J >-> 2.3 LIBRARY OF THE Theological Seminary, PRINCETON, N.J. Case, ..D 3 70.9.. Shelf, Sccr.j # liooki S ■ Digitized by the Internet Archive , in 2016 https://archive.org/details/chinachinesethei02sirr CHINESE RESEARCHES, ANECDOTES, AND REFLECTIONS, Commernal anli polituaL A chiel Moa$ ’mang ye takiu’ notes, And nov) he ’ll print them.’ CHINA AND THE CHINESE: THEIR RELIGION, CHARACTER, CUSTOMS, AND MANUFACTURES : THE EVILS ARISING FROM THE OPIUM TRADE: - WITH A GLANCE AT OUR EELIGIOUS, MORAL, POLITICAL. AND COMMERCIAL INTERCOURSE WITH THE COUNTRY. HENRY CHARLES SIRR, AI.A., OF Lincoln’s inn, barrister-at-law. VOL. II. LONDON: Wm. S. ORR & CO., AAIEN CORNER, AND 147, STRAND. MDCCCXLIX. LONDON ; PRINTED BY STEWART AND UDRRAV. OLD BAILEY. CONTENTS TO VOL. II. CHAPTER L Paper — Made eighteen hundred years ago — Tradition of the Mandarin who made the discovery — Paper made from various substances — Ancient Chinese author — Ink, when first used and how made — Chinese receipt for the preparation of ink — Pens, and mode of writing — Printing — Mode of cutting characters — Bookbindings — Chinese literary works page 1 CHAPTER II. Antiquity of Chinese Music — Musical instruments — Music of the Chinese — Chinese airs 14 CHAPTER III. New Year — Observances on the last day of the Old Year — New Year’s Day — Decorative inscriptions — King of the beggars — Koo-tow on New Year’s Day to the Yellow Screen — Complimentary calls and visits — Suspension of business during the holidays — Feast of lanterns — Description of the same at Pekin in the seventeenth century . 27 CHAPTER IV. Woman — Her social and moral position in China — Want of education — Traditions of the subjugation of China — Maimed feet — Personal ap- pearance — Length of nails — Women’s apartments — Toilet-tables — Smoking — Marriage — Wives — Empress of China — Handmaids — Children of wives and concubines — Authority of parents over children — Infanticide — Foundling hospitals — Extracts from an ancient Chinese philosopher upon the manner of governing the house, and the women’s apartments 35 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Written characters used by the Chinese — Number of them — Various styles of writing — Language — The four different dialects ; the Kou-ou-en, Ou-en-te-hang, Kou-ha-na, and the Hi-an-tang, or patois 59 CHAPTER VI. Knowledge of the Healing Art — Strange ideas of the human frame — The pulse — Anatomical plates — Circulation of the blood — Internal struc- ture — Surgery — Dislocation of the spine — Broken ribs — Father Kipa’s account — Scarification — Acupuncture , when first known to Euro- peans — Application of caustics — The Moxa — ^Venesection — Midwives — Drugs — Extraordinary cataplasm — Styptics — ^Fees of medical men — Medical works — Diseases prevalent in China — Specimen of Chinese semeiology 65 CHAPTER VII. Literature of the Chinese — Exammation of aspirants for literary honors — Writing of Confucius — Treatise on Filial Duty, or the Seaou-kin — Honors bestowed on the family of the Sage — Period of his death — Number of descendants — A Chinese Novel, entitled Chow-an-se, or the "Widower turned Philosopher — Specimen of the Moral Tales of the Chinese — Original Tale, translated expressly for this work — Poetical Writings — Specimens — Dramatic Writings — Tragedy and Farce . 82 CHAPTER VIII. Religion of the Chinese — Three religious sects — Cou-fou-tsze, or State Religion — Priests — Rites and ceremonies — Prayer of the Emperor Kang -he — Extract from the Chu-king, by Confucius — The followers of Lao-kiun, or Taou — Precepts and doctrines — Joss-houses — Decora- tions and idols — Demon mode of worship — Religious observances and processions — The followers of Foo, or Buddha — Beliefs — Doctrines — Precepts and commandments — Transmigration of souls — Anecdotes — Temples — Mode of worship — Priests and Nuns — Settlement of Jews — Mahomet’s followers 145 CHxVPTER IX. Worshipping at the Tombs — Tombs and sepulchres — Extraordinary tomb at Sung-kiang-foo — Coffins — Funeral ceremonies — Rites in the Hall of Ancestors — Time of mourning fixed by the laws of the Empire — Tradition of Ven-kong — Mourning colour — Funeral of Ta-yang-ze, the Emperor’s eldest brother 174 CONTENTS vii CHAPTER X. Christianity when introduced into China — Ancient monument, bearing date 781 — Inscription — Nestorians — Bishops or Patriarchs — Progress of Christianity — Emissaries from the Pope sent in 1246 — Build a church — Monte Corrino translates a portion of the Scriptures into the Mongolian tongue — 1565, many Jesuits in China — Eicci converts the Mandarin Seu and his daughter — Build churches at Nan-kin and Eoo-chow-foo — Ricci received at the Court of Pekin — 1611, Ricci dies at Pekin — His character — Edict promulgated in 1627 — Death of Seu — 1645, Schaal commanded by the Emperor to correct the Calendar — Schaal appointed tutor to the young Emperor, Kang-he — Assassinated in 1669 — Verbeist taken into favour by Kang-he — Honors paid to him — 1669, French Jesuits arrive in China — Epistle from Louis the Four- teenth to the Emperor Kang-he — 1692, Edict of Toleration — Romish Church built at Pekin — Worship performed there in 1702 — De Toumon sent as Legate to China by Pope Clement in 1704 — Religious differences among the various fraternities of Roman Catholics — 1710, De Toumon made a Cardinal — His death — 1715, Mezzabarba sent as Legate by the Pope — Missionary conduct in China — Ripa’s account — 1721, the Emperor’s resolve — 1724, Edict of the Emperor Yung-ching — 1732, Father Kagler appointed President of the Astronomical board — 1736, Persecution commenced under Keen-lung — 1747, Bishop Sanz and others put to death — 1784, Priests seized at Huk-wang — 1811, Chinese priest apprehended — Missionaries put to death — None allowed at the Court of Pekin — 1820, Sir A. Ljungstedt’s account of the number of Roman Catholics — Account given by L’Annales de la Foi — Bishoprics and Apostolic vicariates — Mssionaries of the present day — Colonial chaplain — Bishop of Hong-Kong — Members of missionary societies in China — Edict issued in March 1846, granting privileges to the Roman Catholics — Secret societies of China — Local ordinance — Chinese document found at Macao — Their origin and progress up to this period — Our compredore — The tendency of the conduct of pro- fessing Christians, upon the Chinese, religiously and morally . 186 CHAPTER XL Our Commercial intercourse with China from 1596 up to the present period — Bond given by our Merchants to cease trading in or intro- ducing Opium into the Celestial Empire — The pledge violated-— Official reasons for commencing the War -with China — Imperial Edicts —The Treaty of Nankin . 236 VIU CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. (toveknment — Emperor — ilinistry — Various tribunals — Espionage — Government of Cities — The Penal Code of China — Punishments — For various crimes, and the use of opium — Laws for presenting Petitions — Maxims of the Emperor Kang-he — Code of Laws — Pekin Gazette — Prohibitions connected with those holding the rank of Man- darins — Slavery — Laws for slaves — Laws for servants — Price of slaves ........... 358 CHAPTER XIII. Ranks and Honorary Distinctions — The Emperor — Dress of the Royal Family — Classes of Mandarins — The symbols, or buttons, which belong to the several grades — Costume — Distinguishing marks — Military Mandarins, their buttons and robes — Scholars, the button belonging to each class — Seals of office — Legend — The only hereditary nobles of China 376 CHAPTER XIV. Revenue of the Emperor of China — How obtained — Announcements in the Pekin Gazette — Revenue of China fallen off — Memorial for a Property Tax — China retrograding — Coinage — Ancient copper coins — Tael and sycee silver — Dollars, their value — Local regulations — Forged dollars — Exportation of silver — Silver mines — Value of gold — Ancient silver and gold coins — Earthen coin — First paper currency in China — Description — Banks and Bankers — Bills of Exchange — Oriental Bank at Hong-Kong — Money-shops and changers — PaAvnbrokers — Inequality of wealth in China — Revenue Return of Chinese Empire in 1847 — Revenue and Expenditure of Hong-Kong for 1848 . . 384 CHAPTER XV. Population of China — Canton — National virtue — Maxims inculcating the practice of filial duty — National character and vices — Fatalism of the Chinese — Anecdote — National character displayed during the War — Diseases prevalent in China among the natives .... 415 CHAPTER XVI. Extraordinary Buildings — Porcelain tower at Nan-kin — Temple of Ho-nan — Pagodas — Monuments — Bridges — Triumphal arches — Im- perial Palace at Pe-kin — Palace of the Emperor at Earth’s Repose — Palace at Je-hol— Announcements in the Pekin Gazette— Burning- glass presented by the King of England to the Emperor of China 426 ERRATA TO VOL. II. Page 15, line 4, for “ has ” read “ have.” ,, 17, — 6, for “ is ’’ read “ are.” ,, 37, — 8, for “ we ” read “ us.” ,, 38, — 31, for “ effluvia ” read " effluvium. CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTER I. Paper — Made eighteen hundred years ago — Tradition of the Mandarin who made the discovery — Paper made from various substances — Ancient Chinese author — Ink, when first used and how made — Chinese receipt for the preparation of ink — Pens, and mode of writing — Printing — Mode of cutting characters — Bookbindings — Chinese literary works. The Chinese affirm that eig-hteeii centuries ago they had discovered the secret and means of manufacturing* paper j before that invention^ fliej used to inscribe written characters on thin strips of bamboo^ or sheets of metal, using* a style, or pen of iron for the purpose of marking* the characters ; and tliis, they assert, had been the practice of their nation from the most remote ages. Before the art of paper-making* had arrived at perfection, the Chinese adopted the practice of writing* upon white silk, or cotton, with a bamboo pen ; this was found a more convenient method than writing* either on strips of bamboo or sheets of metal, as the silk or linen could be folded into a small compass. In the first centui*}' of the Christian era, during* the Han dynasty, a mandarin, who was attached to the VOL. II. B 2 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Emperor’s com’t, and whose name was Sai-lun^ dis- covered the art of paper-making-. Tradition affirms that this mandarin took the hark of trees, pieces of old silk, and hempen cloth, and boiled them dovm until they came to the consistence of glue, or paste ; he then spread the mass in thin layers upon the earth, and the sun’sVays dried up the moisture, leaving’ a thin compact substance : thus the first paper was made. Shortly afterwards, the means were discovered by which a smooth surface is given to paper. Kao-Song, who was the third Emperor of the Tang dynasty, had paper made from hemp, for its peculiar strength and durability, and this was used for the secret official despatches. The manufactm-e of paper gradually improved, until we find Father Eipa, in 1705, speaking of the paper of Corea, re- marks upon the large size of the sheets, and dura- bility of the texture the latter arises from the material of which it is made, which is the inner part of the cocoon of the silk-Avorm. In ancient times, the Coreans used to pay their tribute to the Emperor of China in this paper. ChoAV-ouen, a Chinese author of antiquity, asserts, that in the earliest ages there was a method known of manufacturing a sort of paper fi-om the refuse of silk and cotton, which they could neither wind off nor spin ; but this secret was lost, or the method fell into disuse during the various revolutions which occurred previous to the Tsin dynasty. It is also asserted, that the Cliinese have a method * Father Eipa ought to have been an Irishman, as he often perpetrates a “ bull vrriting of the Corea paper, he remarks, the sheets are as large as blankets. MATERIALS USED IN MAKING PAPER. 