>!■ •• • - '-"i:. •- ■ . r. >. >. ■’!’v>’L> '1 • I. i.”L ' » k. ‘Is • /.'L'j,';- ' ■• i.'i- 'vN'-KS ‘>>i’ - I ' ? i i ) ! *"'-') i s-;- ' r' Division.. PJ. 5" Q O Z Section., .C1i6 No, «•»*»(*- GEAMMAE OF THE DIALECTS OF VEENACUEAE SYEIAC. ilonHon : C. J. CLAY and SONS, CAMBBIDGE UNIVEKSITY PEESS WAEEHOUSE, AVE MAKIA LANE. GLASGOW : 203, ARGYLL STREET. LEIPZIG : F. A. BROCKHAUS. NEW YORK: MACMILLAN AND CO. aEAMMAB OF THE DIALECTS OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC AS SPOKEN BY THE EASTERN SYRIANS OF KURDISTAN, NORTH-WEST PERSIA, AND THE PLAIN OF MOSUL WITH NOTICES OF THE VERNACULAR OF THE JEWS OF AZERBAIJAN AND OF ZAKHU NEAR MOSUL BY y ARTHUR JOHN MACLEAN, M.A, F.R.G.S., DEAN OF ARGYLL AND THE ISLES, SOMETIME HEAD OP THE ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY’S MISSION TO THE EASTERN SYRIANS. CAMBRIDGE : AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 1895 CamlJt’ilrgf FEINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVEK8ITY PEESS. CONTENTS. SECTION page — Introduction ...... ix 1. The Letters. Consonants 2 2. Final letters 4 3. Aspirated letters 4 4. Notes on the pronunciation of letters 5 5. Vowels .... 7 6. Modification of vowel sounds 10 7. Diphthongs 11 8. Accent ....... 13 9. Signs ....... 15 10. Pronouns. Personal .... 16 11. Affix forms .... 18 12. Demonstrative 20 13. Interrogative .... 22 14. Relative .... 23 15. Indefinite .... 24 16. Substantives. States .... 26 17. Gender .... 34 18. Number .... 39 19. Irregular and double plurals 49 20. With pronominal affixes . 54 21. Adjectives. Gender .... 57 22. Number .... 59 23. Position .... 59 24. Comparison .... 61 25. Miscellaneous notes 61 26. Cardinal Numerals 64 27. Ordinal Numerals 67 28. Various notes on Numerals . 69 S. GR. 6 VI CONTENTS. SECTION PAGE 29. Verbs. Substantive Verb ....... 74 30. Conjugations ....... 79 31. First Conjugation ...... 80 32. Formation of tenses ...... 84 33. Verb used negatively ...... 88 34. Passive ........ 89 35. Second Conjugation, first division 90 36. ,, second division . 92 37. ,, third division 94 38. Regular Variations. Verbs with initial letter weak ........ 95 39. Verbs with middle letter weak 97 40. ,, ... 98 41. ,, ... 99 42. Verbs with final letter weak 99 43 ,, ... 103 44 ,, ... 103 45 Causative Verbs ....... 106 46. Irregular Verbs, 1 Conj. ..... 117 47. ,, 2 Conj . 131 48. Verbal noun and past partici^ile with affixes 134 49. Present participle and imperative ,, 134 50. Preterite ,, 135 51. Use of the tenses. Tenses derived from present part. 140 52. Second present ...... 143 53. Imperfect ....... 143 54. Preterite ....... 143 55. Perfect ....... 144 56. Pluperfect ....... 145 57. Verbal noun .... . . 145 58. Participles ....... 146 59. Imperative ....... 147 60. Conditional Sentences ...... 148 61. Temporal clauses ....... 148 62. Absolute hypothetical clauses .... 150 63. Imjiersonal verbs ...... 150 64. Direct object of the verb ..... 153 65. Agreement ........ 154 66. Oratio obliqua ....... 155 67. Adverbs 156 CONTENTS. Vll SECTION PAGE 68. Prepositions. Simple .... 169 69. Compound .... 175 70. With affixes 179 71. After verbs, etc. • 182 72. Conjunctions ...... 185 73. Interjections ...... 189 74. Position of Words. Emphasis. Questions 192 75. Idiomatic Phrases ..... 195 76. Derivation. Nouns of action . 215 77. Agents .... 223 78. Abstracts .... 236 79. Diminutives .... 239 80. Negatives .... 241 81. Adjectives .... 241 82. Foreign terminations 247 83. Verbs ..... 251 84. Pules for Aspiration .... 278 85. Vowels and Consonants. Relation of N.S. to O.S. and of the dialects to one another. Vowel subtracted 280 86. Vowel added 281 87. Pthaklia and Zqapa 283 88. Zlama for Pthakha or Zqapa 286 89. Pwasa .... 290 90. Sound of Pwasa . 292 91. Sound of Pthakha and Zqapa 292 92. Metathesis .... 292 93. Pepetition .... 298 94. Aspirate added 298 95. Aspirate removed 300 96. Alap prosthetic 308 97. Beith and Pe . . . 309 98. Carnal silent 310 99. Carnal and Jamal 311 100. Jamal ..... 311 101. Sound of aspirated Carnal . 313 102. Carnal and Zain . 313 103. Dalath silent 313 104. Dalath and Tau . 314 105. Dalath and Teith • 315 106. Dalath and Beith or Zain . 316 h 2 Vlll CONTENTS. SECTION 107. 108. 109. no. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. PAGE He and Klieith . . . . . .316 He silent ....... 317 Wan inserted; Wan and Yudli . . . 319 Zain and Simkath or Sadhe, etc. . . 321 Kheith . 322 Yudli and Alap; Yudh inserted or omitted. 323 Chap ........ 324 Liquids interchanged ; Lamadh silent . . 327 Mim silent . . . . . . .331 Nun silent . . . . . . .331 Sound of Nun (a) final, (6) before Beith and Pe 332 ‘E . 332 Qop and Kap or Chap . . . . 333 Qop and Gamal or Kleith .... 334 Resh silent, and Resh pronounced as Dalath 334 Shin silent . . . . . . .335 Tau and Teith . . . . . .335 Tau and Shin or Simkath; Dalath and Zain 338 Sound of Tau ...... 338 Tau silent ....... 339 APPENDIX. I. Vernacular of the Azerbaijan Jews .... 340 II. Proverbs .......... 345 INTRODUCTION. The object of the present grammar is to make known the various dialects of the Eastern Syrians (Nestorians or Chaldeans) who inhabit the mountains of Kurdistan, and the plains of Azerbaijan in North-west Persia, and of Mosul in Eastern Turkey. Their country is approximately comprised between 36° and 38° 30', N. latitude, and 42° and 46°, E. longitude, and lies between Mosul and the Sea of Van, and between the Sea of Urmi (Urmia, Urumi, Urumia) and the Bohtan Su or Eastern Tigris. They live partly in Turkey and partly in Persia ; but they are more definitely divided by religion than by political areas, into two portions, the larger of which consists of the adherents of the Patriarch Mar Shimun, the Catholicos of the East, who usually call themselves Syrians, but are better known in Europe by their nickname of Nestorians; and the smaller of which consists of the Roman Catholick Uniats who are usually known as Chaldeans. The former portion live chiefiy in the mountains of Kurdistan in Turkey, and the high plains of Azerbaijan in Persia, the latter chiefly in the plain of Mosul in Turkey, though several of them are also found in Persia. The region defined above was not the original home of the Eastern Syrians. They are all that remains of the Christian Church of the Persian Empire which, claiming to be founded in the first century, had its head-quarters on the Tigris at Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the twin capital of Persia, and thence sent out its missions over the whole of Central Asia. They were driven northwards by successive persecutions, of which the most terrible was that which they suffered at the hands of Tamerlane ; and they are now reduced to a mere shadow, numbering probably not more than a hundred thousand X INTRODUCTION. souls, whereas at one time they were computed to be more numerous than all the other Christian bodies put together. Their vernacular has, as far as is known, been until late years an unwritten language. They have long used, and still most commonly use, the classical Syriac (which they call The Old Language) in writing as well as for their religious services ; indeed only those who have studied in the European missionary schools are able to write the vernacular, which they call The Neiv Language or The Language of Speaking. In this grammar the terms ‘ Old ’ and ‘ New ’ Syriac are retained for convenience although they are somewhat of a misnomer, since, as will be seen in the sequel, the vernacular is not probably derived from the classical Syriac, and many forms in the latter are more developed than those which correspond to them in the former. In writing the classical Syriac the Eastern Syrians naturally employ their own character, which is that used in this book, and which resembles the old Estrangdla more than the Western Syrian or Jacobite character. There are also a few differences in pronunciation be¬ tween the Eastern and Western Syrians in reading the classical language, the former for example saying d where the latter say 6 ; and there are several differences in the grammatical forms. All the quotations from classical Syriac in this book are written in the Eastern Syrian manner. The first attempt known to the present writer to reduce the vernacular to writing was made in the plain of Mosul in the seven¬ teenth century, when some vernacular poems were written down on the baldest phonetic principles ; but the writer shews many incon¬ sistencies, and spells the same word in many different wa}s. In the last century the liturgical Gospels were written in the vernacular, also phonetically, and without much consistencyk But the first serious and scientific attempt to reduce any of these dialects to writing was made in the year 1886 by an American Presbyterian missionary at Urmi, the Bev. Dr Perkins, who trans¬ lated the Bible into the Urmi vernacular ; and this translation was published in 1852 by the American Bible Society in two large quarto volumes in parallel columns with the Pshittal The spelling of the 1 The present writer is indebted for the loan of both these manuscripts to the American Presbyterian Missionaries at Urmi. 2 A new edition of the Bible in the Urmi vernacular in one handsome volume has INTRODUCTION. XI classical Syriac, which the people were accustomed to see written, was necessarily taken for all words and forms common to it and the vernacular, and other forms and words were spelt analogously, or else according to the sound. It is a matter for some regret, however, that this work was published at a time when the genesis of the vernacular had been very little investigated, and consequently many misleading spellings were adopted, as for instance the final Alap in the third person singular of the preterite, where the final He gives exactly the same sound, and makes the tense intelligible etymolo¬ gically. In 1856 Mr Stoddard, a colleague of Dr Perkins, published in the fifth volume of the American Oriental Society’s journal a grammar of the Urmi dialect^ which is chiefly useful for its list of the verbs used in that plain ; and since then various educational and theological works both in classical and vernacular Syriac have issued from the printing presses of the three missions working among the Eastern Syrians, — all of which have their head-quarters at Urmi, the only large town in the country of the non-Uniat Syrians — the American Presbyterian, the French Roman Catholick (Lazarist), and the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Mission. The vernacular works of the first of these follow the lead of Dr Perkins, though his spelling has been very slightly modified ; those of the second are largely influenced by the dialect of the plain of Salamas, where many Uniats are found; while those of the third mission, which is of more recent origin, adopt a somewhat more etymological spelling than the others, and aim, while written in the Urmi dialect, at being in¬ telligible to the neighbouring mountaineers of Kurdistan as well as the people of the Azerbaijan plains. This spelling is adopted in this grammar, and reasons for its use are given below. The writer must express his particular obligations to the very useful Grammatik dev Neusyrischen Sprache of Professor Ndldeke. This book, which was published in 1868, analyses the dialect of Urmi very fully ; but being based on the Mission publications which had appeared before that date, it is necessarily almost entirely con¬ fined to that dialect. It has been particularly valuable in suggesting been published by the same Society in 1893. A smaller type is used, and the PshiUa is omitted; while references and maps are added. ^ The present writer has verified orally most of Mr Stoddard’s variant grammatical forms. A few are given here on Mr Stoddard’s authority, which the writer has not been able to find in use. These are marked ‘St.’ or ‘ Stod.' Xll INTRODUCTION. etymologies ; and while a search among other dialects has disproved a few of these, by far the greater number have been fully confirmed. It will be seen by what has been said that while the Urmi dialect is well known, the others have not been brought to light. The Gospels have indeed been printed by the American Presbyterian Mission at Urmi in the Alqosh dialect, that of the plain of Mosul, but a very limited number of copies was issued, and it is now quite unobtainable; indeed it may be doubted if any were ever seen in Europe. Dr Socin also, in his N eiiaramdischen Dialekte von Urmi bis Mosul, has given us a few specimens (chiefly in Poman character) of the Jilu, Salamas, Alqosh^ and Zakhu^ dialects, besides several of that of Urmi. But no grammar has been written of these other dialects ; and those of the great Ashiret, or semi-independent tribes of Kurdistan, and several others, have been entirely untouched. The present writer has therefore set himself during a five years’ sojourn among the Eastern Syrians, when engaged on the Archbishop of Canterbury’s mission to them, to collect the materials for the present grammar^ The number of variations both in the vocabulary and in the grammatical forms used is extraordinarily great, and almost every village has its own way of speaking. It will be found that in this book a large number of variant forms have been added even in the Urmi dialect ; but it is perhaps necessary to remind European readers that this is the speech of only a small proportion of the people. It has been chosen by the different Missions as their basis for writing the vernacular, but this choice has given it an exaggerated importance. It is therefore the object of this work to compare the other dialects, that is, those of nine-tenths of the Eastern Syrian people, with that of Urmi, which is already known. It is clear that a comparison of dialects will throw much light on etymology, and that one dialect will often supply a missing link which will remove a difficulty in the speech of another. Classes of dialects. The variation of the dialects is geographical ; ^ Professor Sachau’s sketch of this dialect, mentioned below, came to hand as the last sheets of this book were passing through the press ; a few forms are taken from it. 2 This is the vernacular of the Jews of that place. The writer, though he has visited Zakhu, has had no opportunities of taking notes of the Jews’ language, and is therefore entirely indebted to Dr Socin for the examples of it in this volume. 3 The Aramaic dialect of the Western Syrians (Jacobites) of Jebel Tur is not given in this book. INTRODUCTION. Xlll there are practically no differences of class among the people, and all in the same place have more or less the same tongue. An examina¬ tion of the peculiarities of speech in different districts would lead us to divide the language into four main divisions, the two first of which may be called the non-aspirating, and the two last the aspirating dialects, the difference being in the hardening or softening of the letters Tau and Dalath. It is possible that these four classes represent four separate migrations from the plains of Mesopotamia and Assyria. The first two groups of dialects, which are spoken at the North-eastern and Northern extremities of the country, would thus represent the earlier migrations. We thus have : — I. The Urmi group (U.); the dialect of the great plain of Urmi, in Azerbaijan, to the west of the sea of that name ; the dialect of the smaller plain of Solduz to the south of the sea, which is almost the same, though in a few of its Syrian villages Syriac has given place to Azerbaijani Turkish; the dialect of the north part of the plain of Urmi, noted here as ‘ Sp.,’ i.e. Sipurghan, which is somewhat affected by the Salamas dialect (Group II.), as is also that of the small plain of Gavilan between the two, II. The Northern group. This group is especially noticeable for dropping Tau. a. (Sal.) Plain of Salamas, in Persia, to the north-west of the Sea of Urmi. h. (Q.) Qudshanis, in Turkey, the village of the Patriarch Mar Shimun, gives its name to the dialect of the neighbouring district, which is a little south of the Sea of Van. c. (Gaw.) The plain of Gawar, in Turkey, a high table-land to the west of the Perso-Turkish frontier. This plain and the district round Qudshanis are called ‘ Ray at ’ or Subject , being entirely under the direct government of the Turks. d. (J.) The dialect of Jilu is practically the same. This very mountainous district lies a little to the west of Gawar, and geogra¬ phically belongs to Group III., being Ashiret ; but philologically it belongs to Group 11. Its people are very different in appearance and character from most of the other Syrians, being of a more Jewish cast. XIV INTRODUCTION. in. The Ashiret growp. K. in the following pages denotes the dialects of the Ashiret or Tribal (semi-independent) districts of Central Kurdistan, which consist of inaccessible mountains and valleys lying between Van and Mosul. Over these districts the Turks exercise little more than a nominal sway, and the soldiers seldom penetrate it. Of these districts we have : — a. (Ti.) Upper Tiari, to the north-west of the group; this is by far the largest Ashiret district. h. (Tkh.) Tkhuma, a large valley east of Ti^-ri, south-west of Jilu. c. Tal, Baz, Diz, Waltu, smaller Ashiret districts, north and east of Tkhuma. d. (Ash.) Ashitha, in Lower Tiari, to the south-west of the group. This is the principal village in the Ashiret districts, and its dialect differs very greatly from that of Upper Tiari, and approaches rather those of the fourth group. e. (MB.) Mar Bishu ; (Sh.) Shamsdin. These are districts in Turkey close to the Persian frontier, south-west of Gawar, and are inhabited by colonies from Tiari. Their dialects are closely related to that of Tiari, but are somewhat influenced by the first, or Urmi, group. This is still more the case with the dialects of Tergawar, Mergawar, and Bradust, three neighbouring upland plains on the Persian side of the frontier. The village of Anhar in the plain of Urmi, near Tergawar, is also a colony from Tiari, and retains several Tiari peculiarities of language, grafted on the Urmi speech. These districts are separated from the rest of this group by Gawar and Jilu. IV. The Southern group, a. (Al.) The Alqosh dialect, .spoken in the villages of the plain of Mosul. In the town of Mosul itself vernacular Syriac almost entirely gives place to Arabic. This dialect receives its name from the village of Alqosh, about thirty miles north of Mosul, where is the famous monastery of Raban Hurmizd. The language of the other villages, Telkief, Teleskof, and the rest, differ in small particulars from that of Alqosh itself. h. (Bo.) The Bohtan dialect, spoken in Boh tan, in Western Kurdistan, a district lying on the Eastern branch of the Upper Tigris, INTRODUCTION. XV c. (Z.) The Zakhu dialect, spoken by the Jews of that place, which is about sixty miles north of Mosul. It greatly resembles that of Alqosh. With regard to foreign words, Groups I. and II. are chiefly affected by Persian and Azerbaijani Turkish ; Group III. by Kurdish and Arabic ; Group IV. by Arabic. Origin of the Vernacular. It would appear that the dialects, though sufficiently different to make it difficult for a man to under¬ stand one of a distant district, are yet sufficiently alike to argue a common origin. This origin, however, we can hardly seek in the written or classical language. It would be a mistake to look on the spoken Syriac as a new creation, springing from the ruins of the written tongue ; the former may indeed in a sense be called The Neiu Language, as it has greatly developed its grammatical structure in an analytical manner, and has dropped many of the old synthetic forms, but much or most of it was doubtless in use side by side with the written classical Syriac for centuries. It retains in many cases forms less developed than corresponding forms in the written lan¬ guage ; thus in § 32 we see that in the formation of the first person plural of the first present tense, the spoken Syriac retains the Kheith which is dropped in the classical. The contractions in the tenses of the vernacular shew independence of the written language (§§ 31, 32). Many words are found in the former which are not used in the latter, but which are found in the Chaldee and other older Aramaic dialects. So too, some of the compounds which are survivals of the construct state (§ 16, ii. g) and some of the few remaining agents of the old form (I 77, 2) are formed from verbs not found even in the latest classical Syriac, though used now ; this would shew that these verbs were in use in speaking, though not in writing, before those now almost obsolete constructions and formations were given up. The form of the past participle of the second conjugation, mpu'la, and of the verbal noun of the same, mpa'uli or mpa\de, can hardly have been derived from the very different forms which correspond to them in the classical language ; and the same may be said of the method in which the prepositions take pronominal affixes. The style of spelling adopted. European Orientalists have some¬ times expressed surprise that the missionaries who reduced the language to writing did not adopt the Roman alphabet, Had their XVI INTRODUCTION. only object been to make the language known in Europe, they might have done so; but as their aim was to enable the Eastern Syrians themselves to read and write their own language, they had no option but to use the character to which the people themselves were accustomed. They already wrote classical Syriac, which contained a very large number of the words used in the spoken tongue, and there¬ fore it was absolutely necessary to employ the alphabet which was in common use. Many difficulties however present themselves. Are words to be spelt on exact phonetic principles ? And if so, what dialect is to be chosen ? How is a man of one district to understand a book printed in the dialect of another ? It is impossible to print the books in every dialect, and one must aim at spelling so as to make the books intelligible to the greatest number of readers possible. The Archbishop of Canterbury’s Mission Press at Urmi has therefore laid before itself the following principles: (1) The Vernacular must be treated as a historical language, not as one invented in the present generation ; in other words etymology must be considered. (2) The spelling of classical Syriac is taken as a basis. Thus when Old Syriac spelling gives the vernacular sound, it is adopted, although some other perhaps simpler spelling also gives the sound. (3) When some districts follow Old Syriac and some depart from it, the words are spelt in preference according to the former (see e.g. § 87, c to m). (4) But when all, or nearly all, the dialects differ from Old Syriac, the vernacular sound is followed. (5) Words not generally understood except in one dialect — and especially foreign words, which are often used in one district only, — are used as sparingly as possible. (6) The mark talqana (lit. the destroyer), which denotes a silent or fallen letter, is retained to a considerable extent^ both because a letter thus marked may be sounded in some dialects though it has fallen in others, and also because a Syriac word thus marked may often be made intelligible to those who do not use it by the fact of its re¬ semblance (to the eye) to the corresponding word in the classical ^ On the other hand it is not used with an initial vowelless Alap or Yudh. In the later, but not the earlier East Syrian manuscripts, it is found with the very few words which begin with a vowelless Alap. In the vernacular, however, similar words are very numerous, and it is a great gain to be able to dispense with the mark. As Alap and Yudh without a vowel have no sound it seems needless to write a sign which denotes that the sound is taken away. In some cases (§ 29, Note 2) it would be a distinct error to write it, as the Yudh contributes to the diphthongal sound. INTRODUCTION. XVll language, which all who can read and write understand to some extent. (7) The same remark applies to etymological spelling. A word thus spelt is easily recognized, even if not used in speaking; and moreover it is found that a word spelt etymologically is fre¬ quently capable of more than one pronunciation, and therefore suits the speech of several dialects. There is of course no royal road to the end desired, of making the books intelligible to all the Eastern Syrians, and the method here advocated will not give the exact colloquial language of any one dialect ; but it aims rather at producing a literary style which will make communication between the various districts easier. Arrangement of this hook. This grammar is primarily intended for the use of those who wish to learn vernacular Syriac practically, and therefore, while the classical language is constantly referred to for illustration, a knowledge of it is not assumed. Those who wish to learn only one dialect may do so by omitting all variant forms marked with letters denoting other dialects. The discussion of derived nouns and verbs, and of alphabetical peculiarities of the vernacular as compared with classical Syriac, is postponed to the end of the book, in order that the reader may have some knowledge of the language before he reaches them ; and the accidence and syntax are placed together instead of being separated, as this has been found in several grammars of modern languages to be of practical advantage in rendering their acquisition easier. A large number of idiomatic phrases arranged in alphabetical order will be found in the book; and over one hundred proverbs, which may be of general interest, have been added in the Appendix. The author is indebted to Miss Payne Smith and to Mr Norman McLean, Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge, for reading the proofs of this work, and for making various suggestions. Note. No dictionary of the vernacular has been published, but a vocabulary of verbs used in several districts, with meanings in English, has been compiled by the present writer and may be had from the English Mission Press at Urmi, or from the Secretary of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Mission (7, Dean’s Yard, Westminster), price 5s. ABBREVIATIONS. ‘New Syriac,’ the vernacular. ‘ Old Syriac,’ the classical language. Azerbaijani Turkish. N.S. o.s. Turk. Osm. Turk. Osmanli Turkish. Kurd. Kurdish. Gk. Greek. Pers. Persian. Chald. Chaldee. Arab. Arabic. Heb. Hebrew. pron. pronounced. Nold. Noldeke’s Gravk'matik dei' Neusyrisclien Sprache (Leipzig, Weigel, 1868). Nbld. O.S.G. Noldeke’s Syrische Grammatik [the Classical lan¬ guage] (Leipzig, Weigel, 1880). St. or Stod. Stoddard’s Modern Syriac Grammar (American Oriental Society, Volume v. 1856). Socin Socin’s Neuaramdischen Dialekte von Urmi his Mosid (Tubingen, 1882). Sachau Sachau’s Skizze des Fellichi-Dialekts von Mosid (Berlin, 1895). The usual grammatical abbreviations are used. ABBREVIATIONS. XIX Abbreviations for dialecta. Al. Alqosh. Q. Qudshanis. Ash. Ashitha. Sal. Salamas. Az, Azerbaijan Jews. Sh. Shamsdin. Bo. Bohtan. Sp. Sipurghan. Gaw. Gawar. Tkh. Tkhuma. J. Jilu. Ti. Tiari. K. Kurdistan (Ashiret dis¬ U. Urmi. tricts only). z. Zakhu Jews. MB. Mar Bishu. One of these abbreviations after a grammatical form indicates that the form is used in the district for which the abbreviation stands ; but not necessarily that it is confined to that district. When no abbreviation follows any particular form, it is to be read as being used in a large number of dialects. The letters O.S. after a Syriac word denote that the word is used both in O.S. and N.S., though in the case of verbs ending in a guttural it is to be understood that the vocalization of the last syllable is different, see p. 286 ; but the letters O.S. before a Syriac word denote that it is used in O.S. and not in N.S. Transliteration of Syriac ivords. When to indicate the pronuncia¬ tion or for any other reason, Syriac words are transliterated into Roman letters, we read : — d, a as in far ; a as in pat. e, ei as a in fate; ei as in height; e as in pet. i as in French Ue; v as in pit. 0 as in pole ; oi, oy as in hoiden, boy. 4, u as in flute ; 4 as in but. The Syriac Qop is represented by q, Tdith by t, and Sadhe by s, except in abbreviations. I i I' 1^. r } •* T f*. » h* *j OEAMMAK OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. S. GR. 1 GKAMMAK OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 9 m Ph C£] H H W W W H A ':0 <'A' OD SO cO «?«• cO o Co g o o C/75 t>0 a c/n CD m Ph c3 x'oj 9 O O) •+3 _ _ -u tS ai .2 a-s O o 2 Ph G »>•- »>< c3 G CC »>! n #1. E 0 ♦ I n ^ ^ o I 1] CONSONANTS. 3 u o o3 S-i ^3 bX) iin CO aS M 03 C.C75 p: CO •<>> ■iO ■+0 CO p^ CO o3 -♦J o Cl (D o • 02 - :zi - •rl fl >73 CD «c d -S '3 S s S S Co r«d ^ S Ch W 03 ^ I3 ^ d ^ CO 03 ftj Si Si o3 O CO ^ 1 i p I ^ 02 Teith Yudh Pi o3 M Lamadh Mim P P Simkatl w Oh Ch o 'P Oh ND p: c3 O}- Ph o p CO p Shin Tau 2- "■ 1: R ■«/ §= f .A- 4 n- " 1/1 n. •>«'- 3 <1 •n-- »1 1; 6 -=^ Jt o3 P p: di c3 P cp R c3 P cp Q ^ ^ 1/1 H .#1 w\ Jt c3 P cp c3 P c3 P cp q- n R ^ Q A ^ 1/1 H 02 03 d e3 Si .b! ft 03 03 P CO -M ^ a U <1 • pH fe O) ^ •s c3 M CU O) a s cS ^ d 02 CO Si 03 u ^ 03 03 '~' P CO c3 CO So I 03 d o « o W) d tl ‘S a a c3 Si U) Sh O pc 4 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. These letters should be written by beginning at the right hand bottom corner, and most of them in several separate strokes. The Estrangela letters are now as a rule only used for headings of chapters, titles of books, and the like. There are no capitals, and the Estrangela letters are not used for this purpose, but rather cor¬ respond to our black letter. Of these consonants all may be affixed to the preceding letter ; and all also to the following letter except 2, a, o), O (usually), ^7 S’ fiS (^)* manuscripts A followed by is not joined on; but this rule is not now generally observed. In some of the older manuscripts is not joined on to o, u’ and other letters. Es¬ trangela letters follow the same rule in joining on as the others, but jQ> is never joined to the letter following. Alap is written 2 except (1) after when it is written % whether final or not ; (2) when final, when it is written J. But after a and a it is written 2 even though final. § 2. Final letters. For J see above. Final Kap, Mim, and Nun take the forms 5^ or 5^, ^ or or These letters when standing alone are usually written double, as ^ ; though the final disjoined forms may stand alone; the others never. When 3, V,, , u., JO, , X are final, whether joined to the preceding letter or not, a small stroke is added : thus ^ . Yudh final after c] is generally written > in manuscripts. followed by J at the end of a word is generally written if the fis attached to the preceding letter ; if not attached, it is written JflS or § 3. Aspirated lettei^s. The letters have a dot below them when aspirated, and a dot above them when not aspirated. CONSONANTS. 5 §§ 3, 4] But these dots are not written when they would interfere with vowel signs \ ^ aspirated is written ^ ; a dot is never placed above this letter. It is only aspirated in Syriac words (in most districts) when forming a diphthong (see § 7), whether in the vernacular or in the classical language in its Eastern form, which thus differs from Western or Jacobite Syriac. In words from Persian, Arabic, etc., there are a few exceptions in the speech of the better educated, and ^ then is pli ; but in general / of a foreign language becomes p in Syriac. In Al. and Z. it is often' aspirated even in Syriac words, especially at the beginning. Thus to abound has ^ . The letters which are capable of aspiration are called by the East Syrians , hagh-dakh-path. An aspirated letter is called (see § 95 d) and aspiration , or softening ; an unaspi¬ rated letter is and non-aspiration iHoJd or hardening. In U. Sp. Q. Sal. J. Gaw. etc. p and are never aspirated. The vernacular is more simple than the classical language in the matter of aspiration ; if a letter is aspirated in the normal form of the word, it is aspirated throughout all its grammatical changes in the verna¬ cular. See § 84 for Bar ZuTi’s rules ; §| 94, 95, for differences between O.S. and N.S. in this respect. § 4. Notes on the pronunciation of the letters. (1) 2 is not pronounced. It is used chiefly as a peg to hang a vowel on, or as a quiescent final letter. (2) ^ in many words modifies the vowel sound which is con¬ nected with it. See § 6. But a vowelless at the beginning of 1 In fully vocalized writing if one of these letters in the middle of a word has not a dot below it when there is a vacant space beneath, we understand it to be hard ; and so if there is no dot above and the space above is vacant, we understand it to be soft. Thus has SL ; has 3, . When in this book {{v and 3 are written with a dot beneath, it is of course only meant that they are aspirated in K. Al. etc. 6 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 4 a word ordinarily adds nothing to the sound. One or two words like cloud gave a half vowel to X . So Eden] some¬ times u\S he tvas baptized, baptism. In Al. Z. initial vowelless ^ usually has a half vowel. Thus act, JSt / ran have half vowels, though elsewhere they are pronounced wadha (wada), riq li. ^ and 2 are not passed over in the middle of a word after a vowel less consonant ; a break in the breath must be made. Thus ;La2 ea7'th is pronounced dr- a not dra. (3) ^ and Jb are pronounced low down in the mouth and throat respectively ; they have a very hard sound and necessarily modify the accompanying vowel (see § 6). ^ is pronounced by putting the middle, not the tip, of the tongue against the roof of the mouth. (4) ^ and aspirated have the same sound ^ ; it is some¬ what harsher than the Scottish and North German eh; in some districts it is a very harsh aspirate indeed. The ^ is a soft aspirate, pronounced lower down the throat, something like the German g in tag. (5) before a is pronounced as adlii store room (umbar). (6) A mark ~ under or above or ^ make them =j (in jay) and ch (in chmxh) respectively. These letters are then called Jamel and Chap. The same mark with f or x makes them =j in French jamais. The name of this mark is U. majliydna or wearing away (<, K.). (7) A letter repeated must be pronounced twice, not as in English as a single letter. This is a matter of considerable import¬ ance. Thus we have K. I complete (§ 36), pronounced mtd-uimin, not mtdmin. ^ But see § 107. VOWELS. 7 (8) In other words all letters must be pronounced in full, and none left half pronounced as is so often done in English. Thus in fireiuood, the wb must be finished before the p is begun. (9) Care must be taken to pronounce letters not marked with talqana (§ 9), especially a], which though feeble when with¬ out a vowel, is still sounded ; thus trouble is not zamdt but zdh’mdt. § 6 (1). (10) Initial u if it has no vowel has no sound. (11) In most words ^ and have the same sound. If any difference is made, g is somewhat more sibilant. It is not ts. (12) o) final is silent. See § 108. § 5. Vowels The vowels are marked by dots placed above or below the consonants, as shown by the following table. — Pthakha, = a in fat ; sometimes e in pet. Zqapa, = a- in psalm. — Zlami zogi, • • O' in fit. — Zlami pshuqi, or Zlami yarikhi (also Zlama pshuqa, yarikha) (1) as ee in feet, i in French si, (2) as a in fate or often somewhat shorter. ^ Khwasa, = ee in feet, i in French si. O Rwasa, = u in rule', in a few words like oo in wool, e.g. l^pp world (Turk.) [so all ; see below]. In Sh. and M.B. more like a French u in all words. O Rwakha, iLohi = u in rule, slightly inclining to o, espe¬ cially in Al. Z. or Zlama zoga 2^0^ i I 8 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Half vowels. — Half Pthakha, a very short vowel : very rarely written in N.S. — Half Zlama, a very short Zlama. These are usually written between consonants in manuscripts, but in printing they are necessarily put under one of them ; e.g. west O.S. and N.S. O.S., K. Baptist (= U.). Half Pthakha is also called mar-Jitana or making to run ; half Zlama is niliagyana or spelling. The former must not be confused with talqana (§ 9). An O.S. half vowel is fre¬ quently replaced by a whole vowel in N.S. See § 86. Of these vowels Khwasa can onlv be used with ^ , Rwasa and Rwakha with o- The others can be used with any letter, provided it be not final. Notes. (1) The form Z(|apa is preferred by the Eastern, Zqopho by the Western Syrians. (2) There is much variation in different districts in the pronun¬ ciation of long Zlama. In Urmi the first pronunciation is usual, except in a few words such as ^ not (if indeed this is the proper method of spelling this word ; see § 67) : other (rarel}' with the first pronunciation) : yes (sometimes : but yes always has ' I* the first pronunciation) ; uiX two (O.S. ^SX) ; and in the names of the letters , but the sound is rather a short one ; and 2^ where the sound is long. On the other hand both in K. and ry- o U. the letters usually (but not always) have the first sound. In K. Al. the second pronunciation is more common except in plurals in J _ and in the pronominal affix cj) _ ; but in • • Tiari these plurals also often have the second sound, as , and in Al. both these plurals and cj _ often have the second sound. §5] VOWELS. 9 In many cases the variation of pronunciation shows that long Zlama should be written, as etymology also would suggest. Thus the 3rd pi. present of ^ verbs, as they reveal (O.S. nounced gale in K. Ah, gali in U. ; in the K. form of the 3rd pers. pi. possessive pronoun with nouns, as their hook, the first sound »• * * prevails in Tkh., the second in Ti. The K. imperfect obo) uOO) I* they were (O.S. obb? is we-wa, § 29. smell, has the first sound in U., the second in K. go, is pronounced ze, zi, se or si. lord o/(§ 16) is mari in U., viare in K. The K. forms Ji3u*2 m., f, are khrena and khreta (= other). (3) No vowel can be placed on the final letter of a word, except u 9 ©9 b ; hence the use of the Alap in which nearly all purely Syriac nouns now end. (4) u final must be distinguished from J __ and C7) _ . It is marked, in U., by the breath being made to pass sharply over the tongue as the vowel i is being pronounced. The distinction is hardly marked in K. Ah Z. etc. u. has the sound of short i in there is ; / # I in the fern, past part, of 1st conj. as finished', and usually in the preterite 1st conj. as I finished ; but not when the object is expressed by affixes. See § 50. Also in husband’s brother, but not in ^ioDu.2 Imsband’s sister. »■ / (5) u often does duty both as a vowel and as a consonant. Thus di-yan, of us. This is not the case with o ; if Rwasa or Rwakha or a diphthongal Wau is followed by the sound of Wau consonantal, O must be repeated. Thus in us, is gci-wan, not go-wan. ^ initial is pronounced i not yi. (6) A few words are always written without vowels ; as (mm) from ; ^ (man) who ; (kid) all ; obi (d or ow as in cow) S. GR. 2 10 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. he or that ; (d as in fate or ei) she or that ; and so their deriva¬ tives, as universal, ^01 then, all of it. But with affixes receives Zlama zoga, as in O.S., as from him. I* (7) The letters D of o aiid, 3 in, with, ^ to, and combinations of them, are prefixed to words without vowels, except in Al. where they have Zlama zoga before a vowelless letter. But they do not quite coalesce with the word following. Thus there is a distinction between late {drang) and of colour {dirang), though the former word is sometimes pronounced, especially by children, like the latter. Between a preposition and a demonstrative pronoun an inserted 3 coalesces with the latter as Joyla on this, § 70 (12) ; and so often 3, ^ before demonstrative pronouns, and sometimes p when =0/! In O.S. these particles receive Pthakha before a vowel¬ less letter, o is pronounced u when = and. 1 with a vowel, pre¬ ceded by these particles, does not in N.S. usually throw back the vowel to the particle, as always in the Western and sometimes in the Eastern form of O.S. (8) Before 2 Zlama is always the long one. § 6. Modification of vowel sounds hy certain consonants. (1) Before a silent letter a short vowel is lengthened ; this applies to a letter with talqana (§ 9) as well as to a vowelless iy or 2? as first {qd-maya) ; ^ one (khd), usually ; face {jmtha), 23:^3 doing (bi-tuadha). For exceptions see § 37 h. So also Pthakha before ci as in trouble {zdlimdt). (2) The vowel sounds are slightly modified when in the same syllable with iy, ,b, and sometimes with Pthakha, Zlama zoga, and often Zqapa are then sounded nearly like u in but, as five (khumsha), wheat (khtiti), but not in to sin {hhdU) ; locust (qumsa). There are however many exceptions. VOWELS. 11 §§ 6, 7] especially with Almost always in Al., and often in K., iy does not modify the vowel, but is pronounced like 1 . In other districts this modification is the only way of distinguishing ^ and 2. country, is pronounced 'uthra (U. ‘utra), as if written with ; and so sto7'e rooni (umbar). The long vowels u, after Jti ^ are necessarily some¬ what modified. If these letters are properly pronounced, far back in the mouth and throat, the proper vowel sound follows naturally. Thus fig and niud have quite distinct vowel sounds ; and so also 2^2 Jiwnd and 232^ feast, even if the Zlama of the latter have the first sound. (In Tkh. it has the second sound.) Note that the preterite (§ 32. 4) of the first conjugation is always pronounced with the ^ sound even with these letters in it. This is an additional reason for spelling it with u (though the sound is usually short) and not with Zlama. Thus is qimli ; if we wrote it it would be quinli. The word the h). ♦^OuOl^ Sion is usually pronounced Seihyun (sound 7. Diphthongs uJk. as a in fate, as one ivho rises ; or ei in height as in Syriaii, where the u. does duty first in the diphthong and then as a consonant. If the u has no vowel the first sound is more common. Some words are pronounced both ways, as 23^*^ gam, interest. The following are irregular : good (U. spoi-i, K. spei, rather drawn out), 23*!ap U. hitter (moira), lyjb U. cold (qoira), but not the kindred words U. hot (kheima), thinned 12 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. out, as trees (deila). In K. Al. and O.S. these are ’ / / ' ^ tm The diphthong has the same sound. But in IT. wishing, knowing, fearing, have the sound of oi ; in K. Sal. etc. of ei. ^ But OOC71 is pronounced tvd‘, ^ ■5' and in the names of the letters ob , the diphthong has the sound of ow ill cow. , generally as o in pole, rarely as the following diph- • • thong. [In the name Japhet, ^ has a feeble sound, Yopht.] OA_ (rare), somewhat like ow in cow, as pronounced by the uneducated in London, as oJb tinder. / la • and , generally as a in fate, sometimes as ei in height^ • • iLi. eye, fountain, has the first sound in K. the second in U. Dis- tinguish heaven (first sound) and hearing (second). 0 0 ^ ^ Exceptions : as (akh), cis {mdkh, but in Al. mekh) : there is not {lU) and its variant (litm). [In K. Al. we have w hich in Ti. is lath, in Tkh. lUh, in Al. leth.'] temple {hekla). ai _ O _ . ^ ^ . either as u in tune or u in 7'ule. At • • • • • • the end of a word these are not properly diphthougs, but the consonant has a feeble, half-whistlino’ sound. Thus to sit is not O m ydtiv nor yet ydtu {u as in French), but between the two, and ends with a soft whistle. In ^o, po (followed by a consonant) the ^ and p give no addi¬ tional force to the Bwasa. In u, _ Yudh gives no additional force to the Zlama, except at the end of a word iu U. ACCENT. 13 §§ 8] uO at the end of a word gives Yudh a very short sound ; but uCTlO is only. Note. The combination has always been distasteful to the Eastern Syrians. Hence when the Western Syrians used this diph- thong, the Easterns put Zqapa for Pthakha. Hence we have JbODji day, O.S., Ti. Al. not jial (pron. in U. Q. Tkh. etc., So in quadriliterals 1^0!s0 to confess, not 2po^. This applies also to a great extent when the Wau has a vowel, not only in O.S. but also (especially in K.) in N.S. ; thus, where in U. they say to join, in K. they say ^V^pfbO . § 8. A ccent In speaking the accent is almost invariably placed on the penul¬ timate, even in foreign words. Exceptions. (1) teacher, my brother, and the like, when used vocatively, are accented on the first. (2) Words with the 3rd pi. pronominal affix are often accented on the last especially in U. There was originally another syllable here, which is still used in K. See § 11. Cf (= which is oxytone. (3) Adverbs in are also usually oxytone. But they are rare (§ 67). (4) especially (pers.), jii 0^20 in the morning, (Om Sal.) in shoi't, and deacon, are accented on the first. But the plural is accented regularly, and in K. often the singular. immediately, is accented on both first and last, jiicT/ U. always, on the first. Also the following are accented on the first and pronounced as one word : lost year, Ax 3^ Ti. Al. 14 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. upiuards, Ti. Al. downwards, U. in the evening, ^ one qran (7d.), one tnmdn (6s.), wiibO Mar Shimun (but not the names of the other bishops), • * this side, ooA that side ; and so suddenly. (5) When the 2nd pi. pronominal affix ♦^oaou^, or the plural imperative affix are added, the accent is often on the ante¬ penultimate. (6) Generally when any affix is added to a word, whether written as part of the word or not, it counts as part of the word in deter¬ mining the accent. Thus ^xpdlbO he will heal, is accented on a, but op ajOabO he will heal him, on jqj. n ** *, (7) The verb Jool , OOO) was, similarly counts as part of the word. Thus in ;o^ tsa he would finish, the accent is on the b. M (8) In first (adv.), the accent is often on the first, and the first Zqapa is very feeble, especially in U. Thus qdm'ta. So in abstracts in J^ouA_ the o often falls or is feeble, and the Zqapa before ui is accented, especially in U. (9) l3o\ iblby Easter U., ibibw Christmas U., are each , ^ , y m , pronounced as one word, with the accent on b. (10) All plurals in Sal. Q. Gaw., which correspond to U. plurals in and K. plurals in are oxytone, the last syllable having fallen. Thus we only distinguish sides (dipnd) from side (dipna) by the accent. See § 18. Note 3. (11) The numerals in § 28 (1) are accented on the first, as uOy^Kiob^ both of them, also the days of the week, § 28 (5). 9] SIGNS. 15 § 9. Signs. N.S. , or Al. Talqana. A line above a letter — denotes that it is silent. This mark is called talqana, (or i.e. the destroyer: and a letter thus marked is called tliqta, Sign of the plural. Two large dots above a word denote the plural in nouns, adjectives, and participles used adjectivally. They are called Sianii, , or ‘ positions.’ By preference they are put over a and D if these letters occur in the word, whether they already have a vowel or not. But they may be put over any letter. They are not written slanting over as by the Western Syrians. When written over a one of them counts as the dot of the letter itself, as a . They are not now used with verbs. Various. A large dot is put over o) in the 3rd fern, pronominal affix (§11); and in ob) , (§ 10); over ^ who and under ^ from. See § 5 (6). is written without a dot. The large dots which marked the tenses and persons of the old verb have disappeared with those tenses. The stops usually used are — : : comma ; . semi-colon or full stop ; full stop, especially at the end of a paragraph. This, or a star, often divides verses of psalms and anthems. The Syrians use their stops very loosely. The first of the above stops is more used than the comma in English. It is often called drawing of breath. In manuscripts a distinction is often made between the two ways of writing these two dots, according as they slant to the right or to the left. For a fuller discussion of vowels and consonants in particular words see §§ 85 — 126 inch 16 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 10 PRONOUNS. ^ 10. Personal Pronouns JIdouiA The forms most commonly used are those written first. Sing. 3 m. oo7 he, or ^ob) U. (ow-vmn), or ^obl U., or U, or JboCTJ 2., or oo^^ K. Al. In all but the last aj is silent. f. uCTj she, or ^crj U. {ey-in), or Al. Tkh., or Z-, or Ti. In the first two and last o] is silent. 2 m. kii thou, or Tkh., or iSil U- K- (^S iu Tal), or isoil Al. Ti. Z., or ba72 Z., or Z., or ^sojl Ti. Tkh., or Aii •<# # I# $ ^ Gaw. f. uisii or Tkh., / • / u4s^2 Al. Ti., or Ti. Tkh., or . isii U. K. (^s in Tal), \ II / - • ^ or Gaw. 0 0 or 1 m. and f. Ji2 I. Plur. 3 m. and f. \^i they U. K. Al. Z., or ^ K. Sal. AL, or uj»2 * ^1* Al. (dne), or u,o)42 Al. (anhe). »• or 2 m. and f. you U. K., or o^Sk*1 K- Al., Al., or Sal, or U. § * * I ^ 1 m. and f. wi^2 loe U., or ul**2 U. K. AL, or uAi>i^2 U. 0 » '000 0(7} and ub? as personal pronouns are pronounced ow (as in cow) and ei (as in height) respectively. In reading O.S. the Eastern Syrians read them ho'iv, liei unless the o) has talqana. 10] PRONOUNS. 17 All these pronouns are abbreviated when used with verbs. See §§29 sqq. Of these ocT), Ssii, are O.S. forms. In O.S. the short gives place to a long vowel (§§ 87, 88) and we get jLiI. The form ^2 should perhaps be written ua2 giving in U. K. the first sound to Zlama, in Al. the second. All the forms for they seem to be derived from the feminine (whence u^2 by metathesis), which has ousted the masculine. The reverse usually happens, as we see in the verb forms, but other instances of the feminine surviving and not the masculine will be seen in the following sections. For O.S. 0 * * we have with 2 prosthetic. Most of the variants are due (a) to a love of aspiration in Tkhuma, (h) to a desire to emphasize by adding ^ . [Qu. = O.S. ^<, 3 ?]