric car. Boys think it mannish to do these things, and, like their older brothers, take a certain crude pleasure in defying the regulations of a company by thus showing their spirit. Crudity of the Sense of Humor. Professor Adams says: "Another force in child nature of which the teacher must take account is a crude sense of luunor. Children are amused at 132 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION things that in no way strike an adult as funny. They find in- congruities in groups of ideas which are quite familiar to adults ; so in preparing matter for teaching we must always carefully consider whether we are not placing together ideas that to a young mind may appear an outrage on the nature of things." While this, like the other passing traits, will presently change for the better under normal and favorable conditions, the tendency of the coarse and raw joking of the press, and especially the Sunday papers, renders the conditions abnormal and cannot but have an evil influence on the susceptible mind of the child. Akin to this is the common disposition of even cultivated people to joke upon all subjects with little regard to their serious nature or even their sacredness, doing this in some odd corner of their mind as a relaxation and retiring then with unchanged thoughts to the serious work of life. Not so the child, who is making up his theory of life with perfect readiness to give each idea its true place, and must not be trifled with. If these things, about which the parents joke, are not serious at one time they are not at another, or not at all, and it is useless after a person has thus unwittingly called them in question and discredited them for him to preach to the child about their moral value afterward. Dominance of the Present. The future, and especially fu- ture life and the Infinite, have no hold on him. He does not see that far. Light-hearted and full of play and fun; attracted by the active, not the contemplative, side of life; alive, not dead, in anything, he is absolutely, yes, indifferently, care-free. Noth- ing in the way of reputation influences him. Save for rivalry, assertion of self, etc., he "goes ahead his own gait," no matter what may be said. He calls all activity, fun. Imitativeness. He follows the Leader in everything. Here imitation has changed from the preceding period. In the former age he imitated his parents. Now he imitates his companions, and so begins to change in his resemblance to the characteristics of his parents. Grouping Age of Boys and Girls, who play together severally, the sexes separate. This follows from the character- istic of sex-repellence, which we will consider presently. Gi-eat Retentiveness of Memory, during the years from eight T7TE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 133 to ten in particular. It is then that we can store the mind with the richest gems of Catechism, Creed, Chants, Psalms, Scripture, Hymns, Selections, etc. No other period will ever prove so good. Eeason has not developed. Eeflection is consequently feeble. Some of what is memorized may not be fully under- stood; the harvest will be gleaned later. Lay the Foundations, towards the close of that period, so firm and sure, the reasons for the Faith, so clear, that 'mid the seething storm and stress of the succeeding age, with the fires of questioning and doubt enkindled, the foundations will be there, on which the subse- quent superstructure of a reasonable faith will be upreared. The best period for learning a foreign language ends before fourteen. Thus power of absorption forms the characteristic of the period, and verbal memory is at its highest activity. If, when the child has reached the third grade day school, that is about eight or eight and a-half years of age, we teach the Catechism by the Inductive Method, considered in the chapter "How to Plan a Lesson," we shall not only interest him, but both teach the Catechism at an age when it will never be for- gotten and when he will learn it verbatim et literatim et •punctuatim, and also gain the advantage of having this piece of memoriter work out of the way and time left for additional ]\Iemory Gems during the succeeding years. If the Memoriter work be wisely planned it is possible with keen delight to the scholars to learn, between the ages of six and fifteen, the Cate- chism, all the Chants of the Church, including the Te Deum and the Benedicite, about forty selected hymns, about twenty- five selected collects, about twenty-five selected Psalms, and ten or fifteen special passages of the Bible, such as the Beatitudes, the Sermon on the Mount, St. John siv., the Eternal City, etc. Under the former system the Catechism has been the dark thunder-cloud hanging over and depressing all the years of the Sunday School. There is a right and a wrong way of teaching the Catechism, an enjoyable way and a disagreeable way. It depends entirely upon the process whether we are in accord or no with the child's nature. The Catechism taught as a sys- tem is deductive. In the day school to-day even the formal studies, so-called, i.e., grammar and arithmetic, are taught by the inductive method. Dr. Butler devotes several pages to this 134 KKLKJIOL'S EDUCATION question, and presents it in a way both concise and illuminating: "The truth as it is held by tlie adult mind is not a simple thing, but a complex thing. Jt is a system made up of many separate truths, each one related to and forming a definite part of a har- monious body of trutlis. We have already learned (n) that the mind of a young child is incapable of comprehending a system of truth, of any sort; and also (b) that many a separate truth, presented simply, is understood, even in early childhood. Now, as the Church Catechism is made up of separate truths, and as many of tbese truths are capable of being understood in early childhood, common sense says: Teach the child such separate truth as he is able to understand; and tlien, when he is older, teach him the truth he already knows is a part of the Church's fundamental system and doctrine. This is the Churchman's solution of the problem presented by the unchanging nature of truth, and the ever-changing nature of the growing child, (a) It will present trulli topically, i.e., singly, and separately (not systenuitically, historically, logically, and theologically), (b) Each separate truth taugbt will, in reality, be a part of the Church's system of Irutli. (r) Each separate truth taught will be selected to meet the actual needs of the child at the age in which it is taught, (d) The method of presenting the truth will be decided by the child's actual capacity, individual experience, and spontaneous interests." Desire for Affection. The boy is not a mere animal, how- ever. Among his Emotional Instincts we note Love as one of the deepest, although it is true, as Paolo Lombroso remarks, that "the child tends not to love, but to be loved, and exclusively loved," yet this love marks the dawn of social and altruistic instincts coming a little later. Train Obedience and the child comes out of this period with a splendid respect for authority, without knowing why. Comparing the girl with the boy, we find that though custom nuiy make the girl slightly more con- ventional than the boy, yet the same traits of character are mani- fested. Probably the more active side, the heroic, courageous aspects may be seen more in the boy, and appealed to quicker. They are more fond of pets, because of this. We squash the small child under eight almost to a pulp or a jelly fish in our love for him, and we hold the boy and THE STAf;KS Ol' DFAF.r.OI'MKNT i: girl, especially i\\v foniicr. of llic graiiiiiiar ami high school ages off at aniTs loiigth, wlicii their very souls are yearning and their nerves throhhing I'or demonstrations of affection. This affection should never he shown in ])ul)lic, not even in one's own faiiiily. Tlu' mollici' who wclcoiiics hci' hoy when he comes home from school with a gootl hcarlv lui^' and a piece of cake, will keep that l)oy"s confulcnce and -iiidc him through numy a dan- gerous temptation in lite. We know of one wise mother, a widow, with only one son. who guided that son during a period of ••wild oats" hy encouraging him to tell her of his escapades, and while never chiding him. advising him and warning him against dangers and sin. In the end the hoy hecame a fine, noble, manly citizen. She would have had nothing but disap- ])ointment had she not adopted this i)lan. Had she repelled the bov, sin would have gone on just the same, but secretly, and she would never have saved him. Something should be said regarding the noise and disturb- ance created by children at this period. Ennis Richmond, in his MiN'i) or a (*iiii-I), says: *'! have nothing to say against noise, any more than f have anything to say against kicking or hitting, l^ut the noise must be noise with a purpose, noise with a reason, if it is not to be a source of deterioration to a child's character. Children are noisy because they are alive, the more alive they are the more noisy they want to be, and in this lies the necessity for us to see that, while they lose nothing of their vitality, they are learning to be noisy without being senseless. A bov may "hit as hard as he likes when his bat is straight and ho knows the right direction to send the ball; he may kick as hard as he likes when he has learnt the right elevation for the ball and is in his right ])lace in the field; and a child may shout as loud as he likes when such shouting has meaning behind it. There is onlv one firm foundation for real obedience of any kind, and that foundation is Trust, and any other kinds of obedience which we must enforce while the real lesson is being learnt are only steps towards the acquiring of true obedience, that which means that we trust the dispenser of rule." The Collecting Instinct. The children are interested in making collections of flowers, minerals, coins, stamps, and other curiosities. It is not difficult to turn this interest towards Bibli- 136 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION cal objects. Competitive games and contests arouse them; so should the effort to surpass former Sunday School records "Fair Play" is constantly on their lips in their games. The Rise of Conscience. According to Butler: "He is fast discarding the childish ideas, and credulities of his early years; and in discarding them, he may also throw overboard some of childhood's unquestioning faith. Yet conscience is stronger now than ever, and his doubts are, in reality, the questionings of a growing mind. He is thinking his own thoughts and creating his own ideals. He believes in heroes, not in hermits. To him the conventional saint is sentimental, or sour-faced, and is the last being he desires to become. The religion that attracts him is not one of dogma, but one of ac- tivity. Its ceremonial and its ethical energy both appeal to him. He likes a varied and beautiful service; he desires rules of conduct that are clean-cut, definite, practical, to meet the needs of a boy's week-day temptations. He may not live up to his own ideals, but he expects others to live up to theirs; and if they do so, he respects, and secretly honors them, and will allow them, and them only, to influence his life and conduct." Sex-Re pellance. We have referred to this before, and it is necessary only to mention it now in order that the reader may realize the necessary separation of boys and girls and their lack of cooperation in Sunday School work. The Need for Positive, Not Negative, Training. During this entire period Substitution should be used in- stead of Prohibition — positive rather than the negative attitude. "Do not read that book," or "You must avoid that class of books," is to increase the curiosity of the average boy to see what is in them. To carefully praise a good book and tell one or two of its striking incidents, will excite the boy's desire to read it. The boy's interest is grasped strongly by everything that belongs to the active and to the realistic side of life. Personal exploits, biographies of heroic characters, history presented as dramatiza- tion and adventure, these all unite to create a new interest in Bible history and biography, and, through connection with them, an interest also in Biblical geography, in manners and customs, and in the social and religious life of the historical •ITIE STAGES OF ])EVELOPMENT 137 book?. This saiiio interest extends to stories of pioneering, ad- venture, and invention, and calls for the use of the records of missionary heroism as material for instruction in Christian courage. The right Lesson Material is plainly indicated by the child's natural interests and moral needs. He is hungry for reality, he wants its interest : "Is it true ?" is now his frequent question. Lessons and illustrations based on the facts of natural science make a deep impression. QUESTIONS FOR TlIOlUJilT AND DISCUSSION. 1. Compare the Physical Cliaracteristics of the ages of the Kinder- garten and Childhood. 2. What special Instincts would you use, and how ? 3. Compare the INIental Characteristics of these same ages. 4. How can the fact of a quick and retentive memory be used best? 5. How is this the Habit- forming age? CHAPTP]R IX. THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (Continued). I'Jtirli/ ( 'li i/flh 00(1 — . 1 (lolcsccuce. SIMJGIOSTKD ItlCADI.NGS. Adolescence, Early Stages: ♦('iiii.Diioon. Itinicii. Index. KeLIGIOUS COXDITIIIX OF You.xG MiON. Y. M. C. A. Kki'out of the Co.mmittke op Fiftekn. Putnam's. ♦The Teaciuno of Bihee Cla.s.ses. .S'cc. pp. 25-.S.">. Training of the Yoin(; in tuk Law.s of Sex. Liittlctov. Tuuot'Gii BovHooi) TO Manhooo. liiclimond. ♦Social liAW in the Spikitial \Yoiu,i>. .foiics. Ideals. Elements of 1'syciiologv. Thonnlikc. Tliinkiiifr. Principles of Psychology. Thonulikc. pp. 147//". ♦Talks with the Training Class. Slattcri/. p. -i;'.. ♦On the Threshold. MiDujcr. Chap. IX. Teacher Traininij. Jiuad-s. pp. .''>4-.''.(). ♦The Boy I'korleji. Forhu.'ih. pn. 20-40. ♦The Child and the Bible. IlubbcU. p. IS. ♦The PsYcnioLOGY of Religion. tiUtrbuvU. The Spiritual Life. Coe. The Teacher, the Child, and the Book. SchaiifJIcr. p. 17(;. Education and Life. Baker, pp. 172/"/. The Study of Children. \V(inicr. pp. 188-108. ♦Pedagogical Bihle School. Cor. pp. 1(;.'Mt;4, 14C.-14S, 184. III. — Third Period, Youth or Adolescence, 12 to 18; 12-16, Age of Moral Crisis; 16-19, Age of Romance and Ideality. 'I'his entire period of youtli, from 12 to 18, is divided into Karlj/ Adolescence and Middle Adolescence; Later Adolescence is from 18 or 19 on to 21. 1. Bodily Changes. // is the Age of Awhwardness. Tlie hones have "rown more rapidly than the joints, so that the child is unable to bal- ance himself properly and so is awkward. He has not (]:aincd his new adjustment in equilibrium. He is so awkward that he will stumble over a shadow on the floor, and if the sliadow is not there, he will imagine it is there in order to stumble. Mrs. Birney remarks that : "A mother never speaks in her TTTK STAflES OF DKVEr.OPMEXT l;J!) childreirs ])resenc(' of tlio 'awkward ag^o,' thereby increasing the painful self-eonsciousness of that period,nor does she draw atten- tion to the fact that fourteen-year-old Johnnie has on the sixth new necktie in the course of two weeks. She calls him proudly 'my son' at this time of his life, and with sweet diplomacy ap- pears ali'cady lo lean upon him and li> advise with him concern- ing small iiialici-s thai all'ord the opportunity for confidential talks. She wonders if some of his twelve-year-old brother Paul's companions are all they should be; she thought she saw one of them covertly handing l*aul a cigarette the other day; she hopes he will use his inlluence to convince him that it is not manly to smoke cigarettes or to use bad language; she is so glad she can depend on him to set Paul a good example, etc. She has her quiet chats with Paul, too. Siie never scolds him for his little assumptions of mannish airs, and does not say a great deal about the cigarette e{)isode, but she sees that when there is an illustrated lecture in the school he attends, on the subject : 'Can a l)oy who has the <'igarette hal)it become a successful com- petitor in athletic sports when he enters college?' ]'aul is in- vited to go. Nine chances out of ten Paul will respond to this appeal, when at his age he might not 1)e influenced by the moral- ity of the ciuestion." Bodihj Changes PnuloiiiiiKilc The mysterious change of Puberty has come. Manhood and Womanhood are developing. The body is growing with extreme rapiditv, and the brain not so much. The brain changes are extremely dependent on the bodily alterations. By fifteen the brain stops increasing in size, the large arteries have added in diameter, the temperature is increased almost to a fever heat, the voice changes, the height of the body is increased. The child requires more sleep, and more rest, and more food, and generally he is getting less rest, and less sleep, and less food. The most careful and loving watch-care should now be given, and right instruction imparted as to the laws of purity, morality, and health. AVithout any doubt the position taken by the L.vdies' Home Jotknwl is cor- rect regarding the necessity for full information on the part of parents and teachers. Tlie only criticism has been that the Journal did not dare to speak ])lainly enough to a mixed audi- ence. This question, however, is to-day one of the most serious 140 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION that is confronting our Nation. Those things that are of the utmost concern to life, and health, and happiness; those things that ought to be the purest and sweetest and the truest; that knowledge which in itself, rightly given, will do the utmost good and will never do harm, has been entirely omitted from the education of our public schools; has been entirely overlooked by parents and teachers, and has been left to the ignorant, wrong- minded information derived from chums, because, as we shall show later on, this age of adolescence, when the bodily passions are at a fever heat, is the age of close, chummy friendship. The boys and girls confide only in their chums. Oh, if parents but knew the infinite harm that is done by ignorance, they would never hesitate on this matter ! One of our leading Church papers had an editorial upon this important topic a short time ago. It said : "It is easier and more pleasant for us to close our eyes to the pressing need for teaching our children plainly the things that make for per- sonal purity than to warn them against those things that would violate it. Not only is ignorance of vice no protection against it, but it is positively a menace to the purity of a child or a young adult. A committee of the diocese of Massachusetts pre- sented a careful report on the subject to the recent convention of that diocese. "'We call upon parents,' said the committee, '^to feel tlieir sacred responsibility for judicious instruction of children as to sex and the relation of personal purity to health and happiness. Mothers especially should instruct their daughters, for young women are strangely ignorant in these matters. They should tell their daughters the fearful risk they undergo if they marry men who have led immoral lives. Parents should know the companions of their children, and especially the young men with whom their daughters are acquainted. A serious responsibility rests upon the Church. Clergymen should teach positively the glory of purity. They should insist upon a single standard for men and women and urge the reformation of the social code in this respect. The ambitious standards of social life and the in- creased cost of living are largely responsible for the postpone- ment of marriages; and late marriages are in part answerable for immoralitv. The average age of the first marriage of men THE STACKS OK DKVKLOPMKNT 141 has within a century changed from twenty-two years to twenty- seven years. Public sentiment should honor young people who are willing to endure comparative hardship and privation to establish a home.' " Of course this topic should be handled with care, and unnecessary information should be withheld, but the amount that is needed at that time should be given to the fullest. Such a wise and cautious writer as the Eev. Henry Van Dyke has writ- ten these burning words: "I believe that children should be very simply instructed in regard to the meaning of the relation of sex. The precise age must depend upon the development and character of the child. In normal circumstances a boy should be instructed by his father, a girl by her mother. The instruc- tion should be put on the plainest and most solid religious and moral ground. It should be given with earnestness and affec- tion, and, having been given once, it should not be repeated, but left to do its work, enforced by example rather than by precept. "I do not believe in teaching the details of anatomy and physiology to children, or in giving them any information or advice, even with the highest moral purpose, which shall direct their attention constantly, or even frequently, to the relation of sex. Human nature being constituted as it is, such attention often produces the most disastrous effects in the way of morbid and abnormal development. "Much of the trouble in our modern civilized life comes from our false and unnatural way of living. Children get too little fresh air, sunlight, cold water, and healthy exercise; and too much unwholesome food, both for the body and for the mind. We need a more sane and hygienic life, and, above all, we need to get back to the old-fashioned idea that purity of life is de- manded by God, and is a duty that we owe to Him, as well as the crown of a noble manhood and womanhood. It is a great mis- fortune that we have drifted away from this, and that children are growing up without a knowledge of the truth that God will surely punish uncleanness.'' It is significant that the Et. Rev. A. F. Winnington-Ingram, Bishop of London, has said (quoted from the Ladies'' Home Journal of May, 1908) : "I am now convinced that the uplift- ing of the morality of our people lies, above all and everything 142 l^ELUilOrS EUUCATION else, in educating the children rationally and morally. I helieve that more evil has heen done hy the scjueamishness of parents who are afraid to instruct their children in the vital facts of life, than b}^ all the other agencies of vice put together. I am deter- mined to overcome this obstacle to our national morality. I have not the slightest hesitation in saying that the right way has been found at last. Thousands of men have asked me why they were not taught tlic danger of vice in their youth, and I have had no reply to make to them. 1 intend now, with (lod's help, to remove this reproach from our land."' The Journal goes on to add: "After the Bishop got home he grouped around him a company of the most distinguished men and women of iMighmd : the venerable Archbishop of York; the Bishops of Ki])on, Southwark, Durham, and Hereford; the Dean of Canterbury; Canon Scott lloUand of Saint Paul's Cathedral; the Honorable E. Lyttleton, headmaster of Eton, the great English school; such foremost Nonconformist clergy- men of England as the lieverends Thomas Spurgeon, F. B. j\Ieyer, John Clifford, R. J. Campbell; such laymen, famed for philanthropy and wealth, as Ceorge Cadbury, W. T. Stead, Grattan Guinness, and before these men of influence he laid his conviction that the root of the 'social evil' lay in this so-called 'parental modesty,' and that in the quickening of the parental conscience lay the remedy for the lifting up of England's moral tone, which has for so long been the despair of England's fore- most men. The Bishop offered to place himself at the head of a great moral crusade, the like of which has never before been seen in England, and point out to every father and mother that the future moral welfare of the United Kingdom rested in doing away with the present false modesty, and in the frank and honest instruction of their children. "More than one hundred meetings in London alone have been arranged for, in addition to several hundreds of meetings in every town and village in tlic kingdom : |)amphlets are being pre- pared and will be distributed by tlie million; the headmaster of every great college and school will take a personal part; a special periodical, called Prevkntiox, will be issued and distributed to every parent in England. And at the head and in the midst of this wonderfully well-conceived and far-reaching movement rill'; sTA(;i';s of I)K\ kloi'.mknt 143 stands llie Bishop of Luiuloii, ullci-iii^ llic woi-ds alxnt' ([uolcd as the slogan for tho c-ainpaiiiii upon wliicli he has ciUcred for the good of Knghmd, and also these further woi-ds: 'TJiere shall be plain talking," says the Bisho[) of London; 'the time has gone hy for wliispei-s and |)araphrases. Uoys and girls must he told what these vital faets oi' life mean, ami they must be given the proper knowledge of their bodies and the proper care of them. ]S\) abstractions — the only way now is to be frank, man to man.' "' luery me(lieal journal is hammering away to-day at the Christian j)hysieiaii to do his duty in urging upon parents and Church teachers their obligation to give right knowledge and warning. I)i-. J. 11. Carstens of Detroit writes: "illegitimacy can be })revented oidy by education and the development of self- control in the young. Naturally, it is a slow process so to edu- cate and train the masses that illegitimacy shall cease. The home ti'aining, it seems to me, is where the trouble lies at pres- ent. The father does not explain to his sons, nor the mother to her daughters, the secrets of reproduction, and the result is they learn it from some ignoi-ant person, and sexual thoughts are given a vicious dirt'ction. They hear from others still more and are coaxed and urged to ])ractise the sexual act, and thus easily fall by the wayside. If the mother would explain the physiologic process to her daughter, there would be very little illegitimacy." ]\Iany of the parishes are providing lectures by Christian physicians to boys and girls of the adolescence period, separately, on the physiology and hygiene of life. A special course is fur- nished for the Sunday School of St. .\gnes' Chapel, New York, and it is not infrequent in other parishes. Many parents and teachers ask for books of guidance for themselves. ]\rost of the books advertised for this purpose are more harmful than help- ful, but there are a few, which we note below, that will stand the fullest test and do much good. Among them are Ennis Richmond's Through Boyjiooi:) to ^[axhood, and the Eev. E. Lyttleton's Tut: Tkaining of the Young ix thI': Laws of Sex. The Vir Series, known as the Self and Sex Series, are standard books and perfectly safe. There are four series for males and four for females, the former being written bv the Eev. Sylvanus Stall, and the latter by Dr. :\Iary Wood Allen. They are What a Young Boy Ought to Know; What a Young 144 RELIcaOUS EDUCATION Man Ought to Know; What a Young Husband Ought to Know ; What a Man of Forty-five Ought to Know, and the corresiioncling series for girls. They can be put into the hands of the purcst-ininded girls without ever a blush. In fact this entire subject ought to be treated from absolutely common sense standpoints, and not as if it were a forbidden and prudish subject. Certain it is tluit almost the most dangerous and most active part of our youthful growing nature should not be passed iinnoticed by parciits and teachers. The harm lies from knowl- edge gained from unwise companions. Forbush puts it as follows : "The sexual passion expires after a protracted reign ; but it is well known that its peculiar manifestations in a given individual depend almost entirely on the habits he may form during the early period of its activity. Exposure to bad company then makes him a loose liver all his days ; chastity kept at first makes the same easy later on." Sex-Attraciion is substituted for Indifference. He should be trained in courteous, well-bred, high-minded, pure, noble re- spect and worship. "Idealism" is a good term. Polished man- ners may be a veneer, covering vulgarity and low thought; but high-minded Idealism is inspiring. The Social Nature now turns to close, intimate friendship in the same sex — Chums, we call them. We pointed out previously that up to the age of eight they are sex-indifferent; that from eight to twelve they are sex- repellant; but from twelve years on they are sex-attracted, the boys casting "sheep's eyes" at the girls, and the girls casting "sheep's eyes" at the boys. Nature intended them to be to- gether; we separate them in school in order to get any study done at all, but there is every reason that the home and the Church should provide for social intercourse, for the building up of manners and etiquette, and for the cultivation of courtesy and chivalry, for the high ideals and noble inspiration that should characterize one's attitude towards the other sex. This politeness should not be veneer, but should go down to the utmost depths of our nature. A gentleman is a gentleman at heart, not merely one trained in outward manners. Teach the young man to place the girl, whom he adores with that youthful but innocuous "puppy-love," upon such a lofty pedestal of ideal- THE STACJES UE DEVELOi'.MENT 14r. isjii that wrong thoughts of her arc impossible. Let tlie young girl dream of her "Prince Charming," but let that Prince Charming be the true prince in heart and life and principles. "Next to God, in the eyes of a young man, is the woman in whom he believes." If parents and teachers in the Church do not teach young women absolutely to respect themselves and hold high ideals, our young men cannot help but be dragged down. The lady who permits her escort at the after-theatre restaurant to puff cigarette smoke across the table, without any doubt lowers the ideal. If the home and the Church are open to our young people of both sexes, in social gatherings, and if the lead- ers are truly virtuous, dignified, and gentle, right ideals and high motives can be inculcated and "set" into habits. Talking and teaching and reading will never do it alone. Mrs. Birney say : "There is no neutral ground, no standing still during this period of adolescence; it is growth, expansion, assimilation, mental, moral, and physical. The active mind must be nourished with proper ideals or it will assimilate the ignoble; the body must have abundant exercise or the force which craves expression will turn inward and prey upon itself, while morbid questionings and conditions will arise which will undermine the constitution and eventually lead to disease and premature decay of all the faculties. To be kept healthy and busy amid cheerful surroundings is the best antidote to the abnormal tendencies so prevalent in boys and girls of this age." The Novel in the Age of Romance. President Butler, in one of his class lectures, dealing with the fondness of the adoles- cent for the romantic and sentimental, stated that in his opinion it was wise to curb rather than to feed these over-urgent passions at this time, at least before sixteen or seventeen. At this time the child needs the guiding and subduing influence, rather than to have his imagination fed by wild day-dreams and air-castles of romanticism. Day-dreaming and air-castles are needed, as we shall show later, but not along these lines of unreality, and so he urges that the novel be kept from our young people, and that in its place be given books of biography and travel and heroism, all of which are possible of realization. If the novel were true to life, it would perhaps not be so dangerous; but it is not. Every novel ends one way, at least if it is to have a sale — 146 i;i:iJ(;i()L,s edlcation '"tlien (hey niaiTied and were happy ever after." Moreover, tlie ]i()vc'I of to-day is not what it was a single generation ago. A quotation from the London Tklkgraph of recent date says: "It is common knowledge with everyone who reads books tliat during the last generation llic English novel has steadily claimed a greater freedoiij. Subjects are now dealt with at which the mid- Victorians would have hid their faces. There is a realistic treat- ment and a frankness of language concerning nuitters of sex, which the last three-quarters of the nineteenth century would not tolerate. Let it be remembered that we have not advanced. We have gone back. "It is not a new art, hut old, iliat has no reticence. A Idealistic picture of physical passion, a frank naturalism in style, belongs as much to the centuries of Defoe and Smollett as to our own. This is not to say it is bad. Thackeray deliberately regretted the eighleenlh century freedom. Since the time of Fielding, he complained, no writer had been permitted to the fulness of his power to ])ortray man. We have now come to a time where there are no limitations. "Those who for their sins have to maintain a careful survey of the constant stream of ephemeral novels are well aware of the growth of a class whicli, not to mince words, must be called salacious. Each season now sees a numl)er of books for which the most kindly critic in the world can find no raisoii d'etre but their impropriety. Absurd in plot, wooden in character, and ignorant in style, their sensual descriptions provide them a pop- ularity." 2. Mkxtal Cija.\(;es. Self -Consciousness and Sensitiveness are painfully evident. Personal care of dress and appearance shows itself. Pride as- sumes a high place. Ideals of dress are lived up to most fas- tidiously. Miss Uhl tells the story of giving a cheap scarf-pin one Christmas to a youth in her class in St. George's, Xew York. The ne.xt Sunday he came, wearing it in a soiled cravat, but with his hair better brushed and his shoes shined. The succeeding week, the tie containing the pin was spotless; ne.xt the clothing was more neat, the hands and nails immaculate. Other im- provements in dress and manners followed. Miss Uhl declares, Tllh: STACKS OK l)i:\KL( )I'.M i;.\ T 147 "It look just one year to li\c up lo llic ideal of lha( Searf-piu." liul it was W01II1 wliiK'. A(/c of Ideals. Lol'ty aspirations utti'act and hold. De- sires to do soniethini;- in sacrifice and devotion — enter the j\lin- istiT, Church Work, eic. — appeal strongly. The altruistic fecl- iniis of hunumity take hold on liini. Di's. Starhuck and Coe have made minute searches as to the appearance and power of such altruistic ho])es and ideals, 'i'he lad is full of day-dreams and plans. We see him follow Jdeals as fads and fancies, hold- ing- staunchly to each one for a short time, and then dropping it for another. Day-dreaming nuiy he carried too far, yet we must let the ))ei"soii see the castle ahead, as in Cole's picture of Youth on the \'oyage of Life, if we expect achievement, we must rememher Joel's ideal of jjcoph' in the Age of Prosperity when he says, '*Your young men shall see visions." "Ideals," says Professor Jones, '*are the most wonderful things in the world." They cor- respond to the apple in front of the horse's nose. Ideals are never realized, for when an ideal is realized, it ceases to he an ideal and hecomes a fact. An ideal is the vis-a-fronie — the force from in fi-ont. We ])ut it tersely in the earlier part of tin's book by saying that before the age of eight the child is ruled by the vis-a-tergo. by the force from behind, usually the slip])er ; that from eight to twelve he was guided by the ris infpntiis, the force from within, his own impulses and desires; that from twelve years on his mainspring was the vis-a-frontr. the ideals and visions ahead. This is what ]\frs. Birnev urges uj)on ])arents in the inculcation of ideals of citizenship, so important to the welfare of our nation: "The same thing a])])lies in the boy's education as a citizen; he should be trained to feel a sense of duty toward the community in which he lives and an active interest in all that concerns its welfare. The boy who can be roused to righteous indignation over defective or insufBcient water supply, bad pavements, poorly lighted streets, and other municipal discomforts and menaces to health, w'ill, ninety-nine times out of a hundred, be a public-spirited, useful citizen when he reaches manhood. I know a mother who never fails to call her son's attention to every municipal defect, and who always ends bv saving, 'Well, I shall certainly be thankful when vou 148 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION can vote, for I am sure you will do all you can to make things better.' This particular boy is only eleven years old, but he is already at heart an earnest, upright citizen. There are parents who spend many unhappy hours worrying about their sons, when they should be studying them, and strengthening by every means at their command the ties between them." Reasoning and Developing Reasoning is Seen Now. Cause and effect are grasped. Analysis and Synthesis combine. A new world is opening, and the long vista of Investigation and Inquiry dawns before him. Things and persons will be loved for a time, then doubted and dropped. Questioning the founda- tions, reasoning, "Why?" will be uppermost in everything. The Youth may appear fickle and fanciful. Life grows larger, past ideas are insufficient. Let us see how this works out according to the psychology of our previous study. The child now sees cause and effect, because he sees relations, because he compares events. He has formerly taken his knowledge as unrelated facts, and now he relates those facts and weaves them into a system. In the early stage, the thinking process was synthesis, and then analysis. Now it is synthesis, analysis, and re-synthesis. Formerly he cut the stones of his mosaic pattern, now he ar- ranges them together to form the pattern. Now he can handle the abstract thoughts and think without images or pictures. Thorndike, in his Elements of Psychology^ illustrates this: "The bulk of our thinking is in fact not concerned with direct feelings of things, but with mere references to them. We can do hundreds of examples about dollars and cents and hours, about feet of carpet and pounds of sugar, with never a percept of real money or carpets and with few or no mental pictures of the sight of coins or the taste of sugar. We can argue about the climate of a country with few or no mental pictures of black skies, drenched skins, of muddy soil. It is sufficient for our purposes if we feel that the words or other symbols in which we think stand for or represent or refer to the real things." Adding, in his Principles of Teaching: "The processes of judging facts, reasoning, following an argument and reaching conclusions are the same processes of association and dissociation as are found in all learning; the difference is that there is active selection within the present thought of some part or aspect THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 149 which consequently determines the next thought, and selection again amongst the sequent thoughts, retaining one and discard- ing others. The laws of rational thought are, however, the gen- eral laws of association and dissociation, but with predominance of the law of partial activity. The principles of teaching in the case of response of comprehension, inference, invention, and the like are the principles of apperception, habit formation, and analysis; but special importance now attaches to principles de- rived from the fact that (1) the total set or context or system of thought, and (3) any single feature of a thought, as well as the particular thing thought of, may decide the future course of thinking. The principles thus derived are: (1) Arouse in the pupil's mind the system of ideas and connection relevant to the work in hand. (2) Lead him to examine each fact he thinks of in the light of the aim of that work and to focus attention on the element of the fact which is essential to his aim. (3) Insist that he test whether or not it is the essential by making sure that it leads on to the goal aimed at and by the logical step of verification, by comparing the conclusions to which it leads with known facts." Miss Harrison adds: "In fact we have not reached the really rational view of anything until we see that all things are connected; that there is no such thing as isolation. It has been well said, 'most of the world is asleep because it has been taught facts alone.' It is because we fail to see continuity that we fail to comprehend life. Cod is eternal, everlasting, ever- present; therefore all His creation must reflect Him — must be without isolations."' Storm and Stress Period. When puberty has well advanced the bodily and mental changes send the Youth through a fiery, seething furnace of unrest, of questioning old faiths, of realiza- tion of sin, doubt and anxiety, both of his religious faith and its verity, and of his own salvation. Conscience is acting vig- ously, and it drives the youth to personal investigation. He devours infidel and even atheistic books. He is an object of solicitude to home and Church, who imagine he is wandering into irreligion and godlessness. Never mind ! Starbuck's fig- ures prove that not more than 5 per cent, (a mere fraction) ever drift permanently away at this time. Almost all come back to 150 RELTGIOUS EDUCATION the I'old, witli faith better grounded for the proving and test- ing. They remain steadfast forever then, or are overturned in the second ujjheaval, tliat often ensues in the Later Adolescence or Early Manhood. According to Mr. Barnes, tliis somewhat skeptical age (twelve to fifteen) is followed by a period of diminished criti- cal activity in religious cpiestions. "One cannot help feeling," he says, "that they (the children just ])ast fifteen) have accepted an abstraction and a name and have, temporarily at least, laid the questions which perplexed them aside. Certainly from fifteen to eighteen there is no such persistent exercise of the critical judgment in matters tiieological as there is hetween twelve and fifteen." In speaking of the Development of Belief in Youth, Pratt says: "Certainly for many men the great wave of doubt comes at about eighteen, and for many women about two years earlier. The two great causes or occasions for a(h)lescent skepticism are, first, an inherent, ahnost instinctive, tendency to doubt, a nat- ural rebellion against authority of all kinds, a declaration of independence on the ])art of the youth; and secondly, and much more important, the reaction of the young reason upon the new facts put before it for the first time. It comes upon the young man with an overwhelming surprise that the beliefs upon which he has been brought up, and which have been inculcated in him as the very surest and most unshakable verities of life, are after all based on such very uncertain foundations and bolstered up by such exceedingly flimsy arguments. For so the newly awakened young man regards these arguments. There is no time in a man's life when his reason is so unflinchingly logical, so careless of consequences, so intolerant of make-believe." And since it is the age of doubt it should be met with the utmost sympathy and given the fullest consideration. There should not be an attitude of reproach. Our religion will bear investigation. Miss Slattery puts it thus : "I do not believe one should lead them to express their doubts, but when they do, may God give us the wisdom we need more than at any other time in our work. The phrase 'I don't believe' more often means, 'I cannot understand,' and T know from experience that it is possible to make them feel that it is the inability to understand which TiiK sTA{;i:s OF i)i:\i:i.()1'.mi:nt \'>\ leaves tlicni so pcrpluxud. Tlicy are not wicked doublets, these questioning young people of ours. They are striving to reason (Mit answers. The only person who never questions is the one who never thinks. 1 have had girls and boys in their later teens irll nil' lliat they 'don't believe in anything, not even that there is a Liud.' 'W there is,' they say, 'why does lie let such things happen?' Well, 1 have met that question and answered it for myself; all 1 can do is to give them my answer. I have found that, if wisely treated, they almost always return to a larger and better faith when the period of doubt is over. It can be made a short period for many of them, if we can lead them to sec the marvellous power of Almighty God whom they question, flow impossible it is for the human mind to understand the great problems they arc attempting to solve, and yet the mind must ever seek to solve them. "•'The main thing it seems to me is to rol) doubt of its heroic element by not treating it as wicked. Then we can help them as best we may to reach conclusions which shall in a measure satisfy. Let us remember that the best, and highest reasoning never leads to final disbelief. The reason seeks the positive al- ways rather than the negative. Personally, I am not as anxious about these young people as I am about those who say, 'There is a God; all you teach is true,' and then live as if there were no God and none of it were true." The Sunday School is no place to drag in mooted questions of criticism, but it is the place to settle doubts when they arise, and a doubt should never be allowed to linger and lui'k unan- swered. As we state in the chapter on The Teacher, when a pupil comes with a query during this Age of Doubt, answer the child. Do not turn him away. If you do not know, say so franklv. It will not be to your discredit, no one is supposed to know everything. But when you say you don't know, be sure to add, "But 1 will find out,'' and then never fail to find out. Do not "bluff the boy off. If you have not gray malter enough to transfer the knowledge from your source of information, then take him to someone who can deal with him first hand. At any rate, under no consideration, let the doubt lurk. Some of the saddest instances of the result of this policy have come to the knowledge of the writer. One bright Yale man in post-graduate 152 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION work in Columbia, said that he had not been in Sunday Scliool since his college days, because he had asked his teacher a ques- tion which she could not answer, and he thought if she did not know, the whole of religion was a fraud. In a Washington Sunday School Institute a teacher stated that a lady had com- mitted suicide, who on her deathbed blamed her Sunday School teacher for not answering her doubts. One must watch carefully for this period, for the Course on Christian Doctrine, which should be given at this time, may be given too early or too late. A teacher in one of our large city schools said that she had given the Course on Doctrine to girls of thirteen, who appeared absolutely uninterested. They queried, "Why should anyone want to prove the Resurrection of Christ, or His Divinity? Did not the Creed say so? Did not everybody believe it? Was not that enough?" The next year she was teaching them the Apostolic Church and they were that year in the Age of Doubt and Investigation. Then they were ask- ing her to prove the very questions that she had proved the year before and which did not properly occur in their text book. Doc- trinal material should be given in full during this time and the child cannot have too much. Nor should we be afraid of science. In The Lion of St. Mark, it says : "Science is swinging with increasing momentum from the materialistic toward the spir- itual reading of the universe; and the number of men, great in science and in invention, who array themselves on the side of the Christian faith grows steadily. The latest witness is Mr. Edi- son, perhaps the greatest^ of living inventors, and certainly one of the keenest brains of the present generation. The New York Tribune publishes the latest interview with Mr. Edison. Among other questions was one asking if his theories of evolution and cellular adjustment made him a disbeliever in the Supreme Being. He replied: 'Not at all. No person can be brought into close contact with the mysteries of Nature, or make a study of chemistry, or of the laws of growth, without being convinced that behind it all there is a supreme intelligence. I do not mean to say a supreme law, for that implies no consciousness, but a supreme mind operating through unchangeable laws. I am con- vinced of that, and I think that T could — perhaps I may some- time— demonstrate the existence of such an Intelligence through THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 153 the operation of these mysterious laws with the certainty of a demonstration in mathematics.' " It is the Conversion Period. The psychology of conversion shows that this phenomenon, with its "sense of sin," is a physi- cal or psycliological, rather than a spiritual, development. It gives the ripe and fitting time, however, for Christian and Spir- itual teaching. Like other instincts (love, curiosity, altruism, etc.), the Instinct of Keligiosity should be seized and made use of. It is the Conversion-period, and should be used as such by the Clnirch. Sin, however, and its realization by those who have fallen into its meshes, is a very real thing. President G. Stanley Hall says, in The Prixcu'les of Eeligious Education : "I am very strongly persuaded that not many years will pass before we shall have from science a very strong plea for more preaching of sin from the pulpit. I say this with great diffidence, and I hardly meant to put it quite so strongly, but I will not go back now, for I very rarely get an opportunity to talk back from the pulpit; my place is in the pews. But I do feel very strongly persuaded that we ought to have a little of the old-fashioned doctrine of sin preached as Augustine preached it. The Church deifies some of our good Calvinistic friends for preaching it. We do not hear so very much of it; but it is a dreadful thing. Read a book like Nordau's Degeneration. Eead the modern studies in criminology that are being made. Eead the literature that is abroad, stamped with the marks of human decadence. Look at life as you see it. Is not sin a real thing?" Referring again to Professor Pratt, he says : "In this sense, religious belief, apart from its accidental and purely intellectual accretions, is biological rather than conceptual, it is not so much the acceptance of a proposition as an instinct. I do not mean by this that it is an instinct in the technical sense of the term, but it has its roots in the same field, and is in many ways com- parable. An instinct might be roughly described as an organic belief. It cannot be reasoned out; it must simply be accepted and obeyed. The young bird before her first migration to the south or before her first period of motherhood, we must suppose, feels a blind impulse to start southward or to build her nest. She cannot tell wiiy it is; she simply obeys. 154 RELKilorS EDICATIOX "'JMu' religious cojiseiousnuss in wliicli llic mystical germ is somewhat developed is in a similar position. It may be utterly in the dark as to tlie nature of the Cosmos so far as all reasoning goes. Jt can see (Jod no more than the bird can see the south- land. It simply accepts what it finds — and for the same reason the bird has in flying south, it must say, 'Lord, Thou hast made us for Thyself, and our hearts are restless till they rest in Tliec.' The immense popuhirity of this sentence of Augustine's among religious })eople of all sorts and of all times is an indication of its truth as a psychological desc-i-i])ti()n." Miss Harrison treats the subject thus : "The assumption that every normally constituted offspring of the human species has a capacity for religion is, therefore, warranted by the study of man as a religious being, as well as of religion in its histori- cal development, it is human to be religious. It is sometlii^ig less than human, or more than human, or somehow extra human, not to be religious. This conviction may be confidently asserted in the name of modern psychological and historical science. "All religion rests on a need of the soul ; we hope, we dread, because we wish. 'IMie ceaseless craving for satisfaction is an important part of the human being's capacity for religion: And it is the attempt of the ])resent age to satisfy the deepest needs of human nature by a more abundant supply of physical com- forts and of sensuous pleasures, wdiich constitutes and validates some of the most effective influences for thwarling the chief benefits of the religious life." How do we explain Conversion Physiologically and Psycho- logically if it is not ])rimarily a spiritual and religious phenome- non? Forbush, the great student of Adolescence, gives us the answer: "The peculiarity of this period that most attracts atten- tion is that of crisis. It seems to be well proven that there comes a time in the adolescence of almost every boy and girl when the various physical and moi'al intluences of the life bear down to a point of depression, and then rise suddenly in an ascending curve, carrying with them a new life. There is first a lull, then a storm, then peace; what results is not boy. but man. This crisis, in religious matters, is called conversion, but is by no means confined to or peculiar to religious change. 'It is/ says T>r. ITall. 'a natural resrcneration. If the Tlui^dilinirs-Jackson THE sTA(;i:s of i)i:\i:ij)i\mi:nt 155 throc-lcvol Ihcorv ol' llie brain he true, there is at this time a final and eoin])lete transfer of the central powers of the brain from the lower levels of instiiiet and motor power to the higher levels.' 