3 of g'iving' paper the appearance of having* been sil- vered, without employing* that metal, the honour of this invention they attribute to the Emperor Kao-ti, of the Tsi dynast}% Paper is manufactured from various materials, each province or district having* its own peculiar manufacture, that of Corea we have described, in Fo-kein province, paper is made from young* soft bamboo, in the province of Che-keang*, it is made from paddy straw, in the province of Kiang*- Nan, it is made from the refuse silk, and this paper is very fine and delicate, being* highly valued for writing complimentar}" inscriptions upon. The best and finest paper is made near Nan-kin, from the pulp of the sycamore tree, and the paper which we erroneously call rice paper, is made from the fine inner bark of a tree, unknovm to Europeans ; the Chinese also use, for the coarser description of paper the old fibres of hemp, and the harks of various trees. In an old Chinese work, full instructions are given as to the art of paper-making 5 and we must confess om* astonishment is great, that the Chinese have remained so long* stationary in a manufacture which they have been practising* for eighteen hundred centuries, as the paper made in China is far inferior to that which is manufactured in Europe. Instructions are given in the Chinese Avork above alluded to, for the method to be employed in drying* paper, and as the Chinese, invariably folloAv old cus- toms, never attempting* to improve upon them, the mode here alluded to is practised at this time. “ A hollow wall must be built, hollow as a young* moon of three days birth, the sides of this must be B 2 4 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. white as a fleecy cloud, at one end of the hollow wall must be an opening, and a hollow tube or pipe must run along the wall, to impart the genial warmth of a neighbouring furnace or stove ; at the other end there must be an opening in the form of the moon at the full, through this the vapour of smoke must escape. Silken, hempen, or bamboo lines must reach from end to end, and on these lines, the sheets of pa])er must be spread to dry.” To size the paper and render it fit for ink, thej' use the following preparation, they make a glue, some- what similar to isinglass, from fish bones, these the}' chop up very small, and soak the mass in water which is continually renewed : Avhen all oily impurity is extracted they add a due proportion of alum, which has been dissolved. Over the vessel in which this mixture is, a rod is laid, a cleft-stick is used for hold- ing the sheet of paper during the process of dipping* ; as soon as the paper has been sufiiciently saturated, it is withdrawn, by gently rolling it round the stick which has been laid over the vessel; the sheet of paper is afterwards hung to dry either near a furnace, as before described, or in the sun. Tradition affirms that the use of ink was known to the Chinese 1,120 years before the Christian era, and the following trite but true remark, was made by the celebrated and learned Emperor, You -Yang, who reigned at the period before named : — As the stone from which ink is made, to blacken engraved letters, can never become Avhite ; so a heart, defiled with impurity, will always retain its black hue.” CHINESE MODE OF MAKING INK. 5 The stone or earth here alluded to, is termed mee, by the Chinese, and is mixed with an equal quantity of water, being* thus formed into a liquid sort of paste. It is recorded that diulng* the Tang* dynasty, which was 625 years before the Christian era, the King* of Corea used to send ink as well as paper, in payment of tribute to the Emperor of China. This ink was made from lamp-black, procured by biu*ning* aged pine-trees, and this substance was dissolved in size, made from hartshorn : this ink had a most brilliant lustre, appearing* as if the character had been var- nished. This Corean ink, excited the envy of the Chinese, as it was superior to their own, and they gradually improved upon their own manufacture, until in the^ tenth century of the Christian era, they made the ink which is now in use among them. This ink is procured from lamp-black, which is ob- tained from various descriptions of wood, by burning* the wood whilst oil is poured upon it to ignite the flame ; during the period this mass is cooling, perfume is poured among* it, to correct the unpleasant effluvia arising* from the burnt oil. The mass is then pul- verized, in a brazen vessel, water being* mixed with it, until the liquid is the consistence of thick paste; this material is then put into moulds of various forms, which are tightly compressed, and are placed upon stoves to di'}’. When all moisture has completely evaporated, the ink is turned out of the moulds, being* now a compact, hard, stony substance, requiring* to be mixed Avith water for use ; and knoAvn to most of our 6 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. readers as Indian, or Chinese ink. There is also a red ink made in China exactly in the above manner, with the exception of the coloring- and purifying-; the first is done by means of a powerful dye, the latter, by re- peated burning-s, and working- the aslies after each successive burning-. The best ink is made in the pro^-ince of Kiang--Nan, but whether the excellence arises from the superior skill of the workmen, or a peculiar wood being- em- ployed, we have never been able to ascertain. The following is a Chinese receipt for making- the best description of ink : — ‘‘ Take ten ounces of lamp-black made from pines, the same quantity of the plants Ho-heang- and Kan- suang, add juice of ginger, of the pods of Chu-kia- tsar-ko, five ounces; boil these four ingredients, in a brazen vessel filled with pure water, until all the good is extracted, pour the liquor into a porcelain I'essel. The liquor must settle, then put on the stove to dissolve until it becomes the consistence of new honey ; then to ten ounces of this mixture add four ounces of glue called 0-kiao ; this glue must be impregnated with three leaves of gold, the size of the palm of a man’s hand, and two of silver the same size. To this mixture put ten ounces of lamp-black, beating- the whole together with a flat wand of bam- boo, then pour the liquid into moulds, and bury the moulds in the earth for the space of five days, when dig it up, take the ink from out the moulds, and it will be fit for use.” The Chinese believe that this inky substance has certain medicinal virtues if kept until it begins to lose its colour, then it is administered INTRODUCTION OF THE ART OF PRINTING. 7 to adults in cases of dysentery, and to children who suffer from convulsions. The ink which is used in printing’, is a liquid which is made from lamp-black, which has been pulverized and exposed to the sun’s influence, it is then diluted with pure water : great care being- observed that no lumps or gritty substance is intermixed; a small proportion of glue or isinglass is then added, which has been previously melted, the hquid reduced to a proper consistency is left to cool, and when cold is immediately used. The Chinese do not use pens for writing, but employ a species of hair-pencil, the handle of which is a fine reed, the pencil being made from the soft hair of an animal ; usually a young rabbit. The pen, or brush, is held in a perpendicular position, as if the paper were to be perforated, they write from the top to the bottom of the page, in short lines, and like the Hebrews commence writing- from the -right to the left, thus the beginning of a Chinese book, would be the termination of ours. The Chinese lay claim to the art of printing, which they assert was commonly practised in China, in the eighth century. In the 3Iong-hM-pi-tdn, vol. xviii. p. 81, we read the memoirs of Tchin-kouo, who received his doctor’s degree a.d. 1056, (Biblioth^que Koyale, Fourmont’s property. No. 394, vol. xxiv.) : — “ They printed with engraved plates of wood at a period when the Thang- dynasty (founded a.d. 618) had not yet lost its splendour, (alluding to the em- ployment of stereotype plates of wood under the 8 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. preceding* d}^nasty). After Fong*-ing*-wang’ had com- menced printing* the 5 King*, or canonical books, it became an established custom to publish by the same process all the books of law, as well as historical works. “ In the period King*-li (between a.d. 1041 and 1049), one of the common class of people named Pi-ching*, by trade a smith, invented another mode of printing* by means of plates called Ho-pant or move- able plates, (i. e, formed of types,) which expression is still employed to this day to desig*nate the plates used at the imperial printing* establishment in the Wouing*- tien palace at Pekin. The following* is the description of his process : — He took some very fine plastic clay, of which he made reg*ularly formed plates, about the thickness of the pieces of money called Tsien or cash, and upon these he eng*raved the characters in most frequent use. ^^For each character he made a separate seal or t}^pe, and afterwards baked them in the fire to harden them. He then placed on the table, an iron plate which he covered with some very fusible cement composed of resin, wax, and lime. When he wished to print, he took a frame of iron, divided within longitudinally from top to bottom (for the Chinese write from above downwards) by bands of the same metal, and then laying* it upon the iron plate already covered with cement, he arranged the types in it, placing* them towards the right, one against the other. Each case, filled with types thus arranged, formed one plate. PROCESS OF PRINTING BY TYPES. 9 This plate Avas now placed near the fire so as to melt the cement a little^ and then with a plate of wood well planed {un taquoir) he pressed strongly upon the collection of types, which, being sunk into the cement by this means, became level and even as grindstone. “ Were it only to print two or three copies of the same work, this method would neither be convenient nor expeditious ; but when it was required to print tens, hundreds, and thousands of copies, the operation proceeded with very great rapidity. They generally pre- pared two iron plates and two frames or forms, so that Avhilst printing' with one of the two plates, the other might be supplied with its proper composition, and the printing from the former being finished, the latter, already prepared, replaced it immediately. They thus alternately made use of the two plates, and the printing’ of each leaf was effected in the tAvinkling* of an eye. For each character they had always many similar types, and as many as twenty proofs {i. e. twenty duplicate types) of the most frequently used cha- racters, so as to be able to reproduce such words as might be found many times repeated in the same plate. When not making' use of these duplicates, they preserved them Avrapped up in paper. The characters or types Avere classified according' to their tones, and all those of the same tone Avere dis- posed in one particular case. If by chance he met Avith a rare character Avhich had not been prepared beforehand, he engraved it immediately, baked it with a straAV fire, and could thus make use of it in a minute. 10 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. The reason which deterred the inrentor from making- use of wooden types was, that, the tissue of wood, being* sometimes porous, sometimes hard, if once impregnated with water, they would have been uneven ; moreover, they would have stuck to the cement in such a manner, that they could not have been removed ag*ain, so as to serve for a new com- bination : it was much better therefore to make use of t.