. (c) from 0 0 ^ 0 0,0 11, as uJyiM2, «^o^oiSM2, 0 0 0y ^ \ - / (which has a double confusion with ^fM2). Perhaps is itself formed by confusion with the affix of the 2 pers., in which case we should write Possibly also 4^X4^^ may be a remini¬ scence of the termination of ye are or become = (d) <^oXm2 is in accordance with the usual Salamas usage of putting 0 g 0 0 for ^ final, (e) oXm2 and perhaps uXm2 are formed by a common dropping of ^ final, § 116. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons are not used objectively ; affix forms are substituted, §§ 48 — 50. But rarely in Al. we have such instances as the following: St John xv. 24, 53(7^ Ji2 ysai they hated both me and my Father. The 3 pers. pronoun is used objectively after prepositions in U., and also in K. Al. directly after verbs, as oat ^ K. AL, I saw him. When used after prepositions o must be inserted except sometimes after Thus oaj3 }.b for him = yOtOuO or o}.? ;ti. S. GR. 3 18 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. The 2 pers. plural is only used of more persons than one, § 11. Affix forms. Sing. 3 m. u070 U. Q. Sal. Gaw. J., or erj. K. Al. Z. (and else- where more rarely with nouns, but always in the preterite of verbs). 3 f. b]0 or 6^^ (as above). 2 m. The ^ is frequently silent in J., especially with verbs. 2 f. uA-A or Ti. MB. 1 m. and f. u. Plur. 3. yiC^A TJ. Sal. Q. Ash. Al. (and K. J. after preps.) m. f., or uO^-A K. J. Al. Tal. (nouns), or oo%m MB. Sh. (and Z. after m. f , or m. f. U. (after ^), or (rare) 4^07- Al. m., Al. f. (also for masc.), or ♦^c^A_ Bo. m. ; Bo. f. 2 m. f. or • Ti. or • Ti. or Al. Z. Also rarely in Ti, oa. (§ 70). 1 m. f or or ^A. K. U. Z. (nouns only except in Ti.). Notes. (1) Origin of the affixes. We may compare the O.S. forms. a. With masc. sing, nouns and all feminines, sing, and pi. in [‘ Singular affixes’]. S. 3 m. cr^, f. 6p_ ^ 2 m. A •. J f. yA__ , 1 m. and f. yi (no vowel). PI. 3 m. 4^01 , f. ^<7/ , 2 m. , f. ^ , 1 m. and f. . b. With masc. pi. nouns [‘ Plural affixes’]. S. 3 m. uC7]aA_ (Western mOlO^), f. 2 m. ^U-A, f. yAAL, PRONOUNS. 19 §11] PI. 3 m. ♦^00)1^, f. ^cr^—y 2 m. f. 1 and f. wA ' r— • From the ‘ Singular affixes’ we have the N.S. forms O^, y , 007 y O^ y , From the ‘Plural affixes’ we have u0)0 (= O.S. u07O^'^, C770- (= O.S. CU— , O for u, cf. § 109), j&o (= O.S. 5U_1_, O for w., and the 5^ softened, cf. § 94), yt>_L and ui^_L (= O.S. uO^_L m dropped, ^ softened), ^sOCr^i— , . Hence also and uO?aJ_ (for which reason the accent in words containing the latter is irregu¬ lar, § 8). • a.nd ^o> ->_!_(= O.S. Hence also are O.S. wa • . It is doubtful if N.S. m is from the O.S. Singular affix u, or the Plural • . If the former it is one of the many instances in which N.S. agrees with Chaldee rather than with O.S. The old form - is found in Ti. in one or two prepositions : as of you (pi.), § 70. (2) These affix forms are used with nouns (to denote possessive pronouns), prepositions, in the preterite of verbs, and for objective pronouns to verbs. (3) When they are emphatic after nouns and prepositions these forms are separated therefrom and a {of) is inserted. Thus my hook. For the additional u see § 70. But in Al. this method of expression is common when no emphasis is intended. In the same way in O.S. the Apocalypse differs from the Pshitta by having the detached forms when there is no emphasis. For greater emphasis another a is often added : \.^ba Ja^a my hook. ith o for ui, and ^ softened. 20 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. (4) No distinction is made in N.S. between the forms used with singular and those with plural nouns. (5) In the form the first Zlama sound is used in Tkhuma, • the second (but very short) in Tiari. This and the similar form are instances of the feminine surviving to the exclusion of the masculine. Cf. §§ 10, 32. For the accent see § 8 (2). (6) For two other forms for 3 pers. pi. see § 20 (12). (7) For in Salamas is often substituted. (8) The objective pronouns me, thee, etc. are expressed by vAl, etc., or in U. also by \^ish , etc. ; or by attaching the affixes to verbs as in §§ 48 sqq. Cf. also § 10 above. (9) Mine, thine, etc. are expressed by (5) ; as obi that hook is mine. These may be used absolutely, as loved his own. My own etc. is usually expressed by 'A? (A? Ti.) I 12. Demonstrative Pronoims. (1) Sing. m. this, or Jbl U. K., or jbl Al. Z., or o]l Sal. U. Sp., or 2pai MB., or lallhu] MB., or 2p2 Sh., or JicypI Sh., or 2p2 Al. (d), or udI Ah, or uis2 Gaw. (the last three also = that), or a2 Al. (cf. U. to-night = K. 5 67), or J. ■ ,t , m t! / l' { •> (both Zlamas second sound), or Jof oui Z. f. Jdyl this, or K. U. {4-ya), or jll Al. {eiya), or C772 Sal. U., or 2^2 etc., as above, or Jo/ uibt Z. Blur. m. and f. U. Ti., or Jl2 Tkh. Ash., or JA2 Al K. (not Ash.), or s^2 Al, or MB., or MB. [Stoddard gives )c^2 U. Jo^2, and ^ but these are at any rate very rare.] 12] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 21 The singular 2?or is also used in fisos about this = there- /ore (see § 67). Sometimes Jotl = he, she, it : = they, and so the others. (2) Sing. m. oaf that, i.e. ille, [pronounced d when a dem. pronoun, and so all its derivatives, as 5^ oojS on that side, OCJJ^ in the morning'], or ^oiri TJ. (ow-wun), or lalloool U. (o-waha), or ^ ^ ^ loloi Ash., or J0oboo7 (o-woha) U. Ti., or lolobi Tkh. (o-ha), or 0)007 Sal., or oao) MB., or laioho) MB., or ohl Sh., or Ixoiohl »• ^ im it ^ * (■ it Sh., or Joroo) U. (the longer the distance pointed out, the longer the penultimate is drawn out). f. ub) that [pron. d as in fate: sometimes in Ash. etc. ei as in height], or ^h\ U. (eiyin), or U. ei-yeha, or o?Io) Sal., or ou2 Tkh. MB., ;<7roI: Tkh. mb. Blur. m. and f. those, or uil Al. {a-ni), or K. Al. Sal., or jbroii U.^ Bo., or 0)042 Tkh., or Tkh., or jb)oi2 U.h or 07042 U.^ (3) Sing. m. 00)2, f. uO)2 that, i.e. iste K. (not Ash.). Elsewhere the above forms are used in this sense. All these pronouns precede their nouns in N.S., as J442 Jo)2 this man — O.S. (usually). When used with prepositions these pronouns cannot be omitted as sometimes in O.S. Thus ot^ O.S. = o^ u42!S ' ^ \i • / rii f • t N. S. to those who deny him. Of the pronouns in the first series some seem to be derived from O. S. iiai : we thus have (by metathesis) and singular for plural ; then by dropping ^ , jb)2 or a)2 , whence J62 , }62 , }*2 , 1 Village of Anhar. 22 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. (o and y, for oi, § 109.) The forms with m. and f,, seem to come from the O.S. feminine Ipof or . Stoddard conjec¬ tures that ’I / is from The pronouns in the second series are the same as the personal pronouns, with extra syllables added for emphasis, and behold attached as often in other cases, § 73. § 13. Interrogative Pronouns. uli who?, or yAio Sal. Gaw., or yjdo Al. (not Ash.) = O.S. / 't' ' \ > • • • • u (usually written ^i). ^ is also used in N.S. [Qu. = yO) ^ fern, for masc. ?] Whose? is expressed by etc.; and so the other cases. ybobO what ? U. Ash. (perhaps = O.S. ji , or for uD2 fcb), or bobO (before a noun), or obo U. Ti., or K. Al., rare in Ash. U. (so O.S.), or Sh. Ti. (not Ash.), or Al., or Jopb K. Al., or o^sobb Ti. (for obi poiao ?). 0 # •r • • 0^0 y&jtl which ? U. Ash., with or without a noun (O.S. Jjyl), or uXi.2 • • ^ ’ •' /»• / ^ 0 0 K. Sh. (the O.S. fern. 2^2, now used for both genders), or U., or p2, or Al. Z. (Mim for Nun), or ^2 Q. U.— (all sing, and pL). Qu. ^2 , m3u2 for u07 }L2 ; yOl 2bu2 ? cf. yii. 0 ^ JiOia how much, or JbaaJ Al. ; also an adverb, see § 67, and equi¬ valent to many in Ji* j!aySk }&2 these many years (roaavra ery, St Luke XV. 29). Notes. (1) is not used with a noun following. (2) It is frequently used in U. at the end of a sentence as an interjection ; as : ? o60 : oji^ I have a stomach ache. §§ 13, 14] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 23 what {shall I do And often in expostulation, thus : ^ •' '' •' j OisO is not dear. What {do you say ?) Cf. the use of 9 why ? in expostulation, at the beginning of a sentence. (3) y^2 wMcA o/ them ? is contracted in U. to (accented on the first), in Bo. to uC^jibOuZ. (4) is used elliptically thus: oUki. ubobo what < ■ X ./ r , , ,, , ^ , {relation) of Simon is he t (5) is thus used : ? thou to do with us ? St Luke iv. 34. J^Ofbocf^baS thou to do speaking ? }ocj 2bo of what use is this to me ? (for Zooi see under loal in 5 46). Zi what wilt thou ^ or what is the matter with thee? Judg. i. 14. So for other persons. In Al. JiJ) = a ^b^^ '^hich ; thus o6c) ubcj-bOD to what they said. more than that which is commanded, St Luke iii. 13 ; also b^S3 after he kills, St Luke xii. 5. In U. = what is it ? as a reply when a person is called, is rather more polite than ubobo, rather less polite than % (§ 73). § 14. Relative Pronouns. p who, which, p (chiefly in Al.) he {she, they) who, that which. Thus St Luke ii. 44. }o^ ^bbp Al. = ^^2 J^p U. with any one who knew them. So p that tvhich in AL (§ 13, note 5, above) = p v^piM U. ; p ;^z he who, Z. 24 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 14, 15 a or 3 or Jjali Al. everything that, see § 67. Whom, luhich, as the direct object of a verb can be expressed by the simple relative, or by the relative and by an objective pro¬ nominal affix added to the verb (§ 48), as the (I " ■ man whom you will see. For the other cases we use the simple relative with the pronominal affixes of § 11 added to the noun or pre¬ position, though the preposition and affix are sometimes omitted. Thus the man whose hook it is. So uOjoXb the man to whom I gave the hook, obj ^oS the day on which you came (sc. uOlOja). So also place where I saw him. When a relative is implied in English it is usually expressed in Syriac, though the substantive verb is often omitted. Thus : the churches in the villages {which are in the I • ■ • * • • villages). But ucnoi^ J.U2 ^ a malicious man {whose heart is black), because the relative clause is treated as an adjective. So uiboSoI 2^ a city named Urmi. But we might say So ^2p your love to us. The O.S. usage is similar. But note that ^ O.S. = ^2 y.^ they of the peoples will see, Bev. xi. 9. So O.S. = 51^x36233 N.S. to those who are in Jerusalem. ' 4$ #1 » # § 15. Indefinite Pronouns. The indefinite ever is expressed by the adjective all, every {kul). Thus D ^ whoever, or 3 (so O.S.), or p ; p ^3 whatever (so O.S.), or p (O.S. p ^ or p ^3^) ; 3 whenever, as soon as, and so on. Jooya §15] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 25 = any you please. is often shortened to ^ in Al. K. and some¬ times becomes Doa or alone = each one : give each one a book. The indefinite one (French on), any one, some one, may often be rendered by Jail Xm ci man. No one is U. or K. Nothing is ?iO) U., or uMbO K., or OQ Ti. f m It / II t m II , i\) 'll* II I ojQ9 ; knife f. (O.S. oi) of which the definite is also used ; IciAi U. * * 0 O.S. f. a barren woman, and a few other feminines. In Al. we have 0 also faithful. d. Some in o or as deep, or 95^ f. affliction, O.S. a^ol ; otibajL deep, lit. depth, O.S. Jlilboaiy ; oJa^ or uOtSU^ f. affliction, O.S. '^'^derstanding (rare), see § 83 (6) ; by chance, § 67 (Arabic root) ; oiVit* pain f. (foreign). These seem to be the absolute state of nouns whose definite state would end in 2^o. Diminutives in o as little father, are not of this class, § 79 : nor are the Turkish words in § 82 (8). e. The phrase for ever and ever, and its imitation ^adi2 ^2 Soil id. (ii) The Construct state remains in several phrases. a. Phrases with ^^^13 ^ or In O.S. is the constr. st. of • i’ i’ * • iiLai house m. We have the household of Mar Shimun (so any name) ; also with is*? . 233^ threshing floor f. from 23 d2 O.S. ^ Ti. (house of setting) the west. ^4?*? ^ '^'^k f. = O.S. ;4ou?. ^ In some of these the prefix maybe a form of the preposition betioeen. Nold. O.S.G. 156, 252. 28 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Ti. (house of the rising) the east u£j K. (In U. Sh. as O.S.) the palate. See below. U. Tkh. (house of the Aprils) the spring m. In Ti. (Tkh. and m. K.). ilyj^ or }*3kX^ O.S. ^^7^ow. Now almost always in the forms U. K. (not Ti.) by metathesis, or laAo or Sal. (a as S). Of. ioiaua below, laoua uA II. See below e. Ji‘4- u£J or or -V f*. (house of the eyes) eyebrows. \v. uij K. upper room. In Al. (in U. a as ^) or in the middle. Also with ^ XJ. m., JxxiS yia ^ K. m. (house of the evenings) evening. } ' % t ' X Ti. f. ; rarely Jai ua (house of the head) m. pillow. ua K. f. a hem at the top of trowsers in which a string * * •* runs. This when gathered up supports them. »' ** = O.S. and N.S. § 92, eyebrow or brow of a hill. refuge O.S. (not colloquial). O.S. or ua or O.S. (house of the shining forth) Epiphany ^se U.) 2^ :s.a O.S. or ya (house of the Nativity) Christmas (2p2^ U.). The former also is used for any birthday. ^ Zlama has the second sound ; in the prefix of the other phrases, the first. 16] STATES. 29 O.S. or ^ (house of the rivers) Mesopotamia. iioaJb m. or or l^ojb graveyard. h. Phrases with son of{^ Al. Z.). This word is used, but not very colloquially, with any name, as son of James. So ^ Bartholomew, and other Biblical names ; and collo- * t quially to denote age, as Jix M three years old (for the fern, see below, d). We must distinguish M one year old and I* ^ contemporary. So also : ysi Ti. (son of a roof) a lunatic = 2^ 2 ^ O.S. a devil. it i D 2S^2 fellow countryman of. ai (son of a pair) companion, rare. (son of seed) seed. is used = descendant. (rare) or wife’s brother (= O.S. JoiLiOM Si son of parents in law). So wife’s sister (Pthakha like Zqapa)\ 9 Si (son of the nature of) = ofioovcno^; (not colloquial). So O.S. jiiSi (son of man) man\ so O.S. Al. }xi29 Sa, Ash. ial aa. 2a9^ Si (son of chest) a shirt front. ii K. (son of neck) a collar. In U. simply Jxui si cin ally (rare). ^ These do not mean brother’s wife or sister’s husband which are expressed by (lit. bride) and (lit. bridegroom) respectively. These do not only mean a man’s own wife, or a woman’s own husband, but the wife or husband of almost any near relation. 30 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. D JSOX ai (soa of the name of) namesake of. In K. a man speaks of or to his namesake as ia and does not use his name. / • c. The plural of Sa. wia. is thus used : ct citizen or citizens \ y^aol an Urmian or Urmians. In the singular we should perhaps understand ^ ^ one of the sons of In K. adjectives are used in this sense. See § 81 (1). d. is used of age : J^aJ, ^ one month old f. (O.S. *>33). e. ifM is used for ^3^13 in the following feminines : 2a^2 Ssaa (daughter of the hand) glove. 2aai isia (or 2a'i!3) (hail) quartz = Ash. oaia 2a'3i. 2ak3D ^aa (wooden bolt) a holt-socket. Also 2^333 in K. * ^1* halo round the sun. (J^o* day often is used for the sun). In Ash. 23.tU 33 or 2ao^ ^33 Tkh. halo round the moon ; also a child’s disease, sup¬ posed to come at new moon. In U. the latter is 23C?ji uA . In Ash. 2^3^. 4S33 (finger) thimble. (voice) echo. halo round the sun. f 2^, the irregular const, st. of 2'i« lord (not, according to East Syrian grammarians, of jiadb which is only applied to Jehovah and said by them to contain the sacred name 2* Jah, being a com¬ pound word) is prefixed to almost any noun to form an adjective, as 16] STATES. 31 ly!aO lord of price = dear. lord of water = watery. 2^ lord of debt = creditor. ladb lord of fear = dan¬ gerous (as a road). But libis may be left out, as Imi this is dear ; and especially in phrases like it is in the sitn, JiOkM it is hot (lit. heat), ojJL it is cold (lit. cold¬ ness), 2^0ua it is dark (lit. darkness), ojSkA it is windy (lit. wind). 2Sib is also used in O.S. (but rarely in this sense) with a feminine . This is not used in N.S., the masculine serving both genders. In O.S. is used in the same way. (So Heb. g. So the following ; but those marked with an asterisk are ecclesiastical or literary and not commonly used. Aal m. (K. v^) late snow in the spring, lit. eater of its companion. m. the Devil (eater of accusation) O.S. Cf. Gk. Std/SoXo?. Not used in pi., but we have = devils. m. f. supper (evening meal). m. Ti. a cormorant (fish snatcher). See below ^ . 2^2 ui!Sk!ia^ a beetle, perh. = ^2 ^ = wallowers in dung. A 4 U. my very self (soul of my soul). m. Tkh. sunset, the west. m. ivory (elephant’s bone) O.S. In Ash. (so pronounced), also m. f. piety (fear of God) O.S. 32 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ^ malignant fairy supposed to haunt pregnant women. (web spinner). ;io: Tkh. sunrise, the east. bduA in. an old man (white beard), a term of respect. In Ash. JXdOA aduA f. ci7i old woman (white locks), a term of respect. }^2S som innocent (white faced), not common, m. Sal. a baker. m. f. guilty (black faced), not common. O.S. shewhread. Also Uo32 a kerb (bishop’s bread), pron. lakhmi. See yifiSXti . 'iiao below. ^ _ ^ Ti. lizard (goat sucker). In U. f. (with g like ^), or f., or f. (for AA^) clout (dish washer). In Ash. t >! t 0 frA^P* participle f. (verb of noun) O.S. CJLjbiy hypocrisy (taking in face) O.S. U. the larynx (that which makes bread descend). In K. jilAf m. v^DOA m. bishops successor (keeper of the seat). In Ash. 2-^. Also, esp. in K. 2au.fi, lit. a Nazarite. hypocrite (taker in face) O.S. ^ Village of Ardishai, in the plain of Urmi. §16] STATES. 33 1^1 iTi. f. ordination, confirmation, consecration (of bishops and churches), blessing (lit. laying on of hands) O.S. * made with hands O.S. f. spider (web spinner). f. Sal. surface of water. m. abbreviation (in grammar) O.S. ^ UMerfly, moth (night flier). Also a bat, in which case {of skin) may be added. In K. l^^yh }3Jl. Ti. a small basket (spoon holder ?). JxyoJd 3iOyJb m. holy of holies (the sanctuary of a church) O.S. a churl (nail biter). ;jtd* stiff-necked (hard of neck) O.S. I* rainbow (bows of our Lord), pron. qishti ; or perhaps we should write C77^SXti , y being omitted. The full form •* «* 1x^9 is also used as in O.S. jKa upon (head of). Especially in K. 4V>.Vi jti on my eyes be it (sign of obedience), or welcome ! • ' •• / ^ ^ 1^0\; lit. a wagtail : term of contempt for a Mussulman. U. cormorant (flsh snatcher). (or a herb (pot breaker). U. m., or .{iMObOX Tkh. f., or Ti. Ash. Sh., or Q. (which in Ti. = the gums) = O.S. palate ; lit. heavens of the palate, Ps. xxii. 15. Cf. O.S. .jLa \JyoX a ceiling, and the palate. S. GR. 0 34 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. U. crown of the head, perhaps heavens of the brain (Nokl. § 61). In K. .iLbai with plural irregular; see § 19. moonlight, pron. shimshi. (In Tkh. Spy See mf m. K. hypocrite (taker of face). (or ^ix) Ti. (a bird). * ni. sanctuary door O.S. h. In K. all present participles may be used in construction, thus : — a man killer ; fern. ; 2^-: a striker of hoys) fern. 2^* i. Several proper names in O.S. and N.S. like JbwibuksLKd, retain the construct /•/J , m m 1 , m . , 1 , 7 state, though in the second and fourth the vowel has been thrown back; they literally mean, Mercy, Hope, Uncle, Servant, of Jesus; and Day of our Lord. § 17. Gender There are two genders, masculine and feminine. It is difficult to give rules for determining the gender of a particular noun, but generally : — a. Nouns ending in ik are feminine ; the converse however is by no means the case. Exception : if fis be part of the root. The following are mas- online : ^ gelding (Tau radical ?) ; gl house, so O.S. ; a fist (Tau radical ?) ; lisoiao death, so O.S. (^s K.). Bar Hebraeus adds to masculines U olive tree, XisOis mulberry, hole in the f " t ground, cassock ; but the first two are usually feminine in GENDEE. 35 # N.S., and the last two are obsolete. how, sweat, and K. conversation, are feminine in N.S. although the ^ is radical. h. The names of letters of the alphabet are feminine. c. Most birds are feminine ; we even have jjLo^ U. a beautiful drake. d. Nouns denoting sex follow the gender appropriate thereto. e. Nouns in are feminine, as is 3^ custom. f. Several foreign feminines end in [cf. § 21 (5)] as • / lady, (a woman’s name), coquetry, JibbbX (name of a village •' t* •' * near Urmi), 1^0^ world (Sal. ba). Genders often differ according to district, especially in the case of foreign words, to which genders seem to be given quite arbitrarily ; as e.g. words from Turkish, a language which has no genders. The gender of Syriac words is usually, but not always, the same as in O.S. Examples : — 2bo2 manger, fern. N.S. In O.S. lihol masc. supper, is common in N.S. (f in U.), by etymology should be masculine. 2ba or 2b2a well, masc. N.S. fern. O.S. pocket, masc. K. (second Zlama sound) fern. U. (first Zlama). ditch, masc. O.S. fern. N.S. olive, see above. / love, fern, in Sal. Elsewhere masc. as O.S. bird, maso. (rarely fem.) N.S. fern. O.S. sea, fem. N.S. = 2^ O.S. masc. ^ t stone, common N.S. fem. O.S. 36 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. laia harp, masc. O.S. fern. N.S. night, fern. N.S. O.S, masc. »* * hundred, fern. O.S. and N.S. but Jlsil masc. in Al. See § 26. east, common U. fern. K. In O.S. usually masc., some- times fern. rain, masc. O.S. fern. N.S. jles fish, masc. O.S. fern. N.S. fire, masc. N.S. fern. O.S. laubalo or ordination, masc. O.S., U.; fern, (usually) K.^ and (sometimes) O.S. time, fern. N.S. O.S. masc. cloud, masc. O.S. fern. N.S. (not used in O.S. by Western Syrians ?). iSaiti grave, masc. O.S. fern. N.S. qran (7d), masc. K. fern. U. heaven, fern. sing, in N.S. ; in O.S. masc. and fern. sing, and masc. plur. sun, masc. in O.S. and N.S. usually, but sometimes fern, in N.S. and rarely in O.S. or lamp, fern. N.S. = O.S. masc. ikoifs or mulberry, see above. Some are common as air, a beast. The rule for forming a feminine from a masculine is to change ^ ^ ^ 0 the termination into Jx. as 2iQ>oiQ> horse, UssaoSQ mare\ 2aDQA> 2 By attraction, because the second noun is feminine. So colloquially a gram¬ matical error is often made with the substantive verb : as OOJ (CJ^) , that day is Saturday. 17] GENDER. 87 Syrian, a Syrian woman. If necessary a vowel is added for euphony, as dog, hitch, or king, or queen] 2ao^ hull, J^do^s cow (ta-wirta, not td-irta). Some feminines end in ^ as those formed from masculines in m t y jl preceded by a consonant ; thus }Isjq> f. .jLiiCa both a hush ; * y m t »»v y roast meat, cutlet ; they then usually lose their euphonic vowel. But the O.S. IIomi . in N.S. Iom or Iooua serpent, makes fern. (or 'oou^) in N.S.. So also the following ; but the forms marked with an asterisk are themselves feminine. opi god jlii lion huttock (O.S. side) cave wolf la hear ^ II* 230133 gadfly fornicator t angel i'^ger Sidtan, captain Satan, devil goat* heel* JiabJiw sheep fern. or ^32 mi I a small cave >2^323 or ^323 tT* « ■ <■ m t It* >iLi30fl3 or ;^3o53 • » I II* » II* L!SoiQ> (also used for the raisin). ▼ or 7 / ^11 'Z'CZ. « / II 74i:j3^ (In K. both have a) m / II >S^o a?ic? /S^o, fern. iUib (O.S. '3) y 38 GRAMMAR OF .VERNACULAR SYRIAC. workman fern. lamb Ti.) .■ 2)orch Inapd adulterer goose or gander . . . shepherd Ixayx s un it 1^0^ worm n a iixis fox m 0 u. or ;4a4 K. Ti. id. HiJiap also as masc. • t 'f'Giy of the smi or Tkh. or Tkh. U.). 0 / •; << II («s Tkh.) ■ / « II So also .JiLjiauM 2^2^ Al. sycomore (= }a2^ Tkh. or * / II ^ 4 ^ U.). And so the words with double plurals in § 19. The following do not take an euphonic vowel : — heathen, f. martyr, f. t 1^ ^ 2S:3U U., O.S. companion (Al. K. makes K., O.S. J:s3^ U. or J^dooLm U. (Pthakha like Zqapa) or Al.; soti (Al. often a) makes (Al. ; j5^2 landlord ^^4.2; Jiia^2 (pron. 'i) husband's brother i^lsO'^1 (i) ; l66iO>^ U. K.) paternal uncle, 4^4- «-s- ; ioil; u. K., O.S) maternal uncle, father in law or widower Liboa K., O.S. or U. mWe, U. or ^boa K., O.S.; 2^03 height, ^i^ob hill', allegory maxim. * # * #1 When the noun does not admit the idea of sex the femi¬ nine usually denotes the diminutive of the masculine ; but in Tiari, where feminine forms are much used, there is often no difference in meaning. 17, 18] NUMBER. 89 Feminines are often expressed by a different word, as man, woman or wife (laoL^ in U = husband, in K. as O.S. = man). In K. the form for woman is also used (§ 19). The proper names ^3303 bishop’s successor, U. palate, all of S. GR. 6 42 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 18 which take the first plural irregularly^; also (d) some in ; viz. gelding, olive, ]^oisO fist, death, a hafta (= 8 lbs. t f * avoirdupois), resin, sweat^ (in Tkh. with 8d ph), ■4 4 how (but it usually takes 8th pi. as O.S.), mulberry or (also 6). See § 17. {e) Jsil man, makes for O.S. Jxil (in Al. 2). 2. In Ti. this is very common, especially for proper names, as men named DinJcha. In K. MB. all the letters take this plural as lisooo (4N MB., soft Waus, elsewhere 1st pi. i m. master, in K. Sal. See § 19. 2^2 m. roof, O.S. 2^2. 2bo2 f manger, O.S. . ^ $ 2Mkb2 f. mill^ also the game ‘ sacks on the mill ’, O.S. K. 2. •' I* m. lion O.S. Also 1. liisl m. country O.S. m. father, foreign. 2adi f. ditch. Also 1. 2i^ m. path, foreign. f. spear, foreign. Also 3. pool f., also 1, foreign. (Eastern O.S. m. bridge Ti. In U. 1. 23^ m. companion O.S. In Al. 1 (^). 2^ or 29 9^ serpent Barely 3. O.S. m. K. servant, § 1 15 b. 1 The second noun only being altered. Most of the compounds in § 16 have no plural or have plural like the singular. See also § 19. 2 For the latter 3 is pronounced 18] REGULAR PLURALS. 43 m. strength, host O.S. m. G khan, nobleman, foreign. m. hack, girdle, belt (with first pi. = loins), O.S. . in. (O.S. ^«m) bridegroom, sister’s {daughters) husband. Also 1. See page 29, note. ;oa f. recess in wall. Also 3. (O.S. , pi. Jm.) JaS m. heart O.S. ’ ## f. night, O.S. m. barn. Also 1 and 3. m. K. paternal uncle. (In U. lo&syL and 1.) 2bao m. lord, possessor O.S. m. river O.S. Jaojsq in. horse, O.S. lloofo. •' * • Ihl^ m. festival ; rarely 4. O.S. f. island, in Sal. See 5 19. Turk. m ' €? m. K. paternal uncle, not O.S. ? f. army, foreign. iSaib grave, f. N.S. m. O.S. Also 1. m. U. servant, foreign. m. (or O.S. October or November. With * f 0 \7 M ' first plural, Lasfis ^’ia, = autumn. 2^ Days of the week, from Sun. to Thurs. incl., in Ti. Also 1 and 4. m. K. eveyiing. See 4 and § 19. i ^ • youth (abstract), foreign. In pi. youthful follies. GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. K. in. mateimal uncle O.S. f. sister (O.S., but pi. in O.S. m f. village (rare in O.S. See note iv above, and | 26, note 5). In Q. JJ». f. fet^ce (O.S., but rare in sing. ; O.S. pi. Js2). f. grace, Arab. 3. ^0072 b state, condition, * i foreign. f. road O.S. (= K.) 2^2 f- hand, also 1. (In O.S. first »■ 0 pl., also )I^2; and j4^^2 handles.) f. heel, Turk. ; or f. plough handle, foreign, f. crescent (rare) O.S. aldi f. foot. Also 1. f. earth O.S. f. testicle O.S. 233^ f- threshing floor, O.S. 2Sd2. f. earthen howl. Also 1. 2ltjb m. flock, O.S. 3 . 2^^2 Csaa f. glove. Also 1. See page 42, note 1, and § 19. JaA f. U., m. K. pocket. ■ 2^ See 2. f. time, in Al. Elsewhere 1. f. garment Also 1. pit. Also 1 (f N.S. m. O.S.). f- long cloak. f. cannon hall. rn. camel. Also 1 (O.S. f. tail coat. Also 1. m. grass. Also 1 and 5. In O.S. stuhhle. ^,1. Ti., f. soul, self, Pers. See § 20 (5). 233 f. hear. Also 1. O.S. ^ «»• 2Lb m. hawk. Also 1. s 2‘Lb m. moiiastery O.S. f. side, O.S. b . m. seashore. 1^1^ See 2. m. street. m. stable, foreign. ni. mouth, edge of a sword. Also 1. O.S. 16^ U-, K. m. branch. m. cheeh. See § 19. ;iib See 3. See 3. m. chief (with 1, head) O.S. ;^oi m. footprint, stead. Also 1, 5. liox m. wall (of a town). in. thong of a whip. Also 1. m. name. O.S. (pi. in O.S. JoitSafli). See § 19. iJO^ See 3. Al. border, frontier. O.S. m. morsel. Also 1. m. door. Also 1. O.S. 5. m. breast O.S. f. knee, O.S. 'o3 . ^ it « See 3. m. huttock. Also 1. O.S. K. vegetables, pi. only. ;:3Db See 3. ^ <■ ^Of iR- stripe. m. eyelash, O.S. 0 m. dot. m. crack. ' Mrv See 3. ^ <# (fi) Al. m. hole. [In U.K. eye of a needle (1st. pL), O.S. hole. = female.] iScj Ri- box on the ear. Also 1. ^ a m. snovt. Also 1. m. nostril (with 1, holes in a beehive). m. half, O.S. d . Also 1. See § 27. f. frog. m. crumb. l^oJb m. thumb. 48 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. neighbourhood, pi. only. « ' f. handle. ihoi See 4. m. skirt, border, lower ' I it flag of coat, O.S. Also 1. ;hk K. m. a slap. Also 1. See 3. 6. The usual plural of nouns in Note § 29 (9). 7. f. lip O.S., also 9 rarely. village, see 2^ n ■ 8. .{ici f. bottom. iOkli f- woman. See ? 19. ^ m t f company, band. Also 1. Tkh. f. sweat, see 1. f- (rare). ^03^ f- Friday O.S. ■ 0 f bow O.S. Also 1, 6. (The is radical.) See § 17. 9. Almost all words in iko may take both this and the sixth plural, but J^oxl letter, and llisoS^h request, take the ninth only. For prayer, see § 19. l^^OuJsO plague makes f- the Holy Loaf O.S. c/mrc/i (the society) O.S. In O.S. also the building, f. a rival wife, ikisoi^ f. apron. f. lamb K., O.S. f. K. conversation, O.S. m. jf f. cold (In pi. Pthakha has the sound of Zqapa) O.S. The pi. = cold weather. f week, Saturday O.S. (i»»^ is radical). ^'^303 f blessing O.S. f evil O.S. f. virgin O.S. Also 6. f. ball. ;^33 f courtyard O.S. .i’bo-: f. maiden, young woman. f- benefit, good O.S. lisyst h burden. ^oi; f. curse O.S. See 7. 19] IRREGULAR PLURALS. 49 § 19. (i) Irregular Plurals. »* t* • Singular. Plural. m. master, landlo7'd. Turk. U. (Turk. pL); K. Sal., 2. SkjS^ol U. or iisSOOa) K. MB. U., or iS^oI U., or • / • < i" ' " i* ' m. master workman. Cf. Al. ui3^A>2 (or iiL) Sir (also used t * ▼ with other pronom. affixes). m. brother. m. hole O.S. iSisJ^aoo] MB., or • » I I * / ' i' MB., or }:sbS^JQ>o2 XJ., or 2^ob^A>ooi K. }X3 U .(rarely bdwd-i), Gaw. J., m. house. or 2ii3 Sal. etc., or [In the singular it usuall}" means a room with an oven in the floor for baking bread. In this sense 2oNifd3 of winter is sometimes added. 2S^3 (which is also the O.S. plural) is a collectiun of buildings in a courtyard, the English house, but also houses. The ^ is radical.] iis^ (also 2^2 K.), f. woman. 2ii K. Al., or 2ai'2 K., or Ti. Al. But in U. K. Sal. Q. Gaw., 8. • « (Also natives as O.S.) 0 * * f. egg O.S. ai m. son (const, st.) O.S. 2^X2 fva in. fellcyw countryman. ;^ya m. man, human being (§16 ii.6) O.S. [But the other compounds of is ^ § 16 ii. b, usually take the first plural, the second noun only being altered.] S. GR. 50 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Singular. Plural. m. (Al. 5>) son. Vioa-, rarely 1 (Al. a, not Z.). f. u.' K., or Q., or jisia U, iUa K. O.S., Q. lisyiii Al. (O.S. d) daughter, Sal. Gaw., or U. • ' .» girl. m. husband, man, p. 46. ni. fin, wing. Ash. Elsewhere 1, 3. Usually 1. See also 4. f. xsland (rare in U.^ O.S. (^N O.S.^. A.1so 6. f. fieece. -5^.? tear (not Ash.). O.S. Al. K. banquet. oSf h leech. 0 f. sin O.S. Al. Al. (as O.S.). Also 6 as elsewhere always. (not colloquial). 23.% f. O.S., or or U. (f K.), or J^'3% claw. U. {^s Sal.), or 2'^. (The first form usually used for a human nail.) ujoioaf 5ea^,cAafr(O.S.}jtaDaa). 2^^0j6!ioa K.asO.S. Elsewhere 1. U. (^ K.), or 3 in Tkh. Sal. 4' K. as O.S. (U. is)> or 'a Ti. (Zqapa sound in all.) U. (Zqapa sound), or Ti. U. f (50 Sal.), or Makes plural from the latter U. bladder. ^ Used of any unmarried woman. Jaa f daughter, girl {old maid^.). O.S. (or a Ti.) bride, or Gaw., or Gaw., or cSa • t ' 0 19] IRREGULAR PLURALS. 51 Singular. f- city O.S. 9010^ f. seal. f. U., O.S., or l^oiao K. / m O.S. oath Ash.). f. U. K. like ^), or Al. hair. f. verb O.S. ^ ## 5^ m. participle O.S. U. Tkh. Ash. AL, or (p) Ti. (O.S. ni. thing. L concubine. ti m. hypocrite O.S. f. ear, or 2^ai Q- Sal. Gaw. ' m 0 (Also handle in K.) oioi L XJ. platfo7'm or f. peg O.S. •- ti J. 1/ L island (rare in K.) Turk. ■ m. Tkh. Al. people O.S. Al. f. barren woman. f. prayer O.S., or Q. Sal. Gaw. ^55 m. cheek. m. a fraction O.S. Plural. U. (^ K. ^ Sal. Q. Gaw.). laoc^odo. Also 1, 3. u. (Is K., O.S.). 2^ K. Al. as O.S. In U. 6. t •• or (not colloquial), (not colloquial). K. Al.; in U. 4; Ti. ; ii'yM Ash. loois^, rarely V * ^ g g ^ (not colloquial). K. Al. (^ U.), or J^slcu Q. - • ' Sal. Gaw., or Ash., or ^ g • I# 2^*^^ Al. or ;^:ofviQ>. ' % * ' \ * r i* 2a^^ U. (Turk. pi.). In K. 3, in Sal. 2. Ibftiii*. as O.S. .• ' ’ U. (is K. Al. O.S.). Also ';‘“s 6 U., or lisOoS^ Sal. Q. Gaw., or ^5 Sal. J. Also 4. 52 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 19 Singular. Plural. ^ f. kernel, also a quarter of as O.S., or a walnut, or K. m. tortoise. ado yiisxti rainbow 516 ii. q. 0 n tJ ty 2£sSa a throb of the heart. m n iiix m. noun O.S. UyJd. < •• • yado ^iSXb (rare). % 0 ** Icfim (not colloquial). (The corresponding N.S. name, takes the fourth plural.) iMX f. heaven O.S. (now sing.). yoOk, Also 1; and in Ash. Al. 3. I n ‘S' ^ > ^ 0 f K. crown of the head, Tkh., Ti. ; ^^syOLS § 16 ii. g. Ux f. year (i Al. as O.S.). lis^o'is f- cow (O.S. J^ad^s). Ash. JiJi qrr?* Ti. Elsewhere 6. The abbreviated diminutives of § 79 as a rule have no plural (but see above) ; and so many words whose sense excludes a plural. >^oa place, has no plural in U. (in K. 6) but borrows that of ;ao? (4). Note that Jai is a pair of tongs (m.), is several pairs \ and that luorld, is often used in a plural or collective sense (men, people)] as the people of the house. Some have no sin¬ gular, as water (Al. as 0 S.) il: life O.S., iaxSS mercy O.S., Jc^i parents O.S. (from O.S. sing. Jai father), (^ O.S.) spiritual parents, IxoiyZt environs, = money O.S. (but ^Of m. a rare word = a piece of money), yd'dad neighbourhood. «* * (ii) Double Plurals. Many nouns denoting collections of units (e.g. corn) have two §19] DOUBLE PLURALS. 53 plurals, one to denote the whole species, the other individual units. Thus = barley, = barley corns. So we have : — I* k' * Singular, white cherry, stocking, or K. dried pea. grain. yellow-beard, wheat, O.S. bead, O.S. I pea. top boot, or jikicfc K. precious stone, a shot (of a gun). raisin. jLbftaca eyeglass. roasted pea. Plural. JjSuiA rarely 6. and 6 {odd stockings). and 6. (in numbering ; e.g. }i‘a a hundred things) and 6. and 6. as O.S. and 6. 2'Sba^ (O.S. rarely 6. rarely 6. also 6 {odd boots). Jixjja O.S., also 6. V " XihyA also 6. ?*4b^** ^ also 6, • 0 / also 6. 2oodiX!3^ also 6. also 6. JX^^XJSO also 6. ’ ,t • •• liooJO also 6. bean. m / y apricot. i!^'s(y\xy a shot (of a gun). m 0 ^ #’ ■ barleycorn, or ?^>vm . O.S. :aAJ0» also 6. Ash., or AfsSxffi Ash. ; O.S. .^4^-^a.y U. (^ K.) grape (O.S. U. (^ K., O.S.), also 6. In Ash. 54 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 19, 20 Singular. Plural. lock of hair. {'Oi complete set), also 6 {odd locks). chestnut (b). also 6. 1^0^ shoe (sa-wilta). {a pair), also 6 (odd shoes), or J. (or so ?) half a mou- K., or 11. stache. the whole moustache (also 6 ?). lily O.S. as O.S. (also 6 ?). tumiip. (also 6 ?). trowser leg. or of ti'owsers, also in K. in this sense, (also 6 ?). .jLatis head. m 0 ' » also 6. § 20. Substantives with pronominal affixes. For a table of the affixes see § 11. If the noun ends in \ or J, this ending is dropped and replaced by the affix, thus, king, my king, JaouQ> horse, thy horse, Uoa S071S, their sons. The same affixes are added to singular as to plural nouns. Thus my king and my kings are only distinguished by Siami. If the noun has not the above endings, the affixes are added on, as enemy, our enemy. Those compounds in § 16 which take the first plural (§§ 18, 19, pp. 42, 49) add the affix to the second noun. Cf. O.S. thy phila^ithropy. Notes. (1) Words in drop the dot of Khwasa. Thus owr meaning, from (another form of §20] NOUNS WITH AFFIXES. 55 (2) Words in or o dron the ^ and take o ; as v^aiOOOM^ //*■ / < % < his affliction, from , (3) Words in have both as a vowel and as a consonant : as your (pi.) thing, mindiydkhon ; and so in words like u(770^0^ from Sal. Q. Gaw. J. (= K. U.) bed (shwi-yu). (4) ^ = « friend of mine, ^ a garden of mine. (5) Self\?> expressed by Thus myself, thyself etc. In Ti. etc., oi my oivn self, cf. § lb- For ourselves we may have either A or •xV^. but the latter may also mean our souls. My own is expressed by ^ and so for the other persons ; as V^ur own book. The preposi¬ tion a is often prefixed ; as myself came. Note that is feminine, and we therefore have cr^ = he emptied himself Phil. ii. 7, where the participle is feminine : lit. his self was emptied by him. (6) The O.S. soul is thus used : . alone, lit. by myself [contrast = myself]. So for the other persons. Thus .^djiv lisl they came alone. In Al. and often in K. we have or s^poAa (0 •S. u) for alone. The O.S. y* or = N.S. 'A- (7) enough, takes affixes like a noun; as ;^OiQ>a enough for you. So necessary, esp. in K., as necessary for me ; then n '• Zlarna is lengthened, but not in necessary for you (pi.). (8) ;a}^ here takes affixes ; up to this point on my body (pointing). 56 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. (9) The affixes are often redundant, especially in Al. though not so often as in O.S., as (T^oys the Son of him, of God. (10) When there is an epithet, the affix is attached to the sub¬ stantive, as uOloddi his wicked father. (11) Lord (of God only) and Ai master, landlord, are not used with affixes. For the latter is used. For the former is not now used (though it is used wffien = owner), but the O.S. lit. my Lord, lit. my Lady, are retained as titles of bishops and saints, as Mar Shimun, alxbo St Mary. For see (14) below. (12) In Lower Tiari they say for their king j in Bas 97^s\bb . So for all nouns. •' ' (13) From UQJuS head man we have as in § 18, note xiii, and so similar words; and the same hardening of final letters takes place. (14) The words lit. my great one (now usually pronounced with Zqapa), ^5 our great one (with Pthakha sound) are now treated as any other substantives, and mean master and monk respectively. They take the first plural, and affixes are added on, but the second Pthakha of ^5 is then strengthened to Zqapa. Thus ^5 our master. But in Al. this is so A\. your ffi.) master. yiifS is also used before (the usual vernacular for S 81, h) both in speaking to a priest and in speaking of him. For JafJ see § 25 (7). our Lord, is even more used as a name for Christ than with us : e.g. it is constantly used vocatively ; but it has not quite come to be an independent substantive, and does not take affixes. §§ 20, 21] ADJECTIVES. 57 (15) Demonstrative pronouns and these affixes may be used with the same substantive. Thus Jofl this thy worlds O.S. )3.0. ADJECTIVES. § 21. Adjectives are very much more frequent in O.S. than in Hebrew, and more so in N.S. than O.S. ; see § 81 for their forma¬ tion. The periphrasis Holy Spirit, though used as a proper name, is not in accordance with common N.S. usage, which would say when not speaking of the Holy Ghost. So bread of our need {our necessary bread), though used in the Lord’s prayer as a well known expression, is not what would naturally now be said. Feminine of Adjectives and Participles. General Rule. Change of the masculine to ^ as m., f. good. Notes. (1) Words of the form Jlcxti hard, make revealed heard .JbnAbaX. (2) A few other adjectives make feminines in as stony, second (not colloquial), small, Al., blessed (as a title). We have also . •• (3) U. makes other ; K., O.S. (second Zlama U. K.) ; Al. Tkh. Z. ; the a is often silent (so also Sal.), and the Zlama sometimes long, with the first sound. [In Al. there is a fern. pi. as well as the usual masc. pi., viz. See §22.] S. OR. 8 58 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. (4) The present participle, being in the absolute state, makes its feminine in not ; as iJbih finishing, § 31. So the absolute state of the past participle, as wfiLaiX, u., or K. ; A^obo, U., or ;iik^^cbO K. For verbs see § 44. (5) The feminine of a few foreign adjectives is formed by changing to as Ti. heautiful (in U. a subst. = a young man)) energetic, hold, laiy yellow, laoa blind, deaf, )SS dumb, bold, generous ; so 2^,olB hunchbacked. Thus we have etc. So male slave (coolie), female slave, § 17/. [We must distinguish in the sense of boldness, a foreign word, from the same in the sense of education, an O.S. word, root 233.1 (6) Foreign adjectives are generally not inflected. We say ^3 CL dear woman, not we may say by itself for a dear one (f.). (7) Some others also are not inflected; as (properly a subst. Cf. N.S. JLtiobei-, O.S. ^3^ near (so O.S.), JAm3 far or absent (O.S. So usually }^03£s K. true (in U. isft>3ji) § 128; in Al. it is inflected. For Jaa see § 25 (7). Foreign adjectives may often be known by not ending in J ; but some do so end, as new, Turk., bad, Arab., Ug, 2iL» blue, which are not inflected to make feminines. See 5 22. (8) If necessary a euphonic vowel is added in the feminine ; as ^3o£k^b0 saved, >^3cdd0 U. Ti. (5 Tkh.) ; compound, ; iisxJisIso absolute, >Jsbo^isbo. ‘ • t 4 • 21, 22, 23] PLURALS OF ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 59 (9) new (khdtha) makes fern. K., U. (Pthakha sound). The O.S. fern. is now used as a substantive = the New Testament (p. 48). In Q. the masculine is (10) The U. forms of adjectives from verbs, like 2x6 cold, drop y,; thus So small ; hot, 2xi6, A b thinned out (as trees), So also coo^. In K. Al. we have iSuiti , }^buS6 , and so on, as O.S. ; and . See § 81 (5). (11) ;:oV Al. [elsewhere drops yi : . § 22. Plurals of Adjectives and Pa7'ticiples. Both masculines and feminines are alike in the plural, which is of the first form ; thus (k K.) good women. But the adjectives mentioned in § 22 (7) are not inflected ; foreign adjectives are usually not inflected, though we may say oj6 dear, from . Those however which end in L- as new, do often take the first plural, though they do not take in the fern. sing. Siami is written on plural adjectives, not on participles unless used as epithets. The present participle of both conjugations follows the following models : ^3^ (O.S. (O.S. The past participle, absolute state, is similar in K. : (O.S. 4\ (O.S. For the U. anomalous plural see 5 50. § 23. Position of Adjectives. The Syriac adjective when used as an epithet comes after its substantive, as 2-ioA 3^ a large house. 60 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Exceptions. (1) good usually ; and rarely other monosyl¬ lables. (2) Numerals : Jsil ^ one man. (In O.S. often after the noun.) (3) Titles, as lijO the Reverend Priest Moses ; Blessed Paul. [But the Apostle John. A few names are seldom used except with a title added: as . Eli the priest, 3^0 a David the King, John the Baptist.'] (4) The words J313 many'^, § 25 (7); a certain (when an adjective this is both m. and f., is a substantive only = So and So, f § 17) ; all ; a few, U. = oa K. no, any^ 230« more^ (usually : also a substantive) ; some, and com- pounds of ^ § 28 (9); Japci or or J^o2 such, when thus used: — JSiZ ^ such a man (also without \^). (5) Occasionally when the adjective is emphatic. (6) All adjective pronouns. Thus O.S. jlo/ 2a3^=N.S. Jcyl ;u2 this man. (7) The words U., O.S. = K. = K. the late (some¬ times) ; as iZxso the late Deacon Audishu. So Solomon of blessed memory, lit. remembered for good. When the adjective is a predicate it comes between the subject and the substantive verb if affirmative ; but it follows a negative verb : as JaDOO obl that man is a Syrian ; but ^ ;lioso he is not a Syrian. 1 These rarely follow the noun. ^ Pthakha sound. 24, 25] COMPARISON. 61 § 24. Comparison. Comparatives are thus formed : <3503 K. Al.) letter : uA» , or more rarely, better than me, jlio 2^^ JSOts more watery. A comparative with a verb is expressed by 3 Thus isou oot he is letter than you think, I would rather go than stay here. More as a substantive is expressed by iho'^ or 23o| 3503 (this also means especially) or, especially in K., by jsaa or alone. A Syriac adjective has not only a positive, but also a comparative and a superlative sense, as seen in the examples given above and below ; and it also expresses the idea of too. Thus may mean good, letter, lest, or too good, accordiug to the context. The last sense may be expressed, though not commonly, by than is right. Superlatives may be expressed thus: ^ J3l2, or , or 3B03 etc,, the lest man, lit., a man letter than all of them ; or by the simple adjective, as u1a2 which is * * * lest? ; or by prefixing pgta very, or a similar particle to the adjective. § 25. Miscellaneous notes on Adjectives. (1) Adjectives are frequently used as substantives, as obi that evil one ; and occasionally participles, as U. a writing. (2) standing alone means every, Xa whenever, lit. every time, JsaI each man', see § 15. With pronominal affixes it denotes the whole or all, as the whole house, all the house, all the houses. So we all, all of us, o{^ ;<7t2 (or Jorl?) all this house, 2^3 -ojAa all the 62 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. broken-hearted = O.S. always' takes the affixes o? , 0 •> for 3 pers. sing., and almost always for 3 pers. pL] We have also all of us (kuluntan), by a false analogy; cf. in § 28. So for the other persons, ika is never used without affixes, as sometimes in O.S., before a plural or collective noun, e.g. Aa O.S. all the creatures) in N.S. we must put We may put the personal pronouns absolutely, thus: all of them. For in Al. Z. K., see § 15. (3) Articles. As a rule the definite article is not expressed in Syriac. But if necessary for distinctness, the demonstrative pro¬ nouns obi, uibl , '^1 Q^re used. So in O.S. Word of God, Bev. xix. 13. For the indefinite article the Syrians use m., f. one (U. f. often 2^ ; in Ti. and J. is often silent), see § 26 ; but they often omit it. In O.S. it is omitted unless emphatic and = a certain, as 2'^^ ^ ct certain man, St John iii. 1 ; 2^ a certain widow, St Luke xxi. 2. In N.S. ^ renders a certain in this sense ; but when it means a particular person we must say ^ (O.S. Very rarely after a noun is an indef. article, as a hook (some sort of a book) § 93. In O.S. Js'aI = n few men, Nold. § 125. (4) Adjectives are often formed, as in O.S., by repeating nouns ; as 5 particoloured, lit. colours colours ; zigzag, lit. twists twists; 2'b^^ 2’i^^ various, lit. kinds kinds, O.S. f •• VT^ , This last may also be expressed by XJ., or K., (O.S. St Mark i. 34. We may also repeat adjectives, as J^Lp small pieces. Cf § 28 (4) for distributive 25] ADJECTIVES. 63 numerals ; and § 67 (7) for adverbs thus repeated. So also highy low = uneven, up and down. (5) Blessed is = if followed by a noun. If pronouns follow we have the forms wyV or U. blessed is he. So for the other affixes ; the 3 pi. is K- Al. ; or U. In O.S. uoioiao^ blessed is the man, 5^0^ blessed art thou. We have also in N.S. etc. (6) Compound adjectives are frequently formed by a noun and participle, as Ihi liil a bow-legged man\ these are inde- clinable. See § 14. (7) m many, in U. Q. Sal. Gaw. and sometimes K. is indeclina¬ ble and precedes the noun. In K. Al. it is usually Jaa (in Al. also, as O.S. = great), which may follow the noun, and takes the first plural. As a subst. = much it is used with Zqapa almost everywhere. We have ^ Al. = u. = Jip O.S. In U. K. = wa/iy of them. is also colloquially used in U. Jai in Q. (first Zlama). In Al. 23ulii = many, but = U. K. great. For the adverb see § 67. (8) The same is expressed if not emphatic by a simple demon¬ strative pronoun, but if emphatic by ool ni., uO? f, lit. just that', pi. ^2 301. O.S. oo) 00? or ool oo). So Jics 3C^ at the same place, J^2 30l cit the same place where, 3Cp at the same time that etc. So also ool jaDt DOl U. the very same. 64 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 26. Numerals. No. In letters. Masculine. Feminine. 1 2 ^ / • / ih^ (usually 2xi in U.). In Ti. J. M often silent. 2 >3 1* K., rarely uisDiS K., Al. 3 \ K. Al., iSsSts'U., isis'ft. K., SvS'ft. u., SA'js Q. ■ M z. 4 m A3->i u. (3). A332 K. Al. (arhe or arbi). 5 OJ K. 0 6 o i K. 40 »0 7 1^33 (showa U.K., but shd‘a 33X1 Ti. Ash. Sh., 33X1 0 »• 00 00 Ti. Z.). Tkh. (both a). 8 K., }^;s Sh. • I* 9 ;Lx^^ Ti. sh., .iiisjTi., ;3:{si.Tkh., .iJtfts: 0 '• f II 00 II (5a.^)U. Sal. Tkh.,J^:s AL, ISxisl Ash. Sh., ^^A1. # II 10 yi H K. 0 II [In IT. Z. the masculines and feminines are alike unless otherwise marked : also in the following numbers there is only one form for both. In Sal. Q. Gaw. J. the feminine forms are used, but in Sal. often with masculine nouns.] 1 The pronunciation of these differs in the modification or non-modification of the Zlama sound, § 6. 26] NUMERALS. Go No. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 In letters. Ai. ‘V ■ Ou. V s 3kj66y3u^ (khddessar) : Q. Sal. Q. Sal. f 9t ' *99 * it 99 In these numbers to 19 incl. Pthakha is » > n ' like Zqapa in U., not K. (f>). ' 9 * U. Tkh. {sho-wdsar) ; ispSMl (a) Ti. Tkh, Sh. Ash. Ti. Ash. * 99 *9999 ijosxksl Ti. Sh. Ash. U. Tkh. Al. t f ■ It r t II f I II I II K. MB. ^ U. ^yjs^e ^ m ^ f 99 * * 0 99 0 99 • 0 Al. [f. 2x«]. K. MB. Sh. (tlayi) U. J. Q. II * * u^aai; Sal. 11 II W*Xib0UM . * 0 . (usually sho-wi, but sh&i Ti. Z.). Mis U. Tkh. Ash. yi»«\ Ti. Ash. (second Zlama / •' sound). Ti. Ash. Sal. TT* Tkh. Sh. ;2i2, rarely J2iO. s. GR 9 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRTAC. [§ 26 66 No. In letters. 101 va 200 m 300 JE 400 500 • 600 ^ib 700 800 900 • 1000 2 10,000 2 (vmokhd, accent on first and last) ; J2i2o Al. f.). J2S<) uiis (trmia) ; ihol Al. Ash. »' i' " i' iAsN u. Q. k. }2^2 Al. [J2sJ>2 made masculine. So for the rest in AL, but the K. forms are also used there]. ;2^:3b2 (3 Pthakha sound) U. Q. ^2io2 ^^332 K. : J.2^2 Ash. ^ it i i ?2i03Lto^ U. Q. ;2^2 K. ^ »* / ^ 1$ , ;i»isxl u. Q- JiasJ isx2 K. Sh. 11^!