Srctto* ID5709 .W72 1883 ]u the drawing is ret'restntcd the Emperor Hien- fnng, attended hy his principal ministers, kneeling be- fore the shrine oj IlwANG-TiKN ShangtI. Though no foreigner has udtnessed this ceremony, a few words concerning this native representation will make plain the chief objects of worship. Upon the triple altar, or Tikn Tan (Volume I., p. 76), the central temporary shrine is dedicated to Hvvang-tien ShangtI, or ' Imperial Heaven’s Euler above.' Upon the Emperor's right, nearest the chief pavilion, are tablets to his ancestors, Tienming, .Shun- chi, Yungching, and Kiaking; the corresponding oppo- site house is similarly devoted to Tie nt sung, Kang hi, Kienlung, and Taukwang. The small buildings be- hind and belcno these are the Taming chi Wei, the ' .Altar of the .Sun,' or ‘ Great Luminary ’ (on the right), and the Ve-ming chi Wei, or ‘■Altar of the Night Luminary.' The last structure on the wor- shipper's right contains tablets to the Chag-tien Sing, Stars;' to the Ukh-shih pat Suh- siNG, tip '■ Twenty-eight Constellations in the Ecliptic T to the Peh-tan Sing, or Ursa Major ; and to the Muh, Kin, Shui, Fo, and'Y'a, or Eive Elements — ‘ Wood, Metal, Water, Eire, and Earth.' Eacing this building on the left are shrines to Siueh-sz, Yl)-sz', Fung-sz’, and Lci-sz', the superintendents of Snoio, Rain, Wind, and Thunder. IMPERIAL WORSHIP OF SHANGTI ON THE ALTAR OF HEAVEN AT PEKING. FROM A CHINESE PAINTING. 'MM 19lg The Middle Kingdom A SURVEY OF THE GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, LITERATURE, SOCIAli LIFE, ARTS, AND HISTORY OF THE CniKESE EMPIEE AND ITS INHABITANTS S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D. PROFESSOR OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE AT TAIaE COLLEGE ; AUTHOR OF TONIC AND SYLLABIC DICTIONARIES OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE REVISED EDITION, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND A NEW HAP OF THE EMPIRE Volume L LONDON ; W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE, pall mall. S.W. 1883. (All rights reservtd.) • • idy- ! P '■ t f 4 ’V/ly) ■{. uuniij * ** - □ V I u ^ 1 **i ,! ®0 GIDEON NY OP CANTON, CHINA, A TESTIMONIAL OF anb i^ri C, Jk., THE enb OF THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. Duking the thirty-five years which have elapsed since the first edition of this work was issued, a greater advance has probably been made in the political and intellectual development of China than ■within any previous century of her history. AVhile neither the social habits nor principles of government have so far altered as to necessitate a complete rewriting of these pages, it will be found, nevertheless, that the present volumes treat of a reformed and in many respects modern nation. Under the new regime the central administration has radically increased its authority among the provincial nders, and more than ever in former years has managed to maintain control over their pretentious. The Empire has, moreover, established its foreign relations on a M ell-understood basis by accredited envoys ; this will soon affect the mass of the people by the greater facilities of trade, the presence of travellers, diffusion of education, and other agencies which are awaking the people from their lethargy. Already the influences which will gradually transform the face of society are mightily operating. The changes which have been made in the book comprise such alterations and additions as were necessary to describe the country under its new aspects. In the constant desire to pre- serve a convenient size, eveiy doubtful or superfluous sentence has been erased, while the new matter incorporated has increased X PREFACE. the bulk of the present edition about one-third. The arrange- ment of chapters is the same. The first four, treating of the geography, combine as many and accurate details of recent e.\- plorers or residents as the proportions of this section will permit. The extra-provincial regions are described from the researches of Russian, English, and Indian travellers of the last twenty years. It is a waste, mountainous territoiy for the most part, and can never support a large population. Great pains have been taken by the cartographer, Jacob Wells, to consult the most authentic charts in the construction of the map of the Empire. By collating and reducing to scale the surveys and route charts of reliable travellers throughout the colonies, he has produced in all respects as accurate a map of Central Asia as is at this date possible. The Eighteen Rrovinces are in the main the same as in my former map. The chapter on the census remains for the most part without alteration, for until there has been a methodical inspection of the Empire, important questions concerning its popidation must be held in abeyance. It is worth noticing how generally the estimates in this chapter — or much larger figures — have since its first publication been accepted for the population of ('hina. Foreign students of natural history in China have, by their re- searches in every department, furnished material for more ex- tensive and precise descriptions under this subject than could possibly have been gathered twoscore years ago. The sixth chapter has, therefore, been almost wholly rewritten, and em- braces as complete a summary of this wide field as space would allow or the general reader tolerate. The specialist will, however, speedily recognize the fact that this rapid glance serves rather to indicate how immense and imperfectly explored is this sub- ject than to describe whatever is known. That portion of the first volume treating of the laws ami their administration does not admit of more than a few minor I'KEFACK. XI changes. However good tiieir theory of jurisprudence, the people liave many things to bear from the injustice of their rulers, but more from their own vices. The J^ekiny Gazette is now regularly translated in the Shanghai papers, and gives a coup iTml of the administration of the highest value. The chapters on the languages and literature are considerably improved. The translations and text-books which the diligence of foreign scholars has recently furnished could be only par- tially enumerated, though here, as elsewhere in the work, ref- erences in the foot-notes are intended to direct the more in- terested student to the bibliography of the subject, and present him with the materials for an exhaustive study. The native literature is. extensive, and all branches have contributed some- what to form the resume Avhich is contained in this section, giving a preponderance to the Confucian classics. The four succeeding chapters contain notices of the arts, industries, domes- tic life, and science of the (’hinese — a necessarily rapid survey, since these features of Chinese life are already well understood by foreigners. Nothing, however, that is either original or peculiar has been omitted in the endeavor to portray their social and economic characteristics. The emigration of many thousands of the people of Kwangtung within the last thirty years has made that province a representative among foreign nations of the others ; it may be added that its inhabitants are well fitted, by their enterprise, thrift, and maritime habits, to become types of the whole. The history and chronology are made fuller by the addition of several facts and tables ; ' but the field of research in this direction has as yet scarcely been defined, and few certain dates have been determined prior to the Confucian era. ' An alphat>etical arrangement of all the tables scattered throughout the work may be found under this word in the Index. PREFACE. xii • The entire continent of Asia must be thoroughly investigated in its geography, antiquities, and literature in order to throw •light on the eastern portion. The history of Chuia offers an interesting topic for a scholar who would devote his life to its elucidation from the mass of native literature. The two chapters on the religions, and what has been done within the past half century to promote Christian missions, are somewhat enlarged and brought down to the present time. The study of modern scholars in the examination of Chinese religious beliefs has enabled them to make comparisons with other systems of Asiatics, as well as discuss the native creeds with more certainty. The chapter on the commerce of China has an importance commensurate with its growing amount. Within the past ten years the opium trade has been attacked in its moral and com- mercial bearings between China, India, and England. There are grounds for hope that the British Government will free itself from any connection with it, which will be a triumph of justice and Christianity. The remainder of Y olume II. describes events in the intercourse of China with the outer world, includ- ing a brief account of the Tai-ping Ilebellion, which proximately grew out of foreign ideas. Xo connected or satisfactory narra- tive of the events which have forced one of the greatest nations of the world into her proper position, so far as I am aware, has as yet been prepared. A succinct i-ecital of one of the most extraordinary developments of modern times should not be with- out interest to all. The work of condensing the vast increase of reliable infor- mation upon China into these two volumes has been attended with considerable labor. Future writers will, I am convinced, after the manner of Bichthofen, Yule, Eegge, and others, con- tine themselves to single or cognate subjects rather than at- tempt such a comprehensive synopsis as is here j)resented. The PUKFACK. xiii number of illustrations in this edition is nearly doubled, the added ones being selected with particular reference to the sub- ject-matter. I have availed myself of whatever sources of information I could command, due acknowledgment of which is made in the foot-notes, and ample references in the Inde.x. The revision of this book lias been the slow though constant occupation of several years. When at last I had completed the revised cojiy and made arrangements as to its publication, in starch, 1SS2, my health failed, and under a jiartial paralysis I was rendered incapable of further labor, ^fy son, Frederick Wells Williams, who had already looked over the copy, now as- sumed entire charge of the publication. I had the more contidence that he would jierform the duties of editor, for he had already a general acquaintance with China and the books which are the best authority. The work has been well done, the last three chapters particularly having been improved under his careful revision and especial study of the recent political history of China. The Inde.x is his work, and throughout the book I am indebted to his careful supervision, especially on the chapters treating of geography and literature. By the opening of this year I had so far recovered as to be able to superintend the printing and look over the proofs of the second volume. !My experiences in the forty-three years of my life in ('hina were coeval with the changes which gradually culminated in the opening of the country. Among the most important of these may be mentioned the cessation of the East India Com- pany in 1834, the war with England in 1841-42, the removal of the monopoly of the hong merchants, the opening of five ports to trade, the untoward attack on the city of Canton which grew out of the lorcha Arrow, the operations in the vicinity of Peking, the establishment of foreign legations in that city, and finally, in 1873, the peaceful settlement of the Tcotoio, which ren- dered possible the approach of foreign ministers to the Em- XIV PREFACE. peror's presence. Those who trace the hand of God in liistorv will gather from such rapid and great changes in this Empire the foreshadowing of the fulfilment of his purposes ; for while these political events were in progress the Bible was circulating, and the preaching and educational labors of missionaries w^ere silently and with little opposition accomplishing their leavening work among the people. On my arrival at Canton in 1833 I was otficially reported, with two other Americans, to the hong merchant Kingqua as fan-kwai, or ‘ foreign devils,’ who had come to live under his tutelage. In 1874, as Secretary of the American Embassy at lacking, I accompanied the lion. B. P. Avery to the presence of the Emperor Tungchi, when the Minister of the United States presented his letters of credence on a footing of perfect ecpiality with the ‘ Son of Heaven.’ With two such experi- ences in a lifetime, and mindful of the immense intellectual and moral development which is needed to bring an indepen- dent government from the position of forcing one of them to that of yielding the other, it is not strange that I am assured of a great future for the sons of Han ; but the progress of pure Christianity will be the only adequate means to save the con- flicting elements involved in such a growth from destroying each other. Whatever is in store for them, it is certain that the country has passed its period of passivity. There is no more for China the repose of indolence and seclusion — when she looked down on the nations in her overweening pride like the stars with which she could have no concern. In this revision the same object has been kept in view that is stated in the Preface to the fii st edition — to divest the Chinese peojde and civilization of that peculiar and indefinable impres- sion of ridicule which has been so generally given them by foreign authors. I have endeavored to show the better traits of their national character, and that they have had up to this PUKB'ACE. XV' time no opportunity of learning man}' things with which they are now rapidly becoming acquainted. The time is speedily passing away when tlie people of the Flowery Land can fairly be classed among uncivilized nations. The stimulus which in this labor of my earlier and later years has been ever present to my mind is the hope that the cause of missions may be pro- moted. In the success of this cause lies the salvation of China as a people, both in its moral and political aspects. This suc- cess bids fair to keep pace with the needs of the people. They will become fitted for taking up the work themselves and join- ing in the multiform operations of foreign civilizations. Soon railroads, telegraphs, and manufactures will be introduced, and these must be followed by whatsoever may conduce to enlight- ening the millions of the people of China in every department of religious, political, and domestic life. The descent of the Holy Spirit is promised in the latter times, and the preparatory work for that descent has been accomplish- ing in a v'astly greater ratio than ever before, and with increased facilities toward its final completion. The promise of that Spirit will fulfil the prophecy of Isaiah, deliv'ered before the era of Confucius, and God’s people will come from the land of Sinim and join in the anthem of praise with ev'ery tribe under the sun. S. W. W. New Havex, July, 1883. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. CHAPTER I. PAGE General Divisions and Features of the Empire, . . . 1-48 Unnsual interest involved in the study of China, 1 ; The name CTthrt probably a corruption of Txin, 2; Other Asiatic names for the country, 3 ; Ancient and modern native designations, 5 ; Dimensions of the Empire, (i ; Its three Grand Divisions : The Eighteen Procincen, Manchuria, and Colonies, 7 ; Cliina Proper, its names and limits, 8 ; Four large mountain chains, 10 ; The Tien shau, ibid.; The Kwanlun, 11 ; The Hing-an and Himalaya systems, 13 ; Pumpelly’s “ Sinian System ” of moun- tains, 14 ; The Desert of Gobi and Sha-moh, 15 ; Its character and various names, 17; Rivers of China : The Yellow River, 18; The Yangtaz’ River, 20; The Chu or Pearl River, 22; Lakes of China, 23 ; Boundaries of China Proper, 25 ; Charac- ter of its coast, 26 ; The Great Plain, 27 ; The Great Wall of China, its course, 29 ; Its construction and aspect, 30 ; The Grand Canal, 31 ; Its history and present condition, 36 ; Minor canals, 37 ; Public roads, De Guigues’ description, ibid. ; Gen- eral aspects of a landscape, 40 ; Physical characteristics of the Chinese, 41 ; The women, 42 ; Aborigines: Miaotsz’, Lolos, Li- mns, and others, 43 ; Manchus and Mongols, 44 ; Attainments and limits of Chinese civilization, 46. CHAPTER n. Geograhical Description of the Eastern Provinces, . . 49-141 Limited knowledge of foreign countries, 49 ; Topographies of China numerous and minute, 50 ; Climate of the Eighteen Provinces, 50 ; Of Peking and the Great Plain, 51 ; Of the southern coast towns, 53 ; Comtrast in rain-fall between Chinese and American coasts, 55 ; Tyfoons, 56 ; Topographical divisions into Fu, Ttng, Chau, and Hien, 58 ; Position and boundary of Chihli Province, 60 ; Table of the Eighteen Provinces, their subdivis- XIV CONTENTS. ions and government, 61 ; Situation, size, and history of Pe- king, 62 ; Its walls and divisions, 64 ; The prohibited city {Tnz' Kin Ching) and imperial residence, 67 ; The imperial city (Ihmng Ching) and its public buildings, 70 ; The so-called “ Tartar City,” 72 ; The Temples of Heaven and of Agricul- ture, 76 ; Environs of Peking, 79 ; Tientsin and the Pei ho, 85 ; Dolon-nor or Lama-miao, 87 ; Water-courses and produc- tions of the province, 88 ; The Province of Shantung, 89 ; Tai shan, the ‘ Great Mount,’ 90 ; Cities, productions, and people of Shantung, 92 ; Shansi, its natural features and resources, 94 ; Taiyuen, the capital, 96 ; Roads and motintain passes of Sliansi, 97 ; Position and aspect of Honan Province, ibid.; Kaifung, its capital, 99; Kiangsu Province, ibid.; Its fertility and abundant water-ways, 100 ; Nanking, or Kiangning, the capital, 101 ; Porcelain Tower of Nanking, 102 ; Suchau, “ the Paris of China,” 103 ; Chinkiang and Golden Island, 105 ; Shanghai, 106 ; The Province of Nganhwui, 109 ; Nganking, Wuhu, andHwuichau, 110; Kiangsi Province, 111 ; Nauchang, its capital, and the River Kan, 112 ; Porcelain works at Kingteh in Jauchau, 113; Chehkiang Province, its rivers, 114; Hang- cliau, the capital, 115; Ningpo, 120; Chinhai and the Chusau Archipelago, 123 ; Chapu, Canfu, and the “ Gates of China,” 127 ; Fuhkien Province, ibid.; Tlie River Min, 128 ; Fuhchau, 130 ; Amoy and its environs, 134 ; Chinchau (Tsiuenchau), the ancient Zayton, 136 ; Position, inhabitants, and productions of Formosa, 137 ; The Pescadore Islands, 141. CHAPTER III. Geographical Description op the Western Pro\tnces, . 142-184 The Province of Hupeli, 142 ; The three towns, Wuchang, Han- yang, and Hankow, 143 ; Scenery- on the Yangtsz’ kiang, 145; Hunan Province, its rivers and capital city, 146 ; Shensi Prov- ince, 148 ; Tlie city of Si-ngan, 150 ; Topography and climate of Kansuh Province, 152 ; Sz’chuen Province and its four streams, 154 ; Chingtu fu and the Min Valley, 156 ; The Prov- ince of Kwangtung, 158; Position of Canton, or Kwangchau, 160 ; Its population, walls, general appearance, 161 ; Its streets and two pagodas, 163 ; Temple of Longevity and Honam Joss- liouse, 164 ; Other shrines and the Examination Hall, 166 ; The foreign factories, or ‘Thirteen Hongs,’ 167; Sights in the suburbs of Canton, 169 ; Whampoa and Macao, 170 ; Tlie colony of Hongkong, 171 ; Places of interest in Kwangtung, 173; The Island of Hainan, 175; Kwangsi Province, 176; Kweichau CONTENTS. XV FAng l*rovince, 178; The Miaotsz’, 179; The Province of Yunnan, 180 ; Its topograplij and native tribes, 183 ; Its mineral wealtli, 184. CHAPTER IV. GKOGnArnic.\L Description of M.\nciiuria, Mongolia, IlI, and Tibet, 18.‘>-2r)7 Foreign and Chinese notions of the land of Tartary, 18.5 ; Table of the Colonies, tlieir subdivisions and governments, 180 ; E.xtent of Manchuria, 187; Its mountain ranges, 188; The Amur and its affluents, tlie Ingoda, Argun, Usuri, and Songari, 189 ; Natural resources of Manchuria, 191 ; The Province of Shing- king, ihid.; Its capital, Mukden, and other towns, 192 ; Climate of Mancliuria, 195 ; The Province of Kirin, 190 ; The Province of Tsi-tsi-har, 198 ; Administration of government in Manchu- ria, 199 ; Extent of Mongolia, 200 ; Its climate and divisions, 201 ; Inner Mongolia. 202 ; Outer Mongolia, 204 ; Urga, its capital, ibid. ; Civilization and trade of the Mongols, 200 ; Kiakhta and Maimai chin, 207 ; The Province of Cobdo, 20H ; The Province of Koko-nor, or Tsing hai, 209 ; Its topography and productions, 211 ; Towns between Great Wall and Ili, 213 ; Position and topography of fli, 215 ; Tien-shan Peh Lu, or Northern Circuit, 218 ; Kuldja, its capital, 219 ; Tien-shan Nan Lu, or Southern Circuit, 221 ; The Tarim Basin, ibid. ; Cities of the Southern Circuit, 224 ; Kashgar, town and gov- ernment, 227; Yarkand, 229; The District of Khotep, 230; Administration of government in 111, 231 ; History and con- quest of the country, 233 ; Tibet, its boundaries and names, 237 ; Topography of the province, 239 ; Its climate and pro- ductions, 241 ; The yak and wild animals, ibid. ; Divisions : Anterior and Ulterior Tibet, 244 ; H’lassa, the capital city, 245 ; Manning’s visit to tlie Dalai-lama, 246 ; Shigatse, capital of Ulterior Tibet, 247 ; Om niiini pndmi hum, 249 ; Manners and customs in Tibet, 251 ; Language, 252 ; History, 254 ; Gov- ernment, 255. CHAPTER V. PoPtTLATIOX AND STATISTICS, 258-295 Interest and difficulties of this subject, 258 ; Ma Twan-lin’s study of the censuses, 260 ; Tables of various censuses, 263 ; These estimates considered in detail, 265 ; Four of these are reliable, 269 ; Evidence in their favor, 270 ; Comparative population- density of Europe and China, 272 ; Proportion of arable and XVI CONTENTS. unproductive land, 274 ; Sources and kinds of food in China, 270 ; Tendencies toward increase of population, 277 ; Obstacles to emigration, 278 ; Government care of the people, 280 ; Den- sity of population near Canton, Md.; Mode of taking the cen- sus under Kublai khan, 281 ; Present method, 282 ; Reasons for admitting the Chinese census, 285 ; Two objections to its acceptance, 286 ; Unsatisfactory statistics of revenue in China, 289 ; Revenue of Kwangtung Province, 290 ; Estimates of Medhurst, De Guignes, and others, 291 ; Principal items of expenditure, 292 ; Pay of military and civil officers, 293 ; The land tax, 294. CHAPTER VI. Natural History op China, 296-379 Foreign scientists and explorers in China, 296 ; Interesting geologi- cal features, 297 ; Loess formation of Northern China, ibid. ; Its wonderful usefulness and fertility, 300 ; Baron Richthofen’s theory as to its origin, 303 ; Minerals of China Proper ; Coal, 304; Building stones, salts, jade, etc., 307; The precious metals and their production, 310 ; Animals of the Empire, 313 ; Monkeys, 314 ; Various carnivorous animals, 317 ; Cattle, sheep, deer, etc., 320 ; Horses, pigs, camels, etc., 323 ; Smaller animals and rodents, 326 ; Cetacea in Chinese waters, 329 ; Birds of prey, 331; Passerinai, song-birds, pies, etc., 332; Pigeons and grouse, 335 ; Varieties of pheasants, 336 ; Pea- cocks and ducks, 338 ; An aviary in Canton, 340 ; Four fabulous animals: The 342; The fun f/-hw(Uig, or phoenix, 343; The luuf/, or dragon, and kwei, or tortoise, 344 ; Alligators and serpents, 345 ; Ichthyology of China, 347 ; Gold-fish and methods of rearing them, 348 ; Shell-fish of the Southern coast, 350 ; Insects: Silk-worms and beetles, 352; Wax-worm: Native no- tions of insects, 353 ; Students of botany in China, 355 ; Flora of Hongkong, conifene, grasses, 356 ; The bamboo, 3.58 ; Vari- eties of palms, lilies, tubers, etc., 360; Forest and timber growth, 362 ; Rhub.arb, the Chinese ‘ date ’ and ‘ olive,’ 364 ; Fruit-trees, 366 ; Flowering and ornamental plants, 367 ; The Pun t.vw, or Chinese herbal, 370 ; Its medicine and botany, 371 ; Its zo'jlogy, 374 ; Its observations on the horse, 375 ; State of the natural sciences in China, 377. CHAPTER VII. Laws op China, and Plan op it.s Government, . . 380-447 Theory of the Chinese Government patriarchal, 380 ; The principles of surveillance and mutual responsibility, 383 ; The Penal Code CONTENTS. xvii of China, 384 ; Preface by the Emperor Sliunchi, 385; Its Gen- oral, Civil, and Fiscal Divisions, 38(i ; Ritual, Military, and 'Criminal Laws, 38!) ; The Code compares favorably with other .Asiatic Laws, 3!)1 ; Defects in the Chinese Code, 392 ; General survey of the Chinese Government, 393; 1, The Emperor, his position and titles, tbiit. ; Proclamation of Hungwu, first Manchu Emperor, 395 ; Peculiarities in the names of Em- perors, 397 ; The Kiooh Into, or National, and Muio luio, or An- cestral Names, 398 ; Style of an Imperial Inaugural Proclama- tion, 399 ; I’rogramme of Coronation Ceremonies, 401 ; Dignity and Sacredness of the Emperor’s Person, 402 ; Control of the Right of Succession, 403 ; The Imperial Clan and Titular No- bles, 405 ; 2, The Court, its internal arrangements, 407 ; The Imperial Harem, 408 ; Position of the Empress-dowager, 409 ; Guard and Escort of the Palace, 410 ; 3, Classes of society in China, 411 ; Eight privileged classes, 413; The nine honorary “Buttons,” or Ranks, 414; 4, The central administration, 415; The Niii Kofi, or Cabinet, 41(5; The Kinn-kt Cfiu, or General Council, 418 ; The Kinr/ Pito, or Peking Gnzette, 420 ; The Six Boards {a), of Civil Office — L\ Pu, 421 ; {b), of Reve- nue— Hu Pu, 422 ; (c), of Rites— lA Pu, 423 ; {d), of War — Ping Pu, 424 ; (c), of Punishments — Iling Pu, 42(5 ; (/), of Works— A'mh^ Pu, 427 ; The Colonial Office, 428 ; The Censor- ate, 430 ; Frankness and honesty of certain censors, 431 ; Courts of Transmission and Judicature, 433 ; The Jlunlin Yuen, or Imperial Academy, 434 ; Minor courts and colleges of the capital, 435 ; 5, Provincial Governments, 437 ; Gov- ernors-general {tmngtuh) and Governors {f iitai), 438 ; Subordi- nate provincial authorities, 441 : Literary, Revenue, and Salt Departments, 443 ; Tabular Resume of Provincial fUagistrates, 444 ; Jlilitary and Naval control, 445 ; Special messengers, or commissioners, 446. CHAPTER VIII. Abmimistration of the L.vws, 448-518 6. Execution of laws, checks upon ambitious officers, 448 ; Trien- nial Catalogue and its uses, 449 ; Character and position of Chinese officials, 451 ; The lied Book, or status of office-holders, 452 ; Types of Chinese high officers : Duke Ho, 452 ; Career of Commissioner Sung, 454; Public lives of Commissioners Lin and Kiying, 457 ; Popularity of upright officers, Governor Chu’s valedictory, 462 ; Official confessions and petitions for punishment, 464 ; Imperial responsibility for public disasters, 466 ; A prayer for rain of the Emperor Taukwang, 467 ; Im- CONTENTS. xviii perial edicts, their publication and phraseology, 469 ; Contrast between the theory and practice of Chinese legislation, 4?d ; Extortions practised by officials of all ranks, 474 ; Evils of an ill-paid police, 478 ; Fear and selfishness of the people, 480 ; Extent of clan systems among them, 482 ; Village elders and clan rivalries, 483 ; Dakoits and thieves throughout the country, 480 ; Popular associations— character of their manifestoes, 488 ; Secret societies. The Triad, or Water-Lily Sect, 493 ; A Memorial upon the Evils of Mal-Administration, 494 ; Efforts of the authorities against brigandage, 497 ; Difficulties in col- lecting the taxes, 498 ; Character of proceedings in the Law Courts, 500 ; Establishments of high magistrates, 503 ; Con- duct of a criminal trial, 504 ; Torture employed to elicit confes- sions, 507 ; The five kinds of punishments, 508 ; Modes of executing criminals, 512 ; Public prisons, their miserable con- dition, 514 ; The iutluence of public opinion in checking op- pression, 517. CHAPTER IX. Education and Literary Examinations 519-577 Stimulus of literary pursuits in China, 520 ; Foundation of the present system of competition, 521 ; Precepts controlling early education, 522 ; Arrangements and curriculum of boys’ schools, 524 ; Six text-books emplo^’ed : 1, The ‘Trimetrical Classic,’ 527; 2, The ‘ Century of Surnames,’ and 3, ‘Thousand-Character Classic,’ 530 ; 4, The ‘ Odes for Children,’ 533 ; 5, The Iluto King, or ‘ Canons of Filial Duty,’ 536 ; 6, The t^uto llioh, or ‘Juvenile Instructor,’ 540; High schools and colleges, 542; Proportion of readers throughout China, 544 ; Private schools and higher education, 545 ; System of examinations for de- grees and public offices, 546 ; Preliminary trials, 547 ; Exami- nation for the First Degree, Sin-tMii, 549 ; For the Second Degree, Kii-jin, 5.50; Example of a competing essay, 554 ; Final honors conferred at Peking, .558 ; A like system applied to the military, 560 ; Workings and results of the system of examinations, 562 ; Its abuses and corruption, .566 ; Social distinction and inlluence enjoyed by graduates, 570 ; Female education in China, 572 ; Authors and school-books employed, 574. CHAPTER X. Structi're of the Chinese Lanouaoe, 578-625 Influence of the Chinese language upon its literature, 578 ; Native accounts of the origin of their characters, .580; Growth and CONTENTS. XIX development of the language, 581 ; Characters arranged into six classes, 583 ; Development from hieroglyphics, 584 ; I’ho- uetic and descriptive properties of a character, 587 ; Arrange- ment of the characters in lexicons, 58!) ; Classification accord- ing to radicals, 5!)1 ; Mass of characters in the language, 593 ; Six styles of written characters, ,597 ; Their elementary strokes, .598 ; Ink, paper, and printing, 599 ; Manufacture and price of books, (iOl ; Native and foreign movable types, G03 ; Phonetic character of the Chinese language, 005 ; Manner of distinguishing words of like sound, 009 ; The S.'iiiig, or tones of the language, 010 ; Number of sounds or words in Chinese, oil ; The local dialects and patois, 012 ; Court or Mandarin dialect, 013 ; Other dialects and variations in pronunciation, 014 ; Grammar of the language, 017 ; Its defects and omis- sions, 021 ; Hints for its study, 023 ; Pigeon English, 024. CHAPTER XI. Classical Liter.atuue of the Chinese, .... 026-073 The Imperial Catalogue as an index to Chinese literature, 020 ; The Five Classics : I. The Yih lung, or ‘ Book of Changes,’ 027 ; II. The Sha King, or ‘Book of Records,’ 033 ; III. The Shi King, or ‘ Book of Odes,’ 030 ; IV. The Li Ki, or ‘ Book of Rites,’ and other Rituals, 043 ; V. The Chun Tsiu, or ‘ Spring and Autumn Record,’ 647; The Four Books : 1, The ‘Great Learning,’ 6.52 ; 2, The ‘ Just Medium,’ 6.53 ; 3, The Lun Yu, or ‘ Analects ’ of Confucius, 656 ; Life of Confucius, 6.58 ; Character of the Confucian System of Ethics, 663 ; 4, The Works of Mencius, 660 ; His Life, and personal character of his Teachings, 667 ; Dictionary of the Emperor Kaughi, 672. CHAPTER Xn. Polite Liter.atuue of the Chinese, 674-723 Character of Chinese Ornamental Literature, 674 ; Works on Chi- nese History, 675 ; Historical Novels, 677 ; The ‘ .Antiquarian Researches ’ of Ma Twan-lin, 681 ; Philosophical Works : Chu Hi on the Primum Mobile, 683 ; Military, Legal, and Agricultu- ral Writings, 686 ; The Shing Yu, or ‘ Sacred Commands ’ of Kanghi, 687 ; Works on Art, Science, and Encjxlopsedias, 692 ; Character and Examples of Chinese Fiction, 693 ; Poetry : The Story of Li Tai-peh, 696 ; Jlodern Songs and Extem- pore Verses, 704 ; Dramatic Literature, burlettas, 714 ; ‘ The Mender of Cracked Chinaware ’ — a Farce, 715 ; Deficiencies and limits of Chinese literature, 719 ; Collection of Chinese Pro- verbs, 720. XX CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIII. . I'AGr Abchitkcture, Dress, and Diet of the Chinese, . . 7-4-781 Notions entertained by foreigners upon Chinese customs, 724; Ar- chitecture of the Chinese, 726 ; Building materials and private houses, 728 ; Their public and ornamental structures, 730 ; Ar- rangement of country houses and gardens, 731 ; Chinese cities : shops and streets, 736 ; Temples, club-house.s, and taverns, 730; Street scenes in Canton and Peking, 740 ; Pagodas, their origin and construction, 744 ; Modes of travelling, 747 ; Vari- ous kinds of boats, 749 ; Living on the water in China, 750 ; Oluyp-houU and junks, 752 ; Bridges, ornamental and practical, 754 ; Honorary Portals, or Pai-lav, 757 ; Construction of forts and batteries, 758 ; Permanence of fashion in Chinese dress, 759 ; Arrangement of hair, the Queue, 761 ; Imperial and official costumes, 763 ; Dress of Chinese women, 764 ; Compressed feet : origin and results of the fashion, 766 ; Toilet practices of men and women, 770 ; Food of the Chinese, mostly vegetable, 772 ; Kinds and preparation of their meats, 776 ; Method of hatching and rearing ducks’ eggs, 778 ; Enormous consumption of fish, 779 ; The art of cooking in China, 781. CHAPTER XIV. Social Life among the Chinese, 782-83& Features and professions in Chinese society, 782 ; Social relations between the se.xes, 784 ; Customs of betrothment and marriage, 785 ; Laws regulating marriages, 792 ; General condition of fe- males in China, 794 ; Personal names of the Chinese, 797 ; Famil- iar and ceremonial intercourse: The Kotow, 800; Forms and etiquette of visiting, 802 ; A Chinese banquet, 807 ; Temperauce of the Chinese, 808 ; Festivals ;• Absence of a Sabbath in China, 809 ; Customs and ceremonies attending New-Year’s Day, 811 ; The dragon-boat festival and feast of lanterns, 816 ; Brilliauce and popularity of processions in China, 819; Play-houses and theatrical shows, 820; Amusements and sports: Gambling, chess, 825 ; Contrarieties in Chinese and Western usage, 831 ; Strength and weakness of Chinese character, 833 ; Their men- dacity and deceit, 834. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I. i PAGB WoRSHii* OF THE Emfeuou AT THE TEMPLE OF Hkaven, . Froniisjnece Trns-PAOE, BEPBESENTiso AS HONOBART poBTAL, OB PAI-LAV. (The two char- acters, Shing cAS, upon the top, indicitte that the ntmetare has been erected by Imperial command. In the panel upon tho lintel the four characters, Chung Kwoh Taung-lun, * A General Account of the Middle Kingdom,' express in Chinese the title of this work. On the right the inscription reads, Jin chi jigai Jin yu tain kih ao, ‘ He who is benevolent loves those near, and then those who are remote ; ' tho other side contains an expression attributed to Confucius, * Si fang chi jin yu ahing ohi ye,' ‘The people of the West have their sages.’)— Com- pare p. T57. A Eoad-Cut in the Loess, 38 An-ting Gate, Wali, of Peking, to face 63 Plan of Peking, 66 POUTAL OF CONFUCLAN TEMI’LE, PEKING, 74 Monument, or Tope, of a Lama, Hwang sz’, Peking, . to face 79 View over the Loess-cleits in ShansI, 97 Te.mple of the Goddess Ma Tsu-pu, Ningpo, . . . to face 123 Lckan Gorge, Yangtsz’ Rn-ER. (From Blakiston.), . . to face 146 View of a Street in Canton, to face 168 Miaotsz’ Types, 179 Domesticated Yak, 242 Facade of Dwellings in Loess Cliffs, Ling-shI hien, . . . 301 Coal Gorge on the Yangtsz’. (From Blakiston.), . . to face 306 Fi-Fl IIAI-TUn. (From a Chinese cut.) 316 The Chinese Pig, ... 324 Mode of Carrying Pigs, 32.5 The El-LIN, or Unicorn, 342 The FUNG-HWANG, or Phcenix, 343 xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Different Styles of Official Caps, 414 Mode of Carrying High Officers in Sedan, 503 Prisoner Condemned to the Cangue in Court, . . . to face 504 Mode of Exposure in the Cangue, 509 Publicly Whipping a Thief through the Streets, .... 511 Interior of KUNO TUEN, or ‘Examination Hall,’ Peking, to face 551 Chinese Hieroglyphics and their Modern Equivalents, . . 584 Six Styles of Chinese Characters, 596 Worship of Confucius and his Disciples 665 Diagram of Chinese Roof Construction, 726 The PIH-YUNO KUNG, or ‘Classic Hall,’ Peking, . to face 730 Wheelbarrow used for Travelling, 747 Bridge in Wan-shao Shan Gardens, near Peking, .... 754 Bridge, showing the Mode of Mortising the Arch, .... 756 Barber’s Establishment, 760 Tricks Played with the Queue 762 Procession of Ladies to an Ancestral Te.mple, . . to face 765 Ai’pearance of the Bones of a Foot when Compressed, . . . 767 Feet of Chinese Ladies, 768 Shape of a Lady’s Shoe, 769 Boys Gambling with Crickets, 826 Chinese Chess-board, 827 NOTE RESPECTING THE SYSTEM OF PRONUNCI- ATION ADOPTED IN THIS WORK. In this the values of the vowels are as follows : 1. a as the italicized letters in father, far (never like a in hat) ; e.g., chang, hang — sounded almost as if written chahng, hahng, not flat as in the Enghsh words sang, bang, man, etc. 2. d like the short u in but, or as any of the italicized vowels in American, summer, mother ; the German o approaches this soimd, w'hile Wade writes it e ; e.g., pan, tang, to be pronounced as pun, tongue. 3. e as in men, dead, said ; as teh, shen, yen. 4. e, the French e, as in they, neigh, pray ; as che, ye, pronounced chay, yay. 5. i as in pin, finish ; as sing, lin, Chihli. 6. i as in machine, believe, feel, me ; as li, Kishen, Kanghi. 7. 0 as in long, lawn ; never Like no, crow ; as to, soh, po. 8. u as in rule, too, fool ; as Turk, Belur, ku, sung ; pronounced Toork, Beloor, koo, soong. This sound is heard less full in fuh, tsun, and a few other words ; this and the next may be considered as equivalent to the two u-so\mds found in German. 9. il nearly as in I’une (French), or union, rheum ; as hii, tsii. 10. ai as in aisle, h.igh, or longer than i in pine ; as Shanghai, Hainan. The combination ei is more slender than ai, though the difierence is slight ; e.g., Kwei chau. 11. au and ao as in round, our, hoto ; as Fuhchau, Macao, Taukwang. 12. ^ as in the colloquial phrase .say ’em ; e.".,cheung. This diph- thong is heard in the Canton dialect. XXIV SYSTEM OF FRONUNCIATION. 13. ia as in ?/ard ; e.g., hia, kiang ; not to be sounded as if written high-a, kigh-ang, but like hed, kedng. 14. iau is made bj' joining Nos. 5 and 11 ; hiau, Liautung. 15. ie as in sierra (Spanish), Rienzi; e.g., Men, kien. 16. iu as in pew, pure, lengthened to a diphthong ; k~iu, siun. 17. iue is made by adding a short e to the preceding ; kiuen, Muen. 18. ui as in Louisiana, suicide ; e.g., sui, chui. The consonants are sounded generally as they are in the English alphabet. Ch as in cAurch ; Mo as in when ; j soft, as s in pleas- ure ; kw as in aw^:ioard ; ng, as an initial, as in singing, leaving off the first two letters ; sz’ and tsz’ are to be sounded full with one breathing, but none of the English vowels are heard in it ; the sound stops at the z ; Dr. Morrison wrote these sounds tsze and sze, while Sir Thomas Wade, w'hose system bids fair to become the most widely employed, turns them into ssu and tzu. The /is of the latter, made by omitting the first vowel of hissing, is written simply as h by the author. Urh, or ’?7i, is pronounced as the three last let- ters of purr. All these, except No. 12, are heard in the court dialect, which has now become the most common mode of writing the names of places and persons in China. Though foreign authors have em- ployed different letters, they have all intended to write the same sound ; thus chan, shan, and xan, are only different ways of writing [1£J ; and tsse, tsze, tsz', ^h, tzu, and tzu, of ‘ ^ . Such is not the case, however, with such names as Macao, Hongkong, Amoy, Whampoa, and others along the coast, which are sounded according to the local patois, and not the court pronunciation — Ma-ngau, Hiangkiang, Hiamun, Hwangpu, etc. Many of the discrepancies seen in the works of travellers and writers are owing to the fact that each is prone to follow his own fancy in transliterating foreign names ; uniformity is almost unattainable in this matter. Even, too, in what is called the court dialect there is a great diversity among educated Chinese, owing to the traditional way all learn the sounds of the characters. In this work, and on the map, the sounds are written uniformly accoi'ding to the pronunciation given in Morri- son’s Dictionary, but not according to his orthography. Almost every writer upon the Chinese language seems disposed to projiose SYSTKM OK PllONUNCIATIOX. XXV a new system, and the result is a great confusion in writing the same name ; for example, euU, olr, ul, iilh, Ih, la-h, ’rh, i, e, litr, nge, ngi, je, ft, are different ways of writing the sounds given to a sin- gle character. Amid these discrepancies, both among the Chinese themselves and those who endeavor to catch their pronunciation, it is almost impossible to settle upon one mode of writing the names of places. That which seems to offer the easiest pronunciation has been adopted in this work. It may, perhaps, be regarded as an unimportant matter, so long as the place is known, but to one liv- ing abroad, and unacquainted with the language, the discrejjaucy is a source of great confusion. He is unable to decide, for instance, whether Tung-ngan, Tangon hien, Tang-oune, and Tungao, refer to the same place or not. In writing Chinese proper names, authors differ greatly as to the style of placing them ; thus, Fuhchaufu, Fuh-chau fu, Fuh Chau Fu, Fuh-Chau fu, etc., are all seen. Analogy affords little guide here, for New York, Philadelphia, and Cambridge are severally unlike in the principle of writing them : the first, being really formed of an adjective and a noun, is not in this case united to the latter, as it is in Newport, Newtown, etc. ; the second is like the generality of Chinese to\vns, and while it is now written as one word, it would be written as two if the name were translated — as ‘ Brotherly Love ; ’ but the thiixl, Cambridge, despite its derivation, is never widtten in two words, and many Chinese names are like this in origin. Thus applying these rules, properly enough, to Chinese places, they have been written here as single words, Suchaii, Peking, Hongkong ; a hj’phen has been inserted in some places only to avoid mispronunciation, as Hiau-i, Si-ngan, etc. It is hardly supposed that this system will alter such names as are commonly wiitten otherwise, nor, indeed, that it Avill be adhered to with ab- solute consistency in the following pages ; but the piinciple of the arrangement is perhaps the simplest possible. The additions fu, chau, ting, and hien, being classifying terms, should form a sejjarate word. Li conclusion, it may be stated that this system could only be carried out approximately as regards the proper names in the colonies and outside of the Empu-e. 7 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. ciiaetp:r I. GENERAL DIVISIONS AND FEATURES OF THE EMPIRE. The possessions of the ruling dynasty of China, — that por- tion of the Asiatic continent which is usually called by geog- raphers the Chinese Empire, — form one of the most extensive dominions ever swayed by a single power in any age, or any part of the world. Comprising within its limits every variety of soil and climate, and watered by large rivers, which serve not only to irrigate and drain it, but, by means of their size and the course of their tributaries, affording unusual facilities for iutereommunication, it produces within its own borders everything necessary for the comfort, support, and delight of its occupants, who have depended very slightly upon the assistance of other climes and nations for satisfying their own wants. Its ciGlization has been developed under its own insti- tutions ; its government has been modelled without knowledge or reference to that of any other kingdom ; its literature has borrowed nothing from the genius or research of the scholars of other lands ; its language is unique in its s_)unbols, its struc- ture, and its antiquity ; its inhabitants are remarkable for their industry, peacefulness, numbers, and peculiar habits. The ex- amination of such a people, and so extensive a country, can hardly fail of being both instructive and entertaining, and if rightly pursued, lead to a stronger conviction of the need of the VOL. I.— 1 9 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. precepts and sanctions of the Bible to the highest development of every nation in its personal, social, and political relations in this world, as well as to individual happiness in another. It is to be hoped, too, that at this date in the world’s histoiy, there are many more than formerly, who desire to learn the condition and wants of others, not entirely for their own amusement and congratulation at their superior knowledge and advantages, but also to promote the well-being of their fellow-men, and impart liberally of the gifts they themselves enjoy. Those who desire to do this, will find that few families of mankind are more worthy of their greatest efforts than those comprised within the limits of the Chinese Empire ; while none stand in more need of the purifying, ennobling, and invigorating principles of our holy religion to develop and enforce their own theories of social improvement. Tlie origin of the name China has not yet been fully settled. The people themselves have now no such name for their coun- try, nor is there good evidence that they ever did apply it to the whole land. The occurrence in the Latos of Manu and in the Mahahharata of the name China, applied to a land or people with whom the Hindus had intercourse in the twelfth century B.C., and who were probably the Chinese, throws the origin far back into the remotest times, where probability must take the place of evidence. The most credible account ascribes its origin to the family of Tsin, whose chief first obtained complete sway, about b.c. 250, over all the other feudal principalities in the land, and whose exploits rendered him famous in India, Persia, and other Asiatic states. His sept had, however, long been renowned in Chinese history, and previous to this con, or Tzinist(M. The J^er- sian name Cathaij, and its liussian form of Kitai, is of modern origin ; it is altered from Ki-tah, the race which ruled northern China in the tenth century, and is quite unknown to the people it designates. The Latin word Seres is derived from the Chinese word Hz’ (silk), and doubtless tirst came into use to denote the people during the Ilan dynasty. The Chinese have many names to designate themselves and the land they inhabit. One of the most ancient is Tien Hia, meaning ‘ Beneath the Sky,’ and denoting the "World ; another, almost as ancient, is Sz' Ilai, i.e., ‘ [all within] the Four Seas,’ while a third is Chung Kwoh, or ‘ Middle Kingdom.’ This dates from the establishment of the Chau dynasty, about n.c. 1150, when the imperial family so called its own special state in Honan because it was surrounded by all the others. The name was retained as the empire grew, and thus has strength- ened the popular belief that it is really situated in the centi-e of the earth ; Clmng Kwoh jin, or ‘ men of the Middle King- dom,’ denotes the (liinese. All these names indicate the vanity and ignorance of the people respecting their geographical position and their rank among the nations ; they have not been alone in this foible, for the Egyptians, Creeks and liomans all had terms for their possessions which intimated their own ideas of their superiority ; while, too, the area of none of those monarchies, in their widest extent, ecpialled that of ('hina Froper. The family of Tsin also estal)lished the custom, since continued, of calling the comitry by the name of the dynasty then reigning; but, while the brief duration of that house of forty-four years was not long enough to give it much currency among the people, succeeding dynasties, by their talents and prowess, im])arted their own as })ermanent appellations to the people^ and country. The terms llan-jin and J/an-fsz' {i.<-., men of Ilan or sons of Ilan) are now in use by the people to denote themselves; the last also means a ‘“brave man.” 2\tng- jin, or “ Men of Tang,' is quite as fiavpiently heard in the VARIOUS DESIGNATIONS. 6 poutherii provinces, where the ])hrase Tnmj S/mn, or ' Hills of Tang,’ denotes the whole country. The ruuklhists of India called the land Chin-tan, or the ‘ Dawn,’ and this appellation has been used in Chinese writings of that sect. The present dynasty calls the empire la Tshaj Ka'oh, or ‘Great Pure Kingdom;’ but the people themselves have re- fu-sed the corresponding term of Tsl ny -jin, or 'Sion oi Tsing.’ The empire is also sometimes termed Tulny Chau, Le., ‘ [land of the] Pure Dynasty,’ by metonymy for the family that rules it. The term now frecpiently heard in western countries — the Celestial Empire — is derived from Tien Chau, t.e., ‘Heavenly Dynasty,’ meaning the kingdom which the dynasty ap}>ointed by heaven rules over ; but the term Celeiciiah, for the peoj)le of that kingdom, is entirely of foreign manufacture, and their language could with difficulty be made to express such a ]>at- ronymic. The phrase Li Min, or ‘ Black-haired Race,’ is a common appellation ; the expressions Ilani Yen, the ‘ Flowery Language,' and Chany Ilu'a Ku'oh, the ‘ Middle Flowery King- dom,’ are also frecpiently used for the written language of the country, because the (’hinese consider themselves to lie among the most polished and civilized of all nations — which is the sense of ha%i in these phrases. The phrase Mai Ti, or ‘ Inner Land,' is often employed to distinguish it from countries be- yond their borders, regarded as the desolate and barbarous regions of the earth, llioa Ilia (the Glorious Ilia) is an ancient term for China, the Ilia dynasty being the first of the series ; Tany Tu, or “ Land of the East,'’ is a name used in Mohamme- dan writings alone. The present ruling dynasty has extended the limits of the empire far beyond what they were under the Ming princes, and nearly to their extent in the reign of Kublai, a.d. 1290. In IMO, its borders were well defined, reaching fi-om Sagalien I. on the north-east, in lat. 48° 10' X. and long. 144° 50' E., to Hainan I. in the ('hina Sea, on the south, in lat. 18° 10' X., and westward to the Belur-tag, in long. 74° E., inclosing a contin- uous area, estimated, after the most careful valuation by McCulloch, at 5,300,000 square miles. The longest line which could be dra\n) in this vast region, from the south-westeni part 6 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. of l\i, bordering on Kokand, north-easterly to the sea of Okhotsk, is 3,350 miles ; its greatest breadth is 2,100 miles, from the Outer liing-an or Stanovoi Mountains to the peninsula of Lui- cliau in Kwangtung : — the first measuring 71 degrees of lon- gitude, and the last over 34 of latitude. Since that year the process of disintegration has been going on, and the cession of Hongkong to the British has been fol- lowed by greater partitions to Russia, which have altogether reduced it more than half a million of square miles on the north-east and west. Its limits on the western frontiers are still somewhat undefined. The greatest breadth is from Alba- zin on the Amur, nearly south to Hainan, 2,150 miles ; and the longest line which can he drawn in it runs from Sartokh in Tibet, north-east to the junction of the Usuri River with the Amur. The form of the empire approaches a rectangle. It is hounded on the east and south-east by various arms and por- tions of the Pacific Ocean, beginning at the frontier of Corea, and called on European maps the gulfs of Liautung and Pechele, the Yellow Sea, channel of Formosa, China Sea, and Gulf of Tonquin. Cochinchina and Burmah border on the prov- inces of Kwahgtung, Kwangsf, and Y unnan, in the south-west ; but most of the region near that frontier is inhabited by half- independent tribes of Laos, Ivakyens, Singphos, and others. The southern ranges of the Himalaya separate Assam, Butan, Sikkim, Nipal and states in India from Tibet, whose westei-n border is bounded by the nominally dependent country of Ladak, or if that be excluded, by the Kara-korum Mountains. The kingdoms or states of Cashmere, Badakshan, Kokand, and the Kirghis steppe, lie upon the western frontiers of Little Tibet, Ladak, and Ilf, as far north as the Russian border ; the high range of the Belur-tag or Tsung-ling sepai-ates the former countries from the Chinese territory in this quarter. Russia is conterminous with China from the Kirghis steppe along the Altai chain and Kenteh range to the junction of the Argun and the Amur, from whence the latter river and its tributary, the Hsuri/form the dividing line to the border of Corea, a total stretch of 5,30U miles. The circuit of the whole empire GENERAL DIVISIONS. 7 is 14:, 000 miles, or considerably over half the circumference of the globe. These measurements, it must be remembered, are of the roughest character. The coast line from the mouth of the river Yaluh in Corea to that of the Annum in Cochinchina is not far from 4,400 miles. This immense country comprises about one-third of the continent, and nearly one-tenth of the habitable part of the globe ; and, next to liussia, is the largest empire which has existed on the earth. It will, perhaps, contribute to a better comprehension of the area of the Chinese Empire to compare it with some other coun- tries. Russia is nearly 0,500 miles in its greatest length, about 1,500 in its average breadth, and measures 8,309,144* square miles, or one-seventh of the land on the globe. The United States of America extends about 3,000 miles from ]\Ion- terey on the Pacific in a north-easterly direction to Maine, and about 1,700 from Lake of the Woods to Florida. The area of this territory is now estimated at 2,936,166 square miles, with a coast line of 5,120 miles. The area of the British Empire is not far from 7,647,000 square miles, but the boundaries of some of the colonies in Illndostan and South Africa are not definitely laid down ; the superficies of the two colonies of Australia and Xew Zealand is nearly equal to that of all the other possessions of the British crown. The Chinese themselves divide the empire into three princi- pal parts, rather by the different form of government in each, than by any geographical arrangement. I. The Eighteen Provinces^ including, with trivial additions, the country conquered by the Manchus in 1664. II. Manchuria, or the native country of the Manclms, Ring north of the Gulf of Liautung as far as the Amur and west of the Usuri River. III. Colonial Possessions, including Mongolia, Ili (compris- ing Sungaria and Eastern Turkestan), Koko-nor, and Tibet. The first of these divisions alone is that to which other nations have given the name of China, and is the only part which is entirely settled by the Chinese. It lies on the eastern ' Or 21,759,974 sq. km. — Ootha Almavxich. 8 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. slope of the high table-land of Central Asia, in the south-east- ern angle of the continent ; and for beauty of scenery, fertility of soil, salubrity of climate, magnificent and navigable rivers, and variety and abundance of its productions, will compare with any portion of the globe. The native name for this portion, as distinguished from the rest, is ShiJi-pah Sang or the ‘ Eighteen Provinces,’ but the people themselves usually mean this part alone by the term Chung Kiooh. The area of the Eighteen Provinces is estimated by McCulloch at 1,348,870 scpiare miles, hut if the full area of the provinces of Kansuh and Chihli be included, this figure is not large enough ; the usual compu- tation is 1,297,999 square miles ; Malte Brun reckons it at 1,482,091 square miles ; but the entire dimensions of the Eigh- teen Provinces, as the Chinese define them, cannot be much under 2,000,000 square miles, the e.xcess lying in the extension of the two provinces mentioned above. This part, consequently, is rather more than two-fifths of the area of the whole empire. The old limits are, however, more natural, and being better known may still be retained. They give nearly a square form to the provinces, the length from north to south being 1,474 miles, and the breadth 1,355 miles ; but the diagonal line from the north-east corner to Yunnan is 1,009 miles, and that from Amoy to the north-western part of Kansuh is 1,557 miles. China Proper, therefore, measures about seven times the size of France, and fifteen times that of the United Kingdom ; it is nearly half as large as all Europe, which is 3,050,000 square miles. Its area is, however, nearer that of all the States of the American Union lying east of the Mississippi Kiver, with Texas, Arkansas, Missouri and Iowa added ; these all cover 1,355,309 square miles. The position of the two countries facing the western borders of great oceans is another point of likeness, which involves considerable similarity in climate ; there is moreover a ftirther resemblance between the size of the prov- inces in flhina and those of the newer States. Before proceeding to define the three great basins into which (diina may be divided, it will give a better idea of the whole subject to speak of the mountain ranges which lie within and near or along the limits of the country. The latter in them- .MOUNTAIN CHAINS. 9 selves form almost an entire wall inclosing and detining the old empire ; the princi[)al e.vceptions being the western boundaries of Yunnan, the border between Tli and the Kirghis steppe, and the trans-Amur region. Commencing at the north-eastern corner of the basin of the Amur above its mouth, near hit. 50° N., are the first summits of the Altai range, which during its long course of 2,000 miles takes several names ; this range forms the northern limit of the table-land of C'entral Asia. At its eastern part, the range is called Stanovoi by the Russians, and Wal Hiiuj-tui by the Chi- nese; the first name is applied as far west as the confluence of the Songari with the ^Vmur, beyond which, north-west as far as lake Baikal, the Russians call it the Daourian ^lountains. The distance from the lake to the ocean is about GOO miles, and all within Russian limits. Beyond lake Baikal, westward, the chain is called the Altai, i.e.^ Golden ^[ountains, and sometimes Kin slum, having a similar meaning. Xear the head-w’aters of the river Selenga this range separates into two nearly parallel systems running east and west. The southern one, which lies mostly in Mongolia, is called the Tangnu, and rises to a much higher elevation than the northern spur. The Tangnu ]\Ioun- tains continue under that name on the ('hinese maps in a south- westerly direction, but this chain properly joins the Tien shan, or Celestial Mountains, in the province of Cobdo, and con- tinues until it again unites with the Altai further west, near the junction of the Kirghis steppe with China and Russia. The length of the whole chain is not far from 2,500 miles, and except near the Tshulyshman River, does not, so far as is known, rise to the snow' line, save in detached peaks. The average elevation is supposed to be in the neighborhood of 7,000 feet ; most of it lies betw'een latitudes 47° and 52° K., largely covered Avith forests and susceptible of cultivation. The next chain is the Belur-tag, Tartash ling, in Chinese Tsimgling, Onion Mountains, or better. Blue Mountains, so called from their distant hue.* This range lies in the south-west of Son- ' Klaproth {Memoires sur PAsie, Tome II., p. 295) observes thbt the name is derived from the abundance of onions found upon these mountains. M. Abel-Remusat prefers to attribute it to the “ bluish tint of onions.” 10 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. garia, separating that territory from Badakshan ; it commences about lat. 50° X., nearly at right angles with the Tien shan, and extends south, rising to a great height, though little is known of it. It may be considered as the connecting link between the Tien shan and the Kwanlun ; or rather, both this and the latter may be considered as proceeding from a mountain knot, de- tached from the Ilindu-kush, in the south-western part of Turk- estan called Pushtikhur, the Belur-tag coming from its northern side, while the Kwanlun issues from its eastern side, and extends across the middle of the table-land to Koko-nor, there diverging into two branches. This mountain knot lies between latitudes 36° and 37° X., and longitudes 70° and 74° E. The Himalaya range proceeds from it south-easterly, along the southern fron- tier of Tibet, till it breaks up near the head-waters of the Yangtsz’, Salween, and other rivers between Tibet, Burmah, and Yunnan, thus nearly comjdeting the inland frontier of the empire. A small spur from the Yun ling, in the west of Yun- nan, in the country of the Singphos and borders of Assam, may also be regarded as forming part of the boundary line. Tlie Ghang-jpeh shan lies between the head-waters of the Ya- luh and Toumen rivers, along the Corean frontier, forming a spur of the lower range of the Sihota or Sih-hih-teh Mountains, east of the Usui-i. Within the confines of the empire are four large chains, some of the peaks in their course rising to stupendous eleva- tions, but the ridges generally falling below the snow line. The first is the Tien shan or Celestial Mountains, called Teng- kiri by the Mongols, and sometimes erroneously Alak Moun- tains. This chain begins at the northern extremity of the Belur-tag in lat. 40° X., or more properly comes in from the west, and extends from west to east between longitudes 76° and !)0° E., and generally along the 22° of north latitude, dividing 111 into the X^orthern and Southern Circuits. Its western por- tion is called Muz-tag ; the IVIuz-daban, about long. 79° E., be- tween Kuldja and Aksu, is where the road from north to south runs across, leading over a high glacier above the snow line. East of this occurs a mass of peaks among the highest in Cen- tral Asia, called Bogdo-ula; and at the eastern end, near Ur- THE TIEX SHAN AND KWANEUN UANGES. 11 nmtsi, as it declines to the desert, are traces of volcanic action seen in solfataras and spaces covered with ashes, but no active volcanoes are now known. The doubtful volcano of Pi shan, between the glacier and the P)Ogdo-ula, is tlie only one reported in continental China. The Tien shan end abruptly at tbeir eastern point, where the ridge meets the desert, not far from the meridian of llarkul in Kansuh, though Humboldt con- siders the hills in jMongolia a continuation of the range east- ward, as far as the Xui Hing-an. The space between the Altai and Tien shan is very much broken up by mountainous spurs, which may be considered as connecting links of them both, though no regular chain exists. The western prolonga- tion of the Tien shan, under the name of the Muz-tag, extends from the high pass only as far as the junction of the Jlelur- tag, beyond which, and out of the Chinese Empire, it continues nearly west, south of the river Sihon toward Ivodjend, under the names of Ak-tag and Asferah-tag ; this part is covered with perpetual sno\v. Xearly parallel with the Tien shan in part of its course is the Xan shan, Kwanlun or Koulkun range of mountains, also called Tien Chu or ‘ C’elestial Pillar ’ by Chinese geograj)hers. The Kwanlun starts from the Pushtikhur knot in lat. 30° X., and runs along easterly in nearly that parallel through the whole breadth of the table-land, dividing Tibet from the desert of Gobi in part of its course. About the middle of its ex- tent, not far from long. 90° E., it divides into .several ranges, which decline to the south-east through Koko-nor and Sz’chuen, under the names of the Bayan-kara, the Burklian-buddha, the Shuga and the Taugla Mountains, — each more or less parallel in their general south-east course till they merge with the’Yun ling (i.e., Cloudy Moiuitains), aboxit lat. 33° X. Another group bends northerly, beyond the sources of the Yel- low River, and under the names of Altyn-tag, Xan shan, In shan, and Ala shan, passes through Kansi;h and Shensi to join the Xui Hing-an, not far from the great bend of the Yellow River. Some portion of the country between the extremities of these two ranges is less elevated, but no plains occur, though the parts north of Kansuh, where the Great Wall runs, are 12 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. rugged and unfertile. The large tract between the basins of the Tarim liiver and that of the Yaru-tsangbu, including the ivwanhm range, is mostly occupied by the desert of Gobi, and is now one of the least known parts of the globe. The min- eral treasures of the Kwanlun are probably great, judging from the many precious stones ascribed to it ; this desolate re- gion is the favorite arena for the monsters, fairies, genii, and other beings of (’hinese legendary lore, and is the Olympus where the Buddhist and Taoist divinities hold their m^’stic sway, strange voices are heard, and marvels accomplished.* Fi'om near the head-waters of the Yellow River, the four ridges run south-easterly, and converge hard by the confines of Burniah and Yunnan, within an area about one hundred miles in breadth. Tlie Yun ling range constitutes the western frontier of Sz’chuen, and going south-east into Yunnan, thence turns eastward, under the names of Ran ling, Mei ling, Wu-i slum, and other local terms, passing through Kweichau, Hunan, and dividing Kwang- tung and Fuhkien from Kiangsi and Chehkiang, bends north- east till it reaches the sea opposite Chusan. One or two spurs branch off north from this range through Ilunan and Kiangsi, as far as the Yangtsz’, but they are all of moderate elevation, covered with forests, and susceptible of cultivation. The de- scent froi'u the Siueh ling or Bayan-kara Mountains, and the western part of the Yun ling, to the Pacific, is very gradual. The Chinese give a list of fifty peaks lying in the provinces which are covered Avith snow for the whole or part of the year, and describe glaciers on several of them. Another less extensive ridge branches off nearly due east from the Bayan-kara Mountains in Koko-nor, and forms a mod- erately high range of mountains between the Yellow River and Yangtsz’ kiang as far as long. 112° E., on the western borders of Xganhwui ; this range is called Ko-tsing slum, and Beh ling (i.tf., Rorthern Mountains), on European maps. These two chains, viz., the Yun ling — with its continuation of the Mei ling — and the Peh ling, with their numerous offsets, render the whole of the Avestern ]>art of (fiiina A'ery uneA'cn. ' (’iiiiij)iire IL'imisat, HUitoire dr la Ville de K/iotiiii, j>. (l.A, ff. HINU-AN AND HIMALAYA UANGES. VS On tlie east of Mongolia, and commencing near the bend of the Yellow Jiiver, or rather forming a contiimation of the range in Shansi, is the Nni lling-an ling or Sialkoi, called also Soyorti range, which runs north-east on the west side of the basin of the Amur, till it reaches the AVai lling-an, in lat. 56° N. The sides of the ridge toward the desert are nearly naked, bnt the eastern acclivities are well wooded and fertile. On the confines of Corea a spur strikes off westward through Shingking, called Kolmin-shanguin alin by the ^lanchus, and Chang-peh shan {i.e., Long White Mountains) by the Chinese. Between the Sialkoi and Sihota are two smaller ridges defining the basin of the Nonni liiver on the east and west. Little is known of the elevation of these chains except that they are low in comparison with the great western ranges, and under the snow line. The fourth system of mountains is the Himalaya, which bounds Tibet on the south, while the Kwanlun and Burk- hau Buddha range defines it on the north. A small range runs through it from west to east, connected with the Himalaya by a high table-land, which surrounds the lakes Manasa-rowa and Ravan-hrad, and near q}’ in which are the sources of the Indus, Ganges, and Yaru-tsangbu. This range is called Gang-dis-ri and Zang, and also Kailasa in Dr. Buchanan’s map, and its eastern end is separated from the Y’un ling by the nari'ow valley of the Y’angtsz’, which here flows from north to south. The country north of the Gang-dis-ri is divided into two portions by a spur which extends in a north-west direction as far as the Kwan- lun,' called the Kara-korum Mountains. On the western side of this range lies Ladak, drained by one of the largest branches of the Indus, and althoiigh included in the imperial domains on Chinese maps, has long been separated from imperial cog- nizance. The Kara-korum Mountains may therefore be taken as composing part of the boundary of the empire ; Chinese geographers regard them as forming a continuation of the Tsuug ling. ' One among many native names given to tlie Kwanlun, or Koulkun Moun- tains, is Tien chu, ^ ‘Heaven’s Pillar,’ wliicli corresponds precisely with the Atlas of China. 14 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. This liasty sketch of the mountain chains in and around China needs to he further illustrated by Puinpelly's outlines of their general course and elevation in what he suitably terms the Simian System, applied “ to that extensive northeast-southwest system of upheaval which is traceable through nearly all Eastern Asia, and to which this portion of the continent owes its most salient features.” lie has developed this system in the He- searches in China, Mongolia and Japan, issued by the Smith- sonian Institution in 1866. The mountains of China correspond in many respects to the Appalachian system in America, and its revolution probably terminated soon after the deposition of the Chinese coal measures. Mr. Pumpelly describes the prin- cipal anticlinal axes of elevation in China Proper, beginning with the Barrier Range, extending through the northern part of Chihli and Shansi, where it trends W.S.M., prolonging across the Yellow River at Pao-teh, and hence S.^Y. through Shansi and Kansuh, coinciding with the watershed between the bend of that river, wdiich traverses it through an immense gorge. The next axis east begins at the Tushih Gate, and goes S.W. to the Xankau Pass, both of them in the Great AVall, and thence across Shansi to the elbow of ,the Yellow River, and onward to Western Sz’chuen, forming the ■watershed within the bend of the Yangtsz’. In the regions between these two axes are found coal deposits. A central axis succeeds this in Shansi, crossing the Yangtsz’ near Ichang, and passing on S.W. through Kweichau to the Xan ling ; going X.E., it runs through Honan and subsides as it gets over the Yellow River, till in Shantung and the Regent’s Sword it rises higher and higher as it stretches on to the Chang-peh shan in Manchuria, and the ridge between the Songari and Ilsuri rivers. Between the last two ranges lie the great coal, iron, and salt deposits in the provinces, and each side of the central axis huge troughs and basins occur, such as the valley of the Yangtsz’ in Yunnan, the Great Plain in Xganhwui and Chihli, the Gulf of Pedicle, and the basins of the Liao and Songari rivers. The coast axis of elevation is indicated by ranges of granitic mountains between Kiangsi and Iviangsu on the north, and Chehkiang and Euhkicn on the south, extending S.AV. through pumi'elly’s sinian systp:m. 15 K\vano;tuiig into the Yun ling, and N.E. into the Chnsan Archipelago, thence across to Corea and the Sihota Moun- tains east of the Usuri Iviver. An outlying granitic range, reaching from Hongkong north-easterly to Wanchau, and IS.W. to Hainan Island, marks a fifth axis of elevation. Crossing these anticlinal axes are three ranges, coming into China Proper from the west in such a manner as to prove highly heneliciai to its structure. The northern is apparently a continuation of the Hayan-kara Mountains in a S.E. direction into Kansuh, and south of the river Wei into Honan, under the name of the Hiung shan or ‘Hear Mountains.’ The centre is an offset from this, going across the north of Hupeh. The southern appears to be a prolongation of the Himalaya into Yunnan and Kwangsi, making the watershed between the Yangtsz’ and Pearl river basins. Between the Tien shan and the Kwanlun range on the south- west, and reaching to the Sialkoi on the north-east, in an oblique direction, lies the great desert of Gobi or Sha-moh, both words signifying a waterless plain, or sandy ^jloats.' The entire length of this waste is more than 1,800 miles, biit if its limits are extended to the Belur-tag and the Sialkoi, at its western and eastern extremity, it will reach 2,200 miles ; the average breadth is between 350 and 400 miles, subject, however, to great varia- tions. The area within the mountain ranges which define it is over a million square miles, and few of the streams occurring in it find their way to the ocean. The whole of this tract is not a barren desert, though no part of it can lay claim to more than comparative fertility ; and the great altitude of most portions seems to be as much the cause of its sterility as the nature of the soil. Some portions have relapsed into a waste because of the destruction of the inhabitants. The western portion of Gobi, lying east of the Tsung ling and north of the Kwanlun, between long. 76° and 94° E., and in lat. 36° and 41° K., is about 1,000 miles in length, and between 300 and 400 wide. Along the southern side of the ' Another interpretation makes Gobi (Kopi) to apply to the stony, while Sha-moh denotes the sand}' tracks of this desert, in which case the name would more correctly read, “ Great Desert of Gobi and Sha-moh.” T6 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Tien shan extends a strip of arable land from 50 to 80 miles in width, producing grain, pasturage, cotton, and other things, and in which lie nearly all the Mofiammedan cities and forts of the Nan La. The Tai-im and its branches flow eastward into Lob-nor, through the best part of this tract, from 76° to 89° E. ; and along the banks of the Khoten River a road runs from Yarkand to that city, and thence to ll’lassa. Here the desert is comparatively narrow. This part is called Han hai, or ‘ Mirage Sea,’ by the Chinese, and is sometimes known as the desert of Lob-noi’. The remainder of this region is an almost unmitigated waste, and north of Koko-nor assumes its most terrific appearance, being covered with dazzling stones, and rendered insuft'erably hot by the reflection of the sun’s rays from these and numerous movable mountains of sand. Xor in winter is the climate milder or more endurable. “ The icy winds of Siberia, the almost constantly unclouded sky, the bare saline soil, and its great altitude above the sea, combine to make the Gobi, or desert of Mongolia, one of the coldest countries in the whole of Asia.” ‘ The sandhills — Tcuzu^chi, as the Mongols call them — appear north of the Ala shan and along the Yellow River, and when the wind sets them in motion they gradually travel before it, and form a great danger to travellers who try to cross them. One Chinese author says, “There is neither water, herb, man, nor smoke ; — if there is no smoke, there is absolutely nothing.” The limits of the actual desert are not easily defined, for near the base of the mountain ranges, streams and vegetation are usually found. Rear the meridian of llami, long. 94° E., the desert is nar- rowed to about 150 miles. The road from Kiayii kwan to II ami runs across this narrow part, and travellers find water at various places in their route. It divides Gobi into two parts — the de.sert of Lob-nor and the Great Gobi — the former being about 4,500 feet elevation, and the latter or eastern not higher than 4,000 feet. The borders of Kansuh now extend across this tract to the foot of the Tien shan. ‘Col. l’n>ji*viilwky, Traoela in Mongolia, etc. Vol. II., p. 22. London, 1876. THE DKSKKT OF y the fn shan, on the edge of the plateau, and incloses the country of the Ortons Mongols within this great bend. A spur of the I’eh ling forces it south, about long. 110° E., between Shansi and Shensi, for some 500 miles, till it enters the Great Plain, having run 1,130 miles from Lanchau. Through this loess re- gion it becomes tinged with the soil which imparts both color and name to it. At the northern bend it separates in several small lakes and branches, and during this part of its course, for more than 500 miles, receives not a single stream of any size, while it is still so rapid, in descending from the plateau, as to demand much care when crossing it by boats. At the south-western corner of Shansi this river meets its largest tributary, the AVei, which comes in from the westward after a course of 400 miles, and is more available as a navigable stream than any other of the affluents. The area of the whole basin is less than that of the Yangtsz', and may bo estimated at about 475,000 square miles ; though the source of this stream is only 1,290 miles in a direct line from its mouth, its numerous windings prolong its course to nearly double that distance. The great differences of level in winter and summer have always made this river nearly useless, e.xcept as a drain ; while the effect of the long-continued deposit of silt along its lower level course has finally choked the mouth altogether. This remarkable result has been hastened, no doubt, by the dikes built along the banks to the east of Kaifung, which thus forced the floods to fill up the channel, and pushed the waters back over 500 miles to Ilonan-fu. Here the land is low, and the refluent waters gradually worked their way through marshes and creeks into the river Wei on the north bank, and thus found a north-east channel into the Canal and the Ta-tsing River, till they reached the Gulf of Pechele. A small part of these floods have perhaps gone south into the head-waters of the river Ilwai, and thence into Hung-tsih Lake ; but that lake has shrivelled, like its great feeder, and all its w'aters flow into the Yangtsz’. The history of the Yellow River furnishes a con- clusive argmnent against diking a river’s banks to restrain its 20 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. floods. It has now reverted to the channel it occupied' about fourteen centuries ago.' Far more tranquil and useful is its rival, the Yangtsz’ kiajig, called also simply Jviany or Ta I'iang, the ‘ River,’ or ‘ Great River.’ It is often erroneously named on western maps, Kyang Ku, M'hich merely means ‘ mouth of the river.’ The sources of the Kiang are in the Tangla Mountains and the Kwanlun range, and are placed on native maps in three streams flowing from the southern side of the Rayan-kara. This has been j)artly confirmed by Col. Prejevalsky. In January, 1873, he reached the Murui-ussu (Tortuous River) in lat. 35°, long. 94°, at its junction with the Xapchitai, the northern of the three branches, and found it 750 feet wide at that season. In spring, the river’s bed there is filled up a mile wide. Its course thence is south-east, receiving three other streams, all of which may he considered as its head-waters. All their channels are over ten thousand feet above the sea, but the ranges near them are under the suow-line. There is no authentic account of its course from this union till it joins the Yalung kiang in Sz’chuen, a distance of nearly 1,300 miles ; but Chinese maps indicate a south- easterly direction through the gorges of the Yun ling, till it burets out from the mountains in lat. 26° X., where it turns north-east. During mucli of this distance it bears the name of the Po-lai-tsz’. The Yaluno; River rises verv near the Yellow Rivei-, and runs parallel with the Kiang in a valley further east, flowing upwards of 600 miles before they join. Great rafts of timber are floated down both these streams, for sale at the towns further east, but no large boats are seen on them before they leave the mountains. The town of I’atang, in Sz’chuen, on the road from H'lassa, is the first large place on the river. The main trunk is called Kin-sha kiang {i.e.. Golden- sand Rivei'), until it receives the Yalung in the southern jiart of Sz’chuen, whicli the Chinese there regard as the principal stream of the two. Beyond the junction, the united river is called Ta kiang as far as Wuchang, in Hupeh, beyond which ' Report by Dr. W. A. P. Martin in Journal of N. 0. Branch of R. .1. Sociely, Vol. III., j)p. 33-38; 18(i(!. Same journal, Vol. IV’., pp. 8U-8(i ; 18GT; Notes by Ney Elias. Pumpelly’s Renearches, 180(>, chap, v., pp. 41-.')!. THE YANGTSZ' KIAXd. 21 tlie people know it also as the (^hanj; kian<;, or “ honj' River." They do not often call it Yangtsz", which is properly applied only to the reach from Nanking out to sea, which lay within the old region of T aiigehau. This name has been eiToneonsly written in Chinese, and thence translated ‘ Son of the Ocean.’ The French often call it the FU’uce BU'Uy hut the Chinese have no such name. Its general course from Wuchang is easterly, receiving various tributaries on both shores, until it discharges its waters at Tsnngming Island, by two mouths, in lat. 32° N., more than 1,850 miles from its mouth in a direct line, hut flow- ing nearly 3,000 miles in all its windings.' One of the largest and most useful of its tributaries in its lower course is the Kan kiang in Kiangsi, which empties through the Royang lake, and continues the transverse com- munication from north to south, connecting with the Orand Canal. The Tungting lake receives the Siang and Yuen, whicli drain the northern sides of the Nan ling in 1 liman ; and west of them is the Knngtan or Wu, which comes in with its surplus waters from Ivweichan. These are on the south ; the 11 an in llnpeh, and the Kialing, Min, and Loh in Sz’chuen, are the main atflnents on the north, contributin<; the di‘aina{;e south of the Peh ling. The Grand Canal comes in opposite Chinkiang, and from thence the deep channel, able to carry the largest meu-of-war on its bosom, tiuds its way to the Paciflc. No two rivers can be more unlike in their general features than tliese two mighty streams. While the Yellow River is un- steady, the Yangtsz’ is uniform and deep in its lower course, and available for rafts from Batang in the western confines of Sz’chuen, and for boats from beyond Timgclmen in Yunnan, more than 1,700 miles from its mouth. Its great body and depth afford ample room for ocean steam-ships 200 miles, as far as Nanking, where in some places no bottom could be found at twenty fathoms, while the banks are not so low as to be often injured by the freshets, even when the flood is over thirty feet. ' See the account of Pere Laribe’s voyage on this river in 1843, Annales de la Propagation de la Foi. Tome XVII. , pp. 207, 286, ff. Five Months on the Tang-tsze, by Capt. Thos. W. Blakiston ; London, 1862. Pumpelly’s Researches, chap, ii., pp. 4-10. Capt. Gill, The River of Golden Sand. 22 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. At Pingshan above Siiehau in Sz’chuen, 1,550 miles from its mouth, Blakiston reckons the river to he 1,500 feet above tide- water, which gives an average fall of 12 inches to a geographi- cal mile ; the inclination is increased to 19 inches in some portions, and it is this force which carries the silt of this stream out to sea, hut which is wanting in the Yellow liiver. The fall of the Yangtsz’ is nearly double that of the Yile and Amazon, and half that of the Mississippi. The amount of water dis- charged is estimated at 500,000 cubic feet a second at Ichang, about 700 miles up, and it may reasonably be concluded that at Tsungming it discharges in times of flood a million cubic feet per second. BaiTOw calculated the discharge of the Yel- low River in 1798 to be 11,616 cubic feet per second, when the ciu-rent ran seven miles an hour. Xo river in the world e.xceeds the Yangtsz’ for arrangement of subsidiary streams, which ren- der the whole basin accessible as far as the Yalung. "When a ship-canal has been dug around the gorges and rapids between Ichang and Kwei, steam-vessels can ascend nearly two thousand miles. The area of its basin is estimated at 518,000 scpiare miles ; and from its central course, and the number of prov- inces through which it passes, it has been termed the Girdle of China ; while for its size, perennial and ample supply of water, and accessibility for navigation, it ranks with the great i-ivers of the world.' Besides these two notable rivers, numerous others empty into the ocean along the coast from Hainan to the Amur, three of which drain large tracts of country, and aft’ord access to many populous cities and districts. The third basin is that south of the Xan ling to the ocean ; it is drained chiefly by the Chu kiang, and its form is much less regular than those of the Yellow Riv’er and Yangtsz’. The Chu kiang or Pearl River, like most of the rivers in China, has many names during its course, and is formed by three principal branches, respectively called East, Xorth, and AVest rivers, according to the quarter from whence they come. The last is by far tbe largest, and all ' Staunton’s Emhasiti/, Vol. III., p. 23a. Blakiston’s Yaug-txze, p. 294, etc. ChineHe. Ite.positovj/, Vol. II., p. 310. LAKKS OF CHINA. 23 of tliem are navigal)le most of their length. Tliey disembogue together at Canton, and drain a region of not mndi less than 130,000 square miles, being all the country east of the Yun ling and south of the Nan ling ranges. The rivers in Yunnan, for the most part, empty into the Salween, Saigon, Meikon, and other streams in Cochinchina. The Min, which flows by Fuh- ehau, the Tsih, upon which Ningjio lies, the Tsientang, leading up to llangchau, and the Pei ho,or AVhite Piver, emptying into the Gulf of Pechele, are the most considerable among these lesser outlets in the provinces ; while the Liau ho and Yahhdi kiang, discharging into the Gulf of Liautung, are the only two that deserve mention in Southern Manchuria. The difFerence between the number of river-mouths cutting the Chinese coast and that of the Ignited States is very striking, resxdting from the different direction of the mountain chains in the interior. The l(th's of China are comparatively few and small ; all those in the jxrovinces of any size lie within the Plain, and are connected with the two great rivers. The largest is the Timij- ting in Hunan, about 220 miles in circumference, through which the waters of the Siang and Yuen rivers flow, and All its channels and beds accoi-ding to the season ; it is now the silt- ed-up bed of a former inland sea in Hupeh, lying on both sides of the Yangtsz', and through which countless lakes, creeks, and canals form a navigable network between that river and the Han. The lake receives the silt as the tributaries flow on through it, and discharge themselves along the deep outlet near Yohchau ; this depression altogether is about 200 miles long and 80 broad. About 320 miles eastward lies the Poyang Lake in Kiangsi, which also discharges the surplus waters of the Kan into the Yangtsz*. It is nearly 90 miles long, and about 20 in breadth, inclosing within its bosom many beauti- ful and populous islets. The scenery around this lake is high- ly picturesque, and its trade and flsheries are more important than those of the Tungting. The Yangtsz’ receives the watei s of several other lakes as it approaches the ocean, the largest of which are the Ta hu or ‘ Great Lake’ near Suchau, and the Tsau hu, lying on the northern bank, between Nganking and Nanking ; both these lakes join the river by navigable streams, 24 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. and tlie former is connected witli the ocean by more than one channel. Tlie only considerable lake connected with the Yellow River is the llimgtsih in Kiangsu, situated near the junction of that river and the Grand Canal, into which it discharges the drain- ings of the Ilwai River ; it is more remarkable for the fleets of boats upon it than for scenery in the vicinity. The larger part of the country between the mouths of the two rivers is so marshy and full of lakes, as to suggest the idea that the Avhole was once an enormous estuary where their waters joined, or else that their deposits have filled up a huge lake which once occupied this tract, leaving only a number of lesser sheets. Besides these, there are small lakes in Chihli and Shantung ; also the Tien, the Bien, and the Tali, of moderate extent, in Yunnan ; all of them support an aquatic population upon the fish taken from their waters. The largest lake in Manchuria is the Ilinkai-nor in Kirin, near the source of the Usuri ; the two lakes llurun and Puyur, or Pir, in the basin of the Konni River, give their name to llurun-pir, the western district of Tsitsihar ; hut of the extent and productions of these sheets of water little is known. The regions lying north and south of Gobi contain many salt lakes, none of them individually comparing with the Aral Sea, hut collectively covering a much larger extent, and most of them receiving the waters of the streams which drain their own isolated basins. The peculiarities of these little known parts, especially the depression on each side of the Tien shan, are such as to render them among the most interesting fields for geographical and geological research in the world. The largest one in Turkestan is Lob-nor, stated to he a great marsh overgrown with tall reeds and having a length of 75 miles and width of 15 miles.' Bostang-nor, said to connect with this lake, is placed on Chinese maps some 30 miles north of it. Xorth of the Tien shan the lakes are larger and more numer- ous ; the Dzaisang, Kisil-bash and Issik-kul are the most impor- tant. .Ml these lakes are salt. Pri-jevalsky, From Kulja Across the Tien shan to Lob-nor, p. 99. BOUNDAKIKS OK THE PliOVIN('ES. 25 The whole region of Ivoko-nor is a country of lakes. The Oliiiir and Dzaring are among the sources of the Yellow River; and the /idi, or Azure Sea, better known as Ivoko-nor, gives its name to the province. The Tengkiri-nor in Tibet lies to the north of ITlassa, and is the largest sheet of water within the frontiers of the empire. In its neighborhood are numer- ous small lakes e.xtending northward into Koko-nor. The I’alti or Yamorouk is shaped like a ring, an island in its centre occupying nearly the whole surface. Tlterior Tibet possesses many lakes on both sides of the Gang-dis-ri range ; the Yik and Paha, near Gobi, are the largest, being oidy two of a long row of them south of the Ivwanlun range. The Eighteen Provinces are bounded on the north-east bv the colony of Shingking, from which they are separated by the line of a former palisade marking the boundary from the town of Shan-hai kwan to the Hwang ho. Following this stream to its sources in the In slum, the boundary then crosses these mountains and pursues a west and south-west course, through the territories of roving Mongol tribes, until it finds the Yellow River at the settlement of Ilokiuh in Shensi. West of this the Great AY all divides the provinces of Shensi and Kansuh from the Mongolian deserts as far as the Iviayii Pass, beyond which lies the desert of Gobi, called J^eA lud (North Sea) and llah hid (Black Sea). On the east are the Gulf of Pechele and the Yellow Sea or Hwang hai, also called Tang hai (Eastern Sea) as far south as the Channel of Formosa. This channel and the China Sea lie on the south-east and south, as far as the Gulf of Tongking and the confines of Aimam. Ivwangsi and Yun- nan border on Annam and Siam on their south sides, while Burmah marks the western frontier, but nearly the whole south- west and western frontiers beyond Yunnan and Sz’cliuen are possessed by small tribes of uncivilized people, over whom neither the Chinese nor Burmese have much real control. Koko-nor bounds Sz’chuen and Kansuh on their western and south-western sides. The coast of China, from Hainan to the mouth of the Yangtsz’, is bordered with multitudes of islands and rocky islets ; from that point northward to Liautung, the shores are 26 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. low, and, except in Shantung, the coast is rendered dangerous by shoals. South of the Pei ho, along to the end of Shantung Prom- ontory, the coast is bolder, increasing in height after passing the Miautau Islands, though neither side of the promontory presents any point of remarkable elevation ; Cape Macartney, at the eastern end, is a conspicuous bluff when approaching it from sea. From this cape to the mouth of the Tsientang River, near Chapu, a distance of about 400 miles, the coast is low, especially between the mouths of the Yangtsz’ and Yellow rivers, and has but few good harbors. Quicksands in the regions near these rivers and the Bay of Ilangchau render the navigation dangerous to native junks. From Kitto Point, near Xingpo, down to Hongkong, the shores assume a bolder aspect, and numerous small bays and coves occur among the islands, affording safe refuge for vessels. The aspect along this part is uninviting in the extreme, consisting principally of a succession of yellowish cliffs and naked headlands, giving little promise of the highly cultivated country beyond them. This bleak ap- pearance is caused by the rains washing the decomposed soil off the surface ; the rock being granite in a state of partial and progressive disintegration, the loose soil is easily carried down into the intervals. Another reason for its treeless sur- face is owing to the practice of annually cutting the coarse grass for fuel, and after the crop is gathered setting the stubble on fire, in order to manure the ground for the coming year ; the fire and thinness of the soil together effectually prevent any large growth of trees or slirubbery upon the hills. The estuarv of the Pearl River from the Bocca Tigris down to tlie Grand Ladrones, a distance of TO miles, and from Hong- kong westerly to the Island of Tungku, about 100 miles, is in- terspersed with islands. The strait which separates Hainan from the Peninsula of Luichau has been supposed to be the place called by Arabian travellers in the ninth centuiy the Gates of (Tiina, but that channel was probably near the Chusan Archij)eIago. That group of fertile islands is regarded as the broken termination of the continental range of mountains run- ning through (’hehkiang. CJIAKACTEU OF THE COAST. 27 The Island of Formosa, or Taiwan, connects the islands of Japan and Lewchew with Lii9onia. Between Formosa and the coast lie the Pescadores or Panghn Islands, a group much less in extent and number than the Chusan Islands. The Chinese have itineraries of all the jdaccs, lieadlands, islands, etc., along the entire coast, but they do not afford much information re- specting the names of positions.' The first objects that invite attention in the general aspect of China Proper are the Great Plain in the north-east, and the three longitudinal basins into which the country is divided by mountain chains running east and west.’ The three great rivers which drain these basins fiow through them very irregularly, but by means of their main trunks and the tributaries, water com- munication is easily kept up, not only from west to east along the gi’eat courses, but also across the country. These natural facilities for inland navigation have been greatly improved by the people, but they still, in most cases, await the introduction of steam to assist them in stemming the rapid currents of some of their rivers, and bringing distant places into more frecpient communication. The whole surface of China may be conveniently divided into the mountainous aud hilly country and the Great Plain. The mountainous country comprehends more than half of the whole, lying west of the meridian of 112“ or 114° (nearly that of Can- ton), quite to the borders of Tibet. The hilly portion is that south of the Yangtsz’ kiang and east of this meridian, compris- ing the provinces of Fuhkien, Kiangsi, Kwangtung, and sec- tions of Hunan and Hupeh. The Great Plain Kes in the north- east, and forms the richest part of the empire. This Plain extends in length TOO. miles from the Great Wall and Barrier Range north of Peking to the confluence of Poyang Lake with the Yangtsz’ in Kiangsi, lat. 30° K. The latter river is considered as its southern boundary as far down ' Chinese Hepositort/, Vol. V., p. 337; Vol. X., pp. 351, 371. Williams’ Chinese Commercial Guide, fifth edition, second part, 1863. - Remnsat (Houvemtx Melanges, Tome I., p. 9) adds a fourth basin, that of the Sa^alien. The latter, however, scarcely deserves the name, having so many interrupting cross-chains. 28 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. as Nganking in Nganliwui, wlience to tlie sea it is formed by a line drawn nearly east through llangchau. The western boun- dary may be marked by a line drawn from Kingchau in Hupeh (lat. 30° 36'), ueai-ly north to Ilwaiking, on the Yellow liiver, and thence due north to the Great Wall, 50 miles north-west of Pekino-. The breadth varies. North of lat. 35", where it })artly extends to the Yellow Sea, and partly borders on the western side of Shantung, thence across to the Bear Mountains and Shansi, its measure is between 150 and 250 miles ; stat- ing the average at 200 miles, this portion has an area of 70,000 square miles. Between 34° and 35° the Plain enlarges, and in the parallel of the Yellow River has a breadth of some 300 miles from east to west ; while further south, along the course of the Yangtsz’, it reaches nearly 400 miles inland. Estimat- ing the mean breadth of this portion at 400 miles, there are 140,000 square miles, which, with the northern part, make an area of about 210,000 square miles — a surface seven times as large as that of Lombardy, and about the same area as the plain of Bengal drained bj' the Ganges. The northern por- tion in Chihli up to the edge of the Plateau is mostly a de- posit of the yellow loess and alluvial on the river bottoms; that lying near the coast in Kiangsu is low and swampy, cov- ered by lakes and intersected by w'ater-courses. This portion is extremely fertile, and furnishes large quantities of silk, tea, cotton, grain, and tobacco. The most interesting feature of this Plain is the enormous population it supports, which is, accord- ing to the census of 1812, not less than 177 millions of human beings, if the whole number of inhabitants contained in the six provinces lying wholly or partly in it be included ; making it by far the most densely settled of any part of the world of the same size, and amounting to nearly two-thirds of the whole population of Europe.' The public works of China are probably unecpialled in any land or by any people, for the amount of human labor be- stowed upon them ; the natural aspect of the country has been ' Penny Cydoywilia, Vol. VII., p. 74. McCullocli’s Oex)gra’pldctd Dictum- ary, Vol. I., p, .')!)(). THK GKEAT WALL. 29 materially changed by them, and it has been remarked that the Great Wall is the only artificial structure which would arrest attention in a hasty survey of the surface of the globe. Hut their usefulness, or the science exhibited in their con- struction, is far inferior to their extent. The Great Wall, called Wan-ll Chamj Chuuj {i.e., Myriad-mile Wall), was built by Tsin Clu-hwangtf, in order to protect his dominions from the incursions of the northern tribes. Some portions of it were already in existence, and he formed the ])lan of joining and extending them along the whole northern frontier to guard it. It was finished b.('. 20-f, having been ten years in building, seven of which were done after the Emperor’s death. This gigantic work was probably a popular one in the main, and still remains as its own chief evidence of the energy, industry, and perseverance of its builders, as well as their unwisdom and waste. Its construction probably cost less than the usual sums spent by European States for tbeir standing armies. It commences at Shaidiai wei or Sbanhai kwr.n (lat. 40°, long. 119° 50'), a coast town of some importance as on the boundary between Chihli and Shingking, and a place of considerable trade. Lord Jocelyn describes the wall, when observed from the ships, as “ scaling the precipices and top- ping the cragg}' bills of the country, which have along this coast a most desolate appearance.'’ It runs along the shore for several miles, and terminates on the beach near a long reef. Its course from this point is west, a little northerly, along the old frontiers of the province of Chihli, and then in Shansi, till it strikes the Yellow River, in lat. 394° and long. 1114°. This is the best built part, and contains the most important gates, where garrisons and trading marts are established. AYithin the province of Chihli there are two walls, inclosing a good part of the basin of the Sang- kan ho west of Peking ; the inner one was built by an emperor of the Ming dynasty. From the point where it strikes the Yellow River, near Pau-teh, it forms the northern boundary of Shensi, till it touches that stream again in lat. 37°, inclosing the cormtrv of the Ortons Mongols. Its direction from this ])oint is north-west along the northern frontier of Kansuh to THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. ■SO its termination near Kiayii kwan, tlirougli which the road passes leading to Hami. From near the eastern extremity of the Wall in the prov- ince of Chihli, extending in a north-easterly direction, there was once a wooden stockade or palisade, forming the boundary between Liautung and Kirin, which has been often taken from its representation on maps as a continuation of the Great Wall. It was erected by the Manchus, but has long since become de- cayed and disused. The entire length of the Great Wall between its extremi- ties is 22i degrees of latitude, or 1,255 miles in a straight line ; but its turnings and doublings increase it to fully 1,500 miles. It would stretch from I^hiladelphia to Topeka, or from Portu- gal to Naples, on nearly the same latitude. The construction of this gigantic work is somewhat adapted to the nature of the country it traverses, and the material was taken or made on the spot where it was used. In the western part of its course, it is in some places merely a mud or gravel wall, and in others earth cased with brick. The eastern part is generally composed of earth and peb- bles faced with lai’ge bricks, weighing from 40 to 60 lbs. each, supported on a coping of stone. The whole is about 25 feet thick at the base, and 15 feet at the top, and varying from 15 to 30 feet high ; the top is protected with bricks, and defended by a slight parapet, the thinness of wdiich has been taken as proof that cannon were unknown at the time it was erected. There are brick towers at different intervals, some of them more than 40 feet high, but not built upon the AV^all. These are independent structures, usually about 40 feet square at the base, diminishing to 30 at the top ; at particular spots the towers are of two stories. The impression left upon the mind of a foreigner, on seeing this monument of human toil and unremunerative outlay, is re- spect for a people that could in any manner build it. Standing on the peak at Ka-jpeh Kan (Old North Gate), one sees the cloud- capped towers extending away over the declivities in single files both east and west, until dwarfed by miles and miles of sky- ward perspective as they dwindle into minute piles, yet stand THE GUANI) CANAL. 31 with solemn stillness where they were stationed twenty cen- turies ago, as though comleinned to wait tlie march of time till their builders returned. The crumbling dike at their feet may be followed, winding, leaping across gorges, defiles, and steeps, now buried in some chasm, now scaling the cliffs and slopes, in very e.xuberance of power and wantonness, as it vanishes in a thin, shadowy line, at the horizon. Once seen, the Great Wall of China can never be forgotten. At present this remarkable structure is simply a geogra^ih- ical boundary, and e.\cept at the Gates nothing is done to keep it in repair. Beyond the Yellow River to its western extremity, the Great Wall, according to Gerbillon, is mostly a mound of earth or gravel, about fifteen feet in height, with only occasional towers of brick, or gateways made of stone. At Kalgan portions of it are made of porphyry and other stones piled up in a pyramidal form between the brick towers, difficult to cross but easy enough to pull down. The appearance of this rampart at Ku-peh kau is more imposing ; the entire extent of the main and cross walls in sight from one of the towers there is over twenty miles. In one place it runs over a peak 5,225 feet high, where it is so steep as to make one wonder as much at the labor of ere'cting it on such a cliff as on the folly of sup- posing it could be of any use there as a defence. The wall is most visited at Xan-kau i^South Gate), in the Ku-yung Pass, a remarkable Thermopyla fifteen miles in length, 'which leads from the Plain at Peking up to the first terrace above it, and at one time was guarded by five additional walls and gates, now all in ruins. From this spot, the wall reaches across Shansi, and was built at a later period. The other great public work is the Grand Canal, or Chah ho {i.e., river of Flood-gates), called also Yan ho or ‘ Transit River,’ an enterprise which reflects far more credit upon the monarchs who devised and executed it, than does the Great W all, and if the time in which it was dug, and the character of the princes who planned it, be considered, few works can be mentioned in the history of any country more admirable and useful. When it was in order, before the inflow of the Yellow River failed, by means of its connection with its feeders, 32 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. 1111 iininteri’upted water communication across the country from Peking to Canton existed, and goods and passengers passed from the capital to nearly every large town in the basins of the two great rivers. The canal was designed by Kublai to reach from his own capital as far as Hangchau, the former capital of the Sung dynasty, and cannot be better described than in Marco Polo’s language ; “ You must understand that the Em- peror has caused a water communication to be made from this city [Kwa-chau] to Cambaluc, in the shape of a ivide and deep channel dug between stream and stream, between lake and lake, forming as it were a great river on which large vessels can ply.” ' The northern end is a channel fourteen miles long, from Tung-chau up to Peking, which, passing under the city walls, finishes its course of some 600 miles at the palace wall, close by the British Legation ; here it is called Tii, ho, or ‘ Im- perial Biver,’ but all boats now unlade at the eastern gate. An abridged account of Davis’s observations “ will afford a good idea of its construction and aj^pearance. “ Early on the 23d September, we entered the canal through two stone piers and between very high banks. The mounds of earth in the immediate vicinity were evidently for the pur- pose of effecting repairs, which, to judge from the vestiges of inundation on either side, could not be infrequent. The canal joins the Yu ho, which we had just (piitted, on its eastern bank, as that river flows towards the Pei ho. One of the most striking features of the canal is the comparative clear- ness of its waters, when contrasted with that of the two rivers on which we had hitherto travelled ; a circumstance reasonably attributable to the depositiojis occasioned by the gi-eatcr still- ness of its contents. The course of the canal at this point was evidently in the bed of a natural river, as might be per- ceived from its winding course, and the irregularity and inar- tificial appearance of its banks. The stone abutments and flood-gates are for the purpose of regulating its waters, which • at present were in excess and flowing out of it. As we pro- ceeded on the canal, the stone flood-gates or sluices occurred ' Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 130. Sketches of China, Vol. I., p. 245. THE GRAND CANAL. 33 at the rate of three or four a (lav, sometimes oftener, according as the iiiecjualities in the surface of the country rendered them necessary “ As we advanced, the canal in some parts became narrower, and the banks had rather more of an artiticial appearance than where we first entered it, being occasionally pretty high ; but still the winding course led to the inference, that as yet the canal was for the most part only a natural river, modified and regulated by sluices and embankments. The distance between the stone piers in some of tlie flood-gates was apparently so narrow as only just to admit the passage of our largest boats. The contrivance for arresting the course of the water through them was extremely simple ; stout boards, with ropes fastened to each end, were let down edgewise over each other through grooves in the stone piers. A number of soldiers and work- men always attended at the sluices, and the danger to the boats was diminished by coils of rope being hung down at the sides to break the force of blows. The slowness of our progress, which for the last week averaged only twenty miles a day, gave us abimdant leisure to observe the country “ AVe now began to make better progress on the canal than we had hitherto done. The stream, though against us, was not strong, except near the sluices, where it was confined. In the afternoon we stopped at Kai-ho chin {i.e., River-opening mart), so called, perhaps, because the canal was commenced near here. On the 28th we arrived at the influx of the Yun ho, where the stream turned in our favor, and flowed to the south- ward, being the highest point of the canal, and a place of some note. The Yun ho flows into the canal on its eastern side nearly at right angles, and a part of its waters flo^v north and part south, while a strong facing of stone on the western bank sustains the force of the influx. At this point is the temple of the Dragon King, or genius of the watery element, who is supposed to have the canal in his special keeping. This en- terprise of leading in this river seems to have been the work of Sung Li, who lived under Hungwm, the first emperor of the Ming dynasty, about 1375. In his time, a part of the canal in Shantung became so impassable that the coasting passage VoL. I.— 3 34 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. by sea began to be most used. This was the very thing the canal had been intended to prevent : Sung accordingly adopted the plan of an old man named Piying, to concentrate the waters of the Yun ho and neighboring streams, and bring them down upon the canal as they are at present. History states that Sung employed 300,000 men to carry the plan into operation, and that the work was completed in seven months. On both sides of us, nearly level with the canal, were extensive swamps with a shallow covering of water, planted with the Ne- lumbium ; they were occasionally separated by narrow banks, along which the trackers walked, and the width of the canal sometimes did not exceed twenty-five yards. On reaching the part which skirts the Tii-shan Lake, the left bank was entirely submerged, and the canal confounded with the lake. All within sight was swamp, coldness, and desolation — in fact, a vast inland sea, as many of the large boats at a distance were hull down. The swamps on the following day were kept out of sight by some decent villages on the high banks, which from perpetual accumulation assumed in some places the as- pect of hills. “ A part of our journey on the first of October lay along a por- tion of the canal where the banks, particularly to the right, were elaborately and thoroughly faced with stone ; a precaution which seemed to imply a greater than ordinary danger from inundations. In fact, the lakes, or rather floods, seemed to ex- tend at present nearly to the feet of the mountains which lay at a distance on our left. AYe were now approaching that part of China which is exposed to the disastrous overflowings of the Yellow River, a perpetual source of wasteful expenditure to the government, and of peril and calamity to the people ; it well deserves the name of China's Sorrow. AVe observed the I’epairs of the banks diligently proceeding under the superin- tendence of the proper officer. Fortius pui’pose they use the natural soil in combination with the thick stalks of the gigantic millet.” The catial reaches the A'ellow River about TO miles from its mouth ; but before leaving the lakes in the southern part of Shantung, it used to run nearly parallel with that stream for TIIK OUANl) (,’ANAL. 35 more than a Inmdrecl miles, ami between it and the New Salt Kiver (hiring a good part of this distance. It is hard to under- stand how, by natural causes, so powerful a river, as it is de- scribed to be by the historians of both the IJritish embassies less than one hundred years ago, should have become so (com- pletely choked up. The difference of level near Kaifung is found to be so very little that the siltage there has been enough to turn the current into the river Wei and elsewhere. When Am- herst's embassy passed, the boats struck right across the stream, and gained the opposite bank, about three-fourths of a mile distant, in less than an hour. They drifted about two miles down, and then slowly brought up against the current to the spot where the canal entered. This opening was a iduicc nearly a hundred yards across, and through it the waters rushed into the river like a mill-race ; the banks were constructed of earth, strengthened with sorghum stalks, and strongly bound with cord- age. Sir John Davis remarks, with the instinct of a trades- man, as he commends the perseverance and industry which had overcome these obstacles, that if the science of a Drunel could be allowed to operate on the Yellow Diver and Grand (’anal,“ a benefit might be conferred on the Chinese that would more than compensate for all the evil that we have lyflicted with our opium and our guns.” The boats were dragged through and up the sluice close to the bank by ropes communicating with large windlasses worked on the bank, which safely, though slowly, brought them into still water. The distance between the Yellow and Yangtsz’ rivers is about ninety miles, and the canal here is carried largely upon a raised Avork of earth, kept together by retaining walls of stone, and not less that twenty feet above the surrounding country in some parts. This sheet of water is about two hundred feet wide, and its current nearly three miles an hour. South of the Hwang ho several large tOAvns stand near the levees, below their level, Avhose safety wholly depends upon the care taken of the banks of the canal. Ilwai-ngan and Pauying lie thus under and near them, in such a position as to cause an involuntary shudder at the thought of the destruction which would take place if they should give way. The level descends from these towns to 36 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. the Yangtsz’, and at Yangchaii the canal is innch below the houses on its sides. It also connects with every stream or lake whose waters can be led into it. There are two or three inlets into the Yangtsz’ where the canal reaches the northern bank, but Chinkiang, on the southern shore, is regarded as the principal defence and post of its crossing. The canal leaves the river east of that city, proceeds south-east to Suchau, and thence southerly on the eastern side of lake Tai, with which it communicates, to Ilangchau in Chehkiang. This portion is by far the most interesting and picturesque of the whole line, owing to its inch and populous cities, the fertility and high cultivation of the banks, and the lively aspect imparted by the multitude of boats. Though Ivublai has had the credit of this useful work, it existed in parts of its course long before his day. The reach between the two great rivers was opened in the Ilan dynasty, and repaired by the wise founder of the Sui dynasty (a.d. 600). The princes of the Tang dynasty kept it open, and when the Sung emperors lived at Ilangchau they made the extension up to Chinkiang the great highway which it is to this day. The work from Peking to the Yellow liiver was opened by the Mongols about 1289, in which they merely joined the rivers and lakes to each other as they now exist. The Ming and Tsing emperors have done all they could to keep it open throughout, and lately an attempt has been made to reopen the passage from Ilungtsih Lake north into the old bed, so that boats can reach Tientsin from Kwachau. Its entire length is about G50 miles, or not quite twice that of the Erie Canal, but it varies in its breadth and depth more than any important canal either of America or Europe. As a Avork of art, compared Avith canals noAV existing in Avest- ern countries, the Transit Piver does not rank high ; but even at this day there is no work of the kind in Asia Avhich can com- pare Avith it, and there was none in the Avorld equal to it Avhen first put in full operation. It passes through alluvial soil in every part of its course, and the chief labor was expended in constructing embankments, and not in digging a deep channel. The junction of the Yun ho, about lat. 36° N., Avas probably taken as the summit level. From this point nortliAvard the CANALS. :^7 trench was dug througli to Liiitsing to join the Yu ho, and eni- baidvinents thrown up from the same place southward to the Yellow Kiver, the whole being a line of two hundred miles. In some places the bed is cut down thirty, forty, and even seventy feet, but it encountered no material obstacle. The sluices which keep the necessary level are of rude construction, and thick planks, sliding in grooves hewn in stone buttresses, form the onlv locks. Still, the objects intended are all fully gained, and the simplicity of the means certainly does not derogate from the merit and execution of the plan.* There are some other inferior canals in the empire. Kien- lung constructed a waste-weir for carrying off the surplus waters of the Yellow lliver of about a hundred miles in length, by cutting a canal from Ifung hien in Honan, to one of the princi- pal affluents of lake Ilungtsih. It also answered as a drain for the marshy land in that part, and has probably recently served to convey the Hoods from the main stream into the lake. In the vicinity of Canton and Suchau are many channels cut through the plains, which serve both for irrigation and naviga- tion, but they are not worthy the name of canals. Similar con- veniences are more or less frequently met with in all parts of the provinces, notably those on the Plain and low coast-lands. The public roads, in a country so well provided with naviga- ble streams, are of minor consequence, but these media of travel are not neglected. “ I have travelled near 600 leagues by land in China,” observes De Guignes, and have found many good roads, most of them wide and planted with trees. They are not usually paved, and consequently in rainy weather are either channelled by the water or covered with mud, and in dry weather so dusty that travellers are obliged to wear spectacles to protect their eyes. In Ivwangtung transportation is performed almost wholly by water, the only roads being across the lines of navi- gation. The pass across the Mei ling is paved or filled up with stones ; at Ivih-ngan, in Kiangsi, are paved roads in good con- dition, but beyond the Yangtsz’, in Jsganhwui, they were ' Klaproth., Memoires. Tome III., p. 312 sqg. De Guignes’ Voyages d Peking, Tome II^ p. 19.5. Davis’s Sketches, Vol. I., passim. 38 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. almost impracticable, but became better as we proceeded northward, and in many places had trees on both sides. Be- yond the Hwang ho they were broader, and we saw crowds of travellei’s, carts, mules, and horses. In Shantung and Chihli they were generally broad and shady, and very dusty. This is, no doubt, disagreeable, but we went smooth- ly over these places, while in the villa- ges and towns we were miserably jolt- ed on the pave- ments. I hope, for the sake of those w h o may come after me, that the Chinese will not pave their roads be- fore they improve their carriages. Some of the thor- oughfares leading to Peking are paved with thick slabs of stone. One feature of the roads through the northern prov- inces which attracts attention is the great number that lie below the level of the country. It is caused by the wind sweej)ing along them, and carrying over A Road-Cut in the Loess. UOADS. 39 the fields the dust made and raised by the carts. As soon as the pools left by the lains dry enough to let the carts pass, the earth is reduced to ])o\vder ; as the winds sweej) through the passage and clear it out, the process in a few years cuts a defile through the loam often fifteen feet deep, which im- pedes travel by its narrow gauge, hindering the carts as they meet. The hanks are protected by revetment walls or turf, if necessary. Those near llangchau, and the great road leading from Chehkiang into Kiangsi, are all in good condition, (ien- erally speaking, however, as is the case with most things in China, the roads are not well repaired, and large holes are fre- quently allowed to remain unfilled in the path, to the great danger of those who travel by night." ' Mountain passes have been cut for facilitating the transit of goods and people over the high ranges in many parts of the empire. The great road leading from Peking south-west through Shansi and Shensi, and thence to Sz'chuen, is carried across the Peh ling and the valley of the river liwai by a moun- tain road, “ which, for the diflBculties it presents and the art and labor with which they have been overcome, does not appear to he inferior to the road over the Simplon." ' At one place on this route, called Li-nai, a passage has been cut through the rock, and steps hewn on both sides of the mountain from its base to the summit. The passage across the peak being only wide enough for one sedan, the guards are perched in little houses placed on poles over the pass. This road was in ancient times the path to the metropolis, and these immense e.xcavations were made from time to time by difPerent monarchs. The }>ass over the Mei ling, at Xan-ngan, is a work of later date, and so are most of the other roads across this range in Fuhkien and Kwangtung. The general aspect of the country is perhaps as much modi- ' Voyages d Peking, Vol. II., p. 214. Compare the letter of a Jesuit mis- sionary {Annales de la Foi, Tome VII., p. 377), who describes houses of rest on the wayside. These singular road-gullies of the loess region have been very thoroughly examined by Baron von Richthofen, from whose work the cut above is taken. 2 Penny Cyclopaedia, Vol. XXVII., p. 65Q. 40 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. lied by labor of man in China as in England, but the appear- ance of a landscape in the tw'o kingdoms is unlike. Whenever water is available, streams are led upon the rice fields, and this kind of cultivation allows few or no trees to grow in the plats. Such fields are divided by raised banks, which serve for path- ways across the marshy enclosure, and assist in confining the water when let in upon the growing crop. The bounds of other fields are denoted by stones or other landmarks, and the entire absence of walls, fences, or hedgerows, makes a cultivated plain appear like a vast garden. The greatest sameness exists in all the cities. A wall encloses all towns above a sz’ or township, and the suburbs are not un- frequently larger than their enceinte. The streets in large towns south of the Hwang ho are paved, and the sewers run under the cross slabs. What filth is not in them is generally in the street, as these drains easily become choked. The roadways are not usually over ten feet wide, but the low houses on each side make them appear less like alleys than would be the case in western cities. Villages have a pleasant appearance at a dis- tance, usually embowered among trees, between which the whitewashed houses look prettily ; but on entering them one is disappointed at their irregularity, dirtiness, and generally de- cayed look. The gardens and best houses are mostly walled in from sight, while the precincts of temples are the resort of idlers, beggars, and children, with a proportion of pigs and dogs. Elegance or ornament, orderly arrangement and grandeur of design, cleanliness, or comfort, as these terms are applied in Europe, are almost unknown in Chinese houses, cities, or gar- dens. Commanding or agreeable situations are chosen for tem- ])les and monasteries, which ai’e not oidy the abode of priests but serve for inns, theatres, and other pui’jjoses. The terrace cultivation sometimes renders the acclivities of hills beautiful in tlie highest degree, but it does not often impart a distinguish- ing feature to the landscape. A lofty solitary pagoda, an ex- tensive temple shaded by trees in tlie opening of a vale, a com- memorative or boats moving in every direction through narrow creeks or on broad streams, are some of the peculiar lin- GENEKAL ASPECT AXD RACE TYPES. 41 eiiments of Chinese scenery. Iso imposing mansions with beau- tiful grounds are found on the skirts of a town, for the people huddle together in hamlets and villages for mutual aid and se- curity. Xo tapering spires pointing out the rural church, nor towers, pillars, domes, or steeples in the cities, indicating build- ings of public utility, rise upon the low level of dun-tiled roofs. Xo meadows or pastures, containing herds and liocks, are visible from the hill-tops in China ; nor are coaches or railroad cars observed liurrying across its landscapes. Steamers have just begun to course through some of its rivers, and disturb, by their whistles and wheels, the drowsy silence of past ages and the slow progress of unwieldy junks — the other changes have yet to come. The condition and characteristics of the various families of man inhabiting this great empire, render its study far more in- teresting than anything relating to its physical geography or public works. The Chinese forms the leading family, but the Miaotsz’, the Li-niu, the Kakyens, and other aborigines in the southern provinces, the Manchus, the Mongols, and various Tartar tribes, the Tibetans, and certain wild races in Ivirin and Formosa, must not be overlooked. The sons of Ilan are indeed a remarkable race, whether regard be had to their antiquity, their numbers, their govennnent, or their literature, and on these accounts deserve the study and respect of every intelligent student of mankind ; while their \mwearied industry, their gen- eral peaceableness and good humor, and their attainments in domestic order and mechanical arts, commend them to the no- tice of every one who sees in these points of character an ear- nest of their future position amid the great family of civilized nations when once they shall have attained the same. The physical traits of the Chinese may be described as being between the light and agile Hindu, and the muscular, fleshy European. Their form is well built and symmetrical ; their color is a brunette or sickly white, rather approaching to a yel- lowish than to a florid tint, but this yellow hue has been much exaggerated ; in the south they are swarthy but not black, never becoming as dark even as the Portuguese, whose fifth or sixth ancestors dwelt near the Tagus. The shades of complexion differ much according to the latitude and degree of exposure to 42 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. the weather, especially in the females. The hair of the head is lank, black, coarse, and glossy ; beard always black, thin, and deficient ; scanty or no whiskers ; and very little hair on the body. Eyes invariably black, and apparently oblique, owing to the slight degree in which the inner angles of the eyelids open, the internal canthi being more acute than in western races, and not allowing the whole iris to be seen ; this peculiarity in the eye distinguishes the eastern races of Asia from all other fami- lies of man. There is a marked difference between the features of the mixed race living south of the Mei ling, and the inhabi- tants of the Great Plain and in Shansi or further west ; the lat- ter are the finer appearing. The hair and eyes being always black, a European with blue eyes and light hair appears strange to them ; one reason given by the people of Canton for calling foreigners fan Inoei, or ‘foreign devils,’ is, that they have sunken blue eyes, and red hair like demons. The cheek-bones are high, and the outline of the face remark- ably round. The nose is rather small, much depressed, nearly even with the face at the root, and wide at the extremity ; thei'e is, however, considerable difference in this respect, but no aqui- line noses are seen. Lips thicker than among Europeans, but not at all approaching those of the negro. The hands are small, and the lower limbs better proj)ortioned than among any other Asiatics. The height of those living north of the Yangtsz’ is about the same as that of Europeans. A thousand men taken as they come in the streets of Canton, will hardly equal in stature ajul weight the same number in Rome or Xew Orleans, while they would, perhaps, exceed these, if gathered in Peking ; their muscidar powers, however, woidd probably be less in either Chinese city than in those of Europe or America. In size, the women are smaller than European females; and in the eyes of those accustomed to the European style of beauty, the Chinese women possess little ; the broad upper face, low nose, and linear eyes, being quite the contrary of handsome. Nevertheless, the Chinese face is not destitute of beauty, and when animated with good humor and an expressive eye, and lighted l)y the glow of youth and health, the features lose much of their rejiulsiveness. Xor do they fade so soon and A150KIGINAL TRIBES. 43 look as ugly and withered wlien old as some travellers say, but are in respect to bearing children and keeping their vigor, more like Europeans than the Hindus or Persians. The mountainous regions in Yunnan, Kwangsi, and Kwei- chau, give lodgement to many clans of the Miaotsz’ or children of the soil,” as the words may be rendered. It is singular that any of these people shoidd have maintained their independence so long, when so large a portion of them have partially sub- mitted to Chinese rule. Those who will not are called sau(j Miaotsz', i.e., wild or ‘unsubdued,’ while the others are termed shuh or ‘ subdued.’ They present so many physical points of difference as to lead one to infer that they are a more ancient race than the Chinese around them, and the aborigines of Southern China. They are rather smaller in size and stature, have shorter necks, and their features are somewhat more angular. They are divided into many tribes, and have been described by Chinese travellers, who have illustrated their habits by paintings and sketches, from which a good idea can be obtained of their condition. Dr. Bridgman has translated such ati account, written by a Chinese native traveller, in which he sketches the manners of eighty-two clans, especially those cus- toms relating to worship and marriage, showing how little they have learned from their rulers or improved from the savage state. An examination of their languages shows that those of the Miaotsz’ proper have strong affinities with the Siamese and Annamese, and those known as Lolo exhibit a decided likeness to the Burmese. The former of these are mentioned in Chinese history during 4,000 years ; the latter about a.d. 250, when a Shan nation came under Chinese influence in Yunnan, and was the object of a warlike expedition. The same race still remain on the Upper Irrawadi and in Assam as Shans and Khamti, and in the basins of the Meinam and Mei-lung, all of them akin to the Tibetans and Burmese. They form together an interesting relic of the ancient peoples of the land, and further inquiries will doubtless develop something of their history and origin.’ ' Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV., p. 105. Shanghai Journal, No. in., 1859. Journal of Indian Archipelago, 1852. Missionary Recorder, Vol. III., pp. 33, 02, 149, etc. T. T. Cooper, Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce, passim. 44 THE MIDDLE KINGD03I. An aboriginal race — the Li-mu — exists in the centre of Hai- nan, an offset from the Miaotsz’, judging l)y the little that is known of their language. The natives of Formosa seem to have more affinitj^ with their neighbors in Luzon and southward than with the Chinese. The Mongol and Manchu races have been considered as springing from the same stock, but during centuries of separa- tion under different circumstances they have altered much. The Mongols are essentially a nomadic race, while the Manchus are an agricultural or a hunting people, according to the part of their country they inhabit. The Manchus are of a lighter com- plexion and somewhat larger than the Chinese, have the same conformation of the eyelids, but rather more beard, while their countenances indicate greater intellectual capacity. They seem to partake of both the Mongol and Chinese character, possess- ing more determination and largeness of plan than the latter, with much of the rudeness and haughtiness of the former. They have fair, if not florid, complexions, straight noses, and, in a few cases, brown hair and heavy beards. They are more allied to the Chinese, and when they ruled the northern prov- inces as the Kin dynasty, amalgamated with them. They may be regarded as the most improvable race in Central Asia, if not on the continent ; and the skill with which they have governed the Chinese empire, and adopted a civilization higher than their own, gives promise of still further advances when they become familiar with the civilization of Christian lands. Tinder the term Mongols or Moguls a great number of tribes occupying the steppes of Central Asia are comprised. They extend from the borders of the Khirgis steppe and Kokand eastward to the Sialkoi Mountains, and it is particularly to this race that the name Ta7iars or Tatars is applicable. No such word is now known among the people, exce{)t as an ignominious epithet, by the Chinese, who us\ially write it with two char- acters— tah-tsz' — meaning ‘ trodden-down people.’ Klaproth confines the appellation of Tat'tars to the INlongols, Kalmucks, Kalkas, Eleuths, and Buriats, while the Kirghis, shocks, Cos- sacks, and Turks are of Kurdish and Turl'oman origin. The Mongol tribes generally are a stout, scpiat, swarthy, ill- MANCIIUS AND MONGOLS. 45 favored rare of men, having higli and broad shoulders, short, broad noses, pointed and prominent chins, long teeth distant from each other, eyes black, elliptical, and unsteady, thick, short necks, extremities bony and nervous, muscular thighs, but short legs, with a stature nearly or cpiite ecpial to the European. They have a written language, but their literature is limited and mostly religious. The same language is spoken by all the tribes, with slight variations and only a small admixture of foreign words. Most of the accounts of their origin, their wars, and their habits, were written by foreigners living or travelling among them ; but they themselves, as McC'ulloch remarks, know as little of these things as rats or marmots do of their descent. Yet it is not so easy to find the typical Mongol among the med- ley of nationalities in their towns. A crowd in a town like Yarkand exhibits all the varieties of the human race. The gaunt, almost beardless Manchu, with sunken eyes, high cheek- bones, and projecting jowl, contrasts with the smooth face, pinky yellow, oblhpie eye, fiat cheeks, and rounded jowl of the Chinese. The bearded, sallow Toork, the angular, rosy Kirghis, the coarse, hard Dungani, and thick-lipped, square-faced Eleuth, all show poorly with the tall, handsome Cashmerian, the swarthy Dadakshi, and robust, intelligent Uzbek. The fate of the vast swarms of this race which have descended from the table-land of Central Asia and overrun, in different ages, the plains of India, China, Syria, Eg^-pt, and Eastern Europe, and the rise and fall of the gigantic empire they themselves erected under Genghis in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, are among the most remarkable episodes in the world’s history. They have always maintained the same character in their native wilds, their conquests have been exterminations rather than subju- gations, their history a record of continual quarrels between clans. The last of the five races is the Tibetan, who partake of the physical characteristics of the Mongols and Hindus. They are short, squat, and broad-shouldered in body, with angular faces, wide, high cheek-bones, small black eyes, and scant beard. They are mild in disposition, have a stronger religious feeling than the Chinese, and have never left their own highlands 46 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. either for emigration or conquest. Tlieir civilization is fullv equal to that of the Siamese and Burmese, and life and prop- erty are more secure with them than among their turbulent neighbors in Butan, Lahore, or Cabul. It will be seen from this short survey that a full accoimt of the geography, government, manners, literature, and civilization of so large a part of the world and its inhabitants requires the combined labors of many observers, all of them well acquainted with the languages and institutions of the people whom they describe. No one will look, therefore, for more than a brief outline of these subjects in the present work, minute enough, however, to enable readers to form a fair opinion of the people. It is the industry of the Chinese which has given them their high place among the nations of the earth. Not only has the indigenous vegetation been superseded wherever culture would remunerate toil, but lofty hills have been tilled and terraced almost to their tops, cities have been built upon them, and extensive ranges of wall erected along their summits. They practise all the industrial arts whose objects are to feed, clothe, educate or adorn mankind, and maintain the largest population ever united under one system of rule. Ten centuries ago they were the most civilized nation on earth, and the incredulity manifested in Europe, five hundred years ago, at the recitals of Marco Polo regarding their condition, is the counterpart of the sentiments now expressed by the Chinese when they hear of the power and grandeur of western nations. Isolated by natural boundaries from other peoples, their civil- ization, developed under peculiar influences, must be compared to, rather than judged of, by European. A people from whom some of the most distinguishing inventions of modern Europe came (such as the compass, porcelain, gunpowder, and printing), and were known and practised many centuries earlier ; who probably amount to more than three hundred millions, united in one system of manners, letters, and polity ; whose cities and capitals rival in numbers the greatest metropoles of any age ; who have not only covered the earth, but the waters, with towns and streets — such a nation must occupy a conspicuous ])lace in tlie history of mankind, and the study of their char- CIVILIZATION PAvST AND PUTUIIK. 47 acter and condition commend itself to every well-wisher of his race. It has been too much the custom of writers to overlook the influence of the Bible upon modern civilization ; but when a comparison is to be drawn between European and Asiatic civ- ilization, this element forces itself upon the attention as the main cause of the superiority of the former. It is not the civ- ilization of lu.xury or of letters, of arts or of priestcraft; it is not the spirit of war, the passion for money, nor its exhibitions in trade and the application of machinery, that render a nation permanently great and prosperous. “ Christianity is the sum- mary of all civilization,-’ says Chenevix ; “ it contains every ar- gument which could be urged in its support, and ev'ery precept which explains its nature. Former systems of religion were in conformity with luxury, but this alone seems to have been con- ceived for the region of civilization. It has flourished in Eu- rope, while it has decayed in Asia, and the most civilized na- tions are the most purely Christian.’’ Christianity is essentially the religion of the people, and when it is covered over with forms and contracted into a priesthood, its vitality goes out; this is one reason why it has declined in Asia. The attain- ments of the Chinese in the arts of life are perhaps as great as they can be without this spring of action, without any other motives to industry, obedience, and morality, than the com- mands or demands of the present life. A survey of the world and its various races in successive ages leads one to infer that God has some plan of national character, and that one nation exhibits the development of one trait, while another race gives prominence to another, and subordinates the first. Thus the Egyptian people were emi- nently a priestly race, devoted to science and occult lore ; the Greeks developed the imaginative powers, excelling in the fine arts ; the Homans were warlike, and the embodiment of force and law ; the Babylonians and Persians magnificent, like the head of gold in Daniel’s vision ; the Arabs preda- cious, volatile, and imaginative ; the Turks stolid, bigoted, and impassible ; the Hindus are contemplative, religious, and metaphysical ; the Chinese industrious, peaceful, literary, athe- 48 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. istic, and self-contained.* The same religion, and constant in- tercommunication among European nations, has assimilated them mo]-e than these other races ever could have become ; but every one knows the national peculiarities of the Spaniards, Italians, French, English, etc., and how they are maintained, notwithstanding the motives to imitation and coalescence. The comparison of national character and civilization, with the view of ascertaining such a plan, is a subject worthy the pro- found study of any scholar, and one which would offer new views of the human race. The Chinese would be found to have attained, it is believed, a higher position in general secu- rity of life and property, and in the arts of domestic life and comfort among the mass, and a greater degree of general literary intelligence, than any other heathen or Mohammedan nation that ever existed — or indeed than some now calling them- selves Christian, as Abyssinia. They have, however, probably done all they can do, reached as high a point as they can with- out the Gospel ; and its introduction, with its attendant influ- ences, will erelong change their political and social system. The rise and progress of this revolution among so mighty a mass of human beings will form one of the most interesting parts of the history of the world during the nineteenth century, and solve the problem whether it be possible to elevate a race with- out the intei’mediate steps of disorganization and reconstruction. ' For observations on the Chinese as compared with other nations, see Schle- gel’s Philosophy of History, p. 118, Bohn’s edition. CHAPTER II. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OP THE EASTERN PROVINCES. The provinces of China Proper are politically subdivided in a scientific manner, but in the regions beyond them, the.se divi- sions are considerably modified. Manchuria is regarded as be- longing to the reigning family, somewhat as Hanover once per- tained to the kings of England, and its scanty population is ruled by a simple military organization, the higher olficials be- ing appointed by his majesty himself. The khans of the Mon- gols in ^Mongolia and t\i, the Mohammedan begs in Turkestan, and the lamas in Tibet, are assisted in their rule by Chinese residents and generals who direct and uphold the government. The geography of foreign countries has not been studied by the Chinese ; and so few educated men have travelled even into the islands of the Indian Archipelago, or the kingdoms of Siam, Corea, or Burmah, that the people have had no opportunity to become acquainted with the countries lying on their borders, much less with those in remoter parts, whose names, even, they hardly know. A few native works exist on foreign geography, among which four may be here noticed. “ 1. Researches in the East and West, 6 vols. 8vo. It was written about two cen- turies ago ; the first volume contains some rude charts intended to show the situation and form of foreign countries. 2. Notices of the Seas, 1 vol. Its author, Yang Ping-nan, obtained his in- formation from a townsman, who, being wrecked at sea, was picked up by a foreign ship, and travelled abroad for fourteen years; on his return to China he became blind, and was en- gaged as an interpreter in Macao. 3. Notices of Things heard and seen in Foreign Countines, 2 vols. 12mo ; written about a century ago, containing among other things a chart of the whole Vol. I.— 4 50 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Chinese coast. 4. The Memoranda of Foreign Tribes^ 4 vols. 8vo, published in the reign of Kienlung.”’ A nioi-e methodi- cal work is that of Li Tsing-lai, called ^Plates Illustrative of the Heavens^ being an astronomical and geographical work, much of whose contents were obtained from Europeans residing in the country. But even if the Chinese had better treatises on these subjects, the information contained in them would he of little use until it was taught in their schools. The high of- ficers in the government begin now to see the importance of a better acquaintance with general geography. Conimissioner Lin, in 1841, published a partial translation of Murray’s Cyclo- poediaof Geography, in 20 volumes; Gov. Seu 3vi-yu, in 1850, issued a compend of geographical notices witli maps, and many others, more accm-ate and extensive, are now extant. However scarce their geographical works upon foreign coun- tries may be, those delineating the topography of their own are hardly equalled in number and minuteness in any language : every district and town of importance in the empire, as well as every department and province, has a local geography of its own. It may be said that the topographical and statistical works form, after the ethical, the most valuable poition of Chinese literature. It would not be difficult to collect a library of 10,000 volumes of such ti’eatises alone ; the topography of the city of Suchau, and of the province of Chehkiang, are each in 40 vols., while the Kioanytung Tung Chi, an ‘ Historical and Statistical Account of Ivwangtimg,’ is in 182 volumes. Xone of these works, howevei', would boar to be translated entire, such is the amount of legendary and unimportant matter con- tained in them ; hut they contain many data not to be over- looked by one who undertakes to write a geography of China. The Climate of the Eighteen Provinces has been rei)resented in meteorological tables sufficiently well to asceilain its general salubrity. Pestilences do not frequently visit the land, nor, as in Southei-n India, is it deluged with rain during one monsoon, and parched with drought during the other. The average tem- perature of the whole empire is lower than that of any other liridginaii’s Chiutxe Chrestomathy , p. 420. Macao, 1841. CLIMATE OF THE FIIOVINCES. 51 coimtiy on tlie same latitude, and tlie coast is snbject to the same extremes as that of the Atlantic States in America. The isothermal line of 70° F. as the average for the year, which passes south of Canton, runs hy Cairo and Aew Orleans, eight degrees north of it ; the line of 00° F. average passes from Shanghai to Marseilles, Raleigh, St. Louis, and north of San F rancisco ; and the line of 50° F. average goes near Peking, thence on to Vienna, Dublin, J’hiladelphia, and Puget’s Sound, in lat. 52°. These various lines show that while Shanghai and Peking have temperatures similar to Raleigh and Philadelphia, nearly on their own parallels, Canton is the coldest place on the globe in its latitude, and the only place within the tropics where snow falls near the sea-.shore. One result of this pro- jection of the temperate zone into the tropical is seen in the greater vigor and size of the people of the three southern prov- inces over any races on the same parallel elsewhere ; and the productions are not so strictly tropical. The isothermal lines for the year, as given above, are not so irregular as those for winter. The line of G0° F. runs hy the south of Formosa and Hongkong, to Cairo and St. Augustine, a range of nine degrees; hut the winter line of 40° F. passes from Shanghai to Con- stantinople, Milan, Dublin, and Raleigh, ending at Puget’s Sound, a range of twenty degrees. A third line of 32° for winter passes through Shantung to X. Tibet and the Black Sea, Norway, New York, and Sitka— a range of twenty -five degi-ees. Peking (lat. 39° 55' N.) exhibits a fair average of the climate in that part of the Plain. The extremes range from 104° to zero F., hut the mean annual temperature is 52.3° F., or more than 9° lower than Naples ; the mean winter range is 12° be- low fi-eezing, or about 18° lower than that of Paris (lat. 48° 50'), and 15° lower than Copenhagen. The rainfall seldom reaches sixteen inches in a year, most of it coming in July and August ; the little snow that descends remains only two or three days on the ground, and is blown away rather than melted ; no one as- sociates white with winter, hut snow is earnestly prayed for as a purifier of the air against diphtheria and fevers. The winds from the Plateau cause the hai’ometer and thermometer to fall. 52 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. but tbe sky is clear. In the spring, as the heat increases, the winds raise the dust and sand over the country ; some of these sand-storms extend even to Shanghai, carrying millions of tons of soil from its original place. The dryness of the region has apparently increased during the last century, and constant droughts destroy the trees, which by their absence increase the desiccation now going on. Frost closes the rivers for three months, and ice is cheap. After the second crops fully start in August, the autumns become mild, and till the 10th of Decem- ber are calm and genial.' The climate of the Plain is generally good, but near the rivers and marshy grounds along the Grand Canal, agues and bowel complaints prevail. A resident speaks of the tempera- ture of Xanking and the region around it : “ This vast Plain being only a marsh half drained, the moisture is excessive, giving rise to many strange diseases, all of them serious, and not unfrerpiently mortal. The climate affects the natives from other provinces, and Europeans. 1 have not known one of the latter who was not sick for six months or a year after his arri- val. Every one who comes here must prepare himself for a tertian or (piotidian. For myself, after suffering two months from a malignant fever, I had ten attacks of a malady the Chi- nese here call the saund, from the skin being covered with little blackish pimples, resendding grains of dust. It is prompt and violent in its progress, and corrupts the blood so rapidly that in a few minutes it stagnates and coagulates in the veins. The best remedy the people have is to cicatrize the least tieshy parts of the body with a copper cash. The first attack I experienced rendered all my limbs insensible in two minutes, and I expected to die before I could receive extreme unction. After re- covering a little, great lassitude succeeded.’” The monsoons form an important element in the seaside climate as far north as latitude 31°. The dry and wet seasons correspond to the north-east and south-west monsooiis, assuaging the heats of summer by their cooling showers, and making the wintem ’ Compare an article in the China Revino ior Septeinber-October, 1881, by II. Fritsche : The Amount of Rain and Snow in Peking. * Annalea de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 293. CLIMATE OF THE COAST TOWNS. 63 bracing ami healtlij. Above tlie Formosa Channel they* are less retriilar in the siimnier than in winter. The inhabitants of Shanghai sutter from rapid changes in the autumn and spring months, and pulmonary and rheumatic complaints are common. The maximum of heat is 1UU° F., and the minimum 24°, but ice is not common, nor does snow remain long on the ground. The average temperature of the summer is from 80° to 03° by day, and from t!U° to 75° by night ; the thermometer in winter ranges from 45° to GU° by er in Journal of N. C. Branch Royal Asiatic Society, No. XII., 1878, pp. 127-335; also Appendix II. in No. X., containing observations taken at Zi-ka- wei. 58 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. term added to the name of a place, endeavored to designate its relative rank. Three of the words used for this purpose, viz., f u^ chalk, and Jiien, have been translated as ‘ first,’ ‘ second,’ and ‘ third ’ rank ; but this gradation is not quite correct, for the terms do not apply to the city or town alone, but to the portions of country of which it is the capital. The nature of these and other terms, and the divisions intended by them, are thus explained : “ T}ie Eighteen Provinces are divided into fu, ting, chau, and Men. A fu is a large portion or department of a province, under the general control of one civil officer immediately subordinate to the heads of the provincial govern- ment. A ting is a division of a province smaller than a fu, and either like it governed by an officer immediately subject to the heads of the provincial government, or else forming a subordinate part of a/«. In the former case it is called cMh-li, i.e. under the ‘direct rule’ of the provincial government; in the latter case it is simply called ting. A chau is a division similar to a ting, and like it either independent of any other division, or forming part of a fu. The difference between the two consists in the government of a ting resembling that of a, fu more nearly than that of a. chau does: that of the chau is less expensive. The ting and chau of the class to which the term chih-li is attached, may be denominated in common with the/», departments or prefectures ; and the term chih-li, may be rendered by the word independent. The subordinate ting and chau may both be called distnets. A Men, which is also a district, is a small division or subordinate part of a department, whether of a/w, or of an independent chau or ting. “Each fu, ting, chau, and Men, possesses at least one walled town, the seat of its government, which bears the same name as the department or district to which it pertains. Thus Hiangshan is the chief town of the district Hiang- shan hien ; and Shauking, that of the department Shanking fu. By Euro- pean writers, the chief towns of the/ii or departments have been called cities of the first order ; those of the chau, cities of the second order ; and those of the hien, cities of the third order. The division called ting, being rarely met with, has been left out of the arrangement — an arrangement not recognized in China. It must be ob.served that the chief town of a fu is always also the chief town of a hien district ; and sometimes, when of considerable size and importance, it and the country around are divided into two hien districts, both of which have the seat of their government within the same walls: but this is not the case with the ting and chau dejiartments. A district is not always subdivided ; instances maj’ occur of a whole district j)Ossessing but one imi)or- tant town. But as there are often large and even walled towns not included in the number of chief or of district towns, consecpiently not the seat of a regular chau or hien magistracy, a subdivision of a district is therefore' fn‘- quently I'endered necessary ; and for tin* better governnu'nt of such towns and the towns stirronnding them, magistrates are a])j)ointed to them, second- ary to the magistrates of the dejeartmeuts or the districts in which they are FU, TINO, CHAU, AND IIIKN. 