-v^ies of baked earthenware. When he had completed the printing* of one plate, he heated it ag*ain to melt the cement, and then with the hand cleared away the types, Avhich separated of themselves without retaining* the smallest particle of cement or du*t. “ When Pi-ching died, his friends inherited his types, and still preserve them most carefully.” The method now adopted in China is the following, — the work is transcribed in legible characters upon sheets of thin, transparent paper, the paper is then pasted on wood, the eng*raver then cuts away the surrounding wood, leaving* the characters in relief. From the nature of the languag’e, the art of printing does not appear capable of being materially improved. As the Chinese language is composed of between seventy and eig*hty thousand characters, each cha- racter representing* a single word, it would appear almost impracticable to use moveable type ; therefore the plan is adopted of cutting* in relief, on a very hard wood, the whole of the characters of the work about to be printed. The Chinese nation occasionally adopt the European mode of printing, the difference con- sisting in the type, which the}" make of wood, whilst ours are of metal : this method is only adopted for MODE OF FEINTING A WOEK. 11 short, official notifications, or for works of small im- portance. When a g'overnment notification is re- quired in great haste, they trace out the characters in yellow wax instead of wood, and this is done with the utmost celerity. When about to print a work, or notification, the printer takes a slab of the characters, and with a hair brush besmears the slab with the ink pre\dously de- scribed ; the paper is then pressed upon the slab, receiving- the impression : one coating- of the printing-- ink is sufficient for two or three impressions ; but as Chinese paper is exceedingly transparent, and being of too porous a character to receive impressions on both sides, it becomes requisite to fold the paper, print- ing only on one side. These doubled sheets are then stitched together, the fold being at the outer edge, whilst usually coarse pasteboard, plain and figured, are used for the covers of ordinary works 5 but the mandarins and wealthy classes indulge in gorgeous bindings for their books, and are as particular in the external appearance of their book-shelves as any European nouveau riche. The bookbinding usually held in the highest estimation, are red brocades, with g’old and silver fig-ures ; beautifully flowered silks, satins, or gold and silver tinsel. The Chinese being essentially a literary and reading- nation, never destroy the slabs on which the cha- racters of a work are cut ; these slabs are preseiwed with g-reat care, and the place where they are depo- sited is referred to in the preface of the work. The Chinese mode of printing- enables one workman of tolerable ability, to print, or work off, in the course of 12 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. ten hours, from six to eight thousand sheets, and there does not exist any necessity for proofs being sent for author’s correction.* Books are sold at a very low price, consequently are within the reach of the million, and the taste for reading manifested by the Chinese may be very cheaply gratified, through the means of itinerant circulating libraries, that are carried about by the proprietors in boxes, which are slung over their shoulders. The borrower either leaves the value of the book in the librarian’s possession, or sits doAvn by his side, peruses the book, pays two cash for the loan (less than one farthing), returns the volume, and Avalks off to his daily occupation. Although the general taste for reading must be commended, we regret to state that this taste must be frequently condemned, as it is deplorable in the extreme, to witness the depravity of feeling’ publicly evinced in China by the circulation of an enormous number of obscene publications, and inde- cent engravings, which are eagerly sought after, and are devoured mentally with greedy avidity. The Chinese books usually contain little matter — ive allude to novels, poetry, and tales ; the scientific works are frequently exceedingly voluminous j the ^^Ency- clopaedia” consisting of six thousand volumes, the abridgment being compressed into four hundred and fifty. The Emperor Keen-lung’ had in his library one hundred and forty-seven works on Chinese history and * Would that some benevolent being would devise a plan to avoid the constant blunders made after authors correction ; we confess that we are tetchy, and how we do rave and tear when we see blunders printed, in statu quo, after we have lost time and temper in correcting proofs CHINESE LITERARY WORKS. 13 politics, and the present Emperor Taou-Kwang- is said to possess more than two millions and a half of books, on various subjects. Few philosophical works are now, or have been ^vvitten for centui’ies past, as the Chinese assert that the ancient sag’es have embodied in their works all that can possibly be known or explained, and would look upon a new work, written on philoso- phical or scientific subjects, as impertinent presumption j therefore no prog’ress has been made in scientific researches for ages. New novels, tales of fiction, and poetry, are constantly appearing’ ; the works of Con- fucius are continually reprinted 5 and compilations are also made fi’om the writings of renowned sages, and philosophers of antiquity. Although the Chinese in- dulge in lampoons and satirical sketches of public and official characters, which they paste upon the walls of houses in a conspicuous and public situation, there is but one newspaper published in the whole empire of China, and this is published at Pekin by the Emperoi'’s command. This Gazette contains various official noti- fications, such as imperial grants of land, remission of taxes, public acts, the day which has been selected by the Emperor for public execution to take place, the degradation of mandarins, and official servants, are here set forth ; the events of war are bombastically announced, which invariably represent the warlike prowess of the Celestial subjects, as g’reat and success- ful ) the official accounts contained in this Gazette, during the war, of the thousands upon thousands of Fan-quis” who were daily slain, and driven before their conquerors, were exceedingly astounding*, and the audacious mendacity of the Chinese most amusing*. 14 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTEE II. Antiquity of Chinese Music — Musical instruments — Music of the Chinese — Chinese airs. The Chinese claim the distinction of having* invented music^ as well as printing*, and many other arts and sciences 5 and if we may rely upon their traditional history, and vain boasting*, this science was, in olden times, and before the memory of man, brought to the very acme of perfection by them. It is certain, how- ever, that Confucius interested himself considerably about the cultivation and improvement of music, and his instructions and precepts are as highly prized upon this, as upon all other subjects, and deep regret is expressed, at the present day, for the loss of certain ancient treatises upon the subject. Far be it from us to dispute the right of the Celestial Empire to the credit and distinction which it claims ; but we must express our hope that the music at present in use is far dissimilar to celestial music ; at all events, it is very different from our own ideas of that which is pleasing* or melodious. The airs which are in general use amongst the Chinese, as sang or played by them upon their various instruments, with the exception of the hin, are acquired CHINESE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 15 by ear and by rote ; and many of their best performers extemporise; and sometimes these airs, sung’ by a good voice, or played by a skilful performer upon their instruments, has something agreeable, even to our European ears. A species of recitative is perceptible in the spoken language ; and is more marked in their calculations with the swan-paun, or calculating instru- ment, which are always aloud. The Chinese have a great variety, both of stringed and wind musical instruments, together with drums, symbols, timbrels, and bells. The most simple of the wind instruments is the Hwang-tei, or flute, which is made of bamboo, and is about two feet long ; having two embouchures, the first is much farther removed from the end than in our flutes, and the second is two inches farther down ; this last is covered by the in- ternal coating of a peculiar reed : the finger-holes are small, equidistant, and of equal calibre ; they are ten in number, of which the performer appears only to use six. The player is afforded the means of varying* the pitch, by changing the embouchure. The instru- ment is neatly bound round with silk at different places, in order to secure it against splitting ; and notwithstanding the labour which must be spent upon its construction, it may be purchased for about forty- five cents, or less than two shillings of our money. We find the performers upon the ffute in the north of China much superior to those at Canton, who are very mediocre indeed, and the instrument in their hands is very indifferent. The Heang-tei, or clarinet, comes next in rank, the stock of which is also made of bamboo, with a bell 16 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. and mouth-piece of copper ; to the latter is adapted a reed, like our own : there are eig-ht fing*er-holes, and , one of them for the thumb j and the bell is decorated with pendent silken ornaments. This appears to be the favourite instrument of the Chinese, being* used as the leader in all solemn ceremonies, and on all festive occasions ; it is considered equally indispen- sable in all congregations, either for profane or reli- gious purposes ; and it is remarkable for its sonorous and deafening* blasts. There are two or three varieties of horns ; one is somewhat similar in shape to the Heang*-tei, and is composed of copper. This instrument possesses the same peculiarity as om* trombone, the stem or tube being constructed, to admit of being extended or shortened at the pleasiu’e of the performer. The sound produced is very sombre and uninviting, but when contrasted with the tones of the heang*-tei, and performed with more piercing instruments, the effect is good. There is another horn, which in shape re- sembles a shepherd’s crook inverted, having* a bell attached to the end, and having* the same power of extension as described in the last instrument ; the tones of this horn are also very melancholy, and far from pleasing when used alone. The last wind instrument we shall describe is much more complicated than any of the preceding*, and may be fairly called a species of organ, composed of a series of tubes of unequal leng*ths, which are placed in a hollow chamber of semi-spherical form, to which is attached a mouth-piece, by means of which the performer’s mouth fills the chamber with air ; some of SUPERIORITY OF THE “KIN” INSTRUMENT. 