Shelf. PRINCETON, N. J. ie-Jen/ea /y ^^ lZcMZ^ Sec/ion Number I- Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road, London, W.C. Sen^ by Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Truhner & Co. Lt''- With the Compliments of the AUTHOR. A GRAMMAR HINDI LANGUAGE Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2011 witin funding from Princeton Tiieological Seminary Library http://www.arcliive.org/details/grammarofliindlOOkell A GRAMMAR OF THE HINDI LANGUAGE: IN AVHICH ARE TREATED THE HIGH HINDI', BRAJ, AND THE EASTERN HINDI' OF THE RAMAYAN OF TULSr DAS, ALSO THE COLLOQriAL DIALECTS OF RA'JPUTA'NA', KUMA'ON, AVADH, RI'WA, BHOJPU'R, MAGADHA, MAITHILA, ETC., WITH COPIOUS FHILOLOGICAL NOTES. REV. S. h/kELLOGG, D.D., LL.D., OF THE AMERICA>f PRESByTERIAX MISSION, NORTH INDIA ; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY; AUTHOR OF "THE LIGHT OF ASIA AND THE LIGHT OF THE WORLD;" ETC., ETC. SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED. LONDON : KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUB^ER, AXD CO., Limited, PATERNOSTER HOUSE, CHARING CROSS ROAD. ,1893, PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. At the repeated request of many friends in India, and in view of the fact that Her Majesty's Civil Service Commissioners for India have done the former edition of this Grammar the honour to prescribe it to be studied by selected candidates for the India Civil Service, that edition having been exhausted, I have prepared, and herewith offer to the public, a second edition, revised and enlarged. To the ten dialects presented in the earlier edition, three more have been added : viz., the Magadhi, the Maithili, and the l^aipali, making thirteen which are now exhibited in the Tables. The sections and Tables which exhibit the Bhojpiiri and the Eajputana dia- lects have also been carefully revised, and amplified with considerable new material. The brief section in the 1st edition (pp. 44-49), on " Dialectic Peculiari- ties," has been enlarged to a full chapter (pp. 65-80, of the present edition). The philological notes have been thoroughly revised, and to a considerable extent rewritten, in the light of the advance made since 1876 in the scientific investigation o"f the Arj^an Vl PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. languages of India. I have found it impossible, however, having due regard to proper limitations of proportion and space, to work out in detail all of the large number of additional forms given in the Tables. But with the aid of the principles set forth in Chapters III. and TV., and the abundant illustra- tions of their application which are given, the in- terested student, it is believed, will be able to investigate intelligently for himself forms which are left nnexplained. In the Syntax, I have substituted for the Prem Sdgar, to a considerable extent, as a source of illus- tration, the ShaJcuntald of Kdlidds, as translated into Hindi by Eijd Lachhman Sinh, Deputy Collector, N.W.P. ; which is now ordered as one of the subjects of examination for the Indian Service. I have also occasionally introduced illustrations from other modern works, as, especially, the drama of liandhir aur Pretii Mohini, by Ldld Shri Nivds Das, which, is to be commended as of special value, for the variety of dialect used by the different characters. I have, however, still retained many illustrative references to the Prem Sdgar^ because, despite its very artificial style and provincial colour, yet, as a favourite authority for Puranic Hindooism of the BhaJdi Mdrgi school, it is still, and is likely for some time to continue to be, a most popular religious book among the masses of North India, which therefore can be wisely neglected by no missionary among them. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. VU Very considerable changes will be observed in some parts of the work, in the arrangement of the para- graphs, besides many minor verbal alterations, all which, it is hoped, will be found to conduce to greater clearness and accuracy. I desire to express here my indebtedness to the authors of the various criticisms of the 1st edition, from which, in the preparation of this new edition, I have derived much valuable help. I have also to acknowledge with thanks the assistance rendered me, in reply to a circular sent out before the revision of the Grammar, by many valuable communications giving suggestions for the improvement of the new edition, from members of the civil and missionary services of North India, and from native pandits^ who have made helpful annotations on the original work. In this connection, I may specially mention Messrs. F. S. Growse and Wm. Crooke, of the Civil Service ; and the Eev. Messrs. Zenker, C.M.S., of Mathurd ; Coley, L.M.S., of Almord; Edwin Greaves, L.M.S., of Mir- zapur; and the Eev. Messrs. Robb and Traill, of the Scotch U.P. Mission, Eajputana. My former teacher and friend. Pandit Lakshmf Nardyan, of Allahabad, has again rendered me, as in the former edition, helpful service. Special acknowledgement is also due, of my indebted- ness in the preparation of this edition, to the publi- cations of Messrs. Grierson and Beames, of the Bengal Civil Service, and Dr. A. D. Eudolf Hoernle. VI 11 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. Without the admirable Comparative Grammars of the two last named, and the contributions of Mr. Grierson to our knowledge of the dialects of Eastern India, it would have been impossible for me thus to have en- larged the Grammar in the direction of the treatment of the eastern forms of speech. My resources for the investigation of Naipdli have unfortunately been limited ; as, notwithstanding repeated attempts, I was unable to procure more than the N'aipali Gospel of Luke, printed by the Serampur press, until the Grammar was printed as far as the Tables of Dialectic Conjugation ; when, happily, I succeeded in obtaining the " Nepalese Grammar" of the Eev. A. Turnbull, MA., B.D., of the Church of Scotland Mission, Darjeeling ; by the aid of which I was enabled to revise a part of the N^aipali portion of the Tables, and incorporate a number of new forms. I should not omit also an appreciative reference to Mr. Frederic Pincott's Hindi Manual, from which I have taken the liberty, in some instances, to draw valuable illustrations of Hindi construction and idiom, out of the many which enrich its pages. It may not be amiss to remark, in conclusion, that the revision and enlargement of this Grammar has been carried out under considerable disadvantage, on account of many years' enforced absence from India, and residence in a provincial capital, with little opportunity of access to large libraries, or of con- ference with other scholars in the languages of North India; while the many duties connected with the PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. IX charge of a large city cliurch have perforce greatly limited the time which it was possible to give to Hindf studies. Under such conditions, it could hardly be otherwise but that many defects and imperfections should still remain, which under other circumstances might not have appeared. But the flattering reception which was given to the first edition of the Grammar encourages me to hope that, notwithstanding these, the work in its present revised and enlarged form, may meet with a no less kind reception from those to help whom it has been prepared. S. H. KELLOGG. Toronto, Canada, September, 1892. PEEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. Of the two hundred and fifty million inhabitants of India, speaking a score or more of different languages, fully one fourth, or between sixty and seventy millions, own the Hindi as their vernacular.* In all the great centres of Hindu faith in IS^orth India, alike in populous Benares, Allahabad and Mathurd, and in the mountains about the sacred shrines of Gangotri, Keddrndth, and Badrinath, among the Himalayas ; in many of the most powerful independent native states of India, as in the dominions of the Mahfirajd Sindhia, and the extensive territories under the Mahdrdja of Jaipur and other Edjpiit chiefs ; in short, throughout an area of more than 248,000 square miles, Hindf is the language of the great mass of the population. Only where Mohammedan influence has long prevailed, as in the large cities, and on account of the almost exclusive currency of Moham- medan speech in Government offices, have many * This estimate is probably too low. Mr. Oust says tbat the Hindi- speaking population of India "cannot fall short of eighty millions" [Modern Languages of the East Indies, p. 46), and if the Persianized Hindi called Urdu or Hindustani be reckoned, as by most, a dialect of Hindi, then Hindi must be counted the vernacular of over one hundred millions, and is spoken by more of our race than any language except the Chinese. XU PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. Hindus learned to contemn their native tongue and affect the Persianized Hindi known as 'Urdu.' Of the importance, especially to those who have been called to places of authority in North India, of thoroughly knowing a language so widely diffused, and of the need of a grammar which shall exhibit its chief phenomena, one would think that no doubt could be entertained. But chiefly because Urdii has been adopted by Government as the official language, it has come to pass that although this dialect represents grammatically only a single western form of speech, and is the vernacular only of the Mohammedans of Korth India, it has been read and studied by foreigners in India, to the great neglect, even almost to the exclusion, of the living Aryan speech which is the actual vernacular of the great mass of the Hindii population. Many, indeed, have even been led to believe that the Hrdii with which they are them- selves familiar, is essentially the vernacular of the Hindus as well as of the Mohammedans of l^orth India; that the only difference between Urdii and Hindi consists in the use of a different alphabet ; and that such a language as Hindi, apart and distinct from Urdii, exists only in name and not in reality. The refutation of such a theory needs no other argument than that which is afforded in the declen- sional and conjugational tables of this grammar. Others, again, while rightly asserting for Hindi an individual existence, have still erred in their apprehension of the relation between it and Urdu. Thus when I first entered India, I was repeatedly assured that the main difference between Hindi and PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. XIU Urdii was one of vocabulary. And this statement, indeed, was quite correct, if it be understood to apply only to that special form of Hindi which is exhibited in those religious and educational works which owe their origin, directly or indirectly, to the foreigner in India. Many foreigners who have written books in Hindi, seem to have imagined that by merely substituting Sanskrit for the Arabic and Persian terms which are found in Urdu, that familiar dialect might be at once transformed into bond fide Hindi. Hence, apparently, has arisen the strange but popular notion, that the ' purity ' of Hindi is to be measured by the degree to which a writer may have succeeded in excluding from his pages words of Arabic or Persian origin ; a standard of purity, according to which the author of the Rdmdyan has failed, and the gifted Kabir, with his free use of Arabic and Persian words, must renounce his claim to be considered a Hindi poet. But the early delusion on this subject was soon dispelled. When we fancied that we were speaking something like 'pure Hindi,' the villagers stared confounded at our sonorous Sanskrit terms, many of which were evidently less familiar to them than even the Arabic and Persian of the Urdii. Still it was equally plain that, although often using Arabic and Persian words, they themselves did not speak Urdii, except, perhaps, in condescension to our ignorance. Their Hindi, indeed, was scarcely more intelligible to us than was ours to them ; but it soon became quite plain that the speech of the people differed from Urdii much more notably in grammatical forms than in vocabulary. Similarly, in XIV PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. literature, the difference between the Hindi, e.g. of Tulsi Dds^ Sur Das or Kahir, and modern Urdii, is not by any means merely in their choice of words; it is not that they scrupulously exclude Arabic and Persian terms, for they do not. The special difficulties and peculiarities, for instance, of the Rdmdyan are of a much more radical and serious nature. They concern, not mere vocabulary, but also the grammatical forms and syntax of the language. Eegarding these distinctive peculiarities of Hindf, the student hitherto has had no adequate help. No grammar, indeed, has hitherto even attempted or professed to exhibit, with any approach to thorough- ness or completeness, the actual colloquial and literary language of the Hindus of North India. Mr. Ether- ington in his grammar has confined his attention to that single modification of Hindi which agrees in grammatical form with the Urdu dialect; only giving, in his last edition, a brief synopsis of the Braj declensions and conjugations. On the other hand, Dr. Ballantyne in his brief Braj Grammar, as also Prof. De Tassy in his ' Grammaire de la Langue Hindoui,' passing by the Urdii dialect, gave only the forms of the Braj ; which, indeed, had been previously exhibited in an old Hindi Grammar published by Government in connection with the College of Port William. All grammarians of the Hindi hitherto, have alike entirely ignored the eastern type of Hindi, as represented, e.g., with some ad- mixture, in the Rdmdyan of Tulsi Dds. Indeed, it is a remarkable fact that although, of all Hindf books, the writings of Kahir excepted, none compare PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. XV with the Rdmdyan in universal popularity and general influence upon the people, and although this eastern Hindi, even more than the western Braj, may be regarded as par excellence the classic dialect of Hindi, yet not a Hindi grammar hitherto published, nor a Hindi dictionary, previous to the late valuable work of Mr. Bate, so much as hints the existence of any grammatical form or construction, peculiar to Tulsi Das or any similar writer.* What Hindi grammarian, for example, has ever noted the future in ^, so common not only in the Edmdyan^ but in all the modern eastern Hindi dialects ? Or where has the fact been noted in any grammar, that one chief distinguishing characteristic of the Urdii and other western Hindi dialects, viz. the passive construction of the perfects of transitive verbs with the case of the agent in ne, does not exist in eastern Hindi ? and that this fiC is never used by Tulsi Dds, even when he employs the passive construction ? This absence of the assistance needed by the Hindi student, has doubtless been the occasion of increasing the prevailing indifference of Europeans to classic Hindi, and of turning many to the special study of the more fashionable XJrdii, for which helps have become so abundant. Very many civilians in India, instead of seeking the rewards and honours offered by Government to the thorough student of the great Hindi poem of Tulsi Dds, have preferred to compete for the prizes * Happily this is now (1892) no longer true ; as witness, e.g., the excellent Hindi Manual of Mr. Pincott, published some years ago ; not to speak of the more elaborate works of Mr. Beames, and the grammars of Mr. Grierson and Dr. Hoernle. XVI PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. which are offered for high proficiency in Arabic and Persian, languages utterly alien to all but the Mo- hammedan population of India. Too many missionaries, seeking to influence the religious thought of the people, have omitted to make themselves familiar with the one poem which, more than any other, is exerting a present, living influence, direct or indirect, upon the religious thought of the Hindus of IN'orth India. And one chief reason of this neglect of their great vernacular epic is to be found in the utter absence of any work which might aid the student in its interpretation. For, as I know by a vexatious experience, it is by no means so easy as might be imagined to obtain, in a small station in India, a trustworthy pandit^ really competent to guide the student to a thorough critical knowledge of the Rdmdyan or any similar poetry, l^o less diffi- culties have hitherto met him who would acquaint himself with the actual speech of the Hindus in the district where he might be stationed. Most of these dialects have no literature j and whatever the intrinsic merits of some of them may be, the attempt to force any one of them into the field already preoccupied by the Urdu dialect as the lingua franca of INorth India, would doubtless be both unwise and futile. Still it is evidently very desirable that the magistrate in his court should be able to understand the rustic witness, and the missionary disputing in the bazaar, his adversaries, without the aid of a third, and not always disinterested, party. Eut no effort whatever has yet been made to indicate the actual nature and extent of those dia- lectic variations, which always perplex, and sometimes discourage, him who really desires a knowledge of the PREFACE TO FIRST EDIIION. XVU spoken language of tlie people^ as well as that of their books. Thus it was, that, embarrassed by these difficulties, I was led to take up the Hindi, with such j^andits as might be procured, and note and arrange, primarily for my own use, and with no thought of writing a book, facts of the class above referred to. In this way, in the course of several years, gradually grew up a considerable body of notes on Hindi, which has finally developed into this Grammar. My aim has accordingly been, not merely to reproduce, under a new arrangement, the matter of grammars previously ex- isting, but rather to supply their omissions and supple- ment their defects. All existing Hindi and TJrdii grammars have been carefully studied, with this par- ticular point in view. Thus, in addition to the funda- mental matter pertaining especially to modern standard Hindi, or common to that with other Hindi dialects, the grammar now offered to the public will be found to contain a large amount of matter not to be found in any Hindi Grammar hitherto published. I may be allowed to mention the following particulars. I. For practical reasons, that variety of Hindi which agrees in grammatical form with the Urdii has been taken as the basis of the Grammar. It is to this form of Hindi, for various reasons, that the student commonly first directs his attention; and, moreover, in virtue of the position of this dialect as a lingua franca throughout the whole Hindi area of North India, and its adoption by the educational authorities as the medium of vernacular instruction in all Hindi schools, it has a special claim to our primary consideration ; b XVni PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. and, for sucli reasons only, may be justly termed the ' standard dialect ' of Hindi.* But while thus yielding to this ' standard Hindi ' a priority in certain respects, I have endeavoured to treat with equal thoroughness the two great dialects of classic Hindi literature as of no less importance to the Hindi scholar. Of these dialects, the Braj and the old Purbijf the former represents the western, as the latter represents the eastern type of Hindi. The very numerous and marked peculiarities of these two typical dialects, in declension, conjugation, and syntax, have been for the first time collected, classified, and compared. It is not indeed claimed that all the various forms of these types which may occur in Hindi, will be found in these pages; nor will this be expected by any one at all familiar with the almost endless vagaries of Hindf writers. It is hoped, however, that the student of the Preni Sd(/ar, the Edj'niti, or the Rdmdi/an, will rarely be disappointed in consulting this work,:}: Outside of these books any variations not noted in this grammar will probably be found but slight and unimportant deviations from some central type herein exhibited. II. In addition to the various forms of literary Hindf, the declension and conjugation of nine or ten less im- portant colloquial dialects have been exhibited in these * This form of Hindi has also often been termed khari loli, or the * pure speech ; ' and also, by some European scholars, after the analogy of the German, ' High Hindi.' f That is, ' Eastern ; ' more precisely called, by Hoernle, the Bais- wari, or language of Baiswar, the land of the tribe called the Bais. X A few passages in the Rama y an, however, chiefly in the Lanhd Kdnd and Uttar Kdnd, have been written in pure Sanskrit; and I have regarded the explication of such passages as belonging to Sanskrit rather than to Hindi grammar. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. XIX pages. This is, I believe, the first attempt to set forth, with any approach to completeness, the actual living speech of the Hindi-speaking population of North India. It is indeed true that local variations may be adduced almost without number, which have not been mentioned in this grammar ; but the dialects which have been exhibited, it is hoped, will be found to represent all of the leading varieties of speech, from Bangtil in the east to Gujardt and Sindh in the west. Moreover, all these numerous dialects may be readily assigned to two or three general types, so that excessive detail might embarrass, rather than aid, the student. I trust that in this respect this grammar may prove a valuable aid to the foreigner in India, who would learn to understand the special vernacular of the district where he may reside. For although colloquial speech cannot be learned from books alone, yet a grammar, if it indicate the forms for which we are to listen, may assist us in acquiring a knowledge of colloquial speech. Nor are these rude dialects without value in a literary point of view. For very often some unusual form in literature may be explicated by a reference to the colloquial of some rustic district ; while for the purposes of the philologist, it is such wild, unpruned dialects as these, which of all others promise and yield the richest harvest of valuable fruit.* * I have ventured for practical reasons to deviate in some cases from the common nomenclature of these dialects, and have preferred generally to indicate them by names indicative of the modern names of the province in which they are used. Thus, Avadhi, of course, denotes the dialect of Oude ; Riwdi, that of the state of R'lwd ; etc., etc. It may be noted here, that the Eajputana dialect of Jlewdr, is also essentially that of the Mairs, and might, perhaps with equal pro- priety, be designated either Mairwdri or Mewdr'i. XS PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. III. Especial attention has been given to the matter of illustration. In grammar, particularly, mere assertion, unsupported by example, is extremely un- satisfactory. And when one undertakes to write a grammar of any language not his own, examples constructed by the author himself to fit his rules, however correct they may be, can hardly inspire a student with perfect confidence in his guide. I have accordingly made it a rule to support every statement of any consequence in etymology or syntax, by one or more illustrations, which, with no exception of any importance, have been culled from native books, or taken down fresh from the lips of the people. Nor have I allowed myself to draw an illustration from any Hindi book written by a foreigner ; for even those European scholars who have most thoroughly mastered an Oriental, language, cannot be regarded as models so trustworthy as native authors, who write in their own vernacular. Very few, if any, Hindi books have been written by Europeans, which in some casual turn of expression, or occasional peculiarity of idiom, do not betray their foreign origin; while the great majority of such books would prove in many important respects quite misleading to him who should trust them implicitly as guides to a knowledge of Hindi. Wliile the abundant illustration characteristic of this grammar, as will be evident at a glance, has very materially increased the size and expense of the book, it is believed that its practical value to the student has thereby been much enhanced. The illus- trations of literary Hindi have been drawn chiefly from the Pi^em Sdgar and the Rdmdyan. To this PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. XXI special use of these works, I have been led, partly by the fact that these books have been chosen by Govern- ment,* for the examination of candidates in connection with the civil and military services of India, so that the illustration of their grammar and idiom is especially demanded. And I may venture to express the hope that by all applicants for admission to the Indian services, or contestants in the competitive examinations which are held for Indian civilians, this grammar, with its copious illustrations, may be found to meet a real need. A second consideration which has seemed to justify a prominent reference to these books, is found in their undeniable popularity and influence among all classes of the Hindu population. For, however much may have been said against the Hindi of the Prein Sdgar^ and even of the Rdmdyan, by critics commonly familiar only with Urdii, and there- fore judging everything in Hindi, either by English standards of taste, or from a Mohammedan point of view, the fact remains that the Hindus, from the highest to the lowest, learned and unlearned, greatly admire their style. Crowds, even of the most illiterate rustics, may often be seen listening eagerly to some Brahman intoning the measured rhyming prose of the Prem Sdgar. And although much has been said of the unintelligibility of the Rdmdyan^ it is the experience of every missionary, at least everywhere in the Ganges valley, that a happy quotation from the Rdmdyan in preaching or in conversation, is sure to awaken a look of intelligent appreciation from * Since this was written, tlie Prem Sdgar has been dropped from the list of books required for examination. XXll PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. even tlie rudest villagers. "No civilian, and especially no missionary", can well afford to remain ignorant of a book so popular and influential with the people ; and if this grammar shall serve in any degree to aid and stimulate the study of the great poem of Tulsi Das, one great aim of my work will have been accomplished. But while a large proportion of my quotations have been taken from the P/-em Sugar and the Rdmdyan, other books have not been ignored. In particular, I have now and then drawn from the sententious Braj prose of the Rdjnitl, the western Hindi of Kahir^ the Sukh Bilds, and the metaphysical Shat Darsmi Darpan of Pundit NiUcanth Gore Shdstri^ and, as an excellent example of the modern colloquial style, Kanva Lachhman Sinh's translation of the Sanskrit drama of Shakuntald by Xaliddsa.* Mdrwdri can scarcely be called a literary dialect ; the only work accessible to me, has been the Marwari Khijdls or ' Plays,' edited by Eev. Mr. Eobson of the Scotch Presbyterian Mission, Bea^T. lY. Another feature peculiar to this grammar will be found in the philological notes, occupying in all about fifty pages, in which I have attempted to indicate the probable origin and derivation of the forms of the Hindi language, and the relation of various dialectic forms to one another, and to the Sansla*it and old Prakrit dialects of India. In a field where, until the late researches of scholars like * Mr. Frederic Pincott has edited this in an admirable manner, with Lexicon and Grammatical Notes. It should be in the hands of every learner of Hindi. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. XXllI Mr. Beames and Dr. Hoernle, so little had been done, I cannot venture to hope that I have always succeeded in reducing apj^arent chaos to order, and in correctly pointing out the lines of derivation. I have only endeavoured, with no little diffidence, to indicate the conclusions to which facts, so far as known, would seem to guide us. And while I have not been able to follow implicitly the guidance of any one individual, it has on several occasions been a satisfaction to find that authorities like the learned scholars mentioned, had been independently led to the same conclusions with myself. Y. Besides the above, much else will be found in this Grammar which is strictly new, both in matter and in arrangement. In the sections, for instance, on pronunciation, I have aimed at more precision and accuracy than has been previously attempted. If some may deem that I have sometimes erred in the way of an over-refinement, I am still glad to know that some of the best practical masters of Hindi have recognised the chief distinctions which I have made in treating of this subject. A nomenclature of the tenses has been presented which is believed to be more uniform and philosophical than any which has been hitherto employed, and which, it is hoped, may commend itself to Hindi scholars. The chapter on Derivation, again, w^ill be found more than a mere arbitrary list of termi- nations ; I have endeavoured rather to group them according to their probable mutual relations and affi- nities. In the section on Compound Words, all, it is believed, is quite new. Strange to say, no Hindf Grammar that I remember, has dealt with this most XXIV PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. characteristic feature of the language, although an understanding of the subject is indispensable to the interpretation of almost any page of Hindi poetry. In the Syntax, attention has everywhere been given to those constructions which are characteristic of poetry, especially in archaic Hindi ; and the construction of Compound Sentences, for the first time, has been separately and distinctly treated. The chapter on Prosody, it is hoped, will be found, in completeness and accuracy, all that for any practical purpose the student of Hindf can desire. The Prosody of Hindi de- serves and will repay far more study than is commonly bestowed upon it. In no western language is an under- standing of the laws of its prosody so essential to the interpretation and comprehension of its literature as in Hindi, where, indeed, a purely native work in prose is a rare exception. Unfortunately, however, until very lately, there has been no English work on Hindi prosody; and the native works upon the subject are so laden with technicalities and an enigmatical sym- bolism, as without the aid of a rare native prosodian, quite to baffle the student. I shall be glad if I have so cleared away the thorns which have obstructed the entrance, as to tempt my fellow missionaries and others to labour in this attractive field. Finally, it should be remarked that as this Grammar is intended alike for the beginner and for the advanced student, I have endeavoured to indicate by the use of a large type those important fundamental matters to which chiefly the beginner will do well to confine his attention. Matter less fundamental, and intended rather for the advanced scholar, as, e.g., all in the PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. XXV sections upon dialectic Hindi, has been uniformly printed in smaller type. It gives me pleasure to express my grateful ap- preciation of the assistance and encouragement which I have received from many missionaries and members of the civil service, during the years that this grammar has been in progress. In particular, I would express my hearty thanks to the Eev. W. Eobb, of the Scotch Presbyterian Mission, Todgarh, Eajputana, for his in- valuable assistance in the compilation of the sections on the Mdrwdri and other Eajputana dialects, and afterwards in the correction of the proofs of the same. Indeed, it is only due to this gentleman to say that whatever of value those sections may be found to possess, the merit is chiefly due to him. My thanks are also due to Mr. Beames, C.S., of Cuttack, Orissa, for valuable hints and constant encouragement in the work ; and to the Eev. J. D. Bate, of the Baptist Mission, Allahabad, for many a useful suggestion. S. H. KELLOGG. Allahabad, N.W.P., India, December, 1875. NOTE. In the preparation of this Grammar, as now published, the following works have been consulted : Grammaire de la Langue Hindoui : De Tassy. Hindi Manual : Pincott. Introduction to the Maithili Language of North Bihar : Grierson. Seven Grammars of the Dialects and Sub- Dialects of the Bihari Language : Grierson. Hindustani Grammar: Forbes. Hindustani Grammar : Platts. Hindustani Grammar: Dowson. Introduction to Hindustani : Monier- Williams. Nepali Grammar : TurnbuU. Panjabi Grammar : Newton. Gujarati Grammar: Shapurji Edalji. Marathi Grammar : Stevenson. Marathi Grammar : Bellairs and Ashkedar. Sindhi Grammar : Trumpp. Bangali Grammar : Shama Charan. Sanskrit Grammar : Monier- Williams. Institutiones Lingua? Pracriticse : Lassen. Prakrita Praktisha: Vararuchi (edited by Cowell). Comparative Grammar of the A'ryan Languages of India : Beames. Grammar of the Gaudian Languages : Hoernle. The Chapter on Prosody is based upon the study of the following authorities : Chhand^rnava. Chhandodipaka.* Shripingaljidarsha:t Kavi Hira Chand Kanji. Also, the Chapter on Prosody, by John Christian, in Ethering- ton's Hindi Grammar. * A small but useful compendium issued by the Government of the N.W.P. t An exhaustive Treatise on Piosody, in the Braj dialect, with a Gujerati Commentary. CONTENTS. Preface to the Second Edition V Preface to the First Edition .... xi Note . . xxvi Chap. I. Of the Letters .... I Mode of Writing' .... 5 Pronunciation .... 10 Classification of Letters 24 Table I. Alphabets used in Hindi 26, 27 Chap. II. Of Sandhi ..... 28 Gun and Vr'uldhi . . . . . ib. Sandhi of Vowels .... 29 Sandhi of Consonants . . , . 31 Chap. III. Of the Constituent Elements of Hindi 34 Tatsama Words .... 41 Tadbhava Words .... 45 Vowel Clianges . . . . . 46 Consonantal Chang^es . . . . 53 Conjunct Consonants 61 Chap. IV. The Dialects of Hindi . 65 Chap. V. Of Substantives . . 81 Gender ...... ib. Formation of Feminine Nouns . . 93 XXVlll CONTENTS. Declension in High Hindi . Declension in the Western Dialects Declension in the Eastern Dialects Table II. Postpositions PAGE 95 109 113 facing 119 Table III. Dialectic Strong Masc. Declension „ 120 Table IV. Dialectic Weak Masc. Declension . 121 Table V. Dialectic Fein. Declension ; Open Noun 122,123 Table VI. „ „ „ Close Noun 124 Origin of Declensional Forms . . . 125 Origin of Postpositions . . . . 128 Chap. VI. Of Adjectives 134 Comparison . . . . . . 139 Chap. VII. Of Numerals ..... 142 Table VII. Numerals .... ib. Dialectic Variants of Cardinals . . . 147 Ordinals 153 Fractional Numbers .... 156 Proportionals ..... 158 Denominatives ..... ib. Collectives ...... 163 Derivation of the Numerals . . . ib. Chap. VIII . Of Pronouns . . . . . 168 Conspectus of Declension of Six H, Hindi Pronouns 174, 175 Dialectic Pronomiual Declension . . . 182 Table VIII. Dialectic Declension: 1st Personal Pronoun . . . . . facing 196 Table IX. Dialectic Declension : 2nd Personal Pronoun . . . . following- the above Table X. Dialectic Declension : Demonstratives following the above CONTENTS. XXIX PAGE Table XI. Dialectic Declension of the Relative and Correlative . . . following the above Table XII. Dialectic Declension of the Interrog- ative and Indefinite Pronouns . following the above Pronominal Adjectives .... 200 Table XIII. Pronominal Adjectives : High Hindi ib. Table XIV. Dialectic Forms of Pronominal Adjectives . . ... facing 200 Compound Pronouns .... 206 Origin of tlie Pronominal Forms . . . 208 Chap. IX. Of the Verb 221 Table XV. Conjugation of fJI^^T • • 242-244 Table XVI. Conjugation of ^"RT • • 245-247 Table XVII. Conjugation of efi-^^fj • • 248-250 The Passive Voice . . . . . 251 Causal Verbs ..... 252 Compound Verbs ..... 257 Combinations formed with the Conjunctive Par- ticiple ...... 259 Combinations formed with Verbal Nouns . . 265 Combinations formed with the Inflected Infinitive 207 Combinations formed witli the Imperfect and Perfect Participles .... 268 Nominal Compounds . . . . 271 Dialectic Conjugation .... 270 The Defective Auxiliary in the Dialects . . ib. Conjugation in the Western Dialects . . 284 Table XVIII. Dialectic Conjugation of the Sub- stantive Verb .... facing 304 Table XIX. Dialectic Conjugation of ^•TT facing 308 Conjugation in the Eastern Dialects . . 310 zxx CONTENTS, Table XX. Dialectic Conjugation of ^'?^«!T facing 329 Table XXI. Dialectic Inflected Present and In- definite Perfect of ^TTT'^T • following the above Table XXII. Dialectic Inflected Past Contingent Imperfect of ^■^*n • • • facing 337 Origin of the Verbal Forms . . . 338 Chap. X. Of Derivative and Compound Words . 352 I. Of Derivative Words .... ib. II. Of Compound Words .... 361 Chap. XI. Of Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections .... 373 Adverbs ...... ib. Table XXIII. Pronominal Adverbs of Time . 374 Table XXIV. » of PI ice facing 374 Table XXV. of Direction 375 Table XXVI. of Manner . 376 Prepositions . 386 Conjunctions , 389 Interjections and Enclitics 392 Chap. XII. Of Syntax . Part I. Analytic Syntax Syntax of the Noun „ Adjective „ Numerals „ Pronouns Verb „ Adverbs 394 ib. ib. 425 429 431 441 482 „ Prepositions 486 „ Conjunctions 487 „ luterjectio IS » 492 CONTENTS. XXXI The Repetition of Words OnomHtopffiia Part II. Synthetic Syntax . I. Of the Simple Sentence Of the Parts of a Sentence Agreement . II. Of Compound Sentences A. Co-ordinate Sentences Copuhitive Sentences Disjunctive Sentences Adversative Sentences Causal Sentences B. Suhordinate Sentences Substantive Clauses Adjective Clauses . Adverbial Clauses . Interrogative Sentences . Of the Collocation of Words Chap. XIII. Prosody Fritt Clihand Soma Vritt . Arddhasama Vritt Vishama Vritt Jdti Chhand . Gana C/ihand Mdtrd Chhand „ Dvipdd verse „ Chatushpdd verse ,, Bahupdd verse Metres used in Bhajans ABBREVIATIONS. Ap Apabhransic. Ar Arabic. Av Avadhi. Bang- Baiig^li. Bh Bhojpiiri. Br Braj. Bu Biindelkhandi. E. H Eastern Hindi, G Garhwali. Guj Gnjarati. H Hindi. H. H High Hindi. K., Kan. . . . Kanauji. Kum Kumdoni. W. H. . . M 3Iardthi. Mair Mairvvdri. Mar Marwdri. Mg Magadhi. Mt Maithili. Mw Mewari. N Naipali. OB Old Baisvvari. O. H Old Hindi. Pers Persian. Pr Praiirit. R Riwai. S Slndlii. Sli Sanskrit. Western Hindi. HINDI GRAMMAR. CHAPTER I. OF THE LETTERS. 1. The Hindi language is commonly written, like the Sanskrit, in the Devandgari alphabet.* This alphabet, as nsecl in Hindi, has eleven vowels and thirty-three simple consonants. To these we must add the nasal symbols, Anusvdr and Anundsik, and the symbol for a weak aspiration, Visargi.f The latter of these, however, is of very rare occm-rence in Hindi. The letters are given below, with their equivalents in the Eoman character. 2. It will be observed that all the vowels but the short ^F^f .^^^ * Alphabet. a have two forms. Of these, the form iirst given is used as initial in a word or syllable ; the second, as medial or final. It will aid the memory to observe that the alphabetical order of each class of letters, vowels, mutes, semivowels, and sibilants, is the order of the organs of utterance, beginning with the throat, and ending with the lips. The first five classes of consonants are technically known as the five vargs.% * More commonly called Niigari. t III Sanskrit these three words, as also varg, below, are pronounced with a final short a, inherent in the final consonant, thus, anusvdra, anundsika, visarga and varga. But this a is always silent in prose and colloquial Hindi. Vid. infra, §10, a. X Sansk. '^'^ varga, ' a class.' 1 2 LETTERS. ■ [§ 3. Rem. Hindi exhibits a larg-e number of dialects, most of which, Iioxvever, possess no written literature. All of the dialects, like the High Hindi,* which is taken as the basis of this Grammar, are written, as occasion may require, though not exclusively, in the Devanagari character.f 3. The Devanagari alj)liabet is as follows : YOWELS. ^ « W T « ^ f 2 t^T" i ^ u ^ ic '^ ri 1^ e ^ «« ^J J 0 ^ J au lN"asal symbols, AnundsHi^ "", Anusvdr, ' n- Symbol of the weak final aspirate, Visarg^ : h. Consonants. Gutturals, ^ J^a J^ Jcha T[ ga '^ glia 5: na Palatals, xf dm ^ chha ^ ja 'i^ jha >f ha Cerebrals, ^ f« ^ ijia ^ da ^ dha ^ na Dentals, fl ta ^ tha ^ da ^ dha "^ na Labials, V^ pa tfj pha '^ ba \^ hha T{ ma Semivowels, "^ ya \ ra '^ la '^ va Sibilants, ^ sha '^ ska ^ sa Aspirate, ^ ha * By this term, ' High Hindi,' European scholars, of late years, have denoted that dialect of Hindi which essentially agrees, in grammatical forms and constructions, with the Urdu or Hindustani, tlie vernacular of the Muhammadans of India. This latter, indeed, might he well described as an Arabized or Persianized form of High Hindi. Tlie High Hindi is that dialect which the Government of India recognizes in the busines^s of the courts, and in which, as a lingua franca understood by Hindi-speaking people everywhere, have been prepared the Hindi educational works used in Government and Mission Schools, the received translations of the Holy Scriptures, and the largest part of the literature which has been produced by the missionaries of Northern and Central India. t Other alphabets, sometimes used, are given below, Vid. p. 23. § 3.] LETTERS. 3 a. Besides the above, classical Sanskrit had three additional Sounds pe liar to Diale vowels, viz., "^ ri, "% Iri, 'c^ /rt ; and the Vedic Sanskrit, one additional cerebral consonant, 35 h, which is still preserved in the Marathi. The Panjjibi, GujarJiti, and Oriya have also preserved the sound, though denotin"- it by different characters. This same consonantal sound is heard in the Mairwari dialect ot" Hindi, and in some, at least, of the Himalayan dialects. So also the villagers of the central Doab sometimes give the final ^ of 17^x1^, ' the sacred fig tree,' an unmistakable cerebral sound. But none of the above letters have any place in literary Hindi. b. In addition to the above vowels, a short e, nearly like : e in ' met,' exists in the colloquial of some districts. It is I heard, for example, in the local dialect about Ayodhya and in Riwd, chiefly in certain verbal and pronominal forms ; as, e.g., in the subst. verb, aliennn, 'I am,' ahes, 'thou art,' \ etc.* It may also be heard in some words in the Doab, where it has arisen from the shortening of a previous long e ; as, e.g., in hetiyd for hif'n/a, dim. from beta, < a son.' This sound is also said to be common in the N.W. Himalayas. It may be noticed, as further indicating the existence of this short e, that "5, which, according to some books on Prosody, should be uniformly long, in the Ramayan is sometimes I reckoned prosodially short. In these cases, it commonly appears as a substitute, either for short i, as injelii ior Ji/ii; or for a short «, as in rdkheu for rdklidu.-^ Rem. Lassen has noted the fact that this same letter also represented a I long and a shoi-t sound ui the literary Prakrit.;]: i c. The dialects of Avadh and Riwa present in certain pronominal forms also a short u, as in on kd for iin kd. * For further illustrations, see tlie Tahles of Declension and Conjuga- tion, and chap. xiii. on Prosody. J t Abundant illustrations of this statement nill be found in the Ramayan. Vid. chap. xiii. on Prosody. X Inst. Ling. Prac. § 19, 4. 4 LETTERS. [§ 4. d. According to Hoernle and Grierson, the colloquial dialects east of Allahabad exhibit not only this short e, 6, but also a short di and du, differing- from the corresponding long sounds simply in quantity.* To represent these four sounds, unknown to the Devanagari alphabet, Hoernle has introduced four characters from the Bangali and Panjabi, in which he has been followed by Grierson. These are as follows, the initial form being in each case given first : JJ e, JT ui, -^ T 0, ^T T ""• It will be observed that these differ from the corresponding long vowel characters merely in that the strokes above the line are doubly curved ; and that the initial forms of e and di face to the left instead of the right. t These characters will be used for the notation of these short vowels in the following pages. Vocalization of 4. TliG consoiiants are all vocalized by the short Consonants. yQ^.gl ^f^ wliich is theoretically inherent in each con- sonant. Thus, ^ projDeiiy represents, not k, but ka, ■q, pa; etc. The letters are indicated by adding the word ^"^^ Jcdr ; as, ^^T^ akdr, ' the letter a ' ; cT^nT takdr, 'the letter f ; etc. "?:, when first in a compound consonant, as in ^ r/*:, is indicated as \XR 7^eph. When no particular letter is intended, the term ^^T aJcshai^ often corrupted into ^^T achclihar^ is used ; as in the phrase, ^f ^T ^T ^"^T 1 ^^'^^ kaun sd akshar hai, ' what letter is that?' a. As a general rule the inherent a is silent after a final consonant. But in many words in the eastern dialects it is pronounced, and in such cases in the following pages it will * Vid. Grierson : Seven Grammars, Part i. p. 10 ; also, Hoernle : Comp. Gramm. p. Ix. t 111 this last particular, I have varied slightly from Hoernle. §§ 5, 6.] MODE OF WRITING. 5 be represented by the sign "3, as used by Grierson in his 'Seven Grammars.' Thus, ^^ is ghar, but "^Xo, jNlt. obi. sing., is gliara. Mode of Writing the DEVANAGARf. 5. '^ a being inherent in each, consonant, is only ivfode of Writing written when initial in a word or syllable ; tlins, we Vowels. write '^^ ap^ '^% tua, bnt tj pa^ 7[ ta. The other vowels, when following a consonant, are snbstitnted for the inlierent a^ and, in this case, the second of their two forms, as above given, is used. But when the vowel sound is initial in a word or syllable, the first of the two forms is required; as, ^^ uJc, ^•t lui, tt\ ip^ \x^ iJcJi^ ^T'^ gdo^ ^t; ddl. Of the several non-initial vowel forms, T «, '^ h t o^ and "^ aii,, are ^vi'itten after, f ^ before, "^ e and *" af\ over, and ^ if, ^ u, and r/\ under the consonants which they vocalize. Thus, the several vowel sounds, when they follow ^, are written as follows : ^ ka, cRT kd, fcfi ki, ifiV ^^h ^ ^'(, cR ku, H At'i, % ke, ^ Ae, % kcd, cfi /idi, ^ ko, ofix ko, cR^ /{(in, efiT /can. When initial, in any syllable, the vowels are all written before the following' consonants : as, "^rf af, ^^ ud, '^X f^>'> etc. Instead oF ^ ai initial, we sometimes find, in Hindi books, the combination ^; but this is not correct and should never be imitated. 6. The consonants have but one invariable form. Form of Con- Excepting the cerebrals, and ^, i|, ^, x, and ^, they all have one perpendicular, with one horizontal stroke ; which latter, again, is broken in three letters, viz., ^ cUi, *f b/i, and >17 , for ^j'h. a- ^ Jh has two alternative forms, ^ and Ti. The former is often used in many dialects ; the latter is / 6 CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. [§ 7. the regular form in the Marwari dialect. These forms, like ^, and all the other consonants, are used both as initial and as non-initial. h. In Mcirwdri, and often in other dialects, h and v are distinguished merely by a diacritical point ; thus, ^ h, ^ v. The character ^ is not commonly used ; its place is regularly taken by "q. No sibilant is used but g s. 7. In addition to the above simple consonants, a great number of compound letters are used. The compound form is used to denote the non-intervention between its elements of the inherent a. Thus, ^H is sata, but ^ is sta ; tt^ is ^f«^'«, but ^T, tva. In certain cases, however, to be hereafter mentioned, the elemen- tary forms are regularly used, though no full vowel sound intervene ; as, cfp^flT, ' doing,' pronounced Jcai^td ] but the Sk. Jcarttd, ' a doer,' is written cfiT^T.* a. It may be remarked, for the guidance of the student, that the use of the compound consonants is chiefly confined to the pure Sanskrit words iu the language ; in words of Prakrit origin, the elementary letters are commonly preferred. h. Consonants are compounded in tbreeways: viz., Istly, by writing one above the other, as, i^ kk, g tt; 2ndly, by writing one after the other, omitting' in all but the last the perpendicular stroke, and uniting- the remainder of the character to that next following ; as, ^ hd, ^ tth, ^ yy ; 3rdly, some letters, when in combination, partially or wholly change their form ; thus, ^ + 11 becomes ^ ksjj, also written '^; ol + 'sr, '^jn- (1) "JQ takes two different forms, according as it is the first or last letter of a compound. Thus, when initial in a conjunct, it is written as a semicircle above the second consonant, as * Vid. § 14, c. § 8.] CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 7 in ^q sarp ; but when non-initial, it takes the form of a short stroke below the preceding consonant, as in ^lu grahan. (2) When a conjunct of which x; ^ is the first member, consists of more than two consonants, the semicircle reph is written over the last letter, as in \^^^ dharmm, •^^ sarvv. When a conjunct with r initial is vocahzed by f i, '^ i, "^ e, *" a/,"^ o,^ ail, or is followed by Anusvar, then reph is written to the right of them all ; thus, ywff dharmmi, ^flf murtti, ^^ sarvvam, etc. 8. Coniuncts are classified as strong-, weak, or mixed, acf^ording' to the Classificatioii •' of Coiijuncts. cliaracter of tlie letters composing them.* Conjuncts formed of strong letters only, are termed strong, and those formed of weak letters only, weak conjuncts. Combinations of strong and weak letters are called mixed conjuncts. The following list will he found to comprise all tlie more common combinations, arranged in these tliree classes. As given bilow they are all vocalized with a. Steong Conjuncts. 1^ kk, eJ5f kkh, "ffi kt ; 1^ gdli ; ^ chch, ^, c/tc/i/i ; ^ JJ, ^ l/h ; J ff,j fth ; ^ dg, ^ dd ; tcjf tk, tT tf, "j^ tfh, Tq tp ; ^ dg, -^ dd, r^ dd/i, ^ dhh ; ^ pt, TXT PP, '^Pplr, ^ hj, ^ hd, 3cJ bdh, ^ hb, o>{ hbh. Weak Conjuncts. TTdj, ^ nn, M ny-, W ''^'5 ^3? nm, ^ mj, -^ nr, ^ nv, ^ ns; ^ m)i, Wf mm, J^ my, ^ mr, ^ ml, ^ mh ; ^ yy ; T$ rn, f\ rm, ^ ry, ^ rv, ^ rsh, -^ rsh, | rh ; ^ Im, ^ ly, ^ //, ^^ Ih ; ^ vy, pj vr, l", o^ vv ; -^ shif, ^ aby, "^ sbr, '^ sbl, -g shv, "^ sh)i ; tJT shm, Taf shy, ig shv ; ^ sn, ^ ivy?, ^ 67/, ly 5?-, ^ sf, T^^ ss; Mixed Conjuncts. ^ Aw?, ^ A7/, 9R kr, ^ A/, IP kv, ^ A-i// ; ;§I kby ; ^ ^7?, 7?T gm, TSr 57/, ^ ^T, 3^ gl, l^gv;"^ gbn, ^ gby, ^ ghr ; -^ nk, * By the strong letters are intended all the five classes of mute letters, both smooth and aspirated ; by weak letters, all other consonants. 8 ADDITIONAL SIGNS. [§§ 9-11. ^ nkh, ^ ng, ^ ngh ; ^ chy ; ^ chhr ; ^ //?, ^ /m, 551 ;>, ^ />, ^ y'y ; g hch, S^ /ic/i/i, ^ ///, "5^ )'i/7i ; ^ (//- ; 1^ ?if, T^ nfh, TJ^ nd; T!^ ndh ; "^ tn, (Jf tm, ^ ty, "^ ^r, ^ /r, '^ ts; ^ /% ; ^ dn ', Vf f/Zi^/, ^ dhr, "^ rf/iz; ; nT nt, T^ nth, ^ wr/, «^ ?>//, IT pr, ^ ;;/, x^ /w ; ^ by, ?f /»;• ; «l hhy, ^ ZjA/- ; ^ rk, ?t r/tA, ;iT '•5-, "^ r^7i, =# rc/<, ^ rchh, ^ r/, ^ r^, ^ rth, ^ ?*f/, 'V^ rdh, q ryj, ^ ;'/>, ^ r/^A ; ^^ M, ^ Ip, ^^^ lb ; ^ shch ; ■5^ ^Aj^, Iff sAf, '5 5A,^/i, Tsq .9^/7, "BIT sJ}in, ^f sAt/ ; Tgj sk, >^ st,'^sth, ^ 5;^, ^ 5;^A. 9. Animdsik (^•T«TTf^^) ""? simply denotes the nasalization of a preceding vowel, and can therefore never beg;in a syllable. It is written directly over, or to the right of the vowel thus nasalized ; thus, ^^f kahdii, ^x kawi. In books edited by foreigners, Anusv^r is commonly written instead of Anunasik. 10. Anusvdr (^•f^j^ ) *, which, in strict accuracy, denotes a stronger nasalization than the above, is written, like Anundsik, over, or to the right of the preceding vowel; as, ^^^ amh, ■^t^ bank, ^ S071. 11. P^isarg (f^^), meaning 'rejection,' (i.e., of ^or"^,) indicates a weak aspiration, which has euphonically taken the place of those letters. It is only found in pure Sanskrit words, and even then, though occurring in the original, is commonly omitted in Hindi. It is written thus, : ; as, e.g., in '^:^ dulikh, written and pronounced ^t§ dukh, = ^^ + t§ dus + kha ; ^«fT;^^Tn" anta/ikaraii.^ Rem. 1. The native grammarians give a different explanation oi visarg, regarding it, and not s, as the original sound, and interpreting it as meaning 'omission' of breath. But I prefer the explanation given above ; for the reason that while in the Indo-Aryan languages the neakeiiing of s to h is very common, the reverse change is at least very rare.f * Colloquially, about Mirzapur, sometimes * takes the place of this visarg, as in antaskarun, for antalikaran. t Vid. Monier- Williams : Sanskrit Grammar, ^ 8. §§ 12, 13.] ADDITIONAL SIGNS. 9 Rem. 2. Tlie retention of Visarg in Hindi spelling- cannot l)e justified ; as the sound had .ilready disiippeared in Prakrit, and does not properly belong- to the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars.* 12. Besides these, several other signs are used in Sanskrit, which, as they occasionally appear in Hindi, may here he explained. (1) Virdm {f^i^j^), ^ pause,' is written under a consonant, thus, cfi k, and denotes the absence of the inherent a by which the consonant is vocalized. (2) yJvagrah ('S^^^), i, indicates the elision of an initial ^ a after a final ij Itd/ndi/an Bd., for "^T^^^ ^T^efiT"^ Rdmdyan Bdl Kdnd. (5) In some books issued by Enjilish publishers the Eng;lish punctuation marks are used. Of late, native pub- lishers also are beginning- to introduce them, but in such works as I have seen they are often used very inaccurately. 13. The orthography of Hindi is as yet in a very unsettled state. •! is constantly substituted for xij", even in Sanskrit words, where rule or accurate usage would demand it ; as in fWKyi for f^i;Tir, J[^ for ^Tjj, etc. The same confusion exists * Vid. Hoernle: Comp. Gramm. p. 26. 10 PRONUNCIATION. [§ 14. with reference to the characters ^ and ^, and also the sibilants ^, ^; tlie tendency is to substitute ^ for the other sibilants. T§ is also often written for an original ^. The Sanskrit rules of orthography are the only recognized standard at present; but these rules, it should be remembered, apply only, as has been remarked, to the spelling of such Sanskrit words as exist in the language in an unaltered and un- corrupted form. Pronunciation of Letters. rrvowet.*'"'' 14. The vowels, in Hindi, are pronounced, for the most j)art, nearly as in the continental languages of Europe. ^ a lias no exact counterpart in English, though the a in such w^ords as 'hum,' 'uj),' or, in unaccented syllables, the last a in 'total,' 'America,' very nearly represents it. It is said to correspond exactly to the short a in German. Many foreigners in India pro- nounce this ^ « as « in 'cat,' but the correct sound is quite different. a. In conversation and in reading prose, ^ a final, inherent in a consonant, as a general rule, is silent ; as in w^, pro- nounced gun, not guna ; TJ^ rat, not rata. But to this general rule there are a few important exceptions. (1) ^ « final is, of necessity, always distinctly pronounced in a few monosyllables ; as, «t na, fT ^«j W '^'/'^'fl' (2) So, also, it is very slightly sounded after "^ r or ^ v final in a conjunct, and after ^ y final, preceded by ^ i, t; i, or ^ u; as, ^^ shdstra, \t^ inclra, f^H bipra,* t;^^^ ishvaratva, J[^^ gurutva ; ffT^ tii/a,fw^ 2)rii/a, f;f^^ bidriya, 'XJ^^'^ rdjasuya. * It should be noted, that while the Pandits give this pronunciation of these coiijuncts with "^j yet the common people usually sejiarate the lettejs, and ])ronouHce slidstar, bipar, etc. § 14.] PRONUNCIATION. 11 (3) The final inherent a of the Denominative Numerals, commonly written 'q^^, y a dot between the Nag-ari consonants, and by an apostrophe in the Romanized character, as above. I have, however, thought it sufficient, in the present work, having- thus called the attention of tlie student to tiie facts, to ciniforrn to the usual mode of writing- words of the altove classes in Nag-ari and the Romanized character, in the latter simply omitting- tiie inherent a. Rem. 2. It should be observed that the above remarks refer only to a when inherent in a consonant; when non-inherent, it is always distinctly pronounced, whether medial or final ; as, "^"^ tua, ^^^H harun. e. In Eastern Hindi, as might be expected, ^ begins to approximate in sound to the broad Bangali sound of '^ a as in ' ball.' This broad sound is universal in Northern Maithili, and is heard in all the Maithili country in all verbal 2nd plural masculines in ^ or TSIf,as also in the 3rd sing, of the substantive verb, "^«». The same sound is given to "% in Bbojpuri in all 2nd masc. plurals, and in the penultimate a of the inflected present, as in ^?3Wt« * In the 1st edition of this Grammar, this obscure sound of a, noted in this section, is not mentioned ; but instead, in the rases above named, a was said to be ' silent.' My own later oliservation in India had led me to doubt the accuracy of this statement ; and as the representatilisb words into Hindi, these letters, and never 7T ""d 3'j "'"e nsed in speech and writing- by native Hindoos, as the nearest equivalent to the English t and d. 22. ^ is often written with a diacritical point (^), and is then represented in the Eoman character by r. To utter this correctly, place the tongue in the same position as for ^ d^ and try to pronounce the English r ; the proper sound will then be given. The corresponding aspirate ^ has also the same double sound, which is represented by 5 rJi. N.B. Great care should be taken to acquire the correct pronunciation of this letter, which is, undoubtedly, for western organs, the most difficult of all the Hindi sounds ; very few Europeans ever give it correctly. The learner shoidd carefully observe that this is equally distinct from the English r and the Hindi ■^. The sound, when correctly given, much more resembles the cerebral ^, with which, indeed, it is constantly interchanged; many words being written and pronounced indifferently with ^ d, ■g dli, or ^ r? ^ vh', as, •g^ burhd, or ^iST hudlid. The Panjabi distinguishes these two sounds by two separate characters. 16 PRONUNCIATION. [§§ 23-26. 23. The sounds oi 7f t and ^ d do not exist in English. In pronouncing them, press the tongue, not against the gums, as in the English t and d, but against the front teeth. 24. "T /? is pronounced like the English p. ^ b differs from the English b, only in that the contact of the lips is less firm. Many words thus fluctuate in orthography and pronunciation between "^ b and ^ v. rronimciation 25. Each of the above consonants has its aspirate ; i.e., or Aspirated -*■ ' ' Mutes. it is combined with the spirHus asper so as to form but one vocal utterance. The same direction applies to the pronunciation of all the aspirates : viz., utter the smooth consonant with a forcible expiration ; the corresponding aspirates will then be given. In the English phrases, 'up-hill,' 'brick-house,' pronounced so that the p and k shall be closely joined to the following /?, we have the correct sound. Especial care should be taken that no vowel-sound be interpolated between the smooth con- sonant and the aspiration ; thus, xr^ is pronounced pJial, not pahal) ^TTT, khdnd^ not kahdnd, which has a very different meaning. Rem. The greatest pains should be taken by the learner to master the pronunciation of these aspirates. A native, however illiterate, never con- founds the smooth and aspirated consonants ; and, except in the case of XR ph, which is often by the uneducated corruptly pronounced as f, never fails to give the aspirate its correct pronunciation. He never separates the smooth consonant from the following aspiration. Pronunciation 26. ^ n lias the souud of the first n in 'England'; it of Kasals. . t i i n is only found immediately before a guttural consonant, and never begins a word or syllable. "31 h has the sharp sound of n in ' pinch.' Like ^, it is never initial, and is only found before a consonant of its own class. §§ 27, 28.] PRONUNCIATION. 17 a. But in Naijidli and some vulgar forms of Eastern Hindi "5{ sometimes occurs by itself, both as initial and medial. Thus, in Naipali, we have the Honorific Pronoun, rflTf^; ^^Tf^. 'greatness'; T^f^'^cTlfsj, 'holiness,' ■5ltft» 'here'; tJTf^. ' I ''ave found.' In Eastern Hindi, Hoernle gives the examples, '^fiT'^T. 'fire,' '5Iff^, 'no.'* 3{ also occurs alone in Bundelkhfiiuli, in the series of Local Pronominal Adverbs of Place, ^T^'Y, etc.t Rem. Inasmuch as the guttural and palatal nasals can commonly be known by tlieir position befme a mute of their own class, I liave thought it suflScient to represent them, like the dental nasal, by the Roman n without any diacritical point. 27. W ^/j like the other letters of the class to which it belongs, has no equivalent in any European language. It is pronounced after the analogy of the other cerebrals ; i.e., the tongue should be tm-ned back, as for z and ^, so as to strike the roof of the mouth ; then, with tongue in that position, endeavour to pronounce n. a. This nasal, while the only nasal admissible before a consonant of its own order, is not, like the former two, confined in use to such a position, but may occur separately, as, e.g., in the common words ^ijj gun and ^m»l harnan. It never occurs as initial in a word, except in some vulgar dialects of Eastern Hindi, as in X!I'?^f^f , ' man-lion,' imTWj ' Nardil un^ where High Hindi and most other dialects have ^T. b. The common people in the valley of the Ganges, as well as most foreigners in India, make no distinction between this and the dental »f n, wliich is often substituted for it, even in writing. Educated Hindoos, however, carefully distinguish the two letters, and the correct sound should be acquired. 28. T n is slightly more dental than the English w, being pronounced, like the foregoing nasals, after the analogy of the class to which it belongs, i.e., with the tip of the tongue against the front teeth. '^ m is sounded like the corresponding English letter. * Vid. Comp. Grainm. § 13. t Vid. Table xxiii. 2 18 PRONUNCIATION. [§§29-31. rronunciation gg^ T( t/ IS generally pronounced like ?/ in English. a. But sometimes it is pronounced like ^ j, especially when initial in Sanskrit words ; as, e.g., "^^j/ug, pronounced mi jug ; ■^ft^ 1/ogi/a, pronounced Jog. So also it is pronounced as /, when doubled and final ; as, ^^, pronounced, and occasionally written, ^"^u suraj. As above remarked,* "^ final, preceded by short a, so blends with it as to approximate closely to the diphthongal sound ij; ««'; as, H^^ samaya, pronounced ^fl samai, etc. 30- T ^' li^s no precise equivalent in English ; it has a rolling sound like the German r, but much softer. ^ / is not quite identical in sound with the English I. In its utterance the tip of the tongue touches the front teeth, instead of the gums. The resulting soimd is distinctly softer and more dental than the English /. ^ V has a sound intermediate between the English v and w ; v has been chosen as the usual Eoman equivalent. a. But in a conjunct, after any consonant but "^ r or 7f t, ^ has a much softer sound than v, more like the English iv ; as, e.g., g, hwai, ^^, sivarg. In the common conjunct ^ sva, the common people usually soften ^ still further to its cognate vowel, ^ u ; pronouncing, e.g., ^■^, swat', as if it were written ^X, SU7', etc. Similarly, in some parts of the country, people say ^"^^ isur for ^^X islnvar. ^^ initial in the pronoun ^^ wah generally receives the softer sound. Examples of the harder sound, in the conjuncts ^^ rv and c^' tv, are rj^cf tattva, ??^T^ ma/iafva; x:(^ pth'v, ^c( sarv.-\- In these conjuncts with X,, "^ is often hardened to ^, so that many pronounce pih-b, sarb. Pronunciation 31. '^ sk is pronounccd like sh in ' shut ' ; the palatal ■q sh differs little from "51 ; the lingual contact is slightly further back, as in the cerebral mutes. * Vid. § 14, a. (6). f The inherent a of '^ is never pronounced. §§ 32-34.] PRONUNCIATION. 19 ^ 5 is the dental sibilant, and, like the other letters of its class, differs from the corresponding English letter, in that the tongue, in its utterance, touches the teeth instead of the gums. f li does not differ from the English h. a. "cr is very often pronounced exactly like ^ kh ; e.g-., ^t^ dosh is pronounced either dosh or dokh. According;ly, 'q is often inaccurately written for T^; as, ^^, for ^^; "TT^T? for ■"CT^Tj etc. This is the uniform usage in Marwari, as also in much old Hindi. 32. In pronouncing compound letters, each element should be distinctly articulated, whether the letters be different or the same; e.g., oRTTxis kut-td, not kut-d', xn'^\,pat-t/iar, not jjath-ar. But this should not be exaggerated. 33. The following peculiarities of pronunciation occur in Western Marwra and Mairwiira. The vowel-sound in the plural termination ^j «'i is pronounced very nearly as a in ' all,' but a little less open. The sound of "^ cm also closely resembles that of ■^ in this '^. ^ ch and 15 chh are both pronounced like ^; thus, '^^ is pronounced sakki, and l^Tl^, sds. ^ is pi'onounced lightly, and often entirely dropped. The cerebral 35 ^ is common, and is pronounced by rolling- the upturned tongue along the palate. It is sometimes indicated by a diacritical point under ^. 34. The grammarians of the Indian languages have not, for the most part, indicated so many distinctions between the pronunciation of the Indian and English letters as have been made in the above sections. But we are none the less confident that a large part of the Hindi letters do differ slightly from their nearest English equivalents. Let the reader, if in India, ask some native who is learning English, to read an English sentence, and it will soon appear to the attentive listener that he pronounces very few of the English letters quite correctly. Perhaps there is no better way than this to train the ear to catch the nice distinctions of pronunciation to which we have adverted. So long as both words and sounds are 20 PRONUNCIATION. [§§ 35-37. foreign, the sounds are not so closely noticed ; but when the native pro- nunciation of the vowels and consonants is applied to English words, the difference is instantly apparent. 35. It should be observed, before leaving the subject of pronunciation, that Accent, although unquestionably existing in Hindi, is much less strongly marked than in English, and is quite subordinate in importance to Quantity. Even in conversation, the Hindu habitually observes the quantity of each syllable. In the enunciation of sentences, therefore, the student should be careful to avoid that strongly accentuated style, which is so characteristic of English speech, and give to every long vowel in an unaccented syllable its full quantity. 36. It will be apparent from the above sections, that, with the two exceptions of ^ and T(, which each represent two sounds, the Devan^gari alphabet is strictly phonetic. The same ambiguity attaches to y in Bangali ; but the Bangdlis distinguish the two sounds by a diacritical point. So also in the Mahajani or script alphabet, used in business, b and v are distinguished in the same way, merely by a dot.* As the pronunciation of words in which "Cf and '^ occur varies, even in the same locality, they will be uniformly represented in the present work by the Roman letters sh and y. a. To the two exceptions, 'q' and "€f, may be added the compound character '^^^ + "^>7 + «> which is invariably pronounced in Hindi as if it were gy. This conjunct will therefore be represented in this book by the Roman letters gy ; as, "SJ I •! ^y^'^i not jiii'tn. Also, in N. Maithila, ■q rsA IS pronounced rkli, '^ ksh, chchh, and "^ hy, shjy. 37- As above remarked, it is extremely important that the student accurately discriminate in prominciation between closely related letters. Because the undisciplined ear at first detects little or no diiference between, e.g., a smooth and an aspirated consonant, or between the cerebral and dental letters, it is often imagined that a failure to distinguish them in pro- nunciation cannot be a very serious matter. No mistake * See Table I„ pp. 26 and 27. § 38.] PRONUNCIATION. 21 could be greater or more fatal to one who wishes to under- stand the people, and be understood by them. As a matter of fact, multitudes of words of different meaning differ only in these similar letters ; so that, by the neglect of an aspirate, the substitution of our English t for the Hindi dental, or converting the hard ^ r into the Hindi x; r or English ?*, we may say something so foreign to our intention, if not worse, as to make our speech, if understood at all, a matter only of ridicule. a. The foreigner is most apt to blunder in the following particulars, viz. : a smooth consonant is substituted for an aspirate ; the cerebral t and d, or the English t and (/, which have a somewhat similar sound, are substituted for the corre- sponding Hindi dentals ; and, especially, the cerebral ^ r is pronounced like the Hindi "^ r, or the Enghsh r ; doubled consonants are indistinctly pronounced. To these common mistakes may be added an English tendency to shorten a final unaccented long vowel; so that, e.g., ^t;ttT kartd is mispronounced karta ; xj^^\ pdni,pdnj/ ; TTT^ )ndli, mdly, etc. 38' As the best means of impressing the above remarks upon the mind, we subjoin a list of common words similar in sound, but differing in meaning. List of Similar Words. ^TIT khdnd, ' dinner, food, to ^"gT (Tt'TT) khard {hond), ^ to eat.' stand.' «R^T«n'^^«^«^ifl/tocausetosay.' ^"^j hard, *hard.' '^T«TT kdnd, ' a one-eyed man.' ^"^^T k/ifird, ' pure.' i|T1T (Pers. ajU.-) khdnd, 'a t^?;t A^/^^rra, ' a curry comb.' room.' ?^T khattd, ' sour.' ^"IT kird, ' a worm.' oRTT kattd, ' a large louse.' ?itT[T kliird, 'a cucumber.' ^ZT katd, ' cut.' ^T"3«n kdtnd, ' to cut.' ^"TX^T khaprd, ' a tile.' «fiTf!»lT kdtnd, ' to spin.' ei5qT|-7 kujyrd, ' a cloth.' 22 PRONUNCIATION. [§38. ^T"^ gdo, ' a cow.' Y^"^ ghdo, 'a bruise.' ^rwi ghard, ' a water-jar.' Jl^l gard, 'buried.' ^5T garhd, ' a ditch.' T^^T g^iord, ' a horse.' 'ftTT gord, 'white, a European soldier.' 1T^ gt^Kh ' a carriage.' TT^'C^ g<^^vi, ' abuse.' ^Tft chhiiri, 'a knife.' '^^ chiiri, ' a bangle.' W^ chhund, 'to touch.' ^m'[ chiind, 'to leak.' [cold.' ^T^T ^1«TT./«r« Iog7id/ to feel ?jrf7 '^Tl'^J /hd7;d lagiid,' sens. obscoen.' ^V?[ j'hdl, 'spice, pungency.' Wl^ j'dl, ' a net.' fTT^ f(ifff, ' a lock.' ZT^ fa/a, ' a quagmire.' XfZ'^j par/md, 'to read.' Xi^^J j)a7;nd, 'to fall.' ^T«T^7^o'«'j 'water.' Xfxfn^ pdni, 'hand.' tjf^ill jnir-h/d, ' a powder.' wf^^ p/itn;ii/d, ' a boil.' xafj^Hj p/mrii/d, 'true.' XR^ phal, ' fruit ' tl^ pal, ' an instant.' cfTff bdf, ' a word, a thing.' ^TZ '^fl?, ' a road.' *ITrI /^Ao^ ' boiled rice.' HTZ ^/'o6 ' a bard.' "^f^lhiirhu/df'an old woman.' ^f^'^rr huriyd, * sens, obscoen.' ^^T hurhd, ' old.' «r?7r /j«^'«, ' bad.' Z^cfiT (fA-a, 'inoculation ; sectarial mark.' ^^ (/i{Aa, ' hire.' ^T^ f/o/, ' a split pulse.' ^T^ ildl, 'throw' [imperat. ^51 dhdl, ' a declivity.' \2(\ d/w, 'wash' [imperat.). ^ do, ' give' [imjyerat.). ^^T^ hakri, ' a goat.' ^^■'(^ hakhri, ' a house.' a ^it; ^^/^«^'j ' brother.' ^tI^ l>di, ' rheumatism.' ^^Z»/iaf, 'became' [fern.]. ift^ wo(^, 'fat, thick' [fern.). jftffY ^'io^/, ' a pearl.' TffffV^'o^^/ crying' [fern. part.). "Ct^t roti, ' bread.' ^TfT 5«^ ' seven.' ^T^ sdth, ' with.' "WIZ sdth, ' sixty.' §^ 39, 40.] OTHER ALPHABETS. 23 39. Besides the Devan%ari, Hindi is written in three other alpha- Other Alpha- bets, the Kuyathi, the Malidjani or Sarrdfi, and the Baniatiti. The word Kdyathi is from Kdyath, the name of the writer caste among the Hindus ; and the character is so called because certain slight alterations better adapt it to the purpose of rapid writing. Books are printed in tliis character, but it is by no means as common as the Devanagari, and is not much used W. of Allahabad. The Muhdjani (from the Hindi mahdjan, *a banker'), also called Sarrdfi (from tlie corresponding Ar. ,^^\.^), is only used in business, and is the character in whicii receipts, drafts, etc., are commonly written. The Baniauti (from tbe Hindi baniydn, 'a shop- keeper '), differs but little from the Malidjani, and, like that, is used only for business purposes. These alphabets will be found at pp. 26 and 27. a. It will be noticed that the Kayathi form of "^ is identical with that which this letter assumes in Devandgarf, when it is the last letter of a conjunct. In Kayathi, a single letter is commonly written fur a doubled character, and dissimilar conjuncts are resolved. Thus, for kuttd would be written kutd; for gydn, gidn ; for pravesJi,paraves, etc., etc. The same cliaracter is often used indifferently for a long or a short vowel, and v is often written for y. One character is used, in each case, for ^ and f^, ?^ and ^, ^ and ^, and all the nasals. b. Both the Malidjani and also the Baniauti alphabets are derived directly from the Kdyathi, by the omission of the horizontal top-stroke, the perpendicular, or both. Some of the characters, however, have as- sumed a form widely different from both Kdyathi and Nagari, and in ])ractice they are frequently run together. One sign is used to lepresent both the long and the short sound of any vowel, whether initial or non- initial. Similarly, no distinction is made between "^ and fx, or "Ef , '3J and ^, or in the nasals. Anusvar is never written, and tbe vowels are very commonly omitted, so that a word is represented only by its consonantal elements, as in unpointed Persian or Araliic, or in English phonographic short-hand. Thus, kyk stands for ky/'njki; 7i,{ov7ie; kr, for kare, etc. As in English script, the form of the different letters in all these alphabets varies considerably as used in different places and by various persons. 40. An attempt has been made to indicate in the Devanagari cha- Arahic Letters racter, by means of diacritical points, the various letters peculiar to the "^ Hiudi. Arabic and Persian alphabets, as used in Urdii. A few common Hindi books, as the Baitdl Pachisi and Sinhdsan Battisi, contain a large ad- mixture of Persian and Arabic words, and are sometimes met with printed 24 CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. [§41. in this pointed Nagarl. A point written nnder any of the vowels indicates that the vowel is followed or preceded l)y 9 'Ayin ; also "^j occurring alone, represents the consonant 9 . The other pointed characters are as follows : ^ = J oT=j jj-^li ^ = ^ = t rT = L '^ = ^ = L T^-= _i » u^ Classification of Letters. 41. All the letters, both vowels and consonants, may be classified according to the organ by which they are pro- nounced, as in the following table : Class. Vowels. Mu Hard. tes. Soft. Nasals. Liquids Sibi- lants. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Gutturals ^ W ^ ^5 1 ^ ^ f Palatals TtTT^ =^ ^ ^ U ^ ^^ 11 Cerebrals ^(^) z s ^ ^ w T36 ^ Dentals m H) cT ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Labials ^^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ rt. In Col. I., Tj, ^, and '^, ^, are classified, according to their second diphthongal element, as respectively palatal and labial; but they are also related to the guttural sounds, by their initial element, "^ or ■^. Letters of the same organ are said to be cognate to each other. § 42.] CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 25 42. The letters may again be classified according to the Hard and Soft nature of the vocal eiFort made in their utterance. If, in ^ ^^''' the utterance of a letter, the breath be completely arrested, the resulting sound is reckoned hard ; if the breath be partially arrested, or be allowed to escape freely, the re- sulting letter is called soft. Thus, in the above table, the consonants in Col. IL, together with the sibilants, are called hard ; all the other letters, whether vowels or consonants, are reckoned soft. a. The following relations between the letters should be Connate Letters. carefully noted. (1) Each hard consonant in Col. II. has its cognate soft consonant in Col. III. and vice versa. Thus, to the hard ^ in Col. II. corresponds the soft !{ in Col. III. ; and to the soft aspirate ^ in Col. III. corresponds the hard aspirate Xfi in Col. II. (2) Each soft consonant in Col. III. and each vowel, except the gutturals, has its cognate semivowel in Col. V. Thus, the labial semivowel ^ corresponds to the soft labial consonant ^ in Col. III. and to the labial vowels ^, ^, in Col. I. So also, cognate to the vowels ^ and t^, are the soft mute ^ and the palatal semivowel ij. (3) ^, strictly speaking, is a guttural sibilation, so that it is written in Col. VI. with the sibilants. Each of the con- sonants, therefore, except the labials, has its corresponding sibilation. The student is now prepared to understand the principles of "Sandhi." 26 Niffari TABLE I.— HINDI ALPHABETS. K^yathi. Mali^jani. Baniauti. ^ 5^ 5 r ■■ ■ ■— ■ ^7 5?TT Trn ^^VJ %f Cf r r b l^ f (T 3 o 3^. ^ 6 5 c\ ^^ -s 3 6 3J t 7^ 5"- p z ^^ ^-^ ^ A \ ^> ^> ^%o ^ ^■^ ^^ -^^ -^ ^ =^ ^ 3 ^ =1 ^ ^ n 7T '^ ^/ a ^ ^^ ^s 3 o 6^ <^ ■^ ^ar HI 2b Ul ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ B^ ^ ^ tfl (TL 27 TABLE I. (cokcluded).- -HINDI ALPHABETS. N&gari. K^yathi. Mahajani. Bauiauti. z ^ z -if z 7 h cT ? J ■is v5 z Z & ? ¥ I r\ tf;^ cT ?feT -^ 0 ST -^ or) ^ SJ ^ T, ^ e- 1? <^1^ H^ ^ ^ P\ is "Ot an uncorrupted Sanslvrit word. In some of the dialects, indeed, as, e.g., Marw^ri, Garhwali, etc., TTf often appears even in these cor- rupted Prakritic words ; but this is to be attributed, not to the operation of the above principle of euphony, but to a fondness for the cerebral nasal, which those dialects everywhere exhibit, preferring it constantly to the dental, in the most unexpected places. 57. ^} before any mute consonant, is changeable to the nasal of that class, which may be always written as Anusvar.* Before all other consonants it becomes Anusvdr. The opera- tion of this rule is especially to be noticed in the numerous Sanskrit compounds in which ^Tj;, 'with,' 'together,' is the first element. Thus, e.g., ^7{^ + w^ = ^^^ or ^eR^ ; ^?i^ + 58. Final ^, in composition, when preceded by any vowel other than "^ or "^, becomes •^, before all soft letters except ■^. Instances of this change are common in Sanskiit com- pounds; as, e.g;., ^Tf5I^+ ^l^=^?rrif^^T^; ^^+^^=^^^. When t; follows, ^i is dropped, and the preceding vowel is lengthened; as in .f^-sc^^, from f5!^+"!^3T. 59. "^ is substituted for ■^^ (or ^:) before short ■^, or a soft consonant ; ^ following:, is then elided, and the elision marked by Avagrah. This rule is illustrated by such com- pounds as ?T^^Tj fr«»^ T^^+IT; T^^5^? from ■?:^^+5l!r; also in the headings of chapters, as, ir^^^j'^n^* foi' ^Wfl^ '^■^T^^- So likewise, such Sanskrit phrases in the Rdmdyan as ^"^fti, -sfrf^, ^tf^, are to be explained ; ^^ (^:) and ^^(^:), before ^fq and "^rf^, have first become ^ and ^ by the above rule, and then the following initial ^ has been elided. Avagrah, in these instances, is often thus inaccurately omitted. * Vid. § 18. §§ 60-62.] SANDHi. 33 60. Ill all Sanskrit words, "q must be written for ^, not final, after any vowel but "^ or "^t, and after either ^ or ■^. Thus we write, correctly, *lf^^, not »if^^. But Hindi yields few examjjles under this rule. 61. ^ final, in Sanskrit compounds, is changed to Visarg or ^, before ^, t^, tl, and XR. This rule is illustrated by numerous compounds with the nei::ative prefix f%^, and a few other words; as, f^T^T'TTW for f-T^TTTrTXU ; f^^^^^ or fif-.cR^^ for f^^^^; ITTfT:^^ foi' irm^T^. 62. Ill Sanskrit, the number of these euphonic rules is much greater, but those that we have given mil be found sufficient to indicate and explain the correct writing of nearly every Sanskrit word ever used in Hindi. 34 [§§ 63, 64. CHAPTEE III. or THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI'. Aboriginal go When, loiis; before the Christian era, the Aryan, Indiim Lan- "*'• J & i j ^> guages. Sanskrit-speaking people entered what is now called Hindii- sthan, they found it inhabited by people of another race and another tongue. This aboriginal race, as the tide of Aryan invasion rolled on eastward, retreated before it, falling away, some into the mountains on the north, more into the jungles and hills of Central and Southern India, where, under various names, preserving still their ancient dialects, and superstitious demon-worship, they are found to-day. Many, however, doubtless remained in their ancient homes, where the stream of Aryan immigration and Aryan speech soon swept over them, and they became the servants of the invading race. Although the aboriginal speech must thus soon have dis- appeared for the most part fi'om Northern and Western India, it is scarcely conceivable that it should not, before its disappearance from the scene, have influenced, to some extent, the language of the Aryan invaders. To this external, Turanian influence, we shall probably not err in attributing many peculiarities of those ancient Indian dialects known as Prakrit, * common, vulgar,' which for centuries co-existed with the Sanskrit, much as, in ancient Italy, the various provincial dialects co-existed with the Latin of the court and of the forum. The Ancient 64. These Prakrit dialects, in the earliest period of which lects. we can speak, appear to have existed under two leading types, the Shauraseni in the west, and the Magadhi in the east, with an intermediate dialect called Arddha-Magadhi (Half- Magadhi) between them. These two or three, at that early § 65.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINdI. 35 time — in the 4th century b.c. — divided betu-een them all Continental India from east to west. The JVIahar^shtri, mentioned also by the early Prakrit granmiarians, varied little from the Sham*aseni; being specially the language of poetry, as the latter was the language of prose. Besides these forms of the Prakrit which assumed a literary character, arose forms of speech still more abraded and removed from classic standards, called by the native grammarians Apabhransha, * debased,' * incorrect,' lit., 'fallen.' But the Apabhransha of one region was not the same thing as the Apabhransha of another ; it was Shauraseni Apabhransha in the west, and Mcigadhi Apabhransha in the east, and so on. Out of these Prakrit dialects, the literary Shauraseni and M^igadhi, and the various Apabhransha colloquial variations of these, arose the modern Aryan languages of India. Their relation to Sans- Prakrit, aud •'*'''. Modem Lan- krit is thus closely similar to that of the modern Romance guages ot languages of Europe to the classic Latin.* In number they are commonly reckoned seven, and — proceeding from the west eastward — they are known as Panjabi, Sindlii, Gujarati, Marathi, Hindi, Oriya and Bangali. Of these, in order of antiquity, Hindi stands first, along with Panjabi and Gujarati, dating from about 1000 a.d. The earliest writer whose work is preserved for us is Chand Bardai, who wrote about the end of the 12th century. Closely after these, in order of time, follows Marathi, and, latest of all, the Bangali. 65. Of these seven Indo-Aryan languages, the Hindi is Relative undoubtedly the first in importance. In one or other of its hiu^^. numerous dialects, it is spoken from the snowy ranges of the Himalayas on the north to the Vindhya Mountains and the Narmada River in the south ; on the east it is bounded by the Sankhassi River from the Himalayas to the Ganges, and thence by a line drawn south-westerly to the Narmada ; * An interesting and suggestive note on this subject will be found iu Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. ii. pp. U6-149. 36 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDi. [§ 66. on the west it is bounded by a line drawn from near the head of tlie Gidf of Kachchh northward and then north- eastward to the Satlaj River near Simla. It thus covers an area of more than 248,000 square miles, containing not less than 70jOOO,000 of Hindi-speaking people.* Moreover, in that special modification known as Urdii or Hindusth^ni, Hindi has become the official language in a large part of North India, as the speech of the Mussulman population everywhere, and, in a manner, a lingua franca for the whole Indian Peninsula. Muhammadan gg. Almost from its very origin Hindi has been subjected Influence ou ,. . . ,, riM • • • i i r. , liiudi. to loreign influence. 1 he successive invasions and the nnal subjugation of the largest part of North India by the Muhammadans, occasioned the rise of the so-called Urdu, or 'camp-speech,' just mentioned, about the close of the 12th century. Although this latter is commonly contrasted with Hindi, in the narrower sense of that word, it is essentially merely a dialect of that language, and differs from others chiefly in the very great extent to which Arabic and Persian words and phrases have been substituted for those of Sanskrit and Prakrit origin. But the eff^ect of Muhammadan influence has not been confined to the development of the Urdii dialect. There is probably no dialect of Hindi, however pure, which has not received at least a few Arabic and Persian words from the Muhammadan element in the population ; and ' through the preference given to Urdii in the governmental administration of the country, and the greatly increased facilities of internal communication, the process of change. * Grierson, with Hoernle, insists tliat tlie dialects spoken east of Allali- al)ad as far as Bengal should not be reckoned Hindi, but a sejjarate lang-uage, for M'hich he proposes the name of Bih^iri. In like manner they both would also exclude from the category of Hindi all Himalayan dialects. See Grierson: Seve7i Grammars, etc. Part I. pp. 1-3; Hoernle: Comp. Gramm. pp. i, ii. § 67.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 37 in this respect and in others, is going on more rapidly than ever in all the Hindi-speaking populations. 67- From the above brief sketch of the origin and history Tmauian of modern Hindi, it is apparent that Hindi, though essentially Hindi. as truly an Aryan tongue as Sanskrit, contains, besides the Aryan,* which constitutes its form and most of its substance, a Turanian and a Shemitic element. As to the Turanian or aboriginal element preserved in Hindi, little that is satisfactory can be said. We are not aware that any such thorough and systematic comparison of Hindi with the modern aboriginal and Dravidian dialects of India has been made, as might give much certain informa- tion on this question. It would be difficult, probably, to find many scholars competent for such an investigation. But, if we mistake not, modern researches would seem to indicate that Turanian influence in the Hindi and other Indo-Aryan dialects has often been unduly exaggerated. a. Some have thought that they couhl trace tliis influence almost thioiighout tlie entire Hindi grammatical system. The indication of the case-relation by certain appended particles, rather than by inflection, or organic additions to the word ; the conjug'ation of the verb chiefly by means of auxiliaries, instead of by tense and modal inflections, — these, among' other deviations from the Sanskrit and Prakrit dialects, and corresponding agreements with the Dravidian languages of S. India, have been attri- buted to extra-Aryan influence. But all these analogies are more fancied and apparent than real and significant. The relation of the postposition to the Hindi substantive is, in fact, quite another thing from the 'agglutination' of words in the Turanian languages. It may l)e re- garded as demonstrated, that the Hindi particles indicative of case- relation are, in reality, bona fide Sanskrit words greatly corrupted, which were originally apprehended, not as 'agglutinated' to the noun, but as in grammatical construction with it. The correspondence, pointed * Most Aryan words in Hindi are of Sanskrit or Prakrit origin. But a few, brought in by the Muhammadan invasions, have come from the old Zand tlirough the modern Persian. 38 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§ 67. out by Dr. Caldwell in his Comparative Grammar, between the Dravidian dat. sig-n ko or ku, and the Hindi dat. postposition ko, is now regarded by the best scliolars as only a casual coincidence. As to the difference noted between the Sanskrit and the Hindi conjugation, it is only pre- cisely similar to what we observe, to a g-reater or less extent, in every European language, where, in consequence of the abrasion and loss of the terminations and inflections which characterized the synthetic lan- guages from which they severally arose, the use of auxiliaries has l)ecome a simple necessitj' of speech. As to vocabulary, it is a notable fact, that as the various Indo- Aryan dialects become better known, and their phonetic laws better uuderstood, many words, which at first resisted all attempts to prove their Aryan origiu, and therefore might have been imagined to be aboriginal, have finally been satisfactorily identified as connected with classic Sanskrit terms. Still there can be little reason to doubt that, more especially among' the vulgar words of various local dialects, investigation will finally leave a residuum of words unquestionably Turanian.* Prof. Monier-Williams has suggested, in his Sanskrit Gram- mar, that the cerebral letters, which the Hindi has received from Sanskrit, are probably derived from the aborig-inal dialects.f It is, at least, a fact worth noticing in this connection, that, of those Hindi words which begin with a cerebral, much the larger part belong to the Prakritic, rather than the pure Sanskrit element of Hindi. For example, of 89 words in the Previ-Sdgar beginning with one of the cerebral letters t, th, fl, dli, only 21 are pure Sanskrit, to 68 Prakritic words ; whereas, of 128 words beginning with k, we find 21 of Prakritic origin to 107 pure Sanskrit words ; i.e., in the case of words with initial cerebrals, over three-fourths are Prakritic ; while of words with an initial k, five-sixtlis are Sanskrit. And it may be further observed, that the cerebral letters prevail most in those sections of the Hindi country M'here, as in the Himalayas and the wastes of Rajputana, the fiborigines, if not still remaining, may be supposed to liave held the ground the longest. Beames and Hocrnle, however, hesi- tate to accept this suggestion of Prof. Monier-Williams, and incline to regard both the cerebrals and the dentals as of Indo-Aryan origin, modifications, probably, of an original semi-cerebral sound, which, to use Hoernle's words, " varied in two directions so as to become the true cerebral and the true dental respectively." X * Vid. Trumpp : Grammar of the Sindhl, p. iii. t Vid. Sansk, Grammar, p. xxiv, footnote f. + Vid. Beames : Comp. Gramm. vol. i. pp. 232-235 ; Hoernle : Comp. Grainm. § 12. § 6S.~\ CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 39 68. Ill brief, then, the Turanian element in Hindi must be Aivabic and Persian reg'arded as, in any case, of very subordinate importance. In Element in grammar and in vocabulary alike, Hindi is emphatically an Aryan language. But some foreigners have gone to the extreme of denying that Hindi, properly so called, contains any other than Sanskrit and Prakrit words ; and, in their zeal for what they term 'jna^e Hindi,' scrupulously exclude from their writing, if not from their speech, all Arabic and Persian words.* But it should not be forgotten that, in such a matter as this, we have to do, not with theories, but with facts. Now if, to determine this question, we examine classic Hindi works, such as, in prose, the Prem-Sdgar, and in poetry, the Rdmdyan, we do not find, in point of fact, that the language which the people of the country call Hindi is thus free from any Arabic and Persian admixture. a. In proof of this assertion, the student may note the following list of Arabic and Persian words occurring even in the Rdmdyan. We follow the Hindi spelling. ^■^^•ifiT- tftw, ^>T, ^^^T^o 1^T%, "^sn^, ^TT^' ^^T, "^m, ^'IT'T, '^^T. fTT^TT. ^T^TT> 1^5 cTl^, ^"ITj ^T^^, l^ft, I'Ct^, "^fsfH, ^JT, 5!^T^, ^T^, ^^T*T, Wt'T, etc. In other Hindi M^riters, as, e.g., Kabir, and others who, like him, have been much under Muhammadan influence, they are much more numerous. Nor, if we listen to the colloquial of the people, shall we fail to hear, even in the most secluded districts, and from Hindoos living quite apart from the Muhammadans, such Arabic and Persian words as ^^i??, ^T^TT? ^"^^^^j ^T? ^Tfl^, ^^t^^, »?^<1 (for^_>^jj;.*),^^?^TT (for^U:.^.*j), etc. b. It may be noted here, with regard to the character and extent of this Arabic and Persian admixture, that in the case of all words having any special reference to government and * See, e.g. Etherington : Hindi Grammar, Preface, pp. iv, v. 40 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§ 69. law, the conquering Muhammadans have succeeded in im- posing their own words upon the colloquial Hindi to the exclusion of the Sanskrit. And if any one, in his zeal for ' pure Hindi,' will attempt to use, instead of these, the corre- sponding Sanskrit words, he will probably find that none but a few Pandits will understand him. As to Arabic and Persian words of other classes, the proportion found in Hindi varies, as might be expected, in different parts of the country; being greatest in the extreme N.W., and gradually diminishing toward the E. and S. Arabic and QQ Inasmuch as the Arabic and Persian alphabets differ Persian Letters , , in Hindi. widely from the Devanagari, all words from those languages containing letters not represented in those alphabets, when received into Hindi, undergo certain modifications. These are, in brief, as follows : — a. Both \s and cu are pronounced as "fT, and are so repre- sented; as, c_^lL7, cT^^, 'wages'; jK^', cT«fiT;TT? 'contention.' h. The three sibilants, c.;, tf, and ^wj, all become ^; as, u::-^lj, ^f^cl, 'proved'; ^j^^^, '^k^•, 'a groom'; t_^r=^U, ^Tf?^ or ^fw^j 'sir, master.' ^ often becomes ^; but in most sections of the country, (as, for example, through the central Doab and in Marwar,) it is regularly sounded as ^ ; thus, ^.^ , HM oi' ^^, ' doubt.' c. The letters, i, j, ^JO, )a, all pronounced in Urdu as z, become ^j in Hindi; as, 1^ J, ^•?j, 'alittle'; ^^--^j, ll?ft«T, 'land'; ^^U, llT'f»T«I, 'a surety'; jib^, ^TtfT? 'manifest.' But in M^rwdri and some other forms of Hindi, J final becomes ^; as in ei5T5ti^, for Ailb, 'paper.' d. and i both become ^; as, JU^, fT^, 'state'; ys, f"?^, ' every.' In Marwari, when medial, they commonly disappear; as, e.g., %^ for^^, 'a city,' ^j^ for l.^.^^, 'sir.' The gutturals ^ and c become, respectively, ?^ and "tl; as, e.g., in ?3TeB, 'dust,' for cS\:>.; 1[J{, 'grief,' for >i; and ^^TTT, 'a slave,' for ^l£. j commonly becomes icfi; as in ^ig, 'right,' § 70.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 41 for ^i:>- ; and o^^, * word,' for Jy . But the common people in the central Doab often oddly cliange a final v to ?! ; thus, j:-,iisf^, 'investigation,' becomes ^cfi^ff; j:j^j.<, 'like,' Trrftfifl. c is always dropped ; thus, Jii: becomes ^^^, ' intellect ' ; «J1^, ^Tf«fij 'existent, real.' But short a before c, on the rejection of c ,is lengthened ; as, Tn^fT? ' known,' for ^»U,« . , is ordinarily unchanged; but in Marwari, I have found ^^T^, ' a minister of state,' for jjj , where the consonantal v has been softened to the cognate vowel. e. The sound of , j may be regarded as fairly naturalized in most Hindi dialects. Not only is its pronunciation retained in Arabic and Persian words when introduced into Hindi, where it is represented by Xfi, as in HT;T''5, 'a banker,' for uJL^ ; bnt, to a great extent, the common people substitute the foreign sound of/ for ph, even in Indian words; pro- nouncing, e.g., tj;^, 'fruit,' fal, instead of jjhal ; ftfiT^, ' again,' ^r, etc. /. Arabic and Persian words not containing any of the above letters, for the most part enter Hindi without change, the Devandgari furnishing the equivalents of all the other Arabic letters. Occasional changes and corruptions indeed occur which can scarcely be reduced to rule. There seems to be at least a tendency in some parts of the country to reject a consonant following any sibilant ; thus we hear, in the Doab, ffW^, 'a labourer,' for^^j'*; ^oi^, 'firm,' for Is^^Ji^; and in Marwari, ^TH^cT, 'a mosque,' for j^-^**^. We may also note a decided tendency to substitute i for a ; as in f^TTcfij 'salt,' for CJ^' ; '^fK'^°} '^" agent,' for i^jj. Of Tatsama Words. 70. We may now pass to the consideration of words of Sanskritic c 1 ..... , . , Element iu oanskrit origin, which make up not less than nine-tenths niadi. of the language. These have been divided by native writers into Tatsama and Tadhhava words. The word Tatsama, 42 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§§ 71, 72. fTc^^5 meaning ' the same as that/ appropriately denotes all purely Sanskrit words; i.e., all such as have entered Hindi with no alteration sav^e the loss of the ancient affixes of declension. The word Tadhhava , tf^^ ? ' of the nature of that/ denotes, on the other hand, all corrupted Sanskrit words, which, hy the addition, loss, or change of certain letters, have come to appear in Hindi in a form more or less modified, and often greatly disguised. 