59 comprised. Thus Fuhshau is a very large commercial town or mart called a chin, situated in the district of Nanhai, of the dej>artment of Kwangchau, about twelve miles distant from Canton. The chief officer of the dei)artment has therefore an assistant residing there, and the town is partly under his government and partly under that of the Nanhai magistrate, within whose district it is included, hut who resides at Canton. There are several of these chin in the provinces, as Kingteh in Kiangsi, Kiangtan in Hunan, etc. ; they are not inclosed by walls. Macao affords another instance : being a place of some importance, both from its size and as the residence of foreigners, an as- sistant to the Hiangshan liien magistrate is placed over it, and it Ls also under the control of an assistant to the chief magistrate of the fu. Of these assist- ant magistrates, there are two ranks secondary to the chief magistrate of a fu, two secondary to the magistrate of a chau, and two also secondary to the mag- istrate of a hien. Tiie i)laces under the rule of these assistant magistrates are called by various names, most frequently chin and so, and sometimes also chai and icei. These names do not appear to have reference to any particular form of municipal government existing in them ; but the chai and the wei are often military posts ; and sometimes a place is, with respect to its civil government, the chief city of a fu, while with respect to its military position it is culled wei. There are other towns of still smaller imj)ortance ; these are under the government of inferior magistrates who are called siun kien : a division of country under such a magistrate is called a sz', which is best represented by the term township or commune. The town of Whampoa and country around it form one such division, called Kiautang sz’, belonging to the district of Pwaiiyu, in the department of Kwangchau. “In the mountainous districts of Kwangsi, Yunnan, Kweichau, and Sz’- chnen, and in some other places, there are districts called tu sz'. Among these, the same distinctions of fu, chau, and hien exist, together with the minor division sz'. The magistrates of these departments and districts are hereditary in their succession, being the only hereditary local officers acknowl- edged by the supreme government. “Tliere is a larger division than any of the above, but a.s it does not pre- vail universally', it w’as not mentioned in the fii’st instance. It is called tau, a course or circuit, and comprises two or more departments of a province, whether fu, or independent ting or chav. These circuits are subject to the government of officers called tau-tai or intendants of circuit, who often com- bine with political and judicial powers a military authority and various duties relating to the territory or to the revenue.” ’ The eighteen province.s received their present boundaries and divisions in the reign of Kienlung ; and the little advance wliieh has been made abroad in the geography of China is shotvn by the fact, that although these divisions were estab- lished a hundred years ago, the old dernarkations, existing at Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 54. 60 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. the time of the survey in 1710, are still found in many modern European geographies and maps. The following table shows their present divisions and government. The three columns under the head of Depa/rtments contain \X\e fu, chihli ting, and chihli chau, all of which are properly prefectures ; the three col- umns under the head of Districts contain the ting, chau, and hien. The province of Chihli is the most important of the whole. On foreign maps it is sometimes written Pechele {i.e., Xorth Chihli), a name formerly given it in order to distinguish it from Kiangnan, or Nan-chilili, in which the seat of govern- ment was once located. This name is descriptive, rather than technical, and means ‘ Direct rule,’ denoting that from this prov- ince the supreme power which governs the empire proceeds; any province, in which the Emperor and court should be fixed, would therefore be termed Chihli, and its chief city King, ‘ capital,’ or King-tu or King-sz\ ‘ court of the capital.’ The surface of this province lying south of the Great AVall is level, excepting a few ridges of hills in the west and north, while the eastern parts, and those south to the Gulf, are among the flattest portions of the Great Plain. It is bounded on the north-east by Liautung, where for a short distance the Great Wall is the frontier line ; on the east by the Gulf of Pechele ; on the south-east and south by Shan- tung ; on the south-west by Honan ; on the west by Shansi ; and north by Inner Mongolia, where the river Liau forms the boundary. The extensive region beyond the Wall, occupied mostly by the Tsakhar Mongols, is now included within the jurisdiction, and placed under the administration of officers re- siding at one of the garrisoned gates of the Great AVall; the area of this part is about half that of the whole province. The chief department in the province, that of Shuntien, being both large and important, as containing the metropolis, is divided into four lu or circuits, each under the rule of a sub-prefect, who is subordinate to the prefect living at Peking. Peking' {i.e., Northern Capital) is situated upon a sandy ' Tins word should not be written Pekin ; it is pronounced Pei-ching by the citizens, and by most of tlie ])eople north of the Great River. TOrO<}UAlMIICAL DIVISIONS OF CHINA PUOPEU. 01 62 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. plain, about twelve miles south-west of the Pei ho, and more than a hundred miles west-north-west of its mouth, in lat. 39° 54' 36" N., and long. 116° 27' E., or nearly on the parallel of Samarkand, i7aples, and Philadelphia. It is a city worthy of note on many accounts. Its ancient history as the capital of the Yen Kwoh (the ‘ Land of Swallows ’) during the feudal times, and its later position as the metropolis of the empire for many centuries, give it historical importance ; while its imperial buildings, its broad avenues with their imposing gates and towers, its regular arrangement, extent, populousness, and di- versity of costume and equipage, combine to render it to a traveller the most interesting and unique city in Asia. It is now ruinous and poor, but the remains of its former grandeur under Kienlung’s prosperous reign indicate the justness of the comparisons made by the Catholic writers with western cities one hundred and eighty years ago. The entire circuit of the walls and suburbs is reckoned by Ilyacinthe at twenty-five miles, and its area at twenty-seven square miles, but more ac- curate measurements of the walls alone give forty-one /^, or 14.25 miles (or 23.55 kilometres) for the Manchu city, includ- ing the cross-wall, and twenty-eight li, or ten miles, for the Chinese city on its south ; not counting the cross-wall, the cir- cuit measures almost twenty-one miles. The suburbs near the thirteen outer gates altogether form a small proportion to the whole ; the area within them is nearly twenty-six square miles. Those residents who have had the best opportunities estimate the entire population at a million or somewhat less ; no census returns are available to prove this figure, nor can it be stated what is the proportion of Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese, except that the latter outnumber all others. Du liable reckoned it to be about three millions, and Klaproth one million three hun- dred thousand ; and each was probably true at .some period, for the number has diminished with the poverty of the Govern- ment. Peking is regarded by the Chinese as one of their ancient cities, but it was not made the capital of the whole empire until Kublai established his court at this spot in 1264. The Ming emperors who succeeded the Mongols held their court THE AN-TINO (JATE, \VAI,L OF FKKING. POSITION AND IIISTOKY OF PKKINO. 03 at Nanking until Ynngloli transferred the seat of government to Peking in 1411, where it has since remained. Under the Mongols, the city was called IChan-haliyh {Le., city of the Khan), changed into Cambalu in the accounts of those times ; on (diinese maps it is usually called Kin ting, the former residence of tlie governor-general, and 'j'ien- tsin, are the most important. The former lies ahont eighty miles south-west of the capital, on the Yungting liiver and the great load leading to Shansi. The whole department is de- scribed as a thoroughly cultivated, })o])ulous region ; it is well watered, and possesses two or three small lakes. Tientsin is the largest port on the coast above Shanghai. Owing, however, to the shallowness of the gulf and the har at the mouth of the Pei ho, over which at neap tide only three or four feet of water flow, the port is rendered inaccessible to large foreign vessels. Its size and importance were formerly chietly owing to its being the terminus of the (Irand (’anal, where the produce and taxes for the use of the capital were brought. ^Ir. (xutzlaff, who visited Tientsin in 1831, described it as a bustling place, comparing the stirring life and crowds on the water and shores outside of the walls of the city with those of Liverpool. The enormous fleet of grain junks carrying rice to the ca])ital is supplemented by a stdl greater number of vessels which take the food up to Tung chan. Formerly the coast ti-ade increased the shipping at Tientsin to thousands of junks, including all which lined the river for about sixty miles. This native ti-ade has diminished since 18(11, inasmuch as steamers are gradually ousting the native vessels, no one caring to risk insurance on freight in junks. The country is not very fertile between the city and the sea, owing to the soda and nitre in the soil ; but scanty crops are brought f. 22. London, 1H40. DOLON-NOU AKD TOAVNS IX THE NOUTII. 87 several towns in liussia; it consists of two thin parallel brick walls, the intermediate space being filled with clay and sand. The wall is flanked with towers. We passed through three gates to enter the city: the first is covered with iron nails; at the second is the guard-house ; we thence proceeded along a broad street, bordered with shops of hardware ; we went through several large and small streets, which are broad and clean ; but, considering its extent, the city is thinly peopled.” ' The department of Chahar, or Tsakhar, lies beyond the Great AVall, north and west of the province, a mountainous and thinly settled country, chiefly inhabited by Mongol shepherds who keep the flocks and herds of the Emperor.’ In the north-east of their grounds lies the thriving town of J)olon-nor (i.c., Seven Lakes), or J.,ama-miao, of about 20,000 ('hinese, founded by Kanglu. The Buddhist temples and manu- factories of bells, idols, praying machines, and other religious articles found here, give it its name, and attract the Mongols, whose women array themselves in the jewelry made here. It is in latitude 42° 16' N., about ten miles from the Shangtu Kiver, a large branch of the river Liao, on a sandy plain, and is approached by a road winding among several lakes. Xorth-west of Bolon-iior are the ruins of the ancient Mongolian capital of Shangtu, rendered more famous among English reading people by Coleridge’s excpiisite poem — In Xanadu did Kubla Khan A stately pleasure-dome decree : Where Alph, the sacred river, ran Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless sea. So twice five miles of fertile ground With walls and towers were girdled round — than by Marco Polo’s relation, which moved the poet to pen the lines. It was planned as Mukden now is, an outer and inner wall inclosing separate peoples, and its tumuli will probably fur- nish many tablets and relics of the Mongol emperors, when ' Travels of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, Vol. I., p. 293. London, 1827. -Williamson, Jcmrneys in North China, Vol. II., p. 90. 88 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. cai'efully dug over. It was too far from Peking for the Manchu monarchs to rebuild, and the Ming emperors had no power there. It w'as visited in 1872 by Messrs. Grosvenor and Eushell of the British Legation ; Dr. Bushell’s description corroborates Polo’s account and Gerbillon’s later notices of its size.' There are several lakes, the largest of which, the Peh hu, in the south-western part, connects with the Pei ho through the river Ilu-to. The various branches of the five rivers, whose united waters disembogue at Ta-ku, afford a precarious water communication through the southern half of Child i. Their head- waters rise in Shansi and beyond the Great Wall, bringing down much silt, which their lower currents only partially take out into the gulf; this sediment soon destroys the usefulness of the channels by raising them dangerously near the level of the banks. The utilization of their streams is a difficult problem in civd engineering, not only here but throughout the Great Plain. Near the banks of the Lan ho, a large stream flowing south from the eastern slopes of the Chahar Hills, past Yungping fu into the gulf, and about one hundred and seventy-four miles north of Ta-ku, lies Chingpeh, or Jeh-ho, the Emperor’s country palace. The approach to it is through a pass cut out of the rock, and resembles that leading to Damascus. The imperial grounds are embraced by a high range of hills forming a grand amphitheatre, which at this point is extremely fine. This de- scent to the city presents new and captivating views at every turn of the road. The hunting grounds are inclosed by a high wall stretching twenty miles over the hills, and stocked with deer, elks, and other game. The Buddhist temples form the chief attraction to a visitor. The largest one is square and cas- tellated, eleven stories high, and about two hundred feet on each of its sides ; the stories are painted red, yellow and green alternating. There are several similar but smaller structures below this one, and on each of the first two or three series is a row of small chinaware pagodas of a blue color ; their tiles are ’ Journal of the Roy. Geog. Soc., 1874. Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., j)p. 2(i3- 2G8. Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. I., p. 134. Gerbilloii, Memoires concernant leu Chinois (Asittey’s ed.), Vol. IV., j)]). 701-7K!. Journal Aeiatique. Ser. II., Tome XI., p. 345. Hue, 'Tiirtary, etc., Vol. I., p. 34, 2d ed., London. SIIANTHNCi I'KOVINCK. sn likewise blue. In the bright sunlight the effect of these bril- liant hands is veiy good, and the general neatness adds to the ])leasing result of the gay coloring. Nearly a thousand lamas live about these shrines. The town of Jeh-ho {t.e.. Hot River) consists mostly of one street coiling around the hills near the ])alace ; its inhabitants are of a higher grade than usual in rhinese cities, the greater part being connected with the gov- ernment. The road through Ku peh kau in the Great "W'all from Peking to Jeh-ho is one of the best in the province, and the journey presents a variety of charming scenery ; its chief interest to foreigners is connected with the visit there of I^ord ^lacartney, in 1793.' This fertile prefecture is rapidly settling by Chinese, whose numbers are now not far from two millions. The principal productions of Chihli are millet and wheat, sorghum, maize, oats, and many kinds of pulse and fruits, among which are pears, dried and fresh dates {Iihuninux), apples and grapes ; all these are exported. Coal, both bitumi- nous and anthracite, exists in great abundance ; one mode of using hard coal is to mix its dust with powdered clay and work them into balls and cakes for cooking and fuel. The ju-ovince also furnishes good marble, granite, lime, and iron, some kinds of precious stones, and clay for bricks and pottery. The province of Shantung {i.e.^ East of the Hills) has a long coast-line, its maritime border being more than half its whole circuit. It lies south of the Gulf of Pechele, south-east of Chihli, north of Kiangsu, and borders on Honan, where the Yellow Iliver divides the two. Most of its area is level, the hilly part is the peninsula portion, where the highest points rise too high to admit of cultivation. The Grand Canal enters the province on its course from Tientsin at Lintsing chau in the north-west, passing in a south-easterly direction to the old Yel- low River, and adds greatly to its importance. The shores of the promontory are generally bold, and full of indentations, presenting several excellent harbors ; no important river disem- bogues within the province, and on each side of the peninsula ' Sir G. L. Staunton, Accotmt of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China. 2 vols. Lond., 1796. 90 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. the waters are shallow. Chifu, in the prefecture of Tangchau, has the best harbor, and its trade will gradually draw toward it a large population. The hills along the shore have a remark- ably uniform, conical shape, resembling the bonuets worn by officers. The hilly regions ai’e arranged in a series of chains running across the promontory, the longest and highest of which runs with the general trend of the coast in Tai-ngan fu, some peaks reaching over five thousand feet, but most of them being under three thousand feet high. Their intervales are highly cultivated. The soil is generally productive, except near the shores of the gulf, where it is nitrous. Two crops are annually produced here as elsewhere in Northern China. The willow, aspen, ailantus, locust {Sojohora), oak, mulberry, and con if era, are common trees ; silk-worms fed on oak leaves fur- nish silk. This province is one of the most celebrated in Chinese history, partly from its having been the scene of many remarkable events in the early history of the people up to n.c. 200, but more par- ticularly from its containing the birthplaces of Confucius and Mencius, whose fame has gone over the earth. The inhabi- tants of the province are proud of their nativity on this score, much as the woman of Samaria was because Jacob’s cattle had drunk water at the well of Sychar. The high mountain called Tai shan, or ‘ Great mount,’ is situ- ated near Tai-ngan fu in this province. This peak is mentioned in the Shu King as that where Shun sacrificed to Heaven (b.c. 2254) ; it is accordingly celebrated for its historical as well as religious associations. It towers high above all other peaks in the range, as if keeping solitary watch over the country round- about, and is the great rendezvous of devotees ; every sect has there its temples and idols, scattered up and down its sides, in which priests chant their prayers, and practise a thousand super- stitions to attract pilgrims to their shrines. During the spring, the roads leading to the Tai shan are obstructed with long caravans of people coming to accomplish their vows, to suppli- cate the deities for health or riches, or to solicit the joys of heaven in exchange for the woes of earth. A French mission- ary mentions having met with pilgrims going to it, one party TAI SIIAiV, THK ‘gUKAT MOUNT.’ 91 of whom consisted of old dames, wlio liad M'itli iutinite fatigue and discomfort come from the south of llonan, about three hundred miles, to “ remind their god of the long abstinence from riesh and iish they had observed diu-ing the course of their lives, and solicit, as a recompense, a happy ti'ansmigration for their souls.” The youngest of this party was 78, and the oldest 90 years.' Another traveller says that the pilgrims re.sort there during the spring, when there are fairs to attract them ; high and low, official and commoner, men and women, old and young, all sorts gather to worship and traffic. A great temple lies outside the town, whose grounds furnish a large and secure area for the tents where the devotees amuse themselves, after they have finished their devotions. The road to the summit is about five miles, well paved and furnished with rest-houses, tea-stalls, and stairways for the convenience of the pilgrim.s, and shaded with cypresses. It is beset with beggars, men and women with all kinds of sores and diseases, crippled and in- jured, besieging travellers with cries and self-im}>osed suffer- ings, frequently lying across the path so as to be stepped upoji. A vast number of them live on alms thus collected, and liave scooped themselves holes in the side of the M’ay, M'here they live ; their numbers indicate the great crowds whose offerings support such a wretched thi’ong on the hill. The capital of the province is Tsinan, a well-built city of about 100,000 inhabitants. It was an important town in an- cient times as the capital of Tsi, one of the influential feudal States, from u.(\ 1100 to its conquest by Cdii llwangti about 230 ; the present town lies not far east of the Ta-tsing ho, or new Yellow lliver, and is accessible by small steamers from sea. It has hills around it, and is protected by three lines of defence, composed of mud, granite, and brick. Three copious springs near the western gate furnish piire water, which is tepid and so abundant as to fill the city moat and form a lake for the solace of the citizens whether in boats upon its bosom or from temples around its shores. Its manufactures are strong fabrics of wild silk, and ornaments of Iki-li, a vitreous substance like strass, of ' Annales de la Foi, 1844, Tome XVI., p. 421. 92 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. wliicli siinff-bottles, bangles, cups, etc., are made in great variety, to resemble serpentine, jade, ice, and other things. East of Tsi- nan is the prefect city of Tsing chan, once the provincial capi- tal, and the centre of a popidous and fertile region. Tsming chan is an opulent and flourishing place, judging from the gilded and carved shops, temples, and public offices in the sub- urbs, which stretch along the eastern banks of the C’anal ; just beyond the town, the Canal is only a little raised above the level of the extensive marshes on each side, and further south the swamps increase rapidly : when Amherst's embassy passed, the whole country, as far as the eye could reach, displayed the ef- fects of a most extensive recent inundation. Davis adds, “ The waters were on a level with those of the Canal, and there was no need of dams, which were themselves nearly under water, and sluices for discharging the superfluous water were occasion- ally observed. Clumps of large trees, cottages, and towers, were to be seen on all sides, half under water, and deserted by the inhabitants ; the number of the latter led to the inference that they were provided as places of refuge in case of inundation, which must be here very frequent. AVretched villages occurred frequently on the I'ight-hand bank, along which the tracking path was in some places so completely undermined as to give way at every step, obliging them to lay down hurdles of reeds to afford a passage.” ‘ Lin-tsing chau, on the Yu ho, at its junction with the Canal, lies in the midst of a beautiful country, full of gardens and cul- tivated grounds, interspersed with buildings. This place is the depot for produce brought on the Canal, and a rendezvous for large fleets of boats and barges. Xear it is a pagoda in good repair, about 150 feet high, the basement of which is built of granite, and the other stories of glazed bricks. The towns and villa‘>:es of Shantuni; have been much visited during the past few years, and their inhabitants have become better acquainted with foreigners, with whom increased inter- cour.se has developed its good and bad results. The productions of this fertile province comprise every kind of grain and vege- ’ Sket.cheH of Chinn, Vol. I., i>. 257. CITIKS AN1> CIIAKACTEnrSTICS OF SHANTUXO. 93 table fuimd in Northern China, and its trade bj sea and along the ('anal opens many outlets for entei-prising capital. Among its mineral productions are gold, copper, asbestos, galena, anti- mony, silver, sulphur, tine agates, and saltpetre ; the first occurs in the beds of streams. All these yield in real importance, how- ever, to the coal and iron, which are abundant, and have been worked for ages. Its mannfactures supply the common cloth- ing and utensils of its people ; silk fabrics, straw braid woven from a kind of wheat, glass, cheap earthenware, and rugs of every pattern. Mr. Stevens, an American missionary wlio visited Wei-hai wei and Chifu in 1S3T, gives a description of tlie people, which is still applicable to juost parts of the province; “ These poor people know nothing, from youth to old age, hut the same monotonous round of toil for a suhsistence, and never see, never hear anything of the world around them. Improvements in the useful arts and sciences, and an increase of the conveni- ences of life, are never known among them. In the place where their fathers lived and died, do they live, and toil, and die, to be succeeded by another generation in the same manner. Few of the comforts of life can be found among them ; their houses consisted in general of granite and thatclied roofs, but neither table, chair, nor floor, nor any article of furniture could he seen in the hou.-^es of the poorest. Every man had his pipe, and tea was in most dwellings. They Avere industriously en- gaged, some in ploughing, others in reaping, some carrying out manure, and others bringing home produce ; numbers were col- lected on the thrashing-floors, Avinnowing, sifting and packing AA’heat, rice, millet, peas, and in drying maize, all Avith the greatest diligence. Here, too, were their teams for ploughing, yoked together in all possible ludicrous combinatious ; some- times a coAv and an ass ; or a coav, an ox and an ass ; or a coav and two asses ; or four asses ; and all yoked abreast. All the Avomen had small feet, and Avore a pale and salloAV aspect, and their miserable, scpialid appearance excited an indelible feeling of compassion for their helpless lot. They were not always shy, but Avere generally ill-clad and ngly, apparently laboring in the fields like tiie men. But on seA-eral occasions, young ladies 94 THE CUDDLE KINGDOM. clothed in gay silks and satins, riding astride upon bags on don- keys, were seen. ISTo prospect of melioration for either men or women appears but in the liberalizing and happy influences of Christianity.” ‘ The province of Sh^\-Nsi West of the Hills) lies between Chihli and Shensi, and north of Honan; the Yellow River bounds it on the west and partly on the south, and the Great AVall forms most of the northern frontier. It measures 55,268 square miles, nearly the same as England and Wales, or the State of Illinois. This province is the original seat of the Chinese people ; and many of the places mentioned and the scenes recorded in their ancient annals occurred Avithin its bor- ders. Its rugged surface presents a striking contrast to the level tracts in Chihli and Shantung. The southern portion of Shansi, including the region down to the Yellow River, in all an area of 30,000 square miles, presents a geological formation of great simplicity from Hwai king as far north as Ping ting. The plain around the flrst-named city is bounded on the north by a steep, castellated range of hills which varies from 1,000 to 1,500 feet in height ; it has few roads or streams crossing it. On reaching the top, an undulating table-land stretches northward, varying from 2,500 to 3,000 feet above the Plain, consisting of coal for- mation, above the limestone of the lower steep hills. About forty miles from those hills, there is a second rise like the flrst, up which the road takes one to another plateau, nearly 6,000 feet above the sea. This plateau is built up of later rocks, sand- stones, shales, and conglomerates of green, red, yellow, lilac, and brown colors, and is deeply eroded by branches of the Tsin River, which finally flow into the Yellow River. This plateau has its north-west border in the Wu ling pass, beyond which begins the descent to the basin of the Fan River. That basin is traversed near its eastern side by the Hoh shan nearly to Tai- yuen ; its peaks rise to 8,000 feet in some places ; the rocks are granite and divide the coal measures, anthracite lying on its eastern side and bituminous on the west, as far as the Yellow ' Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 308-335. W. H. Medlmrst’s China, cliaps. xv.-xix. NATURAL FKATUUKS OF SIIAN81. 95 River, and north as far as Ta-tung. On top of both plateaus is spread the loess deposit, varying in depth from ten to live hun- dred feet, aud deeply gullied by water-courses in every direction, which expose coal and iron mines. On the eastern side of Shansi the rocks are made np of an- cient formations or deposits of the Silurian age, presenting a series of peaks, passes and ranges that render ti-avel very dif- licult down to the Plain. l>y these outlying ranges the province is isolated from Chihli, as no useful water communication exists. This coal and iron formation is probably the largest in the world, and when railroads open it up to easy access it can be readily worked along the water-courses. The northern part of the province is drained through the rivers ending at Tientsin. This elevated region cannot be artificially irrigated, and when the rainfall is too small or too late, the people suffer from famine. The northern and southern prefectures exhibit great diversity in their animal, mineral, and vegetable productions. Some of the favorite imperial hunting-grounds are in the north ; from the coal, iron, cinnabar, copper, marble, lapis-lazuli, jasper, salt, and other minerals which it affords, the inhabitiints gain much of their wealth. The principal grains are wheat and millet, a large variety of vegetables and fruits, such as persimmons, pears, dates and grapes. The rivers are not large, and almost every one of them is a tributary of the Yellow River. The Fan ho, about 300 )niles long, is the most important, and empties into it near the south-western corner of the province, after draining the central section. East of this stream, as far as the head- waters of those rivers flowing into ('hihli, extends an undulat- ing table-land, having a general altitude of 3,000 feet above the Plain. South of it runs the river Kiang, also an affluent of the Yellow River, and near this, in Kiai chan, is a remarka- ble deposit of salt in a shallow lake (IS miles long and 3 broa^d), which is surrounded by a high wall. The salt is evapo- rated in the sun under government direction, the product bring- ing in a large revenue ; the adjacent town of Lnng-tsuen, con- taining 80,000 inhabitants, is devoted to the business. Salt has been obtained from this region for two thousand years ; the water in some of tlie springs is only brackish, and used in culi- 9G THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. nary operations. There are two smaller lakes nearer the Yel- low River. The iron obtained in the lower plateau, in the south-east near Tsih chan, is from clay iron-ore and spathic ore with hematite, which occurs in limestone strata at the bottom of the coal for- mations. It is extracted in a rude manner, but the produce is ecpial to any iron in the world, while its price is only about two cents a pound. The Avorldng and ti-ansportation of coal and iron employ myriads of people, though they are miserably paid. The province barely supplies its own cotton, but Avoollen garments and sheepskins are produced to make up the demand for clothing. Taiyuen fu, the capital, lies on the northern border of a fer- tile plain, 3,000 feet above the sea level ; this plain extends about 2,000 square miles, and owes its existence to the gradual tilling up of a lake there, the waters having cut their Avay out, and left the river Fan to drain the surplus. Across the II o shan range lies another basin of equal fertility and mineral wealth, in Ping-ting chan, where coal, iron, clay and stone exist in unlimited quantities. In the northern part of this province the Buddhist tenqdes at Wu-tai shan in Tai chan draw vast crowds of vota- ries to their shrines. The hills in which they are built rise prominently above the range, and each celebrated locality is memorialized by its own particular divinity, and the buildings where he is worshipped. The ])resence of a living Buddha, or (iregen, here attracts thousands of l\rongols from the north to adore him ; their toilsome journey adding to the worth of the visit. Most of the lamas are from the noith and west. The region north of this seems to be gradually losing its fertilit}', owing to the sand which is drifted by north winds from the ( )rtous steppes ; and as all the hills are bare of trees, the whole of Shansi seems destined to increasing poverty and barrenness. Its inhabitants are shrewd, enterprising traders as well as fpugal agriculturists ; many of the bankers in the Empire are from its cities. The great roads from Peking to the south-west and west pass through all tlie chief towns of this province, and when new probably (‘(pialled in engineering and construction anything of MOUNTAIN PASSES IN SHANSI. 97 the kind ever built by the Koman.s. The stones with which they are paved average 15 inches in thickness, hew regioirs can e.xceed in natural ilithculties some of the passes over the loess-covered tracts of this province, where the road must wind View over the Loess-clefts from the Han-sing ling Pass. Shansi. From Richthofen. through miles of narrow cuts in the light and tenacious soil, to emerge before a landscape such as that seen in the illustration.* The province of Honan {i.e., South of the River) comprises some of the most fertile parts of the Plain, and, on account of its abundance and central position, early received the name of ' Eichtliofen, Chinn. Band I. S. fiS*. Rpv. Arthur Smith, Glimpses of Travel in the Middle Kingdom. Shanghai, IST"). Vor. I — 7 98 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Clmng Ilwa T'l^ or the ‘ Middle Flowery Land,’ afterwards en- larged into Chung ICwoh, or ‘ Middle Kingdom.’ its form is an irregular triangle, and its size nearly the same as Shantung ; it has Shansi and Chihli on the north, Xganhwui on the south- east, Hupeh on the south and south-west, and Shensi on the west, bordering also on Shantung and Kiangsu. Tliis area is divided into three basins, that of the Yellow River in the north, of the Ilwai River on the south, and the Ilan River on the south-west ; the last two are separated by a marked range of mountains, the Fuh-niu shan, whic'h is regarded as the eastern terminus of the Kwanlun Mountains ; it is about 300 miles long, and its eastern end is near Jii-ning fu. This range maintains an elevation of -1,000 to G,000 feet, and is crossed at Kanchan, where a remarkable natural pass about 30 miles long, rising to 1,200 or 1,500 feet, affords the needed facilities for trade and travel between the central and northern provinces. The Peh and Tan rivers drain its sontheiai slopes into the Han, and the eastern sides are abundantly watered by the numerous branches of the Hwai River as they flow into Ilungtsih Lake. The northern portion of Honan along the Yellow River is level, fertile and populous, forming one of the richest portions of the province. For its climate, pi-oductions, literary reputation, historical associations, and variety of scenery, this province takes a promi- nent rank. The earliest records of the Black -haired race refer to this region, and the struggles’ for dominion among feudal and imperial armies occurred in its plains. Its present diffi- cult}' of access from the coast will ere long be overcome by rail- roads, when its capabilities may be further developed, and the cotton, hemp, iron, tuteiiag, silk and coal be increased for ex- portation. The ]>eople at present consume their own food and manufactures, and only require a good demand to increase the quality and amounts and exchange them for other things. The three prefectures north of the Yellow River are low-lying; through these the waters of that river have recently found their way into the River AV^ei and thence to theGulf of Pechele, at Mang-tsin or east of it ; the gradual rise of the bed renders their levels nearly the same, while it makes the main stream so THE PROVINCE OF HONAN. 99 broad and sliallow that it is of little use for navigation. These plains are traversed by wheelbarrows and carts, whose drivers and trundlers form a vast body of stalwart men constantly go- ing about in their employment from one city to another. Kaifung fu, or Pien-liang, the capital, is situated about a league from the southern bank of the b ellow River, whose bed is here elevated above the adjacent country. It was the metrop- olis from A.i). 9G0 to 1120, and has often suffered from attacks of armies as well as from inundations. The dikes are mostly on the northern shore, and e.xhibit the industry and unavailing efforts of the people for scores of leagues. During the period of the Manchu conquest Kaifung was defended by a loyal gen- eral, who, seeing no other resource against the invaders, broke down the embankments to drown tliem, by which manoeuvre upwards of 300,000 of the inhabitants perished. The city was rebuilt, but it has not attained to its ancient splendor, if credit can be given to the Stuti^t!c.s of Kaifung^ in which work it is described as having been si.x leagues in circuit in the twelfth century, approached by five roads, and containing numerous palaces, gardens, and government houses. The valley of the River Loll lies between the Yellow River and the Fuh-niu Moun- tains, a fertile, populous region wherein many of the remarkable events of Chinese history were enacted. Loh-yang, near Honan, was the metropolis at three different intervals, and probably further researches here will bring to light many ancient relics ; rock-cut temples and old inscriptions, with graceful bas-reliefs, near the natural gate of Lung-man, where the road crosses Sung shall, have already been seen. Owing to the direction of the roads leading through this region from the south and east, and the passes for travel towards the north-west, it will form a very important centre of trade in the future of Central Asia and western China. The province of Iviaxosu is named from the first syllable of the capital, Kiangiiing, joined to Su, part of the name of the richest city, Suchau. It lies along the sea-coast, in a north- westerly direction, having Shantung on the north, Xganhwui on the west, and Chehkiang on the south. The area is about 45,000 square miles, equalling Pennsylvania or a little less than 100 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. England by itself. It consists, with little interruption, of level tracts interspersed with lakes and marshes, through which flow their two noble rivers, which as they are the source of the ex- traordinary fertility of this region, so also render it obnoxious to freshes, or cover the low portions with irreclaimable morass- es. The region of Kiangnan is where the beauty and riches of China are most amply displayed ; “ and whether we con- sider,” remarks Gutzlaff, speaking of this and the adjoining province, “ their agricultural resources, their great manufac- tures, their various productions, their excellent situation on the banks of these two large streams, their many canals and tribu- tary rivers, these two provinces doubtless constitute the best territory of China.” The staple productions are grain, cotton, tea, silk, and rice, and most kinds of manufacti;res are here carried to the greatest perfection. The people have an excep- tional reputation for intelligence and wit, and although the province has long ceased to possess a court, its cities still pre- sent a gayer aspect, and are adorned with better structures than any others in the empire. This province was the scene of the dreadful ravages of the Tai-ping rebellion, and large districts are still desolate, while their cities lie waste. Probably no other country of ecpial extent is better watered than Kiangsu. The Great Piver, the Grand Canal, many smaller streams and canals, and a succession of lakes along the line of the canal, afford easy communication through every part. The sea-coast has not been surveyed north of the Yangtsz’, where it is unapproachable in large vessels ; dykes have been constructed in some portions to prevent the in-flow of the ocean. The largest lake is the TIungtsih, about two hundred miles in circumference. South of it lies Ivauyu Lake, and on the eastern side of the canal opposite is Pauying Lake, both of them broad sheets of water. Numerous small lakes lie around them. Tai hu, or ‘ Great Lake,’ lies partly in Kiangsu and partly in Chehkiang, and is the largest in the province. Its l)oi-(lers are skirted by romantic scenery, while its bosom is l)roken by numerous islets, affoi-ding convenient resort to the fishermen who get their subsistence from its waters. Iviangning fu (better known abroad as Nanking), the capital CITY OF NANKING. 101 of tlie province, is situated on the soutli sliorc of the Yangtsz’, lO-l miles from Slianghai. It was the metropolis from a.d. 317 to 5S2, and again for 35 years during the Ming dynasty (1308- 1403). This city is the natural location of an impeidal court, accessible by land and water from all (quarters, and susceptible of sure defence. When the Tai-piugs were expelled in 1805, the city was nearly destroyed, and has since that date only slowly revived. When llungwu made it his capital, he strengthened the wall around it, inclosing a great area, 35 miles in circuit, which was never fully covered with buildings, and at present has a most ruinous appearance. Davis remarks the .striking resemblance between Rome and Xanking, the area within the walls of both being partially inhabited, and ruins of buildings lying here and there among the cultivated fields, the melancholy remains of departed glory. Roth of them, how- ever, have now brighter prospects for the future. The part occupied by the Manchus is separated by a cross wall from the Chinese town. The great extent of the Mall renders the defence of the city difficult, besides M'hich it is overlooked from the hills on the east, from one of mIucIi, the Cliimg slum, a M’ide view of the surrounding country can be obtained. On this eastern face are three gates ; the land near the tM’o tOM’ard the river is marshy, and the gates are ap- proached on stone causeys. A deep canal runs up from the river directly under the M-alls on the M'est, serving to .strengthen the approaches on that side. Xanking is laid out in four rather M'ide and parallel avenues intersected b}' others of less width ; and though not so broad as those of Peking, are on the whole clean, well-paved, and bordered with handsomely fur- nished shops. The only remarkable monuments of royalty Mdiich remain are several guardian statues situated not far from the M’alls. These statues form an avenue leading up to the sepulchre where the Emperor Hungwu M-as buried about 1398. They consist of gigantic figures like warriors cased in armor, standing on either side of the road, across which at intervals large stone tablets are extended, supported by great blocks of stone instead of pillars. Situated at some distance are a number of rude colossal figures 102 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. of horses, elephants, and other animals, all intended to repre- sent the guardians of the mighty dead.' jS’othing made Nanking more celebrated abroad than the Porcelain Tower, called Pao-ngdn tah, or the ‘Recompensing Favor Monastery,’ which stood pre-eminent above all other similar buildings in China for its completeness and elegance, the material of which it was built, and the quantity of gilding with which its interior was embellished. It was erected by Yungloh to recompense the great favor of her majesty the Empress, and occupied 19 years (1-111-1430) in its construction. It was maintained in good condition by the government, and three stories which had been thrown down by lightning in 1801 were rebuilt. TheTai-pings blew it np and carried off the bricks in 1856, fearing lest its geomantic influences should work against the success of their cause. As to its dimensions : Its form was octagonal, divided into nine equal stories, the circum- ference of the lower story being 120 feet, decreasing gradually . to the top. Its base rested upon a solid foundation of brick- work ten feet high, up* which a flight of twelve steps led into the tower, whence a spiral staircase of 190 steps carried the visitor to the summit, 261 feet from the ground. The outer face was covered wdth slabs of glazed porcelain of various colors, principally green, red, yellow, and white, the body of the edifice being brick. At every story was a projecting roof, covered with green tiles ; from each corner and from the top of these roofs were suspended bells, numbering 150 in all. This beautiful structure was visited in 1 852 by Dr. Charles Taylor, an American missionary, who has left a full account of his observations." It was to have been raised to an altitude of 329 feet and of thirteen stories, but only nine were built ; care- ful measurement gave 261 feet as its height, feet its thickness at top, and 12 feet at the base, where it was 96 feet 10 inches 'The curious n^ader can consult the article by Mayer, in Vol. XII. of the N(yrth Chinn Branch Royal Asiatic Society's Journal, 1878, for tho meaning of these various objects. Five Years in China, Na.shville, Tenn., 18(i0. See also Voyages of Vie Nemesis, jjp. 4ri()-4.')2, for further details of this city in 1842; the Chinese Re- pository, Vols. I., i>. 257, and XIII., p. 2(il, contain more details on the Pagoda. I’OIU’KLAIN TOWEU OF NANKIXO. 103 in diameter. Tlie facing was of bricks made of fine porcelain clay ; the prevailing color was green, owing to the predomi- nance of the tiles on the numerous stories. The woodwork sup- porting these successive roofs was strong, curiously carved and richly painted. The many-colored tiles and bricks were highly glazed, giving the building a gay and beautiful appearance, that was greatly heightened when seen in the refiected sunlight. When new it had 140 lamps, most of them hanging outside; and a native writer says “ that when lighted they illumine the 33 heavens, and detect the good and evil among men, as well as forever ward off human miseries.” The destruction of a building like this, from mere fancifid ideas, goes far to e.xplaiu the absence of all old or great edifices in (’hina. Nanking has e.xtensive manufactories of fine satin and crape. Nankeen cotton cloth, paper and ink of fine quality, and beau- tiful artificial fiowers of ])ith paper. In distant parts of the empire, any article which is superior to the common run of workmanship, is said to be from Nanking, though the speaker means only that it was made in that region. It is renowned, too, for its scholars and literary character, and in this pai-ticular stands among the first places of learning in the countiy. It is the residence of the governor-general of three provinces, and consequently the centre of a large concourse of officials, educated men, and students seeking for promotion ; these, with its large libraries and bookstores, all indicating and assisting literary pursuits, combine to give it this distinguished position. In the monastery on Golden Island, near Chinkiang, a library was found by the English officers, but there Avas no haste in ex- amining its contents, as they intended to have carried off the whole collection, had not peace prevented. The city of Suchau now exceeds Nanking in size and riches, it is situated on islands lying in the Ta hu, and from this sheet of water many streams and canals connect the city with most parts of the department. The walls are about ten miles in cir- cumference ; outside of them are four suburbs, one of which is said to extend ten miles, besides which there is an immense floating population. The whole space includes many canals and pools connected with the Grand Canal and the lake, and pre- 104 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. sented in 1859 a scene of activity, indnstry, and riches 'which could not he surpassed elsewhere in China. The population probably then exceeded a million, including the suburbs. It lies north-west of Shanghai, the way passing through a continual range of villages and cities ; the environs ai'e highly cultivated, producing cotton, silk, rice, wheat, fruits, and vegetables. It was captured in 1860 by the rebels, and when retaken in 1865 was nearly reduced to a heap of ruins. It is, however, rapidly reviving, as the loss of life was comparatively small. The Chinese regard this as one of their richest and most beautiful cities, and have a saying, “ that to be happy on earth, one must be born in Suchau, live in Canton, and die in Liau- chau, for in the first are the handsomest people, in the second the most costly luxuries, and in the third the best coffins.-’ It has a high reputation for its buildings, the elegance of its tombs, the picturesque scenery of its waters and gardens, the politeness and intelligence of its inhabitants, and the beauty of its women. Its manufactures of silk, linen, cotton, and works in iron, ivory, wood, horn, glass, lackered-ware, paper, and other articles, are the chief sources of its wealth and prosperity ; the kinds of silk goods produced hci'e surpass in variety and rich- ness those woven in any other place. Vessels can proceed up to the city by several channels from the Yangtsz’ kiang, but junks of large burden anchor at Shanghai, or Sungkiang ; the whole country is so intersected by natural and artificial water- courses, that the people have hardly any need for roads and carts, but get about in barrows and sedans. Small steamers find their way to every large village at high tide. Chinkiang, situated at the junction of the Grand Canal with the Yangtsz’ kiang, was captured by the British in July, 1842, at a great loss of life to its defenders ; the Manchu general Hai- ling, finding the city taken, seated himself in his office, and set fire to the house, making it his funeral pyre. Its position renders it the key of the country, in respect to the transport of produce, taxes and provisions for Peking, inasmuch as when the river and canal are both blockaded, the supplies for the north and south are to a great extent intercepted. In times of peace the scenes at the junction afford a good exhibition of the indus- TIIK CITIK.S OF SJUCHAl' AND CHINKIAN(}. 1()/) try and trade of the people. Harrow deseribes, in 1704, “ the multitude of ships of war, of hurden and of pleasure, some gliding down the stream, t)thers sailing against it ; some moving hy oars, and others lying at anchor ; the hanks on either side covered with towns and houses as far as the eye could reach ; as preseiiting a j)rospect more varied and cheerfid than any that had hitherto occurred. Xor was the canal, on the opposite side, less lively. For two whole days we were continually passing among fleets of ves.sels of different construction and dimensions.’’ ' The country in the vicinity is well cultivated, moderately hilly, and presents a characteristic view of Chinese life and action. “ On the south-east, the hills broke into an undulating country clothed with verdure, and firs bordering upon small lakes. Ileyond, stretched the vast river we had just ascended. In the other direction, the land in the foreground continued a low and swampy fiat, leaving it diflicult at a little distance to determine which of the seqientine channels was the main branch ; there were innumerable sheets of water, separated by narrow mounds, so that the whole resembled a vast lake, inter- sected by causeways. Willows grew along their sides, and dwellings were erected on small patches somewhat highej- than the common surface.” This whole country w’as the scene of dreadful fighting for many years. Between the Imperialists and Tai-pings the city was totally destroyed, so that in 1861 hardly a house was left. It is now regaining its natural ti-ade and prosperity. Xear the mouth of the Grand Canal is Kin shan, or Golden Island,’ a beautiful spot, covered with temples and monastic establishments. A pagoda crowms the summit, and there are many pavilions and halls, of various sizes and degrees of ele- gance, on its sides and at the base, many of them showing their imperial ownership by the yellow or gi een tiling. Since the river has been open to traffic, and the devastations of the Tai-pings have ceased, the" priests have retuimed in small num- * Travels in China. *Capt. G. G. Loch, Events in China, p. 74. ’Mentioned by Marco Polo. Yule’s edition, Vol. II., p. 137. 106 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. bers to their abodes, but the whole settlement is a poor mockery of its early splendor. A similar one, rather larger, is found at Siung shan, or Silver Island, below Chinkiang ; it is, however, on a less extensive scale, though in a beautiful situa- tion. Priests are the only occupants ; temples and palaces the principal buildings, surrounded by gardens and bowers. Mas- sive granite terraces, decorated with huge stone monsters, are reached from the water by broad flights of steps ; flne temples, placed to be seen, and yet shaded by trees, open pavilions, and secluded summer-houses, give it a delightful air of retreat and comfort, which a nearer inspection sadly disappoints. The banks of the Yangtsz’ during the 250 miles of its course through this province, are uniformly low, and no towns of im- portance occur close to them, as they would be exposed to the floods. The A^ast body of water, with its freight of millions of tons of silt goes on its way in a quiet equable current into the Yellow Sea. The dense population of the prefectures on the south bank, contrasted with the sparseness of the region between the Canal and seashore on the north side, indicate the compara- tive barrenness of the latter, and the difficulty of cultivating marshy lauds so nearly level with the sea. The largest seaport in Kiangsu is Shanghai {i.e., Approaching the Sea), now become one of the leading emporia in Asia. It lies on the north shore of the Wusung Piver, about fourteen miles from its mouth, in lat. 31° 10' A., and long. 121° 30' E., at the junction of the Hwang-pu with it, and by means of both streams communicates with Suchau, Sungkiang, and other large cities on the Grand Canal ; while by the Yangtsz’ it receives produce from Yunnan and Sz’chuen. In these respects its posi- tion resembles that of New Orleans. The town of Wusung is at the mouth of that ri^'er, here about a mile wide ; and two miles beyond lies the district town of Paushan. The wall of Shanghai is three miles in circuit, through which six gates open into extensive suburbs ; around the ramparts flows a ditch twenty feet wide. The city stands in a wide plain of extraordinary fertility, intersected by numerous streamlets, and affording anq>le means of navigation and commu- nication ; its population is estimated to be at present over 500,- SHANGHAI. 107 000, hut the data for this figure are rather iinpei'fect. Since it was opened to foreign coininerce in 1843, the growtli of the town has been rapid in every element of prosperity, though subject to great vicissitudes by reason of tlie rebellion which devastated the adjoining conntrj'. Its capture by the insurgents in 1851, and their expulsion in February, 1853, with the de- struction of the easteju and southern suburbs in 1860, have been its chief disasters since that date. The native trade has gradually passed from the unwieldy and unsafe junks which used to throng the llwang-pu east of the city, into steamers and foreign craft, and is now confined, so far as the vessels are concerned, to the iidand and coast traffic in coarse, cheap articles. Shanghai city itself is a dirty place, and poorly built. The hou.ses are mostly made of bluish sfpiare brick, imperfectly burned ; and the walls are constructed in a cellular manner by placing bricks on their edges, and covering them with stucco. The streets are about eight feet wide, paved with stone slabs, and in the daytime crowded with people. Silk and embroidery, cotton, and cotton goods, porcelain, ready-made clothes, beauti- ful skins and furs, bamboo pipes of every size, bamboo orna- ments, pictures, bi'onzes, specimens of old porcelain, and other curiosities, to which the C'hinese attach great value, attract the strangers notice. Articles of food form the most extensive trade of all ; and it is sometimes a difficult matter to get through the streets, owing to the immense quantities of fish, })ork, fruit, and vegetables, which crowd the stands in front of the shops. Dining-rooms, tea-houses, and bakers’ shops, are met with at every step, from the poor man who cames around, his kitchen or bakehouse, altogether hardly worth a dollar, to the most extensive tavern or tea-house, crowded with custom- ers. For a few cash, a Chinese can dine upon rice, fish, vege- tables, and tea ; nor does it matter much to him, whether his table is set in the streets or on the ground, in a house or on a deck, he makes himself merry with his chopsticks, and eats what is before him.' The buildings composing the Ching-hwang miao, and the grounds attached to this establishment, present a good Fortune’s Wanderings in China, p. 120. 108 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. instance of Chinese style and taste in architecture. Lai-ge warehouses for storing goods, granaries, and temples, are com- mon ; but neither these, nor the public buildings, present any distinguishing features peculiar to this city alone. The contrast between the narrow, noisome and reeking parts of the native city, and the clean, spacious, M’dl-shaded and well- paved streets and large houses of the foreign municipalities, is like that seen in many cities in India. The Chinese are ready enough to enjoy and support the higher style of living, but they are not yet prepared to adopt and maintain similar improve- ments among themselves. The difficulty of being sure of the co-operation of the rulers in municipal improvements deters in- telligent natives from initiating even the commonest sanitary enterprise of their foreign neighbors. The remaining cities and districts of Kiangsu present nothing worthy of special remark. The Grand Canal runs from north to south, and affords a safe and ample thoroughfare for multi- tudes of boats in its entire length. Tsing-kiang-pu and Ilwai- ngan, near the old Yellow River, receive the traffic from the north and Ilungtsih Lake, while Yangchau near the Yangtsz’ River, takes that going north. In this ])art of the channel, constant dyking has resulted in raising the banks ; the city of Ilwai-ngan, for example, lies below the canal which brings trade to its doors, and may one day be drowned by its bene- factor. Salt is manufactured in the districts south of the Yellow River, where tlie people cultivate but rare patches of arable land. The island of Tsungming, at the mouth of the Yangtsz', is about sixty miles long, and sixteen wide, containing over nine hundred square miles, and is gradually enlarging by the constant deposits from the river ; it is flat, but contains fresh water. It is highly cultivated and populous, though some places on the northei'ii side are so impregnated with salt, and others so marshy, as to be useless for raising food. This island produces a variety of haoliang or sorghum {]Ioleus\ which is sweet enough to furnish syrup, and is grown for that ])urpose in the United States. The ])rovince of Noanuwui was so named by combining the POSITION AND TOWNS OF NGANIIWUI PUOVINCE. 109 first words in its two large cities, Nganking and llwniclian, and forms the sonth-western half of Kiangnan ; it is both larger and more uneven than Kiangsn, ranges of hills stretching along the southern portions, and between the liiver llwai and the Vangtsz’. It lies in the central and southern parts of the l*lain, north of Kiangsi, west of Kiangsn and Chehkiang, and between them and Honan and Hupeh. Its productions and manufac- tures, the surface, cultivation of the country, and character of the people, are very similar to those of Kiangsn, but the cities are less celebrated. The terrible destruction of life in this province during the Tai-ping rule has only been partially rem- edied by immigration from other jirovinces ; it will require years of peace and industry to restore the prosperous ilays of Taokwang's reign. The surface of the country is naturally divided into that ])or- tion which lies in the hilly regions aronnd Ilwaichau and Kingkwoh connected with the Tsientang Kiver, the central plain of the Yangtsz’ with its short*atiluents, and the northern portion which the River llwai drains. The southern districts are superior for climate, fertility, and value of their products to most parts of the Empire ; and the numerous rivulets which irrigate and open their beautiful valleys to ti-afiic with other districts, render them attractive to settlers. Xo e.xpense has been spared in erecting and preserving the embankments along the streams, whose waters are thereby placed at the service of the farmers. The Great River passes through the south from south-west to north-east ; several small tributaries flow into it on both banks, one of which connects with Chau hu, or Xest Lake, in Luchau fu, the principal sheet of water in the province. The largest section is drained by the River llwai and its branches, which flow into Ilungtsih Lake ; most of the.se are navigable quite across to Honan. The productions comprise every kind of grain, vegetables, and fruit known in the Plain ; most of the green tea districts lie in the south-eastern parts, particu- larly in the Sunglo range of hills in H^vuichau prefecture. Silk, cotton, and hemp are also extensively I'aised ; but excepting ii’on, few metals are brought to market. 110 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. The provincial capital, Xganking or Anking, lies close to the northern shore of the Kiang. Davis describes the streets as very narrow, and the shops as unattractive ; the courts and gateways of many good dwelling-houses pi-esented themselves as he passed along the streets. “ The palace of the governor we first took for a temple, but were soon undeceived by the in- scriptions on the huge lanterns at the gateway. These official residences seldom display any magnificence. The pride of a ■ Chinese officer of rank consists in his power and station, and as ^ the display of mere wealth attracts little respect, it is neglected more than in any country of the world. The best shops that Ave saw Avere for the sale of horn lanterns and porcelain. They possess the art of softening horn by the application of a very high degree of moist heat, and e.xtending it into thin lamime of any shape. These lamps are about as transparent as ground- glass, and, Avhen ornamented Avith silken hangings, have an ele- gant appearance.” During the fifty years since his visit, this large city has been the sport of prosperous and adverse fortunes, and is noAv slowly recovering from its demolition during the Tai-ping rebellion. It is situated on rising ground near the base of a range of hills far in the north, the Avatershed of tA\m basins. The banks of the rivei-, between Thanking and Xganking, a distance of 300 miles, are AA'ell cultivated, and contain towns and villages at short intervals. The climate, the scenery, the bustle on the river near the towns, and the general aspect of peaceful thrift along this reach, makes it on ordinary occasions one of the bright scenes in China. AVuliu hien, about sixty miles above Aanking, lies near the mouth of the Ilwangchi, a stream connecting it Avith the back countiy, and making it the mart for much of that trade. It w^as next in importance to Chinkiang, hut its sufferings between the rebels and imperialists nearly destroyed it. The revival in population and trade has been encoui-aging, and its former importance is sure to reviA'e. liwuichau (or in Cantonese, FychoAv) is celebrated, among other things, for its excellent ink and lackered-Avarc. Fung- yang (/.ake, are the celebrated porcelain mannfactories of Kingteh chin, named after an Emperor of the Sung dynasty, in whose reign, a.d. 1004, they were established. This mart still supplies all the fine porcelain used in the country, but was almost wholly destroyed during the rebellion, the kilns broken up, and the workmen dispersed to join the rebels or die from want. The million of workmen said to have been employed there thirty years ago are now only gradually resuming their operations, and slowly regaining their pi'osperity. The approach to the spot is announced by the smoke, and at night it ap]>ears like a town on fire, or a vast furnace emitting dames from numerous vents, there being, it is said, five hundred kilns con- stantly burning. Kingteh chin stands on the river Chang in a plain flanked by high mountains, about forty miles north-east from Jauchan, through which its ware is distributed over the empire. Genius in China, as elsewhere, renders a place illustrious, and few spots are more celebrated than the vale of the "White Deer in the Lii hills, near Nankang, on the west side of Lake Poyang, where Chu Hi, the great commentator of ('onfucius, lived and taught, in the twelfth century. It is a secluded valley about seven miles from the city, situated in a nook by the side of a rivulet. The unpretending buildings are comprised in a number of different courts, evidently intended for iise rather than show. In one of the halls, the White Deer is represented, and near by a tree is pointed out, said to have been planted by the philosopher's own hand. This spot is a place of pilgrim- age to Chinese literati at the present day, for his writings are prized by them next to their classics. The beauty and sub- limity of this regiou are lauded by Davis, and its praises Voi.. I.— 8 114 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. are frequent themes for poetical celebration among native scholars.' The maritime province of Chehkiang, the smallest of the eighteen, lies estward of Iviangsi and Nganlnvui, and be- tween Kiangsu and Fuhkein north and sonth, and derives its name from the river Cheh or ‘ Crooked,’ which nms across its southern part. Its area is 39,000 square miles, or nearly the same as Ohio ; it lies south-east of the plain at the end of the Nan shall, and for fertility, numerous water-courses, rich and populous cities, variety of productions, and excellence of manu- factures, is not at all inferior to the larger provinces. Baron Bichthofen’s letter to the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, July 25, 1871, contains a good account of its topography. The whole province produces cotton, silk, tea, rice, ground nuts, wheat, indigo, vegetable tallow {stillingia), and pulse, in abundance. It possesses within its limits every requisite for the food and clothing of its inhabitants, while the excellence of its manufactures insures it in exchange a supply of the luxuries of other regions. The rivers in Chehkiang rise in the province ; and, as might be inferred from the position of the hills, theii’ course is gen- erally short and the currents rapid. Fourteen principal streams are enumerated, of which the Tsientangis the most im- portant. The main branch of this river rises in the southern districts in two head-w'aters, which join at Kiichau fu and run thence into llangchau Bay. The bore which comes up into this river fifteen miles, as far as llangchau. is the only one along the coast. As its wall of water approadies the city, the Junks and boats prepare by turning their bows to meet it, and usually rise over its crest, 6 or 10 feet at times, without niisha]>. The basin of the Tsientang River measures nearly half of the province ; by means of rafts and boats the })eople trajisport themselves and their produce for about 300 miles to its head- waters. The valley of Lanki is the largest of the bottom laiids, 140 miles long and 5 to 15 wide, and passes north through a gorge To miles in length into the lower valley, where it receives ’ DavisV Sketches, Vol. II., p. 65. NATURAL FKATURKS OF C1IEI1KIAN(L 115 the Sin-ngjvn River from the west in Nganhwui, and thus com- municates witli Ilvvuicliau at times of higli water. It is just fitted for tlie rafting navigation of tlie region, and by means of its tortuous cliannels eacli one of the districts in its entire basin can be reached by water. Tlie forest and fruit trees of ('hehkiang comprise almost every valuable species known in the eastern provinces. The larch, elcococcus, camphor, tallow, fir, mulberry, varnish, and others, are common, and prove sources of wealth in their timber and products. The climate is most salubrious ; the grains, vegetables, animals, and fishe.s, furnish food ; while its beautiful manufactures of silk are unrivalled in the world, and have found their way to all lands. Hemp, lackered- and bamboo-wares, tea, crockery, paper, ink, and other articles, are also exported. The inhabitants emulate those in the neighboring regions for wealth, learning, and refinements, with the exception of the hilly districts in the south bordering on Kiangsi and F uhkien. The dwellers of these upland valleys are shut out by position and inclination, so that they form a singularly clannish race. Their dialects are peculiar and very limited in range, and each group of villagers suspects and shuns the others. They are sometimes rather turbulent, and in some parts the cultivation of the mountain lands is interdicted, and a line of military posts extends around them in the thi-ee provinces, in order to prevent the people from settling in their limits ; though the in- terdiction does not forbid cutting the timber growing thei'C.' Ilangchau, the capital of the province, lies in the northern part, less than a mile from the Tsientang. The velocity of this stream indicates a rapid descent of the country towards the ocean, but it discharges very little silt ; the tide rises six or seven feet opposite the city, and nearly thirty at the mouth. Only a moiety of the inhabitants }-eside within the walls of the city, the suburbs and the waters around them supporting a large population. A portion of the space in the north-western part is walled off for the accommodation of the Manchu garri- *See Chinese Repository, Vol. R’., p. 488; Journal of N. C. Br. R. A. So- ciety, Vol. VI., pp. 12B-128; and Chinese Recorder, Vol. I., 18(50, pj). 241- 248. These people are relics ot tribes of Miaotsz’. 116 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. SOU, wliicli consists of 7,000 ti'oops. The guvenior-general of Chebkiang and Fuhkien has an official house here, as well, also, as the governor of the province, but since the increased impor- tance of Fuhchau, he seldom resides in this city ; these, with their courts and troops, in addition to the great trade passing through, render it one of the richest and most important cities in the empire. The position is the most picturesque of any of the numerous localities selected by the Chinese for their capital. It lies in full view of the ocean, and from the hill-top in the centre a wide view of the plains south and east is ob- tained. The charming lake. Si liu, and the numerous houses on its shores, with the varied scenery of the hills, copses, glades, and river banks, all highly cultivated, within a radius of ten miles, fully bear out the praises of the Chinese as to its singular beauty. Marco Polo lavishes all his admiration upon its size, riches, manufactures, and government, from which it is to be inferred that it suffered little in the Mongolian conquest, lie visited the place when governor of Yangchau in 1286, and en- thusiastically describes it as “ beyond dispute the finest and the noblest in the world.” ' The Chinese have a proverb — Shang yu tien tang : Ilia yu Hang — the purj)ort of which is that Ilangchau and HSuchau are fully equal to paradise ; but the coni])arisou of the Yenetian traveller gives one a poorer idea of the European cities of his day, than it does of the magnificence of the Chinese, to those who have seen them. The streets are well-paved, ornamented with numerous honorary tablets erected to the memory of distinguished individuals, and agi-eeably in- terrupting the passage through them. The long main street extending along the Grand Canal into and through the city, thence out by the Tsientang, was, before its ruthless demolition by the Tai-pings in 1863, })robably one of the finest streets in the whole Empire. The shops and warehouses, in point of size and stock of goods contained in them, might vie with the best in London. In population, luxury, wealth, and infiucnce this city rivals Suchau, and for excellence of manufactures probably exceeds the latter ])lace. Mere Ilangchau easily ri'ached by Vulo’s Mam) Polo, Vol. II., ji. N.l. IIANG('11AIT AND ITS ENVIRONS. 117 sea, and had it aiiij>le liarhors, it would engross tlie trade of the eastern coast ; l>ut furious tides (runuing sonietiiiies llA knots an hour) ; the l)ore jeoparding ])ast'age-hoats and other small crafts ; sand banks and quicksands ; — these j)resent insuperable dirticulties to the commerce by the ocean. This city was the metropolis of tiie country during the nine latter princes of the S\ing dynasty (112t> to 12S0), when the northern parts were under dominion of the tribe of Kin Tartars. One cause of celebrity is found in the beauty of its environs, especially those near the Si Ilu, or West Lake, an irregular sheet of water about 12 miles in circuit. Harrow observes tiiat “ the natural and artilieial beauties of this lake far exceeded anything we had hitherto had an opportunity of seeing in China. The mountains surrounding it were lofty, and broken into a vaiietv of forms that were highly ])icturesque ; and the valleys were richly clothed with trees of different kinds, among which three species were remarkably striking, not only by their intrinsic beauty, but also by the contrast they formed with themselves and the rest of the trees of the forest. These were the camphor and tallow tree.s, and the arbor vibe. The hright, shining green foliage of the first, mingled with the purple leaves of the second, and over-topped hv the stately tree of life, of the deep- est green, produced a pleasing effect to the eye ; and the land- scape was rendered still moi’e interesting to the mind by the very singular and diversified appearance of several thousand repositories of the dead upon the sloping sides of the inferior hills. Here, as well as elsewhei'e. the sombre and ujndght cy- press was destined to be the melancholy companion of the tombs. “ Higher still, among the wocxls. avenues had been opened to admit of rows of small blue houses, exposed on white colon- nades, which, on examination, were also found to be mansions of the dead. Xaked coffins, of extraordinary thickness, were everywhere lying on the surface of the ground. The margins of the lake were studded with light aerial buildings, among which one of more solidity and greater extent than the rest was said to belong to the emperor. The grounds were inclosed with brick walls, and mostly planted with vegetables and fruit trees ; 118 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. but in some there appeared to be collections of such shrubs and dowers as are most esteemed in the country.’’ ‘ Staunton speaks of the lake as a beautiful sheet of water, pei-fectly pellucid, full of dsh, in most places shallow, and orna- mented with a great number of light and fanciful stone bridges, thrown across the arms of the lake as it runs up into the hills. A stone tower on the summit of a projecting headland attracted attention, from its presenting a different architecture from that usually seen in Chinese buildings. This tower, called the Lui Fung tah, lit. ‘ Tower of the Thunder Peak ’ (not Thundering Wind, as Staunton renders it), from the hill being at drst owned by Mr. Lui, was built about a.d. 950, and is to-day a solid structure, though much ruined. It has now four stories, and is about 120 feet high ; something like a regular order is still dis- cernible in the moldering cornices. The legend of the White Snake is associated with this structure, and people constantly carry away pieces of its bricks as charms. An interesting corroboration of this account is given by Polo, who says, “ Inside the city there is a lake which has a compass of some 30 miles; and all around it are erected beautiful palaces and mansions, of the richest and most exquisite structure that you can imagine, belonging to the nobles of the city. There are also on its shores many abbeys and churches of the idolaters. In the middle of the lake are two islands, on each of which stands a rich, beautiful and spacious ediffce, furnished in such a style as to seem fit for the palace of an emperor. And when any one of the citizens desired to hold a marriage feast, or to give any other entertainment, it used to be done at one of these palaces.” ‘‘ The splendor and size of the numerous Puddhist temples in and around Ilangchau attracted travellers to the cit}- more even than did its position ; these shrines have, however, all been de- stroyed, and their thousands of priests driven away ; the Tai- })ings left no building untouched. The Voh Miao stands near the north-west corner of the Si Hu, and contains the tombs of the patriot general Yoh Fi of the Sung dynasty (a.d. 1125), and his son, who were unjustly executed as traitors. Two conical Tramh in Chinn p. .'