17 the tubes have perforations near the chamber, which prevent them from sounding’, unless stopped by the performei’’s fing*er. They are set up at intervals, and in order, one standing’ alone, and the clusters increas- ing’ in progTessive ratio up to four. Great nicety and skill is required in the manag’ement and use of the pipes ,’ by stopping* some of them, the performer can produce most agreeable harmonies ; while regular harmonic divisions of eighths and twelfths seem to be caused by covering others, by blowing gently, or by increasing the force of the blast. Ag’ain, the per- former, by drawing his breath and stopping the per- forations, may, at his discretion, make any one of the tubes sound singly. Of all the stringed instruments in use amongst the Chinese, the Kin is by far the most agreeable, as well as the most difficult to acquire any degree of pro- ficiency in performing upon. It is only used by the best informed and most educated portion of society in China, and is looked upon by the literary world as their peculiar property, because tradition has con- nected it with Confucius and the ancient sages, who are said to have devoted much of their leisure hours in practising and using’ this instrument. The antiquity, however, of the Kin is carried back to ages much more remote than that of the philosopher in question, as the Chinese say they can trace it nearly to the common parent of mankind. The difficulty of acquiring a competent knowledge of this instrument, as well as the excessive intricacies of the system of notation used for the Kin, are the true reasons for its exclusiveness, as the middle classes VOL. II. c 18 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. and artizans could not afford sufficient time to become masters of it : some idea may be formed of tbe diffi- culty from the fact, that a Chinaman expends the continued toil of months in learning* one tune, and so gTeat is the fatig’ue and study requisite to become a scientific performer, that many individuals can only execute the most simple airs, learned by ear, without the slightest knowledge of notes, or the approved method of fingering. The Kin, or lute, is about four feet in length, made of woo-tung' wood, lacquered over, the upper surface is convex, and the lower plain, having* at the bottom two openings into cavities. There are attached to the smaller end seven silken strings, passing over a bridge, fixed three inches fi*om the wider end, and these are tightened by means of move- able jaed-stone pegs, to which are attached orna- mented silken tassels. The sounding-board is adorned by several mother-of-pearl studs, which are placed in a manner to mark off the leng’ths of the strings into equal parts of 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8. The instrument, when used, is laid across a table for the convenience of the performer. The execution is most complicated, at the same time that the performance is rendered most graceful by the varied method of touching the cords, and the greatest ingenuity and taste is displayed in the management of the instrument : the fingers of the left hand are made to slide in a most peculiar manner over the strings, and to execute motions and trills of an extraordinary nature. The flowery and symbolic language of the Chinese DIFFICULTY OF ACQUIRING THE USE OF THE “ KIN.” 19 has not only given an especial name to each par- ticular position of the hands^ but likewise denotes them by particular objects in nature. Thus one is the flowering’ lotus resting- upon the bosom of the still waters ; another, the industrious bee, collecting- her sweet food fi-om the delicious flowers of the earth ; a thii’d, a bird upon the wing-, in chase of the cicada j while a fourth is a silk-worm in the act of spinning- the cocoon ; and so on, to an incredible number. The notation for the -Kin is most complicated and difficult to acquire; a mass of characters represent one note, which is intended either to be the symbol of a particular cord, or of the fing-ering- either of the rig-ht or left hand, or possibly the stud marked upon the sounding--board, or the mode to be adopted in sliding- the hand over the string's, or, again, the pecu- liar method to be used in striking- the note, or if two notes should be struck at the same time. Tlie centre string- of the Kin is tuned a, and the two outer strings a fifth from it, and they are respec- tively a fourth from the next string- but one to each other. Another of the stringed instruments is called the Y-an-kin, and is strung with brass strings; it is a description of dulcimer, which the performer strikes with two hammers. The sounds thus produced from this instrument are pleasing- enough, being both melo- dious and harmonious. The Ur-heen, or fiddle, is one of the rudest instru- ments probably in existence. The everlasting bamboo is again brought into requisition, the sounding-board being made of it, in the shape of a small drum. •20 CHINA AND THE ^CHINESE. covered vdth the skin of a tan snake, througdi the upper portion of which is passed one end of a bamboo stick, which forms the neck or arm, at the other ex- tremity of the neck are inserted two long* bamboo peg’s, which serve to wind up or tig*hten the only two string’s this machine has, and which are tuned a fifth from each other. The how is made of bamboo, and its hairs are passed between the two string’s, which are remarkably close to each other, by reason of which g'reat difiiculty arises in producing* a sound from one, without touching* the other, which, if not happily effected, renders this description of music most excruciating’ to an unaccustomed ear. Some of the Chinese have spent so much time and patient exertions in practising* this wretched machine, that they have overcome the difficult task, and sometimes produce no despicable sounds. The Sau-heen is a g’uitar with three string’s, and is made of a particular wood, broug-ht from Ton-quin, not unlike our cherry wood. It is formed in the body like a drum, covered with the skin of the tan snake, painted over with dark brown and yellow lines, to this is attached a very long* and awkward-looking- neck, or arm, terminating’ in a curve. The string’s are tuned a fourth from each other. It often hap- pens that two of these instruments are performed on together, one performer playing* the air while the other improvised a running- accompaniment. The Pe-pa is a guitar with four strings, of a bladder-shaped form, is made of woo-tung wood, is three feet in length, and by far the most elegant, in appearance, of all the Chinese instruments. The THE “YUE-KIN” instrument. 21 sounding*-board is unvarnished, and nicely fitted into the hack, and the neck is terminated with a neatly- carved ivory-curved head ; the string’s are silken cords, screwed up hy four hamhoo peg’s. Twelve thin ham- hoo frets are neatly fastened on the plane surface. The outer string’s are tuned an octave to each other j the tuning-, therefore, very nearly resembles that of our own g’uitar ; this instrument is usually in vog’ue among’st the ladies, who accompany themselves upon it in their “ sing-songs among’st the male portion of the community it is also in use, the air being’ per- formed upon it, while the Sau-heen is adopted for an accompaniment. The Yue-kin is another g’uitar with four string’s, having’ a large circular body, about sixteen inches in diameter, and a short arm, about thirteen inches in length, terminated with an awkward thick head, with four rudely-cut bamboo pegs. It is made of the swan-ke wood, and its sounding-board is like that of the Pe-pa, unvarnished. The strings are strung in pairs, with a double distance between each pair j and each pair is tuned in unison with a fifth between each. Ten thin bamboo frets are marked off* on the face, and the performer produces sounds by striking the strings with his long nails, or a bamboo pectrum ; the tones thus produced are of a quick and sharp description. This instrument is used very much by the lower orders, who seem to delight much in its sounds, and a great deal of time is devoted by do- mestics to sing-song,” with its assistance, when they are allowed. The performer may fi’equently be seen near the domestic offices in the evening’, perched on a high bamboo chair, with his feet 22 CHUsA AND THE CHINESE. stuck upon the rim, and surrounded by his fellow- servants, lazily squatted, smoking’ their pipes, or more commonly, cigai’ettes, wliich are said to contain a cer- tain portion of accursed opium; while the master is deafened by the shrill tones of the yue-kiuj and the still shriller notes of the vocalist’s peculiar falsetto. The common notation used in China is very simple, which appears strange, when we reflect upon the intricate one adopted for the kin, as above described. In fact, it would appear to be too simple, as it is said that a performer can never acquire any knowledge of an air by reading it, unless he has previously heard it performed, this may be accounted for by what we have heard, namely, that in this common s}^stem of notation, there are not any signs to denote the time or even the value of the note, although we have frequently seen the Chinese marking time with their feet, as we do ourselves ; if this fact be true, it becomes at once apparent, the most skilful master of the art must be nonplussed in attempting to read such music. Drums are used in religious worship, and very large ones are hung- up in the temples, which the priests frequently strike, as if they considered that the sonorous sounds thereby produced were a valid sub- stitute for a repetition of vain prayers to unknown g’ods; alas! we fear that if such be really their opinion, there are too good grounds to believe that the idea is a correct one. Smaller drums are used in thea- trical representations, and ceremonial processions, on the former of these occasions they are placed sometimes upon the ground, at other periods they are fixed upon stands. A very diminutive drum is also common, which is formed out of a solid piece of wood of a DEUMS, GONGS, AND BELLS. 23 circular shape, which is hollowed out, and covered with horse-skin, rudely nailed onj these are beaten with sticks, and the sound is by no means delectable. Gong'S are of two sorts, the larg-er g'ong* is used chiefly on board of junks and smaller vessels, at morning' or evening*, or when they are about to set sail, at which time they invariably “ Chin chin joss f noise, therefore, appears essential in Chinese worship, the junks substituting; the g'ong' for the drum, which is used in the temple ; in this, however, the Chinese are not singular, as the worshippers of Buddh usually adopt this practice ; in Ceylon and India the tom-tom is the instrument employed for this purpose by the benighted heathen. The smaller gong, with a cylin- drical rim, emits a surprising* sound, which is heard at a great distance, and is commonly used as an accompaniment to the drum in stage performances, or public ceremonies. The bell seems to have been the first musical instrument invented or adopted by the Chinese j the regulations for its weight, size, proportions, and form, are all accurately delineated, and promulgated as law throughout the empire. This bell, then, by law takes the place and position occupied by the tuning-fork in Europe, with this advantage, that like the laws of the Medes and Persians, the sound thereof altereth not, whereas there has been great variation and difference between the pitch of the tuning-forks in use in Con- tinental Europe, and in England. Of the antiquity of this Chinese standard of tune, we believ e there can be little doubt, as Mung-Hung, one of the sages of an- tiquity, makes particular mention of it, stating that — 24 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. “ The size of the bell must he accurately equal to the Ke-an, (or measuring- standard) ; the weig-ht must be nicely poised with the chik (or 'vveig-hing- standard). The bell must first sound, and then let each musical instrument be tuned to it.” One of these bells is always to be found in the wealthy temples, slung- in a larg-e wooden frame ; the only material difference perceptible, between them and our European bells, consists in the absence of a tong’ue or clapper j at the time of their devotions, therefore, the priests produce their tones by means of larg-e wooden mauls, with which they strike them. It is not necessary to make any particular mention of the cymbals and timbrels, which do not materially differ from others of the same class j the}'’ are used on public ceremonials and festivals. From the modes of tuning- their instraments, which have been already sho-wn, it would appear as if the Chinese system of music were one of jive sounds, in contradistinction to our octaves; for the amusement and information of our readers, we subjoin a specimen of Chinese airs, which, to the best of our belief, as nearly resembles as possible, the sounds produced by a Chinese musical performer. We would g-ive words, could we procure them, but our stock of Chinese is small, — minute as our assurance; but if our kind indulg-ent readers will fancy all sorts of queer mono- syllables, such as hwang-, tee, sun, hung-, loo, foo, yin, fan, quei, &c., each word being- sung- to two notes, they will be able to form some idea of the words of a Chinese song-, and the pleasing- effect produced on the oral organs, of a European by the same. CHINESE AIRS. 25 AIRS FOR THE HWANG-TEI, OR HEANG-TEI. 1. zpzp ^t=F== ^ — i — — i«-i — 2Z. b — FfH -J 1 — 1 — 1«- =-p-F ET*::3-=p^ ^-- 1 p j|- --T — -» U»" l«L 1 !