^ U. (sJio-wdma). Q- Sh. J2»2 Ti. Al. ;2ib2 ^^:iX2 Tkh. u. ;2i« Q. ;2i«2 k. U- ;2^2sisv ''J'kh. Sh. ;2!i2si^2 Ti. ;2»^i^ Al. [i Pthakha sound]. ;^2; J^2 Sal. or j4o=>? (both rare). (1) In and its compounds the first ^ is usually pronounced See § 123. (2) ^ is pronounced khe in Sal. Q. Gaw. J., § 91 ; and we even hear xi it is one, pronounced kheli for khd-ili, S 29. (3) For numbers higher than 110 J2ij comes first in Al. as elsewhere. The Zqapa everywhere makes a diphthong with the following o; so in jA^2 which is a masculine substantive takino- the first plural. i§ 26. 27] NUMERALS. 67 (4) J2isb2 is a fern, substantive (but apparently masc. in Al. ; see above) making plural JlioZ when not used, as in the table, for 200, 300 etc. The form J,2i is used in forming the numbers 200 etc., and in the phrase peace, a hundred peaces, sc. you have come {you are very welcome). (5) The O.S. definite state , whose plural is (or bo)^ appears in village (rare in O.S. but so spelt), i.e. a hundred houses. This accounts for the colloquial pronunciation in U. of the plural, where both Taus drop, md-wdi. (The usual O.S. word is not used in N.S.) m 0 ^ (6) The other numbers form plurals regularly, as Ji,3UC sevens, nineties. Thus three times five can be expressed by Ixso^ or by }3ba.i ttUss. [Distinguish JsSoJ. and of ,1 / / ,' ■ / which the pronunciation is different, § 5 (4).] (7) For 10,000 is commonly used. If ofii is used the plural is ^ or . But this is not colloquial. After afiD etc. a a is placed before a noun : not after ihol . or their I It • ~ 4i ' ~ f plurals when a plural noun follows, as Jxil Jlil a hundred men; but we may say two thousand of the people. (8) In putting letters for numbers the dots and strokes for 500 etc. are often omitted. 1889 is written and the year is / 0 called appat. So for other years. § 27. Ordinals are expressed by prefixing a to the cardinals, as fifth. This was also common in O.S. They may stand with¬ out a substantive, thus : uSiss OOJ (^jiD^b OCT) O.S.) the second one. The O.S. ordinals are used for fractions up to tenths. Thus : 68 GKAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ninth. tenth. 2 3 (fern. half {ox ;i^). jlLaX seventh. eighth. fourth, fifth. These are not common in the colloquial speech. Higher fractions are expressed by ?, as also are the above. Thus : = or (4 ^•)* I* * ' •* * ** The O.S. becomes (rarely in N.S. Fractions may also be expressed by ^ (so O.S.), as uSiN ^ ^ one-half The other O.S. fractional forms such as a third, are now almost if not quite obsolete. But is used for decimals. tithes (so O.S.) is used colloquially. (O.S. is a substantive taking the first and fifth plurals. Before substantives it takes affixes, and also usually when standing by itself. In U. no difference is made between the genders, and is used for both ; while in K. a difference is made. Thus : — half the bread ; is^®? K. half an hour ; U. = uD^* K. masc. = 2| ; H. = ujS^o isijQ K. an hour and a half \ OJ^ u. = ijlx :sS:s gea?'s ; and so on. After nouns ending in , o is inserted in U. as well as K. : and makes a diphtlioug. Thus lavptopelgi (in K. = a hafta and a half [1 hafta = 4 lbs. avoirdupois approximately]. = by halves, § 67 ; u07q1^^>^ = half dead] = u ipiarter. § 28] NUMERALS. GO § 28. Various notes on Numerals. (1) Both of them, all three of them, etc., are expressed thus : — 2. U. Tkh. Al. U. (both of K.). K. Al. uo^pb^ Ash. Al. Ti. Al. uo^&ob^ Sal. Sp. Al. uCf^i^Spb^ Ash. (fem.). MB. 3. U. Q. Sa1. uO^o^^Sal. ^^a^isicS^sV. uO)Lki^^ K. {a\ Al. Ash.). oo^^^oSis mb. [^ = ^, see § 123.] 4. U. u.p^iisS3bi K. (Al. 07). ooiisii^abi MB. Ash. 5. U- K. (Al. c?). MB. '* / I*'**/ / Ash. 6. u,a7*is4oisx2 U. y^ujAisisxl K. (Al. oj). 6a7isieisac2 MB. y.^iSXx2 Ash. 7. uiOI^isao^ai (sho-wunte) U., or uOT^iis^^i K. (cjj Al.) MB. Ash. 8. wnOjjiisAaAa^fiS U. uOT-iisisb^ K. (Al. 07). MB. 1 I® ^ Ash. 9. uCjAioxis^ U. uo^ii^asis^ Tkh. (2 Ti.). OG^isiosiis^ MB. uC?j.is4aaon:s Al. Al. u.^i^xfis2 Ash. \jiUU'^^oyfy^ U. K. (07 Ah), 10. Ash. We also have, though rarely, for all eleven of them, in U. in Ti. and so for the other numbers to 19 inclusive. 70 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 28 For see § 25 (2). * The other plural affixes may be used with any of the above ; thus : all ten of us, all six of you. With nouns we have hoth days, (but with a before or as both of those days). (2) Once, twice, thrice etc. are expressed by the substantive time. In the singular oj is often silent ; in the plural it sometimes has a ^ sound, but often is like 2 {gd-yi or gd-i). Plural in Al. U. K.) huice. Jo?Jk 2'^ K. (U. o?ice every tivo years. The following may be used instead of iAof. U. journey, K. load, I foot, ;ia f. K. breath, m. K., O.S. span. All take the first plural in this sense. But is only used when motion is implied : as uDN CO 2^2 he came twice. Not so , which is constantly used thus: a]i this time, uOl that time, then, § 67. (3) Twofold, threefold Qic., aiQ pJi*, ^ etc. Also ft » without 3 ^ and with Ai. j as . . ^ fi'vefold more than. (4) Distributives are expressed by repeating the numeral, as five each : aA one each, or one at a time, which we may also render Notice ciS Ixxlo a man went from each house (not 2xa2 2^^ Stoddard. St. also gives is*l 2^^^ 2^2 for each boy has a pen, but it means the boy has a pen)- 28] NUMERALS. 71 Sometimes may be rendered by 2^ 2^, or by or by (5) Days of the week. The words p (jio*) day of, are often prefixed to the following, but they are as frequently used alone. Sunday khdsJnha, U. Tkh. (Ti. i with Zqapa sound, and kheslidba in Upper Tiari). Jaipa.. Al. Sh. MB. Sal. (khMshdba). O.S. (In K. is a common name for a man, » I" / ^ ' I - • / ’ especially given to one born on a Sunday.) Monday U. trilshiha, Tkh. Ash. (Ti. MB. Al. i as above), Upper Ti. O.S. Jaia Tuesday (tlSshiha or tldshiba) U. Tkh. I* i' Ash. (Ti. Al. i). MB. Sh. O.S. Jais Wednesday U. Tkh. Ash. (Ti. Al. i) MB. Sh. O.S. Jib jiiiai. Thursday laXliasJ* U. Tkh. Ash. (Ti. Al. i) MB. Sh. O.S. Jiia Jbou:. 0 0 Friday So O.S. Saturday so O.S. ; or Sal. In part of U. Thursday is called J,boX i.e. market day, though it is not now the usual day for going to market. (6) Per cent. Example : 20 per cent. i'^'^ i-®- 100 produces 120); but 17 per cent. J2bb^ ajibi. Note 2auQ>^ xi one part in every ten. * M 72 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 28 (7) The numeral ^ prefixed to another makes the second a owa^^-substantive, as Ixil ISxdJw ^ ten men. The verb of which ,* »» ■ / this is the subject is plural. In Al. is used to intensify as ^ (or 3^) how much more pi'ecious = JiJxa 2^ U. (8) Notice the following constructions : .A not .^n nrp.nf. nr,.) = JaJN ^ Ti. (dim. Ti.) = Ja*, xi U. = jbmo xl Ti. = ^ K. (in Jilu khenawa) = Az. Al. = Ash., see ? 67. some (khdkma) = Ti. The above precede the noun, but JaSo/ such and such (almost khacha) follows it (= ippol ^ ?). It usually refers to numbers and is the complement of so and so, a certain. It is often doubled, as J^p6l ^ such and such a verse. So 2Sc7f one such as this, Ipfjj twice as much, etc., or with Jaboy or ;^o2 for 2bay; a subst. or adj. often follows immediately. §28] NUMERALS. IS (10) For reckoning sums of money, weights, etc., which are just under a round number, subtraction is very commonly employed. Thus 1 qran 19 sliahis is usually two qrans, one shahi less. In compound sums the noun following the numeral is usually made singular. (11) For the tiuelve Apostles the noun is sometimes used as in O.S. In O.S. we also have a tenth, not in N.S. 0 (12) Months, in the Syrian order : October (a) (O.S. March ibl O.S. See page 43. April O.S. November (O.S. May U. ill K., O.S. June O.S. December (O.S. s). January (O.S. ^). = Dec. and Jan.] Febrim'y (t>-S- A^). one 0 July O.S. August Kurd. (O.S. ^2). September rarely as O.S. (Nun from Kurdish.) (13) The clock. ? what o’clock is it?, isijsa ’clock, seven o’clock, twelve hours, il^oyi Ti. Al.) noon, ^•) ^^Jdnight, Jsija u. (6jJ^ K.) half past seven, J±L^b ;L five minutes to seven (lit. five minutes remain for seven o’clock), jL five minutes past seven (\ii. five minutes are past from seven o’clock). (14) Measures are often rendered thus : 2^302 2Xm Ol<^ypt0 a road two farsakhs (7 miles) long (lit. its length) ; or we might say long, here. s. GR. 10 74 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§29 VERBS. Km) or ' I II ' / #• § 29. The Substantive Verb. The forms without distinctive letters are used almost universally. Present tense. He is, etc. Sing. 3 m. ojVf- f. 6^: ^cHL U. 0 0 0 2 m. fisou (X Tkh.) : . fis*Ou U. Tkh.) : ;LCSaO« (X) Tkh. f. Jis^ Tkh.) : U. Tkh.) : (ft.) Tkh. 1 m. : lila. K. ; Jiloo) K. : I'il lo^ K. f. : lilOf K. : I'iloin Ash. Plur. 3 m. f. ILk U. Q. Sal. Sp. : Tkh. : Tkh. Ti. J. Al. Ash.: 4.ooi!Smi Al. : uOUJk* J* ^ 0 0 *00 2 m. f. » cis^ U. K. (:s Tkh.): ois^ Ti. : . ofiSAOOJ Bo.: ' * ' N ^isOOO] Al. ; or with pronoun, ois^l 6is**l Ti. 1 m. f. yyiO* (iwukh) : (i-wdkhn) U. : uJmaOu Tkh. (U) : Ti. Al. Ash. : w*«iOu Ti. Imperfect. He was, etc. Sing. 3 m. Joc^Ia U. Q. Sal.^ : Jbo) Jo07 K. Al. Sh. MB. f. XJ. Q. Sal.^: J,boi Jlb^ K. Al. Sh. MB. ^ Usually spelt by error in the printed books Jooi. Thus ;0<71 ;BsSl3: loo) JfiLaS. It is never thus pronounced, and should be ;ooj. Va-^ hiprdqe wd, and look p?n5e wd. See Note 2 below. 29] SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 75 2 m. Joaj iso* (X Tkh.) : Joo) fiS-*007 Ash. f. Jooj (X Tkh.) : }66i uisooj Ash. 1 m. Jooj ♦^Ou: }6ai ^*00) Ash. f. Jooi : Jooi ^O] Ash. Plur. 3 m. f. oodil* (i-wd nearly) U. Q. Sal. : OOO) mOO) (Zlama second sound) K. : 0007 o6oi Al. 2 m. f. loO] (^S Tkh.) : oisf K. (^s Tkh.) : lorn ois*o^ Ash. 1 m. f. Joc) W»«6* : J6o7 wiMiOu Ti. Ash. Al. I* Notes. (1) For the terminations of these forms see on the regular verb, § 32 (1). The o is clearly part of Joo/ to he, as seen I* by the variations (see under ^ verbs, § 42, also § 46) ; the ^ has been thought to be a corruption of ^^2 there is (whose 4s often falls, see below) ; and sometimes the verb is written etc., but this somewhat interferes with the yi becoming diphthongal as in Note 2. The third person seems to be for ^Si*2 , The forms )L , are perhaps for 4^2 : 4s*2 . Cf. Az. 4sSk* thou art : he is : ojiL she is : they are, see Appendix 1. (2) The point under the Yudh is omitted if a vowel sound precedes, with or without 2 , but not after o , The y, is not then silent, but forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel. Thus ^SX!>Od I am a friend {dost iwin), hut Jiil T am {dnewin). But the accent remains as if the two words did not coalesce. After Jioa the point is ♦^4S* (but not in K.) as pydshitiXn, retained ; also, in U. in 76 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ye are remaining, U. (pydshetun K.). In Al. Z. Bo. Sal. the point is frequently omitted even after a consonant. (3) If the preceding word ends in a silent consonant, the point is usually retained, as wmOu we are one : but see § 26 (2). (4) Note that in Ashitha the Yudh appears in the present, but not, except in I pi., in the imperfect. (5) In poetry, or for emphasis, we may have 4,^^ (and twin) ; and conversely we may omit the Khwasa after a consonant in similar cases. But this is uncommon except in Al. Z. Bo. Sal. (6) As the terminations of etc. contain the personal pro¬ nouns, it is unnecessary, except for emphasis or distinction, to repeat these. (7) The following examples explain the usage : — 4^^ ^2 I am, (f.) art, ^2 we are, ob\ he is, uOj she is, obi he was, I6ap> mOj she ivas, ooc^ ui2 they were. The yi of the 3rd pers. imperfect is never omitted except in the K. and Al. forms. (8) The first and second persons singular, with the pronouns added, are often contracted to dninwd, dndnwd, dtitwd, dtatwd. (9) The lob] is almost the only relic of the old past tense. [Stoddard also gives aiip2bk3 . See § 68, under Jsaa.] (10) The other tenses of the substantive verb are formed regu¬ larly from lobi to he, see §§ 42, 46, but the imperative is not very f much used in the sense to he (use rather the first present) and the second present never. This verb also means to become, to he made, to he horn, and in the last sense is also used in the passive jlooi see § 34. The preterite cjS %ob] is much used for he was as an alter- §29] SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 77 native to Jboju. 3 Xo^ — to belong to, as Jofl To whom does this belong ? Joc/ also means to be possible, § 63 (5) : Joof it will do, or it is possible. Xool ^ or it is impossible. »* •' •' Cf. the use of this verb with verbal nouns, to denote possibility, § 34. So more rarely it is impossible. (11) Thei'e is, there are = ^2 [is U. etc., often ^ Q. Also in Al. (^)] pronounced with short 7. When ^ follows, ^ becomes hard. The negative is fis^^ (^S K. Al. ; for pronunciation see page 12). In reading O.S. this is usually pronounced let (Js)- Variants are ^ is^I . itin, litm. The imperfect is jbo) the future Jow is3 and so on. These forms do not take the pronominal affixes, as in O.S., and cannot express he is, thon art, etc. ; but see Note 1 above. (12) He has, when expressing possession, is aS ii.fl (O.S. 6.). Past cjS Jbbi Future Joof fiS3. Sometimes, especially in AL, we have C7jiu2 etc. If the pronoun is emphatic it is put absolutely : as ^a2 ^2 f have. So yon have me is jil (13) But when mere holding is intended we cannot use this form, and must say be with or at. Thus I have your book must be . (14) :^2, may also be used thus: — ? jib2^ C]iSkA X^tl Where is Thomas ? He is not here. But iajS oj^ A is equally good. (15) On the other hand the substantive verb is used where we might expect : as X^o^ {there is wind), it is windy, § 16 ii./. 78 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ^OCT,) ^ OuOO] : : u' - t t ' ^<1/ \/ (16) Here he is and the like are expressed differently in different districts. U. : 6^09 : ^0*03 : uiN<^03 : 0u03 : * 'V * • ’ t ■ n t • It* 's " ' • 's ' jLoS : ^is^op : ^^op (u usually silent). Tkb. c)^o6l : aj^oal : is^OOl : : ^(^o6l : : uCtAaO^ (or y^O(^) : : smOuO^ (ui silent). Ash. of^OO) : aj^OOl : isOuOC? (or <,0^00)) : uisouOOJ (or au^om : ♦s^Op^Apoi (^^o) : ^OuOOl (u silent). Ti. : yj.^0^ : ^CtAo^ : ,• have commonly S 2^2 dnitun U., dnitun K. (20) I may (i.e. I am allowed), is expressed by 2 uS is*2 U. (or boisAb U. K. or i^i6iMOb, is^ob) I have permission, e.g. *0^00 CSaS ? 2^i2 JJ, no one may enter ; or sometimes by the verb 2eSJ) to he able. (21) The substantive verb is used for emphasis: as 2^ 2^1^ 3 not that thou art ivorthy ; u^ 2^2 2^3 lou^ 2^ it was not that he did not come. (22) It is frequently omitted in relative clauses, § 14. _ 4^ (23) For used for the substantive verb, see § 34. § 80. Conjugations. The method of denoting conjugations by names derived from to work, and of denoting classes of verbs by the same rooth is not used in East Syrian grammars ; instead they use the terms P‘al and \^is2 Ethp‘el) simple ; (= ^ For convenience this simple method is used in this Grammar. Thus ^ denotes the first radical, ^ the second, ^ the third ; verbs whose first radical is 2 are , those whose second is O are , and so on. Verbs whose second and third radicals are the same are , 80 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Pa‘el, and Ethpa'al) compound ; J (= Apb'el, and more compound \ ^ (= ShapL'el, and S^isxz Eshtaph'al). They distinguish the active and passive in each division by adding respectively the names lk?^ : ■ U. J. 2 m. f. (j^o Sal. Sp.) : ois^yh Ti.^ J. Z.^ Tkh.): ^isoJOyh AI.2 or oisoJbih Al.* 1 Village of Digalah, in the plain of Urmi. ^ Paradigm form. ^ This variation is common in many districts in verbs , as S. GR. 11 82 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 1 m. f. (pdrqukh): (pcirqdkhi)V.: (u) Tkh., and esp. U. ; Ti. Al. Sh. Ash. ; ^3^ Ti. Sh. : Al. : Q. Future. {S3 he will finish : 33 Al. K. : ^0^3 Al. Z. Sal. (even in JS and ud verbs) and sometimes XJ. K. [In Ash. there is no prefix except 3 before 2 or u,, as Ji^ls {d! dthi) he will come. So often in Ti. Z. Az. In Ti. Ash. ^2jb he arises, he descends, prefixed to the verb as above makes the future, the proper personal affix being employed, is a verb not used in those districts. For the Tal future see § 46 under J^.] Conjugate like the First present. Conditional. ;oa, X3 he would finish, etc., 3rd plur. OOO] Nb (see Future). Or thus, contracted, in MB. Sal. Q. iS3 : Jooi {S3 : {S3 : ikhih ftv3 : ft«.3 : liJbhih is^ (pdr -qdnd, but accented on the short a). Habitual and historic present, he finishes, U. MB. Sp. and rarely Sal. : bb^ u2 Tkh. Q. Sal. : wbsA^ Al. Z. (and often Sal. with ^ and verbs) : wb^ Ti. Ash. For Ja see § 119. Habitual imperfect. Jbo? ^ he used to finish, as above. Also contracted in MB. Sal. Q. like the Conditional. Preterite (rarely used except in Al.). wb^ U. Z. (rarely Sal.) he finished (Pthakha sound) = ^Oib Sal., and Al. rarely = ;ata Al. = O.S. ^^,3>b he was before, often used adverbially]. Not used in Ti. Ash. Second present. he is finishing, or See the substantive verb, § 29. The is much omitted in K., and before labials in TJ. It is almost always omitted in Ash. except §31] FIRST CONJUGATION. 83 before 2 or m and often even then. Note U. but K. § 29, note 2. Imperfect. Put or Va’^ before the imperfect of § 29 {he was finishmg). The second and first persons are often contracted to : 2. m. f. ; 1. jLilSAs m. f. ; PL 1. m. f. In Q. these have the force of the Second present tense. Or they are half contracted : 2. loG\ m. f. : 1. m. f. : Plur. 1. loo] m. f. The 2. plur. is not contracted. Preterite {he finished) : Sing. 3 m. or wt3U^ K.^ (rarely). L wtlLa>^ . Plur. 3 m. f. U., or with MB., or with 2 m. wtL&^ . f or with • 0 0 Ti. MB. • 0 1 m. f. U.S . 2 m. f. . daoS or \ ■ ' with Ti., or oa©S • 0 ■ Al. Z. 1 m. f. ^ wtsLd^ or with uiA Ti. [The pronunciation of the Khwasa is like short i, except in K. Al. with ai^ verbs, and sometimes with others ; see page 86.] Second preterite. lo^ wt3L^5 he finished, or he was on the point of finishing (rare in U., common in K. Al. Z.f Perfect. he has finished : ©^^ L Plur. ;L etc., as § 29. Pluperfect. The above with the imperfect of § 29 {he had finished). Or contracted in the first and second persons : 2. ^ Paradigm form. 84 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 31, 82 m., : 1- jLjtU^ m., f. Plur. 1. [the Zlama has nearly the second sound]. In Q. these have the force of the perfect. Or they may be half contracted, as Jboi isJOu^ . The 2nd plur. is not contracted. I / ^ I Imperative. Sing. 2 m. wboivd fiyiisli ; f. Plur. 2 m. f. ^au;sVp as it is ivritten (the Nicene Creed) ; ^ Sjcii y^o and then let the priest take the horn of oil from the hands of him that holds it (Baptismal rubric) : notice the as above. So Rev. xix. 9, and elsewhere frequently. In O.S. this use of the participle in an active sense appears to be confined to certain verbs. (5) The perfect and pluperfect use the definite state of the past participle with the substantive verb. (6) Imperative. The O.S. forms are used, except the fern. pi. The more common O.S. form iR- pl- gives way to the variant, less common in O.S., ^ , for the termination of which the Eastern copies of Bar Hebraeus’ grammar (chap. ix. § 4) and Bar Zu‘bi give Rwasa, not Rwakha. We must notice that in N.S. all except ^ verbs (§ 42) and a few verbs in Z. (§ 38) make the imperative in o ; thus aobol N.S. = ail O.S. say. This leads to a simplification in grammar. [So to run, — O.S. irregular verb , is in N.S. quite regular. Imper. = O.S. or This verb is not used in Ti.] (7) The other persons of the imperative are expressed by the first present tense; see § 51 (10). (8) Subsidiary tenses may be formed by Jo<7/ , as jiiSAa ?O0 is3 he will he finishing (rare) : isss '^'dl have finished (not common) : loot he tvoidd have finished (common). So Jo<7f ♦\2 (common) if he shall have finished, §§ 60 — 62. (9) The personal pronouns may alw^ays be prefixed to the tenses, 88 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. §§ 32, 33 or may follow them for emphasis. So in O.S. }a2 1 ill I go = N.S. taSfl ^2 (§ 46) Gen. xv. 2. ' #* (10) The Conditional is like O.S., with the addition of is??. Thus Ps. cxxiv. 3, ^ obol O.S. = ^ OOO) is3 luould have swallotved us up. § 33. The verb used iiegatively. Not is expressed by ^ or (see § 67). It will be observed that (almost always) and Ja (except Al.) are omitted with the i' negative, but not , First present, 2^ he does not finish. ^ let him not finish, and so in subjoined clauses. Future, ^ \ isa Ti.i (rarely U.) : ybaAa Al. he will not finish. Conditional. lorn ^ or A MB. Q., or (in sub¬ joined clause) Jbbj ^ ^^0 luoidd (should) not finish Always in Al. lorn btiSAa Habitual present, 2^ • btiSAa Al.^ he does not finish. Habitual imperfect. Jbc) wb^ ; loo] wbaAa ^ Al.^ he used not to finish. Preterite. :s^ U he did not finish. For variations of the particle see p. 82. Second present. Al. h rare) he is not finishing. Imperfect. JbaAa loa^ ^ U. JLbaAa Job) Job) Tkh. Al.^ etc. (jS Ti.^) he teas not finishing. ^ Paradigm form. §§ 33, 34] PASSIVE VERB. 89 Preterite. ojS ^ he did not finish, ^ K. (rare). Second preterite. loo] wtsLa^ ^ he did not finish. Perfect. ^ Al.) Ae not finished. * I* .• Pluperfect. UOu^ Joc^, U., }ooi }oa] ^ Tkh. Ti.) he had not finished. Imperative, wbobk^ ^ or finish (see § 59). The above table applies equally to the second conjugation. § 34. The passive of transitive verbs of both conjugations is formed by the addition of the past participle to the various tenses of to remain, for the conjugation of which see § 39. Examples : he was taken : 4^^ inL she is being left. More rarely it is expressed by to come ; thus, JM he came to killing = he ivas killed. Often the passive is expressed merely by the past participle, alone in K., or with the substantive verb both in K. and U. Thus = he was killed, or he has killed. In O.S. also this con¬ struction often replaces a passive verb ; thus, may our prayer he heard, xlh and Ipal may rarely be used in the ** I* past part., isyil ^2 there is made reference = refer- ence is made : ^oo) Jbo) ^2 a change was made. The verb is not much used in Ti. for the passive, and hardly at all in Tkh. Ash. For the past tense passive they will say ^ those men were seen : 2*^ yibl she was seen (p. 86) [for the verb, see ^ ^*7 § 42]. For other tenses a periphrasis is generally made with the active voice. s. GR. 12 90 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 0 is also used with past participles in the sense of to he or remain or become, as he avoiding evil ; and, espe¬ cially in K. Z., for the simple substantive verb. Possibility is often expressed by K. or ioor XJ., as K. if it can he subtracted. So loot (or loo] § 46) U. it cannot he subtracted, § 29 (10, 18). § 35. Second Conjugation. First division. Zqapa verbs. to save, or finish tr. (= O.S. but in another sense). For the Mim see below. Py'esent participle. Sing. m., {ilbAbO f. ; Ph ^aAbO m. f. Al. Z. K. MB. Sh. ; or etc. U. Sp., or etc. Sal. Q. 0 ^ 0 Gaw. J. (Zlama either sound) = O.S. Sing. ni., ;bi$bo f. ; PL m., f. Fast participle (ahs. state). Sing. ubSo^bO m., }.bb^bO f- ; PL 0 (K. etc.) [In U. etc. Mim silent.] = O.S. Sing. bbS^aa m., ;(a^f. ; PI. m., f. See § 50. (Def. state.) Sing. ni., Ti. U., or .^So^kbO Sp. Tkh. Sal. f.; PL Jbbo^bb Ri- f. = O.S. Sing. JbbdbO Ri., f. ; PL Jba^bO Ri., ;4a34M f. [In U. etc. Mim silent.] Imperative, Sing, wbi^ m., f. ; PI. . otjai or . abo^bS^ U. In Sal. Q. Gaw. we have Jba^ , yb^ , ^Qbabi^ (<• Sal.). In K. MB. we have «> > (or ). In O.S. jj-4, atj^ (or (or ai'i4). Verbal noun. Jbob^bO : }bOboA^ Sal. Q. Gaw., or Sal. [In U. etc. Mim silent.] .< / 35] SECOND CONJUGATION. FIRST DIVISION. 91 Notes. (1) The tenses follow as in the first conjugation. Thus the preterite is otS he saved. The infinitive is ,» ** / ’ “i 10 K., U. and often Ah, Sal. Q. Gaw. is •' •' ' not prefixed to the verbal noun in the second present and imperfect ; jf but see 5 37, note 6. Future in Ah Z., (2) This and the next division correspond to the O.S. Pa^eh But the Pthakha on the first radical is strengthened to Zqapa, perhaps by way of compensating for a Dagesh, as the East Syrians dislike doubling a letter. See also § 87 c. (3) The N.S. past participle differs from the O.S. by the insertion of o . See § 89. (4) The verbal noun also is quite unlike O.S. ; though it has its counterpart in other Aramaic dialects (Nold. § 101). (5) The Mim prefixed to this conjugation is silent in U. Sal. Sp. Q. Gaw. and usually J. In Ah the form wtijJbo (= is pronounced as one word, with one Mim. The Mim is never prefixed to verbs beginning with yina ; thus yioyap to growl, not ; so to smell (O.S. y«i). Causatives, whether tri- literal or quadriliteral, and all verbs from Aph'el, have Mim already, and do not take a second : as to love (root cf love, 0$ ' * O.S. and N.S.): to cause to be killed. The same is the case with AiS U. = K. = Adi K. = Adoi Al. = O.S. AdoM (root Aa.) to carry, where the ^ and ^4 take the place of § 45. In the verb to honour, the pbO is always retained in U. etc. though not in the cognate to weight. Perhaps we have here the in¬ fluence of reverend (O.S. IlxtJLbD). It is also retained in jidoooTbo faithful (O.S. mercifid. The Mim in the imperative in K. is an instance of false analogy. 92 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 35, 36 (6) If a verb is conjugated according to both conjugations, it is usually intransitive in the first, and transitive in the second, as to go out, to put out. We may often distinguish them by the second radical being soft in the first, hard in the second conjugation : as to buy (1), to sell (2) ; but there are exceptions, see §§ 94, 95. (7) Frequently a verb follows the first conjugation in K., the second in U., as K. to command = U. im II * II ■ (8) The imperfect and pluperfect are often contracted as in the first conjugation, as Jboj = Jbo) I was saving. (9) We may take as an instance of the difference between the two conjugations blessed, a first conjugation form (but the other parts of the verb are not used) and blessed, from 2 conj. to bless. The latter has reference to an agent, the former merely to a state of blessedness. A man visiting another on a feast day says may your feast be blessed ; but 2^2 I have come {came) to bless your feast. (10) Many verbs express an English copula and adjective, or a passive, as U. to be cold (as a person) : abobw to be baptized (cf. to baptize) : Al. to be f ulfilled. § 36. Second Conjugation. Second division. Pthakha verbs. to wash (so O.S.). n , Present participle. Sing. m., f. ; PI. > m. f. K. MB. Sh. Al. Z., (so O.S. but pi. m.) or ^ XJ., or Q. Sal. daw. J. Past participle {abs. state), , u!SkSouibO K. etc., or >.V\ofvbi? [for PI. see § 50] U. Q. Sal. Gaw. J. 36] SECOND CONJUGATION. SECOND DIVISION. 93 {Def. state.) (^Ti.), ;^ou>bo K.: -*/ ' // ^ 4i i ^ f ~ i i f ' (S Sal. Sp.), U. etc. = O.S. etc. Imperative. Sing. m., uSk^f.; PL . (or . oM^ik^?) m. f. XJ., or (4» Sal.) Q. Sal. Gaw. J., or ♦. ClSA^ (or o^A^) K. MB. = O.S. Utak^kM , Oii!Sk^Mk (or ^ OLSt^M ) WAa^k^M (or ■Aki). II t ' 11 t I II t \ t ^ ft' Verbal noun. K. etc. (Mini silent U.), Sal. Q. Gaw., or Sal. .1 I tt The tenses follow as before : the First present is given in full. K. MB. Sli. Al. Z. U. Sp. Q. Sal. Gaw. J. S. 3 m. 6k^^ »* / f t f f f. / ' f f 2 m. 11 ^ , tt it / \ isS,^b9 tt tt $$ f t / I f t / f 11 1 m. \f f t AAs \ f f f f. A^^ \ f f PI. 3 m. f t ft u>S>^MhP t f II 2 m. f. oisASiM^ ' f t \ f f II 1 m. f. / f t 1 A^bP tt it For variations in the terminations see page 81. Thus are conjugated all triliterals of the second conjugation with Pthakha, among which are many causatives, as 'pJffsO to raise, from (but pii to lift, from ^2fi is of the first division). In the K. forms the half vowel often drops altogether, as I love = « Jinjii LJ. The first Zlarna in the Q. Sal. Gaw. J. forms is often v* 7i ' 94 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 36, 37 lengthened to long Zlama. It is usual to write the verbal noun of this division with Rwasa, of the first division with Rwakha. 37. Second Conjugation. Third division. Quadriliterals. > > #■ 0^2 to cause to he killed (so O.S.). U. Sp. MB. Sh. Sal. Q. Gaw. J. Pres. part. S. m. f. Ay^p PL m. f. Past part. (ahs. state) S. m. >lyjoio f. Ayio* Ayiobo PI. m. f. see § 50. ViA^^ifctOiSO / #2 U. i K.) CJXMI Al. and sometimes Tkh. Imp. Al. (PI. to be long. U. Ash. (also 2^0 Ash.) MB. Sh. : Al. • / C7^ Al. Tkh. j^OX: ^^6x Al. ;xx: ;xx Al. Tkh. • / • / / in Al. : ^oyJSaZ or OXQ>2). Tlie Sing, in Z. in some verbs has no Wau, as : say. Past part. 2xxz>2 : 2xjQ72 1 t t *t Al. Tkh. But a few verbs only have one form of verbal noun. ySf2 (but see § 46) to go, Aal to eat, X02 to say (in Al. and sometimes in K. to speak or tell), 2^2 to come (see § 46), Xx to know (see § 46), 2*.* i *' ,• to curdle Sp., only make 2^f2a, 2*^3^ etc. In some there is a metathesis in the First present tense, as or I learn (§ 46). In Sp. this arrangement even extends to verbs as ^xA«M {mMi) = they are baptized. Many of these verbs have 2 in one district, m in another : as 23^1 (or 2^) U. = 2^2 MB. as O.S. to bake, U. K., O.S. = ^^2 Al. to sit (is N.S., ^ O.S.). The only second conjugation verbs 2lS or are to be 97 |§ 38, 39] VERBS WITH WEAK MIDDLE LETTER. peaceful or tame K., entrust Al. : to reverence (retaining jzabO always), and a few quadriliterals, as U. (jt' K.) to he numb, to he cheap, to he a widoio or luidower, X»* ' J- ' It f ’ II I to tumble over, Sp. (= ^hopo K.) to he muddy or broken, m ^ t to he shy, »^bijLbO to he heavy. These are regular. Verbs ^ and of the first conjugation may in the Future colloquially drop Zqapa in U. (not K.), as we will not come, he luill not dwell, they %uill not go ; but not etc., where too many consonants intervene between the vowels. So bbOlA Al. Z. = Sal. = bbol 2^ he says. a j t0 A* ^ § 39. Verbs ISi or ^ , The O.S. verbs oSt (o non-consonantal) and correspond to this class, as the present participles are of the form from ^aLb (Ok^) to rise up, from (w^) to hotu. These classes are called by the Eastern Syrians respectively Jih and We must however notice that O.S. N.S. 2^u9k bowed. t Example. to remain (so O.S. ; 3^ is the past tense). Pres. part. Sing, (in U. Zlama usually feeble) or K. m. ; f. ; PI. y&n^ m. f. Past part. (abs. state). Sing, m., f. ; PI. (K.) m. f. {Def. state.) Sing. m., f. ; PI. m. f. Imperative. JEOk^ (Rwasa in O.S. Ok^ verbs: but Rwakha in O.S. verbs as s. GR. 13 98 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. The First present thus is : ('*^) • • y&J^: : yJlA, In the second present ^ is commonly omitted in this verb, which is used to form the passive voice of other verbs, § 34. In Z. in some verbs the Alap remains in the preterite, as ^^23 {d^iri) I returned, from b2p. Several verbs whose second radical is silent are conjugated simi¬ larly. Such are : to look intently (so O.S. , Barbahlul) : A1. to hire (O.S. So Al. a hired servant) : ojJ^ K. to dawn, see § 46 (O.S. (as O.S.), or 30^ K. to hear witness : pop (also pc^) Al. Bo. to understand — pL^a K., O.S. (= 2^3^^ U. p. 102) : awake, find out about, feel pain (O.S. ( « to feel) : 3^^ to light a fire (O.S. 3^) : 3(2^ to shake (O.S. <3^. In N. S. to disturb, is also used). See also § 40. Second conjugation verbs 2^ , or , as Al. to borrow (= U. So jLs debt, Pers.) : 3a<^ to help, Pers., (so uiloy help) are regular. So also K. to pour in grease (= ♦^0013 U. § 46 = O.S.) ; ?30i»b8 K. (= U.) = DHT Chald. to defile (pxitting milk in lenten food gives the idea) [hence ixiojo^ a summer pasturage for making butter etc.]. We may notice Ti. to bathe (= U. Tkh.) which retains both Pe’s. This is an verb, while the corresponding O. S. is 03*, but = washing and rubbing down in the bath O.S. [In U. this verb is used of women only, JaaXO being used I* of men.] So some others, §'81 (5). § 40. Yerbs with middle 3*. These are like the preceding, or else are regular. But in the 40 — 42] VERBS WITH WEAK MIDDLE LETTER. 99 preterite is nearly always silent. Thus U. = AI. K. they hear, from to hear ; Pret. I hore. The noun de- notinD- thp. a.opnt [§ 77] is TT K. one who carries or hears. The action is U. K. hearing. So U., or more commonly U. K. hearing. The verb JCu and perhaps others in § 39 may also be conju¬ gated thus. 5 41. Verbs and In the First present tense, o and «a, if they have no vowel, form a diphthong with Zqapa, as I leave (shd-qin). In the first conjugation imperative, the o is usually, ^ some¬ times, dropped. Thus from to leap, Sal U. K., but Sooi sometimes in U. ; wtioai leave, is shuq usually in K., shwuq usually in U. : oaSx to pass or to enter, does not drop ^ : aaSx to do, never except in Al. Verbs a^ of the second conjugation have Pthakha in U. Q. etc. Zqapa in K., as U., ^otSbO K. to happen, § 87 c. (For K., U., see § 63.) These verbs are like but in K. do not take even a half-vowel ; thus 4,0^ thou joinest {mzogit) K. For to he drunk, and }aibo to spread (always Zqapa), see I* •' verbs, § 42 ; for SiaS to huhhle up, to he satisfied, to dye (all ^), see verbs, § 44. I 42. Verbs A. First Conjugation. to reveal. 100 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 42 Present particijyle. Sing. m., f. ; PL In U. Sp. Sal. with first, in J. K. Al. Z. MB. Sh. with second Zlama sound. (So below wherever Lamadh has long Zlama.) Past participle (abs. state). Sing. m., f. ; PI. (K.) m. f. (see § 50). = O.S. Sing. 3^m., f.; PI. f- {Pef. state.) Sing. 1^4. U.K., orjL^Ti. MB., or Tkh. m., ^ f. ; PL or ^. = O.S. Sbg. m.. f. ; PL m., f. Imperative. Sing. m., f. ; PI. m. f., K. MB. Sh. as O.S. (but O.S. f. wanting). In U. Q. Sal., Sing, m. f. ; PL m. f. (j^ Sal.). Verbal noun. ;Si^, or U. Sal. Q. Gaw. From these the tenses follow as before. We may notice : The first present. S.3m. or ^ U. J. f. or U. J. 2 m. Tkh.), 'Tkh. (the long Zlama of Tau has the first sound) or Q. MB. f. (*. Tkh.), U. Tkh. (^). Tkh., Q. MB. or Al. 1 m. or ;i2 U. Ti. Sh. (common). f. or ;i2 U. Ti. (common), or Al. PI. 3 ra. f. U. j. §42] VERBS WITH WEAK FINAL LETTER. 101 2 m. f. (1^ Sal.), or Ti. (*> Tkh.), or Al. lm.f. ^ U.: Ti. Al. Sh. Ash. : 3h. * ‘ r*riA\^ U. Tkh. : JAAA* Q- ■ [The O.S. contracted forms are given for comparison : Sing. isAA,: PI. 44^ 44 = ^oiAS. : 4U. : : ,0^.] Second present, revealing etc. ; or in Sal. 4* 44?? • ■ «jso;% : ; PI. (or : Infinitive. ; or often U. Q. Sal. Gaw. / * 4'' i ' Second Conjugation. First division, to hide. Present participle. Sing. m., f. ; PI. uXi^bO K. MB. Sh. Al. Z. In U. Mim is silent. In Q. Sal. Gaw. J. etc. 4 t* [For the Zlama under Shin see above § 42.] 0. S. Past part. {abs. state). Sing, m., f. (Mim silent as above) ; PI. U. see § 50). = O.S. : {Def. state.) Sing. ^Alo^bO m., U. Ti., or Sp. 102 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 42 Tkh. Sal. ; PI. (Mim silent in U. etc.). Also in Al. as O.S. Imperative. Sing. m. f., PI. or Sal. Q. Gaw. Sal.); or Sing. m., f.^ PI. K. Sh. MB. In O.S. Vei'hal noun. )aO-X K. MB. llOuXJ^^JiO sometimes Ti. : loaSi^'SO U., loMe^tO Sal. Gaw. Q., or Sal. The tenses follow as before. Second Conjugation. Second division. The only verbs conjugated thus are U. to divide (for which see below), and the causa¬ tives like § 46. They are like but take an euphonic vowel whenever does so. For throw, see 5 46. Second Conjugation. Third division. to understand (not common in K.). For the Zlama of Mim, see Several are paradigm forms only. Present participle. Sing. m., }»boaAiaO f., PL m. f. K. AL; or U. MB. Sh. (but Mim silent U.); or : ^boa^bo : uyaAbo Q. Sal. Gaw. J. Past pai'ticiple (abs. state). Sing. m., J*boao^kbO f., PL yi^a^bO m. f. K. ; or Sing. m., j.^a^bO f. U. Sal. Q. Gaw. (for pi. see § 50), so MB. Sh. with Mim sounded. {Def. state.) Sing. ^^a^bO m., .^jLi^a^bO (i^aoflda Ti.) f.. VERBS WITH WEAK FINAL LETTER. 103 FI. m. f. K; or Sp. Sal.) i^aoAbo U. etc. ,*■ I Imjyerative. Sing, iR- f-, PI- ♦s^oboI^A^ m. f. U.; or ' Sal.) Q. Gaw. Sal. ; or Sing. M^oai^da m., £, PI. OMsAbO m. f. K. MB. Sh. t » 0 Verbal noun. K. MB., or IlQboa^ddO Ti. sometimes, or Joaboa^bS U., or Jooboaol^ba (or ) Sal., or Joo^aAbS Gaw. The tenses follow as before : for the euphonic vowel see § 37 (5). Some verbs with a silent final letter are conjugated like ^ verbs (but see § 46 ad init.). Such are : Cjbaa to be extinguished (O.S. Ojiia) : ^03 to mix (also A. as O.S.) : U. to knock, attack, butt (in Al. Tkh. as O.S. In K. also Jb^) : or to make a fence, see § 46 : (=# U., hard Kap) to lose savour (O.S. : K. U., also Al ., as O.S. to divide, §§ 46, 98 (cf midlent = O.S. the division, and lS^half=O.B.lp&-. Tkh. a wave = 'TreKabaac as O.S. Imperative. Sing, s^bab^ m. f., PI. ♦^obab^bM! m. f. U. Q. Sal. Gaw. (as if [in Sal. ; or Sing. y^baX m., f., PI. m. f. K. MB. ; or Sing. A^o^abi m., f., PI. ^bai m. f. Al. Ash. In O.S. Abas : yAbaX : oAbOA : JbbQbt . < / / V7 “ Venial noun. i lxaa : Al. Ash. : also U. Q. Sal. Gaw. From these come the tenses ; we notice especially : The first present. In U. Sh. AbabS : ^bab : b^bybai : uisbibabi : ; ♦^bsAbbai : ywAbaS. In K. the feminines are J*bibas : y^Ibbai: ^AbaS. In Al. the 2 pi. is *^Kabba:x, and in Tkh. is pronounced shdmdtun, as if a ^ verb. For variations in the terminations see ? ol. § 44] VERBS WITH WEAK FINAL LETTER. 105 The second present, : but in Sal. uiiboia ; in Gaw. and also Sal. oiV^ioxa etc., as in ^ verbs, p. 101. Second Conjugation. or to assemble. Pres, participle. Sing. m., or f., PI. s^SftiS^ U. MB. Sh. (but in U. Mim is silent) ; so Sal. Q. Gaw. J. but with ^ ; or Sincr m f.. PI. m. f. K. (in Tkh. pron. mjdme, as if and so Ash. but with Past participle (abs. state). Sing. m. : J*MOO^b9 U., or K. f. ; PI. K. (for U., Imperative. Sing. m. f. ; PI. m. f. U. So Q. Gaw. Sal. with {fj Sal.). In K. m., y^boj^bo f. ; PI. m. f. So Ash. MB. Sh. with , Verbal noun. }*bw^bA-^Lb9 K. : ?^Cub»»!^-bO MB. Sh. Ash. : ,1 ,• * la^pbo!^ U.: ipbMObOp^ Q. Sal. (or Sal.): Gaw. The tenses follow as before. The verbs to bubble up, to be satisfied, to dye (which in U. have a Pthakha sound, see § 46), are pronounced differ- ently in U. and K. in the First present. Thus I am satisfied, ^0 • • • is sd-win K., so'in U. But U. she is satisfied, is s6‘a, and also K. is 50 ‘2/a. Past part. su'ya, etc. For verbs with more than one weak letter, see 5 46. S. GR. 14 106 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. § 45. Causative verbs. (a) These verbs are derived from Aph‘el, and are formed by pre¬ fixing ^ to the root (Gaw. Q. Sal. J. ^ or bo), as to hill, to have hilled. Almost all first conjugation verbs form causatives in N.S. ; and they are frequently used where in English the original verb would be used, when the sense is that a person does a thing by the hand of another, as, 8t Paul wrote an epistle by the hand of a scribe, ^ JOeSoh (or jcaeSoh yiO^). The meaning must be noted : thus, f ^ to dry up intr., f 33.^ to cause to dry up ; but to grind tr., V« to have ground. In the first case the object of the causative is the subject of the ori¬ ginal ; in the second case the object of both verbs is the same. But there are some exceptions, as 333 to remember, to cause to remember, remind, see below, h. Some causatives are triliteral owing to a weak letter having dropped. These are noted below. But notice that verbs ^ , which in O.S. drop ^ in Aph'el, retain it in the N.S. causative. (b) Causatives of and uA verbs. These are very irregular. In O.S. these verbs usually insert o in the Aph‘el, and a few of them are now so formed in AL, as noted in the following list. to go, O.S. — U. to carry, (S J.) or K. or K. Z. (i J.) or Al. ; no preformative Mim (O.S. , root cf. O.S. a caravan, herd), § 46. Aai to eat, O.S. — (O.S. ^^ol) to feed. 7*32 or ^23 to shut — 46, 1 1 3. V ^p2 to say, O.S. — none, § 46, CAUSATIVES. 107 § 4.5] wfiLcai to go up — btUdbO, or Al. (O.S. P‘al wt3i!iiQ9 , Aph. bfilQji), § 46. ysoi to hind, O.S. — auX2>bb, or Al. ^ 46. 3.til to he cold — jUSbb 46, 92. 99 99 i Co ' bbal or btilS to spit — JOuyio ^ 46. II 99 J. f0^O l^s'i to come, O.S. — i^s) K. or U. or J:SM (also Sal. Q. Gaw. or J^S2» Al. (^s), (O.S. JisA) to hring. ill to hazard, he hold — none. TT ’ to heget, lay (eggs) — § 92. See p. 114. to knoiu, O.S. — AtSkbO (a Ash.) or Al. 5 46 (O.S. Iia !!■ / !■ ^ ||« O \ JSyDOl) to inform. \3<7k to give — none, § 46. Ti. to borrow, O.S. — Ti. to lend (O.S. 4^fol). It " ' It to mourn — lAt’ao U. or >L^kbo ^ 46. to hasten intr. — «Am to hasten tr. and intr. Kurd. 'll 'll ' to learn, O.S. — 'oM Al. (O.S. >^i) to teach, § 46. K. to afflict (O.S. U. K. to afflict. (as O.S.) or ^apl or to siuear — K. or Sh. (bO Sal. Q.) or jbftbp U. or ^spoiao Al. U. O.S. to sivear tr., § 46. }A», or as O.S. to hake — U. or U. or K. or J^OISO Al. or Sal. Q. Gaw. § 46. Dbd* to him intr. O.S. — a>,tbO or 'obO Al. O.S. to hum tr. !■ II !• •• xd* K. Al. to weight, afflrm, O.S. — (O.S. :vdo2). 108 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. to he long (O.S. ^^SZ)— or Al Z. (O.S. ^ioZ). bbx or Jdli to he green (cf. wtiSZ) — JOuylSo (O.S. wtiaoZ to make pale or green), § 46. to inherit O.S. — (O.S. ^saoZ). (is, O.S. :s) or ^^2 (is) to sit — U. K. to place, or Al. O.S. (both is), or rarely to cause to sit, § 46. [In Sal. Q. Gaw. J. the causatives all have Zlaraa on the first, and so in the lists which follow.] (c) Causatives of ^ or verbs. As a rule these are regular, except that 2 is changed into But the following are exceptions. ♦^2S to judge, O.S. — (none). (^^'^ is another verb, see below g). yly to turn intr. — iski or iZbi Al. 5 46. 4fm It* ^ 44 m * O to increase intr. — (rare) or foreign. to he warm, O.S. or jau — or pU-Mbp. ^ to live, O.S. — or to he worth — 46 to come to an end (as a fight), to press down — , ■ ^ to hazard — (none), § 46. 'p^ to he hlack, O.S. 1^2^ to how intr., O.S. U. (i K.). 44 ^ t 44 f ^ ' ^ly U. to pay, O.S. jsa (= to collect!) — to knead, O.S. or Ju!^bb. It ' • li * 4! f to melt intr. (by rubbing) — or (Heb. and Chald. root ^^D). CAUSATIVES. 109 § 45] to suck, 0. S. to suckle, suck up. to die, O.S. or to rest intr., die, O.S. — waA&bO or yMiib to rest tr. and ' it * t$ intr. to ordam, O.S. y^fr> — ^ ^ 0 0' to cool intr., O.S. .^A to blow — or ** it 0 tt ^ * U. to lose savour (= K. p. 103), O.S. OJ^— U. s2^ to remain, O.S. or JU^bO. 32g to hunt, fish, O.S. Sg— ^a^gjo. to rise, O.S. ^aLb — U. Tkh. (i Ti.). to wink, U. to bruise, cut — Root ^7p to dig (so Heb.) — i-ttop. or 5ub to be cold, O.S. yh — kbbo. << 10 0 00 0 to hit, knock — or isJ^. dIS to da7'n — 93^. Root DSD? !■ it tm it 0 • ■ ply to be high — to Ufk or Al. In O.S. Apli. p^yl, JAli to be in love — JbXas. Heb. and Arab. root. 00 00 0 (d) The causatives- of verbs with middle ^ have sometimes Ai silent, the vowel being thrown back to the preceding letter ; as to have carried, or to load, from to carry. Or we may say but this is less common. (e) Also verbs which have a silent letter for their second radical, throw -back their vowel in the causatives ; as to wake intr., A^ to wake tr. (/) Those hrst conjugation quadriliterals which insert ^ after no GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ Jk* or o) (§ 46) drop it in the causative. In the case of (7) that letter is sometimes sounded in the causative, sometimes not ; thus : to desire, to cause to he deswed. )aC71^ to thirst, Tkh. or Ti. to make thirsty. (g) Several causatives have no originals in N.S. to hear a bastard, cf. N.S. a bastard. • / if to appear. O.S. ^*3^2 to perceive. hjXbo U. or K. or to blossom, see ^ 115. Cf. O.S. ' <»(V / \/» • ■' eJ green. or K. to search. O.S. 4. and 4 id. to fiyie, Arab. Cf. N.S. a fine, to bori'ow. Cf N.S. jLd a debt, Pers. In Al. ♦. ZabO. \7» ■ > ’ I* ■' to drive a shuttle. O.S. 2^09 thread, (from to enter ?). 330^ Al. to prepare, § 106. But we have K., hf opo K. and U. K., all to prepare. Al. to neglect, O.S. I* Ti. Al. to vomit. O.S. to turn, Aph. to overturn ; O.S. 4is4or vomit. 230^ to confess. So O.S. U. to mew. Arab. In Sal. 23kbO. I* to love, (O.S. ^), see § 95 e. to make presents. Cf N.S. a present, Arab. or to blister, prick up the ears. Arab. Cf § (See also below.) 113 i. CAUSATIVES. Ill § 45] M to be lazy. Arab. Aoaja K. to give or take interest. Cf. O.S. money. to preach, say the litany. O.S. f and Sihffso to plaister, § 113 i. to justify, § 119. to pant. Cf. ojSoj^ to snuff about (as a dog); perh. formed from O.S. panting. to mimic. K. or hc^.'SfXao U. to linger. In Al. ^apo is to seal, as N.S. 39)0^9 a seal. In Chald. the Pa ‘el is to hasten. yxbftbo to smell. O.S. to make blue or green, foreign. Cf. N.S. blue or green. hopip to comment on; in Z. to light a candle. Tkh. to light a candle. O.S. 3^2 to illumine. wV|Uip to fester. Cf. N.S. matter, (perhaps root to ooze, distil). jCaaobO to rebuke = O.S. JOOiaO (utDii), [Nun inserted by false analogy ?], but in N.S. the Kap is soft. to leak, perhaps O.S. lo ooze. See above. 2^S&bp to prosper tr., thank, Arab. Cf. N.S. thanks. to mock. O.S. xlo to beg. N.S. meaning from Arabic. to be or make poor, as O.S. Also cans, of ^^3 to be hushed. iiosp to despise, reject. So O.S. 112 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 45 U. or K. like f) to prove, affirm, Arab. Cf. N.S. = proof, which retains the sound. wMOito to cry out O.S. wMOib^Z. K. to ask for, Arab. to put in order. Cf. N.S. order, Kurd. to preach the Gospel. U. or K. to find, § 118 j. (Conjugate like to give a pledge, fiood, (see O.S. Chald. to pledge. Also many causatives have no original except in one particular district. (A) Many causatives differ from their originals in meaning, or else undergo a development of meaning ; but most of them may also be used in a simple causative sense. 6^ K. Al. to spend the night (O.S. he stale, isjii to fast, he stale, keep over till next day U. Cf N.S. stale U. to create, O.S. Z^iibp to heget K., hear K. bb^ to fiash (lightning) [so O.S.], to have a sudden pain. to polish, he bright, as O.S. to weave, tie, wrestle K., O.S. to freeze (for § 92). to circumcise, to cut down wood K. !• ■ • A ^ ^ to inform against. Cf O.S. to cut, give sentence, a penalty. iA to wear out intr. to write Majliyana (~), p. G. to draw (O.S. to prolong, draw out. wfiba to hold, catch [so O.S.], take, hire, correspond to, etc. to compare, let out on hire. CAUSATIVES. 113 Al. to subdue. Al. to make, mend. urn n m * M3 to remember O.S. M3bo to remind (a like ;»? to be like O.S. 2^'^ lo compare. 5^3 to lie down, sleep, die O.S. to put to bed (children). 4^ 0 }oS-m3). JbM3 to go, (in First present, only in Al. in the sense to wander) [O.S. to creep']. Am3^ to have a miscarriage. to he slack, loose. to grant a divorce U. U. or K. to throw, divorce). In O.S. Pa. Aph. to loose. to min fast U., 7'U7i to and fro K., wi'ench K., stray. to dip a red hot iron in water, or yarn in paste (O.S. Aph. to water). to take O.S., charge, force to pay, subtract to over¬ lay with metals, interweave, p. 119. 2kx to loose, lodge intr., he profaned, forgive, dismiss, break a I* command or fast, O.S. lyvp to entertain, pitch tents. to suck the whole of an egg, flash; slip peel K. to whistle, as O.S. Aph. to dinnk O.S., he wrigated, smoke tobacco K. to dip »' i' a red hot iron, or stretch yarn after dipping on poles, or the warp, in weaving (see JJbXaO above), to iiwigate. So = dipped yami. to he delirious Al. ; to he pleasaiit Ti. (= U.). ^ ' ,1 ' ^ t' ' Ti. or U. to do as one likes, § 46 k (f) Irregular Causatives ; and Causatives from Second Conjuga¬ tion verbs. See also above h io f inch and h. 1 Many of these O.S. verbs are not found in Aph‘el in O.S. ; and many have not the N.S. meaning in O.S. Aph‘el. 45, 46] IRREGULAll VERBS. 117 to cover, O.S. ; also K. Al. Cans. or to cover, shut a door. K., O.S. to believe = U. Cans, U. or to play. Caus. , see § 47. K. Al. and 2^bb K. to stvell. O.S. ' ' ' to wonder, Arab. to astonish. is used in K. Al. as an impersonal verb = to be p>leased to do a thing. to 'Understand. Caus. which is also the cau- sative of >3^3 to cut, § 83 (6); also very rarely , [In K. TIwA (739^ Al. Bo.) is substituted for pp. 98, 102.] LaA to bathe, wash O.S. Caus. or ^AiOabb. {j) When a verb has no causative the same sense may some¬ times be rendered by to make, to give, to teach or incite ; as 240^^3^ m^UU U. he caused him to be loved ; he made Thomas love ; Jorl? ;oai 6.3 rjooj] 3-S U. K. he would have caused him not to die = M jSs usl Jooi Al., St John xi. 37 («32 Al. = Jojl U.) ; 30Cl6u the boys sing (O.S. ♦.^ikbOfiS § 46. h'regular Verbs. •' ' First Conjugation. The following verbs have a Pthakha sound in U. Sal. Q. Gaw. and most of them in Ash. ; but a Zqapa sound in Ti. Tkh. etc. The fern, of the pres. part, of those which are ^ or are either with or without as or she sleeps. S,%ji to make a hole O.S. to fall doiun, as a new wall to swallow O.S. (not to indent). 118 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 46 ^ to assemble intr., Arab. to shave, shear O.S. to ci'ack, (in O.S. to draw out water), meaning from Arab. to sow O.S. to he leavened O.S. I# to sink intr. U. K. (not used in Asb.), to print AI. [O.S. to impress, sinki] to sleep. In O.S. to he young. see below. to kno'W O.S. (see below). to lap (Ash. Zqapa), § 92. I* Chald. rh to mix. O.S. and Al. A. to he ill or in pain (not used in Ash.)b O.S. P‘al, Pa. and Aph. to he ill. to well forth O.S. U. to butt, attach (O.S., Al. Tkh. AOi). to he satisfied O.S. to he hlind O.S., go out (fire). am to lose savour O.S. p. 103. divide (U. rare in 1 conj.); o.s., Al. to step, step aside K., O.S., leave K., leave off K. to explode O.S. to pay O.S. to he lukewarm (not used in Ash.), cf. O.S. tepid. to dye, dip O.S. to he refined, as metals O.S. Also to sting with Zqapa sound. (or ?) to he firm, hard, O.S. and uiOb. t 0 to cut, decide O.S. ^3^30^ to scorch (Ash. Zqapa). U. to he tilled. (Sp. SfLfi). O.S. to make soft. Pa. id. to hear, listen, obey O.S. JjJLs. See p. 116. to adim'e, he a folloiver of Arab. 0 to make an opening O.S. Ill N.s. = in pain , = ill. 46] IRREGULAR VERBS. 