71. Tatsama words, as is evident from the above definition, appear in every dialect under one and the same form. But inasmuch as pure Sanskrit words in Hindi, like most words of Latin and Greek origin in English, are especially appro- priated to the expression of higher or scientific thought, it is evident, that the proportion of these Tatsamas actually found in the various Hindi dialects, must needs vary greatly, in proportion to their literary cultivation. Moreover, it must not be forgotten that, to a limited extent everywhere, but more especially in Western Hindi, Arabic and Persian words have often usurped the place of the Sanskrit Tatsamas. And so it has come to pass, that, speaking in a general way, the proportion of Tatsamas current in Hindi regularly increases as we go eastward, till we reach the Bangiili, in which they reach a maximum. The following remarks will help to indicate the nature and extent of this Tatsama element. Coexistent •j'2. In vcry many cases, the Tatsama and Tadbhava forms Tatsamas and Tadbhavas. of the same word or root coexist in the language. Thus, e.g., we have^Vj Tatsama, ^^, Tadhhava; ^TT^Tj Tatsama, ^Tf ? Tadhhava. In some cases, the two forms retain the same meaning ; thus, i^\[ and oR^^ both signify ' anger ' ; ^73j" and WtTj 'fit, worthy.' In such cases, one form is often dialectic. Thus, Tadhhava forms with ^ for an aspirated mute, are especially characteristic of the old Eastern Hindi of the Rdmdyan, as, e.g., ^Tf , ^fT, '^f , for ^TH, ^*fT, sS^^- But where Tatsamas and Tadhhavas co-exist in the same dialect, it often happens that, with the difference in form, we § 73.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 43 find a difference also in signification ; thus, ^^, Tatsama, is ' a rain-cloud ' ; but the corresponding Tadhhava, "ij^, is always *rain/ 'a shower.' Often, the Tatsama is the general term, and the Tadhhava, the more specific one ; as, ^TT, ' a place,' in general; but "3T»!T5 ' a police-station.' Where the words will admit it, the Tatsama form is often appropriated to a higher sense, and the Tadhhava is restricted to a lower signification. Thus, the Tadhhava ^i§«n is ' to see, seeing,' in general; but the Tatsama ^^wf is 'beholding,' in a higher sense, as of a superior in rank, an idol, or a deity. Thus, people say, ijira'T^ ^T ^^T cfi-^«TTj 'to behold Jagannath,' but never, ^^i^T^ ^ ^^•TT, ' to see Jagannath.' Rem. The careful regard to etiquette for «hich the Hindoos are noted, is manifest, not only, as will hereafter appear, in the appropriation of certain pronominal forms and verhal inflections for the indication of various degrees of respect, but also, and very often, in tlie choice of a TuUama or Tadbhava word, the former being commonly tlie more respectful. 73 Of purely Sanskrit nouns and adjectives, the case- Tatsama *^' r J J 7 ISouns and i' terminations have been lost, and they regularly appear in Adjectives. Hindi under the form which they assume in the Sanskrit nom. sing,, minus the nom. case termination. Thus, the bases -g?^, ^^T, ^f^, V^, ^T^, ^T^, -fsTXTi, 'tl^^TT, -siT^^, '?tf»T»I, ^^f^^, respectively appear in Hindi as iXc^, X'Wl-i ^f^, ^^, ^TflT, ^TflT, "^TTJi, ^^m^, 'iT^, iTfl??T, ami a. The only nouns exempted from the operation of this law are crude bases in ^;^ and ^^, as, e.g., ?T»l^5 ^^^j which, in Hindi, have lost, not only, as in Sanskrit itself, the nom. sing, termination, but also the final radical ^, as found in the Sanskrit nom. sing. ; so that the above words appear in Hindi as ^«t, ^^. Also, in a single instance in the Rdmdyan, Tidsi Das has written (doubtless for the sake of the metre) the root of the strong Sanskrit cases, ^TcHT for ^TcTTj 'a giver.' 44 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§§ 74, 75. h. Sanskrit adjectives iii^c^^, occurring in Hindi, frequently substitute for the nom. sing,, the base in ^'cl^, of the strong cases, as, e.g., ^^T^«tT, ^merciful/ xifq^^, 'sinful'; so also, f ^T^^ for ^^T^nl, 'hungry.' c. As has been remarked, Hindi nouns exhibit, in their declension, only the scanty remainder of the Sanskrit case- terminations, so corrupted and modified as to be recognized only with difficulty. The unchanged Sanskrit forms are, however, occasionally met with, but are no more organically connected with the Hindi, than such Latin and Greek phrases and words as ' id est,'' ' et cetera' ' dogmata,' are thus connected with English. Examples are, ^^^j &en. sing, of ^^, 'all'; "^^TfT = ^ viz.,' abl. sing, of ^^ ; fqcf^f^, 'parents,' nom. dual of fqcT; ^^T^j^the rains,' nom. plur. from ^^^^, ^%«l, 'with pleasure,' instr. sing, of ^?^. But the most of these are very rare ; and, with few exceptions, are only found in poetry. Sanskrit Com- 74, Sanskrit comparativcs and superlatives occur in Hindi, paratives aud • 1 1 i i f 1 . . , . Superlatives. With the usual loss ot the case-terminations, but are by no means common, and, with a few exceptions, they belong rather to literature than to the colloquial. Examples are, of superlatives ; %Sj ^most excellent,' from ■^; fq^rl^, 'dearest,' from fiRr. Comparatives are yet more uncommon ; we have noted ^5^fr^, 'slower,' from ^«^; tTT^jcTT;? 'more holy,' from ■yi?!. It may be remarked that these Sanskrit comparatives, when they occur in Hindi, very commonly lose the com- parative sense and are, in effect, superlatives. Tatsama 75. The numerals and pronouns appear in Hindi, as might Isumerals and Pronouns. be expcctcd of words in such incessant use by all classes, in an extremely mutilated and corrupted form. But the un- changed Sanskrit numerals are occasionally found in Hindi literature, especially in the headings of chapters. So also, we occasionally meet certain cases of the Sanskrit pronouns ; more especiallj'^, the gen. sing, of the 1st and 2nd personal, pronouns, '^^ and ff^, chiefly in poetry. B§ 76, 77.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HIXDf. 45 76. The Hindi verbs, without an exception, are Tadhhava Tatsama , ^ .,, . /. o 1 • Verbal Forms. words, htill, in poetry, parts ot Sanskrit tenses are occa- sionally found ; thus, from the root »T^, we have ^^ifilj ' I salute,' 1st sing. pres. Parasmai. But such forms as this have no organic connection with the language. The Hindi, however, besides the regular Tadbhava participles of its verbal conjugation, admits, even in the colloquial, various Sanskrit participles in an unaltered form. Thus, we have the pres. participle A'tmane in 5|T«T; as, from the root gcf, ^^flT«T, ' existing, present,' and, very rarely, the indecl. past participle, in c^T ; as, in the Rdmdi/aii, f^^T- IMuch more common is the past part, in ff or •! (ijj") ; as, e.g., from ir, UfT, ' done, made'; from ^'a', ^■3^, 'spoken, said'; from tj, qi^, ^filled'; from M^, TftfffTj 'fascinated.' Not uncommon are fut. pass. participles; whether those in cl^, as, from if, cf}^^, 'worthy to be done'; or "^•f^'^i, as, ^f^ft^, 'to be received,' from ^^; or in '^, as, ^i§, from ■^, 'to be seen,' 'visible.' Very rare is the 2nd fut. part. Parasmai in ^; as, from ^, 'to be,' the final consonant ff having been rejected, *lf^^, ' future.' Sanskrit also contributes to Hindi many adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions, in an unaltered form. A list of tliese will be given in the appropriate place. Of Tadbhava "Words. 77. The plan of this work will not allow the space I necessary to an exhaustive discussion of the Tadhhava words of Hindi ; but a brief exhibition of the processes by which I they have been formed, will be found of service in the study of the Hindi dialects, and aid the student to an intelligent acquaintance with the language. Accordingly, referring the student elsewhere for a full discussion of this matter,* we * See the " Comparative Gratnnitir of the Modern Aryan Languag-es of India," by John Beanies, B.C.S., and the " Comparative Grammar of the Gaudian Languages," by Dr. A. D. F. Hoernle; works which arc indispensable to any one who will make a thorough study of this subject. 46 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§ 78. propose to notice, as briefly as may be, the more important of those phonetic laws which have operated and are still operating in the Hindi dialects of N. India. Of Vowel Changes. Chano-es of 78. As lias already appeared, Hindi exhibits a decided Guttural tendency to the omission of the short vowels. Tlie inherent a is constantly dropped from unaccented syllables, even though its omission be not marked by the use of a conjunct consonant. ^ and ^ are very commonly silent when final ; in other positions they usually remain. a. But Beames has noted the frequent elision of ^ and ^ initial, in Sanskrit compounds in which one of the inseparable prepositions ^fV, ^f^i, ^f^, ^^, etc., is the first member. Among his illustrations are, ^t^«TT5 'to peep,' from Sk. ■^■^^, * overlooking ' ; ^tttt, ' to be wet,' from Sk. ■^^^^; %'Z^'> 'seated,' from Sk. "^qf^^; to which might be added others, as, e.g., xj3T^»TT or xi"3T^»Tj 'to send,' from the Sanskrit causal base, "^tj^T^"^- ^ initial is sometimes omitted in simple words also; as, e.g., in ^'m, 'a pumpkin/ for Sk. ^^T^. CSs, h. The Sanskrit fem. termination, "^jj i" Tadhhava nouns is reduced to the silent a ; as in ^ff, ' a thing, a word,' Sk. W^l ^^> ^ sleep,' Sk. f^^T- i; or t; final, vanishes, as in feminines in l[sf^, whence Hindi feminines in -T ; as, TTlf^*!, * a gardenei-'s wife,' for ^f%^, from ?TT^ ; ^ff "Tj ' a sister,' Pr. '^flTnY, Sk. ^fil^ ; %^^ , ' the wife of a Seth ' ; ^t^, 'the eye,' Sk. "^f^, etc. A similar change passes on ^ and '^ ; as in r("5T, ' body,' Sk. "cT«T ; '^T^, ' mother-in-law,' Sk. ^T^. c. Tj final follows the same law in many words now used as adverbs or prepositions, but originally Sanskrit loca- tives singular; as, '^•^^^, 'near,' Sk. ^«ftq; ^^, 'with/ § 79.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 47 Sk. ^ii^ etc. Sometimes this ■^ of the locative is weakened to ^; as in ^Tf'I, 'till.' 79. '^ is often changed to i[, especially in unaccented syllables. Thus ^"^Tir, ^remembrance/ becomes ^fTTT»l: t?f^Tj 'first/ is constantly pronounced, and often written, ^ff^T. Sometimes the same change takes place in accented syllables; as in fi^irr, 'pardon/ Sk. ^JTT- In %^^T) 'a weasel/ Sk. iTcR^Tj "^ appears to be changed to ij. The change of ^ to ^ is less common, and chiefly occurs mider the influence of a neighbouring labial ; as in t§^^, 'the itch/ Sk. ?^^; ^^, 'moustache/ Sk. T^^Sf, a. When ^ or ^ follow a syllable containing ^, they frequently supersede ^ in that syllable, or cause it to be exchanged for the cognate gun diphthong. Illustrations are ; ^^, 'a tamarind tree,' Sk. "^f^^; '^^^, 'a finger/ Sk. i ^5^; %"^, 'a hole dug by burglars/ Sk. 4f^; ^^, 'the beak of a bird/ Sk. ^^ . Z>. Very often in Sanskrit words, ^, when followed by the semivowels ^ or ^, coalesces with them into the cognate diphthong, commonly the vriddlu. Thus, the Sk. •l'^«T, ' eye/ becomes ^-r ; "^W^, ' time,' ^^ or ;^^ ; T?r^X!r, ' salt,' ^•T, but also ;5T»T; "^^X, 'another,' through the previous substitution of ^ for q, ^^. c. Here may best be noticed the operation of a law by which ^ was regularly substituted in Prakrit for the Sans- krit declensional termination "^^^ ("^O** Although, in most Tadbhava words, the corruption of this termination in Hindi has proceeded still further, till only ^ or ^ final is left, yet many illustrations stiU remain, as in the pronouns, where, e.g., the relative ^ and the (Braj) interrogative ^, stand respectively for strong Prakrit forms, preserved in Mdrwari, f^^ and f^cfit, for the Sanskrit ^: and cfi:. * Cf. Vararuchi : Prakr. Prak. V. (1). 48 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§§ 80-82. Similarly, we have, from the Sk. H'^'g^, ^T^j ' ^^^^ second day before or after the present.' Pafatirand 80. X> %' ^' ^"'^ ^ present few instances of change. Labial Vowels. But T IS changed to ^, in ^^^T, 'to smell,' from Sk. flf^; and f; to ^, in HT'^^j 'testing/ for Sk. "q^^Tir. ^ Was become "^ in the common word f^5i^, 'lightning,' for Sk. f%^f(^. In ^tI^, 'rheumatism,' for Sk. '^T^, the final t^ lias probably arisen from the cognate ^, ^ final having been dropped, and ^ {\) lengthened in compensation. In f^«^, 'a dot,' from Sk. t^»^, we have apparently a real change of ^ to t^ ; unless, indeed, after the analogy of many other Tadbhavas in |^, f^ represents, in this instance, the ^ of a Prakrit stem, f^fi^^ (?), ^ has also become \, in f!f^^, 'a little,' for Sk. cf^^. In xb^t;Tj 'the lungs,' Sk. ■"^jx-xfi^, ^ has become ii. Changes of q^ ^ Undergoes various changes. When initial it always Vowels. appears in Tadbhava words as f^; as in f^fci for '^f^. When non-initial, the most common substitution is ^; as in f^^, 'a vulture,' for ?iv; f^'S^, 'a scorpion,' for gf^cfi. It may be changed to \; as in ^^31, ' a horn,' for ^i\, and ;fft'>^, for ^^, 'death'; or even •^, as in'ijf , 'a house,' for ;ir^. It often becomes ^, commonly under the influence of a con- tiguous labial; as in ^Jjr{, 'remembrance,' for wfTI; or ^j as in ^"^Tj ' dead,' for ttcII . Less frequently it appears as ^, as in Tf^, 'earth,' Sk. ^"prTcfiT; "^T^^^ 'the rainy season,' Sk. TIT^^. In many cases, even when non-initial, it is repre- sented by the consonant "^j in combination with one or more vowels ; most commonly fx^, as in f^^, ' a householder,' for ^f^; or even ^f^, as in f^f^^^T, 'creating,' for ^^^^ or, under the influence of a labial, ^, as in ^?§, 'a tree,' for Sk. ^^. ^T, 'a horse,' Sk. 'eftZ^: (Pr. ^^^*^?); JTW^, 'a fly,' Sk. Tif^^T; ^T^, 'sand,' Sk. '^T^^T; '^\, 'clarified butter,' Sk. ^ct; all formed after the manner of •tlt^, *a barber,' from Sk. •iif^rlt • The |^ and ^ of these words have pro- bably arisen directly from intermediate foi'ms, l[^, "^^,t ^ and ^ having been euphonically inserted after the elision of ^ (as in ^ftfr, 71)4 83. When, in the process of phonetic decay, a Sanskrit Len^theninc conjunct has been reduced in Hindi to a simple consonant, a short vowel, preceding such a conjunct, is regularly lengthened. Thus, the Sk. f^, 'hand,' becomes in Hindi, ^T^; ^f^, 'fire,' ^TT; i;^, 'sugar-cane,' t;^; f^w. (f^TH^:), 'ft^T; f^irffT, 'twenty,' ^^^. ft. Sometimes, instead of the long vowel, the cognate giai diphthong is the substitute; as in cft^, 'a leper,' Sk. cR^; Wi'S, 'ginger,' Sk. ^fT!^ or ^^. -^ under such circumstances commonly becomes 1;, as in xft^, 'back,' from xrg ; ^3, ' sight,' from "^f^. b. In such cases, the lengthened vowel is often nasalised, especially where the first member of the conjunct was a nasal. Examples are : ^j^, 'the moon,' Sk. ^^', ^tZT, 'a thorn,' Sk. cffTt^cR ; also WZ , ' a camel,' Sk. '^^ ; ^j^ , '^ a snake,' Sk. ■^^^, ^^T, 'high,' Sk. ^^. It may be added that very often vowels are optionally nasalised, even where there * Concernino^ this Prakrit suffix, see Lass. Iiist. Ling. Prac. §§ 89, 1 ; 164, 19 ; et passim. f Vid. § 88, a. Rem. L % Vid. § 89. 4 50 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§§ 84, 85. has been no previous conjunct; as, ^^ or ^'"^j ^rain,' Sk. ^^; ^1^ or ?5Wt, 'a cough,' Sk. cffit^^T; iu which last instance the initial ^ has been aspirated through the influence of the following' sibilant. c. But in some such cases, chiefly Sanskrit compounds "nath various prefixes, in which the accent rests on the radi- cal syllable, the accent has prevented the lengthening of the vowel, as in derivatives from Sk. ^^T (^^ + ^T), ' rising,' where Hindi has ^3»TTj etc., and not ^3«!T. Shortening 84, Long vowcls are almost invariably changed to their Towels. own short, when any long or heavy appendage is added to a word. This occurs especially in the first member of com- pounds; as in ^Z^TT^ '^ highwayman,' where ^Z is for ^\Z, ' a road ' ; tJ^rfTTT, ' a water-carrier,' for HT^f ITT ; ^^^Tt, «a flower-garden,' for t^^^TT^; f^rT^T^, ^winter,' for ^ff- ^T^. So also where heavy terminations have been added; as in ^^T' * old age,' from ^^j ; t^3Tt^ ? ' sweetmeats,' from iTtHTj 'sweet,' Sk. f^F^cRt. For the diphthongs the corre- sponding simple vowel is the substitute; as in f^f^^T? dim. from %^Tj 'a son'; ifZ^? 'younger,' ^ smaller,' from Ig^ZT? ' little.' Shortening 85. Diphthongs final in Prakrit and Sanskrit are in Diphthoncrs. Hindi regularly reduced to their simple vowel. Thus the Prakrit nom. sing, termination ^, for Sk. '^\, in archaic Hindi, and among the moderns, in Naipali, and often in other Himalayan dialects, regularly becomes ^. Thus, Sk. ^'^:, 'an arrow,' Pr. ^"^ft, is in the Rdmdijan, '^\'^, ■^'TTrT:, 'afl"ection,' Pr. ■^«T'?J^, O.H. '^^X;t1- It should be observed, however, that in later Hindi,* this short ^ also has been dropped, leaving, e.g., "^"TX^T^j anurdg, for ■^•f^T^. Similarly, ij or ^ final, in the conjugation of verbs, often appears as \\ as in ^^ for fVl5j Sk. *l^ffT ; ^Tff for '^fl , etc. * Vid. § 78, b. §§ 86-88.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 51 a. But where, in Prakrit, after elision of a final consonant, we have ^^"t, f;^, ^^ final, Hi^di Hindi presents -^T^ t;? and ^. In the western and Himalayan dialects, ^ and ■=?n' appear for the Pr. ^^ . In H.H. 5i^, < wheat,' for Sk. 'ft^T, Tj exceptionally stands for ^; and ^ medial becomes "^j in ?fr Pr. ^|(«|-^| , we should have the successive forms, cfT^'^Tj Rem. 2. It may he noted here, that in the colloquial throughout Oude and the Doab, the intermediate forms thus postulated as the immediate origin of nouns fem. in ^, still exist. In the dialect of W. Oude, e.g., we have ^f^'-i^T (as if from a Sk. form, TTf^f^WT). for *i^> ' a hutFalo- cow'; ^ff ^T. *^k. '^tfecfiT. 'a mare,' etc.* h. Hoernle gives the follomng contractions as peculiar to Modem the modern Indo-Aryan languages, viz. : ^ or ^sn with ^ to tj, or with ^ to ■^; as in the 1st and 3rd sing, conting. future, in =gt, for '^^^, and qR^^, for ^^; i[ with ^, to "5, Tj, t;, 0Y\; as in^^, 'one and a half,' Pr. t^^% (?) Mg. f^^%, etc.; Miir. ^^fT, for fiTf^rFT, Ar. i-i^xs'*, 'labour'; ^ with '^, to ^, ^, or ^; as, ^"t^, 'perfume,' Sk. ^wf^a^, etc.; xr with ^, f;, ^, or TJ, to Tj, and ^ with ^, to "^.f Rem. Anusvar (for Anunasik) is frequently found where it represents, Inorg^anic not an organic part of the word, but a local habit of nasalising the vowel. ' Thus, e.g., in the drama oi Randhir aur Prem Moliani, we find constantly •f for 'if , the postposition of the case of the agent ; also TJ for ^ in the masc. obi. sing., especially in the inflected infinitive ; as, WT'TT ^T for Wr^% ^T, ^fW^T^ f^>r ^^%^T^T, etc., etc. Op Consonantal Changes. Simple Consonants. 89. Any smooth mute, except "Z. or ^, also T{, '^, ^, ^, Elision of and ^, and rarely "!(; and ^, when single and non-initial, may ^ * It is to be remembered, in investigating words of this class, that the suffix ^, in Prakrit, was added indifferently to almost any word. Lassen's words are, * omnibus thematis.' See Lassen : Inst. Ling. Prac. passim. t Comp. Gramm. p 48. For additional illustrations, see the same, §§ 94-98. 54 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§ 89. be elided. The vowels thus brought together, combine, if similar; if otherwise, the hiatus often remains, as in Prakrit; but in the modern dialects, "^ or ^, and occasionally ^, is preferably inserted. Examples are: Sk. %^^:, 'an assembly,' Pr. ^^Wt, H. ^^T, for the older Mar. ^^; Sk. ^1%^, ' sister,' H. q[ff «T, where the medial aspirate, ^l being- rejected, has arisen from the aspiration of H ; Sk. ^t^, ' a needle,' H. ^t; Sk. X^T^, ' night,' H. ^^ ; Sk. ^•^^, ' fourth,' H.^^; Sk. 1^^, 'the heart,' H. f^^; Sk. ^^^, 'rising of the sun,' O.H. ^Tj; Sk. gjtj, ' a well,' H. sr^ ; Sk. ^q^, ' a lamp,' H. f^^T; Sk. uflt^rr, 'the day of new moon,' H. -q^^; Sk. f^^Tf j ' marriage,' H. f^^Tf or ^Tf , for f^Wf ; H. 11^=^1^ or qff ^^T^, 'acquaintance,' for Pr. tlf^'^'^llj. •11=15? 'the nose,' for Sk. •^Tf^^Tj bas probably arisen from a collateral form, •TT^eJiT- (L "Z is elided in Mc4r. TTt^^j for H.H. tlT'Sin^T, where the "3 of the root "q^ has disappeared. /j. The elision of ^ has taken place in High Hindi, chiefly in verbal forms, before or after ^; as in 3rd sing. pres. or conting. fut. of ft^T, 'to be,' ftl;, O.H. ftl^, Sk. ^f^^fcf; ^W, 'they go,' O.H. '^^ff, for Sk. ^^fni; and sometimes before ^; as in 2nd plur. pres. of ^T'TT, 'to do,' ^"5^, O.H. cR^:^. The chief example in nouns is found in the obi. sing, termination "^ of Tadbhava nouns in ■^; in which "^ has arisen from "^f^ by sandlii of ^ and \, after elision of ^. Hoernle gives a single example of the elision of ^ in the stem of a noun, in E.H. fi^, for Sk. g^^f?T' But in Marwdri, such elision is very common, as also in the Himalayan dialects; as in ?T\«TrI for t^^«!fl, and '^m for ^jff ^? etc., etc. Sometimes medial f is omitted in High Hindi in a verbal stem ; as in %T;«ITj 'to be established,' for 3f?^«lTj giving such forms as ^TIT, t'ft, etc. c. ^^, when elided, appears in most cases to have first passed into ^. The older Hindi generally preserves the form ^, and, rarely, even those in ^. Thus, in the futures, we have cR-^ff , ' thou wilt do,' for o(i"^(%, 2nd sing. fut. ; whence, by elision of ^ §§ 90-92.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 55 and sandhi, WKX and ^^. But in xj^^ff^, 'thou wilt regret,' 2nd sing, fut., the ^ is preserved. d. The chief example of the elision of "?; is in ^f; or % for ^f^, in the termination of the conj. part., and in ^j, again for ^f?^, in the ohl. form, %, of the gen. postposition, ^j' I have found no case of the elision of ^«f, except that given hy Hoernle, viz., ^^^j, 'an earth-worm,' Sk. fsfi^^^. 90. The labials, q, ^, j{, ^, when medial after d or a, very Softening of commonly soften into the cognate vowel ^, which then com- ^ ^'^''" bines with the preceding a into the diphthong ^ or '^. Thus the Sk. ■'^mT;? 'another,' becomes in Hindi, iirst, ^^X!? and then, "^"tT? ^^W? 'salt,' becomes ^sf; '^^^, 'going,' ^ffiTTj for the more frequent ^^•TT, 'the going home of a bride'; ^Tfl«T, 'a dwarf,' ^t»TT; 3T*?TW, 'excellency,' TThI". In such cases, the nasal element of ^^ is often retained, in the form of an Anusvar attached to the diphthong, as in H. ^t"^, 'a whisk,' from Sk. ^?TT;- So also, the palatal ^, under Softening of similar conditions, passes into the cognate vowel f;, whence,^- by sandhi, arises the diphthong, "^ or ^; as, e.g., in ^^r, ' sleeping,' for Sk. l['^^; ^^'^ or ^m, 'time,' for ^;r^. When f; precedes ^, the ^ combines with it into the cognate long vowel; as in "t;^, 'an organ of sense,' for ^f^^. So also, ^^ becomes ^. 91. A final consonant is usually rejected. Thus, ^If^, Elision of 'renown,' becomes ^^ and ^^; ■^(3l«l^, 'self,' becomes '^xi. ^'^'^*' By the same law, «i final is dropped in all numerals; as, e.g., in ^3, 'eight,' ^^, 'ten,' for ^S^, ?[II^. 92. Initial consonants commonly remain unchanged. The Treatment of exceptions occur, for the most part, in the case of the sibilant l^ii^i'il^- '^, initial in a conjunct;* or if in other letters, they may be traced to the disturbing influence of a neighbouring sibilant or aspirate. Thus the Sk. f^Jif^f, 'superhuman power,' * Vid. § 108. 56 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. ■§§ 93, 94. Changes of Palatals. becomes V(^7\^, ^^, 'diaff/ vrt; VIH, 'a noose,' xfit^; ^t^, 'vapour,' ^T^. But in Naipali, a hard mute is sometimes softened, even when initial. A common example is ^x;'T = H.H. ^T^^TTj ^to do'; with which may be compared the Mairw^ri gen. postposition, aft, for H.H. ^T? from the same root, If. 93. Hard mutes, when medial or final, as in other A'ryan languages, are frequently softened. Examples are: ^Jl, 'a crow,' Sk. ^T^; ^g^, etc., etc. "q very connnonly becomes ^; as in TT«n§, 'a man,' for ?{^^; ^^, 'a fault,' for ^^, etc. But in writing, "cr is generally retained, and in some districts, as in Marwar, has usurped the character^ in all words what- ever. ^ becomes ^ in i^, 'six,' and e^T^TT? 'sixth,' for Sk. ■^■^, •^^. ^ becomes 'g or e^ in ^T^'^? ' covetousness,' for ^T^^. Similarly, we find ift^T? 'beauty,' for Sk. 'sft*!!* The tendency of the sibilants to pass into the pure aspirate, of which the cognate languages afl\)rd so many examples, is abundantly illustrated in Hindi. Thus the "sj of ^^«X. is §§ 99, 100.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 59 chang:ed to f in all the numerals from eleven to eighteen inclusive, as also the ^ of ^'^frl in the seventies throughout, except in ^tTTj 'seventy,' and '^•tt^, 'seventy-nine,' which is from another root. Thus the Sk. "^'^^^'T;, 'thirteen,' becomes ^t;1 ; "C^^'^fTT, 'seventy-one,' becomes ^^f t^C? etc., etc. This change, as regards these numerals, is found in all dialects alike ; but, except in some of the Rajputana and Himalayan dialects, it is rarely met with in other words. Certain pronominal and verbal forms of extensive or universal use, are, however, to be explained by reference to this principle. These will be noted in another place. 99. Very common is the substitution of the pure aspirate Treatment of ^ for any of the aspirated mutes, ?^, ^, ^ , tj, or H. Examples Mutes. are : ^f , ' mouth,' ' face,' for ^?§ ; "^f , ' rain,' from ^^ ; ^^•rr? 'to speak,' from the root ^^; ^f\, 'curdled milk,' for ^fy: ^fTT? 'deaf,' for ^f\J^. If initial, however, the letter com- monly remains unchanged. I have only found instances of • such a change of an initial aspirate in the case of iT- A notable example is found in the verb ^sfT? 'to be,' from the Sk. ^. To this may be added ^t^? 'a pot,' and ^^, 'a cheque,' for Sk. ^t^, *f^. This change of these aspirated letters is more common in old Eastern Hindi than in modern literature ; additional examples will be found in the chapter on the dialects. a. Naipfili sometimes substitutes the aspirated, where High Hindi has the smooth consonant; as in "^tRir, 'own,' H.H. ■^xi^T; ^T^'i, 'child,' H.H. ^T^^, But, on the other hand, more instances occur, where it prefers the smooth, where H.H. has the aspirated mute; as in ^:^, 'milk,' for H.H. ^^ > f^^T^g, H.H. t€^§T^, 'to teach'; 'I have come to your honour's feet'; "q^"^^ %^ WT^, (where lEf^"?:^ is for Ar.^f^^), * go and get news.' 101. The Hindus have an odd habit of inverting syllables, which should be remembered in the investigation of obscure words. Thus, in the west, people say ?|fT^^ for TJrl^^j 'object'; in the Doab, •I^«Tj 'bathing,' for ^•iT'Tj Sk. ^^JT, and ^"HT for ^TTTK? ' sick ' ; in Tirhiit and Garhwdl, 'g:^!:?*!!, for ti^^-!T, 'to arrive'; in Nepdl, firaj^, for H.H. ^n^T^, 'justice,' where also we have, by transposition of vowels, HtT^, ' trust,' for H.H. ^ft^T- * Even Sanskrit contains many words thus formed ; as, e.g-., T^^^, 'a horse'; ^TJ^eR, 'a tliorn'; ^^cR, 'an assemblage,' etc. But in Prakrit the use of this affix was greatly extended. On this subject, which is of much etymological importance, the student may consult Vararuchi, Prakr. Prak. iv. (25) ; Lassen, Inst. Ling. Prac. pp. 288, 434, 461, 475. §§ 102, 103.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 61 Of Conjunct Consonants. 102. This subject of the treatment of conjunct consonants in Hindi, is so extensive and complicated, that the limits of 1 this work will not allow us more than to indicate general i principles which have operated in the case. We shall enter into detail only so far as may be necessary briefly to illustrate these general laws, and refer the student for a full discussion of the subject to the Comparative Grammars of Beames and Hoernle.* 103. The general principles which regulate the treatment Rules for „ . .mill 1 1 1 • u Chanires in of conjunct consonants in 1 adbliava words, may be brietiy Coujuncts. summed up under two heads, viz. : (1) Where the members of the conjunct are of equal or nearly equal strength, Hindi, in older words, rejects the first of the two consonants ; in those of later formation, it separates them by a vowel. (2) Where the members of the conjunct are of unequal strength, as a general rule, the stronger remains, and the weaker is dropped. In some cases, however, the remaining consonant, under the influence of the vanishing letter, is itself modified, and often transferred to another order. a. Prior to the rejection of one element of a conjunct, there was, in the Prakrit period, an assimilation, in the case of strong conjuncts, of the first to the second consonant ; and, in the case of mixed conjuncts, of the weaker to the stronger. Not a few examples of this earliest process are * It is proper that I should here express my indebtedness to Mr. Beames for much in this chapter, more especially in the present section. Although the substance of this chapter was written prior to the appear- ance of Mr. Beames' work, I have derived from him many additional examples, and have modelled this secti(U), with a view to greater brevity and clearness, somewhat after the plan of his chapter on ' Compound Consonants.' 62 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HlMDl. [§§ 104, 105. preserved in Hindi; as, e.g-., in 'qj?j"i[;, ' a stone,' ??^4§Y, ' a fly,' and the old form, ^■^, ' hand,' for the Sk. Jf^J^, ^f^^Tj and ^^. Further illustrations will be found below. b. When, under the application of these rules, a conjunct has been reduced to a simple consonant, a short vowel, originally preceding the conjunct, is usually lengthened in compensation. But when long and heavy syllables follow, and in a few other cases, this compensatory lengthening of the vowel is sometimes neglected. c. For the interpretation of these general principles, it is to be remembered that the first four letters of the five ' vargs ' are called strong, and all the others tveak letters.* It is further to be noted, that in the practical application of these principles, the strong letters are regarded as of equal strength, but the weak letters vary in strength among themselves.t 104. The following examples and remarks will illustrate the above rules. In the following strong conjuncts, the first consonant is rejected : ^^, ' a pearl,' for Sk. iftfw^ ; ^\^, 'milk,' Sk. ^3r^; ^TcT, 'seven,' Sk. ^^^. The vowel commonly remains short when an accented syllable has in Sanskrit followed the conjunct; as in ^3«f|T, 'rising,' from Sk. ^fT+T^T- Most strong conjuncts, in words written as Tatsamas, are by the common people among the modern Hindus, divided in pronunciation. Thus, ^^, 'a word,' in the common speech, becomes ^^^; ffTH? 'satisfied,' becomes f^Url, and then frr?:!??!; ^«t, 'work,' WK^, etc. 105. In the following conjuncts, the elements being of * Vid. § 8. t Beames arranges the weak consonants in the order of their strength, as foUows, viz. : first, the nasals, then the sibihints, and, last of all, the semivowels. The nasals and the sibilants he regards as of equal strength. The semivowels he arranges in the following order, beginning with the strongest ; viz., ^ (with the power of ^), '^ (with the power of of), ^, T> ^ (softened to '>3), "^ (softened to \). Vid. Com]). Gramm. vol. i. p. SCO. §§ 100-108.] CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. 63 unequal streng:th, the weaker is rejected, and a preceding vowel is lengthened or gunated : viz., "^fq, 'fire,' H. ^^ ; ^i§, 'wool,' H. ^3r5T; ifwt, 'pregnant,' H. irrf^T^; ^frT^, 'astrology,' H. WtffT^; "HTf^, * the rains,' H. tiT^^; f^, 'price,' H. ^^ ; %f, H. %1 ; ^, 'a woman,' H. ^•^J. For TT^^'^ftj 'wages/ 'work,' Pers. c^;^, rustic Hindi has iT^Tt- ©■- a. "^ following if in a conjunct is very often separated from it by a ; as in tf-^^TT, ' shade,' Sk. "nfcf^T^T; "H^IX, 'bright- ness/ H. xiT^nTH; 3?^^, 'favour,' H. x^^^c^, etc. b. The root ■^, 'to know/ becomes ^, as in WT«RT, ^to know'; this is further weakened to ^, in f^^TRTj 'wise/ and ■^^T^, ' foolish,' for ^^T^, ■^^^. 106- A nasal initial in a conjunct with a mute usually Nasals in vanishes, leaving Anusv^r, and lengthening a preceding short vowel. This class of words is veiy numerous. Examples are : cjitZT, 'a thorn/ Sk. ^t^^; ^j^, 'the moon/ Sk. ^^; cTT^T, 'copper/ Sk. cf^, etc. 107. '^5 Tj ^^^^ ^> i^i '^ conjunct with a dental, disappear. Semivowels in transferring the dental to their own organ. Thus the conjunct ^ becomes ^ in ^^, ' true,' for Sk. ^w? ii"d 'ft'^, ' death/ Sk. ^^^^ . ^ becomes ^ in "^^j ' to-day/ Sk. ^51^ ; MSf becomes ^ in ^t^, 'twilight/ Sk. ^^KS(. ^ ^^ry often modifies the dental, if first, and more rarely, if second in the conjunct. Examples are: ^TZ, 'a road/ Sk. ^i^»T; "mz, 'cloth/ Sk. q^. The vowel ^, in Hindi becoming f^ and ■^■^, has the same effect: as in ■^^T? 'old/ for Sk ^^:. This assimilation, in the case of the labial, is much more rare. The chief examples are afforded by the numerals, in the combinations of t|[, 'two' ; as, ■^Kl> 'twelve/ for Sk. ^^1X1; ^Tt^j 'twenty-two/ Sk. ^Tt^i{f?i, etc. Analogous is the derivation of •^Rrxj, 'self,' from the Sk. '^^^. 108. A sibilant, in a conjunct with a stronger letter, dis- sibilants in appears, commonly aspirating the remaining consonant. Thus, ^'^"J™*^^^- 64 CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF HINDI. [§ 109. we have fT^, from Sk. ff%'T;, 'an elephant'; x?f^^, ' west,' Sk. x^f^^; ^-T, 'an udder,' Sk. ^if; ^^t^T, 'dry,' Sk. in^i; ■^TZj 'eight,' Sk. ^s«|^. In some cases the aspirate assumes a separate existence, and is even transferred to the beginnine; of a syllable ; as in f^, ' a bone,' Sk. "^f^; f •!T»T, 'bathing,' Sk. ^T«f; ti^xj, 'a flower,' Sk. xjxq. For a conjunct formed by ^, fT, or xj preceding a sibilant, the regular substitute is ^. Thus, ^^, ' destruction,' becomes i^^ ; "^'^■^, ' a letter,' ^^T ; Tf^, 'a fish,' TT?5; t^fxJSfff, 'desired,' ^[f^cT, — unless, with Weber, we derive it from the Prakrit root, ^^ . a. But, in conjunction Avith g?, the sibilant often merely leaves an aspiration, without changing the varg; as, in Old Hindi, ^?§"?:, 'a letter,' for Sk. '^^^; and ??^5§^, or ?lT^j ' a fly,' for Sk. ?Tf^^ . b. In a large class of words beginning with ^, chiefly derivatives of the root ^JT? 'to stand,' the dental has been transferred to the cerebral va7'g\ Such are, e.g., the words, ^tj 'a place'; "3t»TTj ' a police-station ' ; "37^1? 'erect'; Mar. ^TT, 'where,' etc., etc. With a weaker letter the sibilant remains; as in ^^t%, 'necessary,' for Sk. "^^"Sil, etc. 109. While the foregoing exposition of the phonetic laws which have operated in the development of the Hindi, is necessarily but brief and incomplete, it is hoped that it may at least indicate the path of research to the student ; and aid him in interpreting the various strange and irregular forms which one often encounters in Old Hindi books, and in the diverse local dialects of modern Hindi. 5§ 110, 111.] 65 CHAPTEE lY. THE DIALECTS OF HINDF. 110. Hindi, as already remarked, is spoken and written in a g;reat variety of dialects, which it is difficult to enumerate with precision. While some of these, as Braj and Kanauji, differ from each other but slightly, others, aj!;ain, as those of Rajputana, in the West, and of the region about Benares and eastward, differ so widely that it may at least be regarded as an open question, whether we should not, with Iloernle, Grierson, and souie others, regard them rather as distinct languages than as dialects. Without entering into the present discussion on this point, I have used the word "Hindi," in this Grammar, in the more customary sense, as including the speech of the whole region from the lower ranges of the Himalaya mountains, in the north, to the Narmadd river and the Vindhyd mountains, in the south ; and from the Panjdb, Sindh, and Gujerdt, in the west, to Bengal and Chutia Nagpur, ill the east and south-east. 111. Within this region, the dialects of Hindi may be Enumeration enumerated as follows, beginning in the west and proceeding eastward, namely : (1) The dialects of Rajputana: Marwt^ri, Mewtiri, Mairwjiri, Jaipuri, and Haroti ; (2) The Hiniiilayan dialects: Garhwali, Kumaoni, and Naipdli; (3) The dialects of the Doab : Braj, and Kanauji ; (4) The Piirbi or Eastern dialects : Avadhi, Riwai, Bhojpuri, Mdgadhi, and Maithili ; to which may be added, because of the literary and religious importance of the chief poem in the dialect, the Old Baiswari of the Rdnidyan of Tulsi Dels, and, finally, High Hindi, which is the basis of the Urdii or Hindustani. It is, of course, 5 66 THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. [§ 112. impossible to indicate the boundaries of these with absolute precision, as dialects are never limited by sharply defined lines; but, with this reservation, the reg:ions to which these severally belong may be indicated as follows : Limits of 112. The Marwari is spoken from the extreme western Dialects. ' / ' / boundary of Hindi, as far eastward as the Aravalli Hills, through a region of which Jodhpur and Jayanagar may be taken as the centre. In the northern part of tlie Aravalli Hills, is spoken the Mairwari ; and to the south and east of these hills, about the head waters of the Bands and the Chambal, in the state of Mewar or Udaipur, the Mewari. Next come the dialects of East Rajputana, from the Aravalli Hills to the Betwa River ; in the north, the Jaipuri, and in the south, in Kotah, Bundi, and the states to the south-east, the H.^roti.* On the north-east of these Rajputana dialects, throughout the upper Doab, in the valley of the Ganges and Jamnd, the Braj is spoken ; and in the lower Dodb, to the east and south, the Kanauji, so called from the ancient city of Kanauj, near the centre of that region. Parallel with these dialects of the Doab, in the Himalayas, are found the Garhwdli, spoken from the Satlaj River to the Ganges ; the Kumdoni, from the Ganges to the Gogari River, and the Naipali, from the GogaiT to the Sankhassi River on the extreme east. Returning to the plains, as we approach Allahabad from the west, we begin to meet a type of speech differing widely from that in the north and west. Northward is the Avadhi,t or dialect of Avadh (Oude), and to the south, the Riwai, so called from the native state of that name — also called Baghelkhandi * These dialects of Rajputana are sometimes still further subdivided. Thus, according to an enumeration adopted by the Government of India in a recent paper, to the north and west of the Marwari, we have the Bikaniri ; to the north and east of the Jaipuri, the Alvvari ; to the south of the Haroti, the Ujjaini. t Also called Kosali and Baiswari. § 113.] THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. 67 from the old name of that region (the land of the Baghels).^' Bordering these on the east, and extending from the foot of the Himalayas to about the 22nd parallel of latitude, and to Chutia Nagpur, the Son river, and the district of Muzaffar- nagar in the east, the dialect is Bhojpuri. The INIagadhi is spoken in its purity in a small triangular area east of the Son and south of the Ganges, in the centre of which are the cities of Patnjl and Gaya. JNIaithili occupies the region imme- diately east of Bhojpuri and north-east of INIagadhi, exteriding to the east as far as the districts of Piirnia and Bhagalpur, where, on the east, the Bangali, and on the south-east, the Sonthali, begin to be spoken. The Old Baiswari of the Rumayan is closely related, as a more archaic type of speech, to the modern coUoquials of Avadh and Riwa. All the dialects thus far mentioned, with the exception of the last, are the living colloquials of the Hindoo population in the several regions named. 113. There remains to be mentioned one dialect, the most High Hindi. modern of all, understood more or less through all the Hindi- speaking country, but in no place the language of the home, which has latterly been called, after the analogy of German, High Hindi.t Of the living Hindi colloquials, it stands in closest connection with the Braj and Kanauji, and is still more nearly related to the Urdii of the Muhammedan popu- lation, with which it agrees in declension, conjugation, etc. ; differing chiefly in the exclusion, to a great degree, of the Arabic and Persian words and phrases which are so largely employed in Urdii. It has come into existence as the result * These two, which differ hut slightly, sire grouped together by Gricrson, under the name Baiswari, from Baiswdr, the laud of the Bais, a Rajput tribe. t 111 the former editiou of this work, this was called 'standard Hindi;' but as this term is liable to occasion misapprehensiou as to the relation of this dialect to others, I luive in the present editiou conformed, as above, to an exteudiug usage. 68 THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. [§ 114. of the political influence of the English Government of India, and the missionary activity of the present century. It is the dialect in u'hich the Government, and, for the most part, English and American missionaries, publish their Hindi books, and which is used in communication with the Hindi-speaking; people. And yet, though understood more or less by a multitude of Hindi-speaking: people, this High Hindi is nowhere the house- hold speech of the Hindoos.* Still, under the stimulus of English influence, a considerable literature is already springing up in this dialect, and, if one might venture to predict, it seems probable that the language of the future in North India will be a form of High Hindi, less highly Arabized and Persianized than the Urdii, but yet containing less of the Sanskrit and Prakrit element than much of the Hindi of to-day. Classificaiion J14 'f }jg dialccts enumerated may be classified under two 01 Dialects. •' general heads, as Western and Eastern Hindi. Under the * The following- description of the state of the case in North India, g-iven by Mr. Grierson, B.C.S., before the Seventh International Con- gress of Orientalists, «ill be readily recognized as having in it ninch of truth, by all who have had any experience of life among- the village populations of India: "The literary or Government lang-uage of any tract is widely different from the language actually spoken by the people. In some cases, this is only a question of dialect, but in others, tlie ])olite language learned by Europeans, and by natives who wish to converse with Europeans, is totally distinct, both in origin and constrn(-tion, from that used by the same natives in their homes The fact is, and it is one that should be faced, that nowhere in Hindustan is the language of the village the same as the language of the court, and before a poor man can sue his neighbour in the court, he has to learn a foreign language, or to trust to interpreters, who tleece him at every step ; and before a boy can learn the rule of three, he has to learn the foreign language in which it is taught. In some parts of Hindustan this difficulty exists in greater degrees than in others, hut it is always more or less present." — Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. iv. April, 1887, p. 132. § 114.] THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. 69 former head, are included all the Rajputana dialects, together with those of the Himalayas, Garhwali, Kumaoni, and Naipiili, and those of the valley of the Ganges and Jamnd, Braj and Kanauji. To Eastern Hindi belong Avadhi, Riwai, the Old Baiswilri of the Rdmdyan, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and INIaithili. The dialects comprehended in each of these divi- sions present common points of agreement among themselves, and of difference from those of the other family, which, as will appear, abundantly justify this classitication. a. Hoernle sets apart the Himalayan dialects named, as also the Eastern Hindi dialects, as forming each a separate language. Without entering into the discussion, it may be remarked that the affinity between these Himalayan dialects and those of Rajputana is so close, that if the differences between them and Braj and Kanauji forbid us to classify them with the latter, as dialects of one language, similar reasons will compel us also to deny that Braj and Marwtiri are dialects of one language, — an opinion to which Hoernle seems indeed to incline.* But, as the name ' Hindi ' is also denied by him and by Grierson to the Eastern dialects,t this will limit its applica- tion to the Braj and Kanauji. And yet, if I am rightly informed, the Braj literature throughout all this region is exposed for sale, and freely read by those generally who are able to read at all. As for Naipaii, in particular, it is so very like the contiguous Kumaoni and Garhwali, that its relation to Hindi must be regarded as the same as theirs, whatever that may be. And as to the claim of Naipaii to be regarded as Hindi, the writer may refer to the fact that meeting some years ago a company of Naipalese pilgrims near the source of the Ganges, he found that they perfectly understood him in * See Comp. Gramin. p. xxxv, note. t Grierson regards the Bliojpiiri, Riagadhi, and Maithili, as con- stituting a distinct language, to wliicii he gives the name ' Bihari.' 70 THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. [§§ 115, 116. speaking simple High Hindi, such as is chiefly used hy mis- sionaries in their preaching. So also, the GarhwaJi coolies who were with me, conversed freely with these Naipalese in the local patois of the mountains. In like manner, it may he added, throughout Garhwal, notwithstanding the comparatively infrequent intercourse of the natives with Europeans, I have found no difficulty in conversing with the villagers in a simple form of High Hindi. How this question regarding the claim of the Himalayan dialects and those of the extreme east to he regarded as varieties of Hindi, should he decided, I leave to the judgment of the student, placing their phenomena before him in these pages. Lexical 115 'Y]]q differences between the two classes of Hindi Difierencfs in Dialtcts. dialects, and, to a lesser extent, between different dialects in each class, are both lexical and gra/nmafical. Totally different words are often used to express the most common ideas. Thus, 'to send,' in High Hindi, is ^^i ^TT ; in Marwari, ^^Jf^; in Baiswari, tj'ST^'T. 'To call,' is, in High Hindi, ^^T-IT; in the Rdmdyun, ^^^ ; in Rivvai, ^TT^'^T^«r- I" Riwai, again, ^\ri^, which in High Hindi, under the form t!3I«!Tj kas only the sense 'to creep,' regularly takes the place of the H.H. ^^•ITj 'to go.' These differences are strikingly illustrated in the substantive verb. Thus, 'is,' H.H. ^, in M^rwari is %, and in Bhojpuri, ^j or ^^. But the indication of these lexical differences belongs to a dictionary rather than to a grammar. Grammatical \\Q The srammaticctl differences which pertain to the Difiereuces m ^ ^ "-^ '■ Dialects. different dialects and types of Hindi, pertain to pronwiciation, to etymulogy, and to syntax. In detail, they will be set forth under their respective heads hereafter. In this place, we have only to note the chief dialectic distinctions of a general character ; and, first, those which mark, respectively, the two great families of the Eastern and Western Hindi. §§ 117, 118.] THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. 71 117. Tlie following peculiarities pertain to pronunciation Pronunciatioa " ^ ^ ^ in Easteru in the Eastern dialects. As a general rule, any vowel or dipli- Dialects. thong in any syllable before the penult, is shortened. This rule governs all the modifications which any word may undergo in processes of derivation or inflection.* The excep- tions are as follows : (1) Any long vowel in the antepenultimate but '^, when followed by ^, or a euphonic i\i or ^Tj remains long. (2) The rule never takes eft'ect in a causal root. (3) In Northern Maithili, these rules do not operate in the inflection of verbs. (4) In the Bhojpuri present indicative, a vowel is not shortened except it be one syllable further back than the above rule requires. 118. In Eastern Hindi it must be noted, in the application Eastern Short of tills rule, that we have the short vowels e, 6, di, du, which, with the exception of e, are not known to exist in Western Hindi. Thus we hear ^fZ"?TT, heiii/d, 'daughter;' XTTTf^T^T, parosii/d, 'neighbouring;' ^"^rf, kurtdiii, ' if they did,' etc. Rem I. Both Hoeriilef and Grierson X make the above statement without the exception noted. But the existence of a sliort e in the collo- quial of the Doah, and in the Hindi of the N.W. Himalayas, had already been noted in the 1st edition of this Grammar.§ Rem. 2. According to Hoernle, 1| the use of these short vowels is re- stricted, except in the case of a few frequently used words, to the following cases : — (1) In an antepenultimate syllable where they stand for a long /, d, ai, au, shortened by the operation of the rule above given. (2) Optionally, in the gen. postpositions ke and kai, also ke and kcit. * This rule was first pointed out by Grierson : Maithili Gram. pp. 'JT, 78 ; and by Hoernle : Comp. Gram. pp. 4, 5, et passim. t Comp. Gram. pp. ix, 5. J Seven Grammars, Pt. I. p. 10. § Vid. 1st ed. § 1, b. \\ Comp. Gram. § 5, b. 72 THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. [§§ 119, 120. (3) In the sliort obi. forms of pronouns in h ; as in the r^lnilvc, j eh, jehi; the demonstrative, eh, etc., etc.* (4) Also in tlie inflections of verbs, in the terminations es, en, and ain ; and in one form of tbe conjunctive participle ; as kahe ke, where Western Hindi would have kahi kai. Hiatus in 119. In case of concurrent vowels, E.H. constantly retains E. Hindi. , , . , , t the hiatus which W.H. removes by sandhi. Ilhistrations are, from the lldmdi/an: ofj^^f;, 'he does,' for W.H, oR^; »t^^, 'became,' for K. ^^^^\\ fq"^, 'husband,' for W.H. fx?"^; f^f^TTj 'living,' for f^"^?!. But E.H. sometimes avoids the hiatus by the insertion of a consonant, though it shows an aversion to ^, which W.H. constantly uses in such cases, and prefers ^ instead ; as in E.H. f^^^, ' gave,' for W.H. f^^T? etc. Consonants m 120. As regards coJisonants, Eastern Hindi exhibits a E aud VV. '^ ' Hindi. preference for dentals, where Western Hindi, following the Prakrit tendency, retains cerebrals. Illustrations are, from the Rihndi/an: f[^, 'under,' from W.H. 71%; ^^t^^ 'thin,' 'lean,' for H.H. ^W'^T; and, from modern Eastern colloquials: ^t:, 'horse,' for H.H. "^Tt^T; cftT? '^^^ breaks,' for W.H. rft%; VJm, 'to fall,' for H.H. 'q^'TT. Reference has already been made to the aversion of E.H. to ij; it may be added, that it never allows either ^ or ^^ to stand as initial. On the other hand, the aversion of W.H. to ^, which is shown by the avoidance of its use in a hiatus, reaches an extreme in the dialects of Rajputana and the Himalayas, in which medial ^ is very commonly dropped, and the concurrent vowels com- bined. Thus, H.H. "^f •iTj 'to say,' E.H. ^f^, in Marw^ri becomes fi^; ^Tfl%, 'ought,' becomes %%; E.H. qff^, 'first,' H.H. tiff^T, becomes q^; ^Tff W, ^T^ ;t H.H. frrf ^cT, ?fV*ffT> etc. But it should be noted that in S. Rajputana, ^ is very commonly substituted for ^ ; as, e.g., in ^i?^, ' under- standing,' for ^^^. Illustrations of the same aversion to ^, * Cf. also this Grammar, 1st ed. § 1, b. t For this sandhi, vid. § 88, (1). § 121.] THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. 73 from the Himalayan dialects, are: in Garhwali,^^/he will be,' instead of ft^, H.H. fr^n, E.H. ^^, etc.; and, in Kumaoni; nj, 'here,' and cfij, 'where,' for E.H. and H.H. ^t, ^ft; and ^mft, 'to say,' for H.H. ^f vjt, E.H. ^f^, etc. a. Grierson mentions as also characteristic of Eastern, as contrasted with Western Hindi, the change of ^ to «r.* But this is not peculiar to the Eastern dialects ; the same tendency is observable in Marwari, where we have, e.g., •!T«TfTj ' a curse,' for ^T*Tcf, Ar. l::^^)?! ; and •I^«T, for 'London;' and in Naipali ; as in •!•!, H.H. ^•T, ' salt ;' also in the fut. 3rd plur. termination. -•!•!; as in ^^«t«Ij for ^^^R, H.H. ^^5i. 121. Before indicating etymological distinctions between Etymological ^ Ditterences iu Eastern and Western Hindi, it is necessary to advert to the Dialects ; different forms under which Hindi nouns and adjectives occur, classified. These have been classified as short, — including (1) weak, and (2) strong forms, — long, and redmidant .■\ Those are called ' weak ' which present the shortest form of the word ; they commonly end in a short vowel or a silent consonant. Those are called ' strong,' in which the final vowel, vocalized or silent, is lengthened. ' Long' forms are those in which a suffix, com- monly ^T or ofT, is added to the weak form; 'redundant' forms are those in which this suffix is duplicated. Thus, for 'horse,' the weak form is ^^, the strong, ^^T; the long;, ^TT^; the redundant, ^it^T? or, as in Av., ^T^»TT- Any noun in Eastern or Western Hindi may take either the long or the redundant form, but the redundant is vulgar, and even the long is rarely used in High Hindi. When used, it often gives to the noun a diminutive sense, and hence is sometimes used to express endearment; as, e.g., in ^f^^T> from %^, ' daughter,' etc. A long vowel in the ultimate or penultimate syllable, is shortened before the long and redundant termina- * Seven Grammars, Part I. p. 9. t See Grierson : Seve7i Grammars, Part I. pp. 8, 9 ; and Hoernle : Coiup, Gramm. §§ 195-201. THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. [§§ 122, 123. Dialectic Variations in Inflection. tions; as in T^^^f, from TT^T^, *a rose;' ^fTT^T? from ^TfT? ' a word,' etc., etc. But in Braj, at least, the final long vowel may sometimes remain. Tims we not only have ^zf^"^, 'a little bundle,' from iftZ^, hut Zf^T? 'a pony,' long- form of Zf. 122. Of these various forms of nouns and adjectives. Western Hindi shows a preference for the strong, and Eastern Hindi, for the weak forms. Thus, where W.H. has ^^T? 'a horse,' E.H. prefers, though not exclusively, "g^^ or ^13; for W.H. •TT^V, ' a woman,' E.H. has -wuf^ ; for W.H. ^^7, ^^, or ^^, ' great,' E.H. has ^f or ^"^. In E.H., where the strong form is used, the termination ^T is preferred to ^ or ■^^. In the use of the long forms, while W.H. uses either those in ^j C^), or ^j (^)j — preferably, the latter, — E.H., in accordance with the above law, prefers ^T and ^. But after I or i final, ^ is used as well as ^j ; as, from •TTfr? 'a woman,' E.H. •nt^^T or viTTtTr, but W.H., preferably, •TTf?^^T. I" the pronouns, where W.H. has a final ^ in the termination of the strong forms, E.H. has ij; as in %, for W.H. ^, etc. The long form of the pronouns — restricted in the west, for the most part, to the H.H. ^sT, ' who ?' for Br. efi^ — is commonly employed in E.H. also in the relative pronoun, ^w\, and the correlative, ^^, both of which are rare in the west. 123. The following contrasts appear between Eastern and Western Hindi in regard to inflection. In W.H., nouns ending in a consonant are never inflected before the post- positions ; but in some of the Eastern dialects, such nouns are inflected to jr e or ■^; and verbal nouns in ^, to ^T- Thus, while ^x, 'house,' in W.H. is unchanged in the obi. sing., in E.H. it sometimes takes an obi. sing, inflection, becoming ^ or ^Jo; and ^f^, ' giving,' = H.H. ^-IT, takes an obi. form, ffff^T- 'I'lie postpositions of declension are radically the same in the east and the Avest, with the important ex- ception, that %, distinguishing the case of the agent, is tin- §§ 124, 125.] THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. 75 known in the Eastern dialects, the construction with which it is used being never employed. a. Grierson adds, as another contrast, that W.H. " declines its nouns entirely with the aid of postpositions, while E.H. has in some dialects true inflectional forms for the instrumental and locative singular." This is qualified in a foot-note by the remark that " in some of the more vulgar forms of the Hindi dialects a locative in ij is found." But the exception might be extended to the instrumental case also, for which the Marwari dialect regularly uses a true inflected form in ij, identical with the corresponding- form in E.H. 124. The conjugational system in Eastern Hindi is distin- Conjugation . ' in E. and W. guished, in general, from that of the West, by the retention Hindi. of a larger proportion of inflected forms. Thus while High Hindi, for instance, has but three inflected tenses, Eastern Hindi, besides these, has also an inflected present imperfect, indefinite perfect, and past contingent imperfect. Tiiis com- paratively archaic character of the Eastern dialects is further illustrated, especially in Maithih', by the preservation of old Prakritic terminations; as, e.g., in the past contingent im- perfect, which in Western Hindi has lost the terminations throughout, but retains them in Eastern Hindi, as in the Mt. 1st and 3rd sing., ^f^fi:^, ^f^t^fw, ' bad I seen,' ' had he seen,' where H H. has in both persons simply, ^^fTT- This re- mark is further strikingly illustrated by the retention in verbal forms, as also in various pronominal themes, of the Prakritic ^, which seems to have had so much influence in determining the forms of many modern Hindi Tadbhava words, but which, except occasionally in the rude dialects of Rajputana, has almost entirely disappeared from Western Hindi. Of these remarks the conjugational Tables will aftbrd abundant illustration. 125. Again, as regards individual tenses, while Western Hindi presents three types of the future, characterised severally by the letters f (Mjir. ^) j[, and ^ (N. -f), the Eastern dialects 76 THE DIALECTS OF HINdI. [§§ 126-128. all use a future with the characteristic, ^ ('^), showing only occasional fragments of any other type. The Western dialects exhibit in the perf. participle and its tenses, forms in "^j ^, or ^^; but the Eastern dialects are distinguished by the formation of the corresponding parts of the verb by means of suffixes with ^. PecuHar also to the east, is an inflected present with wf as the characteristic letter, in Bhoj- puri, Magadhi, and Maithili. Both Eastern and Western Hindi add the auxiliaries to the participle, conjugating fully only the latter. But many dialects of Eastern Hindi, in the present and past perfect often reverse this, adding the auxiliary to an inflected preterite, and then conjugating only this first member, and retaining the auxiliary unchanged. Other minor points of difference between Western and Eastern Hindi will be learned from the Tables of conjugation : the above are the most important. Dialectic 126. As regards syntax, the chief contrast between the Differences in ^ <• i • i • c i Syntax. two families ot speech is found in the construction of the tenses of the perfect in transitive verbs. All the Western dialects, in such cases, use an indirect passive construction, placing that which in English idiom is the subject nomina- tive, in a special case, the case of the agent, which is only used in this construction. In the Eastern Hindi dialects, this construction, as also the case appropriated to it, is wholly unknown. 127. The specific diff^erences between the various dialects in each family will be indicated as they come up in the following pages. The following remarks of a general character, how- ever, may well be made here. Braj Peculia- 128. In the Brai, the inflectible ^T final of High Hindi (for rities. Pr. ■^, Sk. •^:), in adjectives and verbs, commonly appears as •^^; but in nouns, the Prakritic "^ has become ^T- Often in verbs, and more rarely in nouns, "^ final is vriddhied to ^. Anusv^r is used much more freely than in High Hindi. Short a in close roots is very often lengthened ; as, e.g., in i;T^^f, §§ 129, 130.] THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. 77 for X^^ly '^o keep;' '^T^i^r, 'to walk,' for 'g^-iT; ^t=^, 'true,' for ^^xf. The Kanauji is related closely to the Braj. Kanauji. Where the Braj, as above, has ^'^, the Kanauji retains the Prakrit ^. tj final remains unaltered. Anusvtir is used with great freedom. 129. The Marwari and Mairwari a^ree with the Kanauji Rajputana ■ ■ . ir- J Dialects. in presenting iJY i» adjectives, instead of the inflected '^T; but extend this usage so as to include nouns, saying, e.g., ^^, instead of ^^T; 'ahorse,' etc. '^ is preferred to a medial «, as in Braj ; as in ^TlWtj ' to adhere,' for ^^•IT ; TTE^? foi* TTf^, ' earth,' etc. ^ is very commonly preferred to ^SI, in an unaccented syllable before a verbal termination. I have obtained no written examples, but it is evident that the sandbi \, in the cases given in § 120, must have arisen from '^ + f[. Occasionally, ^ or ^^ is inserted between the con- current vowels ; as in ^-^T^, tbr ^f T^t (^fT^T) ; ^EfT^^, for ^Tff^, etc. In Marwtir, ^ very commonly becomes f ; as in f?T|j, for H.H. '^'^^, 'understanding;' %J^, for ^rrff^j etc. These dialects, and, it is said, the Rajputana dialects generally, agree in that, unlike those of the Ganges valley, they con- stantly prefer the cerebral nasal, irr, to the dental -T- Thus, the H.H. forms, ^tt«TT, 'own,' ^•n? 'to be,' are, in Marwari, ■^xiTrfr, ^^. Other changes peculiar to the Rajputana dialects are illustrated by the Mar. ff^lfl, for Ar. L::.,.^is^, 'a throne,' and ^J^^, 'a king,' for Pers. ilijlj. 130. Inasmuch as the Kumaoni, Garhwali, and Naip^li, so '^^^ ^"^l" far as I know, possess little or no literature, our materials for the illustration of these dialects are but scanty. But it will be abundantly evident from the sequel that their affinities are very close — not with the contiguous dialects of the Ganges valley — but with those of Rajputana. The important qualifi- cation must be made regarding Naipali, that although it possesses a case of the agent, like the Western dialects, it yet makes the verb, in the tenses of the perfect, to agree in gender and number with the subject, as in Eastern Hindi, and thus 78 THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. [^ 131. occupies a position intermediate between the two families. As agreements of these Himalayan dialects with those of Rajputana, we may note specially the frequent preference of the cerebral to the dental nasal; as in G. "^qiift, 'own,' for H.H. ^H^T; and ^Tin^, 'made,' for H.H, "^^it^t; and in infinitives generally; as in G. "'l^^, 'to cry,' for H.H. "'(YlT • A common aversion to ^ is also to be observed, as in Ku. ^TWtj ' to say,' for H.H, ^f «n, where Mar. has ^^. The sinidhi in such cases indicates a preference of ^ to the Mar. \, as union-vowel. Again, ^^, in both, often becomes ^; as, e.g., in G. ^tf%^Tj 'a honey-comb,' H.H. ^tf^^^TT; and also, ^becomes ^; as in G. f^TWt:. 'under,' H.H. •ft^. Many nouns and adjectives, in all these dialects, present the archaic termination, ^ or ^, the last remainder of the Prakritic ^, before its final total disappearance in H.H. nouns ending in the silent inherent a. The Himalayan dialects, as will appear from the tables of conjugation, are further contrasted with those of Rajputana, as with other forms of Western Hindi, by their great abbreviation, especially in verbal forms. Naip^li, however, as above remarked, has other features in common with the Eastern type of Hindi, and thus occupies an intermediate position. Illustrations are found in the absence of the Rajputana aversion to ^, and the preference of ■?^ to ^ and of -t to xij ; as in tf^-^^rr, 'to seize/ H.H. x?^^«TT; and in •!, for the Mar. lift, i" all infinitives. Dialect of the 131. Among the Eastern dialects, the Old Baiswari of the Rdmciyan of Tulsi Dd,s deserves special attention, on account of the literary importance and religious infiuence of this poem. It should be observed, however, that Tulsi Das has allowed himself the utmost freedom in drawing grammatical forms from various Hindi dialects, and even from the Prakrit and Sanskrit, as the exigencies of the metre or his own fancy might suggest. The student should, of course, carefully dis- criminate between such foreign elements, and those which are distinctive of that form of Hindi in which the poet wrote. Kdmdijan. § 131.] THE DIALECTS OF HINDI. 79 Altlioui>ii, e.g., the Braj. perf. part, in "q^, and the K. in ^g^, are often found in the Rdmdyan, as also the Bhoj. perf. in ^, neither of these are to be regarded as belonging to the Old Baiswari, in which the poem is written. a. All the peculiarities of Eastern Hindi which have been mentioned above, appear in the Rdmdyan, and need no further illustration. As peculiarities of orthography, it may be noted that for t;, ^^ is sometimes written; as in f^^^, for ^^, 'living creature.' Some words are written indifferently with "^T^, ^T^, or ^; as, e.g., ■?:t^T, TT^^, and iftT. "s^ed as an honorific pronoun, ' your Excellency.' For '^^^, we sometimes find written, ^^; as in ^-f, for ■^xETif , ' a place.' Before affixes and suffixes, "^ is very often substituted for "^ or f;. Thus we have, ^TT«fi? '^ child,' for H.H. ^T^^; ^f^"^, ' was,' * became/ for ^f^^^^•, ^^^, ' say,' for ^^F? etc, etc. This "^^j thus used, is jirosodially connuon, but oftener short than long. The semi- vowels n and ^ are often softened to f[ and ^, producing a hiatus which is suffered to remain; as in ^^j^, ' at the door,' for ^TT? etc. Many nouns which in High Hindi terminate in the silent «, in the Itdmdyan end in '^, often lengthened, metr. grat., to ^3^. Examples are numerous: as, ^^, ' an arrow ;' f^^, ' the head ;' f{'^, ' the face ;' for the H.H. ^•?:, f^x, M-%. ) Rem. This final u is the charficteristic vonel of the final diphthong o of the Prakrit nom. sing'. This termination represents a stage of the language immediately preceding the modern forms, in which, the u being no longer sounded, it is no longer written, so that all words of this class are reduced to the form of nouns ending in a silent a. h. Quite characteristic is the very frequent substitution of the simple aspirate ^ for an aspirated mute.* Thus we find, ^TI, 'gain,' for ^H; ^~tf, 'anger,' for Wt^; ^Tf, 'lord,' for *IT^, etc., etc. Instances of this change occur in every dialect, but it is especially common in the Rdmdyan. * Vid. § 99. 80 THE DIALECTS OF HINdI. [§ 132. c. The unmeaning Prakritic suffix, ^, is of frequent occur- rence, as it is also in modern Maithili.* The following instances may be noted: of nouns; ^ifT^T? ^a wife,' ^rfZ^T? ' the fist,' vftofiT, ' a ship ;' for ^TTT? 'T^^? and "fV ; of numerals ; '^Tfr^, 'four,' ti^T^cfi, 'fifty,' ^f^^, 'a crore;' of prono- minals, etc.; f^ffT=fij 'how much,' ^^cR, 'some,' ^:^fl^ and ^¥^^, 'much,' ^W^eR, ' ever.' 132. The modern Eastern colloquials call for no further remark in this place, further than the observation that among them the Northern Maithili presents the most archaic type, corresponding, in this respect, to the remote dialects of Rajputana in Western Hindi. * Vi(]. § 124, and tlie Maithili Conjug-atioii in the Tables. §§ 133, 134.] 81 CHAPTER Y. OF SUBSTANTIVES {W^). Gender. 133. Hindi substantives are affected by gender, miniber, and case. We have first to consider the subject of gender. Only two genders, masculine (^f^T) and feminine (T^f^^), are recognized. The neuter of Sanskrit, (which has been retained in the Mardthi,) the Hindi, as well as the closely related Panjabi, has lost, so that the gender of many nouns is of necessity ambiguous, being apparently determined solely by popular usage. 134. As a general principle, Sanskrit nouns, introduced Hindi follows ,. . p.. .,. .., Sanskrit into Hindi, it masculine or lemmine, retain their original Gender. gender ; or if neuter, become masculine in Hindi. But there are many exceptions to this principle. «. Among the most coiumon exceptions may be noted the following words, which, altliough masculine in Sanskrit, have become feminine in Hindi : viz., "^^ (Sk. '^f^), ' fire ; ' ^t^ (Sk. -^f^), 'flame;' ^iT (Sk. ^^T^), 'heat of the sun;' ^^TT» 'a tinkling;' \m, 'incense;' ^^ (Sk. ^T^), ' odour.' ^^TTj ' a strong wind,' if derived, as some say, from the Sk. mascu- line, ^ij, would furnish another illustration; but the original identity of the two words is not certain, b. The following Sanskrit masc. nouns are in Hindi com- monly reckoned fern., though occasionally masc. : viz., ^^ or '^, 'victory;' cnTj 'a tune ;' ^Tf? 'burning,' and from the same Sanskrit root, ^^, ' envy,' ' malice.' "^t^, ' the eye,' ^^, ' a 6 82 GENDER OF NOUNS. [§^ 135, 136. thing/ and ^TrT? ' the body,' from the Sk. neuters, "^f^, ^^, and ^T"^, have become feminine. So also ^^, '^the body,' and "P^^, ' a book,' in Sanskrit, masc. or neut., are feminine in Hindi. JiW, 'death,' masc. or fem. in Sanskrit, in Hindi is always feminine, as also is the derived Tadbhava, '^^. c. In some cases, tlie reason of the chaiig-e of gender may probably be found in the influence of co-existing Urdu equivalents. Thus, e.g., the words ■^■iJTT^, '^^, XI^^, may have become feminine througii the influence of tlie Urdu ^)^)jr^^> and <— ^bS . In like manner S^ often retains the masculine gender, possibly under influence of not only the Sanskrit original, but also the masc. Urdu ^'^ . In the case of some Tadbhavas, the words may possibly not be, in fact, descended directly from the Sanskrit, but from similar Prakrit words, which have not been preserved in literature. 135. Although, as thus appears, the gender of a Hindi word often seems to be quite arbitrary, yet there are certain practical rules by which the gender of most nouns may be known. These rules respect, either the signification of nouns, or their terminations. Nouns Masc. \^Q ^ouus of the followins; sififnifications are by biguinca- ^ "^ ^^°^- masculine : — (1) All names of males. (2) Names of large, or coarse and roughly made objects, as contrasted with small, or more finely made objects of the same kind: as, ^T"?! gam, 'a cart,' in contrast with ^T^ ff^k'h '^ carriage,' fem.; '?;t5^t rassd, ' a heavy rope ; ' ift^ pot/fd, ' a tome ; ' in contrast, respectively, with "^^^ rassi, 'a small rope,' and ift^ pothi, ' a book.' (3) Names of metals, alloys, precious stones, and rocks generally : as, ^-TT sond, ' gold ; ' ^jtt rupd^ ' silver ; ' 51^t jastd, ' pewter ; ' ^"^t hird, ' a diamond ;' cfi^"^ kanlcar^ ' nodular limestone.' § 136.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 83 Exc. The following are feminine : viz., ^t^ chdndi, ^ silver ;' and compounds in which Hf^^T or TTcjj^ (^f^eRT) is the last member ; as, xrt"¥^'PfT=fiT pdndumrittikd, ' opal ; ' ^I^TT^vfY sondmakkhi, ' goldstone.' (4) N^ames of the year, of the months, of the days of the week, and of the astrological Jcarans : * as, ^^cf samvat, ' a year ; ' ^v budh^ ' Wednesday.' (5) Names of mountains and seas, whether common or proper : as, ^fTf pahdr, ' a mountain ; ' 'WiWK. sugar ^ ' the ocean ; ' f^rfr: giri^ ' a mountain ; ' f^^ vindhya, '■ the Vindhya mountains.' (6) IN^ames of the heavenly bodies : as, ^^'^ (pronounced suraj), \f^ ravi, etc., ' the sun ; ' w^ shukr^ ' the planet Yenus ; ' %rr ketu, ' a comet.' (7) Most words denoting affections of the mind : as, vmprem^ 'love;' crY^ hop^ 'anger;' ^H lohh^ 'avarice.' Exc. All Sanskrit nouns of this class in "^ d final are feminine : as, ^^T ichchhd, ' desire ; ' also the three follow- ing : viz., ^%^ arainch, ' enmity ; ' ^{\r krudh, and occasionally, sSl'^I krodh, ' anger.' (8) All nouns denoting agency or relationship. These include the following : — a. Many nouns in cTT td^ from Sanskrit bases in tt tri : as, ^TcTT ddtd. ' a giver ; ' '^^'^jgoddhd, ' a warrior,' from "^j^ij yiidh, ' to fight ;' where the final ffT td, for the sake of euphony, has been changed to \n dim. h. Some nouns in t^ i, from Sanskrit bases in ^«^ in : as, '^\\S kdri, 'a doer,' and its compounds. c. A large class of Sanskrit nouns in gj ka: as, ^ii^lj^ upadeshak, ' an instructor ; ' '^^^ rachak, ' a maker.' * Tlie Pundits reckon eleven karans, seven moveable, and four fixed, of which two equal a lunar day (tU/ii). 84 GENDER OF NOUNS. [§§ 137-139 (/. Another large class of Sanskrit nouns in «f na (ttt no), especially common in poetry, as the last member of compound words: as, ^"^Trr haran, < a remover;' ^^^^-T dukhabhahjan, * a destroyer of grief;' ilffTrri:iT^«I patitapdwcm, ' purifier of the guilty.' e. A large class of compounds, in which the last member is a Sanskrit root, either unchanged, or aifected with gnu : as, t;^*T^'^T! rajnic/iar,' sl demon,' lit. 'night-walker ; ' VT'T^^T d/ianiidhar, ' supporter of the earth ; ' xn^lTi^^/^"''*"^/ I'^'^^over of sin.' /. A numerous class of Tadbhava substantives in ^ i/d (T^T, X^SSfT, and'^iiT) : as, n%-€ij gaiuaii/d, 'a. singer;' %%^T lewaiyd, ' a taker ; ' ^^tfT(;^ dhandhoinyd, ' a crier.' iis^lI^ZnJ l^''- The following are /mmme; viz. :— (1) All names of females. (2) Names of the lunar days : as,^ t/z^;', 'the second;' ^Hjft" ashtmni, ' the eighth ;' "^iTT^^ amdvas, ' the day of new moon.' (3) Most names of rivers : as, i[^ gangd^ 'the Ganges;' ^^»TT lavand, ' a river in Tirhut.' Exc. ^^T soil, 'the Sone,' ff^^l sindhu, 'the Indus,' and ^^tj"^, 'the Brahmaputra,' are masculine. 138. As to the gender of trees, plants and flowers, no general rule can be given, further than this, that the majority of such names, especially of large trees, are masculine. The many various names of the lotus, as j'alaj] saroruh, kmnal, etc., are all masculine. But the names of a large number of plants and fruits are feminine. As the most of these are rarely used, it is not necessary to enter into further detail here. 139. It would not be easy to assign a reason for these rules in every case. In some instances, doubtless, the gender of the prevailing common term has determined the gender of the individuals included under it. § 140.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 85 Thus, names of mountains are probably masc, because the generic terms, parbat, giri, etc., sijrnifying ' mountain,' are masc. So, probably, names of metals, stones, etc., are masc, because the common terms, dln'ttu, 'a metal,' patthar, pdshdn, etc., ' a stone,' ratn, * a jewel,' are masc. In the case of the exceptions, cMndi, and the compounds of mrittikd and makshikd, the fem. terminations, a and i, have occasioned the deviation from the rule. So, also, the days of the week are reckoned masc, because the words, din, divas, etc., 'a solar day,' are masc; but the names of the days of the month are fern., as following the gender of tithi, ' a lunar day.' Still, the ultimate reason for these rules must be found in the imagination of the people, which assigned the gender of inanimate objects, according as masculine or feminine attributes were fancied to be predominant in them. 140. The following rules have respect to the fen^i- Nouns Masc. bv 'fermina- natwns oi nouns. tion. Nouns having the following terminations are masculine', viz. : — (1) Most Tadbhava nouns in "^ « or ^t on final : as, T^-^i ghard, 'an earthen jar;' l'^^;! derd^ 'a tent;' ift^ jhold^ ' a wallet ; ' ^^t dhud% ' smoke.' ^xc. Diminutives ending in \^ are feminine : as, e.g., ^f%^ thailiyd, ' a small bag;' t%f^^T chirk/ a, ^ a small bird;' T5t%"iJT piniriyd, ' a boil.' The following are also feminine : viz., -^^ giiii, 'betel nut;' ^If^T jl^iugd, 'a shrimp;' ^^ tod, ' the act of feeling ; ' t^f?;'i?t hiriydTi, <■ time.' ^j than, ' a place,' is masc. or fem. N.B. Tadbhava masc. nouns in d may be recognized as such, by their uniform inflection of a to e in the oblique cases of the singular. (2) Most nouns in "^ u or ^ u, in their diphthongs, ^ 0 or "^ au, or in the cognate semivowel ^ v, whether with or without Anusvdr : as, tt^ madhu, ' honey ; ' ^^^ kaku, ' a luncheon ; ' ^^T^ charhdo, ' an ascent ; ' ttu^ mahyau, ' buttermilk ; ' ^J^ bhdv, ' an emotion ; ' ^^ ffdnw, ' a village.' 86 GENDER or NOUNS. [§ 140. The following lists comprise all common exceptions. a. Noiais feni. in ^ u. ■^^^ achakshu, ' spectacles.' ^^ Jambu* ' the rose-apple.' ^■?I uyu, ' age.' cT^ tarku,"^ ' a spindle.' 1[^ ikshu, ' sugarcane.' ^^ bastu,* ' a thing.' ^^ chahchu, ' the beak of a ?T(^ mrityu,'^- ' death.' bird.' ^in retiu, ' sand.' h. Nouns fern, in ^ u, ^ un. n!jTm d^ihUi ' opium.' ^ Jim, ' a louse.' ^^ or ^^ nlii or lilu, ' a kind ^T^ dch'u, ' ardent spirits.' of grass.' ^<5r or '^T^ i^dlu or banc, «T ^'M, ^ excrement.' 'sand.' ^TTT^ cbamdu,'^ shoes fixed to ^ bhii, 'the earth,' pattens.' ^^"^^ )'eb u pe/iu, ' abundance.' "^Tf chamu, 'an army.' t^TT^ Idvii, 'a pumpkin.' '^^ chamjm, ' a work in alter- ^ id, ' the hot wind.' nate prose and verse.' 'EIT^ sdrd, ' a starling.' Wl'^j'dgd, ' a place.' ■^t^, 'a tear,' is both mascuHne and feminine. In the Shdkuntald it is masculine. c. Nouns fern, in "^ o, ■^* oii. ^T^ chhdon, ' shade.' ^^"ft salno, ' the full moon in "^(X^jokhon, 'risk.' Sawan.' [mustard.' ^T'^ '^"Oj 'wind.' ^T^ sarson, 'a kind of »lY bhon,-\ ' the eyebrow.' ;^ son, ' an oath.' d. Nouns fern, in "^ cm, ^ ami. 7^ gaun, X ' opportunity.' xft 7J«w, ' the ace in dice.' ^ daun, ' flame.' ^ lau, 'the flame of a candle.' e. The following in ^ v, are feminine: viz., ^^ nev, 'a foundation ; ' %^ tev, ' habit, custom ; ' x;T^ ^T^ t^dv chdv, ' merriment.' * Also, rarely, masculine. f Also bhaun and bhaunh. X Occasionally masc. § 140.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 87 /. The following are of either gender: viz., T^"^^ khardihi, * * wooden sandals ; ' 'Z^^ thdon, * a place ; ' ^f T^ sahdu, ' help.' Retn. Many words are written indifferently with one or another of these cognate letters: as, e.g., ^^'^ or ^T'^; ^T^ or *n^; ^If -), 'a fault;' cfTW tarah (r-^^), 'manner;' ^^j daivd (Ijj), 'medicine;' ^^j dud (Uj), 'a prayer;' ^»f^T diinyd {\JS}, 'the world;' ^^t hula (1>), 'a calamity;' ^f ruh (^j5j), 'spirit;' ^^Tf saldh (^^•^), 'counsel;' ^^f i-^), ' morning.' (2) A large class of Arabic trisyllables, in which TT ta is the first syllable, and "^ m, the vowel of the last syllable, and which have the medial radical doubled, or the vowel preceding it in the second syllable length- ened, are masc: as, fl^^BR taalluq [j^^ 'connexion;' cRT^cT taldwat {^u^l^)^ 'reading.' The word Tf^^f 92 GENDER OF NOUNS. [§^ 143, 144. iawajjuli (^y), is an exception. But words of this form, though common in Urclii, are quite rare in Hinclf. (3) Most Arabic and Persian words in cT /^ (li-') and ^ sh (^) are fem. : as, :F^fl"cf huJcumat (c:^^^^), ' govern- ment;' 'iTf^^ ndlish {j^^^) 'a complaint.' Exc. The most common exceptions to the above rule are the followhig: viz., i^T'([ gosht (l::-^^^), 'meat;' fl^fT takht, MAy. ff;rifT {^z.^^), ' a throne; ' ^T^ darakht {\^z^^6^jS), often mispronounced darakhat, and even darkhat, ' a tree ; ' ^^ dast (u::^^ j), ' a hand ; ' ^^ dost (c:^^^ j), ' a friend ; ' ^^ iiaksh ((jliij), 'a picture,' 'a print;' •^rf hut (lt-^), 'an idol;' "^W icakt (ci^jf.), often mispronounced ivakat, and even wakht, *time;' ^^^7[ sharhat {\^:^iJL), 'a drink.' (4) Arabic dissyllables (infinitives) with cT ta (cu) for the first syllable, and t; i as the vowel of the last syllable, are generally fem.: as, rr^T tadhir Q-^J^')? '^^ expedient;' fT^^ tajwij (j.jjsr'), ' a plan.' HT^W tdwij (-^j^--)' ' ^^ amulet,' is masc, but will scarcely be met with in Hindi, except, possibly, in the extreme west. 143, Most compound words follow the gender of the last word : as, 'l^g^^T ishwarecJichhd, fem., ' the will of God ; ' 'a husband,' makes its fem., XI(^. b. In like manner is formed (a final vowel being shortened) the fem. of Tatsama nouns of agency in f; i: as, ffrf^TT^ hitkdri, ' a friend,' fem., ff TToRTf^W^ liitJairini. 149. The suffix ^T'fl' dni is added to Sanskrit nouns, to denote *the wife of: as, e.g., ■qf^tTT'^ pmiditdni, 'the wife of a pandit,' from T^f5?T pcmdit ; ^^TXjft indi'dni, ' the wife of Indra.' This usage is extended to a very few Persian words ; as, especially, t%lfI''CT'^ mihtardni, 'the wife of a sweeper/ from fJTf fT^ {j-y*)- 150. A few family and class names, much corrupted, form their fem. by adding the suffix "^^T din, a final long vowel being rejected. Thus, ^^ duhe, ' a class of Brahmans,' makes its fem., '^^T1[«T diihdin; X(\% j^dnre, 'a brahmanical title,' fem., XT^TT"T pnrdhi. 151. As in other languages, the feminine noun is, in many instances, quite a different word from the corresponding masc. terra. Examples are: ^t^ saTir, 'a bull,' fem., ^T^ gdo, 'a cow;' TT^^ punish, 'a man,' fem., t^ stri, 'a woman ;' *jtI^ hhdi, 'a brother,' fem., ^f%'^ hahin, 'a sister;' ^t(^pitd, 'a father,' fem., ^TrlT mdtd, 'a mother.' 152. Nouns of agency in ^j retain the same form in either §§ 153-155.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 95 gender: as, e.g.,^^^^^[ gmvaii/d, 'a singer;' ^qfH^T lapatiyd, 'a liar,' niasc. or fern. 153. Ill the fern, term., /, as found in Tatsama nouns, we have simply Origin of Fern. Termiuatious. the regular Sanskrit fern, termination. But the same termination in the fem. of Tadbliava nouns in a will he found to represent the Sanskrit fern, term., iln't. Thus, as, e.g., ghord, ' a horse,' is for the Sanskrit gliotakah ; ghort, ' a mare,' is for the Sanskrit ghotikd, through an intermediate fovm, g/wrii/d. Tadbliava feminines in n,in,ni, have, in most cases, arisen from Sanskrit masc. bases in in, fem., ini. Thus, e.g., mdlin, 'a gar- dener's wife,' from riidll (Sk. mdlin, nom. sing., mdli), is for mdlini', dliohin, 'a washerman,' masc, dhobi, for a form, dhdvini; sundrin or suudrni, ' a goldsmith's wife,' points to a Sk. masc. base, svarnalcdrin (fem. svarnakdniii), for the more common svarnakdra. Declension of I^ouns. 154. Declension (t^^fw) respects those modifications of the noun by which are expressed the relations of number (^WT) and case (ojiTX;cfi). a. Hindi, in common with all the Indo-Aryan languages, has lost the dual, and only recognizes a singular (•^gR^'^.T), and plural (•^:^^^«T). If, very rarely, we meet a Sanskrit dual form, as, e.g., filff?fr pifarau, ' parents,' fromfiirT, ' father,' such forms have no organic connection with the language. 155- The distinctions of number and case are marked, Method of in part, and in a limited and imperfect degree, by ^^ ension. certain inflectional changes ; and in part, and more precisely, by the addition of certain particles to the base. Practically, Hindi has but one declension, from which certain classes of nouns exhibit slight variations, to be noted below. The following four rules cover all the inflectional changes to which substantives are subject in High Hindi. (1) Most Tadbhava masc. nouns in "^T d, inflect the inflection in final vowel to "^^ e, and those in "^t dn, to "^^ en or Ji e, ' ''' 96 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 155. throughout the oblique singular ; all other nouns, masc. or fern., are inflected in the singular. Examples of inflected nouns are the following: ^tTT kiitici, 'a dog,' obi. sing., ^% Jcutte ; v^^i ghord, ' a horse,' obi. sing., '^'^ ghore) mw\ tdmhd, 'copper,' obi. sing., i(^tdmbe\ ^t^-ijt hanhjdn^ ' a shopkeeper,' obi. sing., ^fW^' hanhjen or ^ff{^ banijje ; ^^^llt dhudn^ ' smoke,' obi. sing., VTJ dhucn. Examples of uninflected nouns are : ?TT^ mdli, 'a gardener,' ^T ghar^ 'a house,' ^^^ larH, 'a girl,' ^TfTT mdtd, 'a mother,' f^f?:^t biriydn^ 'time,' tm[ rdf, 'night,' etc., all which forms are used alike in the nom. and obi. sing. Similarly all Tatsama masc. nouns in ^t «, as, Tjw:\ rdjd, 'a king,' ^TfJTT dtmd, 'spirit,' fx?rTT pita, ' father,' etc., retain the same form unchanged throughout the singular. rt. A few Persian nouns, endings in the obscure « //, follow the analogy of inflected Tadbhavas and make the obi. sing, in "^ e, as, e.g., ^•^I handah, ' a servant,' obi. sing., ^"^ hande. Exc. 1. The following Tadbhava masc. nouns remain un- changed in the sing. : viz., ^T^T kdkd, ' a paternal uncle ; ' 'q^T cArtc/za, 'a maternal uncle;' '^'mjldld, 'a schoolmaster;' < a title of respect ; ' and a few other nouns expressive of relationship. Exc. 2. Occasionally the voc. sing., even of inflected Tadbhava masc. nouns, remains uninflected. Thus, ' son ! ', is either ^Z b^t^ or ^T f^f'td- Rem. It is difficult to give any rule or rules, by which the beginner, unacquainted with Sanskrit, may be able infallibly to distinguish Tadbhava masc. nouns in ^t, from Tatsama nouns having the same termination. It will, however, be of service to observe, that 1st, All nouns of agency and relationship in tit, and 2nd, All abstract nouns in ^t> including especially a large § 155.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 97 number of common fern, nouns in ttt, and a few in •it ('SIT)? are pure Sanskrit and are never inflected ; while, on the contrary, most common concrete terms in ^stT are Tadbhava and masc, and are inflected, as above, to ij throughout the obi. sing. For example, the following, viz. : ^TfTT data, * a giver,' ^^^fTT homaltd, ' softness,' ^^T ichchhd, ' desire,' TlxiijT trishnd, 'thirst,' are thus indicated as Tatsama nouns and uninflected. But, on the contrary, the concrete terms, ir37 ghard, ' an earthen jar,' ^:f ^T larkd, ' a boy,' '^fz:^ gltufud, 'the knee,' are Tadbhavas, and are inflected to tj in the obi. sing. (2) All such masc. nouns as are inflected by the above inflection in ^ ^ _ _ f Masc. Nom. rule to "^ e or Tj en in the obi. sing., retain the same ^''^^• inflection in the nom. plur. In all other masculine nouns, the nom. sing, and plur. are alike. Thus, ^^^T larlid, ' a boy,' obi. sing., ^^'^ larJce, makes its nom. i plur. also ^^^ larJce, 'boys;' "^Ti (/ar/id, 'a ditch,' obi. sing., ^% gar he, nom. plur., ^s garlie, ' ditches.' ^tt^-^iT ': rupiyd, ' a rupee,' makes the obi. sing, and nom. plur., ' ^fq^ ritpiije, or "'^'^ rupae. On the other hand, >si'^ \gha.r, 'a house,' ^17 yoddlid, 'a warrior,' ^tI^ bhdi, 'a \ brother,' have in the nom. plur. also, t^x ghar, ' houses,' ' 'ft^ yoddhd, ' warriors,' ml. bhdi, ' brothers.' Rem. Although, tliiis, in mtiny nouns the numher is not apparent from the termination, yet, practically, this will be found to occasion no ambiguity. As in the use of such English words as ' deer,' ' sheep,' etc., the number is generally quite evident from the context. (3) All fern, nouns in t i and t i, make the nom. J?^<'<'^f° ^'^ \ J '' *- *^ ' Fern. 2som. plural in ^t dn ; all other fem. nouns, in ij en. It is to i'^'^'*- be observed, that fem. nouns in "^ a, occasionally, and those in ^ /, or t; f, commonly, insert a euphonic '^ y before all such added terminations, •!; i final before this 7 98 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 155. ■^ being regularly shortened. Examples are, of the first class : ^"gefi^ larki, ' a girl,' nom. pliir., ^^f^^t larkiydn ; f^f>jj vidhi^ ' a divine law,' nom. plur., f^f^^^lt vidhiyan : of the second class : WTrT hdt^ 'a word,' ^^ hher^ ' a sheep,' ^^ hastily 'a thing;' nom. plur., ^f^r hdUyi^ 5^%* hheren, ^^"5 bastuen. a. ^^T rfchd, 'a sacred ode/ and ^ZT g^ift^tci, 'a heavy cloud,' make the nom. plm*. either ^^Tll richden, ^'Zl'Q g/iatden, or ^^T^ richdyen, "^^Z"^ ghatdyen. wt^j 'a wife/ makes the nom. plur. ^^^j* Z>. ^ f is rarely inserted as the euphonic letter instead of ^ y ; chiefly after a labial vowel, as in ^f^* hhauwen, ' eye- brows,' nom. plur. of ^^ hhaun ; and, very rarely, after t^ i, as in TTfrf^^t 7^"^^ * f"ur rame.' But ^ do, ' two,' used collectively, makes tiie iioni. plur., ff^wfV donou, ' the two,' ' both.' (4) All nouns whatever, masc. and fern., terminate in inflection ia , . . Obl. riur. ■^Y on, tliroughout the oblique plural ; Anusvar being dropped in the vocative only. In the case of nouns inflected to ij e in the obl. sing., this termination ^ on is substituted for the final vowel. If the noun end in t; f or ^ i, the vowel, if long, is shortened, and a euphonic "^ ?/ is inserted before the termination. A long final ^ w is shortened. In all other cases the termination is simj)ly added to the nom. sing. Examples are, of nouns inflected to Tj in the sing. : ^^T ff/iord, ' a horse,' obl. plur., ^ft^ ghoron, voc. plur., ^^ gJioro ; ^tTT Jcuttdj ' a dog,' obl. plur., ^rflf hutton, voc. plur., giift hutto ; of nouns in t; and ^ : f^j^ hilli, 'a cat,' obl. plur., f^f^^ billiyon, voc. plur., f^f^^ ; v\^ dhohi, ' a washerman,' obl. plur., ^f^^ dhobiijon ; f^fq vidhi, ' a law,' obl. plur., f^rf^T^ vidhiyon ; of other nouns: '^^'^ pustaJc, 'a book,' obl. plur., '^w^ pustakori \ TTcT rat, 'night,' obl. plur., xr reriphrastic . . riuiui. pended to plural nouns when it is desired to indicate the plural as a class. The plural inflection and the several postpositions are then added, not to the noun itself, but to this appended ^^. In the case of in- flected Tadbhavas in a, the noun is inflected to e before ^T, whether in the nom. or the obi. plur. In all other cases the noun before ^^ remains uninflected. Examples are the following : nom. plur., ?;t^T ^T rdjd log^ 'kings,' as a class; ^^ ^^Flt ^ dhobi logon men, ' among washermen ; ' ^f^ ^'it «Rt ^(^vi logon ko^ 104" DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 164. ' to poets ; ' "^f^Tf ^^* ^ haniyen logon se, ' by shop- keepers.' To illustrate further, such a phrase as ' ten kings came,' we must render, ^^ Tjwi '^TT! das rdjd de, since there is no reference to kings as a class ; but the phrase ' kings are wealthy,' — a general statement with regard to the class 'kings,' — must be translated, TJWI ^1 vH" it^^ rdj'd log dhani hote ham. a. This usage of the word ^^t is properly confined to nouns denoting persons, though it is occasionally used, somewhat jocosely, in reference to animals, by the common people, who might say, e.g., ^^ ^^ bandar log, much as we would say, 'the monkey folk.' It has indeed been denied that wpt^i is ever used except with nouns denoting persons ; but ex- ceptions occur to this general rule, even in literature, as in the following phrase from the Rmnayan : 7T1 ^"fl ^Ti'f f^Xt? ' (they) killed deer with the arrow.' b. The word ^ft^ is often used alone, where in English we have 'they' in the sense of 'people, in general;' as, "^Jl «fi^% *!, = French, 'on dit,' 'they say.' But often, in such cases, ^3(1 is omitted and the verb stands alone. Rem. ^^ has also a feminine form, ^^T^, 'woman,' but this is never appended as a sign of plurality to other nouns. 164. Besides ^^, the word ^ijj or J[^, 'a host,' is also often added to nouns to denote a class ; as, e.g., ^^cTTI'irj 'the gods;' rlTTTIf? 'the stars,' etc. Many other words are appended to nouns in like manner, in prose as well as in poetry, as indicative of plurality or multitude. Among these, the most common are the following, viz. : ^?, as, "W^J^ ^^, 'mountains;' u»i, as, ^^"31 ^»i, 'worshippers;' f?!^'?^, as, ■?:f^^T f^^T? 'sunbeams;' ^^^, as, ^g ^^^, 'animals;' jncT, as, ^ftr ?iTff , ' sages ;' ^^^, as, inq ^^f , ' sins,' i.e., ' the whole of my sins;' ^?TT^, as, ^^'r[ ^?TT^, 'the good,' i.e., 'the assemblage of the good ; ' ^^S(, as, ^^ ^^:^, ' warriors ; ' ^^^it;, as, ^^ ^^^it;? 'young Brahmans;' Z\^, as, efifxT §§ 165, 166.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 105 'Zm, 'the monkeys;' "^^, as, "^^ ^^, 'sins.' The word ■^^^ is added to a few nouns to connote order in a line ; as, Tt*IT^^5 ' the line of hair alone; the breast bone ;' ^TjTT^T^^, ' a flock of cranes,' as always flying; in a line. Two nouns of plurality are occasionally appended to a word; as, f^l^^"^ f^WK. ^^^j 'a multitude of demons.' Hem. In many cases the noun of plurality may be translated, ' assemblage,' ' multitude,' ' flock,' etc., but very often it will be found that English idiom will only admit the translation of the noun as a simple plural. The above words are by no means all equivalent to ^aj, nor are they all used interchangeably among themselves. 165, As Hindi has no article, the distinction indicated in The Article English by the definite and indefinite article, cannot always °' be expressed in Hindi. ^^T may be either 'a horse' or 'the horse;' f^^t iiiay be 'women' or 'the women.' The indefinite article may be sometimes rendered by the numeral Tf^, 'one,' or the indefinite pronoun, ^|^, 'some,' 'any;' but it is oftener incapable of translation. The definite article, occasionally, when strongly demonstrative, may be expressed by the remote demonstrative pronoun, ^^. In the case of nouns in the accusative, the force of the definite article may be often expressed by the use of the form with efi^; as, ^% efit, which may mean, ' t/ie horse.' But the student nmst not therefore understand that the ace. with ^ is always to be rendered with the definite article. 166- In exhibiting the declension of nouns according Classification ot Declensions. to the foregoing rules, it will be convenient to classify them according to gender in two declensions, each of which has two varieties. I. (1) The First Declension will comprise all mascu- Masc. Becien- Imes. Of this declension the First variety will include Variety. all Tadbhava * nouns in ^ or ^ which are inflected in * For defiuitiun of ' Tadbhava ' nouns, see § 70. 106 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 166. the obi. sing, to Tj or Tj, and the Second variety^ all other masculine nouns. K^ouns of the first variety are declined like ^5T 9^W^i ' ^ horse.' N. Ac D. Singular. vTls^ I ghorci, ' a horse.' ^TT g'fiord or ^% cfit gliore ho, 'a horse/ or *to a horse.' ^% ^ ghore ko, 'to a horse.' Ag. ^% % ghore lie, ' by a horse.' Ab. ^% % ghore se, ' from a liorse.' G. ^1 CRT (^ or ^), gho7:e kd {ke or ki), 'of a horse,' 'horse's.' L. ^% ?t, m:, cT^, «!^^, ghore men, par, tuk, talak, ' in, on, to a horse.' V. % ^^ he ghore, ' O horse.' Plural. N. '^^ ghore, ' horses.' Ac. ^^ ghore or ^:gt ^ ghoron ko, ' liorses,' or 'to horses.' D. ^^ qfit ghoron ko, 'to horses.' Ag". ^^ % ghoron ne, ' by horses.' Ab. ^ftrt % ghoron se, ' from horses.' G. Tft^* W[ {% or ^) ghoron kd {ke or ki), 'horses,' or ' of horses.' ghoron men, pur, tak, talak, ' ill, on, to horses.' V. ^ "^X^heghoro, ' O horses.' Masc. Declen- sion : 2nd Variety. (2) The Second variety of masculine declension in- cludes all other masculine nouns of whatever termina- tion, and may be represented by teI'^ ghar, ' a house.' It differs from th« above, only in that the inflection of the noun is confined to the oblique plural. As the postpositions are the same with all nouns, it will be unnecessary to give the remaining paradigms in detail. It will be remembered that the second form of the loc. is like the nom. § 167.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 107 TiT^ffhar, 'a house.' Singular. Plural. N. ^1^ ghar, ' a house.' N. ^"^ ghar, ' houses.' Ac. TST"^ g/tar or ^"?3 cfit g/iar Ac. ^n^^/jar or ^tOt^^'''"^^?? /(o, ' a house/ or ' to a ko, ' houses/ or ' to the house.' houses.' So also is declined the Tatsama * noun, TT^T rdjdj ' a king.' Singular. Plural. N. "^irr ^'«/«j 'a king-.' N. JJ^^ rdjd, 'king;s.' Ac. J^Wl rcifd or TJ^J cfit rdjd Ac. TJ^ rdjd or TTT^"^ ^ ko, ' a king.' rdjdon ko, ' kings.' ^ So also decline masc. nouns ending in any other vowel, as the followiug : 'TT^T mdli^ * a gardener.' Singular. Plural. N. ^^ mdli, ' a gardener.' N. ^^ mdli, ' gardeners.' Ac. T^T^ mdli or ?rr^ ^ Ac. TTT^ mdli or ^f^^ ^ mdli ko, ' a gardener.' mdliyon ko, ' gardeners.' 1%"^ hichchhu, ' a scorpion.' Singular. Plural. N. f^^Z^/c/ic/i/ii*/ a scorpion.' N. f^^/»k7, instead of ^, as the sign of the nom. sing, of ^^''JP'^*'^'^^- strong Tadbhava masc. nouns ; which, again, is inflected in the obi. sing, to •^1, instead of Tj, in all the dialects in question. Thus, e.g., for the High Hindi, ^^T^ 'a horse,' we have ^^, 110 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 170.- Inflection in Himalayan Dialects. obl. sing., ^Tg-f. All other nouns agree with the High Hindi throughout the singular. a. But the case of the agent, in M^rwari nouns of this class, ends in ^, and to this form no postposition is affixed. Thus we have TEft% = ^^ %. In all other nouns, the case of the agent sing, is like the noni. It never takes a postposition. All MfirvA^firi nouns have also an inflected loc. sing, in ^ ; as, e.g., ^^, 'in the house,' ^%, 'on the horse.' b. So also, according to Beames,* Chand sometimes uses an inflected form in Ji, or occasionally ■^^, for the case of the agent. Gujarati and Marfithi also both preserve this inflected case of the agent, the former making it in tj, the latter in "g. c. The nom. plur. of all Marvv^ri Tadbhava masc. nouns in ^, ends in "^j- Thus, from ^^, 'a horse,' w^e have the nom. plur., ^^|, 'horses.' Other masc. nouns are unchanged in the nom. plural. All M^rw^ri fern, nouns make the nom. plur. in "^ ; t; final, before this termination, is hardened to ^. Examples are: ^^, 'a mare,' nom. plur., ^^ ; ^TcT? 'a word,' nom. plur., ^TfTT- The obl. plur. form of all Miirwciri nouns terminates in "^t, tl fiwal being hardened to H; as in TFrRltTt=H.H. TTTf^^ cjiT, 'of the gardeners.' The above rules for Mdrwari declension apply to all the Rajputana dialects. 