•_ ML ^ _izi y 2 . -B——— w- n-* . — r- r • * p » - ^ - . » [ 1 • 1 12s ' *1 i_ J i) h— » • ^ l„i — L ’y F — __ • F- F F — r ^ , r F 1 - fn'\ r r r • J 1 1 !3 J r 1 - U ^ -* ' 20 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. FESTIVITIES AT THE NEW YEAR. 27 CHAPTER III. Hew Year — Observances on the last day of the Old Year — New Year’s Day — Decorative inscriptions — King of the beggars — Koo-tow on New Year’s Day to the Yellow Screen — Complimentary calls and visits — Suspension of business during the holidays — Feast of lanterns — Description of the same at Pekin in the seventeenth century. The new year in China is a season of peculiar fes- tmty and rejoicing* ; families and neig*hhours meeting*, offering presents and congratulations to one another. The anniversary of the new year is not always cele- brated on the same day, being* a moveable feast which is kept in the month of J anuary ; and the rejoicings are held and continued with great spirit and vigour for many days. On the last day of the old year, all accounts are settled, debts cancelled, and the books carefully balanced, in every mercantile establishment, from the largest merchants or bankers, dovm to the itinerant venders of cooked food and vegetable-mongers. In every house the swan-paun, or calculating* machine, is in constant requisition, to assist the Chinese in their accounts : this nation do not write down figures, but reckon by the aid of the swan-paun : this is an oblong*, or square frame of wood, and small balls, of various colours, are strung upon wires, and placed in different 28 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. columns_, the wires being* fixed into the wooden frame- work ; the first row to the rig-ht stands for units ; the next, from right to left, tens, and so on in a ten- fold ratio, the rapidity and accuracy with which the Chinese calculate, by the aid of this machine is truly surprising. It is considered disgraceful, and almost equivalent to an act of bankruptcy, if all accounts are not settled the last day of the old year ; consequently, it frequently occurs that about the end of the year, merchandise, articles of vertu, curiosity, and neces- sity, can be purchased at a low rate, the merchants and traders when pressed for the ready, to settle their accounts, choosing to sacrifice their goods to obtain the needful supplies. On the last day of the old year, an ancient custom is observed called hrvui-loo,* or surrounding* the fur- nace, the males performing* the ceremony in one apart- ment, the female members of the family in another. A feast or supper is spread out in great form, upon a large table, the festive board being* decorated with flowers : underneath the table, exactly in the centre, is placed a brasier, filled with lighted wood or charcoal j fire- works are discharged, and gilt-paper offerings are burned before the family sit down to supper, the feast is then eaten ; the younger sons attending* to the wants of the head of the house. At the conclusion of the repast, gilt paper is ag*ain burned, and the ashes are divided into twelve heaps, each heap being* allotted * The Chinese cannot give any explanation or reason for this ob- servance, but say, that as fire is the most powerful of all elements, so should be family union ; and if this ancient custom were neglected evil would befall the family. INSCRIPTIONS USED ON NEW YEAR’S DAY. 29 to one particular month: the smouldering* ashes are anxiously watched, as the first heap which is con- sumed indicates the month in which there will fall the greatest quantity of rain, the last — the least. This custom arises from the fear of famine, as the rice crops are frequently destroyed by droug’ht or from inundation ; and the Chinese believe that they can predicate, from the burning* of the various heaps of ashes, whether the ensuing* year will be one of plenty or scarcity j that is, Avhether the atmospheric changes will be beneficial to the crops, or the reverse. On New Year’s Day, the houses are decorated with inscriptions, which are hung at either side of the door, on the pillars, or frame, and in the interior of the houses; some are suspended from long poles, which are attached to the outside of the houses : these in- scriptions are renewed annually, and are written on various coloured papers, the tint of which indicates if the inmates of the dwelling have lost, or are in mourning for a relative : white paper indicates that a parent had been called from this world of sorrow and care, during the year; blue paper, that it was the second year of mourning* for the paternal parent; yellow for the maternal ; a very pale red indicates the third year of mourning for either, or both parents ; scarlet paper being used for the mourning of grand- parents. When not in mourning, a brilliant dark crimson paper is used ; and the inscriptions of these vary ac- cording* to the ideas or tastes of the donor, or inha- bitants of the dwelling : in some are inscribed the word happiness, written one thousand times ; on 30 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. others, longevity, the word being’ likewise repeated times innumerable. The mottos on some are, May I be so learned as to bear in my memory the sub- stance of three millions of volumes;” “May I know the affairs of the whole universe for six thousand years ; “ Love your parents ; ” “ Reverence is due to age “ To be happy I must be just “I will cheat no man.” The various monasteries and nunneries have also these inscriptions affixed to the door-posts, which usually inculcate the purity of the lives of the in- mates, and the necessity all are under to support them — in idleness. At a monastery was seen, “We rely on your charity;” “Our lives are pure.” At a nunnery — “Grandmothers in heart;” “Shut out from the world.” At this time in some parts of China a curious custom prevails with the mendicants, a king or chief is elected by themselves, from their own body ; this monarch goes round to every shopkeeper in the city and asks donations, which if given, of a sufficiently large amount to please this potentate, he hands in return a piece of red paper, on which is written “ great and good fortune,” or “ the charitable are happy ;” this is attached to the door-post, and none of the begging- fraternity vdll distm'b or annoy the shopkeeper by ask- ing alms. These papers are renewed every new year, and none who have them attached to their door-posts, are annoyed by the intolerable clatter of the beggars’ bamboo ; this system of immunity appears to thrive and have many advantages, especially at Amoy. Where there is an Imperial temple in or near a city. SUSPENSION OF ALL BUSINESS. 31 the whole of the local mandarins and officers assemble in a body at an early hour in the morning-, and visit this temple in g-reat state. Upon their arrival at the temple, they all koo-tom before a yellow screen (which indicates the Emperor’s place), knocking- their crania on the gi*ound nine times; this ceremony is also performed upon the anniversary of the Emperor’s birth. On the New Year’s Day complimentary visits are paid, visiting- cards and presents being- sent from one mandarin, or head of a family to another, proUded they are not in mourning- for a parent, for dm-ing- the time of mourning- visits of ceremony can neither be paid nor received. For nearly a month all business is suspended, and the tribunals are closed throug-hout the empire ; this is termed shutting- up the seals, from the fact that at the termination of the old year, the seals appertaining- to each tribunal, are locked up in a chest devoted to the purpose, with much form and ceremony ; and the seals are not removed from the chest until the termination of the holidays, when business is re- sumed. During- these holidays the shops are closed, and no business is transacted, the time being- devoted to festivity, amusements, and visiting- ; the houses being- most gaily decorated with flowers; bouquets and presents of flowering- plants, edibles, tea, silk and cm-iosities being- interchanged amongst friends and relatives. Larg-e sums of money are expended in fii-e-works, at this season, hut the finest display is on the night of the Feast of Lanterns, as every dwelling, from the bamboo hut with mud walls, to the 32 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Emperor’s palace with marble halls, are all illuminated ^\’ith lanterns of every size and shape ; the lanterns of the poor costing- only a few cash, whilst those of the rich are worth many dollars. We have in our chapter descriptive of Canton g-iven an account of many of these lanterns, their extraordinary forms, modes of manufactm’e, materials of which they are composed, and the practice adopted of sending- lan- terns as presents, or offering-s from equal to equal, or fi-om inferior to superior. At the end of this feast a g-rand pyrotechnic display takes place, either in the court-yard of the better class of residences, or in the street, before the abodes of the middle and lower classes j each one trying- to outdo his neig-hbour in the mag-nificence of the display, strang-eness of the devices, and brilliancy of their respective fire-works. The air is illumined with myriads of sparks, and the eye rests upon thousands of g-rotesque monsters, delineated in many coloured flames. A missionary, who was at the court of Pekin in the seventeenth century, gives a most \*ivid, and curious description of the feast of lanterns (which is held the first full moon of the new year), and display of fire-works, which he ’^\'itnessed at the court of Pekin : — These lanterns are very great, some are composed of six panes, the frame is made of japanned wood adorned with g-ildingj on every square they spread some fine transparent silk, on which is painted, flowers, trees, animals, and human figures ; others are round, and made of transparent horn of a blue colour, and extremely handsome ; they put in these lanterns several lamps and a great number of candles. THE FEAST OF LANTERNS. 