>22. Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 14fi. DESCRIPTION OF IIANGCIIAU. 119 mounds mark tlieir resting places, and separated by a wall, but inside the inclosure are four iron statues cast in a kneeling post- ure and loaded with chains, — on bis right T sin Kwei and his wife, on the left a judge and general, who subserved Tsin Ivwei's hatred of Yoh Fi by their flagitious conduct. All four are here doing homage and j)enance to this just man whom they killed, and by the oblocpiy they receive serve as a warning to other traitors. In a temple, called Tinr lluchau is now a greater depot for raw and woven silks. In the northern suburbs lies an irreg- ular basin, forming the southern extremity of the (7anal ; but between the river and the basin there is no communication, so that all goods brought hither must be landed. The city con- tains, among other public buildings, a mosque, bearing an in- scription in Arabic, stating that it is a ‘‘tenij)le for Mu.ssulmen, when travelling, who wish to consult the Koran. ” * It is higher than the adjacent buildings, and adorned with a cupola, pierced with holes at short intervals. It was spared in 18(13, as not be- ing an idolatrous temple. There are also several others in the city, it being a stronghold of Islamism in China. ^Yater com- munication exists between llangchau and Yiiyau, south-east through Shauhing, and thence to Xingpo, by means of mIucIi goods find their way to and from the capital. A good road also runs between the two former cities; ijideed, elsewhere in the province the thoroughfares are very creditable; they are laid with broad slabs of granite and limestone, and lead over plains and hills in numberless directions. ' De Guignes, Voyages d Peking, Vol. II., pp. 65-TT. 120 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Ningpo fu (‘Peaceful Wave city’) is the next important cit}’ in (.'lielikiaiig, in consequence of its foreign relations. It is ad- mirably situated for trade and influence, at the junction of three streams, in lat. 29° 55' N., and long. 121° 22' E. ; the united river flows on to the ocean, eleven and a half miles distant, under the name of the Tatsieh. Opposite the city itself, there are but two streams, but the southern branch again subdivides a few miles south-west of Ningpo. Its population has been variously estimated from one-fourth to one-third of a million, and even more, including the suburban and floating inhabitants. This place was called Kimj-yuen by the Sung, and received its present name from the Mongols. It was captured in 1862 by the insurgents, who were deten-ed from destroying it by the presence of foreign men-of-war ; the prosperity of the mart has since increased. When foreignei-s first resorted to China for trade, Ningpo soon became a centre of silk and other kinds of commodities ; the Portuguese settled there, calling it Liarnpo, which is the same name. It is, moreover, an ancient city, and its Annals afford full information upon every point interesting to a Chinese antiquarian, though a foreigner soon tires of the many insignificant details mixed up with a few valuable state- ments.* “ The ])lain in which Ningpo lies is a magnificent amphithea- tre, stretching away from twelve to eighteen miles on one side to the base of the distant hills, and on the other to the veige of the ocean. As the eye travels along, it catches many a pleasing object. Turn landward, it will see canals and water-courses, fields and snug farm-houses, smiling cottages, family residences, hamlets and villages, family tombs, monasteries and temples. Turn in the opposite direction, and you perceive a plain country descending toward the ocean ; hut the river alive with all kinds^ of boats, and the banks studded with ice-house.s, most of all attract the attention. Prom without the city, and while still ' Comi)iU-(‘ H. M. Martiiits China (Vol. II., p. 304), who give.s considerable miscellaneous information about the open ports, j)revious to 1H40; also Den. nys’ Treat!/ Tortj^ of China, 1807, pp. 320-34!); llichthofen’s No. .O, 1871 ; Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 181 ; Missionari/ Recorder, 1800, pp. 150, 121 npon the ramparts, look within its walls, you will be no less gratitied. Here there is nothing European, little to reniiiul ytm of what you have seen in the west. The single-storied and the double-storied houses, the heavy prison-like family mansions, the family vaults and graveyards, the glittering roofs of the temples, the dilapidated official residences, the deserted literary and examination halls, and the j)rominent sombre Tower of Xingpo, are entirely Chinese. The attention is also arrested for a moment or two by ditches, canals, and reservoirs of water, with their wooden bridges and stone arches.” ' Two serious drawbacks to a residence here are the stiffing heat of summer and the bad quality of the water. The circumference of the walls is nearly five miles ; they are about twenty-five feet high, fifteen feet wide at the top, and twenty-two at the base, built solidly, though somewhat dilaj)i- dated, and overgrown with grass. A deep moat ])artly sun-ounds them ; commencing at the North gate, it runs on the west, south, and south-east side as far as Ilridge gate, a distance of nearly three miles, and is in some places forty yards wide. Its constant use as a thoroughfare for boats insures its repaii- and proper depth ; the other faces «>f the city are defended by the l iver. There are six gates, and two sally-ports near the south and west approaches intended for the pa.ssage of the boats that ply on the city canals. On the east is liridge gate, within which, and near the walls, the English faetcuy was once situated. This opening leads out to the floating bridge ; the latter structure is two hundred yards long and five broad, made of planks firmly lashed, and laid upon sixteen lighters closely linked and chained together, but Avhieh can be opened. A busy market is held on the bridge, and the visitor following the lively crowd finds his way to an extensive suburb on the opposite side. Ferry boats ply across both streams in vast numbers, adding greatly to the vivacity of the scene. The custom-hoiise is situated beyond the bridge, and this eastern suburb contains several buildings of a religions ' Milne, in Chinese Repository, Vol. XIII. , p. 22, and in his Life in China, part second. London, 1S.5" 122 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. and public character, lumber-yards, dock-yards, and rows of ice- houses, inviting the notice of the traveller. The environs beyond the north gate are not so thickly settled as those across the rivers ; the well cultivated fields, divided and irrigated by numerous water-courses, with scattered hamlets, beguile the visitor in his rambles, and lead him onward. There are numerous temples and monasteries, and a large variety of assembly-halls, governmental ofiices, and educational establishments, but none of these edifices are remarkable in an architectural point of view. The assembly-halls or club-houses are numerous, and in their internal arrangements form a curi- ous feature of native society. It is the practice among residents or merchants from other provinces, to subscribe and erect on the spot where they are engaged in business, a temple, dedi- cated to the patron deity of their native province, in which a few priests are supported, and plays acted in its honor. Some- times the building is put in charge of a layman, called a “ mas- ter of ceremonies,” and the current expenses defrayed by sub- scription. The club-houses are places of resort for travellers from the several provinces or districts, and answer, moreover, to European coffee-houses, in being points where news from abroad is heard and exchanged. The streets are well paved, and interrupted here and there by honorary portals of considerable size and solidity, which also give variety to an otherwise dull succession of shops and sign- boards, or dead walls. Two small lagoons afford space for some aquatic amusements to the citizens. One called Sun Lake is only a thousand yards in circuit ; the other, called !Moou Lake, is near the West gate, and has three times its perimeter. Both are supplied by sluices passing through the city gates, while many canals are filled from them, which aid in irrigating the suburbs. Some of the pleasantest residences of the city are built on their banks. Among interesting edifices is the Tum-fung tah {i.e., Heaven- conferred pagoda), a hexagonal seven-storied tower upward of 100 feet high, which, according to the Amuih of N^imjpo, was Hrst erected 1100 years ago, though during that period it has been destroyed and rebuilt several times. Upon the authority TEMPLE OP THE OOI)T>ESS MA TSIf-PlT, MNOPO. NINGl’O, GIIIMIAI, AND THK A Kt'IIIl'ELAGO. 128 of this work, the tower was constructed before the city itself, and its preservation is considered as connected with tlie good luck of the place. The visitor inonnts to the suininit by a tlight of narrow stone steps, ascending spirally within the walls. The most elegant and solid building of the city lies on the water’s edge outside the walls, between the East and Bridge gates ; it is a temple dedicated to the marine goddess Ma Tsupu, and was founded by Fuhkien jiien in the 12th century, but the present structure was erected in 1G80, and largely endowed. Its ornaments are elaborate and rich, and its appearance on fes- tival days, gay and animated in an unusual degree. The lan- terns and scrolls hanging from the ceiling attract attention by the curious devices and beautiful characters written and drawn on them in bright colors, while the walls are concealed by in- numerable drawings. Chinhai, at the mouth of the river, is so situated by nature and fortified by art, that it commands the passage. Its en- virons were the scene of a severe engagement between the Chinese and English in October, 1841, on which occasion great slaughter was committed upon the imperial troops. The town lies at the foot of a hill on a tongue of laud on the northern baidc of the river, and is partly sheltered from the sea on the north by a dyke about three miles long, composed of large blocks of hewn granite, and proving an admirable defence in severe weather. The walls are twenty feet high and three miles in circumference, but the suburbs extend along the water, attracted by, and for the convenience of, the shipping. Mer- chant ships report here when proceeding up the river, along whose banks the scenery is diversified, while the water, as usual in China, presents a lively scene. Xumerous ice-houses are seen constructed of thick stone walls twelve feet high, each having a door on one side and an incline on the other for the removal and introduction of the ice, and protected by straw and a heavily thatched roof. The Chusan archipelago forms a single district of which Tinghai is the capital ; it is divided into thirty-four chwang or townships, whose officers are responsible to the district magis- trate. The southern limit of the group is Quesan or the Kiu 124 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. shall islands, in lat. 29° 21' J\., and long. 121° 10' E., consist- ing of eleven islets, the northernmost of which is False Saddle Island ; their total number is over a hundred. Tinghai city lies on the southern side of Chau shan or Boat Island, which gives its name on foreign maps to the whole group. It is twenty miles long, from six to ten wide, and tifty-one and a half in circumference. The archipelago seems to be the highest portion of a vast submarine plain, geologically connected with the IN^an shan range on the Continent and the mountains in Kiusiu and Nippon ; it is a pivot for the changes in weather and tem- perature observed north and south of this point along the coast. The general aspect of these islands and the mainland, is the same beautiful alternation of hills and narrow valleys, every- where fertile and easily irrigated, with peaks, cascades, and woodlands interspersed. In Chusan itself the fertile and well- watered valleys usually reach to the sea, and are furnished with dykes along the beach, which convert them into plains of greater or less extent, through which run canals, used both for irrigation and navigation. Rice and barley, beans, yams, sweet potatoes, etc., are grown ; every spot of arable soil being culti- vated, and terraces constructed on most of the slopes. The view from the tops of the ridges, looking athwart them, or adown theii' valleys, or to seaward, is highly picturescpie. 'Fhe prevailing i-ocks belong to the ancient volcanic class, compris- ing many varieties, but principally clay-stone, trachyte, and compact and ])Oi-phyritic felspar. The brief occupation of this island by tlie British forces in 1841 led to no permanent im- provement in the condition of the people, and it has neitlier trade nor minerals sufficient to attract capital thither. Owing in part, perhaps, to this poverty, Tinghai escaped the I’avages of the Tai-pings, and has now rechvered from the damage sus- tained by its first capture. Puto and a few smaller islands are independent of civil juris- diction, beiiig ruled by the abhot of the head monastery. This establishment, and that on Golden Island in the Yangtsz’ are among the richest and best patronized of all the Buddhist monasteries in China; both of them have been largely favored by emperors at diffenuit ))criods. I’UTO ISLAND AND ITS TILMPLES. 125 Futo is :i narrow islet, 3^ miles long, and lies IJ miles fioin the eastern point of Chusan. Its surface is covered with sixty monasteries, pavilions, temples, and other religions buildings, besides grottos and sundry inonnments of superstition, in which at least 2,000 idle ]>riests chant the praises of their gods. One visitor describes his landing and ascending “a broad and well- beaten pathway which led to the top of one of the hills, at every crag and turn of which we encountered a temple or a grotto, an inscription or an image, with here and there a garden taste- fully laid out, and walks lined with aromatic shrubs, which diffused a grateful fragrance through the air. The prospect from these heights was extremely delightful ; numerous islands, far and near, bestudded the main, rocks and precipices above and below, here and there a mountain monastei-v reariii" its head, and in the valley the great temple, with its yellow tiles indicative of imperial distinction, basked like a basilisk in the noonday-sun. All the aid that could be collected from nature and from Chinese art, was here concentrated to render the scene enchanting. But to the eye of the (’hristian philanthro- pist it presented a melancholy picture of moral and spiritual death. The only thing we heard out of the mouths of the priests was Onieto Fuh; to every observation that xvas made, re-echoed Ometo Fuh; and the reply to every inquiry was Ometo Fuh. Each priest was furnished with a rosary which he was constantly counting, and as he counted repeated the same senseless, monotoiu)us exclamation. These characters met the eye at every turn of the road, at every corner of the tem- ples, and on every scrap of paper ; on the bells, on the gate- ways, and on the walls, the same words presented themselves ; indeed the whole island seemed to be under the spell of this talismanic phrase, and devoted to recording and re-echoing Ometo Fuh.'’ * The pristine glory of these temples has become sadly dimmed, many of the buildings present marks of decay, and some of the priesthood are obliged to resort to honest labor in order to gain a living. Deaths in their number are supplied by purchasing youths, who are taught nothing but re- ' Medhurst’s Chinn, if.i Sfnti’ and Prospects, j). 398. 126 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. ligioiis literature, a tit training to stunt their minds to pursue tlie dull mummery of singing Ometo Fuh. The two imperial temples present good specimens of Chinese architecture ; but they as well as all other things to be seen at Puto are dilapi- dated and etfete. Temples were erected on this island as early as a.d. 550, and since it became a resort for priests it seems to have enjoyed the patronage of the government. The goddess of Mercy is said to have visited this spot, and her image is the principal object of worship. Xo females are allowed to live on the island, nor any persons other than the priests, unless in their employ. The revenues are derived from rent of the lands belonging to the temples, from the collection of those priests who go on begging excursions over the Empire, and fi’om the alms of pilgrims who resort to this agreeable locality. It appears like one of the most beautiful spots on the earth when the ti-aveller lands, just such a place as his imagination had pictured as exclusively belonging to the sunny East, and so far as nature and art can combine, it is really so : but here the illusion ends. Idleness and ignorance, celibacy and idolatry, vice, dirt, and dilapidation, in the inmates or in their habitations, form a poor back-ground for , the well- ay, and connected with that city through a luxuriant plain by a well-paved causeway about thirty miles long. Chapu was the port of Ilangchau, and when it possessed the entire trade with Japan, boasted of being the largest mart on the seacoast of Cheh- kiang. llie town lies at the bottom of a bay on the western face of some hills fontiing its eastern point ; and at low tide the mud extends a long way from the lowland. The suburbs are situated near a small headland ; the walled town stands about half a mile behind. Mhen attacked by the Ilritish in l\Fay, 1842, tlie walls were found in poor condition, but tlie Manchu garrison stationed here upheld their ancient reputation for bravery. This body of troops occupies a separate division of the city, and tlieir cantonment is planned on tlie model of a ClIAI’U AND CANFIT. ]'27 camp. The outer defences are numerous, but most of the old fortitications are considerably decayed. The country in the vicinity is highly cultivated, and possesses an unusual number of finely constructed, substantial houses. South-west from Chapu lies the old town of f’anfu (called Kanpu by the Chinese), which was once the port of Ilangchau, but now deserted, since the stream on which it is situated has become choked with sand. This place is mentioned in the voy- ages of two Arabian travellers in the ninth century, as the chief port of China, where all shipping centred. The narrow en- trance between Buffalo Island and Kitto Point is probably the Gates of China mentioned by them ; and ^larco Polo, in 1290, says, “ The Ocean Sea comes within 25 miles of the city at a place called Ganfu, where there is a town and an excellent haven, with a vast amount of shipping which is engaged in the traffic to and from India and other foreign pails. . . . And a great river flows from the city of Kinsay to that sea-haven, by which vessels can come up to the city itself.” ' ^larsden erron- eously supposes Kanpu to be Kingpo. If this was in fact the onli/ port alloM'ed to be opened for foreign trade, it shows that, even in the Tang dynasty, the same system of exclusion was maintained that has so recently been broken up ; though at that date the Emperors in Shansi had very little authority along the .southern coasts. The changes in the Bay of Ilangchau have been more potent causes for the loss of trade, and Yule reason- ably concludes that the upper part of it is believed to cover now the old site in Polo’s time. The province of Fiiikien (/.c. Happily Established) is bounded on the north by Chehkiang, north-west and west by Kiangsf, south-west by Ivwangtung, and east by the channel of Formosa. Its western borders are determined, for the most part, by the watershed of the basins of the rivers 3ilin and Kan ; a rugged and fertile region of the Xan shan. The line of sea- coast is bold, and bordered Avith a great number of islands, whose lofty granitic or trappean peaks extend in precipitous, ' Yule’s Marco Polo, Yol. II., p. 149. Cathay and the Way Thither, p. fxciii. Reinaud, Pelatiom dee Voyages f aits par les Arabes duns Vlndeetd la Chine, etc. (Paris, 1H45), Tome 1., p. 19. 1^8 THE MIDDLE KIJJGDOM. barren lieadlands from I^amoh as far as tlie Clmsan arcliipel- ago. In the general features of its surface, the islands on its coasts, and its position with reference to the ocean, it resembles the region lying east of ISTew Hampshire in the United States ; including Formosa, it about equals Missouri in size. The River Min is formed by the union of three large streams at Yenping fu ; it drains all the countiy lying east of the M^u-i (Bohea) hills, or about three-fourths of the province. It is more than three hundred miles long, and owing to its regular depth, is one of the most useful streams in China ; twenty-seven walled towns stand on its banks. The tide rises eighteen or twenty feet at the entrance, and this, with the many islands and reefs, renders the approach difficult. At Min-ngan hien, about fourteen miles from the mouth, the stream is contracted to less than half a mile for about three miles, the water being from twelve to twenty -five fathoms deep ; the hills on each side rise from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet. One traveller speaks of the walls of its forts and batteries, in this part, as affoi'ding a sort of stairs for the more convenient ascent of the hills on which they are situated. From the top, “ the view embraces a beautiful scene; nothing can be more picturesque than the little plats of wheat and barley intermi.xing their yellow crops on the acclivities wdth bristling pines and arid rocks, and crowned with garden spots, or surrounded with rice fields and orchards of oranges. The valley of the Min, viewed from the summit of the fortress, is truly a heautiful sight.” ' Tlie scenery on this river, though of a different character, will bear comparison with tliat of the Hudson for sublimity and beauty ; the hills are, however, much higher, and the couTitry less fruitful, on the Min. Beyond Pagoda Anchorage the passage is too shallow for large vessels, and this obstacle tends to prevent Fuhehau from becoming a place of commerce in keeping with its size aneople seem to care very little. Before foreign trade attained importance, paper money used to be issued by native mercantile firms in the city, varying in de- nomination from forty cents to a thousand dollars, and supply- ing all the advantages with few of the dangers of bank notes. The blue, red, and black colors, which are blended on these promissory bills, present a gay appearance of signatures and endorsing;s. The name of the issuino; house, and a number of characters traced around the page, in bright blue ink, form the original impression. The date of issue, and some ingeniously wrought cyjfiiers, for the reception of signatures and prevention of forgeries, are of a deep red ; while the entry of the sum, and names of the partners and receiver, stand forth in large black characters. On the back are the endorsements of various in- dividuals, through whose hands the bill lias passed, in order to facilitate the detection of forgeries, but not rendering the writer at all liable. These bills have now nearly disappeared, and bank bills from Hongkong are gradually coming into use. The streets usually are thronged with craftsmen and hucksters, in the fashion of Chinese towns, where the shopmen, in their desire to attract buyers, seem to imagine, that the more they get in their customers’ way, the more likely they are to sell them something. The shops are thrown open so widely, and display such a variety of articles, or expose the workmen so ]>lainly, that tlie whole street seems to be rather the stalls of a market, or the aisle in a manufactory, than the town-thoroughfare. The chief civil and military dignitaries of the province reside here, besides the prefect and the magistrates of ^lin and Ilaukwan districts. The (7ii/u/-/iwa>if/ mlao is one of the largest religious edifices in the place, and the temples of the goddess of ]\Ier(w, and god of AVar, the most freipiented. The m^ILDINGS AXD TVl>y,S OF INHABITAXTS. 183 JCiu/Sien ft/iaii, or ‘ Hill of the Nine (lenii,’ on the southern side of the town, is a pretty t)hject. The city wall runs over it, and on its sides little houses are huilt upon rocky steps ; nmner- ous inscriptions are carved in the face of the rocks. Near the i-astem gate, called 7\in(j man, or ‘ Bath gate,’ is a small suburb, where Chinese and ]\Ianchus live together, and take cai’e of many hot wells tilled from springs near by ; the populace resort hither in large crow’ds to wash and amuse themselves. The citizens of Fuhchau bear the character of a reserved, ju’oud, leather turbulent people, uidike the polite, affable natives further north. They are better educated, however, and plume themselves on never liaving been compiered by foreigners. Their dialect is hai'sh, contrasting strongly with the nasal tones of the patois of Amoy, and the mellifluous sounds heard at Aing]io. There are few manufactures of importance in the city, its commerce and resources depending almost wholly on the trade with the interior by the Itiver ^fin. ^lany cidprits wearing the cangue are to he seen in the streets, and in passing none of the hilarious merriment which is heard elsewhere greets the ear. There is also a general lack of courtesv between ac- (piaintances meeting in the highway, a circumstance rpiite unu- sual in China. Begiiars crowd the thoroughfares, showing; both the poverty and the callousness (>f the inhabitants. One half the male population is supposed tt) be addicted to the opium pipe, and annually expend millions of dollars for this noxious gratifi- cation. The popidation of the city and suburbs is reckoned at rather over than under a million souls, including the boat people ; it is, no doubt, one of the chief cities in the Empin; in size, trade, and infiuence. The island in the river is settled by a trading population, a great part of whom consist of sailors and boatmen. The coun- try women, who bring vegetables and poultry to market, are a robust race, and contrast strikingly with the sickly-looking, little-footed ladies of the city. Fishing-boats are numerous in the river, many of which are furnished with cormorants.' Amoy is the best known port in the province, and lo(i years ' Chiiu'se llejxmlDry. A'ol. X^'., j>p. 185, 2'25. 134 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. ;igo was the seat of a large foreign commerce. It lies in the district of Tung-ngan, within the prefecture of Tsiueiichau, in lat. 24° 40' X., and long. 118° 20' E., upon the south-western corner of the island of Amoy, at the mouth of the Lung Kiang. The island itself is about forty miles in circumference, and con- tains scores of large villages besides the city. The scenery within the hay is picturesque, caused partly by the numerous islands which define it, some of them surmounted by pagodas or temples, and partly by the high hills behind the city, and ci’owds of vessels in the harbor in the foreground.' There is an outer and inner city, as one approaches it seaward — or more properly a citadel and a city — divided by a ridge of rocky hills having a fortified wall along the top. A paved road connects the two, which is concealed from the view of the beholder as he comes in from sea, until he has entered the Inner harbor. The entire circuit of the city and suburbs is about eight miles, containing a population of 185,000, while that of the island is estimated at 100,000 more. The harbor of Amoy is one of the best on the coast ; the tide rises and falls from fourteen to sixteen feet. The western side of the hai'bor is formed by the island of Kulang su, the bat- teries upon it completely commanding the city. It is about a mile long and two and three-quarters around, and maintains a large rural population, scattered among four or five hamlets. The foreign residences scattei’cd over its hills add measurably to the charm of its aspect when viewed from the harbor. East- ward of Amoy is the island of Quemoy {i.e., Golden harbor), whose low, rice grounds on the south-west shore produce a very difFerent efFect as opposed to the high land on Amoy ; its population is, moreover, much less. The country in this part of Fuhkien is thickly settled and highly cultivated. Mr. Abeel, describing a trip toward Tung- ngan, says, “ For a few miles up, the hills wore the same rugged, barren aspect which is so common on the southern coast of China, but fertility and cultivation grew upon \is as we ' Tlio rSoaton Missionary Herald for 1845 (p. 87) coutaius a notice of the “ Whitt* Di'cr Cavern,” in tlie neighborhood. AMOY AND ITS KNVIKONS. i:^5 advanced ; the mountains on the east became hills, and these were adorned with fields. The villages were numerous at inter- vals; many of them were indicated in the distance by large groves of trees, but generally the landscape looked naked. A\Tll-sweej)s were scattered over the cultivated hills, affording evidence of the need and the means of irrigation.” ' In the other direction, toward Changchau, the traveller, be- yond Ihigoda Island, enters an oval bay ten or twelve miles long, bounded by numerous plains rising in the distance into steep barren mountains, and upon which numerous villages are found ; twenty-three were counted at once by l\Ir. Abeel, and the boatmen said that all could not be seen. Several large towns, and “villages uncounted” arc visible in every direction, as one proceeds up the river towaial (diangchau, thirty -five miles from Amoy. This city is well built, the streets paved with granite, some of them twelve feet wide, and intolerably offensive. A bridge, about eight hundred feet long, .spans the river, consisting of beams stretching from one abutment to an- other, covered with cross pieces. From the hill-top behind a temple at the north-western corner of the city, the prospect is charming. “ Imagine an amphitheatre,” says Mr. Lowrie, “ thirty miles in length and twenty in breadth, hemmed in on all sides by bare pointed hills, a river running through it, an immense city at our feet, with fields of rice and sugar-cane, noble trees and numerous villages stretching away in every direction. It was grand and beautiful beyond every conception we had ever formed of Chinese scenery. Beneath us lay the city, its shape nearly square, curving a little on the river’s banks, closely built, and having an amazing number of very large trees within and around. The guide said that in the last dynasty it had num- bered 700,000 inhabitants, and now he thought it contained a million — probably a large allowance. The villages around also attracted our attention. I tried to enumerate them, but after counting thirty-nine of large size distinctly visible in less than half the field before us, I gave over the attempt. It is cer- Chinexe Repo»itorff, Vol. XI., p. 506. 136 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. tainly within the mark to say that within the circuit of this immense plain tliere are at least one hundred villages, some of them small, but many numbering hundreds and even thousands of inhabitants.” ' Changchau was the last city in the eastern provinces held by the Tai-pings, a small remnant of their forces having come across the country after the loss of Xanking. They were ex- pelled in 1S()0, after the town had suffered much from the con- tending forces. Traces of this destruction have not yet entirely disappeared from the vicinity. Shihnia, or Chiohbe, is a place of some trade, extending a mile along the shore, and larger than Ilaitang hien, a district town between it and Amoy. Large numbers of people dwell in boats on this river, rendering a voyage up its channel some- what like going through a street, for the noise and bustle. The city of Chinchew (or Tsiuenchau), north of Amoy, was once the larger of the two. It is described by Marco Polo, who reached it after five days’ journey from Fuhchau, meeting with a constant succession of fiourishing cities, towns and villages. “At this city is the haven of Zayton, frequented by all the ships from India, . . . and by all the merchants of Manzi, for hither is imported the most astonishing quantity of goods and of precious stones and pearls. . . . For it is one of the two greatest havens in the world for commerce.” It was gradu- ally forsaken for Amoy, which was more accessible to junks. From Zayton, Kublai Khan’s expedition to Java and Japan sailed, and here the men from Egypt and Arabia traded for silks, sugar, and spices long after the Portuguese reached China. The department of Ilinghwa, situate on the coast between Tsiuenchau and Fuhchau, is exceedingly populous, and its dia- lect differs distinctly from both of the adjoining prefectures. Its people have a bad reputation, and female infanticide pre- vails here to a greater degree than elsewhere. At L enping, on the Min Kiver, the people speak the dialect of Xanking, sliow- ing their origin of not many scores of years past ; there are ‘ Chill fixe Repository, Vol. XII., p. .’iHO; Fortune’s Tea Districts, chaps, xiv. and XV. ’Yule’s Marco Roh, Vol. II., p. 180. THE ISLAND OK KOIiMOSA. i:?7 many patois in these hilly ]>arts of Fnhkien, and the province as a whole exhibits probably greater discrepancies in its dialects than any other. Its produce is exported north and west, as well as coastwise, and this intercourse tends to assimilate the speech of the inhabitants with their neighbors. The natural scenery in the ranges near the llohea Hills in the borders of Kiangsi attracts visitors from afar. Fortune describes the pic- turesque grouping of steep rocks, lonely temples on jutting ledges and hidden adits, alternating with hamlets, along the banks of the stream which carries the boats and produce away to a market. The rocks and cliffs here have furnished Chinese artists with many subjects for pen and pencil, while the valley in addition to its natural beauty brings forth the best of teas. The island of Formosa, lying DO miles west of Amoy, to- gether with the Pescadore group, forms a department called Taiwan. The former is a fertile, well-watered region, possess- ing a salubrious climate, and meriting in every respect its name ?'ormom — a descriptive term first given by the Portuguese to their settlement at Killing in 1590, and extended afterward to the entire island. Its total length is about 235 miles, while the width at the centre is not far from SO miles ; the limits of ('hinese jurisdiction do not, however, embrace more than the western or level portion, leaving to untamed aborigines the thickly wooded districts beyond the Muh liaii shan, a lofty rantre of mountains running north and south and forming the backbone of the island. The western coast presents no good harbors, and vessels lying a long distance oif shore are exposed to the double inconvenience of a dangerous anchorage and an inhospitable reception from the natives ; the eastern side is still less inviting, owing to its possession by savage tribes. From recent reports it appears, moreover, that the whole coast line is rising with unusual persistence and regularity, and that the streams are being choked up at their mouths. The aborigines of this island are, in those districts that re- main uncontaminated by mixture with Chinese settlers, a re- markably well-built, handsome race, strong, large of eye, bold, and devoted to hunting and ardent spirits (when the latter is procurable), after the manner of wild people the world over ; 1B8 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. no written language exists among tliein, nor do they employ any fixed method of reckoning time. They and the inhabi- tants of Lewchew and neighboring islands are probably of the same race with the Philippine Tagalas, though some have sup- posed them to be of Malay or Polynesian origin. Like the North American Indians they are divided into numerous clans, whose mutual feuds are likely to last until one party or another is exterminated ; this turbulence restrains them from any united action against the Chinese, whose occupation of the island has always been irksome to the natives. Their social condition is extremely low ; though free from the petty vices of thieving and deception, and friendly toward strangers, the principle of blood-requital holds among them with full force, and family revenge is usually the sole object of life among the men. No savage is esteemed who has not beheaded a China- man, while the greater the number of heads brought home from a fray, the higher the position of a brave in the com- munity. The women are forced to attend both to house and field, but share the laziness of their masters, insomuch that they never cut from the growing rice or millet more than enough for the day’s provision. “ Although these people have men’s forms,” observes a Chinese writer in the peculiar anti- thetical style common to their literary productions, “ they have not men’s natures. To govern them is impossible ; to exter- minate them not to be thought of ; and so nothing can be done with them. The only thing left is to establish troops with cannon at all the passes through which they issue on their raids, and so overawe them, by military display, from coming out of their fastnesses. The savage tracks lie only through the dense forests, thick with underbrush, where hiding is easy. \Then they cut off a head, they boil it to separate the liesh, adorn the skull witli various ornaments, and hang it up in their huts as evidence of their valor.” In addition to a few native clans who hav'c submitted to the rulers from the main- land and dwell in tlie border i-egion between the colonists and aborigines proper, a peculiarly situated race, called Ilakkm, maintains a neutral position between the hill tribes and the Chinese. These people were formerly industrious but per- PUODUOTION.S OF FOUMOSA, 139 secuted inhabitants of Kwangtnng province, who, in order to better their lot, emigrated to Formosa and established close communication with the natives there, making themselves in- dispensable to them by procuring arms, powder, and manufac- tured goods, while owing to their industry they were able in time to monopolize the camphor trade. Though retaining the Chinese costume and shaving their heads, they practically ignore Chinese rule, paying tribute and intermarrying with the moun- taineers, from whom they have also obtained large tracts of land. Maize, pt>tatoes, fruits, tobacco, indigo, sugar, rice, and tea, are all grown on this island, the tliree latter in rapidly increasing (piantities for purposes of export. Of natural products salt, coal, sulphur, petroleum, and camphor are of the lirst import- ance. The vast coal basins have hanlly been opened or even explored, the only mines now worked being those in the northern part, near Killing. Xative methods of mining are, however, the only ones emjiloyed thus far, and it is not surpris- ing, considering their extreme simplicity, that they ha%'e not been able to extract coal from remote districts, where the natural difficulties encountered are greatest. Hand labor alone is used, and draining a pit unheard of — compelling a speedy abandoning of the mines when pierced to any great depth in the mountain side. The cost of the coal at the mouth of the pit is about 65 cents per ton for the first qualities, which price improved methods might reduce a third. The presence of volcanoes on this island will, nevertheless, present a serious obstacle to the employment of western mining machinery, especially along the coast, where the measures appear to be ex- cessively dislocated and the work of draining is rendered more difficult. Petroleum is abundant in certain tracts of northern Formosa, flowing plentifully from crevices in the hills, and used to some extent for burning and medicinal purposes by the natives, hut not exported. The possibilities of a large sulphur trade are much more important. It is brought from solfatarae and geysers at Tah-yu kang, near Kilung, where it is found in a nearly pure state, as well, too, as a great quantity of sulphur- ous acid which might with profit be used in the sugar refiner- ies on the island. The manufacture of sulphur is, however. 140 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. forbidden by treaty, though its exportation goes on in small (piantities, the contractors taking on themselves all risk of seizure. Camphor, perhaps the greatest source of wealth to Formosa, is obtained here by saturating small sticks of the wood with steam, not by boiling as in Japan. Tlie crystals of camphor condense in a receiver placed above the furnace ; dur- ing the process of distillation an essential oil is produced, which when chemically treated with nitric acid becomes solid camphor. The trees from which the wood is cut grow in the most inaccessi- ble tracts of the island, and are, according to all descriptions, of immense extent, though chopped down by the natives without discrimination or idea of encouraging a second growth. Among the most interesting natui-al phenomena of this dis- trict are the so-called volcanoes, whoso occasional eruptions have been noticed by many. Mr. Le Gendre, United States Consul at Amoy in 1809, upon a visit to Formosa took occasion to examine more closely into this subject. It appears from his report ' that a gas is constantly issuing from tlie earth, and when a hole to the depth of a few inches is made it can be lighted. It is most likely, he continues, that from time to time gas jets break forth at points of the hills where they had not been ob- served before, rushin<>: through its long grass and forests of huge trees, and the rock oil which as a general thing flows in theii’ vicinity. As they are apt to spontaneously ignite in con- tact with the atmosphere, they must set fire to these materials and cause a local conflagration, that gives to the many peaks of the chain the appearance of volcanoes. Frevions to the first half of the fifteenth century the (’hinese had little knowledge of Formosa, nor was their sway estab- lished over any part of it until 1683. It was never really col- onized, and became a misgov'erned and refractory region from the earliest attempts at subjection. A great emigration is con- stantly going on from the main, and lands are taken up by capitalists, who not only encourage the people in settling there, but actually purchase large numbers of poor people to occupy these districts. Taiwan fu, the seat of local government, is the Commercial Rdatioue beltocen the U. N. and Foreitju, Nndoux. IS(59. KOKMOSA AND THK DKSOADOUKS. 141 largest place on the island ; otlier harbors or places of impor- tance are Ku-sia and Takow, some miles south of Taiwan, the latter, with Tamsui, on the north-west coast, being one of the recently opened ports of trade. Kihmg possesses a good har- bor and is the entrepot of goods for the northern end of the island. Since the opening (in ISOl) of these three towns to for eign intercourse, and the more careful examination of the neutral territory at the foot of the mountains, the resources, peoples, and condition of this productive isle have become better known. It may be of interest to refer, before leaving Forimjsa, to the extraordinary fabulous history of the island by one George Psalmanazar, the nom de2>lu»f‘ of a remarkable impostor of the commencement of the eighteenth century, who pretended to be a Jaj)anese convert to CUiristianity from Formosa, and who cre- ated a profound sensation in Euroj)e by the publication in Latin of a fictitious notice of that country.' About twenty-five miles west of Formosa, ami attached to Taiwan fu, is the district of Pdnyhii tinokiTig vessels in the river, some at anclior and others passing np and down at all hours.” ' The coup d'udl of these three cities is beautiful, their envi- rons being highly cidtivated and interspersed with the mansions of the great ; but he adds, “If you draw near, you will find on the margin of the river only a shapeless bank worn away with freshets, and in the streets stalls surmounted with palisades, and workshops imdermined hy the waters or tumbling to pieces from age. The open spots between these ruins are filled with abominations which diffuse around a suffocating odor. Xo regulations respecting the location of the dwellings, no side- walks, no place to avoid the crowd which presses upon one, elbowing and disputing the passage, but all get along pell-mell, in the midst of cattle, hogs, and other domestic animals, each protecting himself as he best can from the filth in liis way, which the (diinese collect with care for agricultural uses, and carry along in little open buckets through the crowd.” Above Hankow, the towns on the Yangtsz’ lie nearer its banks, as they are not so exposed to the freshets. The largest trading places in this part of llupeli on the river, are Shasi, opposite Kiuchau fu, and Ichang near the borders of Sz’chuen, respectively 25)3 and 363 miles distance. From the first settle- ment there is a safe passage by canal across to Shayang, forty miles away on the lliver Han ; the travel thence goes north to Shansi. The other lias recently been opened to foreign trade. It is the terminus of navigation for the large vessels used fi’om Shanghai upward, as the rapids commence a few miles beyond, necessitating smaller craft that can be hauled by trackers. These two marts are large centres of trade and travel, and were not made desolate by the Tai-pings, as were all other to\vns of importance on the lower Yangtsz’. The portion of the Yangtsz’ in this province, between Ichang and the Sz’chuen border, e.xhibits perhaps some of the most magnificent glimpses of scenery in the world. Breaking ’ Annnles de la Foi, 184.t, Tome XVII., pp. 287, 290. See also Hue’s Trav- ds in the Chinese Empire, Harper’s Ed., 185.'), Vol. II., pp. 142-144. Pum- pelly, pp. 224-226 ; Blakiston’s Yangtsze, p. 6.5 ; Treaty Ports of China, 1867, Art. Hankote. Voi. I.— 10 146 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. through the limestone foundations that dip on either side of the granite core of the rapids, the river first penetrates the Wu shall, Mitan, and Lukan gorges on the one side, then the long defile of Ichang on the other. At various points between and beyond these the stream is broken by more or less formid- able rapids. Among these grand ravines the most impressive, though not the longest, is that of Lukan, whose vertical walls rise a thousand feet or more above the narrow river. Nothing can be more striking, observes Blakiston, than sud- denly coming upon this huge split in the mountain mass “ by which the river escapes as through a funnel.” The eastern portions of Hupeh are rougher than the south- ern, and were overrun during the rebellion by armed bands, so that their best towns were destroy^ed. Siangyang fu and Fan- ching, near the northern borders, are important places iti the internal commerce of this region. Its many' associations with leading events in Chinese early and feudal history render it an interesting region to native scholars. A large part of the southwestern prefecture of Shingan is hilly', and its mountain- ous portions are inhabited by a rude, illiterate pojnilation, many' of whom are partly governed by' local rulers. The province of Hunan is bounded north by Hupeh, east by Kiangsi, south by Kwangtung and Kwangsi, west by Kweichau and Sz’chuen. Its area is reckoned at 84,000 scpiare miles — equal to Great Britain or the State of Kansas. It is drained by four rivers, whose basins comprise nearly' the whole pro- vince, and define its limits by their terminal watersheds. Tlie largest is the Siang, which, rising in the hills on the south and east in numerous navigable streains, affords facilities for trade in small boats to the borders of Kiangsi and Kwangtung, the traffic concentring at Siangtan ; this fertile and populous basin occupies well-nigh half of the ])rovince. Through the western part of Hunan runs the Yuen kiang, but the rapids and cascades occur so frecjuently as to render it far less useful than the Siang. Boats are towed up to the towns in the south- west with great labor, carrying oidy four or five tons cargo; these are exchanged for mere scows at llangkia, 200 miles above Chanass up the King Tliver to Pingliang and across several ranges, or else go farther up the liiver Wei to Tsin chau ; the distances are between 500 and GOO miles. From Lanchau one road goes along the Yellow Kiver down to Kinghia, a town inhabited chiefly by ^longols. Another leads 90 miles west to Silling, whither the tribes around Koko-nor repair for trade. The most imjiortant continues to Suhchau, this being an easier journey, while its trade furnishes employment to denizens of the region, whose crops are taken by travellers on passage ; this road is about 500 miles in length. Its great importance from early days is indicated by the erection of the Great Wall, in order to prevent inroads along its sides, and by the fortress of Kiayii, which shuts the door upon enemies. The climate of Kansuh exhibits a remarkable contrast to that of the eastern provinces. I'rejevalsky says it is damp in three of the seasons; clear, cold winds blowing in winter, and altern- ating with calm, warm weather; out of 92 days up to Septem- ber 30, he registered 72 rainy days, twelve of them snowy. The highest temperature was 88° F. in July. Snow and hail also fall in May. North of the Ala shan, which divides this moist region from the desert, e\ erything is dry and sandy ; their peaks attract the clouds, which sometimes discharge their contents in torrents, and leave the northern slopes dry ; a marsh appears over against and only a few miles from a sandy waste.' The country east of the Yellow River is fertile, and produces wheat, oats, barley, millet, and other edible plants. Wild ani- mals are frequent, whose chase affords both food and peltry ; large flocks and herds are also maintained by Tartars living within the province. The mountains contain metals and min- erals, among which are copper, almagatholite, jade, gold, and Prejevalsky’s Travels in Mongolia, Vol. II., pp. 256-266. 154 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. silver. The capital, Lanehaii, lies on the south side of the Yel- low River, where it turns northeast ; the valley is narrow, and defended on the west by a pass, through which the road goes westward. At Sming f u, about a hundred miles east of Tsing hai, the superintendent of Koko-nor resides ; its political im- portance has largely increased its trade within the last few years, ^inghia fu, in the northeast of the province, is the largest town on the borders of the desert. The destruction of life and all its resources during the recent Mohammedan rebel- lion, which was crushed out at Suhchau in October, 1873, is not likely to be repeated soon, as the rebels were all destroyed ; ‘ their Toorkish origin can even now be traced in their features.’ Ko reliable description of the towns belonging to Kansuh in the districts around Barkul, since the pacification of the country by the Chinese, has been made. The province of Sz’ciiuen (‘ Four Streams ’) was the largest of the old eighteen before Ivansuh was extended across the desert, and is now one of the richest in its productions. It is bounded north by Kansuh and Shensi, east by Hupeh and Hunan, south by Kweichau and Yunnan, west and northwest by Tibet and Koko-nor ; its area is 166,800 square miles, or double most of the other provinces, rather exceeding Sweden in superficies, as it falls below California, while it is superior to both in navigable rivers and productions. The emperors at Si-ngan always de- pended upon it as the main prop of their power, and in the third century a.d. the After Hans ruled at its capital ov'er the west of China. Sz’chuen is naturally divided by the four great rivers which run from north to south into the Yangtsz’, and thus form par- allel basins ; as a whole these comprise about half of the entire area, and all of the valuable portion. The western part beyond the Min River belongs to the high table lands of Central Asia, and is little else than a series of mountain ranges, sparsely populated and unfit for cultivation, except in small spaces and ^ Dip. Cor., 1874, p. 251. • That tills insurrection was not unprecedented we learn from a notice of a similar Mohammedan revolt here in 1784. NouveUea Lettrea Edijiantea das MiKKio)ia de la CJtine, Tome il., p. 2:5. TOPOGRAPltY OF SZ’dlUEN PROVINCE. bottom lands. The eastern portion is a triangular sliapetl re- gion surrounded with high mountains composed of Silurian and Devonian formations with intervening deposits, mo.stly of red clavey sandstone, imparting a peculiar brick color, which has led llaron von Richthofen to call it the Red Basin. The ranges of hills average about 3,500 feet high, but the rivers have cut their channels through the depo.^its from 1,500 to 2,500 feet deep, making the travel up and down their waters neither rapid nor easy. The towns which define this triangular red basin are Kweichau on the Yangtsz’, from which a line running south of the river to Pingshan hien, not far from Siichau at its confluence with the ^lin, gives the southern border ; thence taking a circuit as far west as Yachau fu on the Tsing-i River, and turning northwesterly to Lung-ngan fu, the western side is roughly skirted, while the eastern side returns to Kweichau along the watershed of the River Ilan. Within this area, life, industry, wealth, prosperity, are all found; outside of it, as a rule, the rivers arc unnavigable, the country uncultivable, and the people wild and insubordinate, especially on the south and west. The four chief rivers in the province, flowing into the Yang- tsz', are the Kialing, the Loh, the Min, and the Yalnng, the last and westerly being regarded as the main stream of the Great River, which is called the Kin-sha kiang, west of the Min. The Kialing rises in Kansuh, and retains that name along one trunk stream to its mouth, receiving scores of tribu- taries from the ridges between its basin and the Ilan, until it develops into one of the most useful watercourses in China, coming perhaps next to the Pearl River in Kwangtung. Chung- king, at its embouchure, is the largest depot for trade west of Ichang, and like St. Louis, on the Mississippi, will grow in im- portance as the country beyond develops. The River Fo Loh (called Fu-sung by Blakiston) is the smallest of the four, its headwaters being connected with the Min above Chingtu ; the town of Lu chan stands at its mouth ; through its upper part it is called Chung kiang. The Min River has its fountains near those of the Kialing in Koko-nor, and like that stream it gathers contributions from the ranges defining and crossing its basin ; 156 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. as it descends into the plain of Chingtu, its waters divide into a dozen channels below Hwan liien, and after running more than a hundred miles reunite above Mei hien, forming a deep and picturesque river down to Siichau, a thousand miles and more from the sotirce. At its junction, the Min almost doubles the volume of water in summer, when the snows melt. The Ya- lung River is the only large affluent between the Min and the main trunk ; it comes from the Bayan-kara Mountains, between the headwaters of the Yellow and Yangtsz’ Rivers, and receives no important tributaries in its long, solitary, and unfructuous course. The Abbe Hue speaks of crossing its rapid channel near Makian-Dsung just before reaching Tatsienlu, the frontier town ; it takes three names in its course. From Chingtu as a centre, many roads radiate to the other large towns in the province, by which travel and trade find free course, and render the connections with other provinces safe and easy. The roads are paved with flagstones wide enough to allow passage for two pack-trains abreast ; stairs are made on the inclines, up and down which mules and ponies travel without risk, though most of the goods and passengers are carried by coolies. In order to facilitate travel, footpaths are opened and paved, leading to every hamlet, and wherever the traffic will afford it, bridges of cut stone, iron chains or wire, span the torrent or chasm, according as the exigency requires ; towns or hamlets near these structures take pride in keeping them in repair. The products of this fertile region are varied and abundant. Rice and wheat alternate each other in summer and winter, but the amount of land producing food is barely sufficient for its dense population ; pulse, barley, maize, ground-nuts, sorghum, sweet and common potatoes, buckwheat and tobacco, are each raised for home consumption. Sugar, hemp, oils of several kinds, cotton, and fruits complete the list of plants mostly grown for home use. The exports consist of raw and woven silk, of which more is sent abroad than from any province ; salt, opium, musk, croton oil, gentian, rhubarb, tea, coal, s]ielter, copper, iron, and insect wax, are all grown or made for' other I'cgions. The peace which Sz’chuen enjoyed while other CIIINOTU A^M) TIIK MIN VAl.J.KY. in? provinces were ravaged by rebels, lias tended to develop all its products, and increase its abundance. The climate of this region favors the cultivation of the hillsides, which are com- posed of disintegrated sandstones, because the moist and mild winters bring forward the winter crops ; snow remains only a few days, if it fall at all, and wheat is cut before ^lay. The summer rains and freshets furnish water for the rice fields by filling the streams on a thousand hills. This climate is a great contrast to the dry regions further north, and it is subject to less extremes of temperature and moisture than Yunnan south of it. AVhen this usual experience is altered liy^ exceptional dry or wet seasons, the people are left without food, and their wants cannot be .supplied by the abundance of other province.®, owing to the slowness of transit. Brigandage, rioting, cannibalism, and other violence then add to the miserv of the poor, and to the difficulty of government. Chingtu, the caj)ital, lies on the liiver ^lin, in the largest plain in the province, roughly measuring a hundred miles one way, and fifty the other, conspicuous for its liches and popu- lousness. The inhabitants are reckoned to number 3,o00,000 souls. This city has been celebrated from the earliest days, but received its present name of the ‘ Perfect Capital ’ when Liu Pi made it his residence. Its population approaches a million, and its walls, .shops, yamnns, streets, warehouses, and suburbs, all indicate its wealth and political importance. ^larco Polo calls it Sindafu, and the pi’ovince Acbalec !Manzi, describing the fine stone bridge, half a mile long, with a roof resting on marble pillars, under which “ trade and industry is carried on,” ' which spans the Ivian-suy, i.e., the Yangtsz’, as the Min is still often termed. The remarkable cave houses of the old inhabitants still attract the traveller’s notice as he journeys up to Chingtu, along its banks. M. David, who lived at this city several months, declares it to be one of the most beautiful towns in China, placed in the midst of a fertile plain watered by many canals, which form a network of great solidity' and usefulness. The number of hon- Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 23. 1o8 THE .MIDDLE KINGDOM. oraiy gateways in and near it attract tlie voyager's eye, and tlieir variety, size, inscriptions, and age furnish an interesting field of inquiry. Many statues cut in fine stone are scattered about the city or used to adoi-n the cemeteries. The city of Chungking, on the Yangtsz’, at tlie mouth of tlie Kialing Rivei', 725 miles from Hankow, is the next im- portant cit}^ in Sz’chuen, and the centre of a great trade on both rivers. The other marts on the Great River are also at the mouths of its affluents, and from Ivwaichau to Siichau and Pingshan hien, a distance of 496 miles, there is easy and safe communication within the province for all kinds of boats ; steam vessels will also here find admirable opportunities for their employment. In the western half of Sz’chuen, the people are scattered over intervales and slopes between the numberless hills and mountains that make this one of the roughest parts of China ; they are governed by their own local rulers, under Chinese superintendence. They belong to the Lolos race, and have been inimical and insubordinate to Chinese rule from earliest times, preventing their own progress and destroying all desire on the part of their rulers to benefit them. Yacbau fu, Ta- tsienlu, and Batang are the largest towns west of Chingtu, on the road to Tibet. On the other side of the province, at Fungtu hien, occur the fire-wells, where great supplies of petroleum gas are used to evaporate the salt dug out near by. The many topics of interest in all parts of Sz’chuen, can only be referred to in a brief sketch, for it is of itself a kingdom.* ‘The province of Kwangtunq (i.e., Broad East), from its hav- ing been for a long time the only one of the eighteen to which foreigners have had access, has almost become synonymous with China, although but little more is really known of it than of the others — except in the vicinage of Canton, and along the course of the Peh kiang, from Naidiiung down to that cit}’. It is bounded north by Iviangsi and Hunan, northeast by Fuh- ' Ghinexe Ite.poHitory, Vol XIX., pp. 317 and 394. Annalex de la Foi, Tome III., pp. 369-381, and Tome IV., pp. 409-41.5. Lelter liy Baron Iliphthofen on the Provinces of Chihli^ Shansi, Shensi, Sz’chuen, etc. Shanghai, 187‘2. Kreitner, Imfernen Osten, pp. 780-839. TIIK I'KOVINCE OF KWANGTUXG. 1,59 kien, south hy the ocean, and west and nortliwest by Kwangsi; with an area about the same as that of the United. Kingdom. The natural facilities for internal navigation and an extensive coasting trade, are unusually great ; for while its long line of coast, nearly a thousand miles in length, affords many excellent harbors, the rivers communicate with the regions on the west, north, and east beyond its borders. The Xan slum runs along the north, between it and Kiangsi and Hunan, in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction, presenting the same succession of short ridges, with bottom lands and clear streams between them, which are seen in Fuh- kien. These ridges take scores of names as they follow one another from Kwangsi to Fuhkien, but no part is so well known as the road, twenty-four miles in length, which crosses the j\Iei ling {i.e. Flum ridge), between Xan-ngau and Xanhiung. The elevation here is about a thousand feet, none of the peaks in this part exceeding two thousand, but rising higher to the west. Their summits are limestone, with granite underlying ; granite is also the prevailing rock along the coast. Li-mu ridge in 1 lainan has some peaks reaching nearly to the snow-line. The bottoms of the rivers are wide, and their fertility amply repays the husbandman. Fniits, rice, silk, sugar, tobacco, and vege- tables, constitute the greater part of the productions. Lead, iron, and coal, are abundant. The Chu kiang, or Pearl River, which flows past Canton, takes this name only in that short portion of its course ; it is however preferable to employ this as a distinctive name, com- prehending the whole stream, rather than to confuse the reader by naming the numerous branches. It is formed by the union of three rivers, the West, Xorth, and East, the two flrst of which unite at Sanshwui, west of the citv, while the East River joins them at Whampoa. The Si kiang, or W est River, by far the largest, rises in the eastern pdrt of Yunnan, and receives tributaries throughout the whole of Kwangsi, along the southern acclivities of the Xan shan, and after a course of 500 miles, passes out to sea through numerous mouths, the best knorni of Avhich is the Eocca Tigris. The Peh kiang, or Xorth River, joins it after a course of 200 miles, and the East River is nearly 160 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. the same length ; these two streams discharge the surplus watei’s of all the northern parts of Ivwangtung. The country drained by the three cannot be much less than 150,000 square miles, and most of their channels are navigable for boats to all the large towns in this and the province of Kwangsi. The llan kiang is the only river of importance in the eastern end of Ivwangtung ; the large town of Chauchau lies near its mouth. There can hardly be less than three hundred islands scattered along the deeply indented coast line of this province between Namoh Island and Annam, of which nearly one-third belong to the department of Kwangchau. Canton, or Kwangchau fu {i,e. Broad City), the provincial capital, lies on the north bank of the Pearl River, in lat. 23° T 10" K., and long. 113° Id' 30" E., nearly parallel with Havana, Muskat, and Calcutta ; its climate is, however, colder than any of those cities. The name Canton is a corruption of Kwang- tung, derived in English from Kamtom, the Portuguese mode of writing it ; the citizens themselves usually call it Kwanytuny isdny chiny, i.e. the provincial capital of Ivwangtung or simply mny cliiny. Another name is Yany-cldny, or the ‘ City of Rams,’ and a third the City of Genii, both derived from ancient legends. It lies at the foot of the White Cloud hills, along the banks of tlie river, about seventy miles north of Macao in a direct line, and ninety northwest of Hongkong ; these dis- tances are gi-eater by the river. The delta int(^ which the West, Xorth, and East Rivers fall might be called a gulf, if the islands in it did not occupy so mucb of the area. The whole forms one of the most fertile parts of the province, and one of the most extensive estuaries of any river in the world, — being a rough triangle about a hundred miles long on each side. The bay of Lintiii — so called from the islet of that name, where opium and othei- store ships for- merly anchored — is the largest sheet of water, and lies below the principal cmbouchui’e of the river, called Fu 2fun, i.e. Bocca Tigi-is, or Bogue. Few rivers can be more completely protected by nature than this ; their defences of walls and guns at this spot, however, have availed the Chinese but little against the skill and ])ower of their enemies. Ships ])ass through it up to SIZK AND SITUATION OK CANTON. 101 the anehorage at AVhaiiipoa, about thirty miles, from whence Canton lies twelve miles nearly due west. The approach to it is indicated by two lofty pagodas within the walls, and the mul- titude of boats and juidvs thronging the river, amidst which the most pleasing object to the far-travelled stranger ” is the glimpse he gets through their masts of the foreign houses on Sha-meen, and the Hagstaffs hearing their national ensigns. The part of Canton inclosed by walls is about six miles in circumference ; having a partition wall running east and west, which divides it into two unequal parts. The entire circuit, in- cluding the snhnrbs, is nearly ten miles. The population on land and water, so far as the best data enable one to judge, cannot be less than a million of iidiabitants. This estimate has been doubted ; and certainty uj)on the subject is not to be at- tained, for the census affords no aid in determining this point, owing to the fact that it is set down by districts, and Canton lies partly in two districts, Xaidiai and Pwanyu, which extend beyond the walls many miles. Davis says, “ the whole circuit of the city has been compassed within two hours by persons on foot, and cannot exceed six or seven miles ; " — which is true, but he means only that portion contained within the walls ; and there are at least as many houses without the walls as within them, besides the boats. The city is constantly increasing, the western suburbs present maiiy new streets entii'ely built up within the last ten years. The houses stretch along the river from opposite the Fa ti or Flower grounds to French Folly, a distance of four miles, and the baidcs are everywhere nearly concealed by the boats and rafts. The situation of Canton is one which would naturally soon attract settlers. The earliest notices of the city date back two centuries before Christ, but traders were doubtless located here prior to that time. It grew in importance as the country be- came better settled, and in a.d. TOO, a regular market was opened, and a collector of customs appointed. TVhenthe Man- chus overran the country in 1650, this city resisted their utmost efforts to reduce it for the space of eleven months, and was finally carried by treachery. Martini states that a hundred thousand men were killed at its sack ; and the whole number who VoL. T.— It 162 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. lost their lives at the final assault and during the siege was 700,000 — if the native accounts are trustworthy.' Since then, it has been rebuilt, and has increased in prosperity until it is re- garded as the second city in the empire for numbers, and is probably at present the first in wealth. The foundations of the city walls are of sandstone, their upper part being brick ; they are about twenty feet thick, and from twenty-five to forty feet high, having an esplanade on the in- side, and pathways leading to the*i-ampart, on three sides. The houses are built near the wall on both sides of it, so that ex- cept on the north, one hardly sees it when walking around the city. There are twelve outer gates, four in the partition wall, and two water gates, through which boats pass, into the moat, from east to west. A ditch once encompassed the walls, now dry on the northern side ; on the other three, and within the city, it and most of the canals are filled by the tide, which as it runs out does much to cleanse the city from its sewage. The gates are all shut at night, and a guard is stationed near them to preserve order, but the idle soldiers themselves cause at times no little disturbance. Among the names of the gates are Great- Peace gate. Eternal- Rest gate. Five- Genii gate. Bamboo- Wicket gate, etc. The appearance of the city when viewed from the hills on the north is insipid and uninviting, compared with western cities, being an expanse of reddish roofs, often concealed by frames for drying or dyeing clothes, or shaded and relieved by a few large trees, and interspersed with high, red poles used for fiag- staffs. Two pagodas shoot up within the walls, far above the watch towers on them, and with the five-storied tower on Kwanyin shan near the northern gate, form the most conspicu- ous objects in the prospect. To a spectator at this elevation, the river is a prominent fea- ture in the landscape, as it shines out covered with a great diversity of boats of different colors and sizes, some stationary others moving, and all resounding with the mingled hum of ’ The Freneli bishop I’alafox gives still another account of the capture of Canton ; his statement contains, however, one or two glaring errors. Vid. llis- toire de la Couquite de la Chine par les Tartares, pji. mo tf. SIGHTS OF CANTON CITY. 1(53 laborers, sailors, musicians, hucksters, cliildren, ami boatwoinen, pursuing their several sports aiul occupations. On a low sand- stone ledge, ill the channel off the city, once stood*the ISea Peai l {Ilai (Via) Fort, called Dutch Folly by foreigners, the quietude reigning within which contrasted agreeably with the liveliness of the waters around. Beyond, on its southern shore, lie the suburb and island of Ilonam, and green fields and low hills are seen still farther in the distance ; at the western angle of this island the Pearl Biver divides, at the Peh-nirit. Canton has been a well governed, cleanly city. In these respects it is not now as well kept, perhaps, as it was before the war, nor was it ' ever comparable to modern cities in the 'West, nor should it be likened to them ; without a corporation to attend to its condi- tion, or having power to levy taxes to defray its unavoidable expenses, it cannot be expected that it should be as wholesome. It is more surprising, rather, that it is no worse than it is. The houses along the waterside are built upon piles and those por- tions of the city are subject to inundations. On the edge of the stream, the water percolates the soil, and spoils all the wells. The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous. There are two pagodas near the west gate of the old city, and one hundred and twenty-four temples, pavilions, halls, and other religious edifices within the circuit of the city. The Kwany tah or ‘ Plain pagoda,’ was erected by the Mohammedans (who still reside near it), about ten centuries ago, and is rather a min- aret than a pagoda, though quite unlike those structures of 164 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Turkey iu its style of architecture; it shoots up in an angular, tapering tower, to the height of one hundred and sixty feet. The other is an ocitagonal pagoda, of nine stories, one hundred and seventy feet high, first erected more than thirteen hundred years ago. The geomancers say that the whole city is like a junk, these two pagodas are her masts, and the five-storied tower on the northern wall, her stern sheets. Among the best known monuments to foreigners visiting this city was the monastery of Cho7iy-show sz\ ‘ Temple of Lon- gevity,’ founded in 1573, and occupying spacious grounds. “In the first pavilion are three Buddhas ; in the second a sev’en- story, gilt pagoda, in which are 79 images of Buddha. In the third pavilion is an image of Buddha reclining, and in a merry mood. A garden in the rear is an attractive place of resort, and another, on one side of the entrance, has a number of tanks in which gold fish are reared. In the space in front of the tem- ple a fair is held every inorning for the sale of jade ornaments and other articles.” ' This temple was destroyed in November, 1881, by a mob who were incensed at the alleged misbehaviour of some of the priests toward the female devotees — an instance of the existence in China of a lively popular sentiment regard- ing certain matters. Near this compound staiuls the ‘ Temjdc , of the Five Hundred Genii,’ containing 500 statues of various sizes in honor of Buddha and his disciples. The Ilai-chwang , a Buddhist temple at Ilonam usually known as the Honam Joss-house, is one of the largest in Can- ton. Its grounds cover about seven acres, surrounded by a wall, and divided into courts, garden-spots, and a burial-ground, where are deposited the ashes of priests after cremation. The buildings consist mostly of cloisters or apartments surrounding a court, within which is a temple, a pavilion, or a hall ; these courts are overshadowed by bastard-banian trees, the resort of thousands of birds. The outer gateway leads up a gravelled walk to a high portico guarded by two huge deitioniac figui-es, thi’ough which the visitor enters a small inclosure, separated from the largest one by another spacious porch, iu which are ' Dr. Kurr, Canton (Inidi . BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN CANTON. im four colossal statues. This conducts him to the main temple, a low building one hundred feet scpiare, and surrounded by pil- lar.s; it contains three wooden gilded images, in a sitting pos- ture, called San 7V> or the Past, Present, and Future Ihiddha, each of them about twenty-tive feet high, and sur- rounded by numerous altars and attendant images. Daily ju-ayers are chanted befoie them by a large chapter of j)riests, all of whom, dressed in yellow canonicals, go through the liturgy. Peyond this a smaller building contains a marble carving some- what resembling a pagoda, under which is preserved a relic of Ihiddha, said to be one of his toe-nails. This court has other .