'It is,' says Lancaster, 'the focal point of all psychol- ogy.' J)r. Starbuck's careful lliough dill'usc study shows that this change is a])t to come in a great wa\c al nboiil liflccu or six- teen, preceded by a lesser wave at about twelve, aiul followed by another at about seventeen or eighteen. It consists in a coming out from the little, dependent, irresponsible animal self into the large, independent, responsible, outreach ing, and upreaching moral life of manhood. Professor Coe says: 'I do not think it sliould he called conversion, Imt commitment. It is a ratifica- tion rather than a reversal.' ITe also shows that the first wave is that of most decided awakening, although the number of con- versions that can be dated is greater in the second period. "There is a marked difference in tiio way tliis 'personalizing of religion,' as Coe calls it, comes to boys and to girls. With boys it is a later, more violent, and a more sudden incident. With boys it is more apt to l)e associated with periods of doubt; with girls with times of storm and stress. It seems to be more apt to come to boys when alone ; to girls in a church service. "Next to the physical birth-hour this hour of psychical birth is most critical. For ''at this formative stage an active fermentation occurs that may give wine or vinegar.' 'This,* says President Hall, 'is the day of grace that must not be sinned away.' The period of adolescence is by many divided into three stages, embracing respectively the ages from twelve to sixteen, sixteen to eighteen, and eighteen to twenty-four. These might be termed the stages of ferment, crisis, and reconstruction. ]\Ir. E. P. St. John classifies them as physical, emotional, and intel- lectual stages. Coo marks them as impulsive, sentimental, and reflective. Rev. Charles E. McKinley marks them in character as solitary, self-willed, and social, and in result as discovering personal freedom, discovering life, discovering social relations. The three waves of religious interest correspond with these stages. I have not attempted to classify the phenomena of these stages here, desiring rather to give the impression of the period as a whole. Most of the phenomena which I have spoken of be- gin in the earliest stage, reach their culmination in the second, 156 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION and begin in tlie third to form the fabric of altruism and char- acter. Of course the instinctive, the sensuous, and the senti- mental are apt to precede the rational and the deliberate. "While we may not pretend to comprehend the whole phil- osophy of the entrance into religious life, there are some things which seem to be assured. Such are these : The boy is not irre- ligious; he is rather in the imitative, habituated, ethical stage. Conversion is the human act of turning to God, not a special cataclysmal kind of experience during that act." Haslett says: "Definite religious awakenings are prominent during this stage. It is the paramount time when religious feel- ings are deepest and stir the soul most easily and naturally. It is to be noticed that there is a rise in the conversion curve just before puberty, a distinct fall in it at this change, and a very rapid and high rise in it immediately following puberty. The golden time for conversion is from about fourteen to nineteen. Sixteen is the year when the curve is highest, according to most of the studies that have been made. Nature favors and greatly aids grace during this stage. The soul is open in response to the physical and physiological renovation and rejuvenation. "It is a sad fact that great numbers of our young men are outside the Church, and Church relations. They seem to have no interest in the Church. Their energies are being utilized else- where, and the Church is the loser. They appear to be out of touch with the Church, with too little in common between them, and the one institution that should be crowded with the youth of the land is neglected. A pastor who has been successful in filling his church at its services, said that he usually had three hundred young men at his meetings. Perhaps he did. But four years afterwards you could not find fifty young men in one of those meetings, except on special occasions. The fact is they drifted to those places where there was provision for their needs and interests. One of the saddest features of the Christian Church to-day is the fact that the young men are not found within her pale. It is not higher criticism, not the new theology, not the changed character of the preaching, not the extensive or elabo- rate musical programs, not the rivalry of the churches; none of these nor all combined that can account for the dearth of young manhood in the Church of the present. The cause must be THE STAUES OF DEVELOPMENT 157 sought olscwlierc. The cliaractcr of the times has changed, changed enormously within tlic last twenty-five years. Social organizations, cluhs, societies, fraternities, have all multiplied very rapidly. Here the young man finds the exercises that ap- peal to his nature and needs, to a degree. Not that they are religious, most of them are not, but they meet a deep want in his nature. They appeal to the sense of individuality, independ- ence, worth, eagerness, and the feeling of enthusiasm, as well as feed the social nature, so strong at this stage. Provision must he made for the leading instincts and capabilities of the young to develop activity, and activity that results in actual value to others. The youth should feel that the work he is doing, the part he is playing in the role of the Church's activity, is essen- tial, valuable, and ap])reciatcd by those with whom and for whom lie works. Let him have something to do, and let him realize the importance of that service, and let it also be of such a nature as shall suit his gifts and interests as far as possible, giving great freedom and encouraging a spirit of responsibility and authority in him, and a long step will have been taken in the right direction towards holding the youth within the fold of the Church. "The entire services of the Church, opening, music, sermon, closing, receiving of the offering, social feature at the close, must all be of such a nature as appeals to manhood. We should have a large number of hymns written by capable composers, and suited to the adolescent nature and needs, and given place within the hymnals. The trouble has been that the whole organi- zation, administration, services and work of the Church until very lately, have been planned from the point of view of the adult, theological t}'pe of mind." Tlic Curve of Conversion. — Professor Starbuck, Professor of Psychology in the Leland Stanford Junior University, got out a book some years ago which is a study of The Psychology OF CoxvERSiox. He made a very detailed research, and his re- sults are incontestable. Professor Coe, a devout Methodist, who would be inclined to accept the old view of conversion, brought out his book in 1900 on The Spiritual Life. He accepts Starbuck's curves. Stanley Hall, the author of Adolescexce, the enormous two-volume study of this subject, accepts Starbuck's Curves; 158 U K M ( ; 1< )L"S EDUCATION i'lvsidciil Biillcr .iiid Dr. A. A. IJutler; L'roi'essor James and Kdwin F. See; Di-. William 15. Forhusli and Professor Haslett, iu fact every writer on this sui)jeet to-day accepts Starbuck's Curves, so that practically they can be considered as standard. These are the Curves. They are worth careful study and copy- inof. Somewhere between thirteen and sixteen, differing witli boys and girls, comes the rise in the Curve, sharp and distinct. There is no mistaking it. The signs will be the Doubts, the Ideals, the Mind Wandering and Storms and Stress, and the sudden Desire to do something for the Church or for mankind. It may come with a life that is very inconsistent, for practi- cally it has ver}^ little to do with life, it is an inclination to al- truism, to do good, to do better service. The child may be very inconsistent and seemingly indifferent to religion. You say, "Oh, that child is not fit for Confirmation." Yet, it is undoubt- edly the leading of the S]iirit. It is undoubtedly the time when the iron is white-hot. Now remember tliat the iron does not become white-hot because you are going to mold it. It becomes Avhite-hot because it is in the fire. So it is with conversion. Tliis storm and stress period, this iiphcaval, this grace, does not come properly from a religious motive. It comes from a physio- logical and psychological one, as we have said before. It is the time when the iron is Avhite hot, when the child is moldable, when the instinct of religiosity can be reached and touched. It I'lii': si'AcKs oi' i)i:\i:i.()i'.Mi:xT i.'>!t is ilic lime to stril<(' fur (iod. Tlic cliango of lift: and conducl will follow after, not come hefoi'e. We lia\c often asked, "How can you ex])e('( a ehild fo l)e p'ood until you have i;iven him (iod's ])ow('r in Holy Baj)tisin and Condiiuat ion ?"" How can you ex])ect him to he good any more than you can expect a sick person to walk without stronuiheiiini:- his muscles? If one has lain in hed for a month, he can reachly say: *'! cannot walk." No, nor would he ever he ahle to walk until he got u]) and practised. This period may last two weeks, two months, possihly a year, hut is more likely to he very short than at all long. The iron does not stay white long. Then there is a sudden drop of in- difi'erence. Then somewhere hetween seventeen and nineteen there is a second rise in the Curve, not so high as before, nor so sharp and strong; but longer and broader — that is, extending over a greater period. This is a second chance to reach the child. Xot being so sharp, it may be overlooked; whereas it Would take a blind man to overlook the first curve. The drop occurs again, and somewhere between thirty and thirty-three there is a last rise, not so high as the second time, and about the same length, but if the man has not been reached then, where is he? ITe is in the home, sleeping late on Sunday mornings, or r(>ading the Sunday newspa])er, or perchance playing golf or riding the automobile. He is usually not in a place where he can be reached. And the woman, where is she? In the home, occupied l)y home duti(>s, in society with its distractions; but l)y a beautiful coincidence, it often happens that the woman, mar- rving voung, has \\vv little child, now in the first period at twelve or thirteen. This child is reached, and "a little child shall lead them" is shown l)y mother and child coming hand in hand to God's altar. Scarcely well is it to rtin the risk of waiting for this last period, however, for the Y. M. C. A. figures show- that onlv five ])er cent, are reached after the age of twenty-one. During this period of adolescence the child now passes out of the stagt' where the whole family or the entire race is initiated into a religion l)ecaus(> of the helief of the chief or leader. He no longer speaks of "our church," or "our" position whatever it may be, in the inijiersonal way so customary a year or two earlier. He forms his own views. ITe is a Christian because 160 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION he personally embraces Christianity. He must stand on his own feet. This is the natural and ajipropriate time to put the question, "Do you believe?" It is the natural and appropriate time for the personal assumption of the vows made for one in baptism, or for otherwise uniting with the Church. Only two points in this connection can be touched upon here. The first is an eagerness for service. The young person is now ready, not only to follow a leader, but to fight for and champion a cause. If, on the other hand, the scholar arrives at the period for grasping a specific truth and does not find that truth, if he is ready for a new stage of spiritual development and is still fed only on thought suitable for earlier stages, his spiritual devel- opment is in danger of being impoverished or even permanently arrested. Dr. O'Shea, referring to the religious phase of adolescence, says: "Adolescent religious instruction should relate more to action, to doing, than to speculation. What the boy particularly should hear in the Sunday School should have reference mainly to worthy tasks to be undertaken in the world, great deeds to be done. But, not realizing the nature of the adolescent boy, teach- ers have presented religion as the source of peace and rest, rather than as the armor Math which hard battles are to be fought, and in the course of events the young man drifts away from the Sunday School because there is more in the world out- side that appeals to his love of action, of daring, of bravery, and of enterprise." "Another curious fact," writes Forbush, "about the matur- ing life is that it comes on in waves. Between these are Lulls. These lulls were called to my attention by some heads of reform- atories before I read about them. What is the explanation? If you chart out all these rhythms, physical, mental, social, and moral, you will find that they closely correspond. Their ex- planation is largely physical. When physical growth and energy are near their flood-tide, tlie other friendly energies respond likewise, but during these reaction times which the good God gives so that the child's body may gather power to grow again, all the other energies hibernate. This law of rhythms probably acts to a lesser degree all through life. It is not confined to THE STAGES OF DP:VKLOrMENT Kil adolescence. Middle-aged people have testified to having regu- lar fluctuations of religious interest once in two years; others, during successive winters. Some of these cases are explainable, some are obscure. The tendency of nervous energy to expend and then recuperate itself; the fact of a yearly rhythm in growth, greatest in the autumn and least from April to July, pointed out by Malling-Hansen ; the influence of winter quiet and leisure upon religious feeling — these are suggestive. In boyhood it is probable that the first lull is a reaction from the shock of the pubertal change, the second a reaction from the year of greatest physical growth, and the tliird a reaction from the year of doubt and re-creation. The boy, then, who suddenly loses his interest in religion or work or ideals is not to be thought in a desperate condition, and somebody ought to tell him that he is not. There is nothing to do but wait for this condition, which is natural and helpful to over-wrought energies, to pass, as it surely will." Professor See summarizes the results: "The history of national and ecclesiastical customs, as well as the result of scientific investigations, point to the period between twelve and sixteen as one of critical religious importance. We are told that it has been a world-wide custom to celebrate the advent of adolescence with feasts, ceremonies, and mystic rites. This is the age of confirmation in the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of England, the Episcopal Church in America, the Lutheran and other churches." When, therefore. Dr. Stanley Hall speaks of conversion as "a natural regeneration" and "a physiological second birth," and Dr. Starbuck calls it "a distinctively adolescent phenomenon," they are simply reducing this critical religious experience to the terms of physiology or psychology, but recognizing that in the orderly development of the life of the boy, according to the laws of God, the physiological and psychological changes which come to him at this period are part of a religious experience as well. As Dr. Coe says: "When the approaching change has heralded itself, the religious consciousness also tends to awaken. When the bodily life is in most rapid transition, the religious instincts likewise come into a new and greater life." The So-called Gang Age. The use of this word "Gang" applied to boys is one of those singularly inconsistent lapses of 11)2 IJKLKnors KDICATIOX speech uJiieli do more lianii in a single word llian many labored chapters can correct. "Give a dog a bad name and hang it" : Give defenceless and ingenuous bo3's at this age a class name that allies them with criminals and they will hardly thank you: nor will instructors who have any conception of auto-suggestion. The boys are going in gangs and the girls are going in cliques. The father suddenly awakens to the fact that his lad and he have grown apart. The peculiar self-centeredness and sensitiveness of this period are the cause of it. And yet the adolescent youth is yearning for sympathy. As we noted under the preceding period, they yearn to be loved, but they will not show it. Wise are the parents who keep in touch with their children now, who encourage confidences, who never scold or repel them, but who do advise and guide them; who get them to tell even of wrong doings and wild oats and shady actions, aiming all the while to guide and lead and help them. The child will form an attrac- tion for one older and w'iser than himself and when he respects and loves, will devotedly yield his life rather than be untrue. The best teacher now is an older woman, or man who remembers his own adolescent age. The unfortunate trouble with men at this time is that they do not remember it. The extreme danger of following a harmful, wicked leader is obvious. "Leading straight" is a prerequisite of a friend. Only genuine sympathy on the part of a teacher can hold a class at this age. "The follies of youth," the lad's "conceit," the girl's "frivolity," become unbearable to any save one who can "under- stand." Use this gang instinct in class organization. The gang instinct means two things — following the leader, and self-gov- ernment. The day school recognizes it, and in New York we get the leader of the gang, with his gang, into the club, in the night school and from there to the educational classes below. Form every class in the Sunday School into the nearest approach to a gang, and give it a name. You cannot call it St. Philip's Gang, St. George's Gang, St. Bartholomew^'s Gang — that will scarcely do. Nor do the names "class" and "club'' quite satisfy. A good plan is to call every girls' class a "Guild," and every boys' class a "League." Let them elect their own officers, but not the teacher as one. Let the teacher be merelv the director, the TIIK STA(;i:S OF l)i:\KI/>l'.Mi:XT lfi:i I)owor bcliiiul the lliroiic. Ld one youlli \)v prcsidfiil. one treas- urer, one seeretiir};, and all the rest viee-presidents. Give every- body an oflice. T.et them take lurns in conducting the class reci- tation. )'()u will probably think the lesson will not be so well taufjht. 'riiri/ will certainly think it is better. You will have to do more work, study harder. Have the class leader each week at your home and i)os>ib!y spend hours i,^oin<^ over the material with him or Ium-, but the cooperation on the i)ai't of the chiss. the interest taken by them in their woi'k, will well repay the effort. School after school, teacher after teacher are bearing witness to-day to the pedagogical value of this plan. Many a day school teacher, working out this system in the Sunday School, has said, "I never got such work out of my scholars before, as I do now." The Strengtiicning of Conscience. Mrs. Birney, in her book upon CiriLDiiooi), says: "The budding conscience which appeared about the fourth year, and which, through its expan- sion, has led the boy to do without protest what his parents, his teacher, or society required, now feels a need for some other guide to conduct, some explanation of human life and its phe- nomena. Truly has this period of life been designated as a 'second birth.' The earlier years have been filled with external objects and physical growth and needs, and now the soul seems to spring into conscious activity and to assert its sovereignty over the mind and heart. This is the time for the development of altruism, of the ideal, of all that is noble and fine and great in human character. The mind is marvellously receptive to sug- gestion, the brain quick to perceive, the muscles to act. If evil inclinations manifest themselves, counteract their influence, not by dwelling upon them, but by putting something else in their place in the form of occupation or amusement. Someone has said: 'We grow toward goodness rather by pulling ourselves up to it, than by pushing ourselves away from evil.' " Eefcrring to A ^Modern Study of Coxsciexce, by Huckell, we read: "It is at this point that a modern study of conscience may be said to take up the problem and to bring it into new light. This may be considered the modern view, as now generally held : Conscience has two elements — moral judgment and moral obliga- tion. As to judgment, it is probable that reason acts in con- science as it acts in any other matter I And therefore the judg- 164 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION inents of conscience arc fallible; but as to obligation, there is something unique. We recognize that an ordinary judgment of reason may or may not involve obligation. There is a sense of the ought wliich is manifest and unmistakable. Now this fact of the sense of moral obligation must be accounted for. The question is, whctlicr this norm, this sense of obligation, is native or acquired. The intuitionalists would say that it is native; the evolutionists, that it is acquired. The truest view would be probably a reconciliation of these views, for in a certain way this sense of obligation is both native and acquired. Many of the intuitionalists would not, however, agree to reconciliation, for they would not accept the cosmic theory of the evolutionists, although it may give a very full and noble view of life. The intuitionalists would hold that the successive epochs of life, con- sciousness, morality in man, were implanted ah extra at certain stages of life or in the individual man. Many ethical thinkers of to-day define conscience as the entire moral constitution or nature of man. Some hold that this moral nature is a separate faculty in man. Thus Dr. Thomas Keid defines it as 'an orig- inal power of the mind, a moral faculty by which we have the conceptions of right and wrong in human conduct, and the dic- tates of which form the first principles of morals.' Others hold that conscience apprehends the distinctions of right and wrong, but only applies them personally. Thus President Mark Hop- kins says : 'We may define conscience to be the whole moral con- sciousness of a man in view of his own actions as related to moral law.' Others hold that 'conscience should not be used as an appellation for a separate or special moral faculty, for the reason that there is no such faculty.' This was President iSToah Por- ter's view. 'The same intellect,' he contends, 'so far as it knows itself, acts with respect to moral relations under the same laws, and by the same methods of comparison, deduction, and infer- ence as when it is concerned with other material.' " We see, therefore, something of the meaning of the further differing definitions of conscience that are often given. Con- science, says a naturalist, is a highly important organ for pre- serving life. "A man's conscience," says Clifford, "is the voice of his tribal self, the individual self being subordinate to the tribal self." Conscience, says another, is that phase of our na- THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 165 ture which opposes inclination and manifests itself in the feel- ing of obligation and duty. "A man's conscience," says still another, Professor Starke, "is a particular kind of pleasure and pain felt in perceiving our own conformity or nonconformity to principles." "Conscience," says Professor Frederick Paulsen, "is a knowledge of a higher will by which the individual feels himself internally bound." Trendelenburg asserts that con- science is the reaction and proaction of the total God-centered man against the man as partial, especially against the self- seeking part of himself. Schlegel's definition is interesting: "Conscience is an inward revelation as a warning voice, which though sounding in us, is not of us, and makes itself to be felt as an awe and fear of Deity. It is in all human bosoms and lies at the source of all morality." This subject will be dealt with again under the chapter on the Training of the Will. The Century Dictionary defines Conscience as : 'The Con- sciousness that the acts for which a person believes himself to be responsible do or do not conform to his ideal of right ; the moral judgment of the individual applied to his own conduct, in dis- tinction from the perception of right and wrong in the abstract, and in the conduct of others. It manifests itself in the feeling of obligation or duty, the moral imperative — I ought, or, I ought not; hence, the Voice of Conscience." The latter part of this definition permits us to divide this much debated subject into two parts, which can then be sepa- rately handled and settled. There is the moral judgment of the individual, which, like his literary or artistic judgment, can be developed by training, until it becomes his reasonable adviser in all matters that come within its province, and it is the func- tion of moral judgment, thus trained and reliable, or, on the contrary, untrained or mistrained and unreliable, to present the case arising in any moral crisis before the individual mind. At such a moment Conscience, apprehending the presentation, discharges its whole function of the feeling of obligation by issuing the moral imperative — Do this; or, Eefrain from doing it. The Enlightenment, the Clearing-up Time. The youth is easily guided and led out of his erratic doubtings, into definite, 166 RKJ.IGIOUS EDUCATION clear convictions on any subject. Give him logical, reasonable proof, and he is satisfied. His reason is so active that it de- mands proof. This period has been called the "Aufkliirung," the "clearing-up" of the unsettled questions. Statements accepted hitherto on faith iji the source or person making them, must now be re-settled, with the proof. The youth is eager for facts and reasons. His animated face shows it. "The mask-like, im- passive face at this age," says Forbush, "is a sign of a loss of youth or of purity." "He who is a man at sixteen, will be a child at sixty." Starbuck fixes the acme of the doubt-period at eighteen, the commencement of Later Adolescence. The storm and stress period ends in a Crisis. There is at first the lull, then the storm, then peace; and at the end, when peace comes, we find we have Man or Woman in place of Boy or Girl. The youth has gone through the turbulent rapids and has come out into the quiet lake beyond. No wonder a father said the other day: "I understand now why my boy wrote home from college, 'Father. T can't explain how I am different, but somehow there seems to be rolled away from me a great load. T look at the world differently. T seem to be lighter-headed, and it all seems to be brighter around me.' " Of course it did, it was the Enlightenment. Development of WW. We have ref^erred before to the fact that Will is developed during this period, and we devote a special chapter toward the end of the book which treats of the Development and Training of Will. The father looks one day into the eyes of what he thought was his little boy, and sees looking out the unaccustomed and free spirit of a young and unconquerable personality. "Some mad parents," says James, "take this time to begin the charming task of breaking the child's will, which is usually set about with the same energy and implements as the beating of carpets." But the boy is too big to be licked or to be mentally or morally coerced. Haslett says: "Most fights occur at this stage. The youth is apt to cause more real commotion and trouble to the hour than at any other time between birth and maturity. It would seem that he smells fight and contention in the very air he breathes. If he cannot fight, then smaller ones are encouraged to engage in a friendly scrim- mage— trouble he must have. Some reformers think that if a TIIK STA(;i-:S OF DEVELOPMKNI 167 change for a j)invr iiioral life does not occur before the age of twelve it is not likely to be accomplished except at great cost afterwards. The forces and qualities that are present and domi- nant bcfoi-e pul)erty are likely to be strengthened by the change. Hence the argument for llic early and careful religious and moral training of children. Jt is an illustration of the greater fact that life tends to hold together, each stage prejiaring for the following stage. The moral sense in boys is not as acute as in girls. Boys do not make such fine distinctions in relation to right and wrong. Swearing, stealing, lying, incendiarism, murder, etc., are crimes to be avoided as the boy of thirteen or fourteen views things. Acts must be very wrong, very violent and harmful or he will not be so likely to think them serious, (lirls mention im- modesty, untidiness, pouting, carelessness, masculinity, etc., as wrong. With them it is taken for granted that the baser and more violent crimes are violations of right. The first crime that comes under the ban of the law is vagrancy, including petty acts of pilfering. This is the age when boys are apt to become gen- eral nuisances, imitating in no snuiU degree their superiors in this line. It is the dime novel, the "yellow-back literature" stage. General meanness develops fast when once started. Crime against property follows that of vagranc}^, as a rule. De- structiveness manifests itself with native tendency to torture and destroy. This is the age when orchards are apt to be visited frequently by boys; buildings, notices, and fences disfigured. Crime against persons follows that against property. Dr. Marro finds that before fifteen, crime against persons is rare compared to the ten years following that year, ilost frequent infractions in prisons are by young men. Sikorski reported that the most frequent infractions against the rules of the military school were from thirteen to fifteen. A study made by Dr. Marro of over 3,000 students in academies in Italy, shows that conduct is good at eleven, but fell away down to the lowest point at fourteen, and then gradually rose until the highest point was reached at eighteen. We hesitate whether more to be afraid of or alarmed for this creature, who has become endowed with the passions and independence of manhood while still a child in foresight and 168 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION judgment. He rushes now into so many crazy plans and harm- ful deeds. This age, particularly that from twelve to sixteen, is the most critical and difficult to deal with in all childhood. It is so because the boy now becomes secretive, he neither can nor will utter himself, and the very sensitiveness, the longing and overpowering sense of the new life, is often so concealed by inconsistent and even barbarous behavior, that one quite loses both comprehension and patience. According to Ilaslett : "Things must not be too easy of accomplishment is the practical application of what has just been said, and particularly so when adults are dealt with. The appeal should be made largely to the manhood and womanhood of the persons whom we are desirous of reaching and winning. Let the task be a difficult one, let it require considerable exer- tion in its accomplishment, and it will be more likely to be under- taken. Appeal to the will power in men and women. Let them realize that this power is appealed to, is relied upon to undertake and complete the task, whatever its accomplishment. The organ of manhood and womanhood is the will. If there is a fair amount of worth in a person, that one will not stand by and hear himself or herself ridiculed, classed as an imbecile, as an aboulique, or as a good-for-nothing. Such an one will arouse and set to work and do the best that is possible. Time and again this has been done. Some argue with considerable force that the Church has made admission to membership entirely too easy; that the scarcity of men in the Church is in large meas- ure due to the ease with which persons can come into member- ship. Sufficient cost of thought, time, sacrifice, and energy of will are lacking to make it worth while to enter, it is said." The Christian Faith, in its "Christocentric character," has now a splendid hold upon the eager youth, furnishing a logical, clear, doctrinal system on which to build. Now can be com- prehended, for the first time, the meaning of the Sacrifice of Christ, the New Testament ideas, the Atonement, and the iles- sianic Forecast. Ritual and Adolescence. Haslett, though not himself a Churchman, points out the supreme importance of Ritual during the pubescent period. "The spectacular and objective always appeal to children. That which stimulates their senses and THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT ino awakens interest through the exercise of the same, other things being proper, is in place in the instruction of childhood. . . . It is especially at the transitional stage, the pubescent stage, that the ritualistic is appropriate and necessary, and should be carefully provided and administered While girls are more interested in the ritualistic and symbolic, yet the boys enjoy tlie spectacular phases of the ritualistic more. The girls are impressed more with their meaning than are the boys. Girls look upon the subjective side of morals, boys upon the objective. Girls are more easily influenced by their environment, and react more quickly Boys are more expressive, but at the age of puberty are inclined to be reticent Those Churches that practise Confirmation enriched by splendid rituals are in accord with the real nature of things, and should be in- fluential in arousing the Churches at large to make proper pro- vision for this critical stage of life " Ethical Dualism. In The Boy Problem Forbush states: "Ethical Dualism, a trait of semi-development and one with which we are familiar among American negroes, is characteristic of immaturity. It is the trait of the person who has not yet ac- cepted the responsibility for his own life. jSTone of us entirely shake it off. Not only is the Sunday boy different from the Monday boy, the boy praying different from the boy playing, the boy alone or with his parents or his adult friend different from the boy with his comrades, but, as in savagery, the ethics of the boy with Ms 'gang' is different from that with other boys. It is the old clan ethics. This idea that loyalty is due only to one's tribe, and that other people are enemies, and other people's property is legitimate prey, is just the spirit which makes the 'gang' dangerous, and which suggests the need of teaching a universal sociality, and of transforming the clan alle- giance into a chivalry toward all. The clan is a step higher than individualism ; I would recognize it, but I would lead its members to be knights rather than banditti." "The age which the boy has reached," says Joseph Lee, "is that where Sir Launcelot, the knight-errant, the hero of single combat, is developing into Arthur, the loyal king." This ethical dualism is a phase of that peculiar self-con- sciousness and desire for show, to make an impression, at this 170 KKLKJIOl'S EDUCATION age. Tlic youth is particular that his gloves shall be new and spotless, but is not so insistent that there shall be clean hands nnder the gloves. This enters into his religion and is the ex- ])lanation of the fact that the ritual of this period differs largely from the ritual of the Kindergarten and the Primary. The ritualism of the Kindergarten and Primary Periods is the ritual- ism of symbolism, with that deeper mystical meaning which ap- peals to the very young child. '^Fhe ritual of the Adolescent is the ritual of Show, "an outward and visible sign," as it were, of "an inward and spiritual grace." The life may not accord with the profession, and yet often the only thing to hold the life is the profession. Teachers and clergy, as well as parents, should realize this condition and be very patient with the inconsistent lad or maiden. T)r. Butler thinks that about the age of fourteen or fifteen, our i)upirs interest in private prayer needs to be strengthened. It must be done with devout carefulness, or we may do more harm than good. 1 know of no better method than that of a young teacher of hoys, whose statement I condense : "One week before a talk on Prayer, and before I have announced the sub- ject, I hand each boy an envelope, say the contents are confiden- tial, and I know he will comply, as a personal favor. In each envelope is a note, saying that T am subject to certain tempta- tions, and that I am liable to discouragement. I request that, in saying his evening prayers, he will mention me to the Heavenly Father, and will continue this until our next meeting. I add, that by carrying out this rc(|uest he is helping me more than he can fully understand. It is remarkable how the boys, aged from fourteen to seventeen — a time when many boys who have been in the habit of daily prayer are gradually relinquish- ing it — respond to this personal request. Without asking, I discern by the warmth of their greeting, or by some remark, that they are responding to what is. in most cases, an entirely new conception of private prayer — that of praying for someone outside of their own family. In some cases, boys who have al- ready discontinued daily prayers, are led to resume them. When the day comes for the talk on Prayer all are better prepared to listen and learn from it what I am able to offer. As I have not neglected to bear them in mind daily, a sympathy springs up THK STAIJKS OF DEVELOPMENT 171 between us whicli was not a|)|);ii\Tit bi'fore. A channel to the boy's soul has opened." Burbank's Views on Training. "llfi-c let iiic say that the wave of public dishonesty which seems to be sweei)ini>- over this count ly is chielly due to a hick of projjer trainin<2: — bn'eding. it you will — in the formative years of litV". Be dishonest with a child, whether it is your ehihl or some other j)t'rson"s child — dishonest in word or look or deed, and you have started a i^:rafter. tJ rafting, or stealing — for that is the bett(M- word — will never be taken up by the man whose formative years have been spent in an atmosphere of absolute honesty. Xor can you be dishonest with a child in thouglit. The child reads your motives as no other lunnan being reads them. He sees into your own heart. The child is tlie purest, truest thing in the world. It is absolute truth; that's why we love children. They know instinctively whether you are true or dishonest with them in thought as well as in deed; you cannot escape it. The cliild may not always show its knowledge, but its judgment of you is unerring. Its life is stainless, open to receive all impressions, just as is the life of the plant, only far more pliant and responsive to influences, and to influences to which no plant is capable of being responsive. Upon the child before the age of ten we have an unparalleled opportunity to work; for nowhere else is there material so plastic." QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. 1. What i.s tlio significaiu'o of Awkuanlnoss in tlio Adolescent Period? 2. What Phy.sical Dangers are Prominent? .■]. How would you meet the.se dangers? 4. What Mental Characteristies are noted? "). How can Ideals he used? ti. Define and descril)e the phenomena of "Storm and Stress." 7. \Miat is "Conversion," and how is it to he met? 8. Draw the "Conversion Curve." 9. Of what significance is the "Gang Age"? 10. Define Conscience and defend your definition. 11. How does "Will" manifest itself now? CHAPTER X. THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (Continued). Later Adolescence — Manhood — Relation of Mind and Body — Types — Temperament. Adolescence, Later Stages: Books under Chap. IX. Tub Tbaciikr, the Child, and the Book. Schauffler. pp. 170-177. *TiiE Child and the Hible. HuhhcU. p. 19. *Thb Boy Problem. Forhush. pp. 151-169. Education and Like. Baker. •The Spiuitital Life. Coe. •The I'sychology of Religion. Starbuclc. Sttccessward. liok. pp. 119-135. •Pedagogical Bible School. Coe. pp. 140-170. •Bible Classes, ^^ee. pp. 19-35. Manhood and Womanhood: •Teacher Training. Roads, pp. 37-38. The Psychology of IIbligion. Starbuck. The Spiritual Life. Coe. Mind and Body: •The Child and the Bible. Huhbell. pp. 16-20. Education. Spencer. Chapter IV. The Meaning of Education. Butler. Chapter I. •The Study of Children. Warner. The Psychologic Foundations of Education. Harris. Chapter XH. Talks on I'edagogics. Parker. Chapter L •Bible Classes. See. p. 19/f. •Childhood. Birney. pp. 45-47. Thinking, Feeling, Doing. Soriptnre. p. 73. Principles. Thorndike. pp. 14-15. •A Primer of I'eaching. Adam.'). All. Temperament: •The Study of Children. Warner, pp. 154-188. The Stitdy of Character. Bain. Chapter XXVI. •Our Temperaments. Steivart. Mental Development. Bahhrin. pp. 181, 187, 190. •The Boy Problem. Forbush. pp. 28-30. Principles. Thorndike. p. 94. Pedagogical Bible School. JTaslett. p. 223flf. Thinking, Feeling, Doing. Scripture, p. 32. •Childhood. Birney. pp. 171ff. IV. — Fourth Period, Later Adolescence, Age of Decision, Philosophic Insight, 18 to 25. Now in the after-peace of the budding manhood, with THE STACJES OF DEVELOPMENT 173 faith and doubts at rest; with Will and Action in power; new thoughts of the permanence of life come to the youth — the dominance of law, the grasp of the broad View-of-the-world, whieli Philosopliic Insight now unfolds. Family life appeals (o him. Habits of business are now formed. The typical as- pects and mannerisms, peculiar to each profession, as carpenter, tradesman, minister, artist, etc., are appearing. The final turns and twists of life are now well-nigh unalterable, set and fixed to the limit of the grave. The late Professor Davidson has said that every man is his own world-builder. No two men see the world alike. The world is the same objectively, but your view of the world is not my view of the world, because your "apperceptive basis" — that is, the ideas that you have accumulated, the education that you have passed through, the environment which has been your tutor — have not been the same as mine. If your view of the world were the same as my view of the world, your education and your life would have been the same as mine. Probably your very face would look like mine; but as your education has differed, your view of the world, that is, your apperception of it, necessarily differs from mine. And so whatever view of the world, whatever philosophy of life the youth in later adolescence may have reached, it is his own philosophy, his own view of the world. Good or bad to him the world is as he sees it after the great reconstruction period. We are responsible for the presentation of the world to him, and, in a sense, responsible also for the groundwork that he possesses to appreciate the world. V. — Adult Age, Manhood and Womanhood, 25 and onward. Little room for mucli education, as Character-building and Habit-forming factors, now remains. Henceforth it can be but an intellectual equipment. It is not likely to affect life very extensively, though some gain and advance or retrogression may result. Eemember in dealing with adults that whatever their idiosyncracies may be, you cannot alter them either by advice or complaint. You may change particular actions, but seldom the general trend. The dam may block the stream, but never curb the spring. The young lady who says, "T will marry John in order to reform him,"' had better reform him before she marries 174 KELIGIOUS EDUCATION him, as she ahiiost certainly will iiot succeed. It is doubtful whether she will succeed very much even before marriage. Occu- pations always react on life, and men become narrow in their own ruts. You may broaden; but not divert them. ]\[oral improvement, especially with strong will-power, may lake place; but onlv bv gradual substitution of new habits, with the old ones growing deeper and harder each year. It takes upheavals to alter lives then. Summary of the Chief Characte PHYSICAL. reriod of rapid growth. Heart increases in size. Larnyx and lungs enlarge. I^arge arteries increase. Muscles grow rapidly. Vocal chords elongate. Shoulders broaden out. The senses are strengthened. Circulation becomes more rapid. The skin becomes more sensitive. The voice is deepened. Needs more sleep and food. The beard grows. Hrain stops growing by 1.^). Changes peculiar to the male. I'eriod of least mortality. ristics of Adolescence. MENTAL AND SPIRITUAL. Assertion of selfhood, variously de- scribed as self-assertion, self-suffi- ciency, self-feeling, and braggado- <'io. lOgoism developing later into altruism. Social organization with same sex. Also known as gang instinct. Team work in games. Uestlessness of mind. lOnthusiasm in sports. Appearance of fighting instinct. I''ull energy. Secretiveness toward jjarents and others. I'^eeling of loneliness. Desire for sympathy. The wandering instinct. Longing for the remote and strange. Possessed by Ideals. Desire for quick results. Bashful with other sex. Time of hero worship. Tabular Summary of All Developmental Traits (i.e.. In- stincts to be trained into Habits) : PRIMAHY AGE. 1-6 1-3, Instinct. .3-G, Impulse. Restlessness Activity Savagery Symbolic Play Timidity Sex-Unconscious CHILDHOOD. 6-12 6-9, Imitation. 9-12, Habit. YOUTH OR ADOLESCENCE. 12-18 12-15, Moral Crisis. 15-18, Ideality. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Less Restlessness Still Active Truancy Desire for Reality Daring Courage Sex-Repellent Awkwardness Less Active Adventure Constructiveness Recklessness Sex-Attracted Bodily Changes TriJ-: .STA(!KS OK l)i:\ KI.OI'MKNT 17.') Frankness Faith and Trust Self-unconscious Dependent Imafjination Arc Imitates I'arents No Time Thouglit FRoistic Feelings Concrete Story Ago Curiosity No Conscience Believes Every tbinjj Mi;\TAL CIIAI{A('l'i:inSTICS. Sliyness ln(lc'|)endence IndifTerent Group Age Memory Age Imitates Companions I-ives in To-day Desire for Affeclioii Hero Ago liiograpliy Ago Collect ing Instinct Conscience Kising Demands Ueality Diplomatic Confidence S(>lf-conscious •■<;ang" or "Set" Age riiilosophic Age Imitates Noble Deeds Ideals "Chum" Friendships Abstract Age History Age Systematization Conscience Set Age of Doubts Storm and Stress Desire for Kitual Ethical Dualism Conversion Crisis Sex Dangers On "Fool's Hill" Relation Between Mind and Body. Mill! i> a uiiil. although possessed of Body, Mind, and Spirit; and, in liis development, all three should be trained and exereised in harmonious proportion to each other, for there is a most intimate interdependence between the three. It will not do to educate the ^Mind for the sake of the Spirit's welfare, and neglect the Body ; for the Body affects strongly both the j\Iind and the Spirit. "Sana Mens in Corpore Sano," is more supreme than ever to-day, in this age of Strenuous Muscular Christianity. Dr. Warner, in his Study of Children, illustrates the common types of degenerate or feeble bodies, which create feeble minds. Encourage all healthy, manly exercise and sports, for they are ennobling and uplifting. Care of the body, fresh air, cleanliness, sutlicient sleep, and proper proportion of food, are of more influence than sermons in securing alertness of atten- tion, in developing habits of purity of thought and of action, and in the avoidance of the evils of impurity, use of acohol and to- bacco, and enervation of brain and body. Enfeebled bodies result in' Malnutrition, Stuma, even In- sanity ; and always cause listlessness, inattention, poor reasoning, and loss of memory. It is certainly fully within the province of the Sunday School Teacher to take an interest in the physical condition of the children ; visiting their homes, advising and cor- 176 RF>[.IGIOUS EDICATION recting injurious conditions, whenever possible. Tlie physical culture and out-door games of the present generation have done much to improve our American Youth, and we are already be- holding a much taller and stronger race. Yet tenement homes, rapid living, stimulating foods, and late hours are producing a harvest of nervous, fidgety, restless, over-active, over-sensitive, or under-active, feeble-minded children. It is estimated that one out of every fifteen children from the tenements will be "defectives" to a greater or less extent. In Sunday Schools, special classes of such peculiar children should be formed, in which they are dealt with apart by themselves, under particularly qualified teachers. A careful distinction should be noted, how- ever, between these abnormal conditions and (a) the active rest- lessness of rapidly growing childhood, which is seen previous to puberty; (h) the awkwardness and shy sensitiveness of puberty; (c) the giggling, self-conscious, seemingly silly period of girl- hood in the 'teens. All of these periods are transitory, and are certain to be outgrown. It would be well for every teacher to glance at the illustrations in Warner's book, in order to recognize the most common types of abnormal children. Beyond abnormal conditions, temporary or chronic illness, indigestion, disturbance of liver, eye-strain causing headaches, and a number of common physical disturbances needing the physician rather than the priest, medicine rather than sermons, are frequently the fruitful causes of ill-temper and general wickedness. It is beginning to be recognized to-day that the Day School is responsible for the physical condition of the chil- dren, and compulsory treatment for trachoma (granular eye- lids), pink-eye, glasses, adenoid growths in the nose and throat, is the rule in our large cities. The Sunday School teacher is equally responsible, and her duties do not end with the teaching of the Sunday School lesson. The child who sits forward with staring eyes and holds the book too close in reading, probably needs glasses, of which no one has thought. A frank talk with the parents is the part of the earnest teacher. The inattentive child may be "deaf in one ear and hard of hearing in the other," and middle ear disease that begins in youth is a serious affection. Nervous children should have more rest and food and sleep. A child of good nerve stamina ought to be able to stand with feet THE STAOKS OK DEVELOl'MKNT 177 together, arms folded, body erect and not sway at all when the eyes are closed. Maintaining a similar position, the child ought to be able to put the arm at once out at full length, horizontally, in front of him without a drop or rise of the wrist or without a tremor. Dr. Warner gives many similar tests which can be r(>adily undertaken by even an unskilled teacher. The Sunday School teacher should be concerned with the whole child and be interested in his entire development and sound health of body, as well as of mind and soul. Professor Thorndike says: "There will be barely a class of thirty scholars without two or more children who have defects of vision or hearing so great as to seriously impair their power of receiving stimuli. If the pupils so affected were themselves conscious of their defects, not so much harm would be done; but in point of fact college students are found who are totally deaf in one ear, or blind in one eye, or markedly color blind, without being in the least aware of it, and in the first years of school life a large proportion of the children defective in hear- ing or vision, are entirely unaware of their difficulty. Teachers should observe carefully any children who habitually breathe through the mouth, and should cooperate with parents to secure medical advice for them. In many cases the safe and easy opera- tion of removing such growths bring a marked improvement in the comfort and school progress of the pupil." Teachers should especially confer with parents about the child's sleep. Mrs. Birney says: "A child from six to eight years old should get eleven or twelve hours of sleep. A child from twelve to fourteen years should get nine or ten hours' sleep. Does he get that amount? Does he sleep free from draughts? With access to fresh air? Where it is only moderately cold? Before going to bed does he eat only food easily digested? Does he go to bed free from mental excitement or anxiet)'?" Effects of Body on Mind and Spirit. "These are of such a common character," says See, "and are so apparent to all, as to call, in most cases, for no elabora- tion: "Indigestion causing depression of mind. "Bodily fatigue producing mental inaction. "Certain physical diseases causing melancholia. 