119 Note. In the following verbs only the irregular parts are written. Some of these verbs are really anomalous, and some have two weak radicals. ^f2 to go, O.S., in many districts uses for some of its tenses which in O.S. is to creep. First present : : 2 : ^ etc. The 2 pi. in Al. is «^isa^f2. — In Al. etc. = to move about (=3^ U. K.). — Or 2 : ^'^1: u^92 : m. f. : uc^f2: 2 : 2^f2 (Pthakha sound) Bo. Verbal noun with o : U. Sh. Ti. Al. : Jxifia U. (rare) Sh. : }X%»fx3 U. (rare) ^f2l3 K. Sal. and sometimes U. The I* infinitive is U. Sh. K. U. Ti. Preterite : ojS U. 07^f2 K. J. Past participle: U. K. Second preterite in Al. ;of2 or 07S }oa) y^f2 (for ;oa| CjS). Imperative : JEOu*^ : U. (common) ; or Sy. (f^ Sal.) U. (common) J. Sal. Q. Gaw. (the Zlaraa has either sound) ; or : uSf : K. MB. Sh. Al. Z. ; often with a pronoun, etc. In all these ^ usually. The O.S. is y^f : : oSf : The Agent is U. K. but 2^*2 Ash. Al. Noun of action: or Causative : AjiV -Vhiy AA,* , Aa.!i9 or A.30A § 45 h. [Distinguish to carry, take, \ax to take away. Thus he took the horses to Uryni = not O^kJS^.] 513 2 to shut, cover. So Heb. and Chald. and Arab. Pres. m\ ^ - T part. 53D2 or to say, in K. also to speak, tell (so Al. always), O.S. Impera¬ tive : ii2 Ti. Z. (O.S. 3^2), elsewhere 3Ob02, 120 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. wdo2 to go up, O.S. an irregular verb with some forms from bOOi. In N.S. Pres. part, wttol U. or wtto* U. Ti. Sal. : other- wise regular as § 38. ikSol to hind O.S. Pres. part. yjQD>'i U. K. or Mu* U. 44 44 44 jUji to he cold (in U. of things only, in K. of persons also; the latter in U. is makes some parts from JKlial in Ti., retain¬ ing 2 : as pret. JU2.b (q'ishli), qmst pai't. (qisha) ; not in Ash. or elsewhere. Perhaps from O.S. sh to he old, or ti to freeze, tr. ; in N.S. is to he crisp (snow), to he white (eyes). 2^2 to come O.S. First present : }^2 : J*£s2 etc. K. U. ; or L2 : etc. Q. ; or }^2 : J*a2 : : mX^2 : : ^*^2 : ^^2 : I w^2s2 Sal. y or ^2 : 2*2 : : u^^2 : 2^2 (or ^^2) : u2 : : WM.*! Gaw. Second present : Jikla K. U. MB. Sh. : oj^ , or Sal. Q. ; or etc. as § 42, Gaw. Preterite: o6 ^^2 K. U.. oA Ja: Q. Gaw. Sal., aS ;ajl •' ,« t' *' i' id., 2^2 Ti. Sal. (sic) § 124, ojS 2^2 Al. (sometimes Tkh.). Past •' »' •' »' part. jl^s2 U. : Tkh. Ash. Ti. jit2 Ti. or }^2 Ti. or 2Lji2 Ti. : 2^2 or 2f^2 or 2*^2 Q. Sal. Gaw. The fern, is >^X2 : 2l^2 : %2 or ^Lo]2 . Imperative : 2^ U. J. : ..^odo2^S (Zlama second sound) U. ; 2^2 (m. f.) : 0^2 MB. Sh. ; 2*^s2 ; Tkh. ; 2^2 : Oji.^2 Amadia ; 2^2 : or or or ^^^2 (also ♦^O-) Q. Sal. ; ^2 : Oua2 Al. or ^ojl : olf^l Al.^ Ash. ; 2a012 : ^e^cj2 Gaw. ; 2^ : OS Ti. (common), Tkh. (sometimes). The sing. also in Sal. In Ti. we also have if. with plural # 1 Used also for let before a first or third person imperative, for JSCXm § 51 (10). §46] IRREGULAR VERBS. 121 OS or oa^a; ix or os }S, the pronouns being taken in (Zlaina second sound). Throughout the m. and f. sing, are the same. In O.S. we have or (is). Causative: me-yi U., J^SiO or Sal. Q. Gaw. K. (^s) JjLtJxd Ti. 2^S2-bO Ah (^s), see ^ 47. In the forms with CTJ and (not as Ndld.) the sound is often between the two. It is remark¬ able that the JS should appear in Salamas, which as a rule shews no affinities with Tiari. For the interchange of JK and ^ see § 124. It does not occur in the present participle. (as O.S.) or to wish. The tenses are formed from • •' • but the first present has in some districts the lengthened form. Thus First Present: etc. K. Al. ; or : U. Ash. (in U. hd-yi etc. ; in Ash. he-yi etc.); or '^) Tkh. ; or : II , \ ^ ^ - - - • • Gaw. In Ti. Al. another form of the present is formed from \ H t / the abs. state of the past participle : — JiS3 : : u^^!3 : ^3 : ^3 : Ti. or ois^ Ti. (or Al. ?) : or Ti . or wm^.3 Al. (cf § 50). Verbal noun: 2*^ (pron. in U., not K. Sal. etc., hoy a, as with to know and to fear') or 2*^^ K. Al. Pret. IStS (very rare in Ash. where }6cj •' •' •' 0^2^ (f^ Sal.) U. Q. Sal. Gaw. or K. MB. Sh. Al. ; in Ash. Sing, m. uis f., PI. 0^3, rather inclining to bo. Agent: U. K. 22li3 Ash. Al. Noun of action: or U. >&ik3 K. Causative : 2^AbO, ^ 47. S. GR. 16 is used instead). Past jmrt. 2*^3 : .^^^3. Imperat. 122 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. From this verb comes the sign of the future : ^ or aSJ or ^ (§ 31). These = D or s he ivishes to... or it is desired that = he will... It is unchanged throughout the tense. This is the exact counterpart of the English future and the modern Greek 6d (= deXw vd). A curious variation is found in Tal [Stoddard, p. 109]. Taking the verb to sing, we have^: Sing. 3 m. f. 2 m. isiSOfS 1 m. ^ n ^ a" ^ f. ^ FI. 3 m. f. ulp 2 m. f. 1 ni. f. The feminine plural is noteworthy. In this verb the first present is much used for the second (§ 51). to laugh, O.S. Vei'hal noun tuith ^ U. K., A1. = O.S. Ij^j^oS^). This verb has hard Kap throughout. (as O.S.) or to bleat, cry out (in prayer), not common. Cf. Heb. and Chald. Kyil to bleat) in O.S. to cry out. All from except first present etc. as Ti. as O.S.) But when has a ' t vowel it usually throws it back to A though before J final it is convenient to write it with a vowel, as in the causative to be tired. Conjugate like . In Al. laiL in Ti. in Heb. Arab. Causative: The second present of this verb is very rarely used. ^ This has not been orally verified. 46] IRREGULAR VERBS. 128 Sip to turn, return, he converted. Pres. part. alS : 252S Al. Sh. or 2xS U. Verbal noun: 2Sa3 or 2S2S U. Sh. or 252d Al. Agent: ;ii2? Sh. U. Sh. 2S2b Al. iV'oim of action: }^S29 or U. }^329 Al. Causative: but in Al. 92b^. [For this verb is used in Ash. which in U. = to tm^n aside.! In O.S. Sub It J ,,m is to inhabit but the N.S. meaning is from the Arabic. 007D to cement (O.S. to become greasy). Conjugate as if O) was absent. In K. ^ oiadO- \ ■ 39, 108 c. to lie down, sleep O.S. Imp. pi. in K. Al. (oOdCjp). to be, become, be born O.S. Second present : jlbojUl but «bojJ Sal. or oA load's Gaw., see § 42. Pret. OjS ;obi. Past part. ikOQ] . Imp. \^ou] , (wanting). A'oim of action : ^boj. In Al. Z. CTJ is pronounced, and the verb is regular, thus past part. ; but %o6i Ja is contracted to Joojb. In this verb the forms ;ooi ^ : ioai ^ etc. are very common ; cf p. 97. Jao/ to please O.S. Verbal noun : U. Th. Sp. Ti. Pret. op JlOl or op Uc) : op }o^i Ti. Sh. Pas^ part, jlib? or _ ^ Ti. or ^0^1 Sh. Another form of the pres. part, is seen in the phrase pleasant to you (to a person about to drink or about to eat after drinking). In K. this verb is used im¬ personally ; as ^ is-? I shall be pleased, ^ o^ Jo^ I was pleased. Otherwise it is rare. to fear (see § 83, D. c) has two impersonal forms : Ti. U. : and in Ti. (pron. ^ = jn) let it not 124 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. - [§46 frighten you: do 7iot fear. The same with lj^ = you are afraid. t* Cf. Az. fear subst. (= N.S. These perhaps point to a derived verb (1st conj.) The fem. pres. part, of is only. to groiv small (pron. f = ^o), O.S. Cf. N.S., O.S. small with ^ exc. Al. Z. Conjugate as if ^ were absent. to live O.S. First pi^ese^it : etc. Second pre¬ sent : U. Tkh. Ash. Ti. : Al. Ut-M^ Sal. crj^lZls Gaw. (see U. Tkh. Ti. Past part. Ash. l7n]o. u-j.^ : U. ; or I (j^ Sal.) U. Sal. ^ or u-m! Om 1^* ? or OMk Sing, ni. u-M f. Om pi. m. f. Ash. (In O.S. I Ui-A^AA : I Agent: U. K. Ash. Al. Noim of action : U. Tkh. or U. Ti. Causative : . •• ' to he 'iuo7'th (O.S. to he well tulth (impers.), to he glad, cf. O.S., N.S. good). Fwst prese7it: ^3 or (pron. in Sal. td- itlvh see § 90) : etc. Sal. Q. Gaw. Tkh. Sh, ; or etc. U. Ti. Al. Ve7^hal noirn with K. Sh. or Al. P7'et. (pron. in Sal. tiugh-li) or Ash. Past pa7't. (pron. in Sal. Uuhhta). Imp. {tukh Sal.). Causative : (77idtukh Sal.). This verb is not much used in U. ; abS to touch or to bring is substituted. K. to seek, in Al. to err as O.S. The vowel is sometimes thrown back from the as or or In U. see § 47. 46] IRREGULAR VERBS. 125 t(iste O.S. Sometimes in U. by metathesis ^ causative (the former with Pthakha sound), p. 118. ill to hazard, he hold (origin ?). Pres. part. : lill. Verbal noun with j \f rv> \# rj ^ r\t § rs) : wm-aS^ or y^-fca. Perhaps these are for etc. abs. state of /fs> •*■ /■ past part., as in and a = ^a. For the interjections ^a^a* aoao and the like see § 73. Aaoj'i ^0 givey O.S. ^a^A, the vS being an addition, appearing in only some forms. First 'present : : ^Sao]|A etc. ; in O.S. ^cf^a: }ao;iA (^) etc. Second present: dJ. Sh. ^crjpi K. Z. Al. Preterite : cj^a^A U. [with f. object }a^^ and so with objective pronouns, § 50] Sal. (yugh-li), K. J. Z. OJ.V.30M Al. (^). Pas^ pa7't. I* * ' i' " U. ; ^^07. K. Sh. ; Oaw. ; J^OU: ■Js^OJ* Al. ; Jao^OA : i^ao)^ (i/itkhta) or (hukhta) Sal.; in O.S. J^^CT^a, ^S^OJa. Pap. Jikac^ : PI. ♦^o^ac^ U. or ♦^OdaV^? ^P- Q' or cSSai K. (O.S. ^C^). Agent: but in Ash. A^oaa of action: U. Ti. or Tkh. or -A.l» 01 ih.^sc* vorl^Qjl nomi. is miicli used in this verb by itself.] Causative (none). ^ _ ‘V ^0 curdle, Sp. etc. only. First present : }a-a {yei-yi) : ^.a : ^a>a etc. Seco)id pi'esent . oy^kA ^aAa. Piet. <7^ J?- Pas^ pa7’^. P/ip. sa.a: .^obOlA. Agent: Jj^a-a. A'oa/i 0/ action: {yeta). [Origin ?] iV to lament y O.S. the West Syrian Not used in K. MB. Sh. Verbal noun: . Pret. ojS zA or oA A-. Past 1' >' •' «' part. 0^: 10. Impi. u-A : ♦^^bOlA U. ; or 'A*= Sal. Agent : JIa^a U. ^Ia-A Sal. Noun of action : u. ^ Sal. Causative: jA^ U. or Abb, IRREGULAR VERBS. 127 § 46] to learn O.S. Pres. part. : , or II J. II T J II Causative : in AI. = O.S. ^io. I# I# #« / to swear O.S. Pres. jmrt. jIb»A U. K. or }^ : U. or Jalsoi MB. Sh. Second present: oiV* ^““3 U. or U. K. Sh. MB. Pret. cS U. Ti. Ash. cA Al. Tkli. Past ' .1 I vT ^ i / I I « I jmrt. K. U. or jIboZ : ^^2 Sh. or : -jLbO U. [Al. jIbOu?] Imp. vjibOu or ^bO U. Agent: U. K. ^ilbol MB. Sh. Al. Ash. A’o?/n of action: U. K. or Al. or U. Sh. Ti. Causative: K. ^bo2^ Sh. }bo2bO Sal. Q. Jboa.bO Al. (also U. sometimes), U. I* if to hake (O.S. West Syrian J^2). Pres. part. U. K. or jLfc^ : U. or : 2*^2 MB. Sh. Second present : •* I* MB. K. Sh. Pret. or CTj!^ Al. Tkh. Pfl.9« j)«rL (;l32): jISl Sli. Tkli. obo2^ U. ; uAa : ^0^1^ (<• Sal.) TI. Q. Sal. ; : u^* : oL K. U. Sal. K. ;i;32 MB. Sli. Asli. Al. Nomi of action : or U. Cavsative: i^ie U. or J^2sp U. 2^50 K. I* i' I Sal. Q. Gaw. l^oSaO Al. .* " ^ ^ f ■ ^ ^0 he green Al. Tkh. (O.S. 2 U. ^*c^JSk3 K. Al. Sal. Sp. C^d^3 Gaw. (or ). Pi'eterite : oj^ U. Sh. ojS K. Al. Past part. jlojS : U. Sh., or jIojS; K. Al. Imp. U. uO^ K. Agent : U. K. Ash. Al. Noun of action: U. K. Causative: lo{^>!sp U. Sh. lo^JSO Sal. Q. Gaw. JojllSbb K. Al. or ^0 churn, O.S. See but the verbal noun is Jlia) (=;*i») or ;ZiM u. to he ahle O.S. ^2 ; etc. U. ; First present : etc. U. Sh. Ash. ; or or §46] 1 RIIEGULA R VERRS. 129 etc. Ti. In U. with Ja: : }^bo2a ; and the Tkh, form (perhaps also that in Ti.) seems to be = ^2 = l^tsO }a ; the latter is also in use in U. etc. For see below. i' In Ti. (not Ash.) the past part. abs. state gives another form ; : 2^ : 2^2 2^^) ' * (Zlama second sound), cf. l-SJa above and § 50. These -3* I forms are also common elsewhere when 2^ is prefixed : but in U. etc. Zlama has the first sound in the plural ; and the first pers. pi. is 2^ or 2^ . Similar forms are common in O.S., cf. § 82 (4). Verbal noun : 2*^^ 5 2^*^ U. The second present of this verb is not common, the habitual present being used instead. Pret. : also in U. which is properly the pret. of ^2^ to suck the breast. But the habitual imperfect is generally substi¬ tuted. For ;Sa2 = 2^;^ see § 29 (18). 0^^^ K. to dawn, a defective verb, O.S. (= U.). The following forms are used. Pres. 'part. f. Ti. Tkh. Ash. Verbal noun: Pret. aiS Ti. Noun of action : Ti. Tkh. Ash. ; much used with or as 'morning tiviligJit. (rare) or to groan, O.S. 2<^ See JO^ Al. to go out O.S. (= U. K.). Imp. wb^ as O.S. to be old (so O.S., pret. ^^). Pres. part. 23tica : i»3Ji or 2:^. or K. (O.S. ; cf. Al. an avemie, 2.Si^.liQ> O.S. a, hedge) = U. to fence, hedge. See 2^, s. GR. 17 180 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 46 2^ to cu7"dle (with a thin sound, = 2) ; to rain or snow, U. K. f (with broad sound of first vowel) ; to hold, Ah, O.S. or hold together (cf. N.S. 2i^ to patch. The fundamental sense seems to be to hold together). Pres. part. 2^^ U. K. Sh., or in U. 2^3, but the latter only in the sense to rain, snoio. (is) K. to he old. O.S. (^), cf Verbal rouw: It ^ • i( ^ ^ • 11 ihis^ or as O.S. or to thirst. See }cij5k. to rise up : stand, so O.S. (in the latter sense in U. usually with \4^). Imp. ^oub : u.h90ub : Sal); but in Al. p[bO remains. are very commonly added. Causative: ;a,tbp U. Tkh. ^abio Ti. 7ib» Sal. lava Al. as O.S. or U. K. to he set on edge : also in K. to he blunt. See 2oiS. jaii to spit (so O.S. bdS). Pres. part. JJ23 : U. Tkli. Ash. or wdb: ; 2£lb: U. Ti. Sh. Second present : 05^ Uo'ila U. Ti. Sh. or aj^t lJBi*a3 K. Ash. See to be green, above. lata Ti., O.S., J^erja Tkh. to look (O.S. to lie in wait for). See •' 1' •' see Sf2, >• I. to ride U. Z. (in K. in another sense); so O.S. but with 5^ soft. First present : vbab : etc. or : 2^3 : etc. U. In U. they also say 2^3 (oot K.). In K. for to ride they say IfpoJtQ to sit on a horse. as O.S. or 2^3 to pasture, intr. See We must dis- 1 Hence 2^? Al. or Al. or 2^ifki K. a ship U.). !§ 46, 47] IRllEGULAtl VERBS. 131 tinguish the causative 2^3^ to pasture tr., from to he ill, which also in U. etc. has a Pthakha sound. as O.S. or to j)lciister. See In Sal. Q. Gaw. the First present \s> is^: uiS^ : Sal.): Ti. Al. or l^rn'is U. to be pleasant {delirious AL). See lai^. In O.S. Pa‘el to delay, he late, repent. Chald. to he desert. § 47. Irregular Verbs of the second conjugation. Verbs with five or more radicals are like Cf. § 83 c. to cause to he deswed, caus. of or ¥■ Past part. U. K. So all causatives of this form. JiiSjibO to bring (caus. of Jis2) = O.S. 2kS*b9. First jyresent : : , , ^ V , , j. , . etc. Ti. or usually JXni : Ti. or Tkh. Ash. Sh. (the Pthakha of fern, is short) ; or }^2m : J*^2^ Al. or f •' {nie-yi, so throughout) : : isisfjap : : U. ; or (also J^S») Sal. Q.; or u2i : )*2^ : is^2» : JMio : ^lao : ^l2» : y^2» : : ^lao Gaw. Verbal noun : ]^o6s»!so K. Sh. MB. }o2m U. }o2ab0 Sal. lolobp Gaw. Preterite: oiS 2^2obO Tkh. Ash. MB. Sh. }Xlo!so Ti. aiS U. [with fern, object Ji^AQ-b9, and so with objective pronouns, § 50] ^.osso Sal. Gaw. Past part. ^*^2ob0, ^^2ob0 K. (Ti. f }iJi2obo); -iL^2obo {nvu-yita) U. ; so Sal. with fern. jis^2a^. Imp. K. Ti. ; but in U. (pi. ^ O-ij0^.i), in Gaw. (pi. Agent: but 132 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [H7 usually Ti. Tkh. Ash. U. Sal. Q. Gaw. Noun of action .* K. : (ine-yeta) U. or Present part. U. ; or K. or U., and so sometimes Ash., but with Mim sounded. Ver^bal noun : Aoo^;aoU. K. Al. Preterite : Ash. U. (Mim silent throughout, U.) : K. Al. (also Ash.). Past pai't. ;L^^bO m., with varying feminine : ^i^^OQ^bO Ash. U. Sp. /^i^o^^bO Ti. Imp. Agent : . Noun of action : U. (first conj. form ?) or Ash. U. Tkh. Ti. Causa¬ tive in U. as if from a first conj. form. This verb is probably the O.S. to lualk about for relaxation, also to wander. The following quotation from Malpana Khamis (cir. A.D. 1300) seems to • • • • • ^ ^ ^ ^ justify this derivation M .^Aalo ^fX^bo ;lSo : In thy garden, 0 our brother, lo they play, the gazelles loith the young harts, and dwell and are quite at ease ; and though without life they eat and drink. [He is speaking of the crumbs which fall on a beard, which he compares to a garden.] or] Jo^bo to seek U. Sal. Gaw. [For K. Al., O.S. see § 46.] Pres. part. Job^^bd : J«Q^^b9 {to-ya) U. ; : (or Sal. ; Job^^bS : Gaw. Verbal noun : Jooo^i U. or lo^io U. or Sal. or Sal. Fret. Past part. m. >iN*abyOb^b9 f U. or 4!^^Ob^b9 Sp. ; or m. .iLo.bMOb^b9 Sal. Gaw. Imp. ^ For this quotatioii the writer is indebted to Qasha Oshaua Saru. §47] IKRKGULAII VERBS. 133 : .^^2^ U. or : ,^o_»2^^ Sal. or uO^ : Gixvv. Agent : or U. or Sal. or Gaw. Ala tin of action : or to revile, O.S. Some forms are as if from Pres. jmrt. ; or Sal. ; or yS*^ : Gaw. Vei'hal noun: mi « 1^0^^ or lya^^ Gaw. Pret (773a^O^b0 Ash. U. K. in Amadia. Past part, ly^o^ K. U. U. ; both have fern. (o). Agent : K. U. or U. Noun of action : (first conj. form ?) U. lisyi^^O K. U. Ash. In U. &c. Mim silent throughout. U. or ^3^30 K. to throiu, divorce. This verb follows the •* * I* first, not the second division of the second conjugation and takes no euphonic vowel. The past part, is ^03^*^ rarely in K., usually in U: J*^O3kb0 K. See p. 116. 3^jsai» Ti. (not Ash.) or U., see § 30, to he proud. Conjugate like prefixing Ti. 'jfia U. Al. to he fulfilled, see § 30. Like prefixing / (fis) to place (see § 46); like not In U. sometimes o drops, as uais^ th&y place, ^a^obo he placed. to have worms. Conjugate as if ^ were absent (cf. O.S. iL'^ok N.s. a luorin). GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ lU Verbs with Objective Affixes. § 48. Verbal noun and past participle. These often take the affixes of § 11 in U. Q. Sal. Gaw. etc. But in K. these forms are not much used, the object being rather expressed by adding cp : ^013 etc. after the verb in Ti. : etc. in Tkh. : etc. in Ash., also U. (§ 70). After most of these affixes the substantive verb will require Khwasa, as they end in a consonantal sound. Such combinations as isOA are by their meaning excluded. Thou hast saved thyself must be expressed by In the third pers. sing, the forms uOfO », CTfO - are used in U. ; in the third pers. pi. u<7?aV_. In K. C71-_ C7) are preferred for the singular. • • Examples. U. they are saving me. I have saved you (^larej, ^9] he IS revealing %t. But the past participle is not much used with affixes ; the forms in § 50 are preferred, the preterite being used instead of the perfect. § 49. The present participle (and derived tenses) and imperative take the same affixes with They are then accented on the penult (except 2 pi. and Coiidit.), the affix being counted as part of the word (§ 8). The is omitted generally in Al. Z. and often in Gavilan and elsewhere ; everywhere after the first pers. sing.; and in verbs ending in (usually), after the 3 sing, first present (and similar tenses) and 2 sing, imperative. The 3 sing, affix forms are only ; the 3 pi. are ♦^09) - U. oo^- MB. u9^a-1- K. Al. Sp. • • We cannot usually write iSJJ for I will save myself or similar constructions, but must use as in § 48. Yet in Ah, in the third person at any rate, such a construction is allowable. Thus 49, 50] VERBS WITH OBJECTIVE AFFIXES. 135 St Matt. xiv. 15 let them buy themselves food U. K.). In U. K. we may use this construction in the Imperative thus : buy for thyself ; cf. bach- wards, lit. behind himself, § 67. The O.S. usage is the same as Al. [Note that the O.S. affixes to the Imperative are not found in N.S. The disappearance of the old past and future tenses leads to a great simplification in affixes. On the other hand N.S. has affixes for them where O.S. has to use the separate pronouns.] Examples. ^3 / will save him [in Jilu, where tlie variant jil is used (§ 31), this will be 0^1 ^3] i A loai fiSbiAbO 2a U. A Joo) Tkh. thou savedst us; U. 3/o?i(pl.) saved them; CT?!^! Ja U. he is in the habit of saying it ; 'U. or K. sing them (sing, imp.), ♦^ODlLbOf U. (uC^«*A K.) sing them (pi.) ; uSVobabaiOaa heal me Sal. = A U. or A obdjoa (4^^ for ^ before ^) ; cjia3L3S for ^ ^’^^Uaa: (f. for m.) U. Tkb. J So for she left him 6^ ; she left her ; and similarly for all persons and both numbers. But we cannot say isJO^*^ for thou hast left thyself (§ 48), but must say lit. thy self has been left by thee is feminine]. It will be noticed that for he left the tuoman we should say jAiax; for he left the men we should say Jxil K. etc., and this is the usual construction. But aiS bfiUaX (J.^^) is also used, § 81 (4). If the object precedes the verb, we must almost always use the former construction. In O.S. also the absolute state of the past part, is used with the pronouns, but the contractions are not the same as in N.8. ; they are those given in § 82 (1). Thus wd^l: ^ifiLaas : : jlfiLaa; etc. In the above forms (except 2 pi.) the accent is on the syllable immediately preceding the whole being treated as one word. 1 In the village of Digalah these are frequently used for the masculine, cf. § 31 (First present tense). WM-AilAnX for VERBS WITH OBJECTIVE AFFIXES. 137 There is an important variation in U. : with a strong accent (shiviqeli), for This seems to be due to a false analogy, the affix form of § 11 being added on. Noldeke (§ 104) suggests that this is the definite state for the absolute, giving Zlama its second sound. But in U. this second sound is rare, and only occurs in a few words like two, 21^*2 other etc. ; never in the plurals. Indeed this plural ending in most dis¬ tricts has the first Zlama sound. And the strong accent would point to the affix form yiOjn-^ which itself has this strong accent, § 8 (2). Except in the third person, sing, and pi., these forms are not much used in U. in colloquial conversation. In all districts for he left him we can treat wfiLASk as an active verb and add on pronouns: thus — esp. Al, or Op K. ; so OlXkbOl he told him K. This, though not very grammatical, is an expedient to avoid the ambiguity of meaning he left as well as he left him. In U. this is carried a step further, and we can add on etc. to all persons and both numbers. Thus v^2 you (pi.) left me. More rarely we may express the same thing with , as ^ This method is also much in use in Al. » • > Second Conjugation. he healed him. he healed her, istAfooSlso he healed thee (m.). ' f ## I he healed thee (f.). ^ • he healed me (m.). jlbo he healed me (f.), (second Mini with Pthakha sound). r S. GR. 138 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. J. K. Al. Z. Sal. he healed them. he healed you (Nun often omitted in K.). wMiOteodbO U. Tkh. WM-A !jOJQ>odbO Ti. Al. Sh. Ash. he healed us. Verbs ^ : first conjugation. O.S., Al. Z. K. u. he revealed him <4^ OjS he revealed her ojS Jliv. (O.S. he revealed thee m. 4 he revealed thee f. he revealed me m. (o.s. 0^ J»A\) he revealed me f. (0-s. 07S • • he revealed them (O.S. OJA «0J*Ji4. he revealed you without ^i) *4 ^^*4^ he revealed us 0^ or 07^ ‘-v^V^ (O.S. <4 In the second person forms ^ in Tkh. Verbs : second conjugation, he hid him. ojS K. Al. Z. (isfXo:^ U.). ^ Second Zlama sound. ySo\,boK.Al.Z.(uap4^a!S^ ’ a). ^ A VA-*r Sft K. Al. Z., or without ^ U.). “ Pthakha sound. 50] VERBS WITH OBJECTIVE AFFIXES. 139 07S (or K. ■s U.). Vie. «7Jl-XOi^SO K. Al. Z. (<7)VXO\,iB U.). Pthakha sound. So Pthakha verbs (§ 42), e.g. U. he quickened And so quadriliterals, e.g. K. (wM-^DoS^a U.) he un¬ derstood us. Verbs are similar: thus oA he heard him, cjS ' ’ nr ,, U. ^S!soX Ti. Ash. ojS Al. Z. he heard her, Tkh. or oij Ash. or op U. he heard thee m. etc. ^ Ji ## 40 •* And in the second conjugation : in U. with u, as OjS yM.PbOO^^ he assembled us, o^ yiO^a^o^ao he assembled them. But in K. Al. without yi, as as : fiSXbOO-^aa : 07A yXXaoo.^^ : oyPaOQ^bO : o?P.^o^Sso (Pthakha sound) : o^ uXaOO^^ (or y^^') : o^ (or without also : 07S or o^ yMbdO^bO. Ao^e. (1) The indirect object may often be represented by the affixes. Thus from ifllibO to ask (a question) which takes after it (§ 71) we have ^ 2^0db0 / asked her. So >.^aodi^p / am giving you (ph). (2) The second preterite takes affixes like the first. Thus o^ 16m he nearly cut it (f.) off. (3) A very common Upper Tiari usage is ?2>..Vya or I have killed him. or vA^ I have killed her. \A^ yO)ljiA V“ or I have killed them. And so for all persons and both numbers, of both subject and object. 140 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Use of the Tenses. § 51. Tenses derived from the present participle. (1) The first present is rarely used, as it is in O.S., as an ordinary present in a simple sentence : and when thus used in the translation of the Bible into the Urmi dialect it is an archaism ; as in St Matt. iii. 2 saith Repent. This is not colloquial [see below (3)] except in the verb to wish, which is thus used, as ^ I wish to go (d omitted). (2) The same with Jboi, as an ordinary past, is likewise archaic, e.g. St Matt. iii. 1 pbojAp Jbol f and he preached in the wilderness of Judcea. (8) The habitual present, with Ja, ^2, or a (see p. 82, also § 119) prefixed, or in Ti. and Ash. without prefix, is very common. Thus 5^ = he finishes (as a habit), but C7^ he is finish¬ ing (now). But in Al. this tense is constantly used for the second present. After a negative the prefix disappears except in Al., § 83. This tense is also frequently used as a historic present, in narration. In a few verbs it is also used as a simple present ; as ^ he wishes, }a he knows, l^iao )a he can. Cf ;oar ;a or ii» ,» ,* ,1 ,* ,* it may he = perhaps. (4) With ;ooi this tense becomes a habitual imperfect : as Ibo) bSf 2 ^ I used to go, (5) The (with isp U. K. or aa Al. K. [esp. before 2, *] or vS Al. Z. Sal. or p [before 2, *] Ash. or without prefix in Ash. and often Ti. Z. and more rarely elsewhere ; the negative without prefix except in Al. where 'a is used as I will not kill, and except sometimes in U. and Ti. where we have is? cor- 141 USE OF THE TENSES. responds to a common usage in later ecclesiastical Syriac, where the present participle replaces the old future, as ^ we loill not deny Christ (Martyrs Anthem, Tues. even.) = ^ liLxayn N.S. or Al. Cf. below (10). So Rev. xvii. 7 etc. O.S. is not prefixed to questions of the form ^f2 shall I go? i.e. do you luish me to go ? shall I get up ? Another future may (more rarely) be formed by Joo/ U. K. or JoCTf Al. to he about (lit. ready), as (or J^s2d) he is about to come. (6) The same with loa\ is a conditional, or is the equivalent to the future in oratio ohliqua, as ...♦.2 Jooi J^2 fiSb 'would come > i if... (§ 60), Jboj }^2 cix^2 he said he woidd come, but see § 66. (7) The form of the preterite with as 'PW he finished (for variations see p. 82) is much used in AL, rarely else¬ where except with objective affixes (and then not very often, see § 50), and never in Ti. Ash. With a negative the prefix is retained. [Note. The prefixes }a : ^2 : etc. are not neces- sarily repeated when two verbs are joined by o : as i^^f2o u^2 * i they will come and go. But we may say isbo here.] (8) The First present is constantly used in relative and sub¬ joined clauses where no time is expressed, after certain conjunctions, or after such verbs as to wish, 3.0^ (9>a4) to command, ^ II '!■ I# / ^ I can, must, must, ought’, a being usually prefixed, but often omitted after ^aJk^ : : and always C ^ ^ A.^ after if. Thus }^2a Ja he can come, he must ® I? 142 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. come, ibdp :zjOi id., hbbu2 when I see him, if you please (sing.), 2^2^ K.) hid him come, ♦' ** g ^ • • • everyone luho reads. Rarely this construction is used with to begin, see § 57. This tense has not a potential force ; for / may go, see § 29 (20). In O.S. we have the same usage. Thus : when thy justice judges us, fj^^oaS 2i*90kij in the day when thy Majesty shines forth. (9) In these cases if a past precedes, J.6a^ must ordinarily be added, especially in U. where the sequence of tenses is more closely followed than elsewhere ; as Jooi I6a] he could come, 16m cr^ aLtioAbo he hade him come. But in Al. it is very often omitted ; as uO^ u^2a .... yiCTU-Ia 2x3uA uiO^ ^boa ^ 0 $ S • n ^ $ ^0 I • they beckoned to their companions to come and help them, St Luke V. 7 com yiDucpoo o6m ^oai^ paS 0 if ^ k • * 0 •/ X ' r U.], and so sometimes in K. (10) This present is used for an imperative of the first and third ✓ person, as let him come. This is common in O.S. though the old i future is the usual substitute for these persons of the imperative, the imperative itself having only the second person. Thus in the service books we have constantly such rubrical directions as let him say (N.S. yi^i) : ^4^ let them answer (N.S. U. K. Ah), /Oaa let him make the sign of the cross and so on. In N.S. a (lit. suffer, imp. of O.S. xi) [or without a] or p wtiocu (aoX Al.), which are not changed even if more than one person is addressed, are often prefixed, as 2^i2a JEOua (or 2^2 JEOm) let him come. So we .* * .* have sometimes 0*072 come in AL, see 2^2 ^ 46. This tense is also • .* 148 §§ 51 — 54] USE OF THE TENSES. used in the second person to denote a prohibition (= O.S. with the future) and also to denote a positive command weakly or politely expressed, as pray tell it. For the difference between ^ and see ^ 59. (11) This tense is used with a iikais U. would that = a U. K. or a Tkh. or Ti. (hard Kap) or Al. (O.S. or ^6isJC2) ; as (a) %6q\ woidd that he would i come ; (6) Jooi Joofa would that he had come. t * A 0 (12) For its use in protasis and apodosis see § 60; for the rendering of the English participle see § 58. § 52. Second p7'esent. This denotes an act going on at the present time, as }.ba^ I am finishing ; but it may be a single and not a continuous act, as 2ab02!3 I say. In some verbs a present act denotes also a habit, as o^jkw» 2a^^a he dwells. Occa- -5 ^ sionally this tense denotes a future, as *^04 }*j^2a I ami coming^ i.e. not only I am on my way but I will come. This tense is not much used in Al. where the habitual present replaces it, § 51 (3). It is frequently used where the English has ivill = is willing ; as A he will not go (is not willing to go) ; so # # I f I m ^ « • • • he will not sell (lit. give) \it\ for two qrans. A A § 53. The imperfect denotes (a) an act formerly in progress, (5) a former wish or intention ; but not a habit. Thus Joo) 2d I was in the act of going or I was just about to start : but not I used to go (}oai Sfl ;a). V 0i •* § 54. The preterite properly denotes an action done at a par¬ ticular past time. But it is frequently used loosely for a perfect or pluperfect ; as you have come in peace {are welcome), 144 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 54, 55 mS 2^23 after he had come. So often in dependent sen¬ tences. It is used prospectively for an immediate future. A man seeing another at a distance about to arrive will say ;:s2 he has come, i.e. he is coming, he is in sight. So the Turkish preterite galdi is used, cf. Modern Greek e<^^ao-e. A sick man, or one in peril, says uiS I am dying. [With this compare the habit a servant has of saying if ay it is ready, when anything is ordered, meaning that he will set about getting it ready.] When a man asks for information and understands the answer, he says ^ ^ knew = I comprehend. The preterite very frequently denotes pure hypothesis, § 62. § 55. The perfect is not so much used in U. as the preterite which often replaces it (§ 54). It is used both actively and passively ; thus = he has revealed or it is revealed. In K. it is very common as rendering the passive. In several cases the perfect denotes a present result. Thus : he has come to a standstill = he is standing, he has laid himself dotvn = he is in bed — he is getting into hed\ Similarly we have 2^^ ke is hungry, I ' » he is thirsty, OlS..* he is asleep, ** he is sorry, 2^x^ he remains^, he is tired, Ti. he is perspiring [elsewhere the second present], 'adding U. only (see § 46), 2*^^^ or 2*^ he is silent. We see the same thing in many cases where the past participles have become simple adjectives: as 2*^^*^ is sweet, from to he or become sweet. We may compare the Greek perfects iypyyopa, olSa, oXcoXa, etc. 1 So the remainder (also as O.S.). USE OF THE TENSES. 145 §§ 56, 57] § 56. The pluperfect denotes an action finished at some past time, but it is often replaced by the preterite, § 54. As the perfect often denotes a present result, the pluperfect denotes a past result, as he had laid himself down = he was in bed. The is sometimes omitted in a subjoined clause, as ^ U. I saw them standing [not very common colloquially] § 58 (1); cf. O.S. and I saw heaven opened, Rev. xix. 11. § 57. Verbal noun. (1) This does not usually represent the English infinitive after can, must, command and the like, see § 51 (8) ; but occasionally it does so, and after iSiLbO to begin, 23u2 lih to begin (lit. pour hand), it is almost always so used, usually with more rarely with ; as 2S^2^ ^ 23^b0 I began to say (or 2adb2a). But in Al. we have the other construction here : thus St Luke iii. 23 ot-A 2DOLXbO [;boi] ;o<7rD he began to be. So very rarely in U. (2) With to increase, it is employed as the equivalent of the O.S. construction with wducao2 : — 9uf obo he revealed yet again. But this is not colloquial. (3) It is used simply as a substantive, § 76 (1). In this case it may govern an object directly, [which often precedes it, especially if it is of the first conjugation] ; or more rarely, as any other substan¬ tive, with D; thus dinner time {time of eating bread). It would be possible to say (or ;»4 p), especially in Al., but in U. K. would naturally be substituted, § 76 (3). So he stopped having the children killed (or 2pu^). Instead of the * ^ ^ verbal noun we have a finite verb in the following : — >^23 ^ instead of those men going. In ^ verbs the form S. GR. 19 146 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. is preferred to when it is used as a simple substantive not followed by 3 and another noun (U. Q. Sal. Gaw.). Thus :id ;b / ca7ne to read {for reading), i.e. to learn, at school ; but we should have reading hooks: in U. more often here. (4) It is used participially (in the first conjugation with ^), the particles just, (esp. K.) or Al. whilst, yet or K. Al. no70 and the like being often prefixed; or with the conjunction S, the substantive verb being omitted. It is often repeated for emphasis or intensity. Thus : I saw her coining (or whilst causing to he killed, ivhile not yet coining, he luent round the villages 'perpetually singing. The ^ is sometimes omitted from the verbal noun, as jLbSf Jbbao dayh reak. (5) It is added on to all the tenses, especially in K., for em¬ phasis or intensity ; as IxJf it gi^eatly increased (not as often printed) ; he is hasting greatly. ' t* •' (6) It expresses, with the English infinitive except as noted above (1) ; it even expresses a purpose, though this may also be expressed by the present with y ^ in order that, or its variants, § 72. Also occasionally with ^ it is an ordinary substantive, as above (3) ; thus (or from taking, from subduing : so also from taking and giving. Cf. am not worthy to hear his shoes. Matt. hi. 11. § 58. Rendering of the English participle, used absolutely. (1) Present participle. This is not rendered by the Syriac present participle except in the rare cases when the latter is ‘in §§ 58, 59] USE OF THE TENSES. 147 construction’ as in § 16. Even in O.S. the participial use of the present participle not ‘ in construction ’ is not very common ; though we have that thou mayest he seeing. Rev. iii. 18, N.S. iso^D }ja ; so thus be ye doing, 1 Cor. xi. 25 = ^^s*o6l JaDOf N.S. The English present participle, standing absolutely, is rendered either (a) by a conjunc- ^ ^ ^ tion or relative and finite verb, as when he sees him coming, St John x. 12 (O.S. similar); or (h) by the verbal noun as in § 57 (4). We must however distinguish the English noun of action and participle which are of the same form ; thus he saw me coming (part.) coming (noun) uCSa4s2 ufS But in the case of an intransitive verb we may use the past parti¬ ciple, though only in the following construction : I saw her standing (or (2) Past participle, active. This is rendered by a separate clause, as having seen the affair, he told me = oot ojS And very rarely with a transitive verb past part. I saw them having taken {loaded with) burdens. (3) Past participle, passive. This is rendered by the past parti¬ ciple in Syriac. The particles of § 57 (4) may be prefixed. § 59. The Imperative has only the second person, and the other persons are expressed by the first present ; the second person is also thus expressed when a prohibition, or a weak or polite positive com¬ mand is intended, § 51 (10). A prohibition, 2 pers., may be also expressed by the imperative with unlike O.S. This denotes the prohibition of a single action, while the first present with ^ denotes that of a continued action. Thus a man seeing a boy running would shout to him yj\a do not stop ; but sending a boy on a message in haste he would say But this is not a hard and fast rule. 148 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. The Syriac imperative is much more used than the English, and does not denote any incivility ; it is often used by an inferior to a superior. A man speaking to a servant or inferior would always use the Imperative where in English he might say Will you ? § 60. Conditional clauses. Protasis and apodosis. (1) A probable hypothesis, neither implying affirmation nor negation. If he comes I shall see him = is sometimes omitted) ; or is.3 : vJJ > o*" ra'i'ely S ;fts2 .,^2 — .,,^0* ojiL ;asor ;w2 .^2 if this is so, I rejoice, If he has come, I shall see him = : ^^2 ♦xi ; or ...CjS }^2 — If he came, James saw him (i.e. I do not know how the fact lies) = yiCTI^^M (2) Pure hypothesis. If he came (or If he were to come) I should see him = ojA ;ooi is.3 : loo) .^2 ; or : as above. 2 is sometimes omitted : as X>3L^ ♦.2 II */ * ■ / • x" vain if you do thus, well ; if not... The preterite is also much used with ^2 although; the apodosis is then often introduced by a redundant JaaI but (cf dWd used simi¬ larly after idv and elirep, 1 Cor. iv. 15, viii. 5). (3) Implying negation. If he had come I should have seen him = ejS Jooi 4N-3 5 lou] ;o0 or for the apodosis yiCTIOi^fi/M ^0(7) xOW or more rarely for the protasis jl^2 So, Jbaj ♦s^oof isa ?oa) Jobr ^2 if he had been here I should have gone; }bbiu :jlx2 Jbb) ^^2 if he had come it would be well. § 61. Temporal clauses are ordinarily expressed as in English. But an English perfect after when, which is in effect a future perfect, USE OF THE TENSES. 149 §61] may be expressed in four ways. Thus, when the sun has set (= shall have set) = ;o<7r or jisas? ^2 (loosely) or ^2. A very common method, however, of rendering this is to replace the temporal clause by another ; thus, N ^7? the sun set, then I will go. After there is often an aposiopesis ; as 2 ^3 ^bbu2 yoit go ? — / go when he comes. With this we may compare the method of expressing the day after to-moi'vow and the day before yesterday. The translation of both is Jti^2 K. or ;ix.2 ;»ou U., lit. the other day. But a Syrian will generally be more exact, and say : 2^ iso^cJb U. [: jS Uau«2 Jsbou K.], which stands both for not to-morrow hut the next { day, and not yesterday hut the day before (§ 67). So for Monday iveek we generally have JaJL»2 ^ U. [K. simi- »' (' I* lar] = 7iot this, hut the other Monday. In Al. a temporal clause is sometimes replaced by the verbal noun, thus Jaoadl» '^^ithout blessing = before they were married, St Matt. i. 18. This would not be pos¬ sible in U. ; they would usually say but they might say 2.330.3^ 2^ ^2 2-^^^ lih yet they not blessed [all a]. The preterite is used in a temporal clause if there is uncertainty, as iS3 ^ after I have come (if ever I do come) I shall see him. This is equivalent to 2^^ § 66- So also if no particular time is referred to and a general case or hypothesis is intended. An English temporal clause is often rendered by the noun of action, as when I returned, return, tuas returning, after I .have (had) 7'eturned, till I come (came). The 150 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. noun of action is thus more used than the English noun. But the finite verb might readily be used in Syriac in these cases. When is replaced by a periphrasis in cases such as the following : %6o] isOA cis when you ivere here, lit. as that time that you were here. § 62. Absolute hypothetical clauses. (1) The preterite is much used to express a possibility where no protasis is attached, as ^ perhaps I might die (or without d). 2^2 2 : y.ajouS is3 I will go and visit him in case by chance he has come. (2) The conditional is used as in English where would = were about to. ;boi N3 .^2? ^2 as if he were about to go {woidd go). (3) The preterite is also used to denote pure hypothesis in the following : : 2auM %6a] iso^ ^9^ 4i^ftS ^5^ It is better that thou shouldest not have voiced than that thou shoiddest vow and not pay, cf Eccles. v. 5. § 63. Impei'sonal verbs. (1) These are generally in the feminine, but sometimes, espe¬ cially in AL, in the masculine. [The O.S. rule is similar.] Thus express as it is written. So and both express the abstract idea of evil (subst.), though the latter is more common. It is interesting to note that the East Syrians take the of the Lord’s prayer personally as the Evil one, and paraphrase it frequently in their service-books the Evil one and his hosts C7^d^MO 2^3 . Examples of masculines : the preterite, it is finished by me — I finished, btxAfis (or it lost on me = I have §68] IMPERSONAL VERBS. 151 lost my head (also fern.), may it he pleasant to you, see § 75 and Jio/ § 46. % Examples of feminines : ^ OjS ;aUiQ>a In him I am well pleased, lit. in him it pleased me, St Matt. iii. 17. So if you please, ;:axia hy^avo ! § 73. (2) Some verbs which in English are impersonal may take a subject in Syriac. Thus or simply it rains. So we have it snotus ; it hails, a{^ it hloivs, ;L (K. -ojA.) * I* it thundei's, cA* ;L:bo3 Ihia it lightens, OjV. Upp (or 6)iL) ^7 rains, lit. the woild is raining, ojX ;L:i83 is stormy. (3) (Turk.) must, generally stands without (Arab.) must and (Arab.) ought, generally with it. They are thus conjugated : — ^ must go, ^♦2? 'pi^ id. In Al. we have Ja. After i]\6 we may insert a pronoun, «• It I* ^ as C^Lk il^O K. Al.) you ought. These words may be used with a negative, especially as p%i A it is not necessary', this must be distinguished from jLfiUlXa Jodju ^ he was not obliged, which is a personal verb ; the latter implies that nothing was lacking. and xK. may be used as simple adjectives and may occasionally take the first plural. ^ they are not necessary (or or the singular of either). For •* the lengthening of the vowel in the plural see § 18 (xiii). For with affixes see § 20 (7). implies moral obligation; and if this is not the idea of ought we must render by or 152 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Thus oboj uiOOfa ought to he here, i.e. I should have expected it. Also in referring to a past event they often are used for % b> as Jbb) isoo/D ^9^ you ought to have gone. is used both in U. and K. : in U. only. (4) For it is I and the like see § 29 (19); for «s4, § 29 (11). (5) We may notice ^ it may he = perhaps [or it is ■5 possible which is also rendered by Joot Ja § 29 (10)] and ^'SOoJOXi it may happen = perhaps ; the is usually dropped, even in K. . ■S'*' If this is used as a verb in U. it is ^ol|b9 ; in K. JiOOJOiO, see §§ 36, 87 c. (6) In Al. and sometimes K. is used impersonally for to wish, which in Al. usually = to love. Thus Jbo) I wished. Also to he pleased ; as cjei^ ajS Al. i/ it pleases him (God) in him (Christ) = if he will have him, St Matt, xxvii. 43 ; ojS Al. In thee I am (lit. was) well pleased, St Luke hi. 22. (7) ^ or U6Jxi = far he it from me, usually followed by p and the first present. Thus UCDum O.S. / ✓ A* 0 N.S. far he it from us to deny. Also standing by itself uqxi or = God forhid ! (8) For it is warm (lit. warmth) and the like, see § 16/. would not be impersonal, but would refer to some particular thing, as e.g. water, being cold. (9) ;oar before its subject has a quasi-impersonal use in the ** following : ojS ojJk ;oai he had the heart (or intention) to — 63, 64] DIRECT OBJECT OF VERB. 153 :^2; so 23dUi ^ocjS afS }oai they had word, }oai 6jS what has come over him ? § 64. The direct object of the verb. (1) This is generally expressed by the simple substantive, but ^ may be inserted, especially if the object precede the verb, § 74; or in u. ;h ; as (also ^jibb J.b U.) who^n did he strike'^ If the object is a pronoun the affixes with or jLb must be used ; but with a pronominal affix cannot ordinarily stand in U. K. apart from its verb, and in this case ‘4?, etc. must be used. For exceptions in particular cases see §§ 10, 50 and § 70 (3). (2) Many verbs take two objects without prepositions, as to make, to fill (of the thing filled, and that with which it is I filled, but the latter may also be expressed by prefixing ^), to sow (of the place sown and the seed). So some causatives whose originals are transitive, as to clothe (a person with a dress), to teach, iktibO to teach, to ask, does not take two n ^ ^ f I# V direct objects, but is placed before the person asked, § 71. as (3) A second noun is often placed in apposition to the object ; jia'b ^9^ he gave a tuman as a debt = he lent a tuman. So iLjp . . . to borrow {take as a debt), to give as a present etc. ; he led the children of Israel captive, JlbbiOblb u^j^bO print the book. So many of the idioms in | 75. For the passive also we have: bOlObO i-y we were sealed. money was lent. (4) For the passives of causatives cf. § 45 a. Thus = to be caused to be killed, not to be caused to kill. S. GR. 20 154 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 64, 65 (5) The English direct object sometimes becomes indirect in Syriac and vice versa, see § 71 ; § 50, note 1. (6) The verbs to pray, to lie, frequently take cognate accusatives, as he prayed, ?? ofL he is lying. (7) A singular object is sometimes used for a plural one a,s in the following: — iii .^oojS they bowed their heads {the head), f \ " > (but might be used here) ; give up my cause {cast hand from me, § 75). (8) The object of a noun of action in may be often expressed by ^ as well as D ; as the worship of a creature, where 9 might cause confusion and give the sense a creatures worship. So the worship) of thee ; or without A, giving thee worship. But the end of the affair. (9) When the object is expressed pleonastically by a pronoun as well as by a noun, A cannot be prefixed to the latter as in O.S. Thus ooA -kosp teach the men (not But we can say simply -ioi. The first is the commoner method. § 65. Agreement. (1) In general verbs agree with their subjects in person, gender and number; but nouns of multitude, as a crowd, may take either a singular or plural verb. (2) Two or more nouns coupled by o and, always, and by ^ or, generally, take a plural verb. (3) When the genders differ the masculine verb is used. (4) When the persons differ the first is preferred to the second and the third, and the second to the third. ORATIO OBLIQUA. 155 §§ 65, 66] (5) When the numbers differ the plural is used, as you and the tuomen have come = oJsa 21^2 22sjS^ u&lo isil . (6) Agreement of pronouns with one another in person. Here N. S. differs from O.S. in which the third person often refers to the second ; in N.S. the same person is used throughout. Thus ^i2 O.S. = Niki N.S. thon helper of thy saints; ooj Nil or ois&2 O.S. = Nou isi2 N.S. (also in O.S. Nii isii) thou art; oo) O.S. = ♦^ou N.S. I am ; 0 % 0 % f O. S. = ♦s^Na N.S. ye are. (7) The verb agrees with the interrogative pronoun in a case like 1^1 uLiii which of you came ?■ § 66. Oratio obliqua. (1) This may be used in N.S., and if so the sequence of tenses must usually be observed, especially in U., § 51 (9) : ^N23 0^ 2'^2:3 ojVt he says he has come, ^6^^ ai^b92 he said he had come. (2) More frequently oratio recta is substituted. Thus : oiyMl he said, I will come. So in O.S. In indirect questions oratio obliqua is more common, obo) uiN2 N3 he asked if they would come is more usual than ^^^^^2 N3 • N I he asked : Will you come (3) The use of jdoN there, here etc., is in these cases often very confusing. Thus JiStfN he said: 1 will go there = he said he would come here. (I) Before the oratio recta D is often inserted : as, I said ye are gods = uk*bo2 St John x. 34. The same thing is com¬ mon in O.S. ;^2? 156 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§67 ADVERBS. tt ^ § 67. [The following list includes several adverbial expressions which cannot strictly be called adverbs.] U. now, or Ti. MB. or upcf MB. or U. (oxytone), or 23 U. or JLa3 K. or Al. or K. (= ^6l y^al, § 12, = lal 230/) or ^3 K. (= ^3^ ? Nbld.) or 4^03 Al. or ^3^ ui23 Al. (= jlis). So jlsl Acn so far, jial ^ ago, already. )S0u3^ to-day U. K. Z. or ^ou3o2 Gaw. Sal. or )n^3j (^O* 2?af, h for m.) or Tkh. = O.S. 2-V.dA32 U. to-night (3 = is) or 2^A32 K. (= 23<7f) or Ojis or Jo/la, In N.S. is fern., see 5 17. In Z. ' ^ ,< f ' t} being used absolutely for ^ ftAooil U. now, or K. or 2^3^ loll U. or ill Ti. or is’^isl K. (= 23<7r + § 28. 2). l^ol U. so, so much, so many (considered rather colloquial), thus, 3 23oV^ great that. In K. ^0^2 (see or 31(71 Kurd, (not 2^01 as Stod. Nbld. ?). • I# ^ m ' ^ S • ttt902 or o2 U. topsy-turvy (rare) ; also endways, = ^o2, also, even : or ^2 K. as O.S., in Al. (see below) ; hence ^ J^o2 K. or usually ^ not one [in U. ^ 2^ iAo2 U. A ^1 K. not even. 67] ADVERBS. 