‘^hrine.s, and many rooms for the accommodation of the priests, among which are the printing-office and library, both of them respectable for size, and containing the blocks of books issuc(l by them, and .sold to devotees. There are about one hundred and seventy-five priests con- nected with the establishment, only a portion of whom can read. .Vmong the buildings are several small temples dedicated to national deities whom the Buddhists have adopted into their mythology. One of the houses adjoining holds the hogs (not as was stated in one work) offered by worshippers who feed them as long as they live. Two other shrines belonging to the Buddhists, are both of them, like the Ilonam temple, well endowed. One called Ktt'auy- hiao or ‘ Temple of Glorious Filial Duty,' contains two hun- dred prie.sts, who are supported from glebe lands, estimated at three thousand five hundred acres. The number of priests and nuns in Canton is not e.xactly known, but probably e.xceeds two thousand, nine-tenths of whom are Buddhists. There are only three temples of the nationalists, their numbers and influence being far less in this city than those of the Buddhi.sts. The C/uny-Zneany miao is an important religious imstitutiou in every Chinese city, the temple, being a sort of palladium, in wliieb both rulers and people offer their devotions for the wel- fare of the city. The superintendent of that in Canton pays $4,000 for his situation, whicli sum, with a large profit, is ob- tained again in a few years, by the sale of candles, incense, etc., to the worshippers. The temples in ('hina are generally cheer- 166 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. less and gloomy abodes, well enough fitted, however, for the residence of inanimate idols and the performance of unsatisfy- ing ceremonies. Tlie entrance courts are usually occupied by hucksters, beggars, and idlers, who are occasionally driven off to give room for the mat-sheds in which theatrical perform- ances got up by priests are acted. The principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in front, and the altai-, drums, bells, and other furniture of the temple, are little cal- culated to enliven it ; the cells and cloistei’s are inhabited by men almost as senseless as the idols they serve, miserable beings, whose droning, useless life is too often only a cloak for vice, indolence, and crime, which make the class an opprobrium in the eyes of their countrymen. Canton is the most influential city in Southern China, and its rejiutation for riches and luxury is established throughout the central and northern provinces, owing to its formerly engrossing the entire foreign trade up to 18d3, for a period of about one hundred years. At that time the residence of the governor- general Avas at Shao-king fu, west of Canton, and his otficial guard of 5,000 troops is still quartered there, as the Manchu garrison is deemed enough for the defence of Canton. He and the Iloppo, or collector of customs, once had their yamuns in the Xew City, but a liomish C'athedral has been built on the site of the former’s office since its capture in 1857. The governor, treasurer, Manchu commandant, chancellor, and the lower local magistrates (ten in all), live in the Old City, and with their official retinues compose a large body of underlings. Some of these establishments occupy four or five acres. The KamjYuenox Examination Hall, lies in the southeastern corner of the Old City, similar in size and arrangement to these edifices in other cities. It is 1,330 feet long, 583 wide, and covers o\ er sixteen acres. The wall surrounding it is entered at the east and west corners of the south end, where door-keep- ers are stationed to j)revent a crowd of idlers. The cells are arranged in two sets on each side of the main passage, which is paved and lined with trees; they are further disposed in rows of 57 and 63 cells each — all reached through one side door. The total is 8,653 ; each cell is 5 feet t) inches deep, by 3 feet THE TIIIUTEEN IIOXGS OU FACTOUIES. 167 8 inches wide; grooves are made in the Avail to admit a plank, serving as a table by day and a bed by night. Once Avithin, the students are confined to their several stalks, and the outer gate is sealed. A single r(H>f covers the cells of one range, the ranges being 3 feet 8 inches apart. The northern portion includes about one-third of the w’hole, and is built over with the lialls, courts, lodging-rooms, and guard or eating-houses of the highest examinei-s, their assistants and copyists, Avith thousands of AA’aiters, printers, underlings, and soldiers. At the biennial e.xamination the total number of students and others in the Hall reaches nearly twelve thousand men. There are four prisons in the city, all of them large cstahlish- ments ; all the capital offenders in the province are brought to Canton for trial before the provincial officers, and this regu- lation makes it necessary to provide spacious accommodations for them. The execution-ground is a small yard near a pottery manufacture hetAveen the southern gate and the river side, and unless the ground is iieAvly stained Avith blood, or cages contain- ing the heads of the criminals are Imng around, has nothing about it to attract the attention. Another public building, situated near the goA-ernors palace, is the Wan-shao Icun^, or ‘Imperial Presence hall,’ AA’here three days before and after his majesty’s birthday, the officers and citizens assemble to pay him adoration. The various guilds among the people, and the clubs of scholars and merchants from other provinces, have, each of them, public halls Avhich are usually called consoo ?wuses by foreigners, from a corruption of a native term i.e., public hall ; but the usual designation is 1‘wui hwan or ‘ Assembly Hall.’ Their total number must be quite one hundred and fifty, and some of them are not destitute of elegance.' The former residences of foreigners in the western suburbs were knoAATi as Shih-sa7i Hang, or ‘ Thirteen Hongs,’ ’ and fur ' Chinese Repository, Vol. II., pp. 145, 191, &c. ’ This word is derived from the Chinese hong or hang, meaning a row or series, and is applied to warehouses because these consist of a succession of rooms. The foreign factories were built in this manner, and therefore the Chinese called each block a hong ; the old security-merchants were dubbed hong -merchants, because they lived in such establishments. 108 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. nearly two centuries furnished almost the only exhibition to the Chinese people of the yavg jin or ‘ ocean-men.’ Here the fears and the greed of the rulers, landlords, and traders combined to restrain foreigners of all nations within an area of about fifteen acres, a large part of this space being the Garden or Itexpon- dentia Walk on the bank of the river. All these houses and out-houses covered a space scarcely as great as the base of the Great Pyramid ; its total population, including native and for- eign servants, wasupwai’ds of a thousand souls. Tlie shops and markets of the Chinese were separated from them oidy a few feet, and this greatly increased the danger from fire, as may be inferred from the sketch of the street next on the west side. In 1856, the number of hongs was reckoned to be 16, and the local calendar for that year contained 317 names, not including women and children. Besides the 16 hongs, four native streets, bordered with shops for the sale of fancy and silk goods to their foreign customers, rau between the factories. This latter name was given to them fi-om their being the residences of factors^ for no handicraft was carried on here, nor were many goods stored in them. Fires were not unusual, which demol- ished portions of them ; in 1822 they were completely con- sumed ; another conflagration in 1843 destroyed two hongs and a street of shops ; and in 1842, owing to a sudden riot, connected with paying the English indemnity, the British Consulate was set on fire. Finally, as if to inaugurate a new era, they were all simultaneously burned by the local authorities to drive out the British forces, in December, 1856, and every trace of this interesting spot as it existed for so long a time in the annals of foreign intercourse obliterated. Since the return of trade, a new and better site has been formed at Shameen, west of the old spot, by building a solid stone wall and filling in a long, mai'shy low-tide bank, formerly occupied by boats, to a height of 8 or 10 feet, on which tliere is room for gardens as well as houses. This is surrounded by water, and thereby secure from fire and mobs to which the old hongs were exposed, llesi- dences ai’e obtainable anywhere in the city by foreigners, and the common sight in the olden times of their standing outside of the (treat Peace (rate to see the crowd pass in and out while 4* hX'V**' VIEW OF A STREET IN CANTON. ENVIKONS OF CANTON. non tljcy tlieiiiselves could not enter, is no longer seen. .V verj’ good map of the encientewas made by an American missionary, Daniel A^roornan, by taking the angles of all the conspicuou.s buildings therein, with the highest points in the suburbs ; he then taught a native to pace the streets between them, comjxiss in hand (noting courses and distances, which he fi.xed by the ])rincipal gates), until a complete plan was filled out. AVhen the city was opened four years afterwards this map was found to need no important corrections. The trades and manufactories at Canton are mainly connected with the foreign commerce. JMany silk fabrics are woven at Fatshan, a large town situated about ten miles west of the city ; fire-crackers, paper, mat-sails, cotton cloth, and other ai’ticles, are also made there for e.xportation. The number of ]>ersons engaged in weaving cloth in C'anton is about 50,000, including embroiderers; nearly T,000 barbers and 4,200 shoemakers are stated as the number licensed to shave the crowns and shoe the soles of their fellow-citizens. The opposite suburb of llonam offers pleasant walks for rec- reation, and the citizens are in the habit of going over the river to saunter in its fields, or in the cool grounds of the great temple; a race-course and many enjoyable rides on horseback also tempt foreigners into the country. A couple of miles up the river are the Fa ti or Flower gardens which once supplied the plants carried out of the country, and are resorted to by pleasure parties ; but to one accustomed to the squares, gardens, and esplanades of western cities, these grounds appear mean in the e.xtreme. Foreigners ramble into the country, but rowing upon the river is their favorite recreation. T.ike Europeans in all parts of the East, they retain their own costume and modes of living, and do not espouse native styles ; though if it were not for the shaven crown, it is not unlikely that many of them would adopt the Chinese dress. The Cantonese enumerate eight remarkable localities, called 2>n}i which they consider worthy the attention of the stranger. The first is the peak of AAiehsiu, just within the walls on the north of the ciA, and commanding a fine view of the surrounding country. The Pi-pa Tah, or Lyre pagoda at 170 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Whampoa, and the ‘Eastern Sea Fish-pearl,’ a rock in the Pearl River off the citj, on which the fort already referred to as the ‘ Dutch- Folly ’ was formerly situated, are two more ; the pavilion of the Five Genii, with the five stone rams, and print of a man’s foot in the rock, “ always filled with water,” near by ; the rocks of Yu-shan ; the lucky wells of Faukiu in the western suburbs ; cascade of Si-tsiau, forty miles west of the city ; and a famous red building in the city, complete the eight “ lions.” The foreign shipping all anchored, in the early days, at Whampoa, but this once important anchorage has been nearly deserted since the river steamers began their trips to the outer waters. There are two islands on the south side of the anchor- age, called French and Danes’ islands, on which foreigners are buried, some of the gravestones marking a century past. The prospect from the summit of the hills hereabouts is picturesque and charming, giving the spectator a high idea of the fertility and industry of the land and its people. The town of Wham- poa and its pagoda lie north of the anchorage ; between this and Canton is another, called Lob creek pagoda, both of them unin- habited and decaying. Macao (pronounced Makoto) is a Portuguese settlement on a small peninsula projecting from the south-eastern end of the large island of Iliangshan. Its Chinese inhabitants have been governed since 1849 by the Portuguese authorities somewhat differently from their own people, but the mixed government has succeeded very well. The circuit of this settlement is about eight miles ; its position is beautiful and very agreeable ; nearly surrounded with water, and open to the sea breezes, having a good variety of hill and ])lain even in its little territory, and a large island on the west called Tui-mien shan or Lapa Island, on wliich are pleasant rambles, to be reached by equally pleas- ant boat excursions, it offers, moreover, one of the healthiest residences in south-eastern Asia. Tlie population is not far from 80,000, of whom more than T,f>00 are Portuguese and other foreigners, living under the control of the Portuguese authorities. The Poi’tuguese have refused to pay the former annual ground-rent of 000 taels to the Chinese Government, MACAO AND IIONGKONU. 171 since the assassination of their governor in 1849, and now con- trol all the inhabitants living within the Barrier wall, most of whom have been born therein. The houses occupied by the foreign population are solidly built of brick or adobie, large, roomy, and open, and from the rising nature of the ground on which they stand, present an imposing appearance to the visitor coming in from the sea. There are a few notable buildings in the settlement ; the most imposing edifice, St. Paurs church, was burned in 1835. Three forts on commanding eminences protect the town, and others outside of the walls defend its waters ; the governor takes the oaths of office in the ^lonte fort ; but the government offices are mostly in the Senate house, situated in the middle of the town. !Macao was, up to 1843, the only residence for the families of merchants trading at Canton. Of late the authorities are doing much to revive the prosperity of the place, by making it a free port. The Typa anchorage lies between the islands Mackerara and Typa, about three miles off the southern end of the peninsula ; all small vessels go into the Inner harbor on the west side of the town. Ships anchoring in the Hoads are obliged to lie about three miles off in consequence of shallow water, and large ones cannot come nearer than six or seven miles.' Since the ascendancy of Hongkong, this once celebrated port has fallen away in trade and importance, and for many years had an infamous reputation for the pi'otection its rulers afforded the coolie trade. Eastward from Macao, about forty miles, lies the English colony of Hongkong, an island in lat. 22° 16^' X., and long. 114° 8f' E., on the eastern side of the estuary of the Pearl Hiver. The island of Hongkong, or Hiangkiang (/.^., the Fra- grant Streams), is nine miles long, eight broad, and twenty-six in circumference, presenting an exceedingly uneven, barren siir- face, consisting for the most part of ranges of hills, with nar- row intervales, and a little level beach land. Victoria Peak is 1,825 feet. Probably not one- twentieth of the surface is availa- ' Chinese Repositoi'y, passim. An Historical Sketch of the Portuguese Settle- ments in China. By Sir A. Ljungstedt. Boston, 1836. 172 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. ble for agi-icultural purposes. The island and liarhor were first ceded to the Crown of England by the treaty made between Captain Elliot and Ivisben, in January-, 1841, and again by tlie treaty of Nanking, in August, 1842 ; lastly, by the Convention of Peking, October 24, 1860, the opposite peninsula of Ivowlung was added, in order to furnish space for quartering troops and storehouse room for naval and military supplies. The town of Victoria lies on the north side, and extends more than three miles along the shore. The secure and convenient harbor has attracted the settlement here, though the uneven nature of the ground compels the inhabitants to stretch their warehouses and dwellings along the beach. The architecture of most of the buildings erected in Victoria is superior to anything heretofore seen in China. Its popula- tion is now estimated at 130,000, of whom five-sixths are Chinese tradesmen, craftsmen, laborers, and boatmen, few of whom have their families. The government of the colony is vested in a governor, chief-justice, and a legislative council of five, assisted by various subordinate officers and secretaries, the whole forming a cumbrous and expensive machinery, compared with the needs and resources of the colony The Bishop of Victoria has an advisory control over the missions of the estab- lishment in the southern provinces of China, and supervises the schools in the colony, where many youths are trained in English and Chinese literature. The supplies of the island are chiefly brought from the main- land where an increasing population of Chinese, under the con- trol of the magistrate of Kowlung, find ample demand for all the provisions they can furnish. Three newspapers are published in English, and two in Chinese. The Seaman’s and Military hospitals, the cliapels and schools of the London and Church Missionary Society, St. John’s Cathedral, Homan (’atholic establishment, the government house, the magistracy, jail, the ordnance and engineer depart- ments, Exchange, and the Club house, arc among the ju-incipal edifices. The amount of moTiey expended in huildings in this colony is enormous, and most of them are substantial stone or bi’ick houses. The view of the city as seen from the harbor is TOWNS? OK KWANOTUNG PUOVINCE. 17:^ only excelled in beauty by the wider panorama spread ont before the spectator on Victoiia Peak. During the forty-odd years of its occupation, this colony has slowly advanced in commer- cial importance, and become an entrepot for foreign goods dc- si‘nied for native markets in Southern China. Everv facilitv has been given to the Chinese who resort to its shops to carry away their purchases, by making the j)ort free of every impost, and preventing the imperial revenue cutters from interfering with their junks while in sight of the island. The arrange- ments of this coritested point so that the Chinese revenue shall not suffer have not satisfied either party, aiid as it is in the simi- lar case of Gibraltar, is not likely to soon be settled. Smug- glers must run their own risks with the imperial officers. The most valuable article leaving Hongkong is opium, but the greatest portion of its exports pay the duties on entei-ing China at the five open ports in the province of Kwangtung. As the focus of postal lines of passenger steamers, and the port where mercantile vessels come to learn markets, Hongkong exerts a greater influence on the southeast of Asia than her trade and size indicate. The island of Shangchuen or San5ian, where Xavier died, lies southwest of Macao about thirty miles, and is some- times visited by devout persons from that place to reveremte his tomb, which they keep in repair. The city of Shauchau in the northern part of the province lies at the fork of the river, which compels a change of boats for passengers and goods ; it is one of the largest cities after Canton, and a pontoon bridge furnishes the needed facilities for stopping and taxing the boats and goods passing through. Shanking, west of Canton, is another important town, which held out a long time against the Manchus : ' it was formerlv the seat of the provincial authorities, till they removed to Cantoiv in 1630 to keep the foreigners under control. It stretches along six miles of the river bank, a well-built city for China, in a beautiful position. Some of its districts furnish green teas and matting for the Canton market, and this trade has opened the way for a large emigration to foreign countries. Among ' Palafox, Conquetedela Chwc, p. 172. 174 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. other towns of note is jNanhiung, situated at the head of navi- gation on tlie Xorth Riv^er, where goods cross the Mei ling. Before the coast was opened to trade, fifty thousand porters obtained a livelihood by ti-ansporting packages, passengers, and merchandise to and from this town and Xan-nsran in Kiangsi. It is a thriving place, and the restless habits of these industrious carriers give its population somewdiat of a turbulent character. Many of them are women, who usually pair ofp by themselves and carry as heavy burdens as the men. Not far from Yangshan hien is a fine cavern, the Niu, Yen or ‘ Ox Cave,’ on a hillside near the Xorth River. Its entrance is like a grand hall, with pillars 70 feet high and 8 or 10 feet tliick. The finest part is exposed to the sun, but many pretty rooms and niches are revealed by torches ; echoes resound through their recesses. The stalactites and stalagmites pre- sent a vast variety of shapes — some like immense folds of drapery, between which are lamps, thrones and windows of all shapes and sizes, while others hang from the roof in fancifid forms. The scenery along the river, between Xanhiung and Sbau- chau, is described as wdld, rugged, and barren in the extreme ; the summits of the mountains seem to touch each other across the river, and massive fragments fallen from their sides, in and along the river, indicate that the passage is not altogether free from danger. In this mountainous region coal is procured by opening horizontal shafts to the mines. Ellis ’ says, it was brought some distance to the place where he saw it, to be used in the manufacture of green vitriol. Many pagodas are passed in the stretch of 330 miles between Xanhiung and Canton, cal- culated to attract notice, and assure the native boatmen Avhich swarm on its waters, of the protection of the two elements he has to deal with — wind and water. One of the most conspicu- ous objects in this part of the river arc five rocks, Avhich rise abruptly from the banks, and are fancifully called Yu,-ina-ta(\ or ‘ Five-horses’ heads.’ The formation of this part of the ])rovince consists of compact, dark-colored limestone, overlying Embasny (of Lord Antliorsf) to China, Moxon’s ed., 1840, p. 08. THU ISLAND OK HAINAN. 17.') samlstcne and breccia. Nearly lialfway between Shauchaii and (’anton is a celebrated mountain and cavern temple, dedicated to Kwanyin, the goddess of Mercy, and most charmingly situ- ated amid waterfalls, groves, and fine scenery, near a hill about 1,850 feet high. The cliff has a sheer descent of five hundred feet ; the temple is in a fissure a hundred feet above the water, and consists of two stories ; the stops leading up to them, the rooms, walls, and cells, are all cut out of the rock. Inscriptions and scrolls hide the naked walks, and a few inane priests inhabit this somewhat gloomy abode. Mr. Barrow draws a proper com- parison between these men and the inmates of the Cork Con- vent in Portugal, or the Franciscan dc>nvent in Madeira, wlio had likewise “ chained themselves to a rock, to be gnawed by the vultures of superstition and fanaticism,” but these last have less excuse. The island of Hainan constitutes a single department, Kiung- chau, but its prefect has no power ov'er the central and mountain- ous parts. In early European travels it is named Aynao, Kainan and Aniani. It is about one hundred and fifty miles long and one hundred broad, being in extent nearly twice the size of Sicily. It is separated from the main by Luichau Strait, six- teen miles wide, whose shoals and reefs render its passage un- certain. The interior of the island is mountainous, and well M'ooded, and the inhabitants give a partial submission to the Chinese ; they are identical in race Avith the mountaineers in Kweichau. This ridge is called Li-mu ling; a remarkable peak in the centre of the southern half, Wu-chi sTian or ‘ Five- finger Mountain,’ probably rises 10,000 feet. The Chinese in- habitants are mostly descendants of emigrants from Fuhkien, and are either trading, agricultural, marine, or piratical in their vocation, as they can make most money. The lands along the coast are fertile, producing areca-nuts, cocoa-nuts, and other tropical fruits, Avhich ai’e not found on the main. Kiungchau fu lies at the mouth of the Li-mu River, opposite Luichau. The port is Iloihau, nineteen miles distant, but the entrance is too shallow for most A'essels, and the trade consequently seeks a better market at Pakhoi, a town which has recently risen to importance as a treaty port on the mainland. All the thirteen 176 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. arts of the province, and empties into the Yangtsz', through the river Kien near Chungking. Other tributaries of that river and West River, also have their sources in this prov- ince, and by means of batteaux ami rafts are all more or less available for traffic. The natural outlet for the products of Kweichau is the river Yuen in Hunan, whose various hranches flow into it from the eastern prefectures, hut their unsettled condition prevents regular or successful intercourse. Chinene Rtpoxilort/, Vol. XIV., j>p. 171 ff. KWEICIIAU I’KOVINCE ANl) TIIK MIAOTSZ'. 179 The capital, Kweivanj’:, is situated among the mountains; it is the smallest provincial capital of the eighteen, irs walls not heintr more than two miles in circumference. The other chief towns or departments are of inferior note. There are many military stations in the southern prefectures at the foot of the mountains, intended to restrain the unsubdued tribes of Miaotsz’ who inhabit them. Miaotsz' Types. This name Miaotsz’ is used among the (’hinese as a general term for all the dwellers upon these mountains, but is not ap- plied to every clan by the people themselves. They consist of eighty-two tribes in all (found scattered over the mountains in Kwangtung, HunaTi, and Kwangsi, as well as in Ivweichau), speaking several dialects, and differing among themselves in their customs, government, and dress. The Chinese have often described and pictured these people, but the notices are confined 180 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. to a list of their divisions, and an account of their most striking peculiarities. Their language differs entirely from the Chinese, but too little is known of it to ascertain its analogies to other tongues ; its affinities ai’e most likely with the Laos, and those tribes between Burmah, Siam, and China. One clan, inhabit- ing Lipo hien in the extreme south, is called Yau-jin, and although they occasionally come down to Canton to trade, the citizens of that place firmly believe them to be furnished with short tails like monkeys. They carry arms, are inclined to live at peace with the lowlanders, but resist every attempt to pene- trate into their fastnesses. The Yau-jin first settled in Kwangsi, and thence passed over into Lien chau about the twelfth cen- tury, where they have since maintained their footing. Both sexes wear their hair braided in a tuft on the top of the head — but never shaven and tressed as the Chinese — and dress in loose garments of cotton and linen ; earrings are in universal use among them. They live at strife among themselves, which becomes a source of safety to the Chinese, who are willing enough to harass and oppress, but are ill able to resist, these hardy mountaineers. In 1832, they broke out in active hos- tilities, and destroyed numerous parties of troops sent to sub- due them, but were finally induced to return to their retreats by offers of pardon and largesses granted to those who sub- mitted. A Chinese traveller among the Miaotsz’ says that some of them live in huts constructed upon the branches of trees, others in mud hovels ; and one tribe in cliff houses dug out of the hill- sides, sometimes six hundred feet up. Their agriculture is rude, and their garments are obtained by barter from the low- landers in exchange for metals and grain, or woven by them- selves. The religious observances of these tribes are carefully noted, and whatever is connected with marriages and funerals. In one tribe, it is the custom for the father of a new-born child, as soon as its mother has becoine strong enough to leave her couch, to get into bed himself and there receive the congratula- tions of his ac(juaintances, as he exhibits his offspring — a c\istom which has been found among the Tibetan tribes and elsewhere. Another class has the counterpart of the maj'-pole and its jocund THE PUOVINCE OF YUNNAN. 181 dance, whicli, like its corresponding game, is availed of by young men to select their mates.' The province of Yunnan {i.e., C'loudy South — south of the Yun ling, or ‘Cloudy ^fountains ”) is in the southwest of the empire, bounded by north Sz'chuen, east hy Kweichau and Kwangsi, south by Annam, Laos, and Siam, and west by Bur- niah. Its distance from the central authority of the Empire since its partial conquest \mder the Ilan dynasty has always made it a weak point, and the uneducated, mi.xed character of the in- habitants has given an advantage to enterprising leaders to resist Chinese rule. It was recovered from the aborigines by the Tang Emperors, who called it Jung chau, or the region of the Jung tribes, from which the name Karajang, i.e.. Black Jung, which Marco Polo calls it, is derived ; Kublai Khan himself led an army in 1253 thither before he conquered China, and sent the Venetians on a mission there about the year 1278, after his establishment at Peking. A son of the Emperor was his A'iceroy over this outlying province at that time. The re- cent travels of Margary, Babei', and Anderson, of the British service, with Monhot and Gamier of the French, have done much to render this secluded province better known. The cen- tral portion is occupied by an extensive plateau, ramifying in various directions and intersected with valley -plains at alti- tudes of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, in which lie several large lakes and the seven principal cities in the province. These plains are overtopped by the ridges separating them, which, seen from the lower levels, appear, as in Shansi, like horizontal, connected summit-lines. All are built up of red sandstone, like the basin in Sz'chuen, through which rivers, small and large, have fur- rowed their beds hundreds and thousands of feet, rendering communication almost impossible in certain directions as soon as one leaves the plateau. In the east and northwest, the defiles ' Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 29; Vol. XIV., pp. 105-117; G. T. Lay, Chinese as They Are, p. 316 ; Journal of N. C. Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, No. III., 1S59, and No. VI., 1869. Chinese Recorder, Vols. II., p. 265, and in., pp. 33, 74, 96, 134 and 147. Peking Gazette tor 1872. China Reciem, Vol. V., p. 92. -Known as in Pali records. Chinese Recorder, Vol. III., pp. 33, 74, sqq. ; see also pp. 62, 93, 126, for the record of a visit. 182 TILE MIDDLE KIJN'GDOM. are less troublesome, and in this latter portion of the province are some peaks rising far above the snow line. These are called on Col. Yule's map the Goolan Sigon range. The climate is cooler than in Sz’chuen, owing to this elevation, and not very healthy; snow lies for weeks at Yunnan fu, and the summers are charmiug. The Yangtsz’ enters the province on the northwest for a short distance. The greatest river in it is the Lantsan, which rises in Tibet, and runs for a long distance parallel with and between the Yangtsz’ and Nu Rivers till the three break through the mountains not far from each other, and take differ- ent courses, — the largest turning to the eastward across China, the Lantsan southeast through Yunnan to the gulf of Siam, under the name of the Meikon or river of Cambodia, and the third, oi' Salween, westerly through Bm-mah. The Meikon re- ceives many large tributaries in its coiu'se across the province, and its entire length is not less than 1,500 miles. The Lung- chuen, a large affluent of the Irrawadi, nms a little west of the Salween. The Meinam rises in Yunnan, and flows south into Siam under the name of the anting, and after a cour.se of nearly eight hundred miles, empties into the sea below Bangkok. East of the Lantsan are several important sti-eams, of which three that unite in Aunam to form the Saugkoi, are the largest. The general cour.se of these rivers is southeasterly, and their upper waters are separated by mountain ridges, between which the valleys are often reduced to very narrow limits. There are two lakes in the eastern pai't of the province, south of the capi- tal, called Sien and Tien ; the latter is about seventy miles long by twenty wide, and the Sien hu (<.c., ‘ Fairy Lake’) about two-thirds as large. Another sheet of water in the northwest, near Tali fu, communicating with the Yangtsz’ kiaug, is called Urh hai or llhr sea, which is more than a hundred miles long, and about twenty in width. The capital, Yunnan, lies upon the north shore of Lake Tien, and is a town of note, having, moreover, considerable political importance from its trade with other parts of the country through the Yangt.sz’, and with Burmah. The city was seri- ously injured in 1834:, by an earth(|uake, which is said to have INIIABITAN'l'S ANM) PUODUCTIONS OF YUNNAN. 183 lasted three entire days, forcing the inhabitants into tents or the open tields, and uvertlirowing eveiy important building.' The traffic between this province and Hnrniah centres at the fortified post of Tsantah, in the district of Tangyueh, both of them situated on a branch of the Irrawadi. The principal part uf the commodities is transported upon animals from these depots to llhanio, upon the Irrawadi, the largest market-town in this part of C'hin-India. The Chinese participate largely in this traile, which consists of i-aw and manufact\ired silk to the amount of annually, tea, copper, carpets, orpiment, quicksilver, vermilion, drugs, fiaiits, and other things, carried from their country in exchange for raw cotton to the amount of $1,140,000 annually, ivory, wax, rhinoceros and deer’s horns, precious stones, bii'ds’ nests, peacocks’ feathers, and foreign arti- cles. The entire traffic is probably $2,500,000 annually, and for a few years past has been regularly increasing. There is considerable intercourse and trade on the southern frontiers with the Lolos, or Laos and Annamese," partly by means of the head-waters of the Meinam and Meikon — which are supposed to communicate with each other by a natural canal — and partly by caravans over the mountains. Vunnan fu was the capital of a Chinese prince about the time of the decadence of the Ming dynasty, who had rendered himself in- dependent in this part of their empire by the overthrow of the rebel Lf, but having linked his fortunes with an imbecile scion of that house, he displeased his officers, and his territories gradually fell under the sway of the conquering Manchus. The southern and western districts of the province are iidiab- ited by half-subdued tribes who are governed by their own rulers, under the nominal sway of the Chinese, and pass and repass across the frontiers in pursuit of trade or occupation. The extension of British trade fi-om Ilangoon toward this })art of China, has broiight those hill tribes more into notic.e, and proved in their present low and barbarous condition the ac- curacy of the ancient description by Marco Polo and the Boman Catholic missionaries. Colonel Yule aptly terms this wide re- ' Annnles de la Foi, Tome VIII., p. 87. ’ Two tliousaiul Chinese families live iji Amerapnra. 184 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. gion an “ Ethnological Garden of tribes of various race and in every stage of uncivilization.” The unifying influence of the Chinese written language and literary institutions has been neutralized among these races by their tribal dissensions and inaptitude for study of any kind. Anderson gives short vo- cabularies of the Kakhyen, Shan, Ilotha Shan, Le-sau and Poloung languages, all indicating radical differences bf origin, the existence of which would keep them from mingling with each other as well as from the Chinese.' The mineral wealth of Yunnan is greater and more varied than that of any other province, certain of the mines having been worked since the Sung dynasty. Coal occm-s in many places on the borders of the central plateau ; some of it is anthracite of remarkable solidity and uniformity. Salt occurs in hills, not in wells as in Sz’chuen ; the brine is sometimes obtained by diving tunnels into the hillsides. Metalliferous ores reach from this province into the three neighboring ones. Copper is the most abundant, and the mines in Yingyuen fn, in the southwestern part of Sz’chuen, have supplied both copper and zinc ores during the troubles in Yunnan. The copper at llwuih chan in that prefecture is worked by companies which pay a royalty of two taels a pecul to the government, and fur- nish the metal to the mine owners for $8 per pecul. The peli- tmuj or argentan ores are mixed with copper, tin, or lead, by the manufacturers according to the uses the alloys are put to. Silver exists in several places in the 7iorth, and the exploitation of the mines was successful until within 30 years past ; now they cannot be safely or profitably worked, in consequence of political disturbances. Gold is obtained in the sand of some rivers but not to a large extent; lead, iron, tin, and zinc occur in such plenty that they can be exported, but no data are acces- sible as to the entire product or expoi’t.' ' Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II. Anderson, Mandalay to Momien. * Proced. Roy. Geog. Soc., Vols. XIII., p. 392, XIV., p. 335, XV., pp. 103 and 343. Col. Yule, Trade Routes to Western China — The Geographical Maga- zine, April, 1875. Richthofen, Recent Attempts to find a direct Trade-Road to Southwestern China — Shanghai Budget, March 20, 1874. Journey of .4. R. Mar gary from Shanghae to Bhamo. London, 1875. Col. II. Browne in Blue Books, Nos. I, 2, 3, and 4 (1870-77). CHAPTER IV. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF MANCHURIA, MONGOLIA, fLl, AND TIBET. The portions of the Chinese Empire beyond the limits of the Eighteen Provinces, though of far greater e.xtent than China Proper, are comparatively of minor importance. Their vast re- gions are peopled by different races, whose languages are mu- tually unintelligible, and whose tribes are held together under the Chinese sway rather by interest and reciprocal hostilities or dislike, than by force. European geographers have vaguely termed all that space lying north of Tibet to Siberia, and east of the Tsung ling to the Pacific, Chinese Tartanj / while the countries west of the Tsung ling or Belur tag, to the Aral Sea, have been collectively called Independent TaHanj. Both these names have already become nearly obsolete on good maps of those regions ; the more accurate knowledge brought home by recent travellers having ascertained that their inhabitants are neither all Tartars (or Mongols) nor Turks, and further that the native names and divisions are preferable to a single com- prehensive one. Such names as Manchuria, Mongolia, Songaria, and Turkestan, derived from the leading tribes dwelling in those countries, are more definite, though these are not perma- nent, owing to the migratory, changeable habits of the people. From their ignorance of scientific geography, the Chinese have no general designations for extensive countries, long chains of mountains, or devious idvers, but apply many names where, if they were better informed, they would be content with one. The following table presents a general view of these coun- tries, giving their leading divisions and forms of government. GENERAL VIEW OF THE COLONIES AND THEIR SUBDIVISIONS. ]86 THE MIDDLE KINGDO.AI. 03 _ 0? 'd d 0) 0) bi3 00 0) fl bx) cd d 'O ^ i3 s ® ’ d ^ H C3 03 03 to 9 c •‘3 i-i A ©cc bX) P 00 C rp ec S g >> fl X P o 'd o 0) p ^ 03 42 nj „ P '3 P (jj 03 *-• P © ^ P t) 42 42 P P ^ o - p > P be ^ u ^ M > 2'^ ^ cS M © a > r ’© > r- R-5 I g -S-g I- W P ^ P ^ s s g P 5 1,1 80 s([iiare miles, or a little more than all Euroj)e ; their separate areas cannot be precisely given, ^ranchuria contains about 400,000 square miles ; Mongolia between 1,300,000 and 1,500,- 000 square miles ; III about l,OT0,00O square miles ; and Tibet from 500,000 to 700,000 square miles. Manchukia is so termed from the leading race who dwell there, the MandjurK or Jlanchiui , it is a word of foreign origin, the Cdiinese having no general appellation for the vice- royalty ruled from ^lukden. It comprises the eastern portion of the high table land of ('entral Asia, and lies between lati- tudes 30° and 52° X., and longitudes 120° to 134° E. These points include the limits in both directions, giving the region a rectangular shajie lying in a north-east and south-west direction ; roughly speaking, its dimensions are 800 by 500 miles. It is bounded on the south by the (riilf of Pechele, and the highlands of Corea on the north bank of the Yaluh Kiver; on the east by a line running from the liussian town of I’ossiet northerly to the River Usuri, so as to include Ilinka Lake; thence from its headwaters to its junction with the Amur. This river forms the northern fi-ontier ; its tributary, the River Argun, together with the large lakes llurun and Puyur, lie on the west ; from the latter lake an artificial line stretching nearly due east for six degrees in lat. 47° strikes the town of Tsitsihar on the River Xonni. The rest of the western border follows the rivers Xonni and Songari to the Palisade. This obsolete boundary commences at Shan-hai kwanon the Gulf of Liatung and runs north-easterly ; it nominally separates the IMongols from the Manchus for nearly 300 miles, and really exists only at the passes where the roads are guai’ded by military. But a portion of this region has yet been traversed by Euro- peans, and most of it is a wilderness. The entire population is not stated in the census of 1812, and from the nature of the country and wandering habits of the people, many tribes of Avhom render no allegiance to the Emperor, it would be impossi- ble to take a regular census. Parts of Manchuria, as here de- 188 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. fined, have been known under many names at different periods. Liautung (‘ East of the River Liau ’) has been applied to the comi- try between that river, Corea, and the Sea of Japan ; Tungking (‘ Eastern Capital ’) referred to the chief town of that region, under the Ming dynasty ; and Kwantung (‘ East of the Pass ’), denoting the same country, is still a common designation for the whole territory. Manchuria is now chiefly comprised in the valleys between the Usuri and Nonni Rivers, up to the Amur on the north, while the basin of the Liau on the south embraces the rest. There are three principal mountain chains. Beginning nearly a hundred miles east of Mukden, in lat. 43°, are the Long White Mountains' {Ghang-peh shan of the Chinese, or Kolmin-shang- uin aim of the Manchus), which form the watershed between the Songari and Yaluh Rivers and serve for the northern frontier of Corea as far as Russian territory. There it divides and takes the naine of Sih-hih-teh, or Sihoti Mountains, for the eastern spur which runs near the ocean, east of the River Usuri ; and the name of Ilurkar Mountains for the western and lower spurs between that river and the Ilurkar. One noted peak, called Mount Chakoran, rising over 10,000 feet, lies south-east of San-sang on the Amur. On the plain, north of Kirin, numerous buttes occur, sometimes isolated, and often in lines fifteen or twenty miles apart ; most of them are wooded. In the western part of Tsitsihar lies the third great range of mountains in Manchuria, called the Sialkoi Mountains, a con- tinuation of the Inner Iling-an range of Mongolia, and separating the Argun and Nonni basins. The Sialkoi range extends over a great part of Mongolia, commencing near the bend of the Yel- low River, and reaching in a north-easterly direction, it forms in Manchuria three sides of the extensive valley of the Konni, ending between the Amur and Songari Riv’ers at their jumdion. These regions are more arid than the eastern portions, and the mountains are rather lower ; but our information is vague and scanty. As a whole, Manchuria should be called hilly ‘ Klaproth (/IfmoiVes Jielatifs d P A.ne, Tome I., Paris, 1824) has translated from the Manolm a narrative of a visit made in 1(>77 by one of the grandees of Kanghi’s court to a summit in this range. C/dnene liejwsilory, Vol. XX., p. 29(5. THE AMUU AND ITS AFFLUENTS. 189 rather than mountainous, its intervales alone repaying culti- vation. The country north of the Chang-pch shan as far as the Stan- ovoi Mountains is drained by one river, viz., the Sagalien, Amur, Kwautung, or Ilehlung kiaug (for it is known by all these names), and its alHuents; Sayalien ula in Manchu and Hehlamj kiaiuj in Chinese, each mean ‘ Black ’ or ‘ Black Dragon Uiver.' The Amur drains the north-eastern slope of Central Asia by a circuitous course, aided by many large tributaries. Its source is in lat. 50° X. and long. 111° E., in a spur of the Daou- rian Mountains, called Kenteh, where it is called the Ouon. After an east and north-east course of nearly five hundred miles, the Onon is joined in long. 115° E. by the Ingoda, a stream coming from the east of Lake Baikal, where it takes its rise by a peak called Tshokondo, the highest of the Yablonsi Khrebet Mountains. Beyond this junction, under the Ilussian name of Shilka, it flows about two hundred and sixty miles north-east till it meets the Argun. The Argun rises about three degrees south of the Onon, on the south side of the Kenteh, and under the name of Kerlon runs a solitary north-east course for four hundred and thirty miles to Lake Hurun, Kerlon, or Dalai-nur ; the Kalka here comes in from Lake Puyur or Fir, and their waters leave Lake Ilurun atUst-Strelotchnoi (the Arrow’s Mouth) under the name of the Argun, flowing north nearly four hun- dred miles to the union with the Shilka in lat. 53° ; from its exit as the Argun and onward to the entrance of the Usuri, it forms the boundary between China and Russia for 1,593 versts, or 1,062 miles. Beyond this town the united stream takes the name of the Amur Great River) or Sagalien of the Manchus, running nearly east about 550 miles beyond Albazin, when its course is south-east till it joins the Songari. Most of the aflluents are on the north bank ; the main channel grows wider as its size in- creases, having so many islands and banks as seriously to inter- fere with navigation. The valley thus watered possesses great natural advantages in soil, climate, and productions, which are now gi-adually attracting Russian settlers. In lat. 47^° the Songari River (ASy^ny-Aewa Maiiyoi the (diinese) unites with the 190 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Amur on the right bank, 950 miles from Ust-Strelotchnoi, bringing the drainings of the greater portion of Manchuria, and doubling the main volume of water. The headwaters of this stream issue from the northern slopes of the Chang-peh shan ; quickly combined in a single channel, these waters flow past the town of Ivirin, scarcely a hundred miles from the mountains, in a river twelve feet deep and 900 wide. Xear Pet- uno the Piver Ponni joins it from Tsitsihar, and their united stream takes the Chinese name of Kwantung (‘ Mingled Union’) ; it is a mile and a half wide here and only three or four feet deep, a sluggish river full of islands. Then going east by north, growing deeper by its affluents, the Ilurka, Mayen, Tunni, llulan, and other smaller ones, it unites with the Amur at at Changchu, a hundred miles west from tlie Usuri. All ac- counts agree in giving the Songari the superiority. At San- sing, it is a deep and rapid river, but further down islands and banks interfere with the navigation. The Ilurka drains the original country of the Manchus.' The district south-east of the desert, and north of the Great Wall, is drained and fertilized by the Sira-muren, or Lian River, which is nearly valueless for navigation. Its main and western branch divides near the In shan IMountains into the Hwang ho and Lahar ; the former rises near the Pecha peak, a noted point in those mountains. The Sira-muren runs through a dry region for nearly 400 miles before it turns south, and in a zigzag channel reaches the Gulf of Liautung, a power- ful stream carrying its quota of deposit into the ocean ; the width at Yingtsz’ is 650 feet. The depth is 16 feet on the bar at high tide. The Yaluh kiang, nearly three hundred miles long, runs in a very crooked channel along the northern frontiers of Corea. Put little is known about the two lakes, Ilurun and Pir, e.vcept that their waters are fresh and full of fish ; the River Urshuu unites them, and several smaller streams run into the latter. ‘ Voyage Down, the Armtr, by Perry McD. Collins, in 1857. New York, 1800, chaps, xxxii.-lx., i)assim. Riivenstein’s .l7W(/r. Chinese Rejwsitory, Vol. XIX., ]). 289. Rev. A. Williamson, Journeys in North China, Vol. II., chaps, x.-xiii. NATUKAL UKSOUKCES OF MAXCIIURIA. 19J The larger part of Manchuria is covered by forests, the abode of wild animals, whose capture affords employment, clothing, and food to their hunters. The rivers and coasts abound in ffsh ; among which carp, sturgeon, salmon, pike, and other species, as well as shell-tish, are j)lenty ; the pearl-fishery is sufficiently remunerative to employ many fishermen ; the C’hinese (Tovernment used to take cognizance of their success, and collect a revenue in kind. The argali and jiggetai are found liere as well as in Mongolia ; bears, wolves, tigers, deer, and numerous fur-bearing animals are hunted for their skins. The troops are required to furnish 2,4tK) stags annually to the Emperor, who reserves for his own use only the fleshy part of the tail as a delicacy. Larks, pheasants, and crows of various species, with })igeons, thrushes, and grouse, abound. Tlie condor is the largest bird of ])rey, and for its size and fierceness rivals its congener of the Andes. The greater half of Shingking and the south of Kirin is cul- tivated ; maize, Setaria wheat, barley, pulse, millet, and buck- wheat are the j)rincij)al crops. Ginseng and rhubarb are col- lected by troops sent out in detachments under the charge of their proper officers. These sections support, moreover, large herds of various domestic animals. The timber whicli covers the mountains will prove a source of wealth as soon as a remu- nerative market stimulates the skill and enterprise of settlers ; even now, logs over three feet in diameter find their way up to Peking, brought from the Liau valley. Manclmria is divided into three provinces, ShingJc'my, Kirin, and TsiUlhar. The province of Shingking includes the ancient Liautung, and is bounded north by Mongolia ; north-east and east by Kirin ; south by the Gulf of Liautung and Corea, from which latter it is separated by the Yaluh Kiver ; and west by Chahar in Chihli. It contains two departments, viz., Fungtien and Kinchau, subdivided into fifteen districts ; there are also twelve garrisoned posts at the twelve gates in the Palisade, whose inmates collect a small tax on ti’avellers and goods. Man- churia is under a strictly military government, every male above eighteen being liable for military service, and being, in fact, enrolled under that one of the eight standards to which by 192 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. birth he belongs. The administration of Sliingking is partly civil and partly military ; that of Kirin and Tsitsihar is entirely mihtary. The population of the province has been estimated by T. T. Meadows ' at twelve millions, consisting of Manchus and Chi- nese. The coast districts are now mostly occupied and cultivated by emigrants from Shantung, who are pushing the Manchus toward the Amur, or compelling them to leave their hunting and take to farming if they wish to stay where they were born. The conquerors are being civilized and developed by their sub- jects, losing the use of their own meagre language, and becom- ing more comfortable as they learn to be industrious. But few aboriginal settlements now remain who still resist these influ- ences. The inhabitants collect near the river, or along the great roads, where food or a market are easiest found. The capital of Shingking is usually known on the spot as Shin-3^ang, an older name than the Manchu Mukden, or the Chinese name Fungtien. As the metropolis of Manchuria, it is also known as Shingking (the ‘ Affluent Capital ’), distinguished from the name of the province by the addition of pun-ching, or ‘ head-garrison.’ It lies in lat. 41° 50^' K. and long. 123° 30' E., on the banks of the Shin, a small branch of the Liau, and is reckoned to be five hundred miles north-east from Peking. The town is surrounded by a low mud wall about ten miles in cir- cuit, at least half a mile distant from the main city wall, whose eight gates have double archways so that the crowd may not interfere in passing; this wall is about three miles around, and its towers and bastions are in good condition. It is 35 or 40 feet high, and 15 feet wide at the top, of brick throughout ; a crenu- lated parapet protects the guard. But for its smaller scale, the walls and buildings here are precisely similar to those at Peking. The streets are wide, clean, and the main business avenues lined with large, well built shops, their counters, windows, and other arrangements indicating a great trade. This capital contaiiis a large proportion of governmental establishments, yamuns, and nearly all the officials belong to the ruling race. !Main ' The Chinese and their Rebellions. London, 1850. THE PKOVINCE OF SHINOKING. 193 stieets run across the city from gate to gate, with narrow roads or ha-tuny intersecting them. The palace of the early Manchu sovereigns occupies the centre ; while the large ware- houses are outside of the inner city. Everywhere marks of prosperity and security indicate an enterprising population, and for its tidy look, industrious and courteous population, ^Inkden takes high rank among C'hinese cities. Its population is esti- mated to be under 200,000, mostly Chinese. The Manchu monarchs made it the seat of their government in 1031, and the Emperors liave since done everything in their power to enlarge and beautify it. The Emperor Kienlung rendered himself celebrated among his subjects, and made the city of ^lukden better known abroad, by a poetical eulogy upon the city and province, which was printed in sixty-fonr different forms of Chinese writing. This curious piece of imperial vanity and literary effort was translated into Erench Ity Ainyot. The town of Ilingking,' si.xty miles east of it, is one of the favored places in Shingking, from its being the family residence of the Manchu monarchs, and the burial-ground of their ances- tors. It is pleasantly situated in an elevated valley, the tombs being three miles north of it upon a mountain called Tfsz'yun shan. The circuit of the walls is about three miles. Ilintjkincj lies near the Palisade which separates the province from Kirin, and its officers have the rule over the surrounding country, and the entrances into that province. It has now dwindled to a small liandet, and the guards connected with the tombs com- prise most of the inhabitants. Kinchau, fifteen leagues from Mukden, carries on consider- able trade in cattle, pulse, and drugs. Gutzlafif describes the harbor as shallow, and exposed to southern gales ; the houses in the town are built of stone, the environs well cultivated and settled bv Chinese from Shantuno;, while natives of Fidikien conduct the trade. The Manchus lead an idle life, but keep on good terms with the Chinese. When he was there in 1832, ' .41so called Yen den ; Klaproth, Mhnoirex, Tome I., p. 446. Remusat informs us that this name formerly included all of Kirin, or that which was placed under it. * Yayage-s Along the Coast of China. New York, 1833. Voi.. I. — 13 194 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. the authorities had ordered all the females to seclude them- selves in order to put a stop to debauchery among the native sailors. Horses and camels are numei-ous and cheap, but the carriages are clumsy. Kaichau, another port lying on the east side of the gulf, possesses a better harbor, but is not so much frequented. Since the treaty of 1858 opened the port of Hiuchwang or Yingtsz’, on the River Liau, to foreign trade, the development of Shingking has rapidly increased. The trade in pulse and bean-cake and oil employs many vessels annually. Opium, silk, and paper are prepared for export through this mart, be- sides foreign goods. Fung-hwang ting, lying near the Yaluh River, commands all the -trade with Corea, which must pass through it. There are many restrictions upon this intercourse by both governments, and the Chinese forbid their subjects passing the frontiers. The trade is conducted at fairs, under the supervision of officers and soldiers ; the short time allowed for concluding the bargains, and the great numbers resorting to them, render these bazaars more like the frays of opposing clans than the scenes of peaceable trade. There is a market-town in Corea itself, called Ki'-iu wan, about four leagues from the frontier, where the Chinese “ supply the Coreans with dogs, cats, pipes, leather, stags’ horns, copper, horses, mules, and asses ; and receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice, corn, swine, paper, mats, oxen, furs, and small horses.” Mer- chants are allowed not more than four or five hours in which to conduct this fair, and the Corean officers under whose charge it is placed, drive all strangers back to the frontier as soon as the day closes.' The borders of the sea consist of alluvial soil, efflorescing a nitrous white salt near the beach, but very fertile inland, well cultivated and populous. Beyond, the hill-country is ex- tremely picturesque. Ever-changing views, torrents and foun- tains, varied and« abouTiding vegetation, flocks of black cattle grazing on the hillsides, goats perched on the overhanging crags, horses, asses, and sheep lower down in the intervales, numerous ' AnnnleH de, la Foi, Tonio XVIII., 184G, p. 1502. TRADE AND CLIMATE OF MANCHURIA. v.m well-built hamlets, everywhere enliven the scene. The depart- ment of Kinchau lies along the Chilf of Liautimg, between the I’alisade and the sea, and contains four small district towns, Avith forts, around \vhose garrisons of agricultural troops have collected a few settlers. On the south, toward Chihli and the Wall, the country is better cultivated. The climate of Manchuria, as a whole, is healthy and mode- rate, far removed from the rigor of the plateau on its west, and not so moist as the outlying i.slands on the east. In summer the ranges are 70'^ to !H)° F., thence down to 10° or 20° below zero. The rivers remain frozen from Decembc'r nearly to April, and the fall of snow is less than in Eastern America. The seasons are really six weeks of spring, five months of sum- mer, six weeks of autumn and four months of Avinter ; the last is in some respects the enjoyable period, and is used by the farmers to bring produce to market. If the houses wei-e tighter, their inmates would suffer little during the cold season. Hue speaks of hail storms which killed flocks of sheep in ^lon- golia, near Chahar. Darwin (XaturalfW's 2d ed., lS+5, p. 115) corroborates tbe possibility of his statement by a sonie- Avhat sinnlar experience near Buenos .Vyres. lie here saw many deer and other wild animals killed by “ hail as large as small apples and extremely hard.” Of the denuded countiy, near the I.iau River, .Vbbe Hue says : “ Although it is uncertain where God placed paradise, we may be sure that he chose some other country than Eiautung; for of all savage regions, this takes a distinguished rank for the aridity of the soil and rigor of. the climate. On his entrance, the traveller remarks the barren aspect of most of the hills, and the nakedness of the plains, where not a tree nor a thicket, and hardly a slip of a herb is to be seen. The natives are .superior to any Europeans I have ever seen for their powers of eating; beef and pork abound on their tables, and I think dogs and horses, too, under some other name ; rich people eat rice, the poor are content with boiled millet, or with another grain called hac-ham^ about thric’e the size of millet and tasting like wheat, which I nevei’ saw else- where. The vine is cultivated, but must be covered from Octo- ber to April ; the grapes are so \vatery that a hundred litres of 196 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. juice produce l)y distillation only forty of poor spirit. The leaves of an oak are used to rear wild silkworms, and this is a considerahle branch of industry. The people relish the worms as food after the cocoons have been boiled, drawing them out with a pin, and sucking the whole until nothing but the pellicle is left.” ' Another says, the ground freezes seven feet in Kirin, and about three in Shingking ; the thermometer in winter is thirty degrees below zero. The snow is raised into the air by the north-east winds, and becomes so fine that it pene- trates the clothes, houses, and enters even the lungs. When travelling, the eyebrows become a mass of ice, the beard a large fiake, and the eyelashes are frozen together ; the wind cuts and pierces the skin like razors or needles. The earth is frozen during eight months, but vegetation in summer is rapid, and the streams are swollen by the thawing drifts of snow. The pi'ovince of Kikin, or Girin, comprises the country north- east of Shingking, as far as the Amur and Usuri, which bound it on the north and east, while Corea and Shingking lie on the south-east (better separated by the ('hang-peh shan than any political confine) and Mongolia on the west. All signs of the line of palisades have disappeared (save at the Passes) in the entii-e trajet between the Songari and Shan-hai kwan. The region is mountainous, except in the link of that river after the Xonni joins it till the Usuri comes in, measuring about one-fourth of the whole. This extensive region is thinly inhabited by Man- chus settled in garrisons along the bottoms of the rivers, by Goldies, Mangoons, Ghiliaks, and tribes having affinity with them, who subsist principally by hunting and fishing, and ac- knowledge their fealty by a tribute of peltry, but who have no officers of government placed over them. Du liable calls them Kicking Tatsc, Yugn Tatse^ and other names, which seem, in- deed, to have been their ancient designations. The Yu-gn Tahf/i, o)’ ‘Fish-skin Tartars,” are said to inhabit the extensive valley of the Usuri, and do not allow the subjects of the Emperor to ' Annalei* de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 3o9. The inhabitants of ancient Gedrosia, now Beloochistan, are said to have clothed tliemselves in fish-skins. Heeren, Jlistoiical llesearches avwng Ania- tic Nations, Vol. I., p. 175. TOWNS AND PRODUCTIONS OK KIRIN PR()VIN(^K. V.)7 live ainoiii;; tlieni. In winter they nestle together in kraals like the Ihishinen, and subsist upon the products of their sninnier's tishing, having cut down fuel enough to last them till warm weather. Shut out, as they have been during the j>ast, from all elevating influences, these peoj)le are likely to be ere long amalga- mated and lost, as well among liussian and other settlers coming in from the north, as amid the ('hinese immigrants who occuj))" their land in the south. The entire population of this province cannot be reckoned, from ])resent information, as high as three millions, the greater part of which live along the Songari valley. Kirin is divided into three ruling thi/j departments or eom- manderies, viz., Kirin ula, or the garrison of Kirin, Petune or Pedne, and (^hangchun ting. Kirin, the largest of the three, is subdivided into eight garrison districts. The town, called ('hnen or ‘Navy Yard,’ in ('hinese, is finely situated on the Songari, in lat. 43° 45' X., and long. I:f7° 25' E., at the foot of encircling hills, where the river is a thousand feet wide. The streets are narrow and irregular, the shops low and small, and much ground in the city is unoccupied. Two great streets cross each other at right angles, one of them running far into the river on the Avest supported by piles. The highways are paved Avith Avooden blocks, and adorned Avith flow'ers, gold fish, and stpiares ; its population is about 50,000. The four other important places in Kirin are Petune, Larin, Altchuku, or A-shi-ho, and Sansing, the latter at the continent of the Songai’i and Ilurka. Altchuku is the largest, and Petune next in size, each tOAAii having not far from 35,D(iu iidiabitants ; Larin is perhaps half as large, and like the others steadily in- creasing in numbers and importance. Xinguta on the river Ilurka has Avide regions under its sway Avhere ginseng is gathered ; near the stockaded tOAvn is a subterranean body of water that fui-- nishes large fish. A great and infiuential portion of the (’hi- nese population is Moslem, but no Manchus reside in the place. The former control trade and travel in every tOA\m. Petune, in lat. 45° 20' X., and long. 125° 10' E., is inhabited by troops and many persons banished from (’hina for their crimes. Its faAmrable position renders it a place of considerable trade, and during the summer months it is a busy mart for 198 TIIK MIDDLE KINGDOM. these thinly peopled regions. It consists of two main streets, with the chief market at their crossing. A large mosque at- tracts attention. The third commandery of Changchun, west of Kirin and south of Petune, just beyond the Palisade, is a mere post for overseeing the Manchus and Mongols passing to and fro on the edge of the steppe. The resources of this wide domain in timber, minerals, metals, cattle and grain have not yet been explored or developed. The hills are wooded to the top, the bottoms bilng forth two crops annually, and the rivers take down timber and grain to the Ilussian settlers. Sorghum, millet, barley, maize, pulse, indigo, and toba(;co are the chief crops ; and latterly opium, which has rapidly extended, because it pays well. Oil and whiskey are ex- tensively manufactured, packed iii wicker baskets lined with paper and transported on wheelbarrows. The wild and domestic animals are numerous. Among the latter the hogs and mules, more than any other kind, furiush food and transportation ; while tigers, panthers, and leopards, bears, Avolves, and foxes reward the hunters for their pains in killing them. The province of Tsi-rsi-iiAii, or Ilehlung kiang, comprises the northwest of Manchuria, extending four hundred miles from east to west, and about five lumdred from north to south. It is bounded north Ijy the Amur, from Shilka to its junction with the Songari ; east and southeast by Kirin, from which the Songari partly separates it ; southwest by Mongolia, and west by the Iliver Argun, dividing it from Pussia. The greatest part of it is occupied by the valley of the Konni, Koun or Kiin ; its area of about two hundred thousand square miles is mostly an uninhabited, mountainous wilderness. It is divided into six commanderies, viz. : Tsitsihar, Ilulan, Putek, Merguen, Saga- lieu ula, and Ilurun-pir, whose officers have control over the tribes within their limits ; of these, Sagalien or Igoon is the i-hief town in the northeast districts, and is used by the govern- ment of Peking as a penal settlement. The town stands on a plain but a rood or so above the river, which sweejis off to the Jiiountains in the distance. Here is posted a large force of offi- cers and jiien, their extensive barracks indicating the importance attached to the place. The garrison has gradually attracted a TIIK PROVINCE OF TSI-TSI-IIAR. 19!) population of natives and Chinese from the soutli, who live by tishing and hunting, as well as fanning. Tsitsihar, the capital of the province, lies on the River Xonni, in lat. 47° 20' N., and long. 124° E., and is a place of some trade, resorted to by the tribes near the river. Merguen, llurun- pir, and Ilulan are situated upon rivers, and accessible when the waters are free from ice. Tsitsihar was built in 1092 by Ivanglu to owerawe the neighboring tribes. It is inclosed by a stockade and a ditch. The one-storied houses are constructed of logs, or of brick stuccoed, where timber is dear, and warmed by the brick beds; the tall chimneys outside the main buildings give a peculiar appearance to villages. J’ulse, maize, tobacco, millet, and wheat, and latterly poppy are common crops. The valley of the Xonni is cultivated by the 'Paguri Manchus, among whom six thousand six hundred families of Yakutes settled in 1GS7, when they emigrated from Siberia. The Korchin !Mon- gols occupy the country .south and west of this valley. Some of its streams produce large pearls. The region lying between the Sialkoi Mountains and the River Argun is rough and .sterile, presenting few inducements to agriculturalists. Fish abound in all the rivers, and furs are sought in the hills. Pastiirage is excellent in the bottoms. Fairs, between the natives and Cos- sacks, are constantly held at convenient places on the Argun and other rivers. The racial distinction between the ^Mongols and Manchus is here seen in the agricultural labors of the lat- ter, so opposed to the nomadic habits of the former. This region has, within the last half century, attracted (’hinese set- tlers from Shantung and Chihli. These colonists are fastfilliTig up the vacant lands along the rivers, dispossessing the Manchus by their thrift and industry, and making the country far ni(;re valuable. They will in this way secure its possession to the Peking Government, and bring it, by degrees, under Chinese control, greatly to the benefit of all. In early days the policy of the Manchus, like that of the E. I. Company in India towards British immigration, discountenanced the entrance of Chinese settlers, and in both cases to the disadv^antage of the ruling power. The administration of Manchuria consists of a supreme civil 200 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. government at Mnkden, and three provincial military ones, though Shingking is under both civil and military. There are live Boards, each under a president, whose duties are analogous to those at Peking. The oversight of the city itself is under a fuyin or mayor, superior to the prefect. The three pro\dnces are under as many marshals, whose subordinates rule the com- manderies, and these last have garrison officers subject to them, whose rank and power correspond to the size and importance of their districts. These delegate part of their power to “ assistant directors,” or residents, who are stationed in every town ; on the frontier posts, the officers have a higher grade, and report directly to the marshals or their lieutenants. All the officers, both civil and military, are Manchus, and a great portion of them belong to the imperial clan, or are intimately connected with it. By this arrangement, the Manchus are in a measure disconnected with the general government of the provinces, furnished with offices and titles, and induced to recommend themselves for promotion in the Empire by their zeal and fidel- ity in their distant posts.' Mongolia is the first in order of the colonies, by which are meant those parts of the Empii’e under the contrQl of the L't-fan or Foreign Office." According to the statistics of the Empire, it comprises the region lying between lats. 35° and 52° and from long. 82° to 123° E. ; bounded north by the Itussian governments of Trans-Baikalia, Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, Tomsk, and Semipolatinsk ; northeast and east by Manchuria ; south by the provinces of Chihli and Sliansi, and the Yellow liiver ; southwest by Kansuh ; and west by Cobdo and Ili. These limits are not very strictly marked at all points, but the length from east to west is about seventeen hundred miles, and one thousand in its greatest breadth, inclosing an area of ' Kev. Alex. Williamson, Traceln in JVorthern China. London, 1870. Vol. II., Chaps. I. to XIV. ; Chinese Repository, Vols. IV., p. 57 ; XV., p. 4.54 ; Chinese Recorder, Vol. VII., 1870, “ The Rise and Progress of the Manjows,” by J. Ross, pp. 155, 235, and 315. Compare Niebuhr’s History of Rome, Vol. II., Sect. “Of the Colonies,” where can be observed the e.ssential differences between Roman settlements abroad and those of the Chinese ; and .still greater differences will be found in contrasting these with the offsets of (ireciau States. ('LIMATK AND DIVISIONS OK MONOOLIA. 201 1,400,000 (Square miles, Bupportiiig an estimated pi»j)ulation of two millions. Tins elevated plain is almost destitute of wood or water, inclosed southward by the mountains of Tibet, and northward by offsets from the Altai range. The central part is occupied by the desert of (rohi, a barren steppe having an average height of 4,000 feet above the sea level, and destitute of all running water. Owing to its elevation, e.xtremely varia- ble climate, and the absence of oase.s, it may be considered (pute as terrible as Sahara, although the saml-waste here is, ])erhaps, hardly as unmitigated. The climate of ^longolia is excessively cold for the latitiule, arising partly from its elevation and dry atmosphere, and, on the steppes, to the want of shelter from the winds. Ihit this has its compensation in an unclouded sky ainl the genial rays of the sun, which support and cheer the people to exertion when the thermometer is far below zero. The aii‘ has been drained of its moisture by the ridges on every side ; day after day the sun's heat reaches the earth with smaller loss than obtains in moister regions in the same latitudes. Otherwise these wastes would support no life at all at such an elevation. In the dis- tricts bordering on (,’hihli, the people make their houses partly under ground, in order to avoid the inclemency of the season. The soil in and upon the coniines of this high land is unfit for agricultural pui-poses, neither snow nor rain falling in sufficient quantities, except on the acclivities of the mountain ranges ; but millet, barley, and wheat might be raised north and south of it. The nomads rejoice in their freedom from tillage, how- ever, and move about with their herds and possessions within the limits marked out by the Chinese for each tribe to occupy. The space on the north of Gobi to the confines of Kussia, about one hundred and fifty miles wide, is warmer than the desert, and supports a greater population than the southern sides. Cattle arc numerous on the hilly tracts, but none are found in the desert, where wild animals and birds hold undis- puted possession. The thermometer in winter sinks to thirty and forty degrees below zero (Fr.), and sudden and great changes are frequent. Xo month in the year is free from snow or frost ; but on the steppes, the heat in simimer is almost 202 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. intolerable, owing to the radiation from the sandy or stony surface. The snow does not fall very deep, and even in cold weather the cattle find food under it ; the flocks and herds are not, however, large. The principal divisions of Mongolia are four, viz. : 1, Inner Mongolia, lying between the AVall and south of the desert ; 2, Outer Mongolia, between the desert and the Altai Mountains, and reaching from the Inner Iling-an to the Tien shan ; 3, the country about Koko-nor, between Kansuh, Sz’chuen, and Tibet ; and, 4, the dependencies of Uliasutai, lying northwestward of the Kalkas khanates. The whole of this region has been in- cluded under the comprehensive name of Tartary, and if the limits of Inner and Outer Mongolia had been the bounds of Tar- tary, the appellation would have been somewhat appropriate. But when Genghis arose to power, he called his own tribe Kulmi Monfjdl, ‘ ( 'elestial People,’ and designated all the other tribes Tatars, that is ‘ tributaries.’ ' The three tribes of Kalkas, Tsakhars, and Sunnites, now constitute the great body of Mongols under Chinese rule. Inner Mongolia, or Nui Munyku, is bounded north by Tsitsihar, the Tsetsen khanate, and Gobi, their frontiers being ' Abulgasi-Bayadur-chaii (Tlhtoire Genhihyique den Tatars, traduite du Manuscript Tartare, ; Leyde : 1726), gives another derivation for these two names. “ Alanzii-ohan eut deux fils jumeaux run apj)eUe Tatar and I’autre Mogull on pour bien dire Mung’l, entre les quels il partagea ses Estates lors- qu’il se vit sur la fin de sa vie.” It is the first jn’ince, he adds, from whom came the name Tartar — not from a river called Tata, as some have stated — while of the second : “ Le terme Mung’l a este change par une corruption gen- erale en Mogull ; Mung veut dive triste ou un homme triste, et j)arceque ce prince estoit naturellement d’une humeur fort triste, il porta ce nom dans la veritti ” — (pp. 27-20). But Visdelon (D’llerbelot, ed. 1778, Tome IV., p. 327) shows more acquaintance with their history in producing proofs that the name Tatar was applied in the eighth century by the Chinese to certain tribes liv- ing north of the hi shan, Ala shan, and River Liau. In the dissensions follow- ing upon the ruin of the Tang dynasty, some of them migrated eastwards be- yond the Songari, and there in time rallied to subdue the northern provinces, under the name of Nu-chih. These are the ancestors of the Manchus. An- other fraction went north to the marshy banks of Lakes Ilurun and Puyur, where they received the name of Moungnl Talitsz', i.e., Marsh Tatars. This tribe and name it was that the warlike Genghis afterwards made conspicuous. The sound Mogul used in India is a dialectal variation. TUIRES OF INNER MONGOLIA. 