178 RKLKilOl'S KDI'CATIOX "An over-wrouglil nervous system resulting in peevish temper. "A hearty ineiil superinducing drowsiness. "Stimulants taken into the body exciting the mind. "Narcotics taken into the body dulling the mind." "Mental action," says Dr. Roark, "may be wholly suspended by reducing the supply of blood to the brain through a pressure upon the arteries of the neck, far short of that necessary to pro- duce death. A clot of blood no larger than a wheat grain, or a minute splinter of bone from the skull pressing upon the sur- face of the brain, is suflficient to change a man of culture into an ignoramus, or one of eminent character into a moral wreck." Effect of Mind and Spirit on Body. In Thk 'J'kachinc of Bible Classes, See renuirks: "Some familiar illustrations of the effect of mind and spirit on body, to which the student may add from his experience, are as follows : "Extreme pleasure or pain causing loss of appetite. "Conversely, joy and hope promoting health and vigor. "Mental worry causing physical weakness. "The mention of fruit causing the mouth to water. "Mental fatigue producing physical weariness. "Great fear turning the hair white. "A sudden fright paralyzing the heart or brain. "Anger producing redness or pallor. "In this connection it should he noted that the various emotions have characteristic bodily expressions. For example, anger is manifested. by tense muscles and clinched fists; mental excitement by trembling limbs. Spencer calls our attention to the fact that 'digestion of the food, the circulation of the blood, and through these, all other organic processes, are profoundly affected by cerebral excitement." "Annie Payson Call says that she has made nurses prac- tise lifting while impressing the fact forcibly upon them by repetition before lifting and during the process of raising the body and lowering it, that they must use entirely the muscles of the legs. This use of the brain in the guidance of the body has made the work of lifting the burden one of comparative ease. Dr. Gulick, in his Studies of Adolescent Boyhood, states THE STA(iKS OK DKVKLOI'MENT IT'.l that students have a stronger grasp of the liand than manual laborers, because the former use the nerve centres, which supply the stimulus to the muscles which operate the hand, the most. "This connection undoubtedly accounts for frciiuent mind and faith cures. As on the one hand actual illness may be pro- duced in people by the frequent repetiti(ni of the statement by different persons to them that they do not look well, so on the other hand, actual illness nuiy be, and oftentimes is, subdued and overcome by causing the mind to believe that no disease exists. A study of such mind and faith cures as Faith Healing, Ciiiiis- TiAJsr Science and Kixdkkd Phenomena, by Dr. James M. Buckley, would serve to emphasize the importance of this influ- ence of the mind and spirit on the body. Hypnotism is another manifestation of this influence." Dr. Scripture says: "Experiments have shown also that the greatest possible effort depends on the general mental condition. The greatest possible etTort is greater on the average among the intelligent Europeans than among the Africans or Malays. It is greater for intelligent mechanics than for common laborers who work exclusively, but unintelligently, with the hands. In- tellectual excitement increases the power. A lecturer actually becomes a stronger man as he steps on the platform. A school- boy hits harder when his rival is on the same playground." Types of Children. We all recognize that Classes of any line of objects pre- sent certain similar characteristics, and that all individuals in each class have dijferences of peculiarities that distinguish or differentiate from others in tlie same class. Men, for instance, are a type. They have numy similarities. Yet each differs from every other man. In a bushel of wheat all grains look alike. Yet all, microscopically, differ. In the human family we see manifold types. There are types of Eace. All Chinese look alike to those who do not know them. Yet no Chinese boy mistakes some stranger for his father. Among Americans, we see Yankees, Southerners, West- erners, Cowboys; we have types of bankers, salesmen, clerks, doctors, bookmakers, horsemen, artists, carpenters, etc., each differing most conspicuously from the other types (see Gal- 180 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ton's Hereditary Genius) ; we have age types by which one age of civilization differs from all its predecessors and followers (see Kidd's Social Evolution) ; we have different religious types of many and various forms ; we have marked temperamental types, as quick, slow, defective, normal, concrete, abstract, audi- tory, etc.; we have growth and development types, which are what particularly concern us here. Within the type much differ- ence exists. Learn the type of childhood, and then master the individual differences or idiosyncracies within it. A hundred babies seem alike, in the type of Infancy. Yet no mother fails to know her own. Sex Differences. In capacities no great differences between the male and fe- male types have been demonstrated. The most marked is the female superiority in the perceptive and retentive capacities; girls for instance, notice small details, remember lists and spell better than boys. Although the male and female types are closely alike in intellectual capacities, there is an important difference in the deviations from the type in the two cases, namely, that the males deviate more. The highest males in any quality are more gifted than any of the women. Thus, though girls in general rank as high or higher than boys in high school and college, they less often lead the class; thus there are far more eminent intellects among men than among women and also twice as many idiots. Motor and Sensory Types. Professor Adams remarks: "(a) Motor children are those that respond very readily to any outside influence, and this response takes the form of immediate action. They are quick, eager, alert, they waste no time in making up their minds, and immediately act upon whatever conclusion they arrive at. They are quick in temper as in intellect. On the other hand they lack preseverance. They learn quickly, but do not retain particularly well what they have learnt. As a compensation, they do not retain anger long, and are generally more forgiving than sen- sory children. The defects of the motor child are hastiness in forming judgments — he jumps at conclusions — and a certain THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT ISl fickleness, wliieli, however, does not prevent him from being usually rather attractive. "(b) Sensory children are slower in responding to any stimulus. They receive all manner of impressions, and make no sign. They are passive as compared witii the motors, but their minds are active enough, and their conclusions are often sounder than those so speedily reached by the motors. The dif- ference between the two temperaments is most marked in the greater tenacity of the sensory children. Their weakness lies in a certain timidity born of the desire to see all sides of a ques- tion before coming to a decision. The resulting slowness and hesitation render sensory children less attractive to the ordinary adult, and to the superficial teacher who desires immediate re- sults. But the thoughtful teacher, who studies and understands child nature, finds that on the whole his best work can be done with the less immediately responsive children. Girls have usu- ally the motor temperament, and boys the sensory. But to apply this distinction without reference to the individuals of a given class would be very unwise." Temperament. Types of Temperament. — Says Dr. Forbush: "The Influ- ence of Temperament on the phenomena of development is not to be neglected. Dr. Coe has made a most suggestive study of this, but has applied it chiefly to the adult. Although Lotze has made an ingenious and often observable parallel between the sanguine temperament in childhood and the sentimental in ado- lescence, the diversities of temperamental nature which are to be permanent are already visible. The readiness but triviality of the sanguine; the cheerful conceit of the sentimental; the prompt, intense response of the choleric; and the rmninative nature of the phlegmatic temperaments are each noticeable in individual boys. The 'Child-Types' which have been classified are only differences and combinations of temperament." President Butler says in his Class Lectures : "We know that Temperaments exist and are of importance to the teacher in the main outlines, but we really must acknowledge that we know very little about the subject," which is but another way of 1S2 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION saying that Science has not reduced it to laws yet, hut recog- nizes the reliability of the main facts. Temperament seems to lie in a domain intermediate be- tween Physiognomy and Physiological Psychology. It is not a psychological notion, but a medical one. The average Psycholo- gist is afraid of it because it seems to him to trench too much upon Phrenology, though Professors Wundt and Tiehner make note of its importance, placing it after the Emotions. The old Greeks originated the notion, Galen and Hippocrates exploited it. They saw a fourfold relationship between mind and body, whereby the same disease, for instance, affected variously dif- fering temperaments. The best modern division is, 1, Sanguine; 2, Bilious; 3, Lymphatic; 4, Nervous. The tlieory is, however, the same, that some physical condition of the body influences and controls the feelings. There are very few examples of unmixed Temperaments, and it is rare to find the pure type. The usual mode is to single out the Nervous Type and set it aside. This type is rapidly increasing in proportion in our present period age. Observation and experience are the main aids at diagnosis. Few books are found in English, though plenty in French, and a few in Ger- man. Good Physiognomies (Fowler and Wells, etc.) give some ireatment of it, and types of faces; and Dr. Warner in his Study OK Children reproduces some pictures of types. Practically, al- though it is obscure, it concerns our whole treatment and atti- tude of behavior towards Children. The same mode of disci- pline will call out vastly dissimilar results in differing persons. In one we arouse regret; in another reform is wrought: in a third naught but stubborn rebellion and opposition respond to our dealings. Parents cannot define it; but they see its effects and say: "T have to treat this child differently from the other one." Tjcsshaft recognizes six among children entering school: The hypocritical, the ambitious, the quiet temperaments, the effeminate-stupid, the bad-stupid, the depressed. Sugert names fifteen : Melancholy, angel-or-devil, star-gazer, scatter-brain, apa- thetic, misanthropic, doubter and seeker, honorable, critical, eccentric, stupid, buffoonly-native, with feeble memory, studious, 'I'liK srA(;i;s ok dkn'ki^oi'mkn r is;; Hiid l)l;isr. Tlu'sc chiiractcristics, with thcii- special relations to sensibilities, intellect, and will, are to he noted and used as dia;:;- noses for individual treatment. According to Thorndike: "The Combination of slowness and weakness makes the lethargic temperament : the eombina- tioii of intensity and nai-rowness makes the familic : the coiiihina- tion of weakness and bi-eadth is often the basis of what we term supcrficiaUty. Of the traditional four temperaments, the san- guine approximates closely to the combination, quick-weak- broad ; the choleric approximates closely to the comhination, quick-intense-narrow; the phlegmatic is, of course, slow; the melancholic or sentimental is weak and commonly somewhat narrow and slow. The traditional temperaments emphasize cer- tain emotional differences, the phlegmatic being especially hard, and the melancholic or sentimental especially easy to excite emotionally."' Here are a few suggestions given by Mrs. Birney : "The sanguine temperament, according to one authority, is proclaimed by a tolerable consistency of flesh, moderate ])hmipness, light or chestnut hair, great activity of the arterial system, a strong full and frequent pulse, and an animated countenance. Persons thus constituted are easily affected by external impressions and pos- sess greater energy than those of the plegmatic temperament. "The plegmatic temperament is indicated by a pale, white skin, fair hair, roundness of fomi and repletion of eelluar tissue. The flesh is soft, the vital actions are languid. All indicate slowness and weakness in the vegetative, effective, and intellect- ual functions. "The external signs of the nervous teni perament are fine, thin hair, delicate health, more or less emaciation and smallncss of the muscles, rapidity in the muscular actions, vivacity in the sensations. The nervous system in the individuals so constituted preponderates greatly, and they exhibit extreme nervous sensi- bility. "The melancholy temperament is characterized by black hair, a dark yellowish or brownish skin, black eyes, moderately full but firm muscles and harshly expressed form. Those en- dowed with this constitution have a decided expression of counte- 1S4 KKLIOIOl'S EDUCATION nance. They manifest great general activity and functional energy. "It is the exception rather than the rule to see families in which discipline is administered according to the needs of the individual child. "Children of sanguine and nervous temperaments are very receptive, manifesting in their mentality the same sensibility which is characteristic of their physical organism. They are easily guided by suggestion, and parents who have mastered this potent law are not only equal to emergencies, but arc much more sure of the obedience, affection, and confidence of their children than the parents who mistakenly force issues with their children, and who expect to find in them such self-control and reasoning powers as they themselves do not possess. "The child of nervous temperament is apt to be timid, and his fears of all kinds should be tenderly dealt with. The child of nervous or sanguine temperament who has what is termed 'Tan- trums,' should be left alone, the mother or nurse withdrawing to an adjoining room when their preventive measures have failed. "The child of phlegmatic tcjnperament is slow mentally and physically. He takes life easy, largely because of his lack of sensibility. While children of sanguine and nervous tempera- ments should lead quiet, regular lives, free from mental or physical strain or excitement, the phlegmatic child needs stimu- lation, and he is positively benefited by pleasurable excitement that would be harmful in either of the two cases." Mrs. Birney says: "The mind is marvellously receptive to suggestion, the brain quick to perceive, the muscles to act. If evil inclinations manifest themselves, counteract their influence, not by dwelling upon them, but by putting something else in their place in the form of occupation or amusement. "While with heredity and environment largely rests the nature of the individual's development, it is temperament that modifies both and transcends circumstances. One of the un- ceasing marvels of the world is that it contains no two human beings exactly alike. Just as faces vary, so have we reason to suppose that no two brains are alike in their mental capacity; and thus, while a general knowledge of child nature is invalu- TIIK STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 185 able to parents and educators, it is highly effectual only when it is supplemented by close and continuous observation of the indi- vidual child it is desired to help. ''Now, for the relation of temperament to discipline, I can- not do better at this point than to quote from Dr. Preyer's In- fant Mind. He says : 'In two of the four temperaments the ex- citability and therefore the sensitiveness to impressions of vari- ous kinds is great; in two of them it is small. The duration of the after efl'ect of every impression, the tenacity with which the memory image is retained, is, in the melancholy and the nervous, surprising, the organic change in the brain accompanying it being probably considerable; in the other two, the sanguine and the phlegmatic, this effect is slight.' " Re-Action Time. Temperament affects reaction-time, or the quickness of response to impressions from without. Dr. Scripture says : "Per- sons may be divided into groups according to their reaction- times. Four types of persons are familiar to the physician. The self-controlled man of abundant vitality reacts quickly and regularly ; the phlegmatic or relaxed man responds regularly but slowly; the excitable man of strong vitality gives quick but variable responses; the neurasthenic weakling is excessively ir- regular and his average reaction-times are slower than normal." Temperament and Christianity. According to Haslett: "Temperament has played a very influential role in the history of Christianity, though that part was an undesigned one. This factor has not been sufficiently recognized in the administration and instruction of the Church, and yet it has been powerful in both. "During the first three centuries of the Church's History, the sanguine temperament ruled her thinking activity. The Church was ardent, hopeful, interested in the present, was easily disturbed, never missed an argument when one was to be had, and wavered from view to view. During the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, the melancholic temperament prevailed in the Church. x411 sorts of sects arose. Feeling was prominent. The Church nearly went wild over Chiliasm. As a result of the perse- cutions of Diocletian there arose an overwhelming desire for ISC. PvKLlGIOI'S T:LH'(\4TI0N martyrdom. Many souglit a martyr's death because it was thougiit to be divine and the highest service. The present was vain. Tlio future was golden. Then followed a long reign of the phlegmatic tem})erament. The dark ages shut out the light and joy of practical life. The Church fell into a deliberate mood. Scholasticism and monasticism were supreme. Thought and introspection dominated the life of the Church. "By and by the choleric temperament gained control and the Church became active and practical. The Reformation arose and awoke a slumbering and inactive Church hierarchy. At the present time the practical spirit is ruling everywhere. The Church is endeavoring to become practical." Professor Coe, in The Spiritual Life, shows that the two temperaments that have been jjivdominant in the Church are the sanguine and the melancholic. lie argues that sainthood and the spiritual or devotional in the Church are lively illustrations of the sentimental, or temperament of feeling. The hymnology is largely moulded by it. The result has been a kind of femi- nizing of the ('hurcli. She has swung away from the strong, robust, healthy teachings of Jesus and Tlis personal character- istics, and gone after the sentimental and the ascetic. "In the course of ecclesiastical development, however, this universally human conception of the religion of Christ has been warped into special temperamental forms. What Jesus made so broad has been narrowed down to a fit of particular kind of men, and temperamental differences have been mistaken for grades of spirituality Feeling has been unduly honored to the relative neglect of thought and, especially, of action. "Religious orders have had their birth in the power of the sentimental temperament and have been more or less influenced by it. Religious sects have sprung into existence under the in- fluence of the same temperament. Feeling still exerts a great influence in the activity of the Church at the present time. Witness many of the so-called revivals that are held throughout the country every year. One chief purpose seems to be to move people to tears and deeply stir their emotions; while religion that lasts is born of deep conviction and years of trial. No special temperament should be permitted to dominate the Church. The deliberative temperament, that by which theolo- TllK STACKS OF DKVKLOl'MKNL' 1«7 gies and creeds luive been built up and doctrinal catechisms pre- pared, has dominated tlie Church aud the religious instruction of the Church for centuries. This ought to cease. Other phases of thought and activity siiould be emphasized and given equal place with the theological in the life of the Church, important as this is. The religion of Jesus is free from temperamental forms. With Him religion is full-rounded, nuiny-sided, appeal- ing to the entire individual. Jesus taught principles universal in their nature and which are individual in their application. They suit the need of mankind and not the need of particular forms of mental constitution. And the religious instruction of the Church will not be adequate until it makes proper provis- ion for all forms of temperament without placing undue empha- >is iipon anv ]iarticular form." A Working Table of Temperament. The following table will help greatly in deciding how to deal with temperaments, only remembering that it is seldom that we find a pure or unmixed temperament. EXCITABILITY. AKTEK-EKFECT. Sanguine. . . . Ulond Great Small Phlegmatic. . lUond Small Small Nervous Brunette Great (Jreat Melancholy. . Brunette Small Great Different races have different characteristics or different temperaments. The Southern races are impulsive, the sanguine temperament. The Northern races are nervous. The English are phlegmatic. Xo race is absolutely pure to-day. The Eng- lish language is not a pure language, but is a mixture, or poly- glot, so the probability is that no person has an absolutely pure temperament, and any combination of two or of all four may be found. That is what makes temperament so hard to distinguish. The sangiiine man, for example, of large, robust, rubicund type, shows great excitability under any impression from with- out, but little after effect or response. An enormous 275 pound man is led around by a little i>.5 pound wife. He blusters and fumes and scolds at an irritation and she smiles sweetly at him, knowing that ''a barking dog never bites.'' The sanguine man will promise $50 to a church and never give it. One rector of a sanguine type promised his lay reader a Christmas present for four vears. As yet it has failed to materialize at any Christmas. 188 RKLIGIOLS EDUCATION ^riie sanguine type means well, biit seldom acts. No amount of prodding will hurt. The sanguine child says: "If I can't be in the class with Mary Jane I am not coming any more to Sunday school." Do not worry, she will pop up serenely the next Sun- day. A sanguine man is in a tearing rage over an impudent street car conductor, threatening to report him. The likelihood is that he never will. The sanguine is usually the blond type. The phlegmatic, also of the blond type, is slow and de- liberate. A domestic of the phlegmatic English type walked deliberately and slowly to open the front door when the bell rang. Her successor was a Scotch girl of the nervous type. When the door bell rang she dropped everything and ran. Treatment that would injure a nervous child will scarcely make any impression on the phlegmatic. While punishments of this kind are still indulged in by some parents, dependence upon them implies that such parents are yet in the crudest stage of ignorance as to the Elements of Child- Training; nor can they plead the ignorance of a new develop- ment of this study; the works of Jacob Abbot, written about sixty years ago and widely circulated, contain implicitly enough about rewards, reproofs, and punishments to enable a capable parent to pass from his own age of barbarism to the age of Enlighten- ment. The nervous temperament, on the other hand, exhibits both great excitability and great after-effect. Nevous men are the ones who "make the world go." They are usually small. All great generals have been small in stature, energetic, always on the go. They are usually of the brunette type. Men tell them they will wear out if they don't stop working. They may re- mark, "It is better to wear out than to rust out." But, if they can keep from worrying, they will not wear out any faster than the less energetic sanguine or phlegmatic. It is not work that kills, but worry. It is noteworthy that rectors of small parishes seldom break down with nervous prostration, but those with wealthy vestries to send them to Europe are the ones to become affected in that way. No one ever heard of a hard working laboring man breaking down from his nerves. When the ner- vous man says he will do a thing, his nerves give him no rest until he does it. The nervous man always reports the conductor. THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IS!) Tho nervous man always redeems his gift pledge. One reason why Americans have so much push is because they are essentially of the nervous type. The nerves, as such, are a higher develop- ment in evolution than mere muscles. All races of men to-day are verging towards this higher type. Saddest of all and the most dangerous is that dark visaged, brunette, melancholy type. While the melancholy tempera- ment is not melancholia, it is always apt to run into melan- cholia. Melancholia is an almost incurable disease of the brain. An inevitable rule with physicians is never to trust a melan- cholic. As soon as one is fully convinced that the victim has real melancholia, it is safest for those around him, as well as for himself, to place him in an asylum, or he will be apt to commit suicide. It is seldom that real melancholia is cured. Dr. Paul Du Bois in his new book, The Psychic Treatment of Nervous Disorders, devotes five hundred pages to the consideration of Suggestion in functional nervous diseases. He holds out hope for the early stages of melancholia under proper hypnotic treatment, i. e., hypnotism as used by physicians; but the melancholic temperament as a whole is always looking at the gloomy side of life, pessimistic rather than optimistic. This temperament is, as it were, always on the verge, carrying a chip on the shoulder. Slight affronts are taken seriously and brooded over, or, as is often the case, an imaginary affront or slight works out serious results. Another peculiar thing is that the person of the sangu- ine temperament, with its low stability of will power, is apt to run into the melancholy temperament. In fact any temperament can be changed into another temperament by disease, or hjqinotism, or one of the exanthe- mata. The best general type is a cross between the sanguine and the nervous, the nervous-sanguine, we might term it, which has the optimistic disposition of the sanguine and the energy of the nervous. It would be well for teachers to study very carefully in practical application the consequences of the above table. The Eev. Dr. Worcester's new work on Relicjton and Medicine covers this subject, and is one of the best books for the general reader. A Suggestion to Teachers. Look for these types and combinations in your classes, take 1!»0 RIOIJGIOUS EDUCATION out your note-book, write the child's name at the top of the page and watch his development for three montlis. Keep notes of your treatment of him and the result. The very fact that you are keeping biographical notes makes you interested as never before, and will be far more valuable than many a course in child study, for you question just framed) ? How is this paragraph related to the whole? Does it suggest a paragraph or sentence in another connection? How does it follow from what precedes? How lead to what follows? In a word, if it is a link, what the coordinate links? Make an outline of the chapter or the book, with heads and sub-heads. And, with all this thinking, be alert for personal meanings, for applications. To sum up : First, a rough general view, such as a civil engineer might gain by riding over the country he is to survey. Second, clearness as to facts; warmth in detail; putting your- self into the thing, whether it be a thing done, a thing seen, or a thing felt. Third, compacting parts into wholes, seeing ends from beginnings, organizing for action. And at each step, the thought of personal assimilation, and of use: What does this mean to me? Is it true? Do I disagree with it, and why? How can I use, apply, follow, live it ? How make it live in the mind and lives of my pupils? 7. Having your own hnoivledge of the Lesson Passage, search for Additional Material. If you have other books, read them. At any rate, be certain to secure somewhere more in- formation about your subject tlian your class has. A faithful teacher should have on hand during the week some volume from a library bearing on the general line of study (not on each lesson, by any means) and read it, in place of, or parallel with, the usual novel and newspaper, without which no one exists these days. Few indeed, if any, are the cases where some moments may not be found for, say, fifteen minutes a day. A Sunday School Teacher should be always trying to learn, and learning 204 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION should be pleasant, not an irksome, disagreeable duty, to be shirked until the time comes for studying the lesson. If it be unpleasant and distasteful, then something is radically wrong with the spiritual side of the teacher ; and Eule 1 of this Chap- ter had better be re-read on the knees. 8. Study the Lesson Questions from the Text Booh, and write out yourself the fullest answers to them; wi'ite because it drives the knowledge home for yourself, just as writing does for the pupils: fullest, because you want to be overstocked, not understocked, nor with just enough to fill in the time. The Herbartian or Formal Steps. The teaching scheme which follows we owe in its complete- ness to the disciples of the German philosopher and educationist, Herbart, of whom, as compared witli another famous inventor of methods, it has been well said: Herbart magnified the work of the teacher; Froebel magnified the work of the child. It is just because Herbart thought so much about the teacher's part in education that his ideas have spread so rapidly. His hints come readily to hand, and are capable of immediate application. They aid the teacher in his part of the task, and tend to make the preparation and arrangement of the subject-matter of a les- son far easier. It is not a revolutionary method, but rather one into which we can very often fit our own best thoughts, and find them the better and the more forceful for their new setting. This teaching scheme consists of five divisions or stages, which may be adapted, according to subject and circumstances, either to a single lesson or to a series — one, or perhaps two, of the di- visions forming a single lesson of the series. These steps are: (a) Prepakatiox. Just as the farmer plows his ground and prepares it to sow, you should prepare your class for the new lesson. Write out Questions, making up new ones, different from those in your text book. Be prepared to call up the related knowledge that is lying dormant in the minds of your children. This step corresponds to the Preliminary Eeview Questions at the beginning of each lesson. No matter how hurried the time may be, these must never be omitted, because they form the con- necting link which joins the unknown to the known. Imagine the farmer saying: "Oh, Spring is so late and I have so much now To I'UEl'AKK THE LESSON 205 to do, and so many fields to plant, and my time is so short, 1 will omit the plowing and will just sow the seed" ! The plowing is essential to the growth of the seed, and can never be omitted, and yet some teachers think the review unessential. The Re- view Questions should be broad and striking, welding together all the previous analogous material ; not minute in detail. For example, suppose the class has had four lessons on the Life of David, up to his meeting with Goliath. A poor Eeview Ques- tion would be, "In what city was David bom?" A good Review Question would be, "Will someone, whom I shall name, tell me in four sentences the four chief events of David's life up to our present lesson?" The scholars begin to think. "Four chief events; does she mean four in one lesson; or one in each of the four ; or two in one and one of each of the two other ? What are the four chief events?" Every scholar is mentally reviewing and welding together all the preceding lessons. Of course, with younger scholars this method of historic perspective would not be used, but the Review Questions would, nevertheless, be of a broad, welding nature. (6) Presentation. Just as Preparation theoretically cor- responds to the Review Questions in a properly prepared Heuristic Book, so Presentation corresponds to the Questions for Home Study, only you want to prepare your own set, for your own benefit, if you can. At any rate, you intend to in- struct, and not simply hear recitations, so you will present new material. In other words, you will sow the seed in the ground prepared. And considering all the points referred to under the section on Method, you will thus study to present your material, gathering Illustrations, working up Live Questions, providing for Attention, Interest, and Memory-training; and so doing your work in Class, with but slight reference to book, certainly with- out being wearisomely tied to it. This step corresponds to sowing the seed after the ground has been prepared. It is at this stage that the habit of volun- tary attention has to be created. According to Mark: The new points should, therefore, be as striking and full of interest as possible. Unless we ourselves are keenly interested in them and in the way we intend to present them, we cannot expect the class to be interested. But if we are sure of the value of what 206 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION we have to say, we may be equally sure that the children want to hear it, provided that it is suitably chosen and that the prepara- tory step has been successfully accomplished. "All knowledge," Lord Bacon has said (and wonder, which is the seed of knowl- edge), "is an impression of pleasure in itself." "This second step," says Mark, "of which we are speaking, does not necessarily consist of telling something to the class. It may be a question that is put, suggesting something new, some- thing which was not included in the previous knowledge of the class, and yet leading naturally from it. For example, having discovered what the children know about brick-making, one might introduce the new elements in the lesson by asking what straw could have to do with making bricks, and then telling the story in brief outline, or getting one class to read it, so that they may see the point of the question. Or, having listened to all the useful things the children can tell about gardens, one might say : "^Our lesson is to be about someone who was seen sowing some seed. What kind of ground would he choose for sowing, do you think?' However individual teachers may prefer to handle it, this second step in teaching consists of bringing in fresh thought or knowledge to lay by the side of that which the children already possessed; it brings into play the mind's constructive instincts already spoken of." (c) Association or Elaboration. It is not what we eat, but what we digest, that is of use. It is not what 3'ou recite glibly to the child, rattling it off perchance from scribbled notes; but what he appropriates that is to "build up a character, efficient for the best." Apperception, we say, is to assimilate the new material. Simply put, this means you are to be sure the children understand, take in, appreciate what you teach them. Build up your illustrations around your teaching. The whole benefit of all subsequent teaching may be lost if you carelessly miss making the connecting link clear and lucid. Mark says: "We are now getting to the very heart of the lesson, and comparison or illustration may suitably follow — perhaps several illustrations, jointly contributed by teacher and scholars. It is better that the new knowledge should not be left to stand alone. Companion ideas are needed in order that the new idea may be really at home in the mind. Or, if it be a now TO PKb:i'Aiii; the lesson 207 problem which is being worked out, examples and instances suitable to the purpose ma_y Jiow be brought forward. If we give the children time to think, or help them by hints or questions, they will sometimes be quite able to discover some of the com- panion ideas or helpful cvaiiiijlcs U)v tlicmselves — in other words, to illustrate tiie new fact out of their own experience. To keep to the example already used, the making of bricks without straw might be illustrated by a reference to poor children who have to go to school without sufficient food, or to learn their lessons with- oui l)L'iiig able to buy proper books; or to parents who have to work to get food and clothing and a home for their children. There are many ways, the children will begin to see, of having to make bricks without straw, and they will, with the quick, associative instincts of young minds, readily suggest further examples." (d) The fourth step is variously termed Generalization", Classification, Eecapitulation, KEPRonucTiON, Keview. It is really getting at the principle, so that the knowledge can be re-stated by the pupils in a new form, in a wide, general manner, as part of the whole field of knowledge. Many of the Thought Questions contained in Questions for Discussion in Class are intended to embody this idea. One of the best ways of accomplishing this would be by stopping every five minutes or so and getting a scholar to tell the class what has been covered during the preceding interval. Or this may be accomplished in another way — having talked about a journey, we can review it by drawing it on the map ; or when we have discussed an object, by explaining a model of it or de- scribing a picture that may be produced. One can teach the story of the Nativity, and review it by a series of pictures by which the salient points surrounding the Nativity are re-elucidated. (e) The last step is Practical Application; in religious fields expressed by the words, "The Moral." Sometimes this is to be stated; sometimes hinted at; sometimes left for the scholars to see it plainly written all over the topic. If Habit and Char- acter is our aim, then there, too, comes in the Inquiry, "How have the Teachings of the various Lessons been functioned or applied practically in the outside, daily lives of your children?" This is the real test of all good work, and it is probably not too strong 208 KELIGIOUS EDUCATION a point to insist on, that the teacher who is not influencing the lives of the scholars in some way for good is failing in the best ideals of character-building. Other Points of Importance in Lesson Preparation. The Lesson Title. Dr. Marianna C. Brown says that the lesson title very often may seem unimportant. If unim- portant, then uninteresting. But while we dismiss the matter of the lesson title as uninteresting, we forget that the child Judges of the interest of what is to follow by this same neglected title. Tell a child that you are going to talk about "Samuel," and if the child does not happen to already know of Samuel, you might as well have said Methuselah, or any other name. Tell the same child that you are going to talk about "A little Boy to whom God spoke," and you have aroused both his sympathy and his curiosity. If the class is old enough to follow a thought and take part in the development of the lesson, in other words, if the teacher does not merely tell a story, but proceeds by the question method, the lesson title has a second work to perform. It should express the general aim of the talk. By so doing it strengthens the unity of the lesson. For instance, in the Samuel lesson, the title "A Little Boy to Whom God Spoke," may be interesting. It may do for the infant class to whom the story is told, or it may do as the title of the Bible account that a child is to read at home. If there is to be class discussion, the teacher should give a second title, in some such form as "Let us see to-day, 'How God spoke to a little boy long ago.' " From this title can be drawn interesting thoughts as to how God speaks to us. In all the talk, whether introduction, story, or conclusion, the child knows, or can be easily shown, when he wanders from the topic in hand. Some teachers may prefer to call this "stating the aim." In the teacher's mind it can be called lesson aim or lesson sub- ject. But when we face the child who has wandered from the point, it seems easier to ask, "What are we talking about ?" than to ask, '^hat is the aim of our talk ?" Moreover, our real aim is to teach some spiritual truth, and this we do not wish to ex- press to the children at first. Having worded our lesson title so as to both arouse interest IIUW i'O I'RKi'AKl': THE LESSON 20!) and express the general aim of the talk, we have still a third use to make of it. Every teacher of children has had scholars who remember well the action or interesting part of stories but who constantly forget or confuse the names of the people about whom the stories are told. Some entire classes, if asked what stories they knew about Abraham, or Isaac, or Jacob, would either be silent or make apparently wild guesses. Yet if started on any of the familiar stories about these peeople, they would brighten up at once. Now the lesson title can be made to do much towards connecting the incident with the name. Accordingly, in place of saying, "Let us see to-day 'How God spoke to a little boy long ago,' '' we sa}'^, "Let us see 'How God spoke long ago to a little boy named Samuel' " ; or, perhaps, "How God spoke to the boy Samuel.'' The title can be expressed in a variety of ways, ac- cording to the age and character of the class. Other things being equal, a short title is preferable. This principle of making the lesson title unite the lesson fact and its proper name, is based upon two psychological facts. The first is that an entire sentence, if not too long or complex, can be remembered by most people about as easily as a single word. If the sentence contains or suggests an interesting idea it can usually be remembered more easily than a new, isolated proper name. The second is that when a thought and a name are habitually associated, as in a lesson title, the suggestion of either one will call to mind the other. The Question Method in Introduction. Dr. Brown says : "The introduction ought almost always to be according to the question method. Without some response from the child we cannot tell when we have come in contact with his life or when we have aroused his interest. Each Sunday he comes to Sunday School in a different mood. Some days a single reference to a subject would arouse his entire being. Other days that subject is far from his thoughts. We want his answers in order to know when our introduction has accomplished its work. "Moreover, the very self-activity required in trying to answer helps the child to put himself into the desired mood. If he is merely to listen to the teacher, the teacher has, in a double sense the entire work to do. The teacher's efforts must bring the scholar to the desired line of thought. If the child is to answer 210 lIKI.KilOHS EDITCATION questions, he makes himself come to the desired line of thought for the sake of the pleasure of taking part in the conversation. "The question of presenting new material is different. Children love a story. Children under ten or eleven do not feel that a narrative developed by the question method is a story, even if the teacher tells considerable and is never so graphic. Therefore, for the sake of making the children enjoy the new material the story method is desirable with the younger classes. "By the time the children can read, or at least when they are advanced enough to be out of the Primary Day School, the work will be more dignified and improving if the question method be used even for the new material. The children should read the lesson at home and be able to contribute to the building up of the story in class. This usually begins at about nine years of age. As the children still love and perhaps even prefer the old story method, it is well for a year or two to mix the methods, usually building up the story but some days telling it. "In large classes especially, it seems easier for the teacher to talk than to see that each scholar contributes something. That older scholars retain less when they take no active and personal part in the lesson is easily overlooked. But after eleven or twelve years of age the children only become stupid or restless if the teacher does too much of the talking. The real teacher faces the facts and rises to the question method. "On the other hand, the question of discipline becomes for some people more difficult when the developing method is used. To require children to be still is for some easier than to control their activity. Yet in either case it must be remembered that successful discipline depends on the firmness of the teacher and on mutual affection rather than on the method of instruction. It may be easier for some teachers to be firm concerning the simple rule 'be still,' than to be firm with regard to the more elastic one, 'help.' It is easier, however, to win affection from those who help than from those who are still." The Development Plan. Dr. Brown adds: "Secular educators are more and more advocating the plan of presenting the lesson by the Development Method in class before the text- book is studied. "The text-book, where the scholars have one, is used rather. IKIW TO PRKPAPvE Til !■: LKSSOX 211 in place of notes. The scholars' self-activity and interest in class are greatly increased by this method. The strongest argument for studying the text-book first, is that by so doing the scholar learns the practical use of books. "We are not concerned tiiat Sunday School children shall learn to use lesson leaflets. Even if we were, we could rely on their secular teaching to give them that power. We are, however, anxious that they learn to use the Bible. In order to teach them this we must have them individually and by themselves endeavor to use it. We also want them to enjoy it. To accomplish this we must give them such parts to read or study as cannot fail to interest them. For the first few years of home Bible work in connection with the Sunday School the story is about all that will interest the child. Let us therefore pick out interesting stories, assign them for home reading, one each week, and when assigning a given story explain any matter the knowledge of which is important for the intelligent reading of it. "Happily, owing to the exceptional nature of Bible work, this will not interfere with the use of the Development Method in class. The younger scholars should read the Bible story for the simple interest in the story. In class they study a subject, beginning with their own experience, and leading to a spiritual truth. The Bible story is but one source from which their con- clusion is derived. It is for this reason that we plan a slightly different title for the class lesson from that used for the home study. With scholars old enough to be taught to seek a spiritual thought in their home Bible study, the teacher should be careful to draw out the scholars' thoughts, but he should also be careful that he present a new, fresh view of the matter in the class. In other words, as has already been said, the class lesson must be quite another matter from the lesson studied at home. The teachers work is to lead the scholars to see a spiritual thought just above what they would see unaided. "With regard to the advisability of putting the Bible into the hands of young people much has been said. Practically, if children are given Bibles when so young that they find it diffi- cult to read more than the appointed lesson, even if the lessons are wisely chosen, they are easily led to feel that much of the Bible is incomprehensible to them, and that the way to enjoy it 212 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is to read the portions assigned. This soon becomes a habit, and the child is in much less danger than when brought up to wonder why he should not read it. It is a serious question whether the habit of keeping the Bible from children is not responsible for its wide-spread disuse among adults." It is said by Professor Adams : "We must make our pupils not only to know about their Bibles, but know the Bible itself. We must make them go back to the sacred pages and find the real lesson in the very words of the Book. Scientific teaching, and Bibles especially prepared for children, are apt to make us for- get the dignity and beauty of the Word itself. A well-taught lesson will always end where it began — within the boards of the Bible itself." Dr. Brown remarks : "Eich detail does not necessarily mean many words. In the Bible stories it is usually expressed in a few well chosen and telling words. In the Balaam story the angel stood in Balaam's way three different times. Each time we are told definitely about the road at that particular place. All this and more is vividly given in six ordinary Bible verses. "There are occasionally lessons that should not be treated by this process of analysis and synthesis. We accept certain matters as types, and proceed by deductive reasoning as we would from a previously established general law. The account of the Resurrection, or of the Ascension, for instance, is better treated as a type." One Central Thought for Each Lesson. "In the first place, a lesson is much stronger, as well as more interesting, when a single central thought is taken. We are not neglecting an opportunity when we deliberately put aside all but one of the list of thoughts suggested in our lesson help. We may even put them all aside for a thought of our own," says Dr. Brown, ad- ding: "In the second place there are certain truths that belong especially to certain parts of the Bible. For instance, the gos- pels teach of self-sacrificing love. The book of Genesis teaches, let us say, of man's free will and power to choose whether he will walk with God or yield to lower impulses. Each of these sections can be made to include many of the teachings of the other, but to try to teach the gospel through the book of Genesis, now TO PREPARH THK LESSON 213 or vice versa, is like seeking strawberries in November or re- stricting one's diet to the winter roots in June." Again, the single lessons frequently have truths that are habitually thought of as connected with them. Sometimes, how- ever, tiiey are not the thouglits that we want for our particular classes; and occasionally they do not seem to be the richest thoughts that the passages have to ofTor. What are the thoughts that draw man to a spiritual Father? What are the thoughts that operate to form a great gulf between man and that Father? Correlation. This is a much abused word for a veiy sim- ple thing. It means merely the realization that the child is a unit and that the Sunday School should take cognizance of the facts that have been taught in the day school ; that the so-called secular knowledge of the child is a part of his general knowl- edge; that the Sunday School teacher should learn just how far the child has studied in the day school and should make use of that knowledge in cross references in the Sunday School lesson. President Butler says, in the Principles of Religious Education : "The Sunday School must, first of all, understand fully the organization, aims, and methods of the public schools, for it is their ally. It must take into consideration the progress of the instruction there given in secular subjects, and must cor- relate its own religious instruction with this. It must study facts of child-life and development, and it must base its methods upon the actual needs and capacities of childhood. It must organize its work economically and scientifically, and it must demand of its teachers special and continuous work." Dr. Brown treats the subject thus : "Correlation also deals with contributions which the child can make from his previously acquired knowledge, as, for instance, from other stories. This gives strength and breadth to the lesson. In our lesson on Sam- uel, the child's own experience of feeling nearer to God at times when alone or in Sunday School gives depth and realitv to the lesson truth. If the child has already learned the story of God speaking to the faithful Abraham, to recall that gives a wider view of the truth. "Much review work can be introduced in this way. One trouble of teachers is that their scholars remember their lessons if the questions are asked in just the same form as before, but if 214 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION the subject is approaclied from a slightly different point-of-view, as is sure to be the case if a visitor is allowed to question the class, the scholars do not recognize the subject. The habit of calling up such parts of previous lessons as fit the new lesson subjects does much to overcome this difficulty. But the first consideration must always be the strengthening of the new les- son. This is not the place for review proper, and no far-fetched comparisons must be brought in for the sake of review. "When facts from previous lessons are introduced for cor- relation it is sometimes called longitudinal correlation. Cross correlation means the correlation of knowledge from the other branches of study, as geography, or science, or general literature, with the Bible lessons. If our lesson is on the Good Samaritan, we may have our boys recall some highway robber scene; or, what will help the meaning more, some illustrations of kindness to enemies. Boys' books, even their school books in these days, are full of such incidents. "Care must be taken, however, that no new material is introduced under this head. The object is still to prepare the mind for new material that is to follow. As has often been said, the mind is not a vessel into which we can at will put what we wish. Only in proportion as the new comes into relationship with what is already in the mind will the mind retain it. Only in proportion as the new is assimilated with the old in the mind can the mind use it. "Cross correlation, by associating the highest spiritual truths with secular knowledge as well as with Sunday School topics, does a great service towards harmonious character-devel- opment. We do not live in Switzerland, and our week-day paths are not studded with visible wayside crosses. Yet we do wish our week-day thoughts lifted and sanctified. This can be done partly by direct teaching, but more by the association or correla- tion of week-day subjects with the Sunday School lesson. All knowledge and all life must be united in one aim. A double minded man is unstable in all his ways. Let as many week-day thoughts as possible be so associated with our highest thoughts that they lift us to our best." Deduction vs. Ixductiok. Professor Adams remarks: "Deduction passes from the general to the particular; Indue- now TO I'KRI'Ain': THE LESSON 215 (ion J'roin the ])iirti(ul;ir to the general. Deduction states the rule and then seeks or supplies examples; Induction supplies (wainples and then seeks the rule. Now in teaching there is room for both, each in its own place. At the beginning of a subject, Induction ought to play the chief part; but as wc advance and have acquired a mass of knowledge, wc shall find the Deductive Method very useful in revising our work and arranging our acquired facts. Induction is the method of discovery. Deduction is the method of securing and classifying the results of our dis- covery. As a rule, the Sunday School teacher is prone to use the Deductive Method only. His lesson too often consists in merely telling the pupil certain things, and then illustrating by stories and other examples. The pupils are not called upon to do their proper share of the work. Preaching has been defined as 'an animated dialogue with one part left out.' In teaching, this omitted part is of fundamental importance, and the intelligent teacher will insist upon its being brought into play." Thorndike states: "Good teaching by deductive methods depends upon a clear statement of the goal aimed at, independent search by pupils for the proper class under which to think of the fact in question, criticism by them and by the teacher of the different classes suggested, and appreciation of the reasons why the right one is the right one. "Deductive reasonings may be very easy or very hard to make. 