170. The Garhwdli and Kum^oni dialects agree with the Rajputana dialects in the inflection of the sing., except that, so far as I know, they have not the inflected case of the agent and the locative.f I» the nom. sing, also, like Mjir^'tin? they have the termination ■=?n ; but diff'er from the Rajpu- tana dialects in inflecting the obl. plur. to "^ instead of "^Sft . In Naip^di, all nouns have the same form in the nom. and * Comp. Gramm. vol. ii. p. 212. f I am surprised that I have not found such forms, as, from the archaic character of these dialects, I should have ex])ected such survivals of the old inflections. Very possibly they may yet be discovered. §§ 171, 172.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. Ill obl. sing;., with the exception, as in High Hindi, of strong Tadbhava nouns in -^sft (H.H. "^T) which inflect the obl. sing, to tRT. Both the nom. and obl. plur. in Naipiili are formed by adding to the nom. sing, the termination %^ or f^; as ^T^ir, 'a child,' nom. and obl. plur., ^T^T§f^ or ^j^i^f^. But often this plural termination is omitted, and the noun appears in form like the singular; thus, ^^J cfitST TT "TT> ' other fell among thorns,' and in the Gospel, jmssim. Rem. This plural termination is sometimes added to participles used adjectively, and even to whole phrases. Examples are given In the section on Naipali conjugation. 171. The remarks made above as to the meaning and use The Braj Post- of the postpositions, apply, for the most part, equally to the P°*^ ^°^*' corresponding postpositions in the western dialects, as ex- hibited in Table H. c^, or ^, and ^, is used as the post- position of the accusative and dative. The abl. postposition, ^, or %*, used in the Braj and other dialects, must always be translated ' from ' or ' l)y,' never, ' with,' The Braj form, ^, is almost always rendered < on,' but is occasionally used in the sense of 'by,' where, in High Hindi, we would have ^. ^ or T^ are exactly equivalent to ft«fi' 172. The Marw^ri forms call for little remark. The gen. Postpositions postpositions, ^1? KT? "'C^, correspond in usage respectively to J^j^^^P"*'^"^ ^Tj ^5 ofiY, in Higli Hindi; with the single exception, that when the gen. denotes possession or duty, ^ is used before masc. nouns in the obl. sing., instead of "T^j. The same re- marks apply to the use of cfit, ^T, ^, etc., in Mewari. Examples are: ^Z^'S T^ t^T^TT ^^ ^ f , 'the ruler of Bathoth is Dung Ji ; ' ^ "^IW^ T ^T 'l^^j 'lie went to the Brahman's house;' ^^ f^T"^ X^ Tt^^j 'ten thousand of treasure.' gj, for ^ ( = '^T), is occasionally found; as, '^^•l ^ ^^, 'the god of gods.' The gen. postpositions, TTTlft and t^ ( = ^T)? so far as we are aware, are used only in poetry. Examples are, 'y^j 1^ ^TU=^t1 ^T ^^TW, 'a steamer;' f^l^ cTufr ^^^'\^, 'the Nawab of Dellii.' f!»i^ (for Tfiifr) 112 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 173. occurs, in one instance only, in the Prejn Sdgar, with the 2nd pers. pron., g^cpr^, 'your,' for ^fT^T- Titff, often T{\^ (='^*), 'in,' in Mar. is regularly used as a postposition, as, ^^ ^'^^ Ttfl? 'dust on the turban' ; but it more rarely occurs in its primitive sense as a substantive, in construction with a preceding genitive; as, TT^cf; % ^f^, 'in the country,' for ^^^ Tjtff = ^^ ■»?; %^ t Ttff , 'in captivity,' = %^ ^•. The same usage with the dialectic equivalents of "^ occasion- ally occurs in the Rdmdyan and other archaic Hindi poetry. In the colloquial, ?ivY ( = flc|i) is often treated as a predicative adjective, and is then made to agree with the subject of the sentence in gender and number. Thus they say, ^T'Jal' TTT T?\i^ ^^^, 'the shopkeeper went as far as the village;' ^^f^'T ffl^ ^\|^ 7[^, 'the washerwoman went as far as the lake.' The following sentences illustrate the remaining Mar. postpositions : "^^"^^ f^1% 'R^Tf %1^j ' he has seized and carried oif Diingar Sing;' 'gfs f^^T ^^^j 'having climbed upon the fort.' ^q^ is sometimes construed with the genitive, like ?ltff ; as, ^^ % ^^T? 'on the horse.' ^ is used like %; as, ^wTfl^ ^ ^K^ ^^tI^j 'lie fought with the English.' 173. In Western Hindi, I have met an ace. and dat. post- position •rr= H.H.ifiY- It is evidently connected with the cor- responding Miir. %, Panj. «t. ^t as the gen. postposition, the regular substitute for ^j? in Panjabi, is also found, very rarely, in Western Hindi. Beames gives from Chand an instance of an inflected instr. singular of a feminine noun in ^"JT^j from ^tJTT- a. ^T^, although in reality a conjunctive participle from giT(;«lTj 'to do,' or 'make,' is colloquially used as a post- position with the inflected forms of both nouns and pronouns, throughout the Ganges Valley. It is nearly equivalent to ^ in the sense of 'from' or 'by;' it is never to be rendered 'with.' Thus we may say, tuq ^T^ TfffTj 'fj'ee from sin,' for HT^ ^ "^f^fT or ^'\^ tX%'^' I^nt in the following from the § 174.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 113 Rdmm/an, "^T^ is equivalent to "if, 'in ; ' ^^^ ^H ^^F ^TH ^T qjx;^, 'fastened like arrows in (his) mother's breast.' h. %f; and ^^r are sometimes found for the abl. postposition ^. % is sometimes colloquially added to %, thus, % % : it emphasizes the idea of 'source/ 'beginning;' thus, tlfT"! % % l^ fjcfi, 'quite from the mountain to the river.' cfl^ very rarely occurs as a dialectic substitute for cl^ ; it properly belongs to Haroti. c. Tlie Himalayan postpositions, as will be seen in Table II., differ very considerably from those used elsewhere, but call for little special remark in this connection. It is well, however, to note the very frequent use, in Naipah, at least, of the conjunctive participle, ^f%, of the verb S^l^^f (H.H. ^^»IT)> ' to see,' as a postposition, in many instances where Higli Hindi would have %.* Thus, ^^^fi ?To ^t% ^T^ ^j^fl^TT = H.H., ^ ^t^ T?^ % ^^T%, ' whosoever shall be ashamed of me.' The gen. postposition in all the Himalayan dialects is cRj, which is inflected to ofij for the masc. obi. sing, and the phir., and to ^T for the fem. throughout. The use of the postposition ^, assigned to the ablative, is confined to those cases in which '^, in High Hindi, bears an instru- mental sense. The Eastern Dialects. 174. In the dialect of the Rdmdyan, as in many eastern Declension in dialects, a short vowel takes the place of a final long vowel in Tadbhava nouns, masc. and fem. Thus, for ^^^, ' a bride- groom,' we have ^^f ; for ^^T^ ' an earthen jar/ ^ets ; for •IT^, 'a woman/ •TTfT; ^tc., etc. Also for the inherent a final of nouns in High Hindi, we often find ii, sometimes lengthened, metri gratia; as, ^j!, for ^f, 'body;' ^^ or ^^, for ^^, 'a hero;' etc., etc. Compare the analogous use o( karke, above referred to, § 173, a. 114 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 175, 176. 175. All nouns wliatever, in this dialect, are declined in precisely the same way. The class of (High Hindi) Tadbhava substantives in "^ does not exist, and all nouns are unchanged in the sing., except that for the ace. or dat. the termination ff or tf is often added to the uninflected base ; thus, "^^T^f^ or "^TTfl J ' lidm,' or 'to Ram;' ^f^ff or ^f^ff, 'the sage,' or ' to the sage.' In the following, this form is apparently used as an abl. : ^J^ q^, ^f^ ^^t^fV TJW[, 'the king, having made inquiry of his Guru and performed the family rites.' Occasionally, at the end of a line, in old Hindi poetry, we find the termination ^^^, commonly represented by Anusvdr. It may be added (I) to a nom. sing.: as, ^^ wf ^^^j 'to-day there is no doubt,' in which case it is to be regarded as a neuter termination; or (2) to an ace. sin^. : as, ^^cT F^^? ' together with Sugriv' where it represents the masc. ace. sing, termination. But it is often added only for the sake of metre or rhyme. The voc. sing, is regularly like the nom. 176. f^liG nom. plur. of all nouns, masc. and fern., is like the nom. sing. ; the obi. plur. is formed by adding wf, r^ or fV^, to the nom. sing. : as, from 5if«T, ' a sage,' obi. plur., ?lf*l'^ ; ^■^, 'a god,' obi. plur,, ^T;f^f ; ITfT? '^ woman,' obi. plur., •nf'C'T. Ill some instances, ^»^ is added after a vowel- termination, the euphonic '^ being characteristically omitted : as in c|^fTfiR"^f , ' to the eager,' dat., from ^cTf^S. a. In a single instance, we find in the Rdmdyan a masc. nom. plur. in -^j, i" ^^f^t:. 'musicians;' thus, %^cj{ ^^^ ^iif^^t ^^T I ^T^ f^^ ^T'T ^FRTH^T, ' the servants all, and the different musicians, he loaded with gifts and honour.'* * Compare the similar form from the Pi'em Saga?; ?T"^3"f*T'^t. §§ 177-180.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 115 177. The following Sanskrit case-forms occur: viz., masc. instr. sing-., ^^«T, ' with an arrow;' also 5EI%«t, used adverhially, 'joyfully;' neut. ace. sing-., ^^, 'Brahma;' masc. abl. sing., ^^Tq[j 'from (their) rank;' neut. loc. sing., ?T»Tf%, 'in the heart;' masc. nom. plur., "^tj (for Sk. »mOj 'men;' masc. voc. sing., "^^^j ' O king ! '; fem. voc. sing., ^^, ' O Sitd!\ 178. In many instances, we find in the Rdmdyan the termi- nation ^'^, added to substantives and words used substantively: as, ■^v^'l"? ^^? "5^5 etc. This, however, is not a case- ending, but serves merely to emphasize the noun, and is therefore equivalent to the High Hindi emphatic particle, f^;* e.g., %^ wf^T ^ "^^ «lilff J 'even one blind or deaf would not speak thus.' ■ 179. In the Rdmdyan the postposition for the ace. and dat. Postpositions in tlie Rama- is ^f : thus, -^ •3f^^ f^qf?I ^51 f^f^ ^^^, ' for you Brahma yan. has sown the seed of trouble.' Variant forms are cR^, ofi^, and ^i:^ (^^) ; ^ and ^ also occur. None of these, how- ever, are of frequent employment ; the obi. form in f^ or f^, mentioned above, is very commonly preferred. 180. The gen. postposition appears in the Rdmdyan under three different forms: viz., ^"^ or %"^T5 obi. masc, %^, fem., ^tr; «RTj inflected, before fem. nouns only, to ^f^; and gR, to which we may assign the fem. inflected form, %. As these are apt to confuse the beginner, we give the following ex- amples of the use of each form : i{\{ cR^ ^T^^jf ^\a t%f% %TTj 'the Lord said. It is the poison of the moon, brother;' f?T% •! ^^^ ^-^ <^%^5 'the pain of the creatures is not removed;' * Tills form has apparently arisen from the Braj form of this particle, hd, by the elision of h, and sandlii of the then concurrent vowels ; so that, e.g., ekau is for ekaliu. 116 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§^ 181, 182. "T^ff fTfrOf ^T*r f^'I %T5 ' whose gain is the injury of others' well-being;' ^rTT %fT ^T¥ T^^TT^j 'guard Sitci,' or 'keep a watch of Sitci ;' Tf^^ ^f^ ^rT^ cR"^ ^^Tj ' the first (form of) devotion is association with the good.' cR"^ is also used before masc. nouns or pronouns in an oblique case : ^^ cjjj^ ^7; TTtf •! TTTj ' 1 'ii^y ^lot be killed by any one,' lit., 'die, killed by any one;'* ^T^f^ If ^TO^ ^ ^f^^T^, 'that immortal One, whose handmaid thou art;' t^^ rl^^ ^5 'the welfare of Tulsiy' ^?TT ^fl % i;i1[ ^^Tt;, ' Umd, this is the greatness of the good.' Besides the above, the regular inflections, % and ^, are also found in the Rdmdyan ; so also, rarely, the Kanauji gen. sign, ofit, and the Braj, o^; but all these are foreign to the dialect. 181. The usual form of the abl. postposition in the Rdmd- yan is "ft . The loCo postposition is ?t^, with seven variant forms, given in Table II., all of which = H. H. %. The other postpositions assigned to the locative call for no special remark. The Sanskrit tl^«fr, corrupted to "R^?!, is occasion- ally used in the sense of the H.H. fToR, ' up to ;' as, ^oI«t ijcR TT^ f*s, H?^^, 'seeing,' obi. sing. ^^^T- Verbal nouns wliich consist of the root, eitlier alone or with an added '^, make tlie obi. sing, in JF e in all these dialects ; as 2?^ or H'f^, obi. sing , ^^. But in the centre and extreme east of tlie Maithili country p ai is some- times used for this e, and on tlie border of tlie Mdgadlii, a ; as in tlie Mt. H"l^, Mg. H'^o. Tbe verbal noun in ^ in the central part of the S. Maitliiii area, makes the obi. sing, in ^; as ^^^, obi. sing. ^^ofT. In Bbojjiuri, the nom. and obi. plnr. terminate in «T, 'fwT, or r^. Besides these, in Sdran and Champaian is used a non-lionorific plural in ^o sa. Avadhi, Riwai, and Magatllii have "T in the nom. and obi. plur., and 3ic4gadh-Maithili, f^T. The other Maithili sub-dialects make tiie plural throughout like the singular, or use a perijihrastic form with ^H> ^^^" Sufficient illustrations will be found in the Tables. b. Bhojpuri, 31^gadhi, and Alaithili present in the singular true in- Inflectional flectional instrumental and locative cases, which terminate respectively in TJ and TJ. Variant forms of tlie instr. are, in W. Bhojpuri, ^«I, and in S.E. Maithili, IJ and ^. In general, these inflectional cases are con- fined to weak nouns, except in Bhojpuri, where they occur in strong nouns also, a final a being first rejected. Otber final long vowels are shortened, and the cognate semi-vowel is inserted before these terminations. Illus- trations are : from ^^T. iustr. ^"^ and '^^•I ; from ^T^> instr, Tlf^*^; from tft^, loc. XJlf^^- 183. In all the Eastern Hindi dialects ^f^^ is added to the noun, as Eastern Peri- in High Hindi, to form a j)eriplirastic plural. But when the noun denotes plirastic Plural. other than rational beings, ^>l is used instead of ^^. In tbe Maithili dialects, spoken on the border of Bangal, occur the following variants : in S. Bhagalpur, ^^ and ^^, and in Central and Western Puraniya, ^^. f%^, f^^, and 5^. In the former district, ^TTff 'T »"d ^'fl"* and in the latter, "^TT^j ai'e "sed in like manner. Usually, the plural 118 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [^§ 184-186. termination of the noun is omitted before these appended words, as before ^^ in Higli Hindi; but in Biiojpiiri, Mdgadhi, and some forms of Maithili, it is pleonastically retained, giving, e.g., such forms as, HTf^^«T ^^, 'books,' '^'^•T W^, 'houses.' But the postpositions only follow the second word. Postpositions in Eastern CoUoquials. 184. The several cases are formed in all the Eastern dialects, as in High Hindi, by means of postpositions added to the oblique form of the noun, sing, or plur. These are given for the several cases in Table II., and for the most part require no special remark. It should be noted, however, that of the ace. and dat. postpositions, the cjf forms are used both for the ace. and dat. ; the remainder for the dative only. The gen. postpositions lack for the most part the inflections which they take before nouns masc. and fern, in High Hindi. The following statements indicate usage in the various Eastern dialects. Gen. Pnstposi- 185. In Avadhi and Riwdi, cfi'5[[ kar is used unchanged before all tious in Eastern ■, r»i • ' ' — / .^i- ? - j ^ i - i -.i *. • a *• Dialects nouns. In Bhojpuri, eR k, c(J Are, and ^ kai, are used without inHection before both masc. and fem. nouns in the direct form, about as H.H. ^ and ofix ; before masc. nouns in the obi. sing, and the plur., the inflected form ^T is used, nearly as H.H. ^. In Magadhi and Maithili, ^, ^, ^■^, k, Are, and ker, are used before all nouns without change for gender or number. In the M%adhi near Patna, ^T^T is rarely used before masc. nouns, and ofiT^ before fem. nouns in all cases. In Avadhi, Riwai, and Maitbil-Mc'igadhi, '^"?;[, as also, in the last named, '^o and ^'^,are used without change before all nouns. In the Maithili of South Bhagidpiir, ■^■^o is used without change for number before all masc. nouns, and ^^ before all fem. nouns. Case of Agent Wanting. 186. The remaining postpositions call for no remark. It will be ob- served that the case of the Agent is wanting in all the modern eastern dialects. The construction of the verb with the case of the Agent in ^ is distinctively a western idiom, and is not found in the local speecli mucii east of Cawnpore. The instr. case, mentioned § 182, b, takes a diff'erent construction from that of the case of the agent with «I in High Hindi. TABLE IT. POSTPOSITIONS. Iligli Hindi. Acc.Di.t.l ^,7T^. Ag. Al)l. Gen. Loc. %. t. •SS\,inJl.%, Kanauji. ■3f^,infl.%, %*. ^• Braj. If. »?. ^Y Mdrwdri. % fern. ffufY, Mewdri. ^^ li.t got. ««/• Garhwdli. ^ftr- Kumdoni, eft, i«/ Naipdli. ^, infl. Old Baiswdri. Avadhi. Riwdi. ^,^f,^^,* ^. TFanting. i«/. ^^, %^, '3fi,fem. ^. fronting. »T- ^T- Wanting. ^T- Bliojp&rl. Wanting. It, ^. t?fT- MusradM. Wanting. Maithili. wr'rt.^^,%.%. Wanting. ^, «, t, €• * Also, in the Bhntti dialect of Cliaud, ^^. f Among the Mairs, also i[\, J[\, etc. + Also, in Chand, fl^, ?t^, ?T^, ?TW' '^V. and J{^. § Also, among the moderns, ^pf. II The ^ forms are dat. or accusative ; the others dative only. % In S. Bhagalpiir inflected to %^, only before names of female living creatures. To face page 120.] §§ 187, 188.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 119 187. It should be noted that in most Hindi poetry the Omission of Postpositions. postpositions, though sometimes used, are oftener omitted, and the oblique form of the noun, if there be such, or if not, the nom. form, may represent any one of the cases. The same peculiarity appears, though to a more limited extent, in some Braj prose. This omission of the postpositions is not to be regarded as mere poetical or rhetorical license. Tlie classic poetry, which is still held as the model of poetical composition, presents the language at a much earlier stage than the modern High Hindi. Tidsi Das, whose Rdmdi/an is regarded by the people as a model of poetic merit, wrote in the latter half of the sixteenth century. Kahir, whose writings are also highly esteemed, wrote over a hundred years earlier. In its last stage of decay the ancient case-terminations had been almost all lost, so that one form — commonly the ancient genitive — had to express all the various relations formerly distributed among six cases. It was out of this state of things that the modern system of declension by the aid of post- positions gradually arose, as it was felt to be demanded by the progressive abrasion of the old forms. The old Hindi poetry presents the language to us near the beginning of this period of grammatical reform. Postjjositions are indeed used, but sparingly, as compared with modern Hindi prose, and the Pi'akrit system of declension still to some extent maintains its ground. But this latest form of Prakrit declension, so worn out as scarcely to deserve the name, is accurately repre- sented, not by eight, but by two, or — if we count a vocative, which now and then appears, — three cases only. The recog- nition of this state of things is essential to the grammatical understanding of classic Hindi poetry. 188. The following tables present a comparative view of the chief peculiarities of declension in fourteen dialects, so far as I have been able to ascertain them. Table II. gives the postpositions to be severally appended to the oblique form of 120 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 188. the nouns in the different dialects. Table III. gives the declension of a strong- niasc. Tadbhava noun, with the post- positions properly appended. A few are omitted for lack of space, but they may be readily supplied from Table II. It has been judged sufficient in the otlier three Tables to give, with the nominative, only that form of the noun in the oblique cases, to which the postpositions are added, and the inflectional cases which occur in a few dialects. Those stems are called ' close,' which terminate in a consonant, or the silent a ; those which end in a vocalized vowel, are called ' open.' In Table VI. the Naipali is omitted, as the word ^TrT does not occur in the only Naipali that I have seen, the translation of Luke's Gospel ; in which, for ^rf, we always have the masc. Tadbhava gi"5|ft> obi. sing., cR-^. But if the word ^t?T is used in Naipali, we may infer from analogy that its declension will not differ from that of other masculine and feminine nouns un- iuflected in the singular. In fact, in Naipali, all nouns, except masc. Tadbhavas in '^, are declined exactly alike. In all the dialects the accusative may have the same form as the nominative, even though this is not always given in the Table. Where alternative forms are given for the nom. sing. or plur., either may be declined throughout. TABLE III. DIALECTIC DECLENSIONS^: Strong Masculine Noun ^t^T, 'a horse.' ■^"^~ High Hindi. Kanaujl. liraj. Mdrwuri. Mewdrl. Garhwdll. Kumdoni. XaipdlL 0. Bais. ^vadhi. RitvdL Bhojpuri. Miigadhl. MaithiU. N. ^?T. ^TT- "y^^l- ^^. ^fr. ^^t. >^^T. ^^\ ^■r^- ^^T, "^TT- ^^T. ^^T- Ac. ^^. ^t^. \^at^^i- ^T%- ^^T ^- ^^T '^fm- ^^T ^f^r- 'q^^T ^t- ^^TT ^• -^T^ ^f . *^{|. ^^T%. ^fjl: D. ^t^. '^% 'Rt- ^% ^• '^^T^- ^^t"^- ^^T ^W- ^^T^if^- ^I^T ^Tt- ^ETr?Tr ^• ^T?^t. ^'^{1: *^'|l. ^^^{1: 1-:! (J Ag. ^^i1. ^% % ^%'^- ^f. ^*t%. ^i^T ir. '^"^^T %• ^"I^T %. Wanting. Wanting. ^>^. Wanting. Wanting. O c2 AI). ^%. ^%lT. >%[|^- ^^T ^"- ^^T^- ^^T f, etc. ^^(r ^^[^T t- ^1^^. ^^^^^^- G. ^^^. ^%^. ^%^. ^^trr Tt. ^^'ir- ^^T^. ^t^T Wt. ^^T^- 'grg^T ^T- -^T^^T- L. ^'{?.. ^^^^. ^^S. wt^T^n. ^T^- ^^ {^. •S ^-l^x. -^T^^. (irl- ^^^r^- V. N. ^f. m- ^%. V^^l. tfr^T. (^TT-) (^TO (^T.) u o o ■§ Si trt^^T> etc. ^T^. ^^T, ^^^. "^^T. ■q^^T, 'Eft^^. m- ^% ^%. ^^T- 'Eft^T. ^^T. C^TT.) ^^T%^- ■^t^. vn[^€^•* ^^T. ^^f^-t Ac. ^^f|^ ^t- |5 VT^^^^ ^• *^^{l. Wt^T^. D. ^^t^- ^^->-5im ^>?t%. '^l^t^. ^^Ir^fm- ^^t ^iir- ^^tI^ ^t^. ^^T ^. ^i^f\ M- ^Al ^-%. ^Ot/J 1-:) < Ag. ^^tir. ^^^^- S5l^ ^t. ^^t. ^?^%. ^^t%. ^^Tf^ %• Wanting. Wanting. Wanting. Wanting. Wanting. pm Al). ^1%. ^^-•|S^h• ^^tt- ^tft^- ^t^^t. ■^^t f , etc. ih^M{^- H\4^(^ ^. Ts^-r?i%. M'^'- ^^^?^i -^'-"(i,^. G. ^^twr- ^-•^• lllh^- i '^Tf WT- ^^t^. ^Tl^ ^- ^^T^T- -E^-Tf f ^T- f^^^'^. i^^"}!"'^' 1 'q^^^^. ^ L. M^. ^^'^{^r. (SSK' ^^1f»n. ^'^M^m- ^^\(X T^f^^ ^°- M^- ^r"i" ^^fl, ?T,^. V. ^t^. ^fr. ^^'^. '^T- vTt^i. (^fr.) (^^T.) ^^Tf^- ^^^^. ^t%. ^^^. v:iT^f%. To face page 121.] Also ghorani, ghoranh, ghordsa. t In S. Bhagalpiir. J In several sub-dialects, plur. like sing.; and in all, the periphrastic plural with sali/i, etc., is preferred. < 1 ++ ^ • |0 pr pr V . ^P \7 ■fe^ < IT IJT P &- K P jrV P IT nr p p ^ . nf P P p -1- P P P" TS p jy >< 7 lii 5 O k. www p p p p 1 • 7 1^ 1^ p pr ^ \!! a i P p- V. ;5 P k g ^ 7 7 P P ^1 17 y 7 7 ^ ? K P • 7 ^ t! 1 y P i [^ It ^ p &3 K 7 \7 p^ p o S a o en o s ^ o « m o >"^ CS ++ ■^ a4 Of CS qj b. •4-J pH .—1 P CS CS ^ O P-* F— « Z CS s. I5i •^ s ^ ;^ « f^ ce i!0 c« a P. ffi O II cu a«s rt o; x he -< SS T3 %-l ^ 13 CS •- 122 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. TABLE Y. DIALECTIC SINGULAR. H. Hindi. Kan. Braj. Miir. Mew. Gar/i. Kum. Nom. ITT^. 'TTft. '^^ft■ ^ft- TTft. flft. 1T<^. Obi. form. 'n^^. ^Tft. Trft. itO- ^Tft. 1T<^. 'n^t. Infl. Inst. 1T<^.* fTft.* Iiifl. Loc. PLURAL. Nom. 'nfr^t. 'nfV. tttY. ^^t- 'n^t. ^Tft. ^TfT^t Obi. form. 'nfr-^ff. ^TfT'T. ^^t. fRt- •iiRifi- 'ntr^- * Used without a postposition, =: H. H. ndri ne. t In Saran and Champaran. X An inflected loc. form occurs in a few words only, especially in phrases. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 123 DECLENSIOIN' : Open Feminine IN'oun. a woman. Naip. lift. Old Bais. ^vadh. Riwd. Bhoj. Mdsr. Maith. 'ITf^. r^TTft'T. TTtTT. 'nftT. TrfTT-§ 'ITfT'T. § Several Maithili sub-dialects have no separate form for the plural ; but the periphrastic plural is preferred iti all. 124 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. c -. o O \T F IBT lET tB" re re > § !H !E ;|;^ ^H^ re re re re lu t— t— h- tS" t^ iB" •I > ^ re re S£ le le ,s (— t— k JB- Vr -51 te |c 53 r— ;5 IB- ra- * 5S re 1? re 1? re 10- * 5«. le le re ^ >— 10- le le nr ID^ re |e IT ta- re le f— K- 10- 10- Z <£ o . a ^ ^ c . . . 5 3 ns 5= ^ O ^ ^ IT pr ie,|e IT tJ re ,ic ta" ttr |0" |0- IT pr le le t— 1— 10- Hr tF 15- r PP le re le |e re 10- re I— ta- re I— 10- f f la- te 10- re 10- I* <»— Ik re ic ie »— t »~ 10- F 10- +7 re e »— —• la- 0- |0 te t— ta- te? »— 10- ♦H^ •t re re t— t— la- la- •H- •»-^ le re f? la- re re ir te 10- o — o &0 c rt cr .-c t^ — vS 'S X o s ffi o o :^ II >> ^ c c ec S "l^ •; c3 a; > * -1- ++ "5^ § 189,] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 125 Origin of the Declensional Forms. 189. In all Tatsamn nouns and many Tadbhavas, the distinctive termi- Origin of Nom. Sing. nation of the Sanskrit nom. sing, lias entirely disappeared troni modern Hig-li Hindi. But in archaic and poetic Hindi, as also in Naipali and other Himalayan dialects, u final often remains in masc. nonns, where it represents the Prakrit termination o, for the Sk. ah ; as, e.g., in dem, for Pr. dcxo, Sk. deshah, H. H. desk ; and Uhu, Pr. Mho, Sk. Uhhah, H. H. Idbh.* This form is common in the Rumdyan, with the final vowel often lengthened tnetr. grat.; as in Id/iu for Idhu, H. H. IdOh. a. Tadi)hava masc. nouns in a. Mar. o, inflected to e in the sing., usually represent Sanskrit or Prakrit nouns formed by adding the affix ka to I)ases in a.f This added k was first rejected, and then the con- current vowels were combined. Thus, e.g., for the Sk. ghata, we have a Prakrit theme, gitataka, nom. sing., ghutakah, wlience, by §§ 70, c, 89, k being rejected, and the final ah changed to o, we have a form ghardo, which by sandhi, yields first a form in au, the common Braj termination ; wliicii, again, is softened to o in gharo, as in IMiirwari and in most western dialects, and is finally reduced to d in the High Hindi form, ghard. By a similar process, we obtain in succession from the Sk. melakah, for melah, the forms, meliio, Mdr. melo, H. H. meld. * See §§ 79, c, 85, a., 99; tiie change had already taken place in tlie Apabhransic Prakrit. In the dialect of the Rdindyan of Tulsi Dds, this final u is added, from analogy, even to Arabic and Persian nouns, where it does not belong ; as, e.g., nitvdjii, for the Pers. niwdz ; tarwuru, for talwdr ; and in the Baghelkhandi N.T., in shaksu, shahru, for Ar. shakhs, shah?'. t See § 100, and foot-note. Lassen (Inst. Ling. Pracr., p. 475) explains this termination as due to the elision of the affix k, ' of very frequent use ' in the Apabhransic Prakrit. Beanies, while accepting, in general, with Hoernle, this theory as to the origin of these Hindi nouns in o and d, adds the suggestion that an original accent of the nltimate in such words may have had much to do in the preservation of this Prakritic o. (Comp. Gramni. vol. ii. pp. 4-15.) But the lists of words which he gives will hardly warrant us in assigning to tiiis factor a universal influence, and I am inclined still to regard the addition and subsequent elision of this Prakritic k as at least the chief cause of the conservation of the long termination in this class of Hindi nouns. 126 DECLENSION OF NOUNS, [§ 190. b. Tadl)hava fem. nouns in / commonly stand for Sanskrit or Prakrit nouns ending in tlie fem. affix ikd, whence liave arisen, successively, forms in id and iyd* By a similar process are explained the Avadhi fem. nouns in (vd; as, e.g., nacUvd (H. H. nacli), which presupposes a Prakrit theme, nadikii. After tlie same analogy are derived fem. nouns in u, as, e.g., bdlii, for Sk. bdluku, whence the Pr. bdlud, Av. bdluyd, H. H. bulii. Similarly we explain many Tadbhava masc. nouns in / and I'l ; as, e.g., from Sk. dhdvikah, H. H. dhobi, through intermediate forms, dhuvio, dhobiyd', moti, masc. from Sk. neut. mauktikam, through Pr. mottiani', and also, H. H. biclichhii, for a Prakrit form, vinchhuo, for vulgar Sk. vrishchuka/i (?), for vrishchikali. The Sk. fem. termination, d, has dis- appeared ; as, e.g., in bat, for Sk. vdrttd. Oriffin of Obi. 190. In the hi, Jim, which mark the obi. sing, of all nouns in O. B. ^^°' and other archaic Hindi, we have a last surviving remnant of the Sk. sing, declensional system. These appear to stand respectively for the gen. sing., he, and the loc. sing., hin, of the Apabhransic Prakrit. Of these, the former is derived from the termination of the Sk. gen. sing., syu ;t the latter from that of the Sk. loc. sing, in smin, which in Sk. appears only in certain pronouns, but in Apabhransic Prakrit was transferred also to nouns. In archaic Hindi, the case distinctions were so far ol)literated that these terminations stand not only for the gen. and loc, but also for the dat., ace, and abl. as well. a. From this obi. sing, form in hi, when added to Prakritic themes in ako, ito, by the common elision of h we should have id, which by con- traction gives us the e which in High Hindi marks the obi. sing, of nouns of this class. In unaugmented themes, as in ghar (Sk. griha), the hi has wholly disappeared, leaving the ol)l. form like the nom. b. The Mdr., Mw., Kan., and G. (also Guj.) obi. sing, of this class of nouns, points back to another Pr. gen. sing., in ssa, for Sk. sya ; whence Prakrit terminations, ha, ahn, which, added to stems of this type, by a similiir elision of h, and sandhi of concurrent vowels, would yield the obi. sing, termination, a, of these dialects. Hence also the Avadhi form in vd, where, however, v has been inserted because of the hiatus caused by the loss of the original suffi.v, k. * Vid. §§ 82, 88, a.. Rem. 1. t Vid. Lassen : Inst. Ling. Pracr. § 17o> 6. X Vid. ib. §§ 175, 7 ; 106, 6. § 191.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 127 c. The Maruari and Mew^iri have preserved an inflected case of the Inflected Instr. agent, in ai, derived apparently from the Sli. instr. case termination ina, ' °' Ap. Pr. ena and en, wlience, with the loss of the nasal, the form in question. The same termination is to be recognized in the Bhojpi'iri, M%adhi, and Maithili inflected instr. case in en, as in balen, ' by force ;' in wliich, as also in the same case-ending in Marathi, Anusvar represents tlie original n of i7ia. Gujerati retains this same case-ending, though Anusvdr has been lost, as in the Rajputana dialects. Tiie same Hindi dialects retain also an inflected loc. sing, in e or ai, in which we have the Sk. loo. termination L 191. The nom. plnr. termination, e, of Tadbhava nouns in c rn j • ' t» / c i • i i ^ IS given by Beames trom Chand, in anan, Pr. imam ; irom wluch last are readily derived, through Prakrit gen. forms in hun and lii'm, the Hindi terminations, mm, on, and un. In the obi. plur. forms in an and ani, we must again recognize the Sanskrit termination, ani, of the nom. and ace. neut. plural, which, not unnaturally, appears to have been confused with that of the gen. plural. a. I am unable to account for the hi which is added to this final m in j some Eastern Hindi dialects, except it be that, from tlie need of a clearer indication of the oblique than this an alone coxdd give, the termination hi (Sk. sya), already the sign of the oblique in the singular,t was made to I serve the same purpose in the plural also. The plural termination, nh, is probably to be explained, with Hocrnle,;]; as representing the nn of the Prakrit gen. plural, which already in some Prakrit dialects had be- come nh.^ 193. Tlie Naipdii termination, hem or ham, of the nmn. and ohl. plur., is made up of two elements ; the first, he (or ha) is the termination of the Ap. Prakrit gen. sing., for Sk. sya;\\ to which has been added, in the second place, the affix kerako, whence ker'uo, kero, keru, giving, e.g., such a form as ghodahakeru, whence by elision of k, etc., ghordheru. Origust of the Postpositions of Declension. 194. The origin of the genitive postposition has long been one of the vexed questions of Hindi philology; but Dr. Hoernle, of Benares, may be regarded as having at last reached a solution of the problem.^ For the * Vid. Lassen : Inst. Ling. Prnc. p. 379. t Vid. § 18. + Comp. Gramm. p. 211. § Vid. Lassen : Inst. Ling. Prac. p. 271. || lb. p. 462. ^ Vid. op. cit. § 377. Since the first edition of this work, Beames has published his acceptance of essentially the same theory ; see his Comp. Gramm. vol. ii. pp. 276-287. § 194.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS, 129 exhibition of his argument we refer the reader to his Comparative Grammar, and here briefly note the conclusions to which his investigation leads. a. The various forms of the Hindi ofen. postposition, viz. kd, kau, ko, ^"gin ot iren. " ^ ^ _ rostpositions. ka, kar, kard, kerau, kero, ken'i, ker, go, ro, lo, are all corru])tions or Prakrit modifications of krita, the Sk. past part, of kri, 'to do.' This participle received in Prakrit tlie addition of the common affix ka, so that by tlie elision oi t, and cliange of r j to er, it assumed the form keraka or kerika. In Prakrit, this participle was often used after a gen, noun, with which it was made to agree, but M'ithout any modification of the sense. Thus it came at last to supplant the gen. termination, and became itself a sign of the gen, case, as it is to-day in Hindi. From kerakali we obtain the Hindi postpositions, kero, kerd, ker, ke, precisely as we have gltoro, ghord, and ghor, from ghotakah ; and — ar, instead of er, being substituted for the ri of krita — through shorter Prakrit forms, karito, kario, may be derived the eastern colloquial forms, kara, kar, ka. These are thus the oldest forms of the Hindi g-en. postposition. In the case of the 1st and 2nd pers. pronouns in High Hindi, and in Marwdri and 3Iewari uni- versally, the initial k and the final k of karako or kerako having both been elided, the forms rdo, rati, ro, and rd remained. From the forms above given may easily be derived the Braj, Kanauji and High Hindi forms, kau, ko, and kd, as also the Miirwari, go. The Mewari, lo, in like manner, points back to another Prakrit form of this same word, kelako, for kerako, as its original ; unless, indeed, it be connected with tiie Marwdri dd (?). b. The Mdr. gen. postposition dd, G. do, I now regard as abbreviated from the archaic Mkr. gen, postposition, hando.* This last has been connected by Beames, through the common Mdrwari change of s to /*, with the Sindhi gen. postposition, sando, and thus with the Sk. pres, part., Santa, from the root as.f Thus, e.g., the Mdr. ghord dd (archaic, ghord hando) would be, lit., * being of tlie horse,' i.e., ' that which is of the horse,' c. The rare 3Iar, gen, postposition, tanau (Guj, no), already appears, as tano, in the Apabhransic Prakrit, and later, in Old Gujerati. It is connected by Beames with the Sk. affix, tana, as in saudtana, purdtana. * Vid, § 172, Hoernle, however, would connect it with diyd, ' given,' perf. part, of dend. See Coinp. Gramm. p. 239. t Comp. Gramm. vol, ii. pp. 290, 291. 9 130 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 195. nutana, from sand, purd, nu (nava).* If this origin be granted, then the heavy termination in o would seem from analogy to point toward a Prakritic form of this affix, tanako, whence tanilo, etc. ; a supposition the more probable in this case, that to this day the Marwdris are specially fond of adding k and other meaningless letters to various words. Yet in view of the fact tliat the postpositions generally are demonstrably Prakrit forms of individual words, originally regarded as in grammatical con- struction with the preceding noun, some doubt would seem to attach to the above derivation, as making tliis tanau unlike other postpositions, and an exception to this rule. On this we must wait for more light. Origiu of Dat. 195. In the former edition of this work I was inclined, with Trumpp, and Ace. Post- , , ..„,,.. . . , , . , . positions. to seek the origm oi the olgective postpositions, ko, kaun, etc., m this same Sk. participle, krita, which has been the original of the gen. postpositions, Mt, etc. Further study of the matter, however, has led me to accept the theory suggested by Hoernle,t and worked out also by Beames,;]; whicli connects the various objective postpositions which have an initial k, with the Sk. loc. sing., kdkshe, from kdksha, ' armpit,' ' side,' whence the loc. Bang, form, kdchhe, ' near.' From this word comes the O. H. kdkh, ace. kdkham ; whence, by the common attenuation of kli to /*, and its subsequent elision, may easily be derived the various forms of this post- position, kdhan, kalian, kdlinn or kaliun, kaun, and ko. An apposite instance of an identical series of phonetic changes is given by Beames, in the case of the Sk. paksha, ' side,' which lias become, in Hindi, jjdkhan, pulmn, pahun.^ This accounts in a simple way for the medial h in the archaic forms of this postposition, as the older theory does not ; while tlie meaning, ' to,' ' towards,' may be easily derived from the earlier sense of the word, as illustrated in the Bang., kdchhe, ' near.' a. The origin of the objective postpositions, nen, nai, and na, used in Western Hindi, is suggested by the Naipali substitute, len, which, by a simple and common phonetic change, has probably arisen from lagi (from the root lag), still used in dialectic Hindi, as a postposition meaning ' to,' 'up to.' II This change of I to ne is well illustrated by the Mdr., ndnat, * Comp. Gramm. vol. ii. p. 287- t See Comp. Gramni. § 375, 1. X Comp. Gramm. vol. ii. pp. 252-259. § II). vol. ii. p. 258. II Another possible derivation, however, is that suggested by Hoernle, from Sk. labdlia (H. H. liyd), ' received,' * obtained,' loc. sing., labdlie, ' for the benefit of.' See Comp. Gramm. § 375, 2. § 196.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 131 for Ar., la'nat, ' curse,' and Nandan, for ' London,' as found in the Mar. Kliydls. b. Of the Himalayan ohjective postpositions, kani is an old loc. sin<»-., from the Sk., /carrae, * at the ear,' or ' side.' It is to be identified with the Br. and Kan., kane, used in a distinct prepositional sense, as in mere kanc do, 'come to me.' Sani, found also in other Western Hindi dialects, is derived by Hoernle from the Sk. sange, in the sense, ' in attachment to.' With this he also connects the abl. postpositions, san, sen, san, sane, and sent. The origin of the Kum. huni is not so clear ; but I am inclined to connect it with the noun of agency, hunyd (from hunu, 'to be'), in tlie contiguous Naipali, the usage of which sometimes closely approaches that of an ohjective postposition, as in the following : mero hunyd ans, ' the part which is for me' (Luke xv. 12.) c. Tain, sometimes used for ko, as in apne taiu for apne ko, is from the Sk. loc. sing., stiidne.* 196. The facts brought to light by Beamesf since the former edition q • • £ ., of this Grammar was published, appear to settle the long-debated question Postpositions of the origin of the postposition ne, in the case of the agent, and de- " monstrate its connection with the n forms of tlie objective postposition. a. Against the old theory of the connection of this ne with the Sk. instr. affix, ina, stand the following facts. First, unlike that, it is but loosely connected with the noun, in which respect, however, it evidently resembles the other postpositions, as men, par, etc., which are known to have been originally separate words. In the second j)lace, it is impossible thus to account for the final e. The natural effect of long use, as in all similar cases, would be to shorten, rather than to lengthen, the affix. Thirdly, its very late appearance is against such an origin ; it cannot l)e traced back further than two or three hundred years. Lastly, in older autliors, where the subject is a pronoun, and the construction in modern High Hindi would require the case of the agent with ne, they often use simply the obi. form of the pronoun, thus showing that already the dis- tinctive termination of this case had been lost. And so in the Rajputaua dialects, where a relic of the Sanskrit termination of this case has been demonstrably preserved, as in Mar., ghorai, for ghore ne, the n has already disappeared. b. The clue to the real origin of this postposition is furnished by the * See, however, § 198, b. t Comp. Gramm. vol. ii, pp. 262-272. 132 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§§ 197, 198. Origin of the Abi. Post- positions. Origin of the Loc. Post- positions. Gujerati, which, in many cases where High Hindi would nse the case of the agent with ne, employs instead the dative, which case, in Gujerdti, is formed by the postposition ne. Remembering now that the vise of ne for the agent belongs exclusively to Western Hindi, with which Gujerati is historically and geographically connected, one cannot well resist the con- clusion that the ne of tlie agent in Hindi, is identical with the ne of the dative in Gujerdti and Panjdbi. But while Gujerdti used this particle for both the object and the agent, Hindi, having already an objective post- position, ko, naturally restricted the use of ne to the case of the agent. If, now, we inquii'e further what was the origin of this ne, we are thus at once led to connect it, — like the nai, nain, and nd, which in some Western Hindi dialects are substituted for ko, — through the Naipdli le, witii the root lag- ; the order of derivation being as follows : Sk. past part, act., lagya, Pr. laggio, H. lagi, lai, le, ne. The Anusvar, which sometimes occurs, appears to be inorganic. 197. The postposition, se, with its variants, san, sen, sain, sane, san, and seni, as already suggested, may be connected with the Sk. loc. sing , sahge. The form hai, is easily explained by the familiar change of s to h. The forms son and saun, however, are more naturally explained as having arisen from the Sk., sam, ' with,' the tn of which would account for the labial diphthongs, o and au. a. Ten, te, and tan, may possibly be connected, as has been suggested,* with the Sk. abl. affix, tas, which may be added to any noun in Sanskrit, giving it an ablative sense. It may be noted that under the form to, this tas had become the regular abl. termination in Prakrit. But the analogy of the other postpositions as being separate words, requiring the inflection of the stem of the noun to which they are attached, casts doubt upon this derivation, and suggests that the origin of these postpositions also must be sought in some individual word. I am thus inclined to accept the suggestion of Hoernlef that the original of te and ten is the loc. of a Sk. past part., tarite, root trl (for the regular form tirna), 'to pass over.' From this would come a Pr. form, tarie, or tuie, whence, te. The Anusvar would then be inorganic. 198. The various forms of the loc. postposition, men, are all referable to the loc. sing., madhye, of the Sk. madhya, ' middle.' The various forms, madhya, madhi, mahi, mdhi, mah, all exhibit successive processes * Beames : Camp. Gramm. vol. ii. p. 273. t Comp. Gramm. pp. 225, 226. § 198.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 133 of (lerivafioii, dh becoming //, and y, hy § 90, first hecoming- i and then disappearing-. In the forms nidnjli, majhi, jli is su!>stituted for the con- junct dhy (§ 107). The long- form, mdliai, suggests an increased Prakritic form, mudhyake. The various forms with Anusvar, mdh'm, mahan, men, mon, majjiiam, are possiltly to be referred to tlie ace. form, madhyain. Men or main has arisen from mdhhi, and vidn from mahan, by rejection of //, and sandhi of tlie concurrent vowels.* a. Tlie other loc. postposition, par, in all its variations, is derived from the Sk. upari, ' on.' The Marwdri, always tenacious of old forms, has retained the initial vowel to the present day. From this original have proceeded in succession, the lih. pari, H. H. /xir, lir. pal, and Urdu /ja. b. The postposition tak is connected hy Prof. Monier-Williamsf with the Sanskrit affix, daghna, used in the same sense ; thus, we may compare the Hindi, ghutne tak, ' up to the knee,' with the Sk. jdnu-daglina, of the same meaning-. But the analogy of the otlier postpositions again leads us rather to seek for the original of tak in some separate word ; and I am inclined to accept the opinion of HoernleJ that it is to be found in the Sk. past part., tarita, — from the root tri, — ' passed to,' hence, • up to ;' to which has been added the dat. affix, ku, r and t having- suflered elision. In the form talak, the I would represent the r of tarita, which in the shorter form has disappeared. With tarita Hoernle also connects te and tain. c. The postposition lagi or Idgi, having the same meaning as the above, is to be identified with the Sk. indecl. past part., lagya, Pr. laggio, from the root lag, ' to be attached.' The forms lorj and lann, may be derived from the other Prakrit form of the same participle, viz. lagiuna, for the Sk. lagitvd, whence, by the rejection of the medial g, and sandhi of the vowels, n final passing into Anusvar, we have the forms, laun and Ion. Unless, indeed, witli Hoernle,§ we trace it to the Ap. Pr. loc. sing. Idiahun, for the Sk. loc. labdhe, lit., ' for the benefit of ' (?). * Notwithstanding the high authority of Professor Weber, with this series of forms before me, I cannot agree with him when (Jena Literatur Zeitung, 1877, Nr. 33), he would derive men from the Sk. loc. affix, smln. Still less can I accept his alternative suggestion that, when used in com- parisons, men may represent the Ar. min. Arabic particles are very rarely used in modern Hindi, and min, I think, never. Moreover, when mln is used, even in Urdu, it is not found by itself, but always in Arabic phrases, like mln jumla, min jdnib, etc., and is never transposed from its proper place at the beginning of a word. t Sansk. Gramm. 80, xx. X Comp. Gramm. pp. 225, 226. § Comp. Gramm. p. 224. 134 [§ 199. CHAPTEE YI. ADJECTIVES (tjtii^t^^). 199. The Hindi adjective is exceedingly simple, and presents little requiring special explanation. Adjectives fall into two classes, viz., uninflected and inflected. TJn- inflected adjectives, as the term imjilies, remain unchanged before all nouns and under all circumstances, like the English adjective, and require no explanation. Inflected adjectives all terminate in '^n ^, and correspond in all respects to Tadbhava nouns of the same termination, in- flected to !][ e in the oblique singular. The rules for the inflection of such Tadbhava adjectives are the same as those given for the inflection of the genitive post- position, cjiT, viz. : — Inflection of {\\ Bcfore a masc. noun in the nom. sing., "^ a final Adjectives. IS unchanged. (2) Before a masc. noun in any other case, ^ a final is changed to '^ e. (3) Before a fem. noun in any case, sing, or plur., ^ a final is changed to ^ i. The following examples will illustrate the construction of adjectives : — IJNINrLECTED ADJECTIVES. W^T W^ sundar jtldd, 'a beautiful flower/ or 'beautiful flowers.' ^^■^ tR^ xj"^ swidar idiid par, * on a beautiful flower.' § 200.] ADJECTIVES. 135 5^T! ^^ «fiT staidar phiilotj M, ' of beautiful flowers.' ^"^X ^^^ sioiciar lurki, ' a beautiful girl.' ^"^X 'W^f^'^^ fiundar larkiydn, ' beautiful girls.' ^^T ^?r^=fi1" =IIT fiundar larki kd, ' the beautiful girl's.' ^^T ^^f^^ ^ snndar larkii/on ko, ' to beautiful girls.' ^wff ^^^ d/ia?^mmi purush, ' a virtuous man,' or ' virtuous men.' \^wff rr^Tsi wi d/iannwi purush kd, 'a virtuous man's.' \j7jff ij^^ jj dhar))imi purusJion meri, 'among virtuous men.' ^'^ Wt dharmmi stri, ' a virtuous woman.' \jwff f^^t dharmmi striydn, ' virtuous women.' vff "^(X Wt dharmmi stri ko, 'to a virtuous woman.' Vff f^^ ^ dharmmi striyon ko, ' to virtuous women.' Inflected Adjectives. «liT^ ^^T J^o.ld ghord, ' a black horse.' ^T% ^% kdle gJiore, ' black horses.' ^T% ^% ^T Jidle ghore kd, ' the black horse's.' oRT% ^^^ ^T ^^^^^ ghoron jjcir, ' on black horses.' ^T^ f^Wt kali Mill, ' a black cat.' ofiT^ f^fW^t ^(ili hilHi/dn, ' black cats.' cfiT^ f^!^ "^T ^"^'^^ f^'ff'i^ pdi', ' on a black cat.' ^TWl" f^fW^ «fit f^<^l^i^ hilliyon ko, ' to black cats.' a. Very rarely, adjectives in ^ / are inflected to ^''£17 iy^t for the feminine : as in 'Sf^'^ dukhiyd, from '?'§Y duklii, 'afflicted.' 200. A very few adjectives terminate in "^t dri ; these follow the analogy of Tadbliava masc. nouns of the same termination, and are inflected to ^^ en^ obi. masc. and ^ m, fem., according to the rules above given for adjectives in "^ «.* The same rule applies to all ordinal numeral adjectives ending in ^t wcm. Examples * Vid. § 199. 136 ADJECTIVES. [^§ 201, 202. are : TT^ fT'^ Idijen Jidth, ' on the left hand ; ' ^^^* ^^ ti'^ daswin gliari par^ ' at the tenth honr ; ' ^^"^' ^^% ^r biswen mahine men, ' in the twentieth month.' Rem. Adjectives do not, as a rule, assume the plural terminations, ■^, "^j, '^^. When tiie adjective comes last, in the poetic style, they are very rarely added. The perfect and imperfect participles of verbs, when used adjectively, are subject to the same rules as inflected adjectives. i\ffixes of 201. The affix ^f\^ sarikhd (also ^^^^^ and ^Ttr^^) Likeness. . . Sk. ^^^, Pr. ^fr^j is sometmies added to the inflected base both of substantives and pronouns, to express likeness. It is then inflected according to the rules for the inflection of Tadbhava adjectives in "^n « ; as, "^ ;^-5^^ '5^'^ ^ t^^^'>i sarikhe punishoTi Jid, ' of men like you ; ' ^^ ^■'(^^ cfit 'TfT ^T-ft us sarikhe ko mat mdno, ' do not mind the like of him.' 202. The affix ^t sd is added to adjectives to express resemblance, with the accessory idea of a lesser degree of the quality. a. This affix is inflected to TJ e and t^ i according^ to the rules for the inflection of Tadbhava adjectives in ^. The adjective preceding ^ sd, if capable of inflection, must also be inflected. Examples are : ^T^ ^T ^^ ^«^ *^ phitl, ' a reddish flower ;' «ft^ ¥t f^t^^t 'tt^^ si chirh/dn, ' blueish birds ; ' tJ^% % x|% pile se patte, ' yellowish leaves.' b. The same particle may also be added to a noun or pronoun, converting it into an adjective expressing like- ness ; the pronoun must be put in the oblique form. Thus, e.g., we may say : t§'^^ W[ f ^nTTT kharag sd hathydr, ' a sword-like weapon; ' ^u ^t ^T^ft miijh sdpdpi, ' a sinner like me ; ' cTtt ^ f?r^ turn sd mitr, ' a friend like you.' * * With such expressions as the above, compare such English colloquiiil forms as ' sick-like,' ' weak-like,' etc. §§ 203, 204.] ADJECTIVES. ~ 137 Rem. These compounds with ^ are sometimes used in a substantive sense ; in wliic-h case "^ is inflected to agree with the noun to wliich it is appended; as, fcj^jj ^ e^T^ ^Trf^ %» 'something lilie a sorrow is overspread.' c. HT sd is also added to the genitive both of nouns and pronouns, when the likeness intended is not, as in the previous case, to the person or thing itself, but to something pertaining to the person or thing. Both the genitive and the appended ^ are then inflected to agree with the following noun. Thus we say : xjfgrl cfi^ ^ "^^ pandit ki si holt, ' speech like that of a pundit ;' ^T^ ^T m ^Tf /uit/ii kd sd mimh, ' a face like an elephant's ;' ^i^ % % TTcT hdg/i ke se dunt, ' teeth like those of a tiger.' d. Tiiis idiom is to be explained by supposing an ellipsis of the sul»- stantive after the genitive. Thus, hiitlii kd sd munh is for hdthl kd munli sd inmt/i ; as we say in English, ' a face like an elephant's,' for * a face like an elephant's face.' e. Sometimes the noun qualified is omitted, as in the following : parbat M kundalii si diklidi parti hai, ' something like a mountain cave aj)pears.' Here we must evidently supply some feminine noun, as, e.g., bastu. 203. Identical in form, but of different origin and Affix of . . Intensity. meaning, is the particle ^t 5a, which is added in like manner to adjectives, to denote intensity or excess. Examples of this usage are : ^'^'^ ^T "^TZT hahut sd a fa, ^a great deal of flour;' ^^ ^ "OtZ^ f^^ori si roti, ' a very little bread;' ^'qi ^T ^TfTf imchd sd jjahdr, 'a very high mountain;' ^^ % ^% bare se ghore, * very large horses.' a. Sd, as used in this sense, is derived from the Sanskrit affix, shas, '-fold,' through the Braj so. Sd, tiie affix denoting likeness, has come from the Sanskrit sama, ' like,' through the intermediate Braj form, saun, as the H. H. inf., karnd, has come through the Braj karnaun. 204. The dialectic forms of adjectives call for little re- Dialectic 'mark. Tadbhava High Hindi adjectives in ^, inflected, in Adjectives. 138 ADJECTIVES. L§ 205. Braj have the termination '^, and in Kanauji, the Rajputana and Himalayan dialects, ■^. The inflection of such adjectives in each of these dialects is the same as that of the corre- sponding class of nouns. Occasionally Anusvar is added to the Braj obi. masc. inflection. Examples are the following : for H.H., ^^T, Br., ^^"^j M/ir., Mew., Kan., etc., 'sft^j « little;' Br. jft^ ^'^^ wf or ^%" ^^-r ^, 'with a pleasant Avord,' for H.H., ^% ^^^ %• Marwari illustrations are: ^Tt ^T^ft? ' a large horse ;' ^^ ^^, ' a large mare;' ^^T ^^T, 'large horses' (H.H. ^% ^%) ; ^^T ^T^T "Ot fllfT^ ' the throne of the great king.' Kanauji forms of the adjective occasionally occur in poetry ; as, in the Rdmdyan, ^^'^TS, for H.H., ^t^^, ' sallow.' «. In all the Himalayan dialects, these same adjectives have in the nom. sing-, the termination tJ^, inflected, as in nouns of this class, to ^|T, in the masc. obi. sing-, and the plur. ; and to f^, for the fern., throughout: I as, N. '3^fY» 'great,' infl. masc. "3^T> f^m. "3^. But the possessive adjective, H. H., "^tj^f^, appears in Naipali in the weak form, TSn''5''T ; it is inflected, however, after the analogy of the strong forms, to ^XJi»TT and '^ni?^. 205. In the dialect of the Rdmdyan, the class of Tadbhava adjectives in "^T is wanting, and all adjectives alike are un- inflected; except that, as noted below, they occasionally assume the Sanskrit fem. nom. sing, terminations. But sometimes ^ is added for tlie fem. Thus, we have ^t; "^TT^^ ' a great king,' and ^-^i: fif^ or ^ •^^f^ (fem.), -a great injury.' ^^^ is the usual substitute for ^j ; as, e.g., ^^x;^ '^^ T}^} ' a king like Dasarath.' a. In the modern eastern colloquials, adjectives of every type remain uninflected before masc. nouns in the oblique singular and nom. plural. The only exception mentioned by Grierson is in the case of Tadbhava adjectives in '^, in Azamgarh and Benares, which are inflected to TJ, as in High Hindi. These Tadbhavas in ^ are inflected before feminine nouns to '|^, as in High Hindi, except in the Maithili of S. Bhagalpiir, in which they suffer no change for gender. In this dialect, however, they have a strengthened form in «, which is inflected to ^ before feminine §§ 206-208.] ADJECTIVES. 139 nouns. In N. Maithili, some close adjectives are inflected before feminine nouns to '^, as in the Old Baiswari of tlie Rdmdyan. 206. Occasionally, in poetry, some adjectives, chiefly Tat- samas, assume certain Sanskrit terminations, indicative of case and gender. Thus we often meet adjectives with the Sanskrit fem. terminations, t^ (after bases in "^^^ or i;^,) and "^. Such forms occur most frequently in the latter part of compound words. The final t^ is often shortened for the sake of the metre. Examples are : e^Tf^^ T'^T^^'Tt'^'Tl^ 'beautiful women, destroyers of the pride of Rati;' *T^f7T ^f?I ^^f^T, 'devotion most holy;' ^TTT ^-TtrTT, ' S'ltd, the pure;' ^^^ % f^TTT f%«t^(TTj 'the modest speech of Ganrr.' More rarely, we meet with the termination ??(•) of the Sk. ace. sing., masc. or neut. ; as, e.g., ^^^ fvTrf ijj^ ?f j^jfTr, « I{(h)i, the unborn, I ever adore;' f^oR^ ^^ ^^, 'destroy all my doubt.' Comparison. 207. The Hindi adiective has no separate form to J}^^ Compara- J ■•■ tive Degree. indicate the degrees of comparison. The Comparative degree is expressed by simply pntting the noun or pro- noun with which comparison is made, in the ablative case, thus : "sJif ^"?3 ^^ % ^T f :f/ah ghar us se hard hat\ '■ this house is larger than that ; ' ^f ^^ ^TT % ^^ % W^T 1 wall vriJish dm he per se unchd hai, ' that tree is higher than a mango tree ;' i|f ^ % '^\'Z\ shahad se mithd, 'sweeter than honey.' a. Comparison may also be expressed by prefixing the tvords tSi^-^ aur and ^f^jjefi adJiik, 'more,' and sometimes, with the same signification, the Persian zii/dda, corrupted in Hindi to f^Tij"^: Jii/dda, or, colloquially, in the Dodb, WT^ j'dsti, N. 5in^. 208. The Superlative degree is expressed by using The Supeiia- • ■i ., 1 • J • 1 T 1 o n ^ 1 tive Degree. witn the adjective, the abl. of ^^ sab, 'all;' thus, ^^ 140 ADJECTIVES. [§ 209. % ^^T sah se lard, 'the greatest ;' i.e., 'great with all;' ^q t ^^ sah se nich, ' the lowest ; ' '^rf ^^^i(\ ^w Tii^f^^ ^ ^^T % y(^h machJiU sab maclililiyon se sundar liai, ' this fish is the most beautiful of all fishes.' a. Where no comparison is intended, a high degree of any quality is expressed by prefixing various words to the adjective, as in English and other languages. Most commonly, the word ^^cT bahut, 'much,' 'very,' is prefixed; as, ^^rf ^f ^ "T^ bahut gahri iiadi, ' a very deej) river.' Sometimes, colloquially, ^rgj bard, ' great,' is used instead of ^^fT ; as, ^^T ^TTt ^(^T bard bhdri patthar, ' a very heavy stone ;' but this use of ^^T is not considered elegant. The intensive affix, ^j sd, (§ 203) has the same force. Other words thus employed, especially in literary Hindi, are "^f^ ati, 'very,' ^(?i«fT atyant, 'extremely;' as, ^f?l ^^T c^^^ sundar, 'very beautiful ;' ^(^T^tT *I^T«T^ atyant bluiydnak, 'exceedingly terrible.' The word y\TjS{ purani (cf. Lat. jjrimus), is often prefixed to Tatsama adjectives in the same sense as the above ; as, e.g., tj"^^ "^•3"<1 ]jara)n adbhiit, ' very wonderful ; ' tj^?Tir^ paramshuddh, ' supremely holy.' b. Sometimes the superlative degree of comparison is elegantly expressed by placing the noun or pronoun with which comparison is made, in the loc. case with Tj men, either with or without ^^ sab prefixed ; as, e.g., ^f ^^^ ^^f^W['^ *J ^t%'5RTT "SfT wall sab buddliinidnon men budd/iinidn thd, ' he was the wisest of the wise ;' xy[ ^^ Tj ^^t "^ll" f in pero7i men bard yahi hai, ' of these trees this is the greatest.' Com- pare the similar English idiom, 'brave among the brave.' Sanskrit 209. A few Sanskrit comparatives and superlatives occur, the former often in a superlative sense ; as, e.g., tiTgiff^ punya- tar, from tiT!?r puny a, ' more holy,' or ' very holy.' But superlative forms are much more common; as, ^tI^ uttam, 'best;' %^ shresjith, 'most excellent,' from ^; fi\T{7{M pri- yatam, 'dearest,' from f^l^; x^jfii^ pdpisht/i, 'most sinful,' from Ti\i(\ pd2}L i §§ 210, 211.] ADJECTIVES. 141 a. Persian comparatives and superlatives have found no place in Hindi, unless we except the word f%f TTT {J^.)-> which one occasionally hears from Hindoos who are in the habit of using much Urdu. 210. Ill Naipdli, the comparative degree is expressed by affixing to the Comparison in Naipali. oblique form of the noun with which comparison is made, the word ^w^Tj which is the oblique form of >1«^Yj the imperfect participle of the verb ^^ (H. H. ^•T'^T)» 'to say.' Practically, in this instance, it is used as a postposition. Examples are : ffTi^f ^ ^^ ^"^T ^«^T "3^1 'ft^ cRT 1^, ' ye are of more value than many sparrows ;' '?ft ^^n^H" f^^'TT % ^'1^ *J«^T ^Tf% ^T^fl"? ' this poor widow cast in more than they.' Much more rarely, '^jf^) conj. participle of '^TW'T. takes the place of ^T«^ with the inflected form of the noun or pronoun; as in ''3^ ^tf^ V^ITj ' more righteous than that (man).' The superlative degree is expressed by prefixing to the adjective the adjective '^'^■, ' all,' with ^jfW • thus, ^t '^tff ^^^ ^TT, ' the best garment;' cR«T ^t ^tff "3^ ^if'I'^IT ^~> * who is to be accounted the greatest? ' 211. The same general principles of derivation which have been indi- cated (§§ 189-192) in explanation of substantive forms, apply equally in regard to adjectives. Thus Tadbhava adjectives in a, o, and a?i, have always arisen from Prakritic bases increased by the addition of a conso- nant, usually k ; and all Tatsamas ending in u or the silent a, from the simple Sanskrit base. Thus the adjective kdld, 'black,' must i)e derived, not directly from the Sk. kula, but from an increased Prakritic base, kdlaka. On the other hand the Tatsama, sundar, ' beautiful,' has arisen directly from the Sk. sundara, with only the loss of the case-termination. Tatsamas in i commonly represent Sk. bases in in, as dliani, from the base dhanin.* * Vid. § 153. 142 [§ 212. CHAPTEE YII. NUMERALS (tmi). 212. The Hindi numerals are quite irregular in their formation, and it will be necessary for the student to commit them all to memory as far as 100. The Sanskrit numerals are also in common use in books, especially in numbering chapters and sections. Both the Hindi and Sanskrit numerals, with the figures corresponding, are given in the following table : TABLE VII. NUMERALS. Hin di. S inskrit. 0 0 sht'mya. ^^ shunya. 1 «i n^ ek. TJ^fi ek. 2 R ^•^ do. f^ dtvi. 3 ^ - 70, ^ff-?:. 88, ^^^. 4, -^nT- 9, ^>. 10, ^u. ii,T3nTT- 12, ^TTT. 13, ^i:t. 14, '^■^^T- 15, TJVT^T. 44 16 92, ^tW- 93, ctTTTTT. 94, ^>^Tin. 95, -q^TW. 97, umiTt 98, ^^Tif. 99, si^m. 18, ^^TTT- 72,^r\X- 21, ^5fi^^. 73,^7!^. 90, %^t. 91, ^^|5n^. 1,000, f^TT- 100,000, ^T^. 10,000,000] J^ •■ Himalayan C'ardinak. 217. The cardinals in the Himalayan dialects do not in g-eneral differ much from those in High Hindi. The following- variants occar in the Naip^li Gospel: viz., t?I'T,3; TJ^TTO' ^J «"d ^1"' '2. In the obi. sing", of TJcfi, ' one,' we find TJ^TT, apparently when it is desired to g-ive special definiteness : as, TJ^T ^T ^T ^t^ ^^T W^^ ?TT f^^^ 7I'^»I, *of (the) one house, five persons shall he at enmity among them- selves;' and so especially in contrast with ^qfif, 'the other:' as, "^cRX ^ ^I"^ lY^T T ^=fiT ofiY fiTfT, 'i'e will be an enemy of the one, and a friend of the other.' k §§ 218, 219.] NUMERALS. 149 a. In Naipali, a series of numerals is formed from tlie cardinals by the addition of the affix ^zt> inA- W. t^: thus, ^^;jt or ^^tzt> ' a certain one,"5^fft) 'certain two,' ^T?ft^> 'certain seven.' These appear to be used wlien it is desired to designate a number with a certain definite- ness, as in the following: "ETTfft^ ^tI^ f^^T> 'there were seven brethren ; ' Luke xx. 29, where the reference is to a particular seven. 218. The following variant forms occur in the Hdnidi/au : Cardinals in Eainayrtn. 1, x"^' 4, W[iX-^' 16, ^TTW- 2, ^i:. 9, wisf. 25, T?^^^. 3, ^^. 14, '^Tfr^^- 1000, ^f^. To these may be added the anomalous form, •f^^'g, lit., ' nine-seven,' i.e., ' sixteen.' The Prakritic form, ^^^ or T^^^, for ^^f, 'sixteen,' also occurs in the Rdmai/an, and even in High Hindi. It is chiefly used in certain phrases of a technical character: as, i^^lj ^^T, 'the sixteen digits' (of the sun's or moon's diameter). ;^^ is occasionally substituted for ^^, 'ten,' as in the phrase, ^^f^f^, 'the ten points of the compass.' Many of the above forms merely present differences of orthography. 219. The following are the cardinals in Bhojpuri, 3Iagadhi, and Cardinals in T. . , , Eastern Col- Maithih, so far as they ditter from High Hindi, up to 18. loquials. Bhojpuri. Mdgadki. Blaithili. 1, Tl^. P^,1^^. P^, ^%, W- 3, cl^f%. i^. 4, ^Tf^. 'TTfT. 8, ^3. 9, «ft- ^. 'Jo- 11. T'HTf . T'^TI PiKo. 15, ^^Tf- ^^Tf- ti^T°- 16, ^>T:f. €tT:i. ^tx;!. 150 NUMERALS. [§ 220. a. By the operation of the law, mentioned § 117, a short vowel in an initial syllable, not penultimate, is often, thongh not invariably, sliortened ; as also in some other cases, g-iven below. Illustrations are : in Bhojpiiri, JTeR^^, 21 ; JT^fTT^, 31 ; JJ^R^f^, 61 ; in M%adhi, JTcfi, 1 ; JT^?fl-^, 71 ; in Maithili, JJifi, 1 ; JTJITT^. ^ ; F^H, 21 ; JT^f?!^, 31 ; p^rnf^^, 41 ; ^^f^^, 42 ; JF#^, 51 ; ^"^q^, 53 ; ^^^ or ^"^T^, 82. In like manner, '^Y becomes '^; ■^, JT ; and "^j "^X 5 as in the following- : in Maithili, ^mf^^, 43 ; ^mf^^, 45 ; Wf^^, 47 ; ^TTT^. 84 ; ^TT^'%, 94 ; in INIagadlii, 'iTT^^, 89 ; 'qi^'flT, 74 ; and in Bhojpuri, 'ftTtt, 94. h. In Bhojpuri and Maithili all compounds of "^^, 20, TtI^^, 30, and ^T'^^j 40, shorten the vowel of the ultimate, giving, e.g., such forms as ^•T'^^, 19, "cffff^, 33, "^TTf^^, 44, etc. But in some Maithili sub- dialects, this I is combined with the preceding vowel, as in the following ; Jjf^, 21, B^, 23, ^^g, 27. c. In Bhojpuri, the penultimate d in ^Tf3^» 60, is shortened in all its compounds: as, e.g., JT^i^f^, 61, ^T^rfe> 62, etc. In the nineties, the M of »f^, in all its compounds is softened to Anusvar : sis in ^T^> 92, etc. In M<4gadhi, the tT of ^tIT[j J'l all its compounds, becomes «rT: as in Wf^T» 72, etc. d. The following 3Iaithili forms of the cardinals are also to be noted : viz., ^^^, 27; ^t^, 28; ^^l^Tf^^, 39; ^t%^, 42; JF^^^, 51 ; ^-T, 52 ; ^fftil and ^cTTW^, 57 ; ^Tt^ and ^HT^T^T, 58 ; ftT^^EI^ and f7lt^^'G3; ^^^^, 64; fi^^"?:^^, m-, ^o, 100. e. In the eastern dialects, in the numerals, as in many other words, ^^ is optionally written for "^Hx> and sometimes, again, the diphthong is resolved : as in 'q^f^^ or 'g^f^g, for H. H., ^'^^^, 24; ^^^^^T or ^^^51, for H. H., '^^'^, 54. Miscellaneous 220. The following forms also occur, many of which are to be re- garded as presenting, not dialectic variations, but merely diflferences of spelling. 221, 222.] NUMERALS. 151 ll,TJTSnTf- 19, "^^t^- 21, Ti;^^. 27, ^TTTt^. 31, TJ^rft^. 32, -^Trt^. 33,^Tfr^. 38, ^^'^^. 41, 11^k!T^€- 58, ^TT^ST. 90, -5!^. 44, ^^T^^. 03, %^3. 46, l^TlT^'^^. 08, ^^^3. 91|U^in^^ 48, ^3fIT^^- 71, Xr^lTrT- 49, ^ii^H . 73, frTT^TlT i 51- 53, ^^^. 54, '^^^. 55, XI^l^'iT. 57, ^TTT^if. 75, xr^f tit;. 70, ^^tTT- 81, ?:^T^'^. 82, ^T¥t. 87, ^TlT^. 88, ^3T^>- 96, l^T^^. 97, ^tTT^^. 99^ - 100, ;r^. 221. The numbers above one hundred proceed as in Numbersai)ove English, except that the copulative conjunction is omitted. Thus, im ^ ■^[^ ek sail elc, ' one hundred and one ; ' ^^ ^ ^T3 tin sau sdth, ' three hundred and sixty ; ' ■q'^ f^iTT! ^H c1>: hajdr bis, ' one thousand and twenty.' a. But the copulative is sometimes inserted in poetrj', even in the lower numbers : as, ^^ cR^ ^TcT "^^ ^^Tj 'seven and twenty kalpas passed.' b. The numbers between 100 and 200 are sometimes ex- pressed by writing the smaller number first, with the affix a : as, e.g., '^T^^T ^j 'a hundred and forty.' Other modes of expression will be noticed in the sections concerning fractional and denominative numerals. 222. The numeral "Q^^ is added to other numerals in the Idioms with sense of the English 'about:' as, e.g., ^T^^ "^oR, 'about ^^' forty;' ^^ -5^, ' about a hundred,' — not ij^ ^'^ ■^oR, which is ' one hundred and one.' But to ■giR itself the word ^^ (Sk. ■?nt^) is added to give this sense: as, tjcR ^^ %-^ "WZ\, 'a seer or so of flour.' 152 NUMERALS. [§§ 223, 224. a. "^oR is also sometimes used where in English we would have the indefinite article. But the English student must beware of thus using it too freely. It should only be so em- ployed, where there is a distinct emphasis on the idea of unity: thus, "^^ ^^T %T "41 1 31? 'a half seer of flour;' "^'^ "^n^T ^r1^, 'a half kos^ Aggregatives. 223. Ordinarily the numerals are not used in the inflected plural form. But when they are used to denote a totality, as Aggregatives, they may take, both in the nom. and obi. cases, the termination ^.* Thus, '^TT ^^ c^^u^r per is 'four trees,' but '^TTt '^'^ clidron per, ' the four trees;' so also ^^^r ^u; his de is ' twenty came,' but ^^' ^"q; bison de, ' the twenty came.' In ^^ donon, ' the two,' ^-i don is the substitute for ^ do. a. This termination "^ oti, added to the numbers ' one hundred,' *one thousand,' etc., always denotes an indefinite number of these aggregates. In this idiom, %^^T saikrd is substituted for "^ sau, *one hundred.' Examples are: %^^ ^^ saikroTi jjer, ' hundreds of trees ; ' ^^TTlf hajdron, ' thou- sands;' ^"nit ^V^lldkhori rupae, ' Idkhs of rupees.' Dialectic 224. For ^ in thesc aggregative forms, Braj has ^^; Mdrwari, Bikaneri, and H^roti have ^t- Special Braj forms are also: for ^^1f, 'the two,' 'both,' ^^^, ^^jff, '^#; for W^^t chhatthd, chhatkwdn, ' sixth.' The ordinals above ' sixth ' are all formed by adding ^t tvan to the cardinal numbers. Both the w a and "^t an final of the ordinals are inflected, like Tadbhava adjectives of the same terminations, to 1?; and "^ for the obi. masc., and t; i and i;' in for the fern. Thus, from c[^ das, 'ten,' is formed ^^^t daswdn, 'tenth;' from Vi'^'m pachas, 'fifty,' ^^^^^\ imchdnvdn, 'fiftieth,' etc. Further examples of the use of the ordinals are: xifft^ 5^=R l^ahili piistak, ' the first book ;' ^rfW T\'^'ii\ sdtiueii parhh men, ' in the seventh chapter ; ' ^^'^j ^^•IT daswdn mahind, ' the tenth month.' 154 NUMERALS. [§§ 227-229. NaPa?"'^ '^"'^ 227. In Marwdn, the ordinals are as follows :—q^, 'first;' ^^ Ordinals. ami ^^ (this last peculiar to Mdrwari), 'second;' tf\^, 'third;' 'g^T^, 'fourth,' X^t^ift, 'fifth;' l^^t a"fl W^'ft, 'sixth.' From 'sixth' onward, the ordinals are formed by adding- to the cardinals the termination '^\. Tlie 3Iewdri forms essentially agree with the Marwiiri. Before the termination ^j^t? ^ &iva\ "^ is shortened; as in ^■^^, 12th, etc. Bllianeri agrees with the above, except in ^^^, ' first ; ' as also Haroti. All these inflect '^ to "^ for the obi. masc. sing-., and the plural; and to ^ for the fem. sing, and plur., except Haroti, which has '5|. In Naipali, the series runs, Xjf^^^, 'first,' T^"'^, 'second,' ^^. 'third,' ^"^^j 'fourth,' tltTf. ' fiftli,' ^^, 'sixth;' from which onward, with the exception of •T'^, 'ninth,' the ordinals are formed by adding to the cardinal, "^^ . The inflection throughout, for the obi. masc. sing, and the plur., is, ^, and for the fem., f^. Ordinals in E. 228. The eastern colloquials, so far as I have been able to ascertain, ^^^^^- present the following variations. For "qf^, 'first,' Bh., Mg., and Mt. have Xn^ '5f ; for ^^IITT ' second,' Bh. and Mt., ^^X' and Mg. and Mt., ^HT:; for fft^-?:!, 'third,' Bh. and Mt., (T^-^T. Mg. and Mt., ^^l^; for ^ySfJ, 'fourth,' Bh. and Mg. 'i^^, Bh. also ^^^, Mt., ^"S and ^f^^. In all tliese, except on the border of Bangdl, the forms for ' first,' ' second,' and ' third,' are inflected to "^ before nouns, in an obi. case ; in S. Bhagalpur the inflection is to a. Bhojpuri inflects to ^^ for the fem. All three dialects present alternative forms with the pleonastic suffix ^; as HffTJT^T, ^^T^T, ^^T^T orfff^T^T- For 'sixth,' ^S^, Bh. has ^t or ^^t ; ^ig- ^'H or ^^^j ; Mt., ^^^t, C^H^j W^TT) or l^'JJTo. All other ordinals in these dialects are formed by adding to the cardinal, in Bh., ^j or "^j; in Mg., "^Sif or ^t; in Mt., ■^, TR, -^IT, ^^, ^?TT or ^flo. Thus, ^^^t, 'tenth,' is in Bh., ^^t; in 3Ig., ^^ ; in Mt., ^^J{, ^TbJ{, etc. In all the E. Hindi country a long final vowel is very commonly shortened before these terminations. 229. The following dialectic variations occur in the Rdmd- yan, Viz., '^^l[^, 'seventh,' '^'Z^, 'eighth,' ^^^^^, 'ninth.' § 230.] NUMERALS. 155 230. When referring- to the huiar days, another se't of Names of , . , i . . p Lunar Days. ordinals is used. The month is reckoned as consistnig or two parts, each of 15 hinar days, corresponding; to the waxing and waning half of the moon. The waning half is commonly called inx'J^'^ or ^^ ; the waxing half, iT^q^ or ^^. Tiie month is reckoned to begin with the full moon, and the lunar days are counted twice in a month from one to fifteen. Although the names of these days are, strictly speaking, numeral adjectives in the feminine gender, agreeing with fTTfijf, ' a lunar day,' this noun is rarely written, and they are practically used as nouns. They are as follows, the Marwari variants being given in the second column : — (Names of the Dcifjs of the Month, H. H. 1 st, tjt^^T pariwd. 2 lid, '5"5I di'ij. 3rd, fft^I tlj. Aih, '^\;^ chauth. '^^. lltli, IJ^T^^ e^-rfrfas/, T^t?:^. 5th, V(^-^\ panchatni. "qt^TT. 12tli, ^T^^ f/w«(/«s/, '^T;^. Gth, -^ clihatth. ^'J. IStli, ^T;H tents. ^\^. 7th, ^^^^^ sattami. ^Trl^- \■i\\\,'^^^^ cliaudas. ^"t^^. 15th, '^^T^^ amdvas, or TTT^^ miivas. a. The days of the second fortnight are reckoned in the same way, except that the fifteenth, or day of full moon, is called t:ix5?TT^, tj^"^ or q^T, Br. n^^ or wf, Mar. ^w{^ or ri^. b, Mewdri employs not only the forms above g-iven for Mdrwari, but, as alternative, the following- : ■^%, 1st; ^51, 2nd; ^^, 4tli ; "qt^, 5tli ; '^'Z, Cth, ■5jf^,7th; -^T^, Stli; ^*tift, 9th; ^ift or l^ipft, 10th; 'f^XH, 11th; ^TT^, 12th; ^i;;^, 13th; 'g^^iT, Uth; ^^iT^lf, I5th ; and for the 15tli of the 1st fortnig-ht, full moon, IT«W. To the final vowel of these forms Anusvar is occasionally added; as in ^TRTj 7th, etc. 3Idr. H.H. Mar. vym- 8th, '^S'T^ oshtaml. ^3^ (l^^or^U. 9th •n^TT nan mill. ('T^^? aM?ie saw. 3500, ^T^ rft'T^^TT*".''''^^^**'''?/'^'** 150, ^^ ^1" (^^r^* saw. 150,000, %^ ^T^ derh Idkh. h. They are used with nouns of measure, quantity, etc., as follows: %S cfit^ derh kos, 'a kos and a half;' ti^ "^ •^^ panne das gaj, ' 9f yards;' ^^t^ Tf •! (ir/tdi man, '2^ jnans ;' ^T"^ f^TTT«fi 7>«o chittdk, '5 chittdk ;" ^s ^TTl T^^ sdrhe hdrah hath, '12| cubits-,' ^^^^\ ^"?rg savd haras, 'a year and a quarter.' 233. Mdrwdri presents but few and unimportant variations Dialectic in .", T-i i.,^ 1 fi/. CI Fractiouals. m the iractionais. ror the inflected ly final 01 some or the forms, it has ^, as in nouns and adjectives ; as in T^^^n? i? H.H. xft%' I^ut for ^f%j 2|, I have met, not only ^TfT? as above, but also, with the added Prakritic ^, ^T^l"^; thus, ^T^eR ^T-^T ^^, ' two years and a half.' 234. Mewiiri exhibits the following forms : TJT^, \ ; "^^, h ; ^T!J, | ; fft^ , 31, etc. 235. Grierson gives the following variant forms of the Fractionals as occurring in the eastern colloquial dialects. h Bh., -qT, i^^T, ^^^^ ; Bh., Mg., qrw ; Mt., xft, HT, t:^-^. i Bh., fTT^lft ; Mg., Mt., ^f it; Mt., ^fTT' f^^^X^ ffl|. ^^"<^ 158 NUMERALS. [§§ 236, 237. h Bh., ^T^, T^t^T; Bh., Mg.,^f^^T; Mt.,^r^T, ^T^, '^l^l.^T^o. -h Bh., n^sTT, ti^?; Mg., ^1^3. li, Bh., Mg., Mt., ^J^•[, ^^TT; bi'- ^^t^^t. li 31t., %T, l"^. 24, Bh., ^TST; Bh., Mg., ^^^T; ^ig-, Mt., ^fT?;, ^1, ^TK. +i Mt., ^Kf . Proportionals. 236. To express proportion, ^-fi giind or ^-T gun is added to the numerals, some of which then assume forms slightly different. Illustrations are the following : ^5^ diigimd, ' two-f okl ; ' ^"^'aT-rr chaugund^ ' four-fold ; ' frl5iT»TT tigund, ' three-fokl ; ' ^cf^lT satgund, ' seven-fold ; ' ^^-IT dasgund, ' ten-fokl ; ' ^J^TT saugtmd, ' a hundred-fold.' a. Besides ^-fT the affix ^"^ is also sometimes added to a few numerals, in a similar sense : as, ^f^T? ' double ;' frl^^Tj ' three-fold." b. When, either in a literal or metaphorical sense, the idea of a string or cord is involved, ^^T niay be similai'ly added : as, fn^^T, 'triple;' '^^^^T? 'quadruple.' Denominatives. 237. Multiplicatives, such as the English 'twice,' and 'thrice,' are not found in Hindi. The Hindi idiom is ilhistrated in such phrases as the following, viz. : ^ ^% ^^f do satte chaudah, lit. 'two sevens, fourteen;' fi\«T Ti% q^f tin pmy'e pandraJi, 'three fives, fifteen;' which correspond to the English idioms, 'twice seven is fourteen,' and ' three times five is fifteen.' Numbers thus used may be termed Denominative numerals. They § 238.] NUMERALS. 159 have, in many cases, a form slightly different from that of the Cardinals. These special forms are as follows : — If) li 21 iTi'3^ ekam. [ ^ kam. 4, ( ^^ chauka. ( ^t^ chnukd. ^^ sama. 4i 'SX^I dhonchd. (^?T (laurhd. I \^"4ii^ST deorhd. 5, 5i X^ panje. lit^T ponchd. '3"»fX dunii. 6, W^T clihakkd. 1 '^'^ (Ihdma. 6|, T^'q^T khonchd. ( (Sl*i| dhdmii. ■^% satte. \ -^^ Una. 8, ^cft^T satonchd. (■^T hunpi. lit^T hontd. 9, f «14^ narna. { «I44^ 1 namma. 10, ^^T dahdrr I. 238. The above are the only numbers which present peculiar forms, and even these forms are not substituted in every case. The only way to master their idiomatic use, is to commit the multiplication-table to memory. Meantime the following re- marks will suffice. cRJT, commonly written ifi, is substituted for \m, in the series of ' one ' only : as, ^tT ^i ^TT? li^-? 'fowr ones four,' i.e., ' once four is four.' In the first of the series, however, we have simply TfjSfm jm, 'once one is one,' probably a contraction for ij^ojj ^ "^^ ; and in the second, ^ ^ ^t* Iii all other places in the table Tj^ is the substitute, as, e.g., ^^ ^^ ^^, 'ten times one is ten.' From the series of 'two' on- wards, ^«rT is used as the Denominative numeral for ^; compare the Marathi form of the numeral, ^"l. From twos to tens, the fem. form, T^H"? is used; from tens onward, the masc. Thus, ^Trl "^^ ^^» foi' c. In numeration the words "^^it^j ^lll! and %c}i% are used respectively for ' units,' ' tens,' ' hundreds.' In the headings of the multiplication-table, for I^, and 2i, ^^T^T and ^s^T are the forms employed ; i.e., — to imitate English idiom, — ' the one-and-a-quarters/ ' the two-and-a-halfs.' §§ 239, 240.] NUMERALS. 161 239. The following are the Mdrwdri and Mewari forms of the Dialectic . . ' ' " Denomiuatives Denominatives : — Miir. Mew. Mar. Blew. Mar. Mew. 1, xr^. xr^. 5, tit, vj^. Tim. 8, ^. ^-jt. 3, 7fV,fT\^. rftT. {-^m. Wi- 'Iw- 4, ^^cfi. ^^. 7, ^%. ^fTT. 10, V^^. ^. fl. The following forms of the Fractional Denominatives are used in Mewari: l^, ^^T^ ; U, ^^ ; 2i, f^^; 3^, ^ZT; 4*, |^. 240. The eastern dialects present the following forms of the Denominatives : — Bhojpi'trl. Mdgadhi. Maitliili. ^%^, ^TTo, ^flt. 2' f'^'^' I^T, i^^l, i^'ft-fr^T^, IwT,i;'ft,f^,^^TT, ' {^?t, "^^t' ^^tI;, ^t^T- As Mg. and^Ti,^^. 3, j frf, f^SRT, f^%, ^W^T, fflf^. 4 nft^, =g^%, ^t;. As Bh. •^^,^%,^^,^^T^. * Only used in Jf^ TJoR or JTcjj TJ^, 'once one is one.' 11 lb ^ NUMERALS. BhojpM. MdgadhL 5, ^^, M^. 51 qjfxir. ^jf-^T. 6, 15^,WMT,15t 6|, Mi^^T- ^^^T- 7, ^ff, H^, €?!• ^^. 7i 'g^^. Wanting. 8, ^7, "^3. ^^• ^i- [§ 241. 9, iT^t, l^tt' 'T^^- 'l^t^- 10, ^ft, ^itl;, ^^^T. ^ftT. MaithilL TJlTTr, -q^^, -ql^T. ^^TT, ^'^T, ^^%. As Mg., and ^%, ^, ^, ^l"', ^T, T^To, I^T, 'WT, l^t, ^W?T, ^^t^, ^fTT. ^%t. ^tft, ^It, "^t, 241. In Eastern Hindi, the numbers above 100 assume peculiar forms when used in the Multiplication Table, as follows. For ^, 100, 5hY is substituted throughout. From 100 to 120, the smaller number is prefixed to the larger with the word ^fTT» 'above,' intervening as iti High Hindi, "^ with a preceding becoming "^^ by sandlii ; as in JToR^fT'^^, 101; 'q'^^^fTT^. 114, etc. From 120 to 160, and optionally from 110 to 120, and from 160 to 170, the two numbers are ccmnected by the vowel ^ instead of ^rf^, as in rf^^T^. 130; l^q^T^, 156, etc. In all these forms it is to be remembered that the rules for the shortening of antepenultimate vowels commonly take effect; also in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th decade, in most cases, the penultimate short vowel is lengthened ; as in q^TTfTFt, 115; I^^ejt^, 126, etc. * Only used in the phrase "q'^ tj^^^, ' five times five are twenty-five.' t Only used when in the product we have the words q^ or q, 'five;' excepting however, XJ?'5(^^, 15, and XJ^^, 25. §§ 242, 243.] NUMERALS. 163 a. In the first decade ^ is inserted before ^cTT! '" ^''® following' : — f^^trTK^>, 102; ffT^rT-^t, 103; 'q^f!^^>, 104; fg^^rl-?:^'^, 106; ^fl^ftrTT^, 107. For 109, the form is fif^^CtrlT:^ , an J for 110, ^^f!?;;^- In the nineties, '^ becomes '^; as in "T^^, 190. Collectives. 24:2. The terminations "^T d and t; i are added to some of the cardinals, to denote collective numbers ; as, ^€T Vmi^ 'a score;' '^Tn'^ battisi^ 'a thirty-two;' '^T^^T chdlisd, ' a forty.' Besides these, the following words are used as collective numbers, viz. : — Wt^T Jom, I 1T^ ga/ii, \ - 'a pair.' . 'a five.' Wt"!! Jori,) •qW[ parij^,) 'ifT gdii'Jd, 'a four' (chiefly of "S^"^ ho r I, ^ a. score.' cowries). ^^^T sa'ikrd, ' a hundred.' a. The cardinal numbers are often used as collectives, without any change of form. Derivation of the Numerals. 243. The Hindi numerals are all derived from the Sanskrit, through intermediate Prakrit forms; and by referring to the column of Hindi and Prakrit numerals given l)elow, and the general principles set forth in Chap. III., the student will be able himself to demonstrate the origin of most of the various forms. We only note a few particulars. The data for the Prakrit numerals are far from complete. I am indebted to Beames for the collection of the forms given in the following table : — Prakrit. Hindi. Prakrit. Hindi. 1. ekka. ikka, ik, ek. 2. do, (Sk. film, dvi). doya, doi, dt'd, do, 3. ^iHHi(nent. tr'nii). tin, tin. 4. chattdri, (for Sk. cliwri, cliur. neut. chatvdri). 5. pnncha, pdncli. 6. chlia (Sk. shash). chha, chlie. 7. sutta. sat. 8. (ittlia. (ith. 9. 7iua, (Sk. navd). nava, nau. 10. dasa. das. 164 NUMERALS. [§i 244, 245. Deiivation of Cardinals. Prakrit. 11. ear alt II. 12. vdraha. 13. teraha. 14. chauddaha. 15. punnaruha. 16. {soraha).* 17. satturaha. 18. attharaha. Hindi. igdra/i, gydrah. bar ah. teruh. chdridasa, chaudah. panara, pan- drah,panara1i. sorah, solah. sat tar ah, satrali. athurah. Prakrit. Hindi. 19. ektniavh'di, un'dis, un'ts. I'mavlsiii. 20. visiii. 30. tlsd. 40. chattdlisH. 50. pamidsiL GO. satthi. 70. sattari. 80. asii. 90. niiue. bis. tls. chdl'is. pacliiis. sat hi, sdth. sattar. assL nave. 100. sata, saya, saye, sai, sau, sua. 244. Sanskrit presents for ' two,' dva and dvi, the former of whirli yields the Hig-h Hindi do, and the latter, the dialectic forms, doya, doi,dui, and dvai. In tin, ' three,' the n represents the n of the Sk. neut. form, trltii ; t O.B. retains the masc. form in traya. In like manner the final ri and r of chdri and char points to the Sk. nent. chatvdri ; while the Kananji chau represents the Sk. masc. chafur. This preference for the neut. pliir. termination, reminds one of the common use of the same in tlie plural of substantives. 245. In the series from 'eleven' to 'eig-hteen' inclusive, the d of the Sk. dashan becomes r in High Hindi, except in chaudah, 14, and solah, 16. A similar substitution of r for a dental, occurs in the compounds with sattar, 70, where r is for the last t of the Sk. saptati. In chaudah, the retention of the original d is due to the influence of tlie r of chaturdashan, still retained in the archaic Hindi form, chdridasa, in wliich, however, tlie u of chatur has disappeared. In solah, d has suffered a further change. * Conjectural : Beames gives the conjecture, solaha, but as soraha is found uniformly in the older Hindi, and the r seems to be sustained by other Prakrit analogies, I prefer to regard the change to I as the later of the two. t A similar neut. form, don for do, regularly used in Marathi, is retained in Hindi, as the base of the Aggregative form, donon, § 223. §§ 246-250.] NUMERALS. 165 through r to I. The regular form, soraha, is however used by Tulsi Dds, and other writers in Eastern Hindi. Tulsi also uses an archaic form, shofhisha, in which d has become d, through tlie influence of the initial cerebral. 246. In the twenties, the labial b, for v of the Sk. vbishati, has dis- appeared in all compounds except chaubis, 24, and chahbis, 26 ; so also p has vanished in unchds, 49, for tlie older {inapanchds. On the other hand, the labial element o( dvl is preferred to the dental in bLs, 20, and the Mhole series, bdJs, 22, battis, 32, etc., to bunave, 92; as also in bdrah, 12, for Sk. dvddushan. 247. The numbers of the series, un'is, 19, untls, 29, untulis, 39, etc., have arisen from the combination of the Sk. I'mu, 'lessened,' with the next higher number. Thus even in Sanskrit, we have for navatrins/iat, the alternative form, ekonachutviirlnshat, = H.H., uiitalls, lit., 'forty less one ;' and already in Sanskrit tliis ekit was dropped, as in Sk. I'lnav'mshati, for navadashcm, H. unii'is or un'ts. Navd.sl, 89, and ninunave, 99, are exceptions ' to tills rule for the series, and follow the same law as the preceding numbers of each series. 248. The I which appears in the compounds with c/iiU/s, 40, is explicated by a reference to the Prakrit form of this numeral, c/iaft'Ui.sd, wherein the / has l)een substituted for the r of the Sk. c/iatmrlns/iat. It is therefore inaccurate to say that I is substituted in these cases for the c/i of chidis, wliich letter in all this series has disappeared entirely ; the hiatus, caused by its elision being marked by the inserted y in buyd/ls, for dvichutvdrijtshut. In the fifties, the jO of the S]i.. panchdshat has been softened to w in ilcuwnn, 51, bdivan, 52, chauwan, 54, satdwun, 57, and uthdwan, 58, though retained in the remainder. Beames is inclined to regard the r of tirpun, 53, as also of tirsdth, 63, tirds'i, 83, and tirdnuive, 93, as merely euphonic. But I prefer to see in it a survival of the r of the original Sanskrit forms, tripanchdshat, etc., just as in chaurdsi, 84, is retained the r of the Sk. ehaturashiti. 249. Sau or s(d, 100, has arisen from the Sk. shatum ; the former through the Pr. siiu, the latter through the Pr. sai/an, in which y has been inserted to fill the hiatus after elision of t. The I of E.H. S(d(i represents the d of the Mg. Pr. sadan, for Sk. shatam. 250. The termination on, dial., I'ln, ain, etc., added to tlie numerals to Derivation of , . ~ ~ ~ , Aggregatives. form aggregatives, as in donon, ' the two,' bison, ' the twenty,' lakhon, ' hundreds of thousands,' represents the termination yam, added in 166 NUMERALS. [§ 251. Sanskrit to form agp^regatives ; so that hkon, e.g'., presupposes a Sanskrit form, v'msliatayam. It is thus quite ina(;curate to say, with some, tliat in these cases the reg-iilar termination on of the H.H. obi. plural, has been assumed into the nominative. Tlie coincidence of this form with that of the obi. plural, is purely accidental. Derivation of 251. The irregular fractional numbers are probably derived as follows : Fraetiouals. ti ' . i > -^i •.. • i 4. r ..i oi ' ; n Fuo, ' J, with its equivalents, comes irom the Sk. pada, Fr., pou, pao. Paun, f, and paune, —J, are derived from the Sk. pddonu, pcida -\- I'ma, Pr. puona, ' a quarter less.' Adlid, ' 5,' is from arddhaka, secondary form of Sk. arddha; savii, * j' or, as a prefix, ' + j,' Pr. savdu is from the Sk. sapuda (sa -\- pcida) 'with a quarter.' Sdr/ie, ' + i,' (obi. of sdrlid, not used, (is regularly formed from the Pr. sdddhao, Sk. sdrdluika, sn -\- ardhaka, 'with a half.' The more difficult problem of the origin of the series, 2i, 3i, 41, is explicated by the aid of the intermediate Prakrit forms furnished by Dr. Hoernle in his Grammnr,* by wlii( h he makes it clear that they have arisen from the combination of the Sk. urdha with the ordinal next higher. Thus the immediate antecedent of derh, ' H,' and its variants, is the Pr. divadd/ie, derived, through transposition, from Pr. addliadime, easily connected with tlie Sk. arddim + dvitii/a, lit., ' half- second.' Arhd't, * 2^,' has in the Pr. the antecedent form, addhd'tjjd, (for addhuid), a form which has arisen through contraction from Pr. (idd/ia -\- t(i>Jjd= Sk. arddha -\- tritiyd. Simih»rly, hi'mtd, etc. '3^' has for its antecedents, Pr. uddhutthu, presupposing forms, nddJiottha = uddha -\- uuttha=i addlia + chiiuttha, for Sk. ardha + chaturtha. Again, '45,' dlionchd, etc. is traced back to a similar Sk. combination, through the Pr. addhaimcliuu, for addhavanchiiu, in which v is for Sk. /;, as in several of the fifties, etc., pointing thus to a Sk. original, = rt?Y/f/Afl!- panchumn. It is impossible, however, to carry this system of derivation further in this series, as evidently in jit'mc/id, ' 5^,' klionclid, ' 65,' and satonchu, ' Vi,' the first element is tlie numeral preceding. This is plain at sight in ponchd, satonchd ; and in khonchd, evidently the kli, as often, is for the Sk. sh of xJiasJi. With the derivation of dlwnchd so clearly made out by Hoernle, I now reject my former suggestion of a combination with ucJiclia, and see no reason to doubt Hoernle's theory that these are simply 'anomalous forms,' ignorantly made up by the common jieople, after the analogy of the foregoing dhoncha. The forms of the Collectives and Multiplicatives with a k termination, are directly descended from the * Grammar of the Gaudian Languages: pp. 269, 270. § 252.] NUMERALS. 167 Sanskrit, which forms Collectives by adding the suffix ka, or sometimes, kard, which latter is illustrated by the Hindi saikrd and its equivalents. The forms in a (except dttnd, Sk. dvigunaka) are formed by the addition of the suffix a used to form abstract nouns. 252. Most of the ordinals are derived from the corresponding Sanskrit Derivation of ordinals through intermediate Prakrit forms. Thus, e.g., daswdn, jmchdswdn, have respectively arisen from the Sk. dushuma and paiicha- shattamu. Pah'ild, ' first,' is connected with the Sk. prathamu through the Mg. Pr. padhamille, dh having (exceptionally) become li, after the analogy of other aspirates ; the I is simply a pleonastic suffix. The derivation of the peculiar forms dusra and t'lsrd is not so clear. Hoernle explains the srd of tlie termination as having arisen from the Sk. sritit, 'moved;' assuming, e.g., a Sk. form, dvissrita, antecedent to the Pr. dusaliye. a. The ordinals used to denote the days of the lunar fortnight are derived directly from the feminine of the Sanskrit ordinals ; the fem. noun, tithi, * a lunar day,' being understood. Thus, e.g., pai'iwd, 'the first (day),' is for pruthamd, through resolution of the original conjunct, elision of tJi, and softening of m to v). Dt'tj and t{j, 'the second' and ' the third,' come respectively from dvit'iyd and tritlyd, t in both cases becoming elided, and y being hardened ioj. 168 [§§ 253, 254. CHAPTEE VIII. PRONOUNS (^^51t?t) and PRONOMINALS. 253. The pronouns in Hindi, as in all other languages, exhibit many irregularities in their forms of declension. Old inflectional case-endings which have quite vanished from the noun, except in certain dialects, here appear in the regular system of declension; although, indeed, the analytical forms, even in pronominal declension, largely prevail over the inflectional. The Hindi pronoun, except in some of the Eajputana dialects, has quite lost the distinction of gender, which was still retained in the Prakrit. There is no distinctive pronoun for the third person ; the demonstratives (f^^^^^T^^ ^^^T^), ^f yah-, 'this,' '^f wali^ 'that,' and, after a relative pronoun (^^^^T^5R ^■sttt), expressed or implied, the correlative j)ronoun, ^ so, supply its place. Rem. The Hindi technical terms for person are : for the 1st person, ^tIT ^^^ ; tlie 2nd person, Tf'^TT ^^^ ; the 3rd person, "^^ ^^^ • Pronominal 26^. lu the prououus of the Ist and 2nd j^ersons, Ir Genitives. main and g^T tnm^ TJ rd appears as the sign of the genitive, instead of ^T M, and is appended to a stem different from that which we find in any other case. The Eeflexive pronoun, ^m o/?, is peculiar in retaining a purely inflec- tional gen., ^ti*fT cqmd.1 for the Sk. "^t^^: . In none of 255.] PRONOUNS. 169 the pronouns, except in the case of the ag. sing, of the 1st and 2nd persons, is the base in the oblique cases identical in form with the nom. sing. 255. It will aid the memory to observe the close analogy Pronominal in the declension of the different pronouns. In both Demon- ^°^^^ ^• stratives, the Relative, Correlative, and Interrogative pronouns, ^ appears as the inflective sign of the oblique singular throughout; and •! n, or, in the longer forms, >f nh, as the sign of the oblique plural. A similar analogy will be found to run through each of the dialectic systems of declension. Observe, further, that throughout all the varieties of declension, an initial 7j«/«^a/, viz., ^, (rarely ^,) its long vowel, t;;, or its gun diphthong, ij, or the cognate semi- vowel, ^, marks the Proximate Demonstrative; an initial labial, viz., ^, its long vowel, ^, its gun diphthong, ^, or its cognate semi-vowel, ^, marks the Remote Demonstrative; ^ initial marks the Relative ; ^ or cf initial, the Correlative ; and ^, tlie Inter- rogative pronoun. Thus the declension of any one of these five pronouns may be transformed into that of any other, by simply substituting the proper pronominal initial. Thus, to tabulate the above, we have, in High Hindi, the following pronominal bases : — Prox.Dem. Rem. Dem. Rel. Correl. Interr. Nom. ^ W ^ ^ ^ Obi. T ^ f^ f«T u a. The idea of indefiniteness is expressed by adding to the interrogative inflected base, in High Hindi, |^ i, in other dialects, ^, '^, or ^, or with the aspirate, f%, ^, or ^. h. After the same analogy are formed from these pronominal bases six classes of adverbs, which will be noticed in Chap. XI. 170 PRONOUNS. [§!5 256, 257. 256. The First Personal pronoun is declined as follows : T{ mai?j, ' 1. Singular. Plural. N. 'jj main, ' I.' ^?T ham, ' we.' Ac. C^?! mnjhe, . W^ hamen, \^^ -^ 'me,' 'tome.' ^^ D. (TIJ W[ mujh ko, ^?T ) ^ ham or ' us,' ' to us.' ^^j hamon ko, Ag. Tr«f main ne, ' by me.' HiT 7 "^ ham or -V. ,> »r , * by us.' ^?TT3 namon ne, Ab. ITU "^ ?«?ar. ■^•^ unhen. ^5T ^> unhon ko. ^ ?«j or unhon ne. ^ 2inhon se. ^T§ Wt" jo, f^% J'-^P, or fsi^ % jis ne. f^^ % jis se. f^^ ^T § jis kd. fm^ rW par. u7ihon kd. ^ "T I M un or unhon ''^^^] '^\ men, par. ^ jo- t^'¥ jinhen. _^jm or jinhon ko. -V j«« or jinhon ne. jin or jinhon se. ^T§ ;«?« or jinhon kd. fi jin or jinhon XfX. tit en, par. * Except in tlie nom., tlie Remote Demonstrative is very commonly preferred to belongs to Braj. + ^^ is often colloquially nsed for f^^, and qR^^ for ^ according to § 161, || ^ is sometimes used, thongh less elegantly, for P 264.] PRONOUNS, 175 Pronominal Declension. CORREr.ATIVE. Interrogative, Indefinite. ^ SO, ' that.' * cJJX^ /ir«M7z, 'who.' ^^^-02, 'anyone.' ^ so. ^ so, fd^ tise or fcl^ ^ tis ko. fr\H ^ tis ne. fTJ^ % tis se. y rw par. f^fi /.-/s^-, or fch^ ^ : kis ko. n*4H "T kis ne. fsfiiT % kis se. f^H "m^ kis kd. ^ { "^ kis men, (q-^ par. ^1: koi. f'*^'^ % kisi ne. f<*^'^ % kisi se. f^H^^§ A-w/Aa'. ¥t so. f^I%' tinhen, f^>^J tinhoTi ko. t7I»T ) ^ tin or trT'^J tinhon 7ie. f7f»T ] ^ tin or t^'ftj tinhon se. rd«1 \ i^tin or Id •! 1 if ^i« or tinhon ^^•1 kaun. fen«^ kinhen, "N'T 1 -L. ^"« or r=h''CfJ kinhon ko. f%»f ] ^ kin or f^^^ J kinhon ne. fifc«i ] ^ Ariw or fsft'^'J kinhon se. fsR^ftJ ^ kinho7i kd. f^Ji«T 1 't ^iw or kinhon Plural Wanting, the Correlative. f ^ is also found in Higli Hindi books, but properly t^^> but the forms are inaccurate. § ^ff is of course inflected to % or the nom. sing, ; see Randhir aur Prem Mohini, passim. 176 PRONOUNS. [§§ 265-269. 265. Observe, that the Relative pronoun, ^, does not precisely correspond to the English Relative, 'who,' 'wliich.' It is rather 'the one who' or 'which,' 'that which.' Thus, Wt ^^^ ^^T, ' tlie man who came ; ' ?t ^ ^ ^IT ^ f^^, ' what I said, that I have done.' 266. The plural of the Indefinite pronoun, cfi^t^, is often expressed by repeating the pronoun; thus, ^t; cR^I; "^T^T? ' some (persons) came ; ' ^ % ^W\ f^^ oR^ ^'^j ' I saw some, {or several) persons.' This often has an intensive force, i.e., ^ some few.' For the plural of ^t^, fsfiTT^ may be the substi- tute ; as, f^fj^ cj}^"^ ^, ' some (a number) were saying.' Rem. f^IifT'T 'S in fact an interrogative pronominal, meaning' ' how many,' and its use as a plural indefinite pronoun rests upon this fact. Compare the English idioms, ' how many go ? ' and ' how many go ! ' 267. '^t^, as also, still more rarely, ^t^, is occasionally uninflected in the oblique singular, as in the following from the Prem Saga)'; o^if "^f?I % IfTiij ^xj^, 'in what manner Krishna was born.' The Emphatic 268. The emphatic particle f; f or f\ /^f is sometimes added to all the above pronouns. In the oblique plural, ^ in is substituted for the final ^t on. Examples are, ^^ i/ahi, 'this very;' ^ ^ 7nain hi, 'I myself;' ^^ ^ ifsi ko, 'to that very person;' ^fV % ^WT unhin ne kahd, ' those same persons said.' But, rarely, ^ also follows the plur. inflection ; as, e.g., ^fir f^ % imhou hise, 'from those very persons,' or ' that very person.' Substantive 269. "When any of the pronouns are used substan- Use. ^^^ ^^^ lively, they take the proj)er postpositions as given in the tables. Wlien they are used adjectively, i.e., with a noun, if in any oblique case, the inflected form of the pronoun, sing, or plur., is placed before the noun, and the post- position is added to the noun only. §§ 270-272.] PRONOUNS. 177 Tims we say, ^^ xj"^ iis par, 'on that,' or 'on him;' but ■^3^ ^^ XTX; us ghore par, ' on that horse ; ' fm^ % ^X; cfi^ I^T A' is he ghar ko gay a, ' to whose house did he ^o ;' but, f^H ^"^ cfit kis ghar ko, 'to what house;' ^^ % ^IJ % wf^^T us ke desk ke log, ' the people of his country ; ' but, ^^ ^Ij ^ ^^ us desk ke log, 'the people of that country;' t^«I cfi\ Jin kd, 'of whom ;' but, fgr*f ^fi^flf W[jifi baniyon kd, 'the shop-keepers whose;' ft[^ cfif%^ ^ tin kaviyon ko, ' to those poets,' etc. etc. 270. Observe, that the longer plural forms, in '^, can only be used in a substantive sense ; the shorter forms may be used either adjectively or substantively. Thus, 'of those horses,' is ^^ ^^ ^, — never ^^ft ^^ ^t; but, on the other hand, we may say either ^^ % ^fT, or ^'fY ^ ^^T, ' he ' or ' they said.' a. But the longer forms are much to be preferred when an honorific sense is intended. Colloquially, about Mathura the f of these forms is often dropped. 