33 whose lig-ht make the fig’ures look very livelj^, the top of this machine is crowned with divers carved works^ from whence hang* several streamers of satin and silk of many colours. Several represent specta- cles very proper to amuse and divert the people ; you see horses g’alloping-, ships sailing*, armies march- ing, dancings, and several other thing's of the same nature. At other times they cause shadows to appear that represent princes and princesses, soldiers, buf- foons, and other characters, whose gestures are so conformable to the words of the folks who are con- cealed, but who move them Avith so much artifice that one would think the shadows spoke in reality. That which gives a great splendour to this feast are the fire-works which are seen in all parts of the city, for it is in this that the Chinese are thought to excel. But these matters may be judg’ed of more exactly, fi*om the description of one that the late emperor Kang*-ki caused to be made for the diversion of the court, and those missionaries who were in waiting* were witnesses of it. The fire-works began with half a dozen large cylinders planted in the earth, Avhich formed in the air as many streams of flame that rose to the height of twelve feet, and fell down again in golden rain, or fire. This spectacle was followed with a covered fire-work carriage supported by tAvo stalks or pillars, from AA^hence proceeded a shoAver of fire with several lanterns, and sentences AATote in larg*e characters of the colour of burning sulphur. And afterAvards half a dozen branched candlesticks, in the form of pillars of divers stories of lights placed in a circle, the light of AAdiich Avas like silver, and AA'hich in VOL. II. D 34 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. a moment turned nig-ht into day. At length the emperor -wdth his own hands sets fire to one of the works^ and in a short time it was communicated to all sides of the place, which was eighty feet long, and forty or fifty broad. The fire wms fastened to several poles and paper figures placed on all sides, from whence proceeded a prodigious number of rockets playing in the air, with a great number of lanterns, and branched candlesticks that were lighted in every place.” Generally, before the commencement of the new year, and during the holidays, robberies and acts of piracy are committed. Many state these criminal acts take place (at this season especially), fi’om the anxiety to defray all claims, or debts ; w'hat motive induces any man, to plunder or commit acts of ■vio- lence, none can tell with accuracy, or pretend to define with certainty j all that is known is, that in China at the close of the old, and commencement of the new year, more robbeiies take place, and acts of phacy are committed than at an}" period of the tw^elve months. HUMILIATING POSITION OF FEMALES. 35 CHAPTER IV. Woman — Her social and moral position in China — Want of education — Traditions of the subjugation of China — Maimed feet — Personal ap- pearance — Length of nails — Women’s apartments — Toilet -tables — Smoking — Marriage — Wives — Empress of C hina — Handmaids — Children of wives and concubines — Authority of parents over children — Infanticide — Foundling hospitals — Extracts from an ancient Chinese philosopher upon the manner of governing the house, and the women’s apartments. Woman is placed in a more degraded position in Asia than in any other quarter of the ^lobe, and we believe that in China her humiliation is complete j being’ ren- dered more conspicuous^ by the extent to which civiliza- tion and education has been carried in all connected, with the male population of this vast and mighty empire. In no rank is she regarded as the companion of man, hut is treated, and looked upon solely, as the slave of his caprice and passion. The poorest and lowest male has instruction and education thrust and forced upon him, the most abject being able to educate their offspring gratuitously at the public expense, and it is a matter of surprise when a lad has attained the age of ten years if he cannot read, write legibly, and understand arithmetic (or the use of the srvan-paun, which is the calculating’ machine), D 2 36 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. to a certain extent ; whilst among-st the females^ even of the hig-hest ranks^ few are found who can read or write. The woman’s education is limited and restricted, and is comprised in being’ taug’ht to sing’, and accom- pany themselves on the three-string’ed instrument or g’uitar, to be obedient to their parents in youth, and subservient to the will of man in womanhood j conse- quently, having’ no mental resources, the hig’her orders pass their lives in g’ossiping’, smoking’, visiting’, and playing’ at cards. The women belonging’ to the lower orders have not the least education, and are treated, and considered by the males, as little better than beasts of burthen ; we have seen a man of this rank walk coolly and deliberately by his wife’s side, whilst she tottered under a heavy load, and frequently a woman will be seen yoked to a plough, while the machine is guided by a man ! Among- the extraordinary anoma- lies of national character, the most conspicuous in China is the treatment of woman ; in her youth treated as man’s inferior, and the slave of his passions, but in old age she is honored and respected, more especially as a mother. No son, however high his rank, will presume to sit down in the presence of his mother until he has received her permission, and an old woman, with hair bleached by the snows of many years, will invariably meet with respect from the juniors of her own nation, be they the most depraved of the male sex. The women, or rather girls, from the lower classes, who are good-looking (according to Chinese ideas of beauty) are purchased frequently by rich men for handmaids, or concubines, when about twelve or four- TEADITION OF THE SUBJUGATION OF CHINA. 37 teen years of age j these girls are then educated and trained according to their purchaser’s idea or fancy. The Chinese cannot understand^ or comprehend, the European mode adopted towards women, or wh}^ ladies are treated with deference and respect, and being* extremely superstitious, attribute to demoniacal and devilish arts, practised or used by our fair compatriots over we bearded mortals, the consideration that is sheAvn for, and the just appreciation entertained for, an amiable, highly-educated woman, b}’ a w*ell-disposed man j in fact, the Chinese believe that European ladies have an influence someAvhat similar to that ascribed to the EVIL EYE of Italian superstition. Servants have a great dislike to residing in a Euro- pean family, over wEich a lady presides, and man}^ Avill not undertake a situation Avhere they are to be under the control of a mistress. An old tradition curiousl}* coincides with their superstition about our ladies, the prophecy is, that China should never be subjugated to Barbarians until a Avoman sat upon a throne, and reigned in “ the FxA.r avest.” Many say that this prophecy Avas never heard of until the Chinese Avere conquered by the army of Queen Victoria : be this as it may, the natives contend that this saying is to be found in some of the oldest Avorks extant. Among the traditions extant in China relative to Avomen, the horrible practice of deforming the female foot is thus explained in an old leg*end : — the Empress of an Emperor, aaEo reigned in China before the Jiood, Avas found by her liege lord near the apartment of one of the principal officers of the household, who had the reputation of being a lady-killer j receiA'ing* from the 38 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Emperor a severe reprimand, and torrent of abuse for her misconduct, the frigditened woman pleaded in her defence that it was not her fault, but that of her feet, which were so very larg’e, the}^ bore her to the forbid- den precincts of a man’s apartment, sorely against her will and consent ! To obviate the recurrence of so unpleasant a cu’cumstance, the offended Emperor ordered the fore-part of her feet to be amputated ; and the Empress, to conceal the fact, informed her court that she intended to introduce the fashion of small feet, and all about her must follow her examj^lej which they, like all their sex of our own day, most cheerfully did, rather than he out of the fashion. This is the origin of the crippled foot, which henceforward became the rage. The appearance of these distorted extremities, which are merely tapering stumps, is most disgusting to an European eyej at a very early age the foot, below the instep, is forced into a line Tvith the leg’, the toes are then doubled down under the sole of the foot, the big toe being made to overlap the others ; bandages are then applied, with an incredible amount of pressure, which in the Chinese language is termed hilling the foot, and for six weeks the child suffers intolerable agony. After that period the pain sub- sides, and she can totter about on these stumps. As she advances in years, the foot becomes a mass of filth and abhorrent humours, and we have been in- formed by a naval surgeon, who had unbound and examined the leg and foot of a Chinese lad}^, that the effluvia arising from it was more offensive, and the sight more disgusting, than anything he had ever DEFORMED FEET IN FEMALES. 39 witnessed in the dissecting- room. By this practice, the muscles of the legs are injured and partially de- stroyed, as there is no developement of calf, the leg- gradually tapering from the knee downwards, to the extremity of the foot ; ’ and this is regarded by the Chinese as the perfection of beauty. The length of the foot from heel to the toe, varies from three to four inches ; we have heard of a foot that measured but two inches, but we think a slight mistake must have been made in the measurement : the bandag-es which conceal this deformed mass of corruption from view are made of silk, which are rarely removed, as the inner ones, when soiled, are covered from time to time with fresh ones ; over all, the embroidered silken shoe is secured, the pointed toe of which is stuffed with cotton. In the families of the wealthy all the daughters are thus crippled for life ; but among the poorer classes, if there are two or more daughters, one is always deprived of pedestrian poAver^ she is inva- riably considered superior to her sisters, and may become a wife ; the others, AA^hose feet are the natural size, can only become concubines and handmaids, un- less they intermarry with the lowest of the poor. This horrid and barbarous taste for deformed feet, is most unaccountable in a nation, Avhere the undistoi-ted natural foot of a AV-oman is the perfect model of beauty ; the high instep is equal to the Andalusian, the arch of the sole rivals that of the Arab, and the heel and ankle are most symmetrically formed ; but such a foot and ankle, as we have just described, can only be seen among- the working and poorer classes. 40 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Owing’ to their maimed feet^ the women can only walk a very short distance^ even with the aid of their crutches, or long’ sticks, which they invariably use in the house ; the hobbling’, ineleg’ant motion of one who attempts to use her feet, is considered most gracefully charming’ by the Chinese, and ladies who essay this exploit of danger, for they are very apt to measure their length on the ground, are poetically called, tottering’ willows of fascination.” Women of the higher orders, when they go abroad to visit their fi-iends, are carried in sedan-chairs, or boats, where water communication is available j but those whose means will not allow the command of these conveyances, are carried on the backs of men, or of women who are blessed with feet of the natural size. The whole female character of countenance, appears to be completely changed, by the barbarous practice in question for the expression of face apper- taining to a Chinese beaut}^ (mark ye, none are beau- ties that have not deformed feet), is that of languor and pain, completely devoid of animation, and indica- tive of the suffering which the ligatured feet may produce, Avhile the faces of uncrippled females are full of life and vivacity. Chinese notions of a beautiful face and well-proportioned form, are as dissimilar to ours as their idea of a pretty foot : a Chinawoman, to be considered handsome, must have a long, thin, flat face, high cheek-bones, a circular mouth, thin lips, a very small long eye, arched eyebrows, remarkably thin, loAV forehead, and a countenance void of expression ; she must be rather tall, her figure nearly fleshless, and development of hips or bosom would completely PERSONAL APPEARANCE. 