157 U. only, or Sal. or Sal. Baz Al. In Al. 0 f ^ /V ^ (V $ 0 ^ UCMO IS used, coming after the word qualified. at last, Z. / UiL: u. K. S'S O.S. OjQOjTjIX^ tJvhS* In Z. {khin) and lisyM^l = then. See § 21 (3). ^aS/^2 or or l6sy^ (as O.S.) finally. ^ 0 X u. K. z. as O.S. where, or j3-2 Q. Sal. Gaw. and U. some- i' times (first Zlama). When followed by crjULt,^ or it is often shortened to Ja as ?C7?V^ xuhere is he ? (also in a / dependent clause). Also with etc.) = whither, with ^aao = whence or which way. ^2 usually, mostly, oxi the whole. when? or Ti. (O.S. wfciipl), or v^,i, or U. or Iay.i K. or laiiis K. So Jaitl Aar how long ? ’ m 0 ^ • ^(a / \ 0 0 0 ^ U. K. then = elra. In O.S. and so rarely K., accord¬ ing to the rule by which Greek t= while 6 — i(s, K. Q. here, or Sal. or ^oal Tkh. (in U. see p. 164) = O.S. }a<7f or usually Jaiof, So Chald. KDil, U, especially, Arab. Pers. (proparoxytone), or 290f U. : 2aof JEp K. U. (accented on first and last) immediately, Turk. Pers. (= hand over hand) = 2^2fi 2Xh2 K. as O.S. or 2^1*232X1.2 K. ; also U. Pers. (lit. in the hour)] or MB. or j>s^ 0 t* ^ 0 ' 00^4 Tkh. or Ti. or Al. Arab. ; or jLisXdb. 0 • t t » ^ " ' 0 im 158 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. U. down, or Sal. or is^ Al. (O.S. II it ' II II II * Also whether motion downwards is meant or not, and ^ it ft ^ So '^2 ^ /rom beneath (all is). U. only just, scarcely, Turk. Kurd. In K. or Dkl^ icH. 4^32 Joria hereabouts. doubtless, Pers. Also ^3 (hard Kap). 4^32 thereabouts. JEOI3 U. or jua K. MB. Gaw. Al. Z. more, Pers.; sis^n of the com- parative ; occasionally used to qualify verbs : as 32f is-? Jaou* JS03 love will increase more. But in this case it would be more usual to use 230f JCOis, p. 161. Jd^2D U. Q. therefore, or or 2pdt or b Jayla U, K. or 2aay is<^ U. or Joyla jeS U. K. or 2pay iJb Sal. or 2?07 ih Sal. or ih U. or 2d07 }.b U. ; or ihopso K. or Ti. or ^30? K. See ,3 U. then (causal), therefore Pers. Kurd, or Ti. Sh. or K. or Al. (not so emphatic as isosj). For jQsao Al. see above. ^03 is used somewhat redundantly in such a / 3 U. together, eqttally, or K., Pers. Turk. 33 : ^ sign of the future, §§ 31, 46 s.v. by chance, a\^o probably (^. St.) Arab, (not common). 0itl^^3 by chance, from JO&is to happen, to meet (Arab. word). U. hereafter, or 2pay 3^ U. ais3 Al. aisiai Al. v«t* 160 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. iSsa Ti. Al. upwards [or ia ?] proparoxytone, or ati Ti. / ^ • > f uis^is aSsa Ti. Al. downwards, proparoxytone. 0 0 or or lo^ 2^ sometimes, occasionally, § 28 (4). within, see p. 168, also ^ from within : with to the inside. or quickly, soon, early. In the first sense chiefly U. = ^OlSJS or Ti. which bXso = certamly. 2a\j^ ^ = a long time ago = jiaf ^ Al. 2 a 2 a 7a. hither and thither = JaiV OllS U. ' c . ' • ^ ^2a how or when by itself (= ^2a ?) or Ti. See § 73 or K. (= Jii> ?) rare. ♦s^OJoa Z. still, again. jaua IT. K. always, or ^iflua, }^a K., Kurd. Arab. ; or Jaiep U. Pers. ('so Az.) or Aa Al. (O.S. or Aa U. K. JUXOOl in vain, Arab. Pers. or 2ba<7y K. See wii.^abu». ^ 0 0 yiSof K. slowly, gently (Zlama second sound) Kurd. = ImA XT. as O.S., see p. 166 (whence very slowly)’, or abOLbOC^ IT. Pers. or K. or Ti. j^aol so, thus, or 2aby or J^aai . These seem to be the O.S. 2a<7y ^ ^ ^ _ or 2aat , the fern, of Uor thxs. The (which is soft, not hard as in Nold. § 85) is a common Aramaic addition. So Jbac^ thus, so, such (a = is) IT. K. Z. or in Tal (? sound) or Jorao) Al. (= Jot 2aay ?) or IT. So also &u\ ^ or ^?or ^ SO much. See also § 23. §67] ADVERBS. 161 -ioipoo? at first (rare). Qy. past part, of ^iapc)b9 U. (= K.) to believe ? uOt U. K. Q. then, or lcr{i^ uOf Al. or Ti. c or or kAo u07 or ucn. Also with ^b9. So in Ti. we have JoA. before that = ^iy^ uOIS U. U. not at all, never (with a negative), as ^ U. {= DC^ K.) / will never allow (see under t^o2). So u. = }oA. oa K. Z. Q. never, (Turk.) and OA (Kurd.) being also adjectives = no or any. U. yet, Arab. Turk, or J-^al Sal. (see jlal) or or jKCTf K. Al. (also now : O.S. jsof or li6i) or 2aA3 Al. Arab. or certainly, of course, Arab. Also or '^6] in Al. also, Pers. In U. K. as conjunction, repeated, both... and. DO/ just, certainly, Pers. ; with negative never, esp. in K., as fisa ac^ / will certainly go, }^2 ao? he shall never come. Jaaof just thus, obi ac^ just that = the same, § 25 (8). Noldeke gives Pers. Turk, never. U. or K. Z. or vXf Z. also, Kurd. This follows the word / i' '•/* qualified. Often used with \^ol or thus If Ul Aol I g^lso. Iho'f more, or 2aOf JCoa (aua) or JiaOf Ti. (from N.S. a2f to increase, an Arabic word), or auSa Al. These are also used as substantives = more. JduAf K. certainly, on that account. S. GR. 21 162 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 2dXna A1. together, or 2d>^2 K. or 2dx^ A1. or 233^^^ K . or ,!■ (■ kJ ' )■ It ,m II )■ II 233^ K. or 2XwkO30 Sal. U. : or from the Persian we have U. (or or ^bo), pron. in Sal. ukhdali etc. See § 15. 7'ather, somewhat, a little. See § 28 (9) for variations. Also Al. K. 7*^ K. (below), JLa K. Al. .^^oi Al. jio Ti. So ikth almost, lit. a little remains (e.g. JtooA almost black) ; in K. Jx*4 Also expressed thus : ^ }^2 I nearly did not come. So iJi'i he is far from thinking. U. in vain or gratis, Kurd, or Al. K., Kurd. (Ndld. St. give JcSa Pers.) or U. {gratis) ; see UQ>3<7f. U. in short, or Sal., Arab, (both proparoxytone). or u'psxde down K. tnstde out XJ. or 5j6dX U. Ti. (both senses) or ltaO<^ (= ^9-^ }io5 edge, edge lowermost). The form lower, is seen in (below) and ' I* ' in 23kbOObw lit. lower church, the name of a church in Ti. in f the Zab valley; it is another form of K., O.S.; cf. the verb » x^ to be abased, Al. and also above. ^ K. (U. 'ou) from day to day. ^ 9/ ^ Xi^XXkiai. U. the day before yesterday or the day after to-morrow, or ji^2 Jbbaa Ti. or Jiiaa Tkh. § 61. So }^-L»2 the week before last {after next). K. entirely, quite, very, or K, Kurd.; or ;a3 U. Turk, (so Jas jaa extremely) or dcH U. (very emphatic) or Al. Arab, or ^Jsois U. (also an adj. = c^ea^z) ; or ^bois (also an adj. §67] ADVERBS. 163 = entire). For emphasis is often put by itself at the end of a sentence. See p. 167. that is, Arab. K. certainly, or wA* U., Arab. 2a U. MB. Sp. Sal. or Q. Tkh. Sal. or 'a Al. Z. Sal. sign of the habitual present, § 31. Origin, Chald. Kp = 7^, § 119 ? 51^ a little, somewhat, Tkh. or Ti. (contrast 5ia above), or ;aa U., Kurd. See Jaa#i. ^Ou\a daily, so O.S. ; also Ti. and : 9^ pou Al. 4^ X ^ ^ J^a how much, how, so O.S. ; or Al. or ;oi^ Al. or abiM Al. Thus : how good = O.S. ;to. laoV, iaysk how great he is how great a man he is ! not, as O.S., or (not Al.) prefixed to certain parts of the verb only, § 33 [thus 2.3 a^ 2^0 ojA» A it is neither good nor had\ ^ = neither. . .nor : a third ^ then is often used with the verb, pleonastically. ^ has the second Zlama sound and perhaps should be = y^CT) 2^!^ ? Cf. O.S. oS (West Syrian aS) = OO) ? Nold. conjectures = ^*1 2.1^. Or perhaps this is the origin of it : + the substantive verb (♦^^O-a %.% etc.) takes the pronunciation le-win; and then by false analogy uS or 2^ is placed before the present tense. is thus used with in Ti. ? — ^ '^hat do you want I Nothing. on this side, this way, or 2*^ Ti. (fein. form of 164 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 67 = side), rarely without ; also with pL». See I 23 23 p. 160. here, U. (see Jal) hither, U. K. (the ^ coalesces) or JacT K. or MB. or K. or Ti. So K. towards this way = ;or2ik U. Also Jalbo U. K. this way, hence, and similarly the rest Sal.). axxS U. Ti. outside (S) Kurd, or K. or (or ?) Al. or Al. (so J^aa U. K. Al. outer) or aai^ Al. ft' t • * backwards, behind (^ K.), or with the other affixes, also f K. or 2^SaS or (common). Sometimes without ; often with Also with = towai'ds the rear. U. 071 that side, that way, over there, rarely without yS ; also with ; or ,^3001 Ti. It also means abroad {= J^SOD^iS much used in this sense). K. MB. (or with Dalath, § 6.9. 2 b) m that direction. So from that direction. K. MB. or 2ao.^ I^a^i for a little twie, § 28 (9), or uOT (rare with Lamadh). v^^aA^ forwai'ds, or jiafilS or uOJOb^ai^ or with the other affixes. Oa^Sia^albO U. henceforwai^d (lit. from 7ioio to after it) ; or i^piso U. (^^ coalesces) or oia^taS cna^:a^Sa2» U. or 2*aM K. or }od)l30 MB. or simply ilplso (see above jial). So also yi6?» after that, thereafter. §67] ADVERBS. 165 U. Ti. indeed, or Sal., Arab. Kurd. ; often with ^ sound as Kurd, [used both in question and answer, thus : , . . ? b^ Q. Indeed ? Ans. Yes, really] ; or K. or U. or Sal. [these are the imperatives of the verb , to believe, § 83 dJ or (also adj. = certain). rom ji^odfso U. {moy'isha, proparoxytone) in the morning, lit. { that head, or ^ba3 or ^bOOO liy'sp Ti. ; or K. or u. (lit. the anticipation, from pjafibo), AL, O.S., or Z. or Z. or ^oibO Z. These also (exc. the Ti. and Al. forms) mean to-morrow (but not yesterday), cf. Scottish the morn, the morns morn, German morgen. See below. Ti. in early fnornmg, \it. from the night. So Ti. very early (from the little nights) or Ti. MB. Tergawar or K. lit. fi'om the watch (^aa K. to change, Arab.). [Also Ti. U. or Jla^c^la U.] secretly. ySbbjk^ K. yet (not temporal), again, usually Jtbbk^ (J! silent in U.) or Al. or Ti. ; lit. /rom the head; — also ;kLfl u. (;^^2 K. Al. or JftsX,: Tkh. A1. Z.) or uDJN? ;oA. U. (u^bXa K.) [also , . . ; — also U. Ti. or Sal. or *^aLbp or Ti. Once again is J^5L»2 2^ U. (K. similar). JJ.for example, or K. U. suddenly, or Al. or -2 K. [Qy. 166 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. = uOj at that time ?], or ; — also or Al. rarely U. or Sal. These = O.S. ul added on to the verb to strengthen it, § 81. In O.S. it = m- deed (also 2i). O.S. quietly, hy degrees, often repeated ; also boa ^oaSi probably (boa = trust, N.S.). U. Q. Sal. Gaw. up, upwards, or K. or MB. (all these also with a, A or ?1S0), or Al. as O.S. ; z. upwards (second Zlama). ^ by halves, § 27. gradually, § 77 (2). well, not Ti., (pronunciation, § 7) [also an adj. = good^', in Ti. (elsewhere adj. = beautiful) ; in Al. 2^3. Perhaps is from to be clear : pure. For the termination see p. 168. I* la U. Sh. why or abO l.h U. or 2^^ Tkh. Ti. or y^^oiso ^sh. Q. or Xi^ Al. or Al. or XsooM Al. or olsDA Ti. (= ?). For u3oao etc. see § 13. U. Z. Sal. Sal. Al. ;aa Al. sign of the past, § 81. first, or U. or Al. § 27. Xsp^ K. Al. in Syriac (the language), Al. in Arabic, ^aaoub K. Al. in Kurdish, ^^ao^ U. in Turkish, -«!■ f '• t isJo':4 U. in Persian; which appear to stand for ^2aou(2> etc. These are used also as substantives. [When the old adverbs are used, as in theological discussions, they are oxytone.] 168 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 67 (2) Adjectives, especially those most commonly in use and those which do not change in the feminine, are very often used as adverbs; in U. K. chiefly in the masculine, in Al. in both genders. Thus IT. K. Verily, verily, I say = 4^3^ la Al. ; K. Al. she rose quickly, ooo^ they were badly ill, St Mark i. 32 = 6s^2iji3 O.S. (3) There are a large number of adverbs, adjectives, and substan¬ tives in some of which Noldeke suggests (§ 54) may come from the old 6^1^ , dropping They may also be the abstract termi¬ nation Oa *• of which the o falls in colloquial speech in U., § 78. Or it may be the Kurdish ending though in some cases added on to words which are not Kurdish. Examples : U. or K. easy, the latter Kurdish, excessive, abundant, from JE0L3 (above), Kurd, meaning, more commonly bad, Turk. Pers. sure, certain, tame, u..*bODOUQ> deep blue, advice, ^^$1 colony, Kurd. easy, \^6a^Jd coffee- coloured, rude, wild, uaSS silk, tin, Turk. Kurd. ; and / / • / see the above list. (4) Too is usually expressed by the simple adjective, see § 24. (5) For numeral adverbs see § 28 (2). (6) At least, at any rate, is expressed by ImO(7\ ^ ^0| *^2 U. or ♦^2 K. or U. K. Thus U1 I, at any rate, will go. Preflxed to numerals at least may be rendered by ^ than. (7) Adverbs are frequently repeated for emphasis : e.g. slowly, 2^'oSjb K. id. So in G7, 68] PKEPOSITIONS. 169 O.S. : e.g. jusi very evilly; and so in Turk. etc. From ^03 equal, straight, we have ^03 on exactly equal terms, used, e.g. of a bill cashed without commission. Cf. § 69 (1). (8) English adverbs may very frequently be rendered in N.S. by a substantive with ^3 as truly, (so O.S. ; hardly, with difficulty ; rarely without ,3. So the com¬ parative ('36^) more himdedly, lit. more in haste. (9) ^ is sometimes redundant: thus Sfl 2-V I prevented him from going ; Sal : a^^tJSO do not persecute the Christians until they have been accused. — , oa when accompanied by verbs take Thus %S jiil (oa) / saw no man. But they may stand without ^ if there is no verb : as ^3030 What did you do? Nothing. PREPOSITIONS. • f 0 • ^ § 68. Simple prepositions. 0 0 O.S. or {dkh, mdkh, rarely d ; ekh, mekh Al.) or ^2^ 0 Al. {nvtkh) or 'a Al. as Heb. ; = according to, like, as u-^a like 0 ^ 0 m 0 ^ ^ ^ 0 ^ ^ me, 5^2 according to our law ; or about: 2aM ^2 about one o’clock. 3 O.S. or U.3 Sal. (see aj3); =at: 2^^ lis come at five o’clock: liyJb ubis3 C^O^O he sold it at two qrans ; it de- notes a measure, or time when : ;otJj ^ one of this measure, 22 S. GR. 170 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. lolhs this year [we may omit the preposition ; as jisaaCs »* •* come on Monday'] \ —in: in truth, in sorrow (see ; or with : ivith difficulty, JaSa with many tears (see ; or of: the second of January (or u.070^ u.i^S ♦^Oia); in K. it is also the sign of the object in a particular case, § 50. Ja without, Kurd. Pers. , oS^ see oS. isoa U. or D ^ Sal. Az. for, concerning, about, for the sahe of, on account of because of: ^03 ♦^ibb Our Lord died for isoa on account of the persecution, ^ubobo isoa what about? This preposition probably is 3 OOpJ, lit. in the matter of Stod. gives two rare forms ui3ubo2 isoa U. luith regard to what I said, i.e. uphold K. Cf. § 72, a uO^a, which is also used as a preposition in the phrase ub^-a or biL* ua^a / believe, in my opinion (pron. bad-libi or bid-libi) ; also ub^a (bad-di or bid-di). Rarely also with a substantive JlUla ub^a bad- ndsha, in man's opinion, [cf. ^a ubia is^oi the cause of a man's falling.'] xa (a = fis) not common in K. = O.S. aJa = a 2"aj,23. Also '■ r«i * ffl / • la ^ (see a) and It means by (of the agent) : a^ }*aa everything was created by God. But the full form is often used, especially when attention is called to the hand : 2L23 er^ ;3fa the letter arrived by the hand of Thomas, i^2a ^3 evei'ything is in the hand {poiuer) of God, I'ioy^y I^^Ia ?Iaa created by the Son. §68] PREPOSITIONS. 171 (= yS : O.S. between, among: between them, or among them; or including, or notwithstanding, in spite of: wmOui including myself we are ten men. So ^Ab in general, or all included, or in spite of all. When in English we have between... and, we may repeat ^Ab or insert A or simply say O ; as «^ba.^.A..bO between us and you, or w^Ab; between Joshua and Simon ; betiueen me and myself, i.e. alone. So O.S. between Romans and Persians, j^O^A between you and your mother and your brother, cf. Nold. O.S.G. § 251. Also O.S. with o for ^ id. But the O.S. ^b both body and soul will not stand in N.S. ^*b (Arab.) or uiAb or JSWb all Al. for ^!Swib (O.S. uM or ^Lb). Hence between him and himself, i.e. alone, as above. Aa (not common) or (common) as O.S., or ^b %.% Sal. ; = without, cf. O.S. 4® ^ id. iisb K. Sh. MB. as O.S. or U. Q. Sal. Gaw. ; or or ; = after : aisb after tiuo days ; or behind : aj>a t' I* ' 2aob^ OOta behind that mountain; or in {after), a^ in three hour's. O.S., U. Sp. or K. Sal. Sp. (sometimes) or K. J. or Al. ; = m, in the midst of (of place only, U. K. : .b usually renders in, otherwise, though that is also used of place) : ub0bo2 in Urmi. In Al. is by means of (=aub U.), and is in, or amongst, or is the sign of the indirect object (= A, U. K.), as : didst thou do thus to us? 172 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ C8 occasion - St Luke ii. 48 (= U. K.). — In U. K. J. oS^, are ally used of motion = into, though is also thus used ; he entered into the city. — or or ok ^ or O^bO through, oV ASbO . U. Sal. = for : ih for James, J-ti ^vhat for .? why'! ; or to: iJO ^ Ja^Oj* I gave it (f.) to David; to express duration of time: Ji'bbou ^ for two days; or a stated time: ih iso<^ % noon, see § 28 (13), Sfoy Jo^ is? 2SiQ>^ it will he ready in ten months. — For the direct object see § 64. Noldeke is in error in saying it is not so used (Nold. § 87). — In Sal. pron. qe. — Origin? (O.S. p^) or p%h ^ (O.S. pj^ or ^aJSbO before, in front of: ^olis P^^ ^ ?^S2 he came before Thomas, ojS Jlifl he called her before the law courts ; or to ex¬ press ago : three years ago, (or '^pO J??i) ; so also iZ,^p Uxl 'Tspk six days before the passover, St Joh. xii. 1 (not common); also because of, from fear of: ^ / cannot open my eyes because of my head(ache) : so ^ did not go from fear of the cold. So the Greek dvrl (Clyde’s Greek Syntax, § 83, 2) and possibly ivavTiov, Lu. xx. 26, are used for because of. Also p^Jo!S towards the front of, p%h Sal until the fi'ont of j;d O.S., K. sometimes U. or .* f ) , } , U. or Sh. Sal. Tkh. or Sal. Ti. or 0 Gaw. = O.S. or ; = under, with and or 'bO of motion to and from under. § 69. Compound prepositions. (1) Most of the above prepositions may be repeated to express intensity. Thus ^ 0^3 U. or u3 0^3 U. Sal. along (but in K. J. 17G GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ria^ v^f2 I ivent along the river), or D yj3 0^1,3 U. or Sh. [so .^!^033 6^13 = {going) uj) hiU\ 3^ U. ever after, 0^3 ever hetiueen, oi^ cno!^ U. along, along, 5aiy ^3^1 cjSaoyjb ever hefoi^e, ^OMkis blisbu^is U. ever under. So in O.S. ^oX* aiw otbObiw $ * » ^ Jesus. But ill the above N.S. instances only the feminine pronoun is used, though the noun be masculine ; see below (2) a. (2) Compound p)^'6positions with 3. a. Several simple prepositions take a pronominal affix and 3 without change of meaning, esp. in K. Ah ; this is common in O.S. e.g. H^m3 07-^p4^ with the bridegroom (Martyrs’ Anthem, Tues. even.); ^^6j6i3033 ^O^Aiy on the seats, Bev. iv. 4 ; «JQ30^03^3 \^a]Oiao'^ before the throne, Bev. iv. 5 ; cf. c^3 in the likeness, Bev. iv. 3. So also in N.S. we have 3 K. = »3 ; 3 = 3 OCDOp see b below ; 3 ^3^ Ti. = 3^3 ; 3 U. m. f. K. m. or K. f. or with a prefixed, or 3 Al. in the midst of, § 27; 3 Ol^ K. m. 3 oi^ K. f. U. ra. f. = clS^ ; p sometimes pronounced mlmt = ; ? sometimes pronounced UlU = or 3 Al. id. UU [thus ^crfS J^p what they saw'] ; 3 and 3 U. = pi ; 3 &}a1o^ Tkh. Sh. = 3 below b; 3 cr^Jsp^h (qdinit) = ; 3 erjxb m. or 3 ijib f K. Al. = 3S3. Perhaps others of the above have both m. and f. forms in some districts. For emphasis we have the preposition repeated, as in (1). Thus in the mountain, 073^ 0^34^ after the army ; Jsllp '^^th the men (the plural affixes are not very common in this connexion). PREPOSITIONS, 177 §C9] 6. ? or p U. around, also with and Perhaps we should write as above, a. This seems to be a cor¬ ruption of p the four sides of cf. Az. around (Appendix I.). As a substantive = surroundings, neighbourhood. S ikhia, see Sua, ^ 68. ? U. in the middle of Turk. p K. Sh. or p U. 6;^ the side of, or without ^ ; also with or p 00)07^3 or p A1. about, concemiing (see a). Rarely with iS. p Nca U. on account of 3 ^03 U. or a ^ifsZl3 for the sake of. ■ |4 I *11*^ ^ p (not Al.) opposite, or S,'3jbiso, So p \pQ±ipp against, also in Al. opposite [hybrid words, the first syllable being Persian 0^ in, and jj) the second O.S. against, which with affixes is af^oJtiS etc. ? or else = O.S. c^^iott^p, O^^lotjVp], 9 IjLoiy** U. K. around (or Oli-), or with ^ So ■ ^ ,t ((• I* ' ^ *'■ environs. Cf. bx: to qo round, as O.S. II* ^ ? oili u. (or jorlS) or p U. or p 2?ojS MB. or 3 OlA or 9 26^ Ti. or 3 Ja^ iooa^^ Tkh. or 3 or ;aj Sh. or 3 ;ay_ Ti. or 3 33 «3 IS Al. on this side of ? ^ Al. = see § 68. s. GR. 23 178 GRAMMAR OF VERNACTJLAR SYRIAC. [§ 69 or p OojS U. or p oo^ or p 2*^6. or 3 ^300) Ti. or 3 30133 Al. or 3 33 OO^ Al. on that side of. 3 U. 3 Al. for the sake of, instead of, Arab. P ^ U. K. or p or ijl^ Sh. or p ^ Ti. instead of lit. from the side of We must distinguish ^3o2p instead of Urmi, from ^302 from the neighbour¬ hood of Urmi, or concerning Urmi. p or p J03» (or O^-) around, cf. N.S. the edge. p Tkh. Sh. in the midst of, see a, above. p or p juau^iJ or p by reason of, for the sake of, rare in U. [sometimes without p], AM in K. = cause, Arab. p J:3SQ.d (also U. or ^ Jjsiati) near, O.S. m t 0 f 9 '' ' (3) Compoimd prepositions with M following. K.) before. 3^ U. Ti. or 'to ?A Tkh. except, besides. Before a phrase, Dalath is often added : thus ^^t^p ^139 except in verbs. Also all these take Dalath before a demonstrative pronoun, § 70 (12). or \o l6l (hdm) since, cf. Serf. or or ^ Sal. or Al. below. (p) U. Ti. or ^^dside. ^ ;3i oojS the other side of, see (2) above. ^ U. or 'oS* U. or wbO K. or wbO MB. above. ppt3bO Al. before. i§ 60, 70] PREPOSITIONS. 179 (>3 usually silent) except, beside. Also § 72. ^ ^’^cept, beside, or (4) These compound prepositions are sometimes reduplicated for emphasis, as p round. § 70. Prepositions with pronouns. (1) Of the proper prepositions, the following take the pro¬ nominal affixes simply : Al. : ^*3 Al. (u.A*:i takes no affixes ?) : U. Q. Sal. Gaw. : and (but then o becomes consonantal : thus is gd-wan; the forms A , take affixes like e.g. oioJ^) : ^ (see below): «* ' U- And so all prepositions which end with " •* the above. Thus we have U. etc. In Z. we have for before him also and C]p^p Optsoph, (2) sKia K. MB. Sh. Al. drops Pthakha: as ^5fis3 after us. So in O.S., but O.S. udisis = N.S. K. etc. after me. i f m y ^ (3) A in U. K. does not take the affixes in the sense to (of motion) ; we say to Urmi, but ^ It takes affixes simply in the forms of § 49, in the formation of the preterite, and after Xj,2 ; otherwise with affixes it takes the form Si (qSI: if' #» N ' ,, etc.). Thus ;ooi joqx isa he would leave us, but U. he left us, I see you. But in Al. Z. the forms o4, ^ etc. may be used in all cases, and sometimes in K. ; so also in U. in the phrases : ^ ;«s2 he pitied them, lit. their pity came to him, Joo) ui33^* to 9't‘ve leave of absence to. 3 (or 3 Ni^vsrt'i at a standstill for (also with {S03). 3 2^06. to take revenge for (with of the person). "A I was tired of saying. l^AXSs to divide mto two paits. ^ JbijUCa to need (must have ^), ^ (U. only) to ride on. 184 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. to ask (a thing) of... K.) cautious of. to fear (as O.S. and so also (^o^eojaaL airo, Lu. xii. 4). to thank. { m'i , ! ^ to he angry witJr * . 1 ^ 3^131^ to ask (a question) of. \ I , I to long for. ' I* to fill . . .luith (also with¬ out ^»). ^ lisilap to thank (rare), to pro- sper tr. (in the latter sense j usually without ^). \ : — 0 joa h to cast up against. bJlp wt3b3 to aim a gun at. 'i'ebellious against. U. to oppress. to look at (also direct object). [§71 thanks to. (or yah K.) to com- (• l» ^ l» ' mand. displeased with. (K. always, and U. sometimes, without ^). uaaf 3^3^ to trust in. \ ■ ' ■ i» " * ^ 7 ^ to pass by, cross, trans¬ gress, or to enter by (a certain way). ^ l(> fiidsh tr., have done with. ^ Ufa satisfied with, content with, assenting to. See above. ^ 1 to cower before, run > away from, be de- ^3^ j feated by. to stand to, to stand out for. to look upon, look at. to strike (also direct object). Aia to cause loss to. • • .* to murmur against. S 71, 72] PREPOSITIONS. 185 to pay atte7ition to, set one’s face toiuards. ^^sbo to add to. 0 • II / (popQxi) K. Al. to testify to. \L Jbxsi to need. * 4f to expect, to transgress. 0 4$ ty :a^ :— A*1 to go out to meet (a person arriving on a journey). to heat hack, parry. SL Sajo to complain against or about (a thing or person). to suspect (a thing). to hear, in U. Also 0 44 direct object. to conquer, to adhere to, U. (K. with ^). %i) susceptible to. * / <• Z. to go before. ^3^ io undertake. In many cases where in English a verb is used with an adverb or preposition, a single word is used in Syriac, as to go or come down, to go in, come in, pass by, to go up, come up, { ^ to put away, to go out, and so on. § 72. CONJUNCTIONS. iy^l i • if, not common, U. Ti., Pers. ^6l U. K. or K. as O.S. both, § 67, followed by o or i^o2o f t ^ / ^2 (as O.S.) or y ^2 as, according as. Also ^ly {dekh) Al. 0 in order that. S. GR. 24 186 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§72 N,?? fe? V- s ;:aa = ? below. So D XjK ^ 5^? as often as /a ^ ^ (cf. 3 as great as). a = O.S. ufisil, § 67, whe7i, or Ti. hut, yet, perh. = or (Nold. § 24.) For its re¬ dundant use see § 60. 1^2 hict, O.S. = dWd ? or 2^ 2, Nold. O.S.G. ^ 155. ♦.,2 132 unless. O.S. ^7(see ^). unless (see ^). ^2 U. K., O.S. although, = Often answered by although... yet,^Q0. Very rarely i^o2. nevertheless. D \Jjp in that, because. O.S. = N.S. ud^3 f?? Ae saw ; see § 68, s.v. isoo, A? yet (not common). p 3^ or p D^Sa as O.S. (§ 68) a/fer or with ^ prefixed. In Al. D Disa § 13. p that, also in order that, O.S. (In O.S. also because, when standing alone ; but not in N.S.) a ua2a as, much used in similes: as cu ua2a B 0 • m ^ 0 it m 0 m m 2f tJ^2 l^pol : As Joseph was sold, so was our Lord. ** ' * For variations see § 67. Also so that, and in order that, lest, U., O.S. or Al. (= ^ ^p ?) a ^p6l or p ip^ so that, § 67. 72] CONJUNCTIONS, 187 3 Sm until, § 68 ; also before, iss he will come before I do it. ysai...'p6l both... and (without o), Pers., § 67. O O.S. and. p ufOAA Tkh. or Ti. would that. let, (imp. of O.S. to suffer), § 51 (10). ? U. would that. Q. K. or p K Al. in order that. But p alone is more common. See D Va. * _ )j6m0u or U., Turk. ^ or, perh. = O.S. which in K. is used as an alternative. (In some parts of K. is not used.) Thus K. either Thomas or Moses (U. ^...^), 6.3 K. will he come or not ? ^ sometimes means at any rate ; thus : :ojS ^^2 ^ perhaps she did not come; at any rate I did not see her. whether... or, not common. pik as O.S. or Al. (in U. ?=^) tuhen, while. Al. would that. a lo^ioa because, Turk., also without s. • I ■ p O.S. as much as, whenever, just as, in so far as. So 2Sof more I saw her, the more..., or without 2?o» as O.S. ; also answered by Ipoi pji^, 3 or ? ^ = as long as, p = as quickly as, and so with many adjectives and adverbs. 188 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ "^2 D }oai ^ lest, = p lo^ * ** * ** because. ^9^ Turk, or ^ U. hut (i^) U. Ti. unless, Pers. (also with p). p since (also pip ; or than, see § 24. 3 SkixSQ because, or 'sq A1. Also without d. p although, not common ; or or p jijQ) Nold. § 93. p U. Sal, often pron. qat, in ordey' that, also in Sal. the simple that p or or p before that p Jlio^ = ^Om above (also without p). In Al. Ti. poX. Also although, except S ^Siis U. would that. • * Notes. (1) Conjunctions are frequently omitted. Thus o6^ to and fro, K. tiuo or three days, I 'must go, lisl ^ it was not for this I came, when I come, two and a half, of:^ is^ U. an hour and a half (in K. isil3 also j^aXM],an asseveration much used in K. 0?a Pers. bravo, rare. wdi3 I believe, see ^ 68 , $0 m ^ S.V. fiSQ3. I Aa U. As Ti., Pers. yes. 0 0 * ^ I 190 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. here I an (polite answer when one is called). U. lit. then how ^ a strong assertion in reply to a negation. Or )^2p Ti. your pleasure! § 75. Ti. Sh.) bravo ! Ti.= French mon Dieu I ^ * f 9 AJk,K.^ Al. Sh. alas I § 75. Ti. bravo ! bravo ! ih almost = or :? he off I esp. K. In Sal. much used before an impera¬ tive to strengthen it. if ibo2D K. / mean, used to cor- rect a statement previously made. Thus obi cnSu, i' * ?;i.A2. Ans. XiOS Who is that man? Ans. George — no I mean David. ail bti033 (d4q-ah) or o)2 catch hold I ;or behold! often used at the end of a sentence to call attention, as IM I have put on the eggs (to boil); and often when the assertion is likely to be disputed. Also before a word emphasized, cf. ^ and ^c^ = S §§ 68, 69. So also in O.S. (Uhlemann, § 86). Joy (Zlama has either sound) or llQl K. yes, (= lAl l6l ?) or { ibal Z. (= l^oal ?)• See catch hold! (= O.S. UorJor behold this). hidlo ! oal 0 ! nonsense! not common. 4^ ;aor Ti. hold on ! luait ! 4^ push on ! 2x101 U. or 2w*07 U. Tkh. what ’ If II do you call it? (pronounce both Nuns). wonderful ! very common. uib O.S. (tuei) woe ! or ^6 AL, O.S bddi ^ yib K. 0 my father ! bub ub K. 0 my mother ! 0^0 Al. lo ! § 29 (17). ^?oor Ti. out of the way ! U. out of the way! 73] INTERJECTIONS. 191 true ! (sc. is true) so a\ySJ^ ivhat N. says is true. your health, so etc. or ;3o.- N.'s health. mOum tush! rare. jQSiyy, uJt.bO Or 0Q3I.m t ' 0 >> God forbid! so the other affixes, § 63 (7). ^ U. J. Al. 0 (vocative), common. yes. This is used to deny a negative statement, or to an¬ swer an objection, and always means you are wrong : i’ means you are right, ilisao }* heyday! ap ^V.alas! mon Dieu ! Arab. oiUA Kurd, bravo ! esp. K. Turk, as you please, lit. your pleasure. So with other affixes, or a name, . . . p ^ no, O.S. Jloor or 1*^0^ God forbid ! J*pQbO or ^ii Ti. or 0» Ti.or ^lyoiC or^^pobO y^abo what do I know ? hoiu can I tell ? So the Hebrew which = = Gk. TL gaOdv (Ge- senius). poor fellow ! T^d/Skbb Pers. bravo ! • # * may it be pleasant to you ! § 46, s.v. Arab. yes. ^JSQOSQ hush ! Turk., rare. K. Sh. ivell ! = iu*!. ' /I oo^ = ;©, very common. O^, pshaw ! pah ! Jio^y be off ! § 46 s.v. 2mi K. alas ! Pers. 4"^ wbO^X ;<7yis Tkh. = JiioT. silence ! 192 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 74 § 74. Position of words in a sentence. Emphasis and Questions. (1) In the position of words in the sentence N.S. very closely resembles English. The subject with any qualifying words comes first, then the verb, then the direct object with qualifying words, then the indirect object. But variations are commoner than in English. (2) Adjectives used as epithets follow their substantives. For exceptions see § 23. (3) Numerals precede substantives. (4) So also demonstrative pronouns, and interrogative pronouns when used with substantives. (5) The substantive verb when positive generally follows the predicate, as OOl that man is righteous. But not after interrogative pronouns, as ? what is the use ^ : nor with negatives, as it is not good, and often not with demonstrative pronouns, especially when the predicate is definite, as this is your hook (here it would not be so usual for the verb to follow): nor sometimes in relative clauses, as jj[_i2 OOi that man who is there. The predicate is not necessarily an adjective or substantive, e.g. Ja oat he is without care. If the predicate is long, the substantive verb may come after the first part of it ; as ui^ ui970u3 isoS^ ocrj that is a man about whom I spoke. (6) Emphasis. Very commonly the emphatic word is put first, and stands absolutely, and redundant affixes are added in the sen¬ tence which follows. This is especially the case in the imperative and in questions, and applies in all cases when attention is called to a particular word, whether it would be in italics in English, or not. Ex. ring the hell, lit. the hell ring it. So 74] EMPHASIS. 193 I whose is this hook? (shewing it). ? uOlOo!^^ what is in this book ? (shewing it). >A ^4 U2 I have no book. We could also say \^niO — Jofl •* * — 1^2^ 6^ ^Sfl uSObO— ^ isA, but these would not be so emphatic. So I for my part, as for me, and the like may¬ be rendered by the simple pronoun standing as above (cf. modern Greek eyw irpeiret va Xd/So) I 7nust take), or by JibOJQ> etc. if they are very emphatic. We must notice however that a noun standing absolutely before 6s^l he has, if it is the subject in English, is not emphatic. Thus isfl jiil ob) = that man has a hook, simply. We could not say jUl oii^ isfl. If the English object of to have is emphatic we must put it first, as I have a hook. Note also that the subject of a preterite stands absolutely, § 32 (4), but it is not necessarily emphatic. Thus A ^2 / came, OOJ that man came. The subject, pronoun or noun, may be placed last for emphasis, as an alternative to the above construction, or when it cannot stand absolutely. Thus ? isii A ^^2 jLb why did you come? (not the other man). So even if there are no italics in English, but the subject is pointed out : -{iSm Jodju there stood a woman, JLU2 ob) . , . upobo or . . , ubcM ^2 ob) all express see what that (I point out, or I am speaking of) is doing. man (7) The object of a verbal noun used as in § 57 (3) usually pre¬ cedes it. (8) Short adverbs, as jaa very, quite, very, etc. generally precede adjectives and adverbs ; those which qualify verbs usually follow them, but there is no exact rule as to this. We must except S. GR. 25 / 194 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. such a phrase as he is a very great man, being treated as one word, though we might equally well say 23o\ Jaa cf. a thing it is ! (9) Questions take the same order as affirmative sentences, and often can only be distinguished from them by the inflection of the voice. But interrogative pronouns, with or without a noun or preposition, and interrogative adverbs are placed first, unless an emphatic word stands absolutely at the beginning of the clause, as described above. This absolute construction is especially common with interrogative pronouns and adverbs : as ? MiOu whose sons are we Christians ? 0 • (10) After interrogative pronouns and adverbs the subject often follows the verb, e.g. ? ^2 u^obo what did those men say? But not, of course, if the pronoun itself be the subject. In the same case the copula follows the pronoun or adverb. We can¬ not say u30b0 tvhat is salvation ? but or ^ of^ I* » • (11) Indirect questions follow the same lines; S often redund¬ antly introduces them, as ^^0!30 oq^odbO ioo] he ashed what I was doing in his affair. But the oratio directa is often substituted, § 66. (12) In questions the Syrians use ^ ^ K.) or not, very much more than Europeans do. will you go or not? is not meant to be rude or peremptory though at first sight it often appears to be so. 75] PHRASES. 195 or as a § 75. IDIOMATIC PHRASES AND SALUTATIONS. [See also §§ 71, 73.] j.3 ;<7rl (or this will do. •' * to prosper, intr. ^3ol3 ^f2 hear with. 3 l^OiSaoijoS Sfi U. (or U.) ] , ' ' ‘ o V - / I to go to meet (a person 3 j arriving from a journey). ;aa5 Ajl U. to go on horseback. 23xA A.2 to take a walk. *■ " *. 231!^ vSfl to go on foot. U. TT^7^ have time ^ [Only as a question, negative : jloof ^ feiJS. oV. ,^o>*2 U. may you he friendless ! [Socin]. 3 2:^ CO ^2 or 3 0^13^3 ^a2 he intends to .. . * ' It ' jt / • ' t n • » }'^6^24 0^ iSA2 K.) he is a hypocrite. » A ^ ■ U. (or ;33C^ K. or K.) i5o threaten. ^32 (or ;ai^ or isioif) ifo take trouble. 23^ ^32 ^0 receive a pension. ^0 eai 0/165 words. JfOf ^0 embezzle money. break a fast (by eating animal food). Lc^::^ \32 to be bastinadoed. ’ I / <# ** 196 GRAMMAR OF. VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ see § 16 (so ^h. isixi Aal to take bribes. /II II requiescat in j^ace. isoouti God strengthen yon! (said to a man working in a field). ^ }^J^2 God forbid! f^cS God mcrease you ! (said by a guest to a host). ^Q»» ;oAi (or ^^aoi») Goodbye (said to one departing). iSi^^ }iy isii it is your affair (so all persons). early morning. uj!^ 070^2 (also simply she is 2)7'egnant. ojlSkA >ia he is constipated. an. uOlQ^kiji his bowels are working. iiooi uCno^iJji may his foot be blessed [said in U. of a new-born child, in K. of a stranger arriving just after a birth. In K. they say ;^i3 ;ooi of a new-born male child]. yiCIO^bdi his diarrhoea is cured. * m 9 t 9 w*0lo^.bi he died. uOlolSkibi an 5*^* foot was blistered. ojA ojA ;^2 he pitied them. sA x^i I am coming [said by a man at a distance when called]. ^ displeased; unwell. UOQl ly ^njbl in that way it is possible. §75] PHRASES. 197 ill K. my house is destroyed [said by a man on receiving bad news. The stands absolutely]. 1 have come on a visit of friendship) only (not busi¬ ness). Also the reply to oQ>Oo2 and then = nothing. ^ he is tired out. I* * ' ’ ( Welcome (the answer to \Lsa or 1^0^ ;i.i3 (^oaoik) the first ' two are said by a host to his guests. The other per¬ sons are also used). K. will you have time ? \^mo6Sk6si he will not listen to reason. OjV* ^9^ wOIOO^ he has bad diarrhoea. ai^ «71x«) 2m to salute, send greetings. to shoot. looi may it he blessed (said by a friend to another of any¬ thing new belonging to the latter). 2^ \^cn<^o6l he does not understand. (or May I be your sacrifice ! (expres¬ sion of politeness to a superior on presenting a petition, etc.). iso^ thank you (so all persons). 9 Of he is exaggerating. 03f (also d^Lia 03f K.) mind. ;^2^o }sodUi Tkh. a cheek (= 2^^). 2S03C to injure a plan, intrigue. oSk^ to interfere in the matter. XJ. Tkh. : 2^000 Tkh. twilight, evening. 01^ ubkSibO ^ that is a different matter. ' t g m $t • ^ ^ XMt almost = I cannot exactly describe it or him. a quarrel has arisen. K. blue on my head ! (said by a woman on hearing bad news). 07^ 1^JS> (also 07S 2akA>obo) his face fell. 75] PHRASES. 201 2^2 2^ u-aXOm I was home sich, discontented. •' ,* ' ' oi^ U.^ May I see you rolling in blood ! ilisl llb U.^ Bad luck to you ! U.^ May you not get what you ivish ! U.^ May you never see the khena of your wedding ! [khena, a dye\ to please, tr. ? uOOOI K.) have you any husmess for me ? [said by a visitor before taking leave, see j^oXobOUOp]. to strive. ^JCdubp 2S^ a trestle. 2^2 K. my hack is broken (said by a man on hear ¬ ing bad news). ^aua^M I do not feel well. (or or ^3^) twilight, evening. to say goodbye, as an inferior to a superior. «<7)0^,kO Ai ^ (or At^) to avow, take the responsibility of. I was tired. I understand (said on receiving information). to sell for money. ^ojl to let out (on hire). 1 These four curses are from Socin. S. GR. 26 202 (GRAMMAR OF VERNACUI-AR SYRIAC. 75 to co7nfort, give heart to, encourage. (or u.aD) to advise. JOLXJi Sisatk to drill. / ## * isos ;ftvo?oj® A.30> (or a) U. «o iesfe/i/ to, § 71. to support, take the side of. D give leave of absence io, § 71. (or JJb) to salute (face to face). to comfo7± ^ »• ^ ^ ^ 1 to lea^^n fluentUj. he is a slow coach (a man, horse, etc.). long life to you ! D to succeed, tr. :oo«> Ai. K. to 9 ;2o^ ;o or p loot ^ pe^diaps, it is possible that. o^iL you are angry with me. yiC7]0^oii;-3 to stand onds ground ; or to stop short, y.a70k3U AA. to stick to Okie’s word, esp. in bargaining [iSairfi, a word, often = the price asked for a thing]. to split haws. how much did he charge ^T?^? good. Cl^ aUbOA he died where he stood. I '» «v» 75] PHRASES. 203 unwashed spoon (one who interrupts a conversation). to copy (from a book, etc.). ^oal ^ U. or ^ U. or jlia ^ (rare) or ^ Al. I* •* •' •' it is impossible [contrast JaOO/ ^ = God fo7'hid, § 73.] / Ml V your own husmess. ,1 ^ ci7n 7iot speaking to you. ? ;A:aj A For shame ! 4$ ,t ^AOuibb ^ I cannot fi7id it, or it is 7iot m sight. Soj l\i!0 ^ I can7iot conceive. ,00 cs ,* yiO)Ou3 M.bb ^ I ca7inot stand hwi. • * \St* vA 2'^ 2^ or mi. A I cannot afford to... 0 ' *• I* ^ A A Ti. Al. / have 7iot thne. oAj A A I have 710 chance against him. the heaH is heating. oA. ;Ii*asc3 uOlof&S he has a stomach ache ; or, metaphorically, he is unwilling to do it. laObM unmanly. uOIOd^ he is sad, homesick. yJtiu ucnooS he pitied. o{^ ucnod^ he will not allow it to he done. uOOoS (hard Kap) an Gnpetuous ma7i. uOiaiS he was m an ecstasy. ^ uCrjOdtS he was 7iot hea7'ty with, he luas displeased with. 204 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ^ere in this. he was much frightened, aj^ yiCTjai^ he was pleased. uoiocw U. merciless. / / ** to doubt. V " " he cannot interfe 236u OlS isA he has not heard (news). ;<7t2? ^ jSm ojS jsA it is not his business. [So : ^ofl2 ^ ^ Jo <7/ A ^ ^^;ro^e suspending the priest from the parish.'] ^OaPJ '^^ek, or this time to-morrow. ? jaWaabO to condole with (after a death), to pay a visit of condolence to. to charniy please. ^kaalL^O ^OX* ;Mia or ;is3 etc.) to congratulate on re¬ ceiving a present, buying a vineyard, building a new house, etc. O 232^ ^ day. a house-warming (see above). »' ^0 speak deliberately. ^0 smile. U. ^0 take away (at table). 0 J^So2 Aiy U. to expect. uOio^Abi \L U. to be humble (cf. Proverb 23). <71^ (or Ol’^) U. or I or dp 2^ 1^330 §75] PHRASES. 205 ? Cl^ DObO 0 clock is it ^ ? 9Ob0 Jinic? your own business. 3 ^aJjb buflab outbid. /L^Ltii to be a traveller, to travel. I* to gather (a dress). ^0 (the thing printed is the direct object, § 64). * •* to cast the evil eye on. I* to entangle. ;asa ^0 kneel. t' to backbite. ^9\ V" ^0 hit out. )zioV to dive. Lm^O ^0 T-; '' m ' i ;ss3:? ^0 resolve. ^0 wound (direct object). 3 J:i(7733 ^0 accuse. • t !■ \iy Ji^bb ifo pam^ (a door, etc.). *" •' to sign (a paper); to cheat in weighing. «* ^0 t/o-w a t7'umpet ; or, metaphorically, to waste oiids by'eath. [;-» is used with all musical instruments.] A., to slide (as boys at play). . ' •' •' Va 3-4 (or ^) to injure (of a personal agent). A® 20G GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. to make an effort. to cause loss to. »i3 to take ref uge in. to assemble. •• • ,* U. to make an effort, strive. JlAj to slap. •* to make a fence, to he angry. ^3^ Ux (or ;s'^) to plough. (hard final Kap) to snap the fingers. ;M-i3 to he appalled (by bad news). [Striking the knees is a common action on hearing bad news.] * ^ ' • i # to put on a bridle. to throw m one's face, recriminate. * ' •* to undermine (direct object). to reap well. 3070^ ^0 (direct object). to spur (direct object). * •* (^bo = checkmate) to die. •* ^0 make a mark or note, to shoe (horses, etc. ; direct object). • »* A^i jAo to fall ill a second time. I* to paint (as an artist). 75] PHRASES. 207 to starch, to soap. }0uaA> to swim. pofd jL^bO ^0 mint, coin. aobOJO JLJM to play the organ. ? ;44 ^0 intercede for. •* (^) ^0 engraft (direct object). I* to inform against. »* K. ^0 fillip, or to snap the fingers. •* K. to sign (a letter). jrii I* to fell with an axe (with direct object of thing felled). i' (see AAi ^). ^iia iJo to hit on the top of the head. to besiege (direct object). ■ •’ r to plane (direct object) = Ji^a U^s (in K. .xada) to kick out. •* ^0 imprint, take an impression •* ^0 (direct object). ** •* ^0 fiatter. ^0 (a picture). ^ m ^ • bC iMkbO ^0 vaccinate. M ’ i K. 208 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 0 ^ Jm^sO to he ironical. to measure (a field). [See also j4: and § 63 (2).] ^ \.0^*MtsO (cf. forgive me = goodbye. to froivn. 3 liiX to calumniate. ■ ’ I# • tt * ? jM* to he received hy. [Also : he laid hold of {the hook) ;y8 (;3^).] OJ^ JV« to he driven to extremities. * mm 1^1? }f^ dexterity, lisl^y modesty. ^2 /^SiAMibo K. / am struck blue (said by a woman on hear¬ ing bad news). Cl^OtjUQ) \iy K. sorrow on him ! .1 • ' ' ? ^0 ^0 shame, convict. SSyy^so to pout, y lisl^ ciL to insult. m m ^ •N ihS isyyi^ to tickle the fancy. to load a gun. 9 2:^ to displease. ^ K. from the bounty of God and of your head (an expression of gratitude). So, thanks to N., #» ■ ^3 U. K. 75] PHRASES. 209 (or oi^S4D) K. of necessity. I am speaking to yon, I leant to speak to you (used to call a person’s attention). 2^0^ K. or 2^0g to rival, envy. ]1aX3 K. to take leave of one remaining : see jLia JEO^. ^0 take hack a promise, prevaricate. yA^ to open the bowels, to acquit. laojiA to detect, bring to light. .^ouoL Ay^aa to juggle. io the peace. ^0 suffer. ''A. '' p Jl^2S ^jpflbo to disappoint. p }^2S }OktlM ^0 importune. (So : importunity = ]i^2Sp p )Z3Lt^ ^0 defend. to pout. to be long suffering. p fo rma?zcZ (as a judge). (^) 2x2 to give up, give in, renounce. 2x2 JEVtSb to beckon. I* t \7» ' 2SdX ^ to break ground, begin at the beginning. s. GR. 27 210 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ...3 to intend to..., • ^ I* • II ^ to comiKire one thing with another. s/ie?w (a matter). 9 ^ 7?iaA;e responsible for the matter. (see ff^OiS’f^oS laCTIOA Light to your dead, ! (said for on Good Friday and Easter Even). (see Jior § 46) said to a person about to drink or to eat after drinking : the answer to ^^odfOM § 73. to start (on a journey). ? (or D I^^Ia) to happen to. [So : He laid hold of He understood = ^aioJC3u!3 Tr (or ^ / I* ^ ^ ^ uon 010^3 or 'O?!^).] oik bedridden. m 0 M 0 }a^23 opui ^ 0)adUQ} he is homesick. o^ ojaate he is pleased, content : he feels at home. )i^.X3 l&OJO the horse is hardened (to heat, cold, etc.). 6^ the watch stopped, lo^ ifSJi (sic) = TFAa^ o'clock is it ? j!^a>3 JaOO/ your journey be blessed ! (said after, not before, a journey). §75] PHRASES. 211 loai 3Iaij your feast he blessed! (esp. at Christmas and Easter). 2o2 3^^ to celebrate the Eucharist. !■ •• to negotiate a cheque, to condemn. Cl § to sin against. to law before the heathen = 0?^]. ySO ^or 3aL ^ 71, to t7'ust in. aaS. (or '^OOj) fo attack. ♦«? to take pleasure in. ih aSf g^aL (or y^) to injure (of an impersonal agent). (or to benefit, treat well. yS to pity. 2al^ 3ya^ (or bj3) to deceive (rare in U.). ^ ^1“ * ^ \ / ^ ^ •'J ^ Xfi>M3oao ,aa^ to dismiss (in peace), let go. tssoo]Oi30 aa^ to 6^ hospitable. to reign. ^ 3yaa> (or u>^3) to take counsel or qive advice. Jdxfio aaL to intr. / 0 tm It aaa< to wheedle, coquet. isioJQ aai>y (= ^9^ or Al.) to circumcise. ^ oX 30JQ> aaiy to banish. ^ , ,. M 212 GKAMMAll OF VEllNACULAR SYRIAC. to travel. ,m il ^ a>5kL to petition. S 2^2 agAa to prosecute ; appeal against or from. aai to engraft. a^aij (or K.) ^0 prohibit. isixJd a^aiL backbite. isa^Ati a^iiL ^0 6^ zealous. t • f •• ba a^rxL to beat off. « / !■ II ^ Mfb persuade. A aa^ ^0 ^6! merciful to. ^fCs ^0 weep. Tkh. a hypocidte. a^ '^11, to perjure oneself. }L J^Iaa ycnoiAi ^s ^xaja uiOnos^^ eyes shall not be white (a curse). uCfjosj>^ avaricious. yiO?^^ generous. 6^^ is^ he saw me ; or he cast the evil eye on me. m arms. I ■ ^ wSk^ on my eye be it (said by a servant receiving a com¬ mand : he puts his hand over his eye). OT-V'^ 2a.^o^ (or . , Ja*isa) he is at table (dinner, &c.). §75] PHRASES. 21eS (see responsible. *^oai i\6u^:s ^2 f or u^»baat bear what I have to say (used to call attention to a subject about to be introduced). h6] j(2!^ to remain as he is. ^ ;44 /“ce ^0 /ace. ^i>t^ ua70^2^ /as face fell. yiC710JSOl^2^ he is fidcjeting. the edge of the swoi'd (Gk. aroga yaa^j^a/pa?). a goodbye (said by a person leaving, see Icr^l), sA“ to be acquitted. a ;.^ao;i (or 'P^) to go to meet one arriving. 2aoj3^ to be brought to light. ^G]0^o6i ^ mind. (or to become bankrupt. ;^a3 he made himself angry. a 2^au2 wb^ § 71, to have done with (a person)- Sh ^ to tell a fortune. If vOiodS oA /ic -zcorc /as heart on his sleeve. * • t» ‘jT t • (= descend to your heart ! 214 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 75 to oj^pose. 1^1 at hand (of place). nea7' to death. Ashes on mij head! (said by a man on hearing bad news). ^OX to settle or ai^ange a inatter. j^ois»3yJa or 'Jb good morning. oji. ;^bati there is a plague of locusts. 3 2^^ lyJb to appeal to (a higher court) — not colloquial. uOlOiiti (pronounce b = he is dead. lifsiJk (or o;iL 'h) I have caught cold. ^O^bO Jali (or uiOjA) there ivas great bloodshed. uOlo^ ^ ui«770^bi or u070^2) I have found out about it (a plot), / see it noiu (a difficult problem). it smells bad (meat, etc.). > * •' f Um ,^oxso5 good night, good evening (said by one leaving). wJkuby JE3 = uAoby » • ,« t • • ^oS }^2 uiAbw Jti or Z^KZ JEb or or 'ciSi Z. f/ I f • • ,* , t m ji ^ t \ or }^2 ^^oaOmZs Z. Welcome! ^ g 0 ^ g Jib the fi rst day of the month. ' * f he understands the business. lo^ il/ay //ear/ be healed ! (condolence after a death). iix^XJb btHai say goodbye to one remaining behind. 75, 76] DERIVATION— NOUNS OF ACTION. 215 Peace to you! {— lioiu do you do?, good morning, etc. The answer is ;Li.3 q. V.) a bbs K. a very little [e.g. a very little water Jbbl ? ^ to h'eak the heart of. crj^ I am sleepy. wdS hluff, outspoken, a ;»X, Xoi to annoy greatly. to goodbye (used of one departing). \jtASt to take heart, he encouraged. S copy from a hook. ^ hypocrite [so Al. a hypocrite, or id.; }i.2^0 /ijr^jocm'i/, see § 16], \tix to s?7ieZ^ tr. ^ J I# w£3uS^ (or '^) he ivas dazed, he lost his head, he lost the thread of the subject. SjSxis he died. For particular meanings of verbs see the author’s Vocabulary of Verbs of V^ernacular Syriac with English translations. DERIVATION. § 76. Vernacular Syriac lends itself very much to the regular formation of derivatives. From all verbs nouns may be formed denoting an action or an agent. Nouns of action. (1) First Conjugation verbs form a noun of action as noted above in the sections on verbs, 31 — 44 inch 216 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. The second and third radicals take Zqapa, and is added. Thus we have the act of finishing, from to finish. Nouns thus formed (which are all masculines) are used also as pure substantives, and not only in the formation of tenses, but the plural is rare in most of them. For variations due to weak letters in the root see §§ 38 — 44 inch This is a common O.S. formation. These nouns are often used to denote the thing done rather than the action ; thus a deed, (a noun not much used in U.), from to do; a fight, from to fight (the form for which see below, is not much used in this verb); from to he empty, in Al. = a dish or yar (= }i2^0 U. O.S. ji^2 K.) ; ^ / from to spread, in K. = a tablecloth (= U. Tkh.). (2) Second Conjugation verbs form a noun of action by giving the first radical the same vowel that it has in the present participle, and by giving the second, or in quadriliterals the third, either Rwasa or Rwakha : — Rwasa if the first has Pthakha, and Rwakha if the first has Zqapa; the termination being Thus loving, .