271. The plural forms of these pronouns are used for Respectful . ^ ... Forms. the singular, whenever it is intended to express respect. The longer forms are considered more respectful than the shorter. Since, thus, ambiguity might sometimes arise, the word ^^r is preferably added to the pronoun, to denote plurality. In the oblique cases, this word, with the plural inflection, is inserted between the shorter form of the inflected base and the postposition. Thus, ' they ' is •^^ ^Ji ; ' in their village,' ^^ ^^ % ^t^ ^ ; ' those who came,' ^ ^^ ^Tj ; etc. 272. It will be observed that all the pronouns hitherto considered, except the Indefinite, present two forms of the ace. and dat. in both the sing, and plur. ; the one, purely inflectional, in ij (sing.) or "q^ (phu\) ; the other, analytic, con- sisting of the base of the oblique cases with cfit- These may 12 178 PRONOUNS. [§§ 273, 274. both be used as either dative or accusative; but the forms with cRt are preferred for the accusative, and the others, for the dative. Sometimes the employment of one or the other is determined merely by a regard to euphony, as, e.g., % % ^^ TT^ efit t^^Tj 'I gave it to the gardener;' where the immediate repetition of ^ would have been unj)leasant to the ear. 273. All the above pronouns, when used adjectively with a noun in the accusative without ^, take the nom. fomi. Thus, we may say, ^ ^nc *i ^'icTT ^j 'the house which I see ;' ^^ ^TT ^^efiT, ' saying this thing.' So also, when used substantively, the nom. form of the accusative may be em- ployed, but only when the reference is to things : as, %* ^^ ^im #, 'I say this;' ^ ^ ^*{^ f ^t; cfif^ 1, 'we say those very (things) which we hear.' But with ^sf and qfi^|^ this usage is not considered elegant. Neuter iiidef. 274. Besidcs the Interrogative, c^»i kaim, ' who,' and Prououn" ° the Indefinite pronoun, cRtt; koi, ' any one,' ' some one,' etc., it will be observed that another interrogative pro- noun, ^(STT k?/d, 'what,' and another indefinite pronoun, W^ kuchk, ' some,' ' any,' ' something,' ' anything,' is employed. The following principles regulate the usage of the two Interrogative pronouns (iT'^^T^^ ^^'TT'?). Usage of the (1) ^^ Jcaun may be applied both to persons and to noun. ° things ; wr %^, to things only, except in expressions denoting surprise, as, e.g., ^t ^T^ %« muraJch, ' what a fool ! ' More commonly, in such a case, the emphatic particle, ^ hi, is added to the j)ronoun, as, WT ll" ^^T TTWT kyd hi hard rdjd, ' what a great king ! ' (2) c^^ kaun is used both substantively and ad- i § 275.] PRONOUNS. 179 jectively, in both the nom. and obi. cases, but when used substantively, it refers to persons only. Examples are : o^^% kaiin hai, ' who is it ? ;' H^ % fifi^ efit ^^T^T t^i't^ ^'^ fi^is ko Imldi/d, '^ whom did you call ?;' f3fm ^1 % kis kd hai, 'whose is it?;' f^^ ^^^ ^ kis Icirke kd, 'what boy's?;' fT^ % f^^ ^^5|*f % xi^T t^'^^n ne kis mahdjan se jmchhd, 'of what banker did you inquire?;' fqi^ ^"^ fl" kis ghar men, 'in what house?.' a. For the plural c|^«i cfi^»| is often used ; as, ^t«T ^"T "^^j kau7i kaun de, ' who came ? ' (3) ^T Ji:ijd can be used ad jectively in the nom. only : in the oblique cases it is always used substantively. a. The dat., ^ff cfit kdhe ko, 'for what/ is commonly used as the equivalent for the English ' why.' The gen., ^"^ ^ kdhe kd, ' of what,' usually denotes the material. Examples are : tt^ ^Tf efit "^TTJ turn kdhe ko de, 'why have you come ?;' ^I ^T % yuli 1qi(^ hai, ' what is this ?;' ^f ^ff ^ ^TT %yah kdhe kd ha)id hai, 'of what is this made?.' 275. The two Indefinite pronouns (^f^^ij^^^ ^^'fT'?), ^sao:e of the 7 1 111 11 I'l • 1 I"det'.Prououn cfiTv koi and ^15 kuchh^ are both used either substantively or adjectively, and of both persons and things. But when used substantively, ^t; koi^ like wtT, refers to persons only, and ^15 kuchh^ to things only. When used adjectively, each may be used to denote both persons and things. a. The distinction between these two pronouns, when used adjectively, appears to be this ; that eu^ kuchh always conveys, more or less distinctly, a partitive sense. Examples of their use are : optt;^ koi hai, 'is there any one?,' or 'there is some one ; ' but, cR^ ^ kuchh hai, ' there is some ;' Tf ^ f%^ ^ ^^T main ne kisi ko dekhd, 'I saw some one;' cR^ ^:g^ ^T"^ AmcAA larke de, ' some boys came.' 180 PRONOUNS. [§§ 276, 277. 276, •^T hjd is declined in the singular only : ^15 Jcuchh is indeclinable. a. Tlie obi. form kisu, which many grammarians have assigned to kuchh, is properly a • Ab. ^^,^ % dp se. . "^m ] dp ho, G., •^T\-^J{-^,-i[\,)apnd{-7ie,-n'i.) ^^- ^ cm , ^ -K- . J) ^^"TJ apne ko or '^T'? | 'T f^P ^^ apne ^ ... L. ^^•f <1^ apne tain. '^^'^] ^'^ men, par. Ag. '%'\^ % dp ne. a. The plural forms are the same as the singular, with the exception of the gen., "^T^^ ^T dpas Jcd^ and the loc, "^T^^ *i dpas men, ' among themselves.' Examples of their use are : "^T^^ ^ «lTf!^, 'this jogi has come into the jungle;' ^t; vrT^ TTW^5 'that same lord, O queen!' Besides the forms given in the tables, the 'Plays' often use the Braj ^t (H.H. ^g^) in the obi. sing.: as, e.g., ^T ^ ^T^j * (be) has found that ;' where -T is for % (H.H. efit). The base ^ttj" also occurs in the (honorific) plur. in the following, the postposition ^ of the agent being regularly omitted : "^iTT "N^ ^TIT, ' he has n)ade (me) immortal.' % occurs in the same case, as in % ^^ W[^ ^WT'Sft 37T %, 'he declared to me the knowledge of Brahma.' Finally, ^ also is used as a base in the obi. sing., as in iff^^T ^T^ ^llt;, ' Fhjgald his wife.' a. In both colloquial Mewdri and Marwari, ^ (masc.) and ^T or "^ (fem.) are uniformly employed for 'iff, 'this,' and ^ (masc.) and ^^^[ (fem.) for 'that.' The distinction of gender is preserved in the nom. sing. only. Of the former pronoun, the regular obi. sing, is ^ in both these colloquial dialects. In the colloquial of Marwdr and Mewar the Relative is very commonly used for the Correlative pronoun.* * The student will note the difference lieie indicated between colloquial Marwari and that of the ' Plays.' Mar. Eelative & Correlative. 184 PRONOUNS. [§§ 286-289. h. In the gen. sing, of the 1st and 2nd pers. pronouns, besides the forms given in the Tables, the Mairs use ^^35^ and ^ft35t.* 286. Besides w\, Wt and ^ are also used for the Relative. The most common sing, inflection is s^rr ; as, ^^'^ "^T^^ ^"'Ct WT ^ ^%, 'ill whom dwells that lord of thine.' This inflected form alone expresses the case of the agent, but ^ is occasionally borrowed from tlie Braj in this and other cases ; as, 5irr % ^^■^ ^^ xit; f TcT, ' he who placed (his) hand upon (my) head.' 287. Besides the forms of the Interrogative given in the tables, fsfiTir and ^«r are found in the obi. sing. : tluis, in the case of the ag., f^TJ!' TlT^ *TT1T^, 'what sinner has led (him) astray ? ; ' cfi^-i x;tii wm cmi^T ^«vt , ' who, leaving his kingdom, has practised austerities?.' So also the regular form, o^«T, occurs in the case of the agent : as, ^^»T ^^T^ 'f ^T»T f^yu, 'what teacher hath given (thee) knowledge?.' ^TfT, for ^j? 'what?,' occurs in the 'Plays,' but this is Braj. The regular M^r. form, ^tt, occurs in the following: Tf TT! ^t^ WKT^ ^ ^TTT, ' what business of mine in the sarde ?.' ^j is used in the following, merely as a sign of a question, like the corresponding ^T ill H.H. ; f^»lT ^^"T ^t ^^'^\, ' is there rain without wind ? ' Mewari 288, Mewari, it will be observed, is distinguished from all other Hindi dialects in retaining separate forms for the masc. and fem., in all except the two Personal pronouns. It should be further observed, that the Mewdri pronominal genitives in 35^ are less common than those in ^. The longer plural forms of the Personal pronouns, in ^t and ^Tj, are preferred to the shorter for the true plural. 289. In the colloquial of both Marwar and INIewar, the reflexive genitive, "^n^fTj is rarely used. The genitive of the * For the proiiiinciatioii of the first diphtliong- '^n', in these forms?, see § 33. §§ 290-292.] PRONOUNS. 185 several pronouns commonly takes its place, even when referring^ to the subject of the sentence. Thus the Mjirwaris would usually say, ^;^ a^frfr ^TH ^T^,= W ^^^ ^T^T ^^^T, 'I shall do my work;' ^ ^ % wi^ ^fhft, = ^I ^t}^ 1"N 1^, 'he went to his village;' t ^t ^T '^^t ^sn, = % ^^% ^T^T ■qx; ^f , ' they mounted their horses,' etc. 290. In the Himalayas, so far as my observation has gone, people are Himalayan ■ , Pronouns. not j)articular about using the Honorific pronoun, and frequently address their superiors with riJ^, when no disrespect is intended, in a way that sounds very strange to one used to the speech of the Ganges Valley on the plains. Indeed, '^J^ is very rarely heard from the Himalayan mountaineers, except from individuals who may have mingled much with the people of the plains. So also they freely use the 2nd pers. sing., cT. c where in the Ganges Valley we should only hear the plur. rT^. ft. But in Naipali, occurs a Honorific pronoun, rimf^) "Inch is used exactly as ^T^ •» High Hindi, and takes the regular postpositions without inflection throughout; as, rT^Tf^I ^T T|^^ W *1«^Tj H.H., ^ "^m eft ^^T ft. 'if it l^e the will of your Excellency.' The Reflexive pronoun, in Naipali, is '^T^ or '^T^- It is nninflected in the obi. sing. ; in the i)lural, for H.H. loc. i)lur., ^T^^ T. 's nsed the form, ^jq^ m. For the High Hindi, ^^T^ % ^T^, <»r ^X[^ ^T^, 'of one's self,' ' of one's own accord,' Naipali has '^T''^ ^T^. 291. In the archaic Hindi of Chand, according to Mr. Beames, jft and fft? lil^6 other obi. pronominal stems, are used for all cases more frequently without than with the postpositions. Among his examples are: fsR?? "^^TT 'ft ltf;> 'how shall there be salvation for me?;' •IT'SI ^ "STT^ =^^, 'lord, my name is Chand;' ^f^H sfTfT eft cncT 'hearing this word, thy father.'* 292. In the archaic Baiswari of the Rdmoyan all the Pronouns in the Eam&,yau. postpositions, excepting that of the agent, which has no existence in the eastern dialects, are often employed with the pronouns as in High Hindi. But they are much more * Vide Journal As. Soc. of Bengal, Part I. No. II. 1873. 186 PRONOUNS. [§§ 293, 294. frequently omitted, and the inflected base of the pronoun, sing, or plur., may then represent any oblique case whatever. This is indicated in the tables by placing the postpositions in a parenthesis. a. This remark as to the use of the oblique forms of the pronouns, applies not only to the old eastern Hindi, hut, more or less, to all archaic Hindi poetry, as, e.g'., to tlie writings of the R;ijput hard, CItand, Kublr and others. Abundant illustrations will be found in the Syntax. Personal 293- In the lidmdi/an % is used, instead of TTt or #tff , hi Eamayan. the casc of the agent ; as, ^ *i tr^T .rff ^1;, ' that which I may not have asked.' The same remark applies to cT or'rf.* 294, Observe, that while the longer oblique forms, ?ftff , ^'i'' ^^'^'i tTT ^ ^'K' '*"* t''i*^ usage is exceiitional and must be regarded as foreign to the idiom of Western Hindi. 192 PRONOUNS. [§§ 306, 307. V anations in 306. Numerous variations from the eastern forms given in the Tahles Pronoun 1? orms ... occur, as follows. In some districts in the east, the final consonant ^, of f{^ and TT^j is changed by t!ie rustics to ^, giving such forms as TT^ET =fi^» fTO ^, etc. In all plural forms, the ^ of the conjunct »^ in all plural bases, may be optionally dropped in Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili ; thus we may have '^['^ or ^wf ; fij}'^ or fcJJ'Tj etc. The same option obtains place in the termination of the plural ; so that we may have ^fl»^ or ^^"f, 'we;' f^'f '^ or ^'f •!, 'these,' etc. Also in Bhojpuri, to demonstrative forms in ^»^ and '^•^ (^"I and '^»l) initial, f is optionally prefixed, giving, e.g., ^'f eRT or '^f^, ' these ;' f;'f^ or f^''^^, 'their,' etc.; and also to the bases of the sing, of the same pronouns, giving, e.g., ^, for \J^, 'this;' ^, for "^^, 'that;' for ^^•^•l^, « theirs,' fT^^^^ ; I^T' f"r IJ^k:, ' of this,' etc. In this same dialect, again, as also in Maithili, the syllable cfij may be added to any form of the nom. plur. of the Demonstrative, Relative, Correlative, and Interrogative pronouns; giving thus either '^^t or T^jcfiXj 'these' (hon.) ; cfiqj'^ or ^^«T^^Tj ' vvho ?' etc. Increased Pro- 307. For the Proximate and Remote Demonstrative, the Relative, nom. Forms. . . , , Correlative, and Interrogative pronouns, the Bhojpun and the 3Iaithili, of the extreme east and south-east, also use, for things only, another series derived from the same pronominal bases, as follows: Bii. ^ (?f or T^^> 'this;' ^(^ or ^^^, 'that;' T^?Zf or f^^^, 'who.^' ; frl^ or f^T^, and ffT^^T or f^W"^, 'that;' f^;^ or f^^^, 'who?' These are all declined as substantives, making their j)lurals, ^(«j"^»f, ■^T^^«T, etc. \* a. To these, as to the other pronouns, ^ is sometimes prefixed to an initial ^ or '^; giving such forms as f^?^, ^'^W, etc. b. The 3Iaithili of Central and Western Purniya, exhibits a variation of the same series, thus : ^^, ^^ (f^f^ or ^^, ffT^ or cl^),* f^J^lT or ^J^TT' I'l S. Bliagalpur, this series is again slightly varied, thus: tt^, ^f^ {^f^, clf^),* -afiTn. c. In Bhojpuri a variant, JJ'^ITj for ^T^T of the above pronominal series, is used for ' this,' when one cannot call the name of that which is * These forms are not given in Grierson's Grammars, though he states that the series is carried out. I supply them therefore from tlie analogy of the other forms. §^ 308-310.] PRONOUNS. 193 referred to. In the Doab, the phrase c^ •TTTj 'what (is) the name?' is used under similar circumstances. 308. In Bhojpuri, M%adlii, and Maithili, the genitive singular of all Rh. Mg. and „ , -n , ,,.,^11 Mt. Prononi. the pronouns after the Personal pronouns, may be formed, not only hy Genitives. adding to the stem the regular genitive postposition, as in High Hindi ; but also by adding to the stem the affix ^"^^j which is inflected to ^ for the oblique form, a long vowel in tlie penult of the direct form being then always lengthened. Thus, we have in Maithili either jrf^ eR or 'Qcfi'^^T ^ ( = H.H. l[^3(rr) or jf^X, obi. F^rr; Bh. ^f ^ or Wf^X, obi. ^cfiX;T. etc. 309. In the Serampore translation of the N. T. into Baghelkhandi Baghelkhandi / * p 11 • . 1- " ' Pronouns. Hindi, the following pronominal forms occur. The nom. plur. of the 1st Personal pronoun is ^J?TT' ^"*^ *''® obi. plur., ^IT'^. Of the 2nd Personal pronoun, the nom. plur. is fcf^T"^, and the obi. plur., fTT^JT''^- ■^ and ^'^ are eacli found in both the nom. and obi. plur. of the Proximate Demonstrative ; "€1^ also occurs as nom. sing. The nom. plur. of the Remote Demonstrative, ^^, is ^, and the obi. plur., always ^T^T. The Relative and Correlative make the obi. plur., respectively, f^«f "T and 'f?f»T«T- The Interrogative is ^t •! 5 tl'^ nom. and obi. sing, are alike. AH the obi. forms al)ove given are used with the postpositions, which are. for the most part, the same as in Braj ; but ?ff is used for jf. The periphrastic pliir. is sometimes formed with ^f^, as in other eastern dialects ; thus, ^ ^^^^ 7f= H.H. f;«I g*t^ %. 310. For the indication of a true plural, the eastern dialects all prefer Pronom Plur. the periphrastic form to the inflectional ; and in pure Maithili, this is the only form employed, the original inflectional plurals being only used in an honorific sense. For this periphrastic plural the eastern dialects all prefer to the word ^tT> tbus used in western Hindi, the word 5fJ^ and its variant forms, ^Vf, ^^ff , ^^, ^^, and ^^. Besides ^^, Maithili also employs, in the north, ^^'^f^, and in the south and east, ^^, f^^, ■^TT^Tj "^"^> and ^'^ ; appending these preferably to the base of the oI)l, cases. According to Beames, in Bliojpuii, the longer plural forms, as ^'^aR"?^!* ^'^oRTT» etc., are preferred to the shorter, when emphasis is intended. For the plural of %^= H.H. cfiY^, 'some one,' fBRrlcR is commonly employed ; as, f^%^ ^"^^ ^'5TfT ^, * some houses are burning.' Biiptist Mission Press, Serampore, 1821. 13 194 PRONOUNS. [§§ 311-315. Direct and Obl. 311. Of the g-enitive forms, those in "^ are ohlique and the others tives. direct. Thus we have, e.g-., Bh. ^^ ^^T> 'my horse;' Mt. ^^^X! ^TTT^R' *<^f their house,' etc. But exceptions are found in the Magadhi gen. postposition, ^^T (fern. ^"'(Y). used ahout Patna, which is hoth niasc. direct and oblique, and in W. Bhojpuri and Avadlii, where tlie masc. obl. of the gen. in T[, "^j and the postposition %, ends in Xf > as •" High Hindu Emphatic Pro- 312. Analogous to the emphatic forms in ^Jq" in the Rdniuyan, we find J. tt' " in Bhojpuri, Mdgadhi, and Maithili, emphatic forms of the obl. sing, of the 1st and 2iid pers. pronoun in ^jY; "^» ^•g'-j ^Tt> *™6 also,' fTT^TT» ' tliee also.' Besides these, Bhojpuri also has tlie forms, ^"^, ^W^» 'even me,' and cf^T' flT^T' 'even thee.' Honorific Pro- 313. While the Honorific pronoun, '^T^. will he heard in the eastern nouns in E.H. „. ,, , , ,, , , . « . ,. , i ..i Hmdi country wherever 3juhammeaan influence is felt, as also among tlie ]\Mgadhi-speaking people in the districts of Patna and Gayd, yet through the largest part of this region the longer form ^H^ — in Riwd, '^tJwlT — is preferred. As a rule, this is declined regularly as a noun, unchanged throughout the singuhir. But in the dialect of Riw^, the nom. sing. '^^•!T is sometimes inflected to ^tl'if, in the obl. cases; and in Magadlii, when used reflexively, forms of the gen. sing., -4|Ll|«1, ^T^»I, are used. In the Maithili of S. Bhagalpur, occur the variants, for the nom. sing., ^ s s '^^^ and tSTT'T^; also, for the regular obl. sing., TSItl«T, '^^'IT. and ^tI«To. The plural isy formed by the addition of TETH> ^1> etc., to the base of the singular. But in Magadhi, '^THiTI and '^i^'p^ are also used throughout the plural. In Avadh, the usual form is ^tj. 314. In Bhojpuri, not only ^H«I, but also another word, "5Q^t> ^'th variants, Ty(\, \tTJ, and "^^"^T. is used as an Honorific pronoun. This is declined regularly as a noun, except that in the gen. sing, and in the voc. we have variant forms, '^T^'^, "^^"^j "^JX* ^''^ plur.il is regular ; nom. sing. vt^'T or "'^'?^«f,* etc., throughout. A variant of this same theme is heard in W. Magadhi, ''ifY^tj nom. plur. "?^^»^ . In W. Maithili also, "^TTT and "^^"^Tj plur-j "^X^T* are used. 315. Besides the above, Maithili also employs as an Honorific pronoun of the 2nd person, in the north, ■^^, in the west, also '^T^t; these are declined regularly as nouns in the sing. In the north, an instrumental inflected form, ^^', is used. The plural is formed periphrastically, after the manner of the dialect. Along the north bank of the Ganges, from * Also »^ final. §§ 316, 317.] PRONOUNS. 195 near Patna, to the Kosi River, yet another form, '^^^, is used, also declined regularly throug-hout. 316. In Bhojpuri, IMagadhi and Maithili, the Refleo'ive pronoun is Reflexive Pro- s . , noun iuE.n. ^q«f, witti variations as follows: — Bh., '^X|»!T> '^^l^* ^T'^ »"« '^m; Mt., in tlie north, '^X?«ff^ ; in the east, ^XJ^; in the south, '^IT't, and also t!IT^[^ ; in S. Bhagalpur, '^T^^. ^^T- These exhibit certain irregularities of declension, as follows. In Bhojpuri, %xm makes the obi. I sing. ^tj«rr ; but in the west, also ^J'^wT and T5Itl»T ; the gen. sing, is ^m«T, "^nr-T, or ^tI«T (obi. ^q^T)- The nom. plur. is ^XJ-T^ ; the gen. plur., in N. Muzaffarpur, ^T^^ ^- In Miigadhi, tiie Reflexive is declined regularly throughout, except in the gen. sing., ^H(«T, '^q*!". In Maithili, the Reflexive, under all the above forms, makes the obi. sing., , '^XJ»IT ; but in S. Bliagalpiir, also ^q«lo and '^qiTf^, or like the I nominative. The gen. sing, is variously '^q«T> '^"'If«T, and "^q*!. In S. Bhagalpur is also used a gen. plur., '^■fq^o ^'^o , and a loc. plur., ^TJH o ^ . 317. In the foUowinc; Tables the inflected form of the ^'^e Pro- ^ nominal 1 genitive is not always given, but may be readily known from Tables. i the rules for the inflection of the genitive postpositions in the several dialects. A bracket between the pronominal bases and the postpositions indicates that either of the postpositions may be added to any of the bracketed forms. Alternative postpositions, where not given, may be supplied for the different dialects from Table II. 196 PRONOUNS. [§§ 318-321. Eemarksonthe Pronominal Tables. Additional Bhojpuri Forms. 318. Observe, that whenever, in the pronominal tables, we have a final short vowel, in poetry this vowel may, metri gratia, be optionally lengthened, so that we may have, e.g., such forms as ^ft, %^, ^T^, for ^ff , %ff , ^TF- 319. Observe, further, that in many dialects Anusvdr is freely inserted or omitted in all the above pronouns, both in the terminations and, less frequently, in the pronominal base. Thus, e.g., we have ^^-r, BR^iff , ^ff, ^t, for ^^?T, ^^, ^ff , ^Tj etc., etc. It has not been thought necessary to give all such trifling variations in detail. 320. Occasionally, for the ace. postposition, ^, the postposition j[\, (also written Tfit^, clt^j rftl^j and rTTf^j) is used in construction with pronominal genitives. Thus we find fl^ TtI;, ^^ % cTTj for the ace, ^|J ^, ^3^ ifit- cTTT is also sometimes added, like crY, directly to the inflected base. Thus in the Marwdri play of Hird and Ranjd, we have'^ij ^^ .... fi^ fnli> ' (they) will give thee the secret.' 321. In Bhojpuri the following forms are given by Orierson in addition to those exhibited in the tables.* (1) Of the first Pers. j)ronoun : — noin. and obi. pliir., ^JT*T» ^TIT'I ; in the west, nom. sing., *f ; nom. and obi. sing., ?Tt '■> nom. and obi. plur., ^WT'T, l?Tf«T, f H% ; in N. Muzaffarpur, f ^^ff "T ; in SAran, ^^; elsewhere, nom. and obi. plur., ^fl«T. IT'f'P^j t ^Tf^^-t (2) Of the 2nd Pers. pronoun : — in the west, nom. sing., H, ^^ ; obi. sing., «4^, rft, cTfTT. (o'»l- form, rf^^); nom. and obi. plur., r?^if, gf%, "giT*^; in N. 3Iuzaffarpur, fTTl^^fl'»T ; elsewhere, ^f«I, (3) Of the two Demonstratives : — in obi. sing., Jjf%, '^Tf^j in Sdran, nom. sing., for f^, f ; for ^, ^^, ^^TJ, ^^f , ^f ; in nom. and obi. * The option indicated in § 306 applies throughout all plural forms, where not otherwise indicated. t Also in Magadhi. TABLE yill. DIALECTIC PEONOMINAL DECLENSION: 1st Personal Peonoun. '^, etc., 'L' < P U 'A High Hindi. Kanauji. JB /ay. Mdrwdri. Mewdrt. Garhwdli. Kumdoni. Naipdll. Old Baiswdri. Avadhi. Riwdi. BkojpM. Mdgadhi. MaithiU. N. Ac. 1 D. j Ag. Ab. (J. L. %, ft, ft • 551/w. ^5IJT?fT, q. tttttJ - "if. Wanting. Wanting. IT. ITTT; ITTTJ^TT. Wanting. tIttW. T>T. Tl\; ^\J.' IT. Wanting. itr:. 1T^- IT, f^, Iflo. ^^^\^^ itx:tJ%^. iTTir' TtT; Tt^, t1t°- ^*<<. fTT°. fTT- 1-3 N. Ac. 1 D. j Ag. Ab. G. L. f?T^,^»Tf5fJqf\-.q. ftfiT 1 TTZ. IT. IT ^. Wanting. Wanting. IT^'\; fT^ ]i. Wanting. Wanting, ITTT TT ^. Wanting. ^«U TT %'• ITTT TT ^• ITTT TT »»■ To face page 196.] These forms are also used, more rarely, with the postpositions. ^ Oblique form. ^ Fern. in*^. ^ Instesid of Tg^, any of the nouns of plurality given in § 183, may he used throughout with any of these themes. TABLE IX. DIALECTIC PEONOMINAL DECLENSION: 2nd Personal Pronoun. rf? etc., ' thou.' High Hindi Kanauji. Ac. D. Ag. AI). G. L. Ac. \ D. Ag. AI) g?J ^T g^. 3T 'I- ^1%- ^wrr- g'T. wt U! ^ft. «Tt ^T- ?TH. ^ray. 7T,^1f. 51-^. eft IT- Ti'T •if. •fm. ?i?i It. Mdrwdrl. ^. ^ ^• ^t. ^T^- ^tft- Mewdrl. Garhwdli. ^. ^ 35t- ^T. Kumdoni. fT. ^ rW. i^ ^T J'nl. fJ?T # >!T- Tm. ^t^t [^ ^^ p. ^■Rt Vast. ^. g^nft- g'T If. g.^j^T,^^.^'i^x.t.|;!-.j^^. hi\ Vl^- g'Tlst !^ U- ^ r'lT TIT^ NaipdU. *Io, cf. M;. "K .^%. frrm. ^TTT' tTTfTT 1 s ^. Old Buiswdri. H, H, ?I. ffr^f. cftT. fit ^nff- Avadhl. 7!^. ffr ^. Want in i eft T°. ^\^- cftTT U ?5ff, ^TefiTt^Tj obi. plur. only. In the W ., especially, the forms beginning with a vowel are often written and pronounced with an initial ^ ; thus, ^oR'J^J, ^T°RTTj ^^> »"♦! W^' for ^, etc. (4) Of the Relative, Correlative, and Interrogative : — in the W., obi. sing, (of things only), 5IT^, fTTf' ^W > also, ^T%, c^%, ^'%, else- where, ^ff , rjf^, cfif^, or %, "H, ^; noin. and obi. plur., f^f«ft,* ^^^; fspfcfi-^T, fcf'l^TT, f^l^TT; ol>l. pl"r., in the west, ^^51^, ^^^, ^^T^; ^^%, rlT^%, A'l^ ; i" N. Muzaffarpiir, ^^"^^f^^, (5) Of the neut. Interrogative: — in the W., nom. sing., f^jT^f , TWJJ'^T; in N. Muzaffarpiir, obi. sing., off^JJ; also very common, an inflected instr. sing., cfif^fTJ* i" sense of ' why.' (6) Of the neut. Indefinite :— in the W., f^^, f^^"3j; in N. Muzaffarpiir, fififl^'^; in Sdran, f%^, 322. In Magadhi we have additional forms as follows. Additional Magailhi (1) Of the 1st Pers. pronoun : — nom. and obi. plur., ^^^Tf»IiI, i^''^'^, ^*^'^'"^' (2) Of the 2nd Pers. pronoun : — nom. and obi. plur., fTT^t'l^. tirf T'^. fTT^T'f . or m^^T ^r^, etc (3) Of the two Demonstratives: — nom. and obi. plur., ^T^f^l, "^W^, V^"^; ^^fifiT, ^'t^^'^; obi. plur. only, l[^f^T, ^^^T. (4) Of the Relative, Correlative, and Interrogative : — nom. and obi. l.lur., f^f ,f%|r^; f^T^^, ffP^il; fw^, f^f ^ ; i" Gayd, for gen. sing., ^^n:, Ti'^TJ, %^i^ and ^^TJ. (5). Of the personal Indefinite pronoun: — obi. sing., ^%, Wtf^> ^^• 323. The following additional Maithili forms may be noted. Additional Maithili (1) Of the Personal pronouns: — nom, sing., "^if, '^ ^^5 obi. s ig., f{\f%, flTf^, (poetic). (2) Of the Demonstrative pronouns : — obi. sing., ^^^"^T. ^^^TT * Also in Magadlii. 198 PROxNouNs. [§ 324. (3) Of the Relative, Correlative, and Interrogative pronouns : — obi. sing., t%Pf^-n, fTl'f^TT, f^^^- (4) In the MaithilJ, the 1st Indef. pronoun, cff^, has an ohl. plur. base, f^wfoR^J; the 2nd Indefinite, ^1^, adds the postpositions either to the nom. form., or to an inflected base, efi'^J', '^f^T'^; the plural is wanting. The 1st Indefinite makes the gen. sing., ^oRTX> ^^TWT» «fi^TT. cJif^^; the gen. plur., in S. Maithili, f^wf^^X- In Central and S. Muzaft'arpur, ^fifoR and Tffsi^ are also used for cRT^. 324. To the forms above given may be added the following, some of which I am unable to assign to any particular time or place. (1) ,^,= If, 'I,' is evidently a shortened form of the Marwari ^.* An abbreviated form, ?t^, for the obi. sing., ^f^, is sometimes used by Chand. Chanel makes the obi. plur. of the 1st and 2nd Personal pronouns, ^wf^ and clTTt^. But ^Ti and tut with the postpositions, are also employed. (2) ^•T and "ti are sometimes substituted for ^ or tt, 'thou.' In western Hindi, I have met with a gen. sing, of this pronoun, %g-T, for "^jj; as, e.g., XT^t ^^^Tlft WtT fl^, 'let the wife of the Mogul take thy hand.' A Prakritic gen. sing., fT^si, (for Sk. l[^,) is now and then used in archaic Hindi. " (3) In the nom. sing, of the Proximate Demonstrative, "?r^, the following variant forms occur, viz.: — "'Efi'^, ^^, f^l^, ^^, 'k^-> k^, t^%5 "rI^- Of these, the last three appear, in some cases at least, to be merely emphatic forms. In the obi. * '^ is said by Prof. Eastwick, (Vocabulary to Prem Sdgar, sub. voc), to be used in the obi. sing, witli tiie postposition '3f^, in the following Arnih Chaupdi : ^^ ^ % XjffI "^^ ^^■^. B»t :^, in this place, is, in fact, the Braj emphatic particle, = ^ ; and ^ is a Braj form of the Conjunctive participle, '^X^ (from the verb cR'^'5n")> which is in High Hindi added directly to ^[5n"> making ^^^■^. We therefore render, — 'how (then) remained my honor?' Krishna to Rukmini, P.S. : Ch. LXI. § 324.] PRONOUNS. 199 plur., we find t;OT and t;»f . In Braj, «it is sometimes spoken and written for ^T- (4) In the declension of the Remote Demonstrative, ^^, ^^ occurs in the nom. sing., and, in the obi. sing., ^ is sometimes found for cfj, and "Sfj^ , for ^if^. For the obi, sing., ^^, rustic Muhammedans sometimes substitute ^^. It occurs also in the following from the Marwfiri Play of Gopi Chand; VTt ^^ % "^Tf , 'fix (your) thoughts on him.' In the obi. plur., ^%, ^% and '^^^ are found for the dat., ^"^ ; and ^%, in the case of the agent, for ^wf %. (5) Variant forms of the Correlative pronoun are, in the nom. sing., ^^^^, ^^^^^ and ^"^j for ^. The latter two are emphatic forms. In the obi. sing., fff and ffT^ occur, for f?Tf^ ; I have also met with a gen. sing., 71771^^5 = f^ ^T, which evidently belongs to the S.W. rjT alone is used as gen. sing, in the following from the Prem Sagar : ^f T •TTT fTT "^Tffj 'what is his name?', gn?^ occurs in Braj for ^TfW? and f^-rOf, for the obi. plur., fipft? of the Relative. t?t%, for ffpff 5 and ffTTj for the obi. plur., fTTT? of the Correlative, also occur in literary Hindi. (6) For the nom. sing, of the Interrogative, '^^, we find in the ' Chrestomathie ' of Prof. De Tassy, ^"T, c^^ and ^^*. An obi. sing, and plur., efiT^, for f^^, is found in western Hindi, cfitf;"^ and ^T^ occur, for the Indefinite, ^>t:, and ^^^, ^ff and cR^, for ^^. cfiff and ^^ belong to the west. For the Braj Interrogative, ^fj, = ^[5n, we sometimes have ^^^, and in the obi. sing., cfiT^, for ^Tf* (7) As the nom. sing, of the Reflexive pronoun, ^T^, I have met with W^- With this same pronoun, is evidently to be connected a M^r. nom. plur. form, tRT^T- Ih the only place, however, where I have met with it, ^^ would have been used in High Hindi. In the obi. forms of this pronoun, ■^ is often substituted for ^ after tj, as, e.g., in "^T^^? obi. plur., for •^^^. 200 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIA'ES. [§ 325. Pronominal Adjectives. 325. Besides the above pronouns, many pronominal adjectives occur. They may nearly all be used either as adjectives or as pronouns. Two series, the one expressive of quantity, the other of kind, are formed from the five pronominal elements noted in § 255. When used substantively, they all follow, in High Hindf, the first variety of masculine declension ; when used adjectively, they follow the laws for the inflection of Tadbhava adjectives in ^^srr, and are thus inflected to Tj, masc, and t;, fern. The following tables exhibit, first the High Hindi forms, and then the dialectic forms of each series : — Table XIII. : Pronominal ADJEcnvEs. Pron. Base. Adjectives of Quantity. Adjectives of Kind. ^ XJ^I itnd, \ ' this much.' ^^T aisd, 'sucli,' 'like this.' T^ ^^ vd-riT uttd,] ' that much.' •^^T waisii, ' such,' ' like that.' f^ f^"^"^ jitn(i,\ t^TTT jittd,] ' as mucli.' ^;^^[ jaisd, 'like «hich,''as.' fn fflfT'TT titnd, ^ ffl-dT tittd,) ' so mijcli.' ^^T taisd, • like that,' ' so.' f^^ f^'({'^^kitnd,\ f^TlT kittdj low much ?'. 'Sfi^ kaisu, ' like what ?', ' how ?'. TABLE XIV. DIALECTIC FOEMS OF THE PEONOMIIsUL ADJECTIVES. H. i?jMrfr. Kanauji. Braj. Mdrwdrl. Mewdrt. Garhwdli. Naipdli. 0. Bais. ' MadhL Riwdi. BhojpM. Mdgadhi. MaithiU. a o W k H W 1-5 M o H H O W •-5 ^Tll. f5f?T^. frlfT'fr. 5171^. 3rf7T- (^fTl%).^ T!WT. ^fir. WcJ«lT. ^flTT- rtlirdch. Fd-^ ^^^, ^>lc,.« ^^/ ^>T.^ ^^^• WI^,' ^-'f^,^ f^T,' ^^. ^^' ^f^,'* t'l^.^ frPlT/ ^^T. ^^' ^^^ , Iff 1 o/ ^f M ." ^vi ." ^ . ^f^.^ i'l^/ f^^,^ %^. ^^^" » A misvir op ionally nc ded. ^ I have only m et with these in this obi. form ; commonly with the postposition ^TT • Mn S.E. * In extreme E. * S. of Ganges. To face page 200.] 326-328.] PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 201 326. Besides the dialectic forms given in Table XIV., the Dialectic Pro- nominals. following modifications of some of these pronominals also occur, \\z. :— for ^cI^T; t^H^T, ^ff ^j sabhon ko, ' to all,' it represents ' all ' as a plurality, ' every,' ' every one.' Rem. These forms in "^sti are not now regarded as quite elegant, and ^^ is preferably uninflected throiiglioiit. As it contains in itself the idea of plurality, the plural termination is regarded as superfluous. 331. The words ^efi^ sakal (Sk. ^ + ^^), ^i?^ samasf, and ^^TTT also signify ' all,' ' the whole.' They are rarely, if ever, used as nouns. 332- The Persian adjective fT! kar, ' every,' though not very common in classic Hindi, is found even in the F7'em Sdgar, and is freely used in the colloquial. It may therefore be fairly regarded as belonging to the language. It is never used substantively. Compounded with "^ ek, it means ' every one ' or ' every single,' and is used either as a substantive or adjective, thus: f^c "^^ "^^T Jiar ek dyd, ' every one came ; ' fC T[^ ^T har ek ghar, ' every single house.' §§ 333-335.] PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 203 333. "^^T «w^) when used substantively, and followed by no other pronominal in the next clause, always signifies ' more ; ' as, t[^ "^t: ^ mujhe aur do^ ' give me more.' But when used adjectively, it may mean either 'more' or 'another,' as the context may determine. Thus, ^^ "^^T ^-TT^ ^ mujhe aur andj do, ' give me more grain ; ' but, ^^ ^^x; ^Tcl f yah aur bat hai, ' this is another matter.' a. "When ^^t: is repeated in two successive clauses, the first is to be rendered ' one,' and the second, ' another.' Thus, ^f ^TcT 'sji^T % ^f ^'I'T f ,y«5/« bat aur hai, wah aur hai, ' this is one thing, that is another.' 334. Besides ^:^fT, 'much,' ue meet the intensive forms, ^¥BtT bahuterd, and ^^cf W[ hahut sd, ' very much/ ' very many.' «. Colloquially, ^TT is also added to ^^cT, ' many,' with an intensive force ; thus, ^^ff^"5CT is equivalent to the colloquial English idiom, ' a great deal.' This use of ^nTT is only colloquial. In Panjabi it is employed much more extensively. 335- efit^ ^"«2 or % kai as an adjective means ' several ; ' when used as a pronoun, it must be rendered ' how many?'. It cannot take the postpositions. Thus, cjjt;; "9"^ '^TTJ kai piirush de, ' several men came ; ' % ^TTI kai de, 'how many came ?'. Where in English 'several' has a pronominal force, it must be rendered in Hindi by «lil^ T^oR kai ek or f^cr% "^ofi kitne ek ; as, ^t; Tm f' kai ek ham, ' there are several.' But, ^t; f kai hain, would be interrogative, — ' how many are there ? '. ^^ "^eB kai ek, and f^ri^ "5^ kitne ek, however, may also be used adjectively in the same sense ; as, \Wf(^ IJ.^ ^^1 kitne ek per hain, ' there are several trees.' 204 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [§§ 336-338. a. The pronominal adjective "Nri^ hitne is also used in the sense of ' some,' ' several,' both substantively and adjectively. Thus, ^ft fcfirT% ^TZ ^ "^iTTir wahdn kitne hlidt hill de, ' several bards also came there ; ' f^cr'it ^ ^cT % hitnon kd mat hai^ 'it is the opinion of some.' 336- t^^ ^y? ' own,' may be used as a pronoun, the person and thing referred to being determined by the context ; as, t%5! tj-?: "^"RT nij par and, ^ to come to one's own (house);' fsf^ ^% HTt^ Tftff 1T^ nij huddlii hharosa molii ndhi, ' I have no confidence in my own wisdom.' Or it may be added to possessive genitives of both nouns and pronouns, in the sense of the English ' own ; ' as, ^^ "'CT^T W[ f^^ ^^ % wall rdjd kd nij putra hai, ' he is the king's own son ; ' ^f ^-^ fn^ ^^^ % y<^h meri nij pustak liai, ' this is my own book ; ' ^f ^x?^ fer ^T T'sn wah apne nij ghar gaijd., ' he w^ent to his own house.' Also we have such idioms with the genitive of t^^ as, f?!^ ^ TTT^r nij kd mdl, '■ private property ; ' f^aj ^ •ft"^"?^ nij kd naukar, ' a personal servant,' etc. 337- ""^TT^ pardyd, ' another's,' is properly a pos- sessive adjective. It may be used either with or without a noun ; thus, '^f xj-^T^ «RT % yah pardye kd liai, ' this is another's ; ' xtttI^ ^ pardi stri, ' another's wife.' 338. The following dialectic variations of the above pronominals occur, viz. : — for Tjefi, ^^ and "?IoR ; for ^^"^T? Br. ^fr, K. ^^, N. -gRii; O.B. ^x, ^, ^WT ; for ^^t, Br. ^t^^, M. ^T^, N. ^t, O.B. ■^^, ^^, ^^ ; for ^TTT, Br. ^tT^, K. ^ft; for ^^, Br. ^t, ^^t? O.B. ^^f^; for^^, N. ^€f, O.B. •^^X^, for ^^cT, Br. ^f^-cf, O.B. -^fB^, "^^fT, Garh., f^^, N. ^^, emph. ^, M. ^tt, ^"t^, ^^T, ^ftcT, and ?fr^^t. For ^t;, :Mar. has %t;. 339-341.] PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 205 >r ^^}^, Br. gives f^^, M., iTTfr. ^niaot, O.B., ^7i=^ om. plur.). For f^rf*^ Jim, the Marvvari has fififftcfi. 339. The following pronominal adjectives are Sanskrit. Sanskrit Pronominal lie most of them, as compared with the foregoing, are of Adjectives. ire occurrence in the colloquial, but are more frequent in terature, especially in poetry. * much.' '^^^ anya, 'other.' "^"^ bahu, ■^tj"^ apar, ' another.' *if^ bhuri, ^7T^ aniuk, ' a certiiin one.' '^'J[ yug, '^^'^ ub/iaya, 'both.' '^J^T^ yugal, V 'both.' f^^rf^ kimapi, ' any.' '^T?? yugma, TW par, ' another,' ' other.' '^^ saw, ' all.' TTrETcfi pratyek, ' each.' 340. '^??Tj as also the more common corrupted form, '^T«T, s ' another,' in the sense of ' a different one,' like the Greek, ;Tepo9 ; but ^HT; is ' another,' numerically, like the Greek z\Xo9. Thus, ^«?i ^^f ^RIT, ' he went to another country;' ff^ "^T«T '^m'«3T, 'there is no other expedient;' but, ^^m?; %?! ^«T, 'hear another reason.' For ^itt;, 'q?; is more commonly used ; it is often compounded with the noun it qualifies. Examples are: xix; ^^, 'another's fault;' q"?^^^, 'a foreign country;' "qi;^^, 'the other world.' 341. The related words, "^^, "cr^^, ^T^ 'both,' 'the two,' strictly speaking, are all nouns, meaning 'a pair;' but they are practically pronominal adjectives, as will appear from the following examples: ^^ *T^f7Ij 'the two kings;' ^1^ I'^T ^^VT^ "^l^j ' from both eyes a stream of water flowed;' ^xntx!! ^^^ ^fT^? 'joining (my) two hands.' Examples of the use of the other Sanskrit pronominals are the following : '^HK^ "^^TT "^^[t^j ' both a boundless ocean ;' t^'Ttxi 3r?fr^'T 'TT^^, 'there is not any need;' -gq^^ ^fr^T f? ' a certain person says ;' 11^^ f^f ? ' every day.' 206 COMPOUND PRONOUNS. [§§ 342-344. 342. irf?!, (indeclinable), is occasionally used as a pronominal adjective ; thus, TlfTi ^^(TT^ ^^T "ITH ^T^? ' the story of each incarnation of the Lord.' "q^ and MVfi, 'much,' are both equivalent to ^^TT? and, like most of these Sanskrit pronominals, are chiefly used in poetry. Compound Peonouns. 343. The relative pronoun may be compounded with the correlative or the indefinite pronouns. Each member is then inflected, but the postposition is added to the last only. Thus, with ^, we have fg|^ ft{^ m^Jis tis kci, ' whosesoever ;* with cR^^, ^ cRtT./o koi, 'whoever;' fsf^f^^ '^j'is kisi ko, ' whomever;' with eR^, ^ cfii^ jo kuchli, ' whatever.' a. For ^ ^t^, Naipali has ^ST^^, ' whosoever." b. In the Rdtndyan a similar Sanskrit compound occurs, in the phrase ^^ ^^'\ t^f^j 'in whatever way,' wliere %•! %5f, (for ^Tf ^T,) is in tlie instr. sing. 344. Other compounds are formed with "^^t; aiir^ '■ other ;' as, ^^t ^W ^wr Jcuchh, '■ something else ;' ^'t?; ofitt; aur kol, ' some one else ;' '^^ ^^T aur kaun, ' wlio else?'. '^'^^ ^T ciK'r hjd^ 'what else?,' is colloquially used as a reply of strong affirmation.* a. Sometimes ^^^ occupies the second place, but the compound has then a different meaning ; as, cfit^ ^^I lioi aur^ ' some other ;' gii^ ^■?: kuchh aur, ' some more.' b. The pronominal, ^521, 'other,' is compounded with itself in the form "^^^t5i (Sk. ^^^), ' each other,' ' mutual;' but this is rare in Hindi. The two are occasionally written separately, thus : ^^fl" ^"^I ifltTf "cf , ' with mutual love.' * In Garhvv^l, aur alone is used, with a peculiar intonation, in the same sense of a strong affirmative. §§ 345-348.] COMPOUND pronouns. 207 345. The particle ^T sd, (infl. ^ se. ^ sL) may be Compouuds ^ ^^ ^ ^ with luter- added to the nom. form of cft»f, thus: ^»T ^T kaun sd, rogative. lit., ' what like ? ; ' "^^ ^T ^1 ^^ % wah Jcaun sd per haij ' what tree is that ?,' i.e., ' what kind of a tree ?'. a. The same affix is added, colloquially, in the east at least, to the relative, ^s!, and correlative, ri^T, making ^^ ^T, fri"^ €T ; and in the Doab to the demonstratives, ^^ and ^^, making i\% ^T, «r^ ^T' But I have never met these forms in literature. b. In old eastern poetry, however, the equivalent affix ^^T{ is added to the inflected base of the demonstratives, thus : Ty\ M^, T'? ^T, 'like this;' ^^T ^^, ^'f ^^, 'like that,' or ' like him.' c. For ^^^ ^T? Mewtiri has i^"^, fern. ;^, as in the following : ?rtt f\^^ ^t ^ ^^>, = ^"t1% ^^^ ^ ^^ ^ ^^, ' what man told you ? '. 346. The indefinite prononns are also compounded Compounds . _rv^ 7 7 . ^ 5 with Indeflaite With ^^ sab ; as, ^^ ^t sab koi^ ' every one,' ^^^ w^ Pronom. sab Jciichh^ 'everything.' Before cfiVt, ^T har may be iised instead of '^^^ in the same sense. 347. A peculiar Indefinite is formed by repeating the indefinite pronoun with the negative particle, ^ na^ interposed ; as, ^1; •! oftt; hn na Jcoi, ' some one or other ;' ^^ ^ ^^ kuchh na kuchh, ' a little,' * somewhat,' more rarely, ' some thing or other.' In the former case, both members are inflected in the oblique cases, but the postposition is added only to the second; as, f^^ •! f^^ oRT %ri Jcisi na Msl Jed Jchet^ ' the field of some one or other.' 348. ^1^ is idiomatically added to various pronouns and pronominals to give them an indefinite sense 3 it is then 208 ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. [^§ 349-351. often scarcely capable of translation. Thus, ^?t ^T oRW ^^j « what we shall be ;' ^:p"rT ^s^, * a great deal,' ' ever so much.' Similar are, ^f g{^, f5[ifT»TT ^e?, etc. So also we find ^W ^^fT ; as, gj^ ^^fl '^TW "T T^'TTj * no great remembrance will remain.' 349. The following pronominals belong rather to Urdu than to Hindi, but as they will be found in some modern Hindi books, they are enumerated here. tj;«?n»j| \j^ * a certain one.' 'some.' ^i giW JS, ' the whole.' 'other,' ' ditFerent.' ^^ SU^>- ' many,' several.' 350. Of these, all are Arabic, except ^^, which is Persian. ^^ is sometimes used as a negative prefix, especially in the compound, ^^ ^if^l"^ {j'^^j^^)^ 'absent,' * not present.' t}r5fT*fT is always pronounced fuldnd. Although it belongs rather to Urdu than to Hindi, still it is often heard from Hindi-speaking people, especially in some parts of Oude, where, in a dialectic form, xfi^cfi^T, it is often used, instead of the remote demonstrative, for a third personal pronoun. Besides qj^ifcfT, the people of Avadh also use S^i^^Tj plur,, ^^%, in the same way. Origin of the Peonominal Forms. Personal Pro- 351. It is impossible, M'lthin the limits of the present work, to discuss nouns JNom. j^^ gyg,.y detail, all the very nnmerous variations of the Hindi pronouns. Sing. . . . I can only briefly indicate the probable origin of the more common forms. In the nom. sing., main or mev, of the 1st personal pronoun, we have the Sk. instr. sing"., mai/d,^ Prak. mai, Ap. main, transferred to tlie nom.* The ne, therefore, which is added to main, in the case of the ag., in High Hindi, is really superfluous, and in Mdrwari, Old Baiswiiri, and otlier * Vid. Lassen : Inst. Ling-. Prac, p. 480. In Gujardti, meii is still used for the case of the Ag<'nt, assigned to a nom. sing., hun, for Sk. aham. §§ 352, 353.] ORIGIN OF the pronouns. 209 archaic Hindi, main, alone, and properly, denotes that case. The same remarks, mutatis mutandis, apply to tain, the Braj nom. sing, of the 2nd personal pronoun. The transfer is clearly due to a confusion in the minds of the ignorant of the two constructions of the subject with the verb,* a. Besides the 1st pers. nom. sing., main, from a labial theme, the Braj presents a form, haun or hon, which has arisen from the corre- sponding Sk. aham, through Prakrit forms, ahamum, Ap. hamun.f In the Mar. hun or hun, we have the same word, with the common reduction of the diphthong (§ 85). The corresponding Mw. mh^n, I would attribute to the tlieme sma, which appears in the Sk. base, asmad, and is also the base of the Sk. plur. declension of this pronoun. It presupposes a Prakrit form, asmakam, after the analogy of the Pr., tusmakam, for Sk. tvam, H. m. This theme, sma, in Prakrit, regularly became mha (§ 108) ; so that from asmakam, k being rejected, we would have amhaam, and thence, as above, mhaun, mhun. With the same tlieme, sma, I would connect the E.H. nom. sing., ham, m and h having been transposed and a inserted between them. 352. The nom. sing., tfi, of the 2nd person, has arisen from the Sk. nom. sing., tvam. The final nasal is preserved in the Mdrwari and Old Baiswdri, t&n or tun. But I am inclined to regard the tu in tu ne, ag., as a gen., from Sk. tava, through the Pr. tua. The Av. and R. nom. sing., tayan, as also the R. loo. sing., mayan, present merely a variant ortho- graphy of tain, main. a. The Bh. nom. sing., tunh, is a weakened form of tumh, for tushma, the base of the plur. in High Hindi, where the theme tu has received, like the pronominal themes, a and yu, in Sanskrit, the increment sma. In the Mw. and Mar. tht'tu, we have apparently a transfer of the aspirate of tumh from the end to the beginning of the syllable, as in § 108. 353. The obi. sing, forms, mitjh, tiijh, have their immediate origin in Personal Pro- the Prakrit genitives sing., tnajjha, tujjlia, for mah, tuh. Prof. Lassen °^""* • gives an apposite example of this change in the Prakrit root, lijjha, for Sk. liha.X The form maha occurs in the Rdmdyan, and must be referred to a Pr. gen. sing., masya (?) for Sk. mama ; and, by analogy, tuha, to a Pr. gen., tusya (?) for Sk. tava, formed after the analogy of the other * Vid. infra : § 357. t Lassen : Inst. Ling. Prac. § 176, 2. I lb. § 50. 14 2lO- ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. [§ 354. Sanskrit pronominal genitives. Maha, as also tulia, is found in the Apabhransic Prakrit. a. Braj, Kanauji, Avadhi and some other dialects, present, in the Personal pronouns, the obi. sing, themes, mo, to. These also are true genitives, and are so used by Chand, et al.* Their immediate original is to be found in the Prakrit genitives sing., mahun and tuhun,-f which again, through the common change of s to h, may be compared with the Br. pron. genitives, jdsu, tdsu. In this su, Prof. Lassen judges that we have tlie Sk. possessive, sva.X The analogy of the Braj leads us to ascribe a similar origin to the Mw. obi. sing, themes, mho, tho, from Prakrit bases, asmaka, tusmaka, to which, as above suggested, we may suppose that the possessive sva, (or the abl. plur. term., bhyas, Ap. ho,) was originally added. b. The R. obi. sing, forms, mvd, tvd, are, I think, to be explicated by the supposition that, as the suffix ka was in Prakrit added to the themes asma, tushma, so it may have been added to the shorter themes, ma (mu), and tu, of these same pronouns, giving new themes, tnuka, tuka. Of these the original genitives would have been mukasya, tukasya, whence would arise Pr. forms, mudha, tudha, and thence, by familiar changes, at last, mvd, tvd. 354. The genitives, merd, terd, have been formed by the addition to an old genitive, maha, of kerd or kero, for kerako, (Sk. krita). Beames gives, from the vulgar Prakrit, the form mahakero,^ from which mero, and merd are readily derived by the common elision of k and tlie sandhi of the then concurrent vowels. The Mar. and Mw. gen. forms, mhdnro, mhdnlo, etc., as also the eastern gen., mora, are similarly derived, through the combination of the same suffix with another Ap. Pr. gen. sing., mahun. In the gen., mJidrau, the long a presupposes karako, instead of kerako, as the original form of the suffix. But in the dat. and ace. forms, ma nai, mha nai, ta nai, tha nai, the a of the base remains short because the retention of the initial n of the suffix prevented the con- currence and union of the vowels. The original form of these genitives is further illustrated by such E.H. obi. plur. forms of other pronouns as inkard, unhkard, etc., in which, again, a Prakrit genitive has been taken as a new base, to which is appended the usual gen. postposition in a fuller form. * Vid. supra : §§ 283, 291. f Sindhi retains the form mahun. X Inst. Ling. Prac, § 175, 6. But Hoernle derives it from the Sk. abl. plur. term., bhyas, Ap. ho. Comp. Gramm. p. 211. § Comp. Gramm., vol. ii. p. 314. §§ 355-357.] ORIGIN OF the pronouns. 211 a. In tlie hi of mohi, to/ii, etc., ue have the same suffix which marks the obi. sing, of nouns in archaic Hindi, derived, as has been shown,* from the Ap. Pr. gen. sing, suffix, he (for Sk. sya). As in tlie case of nouns, so liere, again, it is added to old genitive forms. In like manner mujhe aud tujhe have arisen from the addition of this hi to other Prakrit genitives, majjha, tujjha, giving majjhahi or mujjhahi, and tujjhahi, whence, by elision of h and sandhi of a and i, the modern forms. The final e in these datives is thus identical with the final e in the obi. sing, of Tadbhava nouns in a. Regarding the use of these (originally) genitive forms as datives and accusatives, it may be remarked that already in many Prakrit dialects, the dative having been lost, its place was often supplied by the genitive ; and from the dative, as the case of the indirect object, it is but a step to the accusative as the case of the direct object. 355. In the Mdr. obi. forms, 1st pers., mha'm, 2nd pers., tain or thain, we have a true instr. sing., with which the abl. postposition, s{in, must be regarded as in grammatical construction, as would be its original, sam, in Sanskrit. I should suppose, however, tliat the same forms in the loc, mhain mdhai, thain upari, etc., must be regarded as genitives, for I have found no instance of the Sk. madhye and upari in construction with the instr. case, but only with tlie gen. or ace. In the later Prakrit, the pronominal termination ain is found in the gen., instr. and loc. Thus the analogous Prakrit forms, tain, main, are either gen., instr., or loc. After the same analogy, probably, may be explained the G. and Ku. obi. forms, main, men, tvai, as Prakrit instr. or gen. sing, forms in grammatical construction with the postpositions. 356. In the E.H. obi. sing, forms, hamard, tuhard, etc., we have a plural form transferred to the singular. We would have expected, as in other dialects, hamard, tuhdrd ; the shortening of the vowel is possibly to be explained by reference to the accent (?). The h oftuJiard, as in all the plur. forms of the pers. pronouns, represents the s of sma ; by which is formed from tu, the increased base, tusma. 357. Most of the dialects present ham, as the nom. plur. of the 1st Personal Pro- 1 mi . . . > . . » , nouns, Nora. personal pronoun. This has arisen, by transposition of the consonants pi^., and loss of the plur. termination, from the regular Prak. nom. plur., mhe, which is still retained in Mdrwari. This Prakrit nom., mhe (amhe), evidently stands for an earlier form, asme, for the regular Sk. nom. * Vid. § 190. 212 ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS, [§§ 358-361. plur., vayam, in wliich the theme, asma, of the Sk. obi. plur., asmdn, asmdbhUi, etc., was assumed also into the nom., and the plur. termination, i, added after the analogy of all the other pronouns ; so that asme ( = asma + i) corresponds precisely to the Sk. nominatives plur., te, tine, ye, etc. In the R. nom. plur., hamh, I suspect that the h has been ignorantly added to make the form correspond to the 2nd pers. nom. plur., tumh, of the same dialect. The Mw, nom. plur., mhain, as I conjecture, stands for the ace. plur., amhiiin, of the western Prakrit, which has been assumed into the nom., after tlie manner of tlie English objective, in the vulgar phrase, ' it is me.' 358. The most common form of the nom. plur. of the 2nd person, is turn. For this, in archaic Hindi, we have the form tumh, (also tumah,) which is but one step removed from the Pr. nom. plur., tumhe, for the Sk. yiiyam. The sing, theme, tu (tva), increased by the pronominal element, sma, was, for the sake of regularity, substituted for the increased theme, yushma, of the Sk. plur., and, as in the case of the 1st pers., asme (amhe), a nom. plur., tushrna, was also formed from the theme of the obi. cases, after the analogy of the other pronouns, making tushme. It would therefore appear tliat besides the classic Sk. irregular plur., yuyam, yushmdn, yushmdbhih, etc., a more regular plural, tusjime, tushmdn, etc., was also formed from the base of the sing. 359. In the Mdr. nom. plur., the, the aspirate of tumh has been transferred to the beginning of the previous syllable, (giving thume?). The nasal thus left alone, has been weakened to Anusvdr, and then lost, and the labial has disappeared before the diphthong, as in the sing., tain, for tvayd, etc. In the Mw. thain, we have probably an ace. transferred to the nom., as in the 1st pers. mhain, so that thain stands for the Pr. ace. plur., tumhain. Personal Pro- 360. The ace. and dat. forms, hamen, ttimhen, etc., of the personal Plur^ * pronouns, have arisen immediately from the Prakrit accusatives plur., amhiiin, tumhuin. The hiatus points to the loss of an h, so that the forms in question really stand for amhahin, (hamahin,) and tumhahin, — Prakrit forms which occur frequently even in archaic Hindi. This hin I take to be identical with the same termination in the ace. and dat. sing, of nouns in old Hindi, already noticed in § 190 ; i.e., it is probably identical with the Sk. loc. sing, termination, smin, or the Sk. dat. plur. term, bhyam. 361. Most of the dialects present a longer and shorter theme in the obi. plur. ; as, e.g., ham or hamon, tum or tumhon, etc. AH these themes §§ 362, 363.] ORIGIN OF the pronouns. 213 in all their varieties were originally genitives plur. The longer forms refer us, perhaps, to the increased Prakrit themes, asmaka, tushmaka ; the shorter forms to the simple themes, asma, tushma. Ham and turn or tuiuJi are both used as genitives in old Hindi,* as also are the equivalent amha, tumlia, in the later Prakrit, where the gen. termination, ihiam, of the earlier Prakrit, has quite disappeared. The longer forms, hamon, Jiamani, tumhon, tumani, tuhani, are to be explained by reference to the Pr. gen. plurals, amhdnam, tumhdnam, which were formed on the model of the gen. plur. of the 1st decl. of Sk. masc. nouns. The terminations, on, ani, etc., have therefore arisen in the same way as the same termina- tions in the declension of substantives.f In the short u, of the G. tumun, Jiamun, we have a still further reduction of o to u-X 362. In the Mdrwdri and Mewari, the Pr. gen. plur. termination, dnam, for Sk. dndm, has become dn, as in the substantive declension, giving mhdn, thdn, for amhdnam, tumhdnam. The inserted y in the longer Mewari forms, mhdnydn, thdnydn, distinctly points, as in substantive declension, to the elision of the Prakrit suffix, k, which, according to Lassen, was sometimes added to these pronominal bases ; so that these longer forms represent Prakrit genitives, amhakdnam, tumhakdnam. The nasal before y must be regarded as inorganic and unessential. As to the origin of the still longer forms, mhdnvardn, thdnvarun, I am un- certain. Baghelkhandi presents a modern gen, form, tihdnre, as uom. plur. ; apparently some such word as log is to be understood. 363. The genitives plur., hamdrd, tumhdrd, have arisen from the combination of the Pr. karakah with the bases amha and tumha, giving amha karako, tumha karako,^ from both of which, k having been elided, the forms amhaarao, tumhaarao, must have arisen ; whence, by sandhi, and the usual transposition of m and h in the 1st person, we have, first the Braj hamdrau, tumhdrau, then the K. hamdro, tumhdro, whence, finally, the H.H. forms, hamdrd, tumhdrd. In the case of the shorter forms, hamdr, tumhdr, analogy leads us to believe that the suffix was first added to the base, not in its increased form, karakah, but without the added ka. * Vld., § 294, a. t Vid., § 192. + Vid., § 85. § Hcernle in the ' Essays ' previously referred to, cites from the Mrichchhakati, a passage containing the analogous form, amhakelake (for amhakerake). 214 ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. [§§ 364-366. Prox. Dem, Pronoun : Nom. Sinsr. a. If, in the Mdrnari and Mewdri forms, mhdnro, thdnro, mhdnlo, thdnlo, the Anusvdr be organic, it follows, that, in this case, the aflBx was pleonastirally added, not to the base, as in the above forms, but to the gen., so that the original of these Rajputana forms must have been amhdnam karako, amhdnam kalako, etc. Otherwise they must be explained like the regular forms. 364. The various forms of the nom. sing, of the Prox. Demonstrative, which contain h, viz., yah, yih, yihu, ih, eh, ehu, he, have probably all arisen from the Sk. eshali. The final u of yihu, yehu, ehu, as in the case of nouns,* represents the Pr. o, for the final ah of eshah. Lassen gives a form, ehe, which looks like the original of the Bh. he. It appears to presuppose a nom. plur., eshe, from the stem esh. The loss of the final aspirate from eh and Ih, has left the forms e, i. The remaining forms, yo, yd, yon, masc. o, fem. a, I would connect with the base im, which, although having a defective declension in Sanskrit, was fully declined in Prakrit. Yo and yd have apparently arisen from the Pr. nom. masc. sing., imo, which, by elision, yields io, whence yo, and ya. The final nnsal oi yon points to the Prakrit neut., imam, whence, iam, yon. The Mw. 0, fem., a, must, similarly, be ascribed to imo, fem. inid.\ 365. The perfect analogy between the two demonstrative pronouns seems to justify the hypothesis, that, as in the case of the Prox. Demonstrative, we have a variety of forms from eshah (esho) and imah, (imo), all resting ultimately upon the pronominal base i ; so there must have been in the ancient vulgar speech, analogous pronouns, oshah, umah, resting on the pronominal base u, from which, precisely as above, we must derive the various nom. forms of the Remote Demonstrative, wah. But, although the existence of this base is abundantly attested by such Sanskrit prepositions as ut, upa, upari, etc., yet I have met no instance of a declension resting on this labial, either in Sanskrit or the Prakrit dialects. But it is quite possible that further investigation of these dialects may furnish such examples, and verify the above hypothesis. Rel., Correl., 366. The next three pronouns, jo, so, and kau7i, are so closely Pronouns • analogous that we may consider them all together. Each of them Nom. Sing. presents two general forms in the nom. sing. ; the one form terminating in a vowel, e, o, or u, the other, in n. We first consider the group in o. It has been formerly assumed that the pronouns jo, so and ko, are Eem. Dem. Pronoun : Nom. Sing:. Vid. § 189. t But on tl'e dem. forms, see Hoernle : Comp. Gramm. § 438. § 367.] ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. 215 derived immediately from the Sk. yah, sah and kah. But it is to be noticed that we have no proven instance of the preservation of this Prakrit termination, o, in modern Hindi, in any monosyllable, but only under the influence of a preceding consonant, commonly ka, appended to the Sanskrit base. It is therefore more reasonable to postulate, as the original of these three forms, Prakritic bases, formed by the addition of this ka (§ 100). Now in the archaic Hindi spoken in Mewar and Mdrwar, we find precisely the increased form required by this hypothesis, in the relative pronoun, jako or jiko. From this latter form, again, by elision, and consequent harden- ing of i to y before o, we have another Mdrw^ri form, Jyo, of this same pronoun.* This last form, thns derived, or a form Jao, from the other base, I therefore regard as the immediate original of tiie common Hindi /o ; and by analogy would suppose that similar forms, sako or siko, kako or kiko, must have existed, or may exist still, as the originals of so and ko. Although I can adduce no example of these forms, their actual existence is, I think, intimated in the R. obi. forms of the pronouns, J^ti, tyi'i, and kyd, which are precisely analogous to the Mar. jyo, and may be held to presuppose as their originals, the bases, Jid, jikd, tid, tikd, and kid, kikd. 367. From these we now turn to consider other forms of the three pronouns under discussion. Besides the forms, yo, so, ko, several dialects exhibit je or jai, se, ke or kai, in the nom. sing. Tiie analogies of the language lead us to infer tliat, probably, these have arisen from the euphonic insertion of y in the place of the lost k, giving, therefore, from the above themes, first, ja?/o, sayo, kayo, and then, o having been at last reduced to a, as in all Tatsama nouns, ja^a, saya, kaya, whence the forms in question immediately arise.f An incidental corroboration of this theory is afforded by the archaic eastern form, kayau, of the indefinite pronoun. The base of the indefinite pronoun is always identical with that of the interrogative ; and in this instance exhibits the very form postulated as the original of ke or kai. For the Sanskrit bases, _/«, ta, ka, the Prakrit substitutes y«, ti, ki. From ki might be formed a theme kiko, whence, as above, would proceed the forms, kiyo, kiya, and thus, finally, the O. interrogative, k{. a. The archaic forms, Jtt and su, found in the Rdmdyan and other Hindi poetry, I would derive immediately from the Sk. yah and sah * Vid., § 50. t Vid., § 90. 216 ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. [§§ 368, 369. tliroug'h the Pr. yo, so. We have ah'eady noted the existence of this final u, as the last remnant of tlie Sk. nom. masc. case-ending, in Tatsama nouns in old Hindi, and it needs no further illustration.* 368. As to the remaining nom. forms, jaun, taun, kaun, the inter- rogative will lead us to the explanation of the rest. To the interrogative ko, the word una, for Sk. punah, was, in Prakrit, pleonastically added, giving for ko, ko una, whence by an evident process, kavan, kaun, k'adn, kun and kan. This derivation being established, we are naturally led to the conclusion that jaun and taun must also have had their origin from similar Prakrit forms, as jo una and to una. The analogies already exhibited seem to justify us in assuming, as the original of the R, forms, jaunayan, taunayan,jaunai, taunai, increased Prakritic formsj^o punaraka, to punaraka. Bern., Eel., 369. The analogy between the obi. forms of the demonstrative, terrof '• Obi ''^l'**'^^' correlative and interrogative pronouns is so close that the Sing. explication of the forms of any one of these pronouns will apply, with the change of the theme, to all the others. As in the case of the personal pronouns, most, if not all, of these obi. forms, sing, or plur., are in fact true genitives. Thus for the Sk. gen. sing., yasya =:jis kd, Prakrit exhibits yassa or jissa, whence, by the loss of the last syllable, the modern jis. Similarly, tis stands for the Pr. tissa, Sk. tasya ; Ms = Pr. kissa. Sk. kasya ; and, by analogy, is presupposes a Prakrit form, issa, for Sk. asya ; and us, ussa for usyai}).\ Again, by the common change of s to h, and lengthening of the penultimate vowel in compensation for the loss of the conjunct, from the Sk. yasya, Pr. jassa, we derive the forms, idha, jda, whence, the Braj. obi. form, jd. Similarly, td and kd may be derived from the Sk. tasya, kasya, through intermediate forms, tdha, kdha ; while yd presupposes the forms, imasya, idha, yda ; and wd, umasya, udha, wda. a. The obi. forms, jdhi, tdhi, kdhi, etc., are formed, like moM, tohi, and the obi. sing, of substantives, by the addition of the Prakritic affix, hi, (Ap. he, Sk. sya,) to old genitives taken as themes for a new declension. By the elision of this h from ehi, jdhi, etc., we get the forms ei, jai, tai, etc., and by subsequent sandhi, e, je, te, etc. The Av. e, je, etc., are probably identical in origin with these Himalayan genitives. In the R. ryd, jydhi, etc., we again have the same genitives. The y has probably arisen from the elision of k from the increased theme, ^i/ca, still existent * Vid., §§ 79, c., 189. t Or assume prolonged themes in ka. §§ 370-372.] ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. 217 in Marwdri and some eastern dialects, so that jyil and jydhi stand for jikasya, and so on. b. In the Braj genitives, jdsu and tdsu, we have the same termination as in the gen. of nouns in the Apahhransic Prakrit, as e.g., in vaclichhasu ^ bachche kd.^ c. In the Bh. ol)l. sing., jikar, etc. the Pr. karakah was apparently added to the theme for a new genitive, which, as in other dialects, became a new secondary base for the obi. sing, throughout. 370. The Mar. and Mw. obi. sing, forms in n, ni, or n, present some difficulty. Possibly we may identify them with the Pr. instr. sing, of these same pronouns, which terminates in nd, fem., e ; but this has little support from analogy, nor have I met with any such intermediate forms as might throw light upon the case. More probably a plur. form has been ignorantly transferred to the sing., as in some other cases. 371. The nom. plur. forms of the five pronouns under discussion may Dem., Rel., II II II. I <.• I. II Correl., Ist In- apparently be reduced to two heads, viz., those which correspond with the terrou^. • Nom. sing., and those which assume a special plur. termination. In tlie case of l^lur. such forms as wuli, yih, jo, so, kaun, etc., the sing, form has evidently been assumed into the plural. Tlie original model of most of the other forms is to be found in the Mkr.jakai, wiience, by elision of ^ and sandhi of the vowels, we have jai. Similar are the other forms in question. The final e (or ai) may be identified with the same termination in the Sk. nom. plur. of these same pronouns, where it has resulted from the sandhi of the final radical a with the i which is the affix of the nom. plur. The analogy of tumh for tiimhe leads us to suppose such a form asjenhe or Jinhe, as the original of the R. nom. plur., jenh. The analogy is strengthened by the Bh. nom. plur.,y?7ie. The same remark applies, mutatis mutandis, to the other pronouns. 372. The bases of the obi. plur. of these pronouns present several Dem., Eel., different forms; — (1) the simple radical, as in the H.H. forms, un, in, Jin, interro"- • ijbl etc. ; (2) a theme in andn or min, as in the Mdr. undn, indn, jandn, etc. ; T^ur. (3) an Increased theme in k, as in the MAr. jakdn, tikdn, etc. ; (4) another strengthened form in nh, as in E.H. ink, unh, jinh ; and (5) also forms still further increased to nhan, nhani, nhon, and nhakard, as in H.H. unhon, in/ion, and E.H., jinhan, tinhani and tinhakard. Of these, the first needs no explanation. In the second, we have an old ace. plur. in an * Vid. Lassen : Inst. Ling. Prac. § 175, 6. 218 ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. [§i^ 373-375. to which the gen. plur. termination dn (for Sk. dndm) was added for a new base. The bases witli k have been already explained ;* as also those in nh, — which occur also in subst. declension, — and the terminations an, ani, and OTi.f Such E.H. forms as inhakard, kinhakard, etc., are strictly analog-ous in their origin to the H.H. forms inhon, etc. As in the case of these last, a new obi. plur. base has been formed by adding the old gen. plur. termination on (for Sk. dndm), so in these eastern forms, the still more modern gen. sign, kard, has been added to the same effect. 373. The various terminations of the obi. plur. in the several dialects, are of course identical in their origin with the same terminations in the substantives and personal pronouns; i.e., the long forms are various modifications of the Sk. gen. plur. term., dm or dndm ; like the short forms, through the Pr. neut. obi. plur. in dnam. The dat. and ace. {orms,jinhen, tinhen, come immediately from the archaic forms, jinhahin, tinhahin, and therefore justify the hypothesis of corresponding forms in the other pronouns of the series. This hin, in the dat. and ace. plur., may possibly be identified with the termination sin, of the Pr. gen. plur. forms, jesin, tesin, etc., or else be connected with the Sk. dat. plur. term., bhyam. Forms of 1st 374. The various modifications of the indefinite pronoun, koi, have noun ' " arisen from the combination of the interrogative in one or another of its various forms, with the Sk. affix, api. Thus, kol or koi stands for the Sk. ko'pi, Pr. kobi. In koti and koti, the i has disappeared, and the b has been softened to the cognate vowel. In kaunau and kano, the aflix api has been originally added to the compound form ; thus, ko punar api, and api has been reduced to au or o. The obi. sing, forms are to be similarly explicated. Tiius, from the base ki, for Sk. ka, come kisi and kisd, both for kisydpi, (kisyaapi) for the Sk. gen. sing., kanydpi ; and by the change of s to h, from the base ka, we have kdhi'i ^ kasydpi. The forms kehi and kehu probably stand for kihi, kihu, or kaJii, kaliu, still other corruptions of the genitive in question ; and from these, or similar forms in h, pro- ceed the Av. keii and the G. kai, K. kai. Several of these forms in h are found in the nom., but they must be regarded as genitives transferred by the ignorant to that case. The R. form, kaunho, I have met but once, and suspect that we have here but an orthographic variation of kauno. Of Forms of 375. In the Baiswari interrogative, kdh, for kasya, we have again a 2nd Interrog. ... ' „ i i . mi • Pronoun. genitive taken as a nom., and as the base of a new declension. Ihis * Vid. § 366. t Vid. §§ 192, 192, a. §§ 376-378.] ORIGIN or the pronouns. 219 secondary theme, according to Lassen,* was already declined in Prakrit. All the analogies of the language lead us to regard the longer form, kahd, having proceeded from a theme kdhaka, derived from ktih by the ad- dition of the Prakritic k, as, e.g., in the Hindi kachchhuk for kuchh. This k being elided, and the long d shortened before the heavy termina- tion, we have by sandhi the Braj kahd. Tlie shorter form, kii, was evidently derived from kdha by the elision of h. The regular form, kyd, for kid, presupposes a base kilid from the theme ki. Granting that kahd, stands for a secondary base, kdhaka, it is plain that in the obi. sing. kdhe, we have a secondary genitive from this base, after the analogy of Tadbhava nouns in d, so that kdhc presupposes a Prak. gen. kdhddha, whence, as in nouns, kdhdya, kdhe. 376. The Mar. and Mw. kain, kdin, etc., appear to be derived from an increased Prakritic neuter form, kakim, for the Sk. kim. The final Anusvdr therefore represents the Sk. neut. term., m. The first Aniisvdr, of kdiiin, is, I suspect, merely inorganic. The obi. sing., khd, is connected with the secondary themes, kdh, [kdhaka,) so common in other dialects. The aspirate has been transferred from the second to the first syllable ; the final d, instead of e, represents the Pr. gen. term., iidha, after the analogy of the obi. sing, of substantives in the same dialect. 377. Kuchh, kachhu, kichhu, are all corruptions of the corresponding Of Forms of Si<. kashchit. Kachchhuk, has already been noticed. The corresponding pronoun Mar. and Mw. forms, kani, kdnin, are to be connected with the Sk. neut. of the same pronoun combined with the suffix api, viz., kimapi, through a similar form, kamapi, whence, 7n having become Anusvdr, and p being elided, kani, or kdnin remains. The final n has, I jndge, been added through a popular misapprehension confounding this word with the interrogative kain. Or these forms may be connected with the Sk. kinchana. 378. Of the pronominal series derived from the five pronominal OfthePronom. Adjectives. elements (Tables XIII. and XIV.), those expressing quantity are all to be connected with the corresponding Sanskrit series, iyat, kiyat, etc., or rather with their Prakrit equivalents, viz., ettid, kettid, etc. This hiatus marks the place of a k, originally added to these Sanskrit forms, which is still preserved in several dialects noted in Table XIV., as, e.g., Bh. atek, jatek, G. etakd, tatakd, etc. From the above Prakrit pronominals have immediately proceeded the O.B. etd,jetd, and the H.H. * Inst. Ling. Prac, § 106, 5. 220 ORIGIN OF THE PRONOUNS. [§§ 379-381. ittd,jittd, etc. The peculiar R. forms, Jydtik, fyattdn, etc., have evidently been formed from the secondary bases jika, tika, etc., like the similar forms in the Riwai and Marwdri pronouns. The no (nu, nd, na, or n), which is added to these pronominals, Beames is probably right in regarding as originally a diminutive affix which has now lost, as in many other words, its special significance.* Such certainly seems to be the explanation of the Rajputana pronominals in ro or ro, which represents the Sk, diminutive affix ra. Their use is well illustrated by the Sindhi addition of ro to adjectives, to signify some small degree of the quality expressed by the primary word,t like "ish" in the Eng. " black-ish ; " and still further by the RMrwari practice of adding this same ro to participles when used as adjectives. a. The dialectic forms, jai, tai, kai,=:Jitnd, etc., are derived from the Sanskrit series, yati, tati, kati. 379. The various forms of the pronominal series expressive of likeness, as, e.g., jaisd, Jas, Jaisan, are all to be connected through tlie Pr. series, jdriso, etc., with the Sk. series formed with the affix drislia, as, yddrishah. The dialectic affixes, no, nu, nd, n, ro, ro, are evidently identical with those in the quantitative series. In the Rajputana and Garhwdli series the absence of the characteristic s is to be explained by the custom in those dialects of changing s to h and then dropping it entirely. J Thus, e.g., G. eno= H.H. aisd, presupposes a form esano, similar to R. aisan; and Mw. jairo, a form jaisuro. 380. The Reflexive pronoun, dp, is derived from the Sk. dtman, which is used in the same sense. The ohi. forms, apnd, apne, point to a Prak. form, litmanaka, with an adjective sense. The derivation of the obi. pliir. form, dpas, is uncertain. Beames with high probability regards it as pointing toward a Prakrit genitive dpassa, which, however, is not preserved in literature. 381. The Honorific pronoun, dp, is also derived from dtman, through the intermediate dialectic forms, dpun, dpu. Tlie dialectic Honorific pronoun, raur, or raurau, etc., is to be regarded as a gen. formed from the noun, rdu, with the affix rd. This rdu is derived from rdjah, a form which the base rdjan assumes in Sk. at the end of compounds ; j being elided, and ah changed to o, rdo remains, whence rdu.\ * Comp. Gramm., vol. ii. pp. 1 16, 332. t Trumpp, Sindhi Gramm., p. 78. X Vid. §§ 98, 120. § Vid. §§ 85, c, 89. §§ 382, 383.] 221 CHAPTEE IX. OE THE VERB (f^^T). 382. The Hindi verb is very simple. There is but Conjugation. oue conjugation, and all verbs whatever, both in High Hindi, and in the local dialects, take the regular terminations belonging to the several tenses. a. Seven verbs only in Hig:h Hindi present an irregularity in the Respectful form of the Imperative, and in the Perfect Participle and the tenses formed with it. But this irregularity consists only in the substitution of another root, slightly different from that which appears in the other tenses, and will give no trouble. To this root the regular terminations are appended. The same verbs are irregular in the same way in most dialects. 383. The Hindi verb is affected by the distinctions of voice, mood, tense, gender, number, and person. The voices are two. Active and Passive. The moods, properly speaking, are four only, Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. The Infinitive simply expresses the abstract and unrestricted verbal idea ; it is indeed, strictly speaking, a Gerund or Yerbal noun. The participles are thi-ee, viz.. Imperfect, Perfect, and Conjunctive.* Prom every verb may also be formed a Koun of Agency. * The appropriateness of this nomenclature, of necessity, cannot be shown, until we come to examine the use of these participles. We can, in this place, only express our conviction that the terms ' present ' and 222 VERBS. [§§ 384, 385. Rem. The Imperfect and Perfect Participles are sometimes termed ' Adjective Participles.' The Conjunctive Participle is peculiarly cliaracteristic of the Indian languages ; its functions will be explained in due order. 384. Eeckoning the Imperative as a variety of the Future, we have, in High Hindi, fifteen tenses.* Three of these tenses are formed by inflection of the verbal root ; the remaining twelve are all formed by means of the participles, combined, in all the tenses but two, with an auxiliary verb. 385. The distinction of Number is made by inflection in all the tenses. The distinction of Gender is expressed in all the tenses, except the Contingent Future and the Imperative. As in the noun and adjective, "^ is everywhere the sign of the masc. singular ; Tj of the masc. plural; t; of the fem. singular; ^, or, rarely, T^j, of the fem. plural. The distinction of Person is marked by inflection in the three tenses of the future, viz., the Contingent and the Absolute Future, and the Imperative. In the Indefinite, Past, and Past Contingent tenses, both Perfect and Imperfect, the distinction of person is not expressed; in the remaining tenses, the person is indicated by the auxiliary. ' past,' commonly applied to these participles, are not philosophically accurate. These participles, with their dependent tenses, represent action in different stages of progress, not necessarily at different points of time. Since the above was written, I have noticed that Mr. Platts, in his excellent Hindustani Grammar, has adopted for the adjective participles these same terms, ' perfect ' and * imperfect.' He has failed, however, to carry out an analogous nomenclature in the tenses. * The number differs in some dialects ; in particular, the number of inflected tenses is larger in some more archaic types of Hindi. Illustrations will be found in the sections on Dialectic Conjugation. §§ 386, 387.] VERBS. 223 Rem. In none of the tenses, however, is the scheme of personal endings complete in High Hindi. Except in the Imperative, which has a separate form for the 2nd sing., the same terminations everywhere denote both the 2nd and 3rd person sing., and, in the plural, the 1st and 3rd person also have the same terminations. N.B. The above remarks are to be understood as applying without restriction to High Hindi only. The peculiarities of the dialectic conjugations will be noticed in detail below. 386. In High Hindi the Infinitive of all verbs Foi.n,ation of terminates in ^it. It is under this form that the verb *^^ infinitive. will always be found in the dictionary; as, e.g., ^^«tt, 'to speak;' WTTT, ' to go,' etc. a. The Hindi infinitive is, strictly speaking, a Gerund or Verbal Noim, and is so used. It denotes abstractly the action or state signified by the verb. As thus employed, it is inflected to t^ throughout the obi. sing., and takes the usual postpositions after the manner of Tadbhava masc. nouns in ^. It is never used in the plural. Tims we have, e.g., ^^'IT, 'to fight,' 'fighting;' Gen., ^^ ^T, 'of fighting;' Loc, ^^^"^tj ' in fighting,' etc. b. Besides this Verbal Noun in •fT and its dialectic variants. High Hindi verbs all form a second Verbal Noun in "^T; before which, ^ is inserted after a vowel. Thus, from TT^wfT, 'to die,' is formed a second verbal noun, f{TJ, 'dying;' from olT«TTj WT^, ' going.' This second verbal noun is chiefly restricted in use to the formation of Frequentative and Desiderative Compounds, where it has been erroneously identified with the Perfect Participle. 387. Eejecting the final ^t of the infinitive, we obtain The Root. the Root of the verb, from which, except in the case of seven verbs to be hereafter noted, all the parts of the verb may be derived in a regular and orderly manner. 224 VERBS. [i§ 388, 389. Thus, e.g, the root of ^^^J is 'q^; of f^l^^, far?:; of ^^T, ^, etc. N.B. The root of the verb, in High Hindi, is always identical in form with the 2nd pers. sing, of the Imperative. Rem. The roots of verbs may be conveniently distinguished as close and ope7i. By a close root is denoted a root terminating in a consonant ; by an opeti root, a root terminating in a vowel. Verbs which have opoi roots are often termed pure verbs, and those which have close roots, mixed verbs. Thus, ^j, ^^T? and ^, the roots of the verbs HX^rr^ ^^T'TTj and ^•!Tj are ope?i roots, and their verbs, pure verbs ; but ^^, fw^ , and xj^ , the roots of ^^•TT , TiTT'TTj ^^TTj are close roots, and their verbs, mixed verbs. Formation of 388. FroiiL the root of the verb, the Imperfect and Perf. Parti- Perfect particij)les in High Hindi are respectively derived as follows : — (1) The Imperfect participle is formed by adding to the root the syllable "nging-' ^T^, ' brought.' t5^T. 'to drink.' q^. xJ^rlT. 'drinking.' fq^T. 'drank.' ^•^T, 'to sow.' ^, ^7TT» 'sowing.' ^^, 'sown.' 390. The participal terminations, ciT and "^j are p°^tJg*'"gg''^ inflected to ij (masc.) and t; (fem.) according to the rules for the inflection of Tadbhava adjectives (§ 199). The fem. plur. is sometimes inflected to %, or, rarely, to \^\. a. Verbs which insert ^ before "^T in the perfect participle, optionally insert '^ before the inflection Tj, and occasionally before t;. But if the root of the verb in the perfect participle terminate in ^ or t;, the tl of the fem. termination sometimes combines with this radical vowel, by § 48. Thus we have, e.g., from if^^T, ' to drink,' (perf. part, masc, fWT,) the perf. part, fem., tH", for fqt;. Examples of these inflected participles are as follows : — Norn. Masc. Obi. Masc. Fein. Sing. Fem. Plur. Fronfi ^^•TT. ' to throw.' ^^cTT, ^T^^, TT^rfV, ^T^> ^^, » ^^{, ' to give.' f^^T, „ WKyn, ' to do.' f^rm, •226 VERBS. [§§ 391, 392. pronounced niMd. Similarly, in the contingent future, the 3rd sing., ^Ji%, and the 2nd plur., ^»?ift, fi'om ^miJ^T, samajhnd, are respectively pronounced samjhe and samjlio.'^ But this rule is not to be applied in reading poetry. f Seven irregu- 391^ jji \^q following seven common verbs, the perfect participle is formed from a root different from the root of the Infinitive, viz : — ^•TT> 'to be;' Perf. Part. W^^ Root. '^. fll^TT , ' to die ; ' efiT^' 'to do;' ^•fT. 'to give;' %«TT, 'to take;' „ grRT» 'to go;' ^|«i«i| , ' to determine;' „ a. Of the above, qRx;«fT and Tf^-^T also form their perfect participles regularly from the root of the infinitive ; thus, ^TTj TTT- But although e(jx;T occurs in the Shakimtald in a woman's talk, these forms belong rather to Kanauji and other local dialects than to High Hindi. b. The Sanskrit past participle neuter, ^TfT'H'Tj 'finished,' is very commonly found at the end of Hindi books, where it is used precisely as the Latin finis in English books. The corresponding verb has not found a place in Hindi. Adjective Use 392. WTicn the perfect and imperfect participles are used as attributive adjectives, the perf. part., ^^, of the verb "^TT, 'to be,' inflected, if necessary, to agree with the participle and noun qualified, is very often added. The participle ^^, in this idiom, is strictly pleonastic and cannot be translated. Examples are : — ^^ ^^ 5f^, ' sown wheat;' ^^^ ¥^ ^1, 'running horses;' TTTTft ^t; ^§^^, 'a singing girl.' * But see § 14, c, d. t Vid. § 14, a. (4). Verb. Root. ^TTT. ^T. fH^. ^H. ^T^- 3IT. ii\^- ^'^. §§ 393-395.] VERBS. 227 393. The Conjunctive participle consists either of the 'The Conjunc- ■^ ^ ^ ^ tive PartKiple. root alone, or adds to the root the syllable ^i; or %. The following are examples : — Conjunctive Participle. «fiT. «ffT ^. or ^T; ^T' * doing,' ' having done.' f ^, i^%, or f^ ^T;, ' laughing,' ' having laughed.' ^T, Wr %, orllT ^T» 'going'' 'having gone.' ^, ^ %, or ^ ofi-^, 'sewing,' ' having sewed.' a. Sometimes either efjx; or % is repeated after ^t; ; thus, ^^ ^T % or ^^ ^T ^T? 'having walked;' ;irr ^T ^ or ^t q^-^ ^1^, Miaving sung.' But this is colloquial and scarcely elegant. 394. The verbal Noun of Agency is formed by adding Noun of to the inflected infinitive the affix TT^T or fiTT • Thus, to illustrate : — Infinitive. Noun of Agency. TTTT, * to sing;' :jn%^^T or ^T^fTTT. ' a singer.' cf^5«TT, ' to run ; ' ^^^^T^ or ^^%fTTT. * a runner.' ^^, ' to sow ; ' ^"t^^T^T or^'Y^^TTT, 'a sower.' a. Of these two suffixes, ^T^T is everywhere used ; ^TTT is more common in the east than in the west. These nouns are dechned in the masc, like ^^t^T [ji- 106) ; and in the fem., like xft^ [p. 108). The final a of these affixes, especially of fTTT, is occasionally shortened ; but this, again, is an eastern usage. 395. The fifteen tenses of High Hindi may be Classification of Tenses. distributed into three groups. The first group will include such tenses as are formed immediately from the Root, by means of certain terminations ; the second group, such tenses as are formed by means of auxiliaries combined with the Imperfect Farticiple ; the third 228 VERBS. [§ 396. group, such tenses as are formed by means of auxiliaries combined with the Perfect Participle. As thus distri- buted, the tenses stand as follows : — Group i. TENSES FROM THE ROOT. 1. Contingent Future. 2, Absolute Future. 3. Imperat. (Future). Group ii. Group hi. TENSES FROM THE IMPERFECT TENSES FROM THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE. PARTICIPLE. 1. Indefinite Imperfect. 1. Indefinite Perfect. 2. Present Imperfect. 2. Present Perfect. 3. Past Imperfect. 3. Past Perfect. 4. Conting'ent Imperfect. 4. Contingent Perfect. 5. Presumptive Imperfect. 5. Presumptive Perfect. 6. Past Contingent Imperfect. 6. Past Contingent Perfect. 396. The above arrangement and nomenclature differs somewhat from any given in earlier Hindi or Hindustani grammars ; but it is believed to rest on sound philosophical principles, and to give a more precise expression to the distinctive characteristics and mutual relations of the several tenses. Not only do these several groups have an outward individual character, in respect of their derivation respectively from three different parts of the verb, but one distinctive radical conception will be found to underlie all the tenses of each group, with which all their various usages may be connected. Every action or state, whether actual or contingent, may be conceived of under three different aspects, relatively to its own progress, i.e., (1) as not yet begun; (2) as begun, but not completed; or (3) as completed. It is believed that these are the essential ideas which severally pervade these three groups of tenses. In Group I, all these tenses represent the action as not begun, i.e., as future. The Absolute Future represents this futurition as a reality ; the Contingent Future and Imperative represent it as a possibility. The Contingent Future represents the futurition as contingent, in a general way, whether desired or not ; the Imperative represents it as an oI)ject of desire or will. The tenses of Group II represent the action of the verb, under various phases, as imperfect, i.e., as not yet completed ; the tenses of Group III represent it, in different aspects, as perfect, or completed. § 397.] VERBS. 229 Rein. Of these three Groups of tenses, the first, as formed immediately from the root, may be called the radical tenses ; the second and third the periphrastic or participial tenses. 397. The three tenses of the Future, in Group I, are Tenses of the ■^ Future. formed by adding certain terminations to the root, as follows : — (1) The Contingent Future is formed by adding to the root the terminations given in the following table. Terminations of the Contingent Future. Sing. 1. ^. 2. TJ. 3. TJ. Plur. 1. Tj. 2. ^. 3. 1^. Thus, from cr^'IT, ' to say,' root, ^, we have wWy ' I may say;' from t^i^^, 'to write,' root, f^T^r, f^^*, ' we (or ' they ') may write,' etc. (2) The terminations of the Imperative are identical with the above, except in the 2nd sing., in which no affix whatever is added to the root; thus, from ^l^T, 'to say,' ^f , 'say thou,' etc. a. In the place of the above affixes for the 2nd and 3rd plur., other terminations are added to the root to form what is commonly known as the Respectful or Pre- cative Imperative. These terminations are as follows : — 2nd plur,, T^', 3rd plur., ^, or, more rarely, f;^^T. Of these, the form ^^ is commonly used with the plur. of the 2nd Pers. pronoun, gir ; that in ^ or ^^^T with the Honorific pronoun, ^T^, or some equivalent word ; thus g^ '^f^^, 'please go;' ^^ t^fii^ or f^f^^^n, ' your honour will please write.' h. Yerbs of which the root ends in ti or tj insert ^ before the above affixes. In this case the radical "5 is changed to i;. 230 VERBS. [§ 397. Thus %«TTj 'to take,' makes the resp. imper., ^fYf^I"^, ^fll%, 'have the goodness to take;' ^•TTj 'to give/ resp. imper., ^^^, ^f^^, 'please give,' 'be so good as to give;' ^^T, 'to sew;' resp. imper., ^"Vf^fiift, ^f^%; ^^J, 'to drink;' resp. imper., ifVfgi^ft, iftt^^, or Tjtf^^lTj etc. c. To the verbs included under b. may be added three verbs from the list in § 391, which irregularly form the Eespectful Imperative from the root of the perfect participle; viz. "^^^, 'to do,' ?tt^t, 'to die,' and ftTT, ' to be,' of which the respectful forms of the imperative are, ^f^^, ^f^i^; ^f^^, ^fsi^; ^^^, ^f^^. But c|}f^ and ^rfr^, common in the dialects, are also occasionally used in High Hindi. d. Observe that ^^ and ^^, after u in these respectful forms, are very often contracted to ^ and Ji; giving, instead of the above, ^^, pft^, i^^%, etc. Rem. In Braj, Kanauji, and other local dialects, as intimated, the Respectful Imperative of eJ57[«|J and ?f"^w|T is regularly formed from the root. The regular form also occurs, even in the High Hindi of the Shakuntalu ; as where Mdtali says to Dushyant, '^'\^ .... ^T^ 't t^^TTT cjif^[^, ' your excellency will please sit in the shade.' But this is not to be imitated in High Hindi. e. Tiie Sk. 3rd sing. imp. of tiie substantive verb, ^ etc. In one instance, where two verbs follow in immediate succession, the suffix is added only to the last of them, thus : ^^ ^ ^T "^^ f^T!lT "^^T ^TT. 'if this peacock will walk around and fly.' But it is to l)e observed, that in this case the verbs ^^*IT> f^'^«IT> »re combined after tlie manner of a Copulative Compound.! * Vid. Monier-WilUams : Sansk. Gramm., § 896, a. t Vid. Chapter on ' Compound Nouns.' 232 VERBS. [§§ 400, 401. 400. Before proceeding to explain the formation of the remaining tenses of the verb, it will be necessary, as a preliminary, to exhibit certain tenses of the auxiliary verb ftTT, 'to be,' or 'become.' Besides the regular tenses common to all verbs, two other tenses, viz., a Present and an Indefinite Past, are usually, though inaccurately, assigned to this verb.* These must be considered first in order. They express simple existence, and answer, respectively, to the English 'am' and 'was.' These tenses are conjugated, in High Hindi as follows : — Present. Singular. Plural. %'^, 'lam.' fT '^^ 'we are.' 7{\, ' thou art.' ^^ ^, ' you are.' ^ f , 'he is.' ^ %*, ' they are.' Past. Singular. Plural. ^ ^, 'I was.' IfT ^> 'we were.' fl '^, ' thou wast.' fTlfr^^, 'you were.' cf^ JfJ, 'he, she, or it was.' % ^. ' they were.' Fern. ^* ^, etc. Fern. "^Jl ^, etc. 401. We add the three radical tenses of the verb ^^, ' to be ' or ' become.' * Though conveniently treated here, it shonl ' be pleased to be.' 402. "We are now prepared to explain the formation T^? ,^,^,^^'- •*- ^ ■■■ cipial lenses. of the tenses of the Imperfect and Perfect Participles, as enumerated in Groups I and II. Inasmuch as between each of the six tenses in each group, taken in pairs, there is the closest analogy, we may most conveniently treat the tenses of both participles together. The verb WIT, 'to come,' is taken as an illustration. 403. The Indefinite Imperfect represents an action simply as incomplete^ without reference to any particular 234 VERBS. [§§ 404, 405. time, and may thus refer either to the past, present, or future ; the Indefinite Perfect represents the action as complete^ but also with no definite reference to time. These agree in grammatical form, as consisting simply of the Participle without any auxiliary ; e.g., ^ ^ 'been.' Conjunctive Participle, ^, ^cj}"^, ^^, 'having been' or ^^■^^, ' having become.' Noun of Agency, ^•T«||5II or ^•T^TTT . * tbat which is to be.' Indefinite Imperfect. Singular. Plural. 't ^fll» * I would be,'* etc. ^^ ^fl> 'we would be,' etc. 'thou wouldst be,' etc. cf^ ^ffj 'you would be,' etc. ^^ ^flT» * lie would be.' ^ ^ff, ' they would be,' etc. Present Imperfect. Singular. Plural. 't ^fTT ^. * I am becoming.' ^^ ^^ ^, 'we are becoming.' fT ^fTT ^> 'thou art becoming.' cIlT ^^ ^. 'you are becoming.' ■^^ ^cTT ^> 'be is becoming.' c{ ^^ ^, ' they are becoming.' Past Imperfect. Singular. Plural. "R ^cTT ^T. 'I was becoming.' ^JJ ^"^ ^, 'we were becoming.' TT ^cJl ''Zn» 'thou wast becoming.' ff^ ^rf ^, 'you were becoming.' ^^ ^cIT ^n> 'be was becoming.' ^ ^cf ^, 'they were becoming.' Indefinite Perfect. Singular. Plural. 't ^^rr» 'I became.' '^TT ^1J> 'we became.' H ^^, 'thou becamest.' H^ ^TJ. 'you l)ecame.' '^^ ^ W> * he became.' c( ^Jl, ' they became.' Present Perfect. Singular. Plural. 't ^^T ^> * I have been' or ^JT ^'^ ^, ' we have been ' or ' become.' ' become.' fT ^W ^. 'thou hast been ' or '^^T ^^ ^> 'yon have been ' or ' become.' ' become.' ^^ ^^T ^ > 'he has been ' or ^ ^^ ^ , * they have been ' or ' become.' ' become.' * This is only one of many possible renderings of this tense. 238 VERBS. [§§411,412. Past Perfect. Singular. Plural. ?? W^ ^> ' I had been' or ^TJ ^TJ ^, *we had been ' or ' become.' ' become.' fT ^tRT ^T. ' thou hadst been' or rlH ^TJ ^, 'you had been ' or ' become.' ' become.' ^^ W^ ^> *he had been ' or ^ ^U ^, ' they had been ' or ' become.' • become.' a. Observe, that by changing; "^t final to f; in the singular, and Tj final to |; in the plural, the above will be transformed into the feminine conjugation. In the compound forms of the verb, however, Anusvdr in the plural is commonly added to the second member only. Thus we say, f ^ ^cH" ^, not ^»!^ ^; similarly, ^t^*^, etc. These remarks apply to all verbs whatever. b. ^^ is commonly Romanized, hud, but this is incorrect ; in the Ndgari orthography, the first syllable is always short. 411. From what has been said, it will be evident that the conjugation of the Hindi verb, as respects termina- tions, is perfectly regular. In High Hindi and in all other western dialects,* however, there is a peculiar idiom in the construction of the tenses of the Perfect Participle in Transitive verbs, which demands especial notice. The following rules should therefore be carefully studied. 412. In the use of all the tenses of the Perfect Par- ticiple of Transitive verbs, the case of the Agent must be substituted for the nominative of the subject. Two constructions are then admissible, viz. : — Passive and Q ) That which, in Enojlish idiom, is the object of the Impersonal ^ -' 7 o i j Constructions, actiou, may be put in the nominative case, with which the verb is inflected to agree in gender and number. * With the exception of Naipdli. See § 130. § 412.] VERBS. 239 (2) That which, in English idiom, is the object of the action, may be put in the dative, and the verb, irrespec- tive of the gender or number of either the subject or object, is then put in the masc. sing. These two may be termed, respectively, the Passive and Impersonal constructions. Thus, with the Present Perfect of ^^•TTj * to see/ we have, instead of the Enghsh construction, either, e.g.. It ^ ^^ 1T^ ^^, 'I saw that carriage;' or, If % •^^ ^^^ ^ ^i^, ' I saw that girl.' In the former case the real nominative to the verb is ^^, with which therefore the verb agrees in the 3rd fern. sing. In the second, there is no nominative ex- pressed ; that which in English is the nominative of the verb, appears here in the dative, and the verb is used impersonally in the 3rd masc. sing. Rem. 1. The beginner should carefully observe, (1) that this construction is used with transitive verbs only ; and (2) with such verbs, only in the tenses of the perfect participle. Thus, altiiough we must say, ^^ ^ "^^^T *iT^ efi^ TTTTj ' h^ '^eat his brother,' we must use the active construction with the same verb in the tenses of the imperfect participle, even when referring to past time. Thus we say, e.g., '^^ TJCq^ "mk^ Wt TTTrlT ^T> 'he was beating his brother;' not, ^^^ ^ TIXT which would be nonsense. Rem. 2. It will be observed that there are thus in High Hindi three constructions of that which is in English the subject with its verb. Firstly, there is that which precisely corresponds to the English idiom, which is used throughout with all intransitive verbs, and in transitive verbs in all tenses except those which are formed by the aid of the Perfect Participle. Secondly and thirdly, in these tenses of transitive verbs, we may have either the passive or impersonal constructions as explained above. Tiiese three are by Hindoo grammarians respectively called the kartari, karmani, and bhdvl prayogas.* * Naipali, like all Eastern Hindi, does not use the kartari and bhdve prayogas, but instead has a construction peculiar to itself. 240 VERBS. [§§ 413-415. 413. It is to be noted that all Hindi perfect participles are in fact corrupted forms of the Sanskrit perfect passive participle, and the idiom under consideration has its origin and explanation in the Sanskrit construction of such participles, according to which, under the above conditions, the passive participle is made to agree in gender and number with that which in English idiom is the object of the verb, and the logical subject is put in the instrumental case. Thus, to illustrate, the English phrase 'he said,' may be rendered in Sanskrit, TTf «fif^tt. lit., 'by him said,' Hindi, '^^ % cfi^T- Similarly, the Sanskrit ^wf ^fcjcR^U^^ '^^',, 'he saw a young mouse,' becomes in Hindi, ^^ «I ^f{^ ^7 414. The following common verbs, viz., ^efi«rr, 'to talk idly,' ^^fiiTj 'to speak,' ^^•TT, 'to forget,' and ^-fTj 'to bring,' although transitive in sense, taking an object after them, are exceptions to the above rule, and are never con- strued with the case of the agent. «. ^^ITj ' to fight,' takes the passive construction if the object is mentioned ; otherwise it is construed as an in- transitive verb. h. With ^7-RTj 'to know,' ^to suppose,' most educated Hindoos use the case of the agent if the object is a single word, but the nominative when the object is a sentence. c. The perfect tenses of ^^^J^T? 