41 mar all her pretensions to beauty ; the complexion must be without a vestige of health’s roseate hue^ and the skin of a pale yelloAV tint. A Chinese belle bedaubs her face and hands with a Avhite stone, ground to powder, used as a cosmetic, until her com- plexion is an ag’reeable mixture of dirty-white and saffron. No nation in the world rely so much on foreign aid as the Chinese women do, for they are literally one mass of paints, false hair, oils, and pork- fat. Notwithstanding all these adventitious aids, we have occasionally seen in China some very good-look- ing well-grown women, although their complexions were rather yellow, still their features were pleasing, and their countenances animated, but they belonged to the lower classes, so, possibly, mere not made up ; for assuredly, according to Chinese ideas, they were not beauties, as their forms were those of nature’s most beautiful handiwork, woman, and not of two laths placed together. Although the women all smoke and chew betel, their teeth are usually very white and beautiful, and the hands and arms of the lower orders, including the tanka, or boatwomen, are finely-shaped and propor- tioned ; taking’ the Avomen collectively, as a nation, their hands, arms, and feet are the most beautiful we have ever seen ; ahvays premising Avhen the foot is in its natural undistorted state. The Chinese have as strange ideas about nails, as they have about beautiful faces, forms, and feet ; a Chinese lady alloAVS the nails of her third and fourth fingers to grow to an incredible length, and such is their length, that at night they twist them round their Avrists, to prevent the nail 42 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. being’ broken ; first softening’ them, by saturating’ the finger in oil. This penchant for long nails, is indulged in by the male community also, and frequently men have the nails of the middle and small fingers as long as the fingers themselves ; wearing at night, a silver case, or shield to preserve them : to such an extent is this practice carried, that shopkeepers and upper servants invariably endeavour to let one or more nails grow to a considerable length, as a proof they are not engaged in any manual occupation. The apartments devoted to the women are set apart exclusively for their use, as they do not eat, or sit with their husband, or more correctly speaking, with the master of the house j none but female attendants or lads are permitted to enter these rooms (as the chastity of the women is little trusted) ; except when the head of the household is present, and then only the nearest male relatives, such as a father, brother, or son, are suffered to remain with the women. Male children are allowed to remain in the women’s apartments until they are ten years of age, after that period they are taken from theii’ mothers and placed under the tutelag’e of men. As males, even although they may be red-bristled barbarians, therefore incapable of inspiring the tender passion in the bosom of a China belle, are not allowed to visit the abode of the females, we are indebted to a fair compatriot for the following’ re’s^elations : the sit- ting-room was furnished in a similar manner to the one described in a previous chapter, with the excep- tion, that here was placed the shrine, on which stood a APARTMENTS OF THE WOMEN. 43 g'oddess or idol, intended for a representation of the queen of heaven, to this g’oddess the married women and concubines pray for children, the unmarried sup- plicate to have rich husbands sent them — and soon. The bed-chambers were fmaiished in the same manner as described in the chapter alluded to, a few lines ag’o ; but the decorations were of such a character as to raise blushes on the cheek of our informant when alluded to, and to preclude the recital. Bamboos are stretched across the room, on which their various articles of dress are suspended, and with true feminine feeling-, exhibited their finery to the visitor with evident delig'ht and satisfaction : a variety of Avalking’-sticks, richly ornamented, of all sorts, sizes, and descriptions are to be found in their rooms j the crippled ladies appearing- to be great connoisseurs of a g-ood Malacca. Would that they were as fond of sweet smells, as the odour of the sleeping- apartments was described as being- most offensive to European nostrils, from the filthy habits indulged in by the women, and from their bandaged feet. Their toilet-table is furnished with more cosmetics and paints, than a Parisian belle would use or require in a life-time, as a Chinawoman relies much on the “foreign aid of ornament,” and does not appear to hesitate, in showing*, or admitting- that she has re- course to them. The dressing-mirror (when unprovided with a glass one) is manufactured from a white metal, most highly polished on one side ; the back is blackened, and on it are represented in bold and strong relief, all sorts and kinds of dragons, and strange animals, which whesi 44 CHINA AND THE CHINESE, the sun shines on the face appear in front } hence some suppose these figures are seen through from the back, whereas they are imperceptibly traced on the front, requiring- a strong light to bring- them into sight j this metal mirror is usually placed in an ebony frame, richly covered, and is an exceedingly handsome adjunct to the dressing-table. The females frequently use a species of dressing- case, or multum in parvo box, measuring about ten by six inches ] within the lid is a looking-glass, with a double hinge, the bottom of which rests on the point of the boxj attached to this box, underneath, are two small drawers, in which are kept cosmetics and paint. The exteriors of these boxes are lacquered, very prettily ornamented with silver, and inlaid with mother- of-pearl in many devices. The ladies occasionally indulge in smoking opium, and pipes of delicate manufacture are strewed about their apartments ] smoking tobacco is carried to a great extent, and little g'irls of five years of ag*e are allowed to commence this disgusting and pernicious habit j and an embroidered tobacco-bag is a necessary appendage to a female’s dress, from earliest childhood to advanced age. There are no Chinese customs so little understood as their marriages ) thus we often hear of the number of a Chinaman’s wives, while, in reality, he has but one wife, the remainder being handmaids or concu- bines ; among the mandarins and wealthy classes, a wife is always chosen from their own sphere of life, the marriage ceremony is celebrated with solemn rites. WIVES AND HANDMAIDS. 45 and she takes her husband’s name. The marriag’e tie can only he dissolved by the husband, for one of seven causes, — barrenness, adultery, disobedience to himself or parents, talkativeness * thieving*, ill temper, and inveterate infirmities; althoug*h the Avife should he found g’uilty of any or all of these offences, yet she cannot be divorced if she has mourned for her hus- band’s parents, if property has been acquired since their marriag-e, or if her parents are dead. Thus the wife is in possession of established legalised rights; but it is otherwise with the handmaid or concubine, who never receives the name of wife, and is invariably bought from a family inferior in social position to that of the purchaser ; she is brought home without cere- mony, has no leg’al rights, and can he sold or given away, when her master is weary of her person. The offspring of these handmaids inherit property, but the children of the wife take precedence; if there is no male issue by the A\ife, then the son of a handmaid will succeed to the estate, if such should be the fathei*’s pleasure. A man may have as many handmaids as he can afford to support or purchase, and we knoAV an in- stance of a wealthy Chinaman who had a wife and ten handmaids; although handmaids are allowed, occa- sionally the Emperor will express or signify his displeasure when an official personage has too manj^ A Tartar general had twelve of these encumbrances, besides his laAvful Avife ; the Emperor desired him to resig*n his post, as he was too much occupied with * Think of this, ye happy wives of England ; — disobedience and talk- ativeness, are they just causes for divorce ? 46 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. domestic a^airs to attend to the duties of his appoint- ment. No obloquy attends the position of a concubine or handmaid^ as they are looked upon in the lig-ht of the handmaids we read of in Abraham’s days. When a new Emperor ascends the throne, it is re- ported and believed that many families occupying- a g-ood position, send their daug'hters to his palace for approbation, and those who are accepted as concubines or handmaids, deem themselves and families highly honoured; those who are rejected by the Emperor, are frequently presented to the princes of the blood royal. Little is really known as to how or from what family the Empress of China is selected, as the Chinese of all ranks scrupulously abstain from giving- any information on this subject. Some authors assert that the Imperial harem is principally supplied with the daughters of mandarins, who are entrusted to the care of eunuchs and elderly females, who educate them according- to the regulations laid down, and that when an Empress or Consort is wanted, the birth and education of the individual selected is taken into con- sideration, the most nobly born, and the most highly educated being- fixed upon. All this must be a matter of mere surmise, as no European can state positively fi’om what family the imperial Consort is chosen ; but it is quite certain that by the laws of China, no woman can ascend the throne, or interfere in state affairs ; that the Empress of China is charged with the Avorship of the god of the silk-AVorm, and that silks are woven by the ladies of the palace, Avhich are pre- sented by the Empress to the god. PREVALENT CUSTOM OF HAVING CONCUBINES. 47 Among*st the hig-her orders^ there is a distinction in the dress of the wife and handmaid^ the former wearing* a petticoat over her trousers as well as the jacket^ whilst the latter only wears the jacket over her trousers; the wife’s dress and ornaments are also more costly, and althoug*h they sit and eat in the same room, the wife is seated (with her children, if she has any) at a separate table, and to a certain extent the handmaids are her servants. All ranks have handmaids, from the hig-hest to the lowest, who can purchase or support them ; the upper class of servants have g*enerally a wife, and one or more handmaids, the wife invariably having* distorted feet, and among*st the hig-her and wealthier classes, the handmaids have g*enerall}^ the same deformity. Whether the custom of having* concubines has arisen from the affection which the Chinese have for children, and fi-oin their desu*e to be the fathers of a numerous prog*eny, is a point that is and has oft- times been mooted and disputed ; for our part, we opine that the habit is indulg-ed in from their un- curbed licentious propensities ; for no nation under the sun’s g’low, is more essentially immoral than the Chinese; vice of all descriptions, and of the most revolting- character, being openly indulged in; we allow that a Chinaman is fond of children, but that would not lead him to sell the mother of his child, or give her away, as soon as he became sated with her person ; purchasing- another and younger slave to supply her place ; alas ! for human nature, this con- stantly occurs in numberless households. 48 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. The anxiety of the Chinese for a numerous family of male offspring- is very gi-eat ; but daug-hters are not cared for ; if a man has not a son by either wife or handmaid, he adopts one, if possible the son of a young-er brother, such adoption being sanctioned by the laws of the Celestial Empire ; the leading and principal aim of a Chinaman’s existence appears to be, the perpetuation of his name, after his decease : with- out a son, he lives Avithout estimation, dies without hope, sorrowing’ that he has none of his name or race to sacrifice to his manes, and pay the usual tribute of respect to his memory : whilst the father of numerous sons is honored by all his neighbours, and has the gratifying’ knoAA’ledge, that sacrifices will be constant!