203 almost mulefinable; east by Kirin and Shingking; south by Chihli and Shansi; and vest by Kansuh. AVherever it runs the Wall is popularly regarded as the boundary between China and Mongolia. The country is divided inttf six mhtj or c/ia/k- ans, like our corps, and twenty-four aiiaalu ‘ (tribes), which are again placed under forty-nine standards or Ihoclioun, each of which generally includes about two thousand families, com- ’manded by hereditary princes, or dsassaks. The principal tribes are the Kortchin and Ortons. The large tribe of the Tsakhars, which occupies the region north of the Wall, is gov- erned by a tutunu, or general, residing at Kalgan, and their pasture grounds ai-e now nominally included in the province of Chihli. The province of Shansi in like manner includes the lands occupied by the Toumets, who are under the control of a general stationed at Suiyuen, beyond the Yellow lliver. In the pastures northwest from Kalgan, in the vicinity of Lakes Chazau and Ichi, and reaching more than a hundred miles from the Great Wall, lie the tracts appropriated to raising horses for the “ Yellow Banner Corps.” Excepting such grazing lands or the vast hunting grounds near Jeh-ho, reserved in like manner by the government, small settlements of Chinese are continually squatting over the plains of Inner [Mongolia, from whence they have already succeeded in driving many of the aboriginal Mon- gol tribes off to the north. Those natives who will not retire are fain to save themselves from starvation or absorption by cultivating the soil after the fashion of their neighbors, the Chinese immigrants. It was, indeed, this influx of settlers which led Kanghi to erect the southern portion of Inner Mon- golia into prefectures and districts like China Proper. This alteration of habits among its population seems destined, ere long, to modify the aspect of the country. Most of the smaller tribes, except the Ortous, live between the western frontiers of Manchuria, and the steppes reaching north to the Sialkoi range, and south to Chahar. These tribes are peculiarly favored by the Manchus, from their having joined them in their conquest of China, and their leading men are Abulgasi (p. 83) furnishes a notice of these airnakn and their origin. 204 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. often promoted to liigli stations in the government of the country. OuTEK Mongolia, or JFai is the wild tract lying north of the last 4s far as Russia. It is bounded north bv Russia, east by Tsitsihar, southeast and south by Inner Mon- golia, southwest by Barkul in Kansuh, west by Tarbagatai, and northwest by Cobdo and Uliasutai. The desert of Gobi occupies the southern half of the region. It is divided into four la, or circuits, each of which is governed by a khan or j^rince, claiming direct descent from Genghis, and superintend- ing: the internal manag:ement of his own khanate. The Tsetsen khanate lies west of Ilurun-pir in Tsitsihar, extending from Russia south to Inner Mongolia. "West of it, reaching from Siberia across the desert to Inner Mongolia, lies the Tuchetu (or Tasietto of Klaproth’) khanate, the most considerable of the four ; the road from Kiakhta to Kalgan lies within its borders. "West of the last, and bounded south by Gobi and northeast by ITliasutai, lies the region of the Kalkas of Sainnoin ; and on its northwest lies the Dsassaktu khanate, south of Uliasutai, and reaching to Barkul and Cobdo on the south and west. All of them are politically under the control of two ]\Ianehu resi- dents stationed at Urga, who direct the mutual interests of the Mongols, Chinese, and Russians. Urga, or Ivuren, the capital, is situated in the Tuchetu khan- ate, in lat. 48° 20' K., and long. 107^° E., on the Tola River, a branch of the Selenga. It is the largest and most important place in Mongolia, and is divided into Maimai chin, the Chi- nese quarter, and Bogdo-Kuren, the Mongol settlement, nearly three miles from the other. Its total population is estimated at 30,000, the Chinese inhabitants of vdiich are forbidden by law to live with their families ; of the Mongols here, by far the larger part is composed of lamas. In the estimation of these people llrga stands next to Il’lassa in degree of sanctity, being the seat of the third person in the Tibetan patriarchate. According to the Lama doctrine this dignitary — the Katakta — is the terres- trial impersonation of the Godhead and never dies, but passes. ‘ Memoires, Tome I., j). 2. OUTKU MONGOLIA. 20i^ after Ills apparcTit decease, into the body of some newly born boy, who is souglit for afterwards according to the prophetic indications of the Dalai-laina in Tibet. Tliis holy potentate, though of limited education and entirely under the control of the attendant lamas, exercises an unbounded influence over the Kalkas. It is, indeed, by means of him that the ('hinese officials control the native races of Mongolia, llis wealth, owing to contributions of enthusiastic devotees, is enormous ; in and about Urga he owns 150,0<>0 slaves, an abundance of worldly goods, and the most pretentious palace in ^fongolia. Outside of its religious buildings, Urga is disgustingly dirty ; the filth is thrown into the streets, and the habits of the people are loathsome. Decrepid beggars and starving dogs infest the ways ; dead bodies, instead of being interred, are flung to birds and beasts of prey ; huts and hovels afford shelter for both rich and poor.' The four khanates constitute one uivuih or tribe, subdivided into eighty-sLx standard.s, each of which is restricted to a certain territt)ry, within which it wanders about at pleasure. There are altogether one hundred and thirty-five standards of the Mongols. The Kalkas chiefly live between the Altai Moun- tains and Gobi, but do not cultivate the soil to much effect. They are devoted to Buddhism, and the lamas hold most of the power in their hands through the Kutnhtu. They render an annual tribute to the Emperor of hor.ses, camels, sheep, and other animals or their skins, and receive presents in return of many times its value, so that they are kept in subjection by constant bribing ; the least restivene.ss on their part is visited by a reduction of pre.senfs and other penalties. An energetic government, however, is not wanting in addition. The supreme tribunal is at Urga ; it is the yainun, par excellence, and has both civil and military jurisdiction. The decisions are sub- ject to the revision of the two Chinese residents, and sen- tences are usually carried into execution after their confirma- tion. The punishments are horribly severe ; but only a decided ’ Prejevalsky, Mongolia, Vol. I. ; Puiupelly, Across America, pp. 382-385 ; Michie, Across Siberia. 206 THE -MIDDLE KINGDOM. and cruel hand over these wild tribes can keep them from con- stant strife. Letters are encouraged among them by the Manchus, but with little success. Many Buddhist books have been translated into Mongolian by order of the Emperors ; nor can we wonder at the indifference to literature when this stuff is the aliment provided them. Their tents, or yurts, are made of wooden laths fastened together so as to form a coarse lattice-work ; the framework consists of several lengths secured Avith ropes, leav- ing a door about three feet square. The average size is twelve feet across and ten feet high ; its shape is round and the conical roof admits light where it emits smoke. The poles or rafters are looped to the sides, and fastened to a hoop at the top. Upon this framework sheets of heavy felt are secured according to the season. A hearth in the centre holds the fire which heats the kettle hanging over it, and warms the inmates squat- ted round, who usually place only felt and sheepskins under them. The felt protects from cold, rain, snow, and heat in a wonderful manner. A first-class yurt is by no means an un- comfortable dwelling, with its furniture, lining, shrine, and hot kettle in the centre. A carpet for sleeping and sitting on is some- times seen in yurts of the wealthier classes ; in these, too, the walls are lined with cotton or silk, and the floors are of wood. The lodges of the rich Kalkas have several apartments, and arc elegantly furnished, but destitute of cleanliness, comfort, or airiness. Most of their cloths, utensils, and arms are procured from the Chinese. The Sunnites are fewer than the Kalkas, and roam the wide wastes of Gobi. Both derive some revenue from conducting caravans across their country, but depend for their livelihood chiefly upon the produce of their herds and hunting. Their princes are obliged to reside in Urga, or keep hostages ihere, in order that the residents may direct and I'e- strain their conduct ; but their devotion to the Kutuldu, and the easy life they lead, are the strongest inducements to remain. The trade with Russia formerly all passed through Kiakhta, a town near the fi’ontier, and was carried on by special agents and officials appointed by each nation. The Avliole business Avas managed in the interest of tlie goAmrmuent, and its rami- KIAKHTA AND THE THADE WITH IIUSSIA. 207 fications furnished employment, position, and support to so many persons as to forma bond of union and guaiautyof peace between them and their subjects. Timkowski’s journey with the decennial mission to Teking in 1820-21 furnishes one of the best accounts of this trade and intercourse now accessible, and with Klaproth’s notes, given in the English translation published in 1827, has long been the chief reliable authority for the divisions and organization of the Mongol tribes. Since the opening of the Suez Canal, through which Kussiau steamers carry goods to and fro between Odessa and f'liina, the largest portion of the Chinese j)rodnce Jio longer goes to Kiakhta. That w’hich is required for Siberia is sent from Hankow by way of Shansi, or from Kalgan and Tientsin, under the direction of Russian merchants at tho.se places. Furs, which once formed the richest part of this produce, are gi-adually diminishing in quality and quantity with the increase of settlers. In 1843 the export of black tea for Russian consumption was only eight millions of ponnd.s, besides the brick tea taken by the Mongols. Cottrell states the total value of the trade, annually, at that period, at a hundred millions of rubles, reckoned then to be equal to $20,830,000, on which the Russians paid, in 1836, about $2,500,000 as import duty. The data respecting this trade of forty years ago are not very accurate, probably ; the monopoly was upheld mostly for the benefit of the officials, as private traders found it too much burdened. Kiakhta is a hamlet of no importance apart from the trade. The frontier here is marked by a row of granite columns ; a stock- ade separates it from Maimai chin. Pumpelly says ; “ One can hardly imagine a sharper line than is here drawn. On the one side of the stoc-kade wall, the houses, churche.s, and people are European, on the other, Chinese. 'With one step the trav- eller passes really from Asia and Asiatic customs and language, into a refined European society." The goods pay duty at the Russian douane in a suburb of fifty houses, near Kiakhta. The Chinese town is also a small place, numbering betw-een twelve and fifteen hundred men (no women being allowed in the settle- ment) who lived in idleness mo.st of the year. This curious hamlet has two principal streets crossing at riglit angles, and 208 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. gates at the four ends, in the wooden wall which surrounds it. These streets are badly paved, "while their naiTowness barelv allows the passage of two camels abreast. The one-storied houses are constructed of "wood, roofed with turf or boards, and consist of two small rooms, one used as a shop and the other as a bed- room. The windows in the rear apartment are made of oiled paper or mica, but the door is the only opening in the sho]). The dwellings are kept clean, the furniture is of a superior de- scription, and considerable taste and show are seen in displaying the goods. The traders live luxuriously, and attract a great crowd there during the fair in February, when the goods are exchanged. They are under the control of a Manchu, called the dzaryuclu, who is appointed for three years, and superintends the police of the settlement as well as the commercial proceedings. There are two Buddhist temples here served by lamas, and containing live colossal images sitting cross-legged, and numei’ous smaller idols.' The western portion of Mongolia, between the meridians of 84''’ and 96° E., extending from near the western extremity of Kansuh province to the confines of Bussia, comprising Uliasu- tai and its dependencies, Cobdo, and the Ivalkas and Tour- gouths of the Tangnu Mountains, is less known than any other part of it. The residence of the su})erintending officer of this province is at LTliasutai ‘ Poplar (Tro\'c ’), a town lying northwest of the Selenga, in the khanate of Sainnoin, in a well cxdtivated and pleasant valley. Coimo, according to the Cfiiinese maps, lies in the northwest of klongolia ; it is bounded north and west by the government Yen- iseisk, northeast by Ulianghai, and southeast by the Dsassaktu khanate, south by Kansidi, and west by Tarbagatai. The part occupied by the Ulianghai or lYiyangkit tribes of the Tangnu Mountains lies northeast of f’obdo, and north of the Sainnoin and Dsassaktu khanates, and separated from liussia by the Altai. These tribes are allied to the Samoyeds, and the rule over theju is ' CoiivtAVfi Recollections of Siberia, Chap. IX., p. 314; Timkowski’s TraveU, Vol. I., j)p. 4-i)l, 1821 ; 1’umpt‘llv, Aerrm America and Asia, p. 387, 1871 ; Klaproth, Memoirea, Tomo I.,p. (>3 ; Ritter, Die Erdkunde von Aden, Rd. II., pp. 1 98-220. TIIK IMIOVINOK OF CORDO. 201) ail ministered 1)V twenty-five subordinate military officers, snb- ject to the resident at Uliasntai. This city is said to contain about two thousand houses, is regularly built, and carries on some trade with Trga ; it lies on the Iro, a tributary of the •lahkan. (’ohdo comprises eleven tribes of Kalkas divided into thirty-one standards, whose princes obey an amban at Col)do (’ity, himself subordinate to the resident at Uliasntai. The ('hiiiese rule over these tribes is conducted on the same princi- ples as that over the other Mongols, and they all render fealty to the Emj)eror through the chief resident at Uliasntai, but how much obedience is really paid his orders is not known. The Kalkas submitted to the Emperor in 1(!SS to avoid extinction in their war with the Eleuths, by whom they had heen defeated. Cobdo contains several lakes, many of which receive rivers without having any outlet. The largest is Upsa-nor, which re- ceives from the east the River Tes, and the fki-aral-nor into which the .labkan runs. The River Irtysh falls into Lake Dzai- sang. The existence of so many rivers indicates a more fertile country north of the Altai or Ektag Mountains, but no bounties of nature would avail to induce the iidiabitants to adojit set- tled modes of living and cultivate the soil, if such a clannish state of society exists among them as is described by M. Lev- chine to be the case among their neighbors, the Ivirghis. The tribes in Cobdo resemble the American Indians in their habits, disputes, and modes of life, more than the eastern Kalkas. who approximate in their migratory character to the Arabs. The province of Tsing hai, or Koko-xok (called Tsok-gum- bam by the Tanguts), is not included in Mongolia by European geographers, nor in the (fiiinese statistical works is it comprised within its borders ; the inhabitants are, however, mostly Mongols, both Buddhist and Moslem, and the government is conducted on the same plan as that over the Kalkas tribes further north. This region is known in the histories of Central Asia under the names of Tangout, Sifan, Turfan, etc. On Chinese maps it is politically called Tsing hai (UCzure Sea'), but in their books is named iSt Yu or Si Tih, ^ AYestern Limits.’ The borders are now limited on the north by Kansuh, southeast by Sz’chuen, Voi- I.— 14 210 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. south by Anterior Tibet, and west by the desert, comprising about four degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude. It includes within its limits several large lakes, which receive rivers into their bosoms, and many of them having no outlets. The Azure Sea is the largest, lying at an altitude of 10,500 feet and overlooked by high mountains, which in winter are cov- ered with snow, and in summer form an emerald frame that deepens the blueness of the water. It is over 200 miles in circuit, and its evaporation is replaced by the inflowing waters of eight large streams; one small islet contains a monastery, whose inmates are freed from their solitude only when the ice makes a bridge, as no boat is known to have floated on its salt water. The wide, moist plains on the east and west furnish pasturage for domestic and wild animals, and constant collisions occur between the tribes resorting there for food. The travels of Abbe Hue and Col. Prejevalsky furnish nearly all that is known concerning the productions and inhabitants of Ivoko-nor. The country is nominally divided into thirty-four banners, and its Chinese rulers reside at Sining, east of the lake ; but they have more to do in defending themselves tlian in protecting their subjects. The whole country is occupied by the Tanguts of Tibetan origin, who are brigands by profession, and roam over the mountains around the headwaters of the Yangtsz’ and Yellow Rivers ; by the Mohammedan Dunganis, who have lat- terly been nearly destroyed in their recent rebellion ; and by tribes of Mongols under the various names of Eleuths, Kolos, Kalkas, Surgouths, and Koits. The Chinese maps are filled with names of various tribes, but their statistical accounts are as meagre of information as the maps are deficient in accurate and satisfactory delineations. The topographical features of this region are still imperfectly known, and its iidiospitable climate is rendered more dangerous by man’s barbarity. High mountain masses alternate with nar- row valleys and a few large depressions containing lakes ; the country lying south of the Azure Sea, as far as Burmah, is exceed- ingly mountainous. West and southwest of the lake extends the plain of Tsaidam, which at a recent geological age has heen the bed of a huge lake ; it is now covered with morasses, shaking TIIK PROVINCE AND LAKE OE KOKO-NOR. 211 bogs, small rivers, and sheets of water — the most considerable of the latter being Lake Kara, in the extreme western portion. The saline argillaceous soil of this region is not adapted to vege- tation. Large animals are scarce, due in part to the plague of insects which compels even the natives to retreat to the moun- tains with their herds during certain seasons. Its inhabitants are the same as those of p]astern Koko-nor ; they are divided into five banners, and number about 1,000 yuvt'i, or 5,000 souls. The Ihirkhan-buddha range forms the southern boundary of this plain, and the northernmost limit of the lofty plateau of Tibet. Its length from east to west is not far from 130 miles, its eastern extremity being near the Yegrai-nla (the near sources of the Yellow Kiver) and Toso-nor. The range has no lofty peaks, and stretches in an unbroken chain at a height of 15,000 to 10,000 feet ; it is ten-ibly barren, but does not attain the line of perpetual snow. The southei n range, which separates the headwaters of the Yellow and Yangtsz’ Tlivers, is called the Bayan-kara Mountains; that northwest of this is called on Chinese maps, Kilien shan and Kan shan, and bounds the desert on the south. On the northern declivities of the Kan shan range are several towns lying on or near the road leading across Central Asia, which leaves the valley of the Yellow lliver at Lanchau, in Kansuh, and runs K.K.W. over a rough country to Liangchau, a town of some importance situated in a fertile and populous district. From this place it goes northwest to Ivan- chau, noted for its manufactures of felted cloths which are in demand among the Mongol tiibes of Koko-noi’, and where large reciou.s stones, felts, cloths, etc., are among the commodities seen in the bazaar. It lies about a hundred miles from the sea, at an elevation of 7,800 feet, and near it is the famous lamasary of Ixumbum, where ^IM. Hue and (iabet lived in 184.5. The town is well situated upon the Sining ho, and though constructed for the most part of wood, presents a tine aj)pearance owing to the number of official buildings theiein. The population numhers .etual fires in the mountains, referred to by Chinese historians, were considered by Severtzoff, a Russian, who explored the region, as being caused by the ignition of the seams of coal, or the carburetted hydrogen g.os in the seams. The same author further mentions that Captain Tosnofskey, another Russian explorer, was told of a place in the neighborhood from which steam constantly rose, and that near this crevice there had existed, from ancient times, three pits, where per- sons afilicted with rheumatism or skin diseases were in the habit of bathing. 220 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Subordinate to the control of the commandant at Kuldja are nine garrisoned places situated in the same valley, at each of which are bodies of Chinese convicts. The two remaining dis- tricts of Tarbagatai and Ivur-kara usu are small compared with tli ; the first lies between Cobdo and the Kirghis steppe, and is inhabited mostly by emigrants from the steppes of the latter, who render mei’ely a nominal subjection to the garrisons placed over them, but are easily governed through their tribal rulers. The Tourgouths, who emigrated from Russia in 1772, into China, are located in this district and Cobdo, as well as in the valleys of the Tekes and Ivuuges rivers. They have become more or less assimilated with other tribes since they were placed here. In the war with the Songares, many of the people lied from the valley of lU to this region, and after that country was settled, they submitted to the Emperor, and partly returned to ill. The chief town, called Tuguchuk by the Kirghis, and Suitsing ching by the Chinese, is situated not far from the southern base of the Tarbagatai ]\[ountains, and contains about si.K hundred houses, half of which belong to the garrison. It is one of the nine fortified towns under the control of the com- mandant at Kuldja, and a place of some trade with the Kirghis. There are two residents stationed here, with high powers to over- see the trade across the fi’ontier, but their duties are inferior in importance to those of the officials at TTrga. 2,500 Man- chu and Chinese troops remain at this post, and since the coii- ire in the following order, beginning at the east : Hara- shar, Kuche, Ushi (including Sairim and Bai), Aksn, Khoten, Yarkand, Ivashgar, and Yingkeshar or Yangi llissar. The superior officers live at Yarkand, but the Southern Circuit is divided into four minor governments at Harashar, Ushi, Y ark- and, and Khoten, each of whose residents reports both to Kuldja and Peking. Tliere is constant restiveness on the part of the subject races, who are all Moslems, arising from their clannish habits and feuds ; they have not the elements of substantial progress and national growth, either imder their own rulers or Chinese. They have lately thrown off the Peking Government, but they have generally regretted the i-apines and waste caused by the strifes and change, and would probably receive the Kitai (so they term the Chinese) back again. The latter are not hard masters, and bring trade and wealth the longer they remain. One of the Usbek chiefs under Yakub khan gave the pith of the situation between the two, when he replied to Dr. Bellew’s remark that he talked like a Chinese himself, “ Ko, I hate them. But they were not bad rulers. We had everything then ; we have nothing now. We never see any signs of the Kitai trade, nor of the wealth they brought here.” Hai'ashar (or Karashar) lies on the Kaidu River, not far from Lake Bagarash or Bostang, about two hundred and ninetv miles west of Turfan, in lat. 42° 15' K., and long. 87° E. It is a large district, and has two towns of some note within the juris- diction of its officers — namely, Korla and Biikui'. Harashar is fortified, and from its being a secure position, and the seat of the chief resident, attracts considerable trade. The embi oidery is superior ; but the tribes living in the district are more ad- dicted to hunting than disposed to sedentary trades. Ivorla lies TOWNS OF THE SOUTIIKUN CIKCUIT. 225 southwest of llarashar on tlie Kaidu, between lakes Bostang and Lob, and the productions of the town and its vicinity indi- cate a fertile soil ; the Chinese say the Molianiinedans who live here are fond of singing, but have no ideas of ceremony or nrbaiiity. Bnknr lies two lumdred miles west of Korla and “might be a rich and delicious country,” says the Chinese ac- count, “ but those idle, vagrant Alohammedans only use their strength in theft and plunder ; the women blush at nothing.” The town formerly contained upward of ten thousand iidiab- itants, but Kienlnng nearly destroyed it ; the district has been since resettled by Iloshoits, Tonrbeths, and Turks, and the])cople carrvon some trade in the produce of tlieir herd.s, skins, copper, and agates. Knche, about eighty miles west from Bnknr, lat. 41° 37' X., and long. 83° 20' E., is a larger and more important city than that of llarashar, for the road which crosses the Tien shan by the pass Mnz-daban to Ili, here joins that coming from Ak.sn on the west and Ilami on the east. It is three miles in circuit, and is defended by ten forts aiul three hundred troops. The bazaars contain grain, fruits, and vegetables, raised in the vicin- itv by great labor, for the land requires to be irrigated by hand from wells, pools, and streams. Copper, sulphur, and saltpetre are carried across to Ilf, for use of government as well as traffic, being partly levied from the iidiabitants as ta.xes ; linen is manufactured in the town, and sal ammoniac, cinnabar, and quicksilver ai’e procured from the mountains. Kuche is con- sidered the gate of Turkestan, and is the chief town, politically speaking, between Ilami and Yarkand. The district and town of Shayar lie south of Kuche, in a marshy valley producing abundance of rice, melons, and fruit ; the pears are particularly good. Two small lakes, Baba-kid and Sary-kamysch, lie to the east of this town, and are the only bodies of water between Bostang-nor and Issik-kul. The population is about four thou- sand, ruled by hegs subordinate to the general at Kuche. The valley of the Aksu contains two large towns, Aksu and Ushi or Ush-turfai), besides several posts and villages. Between the former and Kuche, lie the small garrisons and districts of Bai and Sairim. The first contains from four to five hundred VoL. I.— 15 226 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. families, ruled by their own chiefs. Sairim or Ilaiileinuh is subordinate to Ushi in some degree, but its productions, climate, and inhabitants are like those of Kuche. “ Their manners are simple,” remarks a Chinese writer, speaking of the people ; “ they are neither cowards nor rogues like the other Mohamme- dans ; they are fond of singing, drinking, and dancing, like those of Kuche.” Aksu is a large commercial and manufac- turing town, containing twenty thousand inhabitants, situated, like Kuche, at the termination of a road leading across the Tien shan to Ilf, and attracting to its market traders from Siberia, Bokhara, and Kokand, as well as along the great road. Its manu- factures of cotton, silk, leather, harnesses, crockery, precious stones, and metals are good, and sent abroad in great numbers. The country produces grain, fruits, vegetables, and cattle in per- fection, and the people are more civilized than those on the east and north ; “ they are generous and noble, and both sing and ridicule the oddities and niggardliness of the other Mohamme- dans.” The Chinese garrison consists of three thousand sol- diers, and the officers are accountable to those at Ushi. Ushi lies about 70 miles due west of Aksu, in lat. 41° 15' K. and long. 79° 40' E., and is stated to contain ten thousand in- habitants. The Chinese name is Yung-ning ching {i.e. ‘ City of Eternal Tranquillity ’). The officers stationed here report to the commandant at Ili, but they communicate directly with Peking, and receive the Emperor’s sanction to their choice of begs, and to the envoys forwarded to the capital with tribute. Copper money is cast here in ingots, somewhat like the ingots of sycee in the provinces. There are six forts attached to Ushi, to keep in order the wandering tribes of the Kirghis, called Pruth Kir- ghis,' which roam over the frontier regions between Ushi and Yarkand. They pay homage to the officers at Ushi, but give no tribute. Those who do pay tribute are taxed a tenth, but the Kirghis on this frontier are usually allowed to roam where they like, provided they keep the peace. This region was nearly depopulated by Kienlung’s generals, and at present sup- ' Called also PouronU. Compare Klaproth {Memoires, Tome III., p. 332), who has a notice of these tribes. THE GOVERNMENT AND TOWN OF KASHGAR. 227 ports a sparse population compared with its fertility and re- sources. The government of Kashgar, known, at the time of the Arab conquest, as Kichik Bukhara, pre.sents a vast, undulating plain, of which the slope is very gradual toward the east, and of which the general elevation may be reckoned at from three to four thousand feet above the sea. The aspect of its surface is mostly one of unmitigated waste — a vast spread of bare sand and gloomy salts, traversed in all directions by dunes and banks of gravel, with the scantiest vegetation, and all but absence of animal life. Such is the view that meets the eye and joins the horizon everywhere on the plain immediately beyond the river courses and the settlements planted on their banks.' The pop- ulation of this whole district is considerably less than a million and a half. The natural mineral productions here are of gi-eat value, and it is a knowledge of this fact which has induced the Chinese to persevere in retaining so e.xpensive and turbulent a frontier province. The gold and jade of Khoten, silver and lead of Cosharab, and copper of Khalistan, have given abun- dant employment to Chinese settlers ; while coal, iron, sulphur, alum, sal ammoniac, and zinc, though worked in unimportant quantities before the insurrection of Yakub khan (Atalik Ghazi), furnished the inhabitants with supplies for domestic use. An important hinderance to building villages in many sec- tions of this territory is the prevalence of sand dunes here. Solitary houses and even whole settlements lying in the path of these moving hills are suddenly overwhelmed and oftentimes totally effaced. The town of Kashgar is situated at the northwestern angle of the Southern Circuit, on the Kashgar River, a branch of the Tarim, in lat. 39° 25' K., and long. 76° 5' E., at the extreme west of the Empire. Several roads meet here. Going in a northwest direction, one leads over the Tien shan to Kokand ; a second passes south, through Yarkand and Khoten, to Leli and Cashmere ; a third, the great caravan route, from China through ' H. W. Bellew, Kashmir and Kashgar. A Narratice of the Journey of the Embassy to Kashgar in 1878-4, p. 2. 228 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Usln, may be said to end here ; and the fourth and most fre- quented, leads oft' northwest over the Tien shan through the liowat Pass, and along the western banks of Lake Issik-kul to 111. Kashgar was the capital of the Oigours for a long time, and its ruler forced his people, as far east as Hami, to accept Is- lamism about the year lOUO. They then came under Genghis’ sway, and this city increased its importance, but when Abubahr Miza took Yarkand, he razed Kashgar to the ground. Under Chinese rule it became one of the richest marts in Central Asia, and its future importance is secured by its position. The city is enclosed with high and massive walls, supported by but- tress bastions, and protected by a deep ditch on three sides, the river flowing under the fourth. There are but two gates ; the area within is about fifty acres. Around it are populous suburbs. In the middle of the town is a large square, and four bazaars branch from it through to the gates ; the garrison is placed without the walls. The manufactures of Kashgar excel those of any other town in the two Circuits, especially in jade, gold, silk, cotton, gold and silver cloths, and carpets. The country around produces fruit and grain in abundance ; “ the man- ners of the people have an appeai-ance of elegance and polite- ness,” says the Chinese geographer ; “ the women dance and sing in family ])arties ; they fear and respect the offi- cers, and have not the wild, uncultivated aspect of those in Ushi.” This judgment is in a measure confirmed by Bellew, who credits the people with being singularly free from prejudice against the foreigners, quite indifferent on any score of his nationality or I'eligion, and content so long as he pays his way and does not offend the customs of the natives. Several towns are subordinate to Kashgar, because of its oversight of their rulers, and consumptioTi of their pi'oducts. Southwest lies Tash- balig, and on the road leading to Yarkand is Yangi TIissar, both of them towns of some importajice ; the whole distance from Kashgar presents a succession of sandy or saline tracts, alternat- ing with fertile bottoms wherever water runs. Small villages and post houses serve to connect the larger towns, but the soil does not i-eward the cultivators with much produce. THE CITY OF YAKKANI). 229 Yarkand, or Yerkiang, is the political capital of the South- ern C'ircuit, as the highest military officers ami strongest force are stationed here. It is situated on the Yarkand River, in hit. 30° 30' X., and long. 77° 15' E., in the midst of a sand-girt oasis of great fertility. 'I'he envii-ons are abundantly supplied with water by canals. The stone walls are three miles in cir- cumference, hut its suburbs are much larger ; the houses are built of dried bricks, and the town has a more substantial ap- pearance than others in Hi. There are many mosques and col- leges, whicli, with the public buildings occupied by the govern- ment and troops, add to its consideration. Yarkand is one of the ancient cities of Tartary, and was, in remote time.s, a royal i-esidence of Turk princes of the Afrasyab dynasty. In modern times it owes its rank as a well-built city chiefly to Abubahr Yliza, whose short-lived sway from Aksu to Wakhan left its chief results in the mosques and bazaars erected or enlarged by him. Ry means of quarrying jade in the Karakash valley, and Avorking the bangles, ear-rings and other articles in the city, thousands of families found employment under C'hinese rule. AVith the overthrow of that sway and then of Yakub khan in its restoration, all this industiy disappeared. In the destruction ensuing on these long struggles for supremac}', one learns the e.\planation of the barbarism which has succeeded the downfall of mighty empires all over Western Asia. The city has no im- portant manufactures ; it enjoys a local reputation for its leather, and boots and shoes made here are esteemed all over the province. Among other articles of trade are horses, silk, and wool, and fabrics made from them ; but everything found at Kashgar is sold also at this market. In a (’hinese notice of the city, the customs at Yarkand are stated to have yielded over Sd5,000 annually ; the taxes are 35,400 sacks of grain, 57,569 pieces of linen, 15,000 lbs. of copper, besides gold, silk, varni.sh, and hemp, part of which are carried to 111. Jade is obtained from the river in large pieces, yellow, Avhite, black, and reddish, and the articles made from it are carried to China. The Chi- nese authorities have no objection to the resorting thither of natives of Kokand, Badakshan, and other neighboring states, many of whom settle and marry. 230 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Khoten is situated on the southern side of the desert, and the district embraces all the country south of Aksu and Yarkand, along the northern base of the Xwanluu Mountains, for more than three hundred miles from east to west. The capital is called Ilchi on Chinese maps, and lies in an extensive plam on the Khoten River in lat. 37° K., and long. 80° E. The town of Karakash (meaning ‘Black Jade’)' lies in lat. 37° 10', long. 80° 13' 30", a few miles northwest in the same valley, and is said by traders to be the capital rather than Ilchi ; it is located on the road to Yarkand, distant twelve days’ journey. On this road the town of Gummi is also placed, whose chief had in his possession a stone supposed to have the power of causing rain. Kirrea lies five days’ journey east of Ilchi, near the pass across the mountains into Tibet and Ladak ; a gold mine is worked near this place, the produce of which is monopolized by the Chinese. The three towns of Karakash, Ilchi, and Kirrea, are the only places of importance between the valley of the Tarim and Tibet, but none of them have been visited for a long time by Europeans.'' The population of the town or district is unknown ; one notice “ gives it a very large number, approach- ing three millions and even mo)-e, which at any rate indicates a more fertile soil and gonial climate than the regions north and south of it. Dr. Morrison, in his Yiew of China, puts it at -±4,630 inhabitants; and although the former includes the whole district, and is probably too large, the second seems to be much too small. Khoten is known, in Chinese books, by the names of Yu-to n, ILwan-na, Kieu-tan, and Kiu-sa-tan-na — the last meaning, in Sanscrit, “ Breast of the Earth.” ' Its eastern part is marshy, but that the country must have a considerable elevation is manifest from the fact that the river which drains and con- nects it with the Tarim runs quite across the desert in its course. The country is governed by two high olficei's and a ■ Hut Remusat says that Karakash is a river and no town. ’ Wood {Journey to the Oxiin, p. 279) refers to a frontier town by the name of Ecla. “ Penny (Jydopeedia, Art. Tiiian Shan nan lu. ■* Iloinusat, [lutoire lie Khotan, p. Ho. KHOTEN DISTRICT. 231 dctufliinent of troops; tliere are six towns nmler their jurisdic- tion, the iuliabitants of wliich are ruled in the same manner as the other Moliammedan cities. The people, however, are said to be mostly of the Buddhist faith, and the Chinese give a good account of their peacefulness and industry. The trade with Leh and ITlassa is carried on by a road crossing the Kwiinhm over the Kirrea Bass, beyond which it divides. The productions of Ivhoten are line linen and cotton stnffs, jade ornaments, ambei’, copper, grain, fruits, and \ egetables ; the former for ex- portation, the latter for use. It was in this region that C'ol. Brejevalsky discovered (in 1879) a new variety of wild horse, a specimen of which has been stulfed and exhibited in St. Peters- burg. The animal in question, though belonging undoubtedly to the genus Equus, presents, in many respects, an intermediate form between the domestic horse and the wild ass. Ticmusat published, in 1820, an account of this country, drawn from Chinese books, in which the principal events in its histoiy are stated, commencing with the llan dynasty, before the Christian era, down to the Manchu conquest. In the early jiai’t of its history, Khoten was the resort of many priests from India, and the Buddhist faith was early established there. It was an independent kingdom most of the time, from its earliest mention to the era of Genghis khan, the princes sometimes ex- tending their sway from the Kiayii pass and Ivoko-nor to the Tsung ling, and then being obliged to contract to the valley now designated as Khoten. After the expulsion of the ]\Ioiigols from China, Khoten asserted its independence, but afterward fell under the sway of the Songares and Eleuths, and lost many of its inhabitants. The Manchus conquered it in 1770, when the rest of the region between the Tien shan and Kwanhm fell under their sway, but neither have they settled in it to the same extent, nor made thereof a penal settlement, as in other parts of 111.' The government of 111 differs in some respects from that of Mongolia, where religion is partly called in to aid the state. In ' Concerning the nomenclature of this region compare Remusat, Hintoire de Khotan, p. 6G. See, moreover, ib., p. 47 ff., the legend of a drove of desert rats assisting the king of this land against the army of his enemies. 232 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM!, the Northern Circuit, the authority is strictly military, exercised by means of residents and generals, with bodies of troops under their control. The supreme command of all Ili is intrusted by the colonial office to a Manchu tsianykiun, or military governor- general at Kuldja, who has under him two councillors to take cognizance of civil cases, and thirty-four residents scattered about in both Circuits. This governor has also the control of the troops stationed in the three western departments of Kan- suh, but has nothing to do with the civil jurisdiction of those towns. The entire number of soldiers under his hand is stated at 60,000, most of whom have families, and add agricultural, mechanical, or other labors to the profession of arms. The councillors are not altogether subordinate to the general, but re- port to the Colonial Office. In the Korthern Circuit, there is a deputy appointed for every village and town, invested with military powers over the troops and convicts, and civil supervision over the native piko or chieftains, who are the real rulei's acknowledged by the clans. The character of the inhabitants noilh of the Tien slum is ren- dered unlike that of those dwelling in the Southern Circuit, not more by the diversity in their language and nomadic habits, than by the sway religious rites and allegiance have over them. Through this latter motive, the government of Mongolia and the Korthern Circuit is rendered far easier and more effectual for the distant court of Peking than it otherwise would be. The appointment of the native chieftains is first announced to the general at Kuldja and the Colonial Office, and they succeed to their post when confirmed, wliich, as the station is in a meas- ure hereditary, usually follows in course. The inhabitants of the Southern Circuit are Mohammedans and acknowledge a less willing subjection to the Emperor than those in the Northern, the differences in race, religion, and lan- guage being })robably the leading reasons. The goveiaunent of the whole region is divided among the Manchu residents or arnlxms at the eight cities, who are nominally responsible to the general at Tli, and independent of each other, but there is a gradation in rank and power, the one at Yarkand having the priority. The begs are chosen by the tribes themselves, and GOVERNMENT OF TLI. 2:^8 exercise authority in all petty cases arising among the people, without the interference of the Chinese. The troops are all ]^Ianchu or Chinese, none of the Turks being enrolled in sepa- rate bodies, though individuals are ein{)loyed with safety. There is considerable difference in the rank and intluence of the beejs, which is upheld and respected by the antham. The allowances and style granted them are regulated in a measure bv their feudal importance. The revenue is derived from a monthly capitation tax on each man t)f about half a dollar, and tithes on the produce ; there are no transit duties as in China, hut custom-houses are established at the frontier ti'ading towns. The language generally u.sed in the Southern Circuit is the Jaghatai Turki of the Kalmucks ; the Csbecks constitute the ma- jority of the people, but Eleuths and JCalniucks are eveiywheie intermixed. The Tibetans have settled in Khoten, or more probabl}', remnants still exist there of the former inhabitants. The history of the vast region constituting the present govern- ment of In early attracted the attention of oriental scholars, and few portions of the world have had a more exciting his- tory. After the expulsion of the Mongols from China by llungwu, A.u. 13C6, they found that they, as a tribe, were infe- rior in power to the western tribes, but it was not till about lose that the Eleuths, north of the Tien shan under the Gal- dan,' began to attack the Kalkas, and drive them eastward. The Sunnites, Tsakhars, and Solons, portions of the Eastern Mongols, had already joined the Manchus ; and the Kalkas, to avoid extermination, submitted to them also, and besought their assistance against the Eleuths. Kanghi received their allegi- ance, and tried to settle the difficulties peaceably, but was obliged to send his troops against the Galdan, and drive him from the territory of the Kalkas to the westward of Lob-nor and Barkul. The Emperor was materially aided in this en- terprise by the secession from the Eleuths of the Songares, whose khan had taken offence, and drawn his hordes off to the south. The khans of the Kalkas and their vast territory thus ' “ Galdan, better known by bis title of Contaiscb ” — Remusat, Nouveaux Melanges, Tome II., p. 29. See also Scbnyler’s Turkistan, Vol. II., p. 168. 234 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. became subject to the Chinese. The Galdan lost all his forces, and expired by poison, in 1697, his power dying with him, and his tribe having already become too weak to resist. Upon the ruins of his power arose that of Arabdan, the khan of the Songares. lie subjugated the xSorthern Circuit, passed over into Turkestan, Tangout, and IDioten, and gradually re- duced to his sway nearly all the elevated region of Central Asia west of Kansuh. lie expelled the Tourgouths from their pos- sessions in Cobdo, and compelled them to retreat to the banks of the Volga. Kanghi expelled the Songares from the districts about Koko-nor, but made no impression upon their authority in Songaria. After the death of Arabdan, about 1720, his throne was disputed, and the power weakened by dissensions among his sons, so that it was seized by two usurpers, Amur- sana and Tawats, Avho also fell out after their object was gained. Amursana repaired to Peking for assistance, aiid with the aid of a Chinese army expelled Tawats, and took possession of the throne of Arabdan. Bnt he had no intention of becoming a vassal to Kienlung, and was no sooner reinstated than he re- sisted him ; he defeated two Chinese armies sent against him, but succumbed on the third attack, and fled to Tobolsk, where he died in 1757. The territory of Arabdan then fell to Kienlung, and he pur- sued his successes with such cruelty that the Korthern Circuit was nearly depopulated, and the Songares and Eleuths became almost extinct as distinct tribes. The banished tribe of Tour- gouths was then invited by the Emperor to return from Kus- sian sway to their ancient possessions, which they accepted in 1772 ; the history of the Chinese embassy to them, and their disastrous journey back to Cobdo over the Kirglus steppe and through the midst of their enemies, is one of the most remark- able instances of nomadic wanderings and unexampled suffer- ing in modern times.' Chinese troops, emigrants, exiles, and nomadic tribes and families, M’ere sent and encouraged to come ' Compare Romusat (Notiveniix Melanges, Tome II., p. 102), who has com- piled a brief life of their leader Ubusha. De Quincey’s essay. The Flight of a Tartar Tribe. Ritter, Asien, Bd. V. pp. 531-583: Welthistorischer Einfluss des chiuchichea Rcic.hs uuf Central- 'und }Vest- Asien. HISTORY AND CONQUEST OF ILl. 28r> into tlie vacant territory, so that erelong it began to resume its former importance. In the period which has since elapsed, the Manchus have been enabled to prevent any combination among the clans, and maintain their own authority by a mixed system of coercion and coaxing which they well know how to practise. The aiii’icultural and mineral resources of the country have been develo})cd, many of the nomads induced to attend to agri- culture by making their chieftains emulous of each other’s pn>s- peritv, and by exciting a spirit of traffic among all. There have been some disturbances from time to time, but no master spirit has arisen who has been able to unite the tribes against the Chinese. In 1825, there was an attempt made fiom Kokand by Jehangir, grandson of the lojeh or prince of Kashgar, to regain possession of Turkestan; the khan of Ko- kand assisted him with a small army, and such was their dislike of the Chinese, that as soon as Jehangir appeared, the Moham- medans arose and drove the Chinese troops away or put them to death, opening the gates to the invader, lie took possession of Yarkand and Kashgar, and advanced to Aksu, where the winter put a stop to the campaign. In the next year, the khan of Kokand, seeing the disposition of the people, thought he would embark himself in the same cause, and made an incur- sion as far as Aksu and Khoten, reducing more than half the Southern Circuit to himself, but ostensibly in aid of Jehangir. The kojeh, beginning to fear his aid, withdrew ; and the khan, having suffered some reverses from the Chinese troops, made his peace on very favorable terms, and returned to his own country. Jehangir went to Khoten from Yarkand, but his conduct there di.spleasing the people, the Chinese troops, about 60,000 in number, had no difficulty in dispersing his force, and resuming their sway. The adherents of the kojeh fled toward Badakshan, while he himself repaired to Isaac, the newly appointed kojeh of Kashgar, by whom he was delivered up to the Chinese with his family, and all of them most barbarously destroyed. The kojeh was rewarded with the office of prince of Kashgar, but having been accused of treasonable designs he was ordered to come to Peking for trial ; the charges were all disproved, and he returned to Kashgar after several years’ residence at 236 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. the capital of the Empire. The country was gradually reduced by Changling, the general at Ili, but Kashgar suffered so much by the war and removal of the chief authority to Yarkand, that it has not since regained its importance. During this war, the dislike of the Mohammedans to the Chinese sway was e.\- hibited in the large forces Jehangir brought into the field ; and if he had been a popular spirited leader, there is reason for supposing he might have finally wrested these cities from the Chinese. The joy of Taukwang at the successful termination of the expedition and capture of the rebel, was so extravagant as to appear childish ; and when Jehangir was executed at Peking, he ordered the sons of two officers who had been re- ])orted killed, “ to witness his execution, in order to give ex- pansion to the indignation which had accumulated in their breasts ; and let the rebel’s heart be torn out and given to them to sacrifice it at the tombs of their fathers, and thus console their faithful spirits.” Honors were heaped upon C'hangling at his return to Peking, and rewards and titles showered upon all the troops engaged in the war. Since this insurrection, the frontiers of Kashgar and Kokand have been passed and repassed by the Pruth Kirghis; in 1830, they excited so nuicb trouble because their trade was restricted, that a large force was called out to restrain them, and many lives were lost before the rising was subdued. The causes of the dispute wei’e then examined, and the trade allowed to go on as before. The oppressions of the residents sometimes goad on the Mohammedans to rise against the Chinese, but the policy of the Emperor is conciliatory, and the complaints of the people are in general listened to. The visits of the begs and princes to Peking with tribute affords them an opportunity to state their grievances, while it also prevents them from cabal- ling among themselves. In 1871 the Kussians took possession of nearly the whole of Tien-Shan Peh Lu during an insurrection of the Dunganis against Chinese control. The Tarantchis having attacked a Kussiau outpost, and Yakub Beg being on suspi- ciously good terms with the I’ebels, it was determined to occupy Kuldja — which was effected after a campaign of less than a month, led by Gen. Kolpakofsky. The ('hinese government was BOUNDAUIES OF TIBET. 237 iniinediately informed that the place shoidd be restored wlien- ever a siirticieiit force could be brought there to hold it against attacks, and preserve order. ..Vfter the final coiupiest of the Dungan tribes in 1879-SU, this territory was retui-ned by the Russians upon conclusion of their last treaty with China, ex- actly ten years from the date of possession. The old manner of government is now resumed and the country slowly recover- ing from the frightful devastation of the insurrection. The salaries of the governor-general and his councillors, ami the residents, are small, and they are all obliged to i-esort to illegal means to reimburse their outlays. The highest officer receives about S.5,200 annually, and his councillors about ^2,000 ; the resi- dents from $2,-300 down to ^.jOO and less. These sums do not, probably, constitute one-tenth of the receipts of their situations.' The third great division of the colonial part of the Chinese empire, that of Tiukt, is less known than III, though its area is hardly le-ss extensive. It constitutes the most southern of the three great table lands of Central Asia, and is surrounded with high mountains Avhich separate it from all the contiguous re- ilions. The word Tibet or Tubet is unknown amoni; the iidiabi- tants as the name of their country ; it is a corruption by the Mongols of Tti the country of the Tu, a i-ace which overran it in the sixth century ; Turner gives another name, J* *ue-loa- c/ihn, signifying the ‘snowy country of the north,’ doubtless a local or ancient term. The general appellation by the people is Pot or Pod, or Bod yul — “ the land of Bod.” ’ It is roughly bounded northeast by Koko-nor ; east by Sz’chuen and Yunnan ; south by Assam, Butan, Xipal, and Gurhwal ; west by Cash- mere ; and north by the unknown ranges of the Kwanlun Moun- tains. The southern frontier cm-ves considerably in its course, * Chineiie Repository, Vol. V., pp. 267, 316, 351, etc. ; Vol. IX., p. 113. Penny Vyclopadia, Art. Songaria. Boulger, Russia and England in Cen- tral Asia, 2 Yols., London, 1879. Schuyler, Turkistan, 2 vols., N. Y., 1877. Petermann’s Mittheilungen, Appendices XLII. and XLIII. , 1875. ® This derivation is explained somewhat differently in Remusat, Nonveaux Melanges, Tome I., p. 190. * To these Ritter adds the names of Wei, Dzang, Nga-ri, Kham, Bhodi, Peu- u-Tsang, Si-Dzang, Tluipho, Tobbat, Tobbt, Tiibet, Tibet, and Barantola, as all applying to this country. Asien, Bd. III., S. 174-183. 288 THE MIDDLE KI2IGDOM. but is not less than 1,500 miles from the western extremity of Nipal to the province of Yunnan ; the northern border is about 1,300 miles ; the western frontiers cannot be accurately defined, and depend more upon tlie possession of the passes through which trade is carried on than any political separation. Beltistan, Little Tibet, and Ladak, although included in its limits on Chinese maps, have too little subjection or connection with the court of Peking, to be reckoned among its dependencies. Tibet, in its largest limits, is a table land, the highest plains of which have a mean elevation of 11,510 feet, or about 1,300 feet lower than the plateau of Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca. The snow-line on the north side of the Himalaya is at an alti- tude of 16,630 feet ; on the southern slope it is at 12,982 feet. Several striking analogies may be traced between this country and Peru : the tripartite divisions caused by lofty ranges ; their common staples of wool, from alpacas and vicunas in one, and sheep and goats in the other ; the abundance of precious metals, and many specific customs. The entire province of Tibet is divided by mountain chains into three distinct parts ; its western portion consists of the basin of the Indus, until it breaks through into Cashmere at Makpon-i-Shagaron. It begins near Mount Kailasa, and stretches northwest between tlie Hindu Kush and Himalaya, comprising the whole of Bel- tistan and Ladak ; the Kara-korum, Mus-tag, or Tsung ling range defines it on the northeast. The second part consists of an extensive desert land, commencing at Mount Kailasa, and having the Tsung ling on the west, tlie Kwanlun on the north (which separates it from Khoten, and the high watershed of the Yangtsz’, Salween, and other rivers), and Lake Tengkiri, on the east ; the Himalaya constitutes its southern boundary. This high region, called Katshe or Kor-kache, has not been traversed by intelligent travellers and is one of the few yet unkno^\^l re- gions of the earth, and is nearly uninhabitable, owing to the extreme rigor of its climate.’ ’ See R(*mnsat, Nouveaux Milangen, I., p. 190, for notices of tribes anciently inhabiting tliis district and Bokhara. Compare also Heeren {Historical Re- searches, Vol. I., pp. 180-186), wlio gives in brief the accounts of Herodotus jiud Ctesias. NATURAL FKATUUKS OK TIRKT. 2:i0 The eastern part, consisting of tlie basin of the Yarii-tsangbu, contains, in its plains, most of the towns in Tibet, until it reaches the Alpine region which lies between the River Yarn and the Yangtsz’, a space extending from long. 0.5° to 00° E. This district is described as a succession of ridges and gorges, over which the road takes the traveller on narrow aiul steep paths, crossing the valleys by ropes and bridges enveloped in the clouds. Mount Kailasa, a notable peak lying in the north- eastern part of Xari, is not far from 2(5,000 feet high. The number of summits covered with perpetual snow exceeds that of any other part of the world of the same extent. The road from Sz’chnen to lElassa strikes the Yalnng kiang, in the district of Ta tsien In, and then goes southwesterly to Ratang on the Yangtsz’ kiang ; crossing the river it ])roceeds up the narrow valley a short distance, and then crosses the mountains northwest to the LantsaTi kiang or River Meikon, by a series of pathways leading over the gorges, till it reaches Tsiamdo ; from this point the road turns gradually south- west, following the valleys when practicable, till it ends at Il’lassa. The largest river in Tibet is the Erechnmbn, or Yarn-tsangbn ; tsangbii means river, and is often alone used for this whole name. It rises in the Tamchnk range, at the Mariani-la pass in Nari, 60 miles east of Lake Manasarowa, the source of the Sutlej ; it flows a little south of east for about seven hundred miles, through the whole of Southern Tibet, between the first and second ranges of the Himalayas, as far as long. 90° E. Its tributaries on the north are numerous, and among them the Xauk-tsangbu and Dzangtsu are the largest. The volume of water which flows through the mountains into Assam by this river, is equal to that by the Indus intd Scinde. The disputed question, whether the Yaru-tsangbu joins the Brahmaputra or Irrawadi, has been settled by presumptive evidence in favor of the former, but a distance of about 400 miles is still unex- plored ; ’ the fall in this part is about 11,000 feet, to where the river Dihong has been traced in Assam. This makes the Brah- • Introduction by Col. Yule, in Gill’s Biver of Golden Sand. 240 THE MIDDLE KIXGDOM. maputra the largest and longest river in Southern Asia ; its pas- sage into Assam is near 95° E. longitude. The eastern part of Tibet, beyond this meridian, is traversed by numerous ranges of lofty mountains, having no separate names, the direction of which is from west to east, and from northwest to southeast. From these ranges, lateral branches run out in different directions, containing deep valleys between them. In proportion as the principal chains advance towards the southeast they converge towards one another, and thus the valleys between them gradually become narrower, until at last, on the frontiers of Yunnan and Bnrmah, they are mere moun- tain passes, whose entire breadth does not much exceed a hundred miles, having four streams flowing through them. In fact, Tibet incloses the fountain heads of all the large rivers of Southern and Eastern Asia. The names and courses of those in Eastern Tibet are known only imperfectly from Chinese maps, but others have described them after their entrance into the lowlands. Tibet, especially the central part, is a country of lakes, in this respect resembling Cobdo. The largest, Tengkiri-nor, situated in the midst of stupendous mountains, about one hundred and ten miles northwest of Il’lassa, is over a hundred miles long and about thirty wide. The region north of it contains many iso- lated lakes, most of them salt. Two of the largest, the Bouka and Kara, are represented as connected with the Biver Xu. Lake Khamba-la, Yamoruk or Yarbrokyu, sometimes called Palti, from a town on its northern shore, is a large lake south of iriassa, remarkable for its ring shape, the centre being fllled by a large island, around which its waters flow in a channel thirty miles or more in width. On the island is a nunnery, called the Palace of the'IIoly Sow, said to be the finest in the country. In Balti or Little Tibet are many sheets of water, the largest of which, the Yik and Paha, are connected by a river flowing through a marshy country. A long succession of lakes fill one of the basins in Katsche, suggesting the former existence of another Aral Sea. The sacred lakes of ]\[anasarowa and Bavan-hrad (Mapam-dalai and Langga-nor, of the Chinese) foi'in the headwaters of the Sutlej. <;i.[MATK, FOOD AM) lMt< )l)UCTIOXS. 241 The climate of Tibet is characterized by its purity and exces- sive dryness. The valleys are hot, iiotwithstaudinj^ their prox- imity to snow-capped mountains; from May to October the sky is clear in the table-lands, and in the valleys the moisture anti temperature are favorable to vegetation, the harvest being gath- ered before the gales and snows set in, after October. The effects of the air resemble or are worse than those of the kafnsin in Egypt. The trees wither, and their leaves may be ground to powder between the lingers ; planks and beams break, and the inhabitants cover the timbers and wood-work of their houses with coarse cotton, in order to j)reserve them against the de- structive saccitlity. The timber neither rots nor is worm-eaten. Mutton, exposed to the open air, becomes so dry that it may be ])owdered like bread ; when once dried it is pre.served during years. This lie.sh-brcad is a common food in Tibet. The car- cass of the animal, divested of its skin and viscera, is ])laced where the frosty air will have free access to it, until all the juices of the body dry up, and the whole becomes one stiffened mass. Xo salt is used, nor does it ever become tainted, and is eaten without any further dressing or cooking; the natives eat it at all periods after it is frozen, and prefer the fresh to that which has been kept some months. The food called is prepared by cooking brick tea during .several hours, then adding butter and .salt, and stirring the mixture until it becomes a thick broth. When eaten the stuff is served in wooden bowls, and a plentiful supply of roasted barley-meal poured in, the whole being kneaded by the hands and devoured in the shape of dough pellets. The productions of Tibet consist of domestic animals, cattle, horses, pigs ; some wild animals, such as the white-breasted argali, orongo-antelope, ata-dzeren, wolf, and stepj)e-fox ; and few plants or forests, presenting a strong contrast with Xtpal and Butan, where x'egetable life flourishes more luxuriantly. Sheep and goats are reared in immense flocks, for beasts of burden over the pa.sses, and for their flesh, hair, and coats. Chiefest among the animals of this mountain land is the yak.' The ' Called by Wood Knsh-gow {Journey to the Oxun, p. 31!)). Chauri gav, sarlyk, and mrlac, are other names. VoL. I.— 10 242 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. domesticated variet}', or long-haired yak, is the inseparable companion and most trusty servant not only of the Tibetans, but of tribes in Cashmere, Ladak, Tangout, and Mongolia, even as far north as Urga. It is a cross-breed, or mule from the yak bull and native cow, which alone is hardy enough for these elevated regions.* These creatures are of the same size as our cat- tle, *strong, sure-footed and possessed of extraordinary endur- ance ; they retain, however, something of their wild nature, even after long domestication, and must be carefully treated. Domesticated Yak. especially when being loaded and unloaded. They thrive best in hilly countries, well watered and covei-ed with grass — the two last being indispensable. The hair is black or black and white, seldom entirely white. One sort is without horns, and when crossed with the cow bears sterile males, or females which are fertile foi‘ one generation. As to the wild yak of Tibet, a trav- eller says : “ This handsome animal is of extraordinary size and beauty, measuring, when grown, eleven feet in length, exclusive of its bushy tail, which is three feet long; its height at the hump is six feet ; girth around the body eleven feet, and its ' This cross is incutioned hy Marco Polo, Yulc'n ed., Vol. I., j). 241. AXIMALS OK TIHKT. 243 weicrlit ten or eleven Inmdred \vei<;lit. The liead is aaoriied with ponderous liorns, two feet nine inches long, and one foot four inches in circumference at the root. The body is covered Avith tlnck, black hair, which in the old males assumes a chest- nut color on the back and upper parts of the sides, and a deep frintre of black hair hau<;s doAvn from the flanks. The muzzle is partly gray, and the younger males have marks of the same color on the upper part of the body, Avhihst a narrow, silvery- gray stripe runs down the centre of the back. The hair of young yaks is much softer than that of older ones ; they are also distinguishable by their smaller size, and by handsomer horns, Avith the points turned up. The females are much smaller than the males, and not nearly so striking in aj>pear- ance ; their horns are shorter and lighter, the hump smaller, and the tail and flanks not nearly as hairy.” ' This animal is useful for its milk, flesh, and Avool, as AV'ell as for agricultural purposes and travel. There is comparatively little agriculture. The variety of Avild animals, birds, and fishes, is A’ery great; among them the musk deer, feline animals, eagles, and Avild sheep, arc objects of the chase. The brute creation are generally clothed Avith an abundance of fine hair or avooI ; even the horses have a shag- gier coat than is granted to bears in more genial climes. The Tibetan mastiff is one of the largest and fiercest of its race, almost untamable, and unknoAvn out of its natiA*e country. The musk deer is clothed with a thick covering of hair two or three inches long, standing erect over the Avhole body ; the animal resembles a hog in size and form, haviiig, hoAA’eA'er, slender legs. The Tibetan goat affords the shaAvl avooI, so highly pi'ized for the mamifacture of garments.'' ' Prejevalsky, Travels in Mongolia, etc., Tol. I., p. 187. - B. H. Hodgson, Notice of tlie Mammals of Tibet, Journal As. Soc. of Ben- gal, Vol. XI., pp. 275 ff. ; also ii>. Vols. XVI., p. 763, XIX., p. 466, and XXVI., No. 3, 1857. Abbe .\rmand David, Notes sur quelques oiseaux de Thibet, Mouv. Arch, du Museum, Bull., V. 1869, p. 33; ib. Bull, VI., pp. 19 and 33. BuU, VIII., 1872, pp. 3-128, IX., pp. 15—48, X., pp. 3-82. Recherches pour serrir d Vhistoire natureUe des mammiferes comjyrennant des considerations sur la classification de ces animaux, etc., des etudes sur la faune de la Chine et du Tibet oriental, par MM. Milue-Ed wards, etc., 2 vols. Paris, 1868-74. 244 THK >irDDLK KINGDOM. Fruits are coiuinon ; small peaches, grapes, apples, and nuts, constitute the limited A’ariety. Barley is raised more than any other grain the principal part of agricultural labors being per- formed by the women. Pulse and wheat are cultivated, but lU) rice west of IPlassa. lihubarb, asafoetida, ginger, madder, and safllower are collected or prepared, but most of the medicines come from China and Butan. Turnijis, rape, garlic, onions, and melons are raised in small quantitie.s. The mineral productions are exceedingly rich. Gold occurs in mines and jdacer diggings, and forms a constant article of export ; lead, silver, copper, and cinnabar are also dug out of the ground, but iron has not been found to much extent. The great difficulty in the way of the inhabitants availing themselves of their metallic wealth, apart from their ignorance of the best modes of mining, is the want of fuel with -wliicli to smelt the ore. Tincal, or crude borax, is gathered on the borders of a small lake hi the neighborhood of Tengkiri-nor, where also any quantity of rock salt can be obtained. Precious stones are met with, most of which hnd their way to China. The present divisions of Tibet, by the C’hinese, are Txlen Thcukj, or Anterior Tibet, and Hau Tmiig, or Ulterior Tibet. Antei'ior Tibet is also called U (AYei) and IT-tsang, and in- cludes the central pai’t of Bod-yur where IPlassa is ; east of this lies Ivham (Kang) or Khaniyiil, and northeast toward Koko-nor is Khamsok, i.e., Kliam on the Biver Sok. Kear the bend of the Brahmaputra is the district of Kongbo, where rice can be raised ; going M'estward are Takpo, dolls and gTsang on the borders of Aari, ending in a line nearly continuous with the eastern border of Aipal. The C,'hine.se books mention eight cantons in Anterior Tibet, five of tliem lying east of IPlassa, added to which are thirty -nine feudal townships in Khamsok called tu-nz\ all of them chiefly nominal or at present anti- quated. Csorna de Kdriis speaks of several small principalities in Khain, and describes the inhabitants as differing from the rest of the Tibetans in appearance and language ; they assimi- late probably with the tribes on the Burman and Chine.'^e fron- tiers. Aari (A-li in (fliinese)is divided into IMangyul, Khorsum, and Maryul.' The first of these districts lies nearly center- h'lassa the capital. 24n niinuus with Xipal, ami its area is probably about the same, but its cold, dry, and elevated regions, support oidy a few shep- herds ; Ivborsum and Maryul lie north and northwest in a still more inhospitable clime ; the latter adjoins Ladak and Haiti and is the reservoir of hundreds of lakes situated from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea. A ridge separates the valley of the Indus from the Sutlej, crossed at the Hogola J*ass, 10,220 feet high, and then over the Gugtila Pass, l'.i,50U feet into Gartok. The ])eople throughout this elevated region are forced to live in tents, wood being almo.st unknown for build- i"g- Il’lassa, the tjijaha or capital of Tibet, is situated on the Ki- chu liiver, about twelve leagues from its junction with the Yarn, in lat. 20° 80' X., and long. 01° 05' E. ; the name signilies CrO(l'.s (//'oinitl, and it is the largest town in this part of ..Vsia. It is famous for the convents near it, conip(.»sing the ecclesiasti- cal establishments of the Dalai (or ‘ ( )ceau ’)-lama, whose resi- dence is in the monastery of Pobrang-mai’bii {i.e., ‘lied town ’) on Mount Putala. The principal building of this establishment is three hundred and si.\t}'-seven feet high, and it contains, as the ('hinese expression is, “ a myriad of rooms.” This city is the head-quarters of Buddhism, and the hierarchy of lamas, who, by means of the Dalai-lama, and his subordinate the Kutuktu, exer- cise priestly control over wellnigh all Mongolia as well as Tibet. The city lies in a fertile plain nearly 12,000 feet high, about twelve miles wdde, and one hundred and twenty -live from north to south, producing harvests of barley and millet, with abundant pasturage and some fruit trees. Mountains and hills encircle it ; of these the westernmost is Putala, the river running so near its base that a wall has been built to preserve the buildings from the rise of the waters. The Chinese- garrison is quartered about two miles north of this mount, and two large temples, called H'lcma Uo-Tcang and resplendent with gold and precious stones, stand veiy near it. The four mona.s- teries. Sera, Brebung, Samye, and Galdan, comstitute as many separate establishments.* During the sway of the Songares in Klaproth, Description du Tubet, jj. 24<). 246 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Ill, their prince Arabdan made a descent upon Il’lassa, and the Lama was killed. Kanglu placed a new one upon the see, in 1720, appointing six leading officers of the old Lama to assist him in the government. Three of these joined in an insurrec- tion, and in the conflicts which succeeded, Il’lassa suffered con- siderably. The population of the town is conjectured to be 24,000 : that of the province is reckoned by Csonia at about 050,000. The town was visited in tlie year 1811 by Mr. Manning, whose description of its dirty and miserable streets swarming with dogs and beggars, and the meanness of its buildings, cor- responds with what Hue and Gabet found in 1846. Mr. Man- ning remained there nearly five months, and had several inter- views with the Dalai-lama ; he was much impeded in his observations by a Cantonese munshi or teacher, and exposed to dano-er of illness from insufficient shelter and clothingr. His reception by the chief of the Buddhist faith on the ITth of December, was equally remarkable with that by the Teshu-lama of Bogle in 1774, and of Turner in 1783. Mr. Manning was alone and unprotected and had very few presents, but his offer- ing was accepted ; it consisted of a piece of fine broadcloth, two brass candlesticks, twenty new dollars, and two vials of laven- der water. He rode to the foot of the mountain Butala, and dismounted on the first platform to ascend by a long stairway of four hundred stejDS, part of them cut in the rock, and the rest ladder steps from story to story in the palace, till he reached a large platform roof off which was the reception hall. Upon entering this he found that the Ti-nm-fit or Gesuh Jiim- hoche, the highest civil functionary in Tibet, was also pres- ent, which caused him some confusion; “I did not know how much ceremony to go through with one before I began with the other. I made the due obeisance, touching the ground three times with my head to the Grand Lama, and once to the 2'1-mu-fa. I presented my gifts, delivering the coins with a handsome silk scaH with my own hands to them both. While I was hotovnng, the awkward servants let one of the bottles of lavender water fall and break. Having delivered the scarf to the Grand Lama, I took off my hat, and hunddy gave him my SIIIGATSE AND TESIIU-LUMHO. 247 clean shaven liead to lay his hands upon. . . . The llama’s heantifnl and interesting face and niannei’ engrossed all iny at- tention. lie was about seven years old ; had the simple man- ners of a well educated ])rincely child. His face was, I thought, poetically and affectingly beautiful. He was of a cheerful dis- position, his beautiful mouth perpetually uubending into a graceful smile, which illuminated his whole countenance. Xo doubt my grim beard and spectacles excited his risibility. AVe had not l)een seated long before he put questions which we rose to receive and answer. He inquired whether I had met with difficulties on the road ; to which I replied that I had had troubles, but now that I had the haj)piness of being in his pres- ence they were amply compensated. 1 could see that this answer pleased both him and his people, for they found that I was not a mere rustic, but had some tincture of civility in me.” ' The capital of Tsangor THterior Tibet is Shigatse, situated 12»> miles west of Il'lassa, and under its control. The monastery where the Teshu-lama and his court resides is a few miles distant, and constitutes a town of about 4,000 priests, named Teslm-Lnmbo. He is styled Panchen Ilimboche, and is the incarnation of Amitabha Puddha. His ]>alace is built of dark brick and has a rot)f of gilded copper ; the houses rise one above another and the gilt ornaments on the temples combine to give a princely appearance to the town. The fortress of Shigatse stands so as to command both places. The plain between this town and Il'lassa is a fertile tract, and judging from the number of towns in the valleys of the basin of the Yarn, its pi’oductive powers are comparatively great. Ulterior Tibet is divided into six other cantons, besides the territory under the jurisdiction of the chief town, most of their fortified capitals lying Avestward of Shigatse. The degree of skill the Tibetans have attained in manufac- tures, mechanical arts, and general civilization, is less than that of the Chinese, but superior to the Ylongols. They appeal- to be a mild and humane people, possessing a religious sense ' Misxionof George Bogle to Tibet and Journey of Thomas Hanning to Lhasa. Edited by C. R. Markham. London, 187C, p. 205. 