* t * ' from SmSsO to love ; l^oJcX^itsO coniniandinq , from to command; causing to he killed, from to cause to he killed. For variations see as above. (3) More commonly used, apart from the formation of tenses, are the nouns of action in jis-, except in the Alqosh dialect, where in the case of first conjugation verbs the first formation is more common ; e.g. ^*007 is more usual in Al. than ^OO] birth, being. These nouns are thus formed. First Conjugation verbs give the second radical Zqapa, and add the termination; but second conjuga¬ tion verbs give the first radical the same vowel as the present participle, and the second radical, or in quadriliterals the third. Pthakha. Thus we have the act of going out, from to go out (first conjugation); but M the act of putting out, 217 NOUNS OF ACTION. from to put out (second conjugation) ; so the act of lovmg, from AtJsO to love. These nouns are feminine and take the sixth form of plural. In Sal. etc. those derived from conj. 2 have Zlama on the first radical. The Mim preformative, if vowelless, is silent in IT. Sal. etc., and sometimes in K., usually in Al. Z. In K. and Al. there is sometimes a difference in meaning according as the Mim is sounded or not : thus is the act of patching, a cloth K. ; is the act of telling, a woi'd, Al. These nouns sometimes denote rather the thing done than the action, as above; thus ^is'3i=a ^ / _ drink, from to drink (= Al., O.S.). They are often used where we should use a finite verb ; thus, as I think — We may notice a razor, from to cause to he • • • • • ^ shaved. Note also that in Tiari there is a difference between or a snack in the early morning, from to taste, and * ^ breakfast, which is also the common word in U. ; both also denote the act of tasting. halaiice U. (= K., O.S.; root is not of this class. Variations, (a) Verbs or when they interchange the first and second radicals in the formation of the tenses, § 38, inter¬ change them also in making these nouns of action ; e.g. learn¬ ing, from to learn. So ^2 to hind, makes U. Q. Sal. Gaw., but Ti. MB. Sh. Al. Ash. (6) Verbs change 2 into as remaining or remainder, from to remain ; for verbs with medial see § 40. (c) Verbs add M after which is silent, as hear¬ ing, from to hear. It is then customary to write Zqapa on the 28 S. GR. GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 218 [§ ^6 second radical of second conjugation verbs (the third in quadri- literals). {d) Verbs ^ change 2 to u, as iv, revealing, from to reveal. Here also it is usual to write Zqapa in the second con¬ jugation, as delivering, from to deliver. •* We must distinguish clothing, and the act of clothing ; shame, and the act of being ashamed. (4) Nouns of action are occasionally formed by giving the first radical Rwasa, and by adding as in O.S. Words marked with an asterisk are ecclesiastical or literary only. Words of the form JiSaob O.S.* a saint's day, lit. memorial (Xip to remember, O.S.) ; the D sound remains in the substantive. O.S. blessed, § 46). O.S. learning to learn, O.S.). W fuel, see below to burn, O.S.). O.S., Al. illness = U. K. (ajy^ Al. to be ill, as O.S. Ethp'el). O.S.* need [Lord’s prayer only], (wdjM to need, O.S.). (yix) o.s.^ a noun of action (O.S. to act). O.S.* help (O.S. to help). Certain collects at the daily services are so called. ^ApCTOi^ O.S.* commemoration (O.S. p<^ to remember). Ti. see below. O.S. wo7'k (rare), see below (wJ^ to 7vork, O.S.). §76] NOUNS OF ACTION. 219 O.S. a command; in U. the wti often becomes ui, in Al. \ §§ fl9, 120 K. to command, O.S. = U.). O.S., K. a reward to pay, O.S.). 0.8. salvation (O.S. i.tj^ to save = N.S. wti^aa). Al. J. Baz, see below. ;i:33ad O.S. an offering, Holy Gommunion (O.S. to offer = N.S. •it 0 ' liJOcsoX O.S. forgiveness (dOM to forgive, O.S.). O.S.* authority, jurisdiction (O.S. to rule). U^o^s O.S. Al. hope, confidence Al. to trust, O.S.). These are masculines and take the first plural. With these compare: O.S. m. destruction; m. (O.S. examination,'^ 77; O.S. m. fuel ; Al. m. affliction = atX^ f. U. p. 27; Tkh. O.S. ( ^ Ti.) fog [O.S. dai'kness] = U. ; jiaAti Tkh. ("5^ Al. J. Baz) a booth. Also the following masculines : O.S., Ti. destruction [O.S. ease'] ; Jms O.S. a building ; O.S. revelation, the Transfigura¬ tion, the Apocalypse, also a man’s name (especially given to those born on August 6) ; father-in-law, — O.S. jixMk ; O.S. number ; a sign of omission in writing 5^^ work (O.S. O.S. cattle (lit. a possession) ; O.S.* a lection, lesson (in the Liturgy). (5) Nouns of action formed by giving the first radical Rwasa, and the last two Zqapa, are much more common. This is a favourite Pa‘el formation in O.S., and the second radical in triliterals, with one 220 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. exception, is hard. These nouns are masculine and take the first plural. They do not take a preformative Mim. Nouns of the forms etc. Those marked with an asterisk are ecclesiastical or literary only. O.S. babbling, confusion, (\5\l3b0 to babble, O.S.). O.S. pleasure (TiJMiao to please, O.S. Pa.). ^ t ■ ^ ;?aoa O.S.* marriage, 7narriage service-book (jj^ysJSO to bless, marry tr. O.S. Pa.). O.S. a cooked dish (\sL3SO to cook, O.S. Pa.). temptation ( to tempt, Arab.). lakSOd O.S.* deed (aaSbO to rule, O.S. Pa.). / • ''/Ip ’ ' }i6oiO^ K. see § 108. 5:1^00, O.S. a spell'iixg -book J^also in O.S. medi/talxoii^ to spell, and to meditate, both as O.S. Pa.). ^S.^097 O.S.* a division of the Psalter (O.S. to praise). O.S.* joining together, ^namdage (^O|b0 = O.S. Pa. to jom, marry). O.S.^' a hymn, a church pxvcession (O.S. to make a * * § procession). O.S.* a Gradual to sing, O.S. P‘al and Pa.). O.S.* rexiewal, esp. of the Holy Leaven to renew, O.S. Pa.). (^X^) hurt, injury (\^ DfL^bO to injure, § 83 A. 7^*). JaOOua O.S.* absolution (IjSx^'SO K. A1. to absolve, O.S. Pa.). O.S. thought, also think, O.S.). 76] NOUNS OF ACTION. 221 O.S.* (^s also in O.S) the Benediction, in church to give the blessing, O.S.). spoiling of a child to spoil tr.). Jlibaoj) K., O.S. green = U. § 45 h), O.S.^ crolun, crowning , a marriage ceremony (O.S. to crown). a hem (js^AbO to hem, § 83 A. 12). O.S. shroud to shroud, O.S. P‘al, Pa. Aph.). O.S. a large sheet of paper 'io\(\Qdi into several pages (O.S. to shut). O.S.* name of some of the long prayers in the Liturgy (O.S. Axa:s2 to beseech), O.S.* a lexicon, esp. K. (O.S. lo collect). O.S. humiliation (^^IsO to be meek, § 81). lS6l^ O.S.'^ commentary (D^ip to comment, O.S.). sifted four to stft). O.S. resurrection (pt^bO to raise, O.S. Pa.). O.S.* libation, the mixed chalice (iJCXi to make a libation, O.S. Pa.). 2^guQ> O.S.* Advent, the season (O.S. bilO to expect [= b>^0 N.S.], to announce). ^tfJO O.S. the Ascension (O.S. wb^iCd to ascend = t.bJfd2 N.S.). Also called in U. because little girls on that day make a procession dressed as brides. O.S.'^ conjugation to conjugate, O.S. ; to bud). lit. 222 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. luonder = Al. to wondei', Arab.). O.S.* burial (O.S. to shroud, hence to bury). ;L^Soby O.S. delay (Sjbyj^so to delay ; O.S. to supplant). fo7piveness to forgive). O.S.* division, doubt, § 98 § 42). (for ^o3) ruin- to ruin, Chald. Pa.). I T , / ^ t$ ' 2kBod O.S.* coinmayid 3udA.bO to command, O.S. P'al »■ I '•im n 7 !■ ,1 and Pa.). Uxio^ O.S. translation, meaning (J3bsa60 to translate, O.S. Pa.). O.S.* consecration. Liturgy (js^a^bo to saiictify, O.S. Pa.). O.S.* the interjections of the deacon in the Liturgy (O.S. to praise). <5 ^ ^ }*bOLti O.S.* hardening, 7ion-aspiration (JXtJ to be hard ; O.S. Pa. to harden), § 3. O.S.^ softening, aspiration (^^3 to be soft, § 81), § 3. O.S. pride (D^aibO Ti. to be proud, O.S. = hajjaisXtiO U. § 30). O.S. change (^^ktAAblbO to chaiige, O.S.). t O.S.* end (O.S. to end tr.). O.S.^ confirmation of a bishop’s consecration by the Catholicos (O.S. ^bai to confirm). unfaitlfidness (ai^bO K. to forsake ; O.S. Pa. to dismiss). J.30bi 0 .S. begiiming ; also (*) a short psalm in the daily ser¬ vices to begin, O.S. Pa.). iya^o^s O.S. education, discipline (O.S. to teach). % 76, 77] AGENTS. 228 O.S.* commentary interpret, O.S.). translation (^^iisbO interpret, Arab.). O.S. provision (Uo^lsie to provide, O.S.). O.S. mending to mend, O.S. Pa. ; also N.S.). Several nouns, chiefly foreign, are of this form but are not verbal nouns ; as O.S.^ m. stole, dpdpiov, orarium ; iSiof O.S.^ m. girdle, ^oyvdpcop ; IJxSom, K. Al. Z. m. male ser-vaiit, cf. {sjeAw §1146; m. floiver, Turk. : m. magpie ; 'ock- coat ; advantage; 2^^ poor; 2b6o^ m. for a cap ; and others. § 77. Nouns denoting the agent are formed from verbs as follows : (1) The first radical has Zqapa in the first conjugation, Pthakha in the second, and is added ; as a fighter, from to fight ; a translator, from to translate (not as St.). These nouns are masculine and take the first plural. But they may also be used adjectivally: thus may mean fighting (as an epithet). A feminine in with the sixth plural may also be formed, as a fighting woman; but the fern, plural is uncommon. If used adjectivally the first plural will be used in the feminine, not the sixth ; see under Adjectives, § 22. In Q. Sal. Gaw. the first syllable takes Zlama for Zqapa or Pthakha in second con¬ jugation verbs. These agents from the first conjugation are not used in O.S., Al. Ash. ; those of the form being substituted ; see below (3). We must distinguish from these nouns words of the form ^^32, ;AautjL, ;LbaL (§ 70) which are not agents. , 'f 'i. 224 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 77 (1) Note that rain, from 2^ to rain, is an inanimate agent. We must also distinguish between examination, and the agent examiner; between jKilatahle (from a taste) and a taster ; between hearer (pron. 'i in U.) an d ;i4iw made of wax. means both brittle and one luho breaks. Some Alqosh agents are noticeable : liJOjQtsO the East (lit. causing to ascend)', the West (lit. causing to set) ; descent of a hill (lit. causing to descend : = U. Note also U. K. a cullender (lit. a strainer), and (no Mim) tradition, from to deliver. Variations, (a) In verbs of the second conjugation, second and third divisions, Zlama under the second (third) radical is retained in U. Sal. &c., as U. lover, from to love; U. speaker, from to speak; but not in K. Al. except in quadriliterals where there would be a difficulty of pronunciation, in which case an euphonic vowel is retained, as K. Al. one who causes to be killed, ;i..3Ob0 Al. one luho confesses. (b) In verbs or ^ the 2 is changed into yi, as from to remain ; from to reveal. (c) In ^ verbs of the second conjugation, second and third divisions, the y takes Khwasa in U. ; thus from to understand. But in K. we have {d) Generally, in verbs y is added in K., not in* U., K., U. from to hear. as (e) In verbs medial is sometimes added after Jk*, some- § 77 (2)] AGENTS. 225 times not. In the former case At is silent. Thus from to hear, carry, we have or . (/) For variations in irregular verbs see §§ 46, 47. Those which have in U. Pthakha for the present participle retain it for the agent. In U. the agents of are (2) An habitual agent is denoted in a limited number of words by giving the first radical Zqapa, the second Rwakha, and by adding These nouns are masculine and take the first plural; they are derived from the first conjugation (P'al). Note that = one who at the monient is fighting ; = one who is in the habit of fighting. A few verbs also form a feminine in with the sixth plural. Verbs ^ often change 2 into o, verbs often add o. Some of these words denote inanimate agents, or have acquired a secondary meaning ; those marked with an asterisk are ecclesiastical or literary only. Words of the forms ^0^2 a glutton to eat, O.S.). ant, § 100 f (No first conj. verb, but to creep.) lioopiy f. Al. bright K- Al. to illumine, O.S., cf. 230^ light). O.S. and UxoJi a wooden spoon K., O.S. to stir U.). m 0 o > (for a crying child (JM to weep, O.S.). rarely [which in O.S.= a swallower] and 1^0^^ throat to swallow, O.S.). Hence a glutton. f. U. dry, also metaph. stubborn (f 3^ to dry, intr.). O.S. creator (2^ to create, O.S.). s. GR. 29 226 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ *77 (2) yaoia a sore on the neck, = O.S. to flash as light¬ ning, as O.S., hence also metaph. to have a sudden pain). K. a beggar to beg, in O.S. to collect). In U. (hard Kap) a gull, also a dimple to laugh, § 95 e); O.S. ;aoa. a laugher. a spy K. to spy, Arab. = K. U.). pumice stone [O.S. a locust] ( to scrape, O.S.). an axle [O.S. rolling-pin] K. to roll dough, also to be silent, in O.S. to cut off). a hand-mill to grind in a hand-mill, as O.S. Pa., cf. UQ^b>^!50 K. to grind coarse, coarse split peas). See in the next list. wooden shovel for taking ashes out of earth-ovens [O.S. one ivho sweeps away], to shovel, in O.S. to sweep away). the bank of a hill to slide), shaft of a cart ( to draw, O.S.). f. dripping, leaky as a roof to leak, O.S.). VaoJb? O.S. a stone pestle (wtiZS, root kifalba, to grind to powder, O.S., cf wbaJbijkbo). fioih O.S. disputer (jsSa to dispute, O.S.). laobf O.S. (also in O.S.) a howl (no verb). ;Lo3'9 K. or U. a coward to fear, § 83 D. c). Hence cowardly. § 77 (2)] AGENTS. 227 an opp7'essor U. K., Arab. AL, O.S. to oppi'ess. Of. O.S. to distort). 2aox: O.S. a vagabo7id (iixi to wander about, O.S.). ;:6f^ K., O.S. or ;oo^ U. a sharp-sighted person to see, O.S.). O.S. a pounder to pound, O.S.). a currycomb to curry, § 95 e, O.S. ^), [both hard Kap in N.S.]. O.S. a thinker to think, O.S.). ^OlXm a pestle [in O.S. a goldsmitJi] and a mortar to poimd = Chald. ; in O.S. fuse metal). O.S.* passive in grammar (O.S. to suffer). a suitor, also a beggar to ask, Arab.). Hence perhaps (for spousals. ;Lo?: K., O.S., or U. (pron. p = ^), and an acquamtance to know, O.S.). Of. in the next list. O.S. a learner to learn, O.S.). Cf. in the next list. iSoJjU, f- O.S. heavy K., O.S. to make heavy). IbouA a sulky ma7i (i2a to be angry, § 113 d). a seizer to seize, Arab.). 2^X€^ a broo7n to siveep, O.S.). a p7'U7iing knife, a chisel to prime, O.S.). O.S., and apostate, infidel (a>.^a to de7i7j, O.S.). 228 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 11 (2) jbboA choleric to he angry, Arab.). JlfbsA O.S.* preacher (very rare), cf. § 45 g. But a litany or a sermon, is commonly used. sad (lib K. Al. to he sad, O.S.). ♦* f. /Jio-, O.S. fitting to suit, O.S.). or Jxbbo^ jaw (uo^ to chew, O.S.). ^ 0 ^ ^ JXoubo O.S. a mortal to die, O.S.). (for jbibbi), f. ?, sickly (J^i-bb to he ill, O.S.). f. harking (y^AA to hark, O.S.). laoaLA, f. shying (add to shy, in O.S. to leap). Ti. a hiter (f^ Ti- to hite). (or 'i) a drop to drip, O.S.). ^hoOA, f. m., soft Kap, shy, modest (^5od to he shy, O.S.) = O.S. Pthakha form, hard Kap. f. 2^^ hitmg, stinging, for abd to hite, sting, Chald. r??? to perforate). a cotton heater [a forked stick] to heat, shake, O.S.). ;sojal. O.S. a semantro7i, a wooden board and mallet beaten to¬ gether to call people to church (xtd Tkh. AL, O.S. [Shin silent U.], to hit, strike). laofsA K. [;L^d is usually added], a sty in the eye (>A/6 K. to shut, fill up, § 95). / 0 ^ Ibob^ a sacristan, churchwarden [in O.S. an overseer, esp. a chorepiscopus, because his duty was to visit], (b^^ K., O.S. to visit). Colloquial in U. 77 (2)] AGENTS. 229 f. O.S.'*' active, in grammar to do, O.S.). $m • f ^ ^ O I# ' / ^ ^ ^ m ^ laoav, f. O.S. transitory to pass, O.S.). }!30y^ Al. a torturer Al. to torture, ^ 95 e). 2So>L, f. Al. straight Al. to he straight, Arab.). a street [in O.S. one who enter s\ and lane, a passage in a house or outside (O.S. to enter). iSohOkiy O.S. an inhabitant (ylso^ to inhabit, O.S.). }jboa^, f. -Jiti-, K. swift K. Al. to run, in U., O.S. to run away). ;^\.^ to take, O.S.). a button (wtiD^^ to button). We may add U. K.) victory, for from ('dM K.) to conquer, though ?abS^ is not found. Cf. above. Several other words (mostly foreign) of this form are found, which are not derived from verbs ; as O.S.* (West Syr. con- ^ 2 O.S. ; 2>^oua m. measure = O.S. ; 1^0^ m. a prick, from 5^ to prick ; and some others.] AGENTS. 233 § 77 (3)] We may notice here a very common rule with regard to Rwasa and R-wakha when they fall in the middle of a word, which has been usually followed in printed books. If the first radical has Zqapa, the second has Rwakha ; if the first has Pthakha, the second has Rwasa. But this rule is quite arbitrary and does not appear to be desirable ; ^ ^ 0 it does not apply to abstracts in or to diminutives in Uo., which have Rwasa and Rwakha respectively. (3) An habitual agent is also denoted by giving the first radical Pthakha, and the second and third Zqapa, adding Alap. These are masculines and take the first plural ; they are almost all derived from first conjugation verbs. In Al. Ash. where agents of the first form (p. 223) are not used, all first conjugation verbs thus form agents; elsewhere only a few do so, as in the list given below. In U. Pthakha has the sound of Zqapa in these words ; in Sal. Q. Gaw. J. of second Zlama. Words of the form iSxal O.S.* [West Syr. 'J5i2] conjunction (butdl to hind, O.S.). Cl cook U. K., a builder Ah, O.S. to build, as O.S. ; also to cook). Jsiaib bee (JO? K. to stick, § 95 c^). O.S. a liar to lie, O.S. Pa. ; no first couj. verb). O.S. (deydna) a judge (vJ? to judge, O.S.). 2b*f {zeydrd) proud U. to swell, to be proud). i 2^f O.S. a singer to sing, O.S.). / O.S. fornicator (Jj&f to commit fornication, O.S.). t i 2ibf O.S. weaver, knitter (9^f to weave, knit, O.S.). O.S. a seer to see, O.S.). O.S. a sinner (JV^ to sin, O.S.). S. GR. 30 234 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 77 (3) O.S. (klieydta?) a tailor to sew, O.S.). digger (3^1^ to dig, O.S.). 29^ a reaper to reap, O.S.). a turner, joiner to turn, scoop out, O.S.). Also Jaliagi O.S. a luizard (^EX^bO to bewitch, as O.S. Ethpa. No first conj. verb). 2L^ O.S. a miller to grind, O.S.). a sweeper to sweep, collect, O.S.). O.S. a primer to prune, O.S.). an enshrouder to shroud, O.S. P‘al and Aph.). O.S. a scribe to write, O.S.). Ihis^ testy; knotty, as trees U. = 'ib K. to tie in a knot, O.S. y^), O.S. a swimmer iUo to swim, O.S.). * •* O.S. (Zqapa before Wau) a transgressor (O.S. to transgress). O.S. a worker, labotirer (wAA to work, serve, O.S.). a fighter to fight, § 97). [in O.S. a prodigal] bird= O.S., N.S. (y^X^ to fly, O.S.). 2^^ O.S. huntsman, fisherman to hunt, fish, O.S.). Cf. 2xm^a3 Bethsaida. • S. • •* ^ tether K. Al. to tie to a post, and as O.S. to crucify). 77 (8)] AGENTS. 235 one tuho prays to pray, O.S. No first conj. verb). ^ 0 0 A ^ plucker of grapes to pluck, a sweeper; also obstinate, quarrelsome to he angry, to sweep ; and in K. to squeeze, as Arab., pp. 116, 230). jiba O.S. (Zqapa before Wan) a dmmkard (tea to he drunk, O.S.). I* = O.S. a runner to run, O.S. ^cna). J^a 7'ider (^^a to ride, O.S., § 46). 2^a a da^icer (a±Ja to dance, O.S.). tm 0 ^im 00 ' jlabi a cotton cleaner (IXS Tkh. = 2af Ti. to clean cotton). O.S. a deacon (jEbaXbO to serve as a deacon, O.S. Pa. ; no first conj. verb). All the above form feminines in te with the sixth plural. Several are of similar form, but are not agents; as Jji^2 O.S. trough; )o^2 O.S. God; goddess (p. 37); O.S. inner (Zqapa before Wau); O.S. (^geyasa) ^J/l^c penxtent^ thtef , ^aboaoi O.S. member, limb ; jilab paper, Arab. ; }Jbaf K. Al. alms, pron. f = (=Uoa2 U.); ^ only begotten; f. green fruit; thm, lean ; Al. supper, Arab. ; Al. neck U. K.), cf. O.S. 2a^ joints of the body ; ^a^b ea^dhen pot ; backbone ; O.S. Caiaphas ; Jla^S f. a net, Al. K. (= 2aa^ U.), also in K. a window (= U.) Arab.; a bowl; f a piece of boat'd in a spinning-wheel ; jUis Ti. Sh. a joke (conn, with ajl, § 46 ?). Somewhat similar are U. Q. Sh. a beggar = K.; 2^^ or 2^^^ potsherd, § 88 ; 2^^ thief So plough — O.S. % 85. 236 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. § 78. (1) Abstract Nouns are formed, generally from sub¬ stantives and adjectives, by changing the termination to or in Sal. Q. etc. to loo^, (^O- Az. ?) ; if there is no termination, these endings are added on. Thus }^o2sfi>akJQ> truth, from ifktQ'ixa true ; ^ m 0 0 * / / the cOjll'iixQ 0^ ct scvxlor , from settlor, ^ 82 j, cf. a ship (Turk.). These abstracts are feminine and take the sixth and ninth plurals, § 18. Words ending in § 67, p. 168, drop the point under the second Yudh in forming abstracts, and the Yudh becomes consonantal ; as good, goodness. A few of these abstracts are formed from particles ; as quality, from hoiu ? (not very common), cf how ? § 67 J opposition, horn against (see also p. 237); and the irregular U. proxiniity, from near, § 21 (7). For other instances see below. These abstracts are often formed from compounds, as }^ottLM23 carelessness, from careless (^□bi care). Some nouns of this form are not abstracts in sense, as ■ I looiriKO.S. a shop, mn); f urniture, from a house, O.S. ; }^OmS2 banquet, from guest, O.S., also 2 U. ; lisoH Ti. Al. dinner, noon (lit. breakfast), § 28 (13) ; book of the deacons part in the Liturgy (also diaconate), from deacon, O.S. Note that prayer (2^^^ to pray), and plague to strike), are not of this form, and have Rwakha, § 18 (9). •* In some cases the abstract has the same meaning as the original ; as doubt (hard Kap) ; error ; = )*i030f increase, interest. §78] ABSTRACT NOUNS. 237 From girl (p. 48), we have gwlhood. Several of these abstracts are formed in as : — whereabouts, from where t i^OuLii O.S.* case (in grammar), from O.S. jLi= N.S. ^2 who ^ fatherhood, from jiai father, friendship, from fidendly, cf. uiSA>3 friend, opposite situation, from \33 ashamed. Note also ^^OuXOlS K. f. or ioouiod Q. Sal. and also U. m. m $ t *9 multitude, excess, from excessive. 238 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 78 • • /I We also have, like the above, the irregular (also hemg, essence, from ^.a2 there is, O.S. ; and co77ipanionship (also regular in K. as O.S.), from 2aAM companion, O.S. And almost all adjectives in *• form abstracts in which in their case is the regular termination. In U. this termina¬ tion is often in quick speech shortened to eiHa. Several abstracts have no original, as 2^0uif O.S. fornication; Tkh. Al. a luritmg, = U. K. ; J^oa2* K. Sh. joke, cf. § 46; U. joke, cf. joker; l^o^yJoS Tkh. joke, cf. U. or U. id., Turk.; J. joke; lisO^ysSo O.S. education, § 21 (5); eai'nesUiess, cf. to be diligent; O.S. faith; O.S. a Rogation; § 18(9); O.S. )^0^2 O.S. letter of the alphabet, cf. O.S. a sign; care; mocking. (2) The abstract of a noun denoting an agent (§ 77. 1) will generally be the noun of action (§ 76). Thus speaker, It • 3^^i!SOdj!sO speech; but both forms are sometimes used, as and envy, from \MabO to envy, (O.S. ^m) pride, is used in preference to is used for tradition, for the act of handing down. (3) A very few abstracts are formed by giving Rwasa to the second radical of a verb and adding as jLo-iCuiuX heat, from to be warin, O.S.; O.S. disturba^ice, from to disturb, O.S. ; O.S. apostasy, from to deny, O.S. ; O.S. an assembly, from to sweep, collect, O.S. ; cf. K. light, from 2b^ K. to dawn, Arab. §§ 78, 79] DIMINUTIVES. 289 We may notice that abstracts are more used by the Syrians than by Europeans. Thus they will often say human nature, where we should use the concrete men. For the plural of nouns they say and so on. § 79. (1) Diminutives are formed by substituting jLio. m. (with first pi.) or f. (sixth pi.) for the termination of the original ; or by adding on these if there is no termination. Thus a little hoy, from 23k!!L a hoy; a little wife, from -JsM a wife, woman [root O.S. lo spin, weave, cf O.S. a hired spinster^', a little sister, from a sister. According to Bar Zu‘bi all these nouns have Rwakha. These nouns are also used to denote endearment. Thus a family name for father is (The original is not used.) So a son (from O.S. 2^ id.), a brother (from O.S. id.), U. a grandfather (from an old man, as O.S. ; in K. a grand¬ father), a grandmother, U. (from a mother or grand¬ mother, = K.) have now no diminutive force. So paternal uncle, from JiSslso K. id., maternal uncle, from O.S. K. id. p. 38. Diminutives rarely denote contempt ; as ^ioXJb priestling, ^oxi2 mannikin. This termination is in some words shortened to 6- for vocatives * » -i / « and titles prefixed to names. Thus 03^ or dtlQ father ; dbsdb lit. uncle, a term of respect used in addressing bishops and old men, especially in U., and also when speaking of bishops. It is also pre¬ fixed to the names of old men, as obod) lit. Uncle James. 240 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRTAC. The corresponding feminine is ots^ (lit. maternal aunt, from O.S. and N.S. which may be used vocatively as a term of respect, or prefixed to a name as lit. Aunt Mary. When pre¬ fixed to names these may be used either vocatively or in speaking of the persons designated. Other instances of these nouns used voca¬ tively are 0u3 K. mother, dim. of jlp U. or K. mother ; oaxb grandfather; OCU 'K. father (in U. only as a proper name); Oli grandmother; or paternal aunt ; maternal aunt. Of the same form are oSkd bride, from id. ; also U. bladder, oS^ leech, and U. platform, § 19. So f cat, from m. tom cat (but kitten), OmX^ U. sunny side of a hill = (from to warm) p. 231. We may notice the curious diminutives U. K. Sp. a very little, and Sal., from 2^^ a little, which is itself a diminu- tive, see § 82 (13), [in this word there is usually a very strong accent on the penultimate], K. a very little, from any one, (cf. very little, from IfioXf little, U. very small, from small) ; very gently, from gently ; which in Sal. = only just (a variant is »^a(\»»2) from yA^2 only, in K. = so many, from ^^02 § 67 ; Ti. a very little, from a 1 4 4f little, see § 28 (9) ; Ti. (or MB. etc.) morning twilight, from § 67 ; ^^2 Tkh. here, from )a2 K. Q, id. (2) Diminutives are also formed by using a feminine form ; as % a tooth, a little tooth (of a cog-wheel). In Tiari these feminines are very common and often have no diminutive force. Thus Tiari men will say where other Syrians say 79—81] NEGATIVE NOUNS. 241 a hridgCy for a stone, (with for side {'Sy. § 80. Negatives are formed by prefixing ^ both to Syriac words and also to most imported words. But Persian words often prefer the Persian equivalent to ^ {7iot) : as impossible. The is written as a separate word, but it really forms one word with that which follows it and which it negatives ; thus, ^ is<^ about your not coming. ^ can also be prefixed to adjectives and adverbs. This gives a more emphatic negative than if ^ or ^ were put with the verb. Thus ^ not-good (bad) is stronger than ^ it was not good. ^ is also used similarly with the infinitive, as J to refrain from working, 1 Cor. ix. 6. § 81. (1) Adjectives are freely formed from substantives by changing their termination to, or by adding on (o) Ji-l!.; (b) (c) ?:L ; (d) a-. The last three especially denote dwellers in a particular place. These Syriac terminations are very frequently added to foreign words. _ ^ ** / Examples, {a) watery, from water (O.S., Al. psei), (h) a Tiari man, from Tiari (lit. the sheep-folds), one of the Ashiret districts of Kurdistan. ^ Several in Al. which end in ;io. are not diminutives; as iconder, miracle ( = U. E.), contention ( = U. K.), ^03^3 remembrance ( = 23>I^D U. K.). S. GR. 31 242 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. (c) ^'so6s cl Tkhuma man, from Tkhuma (another Ashiret district), K. Al. a hunter, or jishe^'man, from 2^^ game. (In TJ. 23^*^ is used, p. 234.) {d) bodily (rarely jia^), from a body ; a man of Ghumba, from Ghumba (a village of Tiari). Notice timely, from time ; citizen, from city ; llLittSL , both eternal (the latter more col¬ loquial), from old plural forms in but the latter is not O.S. ; see § 16. i. e. Words in J*, u, may form adjectives in : as astrologer, from astrology. The local adjectives are much more common in Kurdistan than in the Urmi plain, where the same idea is usually expressed by yi^ son of (a plural noun used as singular, § 16. ii. c) or sons of, as ub03o2 yia an inhabitant of Urmi. Several of the local adjectives are irregular. Thus from ub03o2 Urmi, or baao: Ti. (in Ashitha ^^302 and J*.L*b03o2 respectively); from Jilu, ; from or fuD Diz (or Bizin) ; from Biza, p ; from 9^^ India (an earlier form of which is 034^), jlb34^ (in Indian, a pro¬ duct of India; from Waltu, or ;Ioo\^o ; from ^a&*bp uiio ilfar Bishu, jliaubp ; from Amadia, ?l43*giL ; from Sidon, jAiXg = O.S. from Qudshanis {Kochanis), or ; from b^ Tu, 0,66s or 066s. §81] DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 243 The termination (see above) often denotes the same as the English adjectival termination -ish, as blackish, from black; reddish, from ^.bpJOJO red; so oblong, from long. But = grayish, from gray. O.S. singular (in grammar), from O.S. one, is irregular. The word for plural is O.S., from O.S. many. From death, we have deadly, but this is also a masc. substantive = a plague. So arm, for a bully, from face. Note also = universal, as O.S., from O.S. the whole. (2) Adjectives are very much more common in Syriac than in Hebrew ; but they are much less common than in European lan¬ guages. The word 23b^ lord of, § 16. ii.f can be prefixed to almost any substantive to make an adjective. Adjectives thus formed are of either gender or number. (3) Adjectives may be rarely formed by prefixing D of, to the corresponding substantive, cf. ^03 Spirit of holiness = Holy Ghost. So /JiKD? a rose of the plain (i.e. the fields) = a wild rose. (4) For the English terminations -able, -ible, the O.S. passive verbal noun in is sometimes used, but not colloquially. Thus measurable, from But see § 34 for a common method of paraphrasing these expressions. (5) Adjectives are also formed directly from verbal roots. For those of the forms (2)- M^ore common are those of the old participial form which we must distinguish from 244 GllAMMAIl OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. the newer participial form . Some of these have become substantives. The Pthakha is usually sounded like Zqapa in U., not in K. Al. Z. In Q. Sal. etc. these usually have long Zlama on the first radical. , Words of the form (a) Adjectives. O.S. lean to he lean, O.S. Ethp‘el). envious to envy, Arab.). O.S. idle, unemployed io cease, O.S.). 0.^. pleasant (pLto3 to he pleased, § 76. 5). K., O.S. thmiied out (as trees) = A.;? U., p. 247 to thin out, as O.S. Aph.). O.S., K. minute, adj. = JJ^b XJ. (wbib to make fine, O.S.), see below, h, and p. 247. righteous {0.^. bbSf to he just). Sal. = O.S. clever (Chald. to cut). O.S., Al. wise = saAoL U. = AisL Tkh. K. to be ' 0 4 * ■ If If If perfect, in O.S. to he wise). O.S., K. worm = XJ., p. 247 (>Bj^ to he warm, O.S.). O.S. sharp to he sharp, O.S.). 2bkJjU O.S., K. honourable = XJ. K. Al. to make If / ^ I# heavy, O.S.). O.S. gentle, humhle, p. 247 (5^^ io he gentle, O.S. 5^)* :a.a!» O.S., K. hitter = U., p. 247 (axa K., Axi U. to be 0 0 ^ 0 * L ^99 ^99 hitter, O.S. Sbp). §81] DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 245 Al. clea7i = ^^is U. = «fts Ti. (AVi Al. to cleanse, Arab. ; to drip, U. as O.S. Pa.). Tkh. thin — ihJtiA Ti. = U. (^3^3^ to be thin). Al. intelligent Al. to understand, § 39). O.S.* departed (O.S. to depart, die), see below, b. JjLisL O.S. ancmit (Jd^^ K. to be old, O.S.). ^ * • • • 0 .S., Al. rich ; used everywhere for Dives in the parable (O.S. bis^ to be rich). AA ^ sober, p. 247 (%S^g.30 to become sober ; also in K. of water, to become clear ; O.S. Pa. to strain out). ^3^ O.S. holy (^,3^ to be holy, O.S.), see below, b. 2X3^ O.S., K. cold = lijd U., p. 247 (bib to be cold, O.S.). far (wb^D to be far, as O.S. Ethpa.). ^b^b' O.S. soft (5^3 to be soft, O.S. j^b). ;flL^b' O.S. fine (O.S. wbbS to make thin ; cf. N.S. bb3J33d3 to hammer out metal), p. 247. JIamS O.S. warm to be warm, O.S.). ;Lpi O.S.fat (O.S. ^ to be fat or ripe). 23u^ O.S. beautiful (b^ to please, O.S.). 2bA3d( O.S. true, p. 247 (bw K. to be strong, O.S. bx ; also in O.S. to be true). AAis O.S., K. wet = )^*is U. (O.S. to be wet). ■4 All these form feminities in 246 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. (6) Substantives. f. musk melon, so called because it ripens by being buried in the sand while still growing. to ripen, be cooked, O.S.) m. (O.S. stack ( to stack, U. K. ; in Al. to happen, both as O.S.). f. ajiw to fine, Arab.), m. a minute (of time), see above, a. O.S. m. vein (no verb). m 0 0 ^ ' O.S. f. axe (no verb : connected with O.S. to split ?). O.S. f. right hand ; a cubit (no verb). In the former sense also Jiaa*. O.S. m. a light [sun, moon, etc.] (O.S. to shine). ISywJL (O.S. 'aaai) m. nose (O.S. to snore : XmI K. Al. to kill ; U. to saw). f. trumpet (O.S. to snort). m. large sieve, for earth (3X6 to sift, as Chald.). * 23^ O.S. m. book of the burial service for laymen, see above, a. O.S. m. unleavened cake (O.S. to be unleavened). O.S. m. a saint, see above, a. O.S. m. godfather, lit. a neighbour; and O.S. f. godmother (^^ K. to be near, O.S.). JULti O.S. m. priest, usually in N.S. (O.S. JLb to be old). O.S. f. incense boat (no verb). O-S. m- a man’s name, lit. a rider (O.S. to rule). 'i 81- 82] DERIVATION. FOREIGN ENDINGS. 247 m., 2^- f., partaker to partake, hard Kap, Arab.). O.S. m. dragon (no verb). Of the same form are the foreign words slack, ^ f- treasure, Turk, (also f. flute, f. peach, m. snare. So f. knife = O.S. Note that words like come from roots, as of ~ 0 •• ^ • y which the P'al pres. part, is Hence in N.S. the verbs appear with a medial Alap, while the adjectives have the doubled consonant. Yet under influence of the adjectives we get in N.S. 33^ K. or U., Aal aii K. So Ti. to bathe = U. Tkh. § 39, and perhaps to burn, in cooking, from O.S. smell of meat, etc. The O.S. Pa‘el of these verbs has the double consonant, and therefore in N.S. we have as second conjugation triliterals K. to thin out trees, \SgbO to become sober, »\^kibO K. to make light ; perhaps also to be quiet (akin to id.), and to tame (akin to O.S. ^ id.). § 82. Foreign terminations. A large number of nouns and some verbs are taken from foreign languages, especially Persian, Turkish, Kurdish and Arabic. The '' '' nouns take the terminations (esp. K.), very freely. The verbs are conjugated exactly like those which are from Syriac roots and regularly form verbal nouns, etc. Most of the words imported into O.S. from the Greek are now obsolete ; though scientific terms have in many cases been lately imported into the language from the Greek, sometimes through English, as for geography. 248 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 82 The commonest of the foreign terminations are as follows : from the Turkish, meaning one who performs the busi¬ ness indicated by the word (all masc.), as a caravan driver, a caravan, f When •• is added on to a foreign word from (as above) it is usually dropped before this termination is added, as a driver, irom a waggon, cart, f. This termination is sometimes added on to Syriac words, as a traveller, from a road, f., doorkeeper, from a door, m., §77 (3), miller. All these words take the first plural (J^a-) and make abstract nouns in These nouns are very common. petitioner, from f petition, f. is irregular. (2) aa Pers. Kurd, (masculines), e.g. tenant (of land), K. orator (Kurd.), aVaal husbandman (O.S. 2'^:), ajA^aa ivounded, aa^obaioV^ journeyman, aaaoa pitchfork, aadJy.a debtor, aajbb^c^ capable of speech, aalfiM treasurer, aabab caravan driver, aaaoab merciful, aaba^ sorcerer, aa^JA^y wise, aaa^ promise, apX^a sorcerer, grateful, aaLaX Al. lawyer, apu^a^ his¬ torian, aaJl*a^ superstitious, and many others. (3) aa Pers. (masculines), as aa^A>o2 artificer (= a|sAo2 § 19), guilty, abfacn meddler, aaisba^ attendant, avaricious, aauta^ coppersmith, aais^ grateful, aax<^ painter, aaNilO carpenter, aaaaiix pious, aais^g artisan, litigious, aafiS^aa lawyer, aado^ repentant, and some others. (4) a\ or aJ^ Pers. (masc.), as a^Iioa worldly (2jAOa the world, f.), a^ibi>a litigious (♦.^^a judgement), a^^a^bO inheritor. 82] DERIVATION. FOREIGN ENDINGS. 249 (is^ an unclaimed inheritance), merchant (lacxjCd trade), glassblower glass, m.). (5) fjcd Pers. (masc.), as calico maker calico, m.), flint and steel maker (wdiotia flint and steel, m.), cotton dresser coloured cotton cloth, m.), fjtdisXCD watchmaker (^4^ ^ watch), saddler m. a saddletree). (6) *.^3 Pers., as 'pencase, f. (JhbSB pen, f.), JuA kettle, f, (yA tea, m.), travelling hag, f- vagabond, m., candlestick, m. wax, f.). (7) Turk., properly an abstract termination, middle, f., see p. 158, hood, f., a snug corner, f. (Ip^b a pro¬ tection, f.), 4^^ expenditure, f. (also first tidings (or present for tidings), f., first fruits, f., feast, f. (this word has become concrete exactly like the O.S. equiva¬ lent cf. § 78), noise. (8) Turk., usually denoting of or belonging to a place; as a native, m., or > Avi an Osmanli, eSil a native, m., oSa U. a bush, f. The names of many villages in the Urmi plain have this termination. (9) Turk., as a button, a stuffed eatable, f., an ice (the sweetmeat) f., )bbbeuQ» bar, bolt, m., poison, m., ^.^Sx^Ois K. kind, sort, m. (= boy^ U. m.), cast iron. (10) bja Pers. (used by itself = a band, f.), bjtiaofis amulet, f. (Turk, bazu, a calf), bjjsbaoo} skilful (b-400l skill, f.), bjtJ3L!b.y.i 32 S. GR. 250 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. farrier, m. a horse shoe, m.), story teller, m. story, f.), besieged castle, f.), dovetailed (tSuAti padloch). (11) Pers. and Turk., denoting a place: Afghani- Stan, Hindustan, Kurdistan (with Kap, § 119), Germany, Europe, and many others. (12) ui Turk., denoting of or belonging to a person (K. only), as uAua* I'xlLB the pen of Jonah (^Oa). (13) ^ Turk., a diminutive, 5l¥ garden, f. (Turk, bagh, id. ; so N.S. ♦s^o^ gardener, m.), handkerchief, XJ. bucket, f. (^oS K. large bucket : — so O.S. ; Pers. dol), (or 3) cup- board, f. (Turk, and Mod. Gk. dulapi), cb little, dim. of ^ §§ 28 (9), 79, jar , f., also a snfiall wooden tray , from a large tray, m., small carpet, f. § 120, fiddle, f., 0 ^ 0^0 ^ saucepan, f. (♦^ib cauldron, recess in a wall, or seat at a door, f. (but loss f is the usual word), kettle, f. (^^ id.). (14) ^ a house, Pers. (all fern.), printing ojfice (liSxCXf printing press), li.^tJSSO'IS {sic) prison, ivom prisoner, m. (which is also uawM^oa), judgement hall or sitting room, from judgement, f., }L^oap[A ante-room (because coffee [l,ocpO m.] is made there), and many others. (15) fa Pers. as fa^a^ litigious, fai^aL conjurer, m. s gambler, m., mummer, m., 9iLie\ a dome, f., soldier, m., foso^fiaos rope dancer, m. (16) ^ as M cook (male) U. (in K. uMl) ; tea-pot. *0 0 0 0 • ^ m 0 82, 83] DERIVATION. FOREIGN ENDINGS. 251 (17) 2pf Pers. (masc.) meaning son of, as prince (lit. son of the Shah), which makes fern. a^Ji princess, nobleman (son of a Bey). (18) or jua, as or zealous (issu^^ zeal, f.), labourer (forced), (iSg^n^ forced labour), a pre¬ sent, f. (19) ts_L a common abstract ending in Arabic words, as grace. Also used for concrete nouns, as et dwelling. These are feminine. (20) We also have f03 in a pack-saddle maker, from a pack-saddle, m. ; aobp in rich (cf. ^9? wealth) ; 6 in doorkeeper, Al., from a door, and gar- dener, cf. (13); JJb and 2^ in = 2^0^ m. tube, U. sign, m. = Al. m., Z. = K. = U. f. water pipe. We may here add the Persian prefix m = bad ; as jatiba infamous, gluttonous, faded, bo.!Sk^^ sensual, « f scoundrel. § 83. Derivation of Verbs. The great majority of N.S. triliterals are found in O.S. ; some which are not found in O.S. are found in Chaldee. Others are taken from the Arabic, and a few from other languages. In several cases where the form of the verbs is the same as in O.S., the meaning is different; sometimes it has altered under influence of the Arabic. But in many such cases the O.S. meaning is found in some one of the dialects though it is not in general use ; thus is to seek usually in N.S., in O.S. and Al. to err (b^a to wander after a person, so to seek him) . 252 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. For introduced into N.S. verbs to replace other letters in corresponding O.S. verbs, see §§ 100, 113. The manner in which N.S. conjugations are derived from the old forms has been explained in §§ 30 sqq. Verbs derived from foreign languages follow the Syriac model in the formation of their tenses. (A) Quadriliterals. Quadriliterals in N.S. shew a great developement ; the following are the principal classes of themh (1) Causatives, corresponding to O.S. Aph‘el, § 45. (2) Palpel verbs, derived from roots (usually O.S.); but some are formed from other roots on the same analogy. Such are : — • ^ 00 m m m 0 10 0 00 0 to creep, cf. ant, § 77 (2). Sp. (pron. ^3 = lA) to sqidi't milk from the cow, cf. breast, O.S., N.S. § 18 (5). >^3^^330 O.S. to babble, (cf, O.S. to confuse). Also to grow, blossom, K. = (5). to twinkle, be beautiful, for Arab. to be confused or untidy, for (pronounced thin) to speak idly in K. ; to bleat, for see (3). O.S. to make round ; O.S. to revolve. below (10), Kurd. to thin out trees = K. S 81 (p. 247). I), )■ u )■ O \i / O.S. to bleed. Cf. O.S. = N.S. Jibs blood. Also U. see (15). » 1 Many of those to which intransitive meanings are here attached are also transi¬ tive or causative ; and vice versa. DERIVATION OF QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 253 83 a] I to turn over as cattle, Arab. O.S. to make small — N.S., O.S. (ytib). to incite, mortify (flesh). In O.S. to remove, from thither, but Apli. to mock, from root to crash, hurst into laughter. In O.S. Palpel to injure, fight ; but P‘al to yelp. to prod, K. or to he pale, the latter from Arab. ; cf. Chald. *!]T to he clean, so Heb. to ring as a hollow vessel, O.S. and TJf ; also bf^ #• « / »» » in N.S., see (5) below. to sound as wine in a skin, K., to he shaken up, U., to I* I hurst into laughter. In Chald. P‘al to hind. Cf. O.S. a wine * (t skin. Perhaps onomatopoetic. bfb^ to hray. Cf. O.S. 23f clamour. U < / ^my^kSO to search, pick out with a knife, pick the teeth ; O.S. to dig, § 113 or ^ to scratch, ruh. O.S. to wash away as a flood, from to wash, as O.S. K. to snuff about as a dog (no second Mim), O.S. to smell. O.S. to have fever; or in K. to get warm, from (O.S. to he hot. to feel faint, Arab. to rustle, rattle, Arab. to crush. O.S. to disi or perh. from K. to crush, as O.S. ? 254 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 83 A to adorn oneself, perh. O.S. to cover, see below (4). to flicker (as O.S.), wink, flutter K., clap K. or to sputter (the former in K. to whine), cf. •49kb0 K. or oisbo to sputter. ' »(v to shiver in pieces, crash, for § 113 to blacken, char, smoke (for preserving), parboil; also passive of these, N.S. to be black ; see also below (15) and § 92. to clap, to beat water with the hand as children at play, to roll in a ball, as ants, perh. for O.S. to be curved, O.S. palm of the hand. / • * kaaa «» 9 to deafen; N.S. 2>a deaf, Arab. See also below (15). to sob, U. or be dry, crack as a dry kettle. tn from N S. splendour, Kurd, rozh ? U. to pant (sound oj), cf. O.S. panting ; Heb. and Chald. root, to be tired, O.S. to wonder. fSfSbS U. to annoy, disturb ; O.S. to injure. to snuff about as dogs, perh. = OjSojS». to prod, from Arab. ^ to beat. O.S. to m.umhlp, = K. O ; root wd^iJlSbO to make loose, immble, Arab. ; or to glitter — see (5). to tread down, Arab. So K. to sob, whine as a child, root ^ ; cf. N.S. a spoilt child, Pers. DERIVATION OF QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 255 83 A] 1C. to pant, Arab. * • t * < V\i*iO to groan = O.S. JAllisl ? to tear, worry an animal = K.,cO.S. to he damp, Pers. cf. jiixxi N.S. damp, to stammer, soh, hesitate, from Arab, root to croak. 1C. to he loosed, O.S. to he weak, or languid, see (3). to beseech, for \d\ddo = Heb. , it 4 it 4 ..-*••• * / ^ dissolve, mortify (as flesh), O.S. XXod^l, see also (15). to tear, pull (wool); cf. O.S. to make small ; see (15). to he hushed, Arab. ; no Mim prefixed. to chirp, cf. O.S. and N.S. d cricket. 9±i9JlbO to cut into logs, O.S. aJd, cf. N.S. ikti a log. ^ a m 4 U ' %m t 1 m 4 ^ AiQjjibO to lighten, U., hasten, Al., get less, K., fight, K. ; O.S. Ati. 'AfiAOao to cluck, O.S. Cf N.S. ll^Jb f clucking hen. or uOilCxfibo to break in pieces, N.S. to break, cut, cf Chald. and Heb. and Heb. DDip to cut. to tremble, shiver, also in K. N.S. (Arab.). K., or to desire, O.S. to crawl, O.S. 5jyS>axbO K. (hard final Kap) to boil food, O.S. 5^5 to soften, p. 247. to growl, purr: in K. to be angry (in O.S. make angry)', no second Mim. 256 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. to he or make stiff, as mud = Arab. ^j. to jflap the wings, brood, heat hard as the heart, pity, dangle, O.S. to shiver intr. K., bruise ; have an abscess, K. ; O.S. bb^adO to hammer out (O.S. Pa. to make thin), also in K. to shiver, p. 245 and above. isais'^ to tremble, shiver, O.S. ^sa: to feel faint, O.S. yMS. Also in N.S. to crush, = O.S. JOuiX, 0 bo to shake, U., as Arab. Also in K. to weave loosely ; ^ is perhaps the same word (both hard final Kap). to grope. No Mim prefixed. Chald. ,*aagbayba to feel faint ; to throw down, K. Heb. Qal, and Chald. Ethp'el to be or make desolate. \,tiabO to dangle, drawl, be languid = Chald. to let down. to glide, O.S. So N.S. glidingly. wftXlH^aa to clatter, rattle, O.S. wdijbil to break, to smoke, cense, O.S. See also the onomatopoetic verbs below (15) which are of the same form. (3) A few correspond to O.S. verbs, as : asa^X^ to tread down, O.S. asa. but Chald. also to breathe hard, O.S. to blow, see also (2). to fall or spout as water, perhaps O.S. aM to leap. Cf. N.S. 2att^ a waterfall, a^Sx noise of falling water. DERIVATION OF QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 257 83 a] The verbs (all pronounced broad) to roar as an animal, or a fire, = O.S. aia (see 2), to chew, in K. to gnash the teeth, from to chew, N.S., O.S., and to loiu as buffaloes or camels, from O.S. 3^ id., are similar. (4) Some of these reduplicated verbs correspond to verbs ^ or Those which have are pronounced very broad; thus and ^3d03kb0 are quite distinct in sound. !!■ ' II* !■ ^ ham. a. to foam = 'N.B. id., cf. N.S. f./o to j^lease = }iat N.S., O.S. U. to spoil a child, perhaps connected with a hoy (see 2) [or from § 47], to soh, whine, HTJ Chald. to chide, low (oxen), bleat. K. to hang, perh. for = O.S. Another form is = O.S. id. b. to make a hole = N.S., O.S. to weep, = O.S. K. II* !• -*• ^ I* ’ «l ■ to tear clothes (also in K. to weep), perh. for ^>59, from to split (Arab.). Also K. to lap = N.S. Arab. to crack, = N.S., O.S. or ^AxdbO or to cut up, .94^, N.S., O.S. to knock = Chald. S. GR. 33 258 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. (5) Many quadriliterals are formed by repeating one or more letters of the root ; as — to grow, see also (2), and id. (the latter also to hang in K.), = JaS Ah, O.S. to dig, to luear out, N.S., O.S. to scatter = ChoXdi. by metath. Cf. below. 0 “* I 00 0 to abhor, also K. (which in Arab, is to deride) = O.S. UQ^ak^bO to grind coarse, K. = N.S., as O.S. Pa. In U. to grow, from large, § 77 (2). to drag, to draw^ N.S., O.S. aa^adO to scatter, squander = Chald. . acaa^^bo to pine away, O.S. ataa to rub, wear. also to stare = wdSf N.S. id. ^V^^bo^ U. to fill = N.S. to dazzle, Chald. pSl to shine, as O.S. Aph. In N.S. wd^t = to stare. 00 ' to be moved by news, to start with fear, O.S. to break out as sores or leaves, O.S. k^af to burst forth as the sun (Castell). In Heb. also of leprosy, Qal. a^ or a^ to scratch = N.S. ^af or ^af, O.S. ^a'f. ?5fai.bo to fall from a height, as water, root ^af ; in Heb. 00 0 ' “T to inmidate. See also (2). to undermine by water, O.S. ^a^M to burrow, cf. : (6). to gnaw, from to scrape, as O.S., p. 234. DERIVATION OF QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 259 83 a] to gnash the teeth, O.S. to delay, O.S. \V^4is2 to hesitate. to move, from to heat up (eggs), to strike, as O.S. Also in K. to wink= See (2). to knock about, shake, hence to bestir oneself : root as Chald. Hiph. to drag, jup to sweep, collect, ^«.S., O.S. U. to stuell= O.S. to blow, N.S., O.S. ; in K. metaph. to tell a lie). / / ^ 5^^dubO to crumble, for = O.S. and ; see p. 269. or to stagger, to fall, N.S., O.S. to wear out, tear tr. = N.S. O.S. \^isl to be torn. to scatter, take to pieces, = N.S., O.S. (but cf O.S. to scatter). In K. perhaps from N.S., O.S. to separate. to have spasms, perhaps to chop, K., O.S. J^M^bO to examine, perh. to see, N.S., O.S. to floiu, O.S. to ooze, § 45 g. i^MiwLbO to smart, O.S. AS M to beat, whence also aSa ^bO or Si. ST " S. "ST to sob, beseech, perh. from beating the breast. JLtibJlbO to shake, mix up), K. (in U. to pick raisins, to crack walnuts), from Arab, chj-5 to collect. Hence also perhaps ftiSitbO to pack, gather up, economise, in K. to peel walnuts. ptJiso to become weak, in K. to fear, = O.S. iZx. 260 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. wfiiikljuiao to burn, he scalded^ jine heavily, = wd^ N.S., O.S. K. to eat the inside (of an egg, etc.). So N.S. ud^. to he languid, droop, 2^ to loose, N.S., O.S. } ' { id. = N.S. Both also mean to look downwards : the latter also to slip out of place ; and in K. to fall from the hand, and to put out the eyes (origin ?). 4 • K. to make neatly, O.S. (6) Many are formed by the addition of an extraneous letter : as 2, e.g. K. or U. to he numhed with cold or pain, perh. from O.S. to feel, cf. N.S. to he numh, for § 100. ^^k^b2b0 to fall over, die, as a dying bird, perh. for from to fall, [or for ? cf. N.S. f thick darkness, O.S. to become dark\ to remove ruins, clear out, root (Chald. to he stripped off). ;oi^ to starve = o=^ N.S. to he late, N.S. ‘V?? late, Persian (quinqueliteral). 23^m^ to dig as a mole = O.S. Cf. (5) and 23ulkM ,<■ / ^ * !■ I» / ^ ^ mi, N.S. m. a mole. to surround, by metath. from bjxi N.S. to go round, as O.S. (rare) to carry = N.S. ?, § 46. to beseech (in K. also to mew). Same root as N.S. . ' ~i mV u mediator, Kurd. ? (no Mini prefixed) to prosper, tr. to thank, N.S. f. thanks, i' Arab, benefit. DERIVATION OF QUADRI LITERAL VERBS. 