'Shall I call brevity in the sentence, "Brevity is the soul of wit," a noun or not?' is easy for any scholar who knows a little grammar. To prove that, if the bisectors of two angles of a triangle are equal, the angle is isosceles, by a direct demonstra- tion based on no truths other than those established in, say, Book I. of Wentworth's Geometry, is extremely hard. "They are easy in proportion as the number of possible classes under which to think of the fact in question are known, and are few in proportion as the consequences of being in each of such classes are known. Thus brevity can be only a noun or not a noun, and to decide that it is not a noun needs only to decide that it is a noun or that it is not a verb, adjective, article, etc. How to translate arma in "Arma virumque cano Troiae qui primus ad oris, etc.," is easy because arma can only be nomi- native, accusative or vocative plural of armum or an imperative •2.U> IWAAGIOVS EDUCATION of armare and because tlic consequences of being nominative plural, being vocative plural, etc., are well known. "Deductive reasonings are hard in proportion as the possible classes under which to think of the given fact are unknown or numerous, and in proportion as the consequences of being in each of such are unknown. To give a direct proof of the propo- sition that if the bisectors of two angles of a triangle are equal the triangle is isosceles is hard because there are hundreds of ways of thinking of (or classes under which to subsume) a tri- angle with the bisectors of two of its angles equal, many of which the student will never have thought of at all. '^How to best legislate so as to decrease divorces?' is harder to answer than 'How to translate arma?' because the law to decrease divorce is a thing of such varied possibilities and also because the conse- quences of each one of these are so little known." As we apply this in our Sunday School work, we see that the Catechism is par excellence a pure example of the deductive method. Yet for memory's sake, as well as for practical relig- ious reasons, we want to teach the Catechism at an early age. How can it be done? There was a time when we recognized a distinction in day school studies, speaking of the subjects of arithmetic and grammar as the formal studies. Yet in the kin- dergarten to-day grammar and arithmetic are frequently taught by the inductive method. In languages this is called the Natural Method. A generation ago we learned the rules of grammar first and then applied them, now we learn the language and then the rules. The younger the scholars, the more necessary the Natural or Inductive Method. High school students can fre- quently well dispense with the Inductive Method and use the Deductive Method. The point is that Deduction cannot be appreciated until the child can see relations, the cause and effect, the abstract. Arithmetic taught by the Inductive Method gives tlie child sticks and blocks by which he can practically measure out multiplication, addition, division, subtraction, and fractions. It is proceding from the particular to the general. Now the Catechism can be taught, and is taught in the best schools, by the Inductive Method. The individual truths are taught, illustrated by the Inductive setting of the particular ex- amples of Old Testament or New Testament; then later on the HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 217 Rule is formulated. Dr. A. A. Butler has covered this point very fully in his Ciiuucn.MAN's Manual on pages 112 following. Forbush, speaking of antiquated methods in teaching, says : "Two vicious methods are now in vogue: the Lancastrian, or catechetical, and the homiletic. The first is obsolete in all other education. The second, confined to religious instruction, and old-fashioned '^grammar' school work, is based on the idea that the Spirit of God and of common sense is so absent from the child that he will never see the good nor do it unless a moral is tagged to every verse in the lesson. This method, that of the sermonette, may do in the adult Bible Class, but it is useless in the junior classes. It is unfortunately perpetuated by most of the popular 'helps' published for teachers." The Co-operation of the Pupils. Dr. Butler urges: "The Cooperation of Pupils is Indispensable. We must make them responsible for the success of the class. We must plan to do nothing that we can get our pupils to do. We must tell them nothing that they can find out for themselves, or that we can draw out of them by wise questioning. The pupil's home-work, note-books, pictures, and preparation of class papers, is im- portant." According to Forbush: "The fello^vship instinct was utilized in making additional reviews by having a 'class life of Christ,' to which each member contributed a chapter in turn, and by having a 'class log,' in which each in turn described the places where he has been. "There need be no fear that such study is not 'spiritual.' Attention and reverence are surely spiritual forces. Such meth- ods fit the boys, interest them, hold them, instruct them. The geographical and picturesque, as a matter of fact, become the vehicle of the spiritual. My own experience was that the stereo- scope itself was, unexpectedly, a powerful instrument for teach- ing the individual. Isolated behind his hood, looking as if from a dark room through a window into a strange world, his ears as alert as his eyes, each of my twenty-six boys received impressions that were deep, lasting, personal. I was teaching, not a class, but twenty-six separate hearts." A method of study in which the picturesque has less atten- tion, while the analysis of character has more, has been care- fully worked out by the Eev. John L. Keedy. Here "the pupils 218 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION pass judgment upon each action, they approve or disapprove of each person. Admiration runs out into choice." The notebook is constantly used and serious attention is demanded to some- thing which the boys recognize as worth while. While boys do come to Sunday School usually with a blase manner, their curios- ity will respond if real and fresh information is actually pre- sented. The Elements in a Review. "Three progressive steps are involved in the reviewing of a lesson: a repetition of it, a second view or viewing again of it, and a new view of it. The repetition of it may be, to a certain extent, mechanical. The second view of it, or a viewing again of it, may comprehend simply those elements which were recognized in the first view or original learning of the lesson. This is valuable. The new view of it, however, seeing it in new aspects and relations, is by far the most important phase of reviewing," says See. The Importance of Eeviews. "Comparatively few un- trained teachers appreciate the importance of reviews," he adds. "With some this is simply the result of neglect or thoughtless- ness; witti others, the positive feeling that time spent on reviews is time largely lost. Trumbull says, 'The schools of the Jesuits, as perfected under Aquaviva three centuries ago, were quite in advance of anything the world has yet known in the educa- tional line; and their power and effectiveness were such as to stay, in large measure, the progress of the Protestant Eeforma- tion in Europe. The methods of those schools are still worthy of imitation in many points. In their system of teaching, re- view, as a means of fastening the truth taught, was given a large prominence.' On this point Kobert Herbert Quick says: 'One of the maxims of this system was, "Repetition is the mother of studies." Every lesson was connected with two repetitions; one, before it began, of preceding work, and the other, at the close, of the work just done. Besides this, one day a week was devoted entirely to repetition.' A teacher's appreciation of the importance of the review will be measured to some extent by the time he spends upon it in the class session. Gregory says that the best teachers give about one-third of each lesson hour to reviews." Dr. Brown says: "Some teachers go to considerable length now TO I'KEPARE THE LESSON -219 in trying to Tix the lessons' in the scholars' minds. Reviews are important. It has also been suggested that old material be used in correlation and in the lesson setting. But when new material has been properly introduced and made interesting, it is easy to overdo the fixing process. It seems preferable that none of it should come between the lesson story and the conclusion. "Putting the lesson outline on the blackboard is to make the child conscious of the skeleton or luacliinery of our work. It is work for normal classes. Tracing the lesson on a map or sand pile is to distract the scholar from the vivid mental picture. It is work for geography classes. Some map work can be brought in under the lesson setting. Some sand pile work and map or picture drawing can be given as review work. Some subjects, as the tabernacle or the temple, can be even studied in a con- structive way. Activity is certainly desirable. But to put such work between the story and the conclusion, or even between the story and the close of Sunday School, is to dim the mental pic- ture, to disconnect and almost surely lose the spiritual thought, and to put physical activity in the place of spiritual activity." Examinations. Thorndike says: "No matter how care- fully one tries to follow the right principles of teaching, how ingeniously one selects and how adroitly one arranges stimuli, it is advisable to test the result of one's effort, to make sure that the knowledge or power or tendency expected has really been acquired. Just as the scientist, though he has made his facts as accurate and his argument as logical as he can, still remains unsatisfied until he verifies his conclusion by testing it with new facts, so the teacher, after planning and executing a piece of work as well as he can, must S-erify' his teaching by direct tests of its results and must consider uncertain any result that he can- not thus verify. "Testing the results of one's teaching is useful not only be- cause it gives a basis for improvements in one's methods, but also because it is one chief means of gaining knowledge of the mental content and special capacities of individuals. In apply- ing the principle of apperception a teacher is constantly led to test the results of knowledge previously given as a preliminary to giving more. For the main thing in fitting stinmli to the mental makeup of pupils is not a host of ready-made devices to 220 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION secure the cooperation of previous experience; it is rather con- stant readiness in testing for the presence of the essentials, in diagnosing the exact result of previous lessons. "Testing the results of teaching is useful to the class as well as to the teacher, and to the class directly as well as indirectly through the betterment of future steps in teaching. Any scholar needs to know that he knows as well as to merely know; to be ignorant, and know that you are so, is far more promising than to be ignorant and not know it. By expression and use new ideas and habits get a double value ; boys and girls in school need to know what progress their efforts have achieved and to guide their efforts by objective facts as well as by their own sense of progress. "The principle is indeed easy, but its successful, concrete application requires both a high degree of capacity for insight into the facts of child life and thorough training. The prin- ciple is simply : To know whether anyone has given a mental state, see if he can use it; to know whether anyone will make a given response to a certain situation, put him in the situation arranged so that response and that response alone will pro- duce a certain result, and see if that result is produced. The test for both mental states and mental connections is appro- priate action." Adult Classes. Professor Irving F. Wood, in a 25-cent brochure on Adult Bible Classes and How to Conduct Them, deals very fidly and suggestively with this very different type of student. The difference is so important that all teachers of older scholars ought to read his book. Under the Chapter on "How to Question" we have quoted from him regarding the difference in approach necessary between younger pupils and adults. General question- ing on the part of the teacher is out of place, altogether, with the older classes and the principles of cooperation and discussion necessarily take its place. Types in Teaching. In secular education. Types play a large factor; and the gen- eral trend of opinion to-day is to make a most prominent use of them, so far as possible in every department. The plan of typi- HOW TO rRErARK THK LESSON 221 cal elements, typical characters, typical bays, countries, rivers, mountains, typical industries, etc., seems to form the groundwork of numberless lesson-plans. The idea is a good one: (a) because it supplies the foundation for grouping certain characteristics which belong to classes; (h) it aids in generalizing, forming concepts, practically being a model form of unifying knowledge. To that extent it is labor-saving, memory relieving. The child does not have to master the characteristics of each new object. He has left only the few peculiar and unique dissimilarities or differences which differentiate it from others of the general type. So the medical student learns the typical features of fevers, of the exanthemata, and then easily stores up the specific marks and symptoms of each disease among them. So with the action of drugs, which he groups in classes. This plan has not been sufficiently emphasized in religious education. In our devotion to Bible History, to isolated Pictures, to the Biographies of Heroes, etc., we have not, as yet, provided a single Course of Lessons (so far as we are aware) based on T\^es. We occasionally mention Types, as in the case of men who were "Types of our Blessed Lord" ; but we do not plan types, as a Type Sermon of Christ on True Giving; or a Type Charac- ter of a Worldly Young Man, etc. There is abundant scope, whatever be our required system of lessons, for opportunity to use this little hint, and develop our topics occasionally on the type form. Our children will at once appreciate our approach to Day School work in this particular. The more we adopt such advanced economical methods in our Sunday School System, the more will the School of the Church win respect and cooperation. Professor Charles McMurry ^vrites: "To answer the im- portant question how a healthy and sustained interest is to be awakened in studies would be to solve many of the greatest difficulties in teaching. To interest children, not merely for the hour, but permanently; to select, arrange, and so present ideas that they awaken a steady appetite for more knowledge and cre- ate a taste for what is excellent, this is at least one aim that we must insist upon in recitation work. Story, biography, liistory, poetry, natural objects, and Xature, each in its time and place, awakens mind and heart, and sows seeds that will germinate and 222 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION grow." Many of the liints tlu'own out in the section on Tlio Point of Contact are of value here. Dr. Brown i)uts it thus: "There are occasionally lessons that should not he treated by this process of analysis and synthe- sis. We accept certain matters as types, and proceed by deduc- tive reasoning as we would from a previously established gen- eral law. The account of the Resurrection, or of the Ascension, for instance, is better treated as a type. We may prepare the way for the thought of resurrection by illustrations from what the scholar knows to take place in Nature; but our reason for be- lieving that we shall rise is because Christ has told us so, and has shown Himself, our accepted type, to have risen. This "^type' form of lesson is easily misused. It should seldom be resorted to, and the teacher should be careful never to slip into it unconsciously." When children have shown themselves quick at seeing the conclusion, it is often well to omit the lesson conclusion entirely. For instance, if the story of the Prodigal Son has been well intro- duced, with strong point of contact and correlation, it might be quite enough to merely ask in conclusion. Whom does the father in this story represent? Whom does the prodigal son represent? The children will feel the meaning and force of the story better than we can express it. Most conclusions are better either left to the children's ready intuitions, or expressed in standard words, as from a hymn or the Bible. QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. 1. How would you definitely go about preparing next Sunday's Lesson, according to now ideas you have gleaned from this chapter? 2. What particular Laws seem to appeal to you most as helpful ? 3. Could you apply such a method regularly to your present Lesson Sj'stem? If not, why not? Is it your fault, or that of the System ? 4. If such sort of Preparation as indicated hero is tlie usual and proper plan of procedure for Secular Lessons, why should it not be used in the Sunday School? Is not all Teaching the same in principle? 5. What do you think of the value of Types in Teaching? Give reasons. G. Give the Five Ilcrbartian "Steps" and plan a Lesson with their use. 7. Compare Deduction and Induction in value and pedagogy. ClIxiPTEE XII. HOW MUCH CHILDREN KNOW, OR "THE POINT OF CONTACT" IN TEACHING. SUGGESTED READINGS. Point of Contact: Thk I'dLST OF Contact in Teaching. Du Dois. Syllabi s to Above. Hervey. I'EDAUOOICAL lilULE SCHOOL. IlazlCtt. p. IIG. Tkainino of the Twig. Drawbridge, p. 74. A Pkimeu of Teaching. Adams. Teacheu Training. Roads, pp. ()5-G7. The Seven Laws of Teaching. Greyory. p. G7, pp. 50-59-07. The Contents of Chiluuen's Minds. Uall. The Heligious Content of the Child-Mind. Hall, in Principles of Rel. Ed. The Xew I'STCHOLOGY. Gordy. pp. 288-293. The Point of Contact in Teaching. This is the title of a delightful little book by Patterson Du Bois. lu it lie sums up most attractively a galaxy of funda- mental points of Philosophy and Ps3'chology, some of which will prove of inestimable assistance to most of us. What is first as cause may he last in discovery to the child. What is truly known must he known hy experience. A child knows at first only the concrete, hi all teaching, proceed from the Known to the Un- known. Therefore find the Point of Contact, that is, the Point of Interest, the Child's Life-plane, and make it the Point of De- parture and Sympathy in all teaching. The great fault in our Sunday School teaching has been that we have not sought the chihrs penetrable point. "We have approached him through adult ideas, upon an adult plane. Truly, we have spoken baby- talk to him; but in our baby-talk we have spoken to hira truths unsuitcd to babies. Let us analyze these concise rules a mo- ment : (1) What is first as cause may he last in discovery to the Child. This means that the small child, as we have said be- 224 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION fore, is concrete, does not reason, literally does not think; it means that he does not see Cause and Effect; he does not see how this thing came about; nor does he see why he should not do that thing, nor what it will lead to in elfect. In this rule is summed up in a nutshell much of the essential elements of sound teaching. As Du Bois says : "The Creation as recorded in the Bible comes historically before my birth; but logically my knowledge of the sun must begin with the light in my room; my study of the rock strata must begin with the stones in the garden path ; of the water, with my morning bath ; of the animals, with my pussy or the flies. It is a recognized philosophical principle that what is historically first may be logically last, and what is logically first may be historically last." (2) What is truly known must he known hy experience. Du Bois treats the above as follows: "We can appeal to cliild- hood from the general plane or ordinary range of experiences most characteristic of childhood. Says H. Courthope Bowen : 'What interests a child must be immediate and level to his thought. He cannot realize a far-off advantage ; or, at any rate, he cannot feel it for long. Young and old, Ave all experience delight in discovering, or in being helped to see, connections be- tween isolated facts — especially such as we have ourselves picked up/ " Manifestly the plane of experience, the germination of in- terest, the genesis of study, will be simple rather than complex, concrete rather than abstract. As Lange says : "The numerous concrete, fresh, and strong ideas gained in earliest youth are the best helps to apperception for all subsequent learning." But these germinal ideas have no affiliation with the "regular se- quences" of theology; they will not be found in the local, polit- ical, or religious issues, or the imagery of Ezekiel, Haggai, Zcchariah, Nehemiah, Nahum, Micah, or Habakkuk, or the com- plex rituals and regulations of the Mosaic era. Supposing the elders of the Jews did build and prosper through the prophesy- ing of Haggai the prophet and Zcchariah the son of Iddo — what is that to a babe who has no conception of space, time, organized society, or even of our commonest adult conventionalities ? How near are the Ten Commandments to the plane of experience of a child who cannot count up to ten nor even above four ? •TIIK I'tMNT OK (ONTACT"' IX TKACillNCJ 2i:j J)li iJois Ic'lLs llu' story oi' ;in older si.'^hu- trying lo answer I he qnestion of her little Iii-uiIkt Kobbic — "Tell how sidewalks were made." To the high school girl the sidewalks were laid on the ground, so she began to explain the ground and its history (irst. To the ehild the ground was hidden under the sidewalks. His tlrst experienee with earth was not the underlying ground but the overlaying sidewalks. She had thought to begin with the real beginning of God's work, instead of that which was within the child's plane of experience — the point of contact with the world as the child sees it. ('.]) The child at first hnows onJij the concrete. This has been alhuled to frequently l)efore and needs only the merest reference here. It means that we must deal with things, witli objects, pictures, those ideas thai will cause iJie rornuilion ot" mental images, products of the imagination. As we illustrated before, it is not dogs as a class, but his dog; not books in general, but the book; not principles in general, but a person living the ])rincij)les. (4) In all leaching proceed from Ihr Jnioirn lo the itn- knuirn. Some people never start from tlu; known, but ])rocee- l rated t'l'iilurcs can he ac(;onij)lishe(l. "Bion put the two years (or two grades) of children together, thus: AGES. FIRST YEAR. SECOND YEAR. 8 and 9 Grade I-: ——==— Grade II. 10 and H Grade lIIr-"=^^^=— Grade IV. 12 and 13 Grade V-!— '— "^^II,.^ Grade VI. 14 and 16 Grade VIIr-===~-- — Grade VIII. A child entering the Grammar Scliool at eight takes Grade I., is nine the next year and takes Grade II., is ten the next year and takes Grade III., is eleven the next year and takes Grade IV., etc., right down through the curriculum. There is a definite progression, with larger classes, fewer teachers, and greater adaptability to the small school. Thus the odd grades are all running the first year, and the even ones all the second. An esential to this scheme is a printed folder leaflet that shows the sequence and biennial arrangement, so that teachers and pupils understandingly enter into the fulfilment of tlie course. The Principles of a Well-Rounded Curriculum. The child is a unit. His physical life is manifested through his emotions (heart or feelings), his intellect (head), and his will (doing or acting). No education is complete without due provision for the training of each of these in proper proportion, and with consistent correlation with the so-called secular or Day School studies. As President Butler says, there are but five in- terrelated lines of education, scientific, literary, political, aes- thetic, and religious. The Old Sunday School education concerned itself mainly with the heart side under which emotions were aroused only. The new education, unless carefully watched, will turn exclu- sively to the head side, and neglect the heart. Either or both of these phases are incomplete. They are but means to an end. The e?id is Character-building, which is Habit-forming, which in the ultimate analysis depends solely upon will-training, i.e., get- ting response to emotions, ideals, in doing and living, guided in- telligently, step by step, by intellect. Thus in a well-rounded CURIULI lA .M (;UA1)1M; THE SUNDAY SClKJOL -245 Curriculum we must in each grade, even in each lesson, take account of (a) the Child's Interests, that is the Instincts, which are our only material to train into Habits (b) Worship, (c) Mis- sions, which train his heart and his life in the realm of Love; (d) Memory Work (c) the Subject-matter of Instruction (Cur- riculum), which concerns his intellect; (f) Self-activity, by which he learns self-expression in doing; and finally (g) Chris- tian Work, the Society to which he will belong at each stage of his education, through which he will practically carry out the Teachings of Christ in Christian Altruism and Service to his fellows in the world. Some Standard Curricula. 1. THE CUIHHCULUM OF THE JOINT COMMiSSIOX OF THE GENERAL CONVENTION. I. Pkimary Department (Embi-acing the Kindergarten and ages up to about Eight.) Aim. — To plant in the heart of the child those first truths of Christianity which underlie the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments, viz. : God's love, care, wisdom, power — which form the basis for inculcating obedience and love, and in- spiring reverence and worship in the child. Material. — Stories from the Old Testament and from the 'New Testament ; stories from Nature, from daily life, and from the mission field. Mcmorij ITor/,-. — Simple poems; selected Bible verses and Hymns; tlie Lord's Prayer; the 23rd Psalm; simple prayers; grace at meals, and proper devotional forms for home use. II. Junior DErAKTMENT. (Ages 9-13). Ai)n. — The moral education of the child, the deepening of his sense of duty to others, the direction of his social relations and activities, and the estal)lishment of moral and religious habits. Material— T\\Q Life of Christ in story; the Christian Year; the Catechism (elementary) ; the Prayer Book; Old Testament stories (as in the preceding department, but more biographical in form) ; elementary study of the Life of Christ; missionary history studied in its great characters. These subjects should be 24G RIOLTGIOUS EDUCATION accompanied by the self-activity of the child in map and manual work. Spiritual Life. — The worship of the Church; the adaptation of offices of devotion to the need of the child ; the cultivation of private prayer at home and in the Church. Memory WorJc. — Collects; Canticles; selected Psalms, Hymns and passages of Scripture; suitable selections from other literature. II. Middle Department. (Ages 13-16). Aim. — The building of a strong, devout, helpful Christian character. This period includes the years in which the largest percentage come to confirmation and personal religious confes- sion, or, on the other hand, take the fatal steps toward evil. Emphasis is to be placed on the personal life, the realization of the principles and teachings of our Lord, His authority as a teacher and an example. Material. — Old Testament History as the moral develop- ment of a nation, its type characters, great events, crises; a more advanced study of the Life of Christ, His moral and spiritual teaching; the beginning of the Church; missionary expansion; leaders of Christian history; Church worship; typical forms of Christian and social service. Spiritual Life. — Confirmation and the Holy Communion; private and public worship ; prayer for others, for the world, the Church, diocese, the parish; for those newly confirmed, the un- confirmed ; for those who are careless, and for the development of personal interest in others. IV. Senior DErARTMENT (Ages 17-20). There should be a clear distinction between the regular Sun- day School course and the studies of later years. A determining point analogous to graduation should be reached. This period presents the last opportunity most will have for consecutive study, it should therefore cover such subjects as will best fit the pupil for his future as a Christian and a Church- man. Aim. — The determining of Christian character; moral con- viction; comprehension of the Divine Origin and Mission of the CrKKK ri.lM— (aiADINC I'lIK SUNDAY SCIIOUI. 247 Churcli; responsibility for carrying on the work of Clirist. Material. — The Prayer Book; Christian doctrine; Church history; Church polity; missionary work; the Bible studied in sections, by periods, by books, e.g., the Psalter, Messianic prophe- cies, the teaching of the Lord Jesus, selected Epistles. Spiritual Life. — Enipliasis upon the corporate life of the Church; common worship, fellowship, and service. V. Post-Graduate Department. (Either) I. Normal Course. Aim. — The preparation of persons for service as teachers. Material. — The study of child-nuturc; principles and meth- ods of teaching. Sunday School organization and administra- tion; synthetic study of the Old Testament; the Life of Christ; the history and worship of the Church. (or) JT. Elective Courses. Aijn. — The broadening of Christian knowledge in the indi- vidual and the home, leading to deeper interest in the work and worship of the Church, and the cultivation of home and family worship. Material. — Studies in Bible history; the history of the Canon of Scripture; Prayer Book; Liturgies; the social service of Christianity. IL THE OFFICIAL CURRICULUM OF THE SUNDAY SCHOOL FEDERATION. As adopted after Revision and Referendum by the Majority of Diocesan Organizations in Membership with the Federation. Published by Order of the Executive Committee. Outline of the General Curriculum for All Graded Schools of Any Size. PRIMARY DEPARTMENT. (Until 9 years of age.) Aim. — To teach God's power, wisdom, love and care for His children as the ground for inculcating obedience and love, and inspiring reverence and worship, as centering in the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments. Material. — Stories from nature and life. The Old and New Testament. Mission stories. 2 IS IIELIHKM'S EDICATIOX Mcmorij Work. — The Lord's Prayer, the Crecrl, and tlie Ten Commandmentp. Short form of daily prayer. Selections from the Bihle, Prayer Book and Hymnal. JUNIOR DEPARTMENT. (Ages 9-15.) Aim. — To estahlish right liahits along spiritual, moral and social lines, inculcating regard for law and personal duties, and to develop the practice of private prayer and public worship. Material. — Catechism, Church Year, and Prayer Book. Bio- graphical Study of the Old Testament. Biographical Study of the Life of Christ. Biograpliieal Study of the Apostolic Church. Elements of Christian Faith and Practice. Exposition of the Church Catechism in preparation for Confirmation. Memory Work. — Catechism, selections from the Bible and Prayer Book. SENIOR DEPARTMENT. (Ages 15-19.) Aim. — To secure definite recognition of one's Personal Rela- tion to Christ and the building of strong, intelligent Christian Character. Material. — Old Testament History, Advanced Study of tlie Life of Christ, with emphasis on the Ethical and Religious Teachings and Messianic Character of Jesus. Advanced Study of the Apostolic Church. Old Testament History. History and Use of the Prayer Book. GRADUATE DEPART]\tENT. (19 and upwards.) Electives. — Church History, English and American, and Modern Missions. General, Diocesan, and Parish Church Organi- zations and Work. Typical forms of the Christian Social Ser- vice. Study of Apostolic Writings. ]\raking of the Bible. Christian Ethics, or a Teacher Training Course. III. CURRICULUM OF THE NEW YORK SUNDAY SCHOOL COMMISSION. This Curriculum is practically the Standard to-day as an all-around cni'riculum. It follows the same subjects as the offi- CURRICLIA M— (JRADIXC TIIK SL'NDAV SCllOOf. iU) cial curricula ol' ihc Juiiil C'uinuiissioii and oi' the Sunda}' School Federation. Jii fact it was the norm or basis from which these two were compiletl, but it also presents in tabular form certain other essential points which must be constantly borne in mind by every teaclier iu the education of the child. In Chapter XXIX, we have indicated the indebtedness of the Modern Forward Move- ment in tlu' world of Religions Education to the New York .Sun- day School Comnussion in general and to the Eev. Pascal nar- rower in particular. The feeling of dissatisfaction and unrest was in the air everywhere in the Sunday Schools of all religious bodies. It required a leader however to voice it: to "seize the psychological moment" and to focus and direct the movement of reaction. Canon Harrower secured the appointment of the New York Commission, and, as Chairnuin, providentially became that leader. The Curriculum evolved by that Commission was a grad- ual growth, an evolution, unfolded step by step by the production of a Series of Lesson ]\ranuals, each one a link in the Curriculum. This Curriculum is even yet not complete, further details and grades in contemplation not being supplied with Manuals. They will be inserted as the growth proceeds. It has been so wisely and so pedagogically planned that it is invariably the standard on which all other curricula, general and olHcial, or local and parochial, are based. In the first place it is based on the three- fold division, the importance of which we have stressed through- out the entire book thus far, the trinity of emotions, intellect, and will; or feeling, thinking, and doing. It provides for the chief interests of the child as emotional starting points; for the aim of the teacher kept constantly before her; for definite mem- ory work on the part of the child; for special means of self- expression in the child's own activity; for Christian living in works of altruism; for the worship of the child in his own spiritual life, and for the study of missions as a nuiinspring of our religion. The Order of Studies. This will depend on («) the Subjects considered needful for a thorough Keligious Education; (h) the size and character of the School, considered as city or country, bright or ignorant children, possible size of classes, number of teachers, etc. Just as the country Day School has to inadequately cover the same 250 l{i':LlCIOUS EDUCATION A GRADED SUNDAY SCHOOL SCHEME ACCORDING TO THE COMPILED BY THE REV. WM. WALTER SMITH, MA.. M.D., GENERAL SECRETARY OP 1 * s 4 s « T UEADB loe "i'T'TH.'In.l"' TI1BTE4CUBB CUBBICtH-tJH C01IBSB-TITL8 ''"^"iijr Kinder- garten 11.' III. IV. 2-6 Doing. Motion, Concrete. Ooe- ueK. Namea. To develop a kind. lovhiK. Joy- ous child. by teaching of O 0 d ■ a p o w er. wisdom, love, and care: Incul eating obedience, love, reverence, worship, as cen- tering in tbe C r e e d, I^rds Prayer, and Ten 7-ommandments. Wonder Stories of Old Test and Life of Christ, .Nature. Ood, and Ills Works. .Sew two-year 8, S. Com- mission Course. Pictures, half and ooe-cent (120 for ID. •One Year of Sunday School Lessons for Young Children (Palmer). Picture Cards. 90c per 100 . Penny pictures. 12(5 tor $1 "Bible Lessona for Little Iteglnners" (Cusbman Les- sons). 2 vols. Above Series Pictures, 120 for »1. Cra- gln-s 0. T 4 N. T. Stories. Pictures as above. Primary III. 6-9 Others. All t b 1 Dga leen. heard, felt. Col 1 e c 1 1 n g. Con Crete. To educate the Consclenie. Obe- dience. Love, in addition to tbe above. Tbe aame Mate- rial. Biograph- ical after Stb year. •Love. Lite, and Light" IMabel Wilson). Pictura Cards. SOc per too. Orammar Junior 1. 11. III. 9-12 Concrete. C o 1 ■ lectlng. Group work. Games. Heading, Ge<.gra- pby. Biography. HUtory. Reality end I'acta. To estebllab Per- sonal Habits along Moral and Social lines, and Itecognltlon of Law and Duty. Catechism Telt Vi year. Catechism Illostrated and Ciplalned. Step Catecblam ; Meaning of Words ; Pictures. The Catecblam, Ward or Mc Pberson. Prayer Book H year Our Book of Wor8bl(>. Tbe Teacher's Prayer Book Pictures: Smith's History, etc. Church Year (suplm'y) Story of tbe Christian Year. Patterson's Cbsrt. o 1 d Testament Stories. Old Testament Stories. Vol. I . Pts. 1 & 2. Old Testament Storles.Vo). II . Pts 1 A 2. S 8 C. Uanuala ; Pictures : Maps : Models. Ditto above. Life of CbrlsL 11) Junior Life of Christ. J'ta. 1 & 2. 8. B C Teacher's Manual : Hurlbut's FQur Gospels, stalker's Life of Christ: Pictures. Maps. Christian Ethics (2) Teachings of Jesus. Junior Ethics. Pts. 1 & 2. S S. C. Mannal. Leaders Stories of Christian Lead ers Pts. 1 4 2. S. 8 C. ManuaL Qraromar Senior Middle Inter- mediate IV. V. VI li-lS nroader Views, Lore of nifltory. the heroic, dar- ing, chivalry. Al relations, proofa. etc. To present Christ as tbe Ideal Hero and the O T. as the Preparation for His coming. Old Testament History Old Testament History, Pts. 1*2, and Prepara- tion for Christ. Eille. Temple Primers, Fry. S S C. Manual . Maps, etc , Falrwestber. Lite of Christ tbe Meeslab (3) Senior Life. Measlanic, Pts, I 4 2. a 8. C. Manual , Butlers How to Study tbe Life of Christ; Maps, etc: Con strucllve Studies iCn Chi- cago) : S S. C. Manual Apostolic Church. S. Paul and the Early Church. Pts 1 4 2. S. 8 C. Manual : Stalker's S. Paul . Maps, etc Bigb Benlor VI I. VIII. IX. 15-18 Syelems. Philos- ophy. (Construe- live Imagination, the Future, Bus InesB FroapectB. Ideals of Love and Action. To secure defl nite recognition of one's iiersonal U e 1 a t 1 o n to ('hrl«t. and tbe building of a suoiig. InteUl gent Christian ibaracter. "The Csll to Come." Church Doctrine and Catechism proved. The Doctrlnea of the Church (Smith. Bradner). Maclear on tbe Creed . Yonge on the Creed. Sr- Teaching of Christ tbe Mes- siah. (4) Teachings of Christ the Messiah. Pts. 14 2. 3. B. C. Manual. Church History. Tbe History of the Church The Kingdom Growing ( Bradner 1. Cutts' Turning Points, etc. Maps: Plcturea. Mission- ary Board's Periodicals. Port- Graduate II! IIL 1S21 R e formations, L*olltics. Social and Civic values, Altrulatlc Works •The Call to Go." Personal work fol Christ and Uls King- dom. 1 Elective 1 History of M18; slons. General Pamphlets. Religious Peda- Manual on Tescber-Traln- Ing (Smith). Books cited ID It-' Soclology. Methods of Church Work. General Pamphlets. Making Bible. Making Bible (Smith). Books suggested In It. Eplstlea. The Epistles of tbe N T. S. 8 C. Msnosl. Hymna. .Ageless Hymns (Smith). Books suggested In It Hist, of Prayer Book. History and Use of P. B. (Smith). See above. The Tescber's P. B. Daniel on the P. B. AdnU Poat- Graduate 21- All above. Also new Interests In Poetry. Art. Mu- sic. Nature, So- cial Feellnga. To deepen tbe HealUatlcin of Hans Value and Obligation to So- ciety. Principles functioning In Doing. Choice by class from above top- ics. Intensive study of Kpls- ties. Homlletlcal Study of tbe Bi- ble for IVvotlon- el Enda. KoTt-Conr... 1, t, i. 4, srv mom.lty ooinpTefn.nt«ry, Ho. J follow. 1 .nd rive. i»«w m.terUl only No. 4 In 11k*' m.Bo.r ctippl.u. No A All four m.T b* o.rd by • .cbool la ..rl... or 4D J of tbein E^cb 1. a eompl.u coorM la lu.lt. ' Cbart maiy bo eccvKd ^m the Ntw York Suoday Scbool Comouuioa. *i6 L»tv*^^ SUHt. Ntat l^jrt. CURRICl'LLM— CiUADJNG TIJE SUNDAY SCHOOL 251 THREE-FOLD DIVISION-INTELLECT. FEELINGS. AND WILL (DOING.) THE SUNDAY SCHOOL FEDEP AT :0N, SECRETARY OF THE NEW YORK SUNDAY SCHOOL COMMISSION. TIiCllI.'«0 ^.^-^0 "'■'Jr i:\uLi" rf.r»"i- ""'cIII'lo"' ...SSiOV, i-icTuaaa Storlei and II lustrations. Con crste. Topical t r u t b •. not a STSlem. Imlta- tlTS SriracIlT ItT. Bible and Nartrs truths correlated with DecaloK, Creed, >Dd Lord's Prayer. Lord's Prayer. Cr.-ed, Hymns, I'rivate |.»ily I'rav.rs. U 1 b 1 i Texts, Impulse In Lessons, Hymns. Motion S o n g s. M o . e- m e n I 8. March- ing. t;aines. Kec- 1 tat Ions. Pic t u r e s. San d tahi.\ 11 lack board, etc. Babies' Branch, Font Roll. B 1 rt hday, and Mission- ary Boxes, Junior Auxil- iary. Occasional at- tend a nee at part of a Ser- vice, with par ents. J'ersonal Daily Devo- tions. 8 tereoptlcon Lectures on Mis slonary Stories. Simple Prajera for Missions. S 1 e r e 0 p t Icotf Lectures on Mis- sions and Bible and Nature St» riea. Mors Suggeitlve. with greater In ItlatlTs on the part of tbt pu plls. Psalm 2.'», Other l'«. . Hymns, IVcolog, tilnrla TIbl, Pt. 1, Cat cchlsm. Imita- tion The same; hut less of bodily .More rocitatlve. Ilinry, M 1 n- Isterine ChJl dren's League Guild o( the Holy Child. Weekly In Ch at Special Ser vices as above ■Private Pray Diita Ditto. Written An iwers. Pictures. Note Books. Blogrspblcsl. At 11. tllatorl cal. wilb Maps, Pictures. Models, .Sole Bks.. Writ ten Work. Bible Clippings. Hymns. All Can tides. Chants, 15 Collects, En- tire Catechism Bible I'assHttes In lonser aelec- tiona. Psalms, etc. Older Pray- ers. Ilablt Manuel work, Bible and pic- ture Note Books, Map making (at 101 In clay, sand, pulp . Map- coloring In trny ons, colors, dyes Models made and drawn. Symbolic drawlngs. etc S t ereograpbs Reports on Prin- ciples lived. So- cial Work. Older Guild of Holy Child. Jr 0 F. S, Junior Auxiliary, At 12 years, Kniehts ot Sir Oalabad, Older Private P r s - Weekly Public Wor ship. After 10. required twice a week. Week day .Services .N'oondoy Pray er for -Missions. Children's Eu- charlsu .\IlBSIonary Btog- ra p b 1 e s. with Story Studied and Told : Stere- oplcon Lectures. Stereographs of Mission Fields Regular Missy Lessons. Map- making, models, c 0 8 t 0 m e a . d reased dolls. Missy. Boies pre pared. Pictures ot the Fields. Lectures on Bi- ble Stories, Child beroes. Missy Blogrsphles, Stmt aa above, with more writ tan Work, Dis fusalon. Secure large personal control of reclta tloD by puplia. S'lcene Creed, Hymns. Coll.-cts, rsalros, I Cor 13, Serm, on >H, Still Older Pray ers, Iteview or Canticles. More P. B. selections Moral Crisis All of above. Add much Altru- istic and Sncial Work, I.nncer E,s6ov« ao.l lil i'T pant: u'idbi Jr. Auxiliary. Jr, c. F s. Guilds of S John and S .Mary White or Silver Cross Guilds Jun. Brother hood of S Andrew All above. Holy Communion Self ■ eiamlna- 1 1 o n. Older Prayers, Medl tatlon. Devo- tional Reading of Bible, etc. S t u d-y of t h e History of .Mis sions. Longer es says, readings, study of Missy books. Needs of the Fields. Best opportunities for work. Particular Prayers for .Mis sinns. Lectures on Hu msn I'hyslol'igv sod Moials suil Health by Phytl clans. History of .^llSElons snd of the growth of the Cbiirch. Ch History. Ch. in Amerlt-a. ill by Blitorlcal and bro*d. niBcus slooal. Essays. Written Work C 0 0 a tructlTe Club Idea. Self mangement. Selections from KIble Passages. esp. S. John. S Matthew, Re». It n d Messianic Prophecies. In trospeclUe Ma- terial. Romance and Ideality Research work on Special Top ducted by pupil leaders. Conter .>nces and Dis- cussions, rather than Ilecltatlons- Sr, o>t all above, Sr G F, S. Aulll lary. St. An- IVghl'rs o f the King Guilds of S Paul and S Catharine. All above. Add Worship at Saints' Days. Intensive Study with Reports A 1 1 of a bo ve Personal Work and Prayers Intercessory Ser- vices. Missy Boxes. Conduct of Jun. Auxil- iary. Lectures on Jew Isb life and cus ir.ms. History of Israel, of Christ. Apoat. Cb , Mis- sions. Making Bible, Dlsoover- 1 e s In S 1 b le Lands, Uor« Personal Reaearcb Few Questions. Sug- gestlTe respon- slTsncss. Pupil- leaders. Pupils plan own work. Selected Master- pieces from lit- erary gems. Bib- ileal. Secular. Poetical. Option- Decision Rame as above More Individual contribution to diacusslon. re- search, theses, papers, etc W 0 m a n • 8 Auxiliary. - Pro. S, An- drew. Daugh- ters of the King/ Sanct- uary Chap., etc. As above. Mission Study Classes, Boxes, Work. Prayers, Noontide Pray- ers, etc Ail as above. Lectures on lives of Martyrs. Saints, Prayer Book Illstorv, Social Wort, etc. In addition to above si:b Teachlcc. Use of stcreoptlcoa oc caslonal. Bug* u tbof^ Optional ConserV" atlsm.. Same;»a above. Same as above. As above As aWive, Great- er giving. As above. 'MooftttdobrcOen and ctpth-badied, 14x17 Indbet, 50 cents; on paper, aj cents; In the BULLETIN, 10 centa. 2r)2 RKLICaOLS EDLCXTIOX f^eiieral counso as tlic large City School, with multifor]ii adap- tations and omissions, so will the Country Sunday School. Subjects Suggested in a Curriculum. The author recently made an exhaustive study of over sixty Graded Schools, from all over the country. Tlic results indi- cated that somewhere or otlicr in a hroad course of IJcligious Education, the following subjects should enter in if possible, and, as we shall see, in probably about the following order: Bi])le Stories, Catechism, Christian Year, Outline of Prayer Book, Old Testament Biography, Bible Geography, Life of Christ (Historical), Old Testament History, Christian Doc- trine, Character and Teaching of Christ, Life of St. Paul, Church PTistory, Christian Missions, ]\Iessianic Prophecy, Mak- ing of the Bible, Sunday School Teaching and Methods, Inten- sive Inductive Study of Epistles and of Revelation, Modern In- stitutional and Sociological Movements, Liturgies and Ilymnol- ogy. Evidences of Eeligion. Detailed Analysis of Each Grade in a Curriculum. The Kindergartex and Primary Schools. Commencing at the Kindergarten and Primary Schools, there should be rather a sharp line of separation drawn at five-and-a-half or six years of age, putting none under the former age in the Primary School proper. The Primary School itself would then include from six (or thereabouts) up to the reading age, usually eight or eight-and-a-half. Do not call either school "Infants." No one is an "infant^' over one year old. A baby name yields baby work. The system should be based upon two principles, (a) That very small children can appreciate only the concrete, and have no proper conception of cither time or space. Naturally they cannot, for both of these realizations are only possible through actual experience, and the child's experience up to this period is but limited ! Hence, on the one hand, Bible Stories are best suited to the ability of such minds; and, in the second place, the order of these stories is best 7iot chronological but topical, according to subject and moral, making each story a concrete and graphic whole, a polished mosaic as it were, ready finished. cuRRic'L Lr.M— (;kai)JN(; the sinday school lio.