'to understand,' are also sometimes construed with the nominative of the subject ; but it is considered better to use the case of the agent. d. The verb, 'qTITj in Acquisitive Compounds only, always takes the subject in the nominative : as, ^^ % "^^ cfi^ ^T^T? Oie found it;' but, ^ ^T% ^T'^T? 'he was permitted to go.' So also ^«n is treated as an intransitive verb in a few Nominal Compounds, in which a verbal noun in "^tI^ is the first member ; as, ^ f^^lt^ f^^^ ' be appeared,' etc. Accent of 415. Observe, that in the pronunciation of all primitive or Verbal Forms. , 1 • 1 ., i . 1 i causal verbs with monosyllabic roots, the accent everywhere remains upon the radical syllable. But in Causal verbs formed § 416.] VERBS. 241 by adding a syllable, as, "^Tj ^T^ "^T^^ ^T, etc., to the root of the primitive, the accent rests throughout upon this causal affix. In the following examples, the accent is indicated by the italic letters : A:arungd, karaiingd; AraAta, kah/atd: hanA, ban a ; etc. Many words identical in form, but different in meaning, are thus distinguished only by the accent; thus, parhA, is 3rd sing., indef. perf , from jKirhnd, ' (he) read ; ' but parha, with the accent on the second syllable, is 2nd sing, imp. from jjctrhdnd, 'cause thou (him) to read.' Similarly, sima, is 'heard;' but suna, 'tell thou;' etc., etc. In no case, however, must the accent be exaggerated, or an unaccented long syllable shortened. 416. The following tables exhibit the conjugation of three Conjugational verbs. Table XV illustrates the conjugation of a regular ^^' intransitive verb, with a consonant final in the root ; Table XVI that of an intransitive verb with a vowel final in the root. Table XVII exhibits the conjugation of the transitive verb ^■^•TTj ' to do.' So slight are the differences in the conjuga- tion of pure and mixed verbs, that it has not been thought necessary to give more than one paradigm of a regular verb. On the other hand, as will appear, the slightly irregular verbs, ^T*IT and cfi'^'in) in various combinations, are so very common that it has seemed desirable to exhibit their conjugation in full. Exactly like ^"^wlTj perf. part., f^^T? are also conjugated the transitive verbs, ^•TT^ ' to give,' perf. part., f^^\, and %»!Tj 'to take,' perf. part., f^^T* All regular pure verbs, as, e.g., f^?^X»ITj 'to shew,' perf. part., t^?§T^j are conjugated exactly as 5iT«rrj except that the root of the infinitive is preserved throughout. 16 242 VERBS. c3 O •4^ (E ft. ^ o o I— I ;^ o be 5a3 O 11% o ii% 1^ ^ — az' ^ e S fee 5 ,!« IT tC ^ IF www ^ lE i^ « w S o H a, E Ph ft^ P H P PR w H o H IT tic IXC ^1^ Ic6 V tic ^ e FT lie iW nc tir LW fic 10- ^ M •li' •1 (£ ^ Af^ '&i 1— 1 -■ sT iT o b: u 0) & h s Pi^ 3 tM b plH "s s U "oo O Z l-H l-H »J P o « tc tf^T &' f? »-i ^ VERBS. 243 , ^ rt^T itc , ^hc ^ 'He ^ ^ CO 00 CO oo' CO CO M 1— Ic t— re rc 1— re a: * 1^ * IE IE rc „ K K K K K hr' ^^ c^ e (£ ^ « .o e « (^ 2 i^ " - u s c« = S o « ^. -^ -^ >-t --* S -' 1? -■ l-H 3 S l-H B.' ^ 1— • " ^ HH , •^ • fS D^ ^ &c ^^ q.1 ^ 0) S U OJ d OJ ^ cC ■-"■ ^ ^ c' •^ f^ «s H ^ H^ — " S c; Bh ^ ^ . ic z bl Ed S HN l-H 3 ;:2 1— < s "es u ^ a Q s» H >« CO c: z «s a c: tn CS X Bi ->; o a -« i— < PL^ O. V Ph P^ be b^ 244 VERBS. jn^ ^&r ^ ^ ^ (K ^ % C ^ e % ^ ^t^ £ 05 CO M CO CO CO iW ^ ^^ 'S ^ ^ ^ FT '1 '1 |C? s S »t ;; he H P5 Ph PI w H o ■^ I p; M 02 <£ M I— e 15- ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ (£ I— I— i ^ i FT P NN P a: ^ i (^ "^ (£ CI (£ if^ « 5 S >. S c K - '^ S I— ( ^ ^' l-H ^ ^ >-H c >s , " b u l^* 1-^ iJ '"• « b « a H .s " a; ^ V !ti "£ Oh ^ a> Ha Na •S 'o 'si c '1 s "ho •S o ^ ^ b* • u> Cd W> H E- tB H o U 03 » a (C Z tf «i ci (N 4- Br .P" i\c ^g «I»C' ^bJ- 'A- 'dfy "w ^ FT '? ^g % fir -; -• l-H -' ►i 1^ BT IE fJT S 5 •» ** QQ Br fir Br (Jtic Br Br ST Br Br Br *P0 i I 'ISfB' I- « ^ -^ >• -H J Br « fir S re »— Br 15- 4i^ ■£ Ph Ok b h V V Ph aT t- u &H cd s H s z HH o u o Pn o ^ c o b bfi Pk be iic &c O U CO H tl «3 E- Q U CO 55 u co « ^i^ a: <1 O Cli •"! i:^ Ph O Ph Ph be be o ►a' CS o 248 VERBS. O IF If G !> 02 H W H P^ O o I— t H o O H oc li^ Sf •i » ^ '^ »- _ «- re c -^ 18= (If 1^ g s Iff > §: a o ^ < o be nr |c 17 1^ \^e ^ -c O I- ^ So' Iff o Iff w o 1^ Iff Iff ,:5 HH a, o I? O 6 H P Cm M H O /J7 'iff 'iff Hr 9^ ^ s CO CO CO* CO 1-^ 1-1 f % Iff Ph FT ^ ic? •* '• ^ (>i <>i d J i:S D5 H O U z cc a. • o n o o <1 M Q VERBS. 249 4I10' l^ Mis' 1 f f iffr s s :; CO 00 CO CO 00 oo" J ^E ^ (^ ^ ^ ^ f % e ? ! ff re? s 2 s 5 ci (N 54 (N (N i (N (N s4 (N Q H^ •UGT & « •|5 1-4 IE -c FT S !^ 1^ 43 IS ^ 1**^ ^ a; IE 2 Iff es K K ^ K s ^ k' o l>4 Iff i-H en es Iff s 1-^ Iff Iff I-H Iff u U u d CU u u a< OJ Ah V ^ v CL ■£ rt 0) H a> HH o s to a. fcX) s i=J) ^^ ^ 0 fco • -o •S NN •S ^c ^ U Cfl i-N CA *3 ^ *o Eh* *o 1/3 ■3 gn '3 Q u 'O (O "w Z -a H T3 m T3 ^ b: ■< 0 Bi ■4^ a o 2 P-H 13 l-H S 1 X M b b .> ^ b b PU ci b r b H u tf b Bi ;ii H Oil Q a H « b CL| H Pk PL, & O pa CO H tH ai H a U CO S5 Cd tc 55 a: ■< O BS -«! h>* PW P^ U PLi Ph 2^ ^ s 3 be .t« "^ be to ,r^ ■w ho ^ B S O O ^ s -a ^ v rn B O w a »-H cS §§ 417, 418.] VERBS. 251 Of the Passive Voice. 417. The Passive Yoice is much less used in Hindi than in English. Its place is largely taken by neuter verbs. It is to be remembered, however, that the con- struction of the past tenses of transitive verbs with % is, in reality, a passive construction. Still in certain cases, which will be duly noticed in the Chapter on Syntax, the Hindi verb admits of a Passive Voice.* 418. Any verb may be conjugated passively by ^^^^^^^^^"'^j"" adding to its Perfect participle the verb WRT, 'to go,' which verb is then conjugated after the manner ex- hibited in Table XVI. The participle is inflected to agree with the subject ; ^ final becoming ij, for the masc. plur., and t;, for the fem., sing, or plur. Thus, from the verb ^TTTTTj *to strike,' we have the passive TTTT ^T»rr, ' to be struck ; ' from ^•IT, ' to give,' pass., f^niT UTTTj ' to be given ; ' from f^^»!T, ' to show,' pass., f^^T^ Wi^J, * to be shown.' Other examples are as follows : ^f vm f%^T 1^, ' that letter was written ; ' efi^t ^ TTT^ ^rnf^ ^^ 'some woman was being beaten;' ^ I^^^^T^'^i 'they are not seen ; ' i.e., ' they are invisible.' a. Sometimes even neuter verbs are conjugated passively ; as, e.g., from ^TTT? ' to come,' pass., ^^T WTIT- But this idiom is scarcely transferable to English. N,B. This use of ^TTT with the perfect participle, as an auxiliary, to form a passive, must not be confounded with its use, as added to a verbal * It is strange that some should have denied the existence of this passive with jdnd. The illustrations given in the Syntax under this head, taken from classic writers, are sufficient to settle the question. Moreover, during years of constant intercourse with Hindi-speaking natives of India, I have been wont to hear this passive freely used, under the restrictions indicated in the Syntax, in the colloquial of all classes. 252 VERBS. [§§ 419, 420. root to form an intensive compound. Thus, l^T*?!! WT'IT 's ' to be eaten,' but ^T ^T*!! is ' to eat up,' etc. 419. As the passive conjugation presents no diffi- culties, it will be quite sufficient to present a mere synopsis of the more common tenses. We take, as an example, the verb t%i§»!T, 'to write,' perf. part., f^^T. Synopsis of the Passive Conjugation of f^^^n. Infinitive, f^'^lT WTTT. * to be written.' Conjunctive Participle, t^WT ^T^T> * having been written.' Contingent Future, 3rd sing., f%^T ^TTIj 'it may be written.' Absolute Future, „ „ t^P^ ^m.lTj *it will be written.' Imperative, „ „ f^^'^ ^TT^j ' let it be written.' Indefinite Imperfect, ,, ,, f^^^ ^TfTTi * it is, or would be, written.' Present Imperfect, „ „ t^^^ ^TfTT ^> ' it is being written.' Past Imperfect, „ ,, f^?5T ^TfTT ^T> * it was being written.' Indefinite Perfect, „ „ t^'^T 1^T» ' it was written.' Present Perfect, „ ,, f^'^ '^'^T %> ' it has been written.' Past Perfect, ,, „ f^^T T^T ^> * it had been written.' a. The remaining tenses are extremely rare ; if, indeed, many of them ever occur at all. In general, the student will need to guard against the too free use of any of these passive forms. Causal Verbs. 420. From every primitive verb in Hindi, may be derived a Causal and a Second Causal verb. The First Causal expresses immediate causation, and the Second Causal, the mediate causation, of the act or state of the primitive. Thus, from the primitive ^fiT, ' to be made,' we have the First Causal, WTTTT, 'to make,' and the Second Causal, ^•i^ttT, 'to cause (another person) to make.' § 421.] VERBS. 253 Rem. If the primitive be a neuter verb, it is plain that the 1st Causal will be the corresponding active verb. It is thus evident that the Causal may often be translated into English by a single verb having no etymological connexion with the word which properly translates the primitive. Illus- trations will be found below. 421. The rules for the formation of Causal verbs are formation of Causal v erbs. as follows : (1) Add to the root of the primitive, W for the First Causal, and TT for the Second Causal. The usual in- finitive termination, •rr, added to the root of the primi- tive thus modified, will give the infinitive of the corresponding Causal. Thus, from ^^-IT, 'to bum,' we have the root ^^ ; whence we derive, as above, the root of the First Causal, ^^T, and of the Second Causal, ^^^T ; from which again, we have the causal infinitives, ^^T"fIT, 'to set on fire,' and ^^TT'IT, 'to cause to set on fire.' Similar are the following examples : — Primitive. First Causal. Second Causal. ^g;«fX, ' to rise.' ^'5T'^T> 'to raise.' ''3'3^T»TT> ' to cause to raise.' fW"T*lT> ' to be fl^'qT'lTj ' to hide.' fim^«IT. ' to cause to hide.' hidden.' tJefiTT* ' to be ripe,' XlcfiT«!T, ' to cook.' H^^TITj ' to cause to cook.' or ' cooked.' f^W«TT. * to meet.' f^T^TTTj 'to cause to TtT^^T'ITj ' to cause to mix.' meet,' ' to mix.' ^^»IT, 'to hear.' ^•n«IT» ' to tell.' ^^l^TTT. 'to cause to tell.' a. A short a in the second syllable of dissyllabic roots Avhich have a short vowel in the first syllable, takes the obscure sound* in the causal. But before * Vid. supr,, § 14, d. 254 VERBS. [§ 421. the affix of the second causal, the a is fully pronounced. Examples are : — Primitive. First Causal. Second Causal. xf?T^»TX chamaknd, ^JT^TfTj pi'on. cham'kdnd. '^'^'mmw^'\ chamak- •to shine.' wand. fv(y3(^^ pighalnd, fq^^TfT, „ pigh'lund. ftl^^RT«n pighal- * to melt,' intr. wdnd. ^Z^fT bhataknd, ^ZefiTTr. ., bhafkdnd. ^Z^TI»IT hhatak- * to wander.' wdnd. "R^f^T pakupid, tf^^S |«ll, „ pak'rdnd. ^^^^^^\w\\ pakar- ' to seize.' wdnd. TJ'^T^ifT parakhnd, 'Q'^<^|«1|, ,, par'khdnd. ^T^WWl^l parakh- ' to be tried.' wdnd. Rem. But when the second consonant is ?I, even this obscure sound often vanishes; as, from ^TT^«n"j 'to understand,' ^I?T1JT'TT> * to cause to understand,' ' to explain,' pronounced sam'Jhdnd or samjhdnd. h. Monosyllabic roots containing a long vowel, shorten that vowel before the causal and second causal affixes. Open roots then insert ^ between the shortened vowel and the causal affixes. N.B. In the application of this rule, observe that a is the short substitute for tSU; ^, for t^, lj, "^j and occasionally for ^T; ^5 for ^, "^j and ^, in the primitive. Under this head, the following are examples of close roots : — Primitive. First Causal. Second Causal. ^^•IT) ' to go around.' ^WT«TT> ' to turn around.' ^fl'^T'IT- Wri*fT> ' to awake.' ^1T'TT> ' to awaken.' gi^^X»|J. WtfTTTi ' to conquer.' f^TTTTT* ' to cause to conquer.' f^TT^T'TT' The following are examples of open roots : — I^TTT. 'to eat.' f^^l«n. 'to feed.' fT§^^T«TT. 'to cause to feed.' ■q^^n, ' to drink.' fq^TiTT> * to give to fq^^T«TT> 'to cause to give drink.' drink.' ^«TT> 'to sleep.' ^^TTTj ' to put to ^^^T»IT> 'to cause to put sleep.' to sleep.' § 421.] VERBS. 255 a. Verbs of this class with monosyllabic roots en- closing ^ or ^^, commonly retain the long vowel, and form their Causals according to (1) ; as, e.g., Xf?[«fT> ' to swim.' XI'5^T«I'T» * to cause to swim.' ^nd Causal, "Cf'^^TSn* ^^•TT.'to run.' ^^I«TT» ' to cause to run.' „ ,, ^^^T»TT. b. But %3^T, 'to sit,' makes the First Causal ^^TTT or f^31«TT, *to seat.' It also often follows the example of open roots, and admits an ^ before the causal affix, making f^^^T»IT. Similarly ^f»fT, 'to say,' ^^•IT, 'to learn,' and ^T§^T, 'to see,' make their Causals either oR^1«tt, t%^T«fT and t|[?§T^T, or ^f^l^T, f^^^T^T and f^^i^T^T. ^fTTT and ^f ^T»n are peculiar in having a passive sense, viz., ' to be called,' 'to be named.' ^T»i»TTj 'to know,' makes the First Causal either ^*IT»TT or ^rf^lwlT • c. ^rrT«TT, 'to show,' 'to point out,' though causal in form, has no primitive in Hindi. (2) Many primitive neuter verbs having a mono- syllabic root enclosing a short vowel, form the First Causal by simply lengthening that vowel. The Second Causal is formed in the usual way. Thus, e.g. : — ^ZfT, * to be cut.' ^TZ«TT, ' to cut.' ^Z^TIT, * to cause to cut.' ^^•TT, ' to be fastened.' ^j^^T, ' to fasten.' ^^^l«fT, ' to cause to fasten.' ^T'TT. ' to be loaded.' ^T^«ITj ' to load.' ^T'^T«TT> ' to cause to load.' fi|'^»n. 'to be pulled.' T^^f^^T^ 'to pull.' fl^^^l^IT , ' to cause to pull.' «. Sometimes in such words, instead of the cognate long vowel, the gim or vrkldhi of the primitive vowel is the substitute, as in the following : — 256 VERBS. [§ 421. 'S^'TF. 'to be open.' ^^^Sff, 'to open.' <^^c(|«IT» *to cause to open.' ^^TT> 'to be dissolved.' ^^ilT, ' to dissolve.' ^^^T«IT, ' to cause to dissolve.' f^i^ilT, * to be pulled.' ^t^»IT> * to pull.' t'^^^T'IT, * to cause to pull.' h. fsi^^^T, 'to come out,' make its First Causal, f'TpFT'^r'lT, after the analogy of the above. c. A few primitive roots ending in z, change this Z to the cognate ^ in the Causals. Some of these present other irregularities. The most common are the following : — W^£^\, * to be separated.' lpY^«fT, ' to leave.' ^^T«IT> ' to liberate.' 'ZZ'5IT» 'to break,' intr. Wt^^TT. 'to break,' ^r. fft^'^T5TT> ] ' to cause fft^lfT. J to break.' XJ!Z«TT. ' to tear,' „ Hil^«n> ' to tear.' „ IIi^^T»IT, 1 ' to cause WITT, J to tear.' "CZITj 'to burst,' „ Ijft^lT. 'to burst,' „ Xfi^^l^TT. 'to cause to burst.' d. f^^»TT> 'to be sold/ changes the final guttural of the root to the corresponding palatal, in the First Causal only, making ^^«lTj 'to sell.' T;^*!!? 'to remain/ changes ^ to the hard guttural aspirate, ^, making t^t^wTT? ' to keep.' e. Two verbs, viz., ^^«TT5 'to be immersed;' and ?i^^«lTj 'to be wet,' make their First Causals, respectively, T^^wfj, and f^'ft'TT.* Sometimes, however, they assume the regular causal affixes. /. t'I«l^»!T5 'to be ended,' makes the First Causal f^^^«lT or f^^^iiT, *to finish.' The verb ^3»TTj mentioned at (1) Z>., makes yet another form, ^3T^»IT ; and, similarly, ^Z'TT^ ' to enter/ makes ^ZT^'TT* ^fT? 'to take/ makes f^T«TT- * The 0 in these cases has arisen by a common phonetic process from the archaic form of the causal affix, dva, the original also of the common H.H causal affix, o. §§ 422-425.] COMPOUND vekbs. 257 422. Of a few verbs, the Neutei'S have become obsolete in Obsolete / . !• 1 mi 1 forms. High Hindi, though still in use in some dialects. 1 lius, tlie common word, ^i§«TT, 'to see,' is the causal of the dialectic K. ^^•TTj 'to appear.' On the other hand, a few neuters are commonly used in High Hindi, of which the causal forms are rarely heard. A common example is xj^vfj, 'to fall,' the causal of which, XTT^TT, is very rare in High Hindi, though under the form xrrT;«T it frequently occurs in the Rdmdyan. 423. Many verbs form their Causals both according to Duplicated Rules (1) and (2). Usually, with such difference in form, there is also a difference in signification, and often one form is dialectic. A good illustration is found in the verb ^^•TT, ' to be pressed,' which makes one causal, ^^"PITj 'to press down,' and another, ^T^^TT? having the special meaning, 'to shampoo.' So also, from ffl^»lT, ' to meet,' High Hindi makes the causal, ffl^T'lTj ' to mix ;' but the Marwan, following the second rule, makes the causal, ^^TJ^, 'to send.' ^^T»TTj 'to call,' is commonly reckoned a causal from ^^"TTj etc., and in the Rdmdyan, Tff^ ^T'^, '^f% ^ofi, Maith., ^f^ ^^^j etc. 427. Intensive Compounds intensify or otherwise intensive Com- modify the meaning of the verb whose conjunctive participle stands first in the combination. They are formed by adding to this participle one of certain other verbs, which latter verb in combination with this participle is then conjugated as usual. This second conjugated member does not, however, retain its separate character and significance ; but only modifies, in accordance with the general idea which it embodies, the meaning of the participial element of the combina- tion. Hence English idiom will sometimes require us to render the Intensive by a different word from that 260 COMPOUND VERBS. [§ 428. used for the simple examples : — verb ; as in some of the following XR^^T, ' to throw.' Mh^fi ^^T, ' to throw away.' ffr^^T, * to break.' fft^ ^^^T, ' to break to pieces.' ^TZ^T, * to out.' ^TZ ^^^, ' to cut of.' ^^^T, ' to be made.' W^ WIT, ' to be quite made, to succeed.' fTT^T, ' to fall.' f^T tl^'TT, ' to fall down.' fiTT'n, ' to cause to fall.' f^KT^-il, ' to throw down.' STT^^T, ' to know.' 51T5T tr^^T, ' to be found out,' ' appear.' <5lHT, ' to eat.' *5H ^TTT, ' to eat up.' ft'TT, ' to be.' fr^^T, 'to become.' ift^T, ' to drink.' ift %^T, ' to di'ink down.' fr^T, ' to weep.' Tt t^i'il, * to despair.' ^T^T, * to do.' ^T f«(*5lT^T, ' to realize.' %^, 'to take,' %%TT, • to take away.' ^Z'lT, ♦to sit.' t^ Tf IT. ' to sit still.' t^^T, ' to see.' t'i T^-^J, ' to look on,' ' to g'aze.' ^^^T, 'to speak.' ^^ ^Z^T, ' to speak up.' '^f'lT, ' to ascend.' ^^ tz^T, ' to attack.' €t^^T, 'to deliver.' ^q i.*^^l. ' to entrust. ' Usage oT In- 428. The above list comprises about all the verbs which teiihiives. , ^;„^j „.;4-u 4-u^ «^».;.,,-.^«.;»,^^ -rv^. ... f 4-1 u are combined with the conjunctive participles of other verbs to form Intensive Compounds. It is evident that, in most cases, the modification of the meaning of the verb may be expressed in English by a preposition adverbially used with the verb. It may be difficult to find a term which shall exactly express the idea added by the secondary verb in every case, but the following is an approximation. ■^■JfTj Permanence. ^■•ITj Intensity. ■^•IT, Reflexion. 5IT«TT> Finalitjs completeness. ^"SIT, Suddenness. ^T^TTj Violence. H'^«TT > Chance. %«IT, Reflexion, appropriation. ■^•IT, Continuance. § 428.] COMPOUND VERBS. 261 a. Of the above eight verbs, it may be further observed that ^•IT, (except in the compound, '^'^ ^^ITj 'to go away,') and ^^•TTj can only be used with Transitive verbs ; "^TfT and ^^•fTj ^vith Intransitives only; the remainder with either Transitives or Intransitives. Such combinations as ^"^^ "^T'TT? ^^ ^T'TTj etc., can hardly be reckoned proper Intensives; since each of the two words maintains its distinctive signifi- cance: as, ^?§ "^T«TTj '^"^ ^»IT5 lit., 'having seen, to come,' ' having bathed, to come.' h. It may be also noted that ^^it is the compound which is most frequently used with Causal Verbs : as, ^cTT ^ITj ' to show;' ^iT?JT ^•ITj 'to explain;' fiToRT^ ^•ITj 'to take out.' But with a few Causals it cannot be used; thus, from '^^T'TTj 'to call,' we never have of^f '%y[i, but always ^^j %«!Tj 'to call here,' i.e., ' to one's self.' c. ^"TT is the verb which is most commonly found combined with Intransitives: as, ^"j ^T»ITj ' to be broken;' t^«f ^T^T, 'to meet,' < to unite;' q^^ ^T^T? 'to arrive;' but it is also used with Transitives : as, ^T ^T*!!? 'to eat up;' ^^ ^T^T, 'to tell.' d. Occasionally, ^"fj takes the place of 5IT«TT in Intensives, when the action of the verb is regarded as directed toward, instead of away from, the speaker : as, ^^ ^^ W^ '^ , ' (thy) shoulders have become stooping ; ' ■^ij ^f ^"^^ '^'^ % ^"?^ % ^^ "^^T? 'to-day this thief has come back safe from the house of Yama (the God of death).' e. Compounds with X^«IT are common, but for the most part are used in the tenses of the perfect participle. As above remarked, these compounds exhibit the action of the verb, emphatically, as continuing or permanent. Thus, %'Z T^, 'sit still;' ^•ft ^rf% %^^ ^, 'the two children were playing;' but, ^i?t ^^% %^ TW ^j 'the two children were engaged in play;' ^^ ^^IfTT f? 'be hears,' 'is hearing ;' ^^ ?T«T "^^ f , ' he is occupied in hearing,' etc. 262 COMPOUND VERBS. [§428* Rem. It lias been questioned by good authority whether these combinations with "^^•TT should be classified under these Intensive forms. The Pandits certainly regard the present and past perfect forms of this combination as distinct tenses, respectively called tatkdlik varttamdn, kdl, 'the present tense of that time,' and tatkdlik apiirna bhit kdl, 'the imperfect past tense of that time.' /. %^T when thus combined with a conjunctive participle, represents the action of the verb as terminating with, upon, \ near, or to the advantage of the agent. In many cases, tlierefore, this compound is equivalent to the Middle Voice in Greek. Thus, ^^T^TT, is ' to call,' in general ; but ^^ %iTT3 is 'to call one's self;' "^t^IT, 'to place;' "^[^ %«TTj 'to lay by;' i.e., for one's self. Thus in the Shakuntald, Dushyant says, ^^cfit ^W 'it ^^^ T^ ^ ^^^T % ^TT ^T %ffr ^, 'when by my imaginative power I complete it for my- self.' %»TT5 in compounds, thus stands in absolute contrast with ^«!Tj emphasizing the action as terminating upon, or to the advantage of one's self; while ^•tt represents it emphatically as terminating upon or to the advantage of j another. Compare, e.g., ^^^ ^fT? ' to understand,' i.e., for one's self; and ^TI^T ^"ITj 'to cause another to understand.' ^•IT approaches to a reflexive sense, but is of much less extensive application than %«!T- g- '^^•rr, although used with both transitive and in- transitive verbs, cannot be combined with causals. The idea of ' causation ' necessarily excludes that of ' chance.' Thus while we can say, ^^ ^^T? 'it appeared,' we cannot say h. In many cases, the same conjunctive participle may be combined with different secondary verbs. A few such examples will further elucidate this matter. Thus, from ^T-IT? 'to eat,' we have ^t ^T«TTj 'to eat up ;' ^T %«!Tj 'to eat down;' t§t Tl'TT? 'to be engaged in eating.' Similarly from TrTi:;*[T, 'to strike,' we have both ^"^ ^•TT? 'to beat,' and ?TTT ^^'fT:, ' to strike down,' ' to kill.' §§ 429-431.] COMPOUND verbs. 263 429. While tlie modification of the first verb by the secondary member may often be expressed in English either by the addition of certain particles, or by the use of another verb from tliat employed to repre- sent the simple Hindi verb, iu many cases, again, it will be found quite impossible to indicate in English the slight distinction between the simple verb and the combination. Indeed, it is to be remarked, that combinations in which H"'TT is the last member, even in Hindi, are often scarcely to he distinguished in meaning from the simple verb. Thus, such forms as ^fl^T^T and ^TTIJT ^^1, f^'t^l^T and f^IlT ^1T, etc., are often used interchangeably, with no apparent intention of greater emphasis in the one case than in the other. But where a distinction is intended, it is undoubtedly that indicated above. The compound form is much more common colloquially. 430. Frequently, both in prose and in the colloquial, a particle, especially a negative, is interposed between the conjunctive participle and the secondary verb; thus, gji^ ^?§ •T^ ^^fTT 1? 'nothing appears;' ZZ eft I^T? ' (i^) i^ indeed broken.' Sometimes several words are thus interposed, as in the following from the Sliakuntald; ^ cfl" "5^1 ^ 1^ ^j ' exactly such have I indeed become.' The words interposed are thus made more emphatic. Also, rarely, in the colloquial, the participle is made to follow the secondary verb ; thus, ^^ 1^ 1 HTT, ' he has fled away.' This inversion is never found in dignified prose, but like the previous idiom, is not unusual in poetry.* 431. The learner must not confound with these Intensive Compounds other combinations with the conjunctive par- ticiple in the same form, in which the final verb retains its individuality and separate signification. Examples of this idiom are: ^^^ •^\\^ ^ ^^ '^'^, lit., 'having seen that village, come;' % ^^ ^ ^i: ^ "^IT^T ^, ht., 'having been at the gardener's house, I have come ; ' i.e., ' I have come from the gardener's house.' * For other examples, see the section on Dialectic Conjugation. 264 COMPOUND VERBS. [§§ 432-434. «• % "^TT iiiay be explained either on this principle, as 'having taken, come,' or as if a compound, 'to bring.' Similar are, ejjf ^•fT^fT? 'to announce,' "^ fTr^»n5 'to come and meet,' etc., etc. 432. A number of combinations occur in which ^^, the conj. part, of ^^«IT, ' to ascend,' is the first member, and a verb of motion, the second. But in these the leading idea is in the second member, to which ^^ adds the idea of ' hostility.' Examples are, '^^ VT'TT, 'to run up hostilely;' ^^ ■^•TT, 'to attack ; ' ^^ ^^•TT, ' to attack ' (where ^'S'^J seems to give the idea of irresistible attack) ; ^sJ ^^"ITj ' to rush up hostilely.' Thus, e.g., -q^ ^^ wz^ % ^S VT^T, 'he hastened up with all (his) army;' tjoR -^^x; ^ ^^ TT^ "^^ ■^^Tj ' one more also, the king of Kdshi, made an assault.' 433. Potentials are formed by adding to the con- junctive participle of any verb, the verb ^cr;^T, Ho be able,' which may then be conjugated throughout. This combination denotes ability to do the action expressed by the primary member. It thus often takes the j)lace of the potential mood in English. The following are examples: — ^^ ^^-rr, 'to be able to speak;' -^^ ^^ ^^TTT f , ' he can run ;' ^ 5fT ^^'H, ' I shall be able to go;' ^ "^ ^'^, 'they may be able to come.' a. Sometimes the verb ^^^T takes the verb which it modifies in the oblique form of the infinitive, instead of the conjunctive participle, thus; Ij •Tfli ^T% ^^ffT #? 'I am not able to go.' But this, although often heard, is regarded as less elegant, and about Mathura is called incorrect. Completive 434_ Completives are formed by addinor to a con- Conipound -' j o Verbs. juuctivc participle, the verb ^oRTT, which may then be conjugated in all its parts. The imperfect participle, ^^iflT, is rare. This combination denotes the completion § 435.] COMPOUND VERBS. 265 of the act denoted by tlie primary member of the com- pound. It is never identical in sense with the perfect participle, but denotes the completeness of the action in a more emphatic manner. Thus, e.g., ^^ % '^T'^T, 'he ate,' but, ^f ^T '^cBT, 'he has done eating.' a. Very often the force of ^^^T will be expressed in English by the word 'already;' as, ^f tft ^T ^^T f, 'he is indeed already gone.' When in the absolute future, this combination often nearly corresponds to the English future perfect; as, ir^ ^f ^T ^^1T 'when he shall have eaten,' or, 'shall have done eating.' Class II. Comhinations formed with Verbal Nouns.* 435. Frequentatives are formed by combining with Frequentative the verbal noun in ■^, the verb cjj-^tit, which may then be used in any tense. These denote the habitual or repeated performance of the action expressed by the first * It lias been customary to speak of compoiintis of this class as formed with the perfect participle. This, however, is not accurate. AVhat we have in these combinations is not a perfect participle, but a gerund or verbal noun in a, equivalent to the common Hindi gerund or infinitive in lid. The coincidence in form with the perf. part. masc. is purely accidental. This form of tlie gerund, restricted in High Hindi to this combination, occurs in Bangali, where we have, as three equivalent and alternative forms, e.g., chalan, = H.H., chalnd ; chalibd = Braj, chalivaii ; and chuld. This same gerund in its inflected form in ai is constantly used in E. Hindi in these compounds : as, e.g., E. H. chalai laga = H. H. chalne Ingd ; stmai chaha =■ H. H. swid chdiid. There is no reason, tlierefore, to doubt that such forms as cliald and chalai in these com- l)inations are true gerunds or verl)al nouns, exactly equivalent, respectively, to chalnd and chalne, which latter n forms are indeed sometimes substituted in them for the more usual form in d. This view, first suggested in the 1st ed. of this Grammar, has been abundantly confirmed by the writer's more recent studies. It has since been maintained and supported by many apposite illustrations from the cognate languages, by Hoerule: Comp. Grainm. pp. 388, 326*. 147. 266 COMPOUND VERBS. [§ 436. member of the compoimd : thus, tffT WT^l, ' to read often;' •m'm ^Tt, 'come often;' ^f ^^t ^^\r{^ %, 'he is in the habit of saying.' a. Thus, whenever in an English phrase, the adverb * always' denotes, not dm'ation, but repeated or customary action, it must be expressed in Hindi by using the verb which it qualifies, in the frequentative form. For example, the phrase, ' he always bathes in the morning,' must be rendered in Hindi, ^f cl^% ^r^ f^^T ^TfTT f. But, on the contrary, ' we shall be always happy,' is in Hindi, ^iT ^^T "^T"^ ^' ■^il. Other examples are: ^ ijT^ ^ t?^t ^T and, like tbe anahtgous combinations under Class III., tliey cannot uitb strict accuracy be called Compounds. 437. The Desiderative compound, in tlie respectful form with '^Tff^, is idiomatically used to express obliga- tion or iluttj : as, f;^ ^^^ ^ ^ZJ '^Tfl^, ' (one) ought to read this book ; ' or, with a noun or pronoun expressed, H^ ^^t ^^T ^Tff %, ' you ought to go there.' The con- struction of this idiom will be explained in the Syntax. In this combination, the direct form of the infinitive is very commonly substituted for the verbal form in ^. Thus we may say, ^^^^ W[^J ^ifl^, '(one) ought to go there.' Class III. Combinations formed with the Inflected Infinitive. 438. Incentives consist of an inflected infinitive in inceptive . . Compounds. construction With the verb ^l«rr, and denote, primarily, the action of the infinitive as beginning. They are also used when that action is interrupted. In this way is to be exjDlained the common use of the phrase, ^f% ^^T, lit., 'he began to say,' in the narration of conyersation. Examples of these combinations are abundant : as, ?nT;% ^1'TT, ' to begin to beat ; ' t§t% ^^T, ' he began to eat,' etc., etc. This use of '^ri^T is almost, if not wholly, con- fined to the tenses of the perfect participle. issive 439. Pcrmissives are formed by combining with an permiss inflected infinitive, the verb ^^, 'to give,' and express ""P"*^" "• permission to do the act denoted by the infinitive. Thus, ^^ ^T% ^, is 'let me go;' ^^ ^^% ^"N^, 'have the goodness to allow me to speak ; ' "^^ % ^^ ^ i§T% f^"^!, ' he allowed him to eat.' 268 COMPOUND VERBS. [§§ 440-442. 440. Acquisitives are the exact converse of the pre- ceding, and are formed in the same way, substituting xiT^T for ^^T. Thus, cTiT ^^t ^T% TfY TTT^il, 'you will not obtain permission to go there ;' li ^%% ^f^ ^T^, ' I was not allowed to sit.' It is to be observed that in this idiom, with xn^T, as also in the frequentative combination with f^^, the case of the agent is never used. 441. In all these combinations of infinitives or verbal nouns, the latter element is to be regarded as governed by the verb, in the same way that a noun would be in the same place. Thus, not only the verbs ^^-iTj ^•TT and xn»TT, but other verbs may be combined with infinitives in a similar way : as, e,g., in such expressions as alT% iTTTTTj ' to ask leave to go ; ' 1^ ^^Tf ^T , ' to wish to give ; ' ^ ^^' giT^ ^^W^^ #, for ^ f ^ Wr ^^cTT ^j ' I cannot go,' etc. The use of the inflected infinitive in the last two cases, however, although heard in the colloquial in many places, is not regarded as elegant. Class IY. Combinations formed with the Imperfect and Perfect Participles. 442. Of these combinations, those have been called Continuatives in which the imperfect participle of any verb is connected with the verb T?«TT, 'to remain.' The particijDle, which is really a predicative adjunct of the subject, agrees with it in gender and number. This combination denotes the continuance of an incomplete action: as, ^f ttittV T^rfl"!, 'she continues singing;' hit ^ i^^ TI^ ll", ' why do you keep laughing ?' ; ^^ SR^ ^TT Wf^ Tf 'to instruct.' ■^l^TT ^^ jt ' to save.' '^^ of}«> , 'to be done with, stop.' ^^^IT W, 'to instruct.' t^^T cJ5», 'to dismiss.' 1W ofi"? 'to benefit.' i{T[ ^«>, ' to break,' ' to violate.' ^fXH" «R"5 'to accept.' ^i^TT =Ji®, 'to do good to.' •f^^«T ^"j 'to contemplate.' wk[ ^"j 'to support.' fW^'Jf ^o, ' to cut.' *ft1 ^«», 'to enjoy.' , 'to investigate.' 454. The following are preceded by a noun either with ejrr {^) or -qx: :— ^^»1T ^* , ' to wonder at.' f ^ ^«>, 'to insist upon.' 455. Tlie following are preceded by a noun in the ablative with % : — ■^^T^ efio , 'to act towards.' ^i[ efio , ' to be at enmity with.' "Wt^ ^<», 'to enjoy.' ^if ^o , 'to be afraid of,' "^HT ^'j 'to forbear.' ^'^flt^ ^fi"? 'to exercise kind- ^^TTT ^"5 'to subsist on.' ness towards.' "^f W , 'to be hostile to.' frf'^Tn ^® , ' to form friendship IT'ST ^*> , 'to inquire.' with.' ■Jn^«TT oR®, 'to pray.' ^^ ifio, 'to become intimate ^f^ ^», ' to display affection.' with.' ^'^TTT ^o, 'to join with.' 456. The following are preceded by a noun either with ^ or ti^ :_ Wl^ cfio ^ < to discuss,' ' dispute.' '^•ftf?! ^*»j ' to do injustice to.' 457. The following are preceded by a noun with iix; or ^^^1 efio ^ f to show grace to.' 15XITtj, 'to show mercy to.' 9pt^ ^0, 'to be angry with.' x?W, ' to trouble.' ^H ^® J ' to afflict.' ^^Tl;t ^"j) ' to make appeal.' Tl^T ^°j § 'to devote one's self to.' 463. Many of the above can scarcely be called Compounds. The combinations with ^^TT? however, in the following list, more closely approach this character. They are all peculiar in that the verbal element is construed as intransitive, and therefore in the tenses of the perfect always takes the direct, instead of the passive or impersonal construction. Thus we say, not ^^ % f^^lt ^, but ^f t^^Tt f^^T, 'he appeared;' ^f ^•TT^f^^, 'it was heard,' etc. ^^1; ^^T, 'to be felt.' xj^^tI; %^, ' to be seized.' ft^Mlt^ ^•TT^ ' to appear,' ^vrt^ ^T, ' to be bound.' ' seem.' ^ •Tlt^ %^J> ' to be heard.' Combinations with TflTyil. 464. The verb in aU these may take the passive construc- tion, and is thus determined in form by the noun of the combination. * Masc. t Fern. X Takes noun with ki. , § Takes noun with men. 278 COMPOUND VERBS. [§ 465. fr^fT ^*>,* 'to snatch,' 'to ^^^ ??<>, J 'to dive.' spring upon.' ^^^ T**, t ' to splash.' "Jf T T**, * 'to deride.' ^^ § TT*, ' to jump.' ^Sfl iT"? * t 'to boast.' f^^"^ § ^**, ' to scream.' T5^'r§ T", 'to leap.' 465. The following list includes a number of additional combinations of frequent occurrence, arranged according to the alphabetical order of the several verbs. t^^g^ "^n^TT, ' to seem certain.' ^2nT f ^TTTj t J ' to apply the ^T^ ■^•TTj II ' to come to mind to.' mind.' ^T^t ^^, §§ 'to resign,' ^T^ WTTj H 'to be found.' 'relinquish.' ^Tcf § '^^l •TTj ' to start a ^^ § xi^^"5TTj ' to take root.' subject.' f^^lt; tiTg«n, ' to appear.' TIE^^ ^^•TTj 'to beat with 5R»TTt^ ^^ITj 'to be heard.' the fist.' fl^^ ti^«TT, ' to be ascer- ^^t '^^ITIj * 'to bite at.' tained.' l^t WtfRT, 'to plough.' Tirnt ^l^TT,** 'to make in- ^TZt ^^^,** 'to look for,' quiry about one.' 'expect.' ^^T§ t^^TTIT?** 'to take ^"t^§ ^T^'!!, ' to conjure.' pity upon.' ^ITWt f^^T'ITjtt 'to re- TgiTtt^'^TT'n,**' to feel love.' mind.' ^^ t f^^TX;^T,§§ 'to feel fear.' TT^ § ^^TT, ** ' to expect,' %^t ^HflT, ' to grieve.' 'look for.' ^-^T iTTT*!Tj 'to take (some- cRTT t yTTT, H 'to listen.' thing) ill.' . r . _ — . — . . * Requires the loc. with T?"^. f Masc. J Requires loc. with ji. § Fern. II Construction either yah rnujhe ydd dtii hai; or is ku ydd mujlie dtu hai, ^ Requires tiie gen. with ^. ** Preceded by the gen. tt Preceded by the dat. XX Preceded by the loc. with 'q'<(^. §§ Preceded by the abl. § 466.] COMPOUND VERBS. 279 ^^T TR^T,* ^to take in good part.' *tf ift^^n^t ' to turn away from.' ^j^t ^T'TT, ' to sigh.' WPT iit^^tTjII 'to think upon.' j(T{ i:T§^T,t 'to love.' ?TT§ T'^'TTj ^ to end,' ' result.' ;h\:j T^'TT,§ 'to remember,' Mook after.' t^^-^ T^«TTj ' to be certain.' IT^ ^T^TjII ' to be found.' ^T^T ^1^,11 ' to feel cold.' 7i;wf+ ^IITj ' to feel warm.' am ^^T'HjII 'to take aim.' ^t^^^TTT,!! 'to bet.' ^^ ^^^T,^ 'to accuse,' 'blame.' '^'r^ ^TTfTj** ' to make inquiry about any one.' ZWX ^^^, ' to butt.' ^^TT ^^l,f ' to borrow.' ^^ %^,tt ' to buy.' ^^ %5fT, 'to rest.' ^"TO %^1,+ ' to breathe.' ITir it^Tj** ' to be destroyed.' T(WHl iViTj 'to be made clear.' f^^T itfTj 'to take leave.' ' to be known.' ^q IWTj ' to disappear.' Dialectic Conjugation of Yeebs. The Defective Auxiliary Substantive Verb. 466. As a preliminary to the consideration of dialectic conjugation, are exhibited the various dialectic forms and substitutions for the present and past tenses of the auxiliary substantive verb, answering respectively to the High Hindi, ^ and ^, etc. It is thought unnecessary to exhibit the variations for gender which occur in the past tense, as they are identical with those which occur in the same dialects in nouns and adjectives of the same termination. Nor has it been thought necessary to repeat the pronoun in each dialect. This the student can easily supply for himself from the pronominal tables. * Preceded by the ace. with ^t. f Requires the abl. with ^. % Fein. 11 Requires the loc. with tl"^ or ^T?"^. § Requires the gen. with oRj. fF Preceded by the dat. with cfiY- ** Requires the gen. with ^J. ft Requires the abl. of the person, and the ace. of. the thing. 280 DIALECTIC CONJUGATION. [§§ 467-469. Braj. Con- 467. The Braj forms in Table XVIII will be found on jugation or Subst. Veib, almost every page of the Rajniti and similar books. In the present they differ but slightly from the High Hindi forms, and in the 1st sing, and 2nd plur. only. Thus, ^ ^"^ift ^, 'I am Lakshmi;' cR cfi^ ^, < who are you?.' "^Ttf is used as 2nd plur. in one passage in the Prem Sdgar, viz., TITT ^^ ^^ efi^T ^ "^fl) 'you two who are parts of me.' But this properly belongs to E. Hindi. Of the Braj forms of the past, the following are examples of the use of ^ (fem. ^) : r[^ ^^^•T •TT*T TT^T itj 'ill that place was a king named Sudarshan ;' ffi ^ m^fft '^T^ ^^ fl"? 'he had a wife named Pdrvati.' This form of this Braj past tense is the more common in books ; but :^fT^ also occasionally occurs,* as in the following: ^^^ ^<§ f^^ ^cfj- ^^'^ f\ ^f'^f, 'thou shalt see my face just as it was ;' i^^cft "^T 'I'Nj TT-fY? 'in the house was the queen.' Closely connected are the Bagh. f^"\ and K. f^>. Sanauji Con- 468. The various Kanauji forms of the present of the subst. verb, in ° ' «(IT or J[\, etc., are colloquial throug-liout the central Doab, but the High Hindi forms are no less common. Panjdbi has analogous forms also in the pres. 1st sing., ^^, ' I am,' and 2nd plur., ^ij, ' you are.' Subst. Verb in Eajputana Dialects. 469. Of the two Rajputana forms of these two tenses, the present, ^, etc., and ^, past, etc., are used throughout Mewar and Marwar; and east of Mewar, through Kotah, Bunda, Jaipur, etc., the forms with i| are used. But in literature and correspondence, it is said that #, ^i^, etc., are used much more extensively. Thus the forms in 15 constantly occur in the ' Plays,' as in the following examples : :^ ^ ^T'liftj ' I am a shopkeeper;' Tf ^t "N^T "^^TTTJ", (plur. for sing.) 'how am I ignorant ?;' -TTfl f^TTT ^^•ft %> ' my name is Lotno;' fT ^ TI^^'JTTj ' thou art a prince,' etc., etc. * This word is erroneously explained in Prof. Eastwick's Prem Sdgar, p. 194, as q Braj form of the imperfect participle, ^r^T- §§ 470-473.] DIALECTIC CONJUGATION. 281 a. It should be noted that the Marwdri forms of these and other verbs are often disguised by the addition of various unmeaning letters and syllables, such as '3R, ^, ^, ^«f, etc. Thus in the ' Phiys' we find ^t^ ^^, 'you are that same,' wliere ^^^ is for ^t^= H.H. 1^. These letters are added, indeed, not only to verbs, but to all other parts of speech.* 470. The Garhwali forms given in Table XVIII are those which pre- Subst. Verb in ... 1 . ' m/ / 1 ■ . /. . .n • 1 1 1 Garhwali. vail in and about liri, the capital or native (jarhw^l, and are commonly understood (though not exclusively used) throughout that province. The form ^fY is used for the present tense in some villages of Garhwal, both alone and as an auxiliary. Thus I have often heard ^t?^ ^ft=^H.H. ^t t; ^T^ ^KT ^T= H.H. gjT ^T^ ft. 'are you coming?,' etc. The longer 1^ forms given in the pres. plur. belong east of Tiri. 471. In the archaic Baiswari of the Rchndyan, as in Subst. Verb in -, , , . ' , .111 ^^16 Ramdydn. poetry generally, the copula is very commonly omitted, both in the present and the past tense. When the copula is necessary, in the past tense the indef. perf., ^^^, of the verb ^•T, 'to be,' is often thus used. But occasionally in the Rdmdyan, as regularly in all the modern eastern dialects, the indef. perf. of the verb "'([f'TTj 'to remain,' is used both as a copula and as an auxiliary, instead of the H. H. ^T. Thus we read in the Rdtndyan, ^ t^|^ ^f^cT TIT ^ ^T^^ ^[Brahma) has done whatever was proper;' ^(ft ^J^ im \^ cT^f T^Tj ' then your name was Sati.' 472. With the Avadhi and old Baiswari forms of the present may be Subst. Verb in compared the almost identical Mardtbi conjugation, viz., Sing. "^T^, ^jft^, "^|; Plur. ^^rrft. "^Tft. ^T[- The common negative, -T^", Br. »nf^) has arisen from the combination of the negative »f, with the 3rd sing., '^ff', of the subst. verb. 473. Bhojpuri has two forms of the present and past tense of the Bhojp(iri 1 ^ . . . r, IX • Si, , . , • • Auxiliaries. substantive verb, answering to H.H. ^, ^, etc.; derived respectively from the roots ^'Z and ^ or ^^. Fragments from the root '^^, also occur on the borders of the Maithili. The preterite auxiliary of this verb is taken from the root "5^^, as in Avadhi and Riw^i. The indefinite * See § 100, a. (Or is ^ here, possibly, an old inflectional ending?). . 282 DIALECTIC CONJUGATION. [§§ 474, 475. perfect from the root l|^, ^^^'t* etc., is never used as an auxiliary. It is conjugated as the inflected perfect of other neuter verbs. With this exception, the forms derived from the root ^, are used in all their tenses as auxiliaries ; those from "^TZ only occur in the present. a. Connected however with this root c{\^, is an emphatic conjugation, formed by prefixing to the present throughout, an inflected verbal noun, ^^^ , from the same root ; thus : Sin J^' *"* ^^ ^TZt, 2. m. ^^ ^^, 3. m. "^^^f ^Z^, ■ \i. f. ^^^ ^^, 2. f. ^^^ mfz^, 3. f. ^^^ ^zftr, J 1. m. ^^ mZt, 2. m. ^^ W[Zo, 3. m. ^^ WIZ^, ' |l. f. ^^^ ^T^, 2. f. ^^^ W['^ 3. f. ^^ W[ft^. This tense may be used as a present, conting. future, or an imperative. Rem. The root ^TZ often becomes ^T3^ ^nd ^T!- b. Besides the auxiliary ^^ = H.H. ^»n". Bhojpuri also uses a strengthened form from the same root, ^T^^. This is regularly con- jugated throughout, and may be substituted for the other auxiliaries at pleasure. c. In the region west of Bhojpur, ^ is used for ^, 'is.' ^X is not confined to Bhojpur, but is used for all persons in both numbers, both in W. Bhojpur and as far west as Allahabad. Thus, ^ '^^TT ^> *lie is coming;' ■g^ %ff 1^ ^fX^^fT ^. ' "horn are you calling.^' Ac- cording to Beames, the Bhojpuri declinable forms, ^T^> ^t\° ^"<1 ■^TT*^' ^'■^ "S*"*^ i" questions and replies, while the other forms given are preferred in narrative. Bh. Negative ^^4. Besides the above, Bhojpuri also possesses a negative auxiliary Auxiliary. subst. verb, assigned to the root "Tl^^ or wlf^^- This is conjugated only in one tense, which follows the inflection of the inflected present given in Table XXI, and, like the emphatic form of the verb, may be used either as a present, a conting. future, or an imperative. 475. For the past tense of the auxiliary substantive verb, Bhojpiiri uses the root "^^ instead of Sk. ^^, as in the H.H. '^. There is no difference in meaning between the longer and the shorter forms of this tense given in the Table. §§ 476, 477.] DIALECTIC CONJUGATION. 283 476. Mii^-adhi presents two auxiliary verbs, the one defective, the M&.gadhi "" , . . Auxiliaries. other complete in conjugation. (1) Of these, the former is derived from the root '^^, Sk. '^HH!.- I" the present, a few fragments also occur, from a root ^^, formed from Tjj^ by the elision of the initial '^, and the addition of the Prakritic 'm. Unlike H.H., Mdgadhi forms also its preterite from this same root, by the addition of the usual terminations of the inflected indefinite perfect, giving ^^, etc.,= H.H. Y^. (2) The second auxiliary verb is ^^^,= H.H. ^«rr> J^nd is con- jugated in all tenses. The only deviation from regularity is found in the inflected indefinite perfect, where, beside the regular form, ^T^, etc., an older form, li{^, etc., is also used. As in Bhojpuri, this inflected perfect is never used as an auxiliary. 477. In the various Maithili dialects, five different roots are used for Maithili the difi'erent forms of the auxiliary verb. (1) The first of these is ^S?^, which appears only in a present and preterite, = H.H. "^ and TJ^f; the initial "^ is lost, except in the 3rd sing. '^^, N.Mt. '^f^, 'he is.' In the present only, appears a strengthened form of this root, fl|^, whence, fl^^* etc., conjugated regularly throughout. (2) The root '^^, for Sk. '^5^, in most parts of the Maithili area, appears only in certain fragments of the 3rd sing. masc. present, viz., ■^f^, ^, %, JJ%, ^^. ^o and ^o. But on the l)orders of Bangal, in Central and Western Puraniya, is heard also a future from this root, which is conjugated as follows : Smg. 1. f ^ , ^^l", f ^ ; 2. f ^T, f ^, ft,* 1^, 1^ ; 3. ^, f cTT, f fft. Plnr. 1 . f ^ , %^ ; 2. |^ o , |^^^ . 3. Not in use. a. In the W. also occurs a form of this root strengthened l)y the addition of TT. which is conjugated after the analogy of '^P^, Table XVIII, with the addition of some alternative forms with Maithili terminations : thus, sing. 1. ^^, ^rft. ffft ; 2. f fRT, f^, f fT; 3. 1^, f^, 1^^, etc. (3) In N. Maithili is used also a present from the root f^cfi, strength- ened from f^, for Sk. ^^^. This is regularly conjugated, f^^;^ or l^r^, etc., as in Table XVIII. * Anusvdr optional. 284' DIALECTIC CONJUGATION. [§§ 478-480. (4) Besides a preterite auxiliary derived from the root '^15, Maithili very generally uses, like other eastern dialects, a form from the root '^^. This is conjugated both in the form of the present and the perfect tense, "?![^ or "^f^^nr> ^^^- 5 t»ut always has a preterite sense, = H.H. '?n'> * was.' All these various auxiliaries, present and preterite, are used inter- changeably, with no difference of meaning ; and two or three different forms will be heard even in the same district. (5) Besides the above, Maithili, like all the Hindi dialects, uses as an auxiliary, certain tenses of the verb ^JFcT^H.H. ^•TT' As in other eastern dialects, the ^ of the original root, *T, is still preserved in one form of the inflected perfect, ^^X, etc., as also in the perfect participle, "i^, and the conjunctive participle, ^ c^. This inflected perfect, however, in none of these dialects, is used as an auxiliary. ■ 478. The very numerous forms of these two auxiliary tenses are pre- sented in Table XVIII. Conjugation in the Western Dialects. 479. The tense system in Braj corresponds essentially with that in High Hindi. For final ^j and ^, the Braj characteristically exhibits "^ and ^ (§ 101). Thus, e.g., for ^^, we have ^^ ; for '^^^T, "^^l^; for cfifT, ^lll", etc #, in the 1st sing., and "^ in the 2nd pkir. of the future tenses, are also vriddhied to nsft ; as, e.g., in f^T^? TrT"?!1^j ^f^, for H. H. fajT^, ?n^^T and ^R^. But for ^, we occasionally find ^'; and after a vowel ^ is sometimes retained. After roots ending in ^t? t^? or ^? we commonly have ^; not only, as in High Hindi, before ■^, but also before "^j occasionally before '^, and regularly before all terminations beginning with a consonant. Thus, e.g., we i have ^T^, ^T^^*^, ^^^^, H"^, ^^, for H. H. ^l^, ^^, ; "TTfTT, ^^T, ^■=?1T- Similarly, ^ is inserted after roots in ^; as, e.g., i^if 1^^^, 'who will touch (it)?.' 480. The Braj Infinitive or Gerund has two forms, thfrj one in ^'^ or w^, the other in ^ or ^. Before the latter termination, ^ is often inserted. This latter form is especially con)mon in the oblique singular. For the common inflection. §^ 481, 482.] DIALECTIC CONJUGATION. 285 Tj, of the infinitive, the Braj, after if has not only % but \, which, again, is often dropped, leaving «i as the final letter. To illustrate, for H. H. ^"^•TT? Braj has ^nc-ft wr ^T*^"^? ^■^^ or ^frrt"; inflected forms, cfii^%, ^^f^ or ^^^, and q5^% or c5if^%. The vowel of union, ^, after ^ is often hardened to Tf, as in fir^T^^'l", = H. H. f'T^T^- But still more commonly it combines with the preceding tSTT, forming ^, whence such common Braj forms, as, e.g., ^^ ^, for "^l^^ ^^,= H. H. ^^ grr, 'of coming;' ^^^^, for ^clT^qfTl" or ^fTTlC^'1*, = H. H. ^TW^, 'to show,' %y\ or ^^^, for ^^n, 'to give,' etc. etc. But before WIt, after ^t? ^ i^ more commonly found than ^; as in ^^^-ft, 'to steal,' for H. H. ^"^T'TT. Further examples are: ^^T efiT^ ^ Tff^^ •nff? 'there is no remaining always with any one ;' 7TT? ^^ ^T^fT ^^ "Rt^fl ^tx;^ ^^ ^, 'you are competent to make my sons wise men;' TraT ^if^ ^^^, 'the king began to say;^ ^ #t g?^^ cfi^ ^T^ ft) ' I have come to tell you.' 481. Instead of the High Hindi terminations cTT and ^T Braj Imperfect (^T) of the Imperfect and Perfect participles, the Braj has g partSples! and ^^. Before tt, roots in ^t sometimes take f;^ or ^ instead of ^, as, e.g., in %ZTf;^^ for ^TT^H, ' seating,' ifT^g, 'finding.' The H which in High Hindi is inserted in the perf. part, only after open roots, is always inserted in Braj before ^ after all roots whatever. Examples of these participles are, ftw, 'g^H, TTT^^^, '^m^'t, for H. H. ftclT, '^^m, ^TTT, ^m^. a. The final ^ of the imperfect participle is occasionally dropped even in the singular, and often in the plural. ^ is substituted for ^ in the feminine. Sometimes for the imperfect participle in fo>' ^^ or ^^,= H.H. ^; thus, ^^ ^cTT f?IT ^1f f^^ltl ^"t* 'ff'^e this daughter in marriage to him.' Tlie form has evidently arisen by sandhi from f^'^, from the root f^, for ^. (3) The verb cR-^*^, 'to do' or 'make,' in Braj often forms its perfect participle regularly as ^T^? instead of fw^, which, however, also occurs. Similarly the Kanauji makes ^■^, for H.H. fsR^T- 111 the future of this verb, besides the more common and regular forms, cfif^f^, oRfx;^, etc., the Braj also has %iff, 1|, etc., (for ^TTlt, etc.,) from the root oRT, one of the Prakrit substitutes for ir.* Thus, "^T^ j^ ^ %^j ' I will sway Indra's sceptre.' (4) In the perfect tenses of the three verbs, ^•tT, ^TT? ^T*IT» we often find, besides the forms already mentioned, the forms ^'^, ^ft'^j cR^^, or often, with ^ dropped, i)-^, ^nt, ^^- Thus, iqi;^ ^^^ ^giJcT ^^ oft^^ I ^ t^f^ ^^ ^T'^'T ^^ ^•ftjt ' some one in a former birth has jjractised virtue, hence Bra/mid has given this vision as a reward.' From the root or^, for cR"^, we also have a rare infinitive, oft'1^. Additional 490. Besides the regular tenses corresponding M^th those of the High Hindi, the Braj, as also the Kanauji, the old Baiswari of the Rdmdyan, and the other eastern dialects, presents, in addition to the common regular analytic present imperfect, formed by means of the participle and auxiliary, also a purely inflectional form of the same tense, exactly agreeing in form with the contingent future. While not infrequent in prose, it is especially common in poetry and * Vararuchi, Prdk. Prak. VIII. 17. t In Prof. Eastvvick's edition of the Prem Sugar, Anusvar is added to the final vowel in this passage. §491.] conjugation: braj. 291 in proverbial expressions. It is occasionally used even in literary Urdu, in such common expressions as ^\:>- \s>~ K/iiidd jYuie, 'God knows,' etc. Examples of the Braj tense are: ^ xtf^Tl f^^ ^ ^t^ 53?^ ^ in%, ' he who is wise regards neither sorrow nor joy ; ' ^^ ^w ^"^ ^1 i§e^^ff , ' he abandons the society of all;' xtf^rT cTft ^^ "^^"Tj 'there Pundits are recitini^ the Vedas.' This tense is very common both in literature and in the colloquial of the Ganges Valley. Further examples will be found in the Syntax. a. With this inflected present is combined occasionally, in Braj, the several persons of the present of the substantive verb, ^, %, etc. Thus, e.g., the following forms are found in the Fron Sugar: *{ ■q^^T»T ^, 'I recognize;' ^^ %, 'it appears;' "^7^^, 'they come.' Further west, in jNJarwar, this becomes the rule. There seems to be no difference in meaning between this and other forms of the present. This idiom is even more common in the collocpiial about Kanauj, tban in common Braj literature. Thus we often hear, ^jf^^ ^^fW^, 'the Sdhi/j is calling;' ^37 "^'R'^j 'I am coming.' Rem. Misled by the less common occurrence of the present tlian of the future sense of this form in modern Hij>h Hindi, most g-rammarians have stated that the contingent future ( 'aorist' of Forl)es and others) is some- times used in the sense of tiie ])resent. It is, however, more accurate to regard the present as the original, and the future as the secondary meaning of the tense, wliich in fact is the worn-out remainder of the Sanskrit pres. Parasmai, 491. Besides the above tenses, vet another is found Braj 'Inceptive ' 111 Imperfect.' occasionally in Braj prose and poetry, formed by the com- bination of the imperfect participle with the indefinite perfect, vjift, of the substantive verb, ft^lf. The nature of this tense may be best denoted by the term, ' Inceptive Imperfect.' It indicates the subject as entering upon the action expressed by the verb. Examples are : ift^fl "^^ ^ft? ' he began to drink the sour milk ; ' (ft ^ ^^ ^TrT *T f^^K is added. Thus, from ^tjt^, 'to read,' the perf. part. adj. is 'T'J^I'Ttj = H.H. x^^J ^^T ; from ^TTT'lft, ' to beat,' ?nT^^, = H.H. TTTTT ^'^IT, etc., etc. Before this affix ^, ^ of the ter- mination is sometimes dropped, as in oR^vt^, = H.H. faf^j ^^T- To the imperfect and perfect participles, when used adjectively, is also optionally added, eitlier the perfect par- ticiple, fof^, of ofuft, ' to be,' or ^^■^, or ^^; t as, ^ ifti:t % ^T^fft ^3^, ' I saw the boys coming ; ' ^t^fit ^^ ^^t ^^ ^m ^X fl^^5 'their father died in (their) childhood,' etc. a. Before the termination "^ of the perfect participle, ^ is often inserted in the 'Plays;' '^7 is also often written for ^. Thus, ^t:^! ^^"^ITT, 'the sun has risen;' jj^ TTTf^^T, '(I) have forsaken (my) kingdom;' ^T1^ % ^ ^if^^t, 'I have brought a paper (i.e., a letter).' b. When the participles are used as verbal nouns, or absolutely, ^ final becomes "^t in the oblique form. Thus, T^efi ?j f^^t f^^? 'I will take (thee) about the country;' so also, *fTTt HT^ Tf^iTRflt ^> ^ ^T^ %^, 'he will not make an hour's delay in sending for my property.' But otherwise the oblique form ends in ^t^ sing., ^, plur. * Do Tassy mentions an infin. in ^"j as, e.g-., ^■^^■, for ^^«TT. Tliis looks like a Western form, and is therefore noted here ; hut I have no further information about it. t ^efil" is evidently a perfect participle from the root ^J^, strength- ened from ^ (Sk. '^T). which appears in the H.H. JfJ. With this may be compared the Guj. subst. verb, ^^, and the Mt. strengthened pres. forms, "HlfeR, etc. Vid. § 477, (3). ^»ft is used chiefly in Mewar and Mairwara. 296 CONJUGATION : RAJPUTANA DIALECTS. [§§ 498, 499. c. The various verbal forms are often disguised by mean- I ingless enclitic additions. Thus we find ^T^rlT^ for WT^rTT, = H.H. ^fTT; cfrt^^^^ for ifrff^T, = H.H. ift^T; t^T» for H.H. ^^, etc.j etc. Coujunct.Part. ^gg rpj^^ Coniunctivc Participle exhibits several forms. lu Kajputiiua. •^ r- (I) The root alone is used; or (2j, % is added to the root; as, e.g., ^^^, T?K%5 = H.H. cR-^%, ?nT%- Both of these are used throughout Rajputana. The former often occurs in the 'Plays.' In Mewar, the conjunctive participle is formed (3) by adding ^3)% to the root; as, e.g., in 5311^, ?rr^%, = H.H. ^^%, ^T^%; or (4) by adding ^% to the imperfect participle, as in ^T^fftcR^, ' having cut,' = H.H. ^T3%-* (5) Again, in E. Rajputana, this participle is formed by adding '^ to the root. Thus we have inT''"= H.H. ?TTT^ ; o|t, = H.H. fr^?:; ^TT,= H.H. ?§T^-?r, etc., etc. This last form occurs in the 'Plays;' as, e.g., "Cf^ ^^"^ "^T^^, ' (although) thou wilt eat (it), sitting in a corner ; ' and in ' Randkir aur Prem Mohani^ ^"n:? = H.H. ^T ^; thus, ^ ci^ ^TZ cTT^"^ ^TTj ' tbis (fellow) bringing (his own) weights and scales.' (6) I have also heard repeatedly from a native of Rajputana a conjunctive participle formed by the suffix ^f^^TTUT or ^f^^T'TT, as, e.g., ^TTrefifT(;^Tl!rT, = H.H. ^^f^x:, ' having heard,' etc. This is said to be also used in poetry, but I have not met with any example. Xoim of 499. The Noun of iVgency is formed by the suffix ^T^, Aicency in i • i • i i i Kajputaua. which IS added to either form of the inflected infinitive. In this combination the infinitive in Tift, inflected to tut, seems to be the more common, but the other form of the infinitive is also used, as in the following : «=f TTt TT^ ^Z^T^T^^j ' the robber of my property.' (Play of Bungar Singh.) '^ Compare the Bagh. conj. part, termination, ^•Tlti^j given above, § 4U5. §§ 500-502.] CONJUGATION : rajputana dialects. 297 500. The Marwari tenses may be distributed in the same Marwan three groups as those of the High Hindi; though I doubt whether examples can be adduced of each of the twelve participial tenses. ^ is inserted before the terminations as in High Hindi, but much more freely. Thus, e.g., it is con- stantly inserted after a vowel in the contingent future, 1st sing, and 2nd plur. : as, ^^ iii[j ^^, ' shall I bring Ganges water?;' ^qf?^^ %^ ^T^j *go and get tidings (of him):' also before the termination of the imperfect participle, TTt? as in fl^rft, ^T^ fI^^Ti;t ^T'^T ^j §^ 504-506.] CONJUGATION : rajputana dialects, 299 'take swords in the hand;' X^TU ^(TT ^, 'point out the way.' Occasionally in the ' Plays,' the 2nd sing, terminates in ^; thus, ^7[ft fTTTTt TT't, 'mind my word.' 504. In the Respectful forms of the Imperative, the ' Plays' exhibit the terminations gft <>i* Wt, a»d % or ^. These ^ forms are added not only to a few verbs, as ^•TT? %«!Tj etc., as in High Hindi, but to all verbs whatever, even when the root terminates in a consonant. The form in 35ft or ^, at least, is used even with the singular of the 2nd pers. pronoun. Examples of these forms occur in the following : oRT7[^ ^t^'r\ ^T^'i^, ' immediately on reading the paper, come ; ' ^ ^in^ ^T^TTTj 'hear ye, chieftains;' tt TTcf %^ ^^%, 'make thou no delay;' Tfmj ^T^ TJTT) 'bring (him) to my feet.' a. Ill the colloquial, the respectful forms of the imperative are % or f^, and ^ or t^^^. Thus from ^THlft. ' to eat,' the respectful forms are ^»T% or ^1?^%, and ^^R^ or ^jf\^. In the 'Plays,' also, ^ is sometimes inserted hefore the termination ; thus, ^ ^^ cR'O'^ «Tjf^, 'make you no delay,' 505. In the tenses of imperfect action, the imperfect par- Tenses of the ticiple alone is used, as in High Hindi, for a past contingent Kalputaua. tense, and not unfrccjuently in the ' Plays,' as a present tense ; as, e,g,, f^^ ft?T ^ ^ft Tmm, 'lie who is perfect, dwells not (here),' 506* I^iit the Present Imperfect is regularly formed, both in the colloquial and in literature, by adding the several persons of the present of the substantive verb, either of the ^ or the f series, not to the imperfect participle, as in High Hindi, but to the contingent future forms. Illustrations are : ^'ft ^^^ ^irf t, '^j'og'i is calUng "^lakh"\'',* ^ ^5t% ^ fix;, 'why dost thou send (me) afterward?;' ^TT!J"?Tt ^ * Jlakh .' is ' O (thou) Invisible.' 300 CONJUGATION : RAJPUTANA DIALECTS. [§^ 507, 508. ^^ ^ TT^j ' ^'l^y d^ yo^ ^^y ^^^nds upon the merchant ? ' ; ^ ^TTt ^ ^^^5 ^ ^^'^^y do you eat poison ? .' a. The auxiliary is often omitted, especially when several verbs occur in the same construction ; so that the present imperfect is often identical in form with the contingent future. Thus, in the following, both the first and the second verbs are to be regarded as in the present imperfect ; ^wf ^^it 'TT^ I^Tt ^Tt % ^^ % ^TTj 'he is playing the lute, singing a song, standing without the palace.' Similar is the verb in the following; '^^^ cR ^x "'^T'^T^j Mvhat do you command me ? .' 507. The formation of the Past Imperfect is analogous to that of the present, except that the auxiliary past tense, ^ or 1^, of the substantive verb, is added both in the singular and plural, to that form of the verb only, which is found in the 3rd sing, of the contingent future. Thus, for the H.H, ^ ^•TcTT ^j we have ^ fl% ift, 'I was hearing;' similarly, for ^ ^n ^T^ %, 'what were you doing?' ^ ^j^ ^^ ^T oi* ^t IT, etc. a. These, forms are colloquial throughout Rajputana, hut the tense is sometimes also formed as in High Hindi, hy adding- the past tense of the substantive verb (1^ or ^) to the imperfect participle. Tenses of the gQS. The tcuses of the Perfect are all formed with the 1 eriect lu Eajputana. perfect participle, in combination, when necessary, with the various tenses of gir^ (^TT) ; and transitive verbs construe these tenses with the case of the agent, taking the object either in the nominative or dative, exactly as in High Hindi (§ 412). Thus in the following we have both the active and passive construction : ^^^ ^T^ t^lt^ ^t^t ^^cfl" ^^*t ^^j * a dream came in the night, — I saw (thy) head flying.' The following are illustrations of the more common tenses : ^ ^ % ^^ ^, 'I had sent thee;' ^ ^>% ^gft S^? 'he must have mounted (his) horse ; ' ^Tjf ^tii % flT"^^ ^^^j ' some one must have struck him.' § 509.] CONJUGATION : RAJPUTANA DIALECTS. 301 509. The Irreg-nlar verbs -mentioned at § 391, are irregular also in the Rajpufana dialects. In W. Rajputana, ^T^Xtfl', ' to do,' makes tlie perfect, ^^>, ^^, or ^^-^ft ; so %Ilft, ' to take,' perf., ^^ol and #^ ; ^llft, *to give,' perf., ^vft and ^^. So also, T^TWt' 'to eat,' makes the perfect, ^7^^. TT'^^Tfft, ' to die,' makes the perfect, ^T'^ or ^T^ft- But in E. Rajputana, as in the ' Plays,' ^"^T^Yj ^'iftj and ^Tjft, have the perfect in wf, '^, or vff, fern. «^, as in the following passages : ^T'^t cR^H^ Tf^??''^. ' '"y brothers have been careless (lit., done carelessness);' ^^ "Pfi^'^Ct, '(I) have taken up the life of a faqir;'' "^i "W^ ^^T TJ^ ^, ' lidm Ji hath given sorrow and joy;' % ^^^^^ ZT^T ''i ^^T^ ^tfY ^ft ^T% ^'Tt #, ' I have not let my children go to school;' ^T5^^ ^Tt* 'l«it it go.' ^T^H^j 'to go,' makes the perfect ^■^. Rem. These perfect forms in \:^ and ?X are well illustrated by such archaic Hindi perfects as 'fef^'^J. 'given,' ^ff^^, 'taken,' cited by Beanies from Cliand, who has also f^^, T\vt» and f^^^ = "feZTT. flfi^^ and f^33|«( = f^^. As he observes, ^^Tlft and ^Tlft have here oddly borrowed a form pro|)erly belonging only to ^^niH"' "iiich in Sk. makes the perfect passive participle ^3c|, l*r. ^^t- So also l^T^in"' which he does not mention. A similar confusion has given rise to the •! forms of the perfect ])articiple of ^"^Tlflf and ^TJJ^, in Miirwdri and other dialects, as also f%"?(T ai"l tV^T '» High Hindi.* a. Besides the verbs that are usually irregular in other Hindi dialects, all veri»s of wiiich tiie root terminates in ^, often lose that letter before the various verbal terminations, and tiius appear as irregular. Thus the perfects of the verbs oR^Tlft, 'to say,' "^^^TJlY, 'to remain,' ^^Ilft, 'to flow,' become ^^^, "'J^^, ^^^, as in the following : cRift ^iTTTt ^T»T, 'regard what I have said;' ^Tf?r^ ^^ T^ ■^^TIFT' ' i" *•'« month of Kdtlk we remained without salt;' ^^^"^ of^ ^TKJ •mr'^» 'water has flowed in your eyes.' Sometimes the ^ of the termination is doubled, in compensation for the loss of ^ ; thus, 5^^ ^TT cfi^TT TT*!. ' if thou regard my word.' Sometimes, again, '^ is inserted in the hiatus caused by the elision of ^, giving such forms as l^^r= cfi^ ; "^^fffr^ "^^ffj; etc., etc. Thus we have, e.g., cR^ ■'^'^, ' remain in happiness;' * Vid. Beanies, Coiiip. Graniin. vol. iii. 144-147. 302 conjugation: rajputana dialects. [§§510,511, ^^t ^fT, ' say the word ; ' ;^ -T^' ■?:^ffr T^ ^if^ ^ ^t , ' that (man) dwells not in this village ; ' ^ ^ TT^^ ^^HT '^T. ' that man also was saying.' Sometimes in the imperative, ^ being dropped, the concurrent vowels are united, so that we have '^f for '^^, and "^ for ■?;^. Similarly, cj} stands for ^f^, and ^ for ^"^ or ^f^, as, e.g., vf^ sf ^T^, 'the river flows away.' Causal Verbs 510- Causal verbs in Marwar and Rajputana g'cnerally, are iu Bajputana. .-r*.! it* <.itt formed as in Braj, by addnig ^SIT^ to the root tor the First, and ^T^ for the Second Causal. A long vowel in the root of the primitive, is shortened as usual before the heavy affix. These forms therefore require no further illustration. But a few verbs with monosyllabic open roots, shorten a final long vowel in the root, and insert "^ before wm for the 1st causal. Thus ^Tjft, 'to give,' makes its first causal, f^'^T^ilf^, and %T!fr, 'to take,' t^-?:TWl"; as, e.g., It ^^ t^TTf, 'I will cause (him) to take up jog- ; ' i.e., ' to become an ascetic' Alternative forms, ^^T^uft and ^^t^wI"? also exist. a. Verbs with '^ final in the root drop this ^ before the causal termi- nations, as in the primitive conjugation ; thus we have the following examples: ^'^T f^^ "m^5J^. 'the Mater caused (all) to flow away;' T^ TT^T ^^T^ffr ^, 'I am called a king:' where ^^T f^^t. ^^T^rfr ^. respectively = H.H. -^fj f^^T, ^f^TfTT #• The M&rwari 511. The colloquial Marw^ri west of the Aravalli hills is distinguished IllIlGCtGQ Passive '^^ ^ regular inflectional passive verb, the root of which is formed by adding the syllable ^^ to the root of the primitive. Roots containing a long vowel shorten that vowel before this affix. Verbs which take "^ before the causal, insert it also before the passive affix. Thus, to illustrate, from cJi'^Tlftj 'to do,' is derived the passive, o|i"^5|in^= H.H. f^'^ ^7»n'> ' to be done ; ' from Tg^'^uft, ' to eat,' the passive ^^'^SITjft. ' to be eaten;' from ^niftj 'to take,' and STift, 'to give,' the passives, f%"^^Wt> * to be taken,' and 'fel^'SfXIlt. ' to be given.' Even neuter verbs may take this passive form. Thus, we have from "^T^Tjftj 'to come,' the passive '^^'Srnrt- I" the case of such verbs, however, the passive is only used impersonally in the 3rd masc. sing. These passive verbs are conjugated throughout like regular primitive verbs. Thus, ^^ ^^ftt ^^ = H. H. ^^ % ■^J•^■^ w\ff gjTflT, ' it is not come by me,' §§ 512, 513.] CONJUGATION : rajputana dialects. 303 i.e., ' I cannot come ; ' t--^ fJT^Wt> ' I was beaten ; ' ^ ^ ^T^' ^^W<^, 'it will not be eaten by you,' i.e., 'you will not be able to eat it.' These forms are rarely heard east of the Aravalli hills. 512. In tbe dialects of W. Rajputana the various forms of Intensive Intensive Compound verbs, explained §§ 427-432, are but rarely used. Instead of ^°"l^°'"^f '" these forms, tj"^ or '^^ is prefixed to the verb. Tlius, for J{W ^^TUT the IMarwaris say, tf-^ ^"^^XJt ; for ^ttfT ^•TT» 'to go away,' tlVt Wr^TTft ; for -^3 WT*!!. ' to rise up,' TT"^ "^^Tjft- But when the action is regarded as terminating with, upon, near, or for the agent, "^1^ is used instead of q-^. TIius, ^"^ %T[ft, ' to take for one's self'= H.H. % «!l«lT. etc. These compounds with ^"51^ therefore approximate in use to tbe Middle Voice in Greek. Xf^Q^ and ^^^ are inflected to tj"?^! and ^^T. obi. masc, and tjl^ and ^'^j fern., to agree with the subject of neuter verbs, or with the object of transitives. Examples are, ^ ^"^ ^T, or (fern.) ^ ^;(Y ^J = U.K. TT ^^T ^T or ^^ ^T- But with a transitive verb, in any tense these must agree with the object. Tlius, ^ ^ft^ ^X\ %%, 'let him take tbe book (i.e., for himself);' :^ Tft^\ ^■'CV %^ ^, ' I take the book (for myself) ; ' ^ ift^ XJ-J^^ ^f^, ' he will give tbe book away ; ' etc. Rem. Hence there will evidently be some verbs which can only be used with one of these prefixes. Thus, wliile one can say, ^'^ ^T'Ct? ^TJIT ^TWtj ^Tt '^TTtft or ^"^ WlWt would be a contradiction in terms. a. In M^irwdr, when tbe Imperfect Participle of any verb is combined M&rw&,ri with "^^»TT» as in Continuative Compounds in High Hindi, tbe com- ^jf^^l^^ bination lias, not a continuative, but a negative sense. Thus, in tbe Rajputana colloquial, ^Tfft T¥Wt> is not * to continue singing,' but ' to be kept from singing,' ' not to sing.' So, again, cfiy^X^ W^ ^ ^ JT'T'^ TTT^ ^TffT TW' '^ ' ^^^'^* *''® door that the people may not come in,' — not, * may continue to come in.' 513. Before leaving- these Rajputana forms, we may briefly Forms used by indicate a few peculiar forms of the Rajput bard Chanel, as noted by Beames. (1) The Imperfect Participle occasionally ends in ^ ; as, e.g., W^^, Tf '^^ H-H. f^rlT, Tf fH- (2) The Perfect termination, f;^*\ (i;^)? ^i* transformed into ^^, ^qf, or TJ^, as, e.g., f^3^, 'gave,' for H.H. f^^T; ^fl^, 'wandered,' for H.H. ^iTT^Tj ^tw^j ' spoke,' = H.H. -^^j, etc., etc. 304 conjugation: Himalayan dialects. [§§514,515. (3) The final ^j of W^l is sometimes shortened, thus, :^tSJ ; ^^is used as a conjunctive participle. (4) For ^^, ^ given' and ^^"^5 'done,'f^^ and fsa^ occur; and for ^t^t, f^f^- (5) The Conjunctive participle is sometimes made to terminate in i[^, xy:( or '^, as, e.g., in f^^ for H.H. "^-^c^; t%f^^, for H.H. ^^%, ^^=^^11, for H.H. %^-?:. Garhwali and 514. The verb in the Himalayan dialects of Garhwdl and Kumaon Avmiaom ton- pj.ggp,jtg }„ many respects a sug-gestive resemblance to the Mdrwari conjn- g-ation. Thus, the auxiliary substantive verb has ^ for its radical consonant ; ^^ (fem. ^^), instead of lU, is in many places the termination of the future ; »[ in the infinitive, as elsewhere, is chang-ed to TJJ. ^ final in a root is very commonly rejected and the concurrent vowels combined ; but the consequent sandhi is to tSJ^ and not ^; as in G. '^jTlft' for H.H. ■^^•IT; so that '^, instead of ^, appears to be preferred as a vowel of union before the infinitive termination. But with these resemblances, tliere also are some variations from the Mdrw^ri type. Most noticeable is the Imperfect Participle, which often ends in ^Y or "ffY* p'ur. ^ or "5^7, instead of eft, fTT» thus resembling- the Panjabi. The cf^ forms, however, are also used, also sometimes retaining' the ancient •! before ff, as in ^"^"^SflY, 'raining',' for H.H. '^"^^fJT. In the tenses of the Im- perfect Participle of some verbs with a vowel final in the root, Kumdoni rejects the participial termination before the auxiliary, and shortens the final radical vowel, giving, e.g., f^ 1^, for H.H. ^ffT %> 'he gives.' The future termination, ^^, in Garhwdll is often added, not to the con- tingent future terminations, but to the root. I have sometimes heard the negative particle interposed between the conting. future and this sufBx ^f^, thus: TJ^ WT ^T ^ ^l" = H.H. ^^ ^fT 'IfY ft'Ft", 'such a thing will not be.' Of the two Garhwdli forms often given in the ' Tables,' the first belongs to Tiri, the second is used further east. Tlie causal afBx '^^ is softened to "=^ ; giving, e.g., from the intransitive verb, ^^Tlftj 'to float,' the causal '^^Tlft. I should expect that in these dialects there would he an inflected passive conjugation, as in the closely-related Mdrwari, and the Naipali dialect, contiguous on the east ; but I have not been able to secure examples. Naipali Conju- 515. The Naipdli conjugation, so far as I have been able to procure o'ation. ° material, is exhibited in the Tables. In the case of the verb S^«T, ' to be,' >» I have been obliged to supply a number of forms from the analogy of other TABLE XVIII. PIALECTIC COXJUGATIOX OF THE SrBSTAXTIVE A-ERB.— riii:sENT Tkn-^v;, ■! nm,' etc. Iligll llhiUI Kaniwjl. Ilrcj. If ll.lj. E. Ilnj. I!aihwilll. K«m:hnl. Xaijiilt. i»t »«n.l»fr K»». If. if- *■ ^■ »t. t«n.tih. t It. It- wt- "^ «rf. s f *' ^f*. rf. TtarJ / ^fz^. %%-t- / -^fi^. ^. '5T. ^1^. ^ - I t * »t. «t. fr. »> t • «••/.%.%. ft.' St^-^ Sft.ll^ f.«T iV '5?ff.'?nf?.^-?^.^t. '«i?ff,vtrw.'«ifT.^6. / ^f?€- ^S- / TTJi;- '% / '"^T- t- ^57. «T 5't/-§^«T.' Tl?^. IJ!' 1^.^. 51.Sl/fel- ^sf?. list- TI#t- / gifzi. ^?^. / ^ffl- ^. wiaft. / 51 zY. '!n?ft. 5reo. 5T^T- / 517*.'' 5Tfa^- f5« / WTffl- ?Y- ?5i?;. ?^^. ■ iT'fif /.?Y. / 5TW. ??|. /. ff^t. / fs. /■«ftt mr^, W^- Wf'- fft. %.' il.'' ^. w>- :tft. J3I. fsi^lt. ftif^iF. ftif^^it, fJiN'siT ■ fq%."fsi!li>.(«ii»t / v'Y tm. ^». no. ijtw. (q^. f«i'(rt "' f«i«f?. v\fm WIT." 5?t. ffS'. #t. W. 5^15?, ^5j, SK't! ./■ ^ ffi^l ^ ft' f^i, ff^isil. 5fl. W1. ff?Y. 5?- W. Vf HiT-t Uk\'^. fnSS'« ' Cl.lilly liilfiioiriill.r. = Tl,o cl nilliiml ihniigi. lliriiin;liuul llu' .sing, onil |.liiral. ' TLcsc slioilfi forms nre iinftrred to the longer iibcD llic vrrb is u».cl os nuxiliarj, tlirougliout the >iMg. iiuU plunil. 1 N. Mu/allunHii. ^ 31 .,,it;oni.ll)' iHhhcl. " ANii.vlir oi.li..li«l. TABLE X\in. — {Compkfed.) DIALECTIC CON JUG ATIOIS" OF THE SUBSTANTIVE YEEB. — Bast Texse, 'I was,' otc. p H. Hinrf/. Kanatiji, BmJ. W. «,(/ IS. RdJ. QarhwdU. Kumioni Naijtdtf. O/ri Baiswdf!. .■lca 'going,' from ^T»T. 'to go ; ' '^T^?Y> ' coming,' from '^^•T> ' to come.' a. In many verbs, however, 'while they were going.' But the ohlique form in '^TT '* J*!^"* used in this construction, with no apparent difference of meaning; as in f^"^t^^^ (fl^"?^ 5lt^T ^f^. ' as they were going toward Jerusalem.' Adj. Suffix of 518. When the perfect participle is used adjectively, the sufSx efi^ is reit. Part. added to its obi. masc. form. Tiius, in the attributive construction, ^ ^ZT^ ^ ^T^ ^rr TTT' ' ^ring (and) kill the fatted calf ; ' and, in the predicative c when referring to a feminine noun ; thus, ^^ ^ ^T^ "S^T ^TT % ^4^1 «fi1^ ^. ' liis mother-in-law was sick with a great fever;' and to cRJ, when the reference is to a noun in the oblique masc, singular or plural ; thus, f{'^J ^^^ ^o ^^ f^MT'^'lT TT ^{^TT Wl W^' ' "ly children are asleep with me In bed.' * a. The participle thus combined with ^bY> '"''^.V again be used as a noun, and may then take the plural afiSx ^^, which is added to the inflected form, ^J. In this way the affix ^^ is sometimes appended to whole clauses, w hich are thus treated as substantives. Examples are : TT^T ^^ ^T'TT ^f ^ ^^ ITT, 'to bind up the broken-hearted;' *TfT ^f^ ^4^1^ I ^f^''^ '^^, 'those (who were) afflicted (by) being possessed with devils came.' \aipali Subst. 619. The substantive verb, ^T>T, 'to be' or 'to become,' forms tlie Verb . . . "* imperfect participle regularly, but in the perfect participle and the tenses derived from it, it reverts, like many other dialects, to the more primitive form of the root, ^o; so that we have a perfect participle, ^'^, and an inflected perfect tense: — 1. sing., ?^'^, ' I became ; ' 2. sing., ^^[^ ; etc. It is to be noted that Naipali possesses also an imperfect participle, ^^, * being,' belonging to the root ^ (^W)t which appears in the present of the substantive verb. It chiefly appears in the absolute constr?iction, as in tlie following: ^'!^T T W^T» ' ^^ the absence of the multitude.' Xaipali Noun 520. In the Naipali Gospel no instance occurs of the Noun of Agency o gency. j^^ ^^j or '^TTT» or of any form tiiat could be connected with these. Instead of these, is used a form derived from the root by the addition of the suffix tjrr* as from ^T'Tj ' t" sow,' ^iJJTj *a sower,' = H.H. ^ •T^TT^n" ; from ^'5'T» ' to rise,' ^'5»?rr > *tc. The plural is regularly * With this idiom may be compared the exactly analogous use of the affix ^ in Mdrwdri. Vid. § 497. §§ 521, 522.] CONJUGATION : Himalayan dialects. 307 formed by tlie sufBx ^'^ ; as in ^Tf^ 'm^'Q^'^. * tliose finding salvation.' This appears, however, to liave a somewhat broader use than the Higli Hindi noun in ^^. Thus, we have, Luke xv. 12, ^"^ W^^ ^IT ^^^ 'S'^, 'give me the portion that is to be mine;' where, in High Hindi, ^«T^T^ would scarcely be used. Otiier illustrations are: "rm ^1" ^•'I W*^ %^T "rfST^ "^^j ' the time of its becoming desolate is at hand ; ' ^"^^ ^"^^ TTT^'TT I*?!! ^T! ^> ' '"y house is a house of prayer.' In these last, as in otiier instances, this form seems to be used where High Hindi would prefer an inflected form of tlie infinitive. 521. The conjunctive participle in Naipali is regularly formed by Xaipali Conj. adding to the root ^ or ^; to wliich the suffix ^T. H.H. efj"^ or ^, is ' very commonly added. Thus, from f^^J^, 'to go,' 'to move,' we have the conjunctive participle, f^f^, or f^f^ ^"T ; from cfZt^^T. ' t<» gather,' ^^t%, or ^'Zl'f% efi'T- I" the case of a number of common verbs whose roots tertninate in ^, the root alone, «»r with e|5»T added, forms the conjunctive participle ; as from f^^. * to take,' conj. j)art., f^f or f^ ejfif ; f^^T, ' to give,' conj. part., f^ (tr f^ ^if ; etc. In a few monosyllabic roots ending in «, the '5^ of the conjunctive participle unites with this final inherent d, giving forms in TJ. The most important ex- amples of this are found in the case of the verbs, ^T»I, ' to go,' and S«T, ' to be,' in which, respectively, the roots ^o and ^o, which in other dialects are ctmfined to the perfect participle, are substituted also in the conjunctive participle; giving the forms, ;ij or % o(5«f, 'having gone,' and ^ or ^ ^1, ' having been' or 'become.' 522. The contingent future and imperative are identical in form, except ^T.,ip?^]i Con- in the 2nd and 3rd sing., and the 3rd plur. In the imperative, the 2nd V""- ^i*- ""^ ° '^ '^ Imperative. sing, consists of the root alone, as in High Hindi, to which in the 3rd sing, the sufBx "^BJ^, and in the 3rd plur., the suffix ^Vf, is added.* Thus, from ^TTT» 'to speak,' we have the imper. 2nd sing. ^«f; 3rd sing., ^«l|tl ; 3rd plur., ^•T«T- The respectful or precative forms of the imperative, so common in other dialects, I have not found in Naipali. Their place appears to be taken by a combination, in the honorific style, of the infinitive of the verb with the 3rd sing, imperative of the verb ;^»T, 'to be,' as in the following: ^T^T e^^TT ^T^ ^TT ^^^, 'be pleased to look upon my son ; ' TT'lTf^ TTT ^T f^^T ^qti, 'your excellency will be pleased to go to my house.' * So Hoernle (Comp. Gramm. p. 333) ; but in the Naipali Gospel, I have found both these forms also in the contingent future. 308 CONJUGATION : HIMALAYAN DIALECTS. 523-525. Naipkli Absol Future. I^aipali Tresent. I^aip&Ii Past Imj-erfect. 523. In the absolute future, Naipali agrees with Kumdoui and Garh- w&\\, in using^ the type in ^ (^, ^^ or ^^) ; in which, again, ^ is optionally clianged to «!• As will appear from the Tables, these termi- nations, which in certain cases take personal endings, are added to various forms of the contingent future. To the forms in % are also added, some- times, the several forms of the present tense of the substantive verh, W , etc. ; as in 7I7;«f ep= H.H. ^"^^. 524. Naipali has three forms of the present, which do not appear to differ in meaning. The first, and most common, is formed by adding to the unchanged root the present of the substantive verb, ^, 1^^, etc. ; the second, by adding to the weak form of the imperfect participle the several personal endings ; the third is formed as in High Hindi, by combining with the imperfect participle the present tense of the substantive verb. In this last case, the weak form of the participle is used, and suffers no change for person, gender or number, which are indicated by the substantive verb alone. In the Gospel, at least, this third form is infrequent. As examples of these three forms of this tense, we thus have, from 7IT«T, * to do, ' to make,' the 1st plur., 1st form, ^■^^; 2nd form, ^7;2T;* 3rd form, ^"^^o Ip. The full para- digms are given in the Tables. 525. The past imperfect in Naipdli exhibits two forms, having no apparent difference in meaning. Of these, the first, and much the most common, is formed after the analogy of the 1st form of the present, by adding to the root the past tense of the substantive verb, ^t>t f^TO) ^tc- 5 the second corresponds to the 3rd form of the present, and, like the imperfect in High Hindi, is formed by combining with the imperfect participle the past tense of the substantive verbs. As in the present, the participle is used unchanged throughout in its weak form. Thus the first form, e.g., of the past imperfect of tlie verb, H«T"I> * to speak,' is as follows :— -Sin^. (1) ^^rs^, (2) ^^f^, (3) ^^^gir; pi^r. (i) ^^w, (2) ^^t^, (3) ^^^T- The 2nd form of the same is. Sing. (1) »1^^o f^^t. (2) ^^^'^ t^^, etc., etc. a. In the periphrastic form of both the present and the past imperfect, for the weak uninflected form of the imperfect participle, is often substituted througliout an inflected loc. form in ■^. In some instances it is not easy to see any difference in the meaning of the two forms ; but * I supply this from analogy. t For ^zrt. Hoernle gives f^'^ or°^. Conip. Gramni. p. 366. TABLE XIX. — DIALECTIC CONJUGATION OF ft^T, 'to be.' High Hindi Kanauji. Braj. ;r. /fa/'. E. RdJ. GarhwdU. Kumdoni. Naipdli. Old Baiswdrl. AvadhL ft^. RiwdL ft^. Bhojpuri. Mdgadhl. Maithili. Infin. i)^\- ft^. • ft^^^^. itwt. olxjft. ftw, ^■^■ ftWt.sfwt. ftl^t. Itllft. W^. ft^. ftT. ft^^. it?:^. f>jt. ft^^. ftn^. ft^f . O P s t- ft. ft. ft. ft. ft^. ftn. ftn. ftii. ft. ftit. it^ ft^ ft^ ft. • »t^t. 'I^t. 'Ift. ftgt. ftt. ft^. fWr^. ft^t. ft^T. ftt. ft^t. ft^. ft^. ft^. ft^T. ft^. ft?:, ft^. ftff , ftftr- ftT- it^. ftff. ftf%. ftfl. ftF. ftff. f>3. ft^. ft^. ftt. ft^. ft^. ^t«i. «fT^. ft^t. /• ft^. ft'^iftf, ft^^TO. /• ftr^. ftn, ft^. ftt- it^, -fr^t. /■ ?t^t%. ftn. ft-*i, ft^. ftt== /.ftl. ft^. /. ftr^t. frit, ft^T- f 5V* itt.^^t^.ft. •^•^^• ft^ra, fr^?;. ft'^i^. ftn. ft^^, ft^.^ ftit. /• ft^. ftff T. ft?t. ft^. ftt- ftff^. itft, f^, ftt ^^^ ^^ ^^ gg;; ^^''^' ^^''- ft^t^. f^f^^t. ^t?:^ijf, ^t^^"!.^ ^fti^t. fr^t. ft^. fr^, ft^. ftT^.* ftt- ftr^. ^t.' ftft,^ ftf . /■ ftff. ft^.^ftn.^ft^.ft. ^ ftt ft^ftr. ftt,* ftlT, ff^. ft^t.* ft^t. It. ft^f . itT^,* i>T^. ftt. ^- rj- ft^itOf . ftT^>f , ftTit'f . ftr^.^ ^^' ft'iiir'^, ftif. ft^-'f, ftft,* ^t^t. / ft^. Ci^'ft'^if. ft^. ft'^iftpf , ftf'pf . ft^f?r, ^*lii«j. ?t^, fm. iVxpf . ft^^- ftfi^- /• fr^f'f . it^t- fr^'f , ftff, ftf, ft'xi, ft>ff f , ft^tt^. itif . frt- * Also y^, both here and in the Present, Table XX. ^ optional after ^ throughout the Plur. Anusvar optional. * ^ optionally added. Imperf. Part. 9 . , i>xt wr.' of^. b| ^t. ff^T ^il^T. ^tw'^fr frcT. ftfT. ftT-fr^.fr. ^_ fTT.fr^.fr. _-v_ iWf . ftftr. ^^^■ frw^l^. ftrl^f^T. fTfT^f. frff. ftfi (f ff ).^ ftcT ^f^. fr^. ftrl (f^). frff . ftrl (fff).= ffT- ^^o wr. :Fwr. ftfiTf. frriTf- frcTTf. fTfTtt- frn Tf^. frww. frrT^lT. frfTT%- frrrTnt. frrTTt- Riwui. Bhojpuri. Mdffadhi. MaitliHi. frw. frfT.fr^ri.ft^^fT. fr^fT, fr^rT, fr^T. frrTi, fm. frrr ^t frcT -^jix- fr^ "^. ittT mz^' fr?! ^T. fr^T ^t. frai t'. fTrT ^Tll. frfi^T. fTfT^^o. frcT ^t frw ^z^. fTfl ftcT frr^i^- ftT^ i- ftr^iT- frT^ fV. ftT^ 1°. fr^ It- it?^cTit- ^' frrT Tf^m (I^).^ ft^TT f^. itfT TfW (lo).3 ft?;fi 1^. TWT. fTr! ^s^ frrr Tf ^"t (i).' fr^^ f '5fV. ftrr ^;_^ frcT Ti^° (f °).' fr?[^ i^°- frr^ w^- I I fr^ ^^r^. fr^^ frr^ ftT^ The jiardciple hloiie is also used for tlie imperfect past. Tiie use of the auxiliary is exceptioiiiil. Optionally inserted in Saran. ^ Honorific, as reg-ards the subject. TABLE XIX. [Con/miu;!). — DIALECTIC CONJUGATION OP ft^T, 'to bcv //. Hindi. \ KamujI. SiaJ. fr. n,ij. 5, ft. ft. ftrif. ftrt- ftn'fr. ftft. ftipit- ftwt, ft»r. frTl'.flfti5}. ^. fn%. 5?ft. fr^'ft'. ft^. slsft, «!»)>. «l%, ftrf. 5"dt. ^. fTTf". °1ft. 5|^t»n. ft%^. f^qtt. 5|llt^. °1%'. ftl'^. #ft. s|»n. ft%"»r, ^% b|^t. ffft- "o^^. ^«t- Sf«t. Garhwdll. Kumdont. Naipdll. Old BaUwdrl. Avadhi. ^5n. j ^^T. ft^. it. it. ftTT. ft. ft^^n- itww- ft?IT. fi^i^. it?;flf. itTfff.fmtf ft?:iftr. ft'a^- ft^. ft^- ft?:iff , fi^ff , fr^- ft- 3. ft^re. it^-'s.n^ii. ftrfff- it?;f^. ftntf. ftl. it^- ft^. ft^. it^ ftw- f>. f>ft. fttf. ft. it^^- ftw it- it^- it- BhojpM. ft^- it^.ftt- am- JS"'^'"^-^^- ft<1?[. ftft, f TTI^. /■ ftTi- ft^l. /ft^V /•ft^. TtTft'ft^'nf. ity> ft^¥ it. °fTO. 35T^. itTi, ft. itt. ft'^if , it^- fT^^T. fl^.'' ft^ft- /• ftft- it^fi^, fr^it, itTf^- f"t^. ?\^T, itf^^, ft^, it^./ Tff^^t, fl;^. iT^. fi»fr?, ir^t'f • it^f^. ftp^z itp^». frt^f^, iTp»ft,* it»it. ftv. ft^. it^. /. itfrrff. itiltf. frftft- /•ftPi- it^tf^. ftfspi, frwt. ^^f^- /itfn^.frfratf^ ft?l^, fTfrf^, it era, ITJlit, ftnfi^- itatrT. ilTWf • it^'f, itfpi, iitfr^. iifiTn, itm- it ft- t^f^ IT- t«f1T fT- f^f^ lit- l^f^ WT- fsf^ WT- f**|*T^^ WT^-= ^^^IT- »IT^IT- ^^t It »?T^° IT- *l^^ WT^o. HT^I it- »TT^ ^T^f - HT^TI^- ^T^Ti^ra- «?^^ TI^- HT^ TI^- »1T^TI^- HT^ TI%- It^t- fr^ I- 'if^r^o Maithili. j I it^l %• I H^T ^"5. fFanting, ft^I^- ^^ Ti- ft^ I^- »1% Ti- lt^ f^- 5|'5I Ti- ft^ I^- ^'^TI- ft^of^. I ^g^T%- ft^ll^- M^T TI- frantmif. ~. s .-^ Js .ci. i. ift^'Efi-lTT^'lt^ .\lso ftX % tliroiighout the sing, aud plur. " This Coiijiigatiou with ^T^. etc., in tlic M'. niid iu Champilriin. §§ 526-528.] CONJUGATION : Himalayan dialects. 309 commonly this latter form seems to be preferred when it is desired to suggest the action of the verb as a permanent condition ; as in the words of the Lord to tlie messengers of John the Baptist, '^\ri ^^fl ^T. ' the blind see,' etc. b. In the first form of both the present and the past imperfect, roots ending in a vowel take Anusvdr before the substantive verb ; thus, from 5ITT, ^t^. 'I go ;' f'om f^«T. f^l^^. * thou takest ;' from :^«T, ^^"l", 'ye are;' from T?T^»T, "TT^ll'T. 'they find,* etc. So in the past imperfect we have, from f^^T, fs^zf^, 'he was giving;' from '^T^'T, tSTT"^^. * we were coming,' etc. Also "?^»T. * to remain,' and T^'Tj 'to burn,' sometimes takes Anusvar under similar conditions ; as, e.g., in ^^^•T> 'they remain ;' cT^^, 'I burn.' 526. In the tenses of the perfect, Naipdli chiefly uses an inflected XaipiH Perfect perfect, given in Table XXI. But sometimes a periphrastic present and '-'"^*^^- past perfect are used, formed by combining with this inflected indefinite jterfect, the present and past tenses, respectively, of the substantive verb. It is to be remembered tliat in these tenses Naipdli follows the idiom of Eastern Hindi in making the transitive verb always to agree in person, gender, and number, with the subject of the action, even though after the analogy of Western Hindi the postposition is appended to the noun which denotes that subject. The periphrastic definite perfect is given in Table XX ; of the past perfect the f<»!lowing is an example, frdm the verb |?ij, « to see:'— Siw^. (1) ^l§^t f^^, (2) ^f^^ \^M, (3) ^?|^ f^^"^ ; Plur. (1) ^^JI^ f^^, (2) ^T^^^ f^^^, (3) ^^in f^^, or"^% t^^. 527. Naipali forms First and Second Causals after the analogy of the Naipnli other Hindi dialects; adding for the First Causal the suffix ^^ (Br. ^""'^"'*- ■^^, H H. '^), and reduplicating this for the second or double Causal. Instances of irregular formations by internal change of the verbal root are also found, as in High Hindi. Examples are : — from ?n^«T. * to die ;' TTTT'T, *to kill;' ;RX^T^»T, 'to cause to be killed;' JIX^, 'to do,' ' make ;' ^"^T^T* ' to cause to make.' But I liave met one example of a Causal formed by adding '^ to the root, in '^Z^T^Tt' 'loosed.' 528. The only passive which is used in the Naipdli Gospel is an Naipali In- inflected passive, formed by the addition of ^'^ to the root of the active ^'^ ^ assive. verb. From this secondary root the several tenses are formed by adding the same terminations as in the active verb. This ^^ is reduced to '5[ 310 CONJUGATION : HIMALAYAN DIALECTS. [§§ 529-532. before the termitiations of the perfect participle, and before wf in the infinitive and tlie verbal noun in "RIJ . Thus, from the infinitive ^"^•T* * to beat ' or 'to kill,' is formed the passive infinitive, ♦i|f\«i, ' to l)e killed,' and the passive verbal noun, ^Tlf^T'TT- Other examples are the follow- ing :—^^ ft f^TTT^^T^. 'when thou shalt be turned;' gif^^^fTT. 'he shall be beaten;' •fTflT^^Tj *ye shall be destroyed;' fjo f^[^- Tt B^Tt ^rf^T'SIT ''^t'^ ^f^«T°. * I a"™ ii«t worthy to be called thy son ;' (5^ V«!^ ff^ J||f^4i1"> 'that rich man, having died, was buried;' HT^C^j ' they were found,' etc., etc. IS'aipali Com- 529. The various forms of compound verbs which are formed in High pound Verbs. ,^,. v . , , . „ , . „ . . ~ , . »t . ^i/ • i ■ Hindi with the inflected infinitive, are formed in Naipali with the iininflected infinitive in its weak form ; as in ;^?f ^T^JTYj ' '* began to be,' etc. But in the formation of the Frequentative, ^"^TTCH.H. ^'?^«n) is combined, not with a verbal noun in "^ , as in High Hindi, but with the inflected (loc.) form of the imperfect participle in "^, as in the following: — «I5^T ^f^TT ^TZ^ IT^ZJt. 'the dogs were wont to lick his sores.' This same form of the imperfect participle is used in the formation of Continuatives ; thus, 5ITT^ "^^ ^=H.H. ^T^f '?;^ ^, 'he was staying awake.' In Continuatives formed from the verb ip'VT, the root tj is substituted for this, as in ft ^ "^% ^^= H.H. cI ^ "^^ ^J. 530. It is important to note a peculiarity in the use of the negative with certain of the verbal forms, in that, instead of following the verb, it is regularly inserted before the final letter of the terminations. Thus we have ?rr«T^»T. ' they believe,' but Trr«T^«T«T, ' tiiey believe not ;' Wrf'''^> 'thou knewest,' but ^'f«l«m, 'thou knewest n(1 ^f^^® ; f*»»' the latter, '^ff ^, and ^ff^ Wt- Conjugation in the Eastern dialects. Conjugation in 532. Ill the old Baiswari of the Rdmdyan, as in all archaic e umaymi. ^Wx^^i poetry, the tense-system is not so fully developed, nor are the distinctive characteristics of the various tenses so uniformly and distinctly marked as in modern High Hindi. §§533-536.] CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. 311 But on the other hand, we find a g:reat variety of termina- tions, and some tenses which are unknown to High Hindi. We begin with the tenses corresponding in general to those of High Hindi. 533. The Infinitive or Gerund presents two forms, analogous infiuitivo in the liiiniui/un. to the two in Braj, viz., one in •!, and another in ^. Examples are: ^^ ^ff ^^ ^«T %^^j 'when (he) told him to give up Vaidehi;' f^^ f^•^ \-[^ ^^^^ H^ ITf^, 'it is not well to return without Rmn and Sitd.'' The inflected forms also occur; as, e.g., '^•^ •! ^t%j 'it is not so to be.' = H.H. ^r^t ft% ^; '^ fT^ ^^^^ tftf^^ ^T^^, '1 am able to break thy teeth.' 534. The Imperfect Participle is formed by adding tf to the Imperf. and root; as from f^^^^, 'to behold,' f^^^rT, ' l>t'holding.' th^ifawJ^a^." This is often, though not invariably, inflected to fT[ for the feminine; as in ^»n^f?I, from i^fTFcffT^ H.H. ^^Tffl"- There is no other inflection. In the following we have the longer Braj participle in fft; ^^ '^^ HT^tft ^^ ^^ff, 'the cow drops milk satisfying to the heart.' 535. The Perfect Participle regularly consists of the root alone; inflected in the feminine only to ^. Thus from '^'%^, ^•I«f, come the perfect participles, efi^, ^^^, fem., ^fff , ^^f^. But the longer H.H. forms in ^ and t^ are frequently used where the metre may require them. In the case of verbs with roots in tSIT? the ^ which in High Hindi has only been retained in the tenses of the future, maintains its place before a or a in the perfect participle also ; thus we have ^^T? ' sung,' for H.H. i\jm; -^^ or ^^T, 'come,' for H.H. ^ijT- But the common forms in "m also occur. 536. The Conjunctive Participle is regularly formed by Conj. Part, in adding ^ to the root ; thus, ffrff ^f^ ^'^cl^ ^^ f|T fem. Trfr?) i^ added to the root, as in the following; ^ Tjf^ rrra" '^fT'^ X^^T^j 'these are the watchful guardians of this lake.' Conting. Fut. 538- The Rdmdi/an exhibits forms of the Contingent Future yan. identical with the longer and archaic Braj forms; viz., Shig. (l)-?nror^*^; (2,3,)tf; P/«r.(l,3,)ff; (2)^. Forthelonger forms with ^,TJ,^, andTJ,'ij^, are sometimes used. Examples are: — xu^^ W^, 'I could burn in the fire;' ^f^ ?73T ^T^V, *by what road shall we go?' oRt ofif, 'who can tell?' J\ is sometimes inserted after ^ final in a root; as, ^(^"^ f^^'lfj ' as long as I live.' a. But instead of these final diphthongs, their elementary vowels often appear: as, e.g., gft % '^T^ T^^» 'when I prepare food;' ^^^ f^T^^j 'it mingles with the mire.' The final vowel of these forms, again, metri gratia, is often lengthened; as, ^ ■^■q^ "'SR^^'T ^^ cR^"^, 'if I should tell all my faults ; ' ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^Tt^'T oR^t^j ' vvhoever may eat that food.' h. Before ^, in the 1st sing., "Q^ e is sometimes inserted; thus, g^F^tf ^-ITTI^ ^^j 'that same I will make known to you.' c. Or, again, the final diphthongs, "5, ^, are reduced to their cognate vowel, \, as in ^ff for ^f^, and especially in the substantive verb; thus, ^ '^RT^'T ^?;, 'if the order be.' §§ 539, 540.] CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. 313 d. A^ain, even this final ^ is often dropped, leaving the 2nd and 3rd sing, in form like the root ; as, ^\^7T ^ •nf'C ^ ^^ T ^^, ' base (is) that woman, who will not serve her;' ^ f^f^ ^^j 'how could he sleep?' And this final a, again, may be lengthened, metri gratia, giving a form identical with the H.H. perfect participle; as, j{m f^^^ ^ efi^T 'T ^^TT, 'if in a month's time thou obey not what is told (thee);' «n=fiT -IT^ ilTTT T^ '^^^, 'whose name, (if it) come into the niouth of one dying.' e. For Tj of the 2nd and 3rd sing., i\ appears sometimes in passive forms ; as, ^Xf^:^ ^t^^ T ^^ ^TT^ITj ' not even in a dream is heard Ved (or) Purdn.' ^ is sometimes substituted for XT in the 2nd and 3rd sing. ; as, ^ •=?j^ f\^, ' if it be so.' /. Finally, for f^, we often find the still older form, f^; as, WtK =^^^5 ' if thou wish ;' "^ff ^ v^^^ ^^ ?i^, ' wilt thou not worship him, O dull heart ?.' Sometimes ^ appears for ft. 539. Besides the aI)ove forms, I have found in other archaic literary eastern Hindi, a conjugation of this tense witli cf as the ciiaracteristic letter, to vvliich the regular terminations are then added; thus. Sing. (1) •S(i, (2, 3,) t; Plur. (1, 3,) ^', (2) ^> or •^>. With these v or b forms, as well as those (to he hereafter noticed) of the absolute future, may be compared the Bangali future terminations, ibo, ibd or ibe, iben. 540. It niay be observed, finally, that although, very often, the forms above noted indicate, in the Rdmdyan, a degree of dubiety, and for the certain futurition of the event, the forms of the absolute future, as given in § 541, are preferred, yet now and then these forms are unquestionably used where there is no contingency intimated. Thus, ^^ ^?[§ f^TZf^ TJ^ ^^ \^, 'beholding the feet of Rdm. all sorrow will cease ;' *TX;cTf^ WC^ "ftr^TcR ^^j 'I ^^'i'l give Bharat instruction in war;' -RH *i^f^ ^^W f^^f?!, 'the lord will remove the terrible calamity ;' f^eR^ ftft W oRft ^ 'iTT' ' tbou shalt be distressed because of a monkey.' But illustration of this belongs rather to Syntax. 814 CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. [§ 541. Absol. Put. in 541. The Absolute Future exhibits three varieties of the liumdyan. conjugation, of which i\, ^, and ^^, are, severally, the characteristic letters. (1) The ^ forms are not often used, and cannot be regarded as belonging properly to the dialect. When borrowed from Western Hindi, the suffixes, ij^, etc., are added commonly to the lo7iger forms of the contingent future ; as, e.g., tSIM^ cRl^f^»i * do quickly, what may seem good to you.' The 1st and 3rd plur. regularly end in f^ (f^) ; thus, cT"^ 'g?:-T f 7T ^^TTIft, ' let me love thy feet,' where ^?T is used for the sing., Ij. (2) The Imperative may also, like the absolute future, terminate in ^ throughout, ig; or ^ being optionally inserted before this termination. Thus, g^ ^Tl^ ^cWT 1I»1T^, 'know (that) it (is) from the virtue of good association;' T'itT^ ^T?;^ 'ftT^j ' fwlfil my desire.' f^ or ^ may be used for ^; as, WKf^ 'TT^ "^fx f^'T^j 'make entreaty, falling at his feet ; "^TT^ ^Tl^j ' bring Jdiiaki.' More rarely ^ is used, in the 2nd plur. only; as, ^xi^T^ fi^'?^? 'pardon (my) transgressions.' One hears this last also in the colloquial near Allahabad. Respect. Im- 543. The Rcspcctful form of the Imperative commonly perative in Kumivjan. perative in the ^^^^ .^^ ^ ^j. ^^ . .