}* offered to his manes, and his name endure in the land of his birth. So much value do the Chinese place upon male off- spring’, that frequently a Avealthy man, w*ho is desirous of haAung an heir, Avill bribe the midwife to purchase a son of a poor person, to substitute for his oAvn daughter. It is also asserted that Avhen a rich man has no family, by either wife, or concubine, he Avill go to the foundling’ hospital (Avhich may be most con- veniently situated, or the easiest of access), during’ the night, and bring away a male child, first informing his neighbours that his wife or concubine Avas pregnant, and near the time of her delivery : the motive for this, is, that the child may be deemed legitimate, and be at full liberty in after life to pursue studies Avhich may eventually lead to obtaining’ degrees, and holding official posts, Avhich privilege is not granted to those POWER OF PARENTS OVER CHILDREN. 49 children which are taken^ or known to be adopted, from a foundling- hospital.* The power of a father over his children is absolute, and he may dispose of them, selling- them for slaves, or treat them in any manner that he pleases ; strang-e to say, this unlimited power and authority is rarely exerted, seldom abused, as the Chinese are most in- dulg-ent and affectionate parents. After the decease of the father, this authority devolves upon the mother ; a widow in the hig-her ranks is forbidden by the law to contract a second marriag-e, hut a woman in an inferior rank may do so, if she chooses, but a widow rarely avails herself of this permission, or takes ad- vantag-e of it, from the circumstance that during- widowhood, she has full power, and sole control over the children and property of her late husband. This privileg-e would be lost to her, were she to remarry, as then the brother of her husband, or next of kin would be entitled to manag-e the property, and become the g-uardian of the children; unless the eldest son had arrived at man’s estate, then he would be called upon to manage his deceased father’s property, becoming a guardian to the younger children ; in fact, the autho- rity and duties of a father would devolve upon, and be fulfilled by the eldest son, should his mother take unto herself a second spouse. It is stated by numerous authors, that infanticide as regards female children, is carried on in China to a * There are many Foundling Hospitals in China, which are supported at the expense of government : a child, either boy or girl, can be taken from these, by a native, when demanded ; which is too frequently done by procuresses, who take good-looking girls, selling them for the pur- poses of prostitution. VOL. II. E 50 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. fearful extent ; that such a crime should occasionally occur is very possible, and by no means unlikely; particularly when we take into consideration the num- ber of prostitutes, which, in despite of their depraved lives, must sometimes give birth to children. But it appears contrarj^ to reason and common sense to sup- pose, that infanticide is generally practised, or of daily — nay, hourly occurrence, when we take into calculation the amount of the female population of the Celestial Empire, and the numerous handmaidens belonging to each man, in addition to his wife, the poor having* one or more concubines, in proportion to their means. Multitudes of females are sold in infancy or early childhood ; if good-looking, they are bred up for a life of prostitution and infamy; if possessing only bodily power, they are then trained for domestic ser- vants or slaves: it is therefore almost impossible to conceive that the births of females, should so far ex- ceed those of males in China as to admit of female in- fanticide being carried to an}'’ great extent. The laws of the country appear to give no excuse or ju’etext for the commission of tliis crime, as numerous foundling- hospitals are distributed all over the kingdom, where a cradle or basket, is ever ready to receive an infant, no interrogatories being- put, or the person even seen of those who deposit the child, in the well-wadded re- ceptacle, which has been prepared for the unknown little mortal. From this pagan nation, might not a Christian country receive an advantageous lesson ? Early marriages are encourag-ed in China : among the mandarins and wealthy classes, the matrimonial MARRIAGE CONTRACTS. 51 age varies from sixteen to twenty years in males from twelve to fourteen in females : the poorer classes marry as soon as they acquire sufficient money to purchase a wife and defray the attendant expenses. Occasionally, a poor man will go to the foundling’ hospital in his neighbourhood, and obtain a girl, that he may take her home and educate her, giving- her in marriage to his son when the young folks have arrived at a proper age : the thrift and caution of the national character is fully developed in this arrangement : in the first place, the money is saved which must have been expended in the purchase of a wife ; in the second, the girl is educated by her mother-in-law (that is to be), thereby falhng into all the old lady’s economical habits ; thirdly, and lastly, if the girl is not good-tempered, industrious, and respectful in her demeanour to her intended husband and his parents, she is very quickly sent about her business, without the attendant fuss which ensues when a wife is sent hack to her family for misconduct after her marriage. The parties about to contract a marriag-e never see each other, the whole affair being arranged by their relations, or go-betweens, which are old women, who describe the lady in the most glowing* terms, or the reverse, according to the presents which are made to them. One of their customs before marriage, although synonymous with our fashion of sending- a lady’s por- trait, is most extraordinary : as the damsel cannot be seen, her shoe is sent to the gentleman, that he may be enabled to judge of the dimensions of her crippled feet — the smallness of the foot being a Chinaman’s beau ideal of perfection. E 2 52 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Daughters have no fortunes in China ; hut the man Avho is about to marry agrees to give a certain sum, which is laid out in clothes and jewels for the bride : the sums of money vary according to the rank of the parties ; the mandarins frequently g’iving six thousand taels for a wife (a tael being six and fourpence ster- ling), and the bride is invariably selected from a family of equal station.* Amongst the middle and lower classes, the price of a Avife varies from one thousand dollars until as small a sum as ten dollars is given 5 and a man Avho cannot pay the whole sum at once, does so by instal- ments : at first, what is termed the bargain money is given, this binds the parents of the female to dispose of her to no other person, the presents are then sti- pulated for : when the last instalment is paid, and the last gift received, then, and not until then, is the bride transferred to her husband. This same practice is also adopted vith the handmaids or concubines, in all particulars. The presents given to the female’s parents, in the middle and loAver ranks, are sometimes of a ludicrous description, according to our barbarian notions, being* fat pigs, dried fish, live poultry, chests of tea, sugar- cand}^, preserved fruits, and such like unromantic gear; the quality and quantity of these presents is invariably agreed upon when the bargain is first struck. The folloAving five interdicts being infringed, which • The price of a handmaid varies from one dollar up to five hundred ; and we once heard of a beauty, from Soo-chow-foo, being sold for one thousand dollars. MAREIAGE CEREMONIES. 53 are string-ently enforced by the Chinese laws, renders a marriage unlawful, null, and void : — 1st, — Parties of the same name and family cannot marry j two brothers cannot wed two sisters ; a widower cannot marry his son to the daug’hter of the widow he intends to take for his wife. 2nd. — Marriag’e cannot be contracted during* the period of mourning* for parents, nor if any extraor- dinary affliction visit the head of the family, such as being* removed from an official appointment, incurring* the Emperor’s displeasure, or the visitation of sick- ness. 3dly. — If a woman has been promised to a man, and presents received from the same, she cannot wed any other person. 4thly. — A mandarin, holding- official rank, cannot marry into the family of any belong*ing* to the pro- vince or city in which his appointment is situated j if he transgress this law, the marriage is not only null, but he is severely bastinadoed. 5thly. — If deception has been made use of, such as substituting* a disagreeable person for the one shown to the go-between or relations ; marrffing the daughter of a slave with a freeman, or the reverse ; the mar- riage is null, and all parties concerned in the fraud are severely punished. The ceremony of the marriage is gone through at the bridegroom’s house ; upon the nuptial day, the bride leaves her father’s home, accompanied b}' a numerous train of attendants, the bride is placed in a sedan-chair, most profusely gilded, and decorated 64 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. most g'aily with artificial flowers of brilliant hues;* attendants, bearing* torches and flambeaux, surround the chaii-, the servant who bears the key of the pre- cious casket, walking* nearest the sedan — for we must state, that no sooner is the lady seated in the chair, than the door is locked by her father, or nearest male relative, the key being* given to the confidential servant, who has orders to deliver it only to the bride- groom. IVumerous attendants precede and follow the bride’s chan*, carrying flags, magnificent lanterns, beating* gongs, and sounding wind instruments; the ladies of the two families are in sedan-chairs, Avhich follow the bride’s ; the male relatives and friends walking in the procession. There is a great display of presents of all kinds, which are to accompany the bride to her new home, these consist of ladies* dresses, borne on stands, carved chests, which are to be supposed to contain all sorts of treasures ; stands, in which are placed jars, containing Sam-shoo, wine, and preserved fruits ; cages, containing the mandarin ducks,t fowls, and, frequently, a fine fat pig*, in a gaily-decorated bamboo cage, bring* up the rear of the presents ; the grandeur of a marriage procession is measm’ed by the number of attendants. At the door of his house, stands the bridegroom, raagnificentl}* attu’ed, to receive the bride, the ladies of the family first alight from then* sedans, and * White being the mourning colour of China, is as carefully avoided on all bridal occasions as black is in our own dear land. f The mandarin ducks are emblems, with the Chinese, of conjugal fidelity ; and it is asserted by many, that when one of these birds die, the sorrowing mate commits suicide, by putting the head under water, and thus dro^v^ling itself, not choosing to survive the lost partner. MAERIAGE CEREMONIES. 55 cluster about the bride’s chaii’, the bridegroom re- ceives the key from the servant^ opens the door^ and raises the bride’s veil, to view her face (for, as before remarked, no interview takes place previous to the bride leaving her father’s house) j if her looks do not please the gentleman, he is at full liberty to shut the door in the lady’s face, lock her up, and send her back to her father, and this frequently happens j all proceeding smoothly, the bride is assisted to leave the sedan, by the brideg’room, and is carried over the sill of the doorway, in the arms of matrons (who are part of her own family, and the mothers of sons) j the