-j to 1)0 fitted into the eoniplctc lii.storical ^elicnic as it is presented at a later age. All educators agree that the appreciation of a "system"' involves abstract elements, such as relationships, cause and ciTect, chronology, space, etc. Then a "system" is unpedagogical for instruction, prior to adolescence, when reflection and casual relations are developed. Tlie individual trutiis of a system, con- crete and topical, can be taught very early, in the Kindergarten and Primary Age. They are parts of the great system of Truth. Each can be taught in detail, and as such will be complete in itself. Later on, they will be welded into the general "system"" of which they form a part. Such stories, well taught, particularly in this period, when memory is vital, strong and retentive, arc almost never forgotten. They form a groundwork for future grasp of the general His- tory of the Bible. (6) It is agreed to-day by tlie best artists in educational circles, that very young children can appreciate detailed pic- tures, such as half-tones, electrotypes, etc., and do not care for inartistic and crude outline representations. The artistic sense is closely akin to the religious instinct, and it can and should be deeply awakened at an early period in childhood. Therefore it is felt by many that such outline devices as dotted-line cards for sewing, pricking pin-holes in, coloring with crayons or paints, though excellent so far as they go, are not the hcsi that can be used. But manifestly something should be supplied in addition to the description of the Bible Story and the illustrations of it in colored chalks on the blackboard, both of which are essential. There are two more factors, without which the child cannot have a full appreciation of the lesson, nor the teacher have done the best work. First, we must give the child, concrete as he is, a vivid mental picture of the subject, something he can comprehend and visualize. More and more to-day we are becoming a visual- izing people. ]\rore and more we depend upon pictures and il- lustrations in our current reading to convey to us, adults even as we are, the rapid and pro]ier conception of the whole subject in hand. Give the child, therefore, a picture. Use pictures 254 IlKLIGIOUS EDUCATION right througli, even np to and inclufling Bible Class work. Give several representations of the same subject, that an erroneous conception may be prcsvented by Ihe realization at the outset that all of such illustrations are but human ideals, human imagin- ings, of tlie noblest possible truth embodied in a Story that ap- peals to every age and race. Second, we must provide for the child's self -activity, liis own self-expression and the doing side, his share in the lesson undertaken. Give him something active and practical to do. It will color the whole lesson, because it is the share that he contributes to the work. Teach the lesson verbally, using large wall pictures, blackboard drawings, and models, if the last be applicable to the subject. Then give out a penny or half-cent picture bearing upon the topic, one to each child. Provide each child with a Picture Mounting Note Book. Better let him buy the book himself, thus providing wisely for the value of owner- ship, which is a most fruitful instinct in arousing interest, and let the school supply the pictures. The cost of the pictures, even for a large school, is money well expended. Large one- cent pictures are better than half-cent, which are too small for the best appreciation at that age. In a large city school, in a congested portion of New York, where, as a school of very many years' standing, there seemed under no circumstances much chance of an increase, the number of pupils under the interest of ownership and collecting and picturing (a powerful trinity) aroused, grew from 75 children to over 225 in less than five months. The pictures are gummed in by the children, during five minutes allowed each session for manual work, using little gummed stickers, flavored with wintergreen, purchased at fif- teen cents per thousand from Dennison (No. a 24). There is no mucilage nor dirt in the operation. Thus a Picture Bible is provided, through which the child is taught not only the lesson but religious art; and the parents are interested in the study of God's Word by seeing the book taken home each week, and thus directly aligned with the work the Sunday School is endeavor- ing to do. The pictures are tabulated by kinds and makers in the Pic- ture Handbook (S. S. Commission, 10 cts. postpaid), and we C'lRlUCULl'M— (iRADINC THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 255 would ur<^e the reader to carefully study Ihe remarks there re- garding the choice and use of pictures in the graded school. TIIK MAIN SCHOOL. Orammar School. — Junior and Intermediate Departments. This corresponds to the Grammar School in secular educa- tion, and it is often best called by that name. It will embrace children from the reading age to Confirmation or beyond, say fourteen or fifteen years old. The best method, as suggested, is the Heuristic or Source Method, so potent and so popular to-day. This demands actual recourse to the original sources of information and instruction, i.e., the Bible, the Prayer Book, Church Ilistory, etc., as the original source of study, the nearest we can get to the sources. It means putting the Bible, Prayer Book, etc., tangibly into the hands of the children for refer- ence and individual home study, both in the Sunday School hour and in the home preparation of the lessons. The answers to certain questions are looked up and studied at home, and the results brought into class, written down as answers, in the form of full statements, either in the Lesson Manuals themselves, or in special Xote Books (often picture mounting books), or on separate Sheets of Paper, according to local direction. In many cases, an additional set of questions with each lesson, designated to be discussed in class, provides for the fundamental principle of modern education, that the class hour should not be a dead, dull, dry recitation, the reproduction in class of old material, prepared at home; but the study of the subject from a new view-point, the impartation of new and helpful material, the practical functioning of the lesson in the lives and interests of the pupils. Thus something will be missed if the child remains absent from school. In the old recitation way, nothing is missed. The child merely comes to class to show up results, to prove that he has studied and understands the lesson. Grade I. — Grammar School. (About 8 or 9 years old.) Catechism, Prayer Book, Church Year. In this grade, it is suggested that no sudden break in method be introduced from that in use in the Primary School, from which the children have just come; and yet that the prin- 250 llEIJGIOUS EDUCATION ciples of the Grainiiiar School be fully included. Therefore pictures should be retained, and the reader is urged to study the regular Picture-Grading Principles. But Written Work with Question-and-Ansvver llesearch Methods are now to be added. There are three subjects that a child of this first grade ought to become acquainted with, in outline at least. (a) The Text of the Catechism, because it is the very best memoriter age of the whole child life. What is learned now is practically never forgotten. It juay not be fully understood; but the ease with which it is learned by heart more than com- pensates. Moreover, tlie child loves this memory work now, fully as much as it dislikes it later. In a higher grade, at the time of Confirmation, Christian Doctrine, with Thought Ques- tions, deeper and abstract, is taken up, and the meaning of what is now committed to memory learned. That it has some deeper and satisfactory explanation, the child will assume. A simple statement of the Faith — the fact that, drawn out by Fact Ques- tions, is all-sufficient at this early period. With the Illustrated Text Book on the Catechism used in conjunction with the Step Catechism, divided into parts for certificating, this study is de- lightful, even at this age. This is readily accomplished in a one-half-year course. (b) Some Knowledge of How to Use the Prayer Book. We ought to build up Habits of Living at the earliest age. All our teaching is useless unless it functions, that is, results in living out the teaching. Just as in Kindergarten and Primary Schools, we make our teaching about the Loving God vital to the child, by providing him with Prayer Cards and so building up Prayer Habits we have talked about, so here we require the child to attend Public Worship at least once a week, not as com- pulsory Church, but as a training in the Services. But to at- tend either intelligently or enjoyably, he must know how to use the Prayer Book. So while we spend one-half a year on the Catechism, which is an abundant period, if we teach it rightly, with the use of the Step Method, we devote the second half- year to the study of the Prayer Book, in the use of Morning Prayer, Evening Prayer, Litany, Holy Communion, Infant Bap- tism, etc., the Services the child will attend and use. The His- ciinncrLrM— (;uAi)i\(; tiik sixd.w s( iiooi, -i:,: lory ami Details ol' the I'ra^er Jiook (Uiglit lo Ijc postjjoned to adolescence. {(■) SoiiK' Knowledge of the Christian Year. This should come now I'or three reasons. First, the great hindrance to a proper series of lesson manuals in the past was the distortion of any Course hy a desire to conform its teaching to the Church Year. Xow no course, even one on the Life of Christ, can he mapped out in (lu(> ])roportion, it' we follow the hrief Church Year. The eonseijuence is that even adults have no conception whatevei- of the Life of Christ Historically, in any real sequence of Ministry or Events. The Church "^'eai- was never intended for Sunday School Lesson Courses, hut for the Puhlic Services. It needs to he taught, however, for a clear appreeialion of the Services. Teach it, in connection with the Catechism and Prayer Book, cwvy Sunday through the Course, devoting five minutes thereto, using the Deaconess Patterson Chart, Pictures of Events and Saints, the Coloration of the Day or Season, and the Rhyme of the Christian Year. A good plan for a hrief and interesting lesson is to mount up a series of large cards (22x'i8 inches) with all the peiiny pictures on that suhject (say Christ- mas or S. Tliomas), adding a strip of colored rihhon to the card for the coloration of the day, and keep the series on hand in the lihrary, to he loaned out as required each Sunday. With the Patterson Chart, this makes a most vivid and interesting Course. Grades II. and III. — Grammar School. (Ahout 9 or 10 to 11 or 13 years old.) Old Testament Stories. Some schools are ahle to combine the study of Grade L with direct Bible Work, and begin the First Grade of the Main School with Old Testament Stories, which we have herein put as Grade IL, and made a combination lesson each Sunday, divid- ing the time between Old Testament Stories and the Catechism, Pra3'er Book, and Church Year. There is no objection to this plan, either practically or pedagogically, provided neither sub- ject be neglected and the hour be sufficiently long for uninter- rupted study and teaching, to permit a proper time being al- lotted to each. The only danger seems to be the neglect or per- 258 RELKJfOrS EDICATIOX functory teaching of the Catechism, etc., which, as foundation principles, is too significant to be set aside to secondary phice. Tiic First Year of Old Testament Stories, as arranged by the Commission Series, is designed to be used thus : The Story is told by the Teacher one Sunday, studied and looked up in the Bible by the children during the week, and re-told, under the questions assigned in the books, hy the children the following Sunday. This is talked about and illustrated with Pictures in the Mounting Books (sec Chapter on Picture Mounting Books). The New or Advanced Story is then told and the lesson for the next week assigned. This never takes more than twenty min- utes. In most schools ample time is left in which to treat the Lessons on the Catechism and the Prayer Book in the same way, telling, not writing, save with extra bright pupils, or toward the end of the first year in the Course. In the Second Year of the Old Testament Story Course all the Home Work is to be ivritlen. Teachers should in all cases always read over the Di- rections to Teachers in all the Courses before beginning to pre- pare the first lesson, for no two courses are to be taught quite alike, and the right method of teachi)ig any course is absolutely essential to its success. If such a combination be made, however, this Grade becomes Grade I., and all the other courses move back one grade. Grade IV. — Grammar School. (About 11 or 12 years old.) liife of Jesus Christ. A Junior and Concrete Course. Note on Map Work from this grade on. Beginning with this grade, or even at the age of ten in the previous grade, ma])s are imperative to successful teaching. There should be three series of maps, almost constantly in use from this age forward in all the grades, right through the so- called Bible Classes. (1) Small class maps, showing the physical contour of the Holy Land and the Eoman Empire, since much of the History of the Chosen People was conditioned directly by their environ- ment. (2) Many small outline maps, in whicli the pupils may insert cities, rivers, journeys, etc., both enabling them to locate c'LUKie riJ'.M -i;kadl\c; thk sl'Nuay .school im properly and ponnaiiontly, and j)i-()vidiii_ the Rationale and Ilislorv and I'sc of the Pravcr Book. The Best Practical Way to Set About Grading. Many so-called graded schools fail in a few months and soinetinies throw out the graded system as the result, hecause neither officers, teachers, pupils, nor parents understand what they are doing, or what the graded system is, or what part they play in the curriculum of the school. Printer's ink here is money well expended and the suggestions given below are those that all practical experience has proved to be the very best. Grading should be done by Day School Grades, which show the ability of the pupils to handle the material of Education, rather than by Ages or Height, as is often the case. Make a List first of all pupils, arranged alphabetically, by name. Indicate age, address, and Day School Grade. Arrange in Classes by the Day School Standing, all third grades together (i. e., about 8 years old) ; all fourth grades, etc. If the school be too small for single grades of separated boys and girls, either place boys and girls together, or combine the two adjoining grades in one class, thus the third and fourths together, making a two-year Course for that Class, one year in the topic that would naturally come for the third grade and the second year in that set forth for the fourth grade. In this way, the complete Curriculum is covered with but half the number of classes. Then next, do not fail to u.se a little Printer's Ink. Most schools fail right here. Aftt'r a year the teachers and pupils become discouraged and want all one subject. Or Miss Jones wants to teach the "interesting book Miss Brown has," and sees no reason why her class may not have it. It is because the Teachers and Pupils do not know what the system is, do not grasp the Curriculum, do not s('(> what wheel each one is in the general machinery. Therefore issue a little folder like the s;iin])]c below. Print an abundance of them. Circulate them freely, (iive one to every scholar, every parent, every teacher. Sow them broadcast in the ( I 1!KI( I LIM— (ii;AI)|\(; TIIK SLNDAV SrilOOL H i> llic moral basis for moral conventions and foi' all those rci;iilalions uliitli, uiictht'i- written or unwritten — more com- monly the latter — are universally recoj^nized as guides in the intercourse of human beings. In all cases their value is tested by their fitness. "In schools that are really disorderly the trouble is usually to be found in one or more of three common conditions: the char- actt'r of the teacher, which may be positively bad, merely weak and uiiimi)ressive, or ultra-sentimental : the character of the work re(]uired. which may be either u])on a low plane or so presented to the children that they fail to see the good in it and to realize its worth: the enforcement of conventions resting upon no sound moral principle. The last mentioned has already been sufliciently considered. "Xatural tendency prompts children to seek to subvert the will of the martinet disciplinarian; openW if they dare, by de- ception if they do not. Rigidly enforced rules without an evi- dent worthy reason behind them are fatal to character- in those who are s\d)ject to them. A teacher should be very slow in mak- ing rules and should always ask, before promulgating one. 'Is it absolutely necessary to the well-being of this society?* "" Mr. Gilbert continues to say: "I desire to call attciition to one corollary of what has already been said regarding moral training. The use of secondary ends as motives to conduct is always to be restricted to an immediate and pressing emergency. It should never be a continuous part of the school discipline. By secondary ends in school I mean prizes, marks, and punish- ment. The reasons are not far to seek. They concern however, the whole field of ideals. The trouble with the world in so far as it is wrong is, of course, that people are pursuing wrong ends, commonly minor or secondary ends, under the mistaken notion that they are primary. People chase wealth, social position, and political power for themselves and so enter upon an endless pur- suit and are never happy. These objects pursued are elusive be- cause they are not real ; they are means to ends and are not properly ends at all, or are merely secondary ends. We do right to wonder at the perversity of humanity in thus following un- worthy ends when we see that in most schools secondary ends are held before children until their pursuit beeomcs habitual. 271 RELIGIOLS EDUCATION How can we expect children who have been taught to study for marks or prizes or to avoid punishment, instead of pursuing, with a live interest, knowledge itself, to acquire a love for truth ? How can we expect children, when they grow up, to pursue social service through the use of available means instead of pur- suing these means as if they were the ends themselves?" The Difference Between Securing and IVIaintaining Order. These are two very different operations and must be carried on in diverse ways. It is not possible for a teacher taking charge of a class to secure Order at once by the same measures that will be used a little later to maintain it. The teacher should have the sympathy of each member in the class, and however much discipline may be used, this bond of sympathy should ever exist. Eules should be few ; but those rules should be absolutely respected and obeyed. Looseness, laxness, and freedom are both bad for the pupils and destructive of confidence in the teacher. Firmness is admired by the scholars, while weakness and waver- ing are despised. Securing Order. Begin on Time. This will depend to a large extent upon the conduct of the school and the business method of the super- intendent. As Dr. Butler says: "The orderly officer begins on time, and ends on time, exactly on time, knowing that nobody else will be on time if he is not. 'But the organist has not arrived,' or 'the choirmaster is absent.' Well, what of it? Shall we allow one disorderly man to ruin the order of fifty or three hundred pupils? When the tardy officer arrives and finds the School in session, he will need no other rebuke. Begin on time. Not by banging the bell, or crying 'Silence.' If the School does not immediately obey the first tap of the bell, and you have been superintendent for two months, blame yourself, not the School. The worst thing to do is to keep banging the l)ell, or to tell the organist to turn on the full organ. I heard of an officer who banged his bell eighteen times; but his noise did not produce silence; it never does." Nip Disorder in the Bud. Secure Order as soon as you enter the class. Do not wait for ten minutes or even five. Draw- bridge urges: "Be quite determined and definite in your own ORDER 275 mind as to what to allow and what to forbid. Make it equally clear to the class exactly what they may and may not do. When any boy seems inclined to overstep the bounds you have drawn, nip the tendency to insubordination in the bud, before the culprit is conscious of his tendency and before the others have noticed anything amiss. Peace at any price is sure to end in war; and to leave an undefined boundary between the lawful and the unlawful will have the same effect. "It is necessary to keep one's eye free to wander over the class, and to check by a glance any disorder. It is, consequently, fatal to use voluminous notes, or to turn one's mind's eye in- ward, upon the next point of the lesson, instead of outward, on the faces of the class. This means that the lesson must be very well prepared. Every boy glances at the teacher's face be- fore he misbehaves. He looks to see, first, if he is observed, and secondly, whether the teacher is likely to interfere." Be Even-handed, ever the same in expecting and securing order. Again quoting Drawbridge : "The teacher must be equal and constant in his correction of disorder. He must not be fickle. If what enrages him one day amuses him the next, or if he smiles at one boy's attempt at wit, and quells another boy's efforts to be humorous, he can hardly blame the class if they accuse him of partiality, injustice, and unreasonableness. The teacher's moods may vary, so too may the quality of the jokes made by different boys, but the class do not study the reasons for the teacher's apparent inconsistencies. Some teachers are magisterial one day and over-familiar the next, and the third day complain of disorder in the class. Similarly, a parent will smile appreciatively at her child's naughtiness or rudeness, and laughingly quote the rude speech, in the hearing of the child, one day, and beat the child for the same behavior the next day. The natural result is that she is accused of injustice, and in- evitably breeds fierce rebellion in the heart of her young critic. It is doubtless very easy to blame children for their unniliness, but it is more profitable to take some pains to learn how to rule. Insubordination on the part of the pupil implies ignorance of the art of government on the part of the teacher." Be orderly yourself. Drawbridge says : "Set a good example. If we set at nought school rules, or fail to answer at once to •270 JJKLTGIOUS EDUCATION school signals, we cannot be surprised if our pupils do the same, and also disobey us, personally. ''Then, again, self-control in the teacher iiiliuences his pupils to curb their unruly desires. He who has learned how to obey can teach what he has himself learned ; and only the prac- tice of self-restraint can ena})le one to inculcate that virtue in others." "Be cheerful and (jood-humored, and put the class in a good humour,'" says Drawbridge. Frequenlly a joke has averted a riot. Not a display of force and anger, but the exercise of tact and sympathy, is what is needed. The management of a restive class, and the control of a fresh horse, have many points of re- semblance. In each case a gentle woman's hand can often achieve what no display of force and violence would ever accom- plish. The latter may drive in the symptoms of unrest and dis- order, the former alone can win over the spirit and the will, and secure the desired disposition. Children prefer order, if they are managed with patience, knowledge, and tact, but if the (restive horse, or) child once gets out of hand, it is very diffi- cult to undo the mischief which has resulted from one's weak- ness. Appeal to the best motives of your pupils, and trust to their higher instincts. Drawbridge says with regard to this: ''In one of our great manufacturing cities, the police frequently had to call in the aid of a vicar to quell disorders in the slums. When force had failed, the police turned to the parson for the exer- cise of his influence. This effeminate and mild-mannered ec- clesiastic appeared upon the scene of disorder, not only as a man of God, but also as a well-tried friend, whose disinterested and self-sacrificing labours for the people carried more weight than the respect due to liis office. Moreover he knew each man's home, and consequently was in a position to appeal to that side of each individual whicli Avas most susceptible of influence. The teacher should adopt the same methods. Love the children, and thus win their affection. Deserve respect, and thus secure it. Know each child individually, and also his home life. It is worth while to have the home influence of every child on one's side." Of course, each pupil requires its own individual and per- oliDKll 277 sonal kind of maiiafjcmcnt. It is wise to appeal to the heart of tile one, to tlie sense of riglit of anotlier, to the love of order in a thii-(l. to the religious feelings of a fourth, and to the sense of shame in a liftli. Love, sympathy, (aet, patience, knowledge, all ari' necessary. J'J.vpvrt h) he obci/ed — '"J'hey can conquer who believe they can."" If you have no confidence in yourself, do not make a pai-ade of your weakness before the class. The following anecdote M'ill illustrate this most important consideration: At a clerical meetiiig, a very aged clergyman told a story of his early childliood. lie said, "The gardener once ac- cused me, to my mother, of having done something wrong, ^ly mother looked me in the face and said to my accuser, 'No. I am sure blaster John could not have done such a thing.' He added, "But 1 had done it, you know." "' lie went on to say that he had never forgotten the lesson he learned that day. All thi-ough his life, he had tried to follow her wise method of re- buke. Show children that you expect much of them, and they will not disappoint you. We all live up to the estimate whicli others have of us; and those who expect much of others are not disappointed. Agencies for Keeping Order. {(t) ('oKKt'ivE AoiiNCiES. Such are those that endeavor to coni})el the will of the child. All punishments and the mere dominating will-power of the teacher, which later borders on hy])notic control or personal force, are the lowest forms of con- trol: external, negative, and the least effective. The child so inlluenced lacks spontaneity and executive activity. Hughes says: '"Teachei-s should try to realize the terribly destructive in- fluence on character exerted by frequently repeating violations of rules, even in regard to matters that are in themselves, or in their direct results, comparatively trifling. Our actions indi- cate what we are, because our actions are the expression of the present condition of our mental and moral natures. Actions repeated confirm habits of similar actions. Our acts mould our characters because they decide whether conscience and will in- crease or decrease in clearness and power. Ten years in a school where rules may be violated, where the consequences of breaking 278 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION a rule are estimated by their effects on the discipline of the school instead of their influence in destroying character, will endanger a boy's prospects in time and eternity. Disrespect for rules in the pupil leads to disregard for law in the citizen, and disregard for the laws of men leads to indiiierence to the laws of God. When teachers realize this truth, no honest teacher will con- tinue in the profession without keeping order. "If a rule cannot be enforced through weakness of any kind on the part of the teacher (and the primary cause of all such failure is weakness in the teacher), it is much better that no such rule should be made. Making a rule does not improve dis- cipline. The rule must be enforced, to produce the desired re- sult. So far as discipline is concerned, the school will be no better with a rule that is not executed than it would be without the rule. The discipline will be as bad in the one case as in the other; but in the first case the pupils will be committing sin, and in the second they will not. Weak, indifferent teachers are guilty, because they give a definite training calculated to destroy character. Character is the best gift of God to a child. The school should be the best place in the world, except a good home, to discipline and cultivate character-power, the conscience and will; but the disorderly school, in which the teacher has not power to inspire or compel respectful cooperative submission to authority dissipates instead of develops the essentials of true character. "Eules may be made in two ways ; by the teacher alone, with- out conferring with the pupils; or by the teacher and pupils, after consultation. It is easier to execute 'our' rules, than 'my' rules. The teacher should be a constitutional ruler, not a tyrant. With an earnest, competent teacher pujiils never try to make improper rules. All the people should take an intelli- gent part in moulding the laws of a nation. Society is on a wrong basis if men think they do their duty by merely submit- ting to law. There is no more development in the truest free- dom than in tyranny unless men exercise the rights of citizen- ship. Assisting intelligently in making rules or laws is the surest way to develop respect for law, and the fullest positive submission to law. We should submit to constituted authority consciously, on principle; not from habit, or negatively from ORDER 27!) fear of the consequences. 'IMic best training in political econ- omy is the practical training of a well-governed school, in which (he pupils practise the duties of good citizenship. The teacher who cannot trust his pupils to aid in making rules is clearly unfitted for his work. Such a teacher can do little to train the characters of his pupils, and therefore must fail in his most im- portant duty. "The making of rules is, however, of comparatively little im- ))ortanco compared with their execution. Whichever plan may 1)0 adopted for making the rules, they will be certain to weaken the character of every pupil attending the school if they are not executed justly and definitely. In executing the rules of a school the teacher should often be merciful; but, so far as the pupils are concerned, he must be supreme. When questions of authority are involved, he must be as uncompromising as the Deacon who said to his neighbor with whom he had a dispute: 'I have prayed earnestly over this matter, and I have come to the conclusion that you must give in ; for I cannot.' "In advanced classes, it is most beneficial both to the disci- pline of the school and in training the pupils for the duties of citizenship, to have some adaptation of the system of trial by jury practised in deciding the guilt of offenders who violate the rules of the school. The teacher, in such a case, would repre- sent the judge. A committee of pupils may sometimes award punishment for offences, the teacher being a court of appeal, to which application may be made to have the decision of the com- mittee set aside or modified." Rules. Some of these, such as fear, etc. have been already considered in the chapter on Instincts. According to what Mr. Grout says of the best way to gain and keep control of pupils, with the older pupils the opening day is most important. Begin with the assurance of success firmly fixed in your own mind, or in as near that state of mind as possible. One who enters the room timidly and deprecatingly is bound to have trouble, and that soon. Even if you cannot help "shaking in your shoes," use all your powers of self-control to appear unconcerned and as fa- miliar with first days as with your breakfast. Every eye is on vou for the first few hours and days, to see of what stuff you are made, and just as soon as the shyness of novelty has worn off, 2S0 rvKMOIOlS ICDICATIOX if not sooiK'i', .-oinc irr('S])()nsil)l(' person will "!)() it jusl to see w'liat teacher will do." If you liesitale then you are lost — I'or the time at least. Do sotnclliin nuiy hear a long grudge for a puuishuienl that was eminently fair aiid just. A great deal of care can he used to advantage in punishing gii'ls, as they are very sensitive to ridicule, and a i-e])riinand that will only make a hoy grin sheep- ishly will often juove a gii'l to Icai's ami a long ])eriod of sulks. "Avoid as you would the Kvil One himself any appearance of personal vengeance, or even of ])urely retrihutive punishment. Strive in every way to show tluit your punishments are to pre- vent future offen.ses, not to 'pay up,' for ])ast misdeeds." (h) Executive Aoexcies. These are hetter. (Jive the child something to do. Hold his attention and interest hy pro- viding some direct outlet to his self-activity, either physical and manual or mental. The will of the scholar learns to yield will- ingly, almost unconsciously, to the will of the teacher. This hahit gains hy practice just as other hahits do. Tt is ahsolutely impossihle for disorder to exist in a class where each pupil has some definite work. Projier attention should he given, even in a Sunday School (Hass held in pews of a church, to ]K)sture, so that children sit upright, not lounging listlessly, which produces disorder by the \ory attitude assumed, "^riie position of each scholar with regard to the teacher is also significant. Each child should face the teacher, being seen and seeing at all times, and not merely when individually reciting. The eye of the teacher shoiild take in every child with (Uie sweep. Concert work, /. e., answering, reciting, or reading together, all the class at once, is excellent for gaining order at first. This is not always practical, where more than one class occupies the room ; for, of course, the only way to uphold the Order of the whole School is that each class, as well as each child, should remember Order. Dew(>y says: "The question of method is ultimately reduci- ble to the question of the order of development of the child's (tKDEll 2S1 ])()\voi's and intcrcsls. 'I'lic law for presenting and treating ma- tei-inl is the law implicit within the child's own nature. Be- cause this is so the roilowing statements are of supreme import- ance as determining the spirit in which education is carried on: '*'l'he active side pi'eeedes the passive in the deveh)pnient of the cliiid-nalui'e ; the I'Xpression comes befoi'e conscious impres- sion: till' nniscular development ])recedes the sensory; the niove- nieiils come itefore consci(nis sensations; consciousness is essen- liaily moloi- ov im])ulsive: and conscious states tend to project themselves in ailioii. 'I'lie neglect of this ])rinci])le is the cause of a large ])art of the wasti' of time and strength in school work." According to Ifughes: "All executive agencies, in addition to their direct inlluenci' on order, lunc a most impoi'lant redex action in the formation of charactei'. We cannot perform an act definitely without fii'st having a delinite action of the mind. Energetic will-action produces correspondingly vigorous muscu- lar ett'ort ; indefinite action of the will produces corresponding feebleness of bodily movement. The nature of our habitual ex- ternal manifestations, walking, gestures, etc., indicates the character of our executive development. It is clear, therefore, thai by insisting on energetic and definite action in drill, calis- thenics, and all school movements, we are taking the most cer- tain possible course for making our pupils energetic and definite in character, because we ai'c making energetic and definite will- action habitual."" The Chapter on Manual Work that follows towards the end of this book suggests a great many helj)fid jxnnts in the line of executive agencies. (c) Incentive Agencies. The ultimate aim of all disci- pline is to render a person self-controlling. Even external re- straint should end in independent powers. So long as discipline has to ])c exercised from without, no child is in the condition to do his best work. He acts under restraint. It is only when con- trol woi'ks within outward, that the progress of any person can be secured, '^riierefore incentive agencies are the best. Interest is, of course, the very highest, for it is, as we shall soon see, the spontaneous outgoing of the child's own imj)ulses and desires. There is no question of Order or Disorder, where the right sort of Interest is active. Hence in modern Day Schools, where the 282 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION true ideas of Interest prevail, the factor of Order and its Ineeu- tives has practically disappeared. The most effective Internal or Incentive Agencies, beyond natural Interest, are the Motives, good or bad, as they may be. When the child becomes a man, his progress in his life and his usefulness to society will depend largely on the kind and force of his motives. Some men fail from want of motives; but the majority who fail do so because they do not exercise the good ones they possess. It is the inculcation and education and train- ing, by practice, of good and high motives or ideals in life, that is the Teacher's chief aim in all teaching. At first, we suggest motives; but as children grow older, they originate motives themselves. Dewey says: "Interests are the signs and symptoms of grow- ing power. I believe that they represent dawning capacities. Accordingly the constant and careful observation of interests is of the utmost importance for the educator. These instincts are to be observed as showing the state of development which the child has reached. They prophesy the stage upon which he is about to enter. Only through the continual and sympathetic observation of childhood's interests can the adult enter into the child's life and sec what it is ready for, and upon what material it could work most readily and fruitfully. "These interests are neither to be humored nor repressed. To repress interest is to substitute the adult for the child, and so to weaken intellectual curiosity and alertness, to suppress ini- tiative, and to deaden interest. To humor the interests is to sub- stitute the transient for the permanent. The interest is always the sign of some power below ; the important thing is to discover this power. To humor the interest is to fail to penetrate below the surface, and its sure result is to substitute caprice and whim for genuine interest." Restlessness the Cause of Disorder. Drawbridge says in regard to the above : "One of the great- est difficulties that has to be faced, by all who have to deal with children, is their excessive restlessness. They seem to find it impossible to sit still. Hands, legs, heads, eyes, bodies — all seem to exemplify that myth of the ancient philosophers — per- petual motion. TTow is this annoying trait to be combated? ORDER 283 "The scieutiiic remedy is, not to forcibly drive in the symp- toms, but to diagnose the comphiint and deal with the cause. Why are young peoj)le restless? This tendency of theirs is Na- ture's method of encouraging exercise, and thus ensuring devel- opment. It is a mistake to run counter to Nature and restrain the healthy activity of children. The wise teacher relies upon it to ensure the effort necessary to acquire knowledge. If a child's body is restless it is because no one has found him suffi- cient employment for his mind. A cliild cannot sit still for five minutes while an adult pours forth a stream of words. God has made the young active, and they cannot remain passive without running counter to their natural instincts, and violating God's law. The best way of utilizing the energies of children is to set them to work answering questions. These should bo difficult enough to require hard thinking, and yet sufficiently easy to re- ward the pupil's efforts with success. "Restlessness is energy running to waste. It is a fault, not in the child, but in him who ought to be employing the pupil's energy usefully. When being artistically questioned in school, or when poring over a puzzle in their play time, children are absolutely still physically. They have no superfluous energy to waste in fidgeting. The most active child has no superfluous activity, all its powers are concentrated upon the mental effort in which it is engrossed. W^hcn a Sunday School class is inclined to let off steam — so to speak — in unlawful ways, the remedy is (not to sit upon the safety valve, but) to turn the steam on to the mental machinery, which turns out ideas. In other words, a restless class is one that is more than ready to do justice to the questioning exercise. All teaching necessitates the co-work of the pupil, because there can be no teaching where there is no learning; learning is an absorbing and healthy exercise, which uses up all the child's energies. If it does not do so, the fault lies with the teacher, who is allowing force to run to waste. Thus, to blame the unfortunate pupil for fidgeting is to add in- sult to injury. "The same applies to all bad behavior of the noisy and mis- chievous kind. 'Satan finds some mischief still for idle hands to do.' Or as someone else expresses it: 'The devil tempts a busy person — but an idle person tempts the devil.' Useful em- :i84 i;i;li(;|()1 s kdication plovinciii, I'iither than unjust ])unislinH'nt, i.s the scientific remedy for misapplied activity.'' In assigning lessons, it is often a good plan to make certain individuals responsible for certain (piestions, or parts of ques- tions, assigned to them in advance, 'i'his is necessary where time is liinited, and wliere search for illustrations is called for. Some of the (|ucstions are too comi)rehensive in character to be dealt with in the time between two lessons. It is suggested that at the beginning of the course such questions be assigned to individuals as special topics, to be reported on at convenience. Written examinations at the close of the course will be found both instructive and interesting. tSuch examinations are strongly advised. Questions for examination may be framed by the Kcetor or Teacher forming (juestions. In conducting ex- aminations it is a gooi;i)i:i{ 285 devcloj) spoiilaneity of eha racier? (2) Do they make pupils self-rc'liaiit, williout weakcnin^^ their consciousness of depend- ence on CJody (.")) Do lliev make men selllsh, or do they widen tiieir sympathies and increase liicii- love for humanity and (Jod? "'I'lie (inal te>l of a pei'iiianciiL motive is — Does it leail to in(K'|)endence of character, sutlicient to deveh)]) our indivi(hial- ity as perfectly as (iod ijdeiuK'd it to he developed, without de- stroyiufi' our sym])athy for oui- fellow-men, or weakenint;- our faith in (Iod? The hest motiv'es art' not nu'rely ineffectual, they are injurious, if they are aroused without producing their in- Ii'iuled result in action." ^\r. (iilhert remarks: '\Some form of productive work, whether with ])en, pencil, hrush. scissors and i)aper, or carpen- ter's tools, is tile indivi(hud"s chance. 1 1 coinpels mental activity ; it assures at least some learniiii;-. It also discloses to the teacher the pupil's mental state. The Hung portrayed or made often speaks much more plainly of the state of mind than the spoken words; though of course all these forms of reaction must be stimulated and utilized." Pupils Innately Disorderly. "There are two classes of disorderly pupils; rebels and non- rebels, "" says Hughes. Teachers need have very little trouble from rebels, because there are very few of them, and because they should speedily be made to submit, or else be suspended from school till they are ready to render willing obedience. \A'hen a boy delinitely defies his teacher by refusing to do what he is told, or by deliberately doing what has been clearly pro- hibited, he forfeits his right to attend school ; and if reasoning or ])uni>hment of a reasonahle kind does not make him submit properly, he should be sent fi'om I he school until the influence of his parents, or some other means, has made him thoroughly submissive. He should tiien be re-adnutted only after a public apology for his insubordiiuition, and a satisfactory promise of submission in future. One such course of disci])line, given calmly by the teacher, will usually suljdue a rcheh lU'hels should cause hut liltle troidde. "Those who are not rebels nuiy be divided into the careful and definite, and the careless and irregular. The great difliculty 286 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION of discipline (■(unes from the careless and irregular; and the chief duty of the teacher, so far as discipline is concerned, is to ,2:ive them hahits of order and defmiteness." Penalties. Hughes adds regarding the above: "It is unwise to fix a (l('(!i)ilo and unvarying penalty for the same offense, on all occa- sions aiul under all circumstances. So far as possible, inten- tional wrong-doing, or evil that results from carelessness, should he followed by certain punishment of a positive or negative kind. Nothing weakens a child's character, and his respect for law, (]uicker than the feeling that wrong may be done with impunity. The attaching of fixed penalti(>s for all offences helps to remove the danger of partiality on the part of the teacher, but it pre- vents the exercise of his judgment in the administration of justice." Disorderly Teachers. Disorderly Teachers are those (1) "Whose standard of order is low, and who do not recognize the true value of order in the development of character," says Hughes. "Men cannot rise above their own standards, and they cannot lift others above the standards they fix for themselves. (2) Those who think it ^easiest to keep poor order.' They are usually dishonest weak- lings who cannot keep order, and who wish to conceal their weak- ness. (3) Those who allow the pupils to think that submission is a compliment to the teacher. Order is not maintained for the teacher's benefit, yet thousands of teachers speak and act as if they keep order for their own advantage. (4) Those who think children like disorder. Children enjoy being controlled, much better than having their own way. It is natural to prefer order to anarchy. Children respect the teacher most who secures the best order by proper means. (5) Those who know the value of order, and know that they do not keep good order, but who do not make any conscious effort to increase their power to control, or to improve their methods of discipline. There are thousands of teachers who realize their weakness without using the means available to them for development. (6) Those who say 'Disci- plinary power is a natural gift,' and on this account justify their lack of effort. (7) Those who try to stop disorder by ringing a ORDER 287 ht'll, striking the desk, stain])iiig the floor, etc. A single ring of a bell, or a gentle tap on the desk, may be a time-signal for commencing or closing work, for changing the exercises, or for keeping time in very long classes, to fix the conception of ryth- mic movement; but no general signals or commands should be given for order. The teacher who gives them by bell or tongue is a novice in government, whatever may be his age. He causes much more inattention and disorder than lie cures. Such sig- nals for order must be hannful, as children soon cease to pay attention to them. (8) Those who themselves are noisy and demonstrative. Blustering does not produce calmness. It is a blunder to attempt to drowTi disorder by making more noise than the pupils are making. Bedlam is the result. (9) Those who speak in a high key. A high-pitched voice is exhaustive to the teacher and irritating to pupils. (10) Those who roll their eyes, but do not see. Seeing is an act of the 2iiind. Teachers, more than any other class, should cultivate the power to pay distributed attention, and see every pupil at the same time. (11) Those who hurry. Haste rarely produces speed, and always leads to disorder. (12) Those who do not see any use in being 'so particular about trifles.' Nothing that influences character should be regarded as trifling or unimportant. (13) Those who have order only while they are in the room. Such teachers main- tain order exclusively by coercive means, and therefore fail to secure the grandest possible effect of discipline, the development of self-control in the pupils. (14) Those who believe in lectur- ing their classes. Formal lecturing on morals or duty does little good to any pupil, and it injures a great many by giving them a dislike for that which is good. (15) Those who have not sufficient w'ill-power to insist on obedience, even against the will of their pupils. 'Do you always do what mamma tells you?' said a visiting minister to a little girl. 'Yes, I guess I do, and so does papa,' was the reply. (16) Those who get angry and scold or threaten when executing the law. The teacher has no need to get angry. He represents the majesty of the law. Anger destroys dignity, and many pupils lose their respect for law itself because their teachers administer law in an undignified manner. Scold- ing distracts attention, and therefore causes disorder. Like scolding, threatening soon becomes a habit, and soon loses its :^«S RELIGIOLS EDUCATION influence as a restraining power. Therefore, anger with the resultant scolding or threatening of the child should he avoided nnder all circumstances by the teacher." Anger. Truiidnill says: "Here is a rule which, strictly speaking, knows no exception; yet as a matter of fact, probably nine-tenths of all the punishing of children that is done by ])arents in this world is done in anger. And this is one of the wrongs suffered by children through the wrong-doing of their ])arents. "Anger is hot blood. Anger is passion. Anger is, for the time being, a controlling emotion, fixing the mind's eye on the one point against which it is specifically directed, to the forget- fulness of all else. But punishment is a judicial act, calling for a clear mind and a cool head, and a fair considering of every side of the case in hand. Anger is inconsistent with the exercise of the judicial faculty; therefore no person is com])etent to judge fairly while angry." QUESTIONS FOR TIIOUGFIT AND DISCUSSION. 1. Wliat do you lind your main difficulty in keeping Order? 2. Of what plans have you been making use to secure Order? 3. What ill effects liave you ever noted from your own use of improper agencies to secure and keep Order? 4. At what age do you find children most unruly? Can you saj' why? 5. \Miat are said to be tlie best methods to use in Order? OHAPI^ER XV. THE ART OF SECURING ATTENTION. si(i(:i:s'i'i:i) I{i:ai)I\(;s. Attention: *Tiii: Art of Teaching. Fitch, pp. lOlff. •The Aut of Seciki.ng Attentio.n. Fitch. *Talk.s to Teacheus. Jdtnes. pp. lOO-llJj. Up Through Childhood. Ilnhbell. pp. 15.5/f. The Foundath).\s of IOdication. Seeley. ♦The Teacher That Teaches. yVcUa. p. 20. Talks With the Traini.ng Class. Slattcry. p. 53. *Pedago(hcal Kiule School. Ha.'^lctt. pp". 112-135. New I'sychology. Gordy. pp. 130/f. Sunday School Science. Ilolmcu. pp. .'Jl^O. •How to Hold Attention. Huyhes. I'svcHOLOGY and Psycuic CULTURE. Hallcck. Chapter II. The Seven Laws of Teaching. Gregory, pp. 29-46. Fatigue: •Study of Children. Warner, pp. 137-153, 212, 236. Educational Review. J.inuary. 1898. Baker. Pedagogical Se.minary Mag., I'iurnham. 2, pp. 13-17. The Physical N.\ture of the Child. Roice. How to Hold Attention. Inseparably interwoven with order and interest (which we will consider in the next chapter) is the question of Attention. To say that a subject is interesting is but another way to say that it excites attention. Kinds of Attention. Attention has been defined as "Fixity of Thought," and Professor Janios recognizes two kinds: (1) Passive or Spontan- eous Attention, and (2) A^oluntary Attention, or attention with effort. The former is that given to immediately interesting things, and does not need to concern us further. The latter, Active or Sustained Attention, is the one that affects our teach- 290 RELIGIOLS EDUCATION The Law of Voluntary Attention. "One often hears it said that genius is nothing but a power of sustained attention, and the popular impression probably pre- vails that men of genius are remarkable for their voluntary pow- ers in this direction. But a little introspective observation will show any one that voluntary attention cannot be continuously sustained — that it comes in beats. When we are studying an uninteresting subject, if our minds tend to wander, we have to bring back our attention every now and then by using distinct pulses of effort, which revivify the topic for a moment, the mind tlien running on for a certain number of seconds or minutes with spontaneous interest, until again some intercurrent idea captures it and takes it off. Then the processes of volitional recall must be repeated once more. Voluntary attention, in short, is only a momentary affair. The process, whatever it is, exhausts itself in the single act; and, unless the matter is then taken in hand by some trace of interest inherent in the subject, the mind fails to follow it at all. The sustained attention of the genius, stick- ing to his subject for hours together, is for the most part of the passive sort. The minds of geniuses are full of original and copious associations. The subject of thought, once started, de- velops all sorts of fascinating consequences. The attention is led along one of these to another in the most interesting manner, and the attention never once tends to stray away. ''Voluntary attention is thus an essentially instantaneous affair. You can claim it, for your purposes in the schoolroom, by commanding it in loud, imperious tones; and you can easily get it in this way. But, unless the subject to which you thus recall their attention has inherent power to interest the pupils, you will have held it for only a brief moment; and their minds will soon be wandering again. To keep them where you have called them, you must make the subject too interesting for them to wander again. And for that there is one prescription : but the prescription, like all our prescriptions, is abstract, and, to get practical results from it, you must couple it with mother-wit." How Not to Get Attention. We cannot secure it by simply demanding it. This results in seeming attention; but real mind-wandering, and inattention. Till': AK'I' OK SKCURINC; ATTP]NTION 201 Clainiint,' it, dcmaiuliii^f it, entreating it, will be useless. Noth- ing can keep tlie ehild's attention fixed, save interest in the sub- ject considered. Slattery says: "Although wc could never teach without voluntary attention, no teacher is satisfied with tliat alone. He must work constantly toward the attention which is given vol- untarily despite other attractions. This attention some teachers seem nnable to gain. Their Sunday School hour is filled by a series of stories, pictures, maps, symbols, etc., which attract attention to themselves, but do not give opportunity for real teaching. One has a right to expect voluntary attention from the average nine or ten-year-old for short periods. At twelve, children ought to be able to give strict attention for twenty minutes if the teacher has thoughtfully prepared the lesson with his special class in view. If he is sure there is plenty of fresh air, and disturbances such as loud talking, continual moving about, passing books and papers, are removed, the attention will be much more intense and a greater impression can be made." "Negatively, then, attention is not to be secured by clamor on the part of the teacher," says See. "Tt may not be claimed by any appeals. The teacher who in loud tones calls for atten- tion is not so apt to secure it as the one who lowers his voice or ceases for the moment altogether. The pause in the vibrations of the machinery aboard ship causes the passengers to awake, whereas an increase in the vibrations might only lull to a sounder sleep. 'Nothing,' says Gregory, 'can bo more unphilosophical than the attempt to compel the wearied attention to a new effort by mere authority. As well compel embers to rekindle into a blaze by blowing.' " Principles Involved. Attention will not attach itself to uninteresting things. Therefore the subject must be made to change its aspects, show new sides, and new and interesting phases. From an unchang- ing subject the mind, even of an adult, must wander. Either the stimulus must vary or some new attribute must be discovered in the subject. The nervous system soon tires under the strain of continuous attention to the same thins. 292 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The Will the Basis of Voluntary Attention. Says Ilaslctt : "The psychology of the will is the psychology of action and attention. Whatever conduces to proper activity and attention on the part of the child favors development of volitional power. In its last analysis, will is effort of attention. A child that cannot attend well possesses a weak will. "Interest is fundamental in attention and must he made central in the development of the will power in little children. Will, action, attention, interest are closely related and develop together. Interest seems to be the guiding star of the group. "The child should be trained in obedience; but the will is best trained when an interest and a free expression of movement are present. And little children are to be permitted and en- couraged to work out in active life the truths they have been taught, of a moral and religious nature. As far as possible the truths should be taught in the doing. "While the attention of children of the early childhood stage is chiefly of the spontaneous or passive sort, the attention of children of the next stage is chiefly active or voluntary. They are able to put forth considerable effort in attempting to attend. Interest was the principal guide in the former stage, but while it is by no means to be discarded at this stage, yet the individual is now capable of acquiring, to some degree at least, an interest. He is able to attend to a subject and concentrate his attention upon it and actually become interested in it. The emphasis is almost always placed upon the obverse proposition that children attend to whatever they have an interest in, but it is just as true that they are apt to become interested in whatever they attend to. "Attention is usually active in obedience. Of course the aim is secondary passive attention for all. We want the child to reach, as soon as possible, the condition of development where interest, that is the result of active attention where effort was necessary, becomes so strong and consuming that the mind will attend unconsciously to the great tasks of life. This aim is high, far beyond the race as such now, but it will be attained by and by. Teachers and parents should not go to the obverse extreme and conclude that whatever is not of natural and easy interest to the child is to be discarded. Children can be put down to hard work and required to do their work well, provided the ses- THE ART OF SECURING ATTENTION 293 sions are not too long, the work too (lilllciilt or advanced, nor the physical strain too great. "The attention will most like!