^^^ X^■^^ ^f^ ^TIT; ^^ ^it, ' gO and make entreaty of the ocean;' f»? ^:^ ^f?;^T^^j 'be pleased to take care of me.' From this form, tlie letter ^ is some- times omitted; as, H^ 'TtN'^m^ cfitT^j 'devise a good plan.' Sometimes TJ or ^ is added, as in Braj and High Hindi. a. For the forms in ^, the older forms in ^ are occasionally used, not only as in High Hindi, after roots ending in t; or ^, but even after consonants, as in Braj and Marwari; thus, ^ff "^V:^ ^T^%, 'make him free from fear;' f^l-^lT^ ^^, ' (if he) preserve thee alive, live.' To this termination in %, §§ 544, 545.] CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. 317 ^ is soiiietimes added ; as, •'CT^f ^T ^%^ ^ TTcft, ' give this letter into the hand of Itdvan.' 544, The present imperfect, in the dialect of the Rumdyan, The Pres. Im- occurs under two general forms ; the one, like the inflected Rdmdym. present previously noted (§ 490), is precisely identical in form with the contingent future ; the other is formed by the imperfect participle, either alone, or, as in High Hindi, in combination with the present tense of the substantive verb. a. Tliere appears to be no difference in signification between these two forms of the tense, except that the participial form is restricted in use to denote an action as occiirrinj>;- in the actual present ; whereas the inflected form is extended, as will fully appear in tlie Syntax, to comprehend all imperfi'ct or incomplete action, not only in the present, but also in the past and future. 545. The first or inflected form of the present imperfect, exhibits all the variations from the general type, which have been noted in the case of the contingent future. It will not be necessary to refer to these again in detail ; the following examples will abundantly illustrate the various forms. ^T^ T3[^ f^^T^ -, ' one faith I hold ;' ^^ ^^ % tj^ ^^^, «I salute the lotus feet of all;' ^ ^T^ff ^tf ^TT^t, 'dost thou not know me, the enemy of the gods ?' t|% xr^ ^ ^cf , 'the reed neither blossoms nor bears fruit.' t% is especially common as the termination of both the 2nd and 3rd sing., and before this, a short Tj may be inserted ; thus, oR-^^ trT«T ^■^f% f^«f TJ^, ' thou drinkest and sleepest day and night;' ^ff^ '^^'^, 'he declares (his) doubt.' In the following the 3rd sing, termination is ^ (metri gratia, ^) : ^ f^«rfl f^«T T^f^ ^T, 'day by day (his) body becomes thin.' '^ commonly occurs as the 3rd sing, termination after a radical '^n, and also in the following ; ??•! ^f '^^ T, ' in (her) heart (she) shrinks not.' f; may precede '^ in the same form. ^ also occurs in the 2nd and 3rd sing. ; as, ^ ^^^ ^TPT ^, 'the gift thou askest, I bestow;' ^^m ^TT 'frff, 'difficult it is 318 CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. [§§ 546-548. to me/ Finally, the root alone is found in the 2nd and 3rd sing. ; thus, %ff flf^ ?ftf ^ »TTT, ' without that, illusion flees not away.' The final a is lengthened in the following :—^^ f»T(?I ^f^ ^f^ Tt^Tj ' the soul is immortal, — why weepest thou?' Of the plural the following are examples: — 1st pers., f^^^^ ^ «fiTT^5 * ^^g make our supplication;' 2nd pers., cR^F ^^'^ ^TT^ fT^ wO"? '^^'hy are you doing (this) heavy penance?' 3rd pers., % xii^ '^^ ^T^ff, 'who gaze upon another's fault.' In the following, one of the first two verbs must be rendered as a present, the other, as contingent future ; ^ ^^f ^<^ff f%f^ ^%, ' who see, shall see, who have seen.' 546. In the following passages, the imperfect participle alone is used as a present tense: — ^ ^^^^kT ^eR^f^T? <■ who beholds the lord of the world ;' J{^^ ^ XI7[; ^"t^ ^TT^fTT, *she, as it were, applies salt to a burn.' a. But to this the present of the substantive verb is occasionally added, as in High Hindi. Examples are : — ^7^ % WT^fT ^f ^, ' I understand religion ; ' f^rf^ET f^ ^ ^^'r[ f ¥ ^^, 'whom, O divine one, you worship night and day;' ^fr ^T«T itlff^, 'they deride me.' 547. Besides the common form of this participle, we also find the older form in sfT used as a present tense ; thus, ^^ ^^^ t^^Tfl Tfl"? 'all the holy walk happy on the earth.' The final vowel is sometimes lengthened ; as, ^qcT cTTf cT ^^ cR^cn? ' cursing (and) upbraiding, men say.' Rem. This is not peculiar to the Rdtndyan. It is also found in the writings of Kal/ir, as in the following from the Sdkhi ; 551^ ''fif IT f'TVT^ ftj^ ^Y ^ft ofiT^ ^tid> * by so much as man goes ahout unconcerned, by so mucli Death laughs ;' and also in the colloquial of interior Gariiwal, where, for example, I have heard a villager say, inHt W^T]'^ •TTf^ ^^?5j«tlY, lit., ' water rains not from above.' Vid. § 514. Past Contin^. 548. The Rdmaydn exhibits a Past Contingent tense ^Zmdlm^ ^^^ derived from the imperfect participle by the addition of §§ 549, 550.] CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. 319 abraded fragments of the substantive verb. To form this tense, in the 1st sing., ^, and in the 2nd phir., ^, is added to the imperfect participle. I have noted no special terminations for the other persons. Before the above tense- endings "^ (e) is commonly inserted ; thus, ftirrf^ ^T^ ^T^^ trf»T rft^, 'having eaten thy father, I could then eat thee.' P'or Tj, f^ is employed for the fern., as in the following, where, in the first stanza, ^ is ouiitted before ^ in the 2nd plur. ; ' had you met me first, great sage, I, bowing my head, would have heard your advice.' ij, again, is sometimes hardened to ^, and ^ or '^ substituted f<>r "^ in the 1st sing.; thus, ^^ ^Uwt f^^ ^Z Vf ^TT I ffr TTf ^ft ft(2^ ^ t^lX^ 'had I known that the earth had become destitute of warriors, then I had not (by) making (this) decree become a laughing-stock.' One more example will suffice ; ^ h^ '^■^^:F ^fl ^ •TT^ I T?^ T^ f^ f^F \IT7^ ^^TT? 'I'^tl y^>ii come like a sage, the youths had placed, O Lord, the dust of your feet upon their heads.'* 549. The Past Imperfect is formed in the Rdmdyan by combining with the imperfect participle "^, instead of H.H. ^j ; thus, -^^ ^TRcT Tf ^Tf^TTR, ' (bis) heart was keeping guard at the women's apartments.' The tense is much less frequent than in modern Hindi. 550. The tense mentioned under § 491, as an Inceptive xhe Inceptive Imperfect, is much more common in the Rdmdyan than in l™P®™^*- Braj prose. Examples are :— ilT^fl ^"^ H^ cTt ^^j ' they began to bury (it) there in a field;' q^fT H^? 'they began to inquire.' * This iiiHected archaic tense, derived from the Sk. present participle, dialectic in Hindi, is much more extensively used, in various senses, in some of tl>e cognate languages, as Siiidhi, Mardthi, etc. See Beames: Comp. Gramin., vol. iii., pp. 126-131. 320 CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. [§§ 551-553. Perf. Tenses in 551. The Indefinite Perfect is commonly employed in the the Bdtndyan. Udmdyan to express action completed, whether in the past, present or future. The compound participial forms employed in Hig^h Hindi to express the various temporal and modal modifications of such completed action, very rarely occur. The most of them, indeed, are quite unknown. As in the case of the imperfect, two forms of the perfect tense occur, the one, consisting merely of the participle, the other, inflectional. 552. The participial form of the perfect diff'ers from that of High Hindi, precisely in the same manner as the imperfect participle; viz., by the substitution of d for the final long a. Thus, for ^T5 'said,' we have ifi^ for t;^, ' remained,' T^, etc. This is inflected to f; for the feminine, giving, e.g., such forms as '^V^, ^TTf%, foi" H.H. ^«fV, ?TT^. But the final f; is often lengthened for the sake of the metre. Further examples are : — f^T!^"^1^ %'Z ^ ^T^» ' he went and entered a cave in a great mountain ;' cR^ ?T^^ ^»1^, ' Sitgriv said. Hear!' rt. In the masc. plural the inflection Tj is very often assumed, so that the form of this tense thus frequently becomes identical with that found in High Hindi, h. Observe, that after roots in ^ or ■^, "^ is commonly inserted; as, It cRT^ «r^T^, 'what have I destroyed;' ^f^ "rnfX "HtTTTTj ' he struck him to the earth.' 553. It will be observed that an exceeding ambiguity characterizes many verbal forms in the Rdmdyan. What with the extreme attrition of many once distinct forms, and the frequent prosodial modifications of final vowels, one and the same form has come to represent several different parts of the verb. Thus, e.g , ^RTT"^ may be 2nd or 3rd sing., of the cont. or abs. fut., or of the imperf. or pres. ; or 1st, 2nd or 3rd sing. perf. Again, ■grf^ may be 2nd or 3rd sing, of the cont. or abs. fut., or of the imper. or pres. ; or 1st, 2nd or 3rd fem. perf., or the conj. participle ; or, again, it may be used to represent the H.H. perf. part. masc. in the passive con- jugation, as, e.g., ^^ cfit^ •! ^t^. ' it cannot at all be told.' ^^, §§ 554-556.] CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. 321 again, may be 1st, 2iul or 3rd fern, of the perf., or it may be the conj. part., ^f^, with the final vowel lengthened nietri gratia. This remark will be abundantly illustrated by referring to the citations made in the preceding and tlie following paragraphs. 554. In the case of active transitive verbs, the passive The Passive construction mentioned in § 412 (1), is often employed; ^•Q-, the Mmdmn. the verb is made to agree, not with the subject, but with the object of the action in gender and number. As the post- position % does not occur in this dialect, the subject, when a pronoun, is simply put in the inflected form, where such form happens to exist. But as no nouns are inflected in the sing., it comes to pass that very often, (as where, e.g., subject and object are both masc. sing.,) the construction is in outward form identical with the active construction of intransitive verbs. Examples are : ^ W^ f^T^T^ f^iKTi ^T ^'iT, ' that lord whom you (sc. Pdrvati) saw wandering in the forest ; ' »TTf?I 'ft ^t'l^, 'thou hast asked piety ;' f^^ ^fff? '^ITJ % %' ?IT^, ' I have beaten those who have beaten me.' 555. Besides the more common passive construction of this tense in transitive verbs, the active construction also very often occurs, after the regular idiom of all the modern eastern dialects. Thus, ^^xijcl . . . TT^f'T ^^€ ^cT ^ ^^5 'for three thousand years she ate Z»e/* leaves,' — where the reference is to Umd, afterward the A^ife of SInv. Similar is the construction in the following: eft^ cfi^ fsj^cT "^T^, 'one said, take (them) alive;' \j»5l % WT^? 'blessed they who bore them ;' ^ ^% ^^ ^TfTT:, ' they beheld the two brotliers.' 556. Instead of tlie above forms of the perfect, which are to be regarded as characteristic of the dialect, the forms (K. and B.) in ^ and ^, (^ and ^^,) also occur. Thus, efifq ^Tft'^ TIT'^Ttj 'the monkey fell at (his) feet;' •TTT^ ^f'T * Tiie JEgle marinelos, the leaves of v/hich are held sacred to Shiv. 21 322 CONJUGATION IN THE R.AMAYAN. [§§ 557, 558. '^WS '^'SV^, ' Narad the sage sent Garur.' ^TT, ' ^o give,' and %»T-f, ^to take,' sometimes make the perf. ^^ and ^^T? also ^^ and ^'^. Infl. Perf. in 557, The inflected perfect is formed by adding to the the Jtdmcii/cw. '■ ^ a perfect participle, in the >Sifig\, (1) ^; (2, 3,) ^; and in the Pliir., (1, 3,) r^ or f^^; (2) ^. For the feminine, these terminations are added to the fem. form of the participle. Before all these endings, "^ e is often inserted or takes the place of a final short a. This inflected perfect is used in the active construction only. Examples are : — cR ^T'fl f'Tti^m *l1["^j * through the sight of thee, I (fem.) have become free from sin;' ^ ^T^^ ^f% ^TT^ ^^^, 'you know for what reason I have come;' '^^ ^[ft[ X^'^ cR^T"^, 'until now 1 have remained a virgin;' *T^T«ft ^rfY ^T^T Tfl^? ^ Bhuvdni remained in the body of Sati;' T^Jm^ f^Tf^ "^f l"^^? 'the lord of birds went to Biranchi-.^ f9[m wITO ^•TT^^, 'he ' St declared his own name;' cTT^ ^TT ^Tt^f f^fTfT^^f? 'they cast upon him trees (and) mountains ; ' ?n^^ ^t^ ^TV cfiV •TTT? 'you \vAxe slain me hke a hunter;' ^^ ^if^iFj 'you {O Umd) have forgotten good.' a. In the 2nd and 3rd sing., the termination f^ is often substituted for ^; thus, f^^ ^tt ^f^ TfTTf^j 'he has beaten me like an enemy.' And this sometimes becomes f^, as in the future; thus, ^^ ^ftff ^^\ ^^T^ff ^TfTj 'now for what hast thou come and waked me ?' In the following, :^ is possibly the emphatic participle; ^f% ^t ^^f^ ^^ *l^^ t^^T^j ' he could not tell the sorrow as it really was.' b. Observe that these terminations are in like manner added to the irregular participles noted in § 560. Thus, ^f?: ^'f "ftr ^^^ "^^ "TTTt? ' be has robbed me of property and wife;' ofil^'f^ ^^ cjjj^T, in«TTj ' to run,' ' to rush.' 562. In one passage, again, we have a perfect terminating in X! (for the ^ just mentioned), as in the following ; — ITW'C ^^fT! ^^^^? * again roared the Ten-headed.' Sansk. Verbal 563. Sometimes, for the modern forms of the perfect, Forms in the Udmdyan. Sanskrit or Prakrit forms are employed. Thus, for H.H. f^i^Tj 'done,' and ^T^? 'gone,' we often find the correspond- ing Sk. forms, ITTT and i[^, as in the following : — ^ff ^ ^rfcl ^^ Wr[ •! ?T^^, ' whose understanding have these not defiled ? ' [lit., 'made unclean'); i[ff ifcfiTT IcI ^^T ^^j 'in this way passed that day.' 564. Besides the participles, referred to in the last para- graph, various other Sanskrit conjugational forms occur in the Rdmdymi. It will be sufficient, for the most part, merely to notice them, without giving lengthy examples in each case. Most common (1) is the Pres. Parasmai, of the 1st conj.: thus, 1st sing. 'Sf^fiT or TI'T^t'T, 'I salute;' xjlirrf^, 'I behold;' ^iJTfiT (for ^^ifT), 'I repeat :' 3rd plur. XTIilfsrl, 'they behold;' ^^f%, 'they speak;' ^^f^fT, 'they roar;' f^T'^f'fT, 'they behold.' Thus, XT^fifT ■^ ^^ ^f!^ ^\, 'whom ascetics, having toiled, behold;' H^TTTt'T f^tfTT ^TT^j ' I salute without ceasing the glorious Rdm.' The 2nd sing. ^t^, of the Sk. subst. verb, occurs in the following, in com- § 565.] CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. 325 bination with the relative and correlative pronouns : ^f^ ^f€* cl^ '^?:'^ ^TTT^, 'thou art that which thou art; thy feet we adore ! ' (2) The following forms of the Pres. A'tmcme also occur: 1st plur., ^^rmt, 'we salute;' ^?:T^f, 'we remember;' H^T^, 'we worship.' Examples are :— ^^^TT^ ^^Tt ^TWW? 'that lord of existence we remember;' -^fl^ fsf^jj HWr'Tf, '^Rani's lord we ever worship.' (3) The following Sk. imperatives, 3rd sing-. Parasmai, are also found, viz.: fT'ftH, 'let him extend;' ^^r^, 'let him dwell;' -^T^, 'let him save.' More frequent is the 3rd sing. imper. of the subst. verb, usually in the formula of per- mission, U^^^, 'let it be so;' as, T^^TT^ ^^'TTf^f^ ^>%, * Let it be so, said the Treasury of Compassion.' (4) The 2nd sing. Imper. Parasmai of two or three words is not infrequent; as, xnff, 'do thou protect;' "^ff, 'do thou save;' thus, H^H^#t^T mff TTTff, 'Protect, protect (me) ! O thou deliverer from the dread of existence ! ' 565. The following Prakritic verbal forms also occur, Prak. Verbal Forms in Rdmdyan. Viz.:— f?i^^^, for Sk. fiff^ci:, 'composed;' as, ^TTT^ii f^sf ^"™' ^ '^' f^I^^zf^, 'who composed the Rdmdyan;' ^%, for H. ^%, Sk. cfi^fTT, 3rd sing, pres., ' he tells;' f^%, for Sk. frrFf?!, 3rd sing. pres. from root ^^, 'he stands;' ^f^, 'I salute,' for Sk. ^^, 1st Sing. Atmane; as in ^^f?; ^f^ ^^^•I, 'again, I salute the wicked;' ''^^^, for Sk. •unf'T, 1st sing, pres., 'I adore;' as in «j^i^ f'TtfIT ^ T^^K^ ' I adore with- out ceasing the glorious Raghuhir ;' and also •miT^. Finally, in a single instance, we have a Prakrit reduplicated perfect, f^^^, for Sk. ^^^'^, from -^w, 'to increase;' as in the following; ^^Tf f^^'^ f^^^ f^f^i 'as sensual enjoyment grows (even) on one serving (the gods).' * For the elision of ^ initial, see §§ 52, 59. 326 CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. [§§ 566, 567. Passive in the QQQ file passive IS commonly formed by conjugating' the verb wr«TT> 'to go,' together with the perfect participle, or, more commonly, with the root of the verb combined with the suffix ^. Thus, oR^ ^^ ^fT[ ^iff 'I IT^, '(the deeds of Ram) cannot be sung in ten million kalpas ;' ^f^ ^TcT ^ IT^j 'that is not told,' i.e., 'cannot be told.' a. But besides the above, a Prakritic present passive often occurs, which is formed by adding to the root, after ^ as a union- vowel, the termination ZTrT? unchanged for gender or number ; thus, ^^iTrlT^ "qf^^rT ^^, ' even these are wor- shipped in virtue of their disguise;' Tn'^mfrT^^^ ^T TT^T ^fT^fTj ' ^vith the servant of the lord of deception, deception is employed.' r'ausfllVerhsin 5&7 . Causal verbs are formed in the Rdmdvcm, by adding the Mumayan. a ^ . o ^^ or ^ to the root of the primitive, for the First, and gj for the Second Causal. Many verbs, however, as in High Hindi, instead of adding these letters to the root, form the First Causal by lengthening or gimating the medial vowel of the root. Both Causals occur in the following : «T^fIf ^'^- f^fffT ^'l^T^T I ^TT f^fg-^ f^^^ ^^T^T, 'he caused the body of the king to be washed according to the Ved, (and) made a most beautiful chariot.' ^yyi and %«TT make their causals, f^^T^lT and t%^T1T. a. Observe, that many verbs, which in High Hindi form the Causal by the addition of a syllable, in the Rdmdyan follow the other method. Thus, e.g., for H.H. ^WT^T, 'to burn,' and ^^tiT, 'to call,' the Rdmdyan often uses W\T.^ (for wr^^T) and ^1^*i : as, e.g., % ^ff^T Y'^ ^T, 'who have burnt villages of Brahmans ;' ^f^ %^^ ^^, ' he called his upright servants.' h. Occasionally the root of the Causal is made to termi- nate in ^^, instead of ■^^, as in the following, where ^T^¥j 'fill,' is for q-^T^^; q^;^^ . . . M'^tKyn ^>fT, 'fulfil my desire.' mdyaii. % 568.] CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. 327 c. Occasionally, again, the characteristic ^^ or ^^ of tlie Causal, is contracted to ■^^. Thus, in the following, f^^^f'is for t^C^T^f^; T^-Z ^T^cT ^^^I fT^^f ? 'l"s lips quiver, (and) angry are his eyes.' d. When a syllable is added to a close root, to form the Causal, the usual shortening of a medial long vowel in the primitive, is not infrequently neglected. Thus, for H.H. of^^T! 'to call,' and f^^T^JT, 'to show,' we have sometimes, ^t^^^, f^T^il; as, e.g., "^ f^TI ^>^t' 'thou, calling a Brahman.' 568. The various Compound verbs explained §§ 425-465, Compound also occur in the Rdnidyan and similar poetry. But it is ^"J "^ important to notice that the parts of the compound are separated at pleasure, often by many intervening words, or, again, are often inverted in order, as the exigencies of the metre may demand. All these various compounds, more- over, present forms more or less divergent from those of High Hindi. Thus, (1) In all such compounds as are formed in High Hindi with the conj. part., the termination ^ (or \) is retained. Ex- amples will be found on almost every page. Thus, ^f ''^f^^T ^T frf^ ^tI^, ' how can the moonlight forsake the moon ? ' ; ^TfT ^fsfcR ^"T %rr ^^it^j ' calls, as it were, the passing traveller.' So also, ^ ^^Tf^ ffr^'T t^lfJT ^fY, 'as the servants of Hari rectify (all) these;' where %^ cannot be separately translated, but must be connected with ^^iTf'C as a com- pound, = H.H. ^VTT %^ ^ • I" *1^^ following, again, the parts are inverted and the final ^ of the primary verb length- ened, metri gratia; ^f^fTT ^^T^fTT ^^ ^ efif^, 'the lovehness of the river, who can tell?'; where ^•^ crY ^^, is for cfit ^t% '^•^, H.H. ^^5T ^f ^^wr f. Rem. The student will do well to take especial notice of the separation and inversion of the parts of compounds and the frequent lengthening of this final f" ; as these are among the marked peculiarities of the poetic 328 CONJUGATION IN THE RAMAYAN. [§ 569. style, wliirh, until recognized and understood, greatly embarrass the reader wlio is familiar only with prose Hindi. (2) ^ alone is often appended to the root in participial combinations, where in High Hindi we should have "^ or Tj. Thus, ^fT§ t;\u frj^^ '^rf^ ^^T, lit., < seeing Rdiu and Rijmdal are coming along ; ' where High Hindi would have '^% ^^ %*; the first "q; has become ^, and the last is changed to ^, to rhyme with the following stanza. 569. Desiderative, Inceptive, Permissive, and Acquisitive Compounds present in the Rdnidymi a variety of forms. (1) The Desiderative is sometimes formed with the perfect participle, as in High Hindi ; as, f^^Tf It ^^1f ^^T, ' I wish to marry.' (2) All these are also often formed, as in High Hindi, with the infinitive in «t. Thus, TT'^«T ^^ '^l^^^? ' dost (thou) now wish to die ?'; Tftff ^T^ \, 'let me go;' ^^l^tf cT^ ^>^^ ^TITj ' he then began to seek for Sugriv.' (3) But especially common in combination with the secondary verb is an inflected verbal noun in ly or ^. Thus, '^T^ir ^% Jjff i\^ ^^, 'you desire to hear the mysterious attributes of Ram;' %f% cfiTT^T cfi^ ^ ^fT? 'for what reason didst thou not allow (me) to do (it) ;' "^^^^ gf^ ^X;% ^'tj 'when the keepers began to forbid them.' For the final -^j ^^ is sometimes written ; thus, ^t1 ^^5;? ' he began to tell.' (4) This X[ is sometimes further reduced to f; (metri gratis, ^) ; thus, ^ IfTf; "^f l[ff ^T ^tI;, ' if thou wish to bathe in this lake, brother;' ^^ ^f^cT ^f% ^T¥ ^ m^, 'whose exploits no one was permitted to behold.' And Tj also becomes '^ ; as, XTT^ ^^ ^-T ^T'T^ ^TITj ' he began to rehearse the virtues of Ram Chandra.' All these forms may sufffer separation or inversion like those above mentioned : as, ^?i^ gfg ^^ ^^ ^TITj 'many arrows began to rain;' TABLE XX. DIALECTIC CONJUGATION OF HTTj^T , 'to strike. High Hindi. Kumnijl. Ilnij. IF. Raj. jK. «W^.»nT^-^___^ TTTftt.^lT^.TTT- '"^^^• TTTff- TKH iff • JJK^- TTTtl 1¥- TtTtl- IITTTI itl- TTT'T'^tlT- tit:^^!. «1TJI ^1^- TTK«T ^1- TTT»l ^%- TTTS t- TtTfl ^• TKai^- TTTT^t TTT^nTt- TTTrnT^. TTTfl ^3T- /. TTT'' ^TfZT- TTTfnTT- TTT'' itit^' flXTf^^-" jjK'^iF. ^TTT^ti." (»nT^T).' (mT;^°t).' vtk€\- /• jrrfrf^ff . flK^"^- JTTT^ilf,'' mrf^^. mT^," *rn;^." wtt^* mr^f?- uTT^rf^. Ttrt.* iTT?f. w[x^' (tn\^°)' . ^y,^^-^ mT^^.' »nT5i^^.'' mr^r^w, f^nT^i^).' *i\K^- WKf^i^f^. mrf^^. nrrfstli. inT%f^- W\r5I'*lt, *n<,f5T'4l*^. «i<.f<*(r'f- tnTf^^, *iTT5ft^. wKsrf^, jnTH^P^. mr^F^. wTT5i#T.' att;^,' wTT^r^. /• flir^f- »nx;5raff . mr^iT?' 'nTsrf^, (»TTT^rra).' /.flTT5mtf»f .i^ttt^'^ ■ *rrT5i^f . mT^RfT. mTi^rq. niT^i'it' flK<^*t- JTTK^rafi;' WTT^ra^. »TTX;5T^. . — f-=^ viw^," fnx^. JnT'Jtft- /• wTT^- mT^-%, -KW^ft, WTT^fff- 5RTT'«rN. W^C^lN'^'Y- 'icig. Ill \\. Bh., ^ is the uniun-vowel tbioiigliout the pics. ^ ,„ j,,^ y^r j,f^j. 3 ^|^„ n-f^%, UT^«R. nnd in tlic ^^'., flTt%- * I" ^^ran. '- In tlie W. « Cf. ^ 572: long vo>vel in nntepenult iireguiarly letnincil in such causal forms. ' In neut. verbs only. ' ^ optionally mUlod. ' .\niisvar optional. §§ 570, 571.] CONJUGATION IN EASTERN COLLOQUIALS. 329 ^tiT sfTH ^f "T fl^ ^'?I^5 ' he then began to repeat his own name.' * 570. The Avadlii, it will be observed, in the verb as in the pronouns, Avadhi and closely follows the Old Baiswari of the Rdmdyan. The dialect of Riwd ^^'J[^^ ^°°-i"' does not differ widely from that of Avadh. In both we may notice in some words, the extreme abrasion of the leading verb before the auxiliaries, already noted in Kumaoiii. This is well illustrated by sucii forms as Av. ^ "^f, ^ ^1' (/^'«- ^ T^' ^ T^') ^oi" H.H. ^IT ^, J[Tl^', R. *r f. *I crr,= H.H. ^^T% ¥^T m. in the dialect of Riwa, TJ final in a root is often changed to JJJ before the terminations. Thus, '^^^, ^J^\, ^fr,= H.H. ^^T, ^5i, \^^. in both the dialects of Avadh and Riwa, the verbs i^^TT. ^•!T> ^"d ^'^•fT, add the terminations of the perfect to the irregular forms, ^1^, ^TP^. and cfiV»^. In the dialect of Avadh, '^ is often inserted instead of ^ before the terminations of the perfect. Thus for H.H. ^^T> 'gone,' Av. has ^^T; for ^•TT'^T. 'made,' '^•f^cn', etc., etc. In both Avadh and Riwa, Me find a past contingent imperfect tense analogous to tliat mentioned at § 548, as occurring- in the Rdmdyan.^ As previously remarked, neither in these nor in other Eastern coUoquials does the Western Hindi construction with wf occur. 571. In the Bhojpiui, Magadhi, and Maithili dialects, we have a still Bhojpfiri • 11. p . ri. . TT. 1/ !• • ^- 1 Conjugation. wider divergence from the High Hindi type or conjugation, and an increasing approximation to the Bangali coujugational system. Each of these dialects, like the Avadhi, Riwdi, and the Old Baiswari, is marked by a much larger use of inflected forms than we find in High Hindi. Thus, in addition to the periphrastic form of the present, each of these, like many of the western coUoquials, has also an inflected present. Similarly, where in western dialects, the perfect participle alone is used f<»r the indefinite perfect, these dialects have all retained for this tense a full set of inflective endings. After the same analogy, the imperfect participle, which in Western Hindi is employed without personal affixes, as a past contingent tense, in these dialects is furnished, for this tense, with a complete set of personal terminations in both genders. Especially note- worthy, again, is the large development of honorific forms of conjugation. * This <5f^^ is a corruption of ^^'^T. — the J\ marking the place of the elided J[. Compare the remarks in § 99. t See Table XXII. 330 CONJUGATION IN EASTERN COLLOQUIALS. [§§ 572, 573. While in the western Hindi these are restricted to certain persons of the imperative and, rarely, the future, in these dialects they are employed in all tenses. In Maitliili, indeed, one may say tliat we have two complete conjugations, the one honorific, the other non-honorific. a. While singular and jjliiral forms occur, much confusion exists as to their use. In particular, plural forms are constantly used for the singular in an honorific sense, where no special honorific forms exist. The rules as to the shortening of long vowels under certain conditions, with their exceptions, as given in §§ 117, 118, are to be carefully noted. They receive illustration in all the following Tables. 572. The paradigms of the inflected present and preterite, in Bhojpuri, etc., are given in Table XXI. It is to be observed tfiat the rule for the short- ening of an antepenultimate vowel, wliich is applied in the preterite, is not applied in the present. Thus, we have ^^Wf. ' I see,' but ^T^^ff , ' I saw.' Besides the forms given in the Tables, the inflected present has honorific forms in f^^ and f^% for the 2nd and 3rd persons. In Saran, besides the forms given in the Tables, the inflected perfect indefinite has the following honorific forms. The 1st person, to express respect to an object in the 3rd person, takes the termination ^'E[^«T ; as, ^^ "'I^T^T ^ ^^f%"51^[^, * I saw the king;' and, to express respect to an object in the 2nd person, it takes tlie termination ^^^o; as, '^Tf "^^"^T % ^^t%^^o» ' I saw your honour.' The 2ud person, to express respect to an object in the 3rd person, takes the termination '^i^^;' as, '^ ^TTf^^ % ^^^^"I. 'you saw the gentleman.' a. To form a non-honorific plural, ^o may be aflSxed to the plural terminations in the verbal conjugation tbrougliout ; this ^o is written in Grierson's Grammar as a separate word ; thus, S^?^^«T ^o» 'they saw.' Also, in Sdran, the 2nd person jdural of the inflected perfect indefinite takes tlje termination ^^^, when it is intended to show contempt to an object in the 3rd person; as, ft •T'^'^ % TTT^^^j ' J'ou heat the barber;' where 'the barber' is sjjoken of with contempt. 573. In the inflected perfect indefinite, neuter verbs commonly, though not invariably, drop the terminations "^ and '%'^ in the 3rd masc. singular, and also take '^ in the 3rd fern, singular, and f^ in the 3rd fem. plural. Thus while the active transitive verb, ^JT^f^, has the 3rd masc. singular, ^^^W, * he saw;' 3rd fem. singular, S?§^f^, ' she saw;' and 3rd fem. plural, ^^t^*T, ' they (fem.) saw ;' the neuter verb, f^"?^^, ' to §§ 574-577.] CONJUGATION IN EASTERN COLLOQUIALS. 331 fall,' more commonly has, for each of these respectively, 'Hfl"^^, OlT;f%, and t^?^^. 574. The periphrastic present imperfect in ^"jft, etc. (Table XX), differs only in appearance and not in meaning, from the full periphrastic form with the present participle and auxiliary. It has been formed from it by the omission of the initial ^ of ^TZ. according to § 89, and the common change of ^ to T, and fusion of the auxiliary vvitli the principal verb. 575. Bhojpuri makes the Noun of Agency by adding to the root either the suffix %^T or ^JJJ; thus, from ^^^, 'to see,' we have ^^iq"?!!. •one who sees,' or ^^•TfTTT. «lso ^^f«TlTTT- Three forms of the verbal noun occur. The first consists of the root alone ; the second is formed by the addition of ^ ; tlie third, by the addition of ^ to the root. Of these the oblique forms terminate respectively in JJ, ^J. and (in the W. only) ^ , or ^. Tlius, from ^^^, 'to see,' we have the following forms, viz: ^I^, old., ^?^, (in the W., ^?§,) ; ^T^^, obi., ^^i^T. (i» the W., ^W.); ^'^^^ obi., (only in the W.,) ^1^5. a. Beames makes the ace. singuliir of the verbal noun in ^, '^; giving as examples, ?t^ wfo ejj^wf , ' they would not give a hearing ;' ^^ ^f^ lJ,^«i> * it will probal)ly be.' But this idiom, it may be remarked, is not confined to Bhojpuri, as I have often heard in the Central Doab such expressions as ?3% wjo ^■^, ' he will not drink ;' '^ TTjfiif% wf o efif^^', ' they will not mind.' According to Beames, for the conjunctive participle as given in the Tables, Bhojpuri commonly uses the oblique perfect participle with a postposition; thus, ^if^^ ^^> * on knowing,' etc. 576. In the present imperfect, besides the periphrastic form with the M&gadhi , Conjuffation. imperfect participle, common in other Hindi dialects, ftl^igadhi also substitutes for the imperfect pjirticiple, an oblique form of the verbal noun, in combination with the auxiliary; giving such alternative forms as ^^TfT ll". ' I am seeing,' and ^l^o fV or ^?§ ^, etc., ' I see.' An analogous periphrastic tense is also formed with the same oblique verbal noun in coml)inati()n with the past tense of the substantive verb, ^^ , etc. ; as, H^^o ^^, ^T^o ^^, etc., rendered by Grierson simply, ' I saw,' etc. 577. In the past contingent perfect, ^^ may be added to emphasize the idea of past time. In the inflected perfect the following differ- ences obtain between active and neuter verbs. In the 2nd singular. 332 CONJUGATION IN EASTERN COLLOQUIALS. [§§ 578-580. besides the terminations used in the active verb,* neuter verbs also have ^n w"d ^1 f^s 'HT'^^n' or f^"^^, ' thou didst fall.' In the 3rd singular, instead of the terminations ^[^ and ^^^, of active verbs, neuter verbs have ^ and ^^; as, e.g., fnfTM or ITTT^^T' * ^® struck,' but f^"^^ or f^'^^'^, 'he fell.' In the 3rd plural, neuter verbs do not use the terminations ^VT and ejjf^if. In the periphrastic tenses with the perfect participle, where active verbs take the oblique form of the participle, as in ^^^ ^rt, ' had I seen,' and ^T"^^ ^W) ' I shall have struck,' neuter verbs use the direct form, as, Ol'^^'^T ^rt, ' had I fallen;' f^I"^^ ft^. ' I shall have fallen.' 678. The Noun of Agency, in Magadhi, is formed by the addition to the verltal noun in wf or f^ of the affix ^TT* The verbal nouns, except that in ^, as in Bhojpiiri, have an oblique form, in Jf and '^. 579. The Maithili is distinguished from all the dialects exhibited in this Grammar, by the extraordinary exuberance of its verbal forms. Although only a part of the tenses are exhibited in full in the Tables, it possesses all the tenses which are found in High Hindi, and in each of these uses a bewildering variety of diverse forms, equalled in no other dialect. 580. As already observed, Maithili is remarkable among the dialects of North India, for its frequent use of that Prakritic ^, of which we have liad frequent occasion to speak, and which seems to have had so much influence in determining the form of a large number of Tadbhava words in the dialects of North India. But while in most of the Hindi dialects this qfj, where once used, has disappeared, giving rise to new combinations of then concurrent vowels, in Maithili, as to a much more limited extent in Magadhi, it still maintains its place, and most of all in the verbal forms. In these it is sometimes added to the root, as, e.g., in tlie substantive verb, fif^ for 1^; sometimes to the tense stem, as in (^T^^^, 'he saw' (tense stem, ^?5^), ^T'^^ojff'^, 'they struck;' and sometimes, again, to the personal terminations, especially those in '^5m ^i^d "Q|; as, S^*s)HT^, 'you will see;' f^"?^^^, 'he fell;' and occasionally to others, as, ^fT^^. 2nd plur. imperative, 'sleep ye;'T:(^^, 'you will obtain.' Rarely ?! is similarly added ; as in the strong form of the present of the defective auxiliary snbstantive verb, '^rT, etc., for ^^= H.H. ^. * See Table XXI. §§ 581-584,] CONJUGATION IN EASTERN COLLOQUIALS. 333 581. In Maithili conjug-ation, a long vowel preceding- ^ or '^^ in a final syllable, is regularly shortened in any tense but the contingent future. Thus, for the Magadhi inflected perf. 3rd sing., 5^%, ' he became,' Maithili has H%cf; ; so also the imperfect participle of ^T§^, 'to see,' with a light final syllable, is ^^?f ; but with the heavy termination in ^rT. TJ is shortened to JJ, giving 'ff^fT. a. In the Tables will he noticed many terminations containing an aspirated mute, as I§^, ^, etc. These have arisen from the union of ^ with a preceding smooth mute. Thus, f^^^^*, is for fl^^^*; ^^*lt» for ^^^ft ; ^Tf^Ff. for ^^fTtf'^, etc., etc. 582. Ail the periphrastic tenses denoting perfect or complete action are formed in Maithili after a two-fold manner; viz , by the combination of the auxiliary, either with the perfect participle, as in Western Hindi; or with the inflected perfect, peculiar to these eastern dialects. In the former case, the direct form of the participle is used in the neuter verl», the oblique form in the active, and the auxiliary alone is inflected ; in the latter case, the inflections attach only to the leading verb, and the auxiliary is used throughout in the 3rd pers. singular. These two forms are used with equal frequi'ucy, and appear to have the same meaning.* Examples are: — f^"^^ ^o, or f?!'^^ 1^, 'I have fallen;' ^"^^^ Z|"o, or ^TT% %. ' hf* has beaten.' 583. In the inflected perfect, the terminations differ to some extent in the case of active and of neuter verbs, as follows : In the 2nd masc. singular, besides the terminations of active verbs, neuter verbs may take '^, ^, and ^. In the 3rd masc. singular, transitive verbs take the terminations, "^"3^, %eR, ^^ ; neuters either take no termination, or else Jl, ^, ^e|j, "^y or ^lefi. In the 3rd masc. plural, transitives take the terminations, c^, ij, f^f, f'i^f, ^'f, a'id "^TeT; neuters, ^'^, ^f^, f^'^, ff'f, ^'f, it' '^' »"d ^fT- In the 3rd fem. plural, transitives take the terminations, c^, Tj^, ^ff, and neuters, |^, f^'^, and t;^?! . 584. It is to be noted that the majority of Maithili verbal forms to some extent may be used interchangeably, the difference being merely a matter of local or personal habit. This remark, however, is not of universal application, and the use of certain forms is determined by another principle. While in all the Hindi dialects, different forms are to some * See Table XX. 334 CONJUGATION IN EASTERN COLLOQUIALS. [§§ 585, 586. extent employed, according' as it is desired to refer to the subject of the verb respectfully, or otherwise ; in MaithiH, this distinction is extended so as also to include reference, honorific or non-honorific, also to the object of the verb. Grierson gives the following^ principles as regulating the preference of verbal forms in so far as they are determined by this latter consideration. (1) When the object, direct or indirect, in any person, is referred to with much respect, the terminations in '5»^, ('5'f^^ or J^"^) are commonly employed. In the 2nd plural, when an object in the 3rd plural is referred to with respect, the termination ^^^ is used. (2) When the object, direct or indirect, is in the 1st or 3rd person and is regarded as inferior, the terminations in ^, ^, "^j and "^ejj are used. (3) \Vhen the object, direct or indirect, is in the 2nd person, and is regarded as inferior to the speaker, the terminations ending in '^^ or "^"ej} are preferred. When it is referred to with respect, '^^'^ is employed. The same terminations are used with reference to an object in the 3rd person, regarded as inferior, when the subject is in the 2nd person. In the contingent future, negative contingent imperfect, and the inflected perfect, the 1st personal forms are often used in an honorific sense for the 2nd.* 585. In those conjngational forms which are formed with the imperfect participle and an auxiliary, it is to be observed that the 71 of the participle is often elided, in which case the participle and auxiliary are written as one word. Thus one may say and write, either ^^cf ^T> or ^%lff, *I see;' ^^cf l^'STf, or ^^^^, *I was seeing;' f^I^ T^» or f^I^"^'^*, ' I was falling,' etc., etc.f In the west, this '^ is sometimes changed to ^, giving such forms, e.g., as H'^^cfi, for "ff^H^cfi. or H^^tT ^oR, 'he sees.' But this change is not made in the 1st pers. singular. 586. In MaithiH, the Noun of Agency is formed either by the aflRx ^■^T added to the root, or by the affixes ^'?^ or '^T^T» added to the * For full explication and illustration of these rules, see Seven Grammars, part vi. pp. 32-36. t Compare the analogous formation of the Bh. pres. imperf., g<=tffTTT> etc., for H^fT ^Zl"> ^^*^^ where, however, the initial letter of the auxiliary, instead of the ff of the participle, suffers elision. Vid. supra., § 574. §§ 587, 588.] CONJUGATION in eastern colloquials. 335 verbal noun in -T or fif. The Verbal Nouns are formed as in Bhojpuri, with variants, as in ^t% for ^, and ^?^^^ for ^7§^ . The first form is inflected to •^, JJ, or JJ, the second, to ^, and the third, to cfj. Thus, from ^'if^. ' to see,' come the verbal nouns, ^^ or ^f^, obl.,^^ or T^o; ^'i^, or ^^o, obi., ^^T; and ^?§^, obi., ^^. 587. With the possible exception of "JT^, 'to determine,'— as to the Bh., Mg., and existence of which in these dialects I have no information— the verbs noted Verbs^"^^"^^"^ as irregular in High Hindi, § 391, are also irregular in the east. Also \J^^, 'to seize,' follows the conjugation of cR^^. These two in Bhojpiui, Magadhi, and Maithili substitute ^o and ^o for ^"^ and \I^ in the infinitive, and the conjunctive and perfect participles, with their derived tenses, giving such forms as the following : Bh. inf., efiT^, perf. 3rd sing., \Jf^^^ =: H.H. qi'5[;«n. ^TT; Mt. ccmj. part., cfio ^o or ^ -^0,= H.H. gj-^C^; Mg. perf. 3rd sing., ^^c}},= H.H. '^^T- The substitution of ^ for JJJ^, in the root of J|-^^, = H.H. ^T;«n, ' to die,' often takes place in Bhojpuri also in the contingent future, the past conting. imperfect, and the infinitive. The same is true also in N. and . W. Maitliili ; in central and eastern 3faitliili, however, the irregularity is confined to the perfect participle and its derived tenses, and the infinitive ; while in the extreme soutli, the verb is regular throughout. In some parts of the Maithili area, ^o is the substitute for J^X^ 8i^''"8"» e.g., such forms as the perf. part., ^?[^ or ^^T. 'dead, '= H.H. ?T'^. Other instances of these irregularities are the following : Bh. past conting. imperf. 3rd sing., ?T^fTj=H.H. ^■?;;rn', 'had he died;' N. Mt. past conting. imperf. 1st sing., ^^rl!^, 'had I died;' imperf. part., WTrl, •dying.' ^T^iSI or 5HTP^. 'to go,' has the root ^o for ^ in the perfect participle and the derived tenses, as in High Hindi. In all these dialects, the verbs "^^ or "S^t 'to give,' ^^ or ^^, 'to take,' are extremely irregular throughout ; but lack of space forbids the full exhibition of their peculiarities. They are given with abundant fulness in Grierson's Seven Grammars. 588. All the three dialects under present discussion, form First and Bh., Mg., and Second Causals from verbal roots, as in High Hindi. The mode of formation agrees with the Braj ; viz., '^T^ is added for the First, and ^T^ for the Second Causal. The last ^ is often softened to ^, and this, again, is combined with a preceding vowel, giving, e.g., from c'<^c{, ' to see,' ^T^^^, ^^^,= H.H. f^i^ll^JII, f^^lT^- Variations from this type occur in Magadhi, which also optionally makes Causals by adding ^'\'^ and ^T"^ ; and also in Maithili, which in some sub-dialects 336 CONJUGATION IN EASTERN COLLOQUIALS. [§§ 589-592. adds '^T for the First Causal, as High Hindi; or, again, hardens the ^ of the causal to ^. Bh., Mg., and 589. All these eastern dialects, like High Hindi, form a periphrastic -rassive. passive hy the comhination of the perfect participle with the various dialectic equivalents of the H.H. verb, WTTTj 'to go;' which is then conjugated throughout in coml)ination with the participle. In addition to this, Bhojpuri and Maithili present also an inflected passive conjugation, formed by the addition of "^ to tlie root of the primitive verb. Hence we have, e.g., from the active H^^, 'to see,' the passive infinitive ^^T^^» * to be seen,' as well as the inflected causal, 2"!^^^, ' to be caused to see,' ' to be shown.' It should be noted, however, that this inflected passive is not equivalent to the other periphrastic form, but rather indicates, not that something is done, but that it can be done ; as in the High Hindi idiom, with the periphrastic passive, ^^ 'P^^ ^^ % '^'€\ T^ ^TffTj 'this book cannot be read by me;' where Bhojpuri, e.g., would have the inflected passive form, XISTf^> instead of Bh., Mg., and 590. In general. Intensive, Potential, and Completive Compound m. Compound ^ ^ .,,.-,, , . , . . . , Verbs. verbs are formed in Biiojpiiri, IMagadhi, and Maitliili, as in High Hindi, by adding the verbs indicated in §§ 427-4:34 to the root form of the simple verb. But sometimes '5^ is added to the root, as in the Rilmayan, and also, in S. Maithili, JJ. Also in S. 3Iaithili, in Potentials, xn"^^ is sometimes used instead of ^oji^. Completives are commonly formed from the root, with or without the added ^ or JT ; but Maithili sometimes uses instead of this, the verbal noun in ^, giving such alternative forms fis T§T^ '^^^j and ^I^JT^ ^cR^. ' he has done eating.' 691. Frequentatives are formed as in Western Hindi, by conjugating the verb ^1^^ or ^i;^, = H.H. ^'^•TTj with the verbal noun which agrees in form with the perfect participle. Hence we have, for H.H. ^T'^n ^ft, 'fome often,' Bh. ^T^^ WKo; Mg. "^^^ ^Jo; Mt. ■^JT^ ^■JQ'o. In some places Maithili uses in this combination the verbal noun in '^, instead of that in ^. Desideratives are formed, as in High Hindi, after the same analogy, only substituting the verb i^T'f^ or ^Tf^ for ^i;^. 592. All these eastern dialects add the dialectic equivalents of H.H. ^T*!!. %W[, and XIT'!T> to the inflected form in JT of the verbal noun of any verb, to form, hy means of these severally, Inceptives, Permissives, and Acquisitives. In Maithili, the verbal noun sometimes takes the TABLE XXII. PAST CONTINGENT IMPEEFECT OF WT^J , ' to beat : ' Ixflected. ' (If ) I had beaten,' etc. lliirh Hindi J WlTjn- /■ ^TTTTft- wTKm- fmv^- mTm- /^nrn^- m-(^- f. »ni«ft. Aviidhi. »nT^^- /■»m:fj»^- ^T^^- /mTf^^. ^HTIT. /• ^nfT^- Trf^. /. infT?!- Riwdi. Old BaiswM. ?nT^F- /• JTrrfai^-^ jut^- /• ^T:f?!^. wOcaflf. ^\m- /TT^fajf- v^\m\- /^rrrfanc- *tionally added. [To face page 337. §§ 593, 594.] CONJUGATION IN EASTERN COLLOQUIALS. 337 s inflection p instead of JJ. These forms, it will be observed, are essentially identical with those found in the Ramayan, noted § 568 (1). Thus, we have, e.g., Bh., ^^ ^T1^, = H.H. eJi^% ^;iIT, 'lie beg-an to say;' Mg-., M^Xl ^^ ^?V, 'please let me speak;' Mt., f^ XTR^, 'to be allowed to sit,' etc., etc. This same form is also sometimes used in all these dialects M'ith ^7^^, instead of the verbal noun in ^, to form Desideratives ; as in Bh., ^ J{U ^TWrIT» 'I'e is about to die.' But in Bhojpuri, when not immediate futurition but desire is to be expressed, these oblique forms are followed by the postposition % or ^fT. 593. In many parts of the Maithill country, Continuatives and Progressives are formed, not only with the imperfect, but also with the perfect participle, after the analogy of, e.g., H.H. ^% 517?! ^> ' they are going away.' It is to be noted, however, that this particular combination, although so common in High Hindi, is not used either in Maithili or in Mdgadlii. Its place is taken by the Intensive compound, ^f% ^T7^» or ^^ WTF^- 594. Ill the Tables of Conjugation which follow, only two of the periphrastic tenses are given under each participle ; but it is to be understood that in most of the dialects * the other periphrastic tenses may be formed in the same manner as in High Hindi. The conjugation of the most important tenses of ^IT? 'to be' or 'to become,' is given first, as this is used in some of its forms as an auxiliary. It has not been thought necessary to give in every instance all the alternative forms in each dialect where such exist. They can be supplied, where wanting, from the preceding paradigms. N.B. It is to be noted that Bhojpuri, besides the verb ^^, as given in the Tables, has also a strengthened form of the same, ^I^f^, which is regularly conjugated throughout, after tlie manner of a neuter verb, and may also be used as an auxiliary ; also, that in this dialect the nom. masc. plural is used for both genders in both numbers, and that other forms specially assigned to these in the Tables are rare and poetic. It should also be noted that besides the perfect, ^^, etc., given in Table XIX., Magadhi has also, like many other dialects, a perfect from the root ^o, ^^, etc., regularly conjugated in both numbers. * Naipali seems to be the chief exception ; in the Naipali Gospel, at least, most of the periplirastic tenses do not occur. 22 338 ORIGIN OF VERBAL FORMS. [§§ 595, 596. Origin of the Yerbal Forms. 595. The various parts of the Hindi verh are either directly descended from corresponding Sanskrit or Pralirit forms, or are new modern com- binations of sucli ancient forms. Origin of In- 596. The Hindi Infinitive appears nnder two general types, of which finitives. ... • i / \ i >n mi » the cliaracteristic letters are respectively n (n) and v (b). The w-termi- nations are naun, no, no, nihi, nd or ndn, n ; the v-terminations, vau or vaim, vo or bo, b. Hoernle has conclusively proved that these two varieties of the Hindi infinitive are respectively derived from the two forms of the Sk. fut. pass. part. neut. ; the «-forms, from the participle in aniya ; the v (^)-forms, from the participle in tavya* Not only may all the dialectic variations of tlie two types be thus explained, but all the peculiarities of the use of the infinitive as a noun, an adjective, or an imperative, are thus accounted for, as originally exhibited in tliis Sk. participle, f Thus, e.g., we derive the inf. karnd as follows : — Sk. (neut.) karaniyam, Ap. Pr. karanahan, archaic H. karanayam, Br. karnaun, K. karnon or karno, M. karno. Me. karni'm, H.H. karnd, E.H. karan. And the v-forms of the same arise thus : — Sk. kartavyam, Pr. kariavvam, kareavvam, Br. karivaun or karavaun, M. karbo, E.H. karab. a. An infinitive, kardau, mentioned in De Tassy's Grammar, I would explain by reference to another Prakrit form in davvam (for tavyam) of this same affix. % b. We should expect the penultimate vowel in the w-forms to be lengthened, as in the corresponding Marathi, kardve, but the shortening is probably due to the accent, which rests on the first syllable. c. Inasmuch as the Sk. fut. pass, part., when used as a noun, was declined like neut. nouns of the 1st Sk. deck, the H. obi. infinitive in e or d must therefore be explained as a corrupted gen. sing.§ But the Braj inflected infinitive in i has probably arisen from the Sk. loc. sing, in e, so that, e.g., karani presupposes an original Sanskrit form, karaniye. * Vid. Journ. As. Soc. Beng., Part I, No. 2, 1873 ; Comp. Gramm., 313, 314, 321. t Vid. Monier-Williams : Sk. Grammar, §§ 902, 905, 908. X Vid. Lassen : Inst. Ling. Prac, § 129, (3). § Vid. § 190, a, b. §§ 597, 598.] ORIGIN OF verbal forms. 339 597. The Imperfect Participle presents two general types ; the one, Origin of Im- endirig in a consonant or short vowel, as, e.g., the archaic kahant, Br. Participle. kahtu, K. kaluit ; the other, ending in a long vowel, e.g., G. chalanto or chaldo, Br. chaltau, M. chalto, H.H. clialtd. All these forms have arisen from tlie Sk. pres. part. Par. in at ; the n which in one or two dialects appears before t, belongs to the original Sk. base, and in Prakrit was always retained throughout the declension of the participle.* a. In accordance with the principles already illustrated, we must attribute the shorter participial forms to the simple Sanskrit participle ; and the longer to an augmented participle formed by the Prakritic suffix Ara.f Thus, in order of derivation, we shall have, e.g., for the Sk. nom. masc. sing., chalan (from clialat), Pr. chalanto, archaic H. chalant, K. chalntt, Br. chaltu or chalatu, E.H. chalat\X and from an augmented Prakrit form, chalantako, G. chalanto and chaldo, Br. chaltau, M. chalto, and, finallj', H.H. chaltd. Tlie inflections are e.vplained in § 190, a, b. The unique Kumdoni form in nun is connected by Beames with a form in onto. This last form I have heard in the adjacent state of Garhwal near the snowy ranges, which confirms Beames' explanation. 598. The Perfect Participle occurs under three general forms, of Origin of which, the 1st ends in a, the 2iid, in a long vowel, a, o, au, or e. In the Participle. 3rd form, I is the characteristic letter of the termination. (1) The 1st and 2nd forms are derived from the Sk. past pass, participle in ta. The 1st form is to be explained, as in the imperf. participle, as having arisen from the simple Sk. part. The longer forms have come from an increased Prakrit participle, ending in taka for ta.^ The 7/ which in Br. and M. precedes the vowel-termination, has arisen from the i which, according to Vararuciii, was inserted before the par- ticipial termination much more freely in Prakrit than in Sanskrit. |1 To illustrate, the Eastern perf. participle, chala or chal, (in the passive conjugation, chali,) has been reduced from the Sk. participle chalitah ; * Vid. Monier-Williams : Sansk. Grammar, § 141 ; Lassen : Inst. Ling. Prac, § 127 (I). So also Beames, except that he refers the E.H., inf. in n to the Sk. neut. verbal noun in nam. See Comp. Grainm., vol. iii., § 74. t Vid. § 100. + Vid. § 85. § So also Beames: Comp. Gramm., vol. iii., p. 124. II Vid. Prdk. Prak. ; vii., 32. 340 ORIGIN OF VERBAL FORMS. [§ 599. while from a Prakrit participle, chalitakah, liave come the longer forms, tlius : — Pr. chalitakah, chalitao, chaliao. Br. chalyau, M. chdlyo, K. chalo, H.H. chald. a. In the peculiar adjective form of the Mdrw^ri participle, formed with the affix ro, as chdlyoro, etc., ro is identical with the same affix in the pronominal adjectives, and is to l)e connected witli the Sanskrit diminutive affix r, which in Prakrit was often added to nouns and adjectives with no suggestion of a diminutive sense. Similarly Sindhi adds to these partici- ples, ro or lo, and Marathi, hi, all of which affixes have the same origin. b. The peculiar Garhwdli participle in e, may be explained by the substitution of a for i as a union-vowel, and the insertion of a euphonic y, instead of sandhi as in the other dialects ; thus : — chaldo, chalayo, chulaya, chale.* (2) It has been common to regard the I of the perfect participle in the eastern Hindi dialects, — found also in Gujerdti, Marathi, BangAli, and Oriya, — as having arisen from the t of the Sanskrit participle, through d, d, and r. But inasmuch as the change supposed, of r to I, is the exact reverse of that whicli these dialects constantly exhibit in other words, it is highly improbable that the law should have been uniformly reversed in this participle only. Nor has it yet been proved that the use of this form in I, (which is found also in the Prakrit dialects, coexistent with those in d and r,) historically followed the use of the other forms. I am therefore inclined to believe, that in this participle in I, we have a form as ancient as the Sanskrit participle in t, and having no connexion with it.f (3) The irregular perfect participle of some verbs, ending in na, nd, etc., is to I)e connected with the Sk. perf. pass, participle in na. Many verbs which in Sanskrit formed this participle with ta, in Prakrit preferred the affix na. Thus, e.g., we have in Prakrit, d'mnu, for Sk. datta, whence H. dind, etc., for diyu. Origin of Coa- 599. The Conjunctive Participle, in most of its forms, at least, mus^, I junctive i • i i j . ■ . i . Participle. think, be connected with the Sk. indecl. past act. participle m ya or tva. * Vid., § 79, b. t Since this was written, the same view has been suggested and argued at length by Beanies, who suggests a comparison with the Slavonic / of the preterite. See his Coinp. Gramm., vol. iii., pp. 135, 136. § 599.] ORIGIN OF VERBAL FORMS. 341 (1) The Sk. termination ya in Prakrit became ia, whence, e.g., from Sk. chalya, Pr. clialia, Br. etc., cltaU, and dial. Wiien the significant termination had thus almost or quite vanished, the corresponding participle of the ever convenient root kri, ' to do,' viz., kari or kar, (Sk. kritya, Pr. karia,) was pressed into service, and appended to the remainder of tlie ohi participle; whence, Br. chalikari, H.H. clialkar, etc. The other affix, ke or kai, is another form of tliis same participle, and has arisen from kari, by the elision of r, and sandhi of a and i.* A still further reduction gives us the Garhwdli affix, k, for ke, as, e.g., in mdrik. (2) a. In the u which is added to the root in Mairwdri, to form such conjunctive paiti(;iples as marune, sunune, etc., we probably have the remainder of the other Prakrit affix of the past act. participle, viz., ti'tna or (hia, for the ancient Vedic tvdnam.f Thus, e.g., for the Sk. mritvd, Prakrit had maraihia, whence, by the operation of the regular phonetic laws, maraun, marau, and marii, as in Mair. mar/hie. b. For the explanation of the syllable ne, however, n'e must look elsewhere. For although one might be tempted at first thought to see in this n the n of the old Prakrit affix una, as in the n of the similar Marathi piirticiple, it is clear that this would not account for the lengthened form in ne. The true analogue of this Mairwdri participle is to be found, not in this participle in una, but in the Giijerati participle in ine, (\ne), in which i represents the remainder of the other Prakrit affi.\' ia, while ne, as Beames has correctly observed,^ is to be identified in origin with the ne or nen which, in Gnjerdti and some Hindi dialects, is the sign of the objective ; a form derived from the Sk. participle, lugya, H.H. lagi, through the common change of an initial I to n, an elision of ^, and sandhi of the then concurrent vowels. § Both the Gujer^ti and Mairwdri forms thus rest upon * This is still used in E. Hindi in some phrases, for H.H. karke. Thus, have heard a villager say, kus ke jnh'i ■=. H.H. kaisii karke jtioge, lit., ' doing what, will you go ? ;' i.e., ' how will you go?.' This succession of forms seems clearly to show that Trumpp, in his excellent Sindhi Grammar, is mistaken in identifying this ke with the Sindhi je, of the same participle, and so with the Sk. affix, ya, Pr. ia. Vid. Sindlii Grammar, p. 283. t Vid. Monier- Williams, Sansk. Grammar, § 555, a. X Comp. Gramm., vol. iii., p. 233. § For illustrations, see Beames : Comp. Gramm., vols, i., p. 248, ii., p. 2G0. 342 ORIGIN OF VERBAL FORMS. [§j^ 600, 601. Origin of Noun of Agency. the Sk. indecl. past act. participle ; the former on the common form in ya, the latter on the Vedic form in tvdnam ; the former yielding' the termina- tion i, the other, ?{. Then, where the other dialects added to this abraded form, the conjunctive participle of kari, Mairndri, with Gujerati, took for the same purpose the same participle of lagnd.* (3) With another form of this participle in iydna (§ 498) may be compared another Prakrit form in di'tni ; as, e.g., karUJdni, whence, if d he elided, and y inserted, we shall have kariyuni, kariydna. In the suffix ber of the Kumaoni form of this participle, unexplained in the former edition, I now recoo^nize, with Beames, the Sk. held, H. ber, 'time;' thus, Ku. kari ber, = H.H. karke, is, lit., ' at the time of doing.' 600. Of the affixes ivdla and hard, used with the inflected infinitive to form the Noun of Agency, ivdld is the S\i. pdlaka, and hdrd, Sk. kdraka.'f Tliis etymology of wdld may be illustrated by H. gwdld, for Sk. gopdlaku. The h of hdrd, if not organic, from kh for k, was inserted to prevent the hiatus caused i)y the early elision of the k ; thus, the order of derivation would be, e.g., chfdanikdrd, ch(danidrd, chalanihdrd. By a further elision of r and hardening of i, etc., chalanidrd readily yields the Naipdli form, chalanyd. The inflected infinitive in tiiis idiom is therefore, in fact, an objective genitive, under the government of a suffix. OrifinofCon- 601. The tense-forms which in High Hindi are used as a Contingent ting. lf 603. (1) The various inflected forms of the Absolute Future, with s or h Future forms as the characteristic letter, are all to be connected, not with the 1st future, as has been suggested, but rather with the 2nd future, of the Sk. verb. The sh of the Sk. tense, had already become h in the Apabhransic Prakrit.f Space M'ill not allow us to work out all details, but the following tables will suffice for illustration. Sanskrit. PUTIJRE. Prakrit. Hindi Forms. m 1. chaliskydmi. 2. chalishyasi. 3. chalishyati. 1. chalishyumah, 2. chalishyatha. 3. chalishyanti. (chnlissdmi,-himi, chalissam. chalissasi, -Jiisi, chalihissasi.X [(chalissatthi) ? 1 chalissdi. j chdlasyi'm, chdlasicn, etc. ^ clidluliim, chalihaun, \ chalaihaun, etc. {chdlasi, chdluhi. clialihasi, chdlihuM, chaluihai, chalihai. chdlusi, chdluhi. chalihahi, chalihai, chalaihai. (c7ialissdmo, etc. ichdlasydn, chdlahdn. ch alihissd>no,Xetc.'\ chalihahin, chalihairi. chalissadha. (chalissadhati)? (chalissanti. chalihissanti. {chdlasyo, chdluho. chalihahu, chalihau. (chdlasi, chdlahl. chalihahin, chalihain. (2) In the former edition I suggested that in the futures of the b type we might perhaps recognize a fragment from the Sk. subst. verb, bhU, * Prdk. Prak., vii., 21. t Lassen : Inst. Ling. Prac, §§ 177, 1 ; 186, 2. X Prakrit sometimes, as here, reduplicated the fut. termination throughout. Hence, doubtless, come the longer inflected forms in the Rdm b"t ^'^T^- Hence appears the propriety of placing such words as the above under this class. It should be remarked, §612.] derivation: abstract nouns. 353 however, that many words with this final lahial express the abstract idea, not of the causal, but of its primitive. Such nouns will be explained below (3). Rem. 2. It must not be supposed that nouns of this class are derived from the infinitives with which they are connected. Both the infinitive and tlie noun are collateral formations from one primitive root. (2) •! (for Sk. wf, forming neuters in wf) is added to verbal roots to form abstract nouns: as, '^^•T (vb. ^^•TTjj 'walk;' TTT^ (vb. 1!{T7^) 'dying.' (3) '^•f and '^n^ are added to primitive verbal roots to form abstract nouns: as, 'q'^T^ (vb. xr^»!T)5 'an ascent;' ^TR (vb. ^^^T), 'rising;' ^J[\^ (vb. ^^^), 'fastening.' ^, ^, or ■^, is sometimes written for the final ^. «• "^t^ is sometimes added instead of ^^, giving the same sense; as, ^^Tt^=^^T^. Rem. All these formations are to be connected with the Sk. aflBx, ^^ or ^•^. Sindhi preserves the t, hardening it iiowever to t. (4) A large class of abstract nouns is formed with the affixes '^^([, ^'Z, ^TT? and ^. These are often added to causal roots: as, from ^•TT'ITj 'to make,' ^•TT^Z, 'a fabrica- tion,' also ^•TT^fT; from ^^T-TT, 'to call,' ^^j^j 'calling;' and also to adjectives; as, from oR^^x, ^^^T^? 'bitterness;' from t^^^T, f^^^TfZ, ' greasiness.' a. Here also properly come a number of nouns in '^'^ or or -^tf^ (for ^^fft or ^^^l") : as, ^j^ttft or ^^ftzV, 'a touchstone;' ^"^2^, 'deliverance;' which are connected, respectively, with ^^•TT? W^T»1T- Rem. 3Iany of these have their origin in the Sk. ^frT. ' state,' ' con- '^ XT dition.' In others, the termination represents the Sk. suffix tfT- (5) Very common is the affix t; (Sk. 'ij), forming abstract nouns from other nouns and adjectives. Thus, from ^'^^[, 'high,' ^^qit' 'height;' ^"^j, 'bad,' ^Trt' 'badness;' i[\W\, 'a ball,' ^^t;, 'roundness;' ^^^T, 'a boy,' ^^eRif;, 'boy- hood.' 23 354 DERIVATION : ABSTRACT NOUNS. [§ 612. a. When added to causal root!-;, t; (for "^•f^) forms nouns denoting the price paid for the work denoted by the verb : as, from \|^i 'a milkman;' and to verbal roots: as, t;^"^!^? 'a guard.' a. But some words terminating in cfT^, have come directly from old Sanskrit compounds : as, e.g., ^T^T? ' a cowherd,' Sk. ^q"[^^. Dialectic variations of this affix are ^TTt. "^Ti:, etc. (2) From the Sk. ^TT^ we have ^TTT oi* ITT? ^'^ed with verbs to form Nouns of Agency, as has been already noticed. This affix is occasionally added to nouns, when the penult of the noun is sometimes shortened; as in xjwT^TTTj 'a water- carrier.' Variations of this affix are the following. a. By elision of ^ in the foregoing, we have also from the same Sk. affix, nouns in ■^RTTj "^T? or Tj denoting 'occupation:' as, from ^•TT, ^"ITT i^^- ^^^^TT)? 'a goldsmith;' from ^i?W, ^•T^ITTTj ' a trader (in grain) ;' W^\ (Sk. ^u^TT:)? ' a cook.' h. A few nouns of agency end in "^ or "^"^ (Sk. ^frfT'l) 5 as, W"0 (Sk. q^T^TfT^)? ' a worshipper.' c. Other nouns of agency are formed with ■^[■O and -q^^: as, xj%-^, for U^T-J^^, 'a worshipper;' ^Z^, from ^, 'a robber,' etc. 356 DERIVATION : NOUNS OF AGENCY. [§ 613. Rem. The explanation of these variants is probably to be found in the Prakrit root ^"^j for Sk ^. "^^ would then stand for Pr. %t^^, and TT^forPr. %^efi.* (3) Sanskrit nouns of agency were also formed from roots with the affix "^ep. These are common in Hindi: as, ti^cR, 'a worshipper;' "^^ifi, ^ a protector.' a. tJI^ is often corrupted to ^, whence Hindi nouns of agency in -^ ; as, »j^ (for »f^^), ' a parcher.' b. In Prakrit, this ^^ often became ^^, whence the Hindi affix xyiJ, denoting 'agency:' as, from ^T^^T? '^o behold,' ^t^^T, 'a beholder;' from ^^, 'a sheep,' Tffr^Tj 'a shepherd.' Tliis l[^T> again, became t^, whence many Hindi nouns in f^, denoting 'occupation:' as, e.g., W^I^T^' ' ^ confectioner ; ' ^^, ' a carpenter.' c. T^efi also became ^^, whence, again, nouns of agency in ^^ or ^^ ; as, ?T^^, ' a fisherman.' And ^^ became ^, whence, finally, other nouns of agency in ^: as %'Z, 'a sitter;' ^T^, ' a great eater,' ' a glutton.' (4) t^, (also ^TT^T and ^?5T,) fi'om the Sk. suffix ff^,t also forms nouns of agency from verbal roots: as, "?;^t^Tj 'a keeper;' it''C%^5 't)"6 dying.' A long vowel is shortened before the affix ; as, f^^'^TT? ' a taker,' from ^wfT ; 1%^T5 ' a singer,' from 5TT«fT- (5) A few nouns of agency are formed with ^ (for ^ ?) ; as, ^^^TfT, 'a shepherd,' from xn;^T^T' This is also added to nouns ; as, ^^f^T^j, ' a follower of Kahir.' (6) From verbal roots, two or three nouns of agency are formed with ^j: as, \^^, ' a giver;' ^f^^^\, 'a taker.' * But Hoernle regards these last as originally possessional adjectives, and regards the suffix as derived from the Sk. (Irish. Comp. Gramin., § 251. t Vld. Hoernle : Comp. Gramin., § 314. §^614,615.] derivation: ixstrumentals ; possessives. 357 Rem. Tliis is probably derived from the Sk. suffix tuvya, and is thus cognate with the ^^, above mentioned. (7) A few nouns of agency are formed with "^^ (Sk. "^ej?) ; as, ^■?^T^, ' a swimmer.* (8) Very common in Hindi are Sanskrit nouns of agency or relationship in cTT: as, cR'=^, *a doer,' ^(TT, *a giver;* fqcIT, 'a fatlier.' All these are Sk. noms. sing., from bases in ff. (9) IMany Sanskrit nouns of agency are formed with the affix ^»i (TRiir). In Hindi, these are chiefly found in poetry, as the last member of compounds : as, ^T1T!^"^«T) ' a sleeper on the ocean;' ^^^^T? 'a remover of sorrow.' (10) Finally, Sanskrit formed nouns of agency with ^, after gun of the root. These are found in Hindi, but only as the last member of compounds: as, from the root v, ^T = \if^^^X^T, 'a supporter,' in \ili;»n"^Tj '^ mountain,' lit., ' an earth-supporter.' 614. Nouns denoting the Instniment are formed from derivation of Instrumental verbal roots. Nouns. (1) With •fV> TTj or wT (from Sk. suffix "^if^^?): as, from ^ffefiifT, Possessives. irom other nouns with tlie affixes "^v^j or ^^T : as, e.g., ^tfl^T^T, 'one having teeth;' ^q%^T^, 'a draper.' ^^j may be thus added to a series of words, all of which must then be inflected : as, ^% ^^ ij^ ^T%5 ' horses having collars and girths,' i.e., 'harnessed;' ^xj^ ^ "^^ ^T^ WfrW^ ^ ^Tj ' with deer having eyes like her own.* * For derivation of these suffixes see § 613, (1), (2). 358 DERIVATION : DIMINUTIVES. [§ 616. (2) The termination ^^^ or ^t^t, (Sk. -^^j Pr. ^T^^,) is added to a few nouns to form possessives : as, ^fj'^m^j *one having a stick ;' ^^T^j ' a mixture of other grain with barley {wt).' Rem. But in a few words expressive of place, tSTT^ stands for the Sk. ■^T vT^ : as, ^^"^T^, * fatlier-in-law's honse.' So also, perliaps, >^ Ps^T^ > ' a g""g.' f'om ^I^j 'a division of time.' (3) Here may be noted a large class of Persian nouns, formed with the suffix ^tT (2nd root of ij^-^^^, 'to have'): as, ififtl^TT^ '^ landholder;' f^T^T? 'ventilated,' lit., 'having air.' Derivation of 616. Dimhiutives are formed in Sanskrit by adding the Diminutives. « ,, lollowing terminations. (1) Very common is the affix "^ofi or i[^. This same affix is similarly used in Hindi : thus, from \ft^, ^^^, ' a small drum ;' or cRT (fern.) is added; as in Xfir^Tj 'a small animal,' from i?^; or \^1, as in ijgif^^T, *a toy- cart,' from ^^Z ; or efi^, as in ZT^j ^ a small drum.' a. cR being elided from such diminutives, ^ was often inserted, whence a large class of Hindi diminutives (fem.) in ^■^TT: as, from "f^n, 'a box,' f^f^^T? 'a little box,' 'a casket;' from Xfit^T? 'a boil,' tfif^^j, 'a small sore,' 'a pimple.' These diminutives often express 'aifection;' as, ^tz^Tj 'a little daughter,' from ^^. h. ^^Tj again, very often became f;; ; whence a large number of diminutives ending in ^: as, e.g., ^T^? 'a carriage ;' ^^"^, ' a small basket,' etc., etc. c. In the east, especially, ^ being elided, ^ was inserted instead of ^, whence another class of diminutives in qfj: as, e.g., from xrx!? "TT^T? 'a hamlet;' ^^^T? 'a small horse,' often used by way of depreciation. '^ is often softened to ^, whence diminutives in ^^ ; as, ^z^T? ' a little son.' (2) Sanskrit also formed diminutives in x;, whence have come (a) Hindi diminutives in '^; as, f?TfT'^j ' a butterfly ;' §§ 617-619.] DERIVATION : NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 359 and {h) in ^: as, fz^"f^, *a wafer;' xj^^^, 'a small bedstead;' and, still more common, (c) others in ^ and ^: as, f?Tfr^ and f^gfi^, for f?TrT"^ and fj^^ ; ^ZT^, ' a little bell,' from ^^j. For i^T (T) T^ and •^^ have been often substituted: as, e.g., in ?§^^T, 'a small bed;' ^rt^T? 'a peachick,' etc. (3) A very few diminutives are formed with *fT: as, from *Iff, 'a jioblin,' '^7{^1, 'a sprite;' from TT^cRT, 'a large earthen jar,' TTZ^B^T. 617. Nouns expressing Nativity or Relationship are A'ouns of formed from other nouns with the affix ^ (Sk. f^xq-, ^if). EelationsMp. Examples are, ?TT^^TT^ 5 'a native of Marwar;' ^^^"Y, 'a follower of Kahir.' 618. ^, and also TJ, ^T? and ^T? (Sk. X), with their fern. Miscellaneous forms, cfiV, "^, ^, and ^, are often added to nouns to form derivatives expressive of various other relations difficult to classify. Sometimes the consonant of the affix is preceded by ^ or '^, which is combined with the final vowel of tiie primitive according to the rules oi sandhi. Examples are: from ?fgY, ' earth,' ^Z'^T? ' an earthen jar,' dim, ^3^ ; from ^T^, 'hand,' come f^^T? 'a pilferer,' ^^^^fY, 'the palm of the hand,' ^"^^gT? 'a hammer,' dim. f^^, 1^^5 'a handle,' and f ^?3Y, ' a plough handle.' a. "^ and f^ (for ^SR, ^efi), are similarly added; as, again, from ^T^, f^, ' a handle,' ftft? 'a horse-brush.' 619. Hindi Adjectives are derived as follows : — Derivation of Adjectives. (1) Many adjectives were formed in Sanskrit with the affixes ■^^, f[^, or ^efi. Before these affixes, medial a or a final radical vowel was vriddhied, and any other vowel changed to its gun. Examples are : ^WTfT^j ' worldly,' from ^^TC, ' the world ; ' rim^? ' inflammatory,' from cm, ' heat.' 360 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. [§ 619. a. In Prakrit, cR was dropped from these forms, whence, "?! being inserted, Hindi adjectives in ^^T; as, ^f^j^m? 'milky/ from T^' But more commonly sandhi took place ; whence, from "^cfi came the Hindi adj. termination, ■^i as, from ^^, 'dirt,' %5n, 'dirty;' from ^^^, for 15^, ^ZT, 'fat,' etc. Similarly, from \^ has often come the termination f^: thus, from \\W, *a burden,' ^TT^, 'heavy;' ^3T, 'wool,' ^sft, ' woolly.' ^cR also became ^, as in a few modern adjectives, e.g., 'ST^, 'sloping.' (2) Many Sanskrit adjectives were formed with the terminations ^, ^^, •?[^, •^^^, \, ^x, TK, "^T- AH of these, perhaps, have been preserved in Hindi. Examples are: from ^\:i, ^^^, 'milky;' from ^^T, ^^^^5 or ^^T^, 'merciful ;' from ^tcT, ^^^, or ^^^^T, 'toothed ;' from ^^, ^^^, 'loaded ;' from ^TT, ' work,' efi^-^T? ' industrious ;' from ^^, ^5R^^, 'pointed;' from -^h, 'juice,' "?;^^T, 'juicy.' Adjectives in X! (TIT) are the less common, but other examples occur: as, ^^"T, 'cruel,' from ^if, 'a bite ;' ^^T? 'milky,' from ^^. And through the change of "^^ to ^ come a very few adjectives in ^ ; as, ^^^, ' merry,' (f ^ + WK^,) from the root of \^^'\, ' to laugh.' (3) A few adjectives or nouns occur, which are formed with the Sanskrit suffix ^c^: as, ^^(T (^^ + l[fl), from ^?r, 'seditious;' ^"^cf, lit., 'having a spear,' 'a spearman,' from ^^. (4) The following suffixes are also occasionally used to form adjectives : viz., f^ (added as initial) ; as, ^lt;» 'turbulent;' x^; as, ^f^»T, 'corpulent ;' andfj; as, ^qf T> ' tremulous.' (5) Many Tatsama adjectives denoting 'possession,' are formed with f; (Sk. i;^!;) : as, V'T^, 'wealthy,' (Sk. \;jf%«|;,) from 'Ki«f, « wealth;' and also with ^JT or ^«fl (Sk. ^c^;) : as, from \j«t, VT^TT; 'wealthy ;' from ^^, ^^^JT, 'strong;' from -^Xd, ^^^'\^•^, ' merciful,' etc. §§ 620, 621.] COMPOUND WORDS. 361 (6) Many Sanskrit participles, especially those in r| and TTT i'^'^), are used as adjectives in Hindi : as, e.*^., ^f^?T, « angry,' (from ^^) ; lft»1T^»n^, 'beautiful,' (from jr^). (7) The Sanskrit affix Tni, = Engl. '-ful;' is also often added in Hindi to Tatsama nouns: as, ^inT^j 'merciful;' xiT^eR^^, ' fiery.' (8) Very rarely Tatsama adjectives are found in Hindi, formed with the Sk. affix ^cj;^, expressing 'similitude;' as, f^f^^cT, ' like the moon.' (9) A very few adjectives occur, formed with the Sk. desiderative affix, ^+^; the most common example is fq- ^T^T, 'thirsty,' Sk. fqqTf^cTt, perf. pass, desider. part., from the root HT, 'to drink;' "'(^^T^Tj 'incUned to weep' (from '^•IT), also occurs. 620. A very large number of Onomatopoetic words occur Onomatopoetic in Hindi, whose derivation is to be traced to an attempt to imitate or suggest a sound or action by the voice. These often have a reduplicated form. Such, e.g., are: t^Z^Zj 'a knocking;' ^^TISTT, 'a jingling;' '^fT^fT, 'a rattle;' fsfioRTift', 'a tinkling girdle ; ' ?T'I^«!T«!Tj 'to whistle,' etc., etc. From such of these as are nouns, are formed a large number of verbs by the addition of the causal termination : as, e.g., from the above nouns, ^Z^fZT'TT^ 'to knock;' ^J'tl^'TRT, 'to jingle,' etc. II. Of Compound "Words. 621. Hindi admits of the greatest freedom in the use of compound words, the length and complexity of which form a distinguishing feature of Hindi as compared with Urdu. Urdii, indeed, from the side of the Arabic, does not admit of the composition of words, and even in its Persian element cannot compare in this respect with Hindi. Rem. Long and complex compounds are for the most part confined to poetry ; but short compounds are freely admissible in prose and in 362 COMPOUND WORDS. [§§ 622, 623. conversation. Many idioms, moreover, which cannot be strictly termed compound words, can only be explicated on the principles which regulate the formation of compounds. Thorough familiarity with these principles is absolutely essential to the understanding of Hindi poetr}'. assification 622. The various compounds admissible in Hindi, are the ompoun s. g^^^^^^ ^^ those which we meet in Sanskrit, and therefore may be classified in the same manner. And we cannot do better in treating this subject than adopt, for the most part, the classification of Monier-Willianis, as given in his Sanskrit Grammar, which will be found much easier of comprehension than that of the Indian grammarians. We have then five general classes of Compounds : 1^^, Dependent Compounds, in which the relation of the several words is that which is expressed by the cases of a noun ; 2nd, Coindatives, in which the relation of the elements is that expressed by a copulative conjunction ; 3rd, Descinptives, in which an adjective is united with a substantive ; 4th, N'umerals, in which the first element is a numeral ; 5th, Adverhials, in which the first element is an adverb. ependent 623. Dependent Compounds are of six varieties, corre- sponding to the six cases of nouns, by means of which dependence is expressed. ( I ) Accusatively Dependent Compounds are very common ; the second member is a verbal root or noun of agency, to which the first member stands in the relation of an accusative case. A long vowel in the first member of Tadbhava Compounds is very commonly shortened, and a diphthong reduced to its characteristic vowel. The following are examples of Tadbhavas : f?T^^gT (^^ + ^^T), lit., ' oil-licker,' ^a cockroach;' ^^TRt^T (^T^ + ■'St^D? 'wood-borer,' 'a woodpecker;' f^^TTTT? * a fowler;' ?T^«T^^, ' butter-stealer ' (an epithet of Krishia). Similar Tatsamas are: ^^iriT^, 'world-saviour;' ^TtJ'^TrlT, ' merit- discerner;' ^^l^im, 'life-giver;' T?ffl?lilT^^, 'purifier of § G23.] COMPOUND WORDS. 363 the guilty;' ^TfW^TT? 'cry for mercy;' ^T^fi;, (7Ti1^ + fT> § 59,) ' heart-ravishing.' «. In many such compounds, the verbal root consists of a single letter or compound letter: as, e.g., xj {Sk. qT? 'to protect'), in ^q, lit., 'earth-protector,' 'a king;' or ^ {Sk. ^T, 'to give'), in ^^^, 'pleasure-giving ;' or ■^, {Sk. -^jj 'to know,') as in ^^'^, ' all-knowing,' etc. Z». Compounds in which TfrT, ' gone,' is the last member, belong to this class ; but ^ff often appears to have lost its specific meaning, and implies mere connexion or proximity, without any suggestion of motion, as in the following from the Ildniai/(in : ^"^f^TrrT ^f^'^f, ' water in the divine riv^r ;' efiT^rJ^^cT T^tq, ' a flower lying in the hand.' c. The accusative member is occasionally last in the compound ; as, ^^•m^'T, ' destroyer of Mayan.^ (2) Datively Dependent Compounds are those in which the first word of the two is equivalent to a dative case. These are rare ; a common illustration is IJ'^Tiniflj lit-5 ' having come for refuge,' ' a refugee.' (3) Instrument ally Dependent Compounds are those in which the first stands to the second in the relation of tlie case of the agent. The last member of these compounds is always a Sanskrit perf. pass, participle. They are com- paratively rare, and are all Tatsamas. Most conmion are those in which ^cf (perf. pass. part, of a.^. ir, ' to do '), is the second member ; these are chiefly used in the titles of books ; as, fT^^^T€lff! TT'n^'Tj ' the Rdmdyan by Tuhi Das' (4) Ahlatively Dependent Compounds are those in which the first word is related to the second as an ablative case. Examples are, of Tadbhavas : ^^fsT^IT^T , ' banishment ; ' of Tatsamas: ^ft^^f^rT, 'born of ignorance;' T^ufZrT, 'inlaid with jewels;' ^f^f1"T, 'void of wisdom;' q^Xif^fTj 'composed of the five [sc, elements).' 364 COMPOUND WORDS. [§ 623. Rem. It should be observed that many of the functions of the Sanskrit instrumental case are in Hindi assumed by the ablative ; so that many compounds which in Sanskrit would he classed as instrumentally dependent must be reckoned ablatively dependent in Hindi. (5) Genitively Dependent Compounds are those in which the relation of the first member to the second is that of a genitive case. These are exceedingly common, both in poetry and in prose. In such compounds, if Tadbhavas, a long vowel or diphthong in the first member is commonly shortened, and the laws of sandhi are neglected. Examples are, of Tadbhava compounds: ^T§X|t7| (^TT^ + ^t^)j 'a millionaire,' lit., 'owner of a lakh;' Tjifxrift (^T«!\ + ^1R\ )> 'a water- mill ; ' ^r?^T^, ' a stable (for horses) ; ' of Tatsamas : ^1^^, 'Lord of the world;' ^^f^f^T, 'water-fowl;' ^T^Trfr? ^i^-j 'a wood-woman,' i.e., 'a puppet;' t;TT^'3IT, 'the story of Ram J a. t!1^, in the second place in these compounds, may be often rendered, 'because of:' as, ^''EfT^, 'because of fear;' %lT^j 'because of affection.' b. These compounds are especially common in titles of persons: as, \;i7^^fnx;, 'incarnation of virtue;' ^ift-nw, ' lord of the milkmaids :' and also in proper names : as, TTT^^Ij lit., 'feet of Ram ;' ^^^T^, lit., 'servant of the goddess:' also in the titles of books: as, ^jriTITj 'Ocean of love ;' W^f^^H, ' sport of Braj: c. Under this head come many idiomatic combinations in which a numeral is the last member: as, cRji^f^f^, lit., 'a death-Aror,' ' a crore of deaths ;' Tim'^^, ' the three penances;' fT^l^j 'a thousand men.' Similarly is ^%^ to be ex- plained in the compound, ^^T'^^^ ^f^j 'the beauty of countless Kdm Devs.^ d. ^T^ or "^T^ (TT^) occurs as the last member in many such compounds, denoting eminence or superiority : as. §§ 624, 625.] COMPOUND words. 365 e.g., ^fsf^T^, 'the prince of sages;' tft"?^^n:TW, 'the chief of sacred places;' '^gxiTSl, 'the prince of the seasons,' i.e., 'the Indian autumn.' e. In these compounds, an adjective occasionally occupies the last place; especially, ^J^f (Wtl)j 'worthy,' 'fit;' as, ^f^T^T?!, 'marriageable.' /. The collocpiial combinations of ^TWT (for Sk. TJT^q^), with a preceding noun, are originally genitively dependent compounds : as, e.g., f^i^^^Tj 'a man of Delhi ;' ^\i[^T^. ' a milkman,' etc. (6) Locatxvely Dependent Compounds are those in which the relation of the first word to the second is that of a locative case: as, ^^^^, lit., 'horse-mounted,' 'a horse- man;' ^^^T^, 'dweller in heaven;' "^•l^TT^'T, 'im- mersed in joy;' \i(»T^Tf^j 'bow in hand.' Here we may note especially a large number of Tatsama compounds, in which ^, ' born,' is the second member ; as, ^'^IIT, lit., ' the water-born,' 'the lotus;' also others with ^"^ : as, fiTI[^'^, lit., 'night-walker,' 'a demon;' Sf^^"^, 'aquatic animals;' and a few with j[, 'going;' as, •fi^^ (•T^Tt + T)? 'moving in the atmosphere,' 'a bird.' 624. Occasionally the first member of Dependent Com- Copulative Compouuds. pounds is in the plural : as, HWlffrfj 'love to worshippers;' ^^•f«T^^,* ' friend of the afflicted.' 625. Copulative Compounds include all compounds the relation between whose members might be expressed by a copulative conjunction. Under this general class we may notice, especially, (1) Complementary Copulative Compounds, in which the one member may be regarded as complementing or supple- * But much more commonly, ^cf^V. 366 COMPOUND WORDS. [§ 626. menting the other. These are the most common. Examples are: jjt^ttj, * parents;' "^^^l^, 'food and drink;' lit., 'grain,' 'water;' "^^.t^, '■Ram (and his) younger brother, i.e., Lakshman, lit., JRcm-after-born.' a. Words of opposite meaning are often thus coupled : as, ^^^ ^^■^, 'loss and gain;' ^^T^^ (=^-^ + ^^^), ^moveable-immoveable,' i.e., 'animate and inanimate.' h. Under this head also comes the common colloquial idiom in which a word is repeated, either with its initial letter omitted, or another substituted, or with a different medial vowel, to denote indefinitely the remainder of a class. The repeated word gives a sense exactly equivalent to the Sanskrit ^(inf^j or ' et cetera.' Examples are : %^ ij^, 'tents, etc.,' i.e. 'tents with all their appurtenances;' ^^ ■^^j 'horses, etc.,' as, e.g., 'mules, donkeys, etc.;' ^^ ^T^, * kos, etc' (2) Reciprocal Copulative Compounds are those in which two words of similar or identical meaning, are grouped together with a reciprocal force. Often the second word is merely the feminine form of the first. Examples are : ^^ cRfT, ' altercation ;' ^^T ^T^l"? ' mutual beating.' Sometimes the two members of the compound differ in a radical letter only: as, ^^^ ^^^, 'neighbourhood;' "^^^ ^T«^%, « facing one another.' (3) Many other combinations occur which must be reckoned as copulative compounds ; but the second word seems to be added merely for the jingle, and adds nothing to the first. The same varieties of formation occur in these as have been mentioned under (1) and (2). Examples are: ^^T =^^T, 'well (and) sound;' -Jt^T Ztt' 'j?roping;' cfiT^iT ^T'ft, 'whispering;' T^n i§T5l, 'search;' ^T^ ^^^, 'walk,' 'behaviour;' 1115 XfTl!? 'inquiry.' 626. Observe that not only the postpositions, but the substantive inflections, are added only to the last member of § 627.] COMPOUND WORDS. 367 a copulative compound: as, Vir\ flrff ^, *to jihosts and goblins :' ^^ "q^t ^^ t?^ qf^^* % »ft • • • ^^^ ^^ f, ' even the trees (and) plants, and beasts (and) birds have become dejected.' ^^•f'CT'T^flf^j 'to Lakshman, Ram and Sitd.' Similar is the relation of the first two nouns in the following phrase from the Prem Sdgar: ^^[^ ^if "Rl^l" ^^ f*T^T^ fjT5IT^ . . . ^% ^^%, 'all began, tying turbans and waistbands together, to pull at it;' so also in the Rdyndyan; f fz^f^^ofif^ ^^t^? ' be praises obstinacy and stupidity.' a. In the same way, various suffixes, as ^T^? T^? etc., are sometimes attached to the last of a number of nouns, which are then to be regarded as forming a copulative compound: as, ^f ^^ ^^ 5|^ H^ 1^^ cfi7[ ^T^fTj 'that three-headed, nine- footed, six-handed creature;' f%^^T*<'*f^ ^^ ^T ^T^? 'regarding the whole world as pervaded by Sitd and Rdm ;' ^^^cT5i3T?[^"t^*T^ t^^ ^'f ^TfTTT? ' the Creator (has) made the world to consist (both of) the animate (and) the inanimate, (of) virtue (and) of vice.' 627. Descriptive Compounds are those in which an Descriptive adjective, or a word used adjectively, is compounded with a substantive. In these, the one member of the compound is predicated of the other. Examples are : ^^^irf^ (*I^ + ^•T^), 'courteous;' oR«lxjrjTj 'ear-split,' 'an ascetic with split ears;' also, all compounds in which ^^t (for ^fci;, 'great'), occupies the first place; as, TTfT^T^, 'great sin;' ' worshipper of the Lord;' ^"m^T^Tir efi^ eR^. 'the story of the rape of U.shd ;' f^^'^ , ' one who has subdued the senses.' 633. As remarked § 623 (5), the laws of sandhi are always neglected in all Tadbhava compounds, and very often, even where the elements of the compound are Tatsama. Thus, e.g., we find, ^fT!T^T> ' the will of Hari,' for f<\^T ; ff^^^i^, 'hailstones,' forf^XJ^; H^^^-?:, * distracted with fear,' for iil'^rTfTT ' ^*^'» *^t^* 634. In poetry, the parts of compounds are often Inversion of inverted: as, e.g., ^Tit^^^, lit., 'joined with judgment,' i.e., °™P°'^" ' discreet,' for Sk. f^^^gif ; ^^^Tf^, ' deprived of the jewel,' for ?TfTir^5T; ^^f^^^, 'destroyer of Mayan' for ^^?I^^»I ; f^TT?ffI, 'every day,' for irfrlf^'T; f^lcTf^^^, 'deprived of judgment.' 635. Before leaving this subject, it is important to observe Compounds that a large number of Sanskrit words used in Hindi, are position?." compounds formed with various prepositions. The following list contains the most important : — (1) "^tTT* ' beyond ;' as in '^(JJ'fT, lit., ' beyond limit,' ' infinite,' (2) ^fv, 'above,' 'over;' as in "^t^jftlffT, 'a ruler.' (3) '^•T, 'after;' as in '^•T^, lit., ' after-born,' 'younger;' also with nouns, as in '^•I'fe'T, ' daily.' 372 COMPOUND WORDS. ' [§ 635. (4) "^«?T"^, 'within ;' as in "^^:^"?[T!r> *t''c internal sense,' * the heart.' (5) "^TJ, 'away,' — usually implies detraction ; as in '^tl^T^, 'blame.' (6) "^fn, 'to,' ' towards ;' as in "^fHTtT. 'desired,' 'chosen.' (7) "^^1 'down,' — often implies disparagement; as, "^^^T^, * bathing;' "^■^^nH" (also ^Sn'T'Tj) the opposite of ^TJJ", ' vice,' ' demerit.' (8) W> * to,' 'towards;' as in '^^IJ^, 'a mirror.' With the derivatives of 313^], (and also "^7 and "5^,) 'to go,' ^ reverses their meaning; as in '^Tf^T'Tj 'coming,' contrasted with ^^»T, 'going;' so in the verb "^•TT. ' to come,' from ( t5JT + ^, « to go '). (9) ^^, {Hcl, ^^, etc.,) 'up;' as in "^7^^, 'born;' ^WT'O'. 'pronunciation ;' so also '^ in ^^•TT (Sk. '^ff +^T)> l't-> ' to stand up,' ' to rise.' (10) '^11, ' near to,' ' down ', ' under ;' as in ''3tjf^fT, ' prepared,' lit., ' standing under.' It often gives a depreciative sense ; as in ^i:!^^, ' ridicule,' from ^^, ' to laugh.' (1 1) 'pFT, ' down ' (in contrast with ^f^), as in fsf J[^«T, ' the conclusion (in Logic) ;' f^^^, ' subduing.' (12) fsTT (f^T-H^^j t%. etc.,) ' out,' commonly has the effect of a negative; as in f^f^^oji, 'without blame;' fsf^'^^. ' vvithout fault.' (13) T^f^, 'around;' as in tjf^^TT^' ' "" attendant,' lit., 'a walker around.' It often has merely an intensive force; as in ^f^XJ'^X!!' , 'com- pletely filled.' (14) TT, 'before,' — hence often indicates superiority; thus, T^VTTj 'chief;' TRjtl, 'effort,' etc. Often its force is scarcely appreciable ; as in 3ITH (IT + "^"R)' ' obtained.' (15) HffT, 'against,' 'towards,' 'back again;' as in "JTOtTTTI". *» respondent;' irfTI''^^. 'recompense.' (16) f^, 'apart,' often denotes 'negation,' 'separation,' 'distinction,' etc.; as in 'f%'^^3T, 'separation;' f%^^, 'discrimination;' ^^ (f^ + ^^). ' profitless,' ' vain.' (17) '^^,, 'with,' (opposed to f^); as in ^'^^, 'conjunction;' ^^JTT, ' fighting,' ' war.' But often its force is imperceptible. (18) Two or three Persian and Arabic inseparable prepositions and other words are also compounded with nouns in High Hindi. Most com- mon are the negative particles ^ and ^"^ (rji) ; as in ^iRJ??, ' without work ;' ^X! ^Tf^Ti» ' "ot present.' 5§ 636, 637.] 373 CHAPTER XI. ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, C0NJIJ:N^CTI0NS, AND INTERJECTIONS. I. Adverbs. 636. The tables on the following pages exhibit a series of adverbs formed from the five pronominal elements noted in § 255. 637. Of the temporal adverbs, all which contain a htbial vowel or Derivation of consonant, have arisen from the combination of the Sanskrit noun, veld I^'.ono™!'!^! Adverbs. (H. ber), ' time,' with one of the pronominal elements, as appears clearly from the Bhojpi'irl forms. The forms containing d are connected with the Sanskrit series formed with the suffix dd, as given in the table. Jun, in the Bhojpuri series, is for Sanskrit yo7ii, ' womb,' hence ' place ' or ' time of birth,' with allusion to the doctrine of transmigration. Khani, in the Maithili series, is for Sanskrit kshan, ' a moment.' The Magadhi and Maithili time-series, ehiya, oliiyd, jahiyd, etc., I am inclined to connect with the Sk. quantitative series of pronominals, iyat, etc., which in Ap. Pr. became ettio, etc.;* the h in the M. forms being merely euphonic, having been inserted to avoid the hiatus occasioned by the disappearance of the tt. These pronominal forms were already used in the obi. sing., in Ap. Pr., as pronominal adverbs of place ; and may as easily have been employed to denote time, like the Hindi itne men, also used adverbially, both in a locative and a temporal sense. Rem. Hoernle derives the series, ab, etc., from the Ap. Pr. loc. sing., emvahin, etc., of the quantitative pronominals, emva, etc. ; which were used as adverbs of time and place. f But in view of the modern use of the forms in berd, as in Bh,, I still incline to prefer the etymology suggested above. * Hoernle : Comp. Gramm. §§ 438 (7), 439. t lb., § 469. 374 ADVERBS. [§637 TABLE XXIII. PEONOMI]N"AL ADYEEBS. Time. Prox. Dem. Remote Dem. Relative. Correlative. Interrogative. Pron. Base. H.H. ■^,\,%\^'^- ^, ^, ^t, ^^■ W, t%T, (^). rT, fcT. ^, t^. ■*|<5|, «now.' Wanting.f * then.' ^^, 'when.' f|s|, 'then.' cfi^, 'when.' B. ^t, ^t.* >» ^t,^,^^. rft, fft, rl^. ^%, ^^. M. „ ^t. >» Relat. used. ^^,^t'"^^- Me. >> 5> >» ^f;,^^t^^t >> ^|;,"^^T,"2R^T- N. U^f- >» t^l- ^^f. ^'rf. Bh. Mg. ^^^. JVanting. W^^'^. fP^^'^. ^^^'Y- JVanting, »» ^tfW. flf^^T. ^f^^. V^f!\, V^'^- '^(T^f^, ^l<5l«1- ^^f%, ^<5l^- cT^f^, f|(=H1. ^^f^.^T^'f. Mt. JJ^anting. Sk. JVanting. >» ^^T. cl^T. 5R^T. * Also, in the Sahdranpur district, '^^. t Where any form for the remote demonstrative is wanting-, the corresponding cor- relative is used instead. TABLE XXIY. PRONOMINAL ADVEEBS. Place. Prox. Dem. Remote Dem. Relative, Correlative. Interrogative. Pron. Elem. H.H. B. M. Me. Biin. Ku. N. O.B. Av R. Bh. Mg. Mt. Sk. ^.T't.xr.P.-?!- ^. ^, ^>, ^. W, t5I (^). 7f, tH. ^, f^. i\i\, 'here.' T7\, X% t%. ^t, ^3Y, Tt- Ti3t, tihtI;. t3flt. ^ft, 'there.' ^3, ^3^, ^t- ^3.'^3Y.^%,^€t. ^f t, ^ft. ^f3^t, ^f3^^- Wanting. ^^t» 'where.' ^3. ^3^- ^Tft. tf^t,tf3^^- ^3^t. ^rf3^t ^it- TTft, 'there.' ■d^i. clt. Relat. used. clt. rTTft, writ ^3t. ^3TT- %35Rt ^3^t. ^f3^t, cTft. ^it. 'where.' ^t, ^31'. ^t, ^^• ^3t ^3TT- ^«4*ii. * I have also met with the following series assigned to Tirhut, though Grierson does not give it in his Maithill Grammars; viz., ^^3TT, ^*tt.3T^, ^f;3TT, '^t?T^. %t^T^' t Is ' to what several places ? '. To face page 374.] 637.] ADVERBS. 375 TABLE XXV. PEOKOMINAL ADYEEBS. Direction. Prox. Demonstr. Remote Dem. Relative. Correlative, Intcrrog. Pron . Elem. T't'"5'F'"«I- ■^,^,^,^,'q. 5T, fgi (^). > ^efi-^,^*an- N. 4|^tfT- ^^fT- ^^fc- ci^fr- wrfT- O.B. JVanting. W^. V ^ Mt. Sk. T^H. Wanting. ^^. dvJII. SB'SJT. * Chand has ^Tf a"d ^fflf. t Bliojpuri and Mag-adhi use instead of an analogous series, tlie pronominal adjectives of lanner, thus : Bh. ^^%', ^^, etc. ; and Mg. ^^^^, ^?;^^, etc. J ^ optionally prefixed. §§ 638, 639.] ADVERBS. 377 638. Of the pronominal adverbs of place, I formerly connected those contahihig t, as itai, ut, jataya, etc., with the Sk. series in tra. But I now agree with Hoernle* that we must regard these as having arisen from the Ap. Pr. loc. sings., ettahe, etc., of the quantitative pronouns, ettio, etc., whicii were used as adverbs of place. Tiiis will account for the palatal diphthong in the longer forms, as my earlier explanation did not. On the other hand, however, I would still refer the series in lidn, or an, to tlie union of the pronominal base with the locative stlidne, instead of referring the termuiation, with Hoernle, to the Pr. ohl. suffix, /iaw.f So also I would still refer the JMar. series with th, at/iai, etc., to the same origin, but not the Me. forms in flai, etc., wliich Beames has well illustrated by reference to the Oriya expression, e dre, ' in this direction,' and the fuller Marathi, ikade, ^ i + kade, loc. sing, of had, for the Sk. hut, 'liip.'l In such longer forms as the Av. ethiyan, Bh. hj/iaviin, etc., I would assume as the second element a loc. sing., tltikdne, analogous to st/idne, but derived from the strengthened Prakritic root t/iik, for Sk. at/id. Indeed the word thikdnd from this root, meaning 'a support,' 'a resting-place,' is common in Hindi. It is an analogy which supports the above derivation of these adverbs fiom sthdne and t/iikdne, rather than from Prakritic terminations, that Bhojpuri presents an alternative series, eliijd, uMjd, etc., in whicli the Persian noun, jd, of the same meaning, has been substituted for sthdne. 639. The adverbs of direction, idJiar, etc., and their dialectic equivalents, are for the most part difficult of explanation. Hoernle^ would derive idhar, etc., from a form Ulaha, connected with the Prakrit qualitative pronoun, edriha (Sk. idrisha), an old locative suffix, r, being added. Beames is inclined to connect them with the Marathi, mhor, ' face,' dim. from Sk. mukha, whence, by contraction, the second element would become mhar, nhar, dliar, har, as in the Mt. temhar, tenhar, H.H. idhar, Bh, ehar, etc.|| But the origin of these forms appears not yet to be * Comp. Gramm. p. 313. t lb. X Comp. Gramm. vol. iii., 2G1. § Comp. Gramm. p. 315. II Comp. Gramm. vol. iii., p. 261. Hoernle derives these forms in mhar, etc., from the ohl. stems eva, ema, ena, + r, of the Pr. quant, pronominal, evo, for the Vedic Sk. ivat. Vid. Comp. Gramm. p. 308. 378 ADVERBS. [§§ 640-642. Emphatic Particle with Adverbs. Postpositions with Adverbs. demonstrated. The Bh., Mg., and Mt. forms, ene, enne, hine, etc., seem, however, to be clearly derived from the Ap. Pr. quantitative pronoun, emva, the loc. of which, emvaliin, was used as a pronom. adverb of manner as well as time. Bangdli supplies the intermediate form, emane, 'here,' 'hither.' 640. From the loc. sing-, of this same pronominal, I would now agree •witii Hoernle* in deriving the pron. adverbs of manner, imi, yun, and their variants. These come most naturally from the Ap. Pr. loc. sing. emviii or emviiin, whence, first, the series, i)ni, im, etc., then tlie Mdr., iun, {in, and H.H. yhi, etc., etc. The Mt. forms, ehandi, e/iand, ehan, end, etc., are derived from the loc. sing, of the qualitative pronominal, in the following order, taking the series of the proximate demonstrative as an example : Sk. idrishah, Pr. iiiso, or, with the pleonastic suflSx nd (Id) added, disa7id, whence, ehand, ehan, end. The i oi ehandi may possibly be the loc. case-ending, but more probaltly the emphatic particle, i or hi, so that ehandi is exactly H.H. aisdki. Similarly are derived the remainder of the series. The Mewari suffixes, kar and gd, are from the Sk. verbal roots, kri, ' to do,' and gam, ' to go.' 641 The emphatic suffix, ^ or ^, may be added to any of the adverbs in the table. But ^ is commonly substituted for the final ^t of the series in ^. Examples are: — -^^^ (^^l^^)? 'immediately;' r\^\ (rj^f^), 'just then;' cR^ (^^ft), 'ever;' "^ifY (rarely, -^ft ft), 'just here;' ^"fl^, ' anywhere/ 'somewhere ;' ^^, 'just as.' a. The dialects similarly add ^, ^, or :p' : as, e.g., JBr. ^^^, = ^H>; ^^, = ^lt; ^^, = ^1^; ^^, and in the Rdmdyan, cfiT^, = ^^ and cfirf^, = ^flf ; yiv- ^[^, = ^^ft, etc., etc. M^r. has for 'Sffl^, cjj^. In Naipali, ^ disappearing, ^ or ff by sandhi appears as ^; as in ^^^^, 'ever ;' «lf5l%, ' quite near,' etc. 642. Inasmuch as these adverbs are originally substantive combinations, they may be followed by postpositions, thereby expressing yet other variations of the adverbial idea. Coinp. Gramm. pp. 313, 314. §§ 643, G-14.] ADVERBS. 379 Examples are: — with %, 'from;' "^Sf^ ^, 'henceforth;' ^^ %, 'since ;' ^^ %, 'since when ? ;' -^^j ^, 'hence;' ^ft $, 'thence;' ^ft %, 'whence?;' with oft; ^f t ^, 'to what place?;' with ef[\ ; ^^ ^t, 'of the present time;' cfi^j ^j 'of what place?;' with ' whenever ; ' ^f t ^flf, ' wherever.' (3) Or the negative particle, «i, may be interposed between two cognate adverbs to express a certain sort of indefiniteness : as, ^f^ -f Tm, 'now and then;' cfi^ •! ^^, ' at some time or other ;' efi^^ ^ ^^j ' somewhere or other.' (4) Or the correlative may be combined with the relative adverb followed by the genitive postposition : thus, 55^ ^ (iff, 'in the same way as before.' 644. For the pronominal adverbs of manner, ^, etc., the oblique forms of the pronominal series, ^^T? etc., (Table XII.), are often employed. 380 ADVERBS. [§ 645. Miscellaneous Adverbs. Adverbs of Time. a. The Sanskrit '5^^, = '^, ^so,' occurs in poetry in Sanskrit phrases, chiefly in the formula, "^^^^ , ' let it be so.' b. The 3rd sing, conting. fiit., ^Tf ? of ^Tf-TT, 'to wish,' before pronominal adjectives is equivalent to an indefinite adverb; as, ^f| f^rl^T ^^T it, 'howsoever great it be.' 645. Besides the above pronominal adverbs, are many- others of various derivations. Yery many of these, indeed, are, in fact, old locative cases of nouns. The follovring lists will be found to comprehend the most common. (1) Adverbs of 77me : — ^it {Sk. ^^), Dial. -^mX, ^1T^, ^^, ^J, ^^, N. ^f^, 'before.' •m^ {Sk. ^^SC^), Dial. ^^, ^^, ^^, ^^^T, 'to-day.' ^^ [Sk. ^^), Dial. ^T^, ^f^, ^if^f, ^T^f, ^^f, ^yesterday,' 'to-morrow.' f!^%, 'at dawn,' 'early.' fTX;«fI, rf^rl {Sk. pres. part, from c^T), ' immediately.' xj-?:^! {Sk. ■qT: + ^^)^ ^'«^- "^T^^j ^T1^5 ^ff^ ^Ttj 'the day before yesterday,' or 'the day after to-morrow.' cf-^TTf {Sk. f% + :g^). Dial, -^iwiti, TiJ^it, HT^, ritt, ' three days ago,' or ' three days hence.' ?TT^ {Sk. ^^ ^^?), Dial. ^"^H^, "STTf, -ST-^t, 'four days ago,' or ' four days hence.' t^^T^ {Sk. f?i + ^T), 'at last.' f^fT, i^m {Sk. f^-^i{^), 'constantly.' iJt^ {Sk. ^■^^X), Dial, iftw, fxi^T^, ftf^T^, fqilT^, "qf, ^T^j 'qfi^j 'mif, 'after,' 'afterwards.' ftfi-?: or ^•?:, Dial, ^f[f\, ^^fr.* ^¥T^; also q^, -qfiT {Sk. xr^^), ' again.' * This is really a conjunctive particij)le, from '^^'^•fj or ^^"^ITj • to return.' § 645.] ADVERBS. 