261 83 a] 0 to cut to pieces, ci^umble = Arab, jj^, cf. N.S. Al. a crumb. to understand, from N.S., O.S. to cut, cf. \^u]oyoai § 75, p. 200. to hotel, yelp, whine, and metaph. to beseech, O.S. Pa. to chatter as birds, Chald. to cry. ^(0 laojoso to howl, m K. to coo; cf Chald. p^lp pelican, ^Iplp croaking. Ti. or to roll over, cf to turn, turn aside ? t It ’ or K. to bring ewes to be 7nilked, O.S. to call ? or cf O.S. a shepherd's crook, a rod. U. to run mad (also to starve), perh. Chald. to make % * an onslaught (or O.S. to be foolish). (7) O, as to drink too much, or in U. to drink quickly, perh. O.S. to purge. to chew = N.S., O.S. II # II K. to nail, ^ 110 c, Chald. U. to tear (clothes) = above (4). II I (7“) as to injure, perhaps from O.S. (pron. lyp^) shame, injury ? (7^) 01, as j5aD<^50 K. to feel slightly ill, O.S. to feel ? (8) o, as K. to glean, = N.S. as O.S. P‘al, Pa. to hiccough, eructate, O.S. to be in pain, Aph. to vomit. Q. to roll dough = U., cf N.S. m. a roller. 262 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 83 A (pron. f to make small, see § 46 ; cf. § 110. U., § 47, to seek = V^, I 46. Al. to whisper = K., perh. to hide, N.S., O.S. Cf. N.S. suspicion. If If U. to gape = N.S., as O.S. P‘al. U., § 47, to revile = N.S., as O.S. Pa. (8^*) u, as K. Al. as O.S. to he jmtient, cf. O.S. ai&A to expect. (9) vS, as to sew cbai'sely, perb. O.S. wdab to join. K. to intertwine, from N.S. bCs.a U. to tie a knot (by II ' II \ metatbesis) = O.S. K. Same as' fsao, see (10). (10) to be lame. to grope, from N.S. AL, wbicb also appears in see (14). Il'w' I ' = N.S. sXsa^ to step, as O.S. to tangle, see above. to heat = O.S. Also wl^^bsao in N.S., see (12). see above (6). I w!iaauAisao AL, see ^atx^isao (10). jQ>a9y^isao U. to have a sore eye = N.S. K. or jObaa K. To these we may add from tbe first conjugation : Aso?: to give = O.S. and for to snatch — O.S. Jcisi 5 and perhaps § 46. DERIVATION OF QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 263 83 A] (9“) 'p. to wallow — N.S. (cf. O.S.) §114, and above (2). to roll uj[> = ^^ N.S., O.S. (10) These are very numerous, especially in Urmi. U. = K. Al. to shine, O.S. ■ / ^ # to fatten, cf. well fed, N.S. Arab. to print, cf. N.S. f a printing press; also p. 205. to hud, cf N.S. a flower. K. (= U.) to be dizzy = >X^^ao (2). = N.S. (ai) to fall in as a roof, Kurd. to rust, cf N.S. U. or K. m. rust, Kurd. O.S. to have leprosy. N. K. to he discoloured, from N.S. to he dirty ? to solidify — O S- OufkbO to he mad, cf O.S. and N.S. 26u3 m. a devil. to protect, cf N.S. f a protection, shield, § 82 (7). to weep = ».^akiO K., as O.S. P'al, Pa., see (4) h. to wound, cf N.S. f. a wound, U. (Arab.). to he late, see (6) above. U. to subdue, cf N.S. V? subject. to litter, also to dung a garden (f = 05> Tkh.) = K. as O.S. Pa. 264 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. U. = K. to put milk or butter in food during a fast, §§ 39, 108 c (O.S. to defile, as Chald.). f U. to make brave (rare). Cf. N.S. ^9Lm9 to be bold, K. Al., and bold, or in Al. = difficult. / to cast the evil eye, and in K. to wonder, perb. O.S. to watch carefidly. U. (f = oQj) to lessen. See (8). K. to put meat in food during a fast, cf. O.S. to be ford, to smell bad as meat. to be strong, from N.S. m. strength (Turk.). to be yellow, have jaundice, from N.S. yellow. U. to be cold = N.S. U. But in Al. \ <» / >• t> * = to spoil tr., as O.S. U. to become dark = N.S. (Chald. to be hid), by meta- thesis. Cf O.S. and N.S. m. darkness. to bewitch = ^y^iso N.S., as O.S. Pa. to reckon — as O.S. For the ^ cf O.S. \ • * bend, stretch oneself, to push hack, perhaps O.S. aXJb to delay. ^yJdUO U. to approach = N.S. as O.S., cf ^aab near. 84 S. GR. 266 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 0 ■ ^ to sting (nettles), shrink back, perh. N.S. to he angry. aDki to make hold (no Mim prefixed), cf. N.S. hold, Pers. U. to colour, tr., cf. N.S. colour, Turk. U. to entice = ^yx'so N.S. as O.S. Pa. \ '» ■ * II" to blacken = O.S. I* $ to make dirty, blight, also in U. metaph. to reject food, cf. N.S. blight, dirty, O.S. to rust, rare in P‘al. \j>X bo K. to madden, cf. O.S. and N.S. 2a2s a devil. In U. » • } to blacken with smoke = K., cf. O.S. smoke. •• I* to be beautifid, cf. O.S. and N.S. beautiful. (»S- Al.) to consider, O.S. to define. m ‘ ^ ' * U. to smear with fat, O.S. and N.S. fat. f ^a^bO to be pale or lean from illness = Chald. (11) jca, A few verbs forming what may be called the Saph'el conjugation. adu^Sba U. to visit, O.S. to associate with. 5^^^XDubO to wander about, searxh for food, scent, Arab. to wander. ^iobO to shiver, totter = a^a N.S. from Arab. Also to make a kalendar, K., from O.S. and N.S. 2^aoiQ> a kalendar. ^oiajCb^o Al. to hasten, as O.S. Av^atobO to conjugate, decline (nouns), as O.S., lit. to bra.nch out. DERIVATION OF QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 267 83 a] (12) D. — to stir = N.S. K., cf. a spoon O.S. and N.S. to take in the hand, crunch — N.S. (Chald. to bend, curve). aoSbkbO to rock, O.S. Pa‘el to shake. • II !■ ' * II ■ m m ^ ^ mm J0a^6^.tO U. for below. K. to throw down = Chald. ^iq as Heb. Qal. bti33(^.b0 to joke, play boisterously, beat up eggs: root btiDO), in Arab, to break. also K. and K. to ring, clink, tick, cf. O.S. •A ( (• I •>\ #▼ ringing, bell. K. to swell, perh. from N.S. to fill full. to clasp, button = N.S. (in which pron. o as ^) to hug, Chald. Heb., cf. O.S. a hug. ■ " • m m ^ U. to search, see below ; also to mix up (cf. N.S. jai to enclose, include, as O.S.). to push, or by metathesis cf. N.S. to be overturned as a house, perh. O.S. to invert. U. to hug = nearly. See also (16). K. to search carelessly (in U. xi). [Qy. Heb. to search, ^ = x ? In Chald. to dig.] Also X^b^bO K. M^XX^bO to knock down, die, fall suddenly, O.S. to kill, wound, bruise. fvlj^iiXbo = ^!i^3>Xba (10). See also (16). x.box^ to wither &bai = xiia O.S. II 9 I 268 GRAMMAR OF VERNACUT.AR SYRIAC. to gather up, carry off (as floods). So (which is also to hem). [In K. first conj., is used of stray cattle, to re¬ turn of their ow7i accord.] Qy. Heb. to overthrow, immerse, or O.S. (so N.S. to thrust in, comp)ress ? In K. ijcifibo § 119. K. to crack = N.S. as O.S. • t 0 «# to twist, wind = N.S. as O.S. Pa. K., see v3C^!S^bO above (9). K. to make a clatter, O.S. noise of flint and steel st7'uck together. Also in K. to he old, (perhaps O.S. to make bald) ; in U. to he an orphan, and to tra7nple. to roll up, perhaps O.S. to go roimd. I wM^ajibO to S77iash, crumple, cf. N.S. w»bgUa to C7msh, O.S. and N.S. flour. to have colic (to have a7i inte7'nal stram), and or ptaajjbo or ^tyabMiQaj^bO to breathe hard. So N.S. one who breathes hard. »$ 0 n $$ to snore, gargle, purl, flow as tears, Arab. to twang, buzz, hum, croon. JlAOXbO to chirp, squeak. to tick, click, creak. to call as a goat to its kids. See (2) above. ^l^bO to tingle. K. to squeak as a mouse. to hiss, breathe hard, rare in U. 0 or A.£i^^dbbO to chirp. See also (2). Itt\ IM ~ to knock stones together, crackle, K., chatter (teeth) U., flicker, Al., to quack, quarrel, talk idly, to tickle. to giggle, to purl. See also (2). to chirp, cry out, creak, scream; also to clean cotton, cf. iiN i(v ± N.S. r^a^ f. cotton cleaner. niv ^ 0 AXt%bO (so O.S. Gen. xv. 11) to cry ' kish’ (to scare away birds or set dogs on to fight). to munch, mumble, cf. N.S. m. a mumbler. O t ' t 272 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. to hiss, scream. ti * or to bleat, 71100. A U. or ^ A.>v^vi or or to whisper; V ' »• /V / It t n t cf. whispering. See also (2). 0 ^0 hiss U., snore U., 7vhistle K. (pron. thin) to spin a top, hi'andish, bleat ; (pron. full) to snort. to cackle ; and in U. to shake in singing. pLbxttbO to thunder, and ^attA-boJAbO K. to rumble, crash (the latter in U. to be downhearted), cf. to caw, croak, bubble as a water pipe ; in K. to crack, quarrel. to pelt as rain ; in U. to hihble. Cf. raining heavily. to speak through the nose ; cf. speaking nasally. $ JCD^^bO to spit, as rain. to stamp, patter, beat. (pron. thin) to tick, click. See (4) b. to be hoarse. See (14). (16) Some verbs are taken direct from foreign languages or from some other N.S. word of foreign origin, and cannot be classified as above, as : — y.y\2t30 to be shy, N.S. denial (Turk.). K. to be dazzled, N.S. m. spark, to be dazzled, to break as clouds.) (Also DERIVATION OF QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 273 83 a] to crown, N.S. it t ' it m. a crown. to he holdy not to stand on ceremony, N.S. familiar, i friendly. to he douhle-minded, in U. ; hence metaph. to he much patched, Pers. aboabo to peck, N.S. m. a heak. to apply medicines, to poison, N.S. m. medicine, Pers. (also borrowed in O.S.). to speak, rare in K., N.S. f. word [Kurd, ham (together), zeman (tongue), Nold. App. i.]. ( K. to trouble, N.S. trouble, Turk. xA.\f bo to he sulky, swagger, Arab. J^j. Hence also perh. *v^v^*y) to boast. to arm, Kurd., cf. N.S. 2^ m. armour. \n iiv ’ also to heat, birch, have weals, N.S. f. a weal. ao^boa^bo to have a had smell, N.S. aoa^baa f. stench. So perhaps l'\baa>bO to soil, otherwise 2a\a>b0 and 2a ^ IN ,*N IN ’ ,«N IN U. to he curved, bent, N.S. m. fork, fish-hook, Turk. to tear with the claws, N.S. 2a!i^ m. rag, Kurd. Hence also perh. aajaao. and to tear. See also (12). to swing, N.S. f. a swing. oas^fvbo U. to veil, N.S. caiaa m. a veil, Kurd, [or 'ao?a]. to rake (no Mim prefixed), N.S. m. a rake. S. GR. 35 274 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. to reconcile, he reconciled, N.S. and reconciled. \jQ3i3j6ibO to descend from father to son, N.S. m. « de- i$ * i • scendant. to stun, N.S. and }S0LiJQ>a>j6 stunned, Turk. 4$ ^ ^ 0 4 K. to fast, Kurd. (hard Kap) to stamyner, N.S. stammering, adj., Turk. Perhaps (hard Kap) to shrink hack, to slip from the hand, is connected with it. U., K. with Pthakha sound, to dam, N.S. f. a dam, Turk. / 0 0 U., ^aa aAbO K., or by metath. ^a^diao K. to wedge in, N.S. ^3^ ^ '^edge. to make to stand up, to stand firm, to hang the head, N.S. J m. a chair, rare ; Turk. ■ aI 0 aayXflbO (or j; U.) to dare, Kurd. II* # V / '' bpay^, no Mim prefixed, to defile, to die a natural death as cattle, N.S. Saaoao unclean, Turk. isoCT^aLbO to covet (=;ovxb9 Al.) Pers. Kurd. Arab. ♦soiLibo K. Pthakha sound, to acquaint, know, N.S. K. acquainted, Kurd. 0 ^ ^ Tkh. to he a sojourner, N.S. ^ m. a sojourner, Arab. U. to he lazy, N.S. lazy, Turk. to interpret, cf. N.S. m. dragoman, Arab. DERIVATION OF QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 275 83 a] (17) The following from O.S. and Chald. words or roots cannot be classified with the above list : ■ ' ■ ^ mm* to he cheap, N.S. cheap, O.S. cheapness of N.. corn. O.S. to he or make a widow or widower. ## / to COO, prattle, crow, O.S. prattling. (pron. A^= Chald. to roll ; also in K. to tilt up. Cf. O.S. hall K. to oppose = 0.^. N.S. ^.aoubab against (hybrid word ?), see § 69. O.S. to believe, § 88 d. a. to disturb, annoy, O.S. to shorten ; cf. O.S. disturbance. U. to eat quickly, possibly from supper, § 16, ii. g. See also (12). O.S. to murmur. O.S., no Mim prefixed, to he poor, to impoveynsh, cf. O.S., N.S. poor. [Also cans, of and = to hush.] to delay, O.S. to involve, twist ; cf. O.S., N.S. ;L^bbo.X delay, § 76. 0 O.S. to rinse. II / K. to butt, to he old; both perh. from skull, O.S., N.S. to have worms, see ^ 47. O.S.= _a;^s^9 (16). a • O.S. to supply. (18) The following are of uncertain derivation : to hang 276 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 83 A, B, C (see 5) ; to torment, cf. j to die, of dogs and bad men ; to hesitate ; to neigh; (Sp. 'iso) to he muddy or broken; to he damp; to fionnggpr tn raiftp. thp fp.athp.rfi^ as a, bird - to hn.fitp ; ;^^aa to beat gently (see 16) ; K. or to soh, pant ; to throw, expel ; to hang, tr. ; wS^aASO Al. to roar ; ^ to roar, as a fire ; laXa^SO U. to deceive ; to toss in bed, as a sick man ; K. to grcift, vaccinate ; to hit out right 0 and left, to lay waste; to smile, K., to he crisp, as snow, U. ; K. to clatter ; ^mSoXSO to he dirty or musty; ^ to gather flowers ; K. to roll; f^iisSO U. to soh; to whine ; ^b^bO to tingle ; as in 2aobt2^0idjCt>, O.S. threshold, 5 119. • I ^ I #1 ^ O 85, 86] CHANGE OF VOWELS. 281 f., O.S. and Al. [m. in O.S.] time, (b) m., O.S. lyJOSd root. ft ^ ft f. (a like is), O.S. ^ 'plough, §§ 97, 104. O.S. sign of past tense. l^oJci m., O.S. ^iAdcvti large basket O.S. i^OXis bed. • t ' m 0 it O.S. (I quarter of a garlic. m., 0. S. or ^iiois smoke. iiSoOft., O.S. 'itoo weight. Note also M. fountain = K., p. 232. § 86. Words in N.8. which have a vowel more than in O.S. a. All which have 2 prosthetic in N.S., but not in O.S. See below, § 96. b. Many feminines formed from masculines ; a half vowel in O.S. corresponding to a whole vowel in N.S., as queen, also more rarely as in O.S., from king ; tear, O.S. (masc. sing, not used). Hence in reading O.S. the Syrians often con¬ vert a half vowel into a whole one and even accent it; they pro¬ nounce he was made, as if ithiwidh, with the accent an Sd", so they read have pity on us (usually written as one word in the service books), as if had Zqapa, ithrakhamdUn, with the accent on the penult. c. In U. verbal nouns of second conjugation Pthakha triliterals, all quadriliterals (unless one letter is virtually silent as in p!^k^isiO to punish, pron. ^al^lislso), and all second conjugation verbs; as S. GR. 36 282 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. U. teacher = K., O.S.: U. one who ' m 4$ 0 ^ fm ^ ^ ^ 0 Jj, prays = K., o.s. <. .. < '' > d. Plurals of nouns in in U., as U. beams = K, O.S. e. O.S. m2 [Sal. 'm2, first Zlama.] i' O.S. \ stach, Chald. p. 246. O.S. \ coal. \Jbi(sAp f, also as Eastern O.S. *3 Testament (Old, New). * i * Stabs m., O.S. ^s Wood ;ja'io m., O.S. 'so paper (also Arabic). sjcdAxSm. O.s. sjsSmSm eleven. t lim , 7 , tm (in U. pron. '6o-m), O.S. .^OOlm serpent, f. So Ipu^ (or Joom) m. for Jom (O.S. JIom) ; pi. 2'^obM ('oOm), O.S. 2^bbM. o.s. ^i^OMtaO sieve (root 6kMJi). m., O.S. \ nose, proiyiont07'y. in O.S. and Al. also 'j5> the left >^OS^ Al. = U. K., O.S. Friday. bxbi^ K. ten (f.), O.S. *40 \ / ^ , or O.S. [f. o.s. 'd] so and so. Hi^oh Al. = U. = O.S. stature. 00 0 IsyX m., O.S. 'x name. ’ 00 m., O.S. 'as skirt of a garment, front flap of a coat tail. Also N.S. CHANGE OF VOWELS. 283 §§ 86. 87] ;^o6s U. = O.S , K. worm, § 88 g. K. Q. three, f., O.S. K. yesterday, O.S. (also O.S. § 87. Pthakha and Zqapa. There is a very common tendency in N.S., especially in Urmi, to turn Pthakha into Zqapa. This is perhaps partly for compensation^ and is due to the dislike of the Syrians to the doubling of a consonant, unless it is written double, when they pronounce both consonants distinctly, see § 4 (7). a. Before o where the Western Syrians write Pthakha, the Eastern Syrians write Zqapa (§ 7). In N.S. (esp. U.) there are a few exceptions, like to answer (in K. h. In accordance with the rule in § 6 (1) all Pthakhas before a silent letter and 01 are pronounced Zqapa, except in a few verbs, as to oppress, strike, Ti. Al. to vomit, (lit. to overturn), U. (=^a)^ K.) to put milk or butter in food during a fast, K. to dam, K. to acquamt, knoiv ; in some com¬ pounds of § 28 (9), but ^ itself is pronounced usually with Zqapa (see § 91); and in the numerals 18 to 19 in K., § 26. c. Many second conjugation triliteral verbs have Zqapa for Pthakha on the first radical, perhaps to compensate for not doubling the second radical. A few differ according to district : — answer. U. K. to U. K. to assemble, ix. iijCfi'SO U. K. to join, tr. U. to be cold (of persons), A), to spoil tr., p. 120. 1 So in Al., in cases where is omitted, short i sound often becomes e; ■ ^ I said is meri or mtri ; he remembers me is takheri. t <* ■ 284 GllAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§87 U. K. to sink, tr. U. to annoy, K. to be tired of. U. K. Al. to divide. U. K. to refine metals. vSaAbO U. vSofibO K. to promise. ^oAbO U. ^0^3150 K. to happen. U. K. to throw. ' V or to partake. dio^bo U. K. to repent, also K. Al. Al. Traditionally the O.S. he will bless, is read as if with Zqapa, and so all Panels with b. d. For those causatives of verbs JA, uSi which vary between Pthakha and Zqapa, see § 45 b, c. e. Several first conjugation verbs in U. Ash. have Pthakha on the first radicaP. These in K. as in O.S. have Zqapa ; see § 46. /. Many words which etymologically, or on the analogy of O.S. would have Pthakha, are in many districts, especially in Urmi, pronounced with Zqapa. In other districts, especially in K. AL, they vary between Zqapa and Pthakha. It seems better to write these with Pthakha on the O.S. analogy or according to the etymology. Such are the feminines of the form queen, from § 86 b. g. So also words of the form § 77 (2), p. 231. h. And those of the form §77 (3), p. 233. i. And those of the form § 81 (6), p. 244. •1. “i ' I k)ioic, in Al. is yudin or yedin ; is kidin or kedin. 87] CHANGE OF VOWELS. 285 j. In Ti. AL MB. the names of the first four days of the week are pronounced with a Zqapa on as = O.S. Sunday, p. 287. [But in Al. also with second Zlama, as tlosheha.^ k. Also the following sometimes have Zqapa, esp. in U. ^ 0 0 Uoa: m. bishop, Arab.; lit. our father, cf O.S. m. = 0.S. JmI brother, 0 0 as, O.S. ; usually pron. dkh (p. 1C9). So etc., § 16 (2) h. Tkh. = U. m. labour, trouble. (p. 160) in Al. has Pthakha, but always Zqapa. ^ 0 ^ 0 Wm u. = ;ei«n K. m. reward, pay (= Ah). O.S. = Ti. = U. Ti. bell, m., p. 288. py< O-S. ^9iS Al. also hut, p. 188. angel, m. O.S. (both with Zqapa sound), m. (O.S. tabernacle, goats' hair tent. U. or K.j O.S. (for 'li) balance. (g» Ti.) m. poison (= Tkh.). In O.S. medicine. O.S. = Ti. = ^ U. a male lamb. ' .* Jib, O.S. b priest [for JX^Xb, p. 246]. JbS Raca O.S. l. Some words with Pthakha in O.S. have Zqapa almost if not quite universally in N.S. and are therefore so written. vinegar, m., O.S. 'm. f- U. = f. Ti. = O.S. m. a needle. 286 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 87, 88 m. back, girdle, loins, O.S. for ' < f ^ f. metal howl, O.S. usually in N.S. 2^* m. hoy, O.S. ■ mi f. sea, O.S. m., Heb. D\ Chald. XS'. / t" T ^ ^ i uAM 'R;Ao=O.S. ^ (^^)* The Azerbaijan Jews have Pthakha here. m. basket, O.S. Jdb very, so Az. (in K. Al. Jaa is used as an adjective = great). m. teacher, § 20 (14), O.S. 5. ^is (in Ti. Pthakha) there = O.S. ^is, p. 167. m. Zqapa is pronounced Pthakha in ojiJLva he killed me (f.), and so the other persons, § 50. § 88. Zlama for Pthakha or Zqapa. There is a great tendency to use Zlama in N.S. for O.S. Pthakha or more rarely for Zqapa. This is especially the case in Salamas, Qudshanis, etc. Also in foreign words Zlama in one district corre¬ sponds to Pthakha or Zqapa in another. We thus have : — a. The present, the imperative etc. in second conjugation verbs in Sal. Q. etc. See §§ 35 sqq. and 91. h. Also in the same districts many words of the form iSijixk deacon (pronounced ji.SOX), etc., § 77 and see below § 91. I* c. Universally in verbs etc. where under the influence of the letters SSmiC] O.S. writes Pthakha, N.S. writes Zlama ; as N.S. = *vv>V O.S. he dwells. i d. So the 2nd pers. singular masculine of the first present of verbs, and of the preterite where the object is expressed synthetically 88] CHANGE OF VOWELS, 287 (§ 50), as u N.s. = isSv^^ (isii fe>\_»y, H N.S. = (tsil O.S. he hilled thee (m.), and so if the subject is of the first person sing. masc. e. The first five days of the week in most districts, § 28 (5) and p. 285 ; as ?a3>.35kj^ m. = O.S. Sunday. f The past participle of verbs first conjugation, as for O.S. revealed. g. Also the following : — (ega7^) Al. = if, p. 185. A?: m., O.S. '1 or '1 moth, hook¬ worm, § 89. or Al. = «i It' II I O.S. below. K. = »^aiai O.S. /oiir, f U. m. or '2 U. K., O.S. guest. U. f. or '2 K. mill, ^ 96. ^ I ## i ' ^ I O.S. "boai, widoiu. SMl Tkh., a Ti. = O.S. it ti ' t t seven, f. (a), p. 64. Al., 'a U. K. light, m. But in K. they generally say u^oa Ti. Sh., U., uSu^a Tkh. or uiSOUAbO MB. stove, f., [usually (i) in K.]. Zs^ata. cf Zj63 (hesa) Al., a U. K. enough. 2*^a, O.S. 'a herd, m. it y ¥ also 'a as O.S. son of man. or 'a as O.S. lightnmg. U. Q. Sal. m. (a), or K. f. = O.S. ^ (for U>40 side, p. 225. U. beggar = O.S. {col¬ lector), p. 235. Ash., U. K., O.S. man (in U. husband). So in U. husbands, p. 50. = O.S. kid, m. JbcT^^ Tkh. = Al. labo7ir, trouble. = \ O.S., Al. thief m. Tkh. = Ti., O.S. gai'den. 288 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. U. = O.S. lejwosy, f. {gereh) Al. = U. mmt bridge, see p. 42. Al. (second Zlama) = 'a O.S., U. gold, m. w = 3J*,? U. rain-watered land. li* a Sal. = 'a U. debt, Pers. m. -{^a Tkh. resin, siveat, p. 42. JiSa = O.S. 'b side, f. «!■ •• 2xda = O.S. and Al. 'a bea7'd, m. ^ «!■ '• -ibia U. K. = 'a Al. Z. plain. jso) K. = liai O.S. noio. (U. first, Ti. second Zlama) = O.S. 'f bell, m. Also Ti. t (i^ : cf. N.S. cliff, m.). = O.S. '• reed, m. 2'^ K. Al. = O.S, U. com- • ## 0 panion, m. Sal. = 'rfiU. K.jO.S. strength, •* * host, m. Sal. = 'rfi U. a present, 0 tt 0 Tkh., eighth pk). Sal., U., sometimes K. = '* 00 0 K., O.S. suffering, m. 2iisM = O.S. bridegroom, m. ^ ^ 00 • 0 ^ 2.^.^ rare = O.S. ^ unclean (usually 230J1!>* = O.S. 'J, §112, m. ;3a U. K. = a Ti. = 'a Az. = O.S. A tooth, m. So iiaa U. K. = ' % •' A Ti. a tooth of a cogwheel. = O.S. 'a famine, hunger, m. fum'ow, O.S. 'aa, p. 206. •* Jjcaaa, see 5 121. MB. = 'S O.S., U. K. bread, '00 0 ' ' m. Sal. (first Zlama) = 'S U. K. f. § 18 (2). (i.e. ;:») u. K. =: o.s., Al. Z. water. uibo Sal. = 'i U. K. who, ^13. maxim, from 2^'^sab O.S. 00 00 ^ ^ and N.S. parable. liapL (Sal. first, Z. second Zlama) = 'i U., O.S. 7nver, m. U. = 'i K., O.S. naphtha, paraffin, m. lacrpca Tkh. Ash. = 'ji U. Ti., O.S. moon, m. ^aoA> and ^aojtd Al. Syinac. 0 00 t *00 2duA/a = 'ii O.S. swimming. JtOJQ) Q. = 'ii U. K., O.S., p. 285. 289 88] CHANGE OF VOWELS. = O.S. XQ winter, m. • *9 0 ' = O.S. thigh, f. K. = U., O.S. signet. litliy or lynii U. a barren wo- man = K. Sal. The II O.S. has m. J^aJ^ f. l.xis^y 'Si^s etc., see p. 64. ^ 99 y t it ' Jr m9 * ^ = O.S. 'a potsherd, m. Also § 77 (3). A1.='4 Tkh.(U. ;4) wave. O.S. also ^ blossom, m. 99 y / ^ hoopoe (otherwise laobbe^ Tkh. m. ^aaobbar m. Ti., ;b5a5cr Ti., uis^ • It \ f I t Ti., K. m.). IIjOJA or = O.S. ?vhA crack, also in N.S. blossom, m. TT. = O.S. = 'h K. lamb, m. U. = '^ ^.,0.'^.Paradise,i. O.S. '34 iron, m., p. 293. ^gx4 U. f. = Al. op¬ portunity. (In K. J-boisb.^ m. = O.S. er ltsoish& crumb, cf. § 83 (14) and ;aa^ m. § 18 (5). Also ^oisb^. • 0 II Sal. = U. soap, m. = O.S. fine weather. is^^OJb or b (also is) Al. Kurdish. = O.S. 'h partridge. = O.S. 'h basket. So N.S. Lu a smaller basket. II rarely as O.S. >^^ibbib skull. ;^?Q- Sal. = 'b U. K. many, very, •* (O.S. Jss great), § 25 (7). going, § 46, = O.S. 5 an in¬ sect, or creeping. ^\x0X = O.S. or 'ix chain. i9 9 it 9 99 ^ (i U.,’e Al.) = O.S. 'X year. i * (^) Al. or 's as O.S. hour. } llSois U. = O.S., K. II II worm, f. (Also N.S. or &.^b^S Tkh.) or Ti. = O.S. 0 99 0 99 it bj^jbb^ eighteen. fObO^ part of U., elsewhere as O.S. July, m. see ^ 121 and p. 64. 37 S. GR 290 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. |'§§ 88, 89 h. On the other hand we have N;S. Pthakha or Zqapa for O.S. Zlama in the following : — also as O.S. scabbard, f. m 0 ^ 0f / in O.S. also enti^ail, m. U., also as O.S. = K. (a) = ^390^ (a) Diz sheep (rarely singular, m.). in O.S. also'^ mushroom. = O.S. and Al. half, in. U. Ti. = 'X Tkh. (cf. O.S. 2 pi-) almond, m. [unless it should be =0.S. iSbs], So also N.S. and Az. I = O.S. }i2. We have Zlama for Pthakha as an euphonic vowel in forms like U. Ti.= iJijSoAijO Tkh. = O.S. Also in A). II / / I • t before a vowelless consonant with D, and (^Sp). In Pk these in speaking take, when necessary, a half Zlama ; in O.S. Pthakha. But in forms like a whole Zlama in N.S ' tl 7 ^ I, . § 89. (1) Ewasa in N.S., not in O.S. a. The past participles of all second conjugation verbs, and hence the preterites, N.S. = JdDlibO O.S. b. Also the following : — ;S.aoo\, O.S. k camel, m. jSoAV., O.S. round. 1^0^ Sal. Sp. = U. K., O.S. t ^ 70 ' dream, m. Al. = O.S., U. X^ dark- • I# ness, m. = O.S. IsufM pig, m. jJkAv=o.s. deiu, m. = O.S. rhubai'b. lijtieM = O.S. laflUbO reverend. I 0 Al. = 'tiA O.S., U. K. hole, m., p. 304. ;^;aoo^ or as O.S. 'boiy fog, m., § ^6. or as O.S. earth, m. IfyoiSH Diz, sheep, § 88, h. Al. = U. Tkh. f. = O.S. finger, § 95, g. 291 §89] CHANGE OF VOWELS. 4s-Moua u. K. = :^j»oja Al. = « it O.S. stature, elbow (also of a stove) = O.S. heel, ankle. ^^03 = O.S. or hill. shoulder, m. The O.S. '-J i is a tvinnowing shovel = N.S. .i^xdoE), which also is ^ 0 an oar and a shoulder blade. a^oaSt = (?) O.S. and N.S. jidi I* I ears of corn. trice = O.S. UJ)- right (whence N.S. fat). Of. O.S. iZiaM orthodox. Similarly we have IboS U. = 2dS K., O.S. an age, m. ; ;i«ou u. Sal. Q. Gaw. Tkh. J. = 'a* Ti. Al., O.S. day, m. For 4*30^ see § 13. (2) Rwasa in O.S., not in N.S, O.S. 'aa, examination, m. JaikS, O.S. ^Doa, knee, f. O.S. laughter, m. jLkD, O.S. 'oa, millet. O.S. 'op, thread, weft, m. jisSib, O.S. 'op, sweat, f., § 105. O.S. mole. Za^M bad, O.S. 'oua or 'L desolate. ~ n * f ' with affixes, § 25 (5). O.S. eye-paint. O.S. bridle, m. 4sl~» = o.s. (O.S. pi. 2^oLao), a sieve, p. 282. O.S. work, m. Ti. = J.io-^ U. Tkh., O.S. mouth, edge (of a sword), m. 2.Li-isa^, O.S. 'ol3 (^ like ^ usually), m. JAmD, O.S. 'oa, far, (}jb6^i AL). iixXJX, O.S. 'ox, sesame, f. ^ ttf t f ' Similarly we have (or 'a Al.) often for Jjuoa [or ^dLaga O.S.] a 6to*, m. ; 2a^2 Ti. for 2a^o2' O.S. storeroom; Ti. = '^ U. low; or m. error ; ^.iXhoM or a..ti (also 292 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. f-) corner ; or 'o\ handful. Also in Al. some feminines in are often pronounced with u, as tluhta. § 90. Rwasa in part of the Urmi plain is generally followed by a Yudh sound in speaking. Thus bazaar (so O.S.) becomes or even sometimes. In Sal, Sp. etc. an aspirated \ often follows Ewasa ; as for hh money. And also either •* I* * A. or follow similar sounds, such as SL _ or au. Thus • • having sat (f.), u I was worth; and even in words like stealing § 91. In Gaw. J. and to a somewhat smaller extent in Q. Sal./ Pthakha and Zqapa very often have the second long-Zlama sound ; as ^ one, pron. khe ; first, pron. qemdya ; he heals, pron. hesim, § 35; (O.S. vinegar, m., pron. khela ; iJb for, in Sal. pron. qe ; soid, f., pron. gena ; Joa recess in a luall, f., in Sal. pron. kewi ; f urnace, m., etuna. So some Al. words, § 88. I 92. Metathesis is very common in N.S. a. Vowels. U. = K. = O.S. widoiver. echo, £, and similar words, § 16, «, for O.S. daughter. o-s- ^ W vine, f. U. = O.S., K. companion, f., § 17. 2^^ U., {is) K. = O.S. {is) new, f (root ;16Sx^ ('^ K.) = o.s. account, recko7iing, m. 92] METATHESIS. 293 (p. 73) f. = O.S. m. midday meal, noon. K. = O.S. or shield, f. I'SVb, O.S. barley, pi. So = O.S. barley¬ corn, cf. § 45, d, e. O.S. scorpion, f. (for ;Lik*34) = 0-S- iron, m., § 88, g. lis^oX or I^OmX (O.S. 2aox»^) blackbird, from x^Ji to be black. (u<3k2k) = O.S. October, November, m., ^ 28 (12). b. Go7isonants. Numerals like K., U., § 28 (1). Most verbs 3 and in forming the verbal noun, etc., § 38. So also in Sp. in the present of some verbs as they are baptized, s^^bwf = they weave, and sometimes in Al. Also the following : — 2^1 MB. or U. or as O.S. to swear. T-y T-7 ry- Z. Az. or Ti. = ;i2i U., O.S. a vessel, dish, m. u^&2 Al. (anhe or anhi ; fern. only)= ^*0 they, § 10. 32 as O.S. or U. K. or U. to bake. •• .* JCtll or jE2tl to be cold, p. 120. $9 99 ^ I ^ / Jb32 or Jb2f> (as O.S.) to spit. JXb K. (as O.S.), U., Tkh. to wish. So Az. imperative I 1' " yJ32 wish. ' I* for O.S. ice, m. (rare) = U-. Tkh. cause, subject. 294 GRAMMAU OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§92 U. or IT. or Ti. fist, m., perh. from }JusOo\^ handful, which is also sometimes inverted to fcoxpV.. In N.S. to hold in the hand, § 118, ni. ^v. f. also as O.S. or eyebrow. = O.S. Tkh. = Ti. coal. some parts of, | 46. K. to tumble or 'push down, perh. = K. to invert = O.S. tt *' $ or as Arab, or K. (piilt. 111. •* or Ti. f. O.S. 111. 7ieedle. see above. •• 7, 3k MM as '■ Sm O.S. or in Baz, to reap. or to he worth, p. 124. to fold = O.S. (Pa‘el). a variant in U. for to taste. U. K. = x^* AL, O.S. to hear, lay (eggs). So JlSk^bk-iab m t$ ' u \ ty K/ / t$ m * U. K. Az. or to hasten, p. 107. (as O.S.) and to learn. 230A>a U. 230ujQ> K. a bond, see 012, and p. 288. or <^25 (the O.S. to he long. wbX AL, O.S. or wti23 Tkh. to he green (in O.S. to he pale). = O.S. ;aix» or ^i2 to he black. 532a or 5aa2 to shut, 118, e. ' Mrs» ' iTfv ^ §921 METATHESIS. 295 jsZa in K. = IT. to subside, as a swelling:, Heb. Sal. = U. or U. a kokha (village officer). O.S. or wmsA to lick. or \bb^kbO full to the brim. as Arab, or curse, f. / / 9 f to lap, for § 46, p. 118. t 2'^ or or iSi all K. a ivood, m. ^.^bO K. to crawl. for O.S. to freeze, see above. U. = N.S. to become dark, § 83 A. (10). or UQ>fl^bO to push. See ^pL above. u * " / ,, IxxJm from O.S. to qo round. l*‘ / tm ^ in the K. sense to ivink, perhaps for § 83 A. (2). 0 or to clap, chirp. The latter also to whisper. /IN IN rst 9 A ' ± ± See below, § 113, e. or to make a hedge, p. 265 and § 113, e. ^^bibbO K. from N.S. b^b, ^ 119, to intertwine, p. 262, O.S. to mumble, perh. conn, with p. 254. 4i 9 ^ 40 9 1 I 4 JjQXXO-bO to tohine= or ^o^obO, p. 271. I^b^bO («JQ> often as f) or Z^a^Xd as O.S. fine fiour, m. ^3Dbd^ K. or K. or ^a^^kbO U. to wedge in, p. 274. ^/IN 9 ' II (V / ' L 0 some parts of, § 46. ^^ajbbO or ^ajaaJlbO or x:^bxbb0 to widnkle, crumple, p. 268. 296 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. to tangle, from N.S. K. (O.S. to tie in a knot, § 119, and p. 262. U. to throb, twitch, = O.S. to ivink, fla]o the wings (not * ^ the same word as K. or U. to throw). or to change, p. 269. to spraivl, Chald. p. 269. K. or bfi^^XbO U. to break, O.S. AtlX, p. 268. K. A1. (as O.S.) or K. Al. to descend. Xbl U. = xdi Al., O.S. = wtili K. to attack, hit. 41 44 ' •• JXKd or o2jCd to be old, 5 46. ^ » • ## ^ or or Sal. (with ^ sound) = iSyjSS)-^ m 4 • »■ • • '*1* O.S. pillow. ^abA> or = O.S. threshold. I^ObL or 2^axL= O.S. (whence y in N.S.) rat, mouse, m. ihL U. K. or U. to ram, snow. The former also is to curdle ✓ (but pron. 2d2), and in Al. to hold, hold together, as O.S. Perhaps the sense of rain or snow is that of drops of water holding together. O’. Tkh. Sal. = Ti. = Al., O.S. nine, m. Jxis-X Tkh. = ^fis2 Sh. = ^jxisl Ti.= Al. = O.S. “ #1 *i 0 t$ 0 tt 0 nine, f. U. = ctjAS K. (O.S. ojAS) to lose taste, also in K. to be disliked. u. or ;:b4 K. = ;hoL O.S. branch, m. (in Al. Jijdoy). U. K. = Tkh.y?0'M;er, m., p. 289. 92] METATHESIS. 297 1^2^ K. = U. to he strained (liquids), Chald. to he pressed, [the first also to leak, to dry up, the second to he pure or clear\ Tergawar, to crouch, die, used of dogs and non-Christians. Tkh. raven, for p. 289 ? U. K. = 23uS^ O.S. Al. Bo. = KXecSa, key, f. [Greek words are constantly taken into Syriac from the accusative, as now in Greece the accusative remains in common speech to the exclusion of the nominative.] In Kurd. qlil. or ijQa a Qudshanis man. Al. = yJAi, p. 107. Distinguish x±) to he cold, p. 109. ixXh as O.S. m. f. = Arab. a1.o.s louse. fib U. Tkh. or or K: to gather (clothes). Sp. to he tired, p. 1 1 8. K., also K. (O.S. J^) to think, p. 303. often in U. for I ride, p. 130. or permission, f., Arab. or wtJiXa K. to find out about (so N.S. p. 98), receive news. O.S. wtilS U. as Arab. = bdxL Al. also as Arab, to he in love, p. 109. 4t II to run about or away, also in K. to wrench, for Cf. •* O.S. .ttoi to break, Heb. to rim about. Cf. O.S. and N.S. Vaax a bazaar, street. iiSok or a lizard, p. 34. UoaX usually laoiis as O.S., an oven in the ground, p. 232. ^ I ' •' 11 IT S. GR. 38 J 298 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Consonants. § 93. A noun is often repeated for emphasis, or to express a collective substantive, or for some such reason, and the first letter is then changed to Mim. The second time the noun is sometimes shortened. of man; Thus JfOf all sorts of money ; a hind •' i' or some sort of a hook; passengers luggage (clothes and things of a similar nature) etc. This is only colloquial, and we may compare the English nursery language, ‘ Georgey-porgey ’ and the like. The same sense is rarely obtained by adding § 25 (3). § 94. Irregular aspiration in N.S. In the following cases letters are aspirated in N.S., where accord¬ ing to the analogy of O.S. they should be hard. a. When the ground form has an aspirate, or the reverse, all the inflections and almost always all the derivatives have the same in N.S. ; thus we have for the present of the verb to steal not (i) as in O.S. § 84 ; so causatives follow the primitives and not the rule in O.S. that ‘ the radical following the Aph‘el pre- formative is soft, the next hard, the next soft Thus (a) not (a) as O.S. to give in marriage ; and so several causatives or virtual causatives which have no primitive, as OQjaii, not oQjajip, to rebuke, scold; so also verbs derived from nouns, or other verbs, as to have leprosy, from O.S. and N.S. A U.) leprosy, m. f. ; U. to become dark, same as (both a); to cloud over, from O.S. and N.S. cloud, p. 45, from which we must distinguish {^) shame, pronounced respectively 4wa, oiba. ^ m ' ^ m But we have ;^ to hug, cf. O.S. an emhi ace, Chald. to hug ; so Heb. to find out, cf. N.S. IdOU word, news, m., Arab. K. to grow perfect, cf. § 81 (5), Arab. to sink, U. K. print, Al. from Arab.) O.S. cf. O.S. and N.S. a die, m., and Al. to sink into sleep. (is) U. K., '2 Ah, to sit, O.S. (^). to beckon. ' #1 wmD^ to lick, p. 295, (hardening so as to distinguish Kap and Kh6ith). to be gentle, O.S. cf. O.S. and N.S. participial adjective gentle, whence is derived i in the N.S. verb. 302 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ^ > A I# Ti. to bite, § 120, c. iSjii to trust, venture, talk, not to he homesick; and with a ^ sound to expect, cf. O.S. yhxa to hope, think, to expect, announce, and O.S. hope, N.S. contentment (sense from Arab.). to he hushed, Arab. Tkh. (a J.) to dam up, fill — O.S. aisjKD to shut, § 77 (2). wbCsL K. to he old ; O.S. N.S. is under influence of II ' • r ^0^0 ancient, § 81 (5). K. ; O.S. C?-^, § 92, h, p. 296. g 4^ K. (3 U., O.S.) to collect as water in a reservoir, also (K.) I ^ ^ ‘J to he angry; is to hail water. Cf. O.S. or a reservoir ; N.S. a mug, m. K. A1. to receive = O.S. and U. ; hence 3. II 11/7 I# ^ is to complain : also in K. to prosecute, as O.S. to he tired, pp. 118, 297. 0133, in U. Z. Al. to ride, p. 130, O.S. oii or 033, cf. N.S. • <»' •/ •«*> and O.S. rider (whence a in the N.S. verb). 5^3 to be soft, cf. O.S. <^3 and 5^3 to make soft, and cf. O.S., N.S. }3^3 soft (whence 3 in the N.S. verb). K. to he like, Arabic, cf. Al. = O.S. to liken. ^ K. to he innocent, guileless. A-l. to accuse, A.rab. to adhere to, to he a follower of, Arabic, cf O.S. 3^js to follow for vengeance. 95] HARDENING. 303 to remain firm, K. to stay, A]., Arab. yj^bkis K. to thrust, prod, O.S. See ^ 104. it ' i ' 0 If ■ 1/ e. In the following verbs the last letter is hard. All verbs ending in ^ and 3 make those letters hard in the pre¬ terite except in A]., e.g. I did, ^3^2 Ti. I said (= First Conjugation — to he busy. to kneel, O.S. and The hard ^ from N.S. (O.S. 'oo) a knee. (but 5^^ Ti.) to laugh, O.S. or 5^^^. The hard ^ from N.S. (O.S. laughter. U. or K. to conquer, Arab. O.S. >3^Vi, p. 299. ^2? to fill up (^23 K. is to trample, strnke = Chald. ‘^‘7.'?*^ tread). to sweat, O.S. ;s, cf. (O.S. 'od) sweat. K. to beat down (earth), O.S. hard ^ from O.S. a footstep ? K. or iijolb K. to think, see § 92, perh. from O.S. meditation. to put out (the eyes). to he sullen, Arab. to curry (horses), O.S. and Arab, and Chald. root the hard ^ in N.S. from Arab. to be dark, O.S. cf. }Xxm daj'kness, m., p. 290. 304 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. to ash for, Arab. U. to pluck, O.S. 4s- Saji. Al. to rob, take captive, Arab. SJtiS K. (df from Arab.) to make a hole, make hollow, O.S. cf. O.S. and N.S. eye of a needle, m. (d N.S., ^ O.S.) and jiUli female, f., which has ^ in both languages. Cf. p. 47. dliiCd to rob, take captive, Arab. K. Al. to be pleased, will (usually impersonally), cf Al. will, Arab. Al. to torment, Arab. II* ' f ^ ^ U. for which see above {d). to stab, burst (so Chald. Pa'el, but ^). The hard ^ to dis¬ tinguish it from as O.S. to chafe, and as O.S. to fly. j4ja to turn aside, Arab. \23, see above {d). K. to finish, be ready. or wbXa Tkh., see § 92. U. (or K.) to subside as a swelling, or escape as wind from a bladder, § 92, (root in Heb. to subside, whence hard ^). to pluck, O.S. * (also in Al. Ti. is to pluck, in O.S. to extract). to partake, as Arab. So N.S. partaker, m. Dis¬ tinguish O.S. and N.S. remainder, O.S. to remain. ■i to fasten the eyes K., be dirty K., get a bad name K., plant U. to give up (a bad habit) Kurd., Arab. § 95] HARDENING. 305 Second Conjugation triliterals: U. or K. to answer, Arab. etc. = O.S. to tempt, try, Arab. \OOJ.!S8 K. to air before the fire, cf. N.S. steam, m. U. ^o'i'SO K. to join, marry, O.S. 4^9? Pa^el. For ^ cf. N.S. and O.S. a pair, m., ^6vyo<;. JSUdo to love, O.S. and For df cf. O.S. and N.S. n • • / • II * love, m. istiJS^ to be or lyiahe lame, Kurd. So N.S. or lame. to saddle, O.S. Pa‘el. For cf. O.S. and N.S. a saddle, m. to wonder. See above. iir^h 3yiM K. Al. to torment. See above. Iim II* or Same as above (all hard Kap). do^bo U. to repent, Arabic. In K. Al. 1 U. Same as above. f. In the following qiiadriliterals the second or fourth radical is hard : ("nr in fanm.^ Rr.n.m,. Spp above {d). ^^yL^bO or K. to crawl. to be doubleminded, U., to be much patched , K. s. GR. .39 306 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. ^0 t ot) j or to peck. (in Tkh. ^ is like JJ>) to litter, dung = \js%'so K. as O.S. Pa. See below (g). U. = is3^ Al. See § 123. to he pale. In K. to prod, prick, § 83 (2). U. to he or take cold = U. In Al. = to \n t M tt , spoil, tr., as O.S. to injure. ^560^ to arm oneself, Kurdish. to he dry or thirsty, crackle as a dry kettle. In U. to soh. to pant, § 45, g. to prod, § 83 (2). to groan, perh. O.S. wdii^Z. to wander about to stammer. to shrink, slip from the hand. to pull wool, tear. In K. to whisper, §§ 113, e, 123. K. to hoil food, under influence of O.S. ^^5 to soften. isSis’^ to tremble, shiver, 0. S. i}.5 = g35^ K. and K. to sew loosely, tack, to weave loosely, K., shake, U. to guide, govern. See § 83 (14). 3^’:k II / ^#1 $ A/ I 95] HARDENING. 307 to tack, stitch, he pitted with small pox. g. Also the following have irregularly hard letters : ^2 there is, before as / have. • 0 '00 isXl six (f.), K., O.S. 6sX, bu3 hy means of, O.S. a gull, m., O.S. one who laughs, cf. above (e). lie, m. Should by rule be § 84 (8) and so it is in Al. and O.S. For ^ cf. ^ to lie. litter, dung, m., O.S. See above (/). <>ajQ» knife, in spite of § 84 (2) because of O.S. id., which has hard Kap in accordance with § 84 (5). time, i, O.S. (hence a). heel, f., O.S. plough, f., in spite of § 84 (2), because of O.S. like finger, f., O.S. So Al. § 89, h through Arabic). yesterday, O.S. commonly J^)a06sl, but uX-boCs is also found, § 86. ^9? f. and >^03 place, have a against § 84 (8), and so in O.S. h. Generally when words have their last letter hard, especially if other than verbs, they may be presumed to be foreign words : such as ansiuer, m., steep, indeed, jjQjCP because. 308 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 96 Interchange of the Consonants, etc. § 96. 2 prosthetic is very common in N.S. as also in O.S. We thus have many Greek words beginning with ar CiyO), (tx ('a^A>), etc., as a scholar school, is rare, being used instead], Stephen, elements (^aroix^la). So : — or or we, O.S. (^old form Sal. or Sal, = O.S., U. K. Al. siri. ih^i dung, for 2^, = O.S. { * • below, O.S. Al. § 67. Al. = JiSAA how much ? § 67. ^2:^2 hundred, O.S. J2M (also N.S., § 26). Ab? f. foot, peril, for J^ai=0.s. 2aaS2 U. 'l K. a mill, f., for : O.S. ^a. or 'L or 4^^b K. or J-iO-bob Ti. m., = O.S. Jx^oh pomegranate. sXMl Tkh. Q. (3 Ti. Ash. Sh. Al.) seven, f., O.S. yShx. 30bAX2 K. seventeen, O.S. asOboa etc. * § $$ ' *9 (a) February, m., or in K. as O.S. m. six, m. (so also O.S. sometimes), and so all derivatives. J^^2 nine, K., and so derivatives, see §§ 26 — 28. So sometimes in Al. with a ; e.g. pron. elbethi. On the other hand = O.S. m. quince; and see p. 280. §97] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 309 § 97. o has the sound of ^ in in the midst. So Sal. pillow, § 92. 2*^ to wish, in MB. and so in Tkh., 5 46. V ^ to hug, § 95, d. Sp. to squirt milk from an udder, to foam, § 95,/ in U., but O in K., to say grace, O.S. %^oso— grace after meat, also compline, because said in the monasteries after the only full meal of the day to he satisfied, O.S. K. (sometimes) to look closely Ti., make firm, Tkh. punish, Tkh. to expect, § 95, d finger, f., O.S. . ^ has the sound of 3 in jdSi Alaps: pi. of ASlf. (not in sing.). So to incite, he industrious, O.S. to search, (but ^ sound in K.), § 83 (12). There is also to mix up: O.S. to enclose, include. a plough, f., in the district of Narwa, where 3 retains its sound, §§ 85, 104. (in Baz) to he warm or thirsty, to fear greatly. Elsewhere Be. In U. (in Tkh.) to he crooked, § 113,y. Elsewhere Pe. So bastard = Turk, brass = Turk. ^Ji i perh. cheese = O.S. (root For see § 107. 310 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. Probably also uQ>.aXy-bO = lAfaulbO, both to push; and = both to change. See above, § 92. plate, has ^ sound in sing., ^ sound in pi. ^ is silent after, or coalesces with Rwasa, as against. O is silent in give (imperative) = O.S. and its plural. So in Tkh. the act of giving, § 46. Perhaps a flame, $ ^ m. = Chald. and Heb., cf. O.S. .aojii to flame. ^ is often silent in the imp. of verbs see § 41, as wboox leave alone, pro¬ nounced shuq or shwuq. § 98. is silent in many words, chiefly in those which have in O.S. The transition from to ^ is a very natural one. So K. (rare in U.) or U. Al. or K. to divide, in Al. sometimes = O.S. to divide into two parts, to divide into several parts, also to doubt. Cf. m p. 103. The \ remains in half, m. (O.S. and in the O.S. phrase retained still and always now prefixed to the Nicene Creed : jS? iA in truth and without doubt. So : — to look intently, O.S. p. 98. U., K. Z.= Z. also, p. 161. a bridle, bit, m., O.S. § 89 ; in K. Sh. a yaw. Al. to hire, O.S. Hence Al. a hired servant. K. a shield, f., O.S. ^ A ^ or O.S. to mix liquids : esp. hot and cold water. K. to dawn, O.S. o^. 98—100] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 811 K. the daw7iy m., O.S. or small axe, chopper, m., O.S. Ail. Pronounced in N.S. nar'a, as if with ^ for K. to make a hedge, O.S. 4^. Al. avenue (= U.), O.S. a hedge or loose wall. AiA:i m. and see p. 230. to feel, to wake, O.S. A?- almond, m., § 88, h, to kindle, O.S. 3^. to shake, O.S. (we have also N.S. to disturb). iHox ra. husmess, affair = Kmd., Turk, shughul. and a 7iative lamp, f. = O.S. m. The falls in all parts of these verbs, and in their causatives. § 99. and ^ are frequently interchanged, the former being more used in U., the latter in Tiari, as or Ak soul, self ; -aiV ^ or ^ instead of me. For A see below, § 113, m. § 100. There is no A^ comes in various ways. a. It represents ^ or ^ in words from Arabic, Persian, Turkish, etc., as U. 7iice, sum total. h. In some cases it corresponds with A^ of O.S. as to split open (a vessel or skin), to he talkative, perh. O.S. to uncover, to scrape, = N.S., O.S. : also in N.S. to strip leaves (as in 312 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 100 Arab.), in K. to rake rnud, as O.S. also to slide (Jamal from Arab.), to stone (a person), as O.S. (Jama] from Arab.), K. to look on at a show, perb. O.S. to amuse oneself, also, as O.S. to interpret (Jamal from Arab.). For cf h, below. c. Perhaps in to he numb, for from O.S. 4.= to feel, see or below (/i). d. ^ = f in to move, intr., probably = Chald. id. ; U.= o^A K. to rebuke; K. = U. to shoot with a gun, peck. perhaps connected with O.S. and N.S. a dot, m. and Ti. to bite, § 120, c. e. \ = » in or an Urmi man, § 81 (1). /. ^ in to crawl, creep — O.S. xii. Perhaps this is connected with insect, m. (O.S. ji^S) and to creep, ant, m. in J^obO m. ca^= O.S. (fioaxos). g. = wti in XJ. also to sprout (also K.) — same root as N.S. to be green, O.S. green. K. to snatch, for § 95 ; cf. to strip off (bark, or the skin) = svVi!K to strip, O.S. U. to rust, from N.S. 44 U. or 44 K. rust, m., Kurd. ; U. also K. to be numb, perhaps from O.S. to feel. Cf. above, c. i. d^ and are sometimes interchanged, as in to be tired, in Ti. (elsewhere or is to be smooth) ; * §§ 100—103] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 313 K. = U. to sprout (see above, g), K. = U. = Baz to he \oarm or thirsty, to fear greatly ; or f. lane, quarter of a city ; and so some other foreign words where N.S. f. luallet =Tark. f. sac/r = Turk. § 101. in many parts of Kurdistan, especially in MB. and Ti., has often the sound of wm as body, pronounced ; this is very common. In other districts also we have >1^ and ^ interchanged, as u. = K. to cosigner; or 2^MbO Al. to dine (at midday), K. or U. K. to covet, long for. = «»• in Al. = U. care, trouble, f. For the interchange of and and hb see below, 113, 120. § 102. and f are interchanged in or to scratch (= ‘VH, N.S. and O.S.) ; also to be squeezed out, as juice. So N.S. a scratch. = a^iao K. to ring as metals, clink, also K. See § 110, e. \ stands for p in ;boA^J Tkh. today, § 67. § 103. 9 often falls in N.S., as in the following words : Sisfool ( OO] K. MB.) master tvorkman ; cf. 23^A>o2 § 19, where the D reappears. ^ one (O.S. x^), and in any compounds, but not in 2^ §111- Q. eleven, see ^ 26. new (m.) § 21 (9) = or Q. [The Q. fern, is kheta, but also as U.] S. GK. 40 314 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 0^ several parts of, in Gaw. Sal. § 46. Sal. = knowledge. 2^* hoy. O.S. ihSl, girl, for J. mide. In U. pronounce a § 17, p. 88. iJblso or ^2i0 Al. = 2aaib hoio much, p. 168, cf. 233±) obi so much. how can I tell? = ^DOdO § 78. O.S. Ir N.S. sign of the past tense. before. O.S. ^3^. O.S. Al., final Nun for a ? See § 67 s. v. 5-i^^. Perhaps also ^ (JSs-aOlI Q. Sal.) ear is for from O.S. ^ a2 or for the pi. ; and o^a for Cjaua § 70 (3). 5 104. a has the sound of in several words. ^ • a. At the end of many foreign words, such as (^) besides, aA?kbb mosque, indeed, ysjA trick, w fi 'ee, etc. But the a sound is also used, and reappears if a termination is added ; e.g. }b«oaf2 freedom. b. Also the following : U. to-night, § 67. by means of, § 68. UCDiMia to thrust, in U. ; in K. the sound is between a and fis. Chald. Dri“l. a^3a to re^nember, under influence of O.S. abais2 id. (Az. ^). §§ 104, 105] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 315 A1. renienihrance, in. A1. = ^ Ti. to sink, thus, § 67. (SskiisbO = K. to hang, p. 257. It* » It t 1/ i bjp K. = Al. to pass (Arab, with Te). plough, §§ 85, 97. ? VO in order that {qdt: also qd-d). lyl^eJb O.S. an owl, f. (pi. l6f^oJb). V But ^ has the sound of D in to boil, ferment, (in U., but in * • • • K. the ^ sound remains, as in O.S. Of. N.S. K. to 0 O 9 he boiled to rags). *m*l ^ In Al. the pi. of Church, is pronounced etdtha. Compare also U* opportunity, p. 289. a = ^ in Sh. (see §§ 103, 105). § 105. a has the sound of in the following words : a2a to return, be converted, in MB. only (elsewhere the a sound) §46. (also with a) to extinguish. So O.S. Pa‘el. ^^a to prick, indent, O.S. ^^a to sweat, O.S. (..^^ in U. but a in K.). ICsS^a sweat, O.S. 'oa. But a in K., and also in U. in the sense of resin, sap. to know (in present only), in U. In other places the a sound, but see §§ 103, 104. So The Jews of Azerbaijan pronounce ^aa with a sound. See 5 104. 316 (JUAMMAK OF VEllNACULAR SYrIiAO. [§§ 106, 107 § 106. ? = *>3 0^ f . a. D apparently = ^ in ^^1^2 a husbcmd’s hy'othei' and a liiishand's sister = O.S. 2^031^, So jsadbo Al. = again, 5 67. .in I ■ #» ’ O h. 3 and ^ are interchanged in foreign words, especially in the Alqosh dialect which is most influenced by the Arabic. Thus Al. to subdue, tU. Vf subject. So compare isi0^ K. service (U. with K. Al. to serve (§ 114), Al. a male servant, is-iOX^ K. or Sh. maid se^'vant, ’ ■ ••• !• and ifol U. Tkh. with ipof Al. ready. In Zakhu this change is frequent in Syriac words, § 124. some, is in Al. sometimes pronounced khddma. §107. <7) is much interchanged with especially in words from the Arabic. As in the N.S. dialects, except only that of the Plain of Mosul (Alqosh), where the people hear Arabic spoken on all sides of them and so have learnt its sounds, there are only the two sounds CTj and ^ (or to represent the Arabic o, ^ and there is much confusion. In the Alqosh vernacular MSS. referred to in the Intro¬ duction we And ^ (even at the beginning of a word), ^ = wm, 0 = 0]. But this assumes a difference between wm and which does not exist in the other N.S. dialects ; and to represent words with an aspirated initial letter is against all Syriac usage, see § 94, e. When Arabic words are taken into Syriac 0 almost always be¬ comes a] ; ^ becomes wm ; and the intermediate ^ becomes either O] or usually the former, especially in U., but bold (in Al. difficult) is always pronounced with and so its derivatives t , , K. Al. to be brave, U. (5aMf» K.) to embolden: cf. tSMonf trouble (f.), in K. difficult. .ffisMkOa slander, f. = Arab. i 107, 108] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 317 O and WM are interchanged in N.S. in the following words : — U. K. = lOmS A1. report, f., Turk. woir-J. U., Ah K. foal of an ass, rn. (in Tkh. U. Ah, K. power, m. 5a brother, time, has oj frequently : and the plural is often pron. gd~i. Sal., or fault, f. (so Sal. our fault). ^ ooia to cemeiit, see below. K. = ll6aia U. = jl0oa O.f: X cement, § 76 (5). 