}' he exerted along the line of the most favored function. The child will attend to those things that he likes best. A sensory-minded child will give attention most readily to practical things ; he will notice their general as- pects, but not details. The sensory-minded child is able to con- centrate his attention. '^Fhe motor-minded child is troubled with a vacillating attention." In Talks With tiik Training Class, Miss Slattery says : "One summer afternoon a young man sat under the pines on a sloping hillside thinking deeply. Two hours passed and sud- denly he raised his eyes to the distant mountains, and said, 'I will.' That 'I will' sent him to an island in the southern Pacific to spend his life with a degraded, barbarous race, whose eyes he slowly opened until they saw their Creator and worshipped ITim. "Across the river sat another young man on a bench in a green and beautiful park. He seemed to be thinking earnestly. Suddenly he said aloud, 'After all, I will,' and sauntered off to join companions who had invited him to a game in the corner club-room. That 'J will' cost him in the end home and friends, and sent him to a prison cell — a thief. "What a tremendous power it is which makes possible de- cision and resolution ! One trembles in the presence of such a power as he realizes the consequences which may follow the 'I will' which, of all creation, only man can say. "As we consider and try to analyze the pathway Will, we must remember that the deliberate '1 will' is the basis of man's character, and the 'I will' of the crises in life is being made by the 'I will' of each day. You will remember that the pathway Willing includes all the operations of the mind leading to action — Attention, the Will, and Habit being the special things we shall consider. The power to gain and hold attention is the one great desire of every teacher, for without it he cannot really teach. "The other day when the sun was pouring light and heat upon the sandy playground, one of the boys took a burning glass and held it over his straw hat. When he removed it the place was badly scorched. He asked, "^Why,' and was much in- 294 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION terested in the explanation. Attention is very much like that burning-glass; it gathers up and centralizes and brings to focus upon one thing all the mind power. Attention is not a distinct faculty, but rather a state of the mind." "One means to secure attention is to secure its physical at- titude. If sitting up straight and looking at the teacher has gone with attention oftener than has lolling back and wriggling, then the attention of a lolling class can be improved by having them sit up straight. If we need to study a book, we can at least open it and look at the words. Interest may come then which would fail to come so long as we sat thinking, 'I ought to study that lesson.' Teachers need to remember, however, that attention is nioasiircd by results and not some bodily atti- tudes, and on the other hand children readily learn to mimic the postures of attention, witliout having the reality." Placing the Scholars. Professor Adams remarks : "To see both ends of the front form, it is necessary that the teacher should sit at some little distance from his pupils. The exact spot for his chair is said to be at the apex of an equilateral triangle whose base is the front form. To find this spot, get two other forms the same size as the front one, and make the three into a triangle. Where the two extra forms meet, is the place for the teacher's chair. Often there is not enough space to allow of the teacher sitting so far back, and in any case there is usually a difficulty, because at that distance the teacher must speak more loudly than is consistent with the comfort of neighboring classes. If the class has a room of its own, this distance is a great advantage, but if there are several classes in the same room, the matter must be com- promised by sitting nearer the class and making up for the dis- advantage of position by increased vigilance. With regard to the loudness of the teacher's speech there must be no confusion between loudness and clearness. A nmn may often make him- self quite distinctly heard by those whom he wishes to address, without speaking in anything like a loud voice. The teacher must do his ])est to discover how quietly he may speak without causing his pupils to strain in order to hear. Anything beyond this pitch is wasted effort which profits his class nothing, while it greatly interferes with the work of the others. THE ART OF SECURING ATTENTION 295 "Troubk'soine motor pupils should be placed to the teacher's right and left, at the ends of the seats next the teacher. Not only are these pupils thus brought near the teacher, but each of them has only one close neighbor, and thus has his opportunity of causing disturbance greatly lessened. The best place for a reserved, sly, tricky pupil is in the middle of the seat in front of the teacher, who is thus in the best position for observing. There is nothing so paralyzing to the energies of the mischievous still child as the unsympathetic but vigilant eye of the teacher. The hand may be needed occasionally to repress gently the exuber- ance of the motor children to the right and left, but the eye is what is required for the deeper plans of the self-contained trick- ster." Native Variations of Attention. According to James : "One more point, and 1 am done with the subject of attention. There is unquestionably a great native variety among individuals in the type of their attention. Some of us are naturally scatter-brained, and others follow easily a train of connected thoughts without temptation to swerve aside to other subjects. This seems to depend on a dif- ference between individuals in the type of their field of con- sciousness. In some persons this is highly focalized and con- centrated, and the focal ideas predominate in determining asso- ciation. In others we must suppose the margin to be brighter, and to be filled with something like meteoric showers of images, which strike it at random, displacing the focal ideas, and carry- ing association in their own direction. Persons of the latter type find their attention wandering every minute, and must bring it back by a voluntary will. The others sink into a sub- ject of meditation deeply, and, when interrupted, are 'lost' for a moment before they come back to the outer world. "The possession of such a steady faculty of attention is un- questionably a great boon. Those who have it can work more rapidly, and with less nervous wear and tear. I am inclined to think that no one who is without it naturally can by any amount of drill or discipline attain it in a very high degree. Its amount is probably a fixed characteristic of the individual. But I wish to make a remark here which I shall have occasion to make again 296 EELICIOUS EDUCATION in other connectioiKs. Tt is tliat no one need deplore unduly the inferiority in himself of any one elementary faculty. This concentrated type of attention is an elementary faculty: it is one of the things that might be ascertained and measured by exercises in the laboratory. The total mental efficiency of a man is the resultant of the working together of all his faculties. He is too complex a being for any one of them to have the cast- ing vote. If any one of them does have the casting vote, it is more likely to be the strength of his desire and passion, the strength of the interest he takes in wluit is prospered. Concen- tration, memory, reasoning, power, inventiveness, excellence of the senses, all are subsidiary to this. No matter how scatter- brained the type of a man's successive fields of consciousness may be, if he really care for a subject, he will return to it in- cessantly from his incessant wanderings, and first and last do more with it, and get more results from it, than another person whose attention may be more continuous during a given inter- val, but whose passion for the subject is of a more languid and less permanent sort." Fatigue. It is important that even the Sunday School Teachers learn to recognize the manifest signs of fatigue in the class and not spoil the good effect of a lesson by "overdoing it.'' There are two recognized kinds of fatigue (a) normal, and (b) abnormal. (a) Normal Fatigue is the proper result of all work, mental or physical. It is the bending of the bow-string, which springs back again on release. Eest, sleep, and food correct normal fatigue, (b) Abnormal Fatigue is snapping and cracking the bow, pushing the expenditure of energy beyond recovery. Then a diseased condition usually ensues. Signs of Fatigue. (a) XorDial. — (1) A definite weakening of Attention. After half an hour few adults can pay attention well. (2) An increasing unreadiness and inaccuracy of Judgment. It is unwise to endeavor to solve difficult problems at night time or to worry over an unpleasantness in the evening. The best plan is steadfastly to refuse to consider such things when weary, to de- termine to rest and sleep. In the morning the clouds will have Till'; Airr ok SKcrinxc; attf.mion 297 passcMl away and not only will your judgment he clearer, but many oi' the shadows which were caused merely by fatigue will have disappeared. (3) Loss of Sclf-Control, Temper, etc. When the husbantl comes home tired at night, cross and irritable, the wise wife says nothing, but "feeds the brute" and lets him rest. Soon the irritation has passed away, and many a family jar is avoided in this common sense numner. (4) Lessened Work-rate. Not only is it diflicult to do work when fatigued, but it literally does not pay, for less work is accomplished than would be if proper rest and recuperation were taken. Note, that the concentrated attention of Adults can be held for forty- five minutes only with useful results; that of children of adolescent age not over thirty minutes; snuill children of the Primary age not over fifteen minutes. (b) Abnormal — (1) Depression of the ^louth Angles. (2) Presence of llori/iontal Forehead Furrows: These horizontal forehead furrows are a characteristic expression of the weak minded and the insane, showing the result of abnormal fatigue in their lives. (3) Eye-wandering and positive inability to pre- serve fixation of the eyes. Note, this does not mean ordinary restlessness. One of the tests of insanity is dancing eyes where the pupil cannot be held and concentrated. It may also occur with ordinal}' abnormal fatigue. (4) Dull, dark color under the eyes. These signs are of value only because a Sunday School Teacher may have children in the class abnormally fatigued during the week from either (1) overwork (2) unwholesome confinement in unsanitary homes (3) injurious shocks or bad treatment. No one should draw a positive conclusion from only one of these signs, as for example, a "black eye." Taken all together, however, they form a clinical picture of which there can be no doubt. Just as we have a typical face that is pathonomic of consumption, so we hav(> one that definitely proclaims Abnormal Fatigue. QUESTIONS FOR THOLTillT AND DTSCfSSrON. 1. What is the Psychological Basis of all Attention? 2. What two kiTids of Attention are ther<>? 3. What is needful to "hold Attention"? Wliy? 4. Give concrete examples of proper plans for gaining Attention. 5. \Miat faults have you noted in your Class Methods here? CHAPTER XVI. THE PROPER AND IMPROPER USES OF INTEREST. SUGGESTED READINGS. ♦Relation of Interest to Will. Herbart Year Book. Dcicey. How to Conduct the Recitation. McMurry. pp. 11-12. The School and Society. Dewey, pp. 54. •Talks to Teachers. James, pp. 91-90. Up Through Childhood. Huhhcll. pp. 173/f. ♦Elements of Psychology. Tliorndtke. pp. 53-58. How to Interest. Mutch. Teaching of Bible Classes. See. p. 34. My Pedagogic Creed. Dcwry. p. 15. Foundations of Education. Moore, pp. 49-67. The New Psychology. Oordy. (Interest.) Pedagogical Bible School. Haslett. pp. 251-256. How the Interest of Children May be Secured. Professor Dewey of the University of Chicago and of Col- umbia, in his Herbart Year Book covers the Eehition of Inter- est to Will. There is one pregnant sentence in the discussion which sums up the whole of practical pedagogy. The gist of his argument is "tliat genuine interest is the identification, through action, of the self with some object or idea, because of the necessity of that object or idea for the maintenance of self- expression. . . . When we recognize that there are certain powers within the child urgent for development, needing to be acted upon, in order to secure their own efficiency and disci- pline, we have a firm basis upon which to build." Expressed in plainer language, things do not have to be "made interesting," if we are teaching the proper subject in the proper way. As Dr. Dewey puts it, "Interest is no more pas- sively waiting around to be excited from the outside than is im- pulse," or the child's native desires and tendencies. Interest is but the child's own native responsiveness to its own self-active impulses, urging on to their satisfaction. Interest is thus (a) active^ or propulsive, the native impulses of the child pushing THE PROPER AND IMPROPER USES OK INTEREST 2!M) on to ii discharge in one direction or another; (b) objective, that is, interest always attaches itself to some object or thing, whether material or mental; (c) emotional, that is, accompanied by feel- ings of its being "worth while," which is the reason why the child keeps on in cases of effort whicli at times may seem disagree- able. The Child's Interests are really but another name for his innate hereditary impulses, desires, emotions, instincts, of which we have treated before. Professor Dewey writes in My Peda- gogic Creed : "Interests are the signs and symptoms of growing power. I believe that they represent dawning capacities. Ac- cordingly the constant and careful observation of interests is of the utmost importance for the educator. These interests are to be observed as showing the state of development which the child has reached. They prophesy the state upon which he is about to enter. Only through the continual and sympathetic observation of childhood's interests can the adult enter into the child's life and see what it is ready for, and upon what material it could work most readily and fruitfully. "These interests are neither to be humored nor repressed. To repress interest is to substitute the adult for the child, and so to weaken intellectual curiosity and alertness, to suppress initia- tive, and to deaden interest. To humor the interests is to sub- stitute the transient for the permanent. The interest is always the sign of some power below ; the important thing is to discover this power. To humor the interest is to fail to penetrate below the surface, and its sure result is to substitute caprice and whim for genuine interest." Two Kinds of Interest. This feeling of so-called Effort indicates the two kinds of Interest recognized: (1) Immediate or Direct, and (3) Mediate or Derived. The former is where the self-expression puts itself forth with no thought of anything beyond. The end is the pres- ent activity. The mere pleasure of action or colors, or the excite- ment of a story, or of play and amusement is of this character. Derived Interest on the other hand gains its hold on our minds through association with something else that is interesting in itself, and the interest in the one is carried over to the other. 300 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Thus a time-table can be of utmost interest, if it concerns our own journey or that of some friend. Hard work ceases to be a drudgeiy when connected with some definite and appreciated result. This therefore is what we mean when we say, "Create Interest." It does not mean a false interest set up by colored chalk-lines, or bright figures or pictures with no meaning in themselves. It does not purpose jingly tunes or nonsensical mo- tions for the attention, held momentarily and aimlessly. It means all the real, intrinsic connection of the subject with the child's own vital past experiences, with his own impulses to thought and action, giving self-expression to his own native or acquired wants and tendencies, and thus an interest in the sub- ject in hand. Any other means, used to hold Attention, main- tain Order, secure Study, gain Answers to Questions are false and worse than useless, being positively injurious, and creative of the permanent habit of Divided Attention or Mind-wander- ing. The same thing may elicit either Immediate or Derived Interest, according to circumstances. Thus riding a wheel would be Immediate Interest on a bright, cool day, when running along a good country road, leisurely riding for pleasure, in utmost enjoyment of every present moment. But riding that same wheel, on a hot, sultry day, on a dusty, poor road, up a steep hill, seeking to reach a certain destination on time, would represent Derived Interest, not Immediate or Spontaneous. That is, De- rived Interest comes when the end is somewhat remote. jMiicli of life is of this type. The business man plods through a laborious or unpleasant task, day after day, not for its intrinsic pleasure, not for the salary at the week's end, not even for the things that salary can buy at home, but ultimately for the love he bears his wife and family ; Derived Interest, because the end is remote and effort bridges over the chasm between. Someone has said that all life is ruled by but two basal motives, Love and Duty; that the latter is really the former, where an ideal devotion to a principle demands a love that stands paramount to the love at- taching to a person or a thing. Professor Gordy says: "The secret of interest is adaptation. The toys and playthings and pictures of a child amuse him be- cause they are adapted to his state of development — they stimu- rilK I'Kni'KK AM) I .\11'1{( )I'KK I SKS OF INTEREST ;{01 lute him lo exercise his powers. What we must do in teaching, if we e.xixct to interest our pupils, is to set them to do something that they are ahle to do, in order that they may acquire the power to do wiiat they cannot do. We should constantly be striving at every stage ol" a child's development to learn the contents of his mind — to make an inventory of his capacities, so as to see which of them we may turn to educational account, and how. And here again we come upon the fact that meets us at every turn and corner of our experience in teaching — the necessity of a con- stant, careful, systematic study of our pupils, if we hope for the best success in teaching them. Unless we know them thoroughly, we cannot adapt our teachings to them perfectly."' Thus the Interest is not in the thing, but in the person. You can never "make things interesting." They must be of a nature (and so well presented) as to attract the internal, natural interest of the individual approached. He already possesses the Interest : you merely give him the material. He already has the hunger: you give him the proper food. A full table does not create the hungei", it satisfies it, already there, though perhaps dormant. Everyone, always and at all times, has some Interest, unless he be unconscious or dead. He is bound to manifest that interest in something, if the right thing can be found and given to him. If he be lethargic, the fault is not in him, but in the material or its presentation, and so ultimately in the teacher. Three Causes of Interest. Thorndikc says: "Much assistance is given to the teacher in this process of refining and redirecting interests by three facts. The first is the general law of association that whatever tendency brings satisfaction will be perpetuated and strengthened. When- ever an interest is made to profit a pupil, it will be preserved. Connect any response with an original or acquired satisfier and it will satisfy. The hardest sort of bodily labor becomes inter- esting when it gives a boy a place on the football team or con- nects with the excitement and achievement of hunting big game. The second is the force of imitation. What the community cares about will interest each new member; the teacher who is inter- ested in a subject will infect her class. The third is the fact that knowledge breeds interest, that, with certain exceptions, the ;J02 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION power to handle a subject produces in the long run an interest in it, uninteresting as it may have been at the start. As soon as the high-school pupil can really read German, he is likely to gain an interest in it." Practical Precepts. In his little pamphlet on How to Interest, Mutch says: "Until after the kindergarten age the chief interest of childhood is in seeing. Show them something. They appreciate intensely a few tilings which appeal to the sense of taste. The touch is very sensitive to things cold or hot, and there are a few sounds which strongly appeal to the sense of hearing. But none of these have the great variety of interest which the child finds in the things seen." In Miss Slattery's book. Talks with the Thaining Class, we read as follows : "Each year from my study of these papers, and the pupils who wrote them, I have been obliged to come to the same conclusion — namely, that all children are intensely in- terested in life and in great principles and truths as they touch life; and they are not interested in abstract statements of truth apart from life. "Real curiosity leads to interest. Interest means attention, attention means knowledge, and knowledge influences character and conduct. It is an endless chain. Strengthen the chain." Thorndike writes: "Other things being equal, get interest that is steady and self-sustaining rather than interest that flags repeatedly and has to be constantly reinforced by thoughts of duty, punishment, or the like. Get the right things done at any cost — but get them done with as little inhibition and strain as possible. Other things being equal, work with and not against instinctive interests. The problem of interest in teaching is not whether children shall learn with interest or without it; they never learn without it; but what kind of interest it shall be; from what the interest shall be derived." Killing Interest. Professor Adams remarks : "To arouse and sustain interest is of such vital moment in teaching that scarcely any attention has been given by writers to the almost equally important sub- ject of satisfying or allaying interest. It is perhaps impossible TIIK I'ltOl'Ki; AM) IMI'KOl'KR USES OF INTEREST :Uj;j to have too much interest in a lesson, but it is quite common to have that interest badly distributed. In the course of teaching there is frequently a struggle of interests and if the teacher de- sires to guide the pupil in one direction, he must study the clash of interests in order the more effectively to favor the one that he desires to prevail. He must learn the art of killing interest as well as the art of rousing interest. Now the best way of killing interest is not by opposing it, but by gratifying it. So soon as an interest has been satisfied, it dies a natural death. In all cases he must try to avoid rousing any interest that is likely to be more powerful than the main line of interest that runs through the lesson. In spite of all his endeavors, however, the teacher will often find that he has called up powerful interests that compete with the interest he has mainly in view; and in any case, even the subsidiary interests he arouses must be dealt with as they arise, or they will form a powerfully distracting force. Side issues must be treated in such a way as to satisfy all the interest they excite, while the main subject of the lesson is managed so as to maintain the interest to the end." False Views of Interest. According to Thorndike : "It is a common error to confuse the interesting with the easy and to argue that the doctrine of interest is false because it is wrong to make everything easy. This is an error, because in fact the most ditficult things may be very interesting and the easiest things very dull. A second com- mon error is to confuse the feeling of interest with pleasure, and to argue that we cannot make school work interesting because some necessary features of it simply are not pleasurable. It is of course true that many things must be done by a school pupil which produce no pleasure, but they may nevertheless be done with interest. A tug of war and putting up a heavy dumbbell the fiftieth time are definitely painful, but may be very interest- ing. A third common error is to over-estimate the strength of children's interests in abstract thinking. For the majority of all minds, and the great majority of untiitored minds, demand content, mental stuff, actual color, movement, life, and 'thing- ness' as their mental food. "There are two failures of teaching with respect to interest. 304 RELKUOUS EDUCATION The first is the failure to arouse an}- mental zest in a class, to lift the class out of a dull, listless, apathetic good behavior or keep them from illicit interests in grinning at each other, play- ing tricks, chewing candy, and the like. This we all recognize as failure. The second type succeeds in getting interest, but the interest is in the wrong thing. Many a class sits entranced as the teacher shows them pictures — they are thoroughly inter- ested and attentive — but they have no interest whatever in the ])rinciple or fact which the pictures are to illustrate. A lec- turer can always get interest by telling funny stories, but again and again he will find that the real content of his lecture has been entirely neglected. Too often the picture, the story, the specimen, or the experiment removes as much interest from the lesson itself by distracting the pupil as it adds by its con- creteness, life, and action. It is never enough to keep a class interested. They must be interested in the right thing." Some Helpful Suggestions. Note Professor James' Eule: "Any object, not interesting in itself, may become interesting through becoming associated with an object in which an interest already exists. The two associated objects grow, as it were, together. Again, the most natively interesting object to anyone is his own personal self and its fortunes. Lend the child his books, pencils, etc., then give them to him and see the new light with which they at once shine in his eyes. Thus in teaching, begin with subjects in the line of the child's own personal, native interests: and then, step by step, connect your new teaching and new objects with these old ones." This is what is involved in the old Her- bartian doctrine of "Preparation," often so difficult of compre- hension. Says Dr. Bcwcij, again: "A question often asked is: *If you begin with the child's ideas, impulses, and interests, so crude, so random and scattering, so little refined or spiritualized, how is he going to get the necessary discipline, culture, and in- formation?' If there were no way open to us except to excite and indulge these impulses of the child, the question might be asked. We should have to ignore and repress the activities, or else to humor them. But if we have organization of e(juip- TIN'; I'Koi'Ki; AM) i.\ii'i;<)Im;i; r.si:s of ixterkst nur, iiionl and of malcrials, IIkto i.< anollier palli open to us. We can direct the t-liild's activities, giving them exercise along certain lines, and i-an thus lead up to the goal whicli logically stands at the end of Ihe paths followed. "'If wishes were horses, beggars would ride.' Since they are not, since really to satisfy an impulse or interest means to work it out, and working it out involves running against ob- stacU's. becoming acquainted with materials, exercising inge- nuity, patience, persistence, alertness, it of necessity involves discipline — ordering of power — and supplies knowledge.^' Professor Adams makes this statement: "There can be no interest in one simple, isolated idea. Only by being brought into relation to other ideas can it capture interest. This is what the psychologist means when he says: 'We cannot attend to anything that does not change.' Our will is incapable of fixing our attention for more than a second or two upon an isolated idea. That is, pure voluntary attention cannot be maintained for more than a few seconds at a time. Consider what happens in your own case when you try hard to read a difficult and, for you, uninteresting book. You find your attention wandering every few minutes, and have to recall it by an effort of the will. Your reading is made up of a long series of alternations between attention and inattention." QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. 1. Explain clearly the root reason why the false notion of Interest with Effort is both ineffective and injurious. 2. In what lines do a Child's Interests mainly lie? 3. Will Interest differ at various ages? ^Yhy or why not? Explain by examples. 4. What Suggestions do you consider of most worth for Interest? 5. Think out definitely how you propose to make next Sunday's Lesson intrinsically interesting. 6. Why should we kill Interest at times? 7. What False Views of Interest are prevalent? CHAPTER XVII. THE ART OF QUESTIONING. SUGGESTED READINGS. ♦Teacher Training. Roads, pp. 81-83. The Art of Questioning. Fitch. The Art of Teaching. Fitch. Chap. VI. The Foundations of Education. Moore, pp. 22-40. ♦Adult Bible Cla.sses. Wood. ♦Teaching of Bible Clas.ses. See. Sunday School Science. Holmes, pp. 55-60. Pedagogical Bible School. Haslett. pp. 276-278. The Art of Questioning. All lesson books are provided with questions ; but all are not good questions. All teachers question; but few teachers ques- tion either properly or well. Principal Moore has given two rules on questioning: "(1) Spend your time in questioning, and not in lecturing. (2) Let your questions be those of a teacher, and not of an examiner." What does he mean? Miss Caroline Leigh ton says, from Socrates, "Ask anyone a question rather than state a fact to him if you would arouse his interest." Uses of Questions. Fitcli says, in his little handbook on the Art of Ques- tioning : "It is very possible for a teacher in a Sunday School to be fluent in speech, earnest in manner, happy in his choice of illustration, and to be a very inefficient teacher nevertheless. We are often apt to think it enough if we deliver a good lesson, and to forget that, after all, its value depends upon the degree in which it is really received and appropriated by the children. Now, in order to secure that what we teach shall really enter their minds, and be duly fixed and comprehended there, it is above all tilings necessary that we should be able to use effect- ively the important instrument of instruction to which our at- tention is now to be drawn." Adding, in his larger book on THE ART OF QUESTIONING :i07 Teaching, that we use Questions: (1) to find out what a child knows, in order to prepare him for further learning. This is the point of contact, as above, finding the known to attach the unknown. (2) To discover his misconceptions and difficulties. (3) To secure his activity and attention while you are teaching him. (4) To test the result of what you have taught. Dr. Roads says : "A man's knowledge is shown as much by the ques- tions he asks as by those he can answer." C'hrist and Socrates were the ideal interrogators. What is the Effect of a Question? ft stirs up investigation, leading to tlu; answer to "Who?" ''What?" "How?" etc. It awakens the dormant memory; it stimulates curiosity and research; it develops reasoning power. Questioning has been called "the shuttle that weaves the fabric" of education. "Any fool can ask a question," says the proverb; and Mr. Holmes naively adds, "No fool can ask a wise one." It takes careful study of the broadest thought to frame judicious questions. Study Plato's Dialogues; Socrates in Xenophon's Memorabilia; and above all the questions of Jesus, the Ideal Questioner. Method of Sunday School Questioning. All leading educators are agreed on the point that Lesson Books should not, as a rule, contain Question and Answer. The Answei' should be sought for. Fitch does allow that the Church Catechism is the most ideal bit of Question-and-Answer Pro- duction ever framed; but even this must be cautiously used. The general use of Question-and-/l?is«t'er Books is unpedagogi- cal, unnatural, about 50 years behind the times, and, fortunately, rapidly passing away. Nor should the answers to the questions for home study be found directly with the questions. The pupil should search for them, as near to the original Source as possi- ble. Again, while questions in text books for home study are proper guiding-strings for teacher and pupils, the best and the most natural work in class will be accomplished with the lesson books laid aside, with new and original questions asked and the lesson "developed" apparently (though not really, for all has been carefully planned at home) offhand by the teacher. Imag- ine a teacher in geography in public school (and remember your ;JU8 RELKSIOUS EDUCATION pupils live five days iu that atniosphero) reading with difficulty, through a pair of glasses, questions on the location of New Eng- land Manufactories, as she bends over a cramped and scrawly paper. Says Fitch : "That is the best questioning which stimu- lates action on the part of the hearer, and gives him a habit of thinking and enquiring for himself — which makes him rather a skilful finder than a patient receiver of the truth." There is only one kind of action we can surmise as likely to be "stimu- lated" by much of the Sunday School Questioning. Here is a sample from a New England "Sabbath School Question Book" of a few years since: "Did you ever read in your library books about good children who died very happy ?" "How many years of Sabbaths has a person lived who is fifty years old?" "Which would you prefer to lose, your dinner to-day, or your Sunday School instruction?" Most of us can guess what the reply to this interrogation should be! Kinds of Questions. Professor F. A. Manny, quoting from Fitch, gives three kinds: (1) Descriptive Questions, mere fact, with typical word "What?" (2) Narrative, process or method, with typical word "How?" (3) Explanatory, meaning or use, with typical word "Why?" Perhaps a simpler and better division of Questions, from the view-point of internal character, is that of Prof. McMurry, into Fact Questions and Thought Questions. The former are "Who?" "Where?" "What?" the latter are "How?" and "Why?" Fact (Questions should be almost the exclusive type before the age of 8 or 9 ; they should predominate, with some Thought Questions, from that age to Adolescence (12 years on) ; while they should be subsidiary to Thought Questions from Adolescence onward. This is because the former arc concrete and belong to the con- crete age, the age of Acquisition; while the latter are more ab- stract, and come in gradually as Reflection develops. This differentiation should be constantly borne in mind. Professor McMurry, looking at it from the view-point of the lesson, gives (1) Preliminary Questions, that is one should start off with some broad, searching, all-round Eeview Question, that gets the pupils at once in touch with the lesson for the day ; THE ART (JF (HKSTIONING ISO!) rounds them up, so to speak; collects their wits; connects the new with the old ; focuses the gist of the previous lessons and connects them all together into a well-knit scheme. Some large "left-over problem" from previous lesson; some wide generali- zation that would come from the comparison of a large number of formerly considered facts, such are excellent "starters." (3) Leading Questions, around which shorter, subsidiary ones are wielded. These leading questions form the backbone or skeleton of the lesson plan, in the new material. (3) Frequent Review Questions, which sum up the points )ua(le thus far in Jiew work. Children's memories are short at first, and their "weaving ability" limited. The younger the children, the more needful this gathering together of points and loose ends. Every five minutes or so, sum up, with "Let's see where we are. What new facts have we learned?" This re- capitulation drives new material home "apperceptively." (4) Final Review Questions that gather up the scheme of the entire lesson. Thus we also connect the present lesson with a few words on the following one for next week. We have here again the "formal steps" of teaching reproduced in Questioning, i.e.. Preparation, Presentation, Association or Comparison, Gen- eralization, Application. Questioning as viewed by Professor Fitch is divided by him as follows: "Questions as employed by teachers may be divided into tJiree classes, according to the purposes which they may be intended to serve. There is, first, the preliminary or experimen- tal question, by which an instructor feels his way, sounds the depths of his pupils' previous knowledge, and prepares them for the reception of what it is designed to teach. Then, secondly, there is the question employed in actual instruction, by means of which the thoughts of the learner are exercised, and he is com- pelled, so to speak, to take a share in giving himself the lesson. Thirdly, there is the question of examination, by which a teacher tests his own work after he has given a lesson and ascertains whether it has been soundly and thoroughly learned. If we carefully attend to this distinction we shall understand the meaning of the saying of a very eminent teacher, who used to say of the interrogative method, that by it he first questioned the 310 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION knowledge into the niinrls of tlie children, and then questioned it out of them again." Curiosity Kindled by Questions. Says Fitch : "It is chiefly by questions judiciously put to a child before you give him a lesson, that you will be able to kindle this curiosity, to make him feel the need of your instruction, and bring his intellect into a wakeful and teachable condition. Wliatever you may have to give in the way of new knowledge will then have a far better chance of being understood. For you may take it as a rule in teaching, that the mind always refuses to receive — certainly to retain — any isolated knowledge. We remember only those facts and principles which link themselves with what we knew before, or with what we hope to know or are likely to want hereafter. Try, therefore, to establish, in every case, a logical connection between what you teach and what your pupils knew before. Make your new information a sort of de- velopment of the old, the expansion of some germ of thought or inquiry which lay hid in the child's mind before. Seek to bring to light what your pupil already possesses, and you will then always see your way more clearly to a proper adaptation of your teaching to his needs." How to Learn How to Question. llohnes tells us (1) Listen to the questions of children. (2) Ask questions often of others. (3) Write questions out at home on each lesson. This should always be done to clarify the lesson in your own mind and give you confidence and ease, no matter if the lesson be supplied with good questions already. Make up new ones. (4) Study Question Books. This is about the only use we can see in most of the Series of such manuals extant. Character of Questions You Are to Form. Fitch gives the following helpful and pregnant suggestions and maxims : 1. The language of questions. Cultivate great simplicity of language. Use as few words as possible, and let them be such as are adapted to the age and capacity of the class you are teach- ing. Eemember that questions are not meant to display your own learning or acquirements, but to bring out those of the TIIK ART OF QUESTIONING 311 oliildren. II is a great point in (juestioning to say as little as possible; and so to say that little as to cause the children to say as much as possible. Conduct your lessons in such a way that if a visitor or superintendent be standing by, his attention will be directed, not to you, but to your pupils; and his admiration excited, not by your skill and keenness, but by the amount of mental activity displayed on their part. 2. Not to give information in the questions. Do not tell much in your question. Never, if you can help it, communicate a fact in your question. Contrive to educe every fact from the class. It is better to pause for a moment, and to put one or two subordinate questions, with a view to bring out the truths you are seeking, than to tell anything which the children could tell you. A good teacher never conveys information in the form of a question. If he tells his class something, it is not long before he makes his class tell him the same thing again; but his ques- tion never assumes the same form, or employs the same phrase- ology as his previous statement; for, if it does, the form of the question really suggests the answer, and the exercise fails to challenge the judgment and memory of the children as it ought to do. 3. Get entire sentences for answers. A teacher ought not, in fact, to be satisfied until he can get entire sentences for answers. These sentences will generally be paraphrases of the words used in the lesson, and the materials for making the para- phrases will have been developed in the course of the lesson by demanding, in succession, meanings and equivalent for all the principal words. Eemember that the mere ability to fill up a parenthetical or elliptical sentence proves nothing beyond the possession of a little tact and verbal memory. It is worth while to turn around sharply on some inattentive member of the class, or upon some one who has just given a mechanical answer, "Tell me what we have just learned about such a person." Observe that the answer required to such a question must necessarily be a whole sentence ; it will be impossible to answer it without a real effort of thought and of judgment. 4. Do not put vague questions. It is of great importance, also, that questions should be definite and unmistakable, and. for the most part, that they admit of but one answer. An unskillful 312 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION teacher puts vague, wide questions, such as, ''What did he do?" "What didAhraham say?" "How did Josepli feel at such a time?" "What lesson ought we to learn from this?" questions to which no doubt he sees the right answer, because it is already in iiis mind ; but which, perhaps, admit of several equally good answers, ac- cording to the way the different minds would look at them. He does not think of this; he fancies that what is so clear to him ought to be equally clear to others ; he forgets that the minds of the children may be moving on other rails, so to speak, even though directed to the same object. So, when an answer comes which is not the one he expected, even though it is a perfectly legitimate one, he rejects it; while, if any child is fortunate enough to give the precise answer which was in the teacher's mind, he is commended and rewarded, even though he has ex- erted no more thought on the subject. 5. Do not ask Questions that cannot be answered. For similar reasons it is generally necessary to abstain from giving questions to which we have no reasonal)le right to expect an answer. Technical terms, and information children are not likely to possess, ought not to be demanded. Nor should ques- tions be repeated to those who cannot answer. A still more objectionable practice is that of suggesting the first word or two of a sentence, or pronouncing the first syllable of a word which the children do not recollect. All these errors generate a habit of guessing among the scholars, and we should ever bear in mind that there is no one habit more fatal to accurate thinking, or more likely to encourage shallowness and self-deception, than this. It should be discountenanced in every possible way; and the most effective way is to study well the form of our questions, to consider well whether they are quite intelligible and unequivo- cal to those to whom they are addressed, and to limit them to those points on which we have a right to expect clear and definite answers. 6. Do not give questions that only require "Yes" or "No" for an answer. There is a class of questions which hardly de- serve the name, and which are, in fact, fictitious or apparent, but not true questions. I mean those which simply require the answer "Yes" or "No." Nineteen such questions out of twenty carry their own answers in them; for it is almost impossible to TTTK ART OF (,)r'ESTrON[Xf; 313 propose one without revealing, by the tone and inflexion of the voice, the kind of answer you expect. For example: "Is it right to honor om- paiciiis V "Did Abraham show much faith when he offered up his son?'' "Do you think the author of the Psalms was a good man?"' "Were the Pharisees really lovers of truth?" Questions like these elicit no thought whatever; there are but two possible answers to each of them, and of these I am sure to show, by my manner of putting the question, which one I expect. Such questions, should, therefore, as a general rule, be avoided, as they seldom serve any useful purpose, either in teaching or examining. For every question, it must be remembered, ought to require an effort to answer it; it may be an effort of memory, or an effort of imagination, or an effort of judgment, or an effort of perception ; it may be a considerable effort or it may be a slight one, but it must be an effort; and a question which chal- lenges no mental exertion whatever, and does not make the learner think, is wortli nothing. Hence, however such simple adirnuitive and negative replies may look like work, they may co- exist with utter stagnation of mind on the part of the scholars, and with complete ignorance of what we are attempting to teach. 7. ]\[ake questions that are clear, and without doubt as to meaning. Do not have those that are capable of two or more answers, as "Who was an Apostle of Jesus?" 8. Make questions as short as possible. One question seen recently had thirty-four words in it. Lawyers' "hypothetical questions" may be interesting to us, but not to children. You need not state numerous facts, as preliminary to your interroga- tion point. 9. Place your questions in definite, progressive, planned- out order. You want order in recitation. 10. Ask questions of a composite enough character that your answers require thought. ff. Questions should be animated and lively, not dull and dead. Live issues should be selected, and the manner bright. 12. Wrong ansM^ers should NOT be repeated, since this only assists in making the wrong impression stronger. 13. Throw out questions for research and personal indi- vidual investigation perhaps even from other than usual lesson sources. Let pupils question each other, thus provoking the ;n4 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION spirit of inquiry. The gist and basis of all fruitful recitation work in class will be the cultivation of "The Inquiring Spirit" so that pupils constantly ask "Who?" "What?" "How?" "When?" etc. 14. Propound the question first and call the name of the student who is to answer afterwards. This will insure the attention of all because of the uncertainty as to the person who is to answer. No intimation should be given to the student who is expected to reply even by looking at him while the question is being framed. 15. Questions should not be asked of members of the class in regular rotation, either in alphabetical order or in the order of their seating. In order to insure an opportunity for all to recite, the names of members of the class might be written on slips, shuffled together and then drawn out at random. IG. Address questions to the inattentive, but do not repeat the question if in their inattention they have not heard it. Ques- tions should be put with promptness and animation. Alert questions will stimulate prompt replies. While questions should follow one another without delay, reasonable time should be given for an intelligent reply. 17. In his Primer Professor Adams points out that: "It is a mistake to ask questions which involve long answers, par- ticularly in the case of the younger pupils. It is one thing to know; it is another to express. A child may know not only the story implied in a parable, but also the underlying meaning, and yet be unable to 'Give an account of the parable. At the early stages all questions should be direct; i.e., they should be real questions demanding definite answers." 18. Again according to Professor Adams : "To be simple a question need not be easy. 'Who is the author of the book of Hebrews?' is a simple but very difficult question. What is specially meant by simplicity in questions is what may be called their singleness, i. e., only one thing should be asked at a time. Teachers who do not prepare their work not infrequently stumble into questions which involve several independent answers; and still more frequently they change the form of the question two or three times before they finally leave it for the pupil. This careless 'thinking aloud,' this making up of questions that ought THE ART OF QUESTIONING 315 lo have been carefully prepared beforehand, is disconcerting to tiic ]n)])ils, who frequently answer some of the rejected forms of the question instead of the final form." Adolescence and Adult Classes. Professor Irving Wood of Smith College has written a book on AuuLT Bible Classes which with Professor See's Book, The Teaching of Bible Classes are the only two handbooks for these ages, both of which should be carefully studied. Professor Wood says: "The adult Bible class teacher must never forget that he is not doing elementary teaching. His object is not to see that his class knows certain facts, and to drill it until it does. He may be obliged continually to teach facts. So is the university teacher, however advanced his pupils may be in the subject. They should be taught, however, by re- lation to other facts, not by the dead lift of memory and repe- tition. Speaking broadly, the adult class has no place for the repetition-purpose of questioning. "The second purpose of questioning, to help the students to think for themselves, is never out of place. The wise teacher begins its use very early. What is the principle of the Kinder- garten, and most of the newer methods of education, but this? It marks the difference between Eastern and Western education. The Chinese student commits to memory his classics. The Western student is trained to independent thought and criti- cism. That means a very vast difference in the ideals of civili- zation. It is the difference between the methods by which Socra- tes and Confucius taught. Socrates asked questions 'to bring thought to birth,' Confucius made a collection of older litera- ture to be learned and repeated. "I cannot help feeling, however, that where a teacher and a class are in perfect rapport, questioning will lose its predomi- nance in adult teaching. At best questioning is a drawing out process. The best adult class does not need to be drawn out. It comes out of itself when the opportunity is given. Will your class rise to a suggestion, thrown out like a bait? If so, why use the bare, cold question? I do not hesitate to say that the adult class teacher will do well to minimize the question as much as possible. Let him plan his work on the lines of suggestion, Iil6 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION rather than of question, and aim to use the question only when the more delicate and less obtrusive means fail. If this can be done there will be less exhibition of the machinery of teaching and more ease and smoothness in the flow of the class work. "Many things may be done best by indirection. This is one of them. A teacher cannot make a class talk by command ; and if he could, the talk would not be worth much. To niake them talk by entreaty is not much less absurd. In social life people get so by long practice that they can 'make conversation/ which is a very fair imitation of the genuine article, but a class never acquires that skill. It must be genuine or be nothing." QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. [suggested by prof. MANNY.] 1. "Study carefully the method of Questioning used by Socrates. Is this method applicable to work with children?" 2. "Notice the Questions put by teachers and superintendent in Sunday School. Classify them, and compare them with Questions of gen- eral use in Day Schools, by Children playing in their games, by a lawyer examining a witness." 3. "What part of the Questions used in your class do you ask? What proportion is asked by your scholars? Which kind is the more efficient? Why?" 4. "What uses do you make of the 'left-over' Questions ?" 5. "Do you address Questions first to the individual and then to the class, or ince versa? Which plan do you find the better?" 6. How should adolescent and adult classes be handled? CHAPTER XVllI. HOW TO USE STORIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. SUGGESTED READINGS. •Teacheu Training. Roads, pp. 72-71. Sunday School Science. Holmes, pp. 48-50; 62-63. I'ICTLKES AND I'iCTUUE WOUK. HcrVClJ. Teacheu Training. Roads, p. 84. i'oNTE.NT OF Children's Minds. Hall. pp. 55-56. •Newer Methods for the Junior Class. Lee. pp. 13-15. *now TO I'LAN THE LESSON. Brown. p. 47. The New rsYciiOLOGY. Oordif. The Seven Laws of Teaching. Gregory, pp. 19, 57, 74. 1'edagogical Kible School. Haslett. pp. 248-251, 262. Illustrations and How to Use Them — Stories and Parables. We have already taken notice of the strong part which Im- agination phiys in tlie child-life. Imagination develops shortly after Perception, and requires wise training just as it does. We recognize that a child exaggerates and seemingly lies, be- cause it does not perceive properly; and we accordingly educate the perceptions to truer discernment, through more careful ob- servation. The Imagination is of value because through Stories and Illustrations we reach the child's mind and the child's in- terests in a concrete form. This is the avenue of approach, the point of contact, by which Bible truth may be imparted, without dullness. Stanley Hall once said that of all things which a teacher should know how to do, the most important, without any exception, is to be able to tell a story. It is almost the main part of teaching. The child's thirst for stories is marvellous. The Canon of Worcester says : "In the education of the young, and of the less reflective of our people, it would seem to be quite impossible — at any rate, no attempt has been successful — to teach abstract truth, or morality, except through parables, stories and metaphors, so that it may be the more easily appre- hended, and the mere imagery laid aside when the mind ripens." .3JH KKLKJIOIJS EDUCATION MifiR liCo says: "Li I lie cliiMi'cii love stories and can be ap- pealed lo 1)}' slorics in a unique way; and the vehicle of spir- itual trutli for thcin niust mainly be Story-telling. We note how conspicuous a place was talasn by story and parable in our Lord's tea(;liin picture gallery of jhc brain. now TO T'SE STORTKS ANIJ I f.lJ STRA'I'IONS .'