381 ^T? ^Tj ' at break of day/ N. ^f^. ^TT^T i'S^--- ■^Tt^TT'l)^ ' repeatedly.' B%^ {'S/c. '^+^Wl^m, fem. g:eii. sing.), about Meeriit fe^^^ or f^^'lis, 'early/ ' betimes.' «. The foUowini^ are only dialectic; ^H^, 'hitherto;' ^^TT (^^"- ^+«fiT%), 'early/ N. ^t%, 'immediately/ and ^^ (contracted from ^^Tff )? ' always.' b. Of the pure Sanskrit words denoting time, which are used adverbially in Hindi, the following are among the most common, viz.; certain compounds with the affix ^j, as, ■^efi^Tj ' once ;' ^^T? ^^^T? 'always;' and, w^ith the suffixes f^ci; and nqfq, ^^if^fT and ^^Tft, 'sometimes,' also 'perhaps;' rTc^^, rlr^T!!, ' instantly.' (2) Adverbs of Place : — Adverbs of Place. n!i«Tfr {-Sf^' '^^'^), 'elsewhere.' ff[WZ i'S/c. fl + ^Z), and %^, Dial. ^-^ and %^, 'near.' •qW {Sk. mX), ' over,' ' across.' xiT^, Dial, tfj^ and xjTfl, 'near;' and, reduplicated, "^srra HT^, 'on both sides,' 'all around.' T?^ {Sk. ^■\\), ' on that side,' ' off.' ^■^ [Sk. ^^T^), Dial. -^X, 'on that side;' ^TTT^TTj ^TT^TT? 'on both sides.' ^tlT {Sk. -^Tf^^), ' without.' ^flT [Sf^- ^«I^T)j 'within.' ■^if, 'before,' and ift^j 'behind,' are also used as adverbs of place. a. In the colloquial of the Upper Doab, ^^ or ^t;^, and ■q^ or x^t;^ are combined with 7{Tim {Ar. ^J^Ss) in the sense, respectively, ' on this side,' and ' on that side.' h. The following Sanskrit adverbs occur, formed with the suffix '^, viz.; ■^^■^, 'elsewhere;' T^cR-^, 'in one place;' l^^'^, ' everywhere.' 382 ADVERBS. [§ 645. (3) Adverbs of Manner : — ■^'^T^^ and -^^-t^cR, ' suddenly.' ^T^ (i«"p. 2nd plur. of WT^^T), Br. WT^^j ^^¥^ iw Ram., ^•T, ^f^l^j ' so to speak/ ' as it were.' ^Z {Sk. ^Zfr[), Dial, '^z ; also ^z V^ (from Sk. root, tj^; past act. part, tj^^?), 'quickly.' 'Z\'^, reduplicated intensive form, ^oR ■37^ [Sk. root, ^T)j ^ exactly.' ^^ [Sk. ^^, 'fate'), 'perchance.' \il^^ [Sk. root ^), ' slowly.' f^qz [Sk. U +\'Z?), ' very.' ^^^ [Sk. Ti^), ' on foot.' ^¥ff (»^'''^- ^¥)j ' much,' ' very ; ' for dialectic forms, see §338. %7[ [Sk. loc. sing. ^5i), 'quickly,' Dial. %fj\. •^T^ (imp. 2nd plur. of ^TT^^T), Dial. J{\^, T{\^^, ^T^, 'as,' 'so to speak.' ^ITcITT (fi'om Sk. root, ^^), ' incessantly ;' also ^^ffTcTTT- ^^ [Sk. ^^ri;), 'truly ;' intensive form, ^j^tt^. "^rT, Dial. '^fr{, 'freely,' 'gratis;' intensive form, ^TRrl. ft%, Dial, ffx, 'gently.' a. The following are only dialectic: — G. XfV^ or xtT'^^j 'quickly,' and ^"^1%, 'slowly;' ^fs [Sk. wtj, 'very,' ' extremely;' and in the Rdmdyan, ^\ [Sk. ^Jji), 'rather.' h. The conjunctive participle, ^f?;, of ^"?;iTj ' to do,' is often used adverbially, for 'as;' thus, f^Hf W3I ^"^^ ^fT! ^i^"^, ' I will count my birth as having borne good fruit.' Similar is the use of the Braj form, ^; thus, TTTT"^ IT"^ ^^ ^ TT^j ' they regard the man Kris/ina as a god.' c. The following Sanskrit w^ords are used as adverbs of manner, viz. :— -^^^Tci: (^+ ofi^cT, abl. sing, of f%FC)j '!^"d- denly;' ^t?!, 'very;' ^^;fr, 'infinitely;' ^f^^, 'more;' ^^Tc?; (abl. sing.), 'id est;' ^^5^ [Sk. inst. sing., '^•I^^), § 645.] ADVERBS. S83 'well,' 'happily;' %^t?r, 'only;' f?TT;nlT5 'incessantly;' xit;^t:, 'mutually;' ^^, 'as;' ci^T, 'so;' ^^, 'in vain;' ^^, 'quickly;' ^^, lit., 'born with/ hence, 'naturally,' 'easily;' ^^, 'truly,' Sanskrit adverbs formed with the suffix \fj, denoting ' distribution,' ' kind,' occasionally occur ; as, in the Rdmdy(ni, wf^^ilT, ' of nine kinds.' d. Here may be noted the Sanskrit particle, ^^, 'like,' which approximates the nature of an affix, and always follows the word to which it refers ; as, ^f^^«I Xjs^, 'like the servants of HariJ (4) Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation. The common Adverbs of ,«' . 1 . ." . T. ' =5^ 1 =^' c r. / 1 1 Affirmation affirmative adverb is '^j, Bun. ^ and ^f ; east or Bundel- and Negation. khand, often Tf^, ' yes.' ^^ [Pers. •^\-'), ' truly,' is also very common in affirmation. The negative adverbs are •!, »I^, and TifTj ' no,' ' not.' Of these, ^TT is regularly used with the imperative only ; "1^", never with the imperative ; •! , with any part of the verb. a. ^ is often combined with ^t and ^^ in respectful address:* thus, ^ ft or ft^; as, ^ fw^, f^\^^ ^TJ? ^ ft ^T^Tj ' how friend, has Bidiisjiak come ? Yes, Sir ; he has come.' h. Dialectic variations are :— for -TfY, Br. •TTffj •Ilff, TTf^, ^Tf^; 'fltff^, Mar. ^; in the Ram., -rff, -iff; modern eastern form, "sntf "lo. Other variations are, «iTj •Tfl", -itr? and -ft^-t For ^cT, Kanauji has ^frf and ^rft; fsif^ or f^»T is also used. In Eastern Hindi, f^TiT is always used for ifff, and, like that, with the imperative only. Variants of f^ are ^fiT and t%i«T. c. tftj ' indeed,' Dial. 7^, cl^ or 71^, is common. In the Rdmdyaii \ff is occasionally used with a similar force, * There is a proverb, ^ efift ^ cfif^T^1"> 'say Jl fyourself iind) yon will he called Jl' t For the derivation of these forms, vide § 472. 384 ADVERBS. [^§ 646-648. Adverbs of Citation. Persian and Arabic Adverbs. Adverbial Phrases. usually with ^^; as, "^^v^; or sometimes f^ precedes; as, t^^f or ^\ff . d. Various Sanskrit nouns and adjectives are also used in affirmations: as, "^^^j Ram. "^^f^, * certainly;' f%:^^f^, * without doubt;' f^ig-q, Dial. t^%, f^f%, f^I^, etc., * assuredly.' 646. Here may be also noted the occasional use of the particles "^^j 'now,' and f^f?I. 'thus.' In Hindi prose these are never used excejit at the beginning; and the end of narratives. Thus, at the beginning of the Prem Sdgar, we have '^(^ cfi^T ^"^T* ' Now, the beginning of the story;' and at the end of eacli chapter, we find the particle TfTf, which is scarcely capable of translation, but is similar in force to the marks of quotation in English. In Sanskrit, '^^f^f was always written at the end of a citation ; and traces of this usage are found in Hindi poetry. Thus, in the Rdnuiyan, TTff TT f^TT ^fTf ofif^ llt^; where ^fti is, by sandhi, for wT X^i and we may literally translate, 'Holy Writ, saying No, has snng his greatness ;' ^f(T simply marks the negative as the word, not of the writer, but of ' Holy Writ.'* So also, in prose, ^fTT. as the first member of the compound 1[(?ITT?, refers to the noun or nouns immediately preceding ; as, '^^fT T^W ^(?ITf^> ' Brahmd, Maliesh, et al.' 647- The following Persian and Arabic words occur now and then as adverbs in modern Hindi. — (1) Pers.: ^^? or ^^^ {■^W)i ' quickly ;' ^?:fT (phir. of jb, 'time'), 'often ;' UT^^ {^\^^), vulg., ^^'^^ and -mX^, 'perhaps;' ^^^T (dA-^A), vidg., ^^ij and ^^^, ' always;' (2) Arab. : ^^WtTT (Ak*!^), vulg., 'fl^^TT, ' certainly,' ' indeed ;' t^t^ ^•?: {J> ^l^), 'especially;' XR^Tf (kiij), and about Meerut, cR^ (for Ar. JU-), 'only;' f%^^ (J-<^t>), 'altogether;' -^n^ (ci^;), ' namely,' ' that is to say.' 648. Some adverbs and nouns, compounded, form useful adverbial phrases. Examples are: — ^tq ^fV, 'elsewhere;' ^»ft 'Til, 'never;' ^^ ^^, 'slowly,' 'easily;' "^lY fft, * The meaning of the passage is, that the Ved, while attempting to set forth the greatness oi Ram, declares that it has not yet done so; i.e., that his greatness is ineflfable. §§ 649-651.] ADVERBS. 385 'else,' i.e., '(if) not, then.' For ^f^ ^, we find in the Itdmuyan, ^TffH, 1H, ^TT, and ^7[\. f^ also occurs, for Wf ^lY, 'how not ?.' 649. Many adjectives, especially such as denote quantity Adjectives and or quality, are used in their uninflected form as adverbs : as, Adverbs. ^^T and ^^1, ('good'), 'well;' -^^T, 'a little;' ^t|t (' great '), ' very.' So also is used ^^j ; as, Tj^ ^^T cIT^fTT f, '(my) mind is so agitated;' and, in Mar., jy^j, 'fij(\\,= H.H. ^%, ^^fr. Rem. But in some cases, where the adjective must he rendered in English as an adverl», it is yet inflected as a proper adjective ; as in the Shakuntalu, where Mddhavya says, ^^ flJ ^^ ?^^ ^' * ^ ""^ truly very miserable.' 650. Conjunctive participles are very often equivalent to English adverbs; as, ^T»T^) 'knowingly;' fiT^^, 'together;' etc. Here we may also note the use of ^t;'^, conj. part, of ^T'lTj with nouns, adjectives, and numerals, forming adverbial phrases ; as, xjf\^^ ^T^? ' laboriously ; ' tt^ ^T^j 'chiefly;' TJ^ TJ^ ^T^, 'singly;' ^% ^f cfi7:%, 'with face downwards.' Further illustrations will be found in the Syntax. 651. Finally, we may here notice the partici^^le ^, The Emphatic Ptirticlc which may be placed after any word to render it emphatic. It may sometimes be translated by 'jnst,' ' very,' or some similar word ; often, however, its force can only be expressed by a stress of the voice. a. After the pronouns ■^f^ and ^f , and often after ^ and T^, ^ becomes t^, and is written as a part of the pronoun ; thus, ^^, 'this very;' ^^^, 'that very,' etc. For its usage with pronominal plurals, see § 268, and with the pronominal adverbs, see § 641. Examples are :— ^ -^If gjfrfT ft ^L ' I was in the very act of saying this;' Sk. '^T%)j ' at,' ' at the house of,' whence also ffii or TiJXi 'towards,' 'to/ = 1:11^, and sometimes efi^. f(' •fTT? 'like,' requires the preceding genitive to take the feni. form, cfi^. h. ^jTTT'I, ' equal to,' ' like,' commonly requires the genitive with % ; but I have noted an instance in which it is made to agree in gender with the noun to which it refers ; thus, ^^ TTrTT «fiY ^TfTj ' a woman like a mother.' * Dialectic 655. Only dialectic are the following : — A', etc., ^% {Sk. Piepositious. _j.^^^ , ^^ , , j^g^j, , _ jj jj ^^^. ^j^^jg ^^^.gj^ ^^j.gj, ^j^g preceding noun in the oblique form without a postposition; ^^jj {S^k. m'^Ti), 'with;' in the Bam., ^f^^ {>Sk. ^f^), 'like;' ^T%, cfiT%, = cRT"^!!!-, 'for,' 'by reason of;' *?!%', 'for,' 'in con- sideration of;' in eastern Hindi, ^^, = f%^, 'for;' 3Idr. \-it, ' below ; ' A^. ^f^, ¥rf^, ' under ; ' mf^, ' to,' = H.H. x:(■[^ ; frl\~, "qtg, 'towards ;' ^Ttf ^, ' except ;' ?nfw, 'in,' 'between ;' %, 'like;' Titt^, ^^, 'above;' ^J(■^, ^t, 'near.' 656. In Rajputana, these words which in High Hindi are used with the genitive as postpositions, are often construed as predicative adjectives, and made to agree with the subject of the sentence in gender and number. Thus, ^ T^t TTTlft t^^ t, = H.H. ^f ^^ xft^ %^T t' 'h*^ i*^ * Compare the M^rwdri usage, § 65G. §§ 657-660.] CONJUNCTIONS. 380 seated behind me;' but ^T ^t mW^ ^"S^ ^, ' s'le 's seated beliuul thee,' where High Hindi would have ^^ X^i|. Compare the remarks concerning- ^vt, § 1/2. 657. The following- Sanskrit words, with a few others. Sanskrit, ,.__,/ Peisiau, and are oiten used in Hindi in a prepositional sense: — '^•T'flT; ; Arabic Tre- 'after;' ^^TT, 'according to;' ■^^\^^, 'after;' ^KTTt, P"'^*'""'' 'for,' 'because of;' OlfilTT, 'on account of;' f^^^ (oftener f^^^), and f^xi^rT, ' contrary to,' ' against ; ' f^^^ or f^^lJ, also f^%, ' in respect to,' ' about ;' ^jfttl, 'near ;' %g, vidg. ^r\, 'by reason of.' 658. The following Persian words are often used in modern Hindi as prepositions: — ia«^T (j-^J^)? ' within ;' f^i^ (j^r), 'about,' 'around;' •l^i^efi (i^jCojJ), in the Duab, •f^f^^; in the Himalayas, ^^\^ or «Tf5l^, 'near.' «f5if^^ is even used in literature, as in the Shakiuitald; ^^ ^ •T'ft'cr ^TT ^^^Tj ' I will camp near the grove.' ^T^cT U'^'^'- takes ^), 'concerning.' 659. The following Arabic words are also much used as prepositions by Hindi-speaking people : — X^^ (^.i), ' instead of;' t^^T^ (^i^.-), 'contrary to,' 'against;' ^^-^ 0--v)» 'without;' ^^% (^J^j), 'in exchange for;' ^T^^ (s-i-^b), "by reason of;' ^^T^ (-^v)' 'after;' f^^^ ( .i^-V)' 'without;' ?|cfTfq;^ [J.i\^^), vulg. in the Doab, TfTf^ifTj 'according to;' ^T% {^^»), 'for;' •^^^ {^^^), 'for,' 'by reason of;' i^^■\ [\%J), 'except,' 'besides.' a. The following are feminine, and require ^ with the preceding noun: — T^jf^T (r^^^)? 'for,' 'for the sake of;' TTT""^ (^-j;^')? 'towards;' Ti^f {~j^)i 'like,' 'in the matter of;' fiT^^fl (l::->-aJ), 'concerning.' Conjunctions. 660. Copulative coniunctions are the foUowinoj : — Copulative -* "^ Coujuiictious. ^^^ {Sk. ^q-^), Br. ^, ^^, ■^, ^, N. •^^, To. O.B. '^^X, Bagh. ^x^ 'andj' ^, 3Idr. ■^, N. qOl, 'also;' ix^x, 390 CONJUNCTIONS. [§§ 661-662. ' again/ ' moreover.' For ^, ' also ' [Sk. "^ftrff , Pr. "Nff ), the Sanskrit "^fq, sometimes with elision of ■^, ^fq, is used in poetry only. "J^^, also q»f and "qfif, is used for fcR^, resumptive, ^ again,' in eastern Hindi; and in Naipali, ^fx;. 661. The most common Adversative conjunctions are XiTy^ (Sk. ■tTt + ^), in I^aiptilij HT"^, 'but ;' m:, {Sk. qt), Br. t, 'yet;' ^T'U (Sk. ^XW), 'but,' 'nay.' a. But the common people in the N.W. Provinces very commonly use the Arabic j^Cl, %f^«Tj for '^T^> 'but;' and the Arabic d^b, ^f^ (also, vulg., ^f^«l and ^^^), for ^7:;T!J, which latter is never used by the common people. Equally rare, and used only in poetry and scientific writing, is the Sanskrit f^;i^, = T:|^«^, 'but.' The Persian^, ^^"^ 'but,' ' except,' is often used by Urdii-speaking Hindoos. 662. The Disjunctive conjunctions are ^T and ^^^T, ' or.' The Arabic b '^t is often preferred to these by the common people in the N.W. Provinces. The negative disjunctives, ' neither,' ' nor,' are expressed by repeating the negative participle ^ with each successive clause. ' Else ' or ' otherwise ' is expressed in Hindi by the two particles, ^^ tft. Of these, ^fY belongs to the protasis of an unexpressed conditional clause, ' (if this is) not (so), then.' In Naipali, for ^fY wt, we have ifTT? or the phrase lY^ o ^^ . a. f^i is sometimes used as a disjunctive, especially in alternative questions ; as, ^T ^T ^T^'I t^ •TfYj ' will you go or not ? ' The Sanskrit f^fi^T (or f^^T)? ' or,' is occasionally found in literature, f^ is the regular disjunctive in Naipali. b. The 3rd sing, conting. fut., 'git? of ^Tf«TTj 'to wish,' is often used disjunctively in two successive clauses for 'whether .... or;' as, '^tI "^T^ ^Tf T ^T^j 'whether he come or not.' For the second '^^j "^^^ may be used. §§ 663-665.] CONJUNCTIONS. 391 c. The interrogative ^n? similarly repeated with nouns, must also be rendered Mvhether' .... 'or,' as, ^sn ^ WT 5^^ J 'whether men or women.' So in Naipali is used ^...^. 663. The Conditional coniunctions are J\fs (Sk.) or Conditional •^ -^ \ / Conjunctions. g^f^, and, much more commonly, wt, 'if,' Dial. ^ and %. The Persian J>\ ^^rh: is often used for ^ by Hindoos familiar with Urdu. In Naipdli *i^ (h'^^t) = '^^ ; it always follows the clause it conditions. 664. The Concessive coniunctions are rft, ' then ,' ^•'"^^'^i'.^ J ' ' Conjunctions. 'indeed,' ^^ftr, 'although,' and f!^Tfq, 'nevertheless;' Loth ij^fti and ci^fq are Sanskrit. But, colloquially, ^ . . . ^ is used for ^5lfq, and eft or cftift, for fT^fq ; as, wt ^q ^^ oElT'T *ft ^ Ct, Br. fft^, 3Idr. cftf^ and tft qiir. b. '^%, sometimes followed by *f\ in the same clause, is often nearly equivalent to ' although ;' q^, ' yet,' or q^«fT, may then introduce the consequent clause. Thus, '^'% ^f ?t% JTTT Ht ^%, ' even though he should kill me ;' ^Tf 'TT^ ^^ ^f!T T^, qx; \^T^ J^, ' though property all go, but virtue remain.' '^Tlt may be thus used for ^^. c. fqr^ ^ sometimes has a concessive force = Eng. ' still.' d. "^ITif^ {Pers. A^^\), 'although,' is only heard from Urdu-speaking Hindoos. 665. The Causal conjunctions are f^, ' for,' q^f^, Br. conjunctions ^f^, q^^, and qj^, N. qsn^o and qsn^^ ^^T, fqj'To ^^ (final), 'because.' The Sanskrit noun, qiTTW, 'reason,' is also used as a causal conjunction, = ' because.' 392 INTERJECTIONS. [§§ 666-669. Illative Con- juuctions. Final Cou- j unctions. 666. The common Illative conjunction is ^, iV". rTo, 'then.' After ^ in the protasis of a compound sentence, ^ is often used in the apodosis in an illative sense ; as, ^f Wt ^'^T ^ ^% ^T^T ^%1T, ' as he has come, I shall therefore have to go.' Under other conditions, the abl. singular of the prox. dem. pronoun, ^f , viz., f;^ %, Br. ^1*0?, has the force of the illative ' therefore.' 667. The Final conjunctions are t^, 'that,' and, more emphatic, the abl. singular of the relative pronoun, f^^, ' in order that.' ISTaipali uses the conj. part, ^^•f^-^o, lit., ' saying,' after the final clause. a. No negative final conjunction exists, except in the Naipdh', ^fir ; its place is supplied by the 3rd sing, conting. future of the substantive verb, with a negative before fss ; as, T ft t^ or ^^T T ft f^- The Persian ^Ij rnf^, = f^^', belongs rather to Urdu than to Hindi. Vocative Interjections. Miscellaneous Interjections. Inteejections and Enclitics. 668. Yocative interjections are the following : — I, ^^"Y, ^1f or ft, lt«T, ^^, ^t, ^T' Tj ' 0-' Of these, f is the most respectful, and must be used to superiors ; ■^, ft? ftrT and "^ft? also ^^, may be used in addressing equals or inferiors when no displeasure is intended. "%% and ^^ or ^ always indicate some degree of displeasure or disrespect ; the final tj of these three is always changed to t^ in con- nection with a feminine noun. ■^, ft and ^ (^t) follow, and the others mentioned, precede, the noun with which they are connected. 669. Various emotions are expressed by the following : — ^ expresses pity, ^, despondency, ^Tf , approbation and surprise, ' bravo,' ' well ! ' \^^^ expresses praise, ' bravo,' §§ 670, 671.] INTERJECTIONS. 393 'well done ! '; fTH fTir, also fi IT and ^ff , 'alas!'; ^ITTt = ' twice a pity;' -^if^ (also "^TW), is 'mercy!', lit., ' save !'; ^I and ^=atlj 'oh/ express pain or disG:ust; ^^^ ^^, 'hurra!,' lit., 'victory!' 'victory!;' tif^i^, 'fie,' expresses disg:iist. Yet other interjections are, ftl^, 'shame,' also f\iI^TT5 ^T? 'begone!'; ^q, 'hush!'; ^t, 'lo!'; ftRij, 'pshaw!'; ;^f^ {S/i. ^ + ^f^), ' salutation ! '. I have also found ^f^ used as an adjective with a noun ; as, ^f^ ^^"T, ' a well-said word.' 670. The usual words of salutation among the Hindoos are, to equals or inferiors in caste, jj^ TTT, Rctfn ! lidm I ; to Brahmans, «T^^TT5 'Obeisance!'; to Europeans or IVIu- hainmedans, ^^"RT? lit., 'peace!'; or, still more respectfully, ^•^^j lit., ' service ! '. 671. The following interjections are also used in the col- loquial of some parts of the country: ifT^TlT (Pers. , Jib oLi), 'well done!'; ^ ^ and ^^, express disgust; ^ft calls at- tention ; ^^T^W IZ, and f ?[ BtV, 'begone!'; fT"^ t"^ and fT^ ^^T? 'Alas!' 'woe!'; lit., 'Alas ! nurse,' or 'mother!'. ■^f% "^T^ occurs in the I{dmai/(U) ; thus, the slave girl Kuhari says, mf^_ '^T^ % W[% ^^T^T, 'Alas! what have I de- stroyed ! '. It occurs also in the Shakuntald. 394 [§§ 672-674. CHAPTEE XII. SYNTAX. 672. In this chapter will be treated, in the first place, the functions of the several parts of speech under their various modifications in respect of number, case, tense, etc., and, in the second place, the construction of sentences from the material thus exhibited. The former may be termed Analytic^ the latter, Synthetic Syntax. Part I. Analytic Syntax. Gender and Number. Gender. 673. Little uccds to be said here as to gender. It is chiefly of importance to observe that occasionally, when a noun denotes an object of a different gender from its own, it is construed as having the gender of that object. Thus, though ^^ is masculine, we have fl"?c^ ^^-sifl^j when it refers to Shakuntald^ in the drama of that name. Number. 674. The singular number denotes unity^ the plural, jplurality. To this general rule there are three ex- ceptions. (1) The singular may be used for the plural in a generic sense, to denote a class j as, rl^ 'eighteen queens/ Sometimes the plural inflection is also omitted, where the indication of plurality is only in the predicate ; as, ^t^ ^TT "^i ^^%j 'her companions are standing in her service;' i.e., ' are waiting upon her.' Rem. This omission of the phiral termination occurs chiefly in the nominative of fern. n * lie gave his two daughters in marriage.' (2) The plural is used for the singular to express respect ; Plural of as, c!TT in the following: ^^tt ^^ ^ ' exhausted because of the way.' Vid. infra, Syntax of the genitive. 396 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE. [§§ 675-677. Objective Accusative. Of the Nominative, 675. The Nominative is used, (1) As the grammatical subject of the verb ; as, ^f^ % ^"^^ ^n?I it'I, 'the words of the sage will become true.' (2) It is found as the predicate after many intransitive verbs, as in the following examples : — ^^"TT T^^ ^ %^ "^^^T f , 'what an affliction to a man is old age!'; ^ft ^^ ^T '^^^ ^ ^ITTT ^ f, 'this staff .... is become the support of my walk;' ift^ •TT^ ^T^TT, 'be shall be called Gopi Ndth;' ^f ^iRTT"^ ^TT^ ' he was counted a transgressor.' (3) It is sometimes used for the vocative ; thus, ^T»rr^"?^ ^ ^^T^^ ^^ f^ ^ZTj ' Bdndsiir called and said, Son !'. (4) It sometimes stands independent by anakolouthon ; as, TlfTTT^ t t^ fj 'the great king— he is seated;' I[T"^f%^T "^l" ^^f^^T ^ ^^ ^W 1^^ ^ '^%m'Ct f J ' sacred science and military science, — these two confer high rank.' (5) It is sometimes used for the genitive, absolutely, with the infinitive; as, e.g., in the phrase, V*^"^ ^Z% cfT 11^) 'the noise of the breaking of the bow.' Of the Accusative. 676. The accusative is used to denote (1) the direct object of a transitive verb ; or (2) local or temporal relations. 677. To denote the direct olject of a transitive verb, we may employ either the inflected accusative with ^, or that form of the accusative which is like the nominative. Similarly, with the perfect tenses of transitive verbs, the object of the action may either be § 678.] SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 397 put in the dative of reference with ^, or in the nominative. But these two constructions or the two forms of the accusative are by no means interchangeable. Rem. Tlie correct use of these two alternative forms and constructions is perhaps the most difBcult thing- in the Hindi language. Only by extensive and continual reading of native l)ooks and long intercourse with the people, can the foreigner become able to use them with idiomatic accuracy. But the following jjrinciples and illustrations will, it is hoped, at least throw some light on the subject. 678. The general principle which regulates the use of ^se of "^ these two forms and constructions is the following : tive. when it is desired to emphasize the object as specific and individual, the accusative with orY must be used ; otherwise, the nominative form is to be preferred. (1) Under this general head, observe, that in the case of nouns denoting rational beings, whether they be (a) generic, or (b) relative terms, or () of inani- mate, material objects: ^ iT^liJ % TRq^rr IXT^T ^ST^T? '^ Shri Krishn enlarged his body;' "^fY WT% ^t^? 'let us eat (our) lunches here :' (c) of abstract terms : ^"^T ^^ t^fl *? T ^^j 'do not take my fault to heart;' f^^ tj-^ % '^^^l ^T^n ^ ^^ ^T ¥^ ^R ^cTT ^j ' I destroy all the wealth of him to whom I show favour.' (3) Although the use of the two forms of the accusative or the two alternative constructions of the object with the perfects of the transitive verbs, is regulated to a great extent, especially in the colloquial, by the above principles, still it must be observed that other subordinate considerations often limit and modify their application. a. When it is specially intended to denote the object of the verb as indefinite, the nominative form is preferred, even when referring to rational beings. Thus in the Prem Sdgar, Kans says, ^cTI' ^^^ 1 ^1T cT^ , ' a living girl I will not give thee ;' where the omission of crY, making the expression indefinite, adds to the emphasis. Similar is the phrase, ^J^ ^ TTT t ^T^«If) 'you have killed children;' referring to the general massacre by Kmis. b. On the other band, when it is desired to indicate the object with special definiteness, the form with ^ may be employed even with nouns denoting irrational objects or abstract ideas. The accusative with ^ will therefore gene- rally be preferred when the object of the verb has just been mentioned, or is well known. Thus, f^^ ^-ft fTT^T ^ ^^ ^^^ ^ "^^T ^^j 'throwing the mortar (i.e., the mortar previously mentioned) obliquely between those two trees.' § 678.] SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 399 Again, we have, ^|; f;^ ^x^T ^ ^fTTTT f, ' that one over- comes this illusive power.' Here wt indicates HT?n as the ^^T fii'st mentioned in the previous context,* where, it should be noted, the nominative form of the accusative is employed, thus: ^qsf^ 'W['^^ ^^ ^Tt? 'remove your illusive power.' c. Again, in the case of plural nouns, when it is desired to denote the object collectively, as a class or a totality, the accusative with ^ is employed ; but when it is rather to be denoted distributively, as a plurality, the nominative form of construction is preferred. Thus we read, ^^^ ^^^ "^eR ^ "^TTH f^^ ^ ^^ %5 'taking (his) 16108 wives with him,' — where oft denotes the object collectively ; ^;^ % 5iftf?rf^^^ efit ^WT^Tj 'he called the astrologers,' — where ^ denotes them as a class. But in the following, the nominative form of the accusative denotes the objects as a plurality ; "^ii % ^5n f^f ^%, 'what signs has your Majesty seen?' d. The choice between the two forms for the object of a verbal action is frequently determined merely by a regard to euphony. Thus, especially, when an accusative and a dative occur in close proximity, the nominative form is often pre- ferred for the direct object, simply to avoid the disagreeable repetition of ^. Thus, ^ % ^fTTT ^^ ftff'f^ ^ f^ 1, < I have given your son to Rohini;' % ^T^^tft ^ IfcTTWTr ^ ^'f^ % t%% •! T'^' * Chdrumati, who is betrothed to Kritd- bramd, I will not give to him.' e. So also, again, the one form may be preferred to the other simply out of regard to the rhythm and balance of clauses, so much affected, even in prose, by Hindi writers. Even a fancy for a rhyme may determine the choice, not only in poetry, but in prose writing. Thus, oR^* f^R^ % ^?^ * Prem Sugar, Adhy. Ixxxvii. 400 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE. [§§ 679, 680. ^•^ oR^^ cfi^flt^? 'has any one seen anywhere my boy, Kan- hdi ? ', — where ^f TT; is apparently preferred to oji?f tI^ ^, in order to rhyme with ^t^, which ends the previous clause. Every page of the Frem Sdgar, with its artificial, rhyming style, will illustrate this remark. /. Finally, the accusative with ^ must always be employed, when otherwise the expression might be ambiguous. Cognate 679. Maiiv verbs, transitive and intransitive, may be Accusative. . • i • t p used with an accusative derived from the same root. a. Observe, this cognate accusative is invariably used in the nominative form ; and rarely, if ever, without an attri- butive adjunct. Thus, '({^ %-^ ^^ ^^^ ^, lit., 'what kind of walk are you walking ?' ; ^fsfi^ ^'IVIT^T '^f^'^lt ^*Y^ Tf » 'cuckoos were uttering their pleasing notes;' ^f ^^T ^^ ^^cTT % J lit., he talks a great talk,' i.e., ' he speaks boast- fully;' t^xnft % ^^ Wt ^^ 'nT TTT^, lit., 'the soldier beat him a great beating.' Verbs with two 680. Many verbs may be preceded by two accusa- Accusatives. ^ . -„7- , t / • • i j tives. We may here distinguish two cases. (1) The verb, commonly a causal, may take one accusative of the person, and a second, either of a person or a thing. In accordance with the above principles, the personal accusa- tive regularly takes ^, and usually, though not invariably, precedes the other. (2) Verbs signifying ' to think,' ' to suppose,' ' to make,' ' to name,' 'to appoint,' etc., take a second accusative definitive of the first. The first may be termed the objective, and the second, the jn'edicative accusative. In this case the objective accusative, as more specific, commonly, though not always, takes ofitj a^nd the predicative accusative is put in the nomi- native form. Examples are, under (1), ■qf ^^ ^ ^T^I xiflTT^ ^1T, 'he will put vestments on all ;' *f ^^ ^ f^^lt; t^^T^TT ? ' I ^'iH §§ 681-684.] SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 401 feed all with sweetmeats ;' and under (2), f;^ ^ gjT ^T ^f^ ft 5 'what do you call this?'.- (tt %) f^^ ^f ^TT^T f , 'thou hast made this a pretext;' 1( ^^ ^ ^^^ ^T«tfTT M> '^ regard this as suffering.' 681. The accusative is used with a verb of motion to Accusative of Time and denote the place to which, as in the following example : Place. ff^»IT^T; Wt "^f^^j 'be pleased to go to Hastindpur.' 682. It may also denote absolutely the time at which : as, ^f^efi ^^ "^^ eft, 'on the 14th of the dark half of the month Kdrfik;' ^^ jjf\ ^ 'fT^ ^ m^, 'h't no one be permitted to bathe at night.' N.B. The postposition is often omitted from both the local and temporal accusative, 683. The accusative with ^ and its equivalents, ^, ^, Accusative in etc., is also used in accordance with the principles ahove indicated, in both early and modern poetry. But in archaic poetry the inflected accusative in ff (ff ) is often used for the analytic accusative with ^, subject to the same general conditions. Examples of both forms are as follows : % f^gj f*?"^ ^T«T ofi^ ^T%j 'who regard the sun as their own friend;' TT^ TTT ^f %f% ^ff *ltf!t, ' keep Bam in whatever way (you may);' ^^ ^ff "^^ff efii;'f ij^^, 'say! what pauper shall I make a king ? ' ; ^fsi -^^^-^ff T(^^, ' the sage extolled JRaghubar.' 684. It is important to observe, however, that in Hindi poetry the laws of grammar often yield to the necessities of the measure. Even agreement in gender and number is often sacrificed to the exigencies of the metre. Moreover, in archaic poetry, the modern analytic accusative is but be- ginning to appear in literature. Hence the nominative form of the noun is constantly employed for the accusative, with a license which in prose or in the colloquial would be quite 26 402 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. [§§ 685-686. Inflected Accusatives Ohj active Dative. inadmissible. Thus, e.g., in the following stanzas, prose usage would have demanded ^f^^ ^ and tj^^Ef cfi^: "^f^ ^^^ f^ TT'T^ ^T»^5 'we thought the First Man to be a mortal;'* ^^ •T"^«n^ ^f€^ ^^T^5 'then the lord of men summoned Vasisht ;' t and so in almost every stanza of the Rdmdycui. 685. The inflected form of the noun alone is never used in modern Hindi for the object of a verb. But it should be noted that in Permissive and Acquisitive comp ' ''^ began to go,' is lie facto an accusative under the government of the following verb. Similarly is to be explained the colloquial Braj and Kananji idiom, in such phrases as, ^^ ?§^ »f ^■?3, 'he will not eat ;' where the inflected gerund, %^, as the object of cjj^, must be regarded as an inflected accusative. The Dative, 686. "We may classify the uses of tliis case as follows. (1) The dative is used to denote the indirect object of a transitive verb. Examples are: ^^TTTT Wt ^^ ^ ^m\ ^"ft^T ^^ ^, * Balrdm Ji was inspiring all with hope and confidence ; ' ^ If^ '^^ ^^^ ^^T ^ ^T^^T ^, ' Shri Krishn Chand commanded his Illusive Power ;' 'iff ^^^^ ^ff ^^ ^cl %, 'this mouse gives me trouble.' So, sometimes, with verbs of ' speaking,' we have a dative of the person addressed ; as, ^ ^Tjif T^^ % ^^^^ ^ ^ %*T ^ cji^, ' Shri Krishn Chand said with a wink to Buldev Ji.' Hem. 1. ^^•rr» 'to say,' 'to tell,' when used of giving an order or direction, is constructed with the dative of the person addressed ; but in other cases it is preceded by the ablative : as, '^^ ^ ^T^ ^'5^ cfiY cR^T. 'he told me to sit;' but, ^^ ^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^'\^ ^^> 'J'e said this thing to me.' * Prem Sugar, t Rdnuiyan. § 686.] SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. 403 Rem. 2. It should be observed that the case with ko before causal verbs is not to be regarded as a dative, as might often appear from the equivalent of an English idiom, but as an accusative. This will appear, if for the English equivalent to the causal verb, the verb * cause ' be used with the infinitive of the primitive verb. Thus, tvah gJiore ko ghds khildtd hai, ' he feeds grass to the horse,' i.e., ' he causes the horse to eat grass.'* ' (2) The dative of a person often very idiomatically Dative of •/->•• '11 1 -^^ Necessity. precedes an infinitive with the verb fT«TT or i:i^»rT, to denote a certainty^ or a necessity^ or obligation, as resting on that person. The idiom is commonly equivalent to the English 'must,' 'have to,' etc. In like manner, as denoting the subject of an obligation, the dative often precedes an infinitive or perfect participle with ^Tff^. Examples: ^^ frr g^Ff ^^^t^ ^ ^ft WT^T f, 'to- morrow you and we have to go to the abode of Yamadagni ;' ■q^ ofit '^F^T "^Tf^^^ ' (^ve) ought to arrive there to the festival ;' ^%* WKJ^l '^^W[, lit., 'it will fall to us to die ; ' i.e., * we must die.' (3) The dative is very commonly used to denote Dative of . , . Possession. possession or acquisition. a. The dative of possession is usually followed by the substantive verb : as, ^^ ^ cT^ ^^ ^ H^ ^\il ^ ^, ' they were not conscious even of soul and body ;' ^^ ^ ^T^ "H^, ' to all was terror.' b. But often the copula is omitted : as, ^ JTi'^J ^T«T cfif t, ^ where have we so much wisdom?;' f7T»f ^ ^^ ^'^ %? ^^^ "^^fft^ ^^ •TTfl? ' such happiness as these have, the discontented have not.' c. Or some other neuter verb may take the place of the copula; thus, ^t§ rfT^T qfit f T^j '"ot the name of sorrow remained,' or, ' (even) to the name, sorrow remained not.' * With the Hindi idiom, compare the Sanskrit construction of causal verbs. Vid. Mouier-Williams, Sa7isk. Gramnu, § 847. 404 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. [§ 686. d. Here also may be noted the common idiom with f^^wTTj ^to meet,' ^ to be found;' which is ahvays used with the nominative of the thing found, and the dative of the finder. Thus, ^•T ^ "^TTlf 17^^ t'TMT^ \, '^they obtain the four blessings ;' ^^ gji^ ^T^ f?T^T, ' I obtained nothing.' So also is explained a common idiom with ^^5TT : as, ^§ ^T^T ^IcIT %, 'I feel cold,' lit., ^cold fastens to me;' "^f^ ^TcT eft T^ ^^ WTT^ ^"ftj ' this story has truly pleased me greatly.' Dative of C4] This is found in construction with sucli adiectives Advantage. ^ ■' ^ '' as ^t^fT, ^^, 'proper,' 'right,' *i^, 'good,' ^f3^, ' difficult,' etc., with their opposites. Examples : ^^T ^f ^ ^T'H TTT^ ^ ^f^rT IfV, ' it is not seemly for a woman to be so daring ;' ^T'tY f^«T Wt ^ ^■?^»IT ^ *I^T %) 'for a woman without a husband, it is well even to die ; ' ^^^ ^ i^T^^T ^T ^pEI'^T'I TTTF ^T^T ^(51^ ofif^'T %5 'for man to obtain the true knowledge of God, is extremely difficult.' Rem. '^35f is often construed with the g-enitive, with a slightly dif- ferent meaning, as in § 695 fl6). Dative of Final (5) The Dative of Final Cause denotes the motive, purpose, or object of an action, or the use for which a thing is designed ; as in the following examples : — ^'O' ^ ^'l"^^ ^ ^"1"^ T%1T, 'who will remain for the watching of the city ?'; ^JT ^Kt ^^^ ^ ^'^^ ^ WTnl, ' I am just going to visit the hermitage.' a. The infinitive, in its capacity of a gerund, is very commonly used in the dative in this sense: as, oRI^xB^ ^^"^IZ cfiY % W, 'bring some flowers (and) fruits for an offering;' ^fr^"^ efi^ rfl" \ "^nf^ ^, 'for seeing, indeed, were two eyes ;' cfi^ T;^% ^ cftT ^fITi;^5 'be pleased to show me somewhere a place to stay.' The postposition is often omitted from this gerundial dative; as, ^^ xi^% ^rfT %> 'be comes to read.' Rem. For the dative of the final cause, modern Hindi often substitutes the genitive with f%^ or ^J^, and in the east, also ^^ or ^T'fff'C* § 686.] SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE. 405 b. Here also may be noticed the peculiar use of this dative of the gerund with the substantive verb, to denote the proximate futurition of the act denoted by the gerund. Thus, "^^ ^^% cfit irt? ' she was just about to mount ;' ^f ^% oft ^T? ' he was about to go.' * (G) A Dative of Beference is used before a great Dative of Reference. variety of words, to denote the object with respect to which any affirmation is made. Thus it is employed with many neuter verbs: as, ^JT 'ftT ofit ^TT, 'the arrow struck the peacock;' ^f^j^ ^'t ^€T?^ ^•fl" ^Tig 1, '^to a poor man the world seems lonely;' ^ft ^f^^ Wt f^% ^fT^, ' whatever may be pleasing to any one, that very (thing) say ;' ^f^^^ ^ efit Wt^ ^t^ ^TT 'Tf^^ FTJ, ^ four months passed over Aniruddk in bondage.' So we may have the dative of reference after an active verb ; e.g., ^^ ^ ^f T t f^ ^^ ^ ^TfT Tt^' ' ^'i^Ji regard to the woman, it is said, that of whatever kind (her) husband may be.' a. Many other verbs are preceded by a dative of refer- ence ; and, in particular, the Nominal compound verbs, t^T^ ^^T, ^'TTI; ^^T, etc., mentioned § 463. Thus, ^sn ^ ^ f^^ 'T^* f^^t^^l' ' f^o not signs appear to you?'. b. To this head may be referred the use of the dative to denote the object of an action, in the impersonal construction (§ 412) of the perfect tenses of transitive verbs. Thus, e.g., ^^ % ^^oRt ^ ^^T J is literally, ' by him (it was) seen (with respect) to the boys.' c. Finally, the dative of reference may be used with some adjectives; as, fq^ft^ f^^TT^j 'dear to (her) husband;' and also, some nouns, in expressions of praise or blame ; as, \Ji;^ % ^T ^f^ ^» 'praise to thy courage;!' f^WlX ^\ ^^^ ^, ' a curse to my life ! .' * Compare the English colloquial idiom, ' he was for going.' 406 SYNTAX OF THE CASE OF THE AGENT. [§§ 687, 688. 687. The dative with the postposition ifi^ {'^> ^f ? etc.), is also used in poetry according to the same general principles, as will appear from the following examples : ^J^-T o^ ^^ ^ f^^, 'from having given even pain to a good man;' Tf^ ^{^ t^^fTT ^^ t%fv «r^^j ' Bra/imci has sown for you the seed of trouble.' But very often in the Bdmdymi, the inflected dative in ff (ff ) is preferred. Thus, ?ngf^tTft ^f^ "^f 'TcT »TT^j 'this counsel, again, pleased her parents;' ^^ t%f^ ^trt^ "^^T ^t^5 ' "1 many a way she showed the bondmaid honour;' ■?:T^ff g^r H'^ TfVf?! t^^^, ' the king has a special love for you.' Rem. The postposition is often omitted ; as, xt"?^ "^cJiT^ HZ H^€ "^^ ^j 'for another's injury, warriors with a thousand arms.' The Case of the Agent. 688. The case of the Agent is used only with the tenses of the perfect participle of transitive verbs, and that only in modern High Hindi and other western dialects, to denote the agent. Examples will be fonnd further on, in the sections which treat of the aforesaid tenses. a. In a Hindi translation of the Bhcigavat Piirdn I have found the case of the Agent very commonly used with the Infinitive in the titles of the Chapters. Thus, the title of the 8th Skandh reads, ff?: ^^tfTT ^^T ^^T'lT 3ITW ^HI^ ^T t^-^^-g-^ %, lit., 'the saving of the life of (his) handmaid by God, having become incarnate as Hari.' Again, in the 2nd Adhydya of the same ; ^f ^ ^"fi^^ ^ ^ ^^T TW^ ^ ^f ^, 'the narration by Shukdev Ji of the story of Gajendra and Gfdh.' Pincott, in his Hindi Manual, gives the follow- ing additional illustration ; ^ ^ ^^ qt^ i^T"^^ % ^TT ^T ^T^ ^T f > ' Go ! fellow ! what can those five Pdndavs do §§ 689-691.] SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 407 against me?'. He thinks that this use of this case is extend- ing ; it is, however, still quite rare, and 1 have never heard it in conversation. b. In Naipali, as might be expected from its peruliar use of the case of the agent, its employment with other than the tenses of the perfect, is much more common than in High Hindi. Thus, we have, cfi'tf^ ^tW'T ^tff ?;f5r^^ ^^% gTT'TT ^f^^^iiT ^t ti^ ^r^ ^^ »iOt ^^o l^iT, 'one is saying, John, one, Elias, another, that one of the old prophets is risen again ;' where it is used with the present imperfect. In the following it is used with the future ; ^«%^ % ^»T fiST!T^«T''T, ' they will repent.' On the other hand, ^ is sometimes omitted, even with the tenses of the perfect ; as, S"?! '^ ^T 'JITf] '^^ ^^T ^^ "T f^"^ . ' an angel appeared, strengthening him ;' but I have noted this with ^^"T f^^ only. 689. In both Braj prose and poetry, the postposition "^ is Omission of often omitted. Thus, ^J^lTf^^^^ f^^'ct ^^ ^tR ^if? fw^. Agent. ' the Sanydsis took out all the store from my hole ; ' WT^»T ^f>, ' the Brahman said;' ^f\ ^ 5^ if^f?! ^'^\, ' you have increased (your) love for me.' 690. In the Itdmdyan % is never used ; and in the singular, the case of the agent is thus identical in form with the nominative. In the plural, the oblique form alone denotes the case of the agent. Thus, ^rff^ f^fT1[ cfi^ TW ^TfTTj ' looking toward Sitd, the lord spoke this word ;' ^f^f^TT ^fT^ *ltffT ^%^ ^^^^ ^^, 'the illustrious deeds of Hari, the great sages have sung in countless ways.' But, as previously remarked, the nominative with the active construction is very often used where modern High Hindi would have the passive construction with the case of the agent. The Ablative. 691. Most of the Hindi idioms with, the ablative rest upon the idea of ' separation.' "We may classify them as folloTTS. 408 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. [§ 691. The Local Ablative. The Temporal Ablative. Ablative of Separation. Ablative of Source and Cause. or cause (1) The ablative is used commonly with verbs of motion, to denote the place from ivhich the motion proceeds. Thus, ^?T ^ ^T ^ ^^ %' ' they were coming from the jungle to the house;' TT^I^T % ''^^ f^^? 'they set out from Mathurd\^ f^^^*! % ^%5 'he rose from the throne.' And sometimes the local ablative occurs with other verhs also ; as, f;T ^ ^^ % ^ U^ ^\ % ^^, ' from afar he said to Shrl Krishn C/iantL' (2) It similarly denotes the time from which, as in the following : — •^^ ^ ^^^ f^»T, ' on the fourth day from now ;' ^^ f^«f %, 'some time ago;' 71^ %, 'since then;' ^f Tftf?T XT-^tjij % ^^ ^^ ^, ' this custom had come on down from the olden time.' (3) The ablative is used with all adjectives, verbs, and other words expressing local or ideal separation. Thus, after adjectives: ^^ f ?T % "^^T ^^j 'be became separated from me ;' ?T % ^^ ^ ^^ ^^ t t^^ f^^T, 'I made them free from all fear.' It is also used on this principle after a great variety of verbs ; especially verbs of asking, refusing, forbidding, desiring, saving, etc., etc. Thus, "g^T ^xi% fxjrTT % WT iJl^t, 'go and inquire of your father;' f^ % ^f ' (niy) heart fears to go there.' (5) Hence, by a natural transition, the ablative comes Ablative of to denote the means or instrument^ as that from which action immediately proceeds ; as, for example : ff f T^ % "Nt^T ^Tf^^5 ' do thou tear them to pieces with an elephant ;' ^^'^^ ^ ^^ -I^ ^TT^j 'with (his) hoof he digs up the banks of the river.' To this head may be referred the ablative with verbs of ' filling,' as denoting that with which the action of filling is performed ; as, e.g., ^"^^"^ f^^^ H^ % ^T^j 'the lakes are filled with pure water.' (6) Hence, again, the ablative may denote the agent. Ablative of the Agent. Rem. Observe, however, that this construction is only found in connection with neuter verbs, or with the passive con- jugation. Thus, ^^ % 51^ ^^TTj lit., ' it will not be made by me,' i.e., ' I cannot make it ;' ^sf ^T ^^ M^ % Tf^ ^HT^ ^T3Tj ' their strength cannot be resisted by me.' (7) The ablative is used with all words denoting or Ablative of Comparison. implying comparison. a. Thus, it is used (a) with adjectives: as, ^^ ^ ^Tj ' greater than I ;' ^% ^tt ft^ % ^ ^^cl ^T T ¥^^, 'why was he not sonless, rather than have such a son ? ; ' ef^ ^^ % t|t%% ^T t^T^j 'she went and met him first of all:' {b) with verbs: as, cfitt; '^^ % •! Wt^j 'no one may conquer me;' 410 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. [§ 691. Ablative of Price. Ablative of Manuer. Ablative of Use. Other Idioms with Ablative. ^T^m % ^f^T ^ ^t ^T^ f\ Tl^, 'there is no sin at all, indeed, greater than child-murder:' (c) before some adverbs; as, 5|[^ % ^5i, 'before this ;' ^^ % ^T^T? ' outside of the house.' (8) The ablative may denote the price, as that by means of which a thing is obtained. Examples : ^ ^^^^ ^^ ij^ -^q^ % twt, ' I got this book for one rupee;' ^ ^% % ^^ f^cRcn %? ' does it ever sell for two anas}'. (9) The ablative is very commonly used to denote the manner of an action. Examples: "^^z %^?t^ % "^"^ «fiTj 'sacrificing with the vedic formulas (read) backward;' ^t§ f%T§ % f^TTT «fiT> ' adorning (themselves) from head to foot ; ' ^^ % '^ffff xsux % ^^, ' he said with great love.' This use of the ablative is especially common with such words as TTcRTT, Htf7T> T^f^j f^f^, etc. : as, ^^ flf^ %j ' "i this way : ' ^H Htf^T, ' in that manner,' etc. Here also place such phrases as ^^ xj^ % 1^^^ ' go by this road.' Rem. This modal ablative denotes the noun as a norm or standard from which the action may, in a manneiv be regarded as proceeding-. Compare the English idiom, 'I made it from this rule;' and the Latin, nostra more, meo cnnsilio, etc. (10) The ablative is used after nouns expressing need or use. Examples : ^^ '^sh'^f^ % Tn^^«T % ? ' I have need of medicine ;' ^^ % "s^ ^TTj 'what is the use of this ? .' (11) Finally, the ablative with ^ is used to express a variety of relations expressed in English by the prepositions ' with,' ' by,' or, more rarely, 'in,' 'to,' or for.' Examples: ^^ % ^^TT ^Tj '%bt with me;' f^ % ^^ 1 ^T;^T^? 'do not stir up discord with any one;' f^^ § 692.] SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE. 411 ^ f%>i|»n % ^^V fsfi^j 'with whom Brahma contracted an alliance;' ^f t ^f , 'mouth to mouth;' ^^ % ^cTT f^qz T:fT f , ' to this a vine is clinging ;' w^ % ^^ ^'TfT^ f, ' it (crystal) feels cold to the touch; ///. is cold from touching;' ^^ cfTcft ^ T ^^TTj ' this (hoy) will not obey for words ;' ^ ifxuj i^ij ^ ^^, ' seeing him in the disguise of Krishn ; ' ^j^ ^ W^l ^j ' by your honour's kindness ; ' ?r % ^f ^"^ % ;f|f^ ;^^, ' I did not say this in jest.' «. ^^-TTj *to say,' is commonly preceded by an ablative of the person addressed. The dative or accusative with oft is used, but the sense is then different ; as, If ^^ Tf^Xt ^ ^^ ^TT ^^T ^^cfT "^j 'I wish to call this ring something bad;' but, ^^ % ^ft, 'tell me;' f^i^ t ^^, 'whom shall I tell?;' gW ^ *f^ TTfTT g^^ ^^ ^T ^^ f, ' (my) mother has spoken, calling thee also, Son!' In one place in the Rmndyan, how- ever, the object of ^f-fT takes HTft (^^Tft); tluis, ci^ T^^'^T ^fT ^f'T ^Tftj 'then Raghuhir said to the sage.'* b. Other words and phrases of analogous meaning to ^^^, are also followed by the ablative : as, ^^^T % rT^ ^ ^f W^^ f^^T ^Tj 'you made Jasodd this promise;' ^-W^T TIJ % ^^ ^TT ^ •ff^, * this body is of no use.' (10) Or the subject of the action denoted by the word it qualifies. Examples: ^t«TT^T ^ ^T1% % ^TT'^TT? '^^^^ news of the flight of Bdiicisur;' "^^ % w(^ cfij cfiT'^ijf, 'the reason of his going;' f^^T^ gjT ^^T ^^T, ' a mouse caught by a cat.' (11) And the object of. an action, direct or indirect. Examples : ?f ^«=1TT HT^ ^T TIT? ' I relied upon you ; ' ^^ ^X; t^^ cfiT %, 'whom do I fear ?' lit. 'fear of whom is to me?;' ^^ "^^ZT •! ^^•TT? 'do not rub abfcm upon me;' ^^ ^T %Z1 ^^T^^ Wt ^'\ ^ffl ^f3^ cTtr^rr ^T^ ^1T, ' his son began to perform a most difficult act of penance to Blahddev Ji;' "^^T^ ^^ % '^T^ ^T 'SIT^ ^T ^IT, ' Akrur, fixing his contemplation on the feet of the lord, said ;' i;^ ^^TZ '^fTrT % ^51% ^ ^^ "^X ^f^^T^T t, ' there is now more desire of hearing this extraordinary story; ' HT^^^T ^T ^T^^, 'a sinner against God.' Rem. The same word may he accompanied either by the subjective or objective genitive, or even by both, as in the following : ^»J qR^ ^^ ^^T "^^ T '^it^j * th*^y had no compassion upon me.' (12) It is used of price : as, ^% ^^ ^% ^j ^TZT ^, 'give me ten dncis worth of flour;' ^f fsfirl^ cRf ^"^T 1? ' M'^hat is the value of this horse ? '. (13) And time : as, "^"^ f^»i cpt ^T(T f? lit., ' it is a matter of eight days,' i.e., 'eight days ago;' f^^ ^W^ ^ ^TfT f, 'it is a matter of a certain time ;' Aiigl., 'it once happened.' (14) Th-Q partitive genitive is used when it is intended to denote anything as a whole^ of which a part is taken. § 696.] SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE. 415 Examples : ^fn cfiT "^"'('Tj ' the beginning of the creation;' m^^ ^ ^^^t' ' one fourth of the land.' a. Here may be classified many reduplicated forms denoting infensifi/ or totality : as, ^f ^^ ^T 'EI'^ %, ' this is very truth ;' 'ft^ ^T 'ftHT, ' very sweet/ Ht., 'sweet of sweet;' •^^•\ '^^^^, <■ the entire assembly ; ' fj^ ^ ^^, ' swarms upon swarms/ lit., ' swarms of swarms.' h. Observe, that when a generic term is accompanied by a noun denoting 'measure' or 'quality,' the partitive genitive is not employed, but the generic term follows the other in appo- sition with it : as, ^ ^^ ^?fl^, ' two highas of land;' cf^;T ^x: ^^, 'three sers of milk;' tjcR ejii: as, ^»T *i ^W ^Wj 'harmony was made between them.' h. Sphere of action ; as, ^^ "^ ^T:T ^W ^^ ^f^j ' I ^^ave not any power in this (matter) ;' fT^ q^?^ eft" ^f^ l^"*! ^^%*j 420 SYNTAX OF THE LOCATIVE. [§ 702. * hands (and) feet are not even to be spoken of/ lit., 'are not within speaking, even.' c. Subject of discourse; as, ^^ crV ^ff! ?t 't Wl ^Wj * what shall I say in his praise?'; and also, occupation; as, ^f '^^^ ^f?f ^ %^T ^T Tltj ' she continued in the service of her husband/ d. Condition ; as, Tjf^ ^ ^"R ^ ^ ll;^, ' she went to sleep, thinking of her husband,' lit., ' in thought of her husband.' e. Cause; as, ^^ f^ ^tj-^^T^ "^ «Rt^ WK, 'becoming angry for a very small offence.' /. Instrument; as, ^3^ ^ TJ^ ^ fi^T'^t T^ ^^1T ^T ^T^ fT'?TT f^^Tj 'I'e finished this serpent's work with a single arrow.' g. It is often used in comparison^ instead of the ablative : As, \y\ fft'ft ^m^* W nfY^r ^T^TfTT #5T I, 'of these three gods, who (most) quickly grants a blessing?'. h. It is used after certain verbs to denote the price. Examples: ^TT ^T% "^ fsficl^ ^T€ fiT^'ft, 'how much grass will one get for four cinds ?'; ■^f i\'[Ji % % rft^ ^tllj ^ 'ft^ ^j ' I bought this cow for thirty rupees.' i. It may even express the object of an affection, where English idiom requires ' for ; ' As, trr ^ T^ j^% ^fr^T ^t ^ %i fr ttt t, 'my love also for these trees has become like that of an own sister.' Rem. The distinction between the g-enitive, accusative, and locative of price, seems to be as follows. The genitive denotes value absolutely, as an attribute of the subject ; as, yah kitne kd hird, ' wliat is the vahie of this diamond ? ' ; the accusative denotes the price definitely, as tbat for whicli a thing is obtained; as, yah turn ne kitne ko liyd, 'for bow much did you get this?'; the locative denotes the price under a slightly § 703.] SYNTAX OF THE LOCATIVE. 421 different aspect, as a limit within tvhic/i a thing- is bought ; as, yah mujhe ek rupaye men mild, * I got this for (lit., within) one rupee.' k. The locative with li is sometimes used partitivehj ; As, «T^ ?Tf^ Ijcff f^Tf ^ ^^, ' he who has even one of the nine.' 703. The locative with t?"^, 'on,' denotes (1) external Loc. in xi"?^; contact. Thus it expresses, a. Position on or upon anything : As, ^f ^^ xj-^ ^3T ¥W ^, 'lie was seated on the house.' Thus it regularly follows certain verbs ; as, ^^^ x?"^ ^^, 'mount the horse.' After verbs it is often to be rendered by 'at,' or 'to;' as, ^^ ^tT ^T ^^T t> *he is standing at the door;' ^3^ ^Q giX[ HX; 111? 'they went to that same blind well.' b. Distance ; as, ^T^ % ^1^ TT ^T? ' ^^ some distance from Kds/ii;' "Q^ gfi^g -q"^, 'at (the distance of) one kos.' c. Addition ; as, f^ xj^; f^T \ ^^^ ft^ft ^Ttft f, ' day by day you keep on growing thin.' (2) It is used to denote the time at which : Loc. in xc^-y of Time. As, ^f 3^^ '^'^^ ^X "^^j ' he came at the exact time ; ' xit^ f^«T x?-^ , ' on the fifth day.' (3) The locative with qi: also denotes a variety of ^i^c. Uses of tropical relations, as follows : a. The ohject toward which an action or feeling is directed. Examples: f^ xjt; ^^T ^%5 'be pleased to have mercy upon me ;' ^^ ^H q?; ;r»t ^11"^, ' apply your mind to this ;' f^^«ft rT?J IT ^^'f^, ' the lioness will rush upon you.' h. Hence it denotes the subject of discourse^ as the object to which discussion is directed. 422 SYNTAX OF THE LOCATIVE, [§ 704. Examples : ^^^^Tirt ^ ?TfT ^X ^1^ ^^^^T ¥Tl W, « there have been thousands of commentators on the doctrines of the six systems ; ' ^;5^ tj-^ ^f^ TT^ ^^, ' as to this, if you say/ c. It may express conformity to a rule or custom : As, f^ 'W^ ^J^ i?T Tf'Ij 'we will abide by our own religion.' d. Also, superiority : As, jy^ ^T ^15 '^f\ ^T. T ^^ "^^T , ' no power of Indra prevails over you.' e. The reason of any action, as tropically its foundation : As, ^-(^ -^ •^^'r{ xjt; cff gj^ tt-^t, ' at this word of mine he fell into a passion.' /. When followed by ^, 'also,' 'even,' the locative must often be rendered by ' notivithstanding,' lit., ' upon — even : ' Thus, ^^ ^^^m x?-?: ^ ij-5ft-^ i^ T^Tft"^ I, 'notwith- standing this languor, how beautiful is (her) person.' g. Very rarely, the locative is used for the ablative with a verb in the passive conjugation. Thus, in the Md/niti, ^ q ^^^ ^f^ ^TfT, ' I am not able to walk.' Loc. of 704. The locative forms with rf^ii, r!^^, ^^, or ^, Limitation. ... . , , . all indicate, literally or tropically, the Imitation of an action or a statement. There is no di:fference in the meaning of these postpositions. Examples are : »tt^ rfcfi m^ "^"^J, ' the water came up to (his) nose;' ^'^g"^ % ^ ^S cTcRj 'from the child to the old man.' a. Peculiar is the following phrase (poet.) : f T? ^"t cT Vn^ "T^^ff ^C^lT^j ' thou mentionest thy own beloved even to us.' §§ 705, 706.] SYxXTAX OF THE LOCATIVE. 423 705. The locative postpositions, "b and HT , are often Omission of , . - . ^ ^ Loc. Post- omitted ni prose and in the colloquial. Tliis omission occurs position. especially in certain adverbial phrases of time and place. Examples are: ^^ ^J^'^, for ^g ^^"^T **? {^X) , 'in,' or « at that time;' TjTTf xit%, 'falling at (his) feet;' ^^ f^?ft' ^^^T ^"511, 'the days being fulfilled, a boy Avas (born) ;' ^f ^n: TT^T, ' be went to the house;' ^"^ ^^ f;^ ^ ^^ ^W, 'my heart has come into subjection to this (maiden) ;' ^^ gjT f^rlT ^T "TlY t, ' her father is not at home ; ' ^^ WT«f "?!? %g ^^T, 'in my opinion this must be the reason;' so, ^^ ^T%, ' in my opinion.' a. »j is almost invariably omitted in the combinations of a noun and verb, commonly called 'Nominal verbs;' as, ^T^ ■^•IT (for ^T^*^ ■^•TT), ' to be of use,' lit., ' to come in work ;' ^1 WK.^1, ' to marry ;' ojn^ ^^T, ' to give in marriage ;' ^f^ ^•TTj 'to appear/ Angl. 'Charioteer! drive on the chariot.' a. Certain words in ^t;, often make the vocative in ^^j ; as, e.g., from *lTt^, ' brother,' ^^ft;? ' mother,' vocative singular, ^t?;^? ^^. In Garhwdl, "^ is often similarly added to proper names ; as, % ^'^ift? ' O Pancham !', etc. h. In poetry, the writer often addresses himself by name in the vocative. Thus, Ttl^^T^n" ^^'T'^I^T:'^ ^^ ^m ■^^•TT^ efi^, lit., 'joy-inspiring, A7-r//-y?/^-impurity-removing, O Tidsi, is the story of RaglmndthV; H^^ ^ UtTTfT ^ ^TT ^TT t^T^T"^? ' Tulsi ! to such a sinner, again and again a curse ! '. Adjectives. 710. Little needs to be said here as to the construction Attributive and Predica- of adjectives in the sentence. They may define a noun tive Adjectives, either (1) attributively^ or (2) p^^edicatively. Examples are, of (I): ^^T ^ITj 'a large town;' ^^ ^T^, 'a sweet voice ;' "^l ^1, ' large horses;' and of (2): 426 SYNTAX or ADJECTIVES. [§§ 711-713. Subst. Use of Adjectives. Adjectives as Adverbs. Comparison of Adjectives. ^f ^f?I ^^T ^> 'she was very beautiful ;' ^^ ^^ tW{ %, ' this water is cold ; ' ^ % ^3^ ofit ^cR^ ^^iT? ' I saw that he was distressed;' ^f mz\ ^>4\ ^'^ %, 'this staff is made straight.' a. The rules which govern the agreement of the attributive or predicative adjective with the noun qualified, will be found further on, in the section on ' Agreement.' 711. Adjectives are often used as nouns, in whicli case 1 they are inflected like nouns of the same terminations. Thus, ^^ % ^^^ %, 'from the time of the ancients' (lit., ' of the great ') ; f^g^ 'WT^ ^ ^^T %? ' some wise (man) has said;' ^^TT"^ ^t •'fl ^^ l^li^j 'there is no blame to the powerful, Gusdin !', So also are used as nouns the adjectives formed by the addition of ^"^^ to an inflected base (§ 202) ; as, ^^ ^ift^ oRI" 'TcI ?TT«ft^ ' do not mind the like of him.' a. When two adjectives used as plural nouns, and connected by a copulative conjunction, follow one another in the same case, the first may take the singular, and the second only, the plural form ; as in the phrase, ift^ "^ ^"^ % ^^ > * small and great said.' 712. A few adjectives are also in frequent use as adverbs. When so used they are never inflected. Most common is the use of ^^, 'great,' and ^^ *much,' in the sense of 'very :' as, ^^ ^^^^1 WS\T. %? 'this is very hard;' ^^ Tft ^^71 ^'^ ^^ t? 'that is truly a very beautiful word.' 713. Comparison has been explained and illustrated, §§207, 210. It may he noted in addition, that a very high degree of any quality may be expressed by repeating the adjective ; as, ^JWl ^T^T, ' very black,' "^Z »ft^ ^^, ' very sweet fruits.' §§ 714, 715.] SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 427 a. Or, for greater emphasis, the first adjective may he taken as a noun in the ablative or genitive ; as, *iT"0" % ^T'lY tJTtj, 'the very greatest sins;' i.e., 'heavier than the heavy ;' ^tW %^Tf^ ^^, *the vei7 best thing:' -^^ ^ -^^ gjTJT, ' the very best works.' h. The common idiom found in the following sentence is to be noted : ^-ft ^T^ft W cifT'I ^T ^^ t, ' of the two sins which is the greater ? '. 714. Agreeably to § 691 (7), all adjectives used comj)aratively, require the noun with which the comparison is made, to be in the ablative. Thus, ti^-^ ^ HT^5 'heavier than stone;' TJW\ % V^, 'richer than a king;' ^^ wt^ % ^^T? 'tl^^ noblest of living creatures ; ' ^f ^^ % ^tTT f ? ' this is superior to that.' 715. Certain adjectives require a noun in an oblique Adjectives Governing case. Thus, especially, Nouns. (1) Adjectives denoting advantage or fitness ^ or their contraries, govern a noun in the ablative. Thus, ^ eft ^3f^rr t, 'it is proper for a woman ;' f^ ^ ^T^ I, 'it is right for us.' (Vid. § 686 (4).) But ^TfT sometimes takes the noun in the genitive; as, xjj^ % ^731 %, ' it looks like rain.' (2) Adjectives denoting likeness, conformity, worthiness, or the contrary, commonly take a noun in the inflected genitive. Thus, ^•\'^^ ^ T[X^ % '^'^^\^, ' like the thunder from the cloud;' ^?l ^ TT^, 'equal to this.' So also, •^l^ (Urdu ^^i, often written ^T'^gR), in the sense of 'worthy,' takes the genitive ; as, '?if xif^f! % '^ft'^ t? ' this is worthy of a wise man.' a. When such adjectives are preceded by any infinitive or 428 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. [§ 716. gerund, the postposition, especially in poetry, is often omitted, and the gerund stands alone in the oblique singular. Thus, g»T ^^ W^fM ^1f Ttf^fT ^T% ^''l 1^5 'you are competent to make my sons wise men ;' If ^, 'both,' ' the two,' in an oblique case, referring to the same person or thing it is put in the oblique plural, and the postposition 432 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. [§§ 729-731. is added only after ^^; as, ^T{ ^^t^ WT? 'of us two;' tt^t ^^ ^5 'from both of you.' But exceptionally the plural form is used before ^iff in the genitive ; as, cf*-^"^ ^"ff efil" ^T^T ^fn J ' the mutual love of you two.' Honorific 729. The use of the Honorific pronoun ^% for the rronoun. ^ ' 2nd personal pronoun, has been explained in § 277. 730. The usage of the various pronouns referred to in the above paragraphs cannot, in the nature of the case, be adequately illustrated by individual phrases separated from their context. But we may note such passages as the following. Shakuntald, when Rajci Dushyant imputes de- ceit to her, suddenly leaves the ^^ with which she had been addressing him, and says, ^"^q-sfT ^T ^Vz^ ^^^ ^^ ^ Wr^TfTT ^5 ' thou thinkest every one have a deceitful heart like thine own.' But again, when in the Prem Sdgar one girl says to another, ^?^ Tf gf^ "NfTT TcT ^j 'friend, do not thou be anxious,' in this instance tt indicates affectionate familiarity. So the court jester, 3Iddhavya, with no intention of contempt, addresses Rajd Dushyant in the singular as on equality with him, -^^ fw^ cI ^lY t, ' O ! friend ! art thou here ? '. So it is in keeping with the liberty accorded him as jester, that he uses to the king the 2nd personal pronoun instead of the honorific '^tj, thus ; TJ^ fT^ITT ^TT^ cfit "^*?rr^ cR"^ "^[^ ^, ' the queen is practising to make you hear.' A man says to his brother, in the 2nd plural, rTFfTT ^1^ "'^T^ %'^, ' let us play dice with you ; ' but a son to his father, ^sn^ X^^l ^rT^T ^%5 'please inform me so much as this ;' and Bahdm and others to Krishii; -^q eft "Wm %? 'obtaining your honour's permission.' 731. ^q, as the subject of a verb, regularly requires the verb to be in the 3rd plural ; and if the imperative be used, the respectful form in i[^ or X^'m, is invariably- required. Exceptions are irregular, and are not to be imitated. §§ 732-734 ] SYNTAX or pronouns. 433 The following examples may be noted: ^q ^ft wf^ f, ' where is your honour going ? ' ; ^f TTT^ ^% ^^ ^ WT f^'^ ^%, ' Great king ! what such signs has your Excellency seen?'; ^q f^^ilTfT^j 'be pleased to depart.' Similarly, all other predicates of '^q must be in the plural ; as, cfi^ j^ % f'? fIT ^% cfi^T^ ^ , ' Kcmva is in this way called the father of this (maiden).' a. Raja Lachhman Sinh, however, in his translation of the Shakimtald, frequently associates "^fjiq with a verb in the 2nd plural; as, ^q -^Ji^ ^ Tftf?! q^ ^^B it, 'Your Highness observes the custom of the ancients,' et passim. But the foreigner will not safely imitate this laxity of usage. Rem. Ill the opinion of tlie Hindoos, tlie distinctions which are made in the use of the pronouns, are of g'reat importance; and the foreigner cannot be too careful to observe them in conversation with tlie people. Indeed, a ftiilnre to discriminate in the use of these different pronominal forms, is often the occasion of much unnecessary dislike and ill feeling' on the part of natives of India toward foreign residents of the country. 732. The choice between the two forms of the dative and Pronom. Dat. accusative, which occur in the singular and plural of the pronouns, is regulated to a great extent by euphonic considerations. But in accordance with the principles indi- cated in § Q>Jd> (1), the forms with cfit are preferred for personal objects. a. But if a dative and accusative both occur in the same simple sentence, the form with ofit is apparently preferred for the accusative, and that in ij (plur. '^), for the dative. 733. The ablative singular of the proximate demonstrative, Idioms with ^^, is often idiomatically used to introduce a clause express- nouns. ing a consequence or conclusion ; as, ^^ ^ "^^ rl^ cft"?^^ '^T^ "^"^j 'do you therefore come when you have bathed at a sacred place.' 734. When ^f and ^^ occur in contrasted clauses, ^^ may often be rendered 'the one,' and ^^, 'the other.' Thus? 28 434 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. [§§ 735-737. ^ V^ Gf«TJi7^ ^ 't^m^, 'the one wears a necklace of flowers, the other, a necklace of skulls;' and so repeatedly in the context. Adjective use 735^ jjij^g demonstrative, relative, and interrogative 01 rronouns. ' " o may be used adjectively before not only single nouns, but also entire phrases. Thus, -^f ^"^ ^TJT in^ ^^rT^ ti^T, 'this expiating of a great sin has fallen to us ;' %' ^ ^1 WT t^"^! Wt wt'O ^^ ^T^ ^Tf ■^^•f^j *what is this that you have done, to abandon your family, and shame, and modesty?;' f WW^ H wt ^^ ¥m %fTT t ^ wr ^^ f^€t W\ f^^T I, ' O ocean ! art thou parted from some (loved) one, that thou heavest the long-drawn sigh?.' a. Hence ^ is used to introduce the jjrotasis of causal and conditional clauses ; and ^, less frequently, the apodosis. So also, the relative ^, especially in the locative, f^^ ^, and ablative, t^Ri "^ or fw^ %, is used to introduce final clauses denoting the object or purpose of an action. Illus- trations of the above will be found further on, in the sections on adjective and causal adverbial clauses. Pleonastic use 73g^ fjl^g demonstratives are sometimes used with the 01 rrououns. correlative, or with nouns, pleonastically. Thus, ^ % inW^SIK^ ^I ^T Tt^^ ^ cIT^fTT %, Ht., 'that same, O thou, dear as my life, this one is longing to meet thee ;' ^tZ^T x often used, by attraction, for the indefinite pronoun. Thus, ^ ^t; ^^ ^ ^efi-^ ^ ^tlflT t, ' whatever any one goes and asks of this (one) that he obtains ;' ^t WrO!^ t^ §§ 738-741.] SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 435 "N^ '^^'^ eRIT oiiT> 'who knows what he may do at some time ?' a. In poetry, this attraction is often extended to a great length, as in the following : iftfT ^•?:f7T lf?I ^Jpl ^^Ti; ^^ ^ff ^(T»T ^ft ^ff "RTI;, 'whoever, at any time, Ijy any effort, in any phice, has obtained intelligence, renown, felicity, wealth, prosperity.' 738. Wt is often used, especially in the colloquial, pleon- astically, with f , 'is ;' thus, q"^^?: Wt t ^ ^W^lfli^rR f, where in English idiom we would simply say, ' God is almighty.' 739. The distinction between the two interrogatives, Use of inter- ^ T Til 1 • T n • rogative Pro- eRTI and o^, and that between the two indeiinite pro- nouns, nouns, ^t; and ^^, has been already explained (§§ 274, 275). a. In the oblique singular, e|fif«T ^ takes the place of f^^, when used adjectively before impersonal substantives ; as, ^r1^ % TT«r^ % ^C^Tij" ^, 'of what royal family are you the ornament ?' b. The following idiom with ^^ may be noted ; ^tj WlJ^'m^ eifr«T ^, 'who am I, that I should deliver (you) ?' 740. The usage of ^5i in the plural varies. The Urdu oblique plural form, f^«Tj is used ; as, t^»T ^^ o|IT> 'of what people?' But the common people often use the uninflected singular in the oblique plural; as, cfj"»f ^^ %, 'from what people ? ' 741. ^T is used as both nominative and accusative; the oblique form in ^ is appropriated to the dative. Thus, TTJT ^T ^^% Ct^ 'what are you saying?'; but, 71?? ^T% efit ^^^ it J 'vvhy (for what object) are you speaking?'. 436 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. [§ 742. a. The ablative of ^n is used commonly for ' why,' in the sense of 'from what cause ;' as, ^(?i f cfiT% ^ f^fi i;^ ^Tlf ^ f^'m f^Tjm ^T ^^T ffl^rTT %, 'true! (and) why? because your Majesty is ever before these eyes.' h. ^T is used idiomatically in expressions denoting surprise. Examples : ^Ji^tf^ ^T I f^ 11^ ^^^ ^^5^ ^^ ^^T ^W, *what does she see (but) that a man has come and stands before her;' ^^ ^% ^T ^ ^^ "^^ %, 'the horses have run — (why!) they have come flying.' c. ■^irr is sometimes used absolutely in the accusative, as in the following : T^ % ?nT% % ^T^^ ^T f^1%1T, 'from killing this girl, what harm for the life to come?'. Hence it is often used merely as the sign of a question ; as, ^j tt ^ '^^^ rf^ -T^ J^^J, ' hast thou not yet heard ? '. The dialectic f^ is also similarly employed (§ 298). d. For the use of ^t as a conjunction, see § 662, c. e. The postposition is sometimes omitted after cfif^; thus, ^cfiT^ ^^ffT I, 'why art thou crying?'. TTse of indefi- 742. In further illustration of the distinction between Lite rronouns. the two indefinite pronouns cftt; and ^15 (§ 275), the following points may be noted. a. oRi^ is often used as a plural for qfiYI^. Thus, 'some book has fallen,' is ^f; V,W^ iWK^ %', but, 'some books have fallen,' is cji^ xf^f^fi fw^ ^*. Other examples are: gj^ f^^r ^^ ^^»T ^ '^'^T cfi-^r3aP"fi"'t've as a ^ ^ -^ '^ Verbal Noun. noun. Under this head we may note the following particulars. a. As a nominative, it often stands as the subject of a verb : as, e.g., f ?f ^f t Tf ^T *l^T Tft , ' it is not well for us to re- main here,' lit. 'for us to remain here is not well;' Tj % g^FfTTT ^I^T MJ"^ f%^T ^5 ' I (on the former occasion) be- lieved your word.' It is also used idiomatically as a predicate, expressing certain futurition ; as, ^ ^"^ ^I^T ^ ^in ^^ ^•TT ^5 lit. ' of this good omen what is to be the result?'. h. In accordance with the original use of the Sanskrit future passive participle, whence the Hindi infinitive is derived, it is often used as a subject with the (copula, to express 442 SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE. [i^ 753. necessity or obligation ; as, TTT^ Wt TT*^! %? * man must die ;' fl^f^^ % ^T^TT W «i^fn i ^T'fT ^fT t, 'it is said (that) one is to enter the retreat of ascetics with humility.'* So it is used as the subject with ti^»lT, ' to fall,' expressing necessity ; as, ^^ ^«T % TTT^ WT*fT ^^ ? ' now I must go to them,' lit., ' it has fallen (to me) to go to them.' c. Sometimes it expresses certain futurition, as in «., above, where it is used as a predicate nominative : ^^ ^^ ^^•T § ^T "t?f^ i1"«!T ^j 'what is to be the fruit of this good omen ?'. d. As an accusative, the infinitive is commonly used in the nominative form ; as, rW TTT ITT ^f«!T ^^ ^j ^ cease to speak the name of Hunt ! '. Rem. But in Permissive, Acquisitive, and sometimes in Desiderative Compound verbs, the infinitive in its inflected form, without the post- position, is practically used as an accusative. Examples will be found in §§ 436, 439, 440, and, further on, in the Section on the Syntax of Compound Verbs. e. The postposition crV, of the dative of the final cause (§ 686, (5) ), is very commonly omitted ; as, f J? ^T^ % ^51^ '^t'l^ ^Tl? \*5 ' I have come to ask something from you ; * t^^t 'f TT WTj ' the women came to bathe.' So also the genitive postposition is often omitted from the infinitive before certain adjectives, as, ^^ofi, ^^, etc., especially in dialectic Hindi ; as, e.g., I^t^t ff T^'IIH % ^"^ T(\Tr{ ^f^^ WtT %*, ' the virtues of the Raja Hiranyagarbha are worthy to be es- teemed ;' ^ cl^ ^^.f fftft^ ^T^ofij ' I am able to break thy teeth.' /. The dative of the infinitive, as remarked § 686, (5), b., is idiomatically used with the substantive verb, to denote an action as imminent. Thus, ^^ ^f ^^ ^ ^^ ^T? ' when * In the Bhojpuri, 3Mg-adhi, and Maithili dialects this form in *J is only used in this sense. Grierson : Seven Grammars ; Part i., p. 27. § 753.] SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE. 443 he was about to go;' ^^ Tff^ «Ff hI^j 'she was about to clasp (him).' In this idiom orY must always be used, as also in phrases like the following ; ^^^T % ^'^^ ^ ^"^ ^T ^^ «fit ^fT) ' Duryodhan told Urcatpadi to sit on his lap.' g. Occasionally, an action or event about to happen, is also denoted by the infinitive with xj"5[^. Thus, ^r^ xjt^ ^i;;^ ^fT% ^T ^Tljj 'when five years were drawing to a close ;' ^f ^^ ^% ^T %j ' he is about to set.' h. The genitive of the infinitive is often used, chiefly in negative clauses, as the predicate of a sentence, to express certaintif or resolution ; as, Ij tI^' ^^% ^T? ' I certainly will not tell.' In this idiom, the cfij of the genitive must be in- flected to agree in gender and number with the subject ; as, e.g., "?j^ ^^ «[^ ^T^ ^, ' this woman certainly is not going.' In the lldmdyan the same idiom occurs, the postposition, however, being omitted ; as, 5^ •! ^TI^ ^f tf T ^%j ' I'f^' neither has been, nor, brother, is he, nor will he be.' The same idiom occurs in the following, where the emphatic particle ^ or ^ is added to the infinitive: ?^»^ '^^^ ^^ .... t "Tf^ cRr!^ 1^%¥ •TTl^*, ' like these .... none are, nor even ever are to be ;' *l^^ •! % Wt'^ ft^^ ITlV, 'hke you, none was, nor is, nor even is to be.' i. The inflected infinitive without the postposition is used in regimen with certain adjectives; as, ^^ ^"^ ^ ^ni% ^T?r it^j 'this (maiden) must be worthy to be wedded to a KshatriJ k. While thus used as a noun, the infinitive may also govern the case proper to it as a verb. Of this, the examples already given, afford abundant illustration. (2) The infinitive is occasionally used adjectively^ and infiuitive as AujCCtlVC* is then made to agree with its object in gender and number. Thus, ^ ^ qfTT ^ i^T ^T^ ^^^l %, ' a woman is bound 444 SYNTAX OF IMPERF. AND PEHF. PARTICIPLES. [§ 754. to serve her husband;' Tf% % ^TH W^^* cfit ^% %, ' I must give this Kusa grass to the Brahmans/ where ^h is plural, as referring to several bundles of grass ; ^ gi^ ^^"TY •! oR^'fl' ^Tfl fl^^ T^ ^ f^eji^ ^, 'whatever word (fit) to be said (or) not (fit) to be said, may have escaped my lips.' In this case, the infinitive preserves unchanged its original sense as a future passive participle. Infinitive for ('^\ "j^j^g infinitive is correctly used for the imperative. Imperative. ^ >' -^ ^ ' when it is not intended to insist on the immediate ful- filment of the order, but merely to say that a certain thing is to he done. Thus, (P. ^S-. Ch. XLVIII.,) Jasodd says to U'dho about to go to Krishn, ^f rft g^ ^ If^ ^^TT^ T2IK ^ t'^'^' '*'^^'^' then, you are to give to dear Shri Krishn and Balrdm.' It is therefore often used when it is intended to speak deferen- tially, as in Shakuntald, by the hermit maidens to Mdjd Dush- yant', ifiH^ ftj;?^ »ft ^^^ \^1 (sc. ffl), 'let us see you yet again some time;' or again, tt^jt fiT^m ofit ^^ ^ff ^TIT? 'do not forget the first meeting.' Rem. This use of the infinitive for the imperative is derived from its original character as the Sanskrit fut. pass, partlcijjie. The Imperfect and Perfect Participles. 754. The essential distinction between these two par- ticiples has been already indicated (§ 383*), and will receive abundant illustration from the examples in the following sections. As there is no difference in their use, they are conveniently treated together. Adjective use (1) They are used adjectivelii with nouns and pro- of Participles. . J J i nouns, both in the attributive and the predicative con- struction. In this case the participle ^w or ^Km^ of the substantive verb, duly inflected if necessary, is § 754.] SYNTAX OF IMPERF. AND PERF. PARTICIPLES. 445 regularly added to tlie participle. But when there is no danger of ambiguity, this may be omitted. a. Examples of the attributive use of these participles are as follows : -^t^ efit it; 3Tf!\f7r ^^ tjx; ^Tt? ' the lost confidence in me came (back) to your Majesty;' ^t; ^^ 1{TJ W^ ^T^T 'TT'l g'^lT^ f^m ^ ^^ ^T ^T^ I^T %, 'some evil person has cast a dead black stiake upon your father's neck ; ' rfTT % ^•T °rV ^t; ITIJ^ \WK^ ^T«T cR^5 ' a cow already given as alms, you gave in alms again.' h. In the following examples these participles are used adjectively in the predicative construction : ffT«T ^ "q^il "q^ w^ '^\TJ{\ ■^fTT %j 'a SJuidra, beating them, follows;' ^"^if^^ ^ ^ ^fcfT ¥^ ^1 ^ ^% "f^:^, ' Jardsi/id/i also, thus speaking (as he went), ran after them;' Wt'^t ^^ ^T^nfY? ' if I escape alive ; ' ^I'ti % "^^1 =fit ^ 1^ WT'TT, ' did you suppose ArjiDi to be gone far away ? '. So may be explained ifiwTT, 'swollen,' in the common idiom, f^W[ «I ^^•TT; as, If ^x?^ fT^ %* ^'^fT TfY ^^fTT ^, 'I am not able to contain my- self (for joy).' Similarly, in the Rdmdi/an : ^ ^ftfl TT'T ^^, 'give me this which I have asked,' lit., *give this to me having asked;' 3^ ^^ ^tzff 1 t^^ Wlft", 'that with ten million mouths could not be told,' lit., ' fall told ; ' ^^•i XiJj^ T^ TTT f^^T^j ' Bam beheld the king falling at (her) feet.' c. Usually, when the noun qualified takes ^ in the singular or plural, a predicative participle remains uninflected, what- ever be the gender or number of the noun ; thus, ■^•t ^'TY ^ ^^f!T ^fx^j ' seeing them both fighting.' d. Under this head are properly explained the so-called Continuative Compound verbs (§ 442). Thus, e.g., in ^f ^ ITtfl'TT^^ 'that woman remained singing,' it is plain that the imperfect participle, ^(ft, is simply a predicative adjunct of the noun ^^ after "?;^. The same remark applies to analogous combinations with the perfect participle; as, e.g, 446 SYNTAX OF IMPERF. AND PERF. PARTICIPLES. [§ 754. in ^ *(T1T WTrlT ^, '^e was fleeing away/ where *it^t is a predicative adjunct of ^^. e. Here may also be noted the common phrase, ^YcIT ''^^ ■^•TT? where both ^cTT and 'q'^j are predicative adjuncts ; as, e.g., -^if ijt^TT 1 frm '^^T '^'m t, 'this has come along down from the olden time.' In this, as in the similar phrase, ^fTT ^^T Wr»TTj ^fTT represents the action as continuously occurring during the time indicated. Absohite'^^ (2) The pei'fect and imperfect participles are very often used absolutely in the inflected masculine form, to denote various circumstances of time, manner, etc., accompanying the leading verb. Examples : '^a^ur ^ ^TT^ fw^ ^^ W^ ^f cH f, 'with the dawn as his charioteer, (the sun) is about to rise;' t%T ^^T^ T^ ^ Twt: f^T t^flT ^^^^ HTfH %, 'with head bent, again and again looking at the chariot, he bounds along;' ^^^ Tf^% ¥11 ^^T^ T^% ^ ft I^T, ' the desire which came after beholding (you) even before (that) was fulfilled.' a. The so-called ' Adverbial participle ' is but an imperfect participle absolute with the emphatic ^ . Thus, ^"^ TfT yiIliams ' Sanskrit Grammar, § 840. 448 SYNTAX OF IMPERF. AND PERF. PARTICIPLES. [§ 754. Rem. It will often be impossible to express in Eng'lish idiom tbe distinction between tbe participle absolute and tbe predicative participle, and often it is a matter of little consequence wbicb is used. But tbe distinction appears to be as follows. In tbe jiredicative construction tbe participle describes or defines tbe subject of tbe verb ; in tbe absolute construction it defines after tbe manner of an adverb, tbe verb itself. Thus, wall rotd hud chald jdtd thd, 'he was going along weeping;' but, wall rote hue chald jdtd thd, is ratber, ' he was going along tearfully.' Emphatic Par- (3) The inflected perfect participle is seeminerly ticiplesinCom- ^ ^ . . pound Forms ? substituted f or the root in Intensive Compounds, with the effect of throwing a special emphasis on the leading verb. This emphasis can scarcely be expressed in English otherwise than by an inflection of the voice. Examples of this idiom constantly occur in the Shakuntald. Thus, ^ ^cTT c^ "^ ift^ Wr ^TlJfTT t' 'the soul regards itself as one with these ; ' TTiT ^f^ ^ tj^ cfi'^ iTrl ^T«!^j 'do not regard Hm-i as a son.' cR-^ or cR'^^ is thus often added to nouns so as to give them an adverbial force ; as, IftIT cRi;;% -^ c^ cR^, 'now kindly tell me this.' Similarly, it is added to some pronominals : as, "^Trf cR\ ^7fT ^^ ^^ ^•nift ^5 'I am going to tell you in full the affair of the night;' and to numerals, when repeated, as, "^efi ^^oR ^t f'rf^r^j 'please count (them) one by one.' c. The conjunctive participle of ^ifT, 'to be,' is sometimes equivalent to ' as,' in such phrases as the following : '% ^[^ it W'lTfTT t f^'m it tn^m ^ f^^ ft ^IT^m ^, ' as Brahma I create, as Vishnu, preserve, as Shiv, destroy.' With a word denoting place, it is equivalent to via, ' by way of,' ' through ;' as, ^-^ ^^5T^53T ^ft ft^T it; I, ' the Root of my life has gone through just this place.' witTc ^*^'°™^ '^^^- '^he conjunctive participle ^^^T? is sometimes used Participle. as an adjective; thus, ^^ % ^S^i; TlY %? 'there is none superior to this.' 757. Occasionally, certain conjunctive participles have a prepositional force. Thus, e.g., very often, ^^%, in com- bination with ^ii, as, "^f ^j^ k;^ % ^^ft^T ^^I ^?% f, ' that village is a little beyond this;' also, ft^j eft^^j and many § 758.] SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTIVE PARTICIPLE. 453 Other participles: as, ^f ■^x^■J ^^^ % ^e^ fZ^ %, 'that hamlet is somewhat off the road;' ^^ ^ ^^^ Wl"?; ^1; •r^ f , ' there is no other besides this ; ' f^ t%r^ ^^''T ft T(V{ ^T^ ^, 'throuii^h whatever country the lord was passing;' ^f ^n^ ^^^ % ^fY ^ ^cft %, ' that cow is not given for money ; ' ^H % f^^^T *IT% f^^> ' he gave him a cupful.' a. Tiie conjunctive participle, cjr^ or WK^^, of ^"^r^lT, 'to make,' is especially common in this prepositional sense ; as, ^^ '^fX ^"T, 'deprived of strength ;' f^ ^T^, 'through, or by means of, which,' etc. Very idiomatic is the use of ^"^^ in the following : "^^^ Xfjxf t\^ cfiT^ Tf?! % , ' (there) is one death, pertaining to the five elements,' i.e., ' there is one death, of the body.'* b. The conjunctive participle, f^^%, 'having met,' must sometimes be rendered 'with,' or ' together.' Thus, •^t»T ^T»T fjT^^ f^^TT^j ' be caused them to forget both knowledge and contemplation;' ^wft f?T^^ ^I^, 'both went together.' 758. Ordinarily, as in most of the above examples, the Reference of . : ^ , . Conj. Parti- conjunctive participle refers to the subject of the leading verb, ciple. or, in the passive construction of the perfect tenses (§ 412), to the agent. But sometimes it may refer, instead, to the sub- ject of discourse. Thus, TT^'Y ^ f W ^^ ^^?J^T ^T^ ^^T, ' the queen, somewhat reflecting and understanding, became composed.' This is especially frequent in poetry ; as, ^^ f5T^»T ^"T '^^W[ sfit^Tj ' hearing of the death of (his) brother, (his) wrath arose.' Sometimes the conjunctive par- ticiple refers to the (unnamed) agent of the action of a verb in the passive conjugation; thus, ?rTT^ rT fsT^T^ T^n? 'thou wast cast out by beating ;' ^ ^^% ^cft f^^T^ if^? 'she was, by digging, taken out alive.' This idiom is often heard in the colloquial. * Tlie Hindoos believe the body to be composed of the five elements, vi/., 'earth,' 'fire,' 'air,' 'ether,' and 'water;' and suppose death to con- sist in tlie dissolution of these elements. 454 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN OF AGENCY. [§§ 759-761. DifF. Forms of 759. There is no difference in meaning: between the different forms of Conj. Parti- . . ^ T , ciple. tlie conjunctive participle. The forms in kar and ke are the most modern, and are preferably employed in modern High Hindi. But in a long succession of participles, where the repetition would be disagreeable, the root-form is often preferred. When two participles of similar meaning follow each other with no word intervening, kar or ke can be used only after the last : as, jAn bujh kar, ' knowing ;' soch samajh kar, ' reflecting and understanding ;' khd pi kar, ' eating and drinking.' So also when the participle immediately precedes the leading verb, as in certain quasi compounds, § 431, the root-form is usually employed : as, wah uth dMyd, ' he arose and ran ;' Kdshl ho dyii hai, ' he has come by way of Benares.' 760. By means of a series of conjunctive participles, a sentence may be idiomatically sustained to a great length, without any danger of obscurity ; thus, ^f j ^ "^^ "^^^T ^ ^m ^TTT ^I^T^ '^^^^'^ T^f^ ^T^ ^'I, 'rising thence, going to Ugrasen, and telling all the news, taking leave of him and going out, they began, sending hither and thither, to gather all the supplies for the marriage procession.' The Noun of Agency. Construction 761, ^ith tliG Verbal l^onn of Agency in ^T^T or of JNoun of o ./ Agency. fT"^!, the object of the action is most freqnently put in the genitive, but occasionally it is made in the accusative, with or without ^. Examples : ^% cfiT^T ^T eRT^^T^T, ' the doer of such a deed ; ' xittJ^ ^^ ^ flTT^f T^T? ' the Saviour of sinners ; ' ^T ^T.^^T^T, ' one who exercises love ; ' v^i ^ ^^ ^^^^, « a troubler of the people ; ' ^^ ^ftrf ^T^^T^T f , ' he is a singer of hymns;' ^^ cfi^si -^^^^^^T ^, « who is there that will hinder me ?'; % ft ^cT ^T T^ ^ ^^T^^T^'t f, ' this word is encouraging to my heart.' Rem. Native grammarians deny that in such phrases as the third, fourth, and fifth above given, the noun is to l)e regarded as an accusative. They say that there is samdsa, ' union,' of the noun and verb ; so that §§ 762-764.] SYNTAX of the tenses. 455 the object of the verbal action and the noun of agency, are to be regarded as forming- a genitively dependent compound. But this explanation will evidently not apply to the last three illustrations. b. In many instances the Noun of Agency is a compendious idiomatic equivalent of some English phrase, as in the following : WT^ ^1 ^^ ^^^T^ ^*T ^^^ ft, ' "lio are you, to be ordering me to go ? '. 782. As the predicate of a sentence after the sub- ^°"" °^ „ , -L Aj^ency as Fut. stantive verb, the Noun of Agency is often nearly rarticipie. equivalent to a future participle. Thus, ^^ ^ft % WT^^T^T 1, 'he is about to go from here.' So also in other constructions ; as, f^cTT W^ f f^^T^T % ^t'^TT^ «Rt "^"^T ^ T% %'j 'Father Kama is giving orders to those who are to go to Ilastindpur.'' Of the Tenses. 763. As already shown (§§ 395, 396), the tenses of Tenses ciassi- the Hindi verb are properly distributed under thi'ee heads, as follows : (1) the tenses denoting /w^wre action; (2) those denoting action as imperfect or incomplete) (3) those denoting action as perfect or completed. For a brief statement of the distinction between the several tenses of each group, the student may refer to §§ 397- 408. The statements made in those paragraj)hs, it is believed, will be justified by the illustrations of the use of the several tenses which will be found in the following sections. We begin with the tenses of the future. The Contingent Future. 764. The Contingent future, in modern High Hindi, denotes a future action as conditioned or contingent. "We may specify the following cases. 456 SYNTAX OF THE CONTINGENT FUTURE. [§ 764 ' ^°p't^nt^?*' (^^ ^^ ^^ used, in simple sentences, to express a possibilitf/. Thus, oftt ^t? '^ome one may say;' ^ ^ffTI f'rf^ li "f^"5(ff, 'with you I could drop from a mountain.' ^°"c^°dt\mai (■^) -^^ "^^^^ ih\\^ express liberty oic permission. Clauses. T\m^, ^^T ^t 'now come what may,' lit., ' now (what) you may wish let that be.' 765. It is important to observe that tlie accurate discrimination which has appropriated the contingent future almost exclusively to the indi- cation of contingent futurition, belongs only to the most modern develop- ment of the language. In old Hindi, as, e.g., in the Rdmdyan, the forms denote not only contingency, but also the certain futurition of an action, and even, as previously remarked, an action in the present. The pro- § 766.] SYNTAX OF THE IMPERATIVE. 459 verbs of the languag-e afford abundant illustration of the use of this tense in its original character (§ (JOl) as a present. Thus, e.g., hdth ko hath pahclidne, ' the hand knows the hand.' Other illustrations from High Hindi will be found in the section on the syntax of the present imperfect. The Imperative. 766. The Imperative needs little illustration. We may observe, (1) It is the only tense ordinarily admissible in com- mand and prohibition. N.B. The future cannot be substituted for the imperative. 'Thou shalt not steal,' in Hindi is tii chori na kar ; chori na karegd, would be, ♦ wilt not steal.' (2) In prohibition, «r or ^tt may often be indifferently Use of Nega- nsed. But when the phrase consists only of the impera- perative. tive and the negative, iTrT is preferred to -T ; thus, ?TfT ^^, 'do not go;' ?Trl ^^^^, 'please do not run.' TiffY, as containing the present of the substantive verb (§ 472), cannot be used with the imperative. (3) The use of the singular and plural forms of the imperative is determined by the pronominal form which is used, or by the degree of respect which it is desired to express. The ordinary form of command to an inferior is the 2nd person plural ; as, ^7t;^ ^^ ^ Xl"^, 'Charioteer! stop the horses!'. The sing, often indi- cates contempt. (4) To the 1st and 3rd persons of the imperative are Hortative im- ^ ^ _ ^ ^ perative. to be assigned all hortatory phrases. a. But it is to be noted that whenever the English 'let,' means 'to allow' or 'to permit,' not the imperative, but the permissive compound must be used. Thus, ' let us go,' in the hortatory sense, is ^H 5lt^ (or wf^) ; but if it mean, 'permit us to go,' we must render the phrase, ^ ^ ^T^ ^. 460 SYNTAX OF THE IMPERATIVE ; RESPECTFUL FORMS, [§ 767. h. Further examples of the use of the imperative are as follows: ^gi»a^T ^ ^ ^W, 'a*^k (thou) Shaktoitald also;' TTT Wt "^T^^ ^ TTTtj ' do you then destroy the Yddavs ;' ^?r hY Wlf, *let us too sit down;' '^^ ^% ^ -^^x; wtf %'> '^let us now pluck a few more ; ' ^^ J{^ e^ ^^ ^fTlTf > ' let me re- move the sorrow of thy heart.' Poetic examples are : XJT^^ Tf ^?^:F t'TTr^, 'make your ahode in the fire ;' ^ ^T«T^ ^cf^^ KHT^j 'know, (that it was) in virtue of good associa- tion ;' fTTfl ^^ fT ^^, ' sow thou for him flowers.' The Respectful Forms of the Imperative, 767. Of the two Eespectful or Precative forms of the Imperative, in ^ and %, the latter is the more respect- ful. The form in ^ is properly used only to equals and inferiors ; that in ^, to equals and superiors, but never to inferiors. The less frequent form in ^^ does not differ from that in ^. Thus, in the Prem Sdgar, Satrajit says to his wife, H f^^ ^ ^^^ TjfT ^f%^5 'do not mention (it) before any one ;' and Krishna to his companions, g?T \^ f^'T TT^ ^ft Ttf^> 're- main here for ten days;' and the Sun-god to Satrajit, x^ ^ ^^ ^TTT ^Tf^^, ' regard this (person) as equal to me.' But the cowherds say to Krishna, \^ ^j ^^"R^ ^^T W "^^ ^ •T WFi;^, 'into this great (and) dreadful cave neither let your honor enter; ' again, to Krishna, ^§ ^tH ^^T^^T ^VJ Tf'^^IT, 'regarding me as your servant, be pleased to have mercy;' ^ft^ T ^^^ '%^ ^T ^'tYj ' (by) raising such questions in your heart, cherish no doubt.' Yet, in the Shakiintald, Shakimtald uses the form in ^ to her foster-father, Kanva ; thus, fqcfj ^^ ^cTT ^ ir^ ^ ^^7T^ flf^^, ' Father, please count this vine as my very self.' a. In the following, the respectful form is used in the 1st plural, in a hortative sense : ^f^^ ^fq ^ft ^T ''IT^, 'let us ' (or ' me ') ' see the monkey, of what place he is.' 1 §§ 7G8-770.] SYNTAX OF THE RESPECTFUL IMPERATIVE. 461 768. Forms outwardly identical with these respectful forms, Similar Forms ,. , . ,, . <- 1 • p of other are orten used, especially in poetry, tor the contingent tuture, Tenses. and even for the present. Thus, ^ ffj^ ^T?;% eft ^^T % ^'i % lffZ%5 ' if one die, then he is released from the sorrow of the world;' ^T^H mf^'^ "^f?! ^^TTIT, '(though) one hring up a crow with extreme affection ;' ^?;^ f^»T ^^W •! ^^^T? 'though you should go even without having heen called, there is no apprehension.' In the following, the %form is used in the 1st singular of the contingent future ; as, ^j;^ f%^ ^ "^^T ^ f^ '^^^ ^T^^ ^ % ^T^ f^r^^ ^ ^>%, ' I have come here for tliis (purpose) that I may take away my brothers, and give (them) to (my) mother.' a. In the following, the form in ^Tfj is used for the abso- lute future; ol^ xsnq ^fq^^T fl^ HIT ^t^^i, 'when your honor shall please to be angry, then at once they will flee away.' 769. The explanation of the use of these forms in ya, ye, etc., in these various tenses, is to be found in their derivation from the Prakrit affix jja, which in Prakrit appears not only in the imperative, but was also added to the root to form a present and future.* It is not theref(»re correct to say, as many do, tiiat these respectful forms of the imperative and absolute future are used for the present and future. They are true present and future forms, which happen to have the same form with the respectful or precative imperative. 770. In many cases, again, these forms in t% and T^ Passive Forms must be interpreted as the remainder of the old Prakrit passive conjugation formed with the suffix i//a (§ 610), now almost obsolete. Thus, in particular, I would interpret the common idiom Avith ^if^^, expressive of 'duty' or 'obligation;' as, ffl ^ft ^T^T ^f^*^ . Here ^T^ (sometimes ^^T), is evi- dently the nominative to ^f%^, and we may render, lit., ' with respect to us, to go there is ' (or ' should be ') ' desired ;' thus, 7Tifr^5!^Tf^^ ^T ^^^m^ T ft^T ^Tff^, 'one should * Vid. §§ (]02, G05. 462 SYNTAX OF THE ABSOLUTE FUTURE. [^ 771. not be disrespectful to those who dwell in the sacred grove.' In the following examples also, these forms in ^ should be explained as passives: «l ^tOt^ '^1 ^^^^ f^'^TT? lit., 'it is not known how this (man) lived;' ^•T^^lTfTI cfi^f^^Tf f^ffH" ^7T^ ^t m^^j 'among women of the human race, where could so much brilliancy (sc. of beauty) be found ? ' ; f5lfT% XK^ TWr % t%^ '^Tf^'^ "^fT^ ^T ^^', 'we have already plucked as many flowers as are desired for worship;' ^^x ^ ^f'T^ ^f%^ ^ ^fV^lT, 'that is reaped which is sown, that is re- ceived which was given;' ^\jt ^TTff^ ^*TTfIT 1T^ ^TTff^ ^T^, ' ambrosia is praised by Immortality, poison is praised by Death.' «• "^f^^ is combined with the past tense of the substantive verb when referring to past time ; thus, ^^ ^^ ^"^^ "^^ ^ cfl" ■?!% ^Wr^TT^ ^rff^ ^, 'for this beautiful body of thine, there ought to have been rich clothes and jewels.' The Absolute Future. Future of Cer- 771. As remarked in § 396, in the absolute future a future action or state of being is either (1) affirmed, or (2) assumed as a certainty. Examples: (1) %n ^T ^T ''l^T ^1^ '^ OT^'n, 'such a husband (and) house will not be found elsewhere;' jj ^^ ^5511^^, ' I will come to-morrow ; ' ^51^ :^ ^T ^ ^TTfT^? ' I will kill this (snake) immediately ; ' *j^ *ltfiT "T^fTT^ f^rTT^? ' you, (my) father, will thoroughly repent (of this) ;' ^^ cR^^;^ q";j^ xtt; ^srrt^? ' yon win cause a laugh, going to a strange city ; ' ^^ Wf ^^ft^, ' now how shall we live ? ; ' ^f t g^ ^T^'I cTf t IT ^ ^tf ^, ' whei-e you go, there I will go.' (2) ^ ijxjjj ^'^'I ^?T *T ftIT, ' my memory must have been in a great bewilderment.' 773. Occasionally, in the Rdmdi/an, the future in "^j %f%, Optative etc., has an optative sense. Thus, ^^^ ^cITT ft^ff f^^T'O? *may you ever be dear to (your) husband;' ?Tt % WS '^T cSf^f^ ^^Tj 'may (the prince of Raghu) be gracious to a wretch like me.' Tenses of the Imperfect Participle. 774. The characteristic common to all the tenses of the Imperfect Participle, is the indication of an action, under various modifications of mode and time, as uri' finished or incomplete. We consider, first, The Indefinite Imperfect, 775. This tense, primarily, denotes an incomplete action, without necessary reference to any time. It may * Compare the Germau idiom : sie werden eben theurer sein. 464 SYNTAX OF THK INDEFINITE IMPERFECT. [§ 775. therefore refer to the past, present, or future. It is moreover employed both in an indicative and a contingent sense, indef. imperf. (1) It is frequently used to denote an action in past of Past Eepe- ^ ^ , tition. time as repeatedlfj occurring. Examples : ^^ ^Ht ^f! ^T ^T^ ^3^ ^ f^'TT i|% 'T W>?^j * whenever they would find an opportunity, they would never let him go without having insulted him ; ' ^t^ ^H % TTW ^T! "^ ^^ wT ^fTTj ' 110 one in his whole kingdom would sleep hungry.' Indef. Imperf. (2) It is also occasioually used to denote a single action denoting a . . , i p n • Single Act. in past time, m such sentences as the following : — ^^^ ^ Wr ^TT^ ^ Wt fn^^ ^f T ^ % WTrlT, ' what was Arjun's power that he should carry off our sister?', Indef. Imperf. (3) It is somctimcs apparently, though very rarely, or irr6S6Ilt. used to denote an action incomplete at the present time. Rem. But in such eases it will very commonly be found that the time is determined as present, by an auxiliary verb, or by some word in the context. Thus, ^^^ f^ rT^^TT^ 'ft^ 'T ^ %3ff^, ' immediately on seeing (you), she comes and sits in your lap.' a. It is also used for the present in other cases, when no Special stress is laid upon the time ; as, T{^ ^ gjif -I^ ^ ^oRflTj ' nothing can be (done) by me.' This usage is es- pecially common in the Rdmdyan, where the auxiliary is rare; thus, ^^ t%f^ ^Tt?I f^^T^ ^T'T^, 'iw many a way, Jdnaki laments.' Ren. It should be noted that in many negative phrases where this tense is apparently used for the present imperfect, the auxiliary is really present in the negative, «|^*, which is compounded of wf with the archaic 3rd sing, present, ^f^, of the substantive verb ;* as, ?TH % ^W "l^^ * See Table xviii.. Cols. 9, 10. § 775.] SYNTAX OF THE INDEFINITE I]S1PERFKCT. 465 ^efifTT, 'nothing can be (done) by me;' TT •ffl' WT^Ifrr WT "^tI"^ ^^Y't* * I know not what answer you will give.' In such constructions the usual auxiliary is commonly omitted, and when used, as it is rarely, it is in fact redundant. (4) It is often used in statements of general application^ ?"'^^^- i^Frf- in which no limitation to any time is intended. statements. Examples: ^t^ f^^ •^^f^^ ^^^^ ^fi Trrrf^, 'without the moon, the night has no beauty ;' ^^fTT ^1^ •Tft ^^ffl", 'that wliich is to be is never hindered;' cfi^l; »i^ WT'TfTT 1[^ ^T ^^^, 'the nature of this (person) no one knous.' a. In these cases, however, it will be found that in most instances the tense is connected with the negative st^j which really contains the substantive verb. (5) It is used very commonly in the protasis and apo- J"*^|^^- ^,"^P^''.^; dosis of conditional clauses. As thus employed, it refers cii^uses. to past time, and in {\iq protasis denotes the non-fulfilment of the condition ; in the apodosis, it states what would have been, had the condition been fulfilled. Examples : Wt fl ^^ ^T ^t^ ^it^ lY ^^cTT rft *t ^W ^tJT^ ^TfTTj 'had I known even his name and village, then I would have devised some plan;' -f^ eft "^^ ^ ^cTT •! T^^fTTj 'else, not even one would have remained alive.' a. It is also employed in simple sentences implying a con- dition ; as, ?r 1[% ^^ T ^^^, 'if I had known of this bereavement of my brother in the wilderness, I would not have obeyed that word of (my) father ;' •nf^rf .... % ^%^ ^rlff ^T^Tj 'else, I would have taken away Sitd by force.' The Present Imperfect. 