007, u07 and several other pronouns, §§ 10 — 12. Jbo7, obo) was, were; and various parts of JooT to he, § 46. to please, some parts of, § 46. ♦^a)f f. intellect, Arab. Turk. JSOOlOf a simimer pasture (the encampment), see p. 98. to give, some parts of, § 46. also 'OQ^ as O.S., a Jeiv, also Yudh silent. 07-bob to go out (as a candle), to die, all parts of, O.S. o^b^ to be dai'kened. K. to pour in oil or grease, O.S. ♦^^^0 to be greasy, § 39. Ti. Al. to vomit, §§ 45, g ; 87, b. K. = ^07^^ U. to defile. See p. 98. to disturb, cf. O.S. disturbance, p. 275. Tkh. to light a candle, § 45, g. ^ 0 K. to fast, from Kurd. Turk. a fast. 319 108, 109] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. K. to acquaint, to know, § 87, h. to daivn, several parts of, § 46. K. to hear luitness, sometimes in all tenses. Al. Bo. (sA), § 107, has often aj. ^ ^ • dried manure (for stable litter). U., all tenses, § 92. d5 free, rid, contracted from isoiS ease, Arab., Nold. p. 59 ? Rome, and its adjective. shd-i, a halfpenny, s. and pi. (lit. SliaJis money). d. Also the following words are found both with and with¬ out 07 : — SisMoai K. MB. = U. master workman, Arab., • t * f pp. 49, 313 ; or Si of course, p. 161 ; ^ U. = uijj6 K. Al. easy ; jQj^acfl or (as Turk.) shameless ; 3^^ U. K. = iiac Al. cautious, prudent (Arab.) ; Sal. = U. K. clear, evident (Arab.). So MSsoi in mm = Arab, ; ^o&l air, tune, f. = Pers. jljl; (rare) help, f. = Turk. ; 90^ lantern, f. = Arab. § 109. Insertion of o, and interchange of O and m. a. Wail is inserted in all verbal nouns of the second conjugation of verbs ^ and yS in U. Sal. Q. Gaw., §§ 42, 44. h. In the verbs of § 83 (8). c. Also in the following : — Al. ('i^ Tkli.) labottr (= U. p. 285). .^OOIS and K., § 108, c. 320 GRAMMAK OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [|109 A1. as Arab. = O.S. only begotten (= U. Tkh.). ;i^o ewe, f., cf. O.S. sheep (Chald. often inserts X). cowardly, § 77 (2). Jl&Ouf tares = O.S. Jiifuf = t^il^dvia, Pers. word. The Wan is from Arab. around, from (S) § 69 (2). rision, in., as O.S., from loo^ keen-sighted, § 77 (2). }6o\m maternal uncle, p. 231. = O.S. or secret. U. an acquaintance, § 77 (2). as O.S. curse, f., from to curse. as Arab.^jJ blame, m. from to blame, jaw, § 77 (2). sickly, ib. Jlbbb^L U. paternal uncle, ib. U. branch, § 92. Jb^bx^ ib. loo]^ = O.S., Al. JaOI^ ; O.S. has both Jiiojg and for thirsty. looiJO cock, § 77 (2). ^ooaJEi U. = K. guard, m. Turk. valley, § 77 (2). grap>e (hung on a string for winter use, from to hang). CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 821 % 109, 110] d. ISkM seven, in U. etc. (not Ti.) is pron. sho-tva. So its derivatives, §§ 26, 28. e. For Rwasa inserted, see § 89 ; see also the demonstrative pro¬ nouns of § 12. f. Some foreign words are pronounced either with Rwasa or Zlama, as or attack, f. ; or ♦^O^SO^S tobacco, f. § 110. The sounds ^ are interchanged in some words. a. f is often like 0Q3 or ^ in the following words : fOO<^ j)Ool, m., Arab. Ti. do not fear, § 46. O.S. little (usually pron. sura, in Ti. sura or shira. In Al. Z. zura). So the derivatives to grow small, or to make small, pp. 262, 264. ObOk^f go, § 46 (often). i' JSibf O.S. Zqapa, m. (but f is also common). O.S. cross, m. (sometimes). O.S. to weave (sometimes). and to scratch, are parallel forms both in O.S. and N.S. to litter, dung, has f in Tkh., p. 263. store, also Qu- = wttSf to stare ?, p. 258. hair, O.S. (so the K. Al. pi. ; in U. pi. The Al. sing, is with a f sound. ' { dif^bo or jiuQ3jSbO K. to uphold. «• #1 * U. or K. a ring (sometimes), but not in Al. S. GR. 41 322 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 110, 111 b. ^ has the sound of f in to reap, and harvest, usually, but not in the Baz form So U. a lizard, § 16. (in U., ^ in K.) to suckle or suck up. In the primitive to suck, ^ remains. to hurst forth, Hebr. and (in Ti. ; elsewhere creeping thing, as O.S. Cf. N.S. m., young of locust. Also K. ivory, mother of j)earl, m. (p. 81) = Turk, and sling, f = Turk. c. JSo has the sound of f in the following words : — K. a nail, or the pole star, m., Chald. [= U. nail\ So K. to nail, ^ 83, 7. UQ3A Z. to (sometimes). isdjQM U. or K. to prove, but not in proof or id. (Turk. K. a mosque, § 113, or IXJQM fine flour, § 92, h. (sometimes). d. • = JS in 2Df Ti. = lyi Tkh. to throw, cause to rebound, clean cotton (O.S. 2|^ to throw). e. » = \, in K. to ring or clink as metals. The latter also to tick as a clock, § 102. /. f U. = U. to tear. The former in K. '' M < ** # is to weep loud. 5 111. wNd is often silent iu K. in the word 23u« one, f., and §§ 111, 112] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 828 sometimes in J. For wm = C71 or 07 see pp. 316, 817 ; for \ or \ see p. 313. in K. (in U. xai^) = to search, see p. 267. §112. Interchange of u and 2. This is very common both in O.S. and N.S. a. Regularly in verbs , A, i 38, 39, 42. h. Also in the following words : — ml U. = Ml K. Sh. course. f •• .* •• ^902 O.S. length, m. U. Sal., = O.S. to wail, § 46. U. K., O.S. or MB. Sh. or 2*^ U. to swear, § 46. Sxd* or 3Jd2 as O.S. to hind. it n f ^ ^ ^ laoiOdA U. a bond, m. = Al. 2btXdA2 = laouA) K.; O.S. I^ojqI or t it t I 0 ' 90 U. K. or ;al mb., O.S. or lA U. to bake, S 46. ry- T, ry O to he long, O.S. U. K. or ^^2 MB. to sit, O.S. (^\ p. 301. • if *11 ^ u. = ?42\4V^ U. = - K. to luhisper. or or ^aaa.t9bO to Wi'inkle, C7'uinple= O.S ., see p. 268 and below. K. to wring the neck, pluck = N.S., O.S. to cut off, twist, pluck (grapes). to pinch = N.S. to twist, distoid, squeeze. See above. Jlaoatt or tendon, m., § 77 (2), p. 231. f ^a = OQ9 : hruise, crush. 326 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§113 g. U. = K. Q. Sh. = 2^4^^ ^• (§ 110, c) = Arab. a mosque. The root is to worship, Heb. Chald. O.S. Arab. h. = wd (see also § 119): ^3f!ap U. in the sense to glitter (as snow) = K., see § 45, h. Perhaps also see above, e. = : •jt. or J^2 f. heel, Turk. fist, m., see § 92, 6. K. = jloaXM U. = O.S. an account, reckoning, m. Ala U. = A2a K. to toss up; also, in K. to get 7'eady for battle [but K. = p. 328]. U. = jias Al. Tkh. = Turk. 0^3^ shepherd, m. (also ;L^a U. Tkh. as O.S.). Laa to he smooth, and so a^oa^ smooth, or jlatoa, O.S. adil2 ^ !Sk4 = ^xoisok K. = uQ3ibO^ K. = = ^ba^isbO U. to have ## rv» #« fs» 44 44 44 4 a sore eye, see i, above. For see j, above. l. or O.S. October or November, m. (in pi. autumn, N.S.). ,\ad to pluck, cut (K.), perh. [p. 262] = O.S. Jlisi to cut or root out ; or possibly Heb. hm to extract (so Avcih.), shake doiun (fruit). In N.S. ^6f^ = to gnaio, snatch. From this root probably comes to tear or worry as an animal, p. 255. For and its variants, see §§ 26 — 28, 96. m. We have and interchanged in K. = AL, Arab. = Tkh. a cock, [in U. }6o>.b lit. the crower'\', to take in the hand (cf. p. 294), cf. O.S. and Chald. to curve (as the hand ?) ; ia. to roll, see p. 275. For = a see § 68. Also at the end of foreign words ^ and ^ are constantly interchanged, and In Al. yk to laugh, sometimes has initial Kap. n. 5^ is silent in J. in the affix thy. I 114- Interchange of liquids, etc. a. yS, i are interchanged in the following words ; — as O.S., but usually September, m., p. 7*3. liaui Al. = u&Ai who, § 13, O.S. (O.S. '1) Gk. a-T0\o9, pillar, m. m. horse doctor = Turk. 828 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. 114 U. or U. = Q. = K. = I i t t |l# ’ 41 t U. Tkb. (all fis) deserted ^ ownerless. II « ^ luhite cherry (p. 58) = Turk. or j k.b^M to he ruined hy water, to he sliipiui'ecked, perh. = JAXm as O.S. to choke, droivn. Also in K. = to nick with a hiife, O.S. to cut. 0 ^ 113, k. <» If rJ f 5 113, i. 'll rsi ' II #si ' II t) ^ Ti. to play, perh. = O.S. aXa to he prosperous, happy. •SbSS = Sal = Smo = to carry, §§ 45, 46. II II II II ^ ' to fall over, die, perh. from to fall, p. 260. K. to hahhle, p. 252. II I II I -L also = jaaabo to groio = Ah, O.S. p. 258. to roll, roll over, stagger, perhaps = »S>a!S>^bO from to he round ; or from to fall. So p. 263. laaJdOdO, also as O.S. ^2a5jaai Festival of the Twelve Apostles. f • * * *' J- K. = K. to blossom, § 45, g, and p. 312. 2a\abO = baabo = to soil. The first also to heat gently ’ IN IN IN «7 i7 = la^aao or w^ti^>aao p. 273. ’’ I* ((V •* tyiaO U. = K. to be bitter. See 5 81 (5). for > >0 to alter, § 92, b. X.bO to switch, beat. 0 Al. = U. K. to consider, p. 266. or U. to pant, p. 270. to tear, from N.S. to snatch, p. 270. \1XD m. descendant, Arab. Turk. p. 274. 0 00 -*■ black 2^epper, f , Tkh. Sh. = O.S. = ireirepi (in U. is62A>2 f, in K. or in Tkh. So red pepper (= Sh. U. 3^4^ ^•)* U. Sh. = Sh. = ;aoa^3^ Tkh. = Ti. (= ^301^ Tkh.) a top. Sovb m. = p. 231, rtde, canon. s. GH. 42 *0 0 m m 0 00 0 or ^ 830 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§ 114 K- = K- noise [also K., A A'iS.H U. Sh. Tkh. Tkh.]. iayi%oh or U. newspaper, m. Pers., (in K. f-)- * * *1 * (^) or likaias or trousers tied at the ankle, m. turnip (p. 54), Turk.^o^Xw. Q. twelve, ^ 26. / M * ii ^ ' t) h. Liquids are interchanged with other letters : — when = 0.8. (in Ti. ^*2), 2X3 U., also Jibb as O.S. to number. 33^13 , also abdb to rub. Ti. Al. = L^2f Tkh. to push. isbaJk- U. Ti. Sh. = isi,*. K. service, f., p. 316. 0 00 0 00 all, sometimes pron. before a noun, esp. in Al. Z. u30u^ MB. = uaJ>oa stove, § 88, g. f. a tvood, Turk. aA-o, Kurd. ladder, O.S. Arab..^«L«». m 0 00 ^00 0 ^ earring, O.S. Al. skidl = i^bJb U. K., p. 289. Jl^^aXbO K. = K. to brmg ewes to be milked, p. 261. is silent in some parts of ySfl, § 46, and in jMaX^2 supper (lit. evening meal)) sometimes in all, in Al. K. and in the preposi¬ tion with affixes, § 32 (4) etc. ; in the preterite of verbs ending in y^, D, p. 85; and sometimes in that of verbs in Al. ; 114—116] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 331 thus is ill Al. often pron. jme'un (as if ^). So U. the left hand (also as O.S. ; in Al. § 115. ^X:0 falls in to-day, § 67 ; so iou Al. daily. Also U. m the evenmg, § 67. see p. 30. 'py'^ Ti. = py'^ O.S. = uDAlap U. thing. poJb m. f. get up (imperative). But ^abO often remains in Al. ; and everywhere in the plural ♦^oboaij. Also as a preformative in all second conjugation verbs in U. Sal. Sup. J. Q. Gaw. etc., and elsewhere in those beginning with Mini, § 35; also usually in Al. in the second conjugation infinitive. 116. often falls, especially at the end of a word : — a. In the plural of the present participle : = O.S. h. In the past participle in K. = O.S. he killed them (they were killed by him). c. In K. Al. often (in Ti. almost always) at the end of the second • * ^ ■ t ^ pers. plural of verbs and pronouns, e.g. o^SmZ = you, pi. d. y^Z or ^Z, O.S. ^ we. Ji^ILaZ etc. § 121. * * _ * ^ wbZ or uaZ (Zlama with either sound) Al. or yyi^Z = O.S. they, §§ 10, 12. • ^ ^ * y' * ^SaZ m. uN&Z f. thou, so O.S. oisa or ..oisa entire, a tuhole number b Turk. 0>^- I* N I 1 This word is much used in counting ; where we should say five a Syrian would I • ^ often say 332 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [i 116-118 2-^ giant, m., so O.S. ; not colloquial in N.S. drop = p. 228. city, so O.S. The reappears in the plural U. = K. for instance. ^ from. The Nun often falls before a noun etc., esp. in K. Al. a sieve, from to sift, pp. 282, 291. U. or K. = O.S. JKDD ySO agam, p. 316. » ** Jt m n ,t ■ \ UOM balance, root JjQji, pp. 217, 323. K. = U. to dam, cf. N.S. pajS a dam, p. 274. ' f ' II* f u • U. = K. prohibited. (O.S. 'i) a year. The Nun reappears in the plural JaLx. Nun is inserted in ;3u^Aaa m. cluster of grapes, cf. to pluck. or § 117. final in Salamas is often like or 5fc? ; as save, pi. uS heal me. See § 90. before »ii or is pron. like jaUiO, as iiii (^dmbar) store-room. § 118. which gives a semi-guttural sound to the accompany¬ ing vowel in U. and part of K. (especially Ti.) has usually only the force of 2 in Tkh. Al. Ash. Hence they make in Tkhuma a causa¬ tive, {me-qw) to take root, from to dig. But in some words even in these districts modifies the sound, especially at the beginning of a word. The break due to ^ [§ 4] is especially marked in Ti. Thus they will say b'eli for uS 2^3 I wished. In most districts, even where §§118, 119] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 3:18 does often make a break, this would be heli or hili. So act of desiring y which in most districts cannot be distinguished from a house, in Tiari has a marked break. § 119. Interchange of and ^ {or in Baz). Ja = 5^1^ Chald. (ye) = Xp or 'p Mand. (Nold. § 20, 146). ^OOa (or 2^aa ?) hair, m. peril. = O.S. lis^OJO id. ^Soa Kurdistan, but 2*a30,d or llobaoib a Kurd. a^ U. = K. to tie a knot, pp. 262, 265. iaisa U. = 2a^a K. = O.S. a knot, m. jAOfaO Al. and A1. to speak = iJdapso U. K. to tell ? U. or Abo K. or A^aJitSO or ^aabO or ^ilbO K. to I# II I II / / gather up, carry off, esp. as floods, p. 268. to justify ; cf. Heb. t3^'p = O.S. truth, and N.S. upright, and Al. 2^ T same connexion as between and l^oh6s true; both of which mean literally well made, § 128. ^roan, O.S. p. 255. aautabO Tergawar = § 92, b, p. 297. O.S. Heb. XJ^BpD threshold, p. 280. = Sal. = pta Al. sign of the past tense, p. 82. as O.S. = Baz flour, m. [See further, § 113, /<.] s K. to hug = K. to wrap, Chald. ^^p. aM O.S. caper berry = Arab. j^. JA is silent in command, in part of U. § 76 (4) ; § 120, c. 884 GRAMMAU OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [% 120, 121 I 120. Interchange of Jb and or ma. a. or WM in many foreign words ; ^ and J of Pers. Turk. etc. often become bd and ^ or ^ in N.S., or if the softer sound is taken in the singular, the harder is used in the plural, § 18 (18); or both forms are found in N.S., as or in arrears, Arab. 3 or garden, § 82 (13). So U. small fire¬ place =li\\vk. f shield = m. mallet = Taxk. f. Aooc? = Turk. ; iSabOOd f. honih = Turk. dj.A.0^, etc. So also oil ^^033 = Jo/l ddo^^ § b. Jb— see § 100, g. c. bd = ^ in a few words : — ^ K.. \ U. certainly, § 67, Arab. ;aLtibbt^ = to thunder, cf ^adboJAbO § 114, a. also eye of a needle, p. 804. Ti. to bite=fJbi to peck See p. 812. Jikd^ command, m., in Al. has Jk, § 119. or U. Tkh. = K. to gather (clothes), to crouch, p. 297. Ti. to bleat, cry out, § 46. JOxi Tkh. = .^3 p. 297. §121. a in Ti. is often pronounced a, as ^^aubo2= ub^bol / said. b falls in some words : — etc. other, p. 57. Jbdi to be cold, from O.S. jckd, p. 120 ? CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 335 Al. (sometimes) son, § 19. Al. daughter, § 19. u. = 'a Ti. = 'a Al. Z. = ^joaa O.S. helly, f. Al. = uiis^ U- K., O.S. lit. My Lady (title of St Mary). hier, f. ; O.S. hed. horn, f. O.S. 'iti. some parts of ; see ^#2 § 46. <» » ^ », almond (?), §§ 88, h, 98. Al. = K. Al. = yiisais O.S. two, f. § 26. • r • Noldeke (§ 24) suggests young of an animal = lyt^^ from t * to he small. See p. 324. § 122. js is silent in a few words, as again; in U. both JS and ^ silent, in K. ^ silent, § 116, d. U. = K. = Al. Tkh. to hit, attach, O.S. jUAi ; see Jsadi § 77 (2). ears of corn, p. 291. 3>A3E Al. except (p. 179), often has S. Compare also K. to plane, p. 269 (in U. liiS }m!so). § 123. Interchange of ^ and f-fear, atve, Turk. iLl N.S. O.S. then = elra. or with pillar, m., § 85, Arab. omitJti, or with appetite, f., p. 818. obedience, f., Arab. C^U®t, 836 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§128 (p. 122) in Al. becomes before f. leg (of mutton) = Turk. see p. 828. see p. 818. rarely f. sake, Arab. or storey, m., Turk. Arab. aSIJ?. i^o!^ K. = ^o6s bJ. cannon, f , Turk. and eyelash, m. (O.S. § 18 (5)- or 'fts, the latter chiefly in U. (O.S. to he loxt or destroyed, to lose its sound, as a letter ; in Al. to throw, as Chald. Av and for O.S.), have ^ usually in J. Al. Z. (O.S. '^), usually pron. ^ in U., metal howl, f., § 87, 1. K., 'i(s U., to stick intr., he lighted. In K. also to wrestle, catch up. So also to stick, light, tr., O.S. to shut, join. or to stick to ; so K. to incite, stick. is also to put the claws into, cope with, attack. Cf. p. 50. U. K., Al., to pe7'secute, drive out, O.S. [?3^ in U. K. is to cmiTnhle, as Arab.]. to he fat, fat. Same root as to he onended, get tvell (O.S. to make well) ; ‘ fat ’ = ‘ well made,’ cf Al. § 119. So or true. is*Ao^ f tally, nick-stick, Pers. bfisa, bXb, derivatives, § 119, and pp. 262, 265. vagabond, m., Pers. Al. = U. = K. = Al. ^0 subdue. § 1231 CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 337 or with contents, design, purpose, f., Arab. or ^ or is' to tickle, p. 271. Ti. or ^ U. at a loss, at a standstill. Arab. [Also lauCTJ K. Sb.] K. = U. to whisper, § 118, e. K., with is U., to p)rove, affirm, § 110, c. f. dot, point, Turk. aJs»^. pSQ, rarely with is, captain, ra., Arab. or with U. Tkh. maimed, lame, Arab. p. 805. true, and 2isoisiQ>3kJQ> truth, often with / / * • / / / or with grocer, m., O.S. Arab, jllaft. 2^is9^ f- apron, Arab. Turk. Pers. <0^. a flea, usually with § 89 (2). is6p scai'ce, Turk. ia.a^3. 0 ^ifsOJb f. small bow, Turk, Kurd. k*is.b m. mide, Turk. j-islS. 0 f. condition, covenant, Arab. m. mmner, footman, Turk. U., or with to air clothes (O.S. to spread). With ^ also in N.S. to stretch oneself, spread open, temper, f., Arab. }bis VL\. fryingpan, Turk. and JUScyM^ois m. mallet, see p. 334. V^oifs necklace, m., Turk. ^iso^ parrot, m., Turk. S. GR. 43 838 aRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [§§ 123—125 or three, and cognate nunaerals, § 26, very often have ^ initial. In all three of them, both Tans often = and so in U. In Tan nsnally remains. ’^ASiapisj or with avaricious, Pers. U., in K. with tin (in sheets), Tnrk. infant, in., rarely with Arab. ;»5^ f. stra'p (p. 46), Tnrk. a.o-^3 or wb^ layer, Tnrk. JU®. § 124. Interchange of and js. In O.S. a is frequently corresponds to a Hebrew e.g. O.S. Chald. and N.S. snow = Heb. So also in N.S. ^ and JS V V are sometimes interchanged. Thus N.S. to he spilt or upset = N.S. to overflow, he poured out, O.S. to pour out, cf. and N.S. both to pour out or spill. In Upper Tiari ^ very frequently has the sonnd of a. Thus ■J / ■& 4 ' house, come, M I came (but not the present participle and tense), hen, hrought, f., are pro¬ nounced respectively hesha, shd, sheli, kshesha, m/dshesha ; and so all endings in and many others. For the aspirate, see p. 299. In Zakhu aspirated Tan frequently becomes Simkath : thus la*3, iai, ysa, •sjoa, ueiu2, uoiA (las); but AM etc. The same words also are used with ^ in Z., though less frequently. So ? = f, as for laaiii vApbti etc. § 125. ^ in the Qudshanis dialect often has a sound between 07 and as dead, pronounced mikha (nearly). For this sound cf. § 107. So many parts of the verb to come, § 46. §126] CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 339 § 126. frequently falls, especially in U. Sal. Q. Gaw.: — CL In plurals in U. : horses, frequently pronounced ■■'5 ^ , * susdwd-i, villages, frequently mdwd-i, p. 67. h. In Sal., Gaw., J., and Q. plurals. The disappears (but see p. 40), and the accent thus comes to be on the last syllable remaining. side, and sides, are only distinguished by 0 # accent, dlpna and dipnd. So oiir sides. c. In Sal. Gaw. J. Q. the fis falls in singulars in as a hat, for shade, for So also = village = p. 67 ; ^ house =2^, d. In the same districts O replaces ^ in the abstract termina- tion ih?- § 78, as ^ootjLpf 7'igJiteo2isness = ^isoJcLkPf. So even in U. m. excess = K. f. e. In all districts in compound nouns of the form a hicttei'fly (sic) ; and the fern. pres. part, in K. as on p. 34. /. In aud words derived from them, | 16 (2). a. -3 4s.2 Ti. Al. I can = ^3 ; so often when alone in Q., and elsewhere also when = }a § 67 ; so often Al. le. ^Cs!^2 helow = § 67. II 0 ^ 1^2 to come, and its causative, many parts of, §§ 46, 47. 3^3 U. = bisa K., O.S, (X) after. 0 ■ U. Tkh. a 7iapkin, handkerchief, f. (usually), Pers. JU^.3 (also U. K. AL). Q- = 2^^^ new, and similar forms, § 21 (9) and p. 313. U. three, m., and cognate numerals, p. 65. APPENDIX. I. Vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan. The Jews of North-west Persia speak a dialect which bears a close resemblance to that of the Urmi Syrians. The following speci¬ men, to which a literal translation in Urmi Syriac is added, is from a leaf^' printed at Odessa by an Azerbaijan Jew as an example of a proposed translation of the Old Testament into his native tongue. It is given exactly as written, except that Syriac letters are used instead of Hebrew to shew more clearly the relation to the vernacular Syriac. The Jewish writer has not inserted Dagesh forte. Psalm ii. Azerbaijan Jeius. ^ (6) .a^ooa^yyaiJXy (7) yso^yl : ^2^ z Urmi Syrians. ^ Jlio (6) .^My 07303^*3 is;? (7) : isouA uAOX3 : a7X«.bo2 * ** .« » 1 C) for WM. — “ Cf. O.S. power. Heb. and Chald. bs for — 3 The adjective comes before the noun, contrary to the Syriac usage. — ^ 5S for . — 0 ^ The future without S'? as in Tiari. — ® Apparently the final syllable has the second long Zlama sound, the first the short Zlama sound as U., as against the K. sound, which is Khwasa. — ^ This method of taking affixes is unlike O.S. or N.S. The 2 cor¬ responds to the first m in ® The substantive verb, formed on the same prin- * The author is indebted for this leaf to the Rev. Dr Labaree of the American Presbyterian Mission at Urmi. APP.] VERNACULAR OF THE AZERBAIJAN JEWS. 341 (8) 3gib0 ^ ^oaio^^ u&bo 3uauM2 yNb.Oc^boo : ^o.bo ^ • .' V • (9) ^ 2a2 ea : soasb '* Jftslo “ (10) * 06w..^kA 4 17 aio2 ^1 ^oaoa^^ ^ aus^o""' ui2 «.o.ao^.i2 •,•'•• ,« X < •' ,• '' 21 19 20 0100(7^^ ^2 aaooauAA^^ (11) ^ ^ouAOiOx^o •* \ ' ' •*" i' J*2 :a«»*?2 J'4^ ^3® '^*?P (8) isba^bbba is3 (9) ^}La2a 2^^^ 4^.2 ;;V^ ifA^iAjso is3 ^99^? 2^2.t0 ♦^oaoaa jlalo (10) ♦^oaaa^ (11) ^ ;La2a ;^a < ■ III ciple as the 3 sing, of N.S., and 3 pi. in K. etc. But the pronoun is not in the affix form as we should expect. The forms given in this extract are, 2 s. m. ^^2, 3 s. f. ^2 , 3 pi. 0^2. — 9 The same metathesis as in N.S., see § 92, h. from a^^k or i^aJi, — 10 For the metathesis cf. Tkh. = 2^^ § 46. — ^ For the form of the verb cf. K., yyi^bClji Al. — ^ for as above. So sometimes in K. » • 0 * 0 ## » ^ takes the place of ^ as the sign of the direct object. — The preformative omitted as in U. The Rwasa (Kibbuts under n in the original) stands for . The O is omitted as in N.S. ; the ^ as occasionally in N.S. ; the as in Tiari. — 11 Turk. — 10 Construct state. For the metathesis cf. ^Isoi K. = ^llSO O.S., U. — 10 The writer represents the sound by V. — i^ For this word cf. § 83 (14). — 10 Heb. nnP — 10 The a of aoa has a sound, as it has a ^ sound in N.S. , cf. §§ 104, 105. — 00 por the ending of N.S. — oi pthakha for N.S. Zqapa. — 00 The verb to serve, is used in K., Al. — os xhis word seems to shew a verb 342 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [APR. (12) / <* » \ ( » d^aoaio ^oisyiJOM ^^ao uo^ I ,' ' * \ ' ,« " a.!ajQ>^^ : 2o^ ac^ jcom : a^is vi^a » » ,* t f n ,1 » / ^ Joa:3 aibo > • «? ^ ^:sfisa^x^.a ^q-mO^-5o (?) ;=A? ikofMis (12) (?) .. eis^tlS^ lZ,iol lo^ juxa :(?) ixao^bo uCipAac^o ;.a 07A ^.ax^a iai ^aioSoaji asouA : uoioaaa 0 1* I * ^ uAof Jaofisbb ocnbiia Psalm iii. < .* ' .' aoa a^aobof ■ i< ■ ■ , ( ; oaaa^^ ^oS^-ai a^-silao^^ I it ti ' t « II I I ;33 c^.to mooer^ u2 (1) 0^2^ }aa : y^tLlso :uiX a2Qa^^ ou2:3a (2) 4 \ m ! t ^ ^ * - -s ^oio^S^ab^a p^oaa crj^abOf * •' ^o.^M2a IA!^^ ^a.ia Ixis^ ^ (1) ^ uCTjo&oaa 2-33 : ujA.A.a.bo 2-3^ 23a ^ II ' y^c7^i.bo la a (2) ^ wiT-a^ai^a ^ t it ” 0 i 0 !■ or \^af , cf. N.S. U. Ti., Do not he afraid, see § 46, under JSk»ac. — The verb 53Ui*a to love, as O.S. is used in K.— The abstract ter- ji* ^ , •• . ■i mination seems to be 7- = J«^o. — 26 This second conjugation form, unlike anything in O.S., is common to this language and N.S. The verb (1st Conj.) is used in AL, as O.S., to trust. — 27 ^ this language seems to have no other force than N and - 1 to make no break in the middle of a word, unlike N.S. Thus So here is changed into u. Cf. N.S. verbs ^ for ^abO. — 29 The pronoun affix for 3 s. m. is given in the original variously -I— and -I—, unlike N.S. Cf. O.S. forms like yi970uis-^.^-,tj thou (f.) didst kill him; and the Heb. 3 s. m. affixes •liT'— , •mV’ So the ^ is often omitted in N.S. in the second present tense before APP.] VERNACULAR OF THE AZERBAIJAN JEWS. 343 91000^ u2 (3) ^ yxjioyjioo ^y.foai z ■ ,< ' t • ,1 » • crbocT^* A: (4) -fr y^ly y^yJbtiS ^ u\a9/ ubiboo II* ,* ,1 '* ' l' / !• < ,' jii (5) zoyois^ z J^Jbx • ' ' .* S* ' .' ,' • ,' (6) “c^ys* 4ii 2-^^- o\-.a3” ;Aa2 970007* ^ ^soij (7) ^ o*&xbaj oi-buo 0x5^^ : yiO^Al x-bo-te^^ x-bk-U ^^ajy • .' • .' ,' I'l'" ^ t .'. 47 <- ‘ ' xa^a ■ / * 39 “i ' ^ axM ub^o 970097* ioT^i uji^^ isoa ;L ^ 97^iQ> : 97.S jsA Jibao.^ ,' .■ ' ' z v*3tM>^hb ^o* isi2 ?*abo (3) ^ ^yy cLiJsoy^o y*.bo£La * f * ^ ' • * v^b-a ^xb }a ^*3^^ (4) ®'?9V r^» ^00.^0 5^*8? Ui (5) cT^SiXa : TDUb : u^*b JE ^!^0 yA 0 * 0 00 it 0 iAO)\fiso^ ^la^a aaita 2a^ ^ ^3» ;iS (6) « (?) a»^ ;:■>,? ^,ai? J4^2 ^ob (7) ^ ^a^oxoJb ^ bEXcb A wba^ : wiiA^ 2* (?)4L^? ^iSa Ai a labial. — See ^Q-b § 68. — In U. the ^-bO is very rarely dropped before a vowel, § 68. — Cf. O.S. lySOm mercy. — The verb to call, is used in K., not • ^ 4 m ^ in O.S., but so Hebrew mV . — So in N.S. they say bOO-V. dXbO to ans^oer. — Cf. 97S Z^i, one of the past forms of Ji^S2 § 46. — 3 for fiS of N.S. in ^ I# ^ ^ • I# O.S. = delirium. — Perhaps = to be strong, K. Also O.S. to become true. — ? O.S. joij, y=V. — A for ^ as in Tiari. — for — ‘^2 ggg §59^ — Apparently = y*07*-*33 U. or v*33 K. See § 50. — So O.S. P‘al. In N.S. in K. Cf. Turk. jjLj side.—'^^ See p. 334.— ‘‘7 Cf. 43 this sense it is 2 Conj. — 344 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [app. (8) ^ • /# / / I ^ • * ^OiSMSi 4^Jipcn : y^l 07000^ ' •> V ** (» » / }3Uii3 : uvbftaca 007 : (8) ^ ^oisMa : o^^ * ojio : ,^oA^ soai, o.s. Ji.^5 wiclxcd. — See § 50. — This seems to be feminine, unlike the Syriac equivalent UJOie^. — 50 Perhaps = N.S. or ^*2 fhh (f. ). 11. Proverbs^ 1. ^ Of his spittle he is making bread and hntter. ‘ He will skin a flint to make soup.’ 2. if 30 }L2 : 67;^ lodoolo U. Pillaii is not for filling the mouth, hut oil and rice are necessary. Said when a man is not careful in his eating, and does not know the pleasures of the table. 3. -ojJiAia voojik JCOm Let him put his reels by themselves. Said by a man when told that another is angry : Never mind, I do not care ; I have nothing to do with him. 4. ixSis H pitcher of water breaks on the way to the ivell, cf. Eccles. xii. 6. ‘A sailor dies on the sea.’ The rope was short and did not reach you. Aliter: iXD Said when a man comes in too late for a thing, or if he does not listen to the beginning of a story and then wishes to have it repeated. ‘ A day too late for the fair.’ 6. 23 3^0 : 07X^ I'^oJbL The rat coidd not get in at the hole, and now he has hung a turnip on to its tail. Said when a man after failing to do a thing tries to do something more difficult. 1 The explanations added here are those given by the Syrians from whom the proverbs were collected. S. GR. 44 346 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [app. A man among men_, and a bird among feathers. A man cannot stand alone. 8. wSx ?a ^ 6y leg. A man pays the penalty for his own misdeeds. 9. fi^aaaa^ (K. io.») bdsJ^ ; Js^al ;5k .^2 If ymi do not know look at your neighbour. Do not be content to remain ignorant. 10. ;u29 ;SA9a 2^0 : ;^i9 2S K. A'o^ from the affairs of God and not from the ho uses of men. Do not pry. 11. MiOioxboSa z isi^ ^ «^2 If you do not get warm at sunrise you will not get warm when it sets. If the beginning is wrong, the end cannot be right. 12. 2^3 uSAbO K. That which does ' t* ■ # • ^ ' •* * * * ^ not resemble its master is spurious. ‘ Like father, like son.’ 18. is^ ^ K. If you do not see Satan you need not make the sign of the cross. You would not have gone wrong had you not fallen among bad companions. 14. 9^ is3 ^isiaso z oi^la obi K. ,1 / ' i« f j| n ji • If a man will not listen ivith his ear they will make him listen at the back of his neck, i.e. beat him. 15. : 3wd3bo y^^o obi K. The man who marries without asking (advice) may lose his wife and no one will take any notice of him. No one should act without advice. 16. ^ isSi^o y^97 cj^ ^ K. You will not know the benefit you get from me till you try another. No one knows when he is well off. 17. obio 23^ ^ z ^'^2 obi 2^2 ^ «^2 U. If the last floes not come we shall not knoiv the measure of the first. [The same.] PRO VERBS. 347 Al’P.] 18. 0^ is3 : pyti obj K. I/a man sleeps in the py'esence of his enemy, calamities will wake him up. Water on the top of a gourd, walnuts on the top of a dome. One can get nothing into a fool’s head. 20. .3^, OJX3 rojiJo 3o\ Jtoai js*^* ;Ss ooi K. ^1 gourd’s head is better than a man who will not obey his superior. A fool is better than a disobedient man. 21. Uy^ ispoy^i : Isoo^ K. If an old woman wants to fast, Fridays and Wednesdays are plenty. Said to a man to dissuade him from doing a thing he is fond of : Do not do it now, there is plenty of time to do it in. 22. ;L i^y^ :isou .2 U. If you are a thief I* *• IN there are plenty of nights. [The same.] 23. ciAbia lyyh oA ^3^ A z ^ K. If (a man) does not tualk on his head he will not knoiu the measure of his foot. Great men ought to consider their inferiors. 24. 0^2 A ^2o : u)!S y^ Jy!^oyy (aliter Jyhlxy 07iS*13) The liars {madmans) house was burnt and no one believed him. 'He cried Wolf so often that no one believed him when tbe wolf came.’ 25 %^y 2:330^ K. Sour milk which has been tried is better than imtiled cur'ds. ‘ A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.’ In K. 2rkAM is sour, not • / sweet, milk. 26. ^^^^300 : (sic) yiOf-a He takes it in at one ear and lets it out at the other. 348 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [app. 27. \3crk is'imif ^ U. A mad head gives trouble to its foot. A foolish governor is the bane of the people. 28. ^ locn ^HLaa loo] ^ K. If a house could he built by loud talking, an ass could build two castles in one day. ' Much cry, little wool.’ 29. oh] :^6a]y,fJso2 ly-ihu^ }jh 07S They said to the ass, Shew your good breed¬ ing, and he lifted up his tail. Said when a man plays the fool, when he ought to be serious. 30. 2’io^Lb ^ away a dead man from a graveyard t Said by a man who is turned out of his lodging after nightfall. 31. bfLk Za : o^Sid J.O z ^owl has fallen : either (/ heai'd) the sound of its {fall) or the echo. ‘ If you throw mud some is sure to stick.’ 32. iMf : 23^ 2^2 The ass has come and stopped the singing. Said of an interruption. 33. 2^ 2^ looijh ysyh 166'^ A cock croivs in the presence of another. Said when an accusation is made secretly. — Confront the parties. 34. 070^^ 2^2a 2^ hjoi^ Jad Bo not {go) far behind, {put) a stone on it. Restrain yourself. 35. 2^^ ua}oo2»3 oh] U. Let him who brings it by night, bring it by day. I do not care whether he does it secretly or openly. 36. yXOMi 2^ o]2 z^LofJo oh] f V r. * • • ^ • K. Let not him luho brought it to the house last year b7'ing ** ^ it this year. Said of an incorrigibly idle person. APP.] PUOVKKJW. 349 37. ^ ^6x U. Her'eafter' we will not light the lamp. Said sarcastically of an ugly bride or the like. [Cf. no. 125.] 38. He is an unwashed spoon. Said of one who interferes. 39. lorn ja aieuioA U. A slender turnip has a thick root. ‘ Quality is better than quantity.’ 40. zlo^ Isubol -^cnoJl^a: oo^« ^ ^\i^o They had not left a man in the house, and he said, Take my armour to the chief mans house. [Same as no. 6.] 41. ^2.b ^ grows according to its 7'oot. ‘ Like father, like son.’ 42. JiOb ;il ikil No man calls his own dowi sour [dowi is a drink made from curdled milk, water, and herbs]. ‘ Every man thinks his own chickens are the best.’ 43. A good name : a deserted village. Said of a famous man or place that is poor. (^4. a{^ oal : }L, oiqSjpq^ The floods have swept away the mill and he is asking for the hopper's (loose pieces of wood used to bring the wheat down on the mill¬ stone). Said when a man expects to find something valuable in a house which has been cleared out by robbers. Cf. no. 127. 45. }oA T^ols : yaL lUiX ■ / * , ,m H ^ . If the master of the house is an accomplice with the thieves, they can take the hull out by the skylight. ‘ A man’s foes are they of his own household.’ 46. 26^ lorn 2^ Ty^jsol a\S ooo) ui77oi U. [in K. substitute &sO , t i' r’ ' 850 GRAMMAU OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [APR. for The Mollah Nasir Din said : If Nasir Din had not been dead the wolves would not have ca7'ried off his ass. If the heads of the nation were not asleep, no one could injure it. If you have not eaten the cooked wheat, why have ])ou the stomach ache ? If you have nothing to do with the matter, why do you interfere ? 48. JaZp : 2^2 p ^£>07.3 At the report about the wolf the wolf is at the door. ' Talk of the Devil and he is sure to appear.’ 49. }iip The top of the hat is a hole. Said of a man who cannot keep a secret. 50. Aai ;^aii J-A-M : 2^A.b03 ui9|X!3 A dead mail thinks the living are {always) eatmg sweetineats. Said of a man who thinks a rich man’s lot altogether enviable. Halwa is a sort of ‘ Turkish delight.’ 51. 3^ ^ ucnoLboo^ zlk^ya 2^ 23^ Let 7iot the foot traveller mock at tlue nider : his day will not pass. Said if a poor man rails at the rich. 52. weeping for {the foie of) the stone. Cf. ‘ Daughters of Jerusalem, etc.’ 53. o7%a l^aOAsM 3k!33ki6S :o7.V* 2Xa.aa3 The load has gone and he is asking for the box. Same as no. 44. When a horse’s load has fallen down it is unreasonable to expect the box which was placed on the top of the load to be still in its place. 54. 2pOf Hafta for hafta : yet it requires inore tnunching [I hafta = 4 lbs. avoirdupois]. The Urmi people tell a story against the mountaineers that one of them brought down honey to sell and exchanged it for carrots, hafta for hafta. He complained that the carrots were harder to munch than the honey, in the above words. APP.] PROVERBS. 851 55. : uo^-iw^ ^ ojiL One of them spat in his face, and he said, It is spring rain. Said if a man pays no attention to reproof, but takes it as a matter of course. 56. IcSai z Sadi (your) money and eat the halwa (see no. 50). ‘ Money down.’ 57. la^L 2^ ^og barks, but the- caravan enters. Said when a man pays no attention to an insult. 58. if v^oioootMkbM i' * • They came to shoe the mule and the frog ]_mt out her foot too (to be shod). If one man gets a present everyone else expects one too. 59. loot 23^ lz3 : 2^2 I^Ldia 2^32 A guest who « * f comes of his own accord (lit. foot) is without honour. 60. 2®^ 2a 2^? 5!^ 2aiflu^ A dead donkey becomes a nude. Said when a man exaggerates his losses. 61. 2^9* 2^ Do not be sorry, my donkey. The summer is coming and I will reap some clover. Said in order to put off an importunate beggar. 62. ^6l 2L2 : 230^ 2^^ ^ ^2 ^ uC^lisobO We went to get something out of our beards, but we had to add our moustaches to them. Said when a man gives a bribe to get an office, and he not only fails but is fleeced further. 68. 2a ^oois^aa : 2^ 2:^^ When a thief meets a thief he hides his club. ‘ Turk fears Turk.’ 64. 22ati oi^ uO>ba^ : iL^is y.C7^.»isau * ’ J** \ ■ Instead of the buffaloes ci'ying out, the cai't cries out. Said if the man who inflicts an injury complains instead of the injured person. 73. ojA ^ j^oaa lAaw ;♦©♦ Give money and bring the mollah out of the mosque. Money can do anything. 74. :d^ iba ^o]o6^e^io6l ^4? 2^00 CTjaox 2a While the wise man is turning it over in his mind (lit. APP.] PROVERBS. 353 pouring it on his wisdom) the fool jumps over the hrooh. ‘ Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.’ 75. jliio Water beneath straw. ‘Still waters run deep.’ 76. uO<^ A gentle horse kicks hard. [The same.] 77. uiO<^ yiOObo!^ : A little man has big dreams, i.e. talks big. 78. zajxMl oaj ou : cj^kk-bol yJ^ ? ^SA2 1^0X3 One of them said I am a eunuch. The other asked how many children he had. Said if a man asks an un¬ necessary question. 79. ^ u.a7Q33ax ^ lyA3 If the meat be cheap the soup will be uneatable. ‘ Cheap and nasty.’ 80. 903 u01^3 oik. X.'LfAJ^p ^2 ;e^ y3^ Jjy Though a snake go crooked, yet he goes straight into his oivn hole. However wicked a man is, he ought not to injure his own family. ‘ It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.’ 81. jiLui 2L2 : ^ jiLai 2xm l.i M Sg B ^ ?.:a.\.a -OlOiS.? A dog steals a leg (of mutton) from the butchers shop, but he cuts off his own leg ; i.e. they will not let him go there again. Almost ‘ A burnt child dreads the fire.’ 82. 07S lom Isdu Jja z *» /•» / " ^ ^ f tt * f m 11 If a poor mans things are stolen (lit. go) the rich man is warned (to look out). Thieves begin with small things. 83. 2^ yiOJ^a His head is not his own. Said of a man who can refuse nothing to those who beg of him. H. GR. 45 354 GRAMMAll OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [app. 84. yisii : .. o. uJsla My 0 t $ t daughter, I am talking to you; my daughter-in-laiv, listen. Said when a man speaks to another in order that a third person may hear. It is not the custom for a man to speak to his daughter-in-law, and therefore when he wishes to scold her, he scolds his own daughter instead. 85. islh Ja X^^is The sly fox is caught by (lit. knocks against) his oivn foot. Said when a guilty man is convicted by his own words. The more you scratch a cat the more it will fly (lit. return) in your face. If you injure a man he will injure you. 87. 'pip ;a 007 ^ uOooT^f ^ loo^ uOloSrffa A snake dislikes mint, hut it grows at his door (hole). If you do not like a thing it is sure to be always meeting you. Stretch out your foot according to the measure of your carpet. ‘ Cut your coat accord¬ ing to your cloth.’ 89. lis'i }iy If you rake up a dunghill, it will smell. Said to pacify two men, generally to dis¬ suade them from calling one another names. 90. ;a utnoxi ; ^ ^-2 : }£La 2ii2 When a small man enters a gateway he hoivs his head. Said if a man takes unnecessary precautions. 91. fisou uO^oauao lyxXMt z isOt^ x^^l lo^ui You have eaten the halwa (no. 50) and are riding the donkey. You have it all your own way. 92. OT^ : 07.S X^^ ^i^o.xa He has got dotvn from the horse and is riding the ass. He has had a fall, APP.] PROVERBS. ODD 93. ^^6^ .JsA\3 Your por¬ tion with my portion (i.e. we are eating together), what are you staring at ? ‘ Share and share alike.’ 94. lL.1 : 2*30^ The ox can .* * jt* I* ' I* » \ ■ luorh with the buffalo, hut {then) he cannot eat (he is too tired). Said when a poor man tries to spend like a rich companion and becomes bankrupt. 95. 2^5^^ lS!00uC3 Let not the brave horse <• /rv / t receive the whip. ‘Do not beat a willing horse.’ 96. 2s;3 2^^ z^\h ^ The horse and the mule will fight, and betiueen them the ass will get killed. Those who interfere between two combatants get the worst of it. God looks at the high mountains and gives {them) perpetual snows. God recompenses each man as is right. Said especially of bad men. 98. ^ x)^asc\ He is giving the camel to drink out of a walnut husk (not the shell). Said when a man gives a ridiculously small gift to one in need. 99. X^ wftSbSi .?*iOLd oK 2^2^ ^ o66i The fool threw a stone down the well, but forty ivise men could not get it out. Aliter (Socin) }a 2^32x X^ 2-uo(^ Ol^ 2-^2.a • i .. ^ ■ 100. 2^ 2^3 2^ 2ifiSMO o.^.a The bi'ide and bridegroom are happy, but the fools of the village kill themselves. A fool gets no enjoyment out of life. 101. ^ \;>2 2a 2^ The buffalo luorks ; does the buff'alo eat (sc. alone) ? A man ought to share with his family. .350 OllAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. [app. 102. : 07^1^2 .0^ o6ap> The fox could not reach the hunch of grapes, and said, How sour they were ! 103. lool ^ A wall has ears. 104 2^0^ The river will not always bring down vine stocks. ‘ Lay by for a rainy day.’ 105. u39r ^^1 z ui^2 ^ 23^ If Water r • • I* comes once in a channel, one may hope it will come again. Said when a man loses his money. 106. 3.^ 4 The hid will not always stay under the basket. Everyone may hope to get rich. 107. UQ>.^30^30 The rope is cut, and the burden is scattered. Said, e.g., when a wife dies : the relationship made by her marriage is weakened by her death. 108. :c7Xfcbo2 :^o^3L*.'ao2 2:323 Ih said to the wolf. Go and tend the sheep; he said. My feet are bare. Said if a man is bidden to do something for his own advantage and he refuses. 109. Jsik 233 2am3 0073 33^tlL loOt 2^ : 233 33m3 007 He luho travels much is luiser than he who lives to a great age. Said of a traveller. 110k -2-^31!^ bb03 &.tj03 2Xmi 2f3:33 Spit on the ground ; I will come back soon before it dries. 111. 2^23^ 2^i^ 23 A sharp word cuts a stone. The opposite of ‘ Hard words break no bones.’ The Syrians consider an insult worse than a blow. ^ These to no. 128 inclusive are from Socin. PROVERBS. 357 AI’P.] 112. 2a : 2ao3 uXi.4 JaS 2^3 2-^^ ^ I* ’/•i» / ^ #•' remains long in one place it stinks. ' Familiarity breeds con¬ tempt ’ ? 113. A short iwoverh is siveet. ‘ Short and • / • / II »* -*• sweet.’ 114. 2*103 Imi : We have stripped the ass, his tail remains. We have broken the neck of the task. 125. jjbaX K. The sun has risen. [Same as no. 37.] 126. Jlip IpOtSbA The heat is burning the bald mens heads. Said sarcastically of a very cold place. 127. IJOoJOa liiao ^oat 2-^ 2-^^^ 2^32 U. A deserted “ J /V «(W • I T- I 'T- T ^ 7 • ♦ • • I mill has two hoppers [see no. 44]. Said of a poor room which yet has some one good thing in it. 128. uOIOXI^ His pocket has a hole in it. Said of a spendthrift. 129. o{!^ 2o6>dp cock’s world is the dung¬ hill. Said of a narrow-minded person. 130. 2^ . 2^0 ^ 2^2 ^ ■ • < * « II .» » • ■ • . r • ' 23^. ;i:ao ^ 6^'^ iieost 2mo 2.L» .^iaZ i.iJao ,• ,1 It* \ ■ I ~ ,1 « 7 " • crpjja cp Par K. A man mai'i'ied two wives, Khana and ,> It* \r • ‘ 0 ’ Mana. Khana was old and Mana young. Khana plucked the black bail's out of his beard, and Alana the white hairs, till his beard tuas finished. Said of a man who tries to please everybody and pleases none. ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. P. 6, 1. 2, add (also 1. 21, 22, for make, read makes; for Jamel, Jamal, p. 7, 1. 7, after sounded, add unless final. p. 10, par. (7), add There are no half vowels for Shva ; thus is hm not bene. The conjunction O and is sometimes pronounced ive in Al. 1. 23, for § 37 6, read § 87 b. W p. 16, sub fine, add In writing O.S. the Eastern Syrians use the following : — OOJ or oaf, both pronounced how, used before a relative and when = ille ; OOf or 007, • ft ^ both pronounced u, used as a copula, the Of being often omitted, as for OCJI ^ or 001 he is [food; 007, pronounced hn, =iste. Also 0u007 , pronounced huyu, =. he is. The feminine usage is similar. eternity, used p. 27, 1. 8, add A4 m. f. night = 0. S. m. (for both as abs. and constr. state; perhaps also yXyOS f. ease, relief, lit. wide¬ ness, and 7y suddenly, Ti. again, pp. 165, 166, for see p. 308. See also Proverb 20 (p. 347). p. 31, 1. 9, after genders, add and numbers ; rarely a superfluous Dalath follows. 1. 22, add Al. the ivest ; so Al. the east. 1. 24, for read p. 32, 1. 6, for read p. 34, 1. 1, add also U. ; after head, add and temples. 1. 6, for (a bird), read a lizard. sub fine, add to masculines calico, braid, -^jiCObO fist. 360 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. -4 ' pp. 35, 36, add iSs is sometimes fern, in N.S. Add also country, m., rarely f. N. S.: m. O.S.; metal hoivl, f. N.S. = ^ m. 0. S.; laOD kiln, m. O. S., f. N.S. ; seat, f. N.S. = O.S. ilsoioA m. ; rain, f. U.K., m. Q., O.S. ; lanii), is m. in Baz, f. in Q. The following are m. in Q. p. 37, 1. 15, % is m. and f. in Q. 1. 18, is also found. Add to fern. ■A from kid. p. 38, add f. frog, tadimle ; f. and or all = corner ; the fern, of is also * $ p. 41, 1. 18, add also ; cf. p. 334. pp. 41, sqq., add to regular plurals : — (1) m. braid; % m. calico; O.S., also ^ K., a herb found * ^ ^ ^ •• in K., Numb. xi. 5 ; loins. ;:so«s mulberry, makes ill Q. (2) i?? Al. breast; Al. m. master (also 3, see § 19) ; U. Tkh. breast ; 3ad m. basket (with handle), in Al. : elsewhere 1. is rarely 1, and in Al. 3 ; is also 1 in Q. etc.] ^-!X3 head, " ** * mouth, in Al. take 2. is also 1]. (2*) JXiOSkdiJ m. (U. form) evening, sometimes; K. m. also takes 3. (3) f- watch of the night, also 1 ; ^isboS K. O.S., or K. owl f. ; f. time, in Tkh. Al. p. 70; i. fruit stone, also 1; f. kneading tray; 2303 f. pearl ; f. marsh ; f. treasure, also 1 ^ * It * [also f- 1] ; (a large bird) ; 23 OA f .fiour bin; f. loooden disc used in the game of ‘ touch,’ also the holder of the disc ; f. garden bed; m. f. sledge, also 1 ; f, leather bag, also 1; 2>V5P m. f. rain ; [^JJ> y f. grindstone, also takes 1] ; (N.S. >3, O.S. ^) heel, also 1; 2mO^ m. candle, in Ti., elsewhere 1; 235m ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 361 m. table cloth, table set for meals, in Al., elsewhere 1; f. arch; Al. shij) {= U.). (4) Q. husband {= U-) takes 1] ; m. loalnut tree (with 1, walnut) ; (p. 44) in Q., in the sense stacked hay ; Al. Ti. m. arm ( = p. 46) ; so Q. but with pi. as U. ; iaoa]p^ m. K. simmer IKisturage (the camp), also 1; m. kinsman, also 1; m. loedding feast, also 1 ; ISaMm m. leaven, also 1 ; [25aV m. mountain, O.S., also takes 1] ; m. herb, also 1; 23X0^ f. noon, midday meal, also 1; m. •pocket hole ; ni. U. buffalo bull, also 1 (= K.); m. cotton plant, O.S. ; m. dough, also 1; 2Lofi> f. edge of a roof ; ;do6 nostril, in Al. (also 5) ; 2*^ m. hamstring ; 395 K. m. porch ; W m. summer, O.S., also 1 ; f. nest, O.S., also 3 ; [«? also takes 4 in the sense of head] ; m. door post, in U. ; also 1 in Q. ; (p. 46) in Q. makes 5 m. he goat, also 1, Turk. f {= O.S. J^iS). (5) (or ^W^) K. shadoiv, = O.S. % m. curtain, usually 1; wisp of hair (with 1, head of grain)', [?^ 2:^ OS Al. also take 1]. (8) Tkh. f. present § 45 f.; [<^30^^ also takes 6]; -icaLJQj ^ * * * f. grandmother, in Al. (9) 2^^^^ f* shrub, also sleeve ; 2^fX^ f. ewe lamb (one year old) ; y. 0 y, *0 '0 f. Al. female companion, § 17 ; K. f . midioife ( = 2^ ^ U.) ; 2^3^^ Al. f. round cake ( = 2ll33k^ U.) ; [in Q. the sing, of 2ls3303 is also and 2^303^]. 0 S. GR. 46 362 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. p. 42, 1. 2, for 8 lbs., read 4 lbs. p. 45, Uo. also f. ; for ^ f- thigh, read L rump (half) ; so p. 47 ; for read 230^3^ (singular rare) ; is fem. p. 46, in Q. is an axle; for read (p. 338); for 230 D, 2a333 is used in Q. ; 2^^ is fem. ■ x. ) 1 j,, I p. 50, add f. knife, pi. (Turk.) ; for in Q. they say f * (first Zlama). p. 51, in Q. makes also t' p. 52, 1. 1, add Singular in Q. also kernel. m K. i. fever, and f. end, have no pi. ; the latter borrows that of 2^0a3um2 . • f p. 53, add In Q. K. the masculine forms f (also looaSsS, ;s.», are also used ; in Q. fpO 3^3 is a hazel nut. Ill 4t 1. 7, for >^3^3 read -5^3A3. suh fine, add pea, pi. and 6. p. 54, 1. 10, iixiasoois is used in Q. for a little girVs trousers. . ' p. 55, 1. 20, for (O.S. u) read (O.S. u3 ). p. 56, par. (12), for Bas, read Baz ; add is also used. p. 58, par. (5), add high spirited (as a horse), VoSa speckled, Al. lame, make fem. in 2-;- . par. (7), in Al. makes fem. par. (8), add heathen, and 23&^ unclean, do not take the euphonic vowel in the feminine. suh fine, for absolute, read limited, p. 59, 1. 8, for 2^a4, read ;A6A, ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 368 p. 64, In Al. the K. feminines are used, except for nine. But Sud is used before • /^ _ _ " * ^ p. 69, add Al. or Al. p. 70, 1. 13, add to the list Tkh. f. time, Tkh. f. id. p. 74, Sachau gives for Al. m., yiCT^Ai^ f. (ilei) ; m. ♦s^OfiSOOCT) f. p.* 75, sub fine, add But in Al. is kmele. I p. 79, L 9, for read ^ p. 83, Also «s^OO]l^ wfiLSk!!^ Al. (paradigm form). p. 96, iMl is used alone for the infin. in AL, but also . p. 99, 3CXIm. Imperat. also inAl. asO.S. p. 100, Sachau gives for Al. (/ale for 3 sing., but gdlitiin 2 pi., gdli 3 m. pL, gdlei 3 f. pi. ; glele for 3 sing. pret. p. 104, In Al. verbs in first present and pret. are often treated as if ; as for slimele. The pi. imperat. is also Al. p. 112, 1. 1, 2, for ^ read throughout (cf. p. 322). p. 119, 2- In AL, imperative also uSf , «• #1 p. 120, f ^S2 , Past part. AL i p. 126, . In AL pret. also ojAjo).. (first Zlama) ; with fern, object ' I* ; the verbal noun jAaoi is much used by itself as a noun of action. p. 131, also used in AL The verbal noun in AL is ^o^lsp. , second Zlama p. 134, In AL for I sheiv her, we have also (p. 81, note). p, 137, So in AL uS wfiUJJt is he left me as well as I left. p. 156, 1. 5, for read • -^dd to Alqosh adverbs : (both 3) to¬ gether, apart, immediately, perhaps (p. 203, 1. 4), XLai^ and 2a^ very, (lekun) and OOkOi^ perhaps. 364 GRAMMAR OF VERNACULAR SYRIAC. uiOIS thereafter, early (p. 290), uiCXti IV hy, or someiohat, near. p. 193, 1. 7, for ?7w, read tyih. iiK • ' i ' '' - p. 201, 1. 16, for read or (Arab.), p. 209, 1. 4, for 2^0g read 1. 12, for 7'ead ♦^OaOI. ^ ^ ^ ^ * p. 225, 1. 5, The U. agent of ^0 6e extinguished, to die (p. 103), is f . p. 232, add ;dofu green, Al. p. 235, 1. 16, for ;b?? read p. 249, subfile, for a calf, read an arm; for amulet, read armlet, p. 250, 1. 22, for read p. 258, 1. 6, for voad (Arab. CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. & C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. Date Due