!!!) It is the woild of illustrative fictions, not falsehood, but fietiouH, figments, tilings made in this enchanted chamber of the brain. (5) To Keason. It lays hold on the logical faculties and makes them serve. Comparisons are nuule between tiiitli and nutnrid objects." Dangers in Illustration. Several dangers are mentioned by the same author that are worth considering here: (1) Some persons use too much Illus- tration. They are like college boys who spend too much time on the football field to the neglect of their studies. Jt is as if a house were all decoration outside with no furniture within. (2) Some IllustrationB are too broad. Fiction and truth are too much blended, or rather there has been too much fiction. The Truth is lost sight of in the haystack of fiction. They carry aid to some thought far from their user's purpose. They often defeat the end of their use. Of such beware. (3) Illustrations are used too carelessly. They illustrate too much, and so de- feat their own end. Some persons occasionally use Illustra- tions only for effect, to cover up insufficient preparation. Characteristics of a Good Illustration. Dr. Hervey, a master in illustrating, has devoted an entire book to Picture Work. He notes two distinctions to be always borne in mind : ( 1 ) The Main Story, the skeleton on which we build. "Not merely for children, but for grown folk, too, is picture-work a means of teaching. In a densely populated quar- ter of New York City there is to-day a minister who is not con- tent with mere word pictures. He brings into the pulpit the objects themselves — it may be a candle, a plumb-line, a live frog, an air pump. With him the method is a success, as it has been with others. Does this seem crude? So are the mental pro- cesses of every forty-nine out of fifty the world over. We never can know anything without having something to know it with. A 'like' is the key that enables us to unlock and to enter the door of the; unknown." (2) Its Side Lights, or environment, 60 to speak. The Main Story corresponds to the outline of a picture, the skeleton ; the side lights to the finished background, the filled-in atmosphere. It has been claimed by some educators that the ;320 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION wood engraving or line-cut picture, being outline and sketchy, appeals more to the smaller child, while the half-tone does to the older pu})il. This does not necessarily follow from a study of child-nature. Granted that the small child does draw at first only in outline : granted also that he is highly imaginative and symbolic, and that he reads much more into that outline sketch than do we adults, yet the small child does not draw in outline because he ivants to, but because he has to. The grosser and larger muscular movements are developed first, then the more delicate and highly-specialized ones. The child does not talk "baby-talk" because he wants to, but because his tongue cannot yet imitate accurately the more delicate sounds in specialized muscular action. You do not help him to get nearer the right pronunciation by talking "baby-talk" back to him. He will realize his imitative struggles all the sooner by hearing the right syllablization. So with stories and pictures, the full and natural portrayal, the picture as Nature presents it, with all its back- ground and lights and shadows, is the more correct mood of presentation. "The Good Story Should Have the Following Marks: "(1) The sioi'y must have a beginning, concrete, interest- compelling, curiosity-piquing. 'All things have two handles; beware of the wrong one.' (3) It must have a climax, properly led up to, easily led down from; and that never missed. (3) Many good stories have rhythm, recurrence, repetition of the hit niotiv. 'The Three Bears' is a favorite for this reason, among others. The commands of the Lord to Moses were regularly re- peated thrice in the Bible story; in the book of Daniel, the sonorous catalog of flute, harp, sackbut and the rest, comes in none too often for the purposes of the story-teller. (4) All good stories have unity; parts well subordinated; the main les- son unmistakably clear; the point, whether tactfully hidden or brought out by skilful questions, never missed." Dr. Eoads puts it another way : " ( 1 ) The Illustration must be transparent, and not in itself so attractive as to fi.x the attention. (3) Yet it should be so interesting as to give the truth a fresh setting. (3) The Illustration is for the Truth, not the Truth for the Illustration." Il(»\\ TO I SK STOI.MKS AM) I I.LLSTilATlU^•S liiil Points to be Remembered in Story Telling. Savs |)i-. Ilcrvcy again: "(1) Use direct discourse. That is, to liavi' llu' stoi;y vivid, put in so I'ar as may be in runninj^, })orsonal, dt'scrijjtive I'orni, leaving out the third person. It will require an ell'ort to keep yourself (in your embarrassment) from taking refuge behind the indirect form, saying, for example, 'And when he came to himself he said that he would rise and go to his father and tell him that he had sinned.' (2) Choose actions rather than descriptions, the dynamics rather than the statistics of your subjects — your story will thus have 'go,' as all Bible stories have. Those of us who have growji away from childhood tend to reverse the true order, to place the emphasis on the question, 'What kind of a man is lie,' aiul not on, 'what did he do.' Let what he did tell wliat he was. (3) Use con- crete terms, not aljsfract : tell what was done, not how somebody felt or thought when something was done; be objective, not .sub- jective. (1) .1 storij-teller should have taste. To form tins taste it is indispensable that he should not read, but drinl- in the great masters: Homer, Chaucer, Bunyan, Hawthorne ('The Wonder Book,' for example), and above all the Bible itself. No one can absorb these without unconsciously forming a pui-e, simple style and getting a more childlike point of view and way of speech, ilodern writers and modern ways of thinking are, in general, too reflective, self-conscious, subjective, and where children are concerned, too direct, bare, 'preachy.' (5) The secret of story-telling lies — frst of all, in being full — /"//// of the stori/, the picture, the children; and then in being morally and spiritually up to concert-pitch, which is the true source of power in anything. From these comes spontaneity; what is within must come out; the story tells itself; and of your fulness the children all receive." Dr. l^)ads enlarges: "By being spirit- ually minded always and deepening the spiritual life, so that spiritual analogies and truths may be seen in all that is seen, or read, or experienced. The teacher must have a clear under- standing of the truth he would illustrate. He cannot show what h(> does not see." Brief Rules. Finally. Dr. Ilervey sums up his suggestions as to the 322 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION story: "(1) Sec it. If you are to make others see it, you must see it yourself. (2) Feel it. If it is to touch your class, it must first have touched you. (3) Shorten it. It is probably too long. Brevity is the soul of story-telling. (4) Expand it. It is probably meagre in necessary background, in details. (5) Master it. Practise. Kepetition is the mother of stories well told; readiness, the secret of classes well held. (6) Repeat it. Don't be afraid of re-telling a good story. The younger chil- dren are, the better they like old friends. But everyone loves a 'twice-told tale.' " He adds : "The 'wholes' of Scripture narra- tive, whole books, whole lives, whole stories told as wholes by the teacher or by a single pupil, and not picked out piecemeal by the teacher from halting individuals — these are the things that in the class give interest and that in the mind live and grow and bear fruit. 'Moral power is the effect of large, unbroken masses of thought; in these alone can a strong interest be developed,' and from these alone can a steady will spring." Referring to the art of story-telling, Mizpah S. Greene says : "One reason why the story arouses so much interest in the mind of a child is because it presents events to him in wholes. Thus, he is not satisfied with parts of stories; the beginning, the middle, or the end alone, but he insists upon hearing the com- plete story. A usually attentive little girl showed her evident discontent and lack of interest while her Sabbath-school teacher was telling, in an interesting manner, the story of David and Goliath. The child's dissatisfaction was so plainly shown that at length the teacher asked, a little impatiently, 'What is the matter, Anna? Don't you like to bear all about brave David and how he conquered the terrible giant?' 'You didn't tell us about David as a little boy, and how he grew to be so strong and brave,' was the child's reply, followed by a shower of tears." Professor Adams says: "While the chapter-interest dies with each chapter, the story-interest goes on increasing from chapter to chapter. So in teaching — the lesson-interest should run down at the end of each lesson, but the interest of the course as a whole should rise from lesson to lesson." Dr. William M. Taylor, as quoted by Dr. Hervey, told once of a conversation with a carpenter, in which he advised him to use certain decorations. "That," said the carpenter, "would IIOU' TO I 8E STORIES AM) ll.LlSTRATiONS .'.i.} violate the first rule of architecture. We must never construct ornament, but only ornament construction." So it is in story- telling. How to Learn How. llervey, Holmes, Koads, Gregory, everyone who has written on Teaching, add suggestions on cultivating this Art of Illustra- tion, for it is an art, one of the greatest arts. Like every other art, it demands study (incessant study) and — practice. Here is the gist : Study Models. As in all imitative arts, we learn best by noting how others acted and spoke, (a) Ancient models. Socrates, a master in the art. Christ, the most ideal Story- teller. Eead His Parables, without a word of alteration or enlargement, and you have the most attractive stories. If you ever tell the like, you may be well satisfied. The art of illus- tration reached perfection in Him. Eead the discourses of Jesus and see what wealth of illustration is in them. (h) Modern. Eead Spurgeon, especially Joiiisr Plol'gii- man's Talks. They are homely, terse, rugged, telling. Moody, whose Bible stories are marvellous. As he put it, he "simply took the old dead skeletons and put living flesh on their bones, and made them walk among us." Every teacher should own and read one volume of Moody. In English literature, study Chaucer. IMark how he made such a picture of his Canterbury pilgrims that not only the color, the action, and the characters of the scene, but also the very atmosphere of the jolly crowd has been clear and vivid for more than four centuries. Macauley boasted that ho would write a history which would supersede the latest novel on the tables of the young ladies of the day. How did he accomplish this? Eead his History of En'GLAXD and learn the secret of the power to picture. Another modern writer who should be commended for her exquisite style and brilliant picturing, although we may not always agree with what she says, is Marie Corelli. Study George Eliot's Silas Marxer, "where the interest never flags, the proper perspective is always nuiintained, light and shade are in due proportion, and the lesson to be learned is taken, not as a bitter dose, but as one drinks in the fresh air of a clear May morning." Study it and learn how 324 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION to tell a story. Hawthorne's Wonder Book is another pic- turesque model. Beware of most present-day writers, for the generality of them are too reflective, self-conscious, suhjective; and where children are concerned, too direct and bare. Prepare Carefully. It is easier — at least it is lazier — to provide many things than to prepare much. The mind uses by preference its most familiar kxowl- EDOE. Each man borrows his illustrations from his calling: the soldier from the camps; the sailor from the ships, etc. So in the objects of study, each student is attracted to the qualities which relate it to his business or experience. Therefore, try to keep well within the range of your pupils' plane of experience in selecting your story or illustration and in building it out. Old Testament Stories and Life seem somewhat nearer to children than New Testament, and especially than the History of the Acts. It is the reason why so many pre- fer to give but a simple and brief outline of Christ and His Life, and then to take up the Old Testament hio graphically, not his- torically, which would come much later, after historical concepts have arisen. "ElCH DETAIL DOES NOT NECESSARILY MEAN MANY WORDS," says Miss ]\Iarianna C. Brown. In Bible stories it is usually expressed in a few well-chosen and telling words. In the Balaam story the angel stood in Balaam's way three different times. Each time we are told definitely about the road at that particular place. Each time we are told definitely what the ass did; for each time he did something different. All this and more is vividly given in six ordinary Bible verses. The conver- sational parts of Bible stories are equally full and to the point. The teacher cannot do better than follow them as closely as pos- sible. But where we cannot quote exactly, we need not on that account drop from direct to indirect discourse. If a story is too vivid the conversation must be in the form of direct discourse. Choice and Treatment of Stories. Miss Lee says : "We must choose our stories with the greatest care. The stress must be laid on goodness and righteousness. It is true that goodness and righteousness must be seen together with evil that the true contrast may be felt, but the sympathy must be enlisted on the side of good. Cinderella, without the ugly sisters, would be TIOW 'lO rSK STORIES AND ILLISTRATIONS 325 a picture tame and untrue to life. The heroism of David stands out as a contrast to the brute strenirtli of Goliath; but in telling a story we must be can^ful from first to last to enlist sympathy on the right side." Pointing the Moral. "The story well told points its own moral," says Miss Lee, "in the indirect and therefore the most effective way. To express the moral in our own clumsy words at the end, as a rule merely blunts the impression the moral has already made. We need to trust the child with the tale. The soul of the child will reach out to the spiritual idea in the story and assimilate it without a word of moralizing if we have done our work efficiently, with our soul alive to the implicit truth we are endeavoring to convey." Verbal Bible Illustrations. Dr. Roads sums up an exceedingly suggestive list. It will assist us much in thinking up illustrative material. 1. Objects of A^ature. Find where the sun, moon, stars, grass, birds, etc., are used in the Bible, and compare with mod- ern things. Use the wonders of American Natural Life and Scenery in a similar way. The common objects of to-day in our American Wonderland will speak just as powerfully as Palestine did under (lirist's magnetic hand. 2. Human Activities and Occupations around us, of the kind the child can appreciate. We live in the most magnificent scientific age known. LTse it to help Christ's Kingdom on. Not only great building operations, tremendous works, great ships, but the marvels of science and discovery are at our beck. 3. Anecdotes, Stories (Parables from Bible, early English Writers, etc.). Biographies from Modern and Present-day II is- tory, American and European History, Classical Mythology, Old Legends (See Gould's Legends of the Patriarchs and Prophets, Jliller's Glimpses Through Life's Windows, Stall's Five-Minute Object Sermons; Miss Yonge's Book of Golden Deeds, etc.). Allegories, Similes, and, lastly. Illustra- tions from vivid preachers, for they published their sermons to help spread the Truth, not to remain on shelves. 4. Expressive Symbols, Types, etc., as the Cross, the Anchor, Crown, XP, JES, Triangle, etc. 326 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 5. Current Anecdotes. Study the current newspapers and magazines. Much that is suggestive and impressive will come to hand. Many a tale of local bravery, self-denial, self-sacrifice of comforts or life, devotion to duty, to religion, to God, to Mis- sions, etc., will be found in almost every issue of a paper or magazine. If the children know the people or the locality of the event, it will win personal interest. The story can be briefly and vividly recast in your own language for presentation and elucidation of the lesson. To preserve this material until needed, that is, until it naturally suits the lesson at hand, begin an Envelope Filing System. Get cheap manila envelopes, tuck the flaps in (or cut them off entirely) writing the general topics you will need on the upper, left-hand corner, and file in a box or drawer (the box in which the envelopes were bought will do if you strengthen the corners with cloth, gummed tape). Into these envelopes put all clippings you can secure of suggestive use. Copy mottoes, passages, stories, etc., where you cannot clip, and file the memos in the same way. If the system grows very large, special envelopes can be made of heavy manila, and the whole filed in ordinary chiffonier drawers, three rows to a drawer. This plan is far better than a clipping hooh, for it is difficult to find such material at once when wanted, without an index, which means excessive work. By the suggested systein, the envelopes are their own index, being arranged in order as in a dictionary or encyclopaedia. Other Illustrative Methods. The following chapter will deal with manual work in the Sunday Scliool, so that a mere reference is here given in order to preserve the unity of this chapter. 1. Maps. No historical Lesson should ever be taught with- out use of maps. Not only should places, routes, etc., be showTi on maps; but Outline Maps should be used for scholars to draw on. Also Physical Relief Maps from pressed paper should be constantly used. They may be colored by the class. The Sun- day School Commission of New York has the largest collection of Maps and Pictures in the world on exhibition, for the guid- ance of teachers. 2. Map-Drawing. Learn (a) to rapidly sketch maps and insert places, using pad of paper, or, better still, a blackboard; now TO l\SK STORIES AND 1 IJ.USTRATIONS 327 (b) to inakc paper pulj) maps (see ^Ianual Work, by Little- field) ; (c) to use Sand Tables, where a separate room can be secured (see Maltby's Mw ^loDKLLiXd). 3. Models and Objects. Objects of the Temple are made in reduced form for illustration (X. Y. 8. S. Commission). Other objects can be constructed to illustrate lessons by individ- ual members of the class. The Y. M. C. A. Booklet on "Life of the Christ" and the Source Method Lessons of the Sunday School Commission of New York, give suggestions for illus- trative construction. About thirty important Bible Models are now made by the Commission. 4. Sketches, illustrative of Pictures, Models, Scenes, Sym- bols, etc., made by teacher or scholars. 5. Religious Art, especially Eeligious Pictures, is dealt with very fully in a special cliapter in another section of this book. It is both a matter of telling interest and of vital importance to secure the right point of view toward the cultivation of this artistic instinct. Types of pictures and their selection are of supreme import, for one of the greatest mistakes we can make is to select pictures ill-adapted to particular ages. Some selections are positively harmful and injurious. This is not the fault of the pictures, but their abuse, their use at the wrong age or time. Pictures that are concrete are in themselves better for children than those which are mystical or abstract. Pictures that show actions, even in war and killing, are attractive to small children, because of their action. It has been shown that such pictures do not work injury to the child, for it is not the pain or the killing that he cares for or even realizes, but the vividness of action and doing. Pictures of God's Love and Care, of Jesus Blessing Children, or Healing the Sick, of the Nativity and Childhood, of Country Life in Egyj)t and Palestine, all these appeal to the younger children. On the other liand, pictures of Pain, Martyrdom, Suffering, deeper P^thical and Abstract Teaching, such as the Last Supper, Crucifixion, (iethscnumc. Transfiguration, etc., are better suited to adolescence and to the adult plane of thought. All this does •'i-^8 RELlGIOrs EDL'CATION not mean that pictures of eitlier sort should be exiguously ex- cluded from either age. Again, Modern Painters: German, P^'rench, English, and American, are better suited for Sunday School use, as being more devotional to modern modes of thought than the so-called Old Masters. As such they are in demand for children, while Old Masters can bo appreciated only by those above adolescence. Most of the Madonnas are old Italian, and as such scarcely ap- peal at all to young children. A practical test of this may be made by giving children of varying ages the choice of one picture out of a collection of fifty of these various sorts. The Sistine, Bodenhausen, Ferruzzi, Max, and Modern Madonnas, such as Knaifel (Tennessee), Partridge, and Skolas, seem the most popular with children. In the Old Testament, almost all the cheaper reproductions are from Dore, Raphael, Angelo. and Tissot. In the New Testament, Hofmann is the leader. Then comes Plockhorst, Dore, Bouguereau, Bida, Miiller, Raphael, ]\Iurillo, Zimmerman, and Tissot. There are, of course, manv liuudrcds of scattered artists with two or three favorite and vivid pictures to their credit. [It should be noted that The New York Sunday School Commission has published a book with all the pictures carefully listed, and has endeavored to aid teachers who want the most useful and devotional type of pictures for school use, by mark- ing with a star (*) the best.] It is well for everyone using pictures in the Sunday School to consider and to call attention to the distinction between imaginative pictures and real pictures. In some cases the one is better than the other type for purposes of illustration, and for the clearness of the impression received, and especially for the accuracy of the impression carried away. First, in all Scenery, tlie real is to be preferred, and the objective rather than the ordi- nary i)liotograph. Thus the stereoscope is of particular wortli, because it gives vivid, objective, natural representation of scenes in the Holy Land, with all the reality and truthfulness of detail and objective proportion, as if seen l)y the observer witli the naked eye. Next in value come pictures in lh(> llat. photographs of Bible scenery. now TO rSK STORIKS AND i l.l.l STKAIIONS :!J!) Second, in J>ibk' IlistoiT, illustrating topics, events, per- sons of Bible History, always |)oint out the fact that none of sucli pictures are "real," that is, are actual representations of the ])ortraits or events. Here again a distinction is to be noted. Where the picture is representative of actual present-day cus- toms, which arc known to he so similar to those of the time we use them for, as to \n> fairly accurate copies of such times and customs, wi' can count them as "real." But all other pictures are works of the imagination, perhaps nearly true to type and fairly good for general illustration, but nevertheless fanciful, and not to be used dogmatically to give a child the impression that this is an absolute ])ortrayal. This is particularly the case in the numy pictures of our Lord, of the Events in His Life, and of the many imaginative Old Testament Scenes. In fact it is best to show a scholar a great many pictures of the same subject, as for example, the IJesunvction, the Crucifixion, the Temptation, the Head of Christ, etc., just to make it realize that all of them are but the ideal and fanciful representations of mankind. As such they lead us to a pictureless ideal, repre- sented by the highest known art of the day of portrayal. The coming into the field of our use of the Tissot pictures is a subject of sutlicient congratulation to diminish our regret at the fewness of other modern pictures within our disposal. Most of the Italian Masters' pictures are formal works of art, but with no appropriate religious content for us; as far re- moved from our conception of everyday life as a Latin Bible \vould be for a text book, and the German pictures, a principal alternative, for the most part entirely lack that artistic fire that gives works of art their reason for existence. Graded Stereoscopic Work. In even liie humblest Sunday School the stereoscope and stereographs are to-day becoming an almost indispensable ad- junct. The subjects involved are principally scenes from the Holy Land, its peoj)le, places, and customs. jSTevcrtheless, there ought to be grading in their use, a sequence or order, by which the pupils are conducted in a systematic rather than a haphazard fashion through the land that Jesus trod. Just as there are two kinds of lessons, so there are two methods or lines of grading possible in the use of stereographs. n.'50 HEI.KJlOrS EDUCATION (1) The Iidrrnalional, Joint Diocesan, Blakeslcc, or any One- Subject Lesson System. Here the stereographs will have to be piipplcmental, but nevertheless constantly used. Each Sunday School Library should possess an outfit of stereographs and in- stniiucnts. and as any event in either Old Testament or New is located on the map, the scenes bearing on that locality are shown. This requires that the teacher look up beforehand the stereographs that belong to each particular lesson. Reference to the fully-tabulated tours at the end of the Picture Handbook of the Sunday School Commission of New York will quickly locate the stereographs wanted for each lesson. Those possess- ing the Forbush handbooks will find tables therein showing the application of the stereographs to all prominent courses. (8) In Fully Subject- Graded Schools. Subject-grading is the com- ing system. It is sweeping all other schemes aside most rapidly. A subject-graded school lives in the atmosphere of order, system, and grading. Naturally it will fall into system in the use of stereographs. The habit grows on one. Stereographs can be used as early as the ninth year, not much before, and are in order even in adult life. Properly speaking, they would first be used in the Old Testament stories, then in the life of Christ, the history of the Old Testament, the Messianic Life, the Apostolic Church, and even in Church History. For these last two courses, as well as for that on Christian Missions, it will be necessary to communicate with the Commission Supply Departments or with the publishers direct, and secure the list of stereographs bearing on places outside of Palestine. It might be impracticable for each class in such a school to purchase all the stereographs required, though where this is done they would be used in sequence year after year by on- coming classes. It would probably bo wiser therefore for the school to put in say one hundred views covering the entire field, cataloging them according to the lesson grading, so that each class could find its needed views, and have them, as a whole, form a part of the Sunday School Library, to be loaned out Sunday by Sunday to different classes throughout the school, a set for each grade. Thus there would be an economy in stereographs, which is important when so many are required. With any of these courses, or in whatever way the stereographs are used. HOW TO USE STORIES AND ILLISTKATIONS 'Ml Historical Maps, comparative embossed Relief Maps, Religious Art of the Imaginative Type (pictures of Old Testament Scenes or of the Life of Christ), and above all the Bible, are expected to be constantly in hand. QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. [suggested in the main by ub. iiervey.] 1. "Which kind of Stories have you found most effective, modern or chissic? Stories read or told? True or fictitious? Those based on poetry or prose? Stories in which the moral is set forth or hidden?" 2. "What is your purpose in using Stories in Sunday School?" 3. "Mention five requisites of a good story-teller." 4. "What means can you make use of to make the customs, dress, man- ners, etc., of Bible people seem real to children?" 5. What Illustrative Methods, or Devices, other than Stories, have you found practicable? What are the best types of Pictures? 6. W^hat advantages have stereographs over other illustrations? CHAPTER XIX. MANUAL WORK IN THE SUNDAY SCHOOL. SUGGESTED HEADINGS. ♦Commission Bulletin. Vols. II. and III. Handbook on M.\nu.\l Work. Littlcfleld. •The Sunday School Problem Solved, i^mith. pp. 8, 36, 75. ♦Manual Work for the Sunday School. Sexton. Newer Methods. Lee. pp. 2-4, 9-10. Manual Work. "iMiiniial Work"' means, of course, anything done with the hands. In this hroad usage the term includes all written and illustrative work. Technically, however, it is generally confined to-day to the following Types of Work, which are hrielly sum- marized and described below. All are used at the same time, synchronous, not consecutive. For older scholars of the Adoles- cent Age, boys and girls alike, there is nothing that "takes" so well as the advanced forms of Manual Work, especially Note Books and Maps. The fatal "leak at the top"' is almost over- come by its proper use. The general divisions arc: /. lllustraicd Booh Work. II. Map-Mahing in Relief. III. Map-Making in the Flat. IV. Model-Work. 1. Illustrated Book Work. It used to be thought that, since small children were fond of pictures, Bible Pictures were only of use in the lower grades of the Sunday School. For many years, their use has been con- fined to a topical illustration of some Bible Story or Ethical Lesson. To-day it is being realized that this is a very small field, and that their power is perhaps greatest as a means of self- expression in the liigher grades. Even in adult reading of current literature it is noteworthy MAM Al. WolJK IN TUK SI MjAY SCIKJDJ. :j;J.i that illustrations and pictures are the chief means used to impart ideas and descriptions. People look at the pictures in current literature, and scarcely do more at hest than glance rapidly over the readiiii;- matter. A picture will convey in a comprehensive, vivid. ])it-tures(iue instant a grasp and detail in any subject that it would require ])ages of print to e.\|)lain. Moreover, we are of a com-rele, rather than abstract or abstruse, type of mind in this age. The eye-gate appeals to our understanding far better than the ear-gate, and the picture eye-gate best of all. Thinking of a historical scene or object requires visualizing. If we have only a literary description, the process of visualizing is most complex, though not so dilKcult perhaps as with a verbal de- scription. A picture visualizes at once — gives it all in a flash, as it were. Pictures are thus of value in every stage of education, with the adult fully as much as with the youngest child. in all education of the modern type, it is recognized to-day, that "means of self-e.xpression" are necessary. The student, young or old, must do in order to understand. The object must precede the symbol. The concrete must anticipate the abstract. The true education says that doing must come before learning, that we understand by our reconstructing, or at least represent- ing, what we are to learn by rule and principle later. Education thus, secular and religious alike, is meeting in self-expression the wants and craving and desires of the pupil. Some of such ''■']\Ieans of Self-Expression" are Representing the Subject by the Use of Pictures, by Drawings, by Maps (re- lief, putty, clay, Pasticine, paper-pulp, ink, crayon, water colors, and even pyrography). Written Description of the Subject- matter in the form of Notes or Essays, by Constructing Objects or Models, by Reproducing Bible Scenes in simple Plays and Dramatization, etc. It is important likewise that Expression of Christian Teaching and Altruistic Principles be given actually in suggested works of charity and kindness, in practically living the life for which the principles and teachings stand. Grade I. Pictures in the Kindergarten and Primary Schools. Picture Mounting Books (N. Y. Sunday School Com- mission), in which pictures of the half-cent or penny series are pasted in with Dennison stickers to illustrate a topical lesson. Grade II. Pupils from 8 or 9 to 10 or 11. Old Bibles or 334 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Testaments are clipped, making a harmony of the Old Testa- ment, or Life of Christ, or Apostolic Church. Clippings and pictures to illustrate them are mounted in Picture Mounting Books, and a Picture Bible thus formed by each child. Children of this grade can often do this work, when their writing is still too labored and crude for written elaboration. Reverence is taught by carefully burning waste portions of the old used Bibles. Sometimes the book covers are beautifully illuminated. Grade III. Pictures are mounted in books in historical se- quence as before, and a brief description written beside them, or on the opposite page, in addition to the study given to the les- son in connection with the Lesson Manual. There are two types of children, one the mental type, the other the manual type. This latter type is the "bad" boy or girl. Realize that badness is often extreme nervousness and activity, and will dis- appear at once with the use of Manual Methods, self-expression, such as is supplied by this note-book work. This is successfully done with pupils from 10 to 12 or 13 years of age. Grade IV. Pictures and Mounting Books, as above, with much longer essays or fuller notes or long theses, forming an original biography or history of the subject studied. Drawings, maps, etc., are added, and often quite elaborate books prepared, reaching up to adult life and Bible Classes. This begins at Adolescence, 12 years onwards. Thus we cover all the divisions of the Sunday School, in a graded picture note-book scheme. Kindergarten and Primary in Grade I. Grammar School in Grades II. and III. High School and Post-Graduate School in Grade IV. 11. — Map-Making in Relief. (a) the Klenini Relief Maps of Egypt, Palestine, and Ro- man Empire may be colored with water or oil colors, (h) The Sand Table Map may be used in all grades. Even adults delight in it. The best proportions are three units one way by four the other. White Rockaway or River Bottom Sand or ground Glass Quartz are the best materials, (c) Paper Pulp (white or olive green), clay, or even putty, can he molded. For the use of the Pulp, see the Commission Bulletin, Vols. II. and III. (25 cents -MAM A I. WOKK IN Till-: Sl'NDAV SCHOOL :i:!.'> a volume) or Mr. LiUlcficld's Manual Work. Clay and Putty do not dry well; but are used on glass or the board may be ]>aintod. Pulp is the best, though flour and salt are used. The Maps are made in the Map-Boards, noted below, and when dry are pried oflF with a broad knife, and pasted on cardboard. They may be colored as desired with oil colors, water colors (Diamond Easter Egg Dyes or Japanese Water Colors on cards). .\nother excellent material is Plasticine, a kindergarten clay that comes in colors. The maps are made during two or three Sunday School Sessions, in a separate room, under a special teacher, who takes the regular teacher and the pupils apart for this work, or they may be done outside of school hours, some afternoon or evening, as arranged. Much time is saved, as the Bil)le Events and History are clinched readily by these maps, and Bible Geography becomes a matter of certain visualizing, not of dead rote memory, to say nothing of vital interest. A good "key" for the dimensions and relations of Palestine is given in Manual Work. Tlic only Maps needed in the whole course are : 1. In Old Testament History, Palestine, some colored for Pre-Exodus and some for the Conquest, Solomon's Kingdom, and Subse- quent Fortunes of Israel and Judah; Egypt and Sinai, for the Exodus; Mesopotamia, for the Exiles. 2. In the Life of Christ, Palestine, with New Testament Divisions, and Galilee. showing Esdraelon for the Galilean JMinistry, which requires more space to outline it. 3. In the Early Christian Church, Roman Empire only, for St. Paul's Journeys. Six maps in all are essential. IIL — Map-Making in the Flat. The Historical Maps of the Littlefield. Bailey. Harrison, McKinlcy, and Hodge Series cover every possible style, price, size, and subject desired. They range from 45 cents a hundred to 10 cents apiece. In general we would recommend the follow- ing use, running parallel with the Eolief Maps. Use them in profusion, letting every pupil have them, water or oil colors. (a) For Old Testament History, get the full set of Littlefield Maps for coloring with crayons. There are fifteen in the set in all. The several Bailey Maps, especially the Key Maps. .S.36 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION arc valuable for rapid line making and for Eeviews and "Tests." (b) Foii THE LiFK OF Christ, use the Littlefield, for it gives Palestine in larger form, use Bailey Esdraelon for Galilean Min- istry, use Bailey Key Map for places, (c) For the Apostolic Church, use Littlefield Map for Early Apostolic Journeys, use Bailey Roman World and Key Map of Homan World for St. Paul's Journeys. These sets of maps sell by the tens of thou- sands and are the very best avenues of interest and "point of contact" yet developed in Bible Study. Note carefully that NO MAP WORK should be begun before the age of TEN or ELEVEN. IV.— Modelic Work. .Moflels are essential to a clear understanding to-day. They have long been seen in the Day School. They are rapidly com- ing into the Sunday School. Hundreds of dollars are being spent in their manufacture. Every good Sunday School is put- ting in a Museum. The list is constantly being enlarged. Note carefully that some models can be used at all ages, some only after "Historic Perception" has developed. Those usable before ten are the Houses, Tent, Sheepfold, Scroll, Well, Water Jar, Lamp, Tomb, and Water Bottle. All these and the others can be used for all ages above ten. Some of them combine splendidly with the Sand Table. Under Models, would also come the Flow- ers of Palestine and Stereoscopic Pictures, commonly called Stereographs, which portray real scenes in the three dimensions. QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. 1. What are the Chief Divisions of Manual Work? 2. What four grades of Book Work are used? Explain each. 3. What can you say about Relief Maps — the Materials, Subjects, and Mode of Making? 4. What special use is Map Work in the Flat? 5. \\'hat advantages have IVTodels? CHAPTER XX. MEMORY AND ITS TRAINING, SUGGESTED READINGS. Memory: •Ti:a( iiicii Tkaining. Roads, pp. 68-71. *T,vLKs TO Teachp:rs. James, pp. 116-145. The Art of Teaching. Fitch, pp. 144-158. I'p Through Childhood. HubhcU. pp. 182-190. •How TO Strengthen the Memory. Holbrook. I'mxDATioN.s OF Educ.vtion. Moorc. pp. 67-80. I'sYciioLOGY AND PSYCHIC CULTURE. Eallock. Chapter VI. .\ Man's Valie to Society. Hillis. pp. 133-140. Tedagogical Bible School, pp. 114-116. Memoriter Work: •The Art of Teaching. Fitch, pp. 14-175. I'edacogicai. I'.ikle Schooi,. pp. 269-282. Memory-Training in the Scholars. There would be little use in teaching, unless it left a resi- duum, at least, of stored-up knowledge, related, interwoven knowledge, as an impress upon life and character. We have already considered the general facts about memory. Here we wish to think of only those facts of special inter- est in our practical training of memory. What Kinds of Memory Are Wanted? I? it a memory of Words, A'erbal Memory (as that culti- vated in Memoriter Work), or of Things and Facts (as Historj', etc.) ? Ts it primarily Concrete Memory, accurate reproduc- tions of visual images, pictures, sounds; or an Abstract Memory, such as holds the gist and general meaning of what has been taught, and can reason better about the facts learned than most visualizing memories? Have you ever noticed that those chil- dren who learn to recite the Catechism most accurately, are least able to explain it ? and that the other class, who stumble over it, letting slip snuill words, can cover the sense and meaning of the 'VM IlEI.KaOL'S EDUCATION answers with far more understanding than do the former group? We "do not have memory,"" says James, "but memo- ries," and you must bear in mind each time the kind you arc seeking to cultivate. Types of Memory. llaslett says : "DifTerent types of memory are found to exist. Tlie visual type remembers things in terms of visual images while the tactual features largely disappear. The auditory type sees things in terms of hearing while the visual and tactual may fade away. The tactual type remembers in terms of touch. The mixed type of memory is probably the most common of all, and the most valuable. Usually some one of the three types prevails in each mind and the aim in teaching is so to present tlie material as to appeal to the dominant type." Thorndike thinks "Individual intellects can be divided roughly into two classes: those able to work with ideas and those able to work with things. Some children manage numbers, words, parts of speech, chemical symbols and the like, but fail relatively in measuring boards, catching fish, cooking meals or making toys. They are the idea thinkers. Others make little headway with their arithmetic, grammar or text-book in chemis- try, but succeed in the shop, woodwork, and laboratory. They are the thing thinkers. There is, however, no opposition between these two types; indeed, a high degree of skill with ideas means a higher than average skill with things. Still for practical purposes we can classify children by their special strength into these two groups." Chief Educational Laws of Memory. Dr. Eoads puts them in popular language. We shall give his summary, and then treat them in detail, scientifically. 1. Absolute Faith in Memory. Do not depreciate it, as so many do, simply saying that they have a poor memory, and that there is no use in trying to learn. We do what we believe we can do. All have some memory. Use what you have. Expect memory to recall. Demand it. Train it. Have patience with its failures and weaknesses. A child cannot carry a strong man's load. 2. A First Powerful Impression helps to make a fact or MEMORY AND ITS TRAINING 339 ihuiKjhl clintj lo lite inemory. (jivc a startling effect at first, vivid impressions, stroni,' cinpliasis, clear outlines of the skeleton. Do not surround it by too many and misleading and diverting side-lights. Keep to the subject, and do not wander off in digressions and discursions. Strong contrasts of one fact set against either an entirely opposite one, or a similar one, in which the points of dissimilarity are emphasized, will aid in this impression. According to Thorndike : "As a rule it is more economical to put things together energetically than to put them together often; close attention is better than repetition. The active re- call of a fact from within is, as a rule, better than its impression from without; for recall is a helpful way to be sure of close attention and also forms the connection in the way in which it will later be required to act. Furthermore, if children are taught to memorize by recall, they are saved from wasting time in reading over and over or studying at length facts which they have already committed to memory. In memorizing by recall one not only knows a fact ; he also knows when he knows it. "It is fashionable nowadays to decry memory as a sort of cheap slavery of the intellect, a 'skeleton in the closet' of teach- ing, not fit to be mentioned in the polite society of apperception, interest, reasoning, and the rest. In the laudable effort to cure school work of the error of trusting everything to verbal memory, writers on teaching have made the mistake of the surgeon who cured a sprained ankle by cutting off the leg. "Indeed the trouble was not wdth memory, but with what was remembered, words only. We surely must not cut a man's legs off, because he walks into danger on them ! If a fact is understood, the better it is remembered, the better off we are. It does little good to explain a process so skilfully as to make it perfectly understood, if the explanation has to be repeated again the next week or day. Moreover there is and probably always will be in school work a great bulk of fact which pupils can understand without any difficulty, but which can be made their permanent possession only by definite effort. "The principle that knowledge should be not a multitude of isolated connections, but well ordered groups of connections, related to each other in useful ways — should not be a hodge- ;}40 JIKLIGTOUS EDUCATION podge of inforniMlion, but a well-ordered system whose inner relationships correspond to those of the real world — is called the principle of correlation. It implies that lesson and lesson be brought into relations one with another in a larger unit, and that one subject of study be taught with reference to the other subjects whenever the facts they represent have important bear- ings the one upon the other in the real world. The chief dan- gers to be avoided in teaching relationships are: (1) such as infatuation with the doctrine of correlation as leads one to waste time in teaching relationships so obvious that a pupil is sure to make them for himself or so trivial that they are not worth the making, and (2) such ignorance or carelessness as leads one to teach relationships that are false or artificial. It is as bad or even worse to teach a useless relationship as a iiseless fact, a false relationship as a false fact." 3. Personal Interest in the learner. We remember what we have interest in. Note the scores carried in the brain of the small base-ballist ; the names and records stored by the race- goer; the formulae constantly used by the chemist, and many similar instances. Develop curiosity and so interest in the truth ; stir up motives of personal regard for the acquisition of that knowledge. The motives that help to hold Attention are those of most avail in Memory as well. Roads puts it: "The law of powerful first impression is like making the food very attractive and appetizing: the law of intensified interest is like creating a voracious appetite. The two working together will produce a perfect memory result." 4. Manifold Associations. All educators lay particular stress on this, for it is the scientific basis of Memory. We not only comprehend and understand and "assimilate" new truth by connecting by "Apperceptivity" with the old and familiar truth ; but we remember and recall it in the same way. Thus associating the fact that Palestine is about the same shape as New Hampshire helps us to remember it, for we all recall New Hampshire's contour. Most memory devices are false, cumbersome, extraneous, and complicated ; but natural association is demanded for all good memory. The so-called mnemonic systems are wholly use- less and artificial, and ultimately involve more waste of energy, -ME.MOUV AS\) ITS TKAIMNC; 341 more toil and strain and work, than straight out-and-out learn- ing. They recommend irrational methods of thinking, and are only of use for detaciied facts, not otherwise easily associated. .James illustrates by the use of the mnemonic "Vihgyor" to recall the colors of the spectrum. lie notes the consecjui'nt injury of "cramming," which seeks to stamp in things temporarily by intense application, with few, if any, associations formed, just to carry one over an ordeal. It does not lead to the results desired by the permanent, retentive memory. Jf it did, it could be recommended as a labor-saving plan. The same facts gone over day by day, slowly, repeatedly thought about, and thus associated with many other facts, would have had woven around them a mass of friendly associations, any one of which would have fixed it firmly in the mind. 5. Repetition. Mere rote repetition will not necessarily aid in fixing facts in memory. It should be slightly varied to secure and retain high interest, and then each repetition will be just as helpful as the first impression. Again r('{)etitions, con- ducted not all at once, but at separated intervals, are of more benefit than continuous work. G. Thoroughness and System. The habit of desultory novel-reading, reading to forget, is one of the injurious and pernicious habits of the present day. It ruins good memory. While it is true that "the secret of a good memory lies much in what we learn is best to forget," because we cannot carry every- thing in mind, and hence should discriminate; yet the constant reading of what we determinedly do not intend to remember is destructive of good memories. The Memoriter Work assigned in various Lesson Systems, is not to be neglected, without harm. ]\ruch more should be learned than is learned to-day, and teach- ers need not be afraid of imposing too hard a task on the pupils. How to Memorize. Suppose you or your scholars have (1) a piece of Scripture to learn by heart, or (2) General Facts of a Lesson of either (a) an Historical Character, or (b) a Doctrinal and therefore abstract character to store up in mind. These are two distinct cases. The former calls for Verbal Memory ; the latter demands Rational Memory. Verbal Memory. The mind should be 342 REIJGIOUS EDUCATION bright and fresh, not tired, and wearied. Retention is a neces- sary part of memory, and the brain cells are not in fit condition to retain when wearied. As a rule, according to Fitch, the mind is in its highest cerebral activity within one or two hours after the morning meal. This may vary, though, with different persons. Selecting the right time, suited to your condition and nature, sit down and read over once, twice, three times or more the whole passage to be learned. Then begin, little, by little, and analyze and think about each line; learning and repeating it, clause by clause (not just five words more, etc.), going back and saying the previously committed clauses, until all is learned. Do not do this by rote and mechanically, but think about it, recall when at loss, not by looking at the book immediately, but by analyzing and thinking. Repeat the selection later on in the day. Recall it early the next day, without looking at the book, and then verify the recall, if necessary. If you are of a visual type, you may have a reproduction in your mind of the very page; but this is not at all necessary or even the best kind of memory. The secret of all memory-training (never forget it) is Thinking, Thinking, THINKING. Reasoning. "The processes of judging facts, reasoning, following an argument and reaching conclusions are the same processes of learning; the difference is that there is active selection within the present thought of some part or aspect which consequently determines the next thought," says Thorndike, "and selection again amongst the sequent thoughts, retaining one and discard- ing others. The laws of rational thought are the general laws of association and dissociation, but with predominance of the law of partial activity. The principles of teaching in the case of responses of comprehension, inference, invention and the like are the principles derived from the fact that (1) the total set or context or system of thought and (2) any single feature of a thought, as well as the particular thing thought of, may decide the future course of thinking. "The principles of Reasoning thus derived are: (1) arouse in the pupil's mind the system of ideas and connections relevant to the work in hand. (2) Lead him to examine each fact he MK.MOKV AND ITS IKAIXIXG :m:5 thinks of in tlio light of the aim of that work and to focus attention on the element of the fact which is essential to his aim. (3) Insist that he test whether or not it is the essential hy making sure that it leads on to the goal aimed at by the logical step of verification, by comparing the conclusions to which it leads with known facts. "Difficulties in Teaching Reasoning. — There is no royal road to teaching subjects requiring reasoning. The student must have the facts to reason with and have them arranged in sys- tems in the way in which they will be needed. He must replace the gross total fact which suggests nothing or a thousand ir- relevant things by that one of its elements or features or aspects that does suggest some consequence of use for the solution of the problem in hand. He must learn to criticise his ideas so as to know whicli do show signs of usefulness for his purpose, when to give a line of thought up as hopeless, and what he has proved when he has finished. He must make sure by testing his con- clusion by actual experience or by comparison with facts abso- lutely certain." The Use of Types. — Many of the advantages of inductive teaching can be secured through a compromise between an out- and-out induction and a mere statement of conclusions — namely, through the type method. The thorough study of one typical case of a class or law gives a basis of real experience which serves to interpret, though not to prove, the general statement. Knowledge about such a type also serves as a centre of attraction for later knowledge of things like it. Forgetting. We do not forget, however, very rapidly much that we have learned. Professor Ebbinghaus proved conclusively that nothing is ever wholly forgotten. The process of forgetting is vastly more rapid at first than later on. We never descend quite so low in any forgotten piece as to reach the zero-line. Things that we are totally unable to recall have neverthe- less left their impress. We are different beings for having once learned them. Our brain-paths have been impressed and altered. Our actions may differ, our conclusions be different than would have been the case had we never experienced such impressions. .•514 j;i:i.i(;i()is kducatiox It is the old point of ''no impression without expression." Some- how we will always he different for the act of memorizing. Never fail to divide the Memorizing Process into its parts : Attention, Retention, and l^ecall or Reproduction. It is the last part that most often fails. The child who says, "I know; but I cannot remember it," is not the same kind of a child as the one who never knew. It may even be that much later on, by quiet, "unconscious cerebration," as it has been termed, the seemingly forgotten thought may flash out suddenly upon his mental vision. The brain-paths were for the time blocked, and the associations were not formed. In Professional Life, stored away, semi-forgotten facts are particularly numerous. The Lawyer, the Doctor, the Scientist, can tell you but a meagre number of his laws, facts, formulae, rulings, prescriptions, etc. But through his well-ordered sys- tems, indices, files, etc., he can go at once to the exact spot where the knowledge is in print. Others, never having had that knowledge, not only could not trace it up; but, if under their eyes could not comprehend it, so new, so strangely unconnected would it prove. Haslett says : "An increase of memory power occurs about the seventh or the eighth year. Full development of memory is not attained until the next stage. In the former part of this stage memory is concrete and in the latter part of the stage it is verbal and mechanical. The memory material for the years seven to about nine should be in a form that has some meaning for the child, while after this time abstract terms may be memo- rized safely. According to one study, seventeen per cent, of a story was remembered by boys in the third grade, while forty- two per cent, of it was remembered by boys in the ninth grade. Eighteen per cent, of the story was remembered by girls in the third grade, and forty-three per cent, by girls in the seventh grade. The ability to remember a story was found to increase with age until the climax was reached at fourteen or fifteen years. Dr. Colgrove concludes that boys have a better memory for descriptions and logical processes, while girls have a better memory for novel occurrences and single impressions. Persons are more easily remembered by both girls and boys. Memory for action is strong at nine and ten and increasing." MKMnilV AXn ITS TRATXIXr; .'{45 Memoriter Work. Here is ulial l'"ilcli lliiiiks of "Learning by heart."' It is to bo used : 1 . For Formulae and Rules, as in Arithmetic and all exact Seienee.><. Also Definitions, Axioms, etc. — that is, such state- ments as have been reduced most carefully to the simplest form of expression, and arc to be applied with perfect accuracy. 2. Special things that deserve to be remembered as of par- ticular value in themselves. Such should be Mottoes, Texts, Proverbs, Verses of Poetry, Selections from great Writers, em- bodying high thoughts or fine language, Formularies of the Faith, Wise ]\Iaxims and Sayings — all such are worth storing up most precisely, and recalling most frequently. The possessor of such a storehouse has an invaluable treasury of wealth to draw on on all occasions. The words themselves have a ])ur- poso and beauty all their own. This memorizing, however, will be worse than bad, unless we think and reflect on what we learn. Xone of this applies to useless learning. To use memory for other than the storing up of beneficial knowledge is wrong and illegitimate. The several pages of hints that Professor Fitch gives as to just what would be of value to learn by heart should be carefully conned by all teachers. Some memory work should be performed by everyone. According to James: "The excess of old-fashioned verbal memorizing, and the immense advantages of object-teaching in the earlier stages of culture, have perhaps led those who philoso- phize about teaching to an unduly strong reaction ; and learning things by heart is now probably too much despised. For, when all is said and done, the fact remains that verbal material is, on the whole, the handiest and most useful material in which think- ing can be carried on. ... 1 should say, therefore, that constant exercise in verbal memorizing must still be an indis- pensable feature in all sound education. Xothing is more de- plorable than that inarticulate and helplesss sort of mind that is reminded by everything of some quotation, case, or anecdote, which it cannot now exactly recollect. Nothing on the other hand, is more convenient to its possessor or more delightful to his comrades, than a mind able, in telling a story, to give the 346 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION exact words of the dialogue or to furnish a quotation accurate and complete." Drawbridge says: "Suppose that it could be proved that a certain teaclier — instead of showing the children how to work out the simple addition sums which are set in a certain ancestral Arithmetic book — had torn out the answers at the end of the venerable book, and had compelled the pupil to swallow in the shape of pills, page after page of the answers : what then? Would that prove that the said arithmetic book was (in itself) useless? Would it not rather demonstrate that the teacher had imparted the information in the wrong way?" "The fact that the thing has been abused, does not in itself prove that it ought not to be used. Or if a teacher taught the children the answers (in the book) off by heart, before they were set to work out the sums, he would be guilty of an almost equal absurdity, but the fault would be his, not the book's. To begin with the answers, instead of with the sums, is to commence at the wrong end. Nature — God — teaches in the reverse order. The result of supplying the answers prematurely is to defeat the object of the arithmetic lesson,' and to misuse the book. But the answers have their use. They must be known by the teacher. It is the teacher, not the book, which deserves the blame if the answers are abused." Reasons for Written Answer Work. Written Answer Work should always be demanded for the following reasons: 1. We know thus that the child has studied the lesson and done the work demanded. 2. He must delve harder and thereby form more associa- tions in order to formulate the statement which is to be set down as an answer. It must be in his own language and not a copied text. 3. He must dwell on it still longer in order to make it short enough to be inserted in the purposely small space left in which to write the answer. 4. The contrast between the printed question and the writ- ten answers drives the answer home visually, for it stands out just as italics would and is not homogeneous with the questions. MlvMOKY AND ITS TRAINING 347 5. The child actually gains by what we term Muscle Mem- ory, the uiochanical action of having written it and gone through the muscular motions. There are certain types of Aphasia or Amnesia, that is of word-forgetting, under which the patient can recall a word by writing it. It does not matter whether he writes on paper or in tlie air. It is the muscle motion that recalls it. Hewitt says : "If selections are not written down, they are only half memorized and of course will pass from the memory very easily. Teachers who do not do this lose three-fourths of the value of memoriter work." Applied to the Catechism, it would mean that the best way of reciting it would be to give every scholar a sheet of paper and a pencil and have each one write down the Catechism portion learned for the day. Not only is time saved thus, but the memory is strengthened. Question-and-Answer Books. The principle of such books is wrong, fatally and "tee- totally wrong." Fitch has not a good word to say for them. Neither have McMurr}^ nor James, nor Hall. Why? Look at the facts in the light of what we have Just studied. The ques- tions are not to be learned usually, only the answers. The An- swers are isolated, disconnected, incomplete, garbled statements, often about one-fifth of a statement, of which the balance lies in the Question itself. In some of these books, the difficulty is partially met, by repeating the Question in the Answer, making it a complete statement. This is better perhaps, but still in- correct. It assumes that there is to be no real contact between scholar and teacher, that all questions asked are to take a par- ticular form, and admit of but one possible answer. There is no room for freedom, for intelligence on the part of either teacher or scholar. It is all a formal piece of almost mechani- cal work, with no real room for Self-activity, for proper Ques- tioning, for appeal to the pedagogical Heuristic or Source Method, etc. Lee says: "To commit to memory any form of words, as, for instance, the words of the Church Catechism, is for children a comparatively easy matter; to lead the children to grasp the meaning of the words, to make the ideas contained in them a living reality, is our aim in Sunday School, and it is by no means .'548 RELfUTOrS EDUCATION easy of accoiiiplishment. In tlie old days wo tauglit tlie words first and explained them afterwards; just as in geography les- sons we commenced with definitions and later dealt with con- crete instances. This is both to make memorizing an unintelli- gent act and to disregard entirely the method by which the hu- man mind increases its experience and knowledge. We need to implant the ideas first and surround them with beautiful and iiispiring associations, then, just at the moment when the child halts in expression for lack of words in which to clothe his thought, our form of words comes in to crown and make explicit the already implicit idea." Some of the ideas contained in the Church Caicehism are entirely beyond the experience of children of seven and eight years old: but the ideas contained in it which do appeal to little children are so great and important that we have all we can do before the child leaves the infant school to fill these ideas with content and set them in an atmosphere of reverence and love. For instance, in order that a child may grasp something of the meaning of the phrase "Communion of Saints," the word "Saint" miist have ineaning and associations for him. Thus we do not think time wasted if we devote six lessons to filling with content the word "Saint" or half the year to the first two para- graphs in the Creed, before the children have presented to them the words of either one or the other. I do not mean to say that little children should never learn by heart what they do not fully understand; they do not fully understand the Lord's Prayer — who would stay them from that? But there, and in similar cases, we have a form of words of permanent value, which will fill with ever-increasing content as life goes on, and of which the child has already a vague and misty notion concen- trated round the ever-familiar word "Father." The Catechism. One exception is nevertheless made by Professor Fitch, and that is to the Church Catechism. He says that it is particu- larly well-balanced, systematic, orderly, and well-worded as to the form of answers. So far as he will admit the use of Ques- MF.MOKN AND FTS TI^\IN[Xf! 349 tion-nnrl-Aiiswcr Lessons at all, he favors the Catechism. This however brinp^s up another mooted point, which we will dispose of here. Drawbridge sa3's: "The Church .'^oO years ago provided the Catechism; tliat is sufTicient; the problem has been solved, once for all, by those who drew up the Catechism.'' He will then simply tell the teachers to com])el the children to commit it all to memory, from N. or "M. to the definition of the Sacraments. The teachers, however, who for the most part are apt to follow the line of least resistance, will probably, as far as possible, avoid taking this course, because it is most strongly objected to by their pupils. Some of the teachers will carefully avoid forc- ing the children to commit the Catechism to memory, because of the great diflficulty of doing so. Others will persistently avoid this irksome task, because they feel that the very essence of the art of education is to interest, and to hold the attention of the pupils; and that the Catechism bores children intensely, and is always very much objected to by them. Others will neglect to teach it, on the ground that every modern educationalist main- tains most strongly, as the chief axioms of this art, that exam- ples should precede rules; that the concrete should be taught before the abstract; that experience must come before education; that the simple must be learned before the complex; that facts should be taught before their definitions; ideas before phrase- ology ; religion before theological dogmas ; and so on. Other teachers will endeavor to shirk the teaching of the Catechism, on the ground that the capacity to repeat words and phrases (however excellent they may be) is not synonymous with saint- liness. They will contend that the essence of religion is rela- tionship with Cod, rather than a feat of memory. They do not believe in the "parrot-like repetition of unintelligible words.'' Others will consistently avoid teaching the Catechism on the ground that the requirement of the child should suggest the subject to be taught; and that the fitness of any subject to the needs of the pupil may be measured by the hitter's interest in it, and attraction towards it. That is to say, that Nature is the best guide; intellectual and spiritual appetite being (lod's own hint as to what will benefit the pupil most. ;i50 KKLIGIOUH EDUCATION Should Anything be Learned that is not Fully Understood? Professor llubbell says, "Yes," but with caution. "It is not necessary for a child to wait until he is able to understand cverytliing which he commits to memory." This should not be carried to excess. The amount tliat he learns before fully com- j)rehending it should be well-nigh infinitesimal, as compared with the total amount of memoriter work. Granted that the age from S to 11 is the best time for memorizing, what position should we take as to the Catechism? For, of course, we know that at least the Sacraments Part cannot be even half taken in by the child at that age. It is far too abstract. For ourselves, we are inclined to commit to memory then, and, save for the simplest explanation, leave the exposition of it until the Con- firmation Period, that is, until the age of Beflection is reached at Adolescence. We find the wording of the Catechism too hard to be handled late in youth, and the harm of non-understood memorizing to this slight extent, too insignificant, to reverse this procedure. W. C. Hewitt says that the child needs a philosophy of life. At best, with most of us life is very imperfect, but with- out some noble conception of duty beyond us and above us, it is bound to be worse. Teachers should not ask children to learn selections which they themselves do not know. In the writers experience much of the failure to make memory work inspiring is that teachers do not move forward in front. It has been a very common experience to find teachers of the grades unal)le themselves to recite the amount they have required of their pupils. Where such a condition exists memory work is sure to be a fizzle. Only a few lines should be given at a time. This will make the task eas}^, and give pupils a chance to think over the idea. If tlie teacher learns the selection with the class, there will be little danger of assigning too much to be learned. Ex- perience shows that the pupils who commit to memory very simple things do great things with them : they quote them to others, use them in writing, and in hours of silence or tempta- tion, turn them over in their minds. If a thing is read but once or twice, there is very little to think over, indeed much reading destroys thinking, just as two picture? on the same MKMOR^- A\D FTS TRAIXrXr; Uf)! negative blur eiieli other. Wliat is in the memory is in tlie mind, and is independent of book, teacher, or circumstance. Mr. Charles B. Gilbert remarks: "There is no learning without corresponding expression. j\Iemorizing is not, neces- sarily, learning in the true sense. Unless the whole mind is employed there is no nutrition. Consequently, there is enor- mous waste in our educational processes. Where expression is ignored tlie It-arning is bogus; it does not enter into the make- uj) of the mind. In such schools, only when acquisition in the school is supplemented by the activities of the life out of school is there true learning at all." The Importance of Youth. I'rof. Minot says : "For if it be true that the decline in the ])ower of learning is most rapid at first, it is evident that we want to make as much use of the early years as possible — tiiat the tendency, for instance, which has existed in many of our universities, to postpone the period of entrance into college is biologically an erroneous tendency. It would be better to have the young man get to college earlier, graduate earlier, get into practical life or into the professional schools earlier, while the power of learning is greater. "Do we not see, in fact, that the new ideas are indeed fi^r {\\v most part the ideas of young people?" QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. [suggested by dr. hebvey.] 1. "Illustrate from your experience how Memory depends upon the associative process." 2. "Along what lines must we work to strengthen the child's Memory?" 3. "Wliy does a boy remember the baseball scores, or the girl the de- tails of her friend's new dress, when both forget the textV" 4. "Can everybody be trained to concentrated Attention? What eflfect will differences in power of Attention have on our dealing with different members of a class?" 5. "What are the advantages of Verbal Memorizing, and how is it best done? Illustrate." CHAPTEK XXL THE INCULCATION AND TRAINING OF HABITS. SUGGESTED READINGS. •Talks to Teaciieks. James, pp. 69-79. Sunday School Science. Holmes, pp. 20-21. •Teacheu Training. Roads, pp. 78-81. The Making of Character. MacCunn. pp. 125-222. Habit in Education. liadestovk. *A Study in Child Nature. Harrison. Chapters II, III, IV. ♦Principles of Teaching. Thorndike. pp. 105, 199, 235-250, 179-194. Education and Life. Baker, pp. 92/jf. The Foundations op Education. Heeley. pp. 85-90. ♦Character Building. Colcr. pp. 108-109. ♦The Mind of a Child. Richmond, pp. 42-47. How TO Win. Willard. Chapter VIII. The School and Society. Dewey, p. 39. The Moral Trinity of the School. Dewey, in Third Year Herbart Book. Pedagogical Bible School. Haslett. Habit-Forming. We have already spoken of the purpose of Education as that of Character-Building. Character, we have shown, is but the acquisition of certain particular bundles of Habits. The ultimate aim and purpose of Church, Sunday School, Eeligion, and the School, is really Character or Habit-forming. The par- ticular point-of-view by which the Church differs from the World in its education is to set the ultimate sanction or rule for good conduct, not merely Society and our Fellowmen, but God; and to refer the basis of all action and thought to the moral law within us, expressing God's divine Will. Habit, the End of School Work. Sow a thought and reap a deed. Sow a deed and reap a habit. Sow a habit and reap a character. Sow a character and reap a destiny. "I wonder," queries Professor Seeley, "how fully the teacher enters into the thought that education is to transform into habit whatever ought to belong to our nature?" Till-: l\( I 1. CATION A\i) ruAIXlXc; OF llAiilTS :',:,:', The Sub-Conscious Field of Habit. W'c have spoken of I lie fad that I'vcrytliiiig exporienced inlhu'iK-rs us at some time, even tlioutrh we may seemingly have I'orgoKen the experience or fact. Wo said that some time or (ttlief we acted dilTci-ent ly. as the fcsult. So evil impressions, long-roru-ottt'u stories with impure taint oi- underhand motive, sneaky actions we saw, had examples we set. careless word or act on the part of a teacher at the time passed over lightly, all and every one of thes(> will at some future tinu' inlluence a word, a ilvvd. or at least a thought. Truly "no man livelh to liimsell'.'' Every boy and girl should he especially shielded from harmful words and sights, and should he especially suhjected to pnre ami lofty. nol)le and idealistic surroundings. Many a boy has en- tered the Sacred Ministry or labored in the Missionary Field, as the outcome of a noble teacher's life and words; and above all, consistent and consecrated, devott'd life. It was the Sunday School Teacher of the ])resent author liimself who was the means of his entering (Jod's work in the Church's Ministry, (lood (not "goody") books, early read, will in after years almost invariablv bear sweet fruition. Specialization in Habit Formation. Professor Thorndike says: "All that can be done to ])ut to- gether what ought to go together is iirst to teach the neces- sary form, and to arrange circumstances with more or less of probability that the ])U])il will supply the desired movement. A motor act for which no prt-sent use or bearing is seen, such as singing a solitary note over aiul over, or writing exercises, or drawing lines that express no fact of moment, can arouse little interest. And since notes are to be used always in songs, the curves be written always in words and sentences, the lines to be drawn always in a picture of sonu'thing, it is safe to follow the law of habit formation and so nudl I should place ho)icsfi/ — and here let me remind parents Ihat niaiiv children are dis- honest through ignorance; they literally ilo not realize the serious nature of disltoiiesty, and cannot see why it is worse to tell a falseliood. or even take change from a forbidden purse, than to tear their clothing through carelessness or to be over- bearing and insolent with a subordinate. Such children need to be given object-lessons in simple justice, and it should be clearly shown them on what a tottering basis their own cher- ished possessions and plans would rest if dishonesty were the rule rather than the exception. "Xext to honesty, I should place decision. Many a man and woman fail through lack of this quality. They are energetic, capable and willing, but they let opportunities slip past them because they cannot decide what is best until the opportunities are gone and they realize too late the price their vacillation has cost. ^'In a hundred small ways he can be trained to make choice of material things, and the exercise of decision in this direction will enable him the more quickly to make a wise choice in mat- ters of greater nionient. If he be purchasing cravats, give him so many minutes to decide which he will take, and caution him against ever expressing a verbal regret once choice is made. "Xext in order should come imnduaUii], which includes con- sideration of others, courtesy, and several virtues besides. It is a lesson best taught and longest remembered by allowing the pupil to experience the unpleasant consequences of tardiness." The educational process is manifold and inclusive. Tt em- braces within its sweep the entire life and conduct of the school, its work and play, its songs and prayers, its organization and methods. Whatever is done in the school must develop the re- ligious life of the child or it is invalid. Whatever accomplishes that purpose is educational, for education is the life-giving pro- cess. The instruction of the lesson period is but a part of the 3f)2 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION educational work of the school. That given by the life of the school as a whole, in its general conduct and work, is equally vital. Within and without the class the school must supply the proper environment with which the child can interact. Patience in Habit Training. Trumbull, in quoting from Mr. Hammond's admirable work on "Dog-Training," says to the dog-trainer: "You must keep perfectly cool, and must suffer no sign to escape of any anger or impatience; for if you cannot control your temper, you are not the one to train a dog." "Do not allow yourself," says this instructor, "under any circumstances to speak to your pupil in anything but your ordinary tone of voice." And recognizing the diflficulties of the case, he adds : "Exercise an unwearied patience, and if at any time you find the strain upon your nerves growing a little tense, leave him at once, and wait until you are perfectly calm before resuming the lesson." That is good counsel for him who would train a dog — or a cliild ; for in either dog-training or child-training, scolding — loud and excited talking — is never in order. QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION. [suggested by dr. iiervey.] 1. "To what circumstances is due the possibility of our forming habits? What proportion of our daily acts are habitual?" 2. "What is the difference between a good habit and a bad habit {a) physiologically; (b) from the point-of-vie\v of Education?" 3. "If it be true that the child must do something, before you can get your purchase on him — what provision can you make for 'doing' in yovir Sunday School work ?" 4. "What is the fault of doing all the talking in the class yourself? What is the advantage of asking questions?" 5. "What is there in habit to guarantee success in life?" CHAPTER XXII. THE WILL IN SUNDAY SCHOOL TEACHING. SUGGESTED READINGS. •Talks to Teachers. James, pp. 22-45 ; 169-175. •Teacher Training. Roads, pp. 93-95, 78-81. Up Through Childhood. Hubbcll. The New 1'sychologv. Oordij. pp. 152-163, 305-328. The Moral Instruction of Children. Adler. •A Study in Child Nature. Harrison. Chapter VI. •Elementary I'svchology. Thorndike. pp. 185-190, 298/)". Moral Education. Upevcer. pp. 161-218. The Institutes of Education. Laurie, pp. 218-238. Self-Culture. Clarke. Lecture 17. Psychology and the Psychic Life. Halleck. Chapter XIII. Character. Marden. Character. Smiles. The Foundations of Education. Seeley. pp. 218-232. •Character Building. Coler. pp. 17, 72, and 81-94. The Psychological Foundations of Education. Harris, p. 300. Tub Seven Laws of Teaching. Gregory. Moral Training is thus Will-Training. We have told you that Action is in general the result of Habit; that Habit is the result of Attention to particular and definite Ideals or Ideas; and that Voluntary Attention is the result of definite Willing. It is then ultimately deliberating over the case, fitting it to a diverse number of ideas, reflecting until the right idea comes into the centre or focus of the Atten- tion, and then definitely holding it there firmly, until we act upon it. The moral act is simply holding fast to the idea. Other ideas, in the margin, incompatible with the desired one, are banished, and die out. The attended-to-one becomes more vivid, more intense, and bursts out into action. "To think, then, is the secret of the will, just as it is the secret of the memory. "Thus your pupils will be saved, first by the stock of ideas which you furnish them; secondly, by the amount of voluntary attention that they can exert in holding to the right ones, how- .•564 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ever unpalatable; and thirdly, by the several habits of acting definitely on these latter." Training of the Will. We have noted that the Stress and Storm time sees the birth of two new factors, most influential for future good or evil, Will and Judgment. Hitherto the child's life has been chiefly one of Feeling, guided as he has been almost blindly by Emo- tions and Impulses. He has not had the light of Intellect to guide him. Will has not been dominant, perhaps chiefly because Intellect and Eeason have not been there to stir it. He has been wisely held in check by Divine Providence until development fitted him to care for himself. Animal Instinct has protected liiiii. He has been practically an animal; now he becomes a man, with Intellect and Will in the ascendency. The Will must be trained, rather than broken. This is done, more or less con- sciously, by the presentation of vivid examples that hold and attract the mind and bestir action. Prompt decision, the habit of doing unpleasant things the moment we see them in our judgment to be right, without risking long deliberation and hesi- tation ; the resolve never to break IDEALS, nor suffer an excep- tion to a noble conception, such things in life soon go to form a strong, decisive Will. Stubbornness is not strong Will, but the contrary, a Will too weak to do what is right and proper. Froebel, in his Education of Man says: "Nine-tenths of the intemperate drinking begins not in grief and destitution, as we often hear, but in vicious feeding." Who has not noticed in children, over-stimulated by spices and excesses of food, appetites of a very low order from which they can never again be freed — appetities which, even when they seem to have been suppressed, only slumber, and in times of op- portunity return with greater power, threatening to rob man of all his dignity and to force him away from liis duty? Miss Harrison says : "The danger of wrong training lies not alone in the indulgence of the sense of taste. Testimony is not wanting of the evil effects of the cultivation of the relish side of the other senses also. " 'Do you not know who are usually the over-perfumed women of our land ?' asked I. 'And yet I know scores of mothers TTIK WirJ, IX srXDAV ScTTonr, TIv\( [TfXC :«;.-) who unconsciously Iniin their children to revel in an excessive indulgjcnce in perfumery.' "Nor does this rar-i-eachiut,' tliou^dit sto}) with right and wrong training ol' the senses. The mother who praises her child's curls or rosy elu'eks rather than the child's actions or inner motives, is developing the I'elish side of character — placing beauty of ai)j)earance over and above beauty of conduct. The father who takes his boy to the circus, and, passing by the me- nagerie and acrobat's skill, leaches the boy to enjoy the clown and like ]iarts of the exhibit ion, is leading to the development of the relish side of amusement, and is training the child to re- gard excitement and recreation as necessarily one and the same thing. "Even our Suiulay Schools, with their prizes and exhibition.^ and sensatiomil i)rograms, are not exempt from the crime. I have seen the Holy Easter festival so celebrated by Sunday Schools that, so far as its efl'ects upon the younger children were concerned, they might each one as well have been given a glass of intoxicating liciuor, so upset was their digestion, so excited their brains, so denu)ralized their unused emotions. Xeed I speak of the relish side of the dress of children? ,)olin Kuskin, the great apostle of the beautiful, claims that no ornament is beautiful which has not a use." Self-Denial. Professor Jones writes: "Involved in the very heart of life itself is another ])rinciple as fundamental as self-assertion. It may be called self-surrender or self-sacrifice. Whatever it is named, it is the altruistic attitude and endeavor. It is not a late reversal of Nature's ordinary law, struggle for existence, as some have supposed. It is not something which has come in 'afterwards.' It is structural, like the other principle. Without surrender and sacrifice nol)otly could be a person at all. The world through and through has its centripetal and centrifugal forces, and chaos would come if either force vanished. Those who have called self-surrender irrational or super-rational have failed to note that bare self-assertion is just as irrational. No real personal qualities could be won on either tack pursued alone. "We have come upon one of those deep paradoxes of life. 3(50 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION To become a person one must both affirm and deny himself. One involves the other. They are not totally difl'erent things. They are diverse aspects of the same thing. They belong to- gether as indissolubly as the two sides of the board do. To get we must also give, to advance we must surrender, to gain we must lose, to attain we must resign. From the nature of things life means choice and selection, and every positive choice nega- tives all other possibilities. Every choice runs a line of cleavage through the entire universe. If I take this I give up that." Desire and Will. According to Miss Slattery : "We may say, speaking broadly, that desire when analyzed is made up of impulse and appetite. The cravings of the animal system demanding satisfaction con- stitute the appetites with their long train of results both good and evil. The imitative movements, the strange promptings to action without definite purpose, the things which the child does because he 'feels like it,' these make up impulse. "As we attempt to develop the will along right lines we come to realize that it means persistent encouragement of the inclina- tions toward the good, and starving and weeding out of incli- nations toward the bad. When a child is hungry, he craves food ; when thirsty, drink. He is driven toward gratification of the desire that he may be satisfied. If the food and drink are of the right sort every part of his physical being develops and he is a healthy, natural, growing child. The child craves companion- ship, active pleasure, love. He could not name these desires; they are vague. Impulse spurs him on to seek companionship and pleasure, and if the result satisfies, he will seek it again in response to another impulse. If the companion and the pleas- ure be of the right sort, natural growth and real development of this part of his nature will follow. Whenever a child feels de- sire for a thing, believes he can secure it, and so seeks it, a definite act of the will takes place. "As I note carefully the general trend of his appetites and impulses as seen in his actions, the desire is born in me to so train the child that the lower desire shall be ruled by the higher, until principle becomes more and more the basis of action; I desire to so train his will that it will grow strong enough to ■Jlli: W ll.l, IX SL'NIJAV ,SCli()(Jl. TEACllINc; ;!(i7 control. If 1 could do this 1 should give him a perfect will; all 1 can liope to do is to get as near the ideal as possible. "As his teacher 1 am responsible for neither his inheritance nor his home training. I am responsible for what I do and fail lo do wiih him while he is in my charge, and for what training it is })ossil)le for me to give him indirectly through my influence and example. "However, teachers can make a child see vividly the con- sequences of evil acts and, although he must always learn through experience largely, the teaching has its influence. If this teaching is coupled with strong, positive instruction the better impulses and desires can be awakened. By example and story, by illustration verbal or blackboard, by question and sug- gestion, by discipline, by environment so far as he can influence it — in every possible way the teacher must study to create a desire for the very best. Indeed I am convinced that the teach- er's business is just this: to create and encourage desire for the best things in life." Choice and Decision. Professor William James states : "Writing is higher than walking, thinking is higher than writing, deciding higher than thinking, deciding 'no' higher than deciding 'yes' — at least the man who passes from one of these activities to another will usu- ally say that each later one involved a greater element of inner w^ork than the earlier ones, even though the total heat given out or the foot-pounds expended by the organism may be less. Just how to conceive this inner work physiologically is yet impossible, but psychologically we all know what the word means. We need a particular spur or effort to start us upon inner work: it tires us to sustain it; and when long sustained, we know how easily we lapse. When I speak of 'energizing' and its rates and levels and sources, I mean therefore our inner as well as our outer work." Strengthening the Will by Pledges. Professor William James says regarding the above: "The memory that an oath or vow has been made will nerve one to abstinences and efforts otherwise impossible; witness the 'pledge' in the history of the temperance movement. A mere •■!(i8 UKLKJIOLS EDUCATION promise to his swft'tlR'ni't will t-Ienii up a youth's life all (n'er — at any rate for a time. For such effects an educated suscepti- bility is recpiii-ed. Tlie idea of one's 'honor,' for example, unlocks energy only in those of us who have had the education of a 'gentleman,' so-called." That delightful being. Prince PucJder-Musl authorities: all were to be cast in one mould. Up to the age of thirteen the boy was not expected to either know or fulfil the wliole law. He then, at the presumed age of puberty, entered on the rights and duties of a full-grown Israelite. "The pupil wrote on waxen tablets with a stylus, and when advanced, on paper or parchment with a pen, like the children of the Romano-Greek world generally. In the higher schools, Greek, mathematics, and science were taught. The sole aim TTTE TTTSTORY OF RELTr,IOl'S EDUCATION 421 of female education was tlie making of the accomplished house- wife, of whom wc have a description in the Book of Proverbs. "Certain educational principles of considerable advance are noted in the schools that now arose, as: 'He who studies and does not teach others is like a myrtle in the desert'; 'If you at- tempt to grasp too much at once, you grasp nothing at all' ; 'First learn by heart and then know' ; 'To speak out loudly the sentence which is being learned strengthens the same in the memory' ; 'The teaclier should strive to make the lesson agreeable to the pupils by clear reasons, as well as by frequent repetitions, until they thoroughly understand the matter, and are enabled to recite it with great fluency'; 'Experience proves, it is said, that chil- dren do not begin to show much mental capacity as a rule until their tw-elfth year.' Further, it is recommended to the teacher to have pauses and periods in each subject. Again : 'He w^ho studies hastily and crams too much at once, his knowledge shall diminish; but he who studies by degrees or step by step, shall accumulate much wisdom and learning.' In reference to pun- ishment, we read in the Talmud : 'If thou art compelled to punish a pupil, do it only with gentleness ; encourage those who make progress, and let him who does not, still remain in the class with his schoolfellows, for he will ultimately become at- tentive and vie wuth them.' Again, there is a saying, 'Children should be punished with one hand and caressed with two.' " It is the first example of anything like a study of Child- nature or of Applied Psychology. The Jews were essentially a race of theological genius, just as the Greeks were a race of aesthetic genius. Ilaslett remarks : "There were no 'middle ages' in the his- tory of the Jewish people. Their education went steadily on century after century, and to this day it is still effective and be- ing improved from time to time. The Jews maintained acad- emies and colleges, such as those at Cordova, Toledo, Padua, Narbonne, and Pome, and here higher religious instruction was given." The Education of India. The Aryans or Indo-European races comprise the Hindoos, the ]\Iedo-Persians, the Hellenes, or Greeks, and the Italians or Komans. Among them we find forms of culture very different 422 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION in their luiliiro from those manifested by the Turanian or Semitic races. The common characteristic of the Egyptian, Semitic, and Chinese reli< H. Baker, LL.D. Longmans. $1.25. The Study of Character. Bain. Character. Mardcn. Crowell. 50 cents. Character. Smiles. Burt. $1.00. Culture and Religion. Shairp. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., $1.25. Educational Aims and Methods. J. J. Fitch. Macmillan, $1.50. The Front Line of the Sunday School Movement. Rev. F. N. Peloubet, D.D. 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Rousseau's Emile. W. H. Payne. Appleton, $1.50. New Atlantis. Bacon. Holy Roman Empire. Brycc. German Higher Schools. Russell. Education of the United States. Boone. Appleton, $1.50. t»THE Sunday School in the Development of the American Church. Oscar S. Michael. Young Churchman Co., $1.50. INDEX INDEX "According to Nature" Tendeucv, 122, 4r)l-455. Activity, 110, 120. Love of. iiK. Abstract, Children not interested in, 117, 252. Academie-s, 4GC. Adolescence: Awivwardness during', i:iS i;?!). Hodily clianges during, 138-1 4."«. Characteristics of, 138-172, 174. "Gang" Age, 161-1 G2. Growth during, 138-150. Kitvinl. lt;8. Secret iveness, KiO. Adult Bible Classes. 220, 315. Affection, Desire for, 134. Affectation, 123. Agricola. 440. Aim of Education, 34. Alcuin, 433. American Church Sunday School In- stitute, 483 (f. American Sunday School Institute Magazine. 4S3. American Sunday School Union, Al'tff. Analogv, Law of, (55. Apostolic Church, Studv of, 259, 201. Apperception, 00-71, 233-240. Apperception Explained, 09. "Application." 207. A(|uaviva, 442. Aristotle, 427-428. Ascham, 447. "Association." 200. Association of Ideas, See Ideas. Assyrians, 410. Atavism, 41. Attention, 74-70. Detinitions of, 71, 289-290. How not to get, 290-291. Kinds of, 70, 289. Types of, 76, 289. \ariation in, 295. Voluntarv and Involuntarv, 75, 289-290. Will, basis of, 292. Aufkliirung. 71, 108-109. Awkwardness, 138. B Babvlonian Education, 415-416. Bacon, 448-449. Baptismal Roll, 392-393. Basedow. 454-455. Bible, Advisability of placing in hands of children, 211. Ueference, 200. Bible History (See Church and His- tory. ) I'.ibliography of Training Books, 497- 500. Biography Age, 116. I'.lakeslee, Erastus, 493. Body (See also Adolescence.) EITect of mind on, 175-176. Book, Text, Tvpes of, 200-202 Book Work, 332-333. Books, 497-500. Borromeo, Charles, 441. Brain, Cortex of, 59. Effect of alcohol on, 54. Weight of, 53, 54. White and gray matter in, 53. Butler, I'res. N. M., 3. Caprice, 130. Catechism, And the small child, 132, 134, 255, 348. Inductive method in teaching, 132, 210. Memorizing, 132, 348-349. Taught best with Christian Year, 225. Written work in, 348-349. Cells. Ciliated, 49. Cartilage. 48. Connection of, 48. Division of, 4(). lOpithiMial, 47. Muscle, voluntary, involuntary, and heart, 47. Xerve. 55. Types of, 40. Certainty, Instinct of, 101. Cerebrum, 52. Character, Effect of Iloreditv upon, 34. Executive agencies in formation of, 280. Factors at work in development of, 34-38. Force of, 11. Influence of Environment on, 34, 100. Instinct at basis of, 92. Self-control in building of, 100. Training, 10(5. 504 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CharacteristicH, Table of, 174-175. Charlcin:if;iii'. 4:',()-434. Child, Comitanitms of, 115, 123, 124, 132. Content of mind of, 226-230. Conereteness in, 117, 252. Dependence of, 113. Development of, 108, 225. Discovery of, 33. Kffect of music on, 370, 392. Imitativeness in, 41, 115, 132. Instincts of, 37. Mind at birth, 40. Mind of, 37. Motor Type of, 180. Plane of experience of, 225. Restlessness in, 109, 120, 282. Savagery in, 112. Sensory, 180. Study of, 34. Temper in, 41. Trustfulness of little, 113. Types of, 179-181. Chinese Education, 414. Christ, Study of, 258, 260. Chivalric Education, 433. Christian Year, Patterson Chart of, 2.5.5. Church of England Sunday School In- stitute, 483. Church History, Study of, 201. (See also History.) Coercive Agencies for order, 277. Collecting Instinct, 101, 135. Colors, Influence of, 24-28. Comenius, 450-451. Commission Movement, 485-490. Commission Series, 485 /f., 493. Conereteness (See also Attention), 117, 252. Conscience, Definitions of, 163-165. Elements of. 163-168. Growth of, 118, 136, 163-165. Rise in Puberty of, 118. 136. Undeveloped in small children, 118- 120, 136. Consciousness of Power, 98. Constructiveness, Instinct of, 101. Conversion, 153. Average age of, 155. Conversion Curves, 157-161. Coiiperation of the Pupils, 217. Correlation, 213-217. Courage, 128. "Cramming." 341. Credulity. 113-115. Culture, Epoch Theory, 35-40. Curricula, 244-266. Principles of well-rounded, 244. Standard. 245-266. I'^ederation Form, 247. .Joint Commission Form, 245. X. Y. S. S. Commission Form, 248. Subjects suggested. 245-266. Subject-graded, 245-266, 485-490, 489. Curiosity, During childhood, 115. Educational value of, 97. Cyran, 444. D Deduction, 214-210. Deliberation. 85, 86. 148. Dependent Age, 113. Devel(ji)ment I'lan, 210. Dewcv. Prof.. Quoted. 6. Discipline. 110, 274-275, 286. Disorder. 274-275. 285. Doaue. Elder Pishop. 479-481. Doctrine, Study of (See also Faith) 150, 152, 260. Doubting Period, 149-151. Dualism in Adolescence, 169. DuBois Rules for Point of Contact, 223-228. E Education, "According to Nature" Tendency in, 122, 451-455. Aim of, 3, 188. Assyrian, 416. Pabylonian, 415-416. Child as factor in, 33. Chinese, 414. Chivalric, 443. Christian, 429-237. Definitions of, 5-10. Early Christian, 429-430. Early Scientific, 448-451. Egyptian, 414-415. Elements, Three in all Education, 12. Factors in, 4-5. Fundamental Principles of. 34. Greek, 426-428. Hebrew, 416 421. Humanistic Type of, 440-444. Industrial Tendencv in, 467. Mediaeval. 430-433. Medo-Persian. 423-426. Modern. 46.3-467. Of India. 421-423. Old versus New, 3, 34, 42. I'hoenician, 416. Psychological Tendency in. 455-461. Realistic Tvpe of, 446-448. Roman. 428-429. Scientific Tendencv in, 448-451. Self-activity in. 43. Sociological Tendency in. 461-463. Thring's Definition of. 11, 17. Educational Ideals. 11, 13. Egoistic Feelings, 117. "Elaboration," 206. Emotion. 89. Emulation. Educational value of, 98. England. Modern Educational School Systems in. 464. Religious Education in, 464. Enlightenment. 165. Environment. Effect on Character, 34. Ethical Dualism. 169. Examinations. 219-220, 388. Executive Agencies for Order, 280. Experience, I'lane of, 225. F Face, the Window of the Mind, 90. Faith, Age of. 111, 113. Fatalism, 35. Fatigue, Kinds of. 296. Signs of, 290-297. INDKX 505 Tear, Kducational Value of, !»fi. •'FedtM-ation" (See Sunday School Federation.) First Day Society, 474. Focus. (',2. Font Roll, 302-303. Foi-Rettlng, 343, 351. Formal Steps In a Lesson Plan, 204- 208. Foreword, xli. "Forward Movement," Fundamental I'rinciples of, 488-401. France, Modern Educational School Systems in. 4i;3. IleliRlous Instruction in, 403. Frankness, 111. Frederick the Great, 435, 403. Fringe, 02, 03. Froebel, 34, 401. Functioning In Doing, 12. G "Gang Age," 101-102. "Gang Instinct," 101-102. Germany, Modern Educational School Systems in, 403. Religious Education in, 403. Germplasm Theory, 37. Grading. 230-200. How to Grade, 204-200. Practical Wavs or, 242. The Small School, 243. What it is, 230 What it is NOT, 241. Grafting Unknown to the Known, 233. Grammar School, 255-201, 303. Greek Education, 420-428. Gregory, Henry, 478. Group Age, 132. ir Habits. Formation of, 12-13, 103-100, .■!.".2 302. Important. 300-302. Motives in formation of, 103. Rules for formation of, 103, 355, 357. Specialization of, 353-355. Sub-conscious field of, 353. Hand Work (See Manual Methods.) narrower, Rev. Paschal, 485. Harvard. .John, 405. Heart in Education, 18. Hebrew Education, 410-421. Herbart, 204. 4(;o-4(il Herbartian Method, 34, 204-208. Heredity, 34-38. Hero Ages, 127, 100. Heuristic Method, 200, 201, 200, 400, 405. Hervey's Directions for Study, 202- 204. Ilieh School, 201-202, 305. History Age. 118. Ilobart. Bishop, 477. Home Department, 305-500. Honesty. 171, 201. Hughling - Jackson Three Level Theory, 154. Humanistic Type of Education, 440- 444. Humor, Crudity of in Child, 131. Hypnotism, Effect upon memory, 81. I Ideas, Association of, 02, 70-71. Idi'als. Power of, 147-155. In Youth, 147-140. Ignorance of Children (See Point of Contact.) Illustration (See also Stories.) Cliaraci eristics of, 310. Dangers in, 310. (Jood, 320-321. How it appeals to children, 317- 310. How to learn, 323. Purpose of, .'US. Rules for, 321-322. Verbal, 325-320. Imagination. IKJ, 318, 320. Imitation, Educational value of, 97. Of companions, 115, 132. In child, 41. Impulsiveness, 127. Incentive Agencies for Order, 281, 405. Independence, 128. India. Education of. 421-423. Inductive Mctliod. 214-210. Industrial Education. 4(!7. Infancy, Development during, 40. Education in, 30. Infant School (See Kindergarten.) Inhibition. 93, 103-100, 352-302. Insight. Philosophic, 72, 172. Instincts, Classification of, 94. Differentiation of, 02-95, 101-102. Educational Value of, 95. "Gang," 101-103. In children, 37. Natural and Acquired, 92. Table of, 92-95. Transitoriness of, 102-103. Intellect, 89. Interaction of Mind, Spirit, and Body, 175-179. Interest, as basis of Attention, 74, 281, 208-305, 341. Causes of, 301. False views of, 303-304. How to obtain, 298-305, 301. How to kill. .302-303. Kinds of. 299-302. Means of keeping order, 277-282. International Sunday School Move- ment, 484-485. J Jacotet, 459. Jelly-fish. 45-40. Jeromites. 440. Jesuits, 441-444. Joint Commission on Sunday School Instruction, 245. Joint Diocesan Lesson Committee, 483 ff. Judgment. Training of. 308-370. Junior Department, 245. K Kemper, Jackson. 475. Kempis, Thomas ;1, 440. .500 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Kindorgarteu, Grade and Principles, 252-l!r)8. Kitchen Schools, 4G5. Knowledge, Need of self-activity to gain, 35, 43. Small Child lacking in, 223-228. liancaster, 40G. La Salle, 445. Lesson, Application of, 207. Assigning of, li)8, 266-207. liiography as material for, IIG. Central thought for, 212. Correlation of, 213. Development plan of, 210. Functioning of, 12. How to prepare, 193-204. Question method in introduction of, 209. Review of. 207, 218. Title of, 208. Lesson Period (See also Recitation.) 386, 388. Lesson Systems (See also Text Books.) Blakeslee or Bible Study Union, 493. Commission Series, 487, 493. Doaue or Gvvynne Series, 493. International, 484-490, 493. Question-and-Answer, 492. S. Sulpice, 492. Uniform, 483-484, 493. "Lies" of Children, 116. Life, Lowest form of, 45. Locke, 451-454. Love, Educational value of, 96. Luther, 441. M. Mann, Horace. 34, 400. Man's Five-Fold Inheritance, 3. Manual Work, 332-336, 359, 491. Maps, 326, 332-336. Map-work, Class, 258, 326, 334-335. Drawing, 327. Grammar School. 258, 334-335. Historical, 258-259. In Flat, 335. Outline, 258, 336. Relief, 334-335. Maurus, Rabbanus, Archdeacon of Meintz, 433. Meade. Bishop, 481. Medo-Persian Education, 423-426. Melancthon, 440. Memory, 76-80, 337-351. Apperception necessary for, 233- 240, 338. How to Memorize, 341. Laws of, 76-80, 338-330. Rational, 77, 342. Retention in, 132. Tvpes of. 80. 337-338. Verbal, 77, 341. Weak in Childhood, 123. Memoriter Work, 132-138, 341, 345- 346, 350. Alental Progress, 190. Milner, James, 475. Milton, 446-447. Mind and Thinking, 71, 175-1 70. Missions, 261, 2(>3. Models, 327, 336. Montaigne, 447. Moral Training, Elements of, 106, 357, 363-364. Moravians, 441. Motives (see Instincts and Emo- tions). 284-285. Muhlenberg, Dr., 481. Mulcaster, 449. Music (see also Ritual). Effect upon Will of, 370-371. In Sunday School, 392. N. Nature, "According to Nature" Ten- dency, 122, 450, 455. Love of, 122. Necessary Perception, 124. Nerves, 52, 57. Neurones, 54. Xewton, Rev. Richard, 480-481. New York Protestant Episcopal Sun- day School Society, 479. New York Sunday School Commis- sion, 260-270, 485-491. Note Books, Use in Primary School of, 252-253, 333-335. Novels, Reading of, 145. O. Old Testament. 257, 250, 202. Oratoriones, 444. Order, Agencies for keeping, 277-282. Detinitions of, 271-274. How to secure, 274. Incentives to, 277, 282. Noisy children, 282, 285. Of Studies. 245-206. Ownership, Educational value of, 100. Oxford Movement, 480. (Jxford University, 436. Parents, Careless, 122. Hints to, 123-124. Paris Universitv (see Universities). Paul, Saint, Life of, 259. 201. I'eers, Benjamin O., 479-480. I'enalties (see also Punishment and Discipline), 119. Per.sonality, Evolution of. 38-39. Personalizing Religion, 155. PiTsonilication, 115. Pcstalozzi, 34, 456-459. Pliilanthropinum, 454. Philadelphia Protestant Episcopal Sunday and Adult Society, 470 /f. Pliiladelpliia Sunday and Adult So- ciety. 475 ff. Philosoiiliic Insight, 72. 172. I'lioenician Education, 410. I'bvsiognomy. 90. Pictures, Children's appreciation of, 253-254, 326. Fields of use, 327-328. Graded use of, 254, 327, 332-335. In Grammar School, 225-256. Selection of, 326-329. ixi)i:.\ 507 Plnn(> of lOxporlcnce, 225. J'lasiicllv. KiJ. Pinto, 427. I'lav. Love of, 110. Toliit of Contact, 223-228, 234. Port Kovalists, 444. I'ost Grudiiato School, 265, 395. Power, i-ousciousuess of, 98. Pragmatism, T.'i. Prayer, 170, 103. Prayer Hook, 42, 43, 254, 203. Prefa<'e, xl. •■Prei)arntlon," 204. '■Pre.sentatiou," 205. Primnrv AKe, ItiO. Primary School. 252-250. Psycliolopy, 45-(10. Piihertv (see Adolescence). Pul)lic "School. Visiting In I he, 198. Week I>av Ueligious Instruction in, 400-400. I'ugnacity, Instinct of, 101. Punctuality, 22, 274. I'unishment (see also Discipline and Penalties), 119, 129, 280, 405- 406. Pupils, Placing in Class, 294. Q. Question-and-Answer Books, 307, 308, 347. Questioning. Art of, 300. Character of. 310-315. Curiosity and, 310. Effect of. 300-307. How to learn how, 310. Kinds of, 308-310. Methods of Propounding, 209, 307- 309. Questioning Ages, 115, 127. Quintilian, 429. R. Rabelais. 44G. Raikes, Robert, 470-472. Ratlch. 449-450. Ratio Studiorum, 442. Reading. 194-198. Realistic Type. 446-448. Realizing an Idea, 70. Reason and Reasoning, 148-150, 341. Recapitulation Theory, 44, 45. Recklessness, 128. Recitation (see also Lesson). Balancing Instruction with, 373- 380, 377. Metliod of Conducting, 373. Recollection, 05, 78-79. Reflection. 71, 85, 80, 148. Religious Education, History of, 413- 491. Religious Education Association, 484. Renaissance. First, 433. Second. 434. Third, 438. Restlessness. 109, 126. Ronchlin, 440. Reviews, 207, 218, 375-370. Rewards (see also Punishment and Discipline). Use of, 405-407. Rhythm, 48. lUtual, 168-170. It.mKiii i;ducalion, 428-429. Koninnce, Age of, 145. Ituusseau, 452-454. Savagery, In children, 112. Scepticism (see also l)(jnbti, 150. Scientific Tendency, 448-451. Schools, Bishops, 432. Board, 464. Catechetical, 430-432. Cathedral, 431-432. Chivalric, 433, 443. Conventual, 431. Dame, 4()5. Early Christian, 429-430. In England, 464. In l''rance, 463. In (Jernianv, 463. In the United States, 464. Monastic, 431. Of the I'rophets, 416-421. I'ost Graduate, 395. I'rimary, 252-25,'l licniiitc bv pledges, 3(57. Vocabiilaiv »( Clilldi-en, •J221'33. Tralniuf,' of, 100-108, 21>2, 303-30.J, Von Iluiuiiohlt. AiVA. 308. A'on Scliucknianii, 103. Tvpes of, 87-88. «• W. 11-1(1 hnildinfj, 173. Waldensos, 441. ' WyUwu Work. •jr,r,-201. 340, 400. Week Dav Instruction, 400-407. » t'liinimar School, 2;jo. Wesscl 440 Reasons for, 340. White ' HIshop 473 Words, ("liild's Vocabulary, 228-233. Whittinfiham, ■477-47!). Meinorizinf,' (see Memory and Wiilin;,', Consetiuenccs of. 307. Memoriter %\ork). Incompatible with knowing and Y. feeliuR 8!». Youth, Holding tlieni in Church, 144. \ ersus Deliberation, etc., SO. Yvei-dnn 4".T Will, 303-372. ivtiuun, 1.... UreakluK of. 100, 372. '^• Choice and decision by, 307-308. Zend-Avesta, 424. Conscious and unconscious, 84. Zoroastrianism, 424. DATE DUE K£B 2 8 138/ DEMCO 38-297 i";.-!-'.'.',!.'-',.™..-...... BV Religious ( >>:•; M^