778. This tense denotes, primarily and fundamentally, (1) an action in progress, or a state as existing at the present time. Examples: ^ cftj^ ^ ^Sfi^j ^ ^f^ ft, 'you desire the hermit's daughter;' fi ^ ^^flT f? 'why dost thou fear?'; jfrfi: ^^H ^ f^^^T, 'they mock me.' a. Hence it also denotes habitual or repeated action continued up to the present time. Examples : ^ ^^ .... ^sj^j mlfl , TTft f^ ^rqicT ^'^T^ f , 'where these two go, there they stir up mischief;' Ori^T- § 778.] SYNTAX OF THE PRES. IMPERFECT. 467 ^T ^W ^ ^ffT %^ f^^ ^tfrT ^T^ \, 'in what way tlie rcffs extol the formless Bra/un;' f^f^f^^ ^^ ^q?! f^ %|\, ' whom, O deity, you invoke night and day/ b. It is used, like the indefinite imperfect, to express Pr^s. imperf. ' ^ , . . oi General general truths, but commonly with special application to Truths, the present time. Examples : ^ .fi: tft"^^ . . . cR^cIT % ^ • • • TT'^^ffT TjTrTT ^, ' the man who performs a pili;rimage, obtains supreme felicity;' ^ ^^ ?f f^^T % ^t WtfTT %, 'wliat is written in fate, that very (thing) comes to pass.' c. Hence this tense is used in comparisons, when that with which the comparison is made, is represented as a common occurrence. Thus, ^f ^T^ xfi^ %% ^^T'^T % "ift^ fiVK^ % ^t; rrV xj^ "nrx; tj^ , * all those fruits fell on the ground, as falls the hail from heaven;' %% ^"^^^ ^T ^^ ^^ ^T^T^T ^^^TTt itcrrl, 'as the heat of the sun, causing it to rain, becomes a source of pleasure.' (2) The present imperfect is used for the future, to The imminent denote that future as imminent. Examples: ^ Titjrr '^^ ^TrTT ^, ' I am going into the cave ;' ^ g^ ^^ ^K fJT ^5 ' I will kill thee immediately ; ' ^IT ^ ^^^ ^t4 ^ ^TW '^j ' I {l)lnr. for sing.) also am going to my work.' This idiom represents a future action, as it were, already begun. (3) It is also used of past time, ^f «. imperf. ^ ■' ^ ' of Past Action. a. In vivacious narration, as a historical present, when the narrator mentally transfers himseK to a past time. Examples : ^T^ ^5i^ f ^^^cT ^f 'iT ^tB f , ' the drums are beating, the bards are singing their war-songs.' This is especially the case with the idiomatic phrases, ^j ^'Irn ^j etc. ; as, ^^T ^T ^^^'\ f f% ^¥" ^T f^^^ ^^^% ^^, *what does U'shd see, but that on every side the lightning has begun to flash.' 468 SYNTAX OF THE PRES, IMPERFECT. [§ 779. b. When an action begun in the past, is regarded as continuing at the present time. Examples : f^w f^^ % flt'lV ^^ f^^ % ^ l'^ ^TTff^ t, * from the very day I asked (it), I have suffered pahi;' %' ^1;^ f^«T ^ ^^rlT ^, ' for some days past I am noticing, etc' c. It is also used for a past action, when that action has been just interrupted, and is therefore really an action unfinished in the present. Thus, in the Prem Sagar, Shatdhanva's speech is inter- rupted by Akrur, who replies, rT W^T Til f Wt fT % ^^ ^rf ^^clT %> ' thou art a great fool, to say (lit., who sayest) such a thing to me.' Similarly we may explain Akrur's words to Shatdhanvd ; igsn f »T ^ft ^Tf?r ^tf^ ^ef^ ^f, ' are we in- quiring thy caste (and) rank ? '. Use of In- 779. The use of the inflected present corresponds with that fleeted I'resent. . i . i i . or the analytic present as above explained, but is even more freely used to denote action imperfect in either past, present, or future time. In illustration, we add to the examples of this tense previously given (§§ 490, 506, a, 545), the following. (1) Examples of the actual present : •! ^^ "€lf ^wfH^ tR^ f^TflT f^^ ^^^T^ i n^ ^^T^'n, ' I know not to what fortunate man Vidhdta will consign this unsmelt flower;' ^^^ ^f?: ^fr ^TT¥ 'H^^, 'I can kill thy enemy, even (though he be) immortal ;' %ff "^"^rr^^ ^ ^^ ^¥j * whom are you worshipping ? what do you wish ? ;' (2) of the habitual present: ^j^ h^«T f^^ "^Xf^ T ^TfVj Mvithout whose worship, passion departs not ; ' ^rf tt ^ tt IT^^ff ^fY? ' the good ever extol that man;' ^ ^^^ ^5lf% ^ ^'H"? 'this one plays the flute, the other, the horn;' (3) of the imminent present: ^IT^f t:^^T f^^T^ W^5 'I will set forth the spotless fame of the chief of Itaghn ; ' (4) of the historical present : ^f^ f^^ff ^^"^^ 5^^T^i 'seeing Shiv, the divine Triad smile;' ^^ §§ 780, 781.] SYNTAX OF THE PAST IMPERFECT. 469 ^^^ ^^ff f^gTrcTTj ' having gone home, they ask their parents.' a. Very often in the inflected present the habitual and historical sense are combined. Thus, sffl^ TW ^^jfl^ ^t; f%TJnf , 'one would wash (his) face, another would feed (him) ;' 1%^^ ^ ^no" J[ m\ ^^, ' she would often sing his praise.' b. In the following this tense is used for the j^resumjitive imperfect (§ 783): ^"Rff ^^5! T^^i T{j^, lit., 'he is probably thinking (thus), having killed Ram with his younger brother (I will rule) ;' where modern High Hindi would have 51T^^ ll5f for ^T^ft-* c. In the following, the same form occurs twice in the same line, once as an absolute future, once as a present : % ^'^ff ^^ff t^^ ^%3 * who shall see, do see, or have seen.'* 780. Similar also is the use of the inflected present with ^, etc., (§§ 490, a, 506), which occurs not infrequently in the Prem Sugar. Thus, ^ f fl ?fff ^TfffY %" ^f^T^ ^, ' you do not know me, (but) I recognize you;' ij^ ^t§ ^^ ^^^ -T 'f{^ w(^%, 'one sorrow pierces me now and then;' Tff t oRe^ 1 ^^ ^H^^ Tl^f^^, 'they excite some violent act or other.' The Past Imperfect. 781. This tense is commonly used, (1) to denote an rast imperf. : , . of Past Action action as in progress at a certain definite past time. Continuing. Examples : t{ ^ TfT^^ ^ ^W ^^fTT ^T? ' I was reading with Sliri 3Iahddev;' ^"^ ^"^^ ^%^ ^T^^ ^j ' in every place drums were beating;' tj^ 1T"'(^ Tt^f?I 1^5 'a woman was crying.' (2) This tense is also sometimes used to denote an Past imperf. . . , . . . , .of Past action as repeated!?/ occurring during a certain period of Eepetition. l^ast time. * Ildnuiyan, Ay. K. 470 SYNTAX OF THE PRESUMPT. IMPERF. [§^ 782, 783. Examples : i^ sr^-^; ij ^j^ ^ clf t % TT^T ^f?T tlT^^^TT: oR"^ ^^ % ^^ ^, ' into whatever city they were entering, the king of that place would with extreme courtesy escort them (on tlieir way) ;' firri% ^^ ^^ ^^tW ^ TT^ ^ ^ ^IrlT ^Tj 'of all the weapons and missiles they were hurling, not even one would hit.' The Contingent Imperfect. TJsage of Con- 782, This tensG denotes the action of a verb as in ting. Imperi. progress, not actually, hut possibl?/ and contingently. Thus, ^^Tf^fT ^t; 1^^ "ir cfi^rTT ft? ' perchance some one may be saying in his mind;' f^ro "rt ^fx:i!ft % ^^ ^T^ ft, * in which herds of deer may be grazing.' a. It is used in comparisons, when the comparison is made, not with an actual event, but with a supposed case. Examples : ff\^"t ^€ '^^ f^ %% , ' Gautatni will be anxious for thee.' The Past Contingent Imperfect. 784. This extremely rare tense represents an action ^^^e of Past Contiug. as conditionally assumed to have been in progress at a impertect. certain past time ; but invariably iinj^lies the negation of the condition. A single example will suffice ; ^ giT ^H ^^ ^^^T ^H cfi"?^^ ^^ fft g^ 1{W ^ ^T^, 'had you at that time been doing your work, you would not have got a beating.' Tenses of the Perfect Participle. 785. The rules for the two constructions of the tenses of the perfect participle of transitive verbs, have been already given (§ 412), and need not be repeated here. The following examples will abundantly illustrate those rules. (1) The following are examples of the jutssive construction, Passive Con- in which the verb agrees with the object of the action, in pg"f Te^es gender and number : -f^ ^^^ ^ ^^T cW fen ^T, ' Na^id and Jasodd had performed a heavy penance,' lit., ' by Nand- Jasodd heavy penance was performed ; ' ^ lfX(rr % ^j^-^ ^^Tt» 'Shri Krishn played the pipe;' -g^ % ^^^ '^W^ f^-RTIlj 'he fed a thousand Brahmans;' ^Ft^ ^ TTW^T jjanti, ' Jasodd sent for ropes.' a. In the case of pronouns, the gender of the verb is of course determined by that of the noun to which the pronoun may refer. Thus, ^^ ^T? % WT f^^T, * what is this we have done ?' {sc. ^ifl") ; and Sitd says,* ^f^ ^q^m ^^ #f W\^, ' for what fault, (my) lord, am I deserted ? ' . * Rdmut/an, Sund. K. 47^ TENSES OF THE PERF. PARTICIPLE. K ''86. b. The verb TTTT'^T, when used with the instrument, idiomatically agrees, not with the object struck, but with the instrument of striking-, and the object is put in the genitive. Thus, ^^ % ^-^ rf^^TT '?T''0'5 'be struck me with a sword;' ^^ ^ ^€ ^T "ariirf TTTT? ' be boxed him ' (i.e., ' struck him with the palm of the hand'). (2) The following are examples of the impersonal con- struction, in which the verb is always put in the masculine singular, without reference to the gender or number of either subject or object of the action : Wf{ ^ ^TT^^ ^ IFf^T^ f^^T, 'the lord caused Jardsandh to be released;' ^¥ ^ ^^^ t^^ ^ H^ ^t3T\ "^ ^^ f^, ' Kans shut up Basudev and Devaki in one room ;' Tf % ^^ "^[m ^ ^T^T, ' I saw that cow;' ^3^ ^ ^q^ ^ft^ ^ f^T^T, 'he called his daughters.' a. The pronominal accusative plurals in \, like those with cfiY, whatever their gender may be, require the verb to be in the impersonal construction, in the masculine singular. Thus, ^^ % ^f' "^^^Tj 'he has kept these ;' ^^ "^ ^% xjcji^ ^tVTj ' he caught and bound them.' 786. As remarked before, the perfect of transitive verbs is often construed actively in the Rdmdyan. To the examples given in § 555, the following may be added : h^^ ^% ^^^ T^TTI^5 ' have you seen the gracious prince of RaghuV. a. The inflected perfect of the Rdmdyan, whether of intransitive or transitive verbs, is always used in the active construction. Besides the examples given in § 557, the following may be noted: ^-T^rfT ^if ^ ^Tf% 'ftfV, 'why didst thou not kill me at my birth?'; ^If'f cfifx;^ ^cmTrl ■^l^*f, 'they (i.e., the monkeys) said, Begin the destruction ;' ^fr '?n%¥ ^f!T of^^^Tj ' you have can-ied off" Sitd, the mother of the world.' So in the modern collorpiial about § 787.] SYNTAX OF THE INDEFINITE PERFECT. 473 Allahabad, people say, g?T ^ cRf^iT, = H.H. ^^ ^ ^T ^fT, * What did you say ? ', etc., etc. b. So also the perfect in •! or iiT (§ 560, h) is most commonly used actively. But this termination is chiefly used in verbs which are causals in form, but neuter in sense. Thus, ^T ^^t^ ^"N^T^, 'joy swelled in his breast;' ^fq ^^^ tj-^-R, 'all the monkeys fled;' xiTfl^^ "qfl^cTT'ITj 'afterward he repented.' The Indefinite Perfect. 787. The Indefinite Perfect (1) simply indicates an Aoristic indef. , , . , p 1 r» • Perfect. action as completed, without reierence to any definite time. It thus nearly corresponds to the Greek aorist. Examples : "^^ % ^f ^TcT cj{^, * he said this thing ;' "?r^ ^^ f^^ % ^fV x?T^T, ' lio one discovered this secret ;' ^»i^ *rt;, ' she became free from fear ;' ^^ ^^T«r x|i^ ^ff cT ^^ ^^ «I^ «IT«IT ^Tffl J ' various sorts of trees ever bent with flowers and fruits.' (2) It may be used for the present perfect, when the incief. rerf. ior Present. time IS evident irom the context. Example : g^ mm f^«T w\^ ^^, ' you have escaped alive for many a day.' (3) Under similar conditions it is also used, where indef. Perf. English idiom would demand the pluperfect. Examples: f^^ % ^ ^T^ f^ ^^ "N'^T 1^' ' "O one knew whither he had gone ; ' ol^ ''l^Tlf ^ '^'WH ^ %^T Wl ^^, ' when much of the army of the demons had been destroyed.' (4) It is occasionally used where we would use the indef. imperf. present, in general statements, when these are referred statements, to as a matter of past experience. Examples : fm^ % H^TT W '^'^ fI»^lTTT ^T»f 'I f%^ f?!^ 474 SYNTAX OF THE PRESENT PERFECT. [§§ 788, 789. ^ ^^rf ^^f^^ f^^Tj 'whoever, coming into the world, takes not (lit., did not take) your name, that person, leaving am- brosia, drinks (lit., drank) poison.' a. So also, when used for the present perfect, it must some- times be rendered by the present in English: thus, '^^ If ^ ^ fiqY^«Tf ^ f^^ ^^, 'now I too see the marks of a sacred grove;' jf ^T^^ t^^ ^T f^^Tf, 'measuring (you) in (my) mind, I know (that you are not Brahmans).' This usage is especially common with Tl«fTj even in High Hindi ; as, ^^^ "^it ^t; 'I^j^ ^ "11^ T1^5 ' ^lo^v iiot so much as a fly remains here.' Indef. Imperf. jj Idiomatically, it is often used in the drama in an- lu Drama. '' nouncing the coming and going of the characters, where English idiom requires the present. Thus, ^ ^^ TT^ :FTJ ^■^, 'two musicians come singing.' This is common in the Shakimtald ; but other writers, again, use the present in such cases. Indef. Imperf. (5) It is often uscd colloquially for the future, to express prompt and ready action. One gives the order to a servant, xn«ft ^T^^j 'Bring water,' and he answers, ^TT^T, lit., ' Brought ; ' meaning, ' it shall be brought instantly.' So in the Shakimtald, Mddhavya, going to fulfil the king's com- mand, says, ^^^T f^^T? 'the message (is) given.' Use of Perfect 788. In the Rdmdyau and other archaic poetry, one tense constantly discharges all the functions of the different com- pound perfect tenses of modern prose Hindi. Thus, ^Tf^ .... W«T^ ^tI^ tf^T'^^ ^ilTs ' Sati has gone and been born in the house of Himdchal.' Other illustrations will be found in §§ 551, 558. The Present Perfect. 789. The Present Perfect represents the action of a verb as complete, with a reference to the present time. Examples : \j{ ■q^ g?T ^ ^tl% W^ %j ' I bave come to § 790.] SYNTAX OF THE PAST PERFECT. 475 ask just this of you;' ^^ % ^ % W^ ^T ^?T W^ t, 'since I have heard your honour's name ;' cT^fTT f^flT % . . . • ^^ T^ %j ' (whom) your father has kept shut up.' a. It is thus often used where Enariish idiom would Yj^^- I'erf. for "-^ 1 resent. require the present. Thus, f^^ f%f^«fl ^Rt ^3 ft? ' why are you sitting uncon- cerned?'; sr^x ^TT ^ ^T*T ^^^^TT ^^f, 'in each door wreaths and garlands are fastened.' b. It is more rarely used where we would have P^es. Perf. for •^ I'ast Perfect. expected the past perfect. As, f^^ ^IT^ Ij^ f f^^ ^T ^T^ ft 'HTT t, ' once the Raja Harishchandra had become (or became) very liberal.' c. And in the following we would have expected the J''"J^- ^y\^^! indefinite perfect : ^^ ^^ TT^T % ^?t ^ 'nu f^i^ t, ' I got (the cow) yester- day from the Raja's place.' Rem. In this case the action is regarded as effecting a result con- tinuing to the present time ; whence the use of the present auxiliary. The Past Perfect. 790. The Past Perfect differs from the English rast. Pcrf. •^ ^ and English pluperfect, in that the latter always refers to a certain I'luperfect. definite point of past time, prior to which the action or event occurred ; while this Hindi tense simply indicates that the action occurred prior to an interval of past time, which is not, necessarily, defined. The Hindi past perfect may therefore be employed whenever an interval of time, definite or indefinite, has elapsed since the completion of the action. It is therefore often necessary to translate this tense by the English indefinite past tense. Thus : Tf 71^' ^T^'t|T»T 476 SYNTAX or the contingent perfect. [§ 791. ^T^ •M\'m ^j ' I came to put you on your guard;' fsRi WR'^ ^f ^^T ^Tj ' when this person was born ; ' ^(^ j^ cfij •TT^ ^'> 'iff ^ZT ^T fl^ ^^ ^ ^-f "^ xi^ f*T^ ^, ' when even her navel had not been cut, then he found her lying in the jungle,' lit.' 'she lying, met him ;' gj? ^ ^Jfx I ^Xf? (1 ^Tt Br. = ^Tj ^,) ' you had, indeed, been immortal.' The Contingent Perfect. 791. The Contingent Perfect represents a completed action as a mere hypothesis or assumption. Thus it may- be used, Cont. Perf. as (1) In conditional clauses, denotinsr the condition not Hypothetical. ^ ^ . as a fact, but as a mere assumption. Thus, ^ vi^ ^ ^t t^^^m ^T ^T?T ^ f^^T ft, ' if Nal have committed some deed even of unkindness.' As Dubitative. (2) It may cxprcss doubt. As, f ^ % -T cfifY ^, ' may she not have spoken in jest ?'. As Concessive. (3) Or a concessiou. As, g^ ^ ^15 "^^ ^ ■'Of^ it^j 'whatever he may have cooked.' As Past ^4^ It may describe a /'«S2fjK>055/5i7%. Thus, -Slf f^ Hi \Tit ^ff ^^ rl^^ %fT ^ W^"^ f[^, 'in the family of Yadii is no one who has abandoned a (battle) field and fled.' In Com- (5) It is often used in comparisons referrinsr to past parisons. _ ^ ' -^ <_> x time, when the comparison is made, not with an actual, but with a supposed case. Thus, %%.... ^7:w ^TW i ^T^T f%IT ^t ft^, ' as if clouds of various hues had gathered round.' a. In the Rdmdyan, also, this tense occurs, but very rarely. Thus, ^ qf^^W efi^'l ^^ ftt J ' if he have ridiculed you in any thing.' §§ 792, 793.] SYNTAX or the past conting. perfect. 477 Of the Presumptive Perfect. 792. In the Presumptive Perfect a completed action is ^^^ ^{ I're- ^ "^ ^ ^ ^ sumptive reri. assumed as an objective reality ; i.e., the action is denoted as a probability. It is thus often to be rendered by the aid of an English adverb. Examples: ^T^^ ^ ^STT TffT i^t; ^^, 'what must have been the state of the child !'; ^^^ ^ ^^^ ^fT ^^T fl^TT, ' your honour has doubtless heard this couplet ;' ^r^ % TT^Tf % H^T ^3IT, ' it must have bent by the current of the river.' a. It is used in questions implying some perplexity ; as, ^^ ^Ot % ^OT ^^IT 5^^T itlTj 'what message can the sage Kanvu have (probably) sent?'. The Past Contingent Perfect. 793. The Past Contingent Perfect is used only in the r is 'for whomP'j f^^^^ t%^, ' for what ? ' ' why ? ' 824. Many words which, when following a noun in the genitive, must be rendered into English as prepositions, under other circumstances must be regarded as nouns, and often translated accordingly. Such, e.g., are ^7"^TTr, f cT, f«Tf*?TT, and many others. Thus, ^"^ ^T% ^ ^TW? '«» account of my going,' but, ^^ oRTl^lTr, 'tV)r this reason.' So also, in the following phrase, f^% has a prepositional force: rfiT f^lW ^ f%^ "^TTI, 'for whom have you come?'. But in the following it must be regarded as a substantive, signifying * object;' rW t^^ f^^ '^T'^j ' foi' what object have you come ? '. 825. The inseparable preposition ^^, ' with,' is properly Inseparable 1/ I'repositious. used only with pure Sanskrit nouns. In colloquial Hindi it is not often heard, but it is more common in poetry : as, e.g., ^T^^ (^ + "^^W), ' with his younger brother ; ' ^W? *with love;' ^ijfx;^!^, 'with attendants.' Of Conjunctions. 826. The copulative coni unction ^s^"?: is nsed mucli Copulative Conjunctions. less freely than the equivalent English 'and;' the conjunctive participle is often preferred to a finite verb followed by the conjunction (§ 755 (1) a). Thus, a Hindoo would not be likely to express the phrase, «he went and saw the town,' by ^^^ ^^T "^^ IIT ^ ^^Tj but rather, ^^ % ^T^T ^1T ^ t'^T- a. It is also to be noted that Hindi idiom often 488 SYNTAX OF COXJUNCTIONS, [§§ 827, 828. requires the omission of the copulative between pairs of words where it would be necessary in English. Examples: ^% ^^ ^ x:|f^T«T, 'knowledge of good (and) evil;' ^^ gii efiT ^%WT^T, 'the giver of joy (and) sorrow;' ^^ ^"^l", 'go! (and) see!'; if^ ^^^^, ' Krishn (and) Baktev;' ^x ^^ qtW nfft ^^^ %*, 'my hands (and) feet do not move.' Rem, Such phrases are doubtless conceived in the popular mind as equivalent to copulative compounds (§ 625). 827. ^ is to be rendered 'also,' in an enumeration of particulars, but in other cases it must be translated ' even.' Thus, ^ lfX(5 ^-^ lit ^^TT»r Wt ^ ^TftWT "^ ^U, ' Shri Krishn Chand and also Balrdm t/( came to Dvcirikd ;' but, ^ li^El!! ^^ ^'\ fcfi^'\ ^ ^^ -^ft ^ f , ' even Shri Krishn Chand gives nothing to any one.' a. Also, after words implying comparison, ^ must be ren- dered 'still,' 'yet,' 'even;' as, -^x; ^ %? 'there is still more;' "?T^ ^^ ^^ ^T ^ ^ ^^T |, 'this tree is higher even than that house;' ftfi?;; ^ is also sometimes to be rendered 'yet,' 'still;' as, fqji: ^ f^^ ^g ^ ^q i^ ^,ft V!m^ %, 'yet, how can a picture equal her beauty?'. Some- times, again, ^fV can only be translated into English by some limiting phrase as, ' at all,' ' in the least,' etc. ; as, efi^ »fY •I^^ ^, ' they did not start in the least.' h. Sometimes, again, ^ can scarcely be rendered into English except by an emphasis ; thus, "^if cRT^ %^t H^ ^^ ^?n •! ^5 ' howsoever trivial this work may be.' 828. The Sanskrit ^fi?, ' also,' ' even,' is never used in conversation, and only now and then in poeti'y ; thus, ^f^ ^ffttgjTfq ^^^^^ ^^f^ ^\^^ , ' even that which is most mysterious, the good make clear.' §§ 829-833.] SYNTAX of conjunctions, 489 829. The phrase frm tj^ ^, is often used as a copulative conjunction, equivalent to 'moreover;' as, ffm XfX. *ft ^^ ^ffTT t, * moreover he says this.' ^^ tj^^ *ft may often he rendered, 'notwithstanding,' 'nevertheless;' as, ^^ t|"^ H^ TT ^^ WTTT ^IffT t, 'nevertheless thou art dear to me.' 830. Of the disjunctive conjunctions, ^t or "^l^TT, Di-ijunctive and ^ i-^^-) ^1*6 the most common; % and ^rft" are dialectic, f^ also is often used as a disjunctive. a. fgf and % are especially used in short disjunctive phrases ; as, ^vfT ft % ^l^T> ' be it good or evil.' But sometimes it is repeated hefore successive sentences ; as, % f f^ % ^"^ "HtfTT ^ "RTrVfrl ^ ^<^ ^ ^^T^^ ^T ^TIT W^ 3T>J ^ ^TJ, ' has not Ilai'i had confidence in my affection ? or hearing of the coming of Jardsandh, has the lord not come ? '. h. fsR^ is rare, but we find it in the Rcimdr/an, as, ■^f^HT'T ?ftl ^^ t^^Tj ' or (being) in the power of pride or love.' 831. Sometimes in brief phrases, where it may be readily understood, the disjunctive may be omitted. Thus, ^qf?i TT^rTTt ^T ''^^ ^"^ ^^^ ^' ' ^vealth and authority pass away, ohtained (or) not obtained,' i.e., 'they are gone even before we obtain them.' 832. wt is commonly used as a conditional con- Conditional -.^ ' -, ^ n T Conjunctions. junction m the colloquial ; ^f^ — usually pronounced, and often written '51^ — is Sanskrit, and in conversation is somewhat pedantic. a. ^ ^ is sometimes used dialectically as a conditional conjunction. Thus, wl" ^ f^(^ T itffT =lifzwrl^j ' if there is no treachery in his heart.' 833. The coniunction «ft or 7!^ may be variously Tiie illative ^ ^ . . Conjunctions. rendered, according as it has the force of an illative or or an emphatic particle. Concessive Conjunctions. 490 SYNTAX OF CONJUKCTIOKS. [§ 834. (1) As an illative conjunction it regularly introduces the apodosis of a conditional sentence. Thus, ^ It -rflf ^T^ ' calling the ladies of his zanana just nothing but Shakimtuld ;' ^^ 'Sf^\;^ ^^ tt; ^T Wj * *^^^ two acts are very far apart.' «. When the first noun is in the plural, ^ is not used ; as, ■^^ ^ IT^^ fT^, 'in their very hands;' ?rrTt ^T? 'blow on blow,' h. Sometimes the first noun is put in the genitive ; as, iT^*^ giT J\^, lit., ' a fool of fools,' i.e., 'a very fool;' *i^"^ % ^^ % ^^j ' swarms upon swarms of bees.' c. I have also noted the phrase ^^t f^^? ' very milk,' i.e., 'pure milk.' (/. The repetition sometimes suggests continuance in a place; as, ^^^ % f^^^ f^^TT ^^^5 'walk along by the side of the road.' 841. For the repetition of nouns, etc., with the alteration of a letter, see § 625 (1) Z». 842. Eepetition has the same effect in adjectives. Repetition of Adjectives. Thus, (1) The adjectives may he taken distrihuUvehj. Thus, ^^ ^% ^% ^^^^5 * every one of the great Yadu- hunsisJ (2) Or sometimes the repetition expresses variety. Examples: «|^ ^T^ ^t^, 'various new pleasures;' "^R^ "^ITH ^^ %^% ^'i; 'they began to play various unheard-of games.' 494 OF THE REPETITION OF WORDS. [§§ 843-846. (3) They are repeated to express intensittj. Thus, ^^ ^3^ ^^^ ^^ X;^ t ' ' ^^^^ soft, soft wind is blowing;' ^^^ ^^^ ^^, 'the cleanest clothes.' Sometimes the first adjective takes the genitive postposition ; as, *j% ^j ^igj? * extremely hungry.' Eepetitionof 843. Numerals are repeated in a distributive sense. Numerals. Thus, ^rf ^ ^^ ^^^ Tj"^ *Tlj, ' ten sons were (born) to each one.' To the repeated numeral, the conjunctive participle ^■^% is often added (§ 650), as follows : ^ ^ ^T^ f^eR^ j[^, ' they went out by twos ;' -^^ -^^ ofiT^ "^%j ' they came one by one.' a. When the number is a compound, only the last part is repeated; as, "^^ ^fq^ElT ^"^ "^T -ilMTj 'owe rupee and four duds each.' Repetition of 844, Pronouns, when repeated, are often to be taken Pronouns. -,• -t • 7 --n i diBtributwely . Or the repetition may denote variety. Examples : ^ft % '^'^ '^^ ^T WT^ WT^ ^fT, ' having gone each one to his own house, they said — ;' Wt ^ t^^ f^^ ^^ ^ T^^T ^t ^ ^*t ^T ^^, ' whatever different things each one may desire, that bring and give ; ' f ^ ^T ^T ^^ ^T^ %j 'what various sorrows do we experience!'. a. But ^1;, repeated, is 'a few ;' as, ^5F^?:"> UXTT xjt"^ ^|; efiYI;, "'some few may gain your favour.' 845. The relative %^T is idiomatically repeated with the genitive postposition ; as, %% ^j ^^T, 'exactly as before ; ' or, if the noun qualified be feminine, ^^ ^ ^^^ ^H ^ ^^T T^j ' his state remained just as it was before.' Eepetitionof 846. Eepotitlon of verbs is confined to the parti- Particles. • -. -^ , • t i ciples. it may indicate (1) Simple repetition of the action. Examples : f^^^ ^■% ^f ^"^ ^^ %*, ' pieces of bark keep floating down ;' ^^ ^ft'ft i?^ t?^'^ %^ %f^ % ^ 'the demons, mig;hty in strength, (even when) dead, were not killed;' tj^ Z\'?ft 'I ZTT^, * driven back, they not in the least gave way.' Repetition of 347^ The repetition of adverbs lias already been Adverbs. ^ _ *^ noted (§ 643) (1). The following illustrations are added. ^W W^ fTT ^^ ^ TT^ fT^ fl^ W Vft f^t%^ ^TT, * whenever religion suffers injury, then from time to time the lord, assuming various bodies, etc. ;' 5iff 5?ff ^1 ^^^JT ^?^ ^^ (2^ M^ ^% "^rfTT T21TT ^T^ ^1T, 'just in proportion as the girl began to grow, so he began to love her greatly.' a. An adverb may be repeated with the genitive post- position intervening, for the sake of emphasis; f^lt^ it^ ll" ^tT ^ ^ (5ft t^^Tl; ^ff^ %, ' immediately on its becoming clear, the image appears exactly as before.' Sometimes the latter may also be in the emphatic form : as, ^ (^^) •^^j m\ ■^Tft^ f^^T^ WTIJITj 'that army in this very spot shall so vanish ;' '^^ efix rm, ' at that very moment.' Rem. Observe that in this idiom the genitive postposition is inflected to agree «'ith the noun to which reference is made. Repetition of 848. Prepositions also are sometimes repeated with Prepositions. a modification of the sense similar to that above noted. Thus : ^^ % ^'q ^^ ^TT'T ^5W ^T^ %, ' all along through the midst, bards were singing (his) renown;' ^»^ '^TWf^^ ^ m^ "m^j ' close along by those same footsteps ;' ^^ ij^^ •q\^ ^% "^T^, 'follow along behind me;' f?T '^ ^T^ 1^ ^T^ ITZ ^ ^%^ 'let us two go together to the market.' Onomatopoeia. 849. The fondness of the Hindoos for onomatopoetic words has been already mentioned. This regard for sound extends §§ 850, 851.] OF THE SUBJECT. 497 also to the construction of sentences, and is seen especially in the balanced structure of the language; as in the marked tendency to throw sentences of all kinds into the relative and correlative form ; the expression of repeated action by re- peating the word expressing the action ; the fondness for rhyme, even in prose, etc., etc. a. The following striking examples of onomatopoeia in the choice of words, are from the Rdmdyan. In the description of the fighting of the monkeys against Rdvan we read : ?T^Z f«T^Z ^Z ^ZrT ^ ^ZfT fT^ ^^T: *T^, 'the terrible monkey warriors, fighting, their bodies torn to pieces, are not diminished;' and the fighting of the bears is thus similarly described ; ^^^fif^i: ^ZIRZ ^ff^ TTrff Fftfi ^^f; ^^f ff , ' the bear host gnash and grind their teeth ; they eat, and howl, and (even) satiated, rush upon (their prey).' Part II. Synthetic Syntax. Of the Construction of Sentences. I. — Of the Simple Sentence. Of the Parts of a Sentence. - 850. As in all languages, the essential elements of a Hindi sentence are two, viz., subject and predicate^ to Avliich may be added the cojmta^ as a formal, though not, as will aj)pear, a necessary element of the sentence. We treat first of the simj)le sentence. 851. The subject in Hindi, may be (1) a noun or The Subject. j)ronoun in the nominative case ; or (2) two or more nouns or pronouns in the nominative j or pronouns in the nominative ; or (3) an adjective or numeral used substantively in the nominative ; or (4) an infinitive ; or (5) any phrase or sentence. 32 498 OF THE SUBJECT. [§ 852. Examples are, of (1) : "gi^f^ '^^ ^'^J f , ' Tulsi Das has come ;' ^ ^% TT'T^ ^ ^^ttj" f , ' these are the marks of a good man ;' (2) tt^^ ^^•?: ^cT?ft f^^^t ^T 1W, ' the hermit and Gcmtami went in another direction ' (or ' go ' *) ; 1j "^^^ rUT ^•^ij, * I and you will go ;' (3) ^ ^^t'f , ' two are there ;' ^tt 'ST^ ^I^ ^llT, ' no wise (man) will say ; ' (4) ^Tf efit Wr»n tr 'you must go,' lit., 'to go is for you;' (5) ''3?^* ^TK ^TT W^^ ^I^T JITW ^^ T^ ^^TT '^^ ^ ^^fRT xj^fTT f , ' to them it falls to wander in this earthly circle of repeated birth and death.' a. The cases in which a complete sentence introduced by flfi stands as the subject of the verb, will be noticed in the Syntax of the Compound Sentence. b. Colloquially, the locative with ff^5 ^j etc., is used as the subject of a sentence in such phrases as the following: ■^efi ?r»Tl^t fT^ "Tl^ "^^j 'not so much as one man came;' ^ ^ H^ T^T ^^' ' '^^ many as two hundred came.' 852. The subject may sometimes be omitted ; (1) sX™°^ when it can be readily supplied from the connection, as, e.g., in questions, or in direct address ; or (2) when it is implied in the form of the verb ; or (3) in proverbs, where brevity is sought. Examples: (1) ^T ^ ^m % ^t ^rTT %, 'is he coming? yes (he) is coming ; ' ^zi ^f ^T ^T^ t^^T^"^ ^, ' Son ! what conduct is this you display?'; (2) WTHW ^^ ' i}) ^^^ ^ Brah- man ; ' (3) cfi^ rl^ ^T, ' earn, then eat.' a. In the phrase ^x;^fTT %? the word ■qT'H' or »(^ is to be understood as the subject of the verb, and is indeed often ex- pressed. * An explanatory note in a drama, wliere English idiuin would require tlie present tense. t '^'^\ is a common word in the Doab, but is regarded as vulgar by the educated. §§ 853-856.] OF THE PREDICATE AND COPULA. 499 853. Sometimes by anakolouthon, a nominative, or tlie case of the agent, stands without a verb, as i[\^\ in the following : ^v(\ wt ^^ ^"^ ^ f^^^ ^ ^ T'^T ^T t ^"^ ^'^ ^1% ^'iif , ' the milkmaids, who had gone out to draw water — they, seeing the chariot coming in the distance, began to say — .' 854. The joredicate of a sentence may be (1) a verb ; The Predicate. (2) a noun or pronoun either in the nominative or some oblique case; (3) an adjective; (4) a numeral; or (5) any word or phrase used as a noun. Examples: (1) ^f ^t^ttt, 'he will go;' (2) ^3^ ^j ^^T{ ■^¥cR t? 'I'is name is A' huh;'' ^^ T;T^T ^ fj 't'^'*' ^-"^ ^^^^ king's;' -^f ^^ T?-^ I, 'he is on the house;' cJ5T"?:T!T ^f %, ' the reason is this ; ' -^ff "q-^off flfi^ ^ f , ' whose is this book ? ' ; ^^ HT^^ f^jPff^ ?f -Tft t ' ' i" "<5 ""6 i^ *^"^'^' power ; ' Wt Y^ AT Tt^T, 'tiie son whom I shall have;' (3) "^tWT f^g^T^ ^T ^^ '^ "Rmq^ 1 , ' the lUjd Sisupdl is very mighty and renowned;' (4) ^'^ ^TW ^^1 ^? '"iv feet were sixteen;' (5) % jjw\ ^isq^ ^T ^ZT^T W? 'I »»» the mes- senger (lit,, the sent) of Rdjd Bhislntiak' i.e., 'sent by him.' 855. The predicate verb is sometimes omitted when Omission of Tin 1 Predicate. it can be easily supplied from the context. Thus, ^5fV ^ft ^ -RTirT^ f^^T Tl^ % ^^ ^T^ ^T ^ ^^ 7n"Tj ' both heroes saluted him, the one regarding him as a spiritual guide, the other holding him as a brother.' 856. The coj)ula, either explicitly, or as implied in The Copula. a verbal form, is regularly required to connect the subject and predicate of a sentence. But even in prose the copula may often be omitted in Hindi, where it would be essential in English or even in XJrdii. a. Thus, in simple description, where the copula may be readily supplied, Hindi often characteristically omits it ; as. 500 OF THE COPULA. [§ 857. 'T^TTgf^ ^ ^^^ W{^ TTWr tTTT ^ ^ %t U^ ^T 'n?? ^^ ^;[^T[T ^^%^5 ' (there was) a king of the city of 3Iathiird, nsamdi u4'/mk, (who had) two sons; the name of one (was) Devak, the other (was) Ugrasen ;' •^^ •tjix; ^T ^Z^T %HTj sc. ^^ or ^^Tj lit., ' now how is (there) returning to town ? ' i.e., ' what chance is there of returning to town ? '. We should rather have expected here ^% for %hT • b. The copula is also often omitted in comparisons ; as, ^f^ "g^ f f T^^ ^^fft ^ f^ %% f^ITT t^^ ^TfTT^, ' the earth looked as fair as a beauty adorned.' c. Similarly, the copula is very commonly omitted in negative sentences ; as, ^^ cr^ fcfi^ w[rl ^T ^T^I 'T^', ' this (person has) no knowledge of anything.' Rem. In such phrases the omission of the copula is in fact only apparent. Naliin, as remarked § 472, is a compound of the negative na with an archaic form of the copula, dliin. d. The copula is also usually omitted in proverbial ex- pressions; as, ^"^ ^T Tf '^'Sl, 'stolen sugar is sweet;' W^^T ^ f^T*'? ^^^ ^T ^^, ' oil of jasmine on the head of a musk-rat.' e. But when there is any emphasis on the time as to which any affirmation is made, as past, present, or future, the copula must be employed. 857- The omission of the copula is extremely common in poetry ; indeed, in the Rdmdyan, its use is quite exceptional. Examples will be found in almost every line. Thus, ^^^ fwf^ ^^ TT"?^ ^^ ^^"Oj '^" every way, all the people of the city (were) rejoiced;' HTT^lffT ^^fll^fl^T? ' association with the good (is) the root of joy and gladness.' a. But occasional examples of the use of the copula occur, determined by emphasis, or by the necessities of the metre; as, e.g., ■^x:ttT'^ ^ "^f ^ Tf ^T, ' but difficult to be worshipped (is) 3Ia/iesh.' §§ 858, 859.] EXTENSION OF THE SUBJECT. 501 b. As in all languages, we must distinguish the occasional use of the substantive word, not as a copula, but as an essential word. Thus, ^ ^^ "m^ % f^ ^^T 1? ' those people admit that God exists ; ' ^^ % "^fM ^ l1"Tf "^^^ ' (those things) which have been, are, or shall be hereafter.' 858. The predicate may belong to the subject in a greater or less degree as compared with other objects. For illustra- tions of the syntax of adjectives in such cases, see §§ 20/ — 210, under ' Comparison.' In the case of verbs, the comparison is expressed by prefixing the proper adverb. 859. The subject and predicate may both be ex- Extension of tended or defined, as in other languages, by the ad- dition of various words in grammatical dependence upon them. (1) The subject may be defined by a noun or nouns in apposition. Examples : ff^^igT ^ TI^^^ TT^T ^^^ "^TT? f, ^ Rojd Bliishmali of Httstindptir (lit., resident of), has come;' efirf^^ T^IT ■^■^T) ' the month Kcirtik came.' a. Here note the common idiom with the pronoun ^j, wliich occurs in the following phrase : ^^^ •I^t;0!^T^ ^jIT ^^ ^n ^^"^ ^T^^"*! ■'^ft ^iB %, 'all the inhabitants of the city, whether men or women, were thus talking among themselves.' J). The common idiom which occurs in such a sentence as the following, must be regarded as an appositive construction : T^ ^ ^% ^tj^ f^%, ' I got two suits (of) clothes.' c. In the following from the Prem Sdgar, ^^^ is a pre- dicative adjunct of the personal pronoun, ^ : % ^^^ ^ ^^C^ ^T^, ' I, a child (i.e., although a child), am thy enemy.' d. When a substantive or any word employed substantively is used simply as a word, without reference to its meaning, it is very often followed by a demonstrative pronoun in appo- sition. Thus, the phrase ' Ne is not attached to the subject 502 ' EXTENSION OF THE SUBJECT. [§ 859. of an intransitive verb,' must be rendered, "^cfiflefi ^U"^ % cfi^ ■?r % "^I MfY ^IcTT . So again, Wf t ^^ ^ ^ ^I f^f Tf m f, Mvhere the object has the sign ko.' So also where a case other than the nominative is used as a word in the nominative, the same construction is used : as, "^T^t ^^ ^T ''^^ 'S\^ %> ' here us kd is correct.' But the appositive pronoun is some- times omitted where no ambiguity will follow : as, '?j^t ^^ T^T "S^^%5 ' l>ere iis par is correct ;' ^3f^Ty^^ \^ % ^T^ ^fY ^ ■^^T ^^* cfiT TlfTT %j 'with (the word) karnd is connected sometimes kd, and sometimes ko." e. In the following, "^^ is to be regarded as added in appo- sition with ^, for the sake of emphasis ; ^ % TTTIT^T'^ ^1 ^T f^T^^ ^ fTT^fTT f , ' this very same (person), darling, is longing to meet thee.' (2) The subject may be extended or defined by an adjective. In this case we may distinguish (a) the attributive^ and {V) the predicative construction. a. In the attributive construction, the adjective precedes the noun, and forms conjointly with it one complex idea ; as, e.g., TEif ^TCT^^ '^T^ ofif^ "^1 %, 'this frightful form is the Kali Yi(g.' h. In the predicative construction, the adjective follows the noun, and is apprehended separately from it, being, as it were, the predicate of an abridged relative clause. Thus, ^g[^ cfit 'IT^ fft t^H^ T^^ cR^, « (if) I kill this (child), then I may reign without fear.' In the following both constructions occur: ^^ ^^ cRT #^ ^^ ^ITt?T:TW^ ^^T ^^^ ^T^T^T ^, ' the youngest son of that Bal, very powerful, and greatly re- nowned, was Bdndsnr.' (3) The subject may also be defined by a pronoun used adjectively. Thus, "?if gjjgT % ^t^ ^ ^f^ ^^T t^Wrt f^, 'two thousand warriors appeared.' (5) By a genitive. Thus, ^^ ^m ^ ^^ "5^ it Tf. '^^^ the people of the assembly held their peace;' •^^ ^j;\ J^^jyj xijj W^, 'now my desire has been fulfilled.' a. Sometimes the defining genitiv^e is omitted, when it is indicated by the context. Thus, ^^ f^*T{T Tf fTl" ^ fefi rT^ ■^^^^ xjfff f^%, ' there continued a great anxiety that you might find a good husband;' where f;^ or^, referring to the following substantive clause, is to be understood before f^tflT- Rem. As the genitive is de facto nn adjective, it admits of tlie two constructions mentii)ned al)ove under (2). But as Hindi sometimes iinitates the Persian I)y placing the genitive after the governing noun, its predicative cliaracter cannot always be certainly inferred from its ])osition. But it is evidently used as as a predicate in the following : l^J ^"f ^^ ff^ f^»T ^ ^^ •! TTT ^T^T» ' six children of theirs, then, Kans has slain.' (G) By an adjective participle. Here again, we have both [a) the attributive and (/*) the predicative constructions. Thus, tj^ ?tTT ^t^ ^^ ^^T "ZTTj ' a dead snake lay there;' but, in the predicative construction, X?^ ^t^ 'TTT ^^ x(^T ^, 'a snake lay dead;' ^ ^-^fTr ^t^ ^^T^, ' Purusrdm Ji called his mother and brothers ; ' "^1?% "^ ^^^ ^^W? * with his wife and child.' 864. When an adjective or adjective participle occurs in the predicative construction with its noun, if the noun be in the accusative with wt, the adjective or participle regularly takes the form of the uni inflected masculine singular, irrespective of the gender or case of the noun. Examples : *i f^^^^ *?? "^^ ti-^^T^^ft fi|W ^ TfY ^T^T ^, 'in the three worlds I see no one so powerful ;' •TIX; ^ «I^f!T ^^j ' seeing the city burning.' §§ 865, 866.] OF AGREEMENT. 507 a. But occasionally the predicative adjective or participle takes the feminine termination even after the accusative with ^. Thus, in Damaj/anti, ^g ^T^ ^ ^^ % ^T^ "if ^^^ ifY^Tj 'you have left me, your handmaid, alone in the wilderness.' Rem. Here the construction seems confused ; for altliong-h tlie adjective takes the feminine termination, the verb follows the usual rule and retains the masculine form after ko. h. Observe, that when a participle is found inflected after a noun with cR^, it is to be regarded, not as a predicative adjunct, but as in the absolute construction (754 (2)). Thus, ^t ^fsT ^f^r ^^cn^ ^"t %^ T^TfTT ^T. ' where he would find seated, sages, philosophers, and gods.' 865. The same rule as to agreement applies to the pronominal accusatives in TJ and ij as to those in ^. Thus, ^'T f^% ^WT ^f^j 'whom shall we regard as the real (one)?.' n. But in this case, again, we occasionally find a different usage;' as, e.g., in the following; ^-f TJ ^r"%' "^^^ ^cf iftt^^j 'do not leave this (child) alone in the jungle.' Here 1[%*, referring to Krishna, is an honorific plural, 866. If the noun be in the nominative or the nominative form of the accusative, the predicative adjective or participle agrees with it in gender and number, as in the attributive construction. Thus, iT«T ^ ^T^ ^"t -I^^ rj-O ^T^T. [§§ 873-876. Rem. In the colloquial, however, many people follow the same rule with regard to agreement in the case of different persons, as when there are different genders ; i.e., the verb is made to agree in person with the nearest word. Thus many would say, main aur tu chalegd, tu aur tve chalenge. 873. "When the subject denotes, not an individnal, but a class, the predicate, although referring to a plurality of individuals, is placed in the singular. Example : ^^ ^^T Wlr^l ^T, ' tlie army was going- along.' So in tlie following, the subjects are regarded as collectives: ^ W' ^'^ ^T^TW ^ f^^ W\^^ f^^T, 'these six duties were appointed for the Brahman ;' ff\«r f^«l TJr{ ^rT f^TTj 'three days and nights passed.' a. On the same principle, ^^^, ' all,' is often treated as a singular ; as, '^^ ^ ^^ ^^"^it^, ' all of them were troubled;' "?If ^^ fw^ ^T ^^'ir %? ' all these are faults in a friend.' 874. Finally, it should be remarked that the common people, as might be expected, are often very careless of the laws of agreement. Deviations from rule are even found occasionally in literature. Thus we read, in Prof. Eastwick's edition of the Prem Sugar, '^x^ ^^f cfiY «l^cl% 1^, ' she went to invite her sister.' 875. In poetry, moreover, the rules of agreement often give way to the necessities of the metre, as in the following, where %, [pliir.) is construed first with a singular verb, and afterwards with a plural: % "^ff ^^T ^tfz rlflT ^^T ^iffW ^•rf^, 'those who, abandoning deceit, sing this tale, hear (it and) tell (it).' 876. In Naipiiii, the affix 3fi^, which is commonly added to participles used adjectively, is also affixed to phrases, thus indicating more clearly their predicative character ; thus, oSJY ^^t ^T^ cSt f^^ WTH^ *?*T«T ^^rff •! o > '"6 cannot tell whence he was.' This efi^ is then inflected in accord wltli the above principles. §§ 877-879.] COPULATIVE skntences. ' 511 II. — Of CoMroiiND Sentences. A. Of Co-ordinate Sentences, 877. "When two or more connected sentences are grammatically independent of one another, they are called co-ordinate sentences ; and when one is dependent upon the other, it is called a subordinate sentence. 878. Co-ordinate compound sentences in Hindi, as in other languages, may be classified as Copulative^ Disjunctive^ Adversative^ and Causal. Copulative Sentences. 879. The conjunctions proper to copulative co- Copulative ordination are ^1"?: and h^. "^^i:, 'and,' joins two propositions when they are regarded as of equal im- portance, and as independent one of the other. ^^"^ . . . »f^, ' and '....' also,' implies that the affirmation of the former clause is extended either («) in the subject, or (b) in the predicate. Examples: ^^ ^^T 'nn ^^T f^T ^fV "^J^l, 'lie went away, and did not return ; ' ^ ig^xiti ^ XT^^TT "^^T ^^TTH ^ ift ^«f ^ ^1 ^% 1%5 '^ Shri Krishn departed, and Bdlrum Ji also went oif with him;' ^^ ^^^ \jwff f ^^ ^ ^^cT f^^TTT^ ^ f , '' this man is virtuous, and he is also very learned.' a. Very often the copula or verb may be omitted from either the first or the second member of the copulative sen- tence. Thus, ^-^ g^ir \^wff ^^ ^^fT f%5n^iT ^ %, 'this man is both virtuous and also very learned.' The ellipsis of the verb in the second member, is more common in the colloquial speech than in literature. 512 * DISJUNCTIVE SENTENCES. [§ 880, h. ftjjTt^ or TjfsT is often used as a copulative conjunction, with a resumptive force. Tlius, •^^ ^ ^^T ^ "^337 f^"^! f^ "^if^^"^ Wt ^ ^ ^t^ f^'^'\, ' lie lifted up U'shd ; again, he also bound Aniruddh Ji.^ c. The pronominal phrase, fcT^ tj"^ ?fV, lit., 'upon that also,' is often used as a copulative conjunction, with an enhancive force ; as, \'^^^ v^\ i^ ?T«T^ "^^''t W^-) ' moreover, men will do unrighteousness.' Disjunctive Sentences. Disjunctive 880. DisjunctivG co-ordiuate sentences, when affirma- Co-ordination. . . , tive, are connected by the conjunctions TT or "^^TT, "?IT, "N^T, ^ and f^, ' or.' Any of these may be repeated in successive clauses, when the first must be rendered ' either,' and the second, ' or.' There is no difference in their meaning : TT is preferred to "^^sf^T to connect single words; ^^cfj is preferred to connect sentences. The Arabic ^ appears to be supplanting these. When negative, each member is introduced by the negative particles ; "T or «i^ before the first member, and ^ before the second and following clauses. Examples : f TT1[^ ^ %^ ^% ^ f t^ ^^^ f ^^^^^^ ^^ ^•TT ^oR^ ^5 ' ^ve can take them and drive away a dog-, or j make stakes of them ;' «[[cf xj^T^ ^T"'Ct ^ ^T "^^ ^ ZT^j 'throw him down, or drive him away from my presence;' V5 ^'f^ t ^T W^T *f ^iRJT #, ' has the heat affected (her) or (is it) as I have imagined?'; -i ^f -ZT^ t 'T ^f Z3^ tI^, 'neither is there that place, nor that ruined cottage;' wti •IfY ^T^ff^ T ^^^T "^n rIT %, ' neither does the heat (of the sun) affect it, nor does the perspiration come.' a. The second member of a disjunctive sentence may be introduced by «t^ cfl', 'else,' 'otherwise;' as, *^er rT ^T W^ ft ^TRIT 'TlY rfr ^TTt f^'iX ^T ^^TU ^%^T, ' "ow thou shalt either be released, or else be made food for dogs and vultures.' § 881.] ADVERSATIVE SENTENCES. 513 b. Sometimes sentences are disjunctively co-ordinated by ^tI . . . . ^Tt; thus, ^T? W^ "^tI ^ m^, 'whether he conic, or do not come.' c. The first neg;ative is sometimes omitted ; as, ^?^ trT% =fiT if -T WT% eRT iftoRj 'this (man) has neither joy at finding-, nor sorrow at losinj^.' And sometimes the second, as in the common sayinc^: ^f^^ft^i: '^^ T[f{ ff^ ^ft^^: V[\^, 'neither penance equals truth, (nor does any) sin equal falsehood.' Adversative Sentences. 881. In adversative co-ordination, two statements are Adversative Co-ordiuation. contrasted with one another. These adversative sen- tences are of three kinds, viz. : (1) the second proposi- tion may be contradictor)/ or exclusive of the first; (2) it may be merely restrictive of the former statement; or (3) the contrast may be made by extending the former statement. a. It is doubtful whether Hindi as yet has strictly appro- priated certain adversative conjunctions to introduce restrictive, as distinguished from contradictory, adversative clauses. But, on the whole, the tendency seems to be to introduce a contra- dictory adversative clause by "^T^^ (very rarely, f^«fT), or the equivalent Arabic %f^«T ; while tj"^ is commonly employed to introduce a sentence merely restrictive of the other. But an extensive adversative clause is regularly introduced by "^jyi, or the Arabic ^f^. h. In the following examples, tlT^nT, f^«fl and n^, are used strictly in accordance with the principle above suggested : (1) ^^ ^T ^^T^^T^T ^1; 'T^ TTT^ ^1 '^^ t ■m^ ^^^^ % ^»JT W' ' ®^ t^^^ ^^"1 there is no creator, but it has existed of itself from eternity ; ' ^■?:tWT ^ W^ ^ ^^% ^ ^W ^fV" itffT f^^ T^ f^^^ ^T ^»1T^ ^ ^^^^^ %, ' a man of bad 33 514 CAUSAL SENTENCES. [§ 882. character gains nothing from reading the Shdstra, but in this matter the nature prevails : ' (2) rT ^ ^I f^T t^m ^T ^TT TftfB f , 'tliey split (one's) ears, screaming continually, " Go to the wood ! Go to the wood." ' Subst. Clauses 889. In the Naipali Gospel, I have not found a substantive clause in- in Naipali. ^ e~ r- troduced by t^. For t^, in such clauses, is regularly substituted ^t"I> conjunctive participle of ^•I»T> * to say.' This follows the substantive clause, which is to be regarded as its object. English idiom will most frequently require this ^f^T to be rendered as 'that,' but in other cases it cannot be transferred in translation. Examples are: s^^^"?^ ^Y '^T'^ •ifsi^ ^ *?f^ ^TT'T, 'know that the kingdom of God is near;' '^•f ^T^ oR^ mZ % TT"^ ^OT TfT IT^T . ' they took counsel in wiiat way they might kill him,' lit., ' saying, In wliat way may we kill him? '. §§ 890, 891.] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 519^ 890. It is very important to observe that after verbs ^""5*^° obiiqua '' •*- not used. of 'saying,' 'thinking,' 'wishing,' etc., Hindi, unlike English, does not admit the oratio ohliqua. On the contrary, idiom demands that the words or thoughts of the speaker be cited as they pass in his mind. This principle makes it necessary, in translating from English into Hindi, to change both the tense and the person of the verb, as ilhistrated in the following examples : ' Go thou, and say from me, " Queen, I (have) understood your admonition," ' where English idiom would have it, ' tell the queen that I have understood,' etc.; ^ ^jfT f^ ^^^^ ^ ?n^5 'as he wished (i.e., was about to) kill Baldev,' lit., « wished. May I kill Baldev: a. In the Rdmdyan, we read, ^mfw T-I TTT^' *li; T^Tf«T ^il"^ ^rT •!Tf^.* Here there is an ellipsis of a conjunctive participle, as ^fV, 'thinking,' of which the substantive clause, ^^ ^71 •TT^? is the object ; and these words, ' I have no son,' arc represented as actually passing in the mind of the king. Thus we may render the passage in English idiom, * sadness entered the heart of the king, as he thought how he had no son.' 891. Predicative substantive clauses, asjain, may ex- Predicative / ° ' *^ , Clauses of Pur- press the purpose or reason of the action of the leading pose, verb. a. In this case, the substantive clause is to be regarded as in apposition to some such word as ^^T!r or %cT, 'reason,' ' object,' in the principal clause. Such a word is indeed, for the sake of greater clearness, often expressed. The clause denoting the purpose or reason is introduced by the con- junction f^, or the relative wt used as a conjunction. The * Bal K. 620 SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. [§§ 892, 893. verb of a substantive clause expressing purpose must be in the contingent future ; but if it state a reason, in one of the indicative tenses. Thus, f ?t g?| «r^WT "^ ^^T '^Tf^ ^ f^ ^^ ^'fT ^T ^^^T^ ^T "^n^, ' I wish to send you to Brin- ddban, that you may go and comfort them ; ' ^i[ ^^ ^ f^^ ^ ^^ 11^^^ %?T ^^^^ ^ ^Z^l? m^^, 'come along quickly, that all together we may reach the hut in safety;' ^^«fI^T ^% mci[ TSntt t ^ff % f^ ^f ^ft ^1^ ^ ^€^ t, ' Shakiin- tald is very dear to me, inasmuch as she is the daughter of my confidential friend;' ^ ^j^T % ^iT^T^^^ ^ft ^ ^^ TT^ % ^T "THT^ ^. ' do thou coax father that he may send me with the cowherds;' ^^ % ^l^T ^T^ filii^^T ^^ f f^ "5 ^Tfl ^^fT "RTTK^ ^ftft %, 'for this (reason) has thy name been Priyamvadd, that thou speakest words very loving,' lit., * for what (reason) ? that, etc' 892. A negative clause denoting purpose is introduced by the phrase, ^^T T it f^, followed by the contingent future. Thus, -^ft ^ ^TT^t "^^T ^ it f^ g^ flTt, ' do not go there, lest you fall.' ^rr is often omitted. a. Sometimes the connective must be supplied from the context ; as, •nff'T ^T f^TTff ^T^«R 5 ' I bave no fear lest (my) hereafter should be ruined.' Predicative 893. When the substantive clause denotes the result Clauses of Ee- suit. of an action, if that result is presented (1) merely as a wish or expectation, the verb must be in the contingent future ; if (2) as an objective reality, the verb must be in one of the indicative tenses ; if (3) as unattainable or inconceivable, the verb must be in the indefinite im- perfect. Thus (1) ij^ ^^ g?^-?: ti^f^ ^^^f^ f^ f^M ^ ^tm ^'iB ^ lt^ lt^ % ^tl ^^ Vf^, ' let us cause to be made such a beautiful theatre that the people of each village, im- mediately on hearing, may rise and run (to see it) ; ' (2) g^ §§ 894, 895.] ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 521 ^T ^^T t ^ ^ Wt ^f?f ^f rlT I, ' what has happened to thee, that thou art saying- such thhigs?'; ^f ^•T'*f ^^ ^tf^ "Tt t€^ ^ ^^^ f^ fsi^ ^ -ft^ ^ ^^ ^^ "Tt^ ^ ^^ ^^^' 'in the wilderness alone, she was weeping away in such a manner that the heasts, and birds, hearing the voice of her weeping, were weeping (too) ; ' (3) ■^^xn' ^ WT Wl^'^ '^Wt ^^«f ^ % ^TrTTj 'what power had Arjun, that he should carry away (my) sister?'. Rem. The result of an action is in Hindi more frequently expressed by an adjective clause introduced l)y a relative pronoun or pronominal, as illustrated in the next paragraph. Adjective Clauses. 894. Those are called adjective (or relative) clauses which are equivalent to an adjective qualifying some word or clause in the leading sentence. a. For example, take the compound sentence, ^ iJtiiT % "^^ ^efil^t cfit t^'TT ^ "3^ ^'^'^t ^j ^Shri Krishn counted those lines which he had drawn.' Here the phrase introduced by ^ qualifies the substantive ^or^"^ efi^ after the manner of an adjective, and is indeed equivalent to ^q«fY ^^Ih^ ^t ^^^ =fi1"- 895. All adjective clauses are regularly introduced by Construction 11. .,-,.. T.,of Adjective the relative pronoun or a pronominal adjective, to which Clauses, the corresponding correlative or a demonstrative pronoun regularly answers in the principal clause. The relative clause may be regarded as a simple expansion of the correlative pronoun. Instead of the correlative, one of the demonstratives (as, ^^, ^f , ^^, etc., or the pro- nominal ^^^^) may be used in the principal clause. Examples are : %^'V ^ft ^^T ft Tf> I t^T fY ^t W^ ^ ^•n \-, 'compose some such verse as shall just correspond to your condition ;' fiw ^fq ^ '^^^ ^^T ^ ^W ^ f ^^ ofiT "^^flT-T TffT efiVt? 'do not treat with disrespect the sage who has thus sent thee his girl.' 522 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. [i^ 895. a. Where especial distinctness is desired, the noun described by the adjective clause may be repeated in both the principal and subordinate clauses. Thus, "^T^^^ ^T ^^ ^ f^X ^"^T ^T ^ ^^ WT^^ W[ WT"^! "STTj 'the army of demons which had come up around them, — that army cast a shadow as a cloud;' WT ^IZ ^ ^T ^% rfT ^Z ^tWI^ f{^\^, 'in whose body love dwells not, regard his body as a burning- ground (of the dead).' h. But, much more commonly, Hindi idiom, placing the relative clause with the noun first, omits the noun from the principal clause which follows. Thus, f^TcT^ "SJ^ ^f\; xj"^ ^% ffTfT% "R^ % ^^ W^ ^Z ^^ , ' the lord with perfect ease broke in pieces every weapon which was cast at Hari ; ' efTTW ^•IT^, 'a city twelve yo/rt;«,s square, such as Shri Krishi had directed, he built in one night.' c. Sometimes, when the principal clause precedes, the substantive is omitted in the relative clause, as in English. Thus, TJWl ^^^ f ZT^^T ^ ^^ cfxft^^ ^ T^iTT^T t, ^ Rdjd Dushyant will deliver (you), who is the guardian of the whole sacred grove.' d. Or the substantive may be omitted in both the principal and subordinate clause, when no particular person is intended, or when the reference is to a subject well known. Thus, ^ ^^ ■^ft'^r ^ "^^ % ^t^ ^^5 'thy eye fastened on him who was worthy of thee;' f^^ % ^JT ^^TT ofiY ^^T fi? '^^ ^^ % ^^ %, 'we are all in the power of Him who created the world.' e. Sometimes the correlative may be omitted from the leading clause, especially in poetry; as, ^ ^ii cfiT ^^ gf^ ^Z^flT % f«T^T^j *take out the thorn which is rankling in my heart;' ^ ^fif^^ xi^ tn: f^nnT ^^^T ^ f^^T efi^ 'V(W, 'the weapons which fell on Aniruddh, were cut in two on the edge of the stone.' In the common formula § 896.] ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 523 of assent from an inferior, ^ ir^, or ^ -illiaTj there is an ellipsis of the entire principal clause (ac. ^ ^%" ^^?IT). /. The relative may be omitted from the subordinate clause. Thus, ^^ ^ m^, 'those who escaped, fled;' ^% ^^ r!Tff ^1 qi;T^^? ' ^^'ho is unfriendly to him who speaks kindly?;' "^tTT ^ ^ ^"T f^^, * (what) answer there was, that have I heard.' In the following, the relative is omitted in the successive clauses : u^nT^ % ^^T t ^t ^^^T ^ Xfi^ %', lit., 'those lips (which) are S/takimtald's, they are the young- buds of the vine ; those arms (which) are (hers) are the tendrils; and those breasts (which) are (hers), they are the opened flowers.' This omission is especially common in these brief expressions; gi^ ^, 'anyhow;' ^ ^ ^, 'be it as it may;' and in the colloquial style generally; as, g^ ^fflY ^t ^^T ft ^■'fr^ft, 'what thou shalt do, thou wilt do right well.' It is also very frequent in poetry; as, ij^q^^^ fr% ^f ^ ^^^ I ^■^f^ '^Tw^ '%^•^^f^^m^ ii ^f^ ^Tj: f^ll^ f^oR f^^xf «ff , ' the soft and beautiful coUyrium of the dust of (my) Gurii's feet ; (which is) nectar (to) the eyes, removing (all) defect of vision, — applying this to the clear eyes of the understanding, etc' g. Or finally, where the connection is quite plain, both the relative and correlative pronouns are omitted ; as, H^T t^"??! ^^ ^ TTTTj 'you have done well (in that you have) killed Kans.' h. The interrogative pronoun may take the place of the correlative or demonstrative in the principal clause; as, ^^T ^^T t ^ T^ ^f^^J^IT^ ^ ^fTim I, 'who is such (a person) that he is annoying these daughters of a holy sage.' 896. The indicative tenses (Class III. S 884) will Tenses in Adj. , , ,. . Clauses. appear in adjective clauses whenever the qualification is stated or assumed as a fact. 524 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. [§ 897. To the illustrations already given, may be added the following : f^^ %5 lit., ' so many as are the marks of beauty, Vidhcitd has brought them all together in that charming creature.' 897. But when the qualification is not stated as an objective reality, one of the contingent tenses is employed. a. This is especially the case (1) in adjective clauses, denoting the object, purpose, or result, of an action ; also, (2) in all indefinite specifications of number, quantity, quality, etc., where no particular individuals are intended. In tins latter case, ^T, and ^cf^T or l^rfT? are very com- monly found in the principal clause ; and the subordinate clause is to be regarded as the expansion of that pronominal. Sometimes the adjective clause is introduced by f^, instead of ^. Examples are as follows: (1) ^f WTWI ^ ^^ 'Tft' ^ ^ ^[^ c5ITl% "^^ T it? 'this is not a Brahmau's daughter, whom it would not be fitting for me to marry;' ^tf^ ^t^ TT^^ TT^ I ^*t^ 'ftT ^ff ^Tff ^ ^T^j 'keep the king in such a way that he may never feel troubled about me.' (2) fgi^ i[T^ "^T nx:^^?: ^T ^^ ^^^ ft, 'in that Scripture in which there may be a clear account of God;' fllfT% ^1 ^^ ^ ^^ ^ %^flT ^t? 'as many people as may have come, invite them all ; ' ^^j "^•T*^ ^^^T f% ^1 IT*? ^ •I TIT 5 'such joy arose that sorrow remained not for a name;' i.e., 'not the name of sorrow remained ? ' ^^T ^^T^ ^Vt ^ ^^^T^^ it 5 'lay such a plan as may be eff'ective;' f^% TfJ^ ^T»»^ I Wt ^% ^^%, ' who has so much ability that (he) might set it forth?'. b. Under this head come sentences introduced by the -J words, t^ flT«rt, or often TiT'ft alone; such as, ^f *ft ^^ 1^^ ^^T ^^T x?^ n^ I JTl-^ . . . ^t TTH TTrT ^T ^T^^ ^?n f J 'he too is become so thin and sallow that it seems § 897.] ADJECTIVE CLAUSES, 525 as if he had passed whole nights waking-,' lit., ' (that) you may believe,' etc. ; the remainder of the sentence being really an objective substantive clause dependent on ^TT'ft. c. Sometimes ^^T is used for ^^ in the principal clause, especially where surprise is expressed ; as, ^^ l^^tl HT^ % f^ >irT f^'^lt ^fTT t, 'it has made what a bound ! so that he ajjpears quite above the ground.' (L In the following the principal clause implies a condition, which not being realized, the result was impossible. Hence the indefinite imperfect (§ 77^ (•'>)) i*^ "sed in the adjective clause; as, ^^-r ^ WT ^T*?^ ^ ^ W^T^ ^W^ ^ % WRn, ' what was Arjwi's power that he should carry off our sister ? '. But in the following the contingent future is employed ; -iff rft ^^ ^ ^sn ^T^^ ^ ^> ^"^T^t % ^%, ' else what was their power that they should fight with the Kauravs ? '. e. Sometimes the adjective clause contains two or more relatives corresponding to as many correlatives in the principal clause. In this case English idiom requires that all, except the leading relative, be translated as indefinites. Thus, wt %ff HT^ ^^ ^ff ^t;, 'whatever pleases any one, that seems good to him ;' f^-r % TI^ ^TT^^T t^ W ^Tt^ ^^ f?T«T ^^j ' whatever affection existed with any one, according to that they beheld the lord's form.' Rem, A similar construction occurs with relative adverbs. /. Sometimes ^^, used adverbially, is elegantly substituted for the relative in final clauses, so that they assume the form of adverbial clauses. Thus, ^% Wl'^ ^f ^^ ^JXt ^TW ^ g(rr«T, 'make such an effort as that vain affection and gross error may depart.' g. Similarly ^^t may take the place of the noun and relative which should appear in the adjective clause; as, \^7^ ^ •II'?^ ^it*^ ^^j 'blessed that city whence they came.' 526 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. [§§ 898, 899. Adverlial Clauses. Adverbial 898. TliG ttdverhial clause is the expansion of an ad- ClausesDenned ^ ^ verb. It therefore defines the predicate of the principal clause in respect of time, place, manner, cause, or any- other adverbial idea. Temporal Ad- 899. Temporal abverbial clauses are regularly intro- vcrbidlCltiuscs, • duced by it^ (si^ or ^), ' when,' to which the correlative 'r[^ (cT^ or cfl") regularly corresponds in the principal clause. As remarked in § 642, related adverbial ideas are expressed by the combination of the postpositions %, rfcR, etc., with the temporal adverb. Examples are as follows : 51^ ^f j T ^T^T fT^ ^^^ iT ^"t^, * when (they) found (him) not there, then they said among themselves;' ^ftT ^^ ^37TT f cT^ ^^ ^t ^T«T ^f^ ^ •Tf^ f'T^^flV %5 'when at daybreak he rises, then no word comes aright from his mouth ; ' ^^ cT^ ^t^T ^^ fT«li ^^j ' while there is life, there is hope.' a. For the above adverbs may be substituted various nouns denoting time, as ^7)^, ^T^, f^*!? etc., preceded by the relative pronoun in the subordinate, and the correlative, or a demonstrative, in the principal clause. Thus, e.g., fgf^ ^tt^ ' at the time Bdndsiir carried off Aniruddh, Aniruddh was reflecting.' h. Occasionally a temporal clause is elegantly introduced by f^, as, ^f ^^T t^T ^T f^ ?:^ "^ t^^T^R^ ^ ^f ^^^ ofi^T, < he was sitting hungry, when Fisvdmitra said this word.' Wlien fsfi is used with ^^^, the clause, although temporal in form, is causal in sense. Thus, ^^ f^ 71 ;gT5 h1"1% ^TflV t T1"«IT ^f^-T ^1^ %, ' since thou art going to enjoy pleasure, it is not right to weep.' §§ 900, 901.] ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 527 c. As in adjective clauses, the relative is often omitted : as, ^^ ^fti^t ^ft ^T % ^ ^T T^^ ^li im ^ ?rci!! ^ ^T^ f^^ ^f t "^TIj ' all the milk-maids stood encircling him on every side, then S/iri Krishn, taking them along, came to that place ; ' ^%^ Wk^ ^t;T^:F cT^^j ' when conversation is actually going on, even tlien conceal (it).' 900. Local adverbial clauses are regularly introduced f^^fj, Adver- by the relative adverbs ^rft, or t5|\si"^, or their equiva- lents, combined, when necessary, with various post- positions. The proper correlative or the demonstrative regularly follows in the principal clause. Thus, Uf t ^^^ ^f^ ^ rTlt f^f!% H^ ^^% ^^% ^Xr WT fsfcR^, ' several children, playing, came out where the sage Lumas was;' ^^t ^ 1^ t fTltt g»l* ^ H^TT, 'where Kans has gone, to that very place will I send you too.' a. When the principal clause precedes the subordinate, ^f t is commonly preferred to the correlative rTf t ; as, "^jf^l^t ^ft 13; WWt . . • cft'^ wIt ^ ^TT ^ "^fT ^TT, ' (the king) is as radiant as a polished diamond,' lit., ' as a diamond (which has been) applied to a grindstone.' e. For %% and Ij^, t%Tf% and fT^fir are often substituted in the Rdmdyan. The correlative, however, is often omitted.) Thus, f^fJT ^f ^TJIT ^'TT^^ ^ft f?ffH ^f'T ffTff ^^T^^ ^^^, ' never tell this story to Hurt, as you have told it toj §§902.] ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 529 me.' ^ffcT ^^ ^^ ^^ ITT^ ^^ ^ff fwf^ Jf^ U^ •TT^j 'the Name removes the worshipper's despair, with (his) sin and sorrow, as the sun destroys the night.' /. As in other adverbial clauses, appropriate nouns combined with the relative and correlative pronouns, may take the place of the modal adverb ; as, faiff ^fv( HT '^'I W^'^, ' I will tell thee hereafter in what way it happened,' 902. In temporal, local and modal adverbial clauses Senses in Ad- _ _ _ ^ verbial Clauses alike, one principle determines the use of the indicative or contingent tenses. When the adverbial clause is introduced merely as a supposition, without reference to any objective reality, then one of the three contingent tenses, futui-e, imperfect, or perfect, must be used ; but when it is presented as an objective reality, one of the indicative tenses. a. Thus, the contingent future is used in indefinite state- ments of time and place ; as, ^^ ^^ W^ T?% ^^T ^W , ' when he comes, (then) let me know ;' sift f*T% ^% ^fttl^ ^1[^, ' seize and bring him from wherever you may find him.' b. Similarly, one of the contingent tenses is commonly employed in comparisons, when the object with which com- parison is made, is regarded merely as a mental conception. Tlius, ^^ ^\ji ^t ^t t^ ITf^^ ^ ^^ ^T f^ Zt, 'the two heroes broke (upon them) as a lion might break upon a herd of elephants.' But when the illustration is regarded as an objective realitj/, one of the indicative tenses is em- ployed. Thus, -^ ^^ ^^T^^ ^ ^>HT^flT^ ^lW ^ t% ^^I»T Tl^ it ^Tf»T^'> ^IT^^ ^^fft t, ''Shri Krisjin (and) Balrdni seemed as beautiful as seems the lightning in a dense storm-cloud.' Rem. The choice of the tense in comparisons is thus obviously deter- mined entirely by the way in which the speaker or writer chooses to regard the object with which comparison is made. 34 530 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. [§§ 903, 904. c. In poetry, the copula being omitted, the mode of con- ception is left undefined. Thus, wl" 1»TT;ff ' if one should become incarnate in countless births, and give never so much, yet an equivalent for learning could not be given ; ' ^t; ^^ ^f cfit tTT^ ^\ ^1 ^^ ^^^ •T ^^^, ' although one cherish this body, yet it will never become his own.' a. Sometimes in concessive clauses, ^^, used as a con- junction, introduces the protasis, followed by X|'^«tT, or some similar word, in the apodosis ; thus, ^f ^q«ft ^Elf^"^ ^ latT: ft ^^T it ^Ty^ % % ^it ^If T, ' though she may have looked toward her companions, yet this I knew,' etc. b. The conjunction may be omitted from either clause; thus, ^T ¥^T ^ '^^^ ^^it;^ fTT? '^vhat though we have been worsted in this present battle ? ' ; TSf^fq ^^ % tR^^ % f^^ ^^ ^ ^^ %' %^ ^f^ift i ^^ Tit %, 'although the blooming time of this (vine) is not just now come, how it is loaded with buds ! '. 536 INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. [§§ 909, 910. Of Interrogative Sentences, Construction 909. ThesG present but little that calls for special of Interroga- ^ -"■ live Clauses, remark. In the absence of any other interrogative word, a question is often indicated by the interrogative pro- noun, ^T (poet, f^ [^] or f^), which in such cases is incapable of translation. "When a question merely implies perplexity, so that a direct answer is not ex- pected, the contingent future may be employed ; but when asked for information, one of the indicative tenses is required. Examples : '^^ j^ 'ft^^ "^ Tf ^ ^% ^%5 'no^^ l^ow can one manage to remain in Gokul ? '; ^% ^tj ^ajj «fiW ^^T cR^B ^, ' are such people called anything- good ? ' ; "^i^ ^T??n»I %^ ^fT ^^TT, 'how shall this dishonour be endured?' — where the question is equivalent to a strong negative state- ment; % H^ ^srr ^T^, 'why should I kill thee ?'; "'(JJI^^fir ^^ cfi-^^ fq? cfjT^, 'will the mother of Ram ever show obstinacy ? '; ^ g^f ff^^T^f Tf ^t^, ' are you one of the servants of Hari ? '. 910. The Hindi exhibits a special fondness for inter- rogative forms. Especially in vivacious conversation, thei interrogative is often preferred to the direct form of state- ment. So also, the interrogative is often substituted for the demonstrative, or correlative pronoun or adverb in the ^ various compound sentences above noted, — especially when surprise is expressed. Thus, Wt ^ ^1 T ^f fft WT ^T^ ^^ •T f^^clT, 'if you had not said this, would you not have had half of the fruit ? ' ; WT ^f %^ fV 'T TfT eh" ^^^ ^^ f^^T"^ ^STT iftrTT %> 'if that love has not remained, then if one now recall (it) to (his) mind, what comes (of it) ? ' ; ^^il{^ ^^'^ V^ §§ 911-913.] COLLOCATION OF WORDS. 537 ^f f?I %^ W^ ^W f^^ ^'^T t^, ' Sitci appeared between the two, like the Illusive Power between Brahm and the soul ; ' -^J^ ^f^fST qF^t ^T^ 1 f3R ^ft 'HI t<^ ^ Tfs^T ^•TT^ ^j 'where does Raja Yudldsldir come, but where the demon Maya had built a palace ? '. 911. When an affirmative answer is expected or desired to a question, this is very commonly indicated in ordinary conversation by the negative particle ^ (never •I'ff) at the end of the sentence, uttered with a peculiar rising inflection. Thus, eRf -^jsrq^ fft ^1|-^ i^' ^, 'tell (me), the prince is certainly well, (is he) not?' -^^ 7ft IT^^ '^\ •!, 'now thou art surely satisfied, (art) thou not?'. 912. In Naipali, vvliile ^jJ7 's sometimes used, as in High Hindi, to Interrofjative introduce an interrogative clause, more commonly the question is indicated /i. as such by fSR at the end of the clause. In questions to which an affirma- tive answer is expected, this fsR is regularly preceded by wfo , * not.' Examples are : Itdm Das is wise.' But in the passive construction of transitive verbs, the case of the a2;ent takes the first place, the subject nominative or the accusative the second, and the predicate verb the last place; as, ^^ ^ ^fW^t 'TIT^) 'be sent for ropes.' 538 COLLOCATION OF WORDS. [§^ 914-916. Deviations 914^ Hindi, liowever, allows the greatest liberty of from Normal ' ' ^ •' Order, deviating from this normal order, whether for the sake of emphasis, or to meet the necessities of metre in poetry, and of rhythm even in prose. In general, a word is rendered emphatic in proportion as it is displaced from its normal position in the sentence; as, fT^Tft ^ XffTT cfit "^^^^ 'fTTt? ^hase-horn women desert their husbands.' This is the rule with such predicates as \ii^, f^l^"^, etc. ; as, ^j^g % "iff f^»T, 'auspicious is this day;' f^^x; % ^^5 *a curse to me!'. The predicate is also emphasized by placing it after the copula, last in the sentence ; as, ?tf^T 't ^7T^ ^T^T ^^T f^T 'T ^T^ f^^, * he took up and carried U'sha to the palace, and did not let her return.' a. Observe that when the passive conjugation is used in strong denials, the negative, in accordance with the above, is almost invariably placed immediately before the auxiliary. Examples are very numerous ; thus, ^^ ^7T^ ^ ^*IT ^W ^•H" •TlV ^Tcft, 'to describe the beauty of that time is impossible;' ^ % ^^^ •nff Wf{, 'for me to walk is impossible.' b. The parts of a compound verb may be separated, for the sake of emphasis, not only by the negative, but also by one or more other words, as in the following : ^ eft ^^j lY 7[m ^, ' I am, indeed, become exactly so.' 926. Of conjunctions it is to be observed, that ^ must always immediately follow the word which it emphasizes. Thus, ^i:t H^ TJefi %ZT T?5cTT ^T, 'one son of mine w^as also reading;' i.e., of mine, as well as of some other person; but, ^^ Tj^ q-^ *ft t:i^(TT ^, ' one son, also, of mine, was reading ; ' or with yet a different sense, ^"^T Tl=R ^"^ ^^rlT ^ TSn? 'one son of mine was reading, also.' '^, as a particle of emphasis, regularly follows the word which it emphasizes ; § 927.] COLLOCATION OF WORDS. 543 as, ^ (ft ^-^t; "^^^Tj ' I indeed, will surely come.' But as an illative particle it coinnionly takes the first place in the sentence ; as, ^ ■^^ ^^ ^"^ tft I*T ^T^'jf*' ^^ "^"^^ ' ^^ your honour will give permission, then I will go and see my birth-place.' fi' ^T (^^, ^, ^^, ^), 'and; f^, 'that,' xj-^^, xn:, fq{«a[, 'but,'' yet,' ^T, "^WWl-) «r ^T? 'or,' must occupy the first [)la(;e in the sentence they introduce, or immediatoly precede the phrase they annex. ^ or ^f^, ' ii",' ^?lft?, rf^Tf'Tj etc., 'although,' regularly take the first place in the sentence ; but emphatic words may precede them. Thus, Ti^ ^^jft wt ^^ »ft ffr »ft ^^ ^ ffr WT ^T*? fr ^^, ' this man — even if he come, then of what use can he be?' ^ TT^T '^^f^ ^^fl 1> ^^^T I TT^Tf^ f^^ ^ ^^^ ^cTT ^ft, 'that Jia/'ct, although very wealthy indeed, yet never gives any thing to any one whatever.' 927. As to the arrangement of the various members Arrangement ^ . . . 1 "^ Compound of a compound sentence, the following points are to be Sentences. observed : — (1) Final substantive clauses introduced by fsR, 'that,' and causal sentences introduced by ^jfff^, ' because,' can never stand first, as sometimes in English. Thus, jj x^ f^^ ^^T ^ f^ "^^ ^ "^Z ^^, ' I have come that I may have an interview with you;' ^ij % ^ ^^ •^* -^^t iff ^cn ^tf^ ^^ TTWT fr ^f^^ ^^«^ ^T ^T ^T'^j ' it is impossible for for me to remain in this age, because Shiidras, becoming kings, will exercise more injustice over me.' a. But final and causal sentences introduced by the relative pronoun, may emphatically precede the principal clause. Thus, g^T ^T ^m^ ^Tlr f^ i ^RT ^RT?!^ ft^, 'contrive such a plan that your birth may prove fruitful (of good).' b. Adjective clauses introduced by the relative ^, regularly precede the correlative clause ; but the relative, when emphatic, may be placed last. Thus, ^^ ;ri^ ^X*? °fiT t 544 COLLOCATION OF WORDS. [§§ 928, 929. ^ ^?5 ^X! 'Bf^i * t^iat spiritual guide is of use who is able to remove sorrow ; ' -^^ ^xq f^jnT "If tt ^ ^^T % ^"^T m, * he sat ill that flower-chariot which had come from Lanka.' Or it may be the correlative clause which is emphasized by the reversed position ; as in the following ; ^^ ^f^ ^ 1^^ ^^T %5 'very hard must be the heart of that saint who has given such a diflicult task to such a fair maiden.' 928. Adverbial clauses, denoting place, time, manner, or the condition of an action, usually precede the principal clause which they follow. But when there is emphasis upon the principal sentence it will precede the subordinate clause. a. It is to be especially obseiwed that a conditional clause cannot follow the principal clause as freely as in English. The learner should be especially careful in translating such English phrases, as, 'he will go if you will,' to avoid the English order, as in most cases the Hindi will then be obscure. The conditional clause in Hindi very rarely and exceptionally takes the second place in a compound sentence. b. Examples of the emphatic position of the principal before the adverbial clause are as follows : '%j{ % fft" "^If cl^ WRT ^ ^^ ^ li^ '^^ % . . . ^^ ^ T^T ^"^^j ' we indeed knew this, at that very time when Shri Krishn Clumd pro- tected Bmj;' TSnT T?^*^ ^ ^¥^^1^ ^flf fT^ WTIT 'qTf^^ ^if^ fT^ ^^1^41 if fTF%, 'one should escort (on their way) those who are dear, until they meet a body of water.' Arrantrement 929. It is important to remark that in poetry, all rules in Poetry. ,.., ,. , .. ^ , , and principles touching the position oi words and sentences, give way to the exigencies of the verse. Thus even the order of the parts of compound words is reversed; as, e.g., in ^^«TTJ^»T for TT^«T^Fr^«T, 'destroyer of 3Iayan' to rhyme with ^zr«T in the previous line. Words denoting plurality (§ 1(54) may precede the noun they modify ; as, ^^ ^i^ ITT^? ' they utter abusive words.' Even the postpositions may precede § 929.] COLLOCATION OF WORDS. 545 the noun; as, jrtfT f%%»H' for t%r%^ "vf, *in the Triple junction.' And an attributive may follow its noun, even at a long distance; as, ^^ ^^^^X; t^'f efiV^ ^f, 'who has made this ocean of life as sand.' And a conditional con- junction may appear in the end of the sentence to which it belongs ; as, ^fzf^Wt^^ rT^ ^T^^ ^^f^, ' although thy arrows could dry up ten million oceans.' And the parts of compound verbs are separated and inverted quite at the pleasure of the poet, as illustrated in § 568. 35 546 PROSODY. [§§ 930, 931. CHAPTEE XIII. PROSODY. Importance of Prosody. 930. The Hindi system of prosody, in its fundamental principles, is substantially identical with that of the Sanskrit. In no modern language, probably, has prosody been so elaborately developed as in Hindi. Indeed, prose Hindi until recently has been quite exceptional, and almost owes its existence to the stimulus of a foreign government, or the labours of missionaries, who, as might be expected, are for the most part unable to write a foreign language except in prose. Native writers, left to themselves, have almost without exception written in verse, and their labours have resulted in a system of versification which for inexhaustible variety, as well as for its intrinsic beauty, is probably unsurpassed. Rem. A general understanding of the principles of Prosody is a pre- requisite absolutely necessary to the understanding and interpretation of Hindi poetry. Without this, the student will often be left to uncertain conjecture ; nor, again, can any person, without an understanding of this topic, even read properly the simplest Hindi verse. His enunciation, if in public, is sure to be chiefly a matter of amusement to the natives who may hear him. \ Quantity and 931. Hindi prosody knows nothing of metre deter- mined, as in English verse, by the accent. Missionaries have indeed produced many hymns, in accentuated verse, after the manner of English metres ; but verse of this § 932-934.] PROSODY. 547 kind is entirely a foreign importation, nor is there any reason to believe that the natives of India will ever be led to exchange their own admirable system for the com- paratively harsh and inflexible system of English versi- fication, which the exigency of the occasion has called into an existence which is likely to prove but temporary. 932. All Hindi verse is regulated, like that of classic Greek and Latin, by a regard to the quantity of the syllables, as long or short. In Hindi poetry, however, unlike that of ancient Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, rhyme (h^) is almost universally employed ; and usage demands that rhyming lines shall always correspond, not in one only, but at least in the two last syllables. N.B. It should be remembered, however, in order to the correct interpretation of this rule, that the vowel a, inherent in all consonants, which in prose is often silent when medial, and always silent when final, in poetry is always counted and commonly pronounced. Thus, e.g., ^TfT, although in prose a monosyllable {hdt\ in poetry is reckoned a dissyllable, hdta.* 933. Quantity is either long ('J^ or ^>^) or sliort (ai^ or 5^). A long syllable is denoted in Hindf prosodial notation by the mark i, and a short syllable by the mark i, which signs are thus respectively equivalent to the English marks — and ^ . Quantity is determined by the following rules. 934. Eule 1. The vowels ■^, t, ^ and ^, are short, Rules for ^ Quautity. and the remaining vowels, ^, ^, ^, Tj, ^, ^ and ■^^, are long^ by nature. * Vid. § 14 (4j. 548 PROSODY. [i 935. a. It is important to observe that altliouc^h xj originally denoted a long diphthongal sound only, it has come to represent also, in Hindi, as in Prakrit, a short sound, e,* for which reason, in Hindi poetry, ij is sometimes treated as a short vowel. b. The principle which regulates the quantity of "^ seems to be as follows. Whenever ij represents an original radical, as, e.g., in a noun like ^"JT? oi' in a gunated causal base, like ^t; in ^'^•IT, from ft|nc;»lT ; or has resulted from the combination of two formerly concurrent letters, as in ^^ for ^X;i[j from ^T;ff J or ^| for ^^f^ ; in such cases T^ is invariably long. But in words where "g represents a primitive short vowel, a or i, as, e.g., in %f% for f^ff , T;1^ for X;^^, it is usually, though not invariably, counted pro- sodially short. A good illustration is found in the following half Doha from the Rdmdyan ; %f% "^^T^^ T^W^T ^ ^^^ ^ff ^W T^ • This line can only be scanned in accordance with the above principle, by counting tj in %f%, "^1%^ and ^f^, as short, and the remaining e's as long. Otherwise we shall have 27 instants, instead of 24, as required for each line of a Doha. But in the following Arddha Chaupdi, TT is short in %ff , and long in ^ff : •^^•^ f ^^ f^'T^fTT %ff '^^. This Prakritic short, or * common,^ ij appears chiefly in the oblique forms of the various pronouns, and as a union- vowel before verbal terminations; as, "^f^, ^%^, ^T^j etc., etc.f 935. Eule II. A short vowel before two consonants, in the same word becomes long by position. Thus, ^ in ■^f^, and a in the first and second syllables of v^^, are long by position. * § 3, i. t Compare the remarks in § 3, b-d, on the short e heard in certain col- loquial dialects. §§ 936, 937.] PROSODY. 549 Ea;c. 1. A short vowel before the plural termination «^ or f^^, and sometimes before F'f and ^, as in TTf%^^, TW^, and ^^, remains short. JEa'c. 2. A short vowel before a conjunct consonant of which the second element is "5(;, as, e.g., a in ^^7T, may be counted either long or short. Rem. In Sanskrit prosody, a finiil short vowel was also lengthened before a conjunct consonant initial in a followiiijr word. But Hindi poets commonly neglect this. 936. Eiile III. A short vowel before Amisvdr or Visarg followed by a consonant, is long by position. Thus the short vowels in ^:^, ^1, f^T, are all long by position. So also Anusvdr in the end of a line lengthens a preceding short vowel; as in '^^^, ^^^^. Exc. But when Anusvdr stands, as is very often the case, for Antt/idtii/x,* a preceding short vowel remains short. Thus, e.g., in *i^"^, ^"^f^^, iif , Anusvdr stands for Anuncisik ; and therefore the vowels ^, \, and ^, retain their natural short quantity. 937. The unit of metrical quantity is called ^n"^ The Metrical mdtra, 'an instant.' A mdtra denotes the length of time occupied in the utterance of a short vowel, as "^,1;, or ^. All long vowels and diphthongs are regarded as consisting of two mdtras. This must be carefully borne in mind, in order to understand the prosodial measure- ment of verse. Thus the words fftl, '^^, 7^^, contain, respectively, 2, 3, and T) vuifras, as folh)WS; fiq, ^ + -^ = 2; 7{T^, 1- --^ = 3; cTq^, - + - + - = 5. Similarly the line, ^t^ w\w ^^ ^fl" ^5 contains 13 mdtras. 17. 650 PROSODY. [i 938. Rem. For TTT'^T. TtI also occurs in some native works. ^^ is also used in the same sense. Prosodiai 938. The laws of Hindi prosody allow a great degree JjlCtJllSG. of liberty in respect of orthography, and even of gram- matical construction. The following principles regulate prosodiai license. (1) A long may be written for a short vowel, and vice versa. a. This rule most commonly operates in final letters, es- pecially at the end of lines, either for the sake of rhyme, or to fill out the total quantity of the line ; as in ^•fTlT'TT for ^•T»n^ (to rhyme with ^«1T) ; ^•fl' (to rhyme with "Tf^"ft); and (to fill out quantities) ^^rTT for ^Wl[, ^cTT for ^fi ; ^^ for i^f , etc., etc. h. But medial and initial radical vowels also are sometimes shortened, even in the middle of a line ; as, e.g., in 'S^T. for 3T^T5 TT^^'T for xivt^^, ^'P^ for ^^^, ^f^ ^ for 5|f^ ^, ^l1f for ^-Rff , ^TT^'^^ for ^T^-iff?T, etc., etc. (2) Anusvdr is inserted or omitted for the sake of rhyme ; as in ^"^1%' , H^^"4 , to rhyme with ^fij and ^^ ; and ^^ (for ^t^), to rhyme with ^T^. (3) Diphthongs, medial and final, are resolved into their component vowels ; as, ^^^t^?: for »T^T^ ; ^ITj f^^Tj ^TT) foi' ^Ij "Tt^, and cr^; Tj^f^^ for ^f^l", etc., etc. The latter vowel is then very often prolonged ; as, e.g., in eRTt;, ^TTt) for ^^ and t;^; and sometimes the former vowel is lengthened : as in the following, where ^^T"^ is Avritten for ^^*t , to rhyme with ^T^ ', ^fT^TT ^t ^f f^Tff <1W f^t ^1 ^?T^ . More rarely both are lengthened ; as in ^ofiit; for ■^^^ to rhyme with ^mt J thus, Vmn ^^ f^5 -^^f^ -I ^^tI;. §ii 939, 940.] PROSODY. 551 (4) Occasionally a vowel of one organ is exchanged for one of another ; as in ^^ for ^ , in the following : (5) A syllable, most commonly ^, is often added to fill out a line and make a rhyme ; as in ^%^ , ^"^Cfni , for ^t and ^-?: fTT . (6) A consonant is sometimes doubled, to lengthen a preceding vowel; as in ^^T^fV, ^JT^^'f, ^ft|, ^^ffW, for ^^^ff , etc. (7) For the same reason -4 ww^e'ar is often inserted, as in the following line from Chand, given by Beanies : TT^'iT ^^W\ ^^TtY ^''t, where all the Anusvdrs but the third are metri gratia. Rem. It is to be remi'mhered, however, tliat in many of the above cases the variations represent archaic forms of tlie words in question, ciiosen metri gratia. (8) The rules of agreement are often neglected, so that the masculine is used for the feminine, the singular for the plural, and vice versa, to meet the exigencies of the rhyme. Thus, we have t^^ for f^^, ^^T for ^rrt;, Tilt for xiT^, etc., etc.* 939. Pause {fHwf() is of two kinds, sentential and Metrical Pause harmonic. The sentential pause occurs at the end of correspondent lines, and is marked by the signs, i , half- pause, and ii, full-pause. The harmonic pause or caesura varies in different metres, and is marked by no sign. 940. The simple feet used in Iliudi verse are of three Varieties of ... Feet. kinds, viz., monosyllabic, dissyllabic, and trisyllabic. * Vid. § 875. .552 PROSODY. [§§ 911, 942. Notation of Feet, Occasionally, compound polysyllabic feet are also em- ployed. Each class of feet contains several varieties, as indicated below.* Name. Ahhrev. Symbol. In English. 6 jl- ^^ T i ^>o«5', — o (2. ^^ ^ 1 Short, w « 1. ^TW ^T ^i Spondee, 1 2. rn^ ^^ «S| Trochee, — ■<-' 3. "t^ir ^T li Iambus, ^ — Q U. ^fH^ ^^ 1 1 Periambus, -^ ^ ^1- ?T3IW ?T iii Molussus, 2. ^JiUT T Ml Tribrach, —ww •Si 3. ^^m ^T ill Dactyl, —^-^ 3 4. "^T^nir ^ lii Bacchic, ^ ■ 1^- 5. aI3ITir ^ lil yimphibrach, ^ — ^ H 6. ■?:^ur T ili Cretic, _ w _ 7. ^^?!r ^ Hi Anapest, ^ ^ _ ^8. r[im fttiT%|| ^^^or^^T HT »?Tf'rfIwril^Tf^f^^llfTf5T^TII''?T^f^ " ^^\^ ^^ ^t \m II ^\ ^"W II ^ WT^f^ll 'T ^^ff II 556 PROSODY. [§ 950. Species. Feet in each Examples, char an. f^TTfr^T ^1 ^"friJT^T II ^^TT^T IITWtf^^llT'ntT^II TT»T ^1 W^ fufi II ^^ 'TTfY II crf^ ^^ II ^f^ TT^ II ^f^ ^^ ^t f!f^ II W Vf^ II ZT 1^ II fTI%^^ II \^T II ftfft l^ft II Genus YI. ^t^-^. ^^TT^ f{^ W! T ^T^ ^ tfr II TTVT VT^ frcft II ;^ngi^ fl^ #f T ^T^rT % II "^^ ^TTfT % II ^t^^flT m ^ffT TT^ ^ II '^^^ ^^T ^ II § 950.] PROSODY. 557 Species. Feet in each char an. Examples. ^^ l^f^ HTft Genus YII. ^fotj^. II ^fi ^t^ ^<^ II fTwr ^1 TTT II ^T^ 1 ^^ % II ^T ^ ^T'HT II ^1 ^lf?T ^-^ II ^% W ^ 5rftift '^^ f^^fr t%^\ II ?n^ ^ft 'nT ^^ ^"fr ^T^ m^t ^Tt T^'T II Genus XIII. ^fcT^^tft. Tl^^^ *r^^^^ ^^^ ^TT-q fsifT^ ^wr ^^ II ¥^ II ^f^i^ ^^^TOT '^^ \si ^TV ^^ ^^ f ^n^ II 559 1^ ^5! 'TTtf ^^ %-^ g^TTt II 560 PROSODY. [§ 950. Species. Feet in each char an. 't^HTf^Wt H^^^'I ^■Rn TcHT^^ Examples. fl^ ^"^ ^"fl ^Tf%^T ^ ^t Genus XI Y. ii^-O- ^5I^«T^3I ri^^i^^ai ^fn f^^ ^W 'IT ITf ^ T7VT<\ ^fw ^ff »ifw iM^ ^TT itw *rr"0 f^^^ M^ ^f fT ^n^r '^^t ^^> Tt ^'it '^^l ^^^ 'IT'I 1^"^ 1^ "O Genus XY. ^ftiif^-^^. 5IT^ ^T^ «fimft TTVT ^"0 ^T'TT'ft II ^^ WTf^ 1^ T^^^^ % 'g^xnT II -^•^n fm ^TTft '^\^ ^vr f^^ft II Genus XYI. ^fs. ^T^^ ^T^ ^^^ ^^ TT5! ^ fw^f?; II § 950.] PROSODY. 561 Species. Feet in each Examples, char an. IKT^ ^^^?:gi»r t[^ 31^ f^^\ frfit «I^T "^^ -^fi fjT^I II Trt Tft Tf t ^^ ^f 1 1il^ ^^ ^^fT tft t^r II m^ ^m^ ^t^t w^^ ^^ TT^^'nft ^fr ii Genus XIX. ■^f?i^f7T. ^f t rr ^ II TJ^ \tJ[ ^^"M ^^ ^^ ^T^ ^ ^T ^t ^^'^ II 36 562 PROSODY. [§ 950. Species. Feet in each Examples, charan. •^l:^m^\^^ ^^xinf^^^ i»^^ 'n^^ t^% fm TtfT II ^1 ^^^T ^f% xjT^ TJ^^ ^< 'n- ^cT ^fT II Genus XX. irHr. W ^f|5t ^^ W'T 'HTI HflJ ^fw ^^1 ^«l II Genus XXI. "mrnr. ^jv(?:t ^^^rpht ^^t t^ ^^ ^^^ ''^^ ^ W^ ^^"^^ t%1Tft II ^^T"rt II Genus XXII. ^iff?T. ^^ ^1^ II cfT^ ^^ II i^ iTO fT^'T'rai wr % ^ "rr ^t *it% ^t^! '^'^\ ^r^ ^f^ ^^^t II il'T f^^^Tt II Genus XXIII. f^irfcT. T? ^>ft Tft II § 950.] PROSODY. 563 Species. Feet in each Examples, char an. ^^% H^fT m^ wtff ^1*^ ^rf\ ^ffT cT ^^ ffTTt II •m^ *nTT Tt^fT 'q^^ 'H^^ H ^fli W^'T ^^ II ^T^T^ ^T ^ II 5^TT *?^ % II Genus XXI Y. -^c^fH or ^^fTT. or ^V^ ^^ Ht II ^g^T^rT it ^^ JTT^ ^^ ^r^ fT^ H^ f^^TT^ ^1; II Genus XXV. ^ff^irfTT or ^fniffTT. ^T^ ^H + 1 ^^ % '^^ f{^\'^^ ^^rr ^T^^ ^ ^R ^^ t^wr^fT ft II 'l^^TT ft II ^^^ ^H + 't f^^ ^^^ ^"tl TT^T ^ f^^ ^ f^m forfTT HT^fT 'nft' II vff f^T^rrfY II 564 PROSODY. [§§ 950, 951. Species. Feet in each Examples, charan. Genus XXYI. ■^rirfq. JTT'm ^Tc!^ II ^t ^^^ ^T^^ II ^^T ifrl ^fT II ^^ f^^^m II Genus XXYII. ^xigcfi. ?T^T f^^ ^' fT% TI^ ^ 'awt ^^ ^'IT f^^ ^^ ^t ^^ ^^ II t ^T^ ^ II ^^^ 1^^ t ^^' XTTt%| 'm^^ ^Tf^t ^^T f^%^ f^^ ^fr t^^ ^ TT^^t TTfl ^ ^^ 3T»1 f :^ IT f I§ t ^T^^ II 951. The following, among other metres of this Genus, are classified in the Pingalddarsha as cRf^xf ^^. § 952.] PROSODY. 565 ^»TT^i^ ^^ ^las 31 syllables, bat the feet are left optional. The pause falls upon the 8th, 16th, and 24th sylla- bles. The last two or three syllables of each line must rhyme. f^^TfV eft ^^T^^ ^^^ "^SR ^^^ TI^ T^ li ^^T ^TV ^cI ^f^^ II ^If cf^Tf^ J yg^ (J ^F has 32 syllables, with pause at the 8th, 16th, and 24th syllables. The feet are optional. ^^ ^^ ^T^'^ ^f^ II ^ft ^ ^ft ft^ ^ TTT Tlf^ ^^"^ t^ ^^ ^*^ *l^ mU% \^ fTT ^-^ ^ft II Class I. Order II. ^1[^1R "^^ Arddhasama Vritt. 952. IS'o division of this Order into genera and species Arddhasama . . . Vritt : IS practicable. As in Sania Vritt metres, the 1st char cm Examples. rhymes with the 2nd, and the 3rd with the 4th. In the following examjDles, only the 1st and 2nd char am are given ; the 3rd and 4th charans contain, respectively, the same feet as the 1st and 2nd. rrfHTfTTm ^^. c , f 1st and 3rd charans, "TITBIT' \ 2nd and 4th „ 1^^T;1- T^fK f^fr ^^^ m ^ff ^wt II fnV^ •^^ ^t^ "r^t ^ '^^^ ii 566 PROSODY. [§ 953. ^ , J 1st and 3rd charans, Tf{7l{TS{7[7[ . \ 2nd and 4th „ •r^m^^. 1st and 3rd charans, ^^^TT* 2nd and 4th „ ^^^yt^t^. f%1-fr c!^ ^^ -^ I II ffr ^T 'W^r[ ^^^fft I II r 1 Scheme. Scheme. \ l2i 1st and 3rd charans, ^RW^T* 2nd and 4th „ ^)fHT- ^51 ^ ^^r!T ^f% TnTI II T^tf ^ T^t^ ^1T<1 II itu ^^. „ , , 1st and 3rd charans, «i«i^t^. Scheme. ' . ^ n 2nd and 4th „ •^^^•^JT- W^W ^^ I^TT TTf^^T ^ II ^^¥ ^ ^ "mm t^ TT^ II Class I. : Order III. f^^T? «r^ Vishama Vritt. Vishama Friit 953. In tHs Order, each of the four charans is formed on a separate scheme. Like Order II., it admits of no subdivision into genera and species. The following are examples of the more common metres. 1st cA. ^-T + ^ T^^ffT '^WT f%(! ^Tt II 2nd „ 8T + ^^ ^^ rr^f^ ^^^ f^'^'^^ g^ nrt ii 3rd „ ^^ + ii7[ g^aijf ^}^^ ^ ^tfi^ ^jji ^f| ^^ ^?ft n 4th „ t^^ + ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^>fr II §§ 954, 955.] PROSODY. 567 IstcA. ^51^^ ^^TUTOt^T'T T^TT^ H 2nd „ smm^ ^T^ ^^ ^T^ Tf ^t^ , II 3rd „ -Sfsi^ra ^^^ f^^^ r{f^ f^^T ^1; II 4th „ ^[^m) + Ti »Tff TIT ^mT f ^ ^Tf^ ^T ^t II 1st cL Tf^giH^ri ^"0 ^Tf?T ^ftT I ^^ f^ ^ WT^ II 2nd „ ^^^TTT ^^^ ^^r[ ^ft ^^ T »?T^ II 3rd „ r(^^^) T:ifT ^^'T U^ ^T^T ^Tff 'T g?T^'^ II 4th „ ^^ + ^^ f^fT^fl ^i ^^ ^f% ^ ^5f iiT^'^ II 1st ch. ^m^^ ^^tttt f^i^itT^ T^^^ ii 2nd „ sm^il ff!^^ ffC ^iT ^T^ ^ * II 3rd „ j:^^^ %-w 'ftff tj^ ^^ ^^J n 4th „ ^{■m[)Tl + f^cl ^Tf^ ^tT f^^TT^ ^^ ft II Class II. '^TTm ^'i^ Jdti Chhand. Ordee I. TTJT ^^ Gam Chhand. 954. Jdti Chhand is divided by native writers into 1W W*^ Gana Chhand and f{mi W^ Mdtrd Chhand. 955. In Gana Chhand the verse is commonly measured Jdti chhavd * . . . Classified. by the number of instants m each line; but the order of feet in each line, within certain limits, is fixed and invariable. In Mdtrd Chhand the order of feet is for the most part left to the option of the composer. a. This distinction between Gana Chhand and Mdtrd Chhand, as laid down by native prosodians, cannot, however, be rigidly maintained. In 568 PROSODY. [§§ 956-958. many metres classified as Mdtrd Clihand, certain requisitions and re- strictions are made as to tlie nature of the feet employed, and, on the other hand, in some Gana Clihand metres, many of the feet are left to the option of the writer. Gana chhand. 956, Native Writers have divided Gam Clihand into six species, explanations and examples of which are given below. Each of these species, again, compre- hends many varieties according to the succession of feet in the line. A few illustrations are given under each species. Gann. Chhand. 957. Tlic Ist and most popular species of Gana Species 1. . r , , , x Chhand, is termed "W^ Aryyd, ^T^ Gatha, or ^TfT ^-^ Gdhd Chhand. In all Aryyd metres each verse con- sists of two lines [dal\ the 1st of which contains 30, and the 2nd, 27 mdtrds. Each line must contain 7J feet, each of which, again, must contain 4 instants, except the 6th of the 2nd line, which has only one. A ja(jian (w — w) or a polysyllabic foot, is required in the 6th place in the 1st line ; but jagam are prohibited in the odd feet of the 2nd line. The csesural pause falls after the 3rd foot or 12th instant of each line. 958. The following is an example of that variety of A'ryyddi metres which is known, par excellence, as ^SfJ^T oriTTfT. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 i H + 'T^ + ^I '!^ + ^^ + ^ + ^ + 1 = 30 instants. TT + ^ + *ni^ + ^ + ^ + f^ + 1 = 27 instants. ^T^ ^^^ ^^ *T^"5[:T Tf fT ^it ^'^^^^ ^^ ^^ II in>at ^ ^^T^^ '^Tft ^^(f^ ^ra «!fl ^^ II §§ 959-961.] PROSODY. 569 959. "^^^T ^H must have ajagan in the 2ud and 4th places each line. ^ + ^ + ^ + ^ + ^ + ^^+^^ + ^ = 30. H + ^ + ^ + ^ + ^^ + ^ + ^+^ =27. ^^F li^T 'I^^ % f^f Tf^ yfTs\ ^^1 ^ft I II 960. The 2nd species of Gana Chhand is called (from ^ann ahhmd. ' . . Species 2. its chief variety) ^frr it^ G'^ti Chhand. The principal variety differs from all metres of the 1st species in that hoth lines contain 30 instants. The 6th foot mnst be dijagan^ as in the 1st line of Arijyd Chhand. The other general laws of the verse are the same as in Anjija Chhand.* Examples follow. 1^ + 1'T + 'ril^ + ^ + ^ + ^ + ^ =30 instants. 7^ + ^ + ^ I ^^ + ^ + W+ 'IT +1 = 30 instants. ■n^"t ^n^ ^<\ ^Tf! wf\i! m^ (2nf»T »if?T w\^ ii '^T'Tt f^-0 ^^ff ^^ ^r^ ^f wrOr ^fg H^'^^t II 961. ^"CJ'TTfrT ^^ contains in each line 27 instants, and follows in both lines the rules laid down for the 2nd line in A'ryyd Chhand. H + ^ + ^l^ + ^ + ^ + IT + T =27 instants. f^ + ^ + ^ I ^1^ + 111+ ^ + ^ + 1 = 27 instants. '^^fT f^^TT i^TT %' f^^ f^^"^ ^f mi^'^ II * Vid. § 957. 570 PROSODY. [§§ 962-965. 962. ^^TJlfrT ^^ is the exact reverse of A'ryyd Chhand, having 2/ instants in the 1st, and 30 instants in the 2nd line. The same laws regulate the long and short lines as in A'ryyd metres. ^^ + H + 'T^ + 11 + T7r-f^ + H + ^ = 27 instants. ^^ + ^^ + ^ + ^ + ^ + 51 + 1^ + ^ =30 instants. ^1 TT ^ ^^ ^ 'nir^ ^^ 3ftf# ^f^t ^jitV II 963. ^T^Tntfff ^^ differs from A'ryyd Chhand in that it adds one half-foot to each line, making two lines of 8 feet each, instead of Jh- The 1st line therefore contains 32, the 2nd, 29 instants. The other rules for each line are the same as those ah'eady given.* ^T + 1^ + ^ I ^ + ^ + ^ + ^1 + 1^ =32 instants. 'T^ + ^^ + ^^ I ^^ + ^^ 4- ^ + T^ + I^T = 29 instants. ^^ T2n^ ^^^T T?!'^^ ^^^ "Tft' f%^T"ft ?ft ^1f II ^T^ ^T^ f 'T fl^fT "^ flW f^^ 'Sn^ ^^T f^f^ + 7j = 14. Last foot must be a trochee, ^^fftftg -fft^^^fT l^l'^r^f^f Tft ^%cT II TiT^ ^^¥ IT^^ ^^^^ I ^T^ff Tft ^^t^ ^^ II (2) "^^qfi ^H , 8, + 6, = 14. Last foot must be a spondee. ^T^ ^ ^f^ ^f^ WT I ^nift ^f%^t ^f^ mx II W!\ *frf^ ^ ^f^ ^T^ I TtW Tff ^Tft ^H^T^ II 37 578 PROSODY. [§§ 995-997. (3) "qisf ^^, 6, + 8, = 14. First foot, www; last foot, >«• — ^-' . Wt!^ ^^^ ^W ^5f^^ I \IT^ ^% ^?T ^t^ f T^ II 995. "^XJlt ^^, 8, + 7, = 15. Final syllable must be short. TIF ^^T -R^ f^?r"*? ^^ I ^r^m^ TT^^ 17^ 1t WT^ II 996. The following two contain each 16 instants to the line, but differ in the feet and pauses. (1) ^^fl^ or ^^^T ^^ , S, + 8,= 16. No jagans (w _ w) allowed; the last foot must be a bhagcm (— ^ ^). All four lines must rhyme. ^^ ^^ ■^^•f{ ^^ ^w\^r\ \ ^t^ ^t^ ^ 'n^ 'T'^T^tT ii (2) "^JXnt^ (also called m^T^^^ and f ^qit) 6 + 4 + 4 + 2= 16. The last foot is commonly, though not invariably, a spondee. ^^Tff f^'T'51 1^^^^ f^ % I firzfi ^^^ 1^ H^T^'^'^ ^ II ^Ijf^ TT'T^fTH 'Tf^mf^^ I ^F "ffT^ wr %ff mjf^'^ II Rem. This metre ranks with the Doha in popularity. A large part of the Rdtndyan of Tulsl Das is composed in sections very commonly of four Chaupdis, alternating with one or two Do/ids. 997. f ^Txf?T ^^' 5 + 5, + 5 +5,= 20. Pause at the 10th instant. ^^^ ^ifr^T ^Ti^^T^ ^ t ^f^^ g % bONS, PRINiKRS, HERTFORD. ^ " ■■.'Mm Ii0 /■«V>' 4i«i ->■• •.. ._^ , :.,; - A'^'na ;!■;, ii,'' ••'ii;