248 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. and enjoying an easy life compared with their southern neigh- bors. They are well-bred and affable, fond of gossiping and festivities, which soften the heart and cheer the temper. Wo- men are treated with care and are not often compelled to w'ork out of doors. No two people or countries widely separated present a stronger contrast than do the stout, tall, muscular, and ffoi-id Butias, upon their fertile fields and wooded hills, with the squat, puny, sluggish, and swarthy Tibetans in their rugged, barren mountains. They distinguish five sorts of people among themselves, tlie last of whom are the Butias ; the others are the inhabitants of Kham, or Anterior Tibet, those in Tsang, the nomads of Kor-kache, and the people of Little Tibet. All of them speak Tibetan with some variations. The Tibetans are clad with woollens and furs to such a degree that they appear to emulate the animals they derive them from in their weight and warmth ; and with this clothing is found no small quantity of dirt. The dress of the sexes varies slightly in its shape ; yellow and red are the predominant colors. Large bulgar boots of hide are worn by all persons ; the remainder of the dress consists of woollen robes and furs like those of the Chinese. The women w'ear many jewels, and adorn their hair as do the Mongols with pearls, coral, and turquoises. Girls braid their hair in three tresses, married women in two. The head is pro- tected by high velvet caps ; the men Avear broad-brimmed coverings of various materials. The two religious sects are distinguished by yellow and red caps ; the latter are comparatively few, allow marriage to the lamas, but do not differ materially in their ritual or tenets. There is no country where so large a proportion of the people are devoted to religious service as in Tibet, nor one where the secular part of the inhabitants pays such implicit deference to the clergy. The food of the Tibetans is taken at all hours, mutton, barley, and tea constituting the staple articles. On all visits tea is presented, and the cup replenished as often as it is drained. Spirits and beer, both made from barley, are com- mon beverages. On every visit of ceremony, and whenever a letter is sent from one person to another, it is necessaiy to con- nect a silk scarf with it, the size and texture l)cing proportioned OM MANI I’ADMl HUM. 24!) to tlie rank and condition of the ])iirties. Tlie senUmce Om. mani 2>iidnii ham is woven npon each end. The following note by (’oh Yule, condensed from Kocppen's iMuKiiitcIu' Hicranhle and Kirrhe, contains the most satisfac- tory explanation of this puzzling mystic formula : Om mani padnu hum! — the i)rimeval six syllables, as the lamas say, among all prayers on earth form that which is most abundantly recited, written, printed, and even sjnm by machines for the good of the faithful. These syllables form the only prayer known to the ordinaiy Tibetans and ^longols ; they are the lir.st words that the child leanis to stammer, and the last gasping utterance of the dying. The wanderer murmurs them on his way, the herdsman beside his cattle, the matron at her house- hold tasks, the monk in all the stages of contemplation (/’.c., of far niente) ; they form at once a cry of battle and a shout of victory ! They are to be read wherever the Lama church hath spread, upon banners, tipon rocks, upon trees, upon walls, upon monuments of stone, npon housebold utensils, npon strips of paper, xipon human skulls and skeletons ! They form, ac- cording to the idea of the believers, the utmost conception of all religion, of all wisdom, of all rev'elation, the path of rescue and the gate of salvation ! Properly and literally these four words, a single utterance of which is sufficient of itself to purchase an inestimable salvation, signify nothing more than : “ O the Jewel in the Lotus ! Amen ! ” In this inter- pretation, most probably, the Jcxrcl stands for the Bodhisatva Avalokite^vara, so often born from the bud of a lotus flower. According to this the whole formula is simply a salutation to the mighty saint who has taken under his especial charge the conversion of the Xorth, and with him who first employed it the mystic formula meant no more than Ave Avalokltecvara ! Put this simple explanation of course does not satisfy the Lama schoolmen, who revel in glorifications and multitudinous glossifi- cations of this fornnda. The six syllables are the heart of hearts, the root of all knowledge, the ladder to re-birth in higher forms of being, the conquerors of the five evils, the flame that burns up sin, the hammer that breaks up torment, and so on. Om saves the gods, xna the Asuras, ni the men. 250 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. 2>ad the animals, mi the spectre world of pi'etds, hum the in- hahitants of hell ! Om is ‘ the blessing of self -renunciation, ona of mercy, ni of chastity, etc.’ ‘ Tnily monstrous,’ says Ivoeppen, ‘ is the number of which in the great festi- vals hum and buzz through the air like flies.’ In some places each worshipper reports to the highest Lama how many om manis he has uttered, and the total number emitted by the congregation is counted by the billion.” Grueber and Dorville describe 2[anij>e as an idol, before which stulta yens insolitis yesticulationihus saa'a sua facit, identiden verJ>a haec repetens : — ‘ O Manipe, mi hum, O Alanipe, mi hum ; id est Manipe, salva nos ! ’ ’’ Itemusat {^Melanges Posthumes, Paris, 1843, p. 90) translates this phrase by : “ Adoration, O thou precious stone who art in the lotus ! ” and observes that it illustrates the fundamental dogma of Buddhism, viz. : the production of the matei'ial universe by an absolute being ; all things which exist are shut up in the breast of the divine substance ; the ‘ precious stone ’ signifying that the world is in God. Mr. Jameson says that the sentence Om mani padmi hung is formed of the initial letters of various deities, all of whom are supposed to be implored in the prayer.' In reverential salutations, the cap is removed by the inferior, and the arms hang by the side. The bodies of the dead are placed in an open inclosure, in the same manner as practised by the Parsees, where birds and beasts of prey devour them, or they are dismembered in an exposed place. Lamas are burned, and their ashes collected into urns. As soon as the breath has departed, the body is seated in the same attitude as Buddha is represented, with the legs bent before, and the soles of the feet turned upwards. The right hand rests upon the thigh, the left turns up near the body, the thumb touching the shouldei’. In this attitude of contemplation, the corpse is burned. In Tibet, as in Butan, the custom of polyandry prevails. Tlie choice of a wife lies with the eldest son, who having made known his intentions to his parents sends a matchmaker to pro- ' Compare, for further discussion of this subject, Timkowski’s Mission to Pekiny, I.oiulou, 1827, Vol. II., p. 341). Wilson’s .16w/c t>/’ p. 329. TIBKTAN TYPES AND CUSTOMS. 2f)] pone the matter to the parents of the girl. The consent of the parents being obtained, the matchmaker places an ornament of a jewel set in gold, called sedzia upon the head of the damsel, and gives her presents of jewels, dresses, cattle, etc., according to the means of the young man. The guests invited on the day of the marriage bring presents of such things as they choose, which augments the dowry. A tent is set up before the bride's house, in which are placed three or four stpiare cushions, and the ground around sprinkled with wheat ; the bride is seated on the highest cushion, her parents and friends standing near her according to their rank, and the assembled party there partake of a feast. The bride is then conducted to the house of her lover by the friends present, her person being sprinkled with wheat or barley as she goes along, and there placed by his side, and both of them .served with tea and spirits. Soon after, the groom seats himself apart, and every one present gives a scarf, those of superior rank binding them around their necks, ecjuals and inferiors laying them by their sides. The next day, a procession is formed of the relatives of the newly married pair, which visits all the friends, and the marriage is completed. The girl thus becomes the wife of all the brothers, and manages the domestic concerns of their household. The number of hei' husbands is sometimes indicated bj' as many points in her cap. This custom is strengthened by the desire, on the part of the family, to keep the property intact among its members ; but it does not prevent one of the husbands leav- ing the roof and marrying another woman, nor is the usage universal. Kemusat speaks of a novel in Tibetan, in which the author admirably portrays the love of his heroine, Triharticha, for her four lovers, and brings their marriage in at the end in the happiest manner. The dwellings of the poor are built of unhewn stones, rudely piled upon each other without cement, two stories high, and resembling brick-kilns in shape and size ; the windows are small, in order not to weaken the structure ; the roof is flat, de- fended by a brushwood parapet, and protected from the moles- tation of evil spirits by flags, strips of paper tied to strings, or branches of trees. Timber is costly and little used ; the floors 252 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. are of marble or tiles, and the furniture consists of little else than mats and cushions. The temples and convents are more imposing and commodious structures ; some of those at Il’lassa are among the noblest specimens of architecture in Central Asia. The mausoleum of the Teshu-lama at Teshu Lumbu resem- bles a plain s(j^uare watch-tower surmounted by a double Chinese canopy roof, the eaves of which are hung with bells, on Avhich the breeze plays a ceaseless dirge. The body of the lama re- poses in a coffin of gold, and his effigy, also of gold, is placed within the concavity of a large shell upon the top of the pyra- midal structure M'hich contains it. The sides of the pyramid are silver plates, and on the steps are deposited the jewels and other costly articles which once appertained to him. An altar in front receives the oblations and incense daily presented before the tomb, and near by is a second statue of the deceased as large as life in the attitude of reading. Scrolls and pennons of silk hang from the ceiling, and the walls are adorned with paintings of priests engaged in prayer. The whole structure is substantially built, and its rich ornaments are placed there not less for security than to do honor to the revered person depos- ited beneath. The windows are closed with mohair curtains, and a skylight in the upper story serves for lighting the room, and for passing out upon the roof. The roof or parapet is ornamented with cylinders of copper or othei’ materials, which imparts a brilliant appearance to the edilices. The manufactures of Tibet consist of woollens, cloth, blank- ets, yarn, goat-hair shawls, musk, paper, metals, and jewelry. Their lapidaries cut every kind of ornament in superior style, and gold and silverware foians a considei’able article of trade to China. These and other crafts must necessarily languish, how- ever, from the immense proportion of men who are withdrawn from labor into monasteries, compelling the residue to devote most of their strength to tillage. The most important e.xports to China consist of gold dust, precious stones, bezoars, asafoet- ida, musk, woollens, and skins ; for which the people receive silks, teas, chinawarc, tobacco, musical instruments, and metals. The trade is carried on through Sining fu in Kansuh, and COMMKi:CK AND LANGUAGE OF TIHET. '2r)li ]>atang in Sz’cliuen. Tincal, rock-salt, and sliawl wool, are ad- ditional articles sent to Ladak, llntan, and India. Music is studied by the priesthood for their ceremonies, and with much better effect than among the ('hiiiese priests. Tlieir amusements consi.st in archery, dancing, and observance of many festivals connected with the Avorship of the dead or of the living. Dram-drinking is common, but the peoj)le cannot be called a drunken race, nor does the habit of opium eating or smoking, !owerful in the north, and Cogue, F-tsang, and Maryul were three southern ])rincipalities. The king of Cogue allowed these missionaries to reside in his terri- tories, and took pleasure in hearing them converse and dispute with the lamas. The Dalai -lama at this time was the king's brother, and possessed subordinate influence in the state, but the priests were numerous and influential. The compiest of Mongolia and Tangout opened the way for Kanghi to enter Tibet, but the intercourse between the Emperor and Dalai-lama was chiefly connected with religion atul cari-ying tribute. An index of the freedom of communication between Tibet and the west is found in the passports issued to the traders visiting iriassa in lOSS. The lamas held the supreme power imtil towards the end of his reign, when Chinese influence became paramount. The country had already been conquered by the Songar chieftain, so that on his defeat it could offer little re- sistance. Kanghi appointed six of the highest princes or yialho over the provinces; but soon after his death, in 1727, three of them conspired against Yungching, and were not subdued with- out considerable resistance. The Emperor then appointed the loyal prince or gialho as governor-general, and he remained in his vice-regal office till his death, about 1750. Kienlung, find- ing that liis son was endeavoring to make himself fully inde- pendent, executed him as a rebel, suppressed the office, and appointed two Chinese generals to be associated with the Dalai- lama and his coadjutor, in the administration of the country. The troops were increased and forts erected in all parts of the country to awe the people and facilitate trade. The present government of Tibet is superintended by tw’o ta chin^ ‘ or great ministers,’ residing at Il’lassa, who act con- jointly, while they serve as checks upon each other ; they do 256 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. not hold their office for a long time. They have absolute con- trol over all the troops in the country, and the military are generally confined to the garrisons, and do not cultivate the soil. The collection of revenue, transmission of tribute to Peking, and direction of the persons Avho carry it, and those ■\vho conduct the trade at Batang and Sining fu, are all under their control. The Dalai-lama, and the Teshu-lama are the high religious officers of the country, each of them independent in his own province, hut the former holding the highest place in the hierarchy. The f'hinese residents confer 'svith each con- cerning the direction of his own jirovince. All their appoint- ments to office or nobility must be sanctioned by the residents before they are valid, but merely religious officers are not under this surveillance. In the villages, the authority is admin- istered by secular deputy lamas called dtbci^ and by command- ants called harpon^ who are sent from the capital. Each deha is assisted by a native vazlr of the place, who, Avith the chief lama, form the local government, amenable to the supreme magistracy. The W'estern province of Kari is peopled by no- mads, who wander over the regions north of Eavan-hrad, and are under the authority of harpom sent from ll’lassa, Avithout the assistance of lamas. The tAvo high-priests themselves are likewise assisted by councillors. One of these, called Soopoon Choomboo, Avbo held the office of mdeek or adviser Avhen Tur- ner A'isited Teshu-Lumbo, Avas a l\ranchu by birth, but had long lived in Tibet. The nomadic clans of Dam IMongols and other tribes (x-cupy- ing tbe tliirty-nine feudal townships or tu-sz' in Anterior Tibet, are goA^erned by the residents Avithout the inteiwention of the lamas. The disturbances in Ulterior Tibet in 17!)2, resulting from the irruption of the Isipalese and sack of Teshu-Lnmbo, were speedily quelled by the energy of Kienhmg's goveiaiment, and the iin^aders forced to sue for mercy. The southei'u fron- tier Avas, in consequence of this inroad, strongly fortified by a chain of posts, and the communication Avith the states between Tibet and India strictly forbidden and watched. It gave the ('hinese an opportunity to strengthen their rule and extend their infiuence north tt) Khoten and into Ladak. The natural GOVERN MKNT OF TIKET. 257 mildness of character of the Tibetans, and similarity of relig- ion renders them much easier under the Chinese yoke, than the Mohammedans.' ' Authorities on Tibet besides tliose already referred to: Journal Aaintique, Tomes IV., p. 281 ; VIII., p. 117; IX., p. ;U ; XIV., pp. 177, ff. 277, 4(16, etc. Du Halde, Description of Chinn, Vol. II., pp. 384-388. Capt. Samuel Turner, Account of an Embassy to the Court of Ttshoo Lama in Tibet, Lon- don, 1800. Histoire de ce qui s’est passe au Itoyaume du Tibet, en Pannie 1626; trad de ITtalien. Paris, 1829. P. Kircher, China lUvslrata. MM. Peron et fiillecocq, Ilecueit de Voyages du Thibet, Paris, 1 796. Journai of the Asuitic Society of Bengal, passim. Chinese Repository, Vols. VI., pp. 28, 494, IX., p. 26, and XIII., p. 505. Ritter, Asien, Bd. II., 4er Abschnitt, and Bd. lU., S. 137-424. Richthofen, China, Bd. I., S. 228, 247, 466, 670, 683, etc. C. H. Desgodin, La mission du Tibet de 1855 d 1870, comprennant Pexpose des affaires religiemes, etc. D'apris les lettres de M. L'abbe Desgodins, missumaire apostoUqve, Verdun, 1872. Lieut. Kreitner, Im fei'nen Osten, pp. 829 ff., and in The Popular Science Monthly, for August, 1882. Emil Schlagintweit, Tibetan Buddhism, Illustrated by Literary Documents and Objects of Religious Worship, London, 1863. Abbe Hue, Travels through Tartary, Tibet and Chinn, 2 vols. VOL. L— 17 CHAPTER V. POPULATION AND STATISTICS. Much of the interest appertaining to the country and people here treated of, in the minds of philanthropic and intelligent men, has arisen from the impression they have received of its vast population. A country twice the size of the Chinese em- pire would present few attractions to the Christian, the mer- chant, or the ethnologist, if it were no better inhabited than Sahara, or Arizona : a people might possess most admirable institutions, and a matchless form of government, yet these excellencies would lose their interest, did we hear that it is the republic of San Marino or the kingdom of Muscat, where they are found. The population of few countries in the world has been accurately ascertained, and probably that of China is less satisfactory than any European or American state of the pres- ent day. It is far easier to take a census among a people who understand its object, and will honestly assist in its execution, than in a despotic, half -civilized country, where the mass of the inhabitants are afraid of contact or intercourse with their rulers ; in most of such states, as Abyssinia, Turkey, Persia, etc., there is either no regular enumeration at all, or merely a general estimate for the purposes of revenue or conscription. The subject of the population of China has engaged the attention of the monarchs of the present dynasty, and their censuses have been the best sources of information in making up an intelligent opinion upon the matter. AVliatever may be our views of the actual population, it is plain that these cen- suses, with all their discrepancies and inaccuracies, are the only reliable sources of information. The condicting opinions and CKEDIT DUE TO CHINESE CENSUSES. ‘250 conclusions of foreign writers neither give any additional weight to them, nor detract at all from their credibility. As the ques- tion stands at j)resent, they can he doubted, but cannot be denied ; it is impossible to prove them, while there are many grounds for believing them; the enormous total which they e.xhibit can be declared to be improbable, but not shown to be impossible. Xo one M’ho has been in China can hesitate to acknowledge that there are some strong grounds for giving credit to them, but the total goes so far beyond his calcidations, that en- tire belief must, indeed, be deferred till some new data have been furnished. There are, ])erhaps, more peculiar encourage- ments to the increase of population there than in any other country, mostly arising from a salubrious climate, semi-annual crops, unceasing industry, early marriages, and an equable taxation, involving reasonable security of life and pi-operty. Turning to other countries of Asia, we soon observe that in Japan and Persia these causes have less influence ; in Siam and Burmah they are weak ; in Tibet they are almost power- less. At this point every one must rest, as the result of an exami- nation into the population of the Chinese Empire ; though, from the simvey of its principal divisions, made in the preceding chapters, its capability of maintaining a dense population needs no additional evidence. The mind, however, is bewildered in some degree by the contemplation of millions upon millions of human beings thus collected under one govemment ; and it almost wishes there might be grounds for disbelieving the enormous total, from the dreadful results that might follow the tyrannical caprice or unrestrained fury of their rulers, or the still more shocking scenes of rapine and the hideous extremities of want which a bad harvest would necessarily cause. Chinese literatm-e contains many documents describing classes of society comprised in censuses in the various dynasties. The results of those enumerations have been digested by Ma Tvvan-lin in a judicious and intelligent manner in the chapters treating on population, from which M. Ed. Biot has elaborated 260 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. many important data.' The early records sliow that the census was designed to contain only the number of taxable people, ex- cluding all persons bound to give personal service, who were under the control of others. Moreover, all officials and slaves, all persons over 60 or 66 years of age, the weak or sick, those needing help, and sometimes such as were newly placed on state lands, were likewise omitted. Deducting these classes, Ma Twan-lin gives one census taken in the ninth century, b.c., as 13,704:, 923 persons, between the ages of 15 and 65, living w'ithin the frontiers north of the Yangtsz’ Diver. This figure would be worth, according to the tables of modern statistics, about 65 per cent, of the entire population, or as representing 21,753,528 inhabitants. The mighty conqueror, Tsin Chi Ilwangtf, changed the per- sonal corvee to scutage, and introduced a kind of poll tax, by accepting the money from many who could not be forced to do the work required. This practice was followed in the Ilan dynasty, and in b.c. 194:, the poll-tax was legalized, to include all men between 15 and 66, while a lighter impost was levied on those between 7 and 14. During the four centuries of this family’s regime, the object and modes of a census were well understood. Ma Twan-lin gives the results of ten taken be- tween A.D. 2 and 155. llis details show that it was done simply for revenue, and was omitted in bad years, when drought or freshets destroyed the harvests ; they show, too, an increase in the number of slaves, that women were now enumerated, and that girls between 15 and 30 paid a poll-tax. In b.c. 30, the limits of age were placed between 7 and 56. The average of these ten censuses is 63,500,600, the first one being as high as 83,640,000, while the next and lowest, taken fifty-five years afterwards, is only 29,180,000, and the third is 47,396,000. These great variations are explained by the disturbances arising in consequence of the usurpation of Mangmang, a.d. 9-27, and subsequent change of the capital, and the impossibility, during this troubled period, of canvassing all parts of the Empire. ' Tliis careful digest is contained in tlie Journal Asiatique for 1836 (April and May), and will repay perusal. MA TWAN-LIN’S study OF THE CENSUSES. 261 The inference from these data, tliat tlie real population of the ('hinese Empire north of the Nan ling at the time of Christ was at least eighty millions, is as well grounded as almost any fact in its history.' .Vfter the downfall of the Ilan dynasty, a long period of civil war ensued, in which the destruction of life and property was so enormous that the population was I'cduced to one-si.\th of the amount set down in a.d. 230, when disease, epidemics, and eartlupiakes increased the losses caused by war and the ces- sation of agriculture, according to Ma Twan-lin ; and it is not till A.D. 280, when the Tsin dynasty had subjected all to its sway, that the country began to revive. In that year an enu- meration was made which stated the free people between 12 and 66 years in the land at 14,163,863, or 23,180,000 in all. From this period till the Sui dynasty came into power, in 589, China was torn by dissensions and rival monarchs, and the recorded censuses covered only a portion of the land, the figures including ev^en fewer of the people, owing to the great number of serfs or bondmen who had sought safety under the ])i-otection of landowners. At this time a new mode of taking the census was ordered, in which the people were classified into those from 1 to 3 years, then 3 to 10, then 10 to 17, and 17 to 60, after which age they were not taxed ; the ratio of the land tax was also fixed. A census taken in 606 in this way gives an esti- mated population of 46,019,956 in all China ; the frontiers, at this period, hardly reached to the Xan ling Mormtains, and the author’s explanation of the manner of carrying on some public works shows that even this sum did not include persons who were liable to be called on for personal service, while all officials, slaves, and beggars were omitted. Troubles arose again from these enforced works, and it was not till the advent to power of the Tang dynasty, in 618, that a regular enumei-ation was possible. ' The population of the Roman Empire at the same period is estimated at 8.5,000,000 by Merivale (Vol. IV., pp. 336-843), but the data are less complete than in China; he reckons the European provinces at 4.5,000,000, and the Asiatic and African colonies at the remainder, giving 37,000,000 to Asia Minor and Syria. The area of China, at this time, wa.s less than Rome by about one- fourth. 2G2 THE MIDDLE KINGDO.M. Tliis family reigned 287 years, and Ma Twan-Iin gives fifteen returns of the population up to 841. They show great varia- tions, some of them difficult to explain even by omitting or supplying large classes of the inhabitants. The one most care- fully taken was m a.d. 754, and gives an estimated total of about seventy millions for the whole Empire, which, though nearly the same as that in the Ilan dynasty in a.u. 2, extended over a fai’ greater area, even to the whole southern seaboard. In addition to former enumerated classes, many thousands of priests were passed by in this census. The years (jf anarchy following the Tang, till .\.d. 976, when the Sung dynasty obtained possession, caused their usual eft’ect. Its first census gives only about sixteen millions of taxable popu- lation that year, when its authority was not firmly assured ; hut in 1021 the returns rise to 43,388,380, and thence gradually increase to 100,095,250 in 1102, just before the provinces north of the Yellow River, by far the most fertile and loyal, were lost. The last enumeration, in 1223, while Ma Twan-lin was living, places the returns in the southern provinces at 63,304,000 ; this was fifty years before Knhlai khan concpiered the Empire. Our author gives some details concerning the classes included in the census during his own lifetime, \vhich prove to a reasonable mind that the real number of mouths living on the land -was. if anything, higher than the estimates. In 1290, the ^longol Emperor published his enumeration, placing the taxable po})iila- tion at 58,834,711, “not counting those who had tied to the mountains and lakes, or who had joined the rebels.'’ This was not long after his ruthless hand had almost depopidated vast regions in the northern provinces, before he could cpiiet them. In the continuation of Ma Twan-lin's Ttesea/'c7i(S, there are sixteen censuses given for the Ming dynasty between 1381 and 1580 ; the lowest figure is 46,800,000, in 150(!, and the highest, 60,590,000, in 1412, the average for the two centuries being 56,715,360 inhabitants. One of its compilers declares that he cannot reconcile their great discrepancies, and throws doubts on their totals from his inability to learn the mode of enumeration. Tliiee arc given for three consecutive years (1402-1404), the difference between the extremes of which amounts to sixteen COMPARATIVE CENSUS TABLES. 26:^ millions, but they were all taken when Yungloh was fighting Kienwan, his nephew, at Nanking, and settling himself at I’eking as Emperoi", during which years largo districts coidd not possibly have been counted. Before entering upon a careful examination of this (piestion, it will be well to bring together the various estimates taken of the population during the present dynasty. The details given in the table on page 26-f have been taken from the best sources, and are as good as the people themselves possess. Besides these detailed accounts, there have been several aggregates of the whole country given by other native writers than Ma Twan-lin, and some by foreigners, professedly drawn from original sources, but who have not stated their authorities. The most trustworthy, together with those given in the other table, are here placed in chronological order. ) 975 7:^0 j Aitthobities. / Continuation of Ma Twan-lin. Ed. I Biot, Journal Asialirjue, 1830. / General Statistics oj' the Eynpire ; Medhurst’s China, p. .53. > Yih Tuny Chi, a statistical work ; ( Morrison’s View oj' China. I General Statistics ; Chinese liepo- \ sitory, Vol. I., p. 359. ITemoires sur les Chinois, Tome VI. , p. 377 ff. Les Attssionaires, De Guignes, Tome lU., p. 07. General Statistics; Chinese Rejio- sitory, Vol. I., p. 3.59. Yih Tuny Chi. a statistical work ; Morrison's View of China. Afetnoires snr lesChinois.TotiieYl , De Guignes, Tome III., p. 73. Allerstein ; Grosier ; De Guignes, Tome III., p. 67. “ Z. " of Berlin, in Chinese Repo- sitory. Vol. I., p. 361. General Statistics ; Dr. Morrison, Anglo-Chinese Coll. Report, 1829. Statement made to Lord Macartney. General Statistics; Chinese Repo- sitory, Vol I., p. 3.59. Vassilivitch. Chinese Custom’s Reports. Tth, 8th, 12th, 13th, 17th, 20th, 21st and 23d, are given in detail in the following table. Reign of Monakch. A.D. POPCLATION. 1. Hungwu, 13th year. 1381 .59,850,000 o Yungloh, 9th .year. 1413 65,377,000 3. Wanleih, 7th year. 1580 (W, 692, 000 4. Shunchi, 18th year. 1663 21,0(i8,()00 5. Kanghi, 6th year. 1668 35,:186,209 6. 49th year. 1710? 2:1,312,200 7. u 49th year. 1710? 27,341,139 8. t( 50th year. 1711 28,605,716 9 Kienlung, 1 st year, 1736 12.5,046,345 10. 8th year. 174.3 157,341,975 11. ii 8th year. 1743 149,332,7:10 13. U 8th year. 1743 150,265,475 13. (i 18th year. 1753 103,050,060 U. u 25th year. 1760? 143,125,235 15. t( 25th year. 1760? 203,916.477 16. u 26th year. 1761 305,393,0.53 17. t( 27th year. 1762 198,214,553 IS. u .55th year. 1790 155,249.897 19. t( 57th year. 1792 307,467,300 30. 57th year. 1793 3:13,000,000 31. Kiaking, 17th year. 1813 362,467,18:3 33. Tungchi, 8th year, 1868 404,946,514 23. Kwangsu, 7th year. 188! :180,000,000 Seven of these censuses, viz., the TABLE OF THE DIFFERENT CENSUSES OF THE EIGHTEEN PROVINCES. 264 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Revenue in taels of f 1.33 each. iili I iiiiiiiiiiii : COU5-.0 0 « vf 68,097,000 Wlmnnac s Chinot-'t. The last, that of 1762, is given in detail in the table. The discrepancy of si.xty millions between that given by Amiot for 1760, and that by Dr. Morrison for the same year, is owing, there can be little doubt, to foreigners, and not to an error of the Chinese. The work from which Dr. Morri- son extracted his estimate for that year was published in 1790, but the census was taken between 1760 and 1765. The same work contains the census of 1711 (Xo. 8), quoted by him, and there is good cause for believing that Amiot’s or Grosier’s estimate of 157,343,975 for 1743, is the very same census, he having multiplied the number 28,605,716 by five, supposing 2(38 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. them to have been families and not individuals. The three ascribed to the year 1743, are probably all derived from the same native authorities by different individuals. The three dated in 1760, 1761, and 1762, are harmonious with each other ; but if they are taken, those of 1753 and 1760, extracted from the Ylh Tung Chi by Dr. Morrison, must be rejected, which are far more reasonable, and correspond better with the preceding one of 1711. It may be remarked, that by reckoning five persons to a family in calculating the census of 1753, as Amiot does for 1743, the population would be 189,223,820 instead of 103,050,060, as given in the table. This explains the apparent decrease of fifty millions. All the dis- crepancies between these various tables and censuses must not be charged upon the Chinese, since it is by no means easy to ascertain their modes of taking the census and theii' use of terms. In the tables, for e.xample, they employ the phrase /At- ting^ for a male over 15 years of age, as the integer ; this has, then, to be multiplied by some factor of increase to get at the total population ; and this last figure must be obtained else- where. It must not be overlooked that the object in taking a census being to calcidate the probable revenue by enumei’ating the taxaTde persons, the margin of error and deficiency de- pends on the peace of the state at the time, and not chiefly on the estimate of five or more to a household. The amount for 1736 corresponds sufficiently closely with that for 1743 ; and reckoning the same number of persons in a family in 1753, that tallies well enough with those for 1760, 1761, and 1762, the whole showing a gradual increase for twenty-five years. But all of them, except that of 1753, are probably rated too high. That for 1762 (Xo. 17), has been justly considered as one of the most authentic. The amount given by “ Z.” of Berlin (Xo. 18), of 155^ mil- lions for 1790 is quoted in the Chinese Reposltorg, but the writer states no authorities, was probably never in China, and as it appears at ])resent, is undeserving the least notice. That given by Dr. Morrison for 1792 (No. 19), the year before Lord Macartney’s embassy, is quoted from an edition of that date, but ])robably was really taken in 1765 or thereabouts, but he TIIK FOUR MOST RELIABLE CENSUSES. 269 did not publish it in detail.' It is probably inucb nearer the truth than the amount of 333 millions by the commissioner Chau to the English ambassador. This estimate has bad much more respect paid to it as an authentic document than it de- served. The (diinese commissioner would naturally wish to exalt bis country in the eyes of its far-travelled visitors, and not having the official returns to refer to, would not be likely to state them less than they were, lie gave the population of the provinces in round numbers, perhaps altogether from his own memory, aided by those of his attendant clerks, with the impression that his hearers would never be able to refer to the original native authorities. The next one (pioted (No. 21) is the most satisfactory of all the censuses in Chinese works, and was considered by both the Morrisons and by Dr. llridgman, editor of the Chinese Jiejiosi- tory, as “ the most accurate that has yet been given of the population.” In questions of this nature, one well authenticated table is worth a score of doubtful origin. It has been shown how apocryphal are many of the statements given in foreign books, but with the census of 1812, the source of error which is chiefly to be guarded against is the average given to a family. This is done by the Chinese themselves on no uniform })lan, and it may be the case that the estimate of individuals from the num- ber of families is made in separate towns, from an intimate acquaintance with the particular district, which would be less liable to error than a general average. The number of families given in the census of 1753^ is 37,785,5.52, which is more than one-third of the population. The four censuses which deserve the most credit, so far as the sources are considered, are those of 1711, 1753, 1792, and 1812 {i.e.. Nos. 8, 13, 19, and 21) ; these, when compared, show the following rate of increase ; From 1711 to 1753, the population increased 7-1,222,602, which was an annual advance of 1,764,821: inhabitants, or a ' Sir G. Staunton, Embassy to China, Vol. II., Appendix, p. 615: “Table of the Population and Extent of China proper, within the Great Wall. Taken in round numbers from the Statements of Chow ta-zhin.” 270 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. little more than six per cent, per annum for forty-two years. This high rate, it must be remembered, does not take into ac- count the more thorough subjugation of the south and west at the later date, when the Manchus could safely enrol large dis- tricts, where in ITII they woidd have found so mucli difficulty that they would not have attempted it. From 1T53 to 1792, the increase was 104,636,882, or an an- nual advance of 2,682,997 inhabitants, or about 2^ per cent, per annum for thirty-nine years. During this period, the country enjoyed almost uninterrupted peace under the vigorous sway of Kienlung, and the unsettled regions of the south and west rapidly filled up. From 1792 to 1812, the increase was 54,126,679, or an an- nual advance of 2,706,333 — not quite one per cent, per annum — for twenty years. At the same rate of progress the present population would amount to over 450,000,000, and this might have been the case had not the Tai-ping rebellion reduced the numbers. An enumeration (Ko. 22j, was published by the Russian Professor of Chinese Yassilivitch in 1868 as a transla- tion from official documents. Foreigners have had greater opportunities for travel through the country, between the years 1840 to 1880, and have ascertained the enormous depopulation in some places caused by wars, short supplies of food in conse- quence of scarcity of laborers, famines, or brigandage, each adding its own power of destruction at different places and times. The conclusion will not completely satisfy any in- quirer, but the population of the Empire cannot now rea- sonably he estimated as high as the census of 1812, by at least twenty-five millions. The last in the list of these cen- suses (No. 23), is added as an example of the efforts of intelli- gent persons residing in China to come to a definite and independent conclusion on this j)oint from such data as they can obtain. The Imperial Customs’ Service has been able to command the best native assistance in their researches, and the table of })0])ulation given above from the Gotha Almanao is the summary of what has been ascertained. The population of extra-provincial China is really unknown at ])resent. ^lan- churia is put down at twelve millions by one author, and three rUESUMPTIVE EVIDENCE IN TIIEIK EAVOK. 271 or four millions, by another, without any official authority for either ; and all those vast regions in Ili and Tibet may easily he set down at from twelve to lifteen millions. To sum up, one must confess that if the Chinese censuses are worth hut little, compared with those taken in European states, they are better than the guesses of foreigners who have never been in the country, or who have travelled oidy partially in it. The Chinese are doubtless one of the most conceited nations on the earth, but with all their vanity, they have never be- thought themselves of rating their population twenty-live or thirty per cent, higher than they supjjose it to be, for the pur- pose of e.xalting themselves in the eyes of foreigners or in their own. E.xcept in one case none of tlie estimates were presented to, or intended to be known by foreigners. The distances in U between places given in Chinese itineraries correspond very well with the real distances ; the number of districts, towns, and villages in the departments and provinces, as stated in their local and general topographical works, agree with the actual e.xamination, so far as it can be made : why should their censuses be charged with gross error, when, however much we may doubt them, we cannot disprove them, and the weight of evidence derived from actual observation rather conlirms them than otherwise ; and while their account of towns, villages, distances, etc., are unhesitatingly adopted until better can be obtained ? Some discrepancies in the various tables are as- cribable to foreigners, and some of the censuses are incomplete, or the year cannot be precisely fixed, both of which vitiate the deductions made from them as to the rate of increase. Some reasons for believing that the highest population ascribed to the Chinese Empire is not greater than the country can support, will first be stated, and the objections against receiving the censuses then considered.’ ' This interesting subject can then be left with the reader, who will find further remarks in Medhiu-st’s Chinu^ De Guignes’ Voyages a Peking, The Mis- sionaries, in Tomes YI. and VIII. of Memoires, Ed. Biot, in Journal Asiatique for 1836. The Numerical Relations of the Population of China during the 4,000 Years of its Historical Existence ; or the Rise and Fall of the Chinese Population, by T. Sacharoff. Translated into English by the Eev. Lobscheid, Hongkong, 1862. Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. II., pp. 88, 103, and 117. 272 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Tlie area of the Eighteen Provinces is rather imperfectly given at 1,348,870 square miles, and the average population, there- fore, for the whole, in 1812, was 268 persons on every square mile ; that of the nine eastern provinces in and near the Great Plain, comprising 502,192 square miles, or two-fifths of the whole, is 458 persons, and the nine southern and western prov- inces, constituting the other three-fifths, is 154 to a square mile. The surface and fertility of the country in these two portions differ so greatly, as to lead one to look for results like these. The areas of some European states and their population, are added to assist in making a comparison with China, and com- ing to a clearer idea about their relative density. States. Area. Population. Average to sq. m. Census of France 204.092 36,905,788 182 December, 1876. Germany 212,091 45.194,172 213 December, 1880. Great Britain 121,608 35,246,562 289 April, 1881. Italy 114,296 28,437,091 249 December, 1879. Holland 20,497 4,060,580 198 December, 1880. Spain 190,635 16,053,961 84 December, 1877. Japan 160,474 34,338,479 213 1877. Bengal 156,200 68,750,747 440 1881. All these are regarded as well settled countries, but England and Bengal are the only ones which exceed that of China, taken as a whole, while none of tliem come uj) to the average of the eastern provinces. All of them, China included, fall far short, however, of the average population on a square mile of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, in the reigns of Abijah and Jeroboam, if the 1,200,000 men brought into the field by them can be taken as a ratio of the whole number of inhabitants; or if the accounts given by Josephus of the density in his day are trustworthy. In estimating the capabilities of these European countries to support a dense population, allowances must be made for roads, pastur^^-lands, and parks of noblemen, all of which afford little or no food. In England and Wales, there are nearly twenty-nitie millions t»f acres under cultivation, seventeen millions of which are pas- DENSITY OF rOPULAITONS IN EUUOI’E AND CHINA. 27:^ ture-laiuls, and only ten millions devoted to grain and vegeta- bles ; the other two millions consist of fallow-ground, hop-beds, etc. One author estimates that in England 42 acres in a hun- dred, and in Ireland 04, are pastures — a little more than half of the whole. There are, then, on the average about two acres of land for the support of each individual, or rather less than this, if the land recpiired for the food of horses be subtracted. It has been calculated that eight men can be fed on the same amount of land that one horse requires ; and that four acres of pasture-land will furnish no more food for man than one of ploughed land. The introduction of railroads has su})crseded the use of horses to such an extent that it is estimated tlu're are oidy 200,000 horses now in England, in.steadof a million in 1830. If, therefore, one-half the land appropriated to pasture should be devoted to grain, and no more horses and dogs raised than a million of acres could support, ETigland and Wales could easily maintain a population of more than four hundred to a s(piare mile, supposing them to be willing to live on what the land and water can furnish. The Irish consume a greater proportion of vegetables than the English, even since the imj)rovenient by emigration aftei- 1851 ; many of these live a beggarly life upon half an acre, and even less, and seldom taste animal food. The quantity of land under cultivation in Eelgium is about fifteen-seventeenths of the whole, which gives an average of about two acies to each person, or the .same as in England. In these two conntides, the people consume more meat than in Ireland, and the amount of land occupied for pasturage is in nearly equal proportions in Belgium and England. In France, the average of cultivated land is If acre ; in Holland, 1| acre to each person. If the same proportion between the arable and nncidtivated land exists in China as in England, namely one-fourth, there are about six hundred and fifty millions of acres under cultivation in China ; and we are not left altogether to conjecture, for by a report made to Kienlung in 1745, it appears that the area of the land under cultivation was 595,598,221 acres ; a subsequent calculation places it at 640,579,381 acres, which is almost the same proportion as in England. Estimating it at six hundred VoT.. I.— 18 274 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. and fifty rnilHons — for it lias since increased rather tlian di- minished— it gives one acre and four-fifths to every person, whicli is by no means a small supply for the Chinese, considering that there are no cultivated pastures or meadows. In comparing the population of different countries, the manner of living and the articles of food in use, form such im- portant elements of the calculation, in ascertaining whether the country be overstocked or not, that a mere tabular view of the number of persons on a square mile is an imperfect criterion of the amount of inhabitants the land would maintain if they con- sumed the same food, and lived in the same manner in all of them. Living as the Chinese, Hindus, Japanese, and other Asiatics do, chiefiy upon vegetables, the country can hardly be said to maintain more than one-half or one-third as many peo- ple on a square mile as it might do, if their energies were de- veloped to the same extent with those of the English or Bel- gians. The population of these eastern regions has been repressed by the combined influences of ignorance, insecurity of life and property, religious prejudices, vice, and wars, so that the land has never maintained as many inhabitants as one would have otherwise reasonably expected therefrom. Nearly all the cultivated soil in China is employed in raising food for man. Woollen garments and leather are little used, while cotton and mulberry cultivation take up only a small pro- portion of the soil. There is not, so far as is known, a single acre of land sown with grass-seed, and therefore almost no human labor is devoted to raising food for animals, which will not also serve to sustain man. Horses are seldom used for pomp or war, for travelling or carrying burdens, but mules, camels, asses, and goats are employed for transportation and other purposes north of the Yangtsz’ River. Horses are fed on cooked rice, bi-an, sorghum seed, pulse, oats, and grass cut along the banks of streams, or on hillsides. In the southern and eastern provinces, all animals ai’e rare, the transport of goods and passengers being done by boats or by men. The natives make no use of butter, cheese, or milk, and the few cattle em- ployed in agriculture easily gather a living on the waste ground around the villages. In the south, the buffalo is a]>plied morci AUEA AND VALUE OF ARABLE LAND IN CHINA. 275 than the ox to plough tho rice fields, and the habits of this animal make it cheaper to keep him in good condition, while he cat! also do more work. The winter stock is grass cut upon the hills, straw, bean stalks, and vegetables. No wool being wanted for making cloth, flocks of sheep and goats arc seldom seen — it may almost he said are unknown in the east and south. No animal is reared cheaper than the hog ; hatching and raising ducks affords employment to thousands of people; hun- dreds of these fowl gather their own food along the river shore, being easily attended by a single keeper. Geese and poultry are also cheaply reared. In fishing, which is carried on to an enormous extent, no pasture-grounds, no manuring, no barns, are neetled, nor are ta.xes paid by the cnltivator and con- sutner. While the people get their animal food in these ways, its })reparation takes away the least possible amount of cultivated soil. The space occupied for roads and pleasure-grounds is in- significant, hut there is perhaps an amount appropriated for burial places quite equal to the area u.setl for those purposes in European countries ; it is, however, less valuable land, and much of it would be useless for culture, even if otherwise un- occupied. Graves are dug on hills, in ravines and copses, and wherever they will be retired and dry ; or if in the ancestral field, they do not hinder the crop growing close around them. Moreover, it is very common to preserve the coffin in temples and cemeteries until it is decayed, partly in order to save the expense of a grave, and partly to worship the remains, or pre- serve them until gathered to their fathers, in their distant native places. They are often placed in the corners of the fields, or under precipices where they remain till dust returns to dust, and bones and wood both moulder away. These and other cus- toms limit the consumption of land for graves much more than would be supposed, when one sees, as at Macao, almost as much space taken up by the dead for a grave as by the living for a hut. The necropolis of Canton occupies the hills north of the city, of which not one-fiftieth part could ever have been used for agriculture, but where cattle are allowed to graze, as much as if there were no tombs. 276 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Uiidei’ its genial and equable climate, more tlian three-fourths of the area of (diina Proper produces two crops annually. In Xwangtung, Kwangsi, and Fuhkien, two crops of rice are taken yeai' after year from the low lands ; while in the loess regions of the nortlnvest, a three-fold return from the grain fields is annually looked for, if the rain-fall is not withheld. In the winter season, in the neighborhood of toMuis, a third crop of sweet potatoes, cabbages, turnips, or some other vegetable is grown. De Guignes estimates the returns of a rice crop at ten for one, which, with the vegetables, will give full twenty -five fold from an acre in a year ; few parts, however, yield this in- crease. Little or no land lies fallow, for constant manuring and turning of the soil prevents the necessity of repose. The dili- gence exhil)ited in collecting and applying manure is well knowm, and if all this industry result in the production of two crops instead of one, it really doubles the area under cultiva- tion, when its superficies are compared with those of other countries. If the amount of land which produces two crops be estimated at one-fourth of the whole (and it is perhaps as near one-third), the area of arable land in the provinces may be con- sidered as representing a total of 81i3 millions of acres, or 2f acres to an individual. The land is not, however, cut up into stuL small farms as to prevent its being managed as well as the people know ho%v to stock and cultivate it; manual labor is the chief dependence of the farmer, fewer cattle, carts, ploughs, and itiachines being employed than in other countries. In rice fields no animals are used after the wet laud has received the shoots, transplanting, weeding, and reaping being done by men. In no other country besides Japan is so much food derived from the water. Not only are the coa.sts, estuaries, rivers, and lakes, covered with fishing-boats of various sizes, which are ]iro- vided Muth everything fitted for the capture of whatever lives in the waters, but the spawn of fi.sh is collected and reared. Rice fields are often converted into pools in the wintei’ season, and stocked with fish ; and the tanks dug for irrigation usually contain fish. l>y all these means, an immense supjJy of food is obtained at a cheap rate, which is eaten fresh or preserved with or without salt, and sent over the Empire, at a cost which TKNmCNOIKS TO INCUEASE OF POPUEATION. 277 jilaces it within the reacli of all above beggary. ( )ther articles tif food, both animal and vegetable, such as dogs, game, worms, spring gi’eens, tripang, leaves, etc., do indeeil compose ])art of their meals, but it is comparatively an inconsiderable fraction, and neef children, and restricts polygamy. Parents desire children for a support in old age, as there is no legal or benevolent pro- vision for aged poverty, and public opinion stigmatizes the man who allows his aged or infirm parents to suffer when he can help them. The law requires the owners of domestic slaves to provide husbands for their females, and prohibits the involun- tary or forcible separation of husband and wife, or parents aiul childi-en, when the latter are of tender age. All these causes and infiuences tend to increase population, and eqxialize the consumption and use of property more, perhaps, than in any other land. The custom of families remaining together tends to the same result. The local importance of a large family in the country is weakened by its male members removing to town, or emigrating ; consequently, the patriarch of three or four gene- rations endeavors to retain his sons and grandsons around him, their houses joining his, and they and their families forming a social, united company. Such cases as those mentioned in the 278 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Sacred Commands are of course i*are, where nine generations of the family of Chang Knng-i inhabited one liouse, or of Chin, at whose table seven hundi’ed mouths were daily fed,' but it is the tendency of society. This remark does not indicate that great landed proprietors exist, whose hereditary estates are se- cured by entail to the great injury of the state, as in Great Bia- tain, for the farms are generally small and cultivated by the owner or on the metayer system. Families are supported on a more economical plan, the claims of kindred are better en- forced, the land is cultivated with more care, and the local im- portance of the family perpetuated. This is, however, a very different system from that advocated by Fourier in France, or Greeley in America, for these little communities are placed under one natural head, whose authority is acknowledged and upheld, and his indignation feared. Workmen of the same profession form unions, each person contributing a certain sum on the promise of assistance when sick or disabled, and this custom prevents and alleviates a vast amount of poverty. The obstacles put in the way of emigrating beyond sea, both in law and pi’ejudice, operate to deter respectable persons from leaving their native land. Necessity has made the law a dea'd letter, and thousands annually leave their homes. No better evidence of the dense population can be offered to those ac- quainted with Chinese feelings and character, than the extent of emigration. “ What sti’onger proof,” observes Medhurst, “ of the dense population of China could be afforded than the fact, that emigration is going on in spite of restrictions and dis- abilities, from a country where learning and civilization reign, and where all the dearest interests and prejudices of the emi- grants are found, to lands like Burmah, Siam, Cambodia, Tibet, Manchuria, and the Indian Archipelago, where comparative ignorance and barbarity pi-evail, and where the extremes of a tropical or frozen regioTi are to be exchanged for a mild and temperate climate ? Added to this consideration, that not a single female is permitted or ventm-es to leave the country, when consequently, all the tender attachments that ' Snored Edict, pp. .'jl, 00. KliSTUICTIONS UPON EMIGP^ATION. 279 bind lieart to heart must be burst asunder, and, perha])S, for- ever.” ‘ Moreover, if they return with wealth enough to live upon, they are liable to the vexations extortions of needy relatives, sharpers, and police, who have a handle for their fleecing whip in the law against leaving the country although this danse has been neutralized by subsequent acts, and is not in force, the power of public oj)inion is against going. A case occui rcd in 1S32, at Canton, where the son of a Chinese living in ('al- cutta, who had been sent home by his parent with his mother, to perform the usual ceremonies in the ancestral hall, was seized by his uncle as he was about to be married, on the pretext that his father had unequally divided the paternal inheritance; ho was obliged to pay a thousand dollars to free himself. Soon after his marriage, a few sharpers laid hold of him and bore him away in a sedan, as he was walking near his house, but his cries attracted the police, who carried them all to the magis- trates, where he was liberated — after being obliged to fee his deliverers.’ Another case occurred in Macao in 1838. A man had been living several years in Singapore as a merchant, and when he settled in Macao still kept up an interest in the trade witli that place. Accounts of his great wealth became rumored abroad, and he -was seriously annoyed by relatives. One night, a number of thieves, dressed like police-runners, came to his house to search for opium, and their boisterous manner terrified him to such a degree, that in order to escape them he jumped from the terrace upon the hard gravelled court-yard, and broke his leg, of which he shortly afterward died. A third case is mentioned, where the returned emi- grants, consisting of a man and his wife, who was a Malay, and two children, were rescued from extortion, when before the magistrate, by the kindness of his wife and mother, who wished to see the foreign woman.^ Such instances are now unknown, ' Chinn : Its State and Prospects, p. 42. “ Ta Tsing Leu Lee ; being the Fundamental Laws, etc., of the Penal Code of China, by Sir 6. T. Staunton, Bart , London, 1810. Section CCXXV. ® Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 332. * Ibid., Vol. VII., p. 503; Vol. II., p. 161. 280 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. owing to the increase of emigration ; they were, indeed, never numerically great, on account of the small number of those who came back. The anxiety of the government to provide stores of food for times of scarcity, shows rather its fear of the disastrous results following a short crop — -such as the gathering of clamorous crowds of starving poor, the increase of bandits and disoi-gani- zation of society — than any peculiar care of the rulers, or that these storehouses really supply deficiencies. The evil conse- quences resulting from an overgrown population are experienced in one or another part of the provinces almost every }’ear ; and drought, inundations, locusts, mildew, or other natural causes, often give rise to insurrections and disturbances. There can be no doubt, however, that, wdthout adding a single acre to the area of arable land, these evils would he materially alleviated, if the intercommunication of traders and their goods, between distant parts of the country, were more frequent, speedy, and safe ; but this is not likely to be the case until both rulers and ruled make greater advances in just government, science, obe- dience, and regard for each other’s right. It would be a satisfaction if foreigners could verify any part of the census. Ihit this is, at present, im])ossible. They can- not examine the records in the office of the Hoard of Revenue, nor can they ascertain the population in a given district from the ai’chives in the hands of the local authorities, or the mode of taking it. Neither can they go through a village or town to count the number of houses and their inhabitants, and calculate from actual examination of a few parts what the whole would be. Wherever foreigners have journeyed, there has appeared much the same succession of waste land, hilly regions, culti- vated plains, and wooded heights, as in other countries, with an abundance of people, but not more than the land could support, if properly tilled. The people are grouped into hamlets and villages, under the control of village elders and officers. In the district of Nan- hai, which forms the western part of the city of Canton, and the surrounding coimtry for more than a hundred square miles, there are one hundred and eighty hiamj or villages ; the |)opu- MF/niOn OF TAKING THE (CENSUS. 281 lation of each hiawj varies from two hundred and upwards to one hundred thousand, but ordinarily ranges between three hundred and thirty-five hundred. If each of the eighty-eight districts in tlie province of Kwangtiuig contains tlie same num- ber of hiang, there will be, including the district towns, 15,b28 villages, towns, and cities in all, with an average population of twelve hundred inhabitants to each. From the top of the hills on Dane's Island, at Whampoa, thirty-si.\ towns and villages can be counted, of which Canton is one ; and four of the.se contain from twelve to fifteen hundred houses. The whole district of lliangshan, in which Macao lies, is also well covered with vil- lajres, though their e.vact number is not known. •The island of Amoy contains more than fourscore villages and towns, and this island forms only a part of the district of Tung-ngan. The banks of the river leading from Amoy up to Changchau fu, are likewise well peopled. The environs of Xingpo and Shanghai are closely settled, though that is no more than one always ex- pects near large cities, where the demand for food in the city itself causes the vicinity to be well peopled and tilled. In a notice of an irruption of the sea in 1819, along the coast of Shantung, it was reported that a hundred and forty villages were laid under water. Marco Polo describes the mode followed in the days of Kub- lai khan : “ It is the custom for e\'ery burgess of the city, and in fact for every description of person in it, to write over his door his own naitie, the name of his wife, and those of his chil- dren, his slaves, and all the inmates of his house, and also the number of animals that he keeps. And if any one dies in the house, then the name of that person is erased, and if a child is born its name is added. So in this way the sovereign is able to know exactly the population of the city. And this is the practice throughout all Manzi and Cathay." ' This custom was observed long before the Mongol conquest, and is followed at present ; so that it is perhaps easier to take a census in China than in most European countries. The law upon this subject is contained in Secs. LXXY. and ' Yule’s Marco Polo, Yol. II., p. 1.52. 282 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. LXXVI. of the statutes.' It enacts various penalties for not registering the members of a family, and its provisions all go to show that the people are desirous rather of evading the census than of exaggerating it. When a family has omitted to make any entry, the head of it is liable to he punished with one hun- dred blows if he is a freeholder, and with eighty if he is not. If the master of a family has among his household another dis- tinct family whom he omits to register, the punishment is the same as in the last clause, with a modification, according as the unregistered persons and family are relatives or strangers. Persons in government employ omitting to register their fami- lies, are les» severely punished. A master of family failing to register all the males in his household who are liable to public service, shall be punished with from sixty to one hundred blows, according to the demerits of the offence ; this clause was in effect repealed, when the land tax w’as substituted for the capi- tation tax. Omissions, from neglect or inadvertency to register all the individuals and families in a village or town, on the part of the headmen or government clerks, are punishable with different degrees of severity. All persons whatsoever are to be registered accoi-ding to their accustomed occupations or pro- fessions, whether civil or military, whether couriers, artisans, physicians, astrologers, laborers, musicians, or of any other de- nomination whatever ; and subterfuges in representing one’s self as belonging to a profession not liable to public service, are visited as usual with the bamboo ; persons falsely describing themselves as belonging to the army, in order to evade public service, are banished as well as beaten. From these clauses it is seen that the Manchus have extended the enumeration to classes which were exempted in the Ilan, Tang, and other dynasties, and thus come nearer to the actual population. “ In the Chinese government,” observes Dr. Morrison, “ there appears great regularity and system. Every district has its appropriate officers, every street its constable, and every ten houses their tything man. Thus they have all the requisite means of ascertaining the ])opulation with considerable accu- Penal Code, p. 7!), Staunton’s translation. ITS PIIOHABLE ACCUKAOY. 283 racy. Every family is required to have a board always hanging up in the house, and ready for the inspection of authorizeil offi- cers, on which the names of all persons, men, women, and chil- dren, in the house are inscribed. This hoaid is called mvn-]>ai or ‘door-tablet,’ because when there are women and children within, the officers are expected to take the account from the board at the door. Were all the inmates of a family faithfully inserted, the amount of the population would, of course, be ascertained with great accuracy. But it is said that names are sometimes omitted through neglect or design ; others think that the account of persons given in is generally correct.” The door-tablets are sometimes pasted on the door, thus serving as a kind of door-plate ; in these cases correctness of enumer- ation is readily secured, for the neighbors are likely to know if the record is below the truth, and the householder is not likely to exaggerate the taxable inmates under his roof. I have read these vmn-jyai on the doors of a long row of houses ; they were printed blanks tilled in, and then pasted outside for the j>ao- Hah or tithing man to examine. Both Dr. Morrison and his son, than whom no one has had better opportunities to know the true state of the case, or been more desirous of dealing fairly with the Chinese, regarded the censuses given in the General Statistics as more trustworthy than any other documents available. In conclusion, it may be asked, are the results of the enumer- ation of the people, as contained in the statistical works pub- lished by the government, to be rejected or doubted, therefore, because the Chinese officers do not wish to ascertain the exact population ; or because they are not capable of doing it ; or, lastly, because they wish to impose upon foreign powers by an arithmetical array of millions they do not possess ? The ques- tion seems to hang upon this trilemma. It is acknowledged that they falsify or garble statements in a manner calculated to throw doubt upon everything they write, as in the reports of victories and battles sent to the Emperor, in the memorials upon the opium trade, in their descriptions of natural objects in books of medicine, and in many other things. But the ques- tion is as applicable to China as to France: is the estimated •284 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. population of France in 1801 to be called in question, because the Moniteur gave false accounts of Napoleon’s battles in 1813 ? It would be a strange combination of conceit and folly, for a ministry composed of men able to carry on all the details of a complicated government like that of China, to systematically exaggerate the population, and then proceed, for more than a century, with taxation, disbursements, and official appointments, founded upon these censuses. Somebody at least must know them to be worthless, and the proof that they vv'^ere so, must, one would think, ere long be apparent. The provinces and departments have been divided and subdivided since the Jesuits made their survey, because they were becoming too densely settled for the same officers to rule over them. Still less will any one assert that the Chinese are not capable of taking as accurate a census as they are of measuring dis- tances, or laying out districts and townships. Errors may be found in the former as well as in the latter, and doubtless are so ; for it is not contended that the four censuses of 1711, 1753, 1792, and 1812 are as accurate as those now taken in England, France, or the United States, but that they are the best data extant, and that if they are rejected we leave tolerable evidence and take up with that which is doubtful and suppositive. The censuses taken in China since the Christian era are, on the whole, more satisfactory than those of all other nations put together up to the Eeformation, and further careful research will no doubt increase our respect for them. Ere long we may be able to traverse a census in its details of record and deduction, and thus satisfy a reasonable curiosity, especially as to the last reported total after the carnage of the rebellion. On the other hand, it may be stated that in the last census, the entire population of Manchuria, Koko-nor, Tli, and Mongolia, is estimated at only 2,137,286 persons, and nearly all the inhabitants of those vast regions are subject to the Em- peror. The population of Tibet is not included in any census, its people not being taxable. It is doubtful if an enumeration of any part of the extra provincial tenutory has ever been taken, inasmuch as the Mongol tribes, and still less the Usbeck or other Moslem races, are unused t(» such a thing, and wt)uld KVIDENCES IN FAVOR OF THE CENSUS. •285 not be numbered. Vet, the Chinese (cannot be charged with exaggeration, when good judges, as Klaproth and others, reckon the whole at between six and seven millions ; and Khoten alone, one author states, has three and a half millions. No writer of importance estimates the inhabitants of these regions as high as thirty millions as does K. Mont. Martin — which would be more than ten to a square mile, excluding Gobi ; while Siberia (though not so well peopled) has only 3,011,300 persons on an area of 2,0-19,600 square miles, or 1^ to each square mile. The reasons Just given why the C'hinese desire posterity are not all those which have favored national increase. The unin- terrupted peace which the country enjoyed between the 3'ears 1700 and 1850 operated to greatly develop its resources. Eveiy encouragement has been given to all classes to multiply and till the land. Polygamy, slavery, and prostitution, thi-ee social evils which check increase, have been circumscribed in their effects. Early betrothinent and poverty do much to prevent the first ; female slaves can be and are usually mai’ried ; while public prostitution is reduced by a separation of the sexes and early marriages. Xo fears of overpassing the supply of food restrain the people from rearing families, though the Emperor Kienlung issued a proclamation in 1793, calling upon all ranks of his subjects to economize the gifts of heaven, lest, erelong, the people exceed the means of subsistence. It is difficult to see what this or that reason or objection has to do with the subject, except where the laws of population are set at defiance, which is not the casein China. Food and work, peace and security, climate and fertile soil, not universities or steamboats, are the encouragements needed for the multiplica- tion of mankind ; though they do not have that effect in all countries (as in Mexico and Brazil), it is no reason why they should not in others. There are grounds for believing that not more than two-thirds of the whole population of China were included in the census of 1711, but that allowance cannot be made for Ireland in 1785 ; and consequently, her annual per- centage of increase, up to 1841, would then be greater than China, during the ft)rty-two years ending with 1753. McCulloch quotes De Guigues approvingly, but the Frenchman takes the 286 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. rough estimate of 333,000,000 given to Macartney, which is less trustworthy than that of 307,467,200, and compares it with Grosier’s of 157,343,975, which is certainly wrong through his misinterpretation. De Guignes proceeds from the data in his possession in 1802 (which were less than those now available), and fi'om his own observations in travelling througli the coun- try in 1796, to show the improbabilitj’- of the estimated popula- tion. But tlie observations made in journeys, taken as were those of the English and Dutch embassies, though they passed through some of the best provinces, cannot be regai’ded as good evidence against official statistics. Would any one suppose, in travelling from Boston to Chat- ham, and then from Albany to Buffalo, along the railroad, that Massachusetts contained, in 1870, exactly double the population on a square mile of New York ? So, in going from Peking to Canton, the judgment which six intelligent travellers might form of the population of China conld easily be found to differ by one-half. De Guignes says, after comparing (diina with Holland and France, “All these reasons clearly demonstrate that the population of China does not exceed that of other countries and such is in truth the case, if the kind of food, number of crops, and materials of dress be taken into account. His remarks on the population and productiveness of the country are, like his whole work, replete with good sense and candor ; but some of his deductions would have been different, had he been in possession of all the data since obtained." The discrep- ancies between the different censuses have been usually consid- ered a strong internal evidence against them, and they should re- ceive due consideration. The really difficult point is to fix the ])ercentage that must be allowed for the classes not included as taxable, and the power of the government to enumerate those who wished to avoid a census and the subsequent taxation. After all these reasons for receiving the total of 1812 as the best one, there are, on the other hand, two principal objections against taking the Chinese census as altogether trustworthy. The first is the enormous averages of 850, 705, and 671 inhab- VoyiKjes d treking. Tome III., jjp. 55-86. POSSIHILITIKS OK EUKOK. 287 itants on a square mile, severally apportioned to Kiangsu, Xgan- liwui, and Chelikiang, or, what is perhaps a fairer calculation, of 45S persons to the nine eastern provinces. Whatever amount of circumshintial evidence may be brought forward in continua- tion of the census as a whole, and explanation of the mode of taking it, a mon; positive proof seems to he necessary before giving implicit credence to this result. Such a population on such an extensive area is marvellous, notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, facilities of navigation, and salubrity of the climate of these regions, although acknowledged to be almost unequalled. While we admit the full force of all that has been urged in support of tbe census, and are willing to take it as the best document on the subject extant, it is desirable to have proofs derived from personal observation, and to defer the set- tlement of this question until better opportunities are afforded. So high an average is, indeed, not without example. Captain Wilkes ascertained, in 1840, that one of the islands of the Fiji group supported a population of over a thousand on a square mile. On Lord North's Island, in the Felew group, the crew of the American whaler Mentor ascertained there were four hundred inhabitants living on half a square mile. These, and many other islands in that genial clinfe, contain a population far exceeding that of any large country, and each separate com- munity is obliged to depend wholly on its own labor. They cannot, however, be cited as altogether parallel cases, though if it be true, as Barrow says, “ that an acre of cotton will clothe two or three hundred persons,” not much more land need be occupied with cotton or mulberry plants, for clothing in China, than in the ISouth Sea Islands. The second objection against receiving the result of the census is, that we are not well informed as to the mode of enumerat- ing the people by families, and the manner of taking the ac- count, when the patriarch of two or three generations lives in a hamlet, with all his children and domestics around him. Two of the provisions in Sec. XXV. of the Code, seem to be designed for some such state of society ; and the liability to underrate the males tit for public service, when a capitation tax was ordered, and to overrate the inmates of such a house, when the 288 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. head of it might suppose he would thereby receive increased aid from government when calamity overtook him, are equally ap- parent. The door-tablet is also liable to mistake, and in shops and workhouses, where the clerks and workmen live and sleep on the premises, it is not known what kind of report of families the assessors make. On these important points our present in- formation is imperfect, while the evident liability to serious error in the ultimate results makes one hesitate.’ The Chinese may have taken a census satisfactory for their ])urposes, showing the number of families, and the average in each ; but the point of this objection is, that we do not know how the families are enumerated, and therefore are at fault in reckoning the individ- uals. Tlie average of persons in a household is set down at five by the Chinese, and in England, in 1831, it was 4.7, but it is probably less than that in a thickly settled country, if every married couple and their children be taken as a family, whether living by themselves, or grouped in patriarchal hamlets. Tso one doubts that the population is enormous, constituting by far the greatest assemblage of human beings using one speech ever cona-regated under one monarch. To the merchants and manufacturers of the West, the determination of this question is of some importance, jfnd through them to their governments. The political economist and philologist, the naturalist and geo- grapher, have also greater or less degrees of interest in the contemplation of such a people, inhabiting so beautiful and fer- tile a country. But the Christian philanthropist turns to the consideration of this subject with the liveliest solicitude ; for if the weight of evidence is in favor of the highest estimate, he feels his responsibility increase to a painful degree. The danger to this people is furthermore greatly enhanced by the opium traffic — a trade which, as if the Rivers Phlegethofi and Lethe were united in it, carries fire and destruction wherever it flows, and leaves a deadly forgetfulness Avberever it has passed. Let these facts ap])eal to all calling themselves (’hristians, to send the antidote to this baleful drug, and diffuse a knowledge of the principles of the Cospel among them, thereby placing life as well as death before them. If the po])ulation of the Enqure is not easily ascertained, a REVENUE OF THE EMPIRE. 289 satisfactory account of the public revenue and expenditures is still more difficult to obtain ; it possesses far less interest, of course, in itself, and in such a country as China is subject to many variations. The market value of the grain, silk, and other products in which a large proportion of the taxes are paid, varies from year to year; and although this does not materially affect the government which receives these articles, it comj)li- cates the subject very much when attempting to ascertain the real taxation. Statistics on these subjects are only of recent date in Europe, and should not yet be looked for in China, drawn up with much regard to truth. The central government requires each province to support itself, and furnish a certain surplusage for the maintenance of the p]mperor and his court ; but it is well known that his Majesty is continually embarrassed for the want of funds, and that the provinces do not all supply enough revenue to meet their own outlays. The amounts given by various authors as the revenue of China at different times, are so discordant, that a single glance shows that they were obtained from partial or incomplete re- turns, or else refer only to the surplusage sent to the capital. De Guignes remarks very truly, that the Chinese are so fully persuaded of the riches, power, and resources of their country, that a foreigner is likely to receive different accounts from every native he asks ; but there appears to be no good reason why the government should falsify or abridge their fiscal accounts. In 1587, Trigault, one of the French missionaries, stated the reve- nue at only tls. 20,000,000. In 1655, Xieuhoff reckoned it at tls. 108,000,000. About twelve years after, Magalhaens gave the treasures of the Emperor at $20,423,962 ; and Le Comte, about the same time, placed the revenue at $22,000,000, and both of them estimated the receipts fi-om rice, silk, etc., at $30,000,000, making the whole revenue previous to Kanghi’s death, in 1721, between fifty and seventy millions of dollars. Barrow reckoned the receipts from all sources in 1796 at tls. 198,000,000, derived from a rough estimate given by the commissioner who accompanied the embassi’. Sir George Staunton places the total sum at $330,000,000 ; of which $60,000,000 only were transmitted to Peking. Medhurst, VoL. I.— 19 290 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. drawing his information from original sources, thus states the principal items of the receipts : Land taxes in money, Land taxes in grain, Custom and transit duties. Land taxes in money. Grain, ) ( Tls. 31,745,966 valued at $42,327,954 }■ sent to Peking, Shih 4,230,957 “ 12,692,871 1 (Tls. 1,480,997 “ 1,974,662 I in l Tls. 28,70.5,125 “ 38.273,500 [ kept m provinces j 31,596,569 “ 105,689,707 $200,958,694 The shill of rice is estimated at $3, but this does not in- clude the cost of transportation to the capital.' At §200, 000,- 000, the tax received by government from each person on an average is about sixty cents ; Barrow estimates the capitation at about ninety cents. The account of the revenue in taels from each province given in the table of population on page 264, is extracted from the lied Booh for 1840 ; the account of the revenue in rice, as stated in the official documents for that year, is 4,114,000 shih, or about five hundred and fifty millions of pounds, calling each shih a pecul. The manner in which the various items of the revenue are divided is thus stated for Kwaugtung, in the Red Booh for 1842 : TaeU. Land tax in money 1,264,304 Pawnbrokers’ taxes 5,990 Taxes at the frontier and on transportation 719,307 Retained 339,143 Miscellaneous sources 59, .530 Salt department (gabel) 47,510 Revenue from customs at Canton 43,750 Other stations in the province 53,670 2, .533,204 This is evidently only the sum sent to the capital from this province, ostensibly as the revenue, and which the provincial treasury must collect. The real receipts from this province or any other cannot well be ascertained by foreigners ; it is, liow- ever, known, that in former years, the collector of customs at Canton was obliged to remit annually from eight hundred thousand to one million three hundred thousand taels, and ' The ahih, says Medhurst, is a measure of grain containing 3,460 English cubic inches. China : Its State and Prospects, p. 68. London, 1838. “ Annates de la Foi, Tome XVT., p. 440. SOUKCKS AND AMOUNT OF KEVKNUE. 2i)l the gross receipts of bis office were not far from three mil- lions of taels.' This was then the richest collectorate in the Empire ; but since the foreign trade at the open ports ha.s been placed under foreign supervision, the resources of the Empire have been better reported. A recent analysis of the sources of revenue in the Eighteen Provinces has been funiished by the customs service ; it places them under different headings from the preceding list, though the total does not materially differ. Out of this whole amount the sum derived from the trade in foreign shipping goes most directly to the central exchecpier. Toi'Im. Land tii.'c in monev 18,(K)0,0(M) Li-kin or internal exoise on poods 20, ()()(), (MM) Import and e.xport duties collected by foreigners 12, (MM), (MM) Imj>ort and export duties on native commerce 3, (MM), (MM) Salt gabel .'),(MM),()00 Sales of offices and degrees 7,(M))),))()() Sundries ],4(I0,(I(M) .Amount paid in silver (it),4()0,0()') Laud tax paid in produce 13,100,000 79,500,000 Do Guigncs has e.xamined the subject of the levenue with his u-sual caution, and bases his calculations on a proclamation of Kienlung in 1777, in which it was stated that the total in- come in bullion at that period was tls. 27,967,000. Taels. Income in money as above 27,967,000 F5qual revenue in kind from grain 27,967,000 Tax on the second crop in the southern provinces 21,8(M),000 Gabel, coal, transit duties, etc 6,479,400 Customs at Canton 800, 000 Revenue from silk, porcelain, varnish, and other manufactures.. 7,000,000 Adding house and shop taxes, licenses, tonnage duties, etc 4,000,000 Total revenue 89,713,400 The difference of about eighty millions of dollars between this amount and that given by Medhurst, will not surprise one who has looked into this perplexing matter. All these calcula- tions are based on approximations, which, although easily made ' Chinese Commercial Guide, 2d edition, 1842, p. 143. 292 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. up, cannot be verified to our satisfaction ; but all agree in pla- cing the total amount of revenue below that of any European government in proportion to the population. In 1823, a paper was published by a graduate upon the fiscal condition of the country, in which he gave a careful analysis of the receipts and disbursements. P. P. Thoms translated it in detail, and sum- marized the former under three heads of taxes reckoned at tls. 33,327,050, rice sent to Peking 0,3-10,438, and supplies to army 7,227,300 — in all tls. 40,900,854. Out of the first sum tls. 24,507,933 went to civilians and the army, leaving tls. 5,819,- 123 for the Peking government, and tls. 3,000,000 for the Yel- low Piver repairs and Yuen-ming Palace. The resources of the Empire this writer foots up at tls. 74,401,033, or just one-half of what Medhurst gives. The extraordinary sources of revenue which are resorted to in time of war or bad harvests, are sale of office and honors, temporary increase of duties, and demands for contributions from wealthy merchants and landholders. The first is the most fruitful source, and may be regarded rather as a permanent than a temporary expediency employed to make up deficiencies. The mines of gold and silver, pearl fisheries in Manchuria and elsewhere, precious stones brought from Ili and Khoten, and other localities, furnish several millions. The expenditures, almost every }'ear, exceed the revenue, but how the deficit is supplied does not clearly apj)ear ; it has been sometimes drawn from the rich by force, at other times made good by paltering with the currency, as in 1852-55, and again by reducing ]-ations and salailes. In 1832, the Emperor said the excess of disbursements was tls. 28,000,000 ; ‘ and, in 1830, the defalcation was still greater, and offices and titles to the amount of tls. 10,000,000 were put up for sale to supply it. This deficiency has become more and more alarming since the drain of specie annually sent abroad in payment for opium has been increased by military exactions for suppressing the rebellion up to 1867. At that date the Empire began to re- cuperate. The principal items of the expenditure are thus stated by De Guignes : Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 159. PKINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. 293 Taels. Salary of civil and military officers, a tithe of the impost on lands. 7,773,500 Pay of tiOO.OlM) infantry, three taels per month, hali in money and half in rations 21,000,000 Pay of 242,000 cavalry, at four taels per month 11,010,000 Mounting the cavalry, twenty taels eaeh 4,840,000 Uni. onus for both arms of the service, four taeLs 3,308,000 Anns and ammunition 842,000 Navy, revenue cutters, etc 13,500,000 Canals and transportation of revenue 4,000,000 Forts, artillery, and munitions of war 3,800,000 71,33!),500 This, according to Ins calculation, shows a surplus of nearly twenty millions of taels every year. But the outlays for quel- ling insurrections and transporting troops, deficiency from bad harvests, defalcation of officers, payments to the tribes and princes in Mongolia and Ili, and other unusual demands, more than exceed this surplus. In 1833, the Peklwj Gazette con- tained an elaborate paper on the revenue, proposing various ways and means for increasing it. The author, named Ka, says the income from land tax, the gabel, customs and transit duty, does not in all exceed forty millions of taels, while the expendi- tures should not much transcend thirty in years of peace.' This places the budget much lower than other authorities, but the censor perhaps includes only the imperial resources, though the estimate would then be too high. The pay and equipment of the troops is the largest item of expenditure, and it is probable that here the apparent force and pay are far too great, and that reductions are constantly made in this department by compel- ling the soldiers to depend more and more for support upon the plats of land belonging to them. It is considered the best evidence of good government on the part of an officer to render his account of the revenue satisfactorily, but from the injudi- cious system which exists of combining fiscal, legislative, and judicial functions and control in the same person, the tempta- tions to defraud are strong, and the peculations proportionably great. The salaries of officers, for some reasons, are placed so low as Chinese Bepository, Yol. TI., p. 431. 294 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. to prove that tlie legal allowances were really the nominal in- comes, and the sums set against their names in the Red Book as yarcg tien, or anti-extortion perquisites (lit., ‘ nourishing frugality ’), are the salaries. That of a governor-general is from 15,000 to 25,000 taels for the latter, and only 180 or 200 taels for the legal salary ; a governor gets 15,000 when he is alone, and 10,000 or 12,000 when under a governor-general ; a treasurer from 4,500 to 10,000 ; a judge from 3,000 to 8,000 ; a prefect from 2,000 to 4,500 ; district magistrates from 700 to 1,000, according to the onerousness of the post ; an intendant from 3,000 to 4,500 ; a literary chancellor from 2,000 to 5,000 ; and military men from 4,000 taels down to 100 or 150 per annum. • The perquisites of the highest and lowest officers are disproportionate, for the people prefer to lay their important cases before the highest courts at once, in order to a\’oid the expense of passing through those of a lower grade. The per- sonal disposition of the functionary modifies the exactions he makes upon the people so much, that no guess can be made as to tlie amount. The land tax is the principal resource for the revenue in rural districts, and this is well understood by all parties, so tliat there is less room for exactions. The land tax is from 1^ to 10 cents a mao (or from 10 to G6 cents an acre), according to the quality of the land, and difficulty of tillage ; taking the average at 25 cents an acre, the income from this source would be up- ward of 150 millions of dollars. The clerks, constables, lictors, and underlings of the courts and prisons, are the “claws” of their superiors, as the Chinese aptly call them, and perform most of their extortions, and are correspondingly odious to the people. In towns and trading places, it is easier for the officers to exact in various ways from wealthy people, than in the coun- try, where rich people often hire bodies of retainers to defy the police, and practise extortion and robber}-^ themselves. Like other Asiatic governments, China suffers from the consequences of bribery, peculation, extortion, and poorly paid officers, but she has no powerful aristocracy to retaiii the money thus squeezed out of the people, and ere long it finds its way out of the hands of emperors and ministers back into the mass of the people. officers’ salaries and the land-tax. 295 The ('hinese believe, however, that tlie Empenjr annually re- mits such amounts as he is able to collect into Mukden, in time of extremity ; but latterly he has not been able to do so at all, and probably never sent as much to that city as the j)opular ideas imagine. The sum applied to filling the granaries is much larger, but this popular provision in case of need is really a light draft upon the resources of the country, as it is usually managed. In Canton, there are only, fourteen buildings appro- priated to this purpose, few of them more than thirty feet 8p. 74-7(5. Xorth China Herald, passim. Riolithofen’s Lettere, and in Ocean Uiyhioai/s, Nov., 18751. Ghinene Repository, Vol. XIX. , pp. 385 ft. COAL GOUOE ON THE YANGTSZ’. (fkoM HLAKISTON.) HUILDING STONES AND MINEKALS. 307 of Paris and other forms of this sulphate are common all over China. It is not used as a manure, but the Hour is mixed with wood-oil to form a cement for ])aying the seams of boats aftei' they have been caulked. The powder is emj)loycd as a denti- frice, a cosmetic, and a medicine, and sometimes, also, is boiled to make a gruel in fevers, under the idea that it is cooling. The bakers who supplied the English troops at Amoy, in lS-13, occasionally put it into the bread to make it heavier, but not, as was erroneously charged upon them, with any design of poison- ing their customers, for they do not think it noxious ; its em- ployment in coloring green tea, and adulterating powdered sugar, is also explainable by other motives than a wish to injure the consumers. Limestone is abundant at Canton, both common clouded mar- ble and blue limestone ; the last is extensively used in the artificial rockwork of gardens. Even if the (Jantonese knew of the existence of lime in limestone, which they generally do not. the expense of fuel for calcining it would prevent their burning it while ovster-shells are so abundant in that region. In other provinces stone-lime is burned, by the aid of coal, in small kilns. The fine marble (piarried near Peking is regarded as lit alone for imperial uses, and is seen only in such places as the Altar of Heaven and palace grounds. The marble used for doors is a rissile crystallized limestone, unsusceptible of polish ; no statues or ornaments are sculptured from this mineral, but slabs are sometimes wrought out, and the surfaces curioiisly stained and corroded with acids, forming rude representations of animals or other figures, so as to convey the appearance of natural mark- ings. Some of these simulated petrifactions are exceedingly well done. Slabs of argillaceous slate are also chosen with reference to their la^'ers, and treated in the same manner. An excellent granite is used about Canton and Amoy for building, and no people exceed the Chinese in cutting it. Large slabs are split out by wooden wedges, cut for basements and foundations, and laid in a beautiful manner ; pillars are also hewn from single stones of different shapes, though of no extraordinary dimensions, and their shafts embellished with inscriptions. Ornamental walls are frequently formed of large slabs set in 308 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. posts, like panels, the outer faces of which are beautifully carved with figures representing a landscape or procession, lied and gray sandstone, gneiss, mica slate, and other species of rock, are also worked for pavements and walls. Nitre is cheap and common enough in the northern provinces to obviate any fear of its being smuggled into the country from abroad ; it is obtained in Chihli by lixiviating the soil, and furnishes material for the manufacture of gunpowder. A lye is obtained from ashes, which partially serves the purposes of soap ; but the people are still ignorant of the processes neces- sary for manufacturing it. Fourteen localities of alum are given in Pumpelly’s list, but the greatest supply for the eastern provinces comes from deposits of shale, in Ping-yang hien, in Chehkiang, which produces about six thousand tons annually. It is used mostly by the dyers, also to purify turbid water, and whiten paper. Other earthy salts are known and used, as borax, sal-ammoniac (which is collected in Mongolia and Ili from lakes and the vicinity of extinct volcanoes), and blue and white vitriol, obtained by roasting pyrites. Common salt is procured along the eastern and southern coasts by evaporating sea- water, rock-salt not having been noticed ; in the western prov- inces and Shansi, it is obtained from artesian wells and lakes as cheaply as from the ocean ; in Tsing-yeii hien, in Central Sz’chuen, two hundred and thirty-seven wells are w’orked. At Chusan the sea-water is so turbid that the inhabitants filter it through clay, afterward evaporating the water. Tlxe minerals heretofore found in China have, for the most part, been such as have attracted the attention of the natives, and collected by them for curiosity or sale. The skilful man- ner in which their lapidaries cut crystal, agate, and other quartzose minerals, is well known.' The corundum used for polishing and finishing these carvings occurs in China, but a good deal of emery in powder is obtained from Borneo. A composition of granular corundum and gum-lac is usually em- ployed by workmen in order to produce the highest lustre of ' Compart* Iltmusat, llixtoire dc Khotan, pp. l(i:i ff., when* there is an ex- tended list of Chinese precious stones drawn from native sources. JADE STONE, OU YUII. 300 which the stones are capable. The three varieties of tlie sili- cate of alumina, called jade, nephrite, and jadeite by mineralo- gists, are all named yu,h by the Chinese, a word which is ajiplied to a vast variety of stones — white marble, ruby, and cornelian all coming under it — and therefore not easy to de- tine. Jade has long been known in Europe as a variety of jasper, its separation from that stone into a species by itself being of comparatively recent origin. Since the third edition of Boetius, in 1G47, the two minerals have been regarded as entirely distinct. Its value in the eyes of the Chinese depends chiellv upon its sonorousness and color. The costliest speci- mens are brought from Yunnan and Khoten ; a greenish-white color is the most highly prized, a plain color of any shade being of less value. A cargo of this mineral was once im- ported into Canton from Xew Holland, but the Chinese would not purchase it, owing to a fancy taken against its origin and color. The patient toil of the workers in this hard mineral is oidy equalled by the prodigious admiration with which it is regarded ; both fairly exhibit the singular taste and skill of the Chinese. Its color is usually a greenish -white, or grayish-green and dark grass-green ; inteimally it is scarcely glimmering. Its fracture is splintery; splinters white; mass semi-transparent and cloudy ; it scratches glass strongly, and can itself generally be scratched by flint or quartz, but while not excessively hard it is remarkable for toughness. The stone when freshly broken is less hard than after a short exposure. Specific gravity from 2.9 to 3.1.* * Fischer (pp. 314-318) gives some one hundred and fifty names as occurring in various authors — ancient and modern — for jade or nephrite.’ An interesting testimony to the esteem ' Murray’s China, Edinburgh, 1843, Vol. III., p. 276 ; compare also an article on this stone by M. Blondel, of Paris, published in the Smithsonian Report for 1876. Memoires concernnnt les Chinois, Tome XIII., p. 389. Ri-- musat in the Journal des Savans, Dec., 1818, pp. 748 ff. Notes and Queries on a andJ, Vol. II., pp. 173, 174, and 187; Vol. III., p. 63; Vol. IV., pp. 13 and 33. Macmillan's Magazine, October, 1871. Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. II., p. 564. * Nephrit und Jadeit,nach ihren mineralogischen Bigenschaften sowie nach ihrer urgeschichtiichen und ethnographischen Bedeutung. Heinrich Fischer, Stutt- gart, 1880. .\n exhaustive treatise on every phrase and variety of the mineral. 310 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. in which this stone was held in China durins; the middle ai>-es comes from Benedict Cxoes (1602), who says ; “ There is no arti- cle of traffic more valuable than lumps of a certain transparent kind of marble, which we, from poverty of language, usually call jasper. . . . Out of this marble they fashion a variety of articles, such as vases, brooches for mantles and girdles, which, when artistically sculptured in flowers and foliage, certainly have an effect of no small magnificence. These marbles (witli which the Empire is now overflowing) are called by the Chinese lusce. There are two kinds of it ; the first and more valu- able is got out of the river at Cotan, almost in the same way in which divers fish for gems, and this is usually extracted in pieces about as big as large flints. The other and inferior kind is excavated from the mountains.” The ruby, diamond, amethyst, sapphire, topaz, pink tourmaline, lapis-lazuli,* tur- cpioises, beryl, garnet, opal, agate, and other stones, are known and most of them used in jewelry. A ruby brought from Peking is noticed by Bell as having been valued in Europe at $50,000. The seals of the Boards are in many instances cut on valuable stones, and private persons take great pride in quartz or jade seals, with their names carved on them ; lignite and jet are likewise employed for cheaper ornaments, of which all classes are fond. All the common metals, except platina, are found in China, and the supply would be sufficient for all the purposes of the inhabitants, if they could avail themselves of the improve- ments adopted in other countries in blasting, mining, etc. The importations of iron, lead, tin, and quicksilver, are gradually increasing, but they form only a small proportion of the amount used throughout the Empire, especially of the two first named ; iron finds its way in because of its convenient forms more than its cheapness. The careful examination of Chinese topographi- cal works by Pumpellj',** records the leading localities of iron in every province, and where co}>per, tin, lead, silver, and quick- silver have been observed ; he also mentions fifty-two places pro- Obtained from Badakshan. Wood, Journey to the Oxus, p. 263. Geological lieeearches in China, tdiap. X. MKTALS AND THEIK PKODUCTIOX. Hll tlucin^ iijuld ill VRrioiis forms, most of tlicm in Sz cluicii. TIig rumor of ^olcl'Wiisliini^s occurring not f«ir fiom ( liifii, m ^liim- tunj^, caused much excitement in iJStiS, but they were soon foinul to be not worth the labor. Gold has never been used as coin in China, but is wrought into jewelry ; most of it is consumed in gilding and exported to India as bullion, in the shape of small bars or coarse leaves. Silver is mentioned in sixty-three localities by the same author ; large amounts are brought fi’om ^ unnan, and the mines in that region must be both extensive and easily worked to afford such large quantities as have been exjiorted. The working of both gold and silver mines has been said to be prohibited, but this interdiction is rather a government monopoly of the mines than an injunction upon working those which are known. The im- portation of gold into China during the two centuries the trade lias been opened, does not probably equal the exportation which has taken place since the commencement of the opium trade. It is altogether improbable that the Chinese are acquainted with the properties of ([uicksilver in separating these two metals from their ores, though its consumption in making ver- milion and looking-glasses calls for over two thousand flasks 3'eaiiy at Canton. C'innabar occurs in Kweichau and Shensi and furnishes most of the “ water silver,” as the Chinese call it, by a rude process of burning brushwood in the wells, and collecting the metal after condensation. Copper is used for manufacturing coin, bells, bronze articles, domestic and cooking utensils, cannon, gongs, and brass-foil. It is found pure in some instances, and the sulphuret, the blue and green carbonates, pyrities, and other ores are worked ; ma- lachite is ground for a paint. It occurs in every province, and is specially rich in Shansi and Kweichau. The ores of zinc and copper in Yunnan and Sz’chuen furnish spelter, and the peculiar alloy known as white copper or argentan, containing in addition tin, iron, nickel, and lead. So much use indicates large deposits of the ores. Tin is rather abundant, but lead is more common ; thirty-nine localities of the first are mentioned, some of which are probably zinc ores, as the Chinese confound tin and zinc under one generic name. Lead occurs with silver 312 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. in many places ; twenty -four mines are mentioned in Pnmpelly’s list, and those in Fulikien are rich ; but the extensive importa- tions prove that its reduction is too expensive to compete witli( the foreign. Realgar is quite common, this and orpiment being used as paints ; statuettes and other articles are carved from the former, while ai'senic is used in agriculture to quicken grain and pre- sei-ve it from insects. Amber and fossilized copal are collected in several localities ; the first is much employed in the making of court necklaces and hair ornaments. T\\Gfei-tsui or jadeite is the most prized of the semi-precious stones; it is cut into ear-rings, finger-rings, necklaces, etc. Pumpelly mentions pieces of this mineral set in relics obtained from tombs in Mexico, though no locality where it abounds has yet been found in America. Lapis-lazuli is employed in painting upon copper and porcelain ware ; this mineral is obtained in ('hehkiang and Kansuh ; jadeite, topaz, and other fine stones are most plenty in Yunnan. A few minerals and fossils have been noticed in the vicinity and shops at Canton, but China thus far has fur- nished veiy few petrifactions in any strata. Coarse ejfidote occurs at Macao, and tungstate of iron has been noticed in the quartz rocks at Hongkong. Petrified crabs {inao7'ophthalmus) have been brought to Canton from Jiainan, which are prized by the natives for their supposed medicinal qualities. Scien- tists have hitherto described a score or more species of Devo- nian shells, and recognized fragments of the hyena, tapir, rhinoceros, and stegedon, among some other doubtful verte- bi-atai in the “dragon’s bones” sold in medicine shops; but further examinations will doubtless increase the list. Ortho- ccratites and bivalve shells of various kinds are noticed in ( 'hinese hooks as being found in rocks, and fossil bones of huge size in caves and river banks. There ai’e many hot springs and other indications of volcanic action alons the southern acclivities of the table land in the provinces of Shensi and Sz’chuen ; and at .Teh-ho, in (’hihli, there are thermal springs to which invalids resort. The Ih Uhuj, or Fire wells, in Sz’chuen are apertures resemhling arte- sian sju'ings, suidc in the rock to a depth of one thousand CJlJADUUMANOirS ANIMALS OK CHINA. :ii3 five huiulrecl or one thousand eight hundred feet, wldlst their breadth does not e.xceed five or six inches. This is a work great difficulty, and recjuires in some cases the labor of two or three years. The water procured from them contains a fifth part of salt, which is very acrid, and mixed with much nitre. When a lighted torch is ajiplied to the mouth of some of those which have no water, fire is pn)duced with great violence and a noise like thunder, bursting out into a fiame twenty or thirty feet high, and which cannot he ex- tinguished without great danger and expense. The gas has a bituminous smell, and burns with a bluish fiame and a (piantity of thick, black smoke. It is conducted under boilers in bam- boos, and employed in evaporating the salt water from the other springs.' Besides the gaseous and aipieoiis springs in these pi-ovinces, there are others possessing different (pialities, some sulphurous and others chalybeate, found in Shansi and along the banks of the Yellow River. Sulphui’ occurs, as has been noted, in great abundance in Formosa, and is purified for powder manufacturers. The animal and vegetable productions of the extensive re- gions under the sway of the Emjieror of China include a great variety of types of different families. On the south the islands of Hainan and Formosa, and parts of the adjacent coasts, slightly partake of a tropical character, exhibiting in the eocoanuts, plantains, and peppers, the parrots, lemurs, and monkeys, decided indications of an eipiatorial climate. From the eastern coast across through the country to the northwest provinces occur mountain ranges of gradually increasing eleva- tion, interspersed with intervales and alluvial plateaus and bot- toms, lakes and rivers, plains and hills, each presenting its peculiar productions, both wild and cultivated, in great variety and abundance. The southern ascent of the high land of Mon- golia, the uncultivated wilds of Manchuria, the barren wastes of the desert of Gobi, with its salt lakes, glaciers, extinct volca- noes, and isolated mountain ranges ; and lastly the stupendous ’ Humboldt, Fragmens Asiaiiques, Tome I., p. 196. Annalea de la Foi, Janvr., 1829, pp. 416 If. 314 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. chains and valleys of Tibet, Koko-nor, and Kwanlun all differ from each other in the character of their productions. In one or the other division, every variety of soil, position, and tem- perature occur which are known on the globe ; and what has been ascertained within the past fifteen years by enterprising naturalists is an earnest of future greater discoveries. Of the quadrumanous order of animals, there are several species. The Chinese are skilful in teaching the smaller kinds of monkeys various tricks, but ]\L Breton’s picture of their adroitness and usefulness in picking tea in Shantung from plants growing on otherwise inaccessible acclivities, is a fair in- stance of one of the odd stories furnished by travellers about China, inasmuch as no tea grows in Shantung, and monkeys are taught more profitable tricks.' One of the most ]-emarka- ble animals of this tribe is the douc, or Cochinchinese monkey {Semnoplihecus nemoius). It is a lai’ge species of great rarity, and remarkable for the variety of colors with which it is adorned. Its body is about two feet long, and when standing in an upright position its height is considerably greater. The face is of an orange color, and flattened in its form. A dark band runs across the front of the forehead, and the sides of the countenance are bounded by long spreading yellowish tufts of hair. The body aild upper parts of the forearms are brownish gray, the lower portions of the arms, from the elbows to the wrists, being white ; its hands and thighs are black, and the legs of a bright red color, while the tail and a large triangular spot above it are pure white. Such a creature matches well, for its grotesque and variegated appearance, with the mandarin duck and gold fish, also peculiar to China. Chinese books speak of several species of this family, and small kinds occur in all the provinces. M. David has recently added two novelties to the list from his acquisitions in Eastern Koko-nor, well fitted for that cold region by their abundant hair. The Rhinopithecus rojuellanm inhabits the alpine forests, nearly two miles high, where it subsists on the buds of plants and bamboo shoots laid up for wijiter supply ; its face is green- Breton, China, its Costumes, Arts, etc., Vol. II. THK FI-FI AND IIAI-TUII. 315 ish, the nose remarkably t'tfrounHc, and its strong, brawny limbs well fitted for the arboreal life it leads ; the hair is thick and like a mane on the back, shaded with yellow and white tints. In this respect it is like the tielada monkey of Abyssinia, and a few others protected in this part of the body from cold. This is no doubt the kind called fi-fi in native books, and once found in tlocks along many portions of western C’bina, as these authors declare. Their notices are rather tantalizing, but, now that we have found the animal, are worth quoting : “ The f 'l-f i resembles a man ; it is clothed with its hair, runs quick and eats men ; it has a human face, long lips, black, hairy body, and turns its heels. It laughs on seeing a man and covers its eyes with its lips ; it can talk and its voice resembles a bird. It occurs in Sz’chuen, where it is called _///«. hiuntj, or ‘ human bear ; ’ its palms are good eating, and its skin is used ; its habit is to turn over stones, seeking for crabs as its food. Its form is like that of the men who live in the Kwuuluu Alountains.” Another large simia {Macacus ih 'ibetamts) comes from the same region ; it lives in bands like* the preceding, but lower down the mountains. A third species of great size was re- ported to occur in the southwestern part of Sz’chuen, and de- scribed as greenish like the Jlitcacua tcluilienHiH from the hills northwest of Peking — the most northern species of monkey known. The former of these two may possibly be the sing- sing of the Chinese books, though its characteristics involve some confusion of the ^Nfacacus and baboon on the part of those writers. Two other species of Macacus, and as many of the gibbons, have been noticed in Hainan, Formosa, and elsewhere in the south. The singular proboscis monkey {Xasalis laimlus), called hhi-doc in Cochinchina and hai-tuh by the (diinese, exhibits a strange profile, part man and part beast, reminding one of the combinations in Da Vinci’s caricatures. It is a large animal, covered with soft yellowish hair tinted with red ; the long nose projects in the form of a sloping spatula. The Chinese account says : “ Its nose is turned upward, and the tail very long and forked at the end, and that whenever it rains, the animal 316 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. thrusts the forks into its nose. It goes in herds, and lives in friendship ; \vhen one dies, the rest accompany it to burial. Its activity is so great that it runs its head against the trees; its fur is soft and gray, and the face black.” ' The Chinese Jlerhal, from which the preceding extract is taken, describes the bat under various names, such as ‘ heavenly rat,’ ‘fairy rat,’ ‘flying rat,’ ‘night swallow,’ and ‘belly wings;’ Fuff and Hai-tuh. (From a Chinese cut.) it also details the various uses made of the animal in medicine, and the extraordinary longevity attained by some of the white species. The bat is in form like a mouse ; its body is of an ashy black color ; and it has thin fleshy wings, which join the four legs and tail into one. It appears in the summer, but be- comes torpid in the winter ; on which account, as it eats nothing (luring that season, and be(.'ausc it has a habit of swallowing its breath, it attains a great age. It has the character of a night Hridginaii’s Chine»e ChrcBtomathy, p. 409. WILD ANIMALS. :U7 rover, not on account of any inability to fly in the day, but it dares not go abroad at tliat time because it fears a kind of hawk. It subsists on mosquitoes and gnats. It flies witli its head downward, because the brain is heavy.' This quotation is among tlie best Chinese descriptions of animals, and shows how little there is to depend upon in them, though not without interest in their notices of habits. Hats are common every- where, and seem to be regarded with less aversion than in cer- tain other countries. Twenty species belonging to nine genera are given in one list, most of them found in southern China; the wings of some of these measure two feet across ; a large sort in Sz’chuen is eaten. The brown bear is known, and its paws are regarded as a delicacy ; trained animals are frequently brought into cities by showmen, who have taught them tricks. The discovery by David of a large species {Alluropus 7nela7ioleurus) allied to the Himalayan {Ailurus fulgens), also found on the Sz'chuen Mountains, adds another instance of the strange markings com- mon in Tibetan fauna. This beast feeds on flesh and vegeta- bles ; its body is white, but the ears, eyes, legs, and tip of the tail are quite black ; the fur is thick and coarse. It is called peh hiung, or white bear, by the hunters, but is no doubt the animal called j>i in the classics, common in early times over western China, and now rare even in Koko-nor. The Tibetan black bear occurs in Formosa, Shantung, and Hainan, showing a wide range. The badger is quite as widespread, and the two species have the same general appearance as their European congeners. Carnivorous animals still exist, even in thickly settled dis- tricts. The lion may once have roamed over the southwestern Manji kingdom, but the name and drawings both indicate a foreign origin. It has much connection with Buddhism, and grotesque sculptures of rampant lions stand in pairs in front of temples, palaces, and graves, as a mark of honor and symbol of protection. The last instance of a live lion brought as tri- bute was to Hientsung in a.d. 1470, from India or Ceylon. Chinese Repository^ Vol. VII., p. 90. 318 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. Many other species of felis are known, some of them peculiar to particular regions. The royal tiger has been killed near .iVnioy, and in Manchuria the panther, leopard, and tiger-cat all occur in the northern and southern provinces, making altogether a list of twelve species ranging from Formosa to Sagalien. Mr. Swinhoe’s ‘ account of his rencounter with a tiger near Amoy in 1858 explains how’ such large animals still remain in thickly settled regions where food is abundant and the people are timid and unarmed. In thinly peopled parts they become a terror to the peasants. M. David enumerates six kinds, including a lynx, in Monpin alone, one of which {Fells sci'ijyta) is among the most prettily marked of the whole family. Hunting-leopards and tigei-s were used in the days of Marco Polo by Kiddai, but the manly pastime of the chase, on the magnihcent scale then practised, has fallen into disuse with the present princes. A small and fierce species of wild-cat [Fells chinensls), two feet long, of a brownish-gray color, and handsomely marked with chestnut spots and black streaks, is still common in the southwestern portions of Fuhkien. Civet cats of two or three kinds, tree-civets [Ilelictes), and a fine species of marten [2Ia/‘tes), with yellow neck and purplish- brown body, from Formosa, are among the smaller carnivora in the southern provinces. The domestic animals offer few pecidiarities. The cat, I’ la I'l, or ‘household fox,’ is a favorite inmate of families, and the ladies of Peking are fond of a variety of the Angora cat, having long silky hair and hanging ears. The common species is variously marked, and in the south often destitute of a tail ; when reared for food it is fed on rice and A’egetables, but is not much eaten. Popular superstition has clustered many omens of good and bad luck about cats ; it is considered, for example, the prognostic of certain misfortune when a cat is stolen from a house — much as, in some countries of the western world, it is unlucky when a black cat crosses one’s pathway. The dog differs but little from that reared among the Esqui- maux, and is perhaps the original of the species. There is Zoul. &c. Proc., 1870, p. C2C. CATS AND DOGS. 315) little variation in their size, which is about a foot high and two feet in length ; the color is a pale yellow or black, and always uniform, with coarse bristling hair, and tails curling uj) high over the back, and rising so abruptly from the insertion that it has been humorously remarked they almost assist in lifting the legs from the ground. The hind legs are unusually straight, which gives them an awkward look, and j)erhaps pre- vents them running very rapidly. The black eyes are small and piercing, and the insides of the lips and mouths, and the tongue, are of the same color, or a blue black. The bitch has a dew-claw on each hind leg, but the dog has none. The ears ai'e sharp and upright, the head peaked, and the bark a short, thick snap, very unlike the deep, sonorous baying of our mastilfs. In Xganhwui a peculiar variety has pendant ears of great length, and thin, wirey tails. One item in the Chinese de.scription of the dog is that it ‘can go on three legs’ — a gait that is often e.xhibited b}' them. They are used to watch houses and Hocks ; the Mongolian breed is tierce and powerful. The dogs of 1 ’eking are very clannish, and each set jealously guards its ow!i street or yard ; they are fed by the butchers in the streets, aiul serve as scavengers there and in all large towns. They are often mangey, presenting hideous spectacles, and instances of j>oh>niea are not uncommon, but, as among the celebrated street dogs of Constantinople, hydrophobia is almost unheard of among them. Dog markets are seen in every city where this meat is sold ; the animals are reared expressly for the table, but their He.di is expensive. One writer remarks on their habits, when describing the worship offered at the tombs ; “ Hardly had the hillock been abandoned by the worshippers, when packs of hungry dogs came running up to devour the part of the offerings left for the dead, or to lick up the grease on the ground. Those who came first held up their heads, bristled their hair, and showed a proud and satisfied demeanor, curling and wagging tbeir tails with selfish delight ; while the late-comei’s, tails between their legs, held their heads and ears down. There was one of them, however, which, grudging the fare, held his nose to the wind as if sniffing for better luck ; but one lean, old, and ugly beast. 320 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. with a flayed back and hairless tail, was seen gradually separat- ing himself from the band, though without seeming to hurry himself, making a thousand doublings and windings, ail the while looking back to see if he was noticed. But the old sharper knew what he was about, and as soon as he thought himself at a safe distance, away he went like an arrow, the whole pack after him, to some other feast and some other tomb.” ‘ Wolves, raccoon-dogs, and foxes are everywhere common, in some places proving to be real pests in the sheepfold and farm- yard. In the vicinity of Peking, it is customary to draw large white rings on the plastered walls, in order to terrify the wolves, as these beasts, it is thought, will flee on observing such traps. The Chinese regard the fox as the animal into which human spirits enter in preference to any other, and are therefore afraid to destroy or displease it. The elevated steppes are the abodes of three or four kinds, which find food without difficulty. The Tibetan wolf {Ga/nis chanco) has a warm, yellowish-white co\-- ering, and ranges the wilds of Tsaidam and Koko-nor in packs. The fox {Canis cossac) spreads over a wide range, and is famed for its sagacity in avoiding enemies. The breed of cattle and horses is dwarfish, and nothing is done to improve them. The oxen are sometimes not larger than an ass ; some of them have a small hump, showing their affinity to the zebu ; the dewlap is large, and the contour neat and symmetrical. The forehead is round, the horns small and irregularl}'^ curved, and the general color dun red. The bufFalo (shui niu), or ‘ water ox,’ is the largest beast used in agriculture. It is very docile and unwieldy, larger than an English ox, and its hairless hide is a light black color ; it seeks coolness and refuge from the gnat in muddy pools dug for its convenience, where it wallows with its nose just above the surface. Each horn is nearly semi-circular, and bends downward, while the head is turned back so as almost to bring the Jiose horizontal. The herd-boys usually ride it, and the metaphor of a lad astride a buffalo’s back, blowing the flute, frequently enters into Chinese Borget, La Chine Ouverte, p. 147. CATTLE, SHEEP, AND DEER. 321 descriptions of niral life. The yak of Tibet is employed as a beast of burden, and to furnish food and raiment. It is covered with a mantle of hair reaching nearly to the ground, and the soft pelage is used for making standards among the l^ersians, and its tail as liy-flaps or chowries in India ; the hair is woven into carpets. The wild yak {l^oeplaujus (jrunniem) has already been described. Great herds of these huge bovines roam over the wastes of Koko-nor, where their dried droppings furnish the oidy fuel for the nomads crossing those barren wilds. The domestic sheep is the broad-tailed species, and furnishes excellent mutton. The tail is sometimes ten inches long and three or four thick ; and the size of this fatty member is not affected by the temperature. The sheep are reared in the north by ^lohanmiedans, who prepare the fleeces for garments by careful tanning ; the animal is white, with a black head. Goats are raised in all parts, but not in large numbers. The argali and wild sheep of the Ala slum ^lountains {Oi'is BurrJiel) fur- nish exciting sport in chasing them over their native cliffs, which they clamber with wonderfid agility. Another denizen of those dreary wilds is the Antilaj)e j)utieau(ia, a small and tiny species, weighing about forty pounds, of a dusky gray color, with a narrow yellow stripe on the flaidcs. Its range is about the head-waters of the Yangtsz’ River ; its swiftness is amazing ; it seems absolutely to fly. It scrapes for itself trenches in which to lie secure from the cold. ^lany genera of ruminants are represented in f’hina and the outlying regions ; twenty-seven rare species are enumer- ated in Swinhoe's and David’s lists, of which eleven are ante- lopes and deer. The range of some of them is limited to a narrow region, and most of them are peculiar to the country. The wealthy often keep deer in their grounds, especially the spotted deer {Cenms j>seitdaxif<), from Formosa, whose coat is found to vary greatly according to sex and age ; its name, Jdn- Uien luh, or ‘money deer,’ indicates its markings. Mouse-deer are also reared as pets in the southern provinces. One common species is the dzeren or Kwamj yang {Ant'd^ype gxMurosa), which roams over the Mongolian Avilds in large herds, and furnishes excellent venison. It is heavy in compar- VoL. I. — 21 322 THE MIDDLE KlNCtDOM. isoii to the gazelle ; horns thick, about nine inches long, annn- lated to tlie tips, lyrated, and their points turned inward. The goitre, which gives it its name, is a movable protuberance occa- sioned by the dilatation of the larnyx ; in the old males it is much enlarged. The animal takes surprising bounds when run- ning. Great numbers are killed in the autumn, and their flesh, .skins, and horns are all of service for food, leather, and medicine. Several kinds of hornless (or nearly hornless) deer, allied to the musk-deer, exist. ()ue is the river-deer {TIydro2^ote.s), com- mon near the Yangtsz’ Iliver, which resembles the pudu of Chili ; it is very prolific on the bottoms and in the islands. An- other sort in the northwest {Elaydiodm) is intermediary be- tween the muntjacs and deer, having long, trenchant, canine upper teeth, and a deep chocolate-colored fur. Three varieties of the musk-deer {MoscJms) have been observed, diffeidng a little in their colors, all called shi.'e or hlany chang by the C'hi- nese, and all eagerly hunted for their musk. This perfume was once deemed to he useful in medicine, and is cited in a Greek presci’iption of the sixth centui-y ; the abundance of the animal in the Himalayan regions may he inferred from Taver- nier’s statement that he bought 7673 hags or pods at Patna in one of his journeys over two hundred years ago. This animal roams over a vast extent of alpine territory, from Tibet and Shensi to Lake Baikal, and inhabits the loftiest cliffs and defiles, and makes its M^ay over rugged mountains with great rapidity. It is not unlike the roe in general appearance, though the pro- jecting teeth makes the upper lip to look broad. Its color is grayish-brown and its limbs slight; the hair is coarse and brit- tle, almost like s])ines. The musk is contained in a pouch be- neath the tail on the male, and is most abundant during the rutting season. He is taken in nets or shot, and the hunters are said to allure him to destruction by secreting themselves and playing the flute, though some would say the animal showed very little taste in listening to such sounds as Chinese flutes usually produce. The musk is often adulterated with clay or mixed with other substances to moderate its powerful odor. .V singular and interesting member of this family is reared in the great park south of Peking — a kiiid of elk with ITOKSKS, ASSES, AND Er^KIMIANTS. short horns. This large animal {Elnj>hu/‘m Dmndiaiim), of a gentle disposition, ecpials in size the largest deer; its native name, sz'-jmh siamj, indicates that it is neither a horse, a deer, a camel, nor an ox, but partakes in some respects of the charac- teristics of each of them. Its gentle croaking voice seems to be unworthy of so huge a body ; the color is a uniform fawn or light gray. The horse is not much larger than the Shetland pony ; it is bonv and strong, but ke])t with little care, and presents the worst possible appearance in its usual condition of untrimmed coat and mane, bedraggled fetlocks, and twisted tail. The Chi- nese language possesses a great variety of terms to designate the horse ; the difference of age, sex, color, and disposition, all being denoted by particular characters. Piebald and mottled, white and bay horses are common ; but the improvement of this noble animal is neglected, and he looks sorry enough com- pared with the coursers of India. Tie is principally used for carrying the post, or for military services ; asses and mules being more employed for draught. lie is hardy, feeds on coarse food, and admirably serves his owners. The mule is well-shaped, and those raised for the gentry are among the very best in the world for endurance and strength ; dignitaries are usually drawn by sumpter mules. Donkeys are also carefully raised. Chinese books speak of a mule of a cow and horse, as well as from the ass and horse, though, of course, no such hy- brid as the former ever existed. The wild ass, or onager (under the several names by which it is known in different lands, hjang, djany, hd-aji, djiyyetai, yhor-khar, and ye’-ltt), still roams free and untameable. It is abundant in Koko-nor, gathering in troops of ten to fifty, each under the lead of a stallion to defend the mares. The flesh is highly prized, and the difficulty of procuring it adds to the delicacy of the dish ; the color is light chestnut, with white belly. Elephants are kept at Peking for show, and are used to draw the state chariot when the Emperor goes to worship at the Altars of Heaven and Earth, but the sixty animals seen in the days of Kienhmg, by Bell, have since dwindled to one or 324 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. two. Van Braam met six going into Peking, sent thither from Yunnan. The deep forests of that province also harbor the rhinoceros and tapir. The horn of the former is sought after as medicine, and the best pieces are carved most beautifully into ornaments or into drinking cups, which are supposed to sweat whenever any poisonous liquid is put into them. The tapir is the white and brown animal found in the Malacca peninsula, and strange stories are recorded of its eating stones and copper. The wild boar grows to weigh over four hundred pounds and nearly six feet long. In cold weather its frozen carcass is brought to Peking, and sold at a high price. A new species of The Chinese Pig. hog has been found in Formosa, about three feet long, twenty- one inches high, and showing a dorsal row of large bristles ; a third variety occurs among the novelties discovered in Sz’chuen (Sus moujnnens'ls), having short ears. Wild boars are met with even in the hills of Chehkiang, and seriously annoy the hus- bandmen in the lowlands by their depredations. Deep pits are dug near the base of the hills, and covered with a bait of fresh grass, and many are annually captured or drowned in them.^ They are fond of the bamboo shoots, and persons are stationed near the groves to frighten them away by striking pieces of wood together. The (hiinese hollow-backed pig is known for its short legs, TIIK WILD BOAR AND DOMESTIC IlOO. 325 round body, crooked back, and abundance of fat ; tlie tlesh is the common meat of the people south of the Yangtsz’ River. The black Chinese breed, as it is called in England, is consid- ered the best pork raised in that country. The hog in the northern provinces is a gaunt animal, uniformly black, and not so well cared for as its southern rival. I’iebald pigs are com- mon in Formosa, resulting from crossing; sometimes animals of this kind are quite woolly. The Chinese in the south, well aware of the perverse disposition of the hog, find it much more expeditious to carry instead of drive him through their narrow Modd of Carrying Pigs. streets. For this pui*pose cylindrical baskets, open at both ends, are made ; and in order to capture the obstinate brute, it is secured just outside the half-opened gate of the pen. The men seize him by the tail and pull it lustily ; his rage is roused by the pain, and he struggles ; they let go their hold, whereupon he darts out of the gate to escape, and finds himself snugly caught. He is lifted up and unresistingly carried off. The camel is employed in the trade carried on across the desert, and throughout Mongolia, Manchuria, and northern China near the plateau ; without his aid those regions would 326 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. be impassible : tlie passes across the ranges near Koko-nor, six- teen thousand feet high, are traversed by ids help, though amid suffering and danger. In the sutmner season it sheds all its hair, which is gathered for weaving into ropes and rugs ; at this period, large herds pasture on the plateau to recuperate. The humps at this season hang down the back like empty bags, and the poor animal presents a distressed appearance during the hot weather. In its prime condition it carries about six hundred pounds weight, but is not used to ride upon as is the Arabian species. The two kinds serve man in one continuous kafil UODKNTS. Scaj)to/u/,v, forms an intermediate species lietween a mole and a shrew, having a blunt muzzle, strong fore Iwt and a long tail ; and lastly, a sort fitted for aquatic habits, with broad hind feet and flattened tail. Tiuy hedgehogs are common even in the streets and by-lanes of Peking, where they find food and refuge in the alluvial earth. Two or three kinds of marmots and mole-rats are found in the north and west A/-c- fiii/it/n), all specifically unlike their congeners elsewhere. The ('hinese have a curious fancy in respect to one beast, one bird, and one fish, each of whicb^ they say, requires that two come together to make one ccunplete animal, viz., the jerboa, the spoonbill and sole-fish; the first annithif nx) ovi-wm in the sands of northern China, the second in Formosa, and the third along the coasts. Many kinds of rodents have been described. The alpine hare (Zuj/oMy.v ntjotona) resembles a marmot in its habits and is met with throughout the grassy parts of the .ste])pes ; its bur- rows riddle the earth whei'cver the little thing gathers, and en- dangers the hunters riding over it. It is about the size of a I'at, and by its wonderful fecundity furnishes fo(xl to a great nnmber of its enemies — man, beasts, and birds ; it is not dormant, bnt gathers dry grass for food and warmth during cold weathei- ; this winter store is, however, often consumed by cattle before it is stored away. Hares and rabbits are well knowm. Two species of the former are plenty on the Mongolian grass-lands, one of which has very long feet ; in winter their frozen bodies are brought to market. One species is restricted to Hainan Island. Ten or twelve kinds of scpiirrels have been described, red, gray, striped, and buff ; one with fringed ears. Their skins are prepared for the furriers, and women wear winter robes lined with them. Two genera of flying-squirrel {Pt< ronitjx and have been noticed, the latter in Formo.sa and the former mostly in the western provinces. Chinese writers ha\'e been puzzled to class tbe flying-squirrel ; they place it among birds, and assure their readers that it is the only kind which suckles its young when it flies, and that “ the skin held in the hand during parturition renders deliver}' easier, because the animal has a remarkably lively disposition.” The long, dense 328 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. fnr of the P. alborufous makes beautiful dresses, the white tips of the hair contrasting prettily with the red ground. Of the proper rats and mice, more than twenty-five species have been already described. Some of them are partially arboreal, others have remarkably long tails, and all but three are peculiar to the country. A Formosan species, called by Swinhoe the spinous county rat, had been dedicated to Kox- inga, the conqueror of that island ; while another common in Sz’chuen bears the name of Mus Confudmius. The ex- tent to which the Chinese eat rats has been greatly exag- gerated by travellers, for the fiesli is too expensive for general use. One species of porcupine {ILjstrix svhcristatd) inhabits the southern provinces, wearing on its head a purplish-black crest of stout spines one to fiv'e inches long ; the bristles are short, but increase in size and length to eight or nine inches toward the rump ; the entire length is thirty-three inches. The j^opu- lar notion that the porcupine darts its quills at its enemies as an effectual weapon is common among the Chinese. Ao animal has puzzled the Chinese more than the scaly ant- eater or pangolin {^^Lanis dulvianni), which is logically consid- ered as a certain and useful remedy by them, simply because of its oddity. It is regarded as a fish out of water, and therefore named Jing-1% or ‘ hill carp,’ also dragon caiq), but the most common designation is chuen shan I'iah, or the ‘ scaly hill borer.’ One author says: “ Its shape resembles a crocodile ; it can go in dry paths as well as in the water ; it has four legs. In the daytime it ascends the banks of streams, and lying down opens its scales wide, putting on the appearance of death, which in- duces the ants to enter between them. As soon as they are in, the animal closes its scales and returns to the water to open them ; the ants float out dead, and he devours them at leisure.” A more accurate observer says: “It continually protrudes its tongue to entice the ants on which it feeds;” and true to Chinese physiological deductions, similia mmlihufi curantur, ■ he recommends the scales as a cure for all antish swellings, lie also remarks that the scales are not bony, and consist of the agglutinated hairs of the body. The adult specimens POKl'OISES ANI) WHALES. 321J measure thirty-tliree inches. It walks on the sides of the hind feet and tips of the claws of the fore feet, and can stand upright for a minute or two. The large .scales are held to the skin by a fleshy nipple-like pimple, which adheres to the base. Among the cetaceous inhabitants of the Chinese waters, one of the most noticeable is the great white porpoise {I)d2)hlnus chine-mh), whose uncouth tumbles attract the traveller’s notice as he sails into the estuary of the I’earl Uivei’ on his way to Hongkong, and again as he steams up the Yangtsz’ to Hankow. The Chinese fishermen are shy of even holding it in their nets, setting it free at once, and never pursuing it ; they call it pe/t-ki and deem its presence favorable to their success. A species of fin-whale (Balcenoj)tera) has been described by Swinhoe, which ranges the southern coast from the shores of Formosa to Hai- nan. Its presence between Hongkong and Amoy induced some foreigners to attempt a fishery in those waters, but the yield of oil and bone was too small for their outlay. The native fi.sher- men join their efforts in the winter, when it resorts to the seas near Hainan, going out in fleets of small boats from three to twenty-five tons burden each, fifty boats going together. The line is about three hundred and fifty feet long, made of native hemp, and fastened to the mast, the end leading over the bow. The harpoon has one barb, and is attached to a wooden handle ; through an eye near the socket, the line is so fastened along the handle, that when the whale begins to strain upon it, the han- dle draws out upon the line, leaving only the barb buried in the skin. The boat is sailed directly upon the fish, and the har- pooner strikes from the bow just behind the blow-hole. As soon as the fish is struck the sail is lowered, the rudder un- shipped, and the boat allowed to drag stern foremost until the prey is exhausted. Other boats come up to assist, and half a dozen harpoons soon dispatch it. The species most common there yield about fifty barrels each ; the oil, flesh, and bone are all used for food or in manufactures. The fish resort to the shallow waters in those seas for food, and to roll and rub on the banks and reefs, thus ridding themselves of the barnacles and insects which torment them ; they are often seen leaping en- 330 TIIK MIDDLE KINGDOM. tirely out of water, and falling back perpendicularly against the hard bottom.' The Yellow Sea affords a species of com’ -fish, or round-headed cachalot {Glohicej)halus Rissii), which the Japanese capture." Seals have been observed on the coast of Liautung, but nothing is knoM’n of their species or habits ; the skins are common and cheap in the Peking market. Native books speak of a marine animal in Koko-nor, from which a rare medicine is obtained, that probably belongs to this family. This imperfect account of the mammalia known to exist in China has been drawn from the lists and descriptions in- serted in the zoological periodicals of Europe, and may serve to indicate the extent and richness of the field yet to be investi- gated. The lists of Swinhoe and David alone contain nearly two hundred species, and Avithin the past ten years scores more have been added, but have not exhausted the new and unex- plored zoological regions. The emperors of the Mongol dynasty M’ere very fond of the chase, and famous for their love of the noble amusement of falconry ; Marco Polo says that Kublai em- ployed no less than seventy thousand attendants in his hawking excursions. Falcons, kites, and other birds were taught to pursue their quarry, and the Venetian speaks of eagles trained to stoop at wolves, and of such size and strength that none could escape their talons.’ Ranking has collected ^ a number of notices of the mode and sumptuousness of the field sports of the Mongols in China and India, but they convey little more information to the naturalist, than that the game w’as abundant and comprised a vast variety. IVIany species of accipitrine birds are described in Chinese books, but they are spoken of so vaguely that nothing definite can be learned from the notices. Few of them are now trained for sport by the Chinese, ex- cept a kind of sparrow’-haM’k to amuse dilettanti hunters in showing their skill in catching small birds. The fondness for sport in the wilds of Manchuria which the old emperors ’ Chinese Rejmsitory, Vol. XII., p. G08. " Ibid., Vol. VI., p. 411. "Yule’s Marej) Poh, Vol. I., p. 85:$. ■’ Wars and S/torts of the MouyoU and Romans. BIHDS UK I'KEY. :j:n enconragcd two centuriefi ago has all died out among their descendants. Within the last fifteen years a greater advance has been made in the knowledge of the birds of China than in any other branch of its natural history, perhaps owing somewhat to their presenting themselves for capture to the careful observer. The list of described species already numbers over seven hundred, of which the careful paper of the lamented Swinhoe, in the Pro- ceedings of the Zoological Society f(u- ^fay, 1871, gives the names of six hundred and seventy -five species, and M. David’s list, in Nouvelles Archives for 1871, gives four hundred and seventy as the number observed north of the River Yangtsz’. The present sketch must confine itself to selecting a few of the characteristic birds of the country, for this part of its fauna is as interesting and peculiar as the mammalia. Among birds of prey are vultures, eagles, and ernes, all of them widespread and well known. One of the fishing-eagles [ Ilaliiitus nuu'ei) lives along the banks of the bend of the Yel- low River in the Ortous country. The golden eagle is still trained for the chase by ^fongols ; Atkinson accompanied a party on a hunt. “ We had not gone far,” he says, “ when several large deer rushed past, bounding over the plain about three hundred yards fi-om us. In an instant the barkut was unhooded and his shackles removed, when he sprung from his perch and soared on high. He rose to a considerable height, and seemed to poise for a minute, gave two or three flaps with his wings, and swooped off in a straight line for the prey. I could not see his wings move, but he went at a feai-f ul rate, and all of us after the deer ; when we were about two hundred yards off, the bird struck the deer, and it gave one bound and fell. The barkut had struck one talon in his neck, the other into his back, and was tearing out his liver. The Kirghis spning from his horse, slipped the hood over the eagle’s head and the shackles on his legs, and easily took him off, remounting and getting ready for another flight.” ' Other smaller species are trained to capture or worry hares, foxes, and lesser game. ' Oriental and Western Sibemi, p. 416. 332 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. The falcons which inhabit the gate-towers and trees in Pe- king form a peculiar feature of the place, from their impudence ill foraging in the streets and markets, snatching things out of the hands of people, and startling one by their responsive screams. Much quarrelling goes on between them and the crows and magpies for the possession of old nests as the spring comes on. Their services as scavengers insures them a quiet residence in their eyries on the gate-towers. Six sorts of har- riers (Circus), with various species of falcons, bustards, gledes, and sparrow-hawks, are enumerated. The family of owls is well represented, and live ones are often exposed for sale in the markets ; its native name of ‘cat-headed hawk’ (vuio-rh- tao ying) suggests the likeness of the two. Out of the fifty-six species of accipitrine birds, the hawks are much tlie most numerous. The great order of Passerinae has its full share of beautiful and peculiar representatives, and over four hundred species have been catalogued. The night-hawks have only tliree members, but the swallows count up to fifteen species. Around Peking they gather in vast numbers, }’ear after year, in the gate-towers, and that whole region was early known by the name of Yen Kwok, or ‘ Land of Swallows.’ The immunity granted by the natives to this twittering, bustling inmate of their houses has made it a synonym for domestic life ; the plirase yin yen (lit. to ‘ drink swallows ’) means to give a feast. The family of king-fishers contains several most exquisitely colored birds, and multitudes of the handsome ones, like the turquoise king-fisher (Halcyon smyt'nemis), are killed by the Chinese for the sake of the plumage. Beautiful feather- work ornaments are made from this at Canton. The hoopoe, bee- eater, and cuckoo are not uncommon ; the first goes by tlie name of the shan ho-shang, or ‘ country priest,’ from its color. Six species of the last have been ^ecognized^, and its peculiar habits of driving other birds from their nests has made it well known to the peojile, who call it Jcu-ku for the same reason as do the English. On the upper Yangtsz’ the short-tailed species makes its noisy agitated tlight in order to drawoff attention from its nest. Tlie Chinese say it weeps blood as it bewails its mate SWALLOWS, TIIUUSIIES, LAKKS, ETC’. all night long. The Cucutm striatm varies so greatly in dif- ferent provinces that it has much perple.xed naturalists ; all of them are only summer visitants. The habit of the shrike of impaling its prey on thorns and elsewhere before devouring it has been noticed by native writers ; no less than eleven species hav’e been ob.served to cross the country in their migrations from Siberia to the Archipelago. Of the nuthatches, tree and wall creepers, wrens, and chats, there is a large variety, and one species of willow-wren {Si/lvla horealis) has been detected over the entire eastern hemisphere ; six sorts of redstarts {liutlcUla) are spread over the provinces. Among the common song bii-ds reared for the household, the thrush and lark take pi’ecedence ; their fondness for birds and flowers is one of the pleasant features of Chinese national char- acter. A kind of grayish-yellow tXww&h. {Garnihut; ^ ««>•), called hwa-mt, or ‘painted eyebrosvs,’ is common about Canton, where a well-trained bird is worth several dollars. This genus furnishes six species, but they are not all etpially musical ; another kind {S>it7u>ria wrhhlana) is kept for its fight- ing qualities, as it will die before it yields. These and other allied birds furnish the people with much anm.sement, by teach- ing them to catch seeds thrown into the air, jump from perches held in the hand, and perform tricks of various kinds. A party of gentlemen will often be seen on the outskii’ts of a town in mild weather, each one holding his pet bird, and all busily en- gaged in catching grasshoppers to feed them. The spectacle thrush {LAiuGodiojytrum) has its eyes surrounded by a black circle bearing a fancied resemblance to a pair of spectacles ; it is not a very sweet songster, but a graceful, lively fellow. The species of wagtail and lark known amount to about a score alto- gether, but not all of them are equally good singers. The southern (fliinese prefer the lark which comes fi-om Chihli, and large numbers are annually carried south. The shrill notes of the field lark {Alaucla coiUvox and an^emis) are heard in the shops and streets in emulous concert with other kinds — these larks becoming at times well-nigh frantic with excitement in their struggles for victory. The Chinese name of jpeh-limj, or ‘hundred spirits,’ given to the Mongolian lark, indicates the 334 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. reputation it has earned as an active songster ; and twenty-five dollars is not an uncoininon price for a good one.' The tits (^P arus) and reedlings {Pmberiza), together with kin- dred genera, are among the most common small birds, fifteen or , twenty species of each having been noticed. In the proper sea- son the latter are killed for market in such numbers as to excite surprise that they do not become extinct. In taking many of the warblers, orioles, and jays, for rearing or sale as fancy birds, the Chinese ai‘e very expert in the use of birdlime. In all parts of the land, the pie family are deemed so useful as scavengers that they are never molested, and in consequence become very common. The magpie is a favorite bird, as its name, hi tsioh, or ‘ joyous bird,’ indicates, and occurs all over the land. Ravens, choughs, crows, and blackbirds keep do\t-n the insects and ver- min and consume offal. The palace grounds and inclosures of the nobility in Peking are common resorts for these crows, wliere they are safe from harm in the great trees. Every morning myriads of them leave town with the dawn, returning at evening with increased cawing and clamor, at times actually darkening the sky with their flocks. A pretty sight is occasion- ally seen when two or thi-ee tliousand young crows assemble just at sunset in mid-air to chase and play with each other. The crow is regarded as somewhat of a sacred bird, either from a service said to have been rendered by one of his race to an ancestor of the present dynasty, or because he is an emblem of filial duty, from a notion that the young assist their parents when disabled. The owl, on tlie other hand, has an odious name becau.se it is stigmatized as the bird which eats its dam. One member of the pie family deserving mention is the long- tailed blue jay of Porn losa remarkable for its bril- liant plumage. Another, akin to the sun birds {^Ethojjyya (lahryi), comes from Sz'chuen, a recent discovery. The body is red, the head, throat, and each side of the neck a brilliant violet, belly yellow, wings black with the primaries tinted green along the edge, and the feathers long, tapering, of a black or steel blue. ' Jonirnal of the North China Branch of the Royal Aeiatic Society, May, p. 28!). MA(JI*IKS AND PK’.KONS. 385 Tlie Mainah, or Indian inino {Aondothem), known by its yellow carbuncles, which extend like ears from behind the eye, is reared, as are also three species of Munia^ at (’ajiton. Spar- rows abound in every province around houses, driving away other birds, and entertaining the observer by their (juarrels and activity. Kobins, ouzels, and tailor-birds are not abundant. None of the humming-birds or birds of paradise occur, and only one species has hitherto been seen of the parrot group. "Woodpeckers {Pious) are of a dozen species, and the wryneck occasionally attracts the eye of a sportsman. The canary is reared in great numbers, being known under the names of ‘ white swallow ’ and ‘ time sparrow ; ’ the chattering .Ia\ a sparrow and tiny avedavat are also taught little tricks by their fanciers, in compensation for their lack of song. The two or three proper parrots are natives of Formosa. The family of pigeons {Colu>tibid(e) is abundantly repre- sented in fourteen specie.s, and doves form a common household bird ; their eggs are regarded as proper food to prevent small- pox, and sold in the markets, being also cooked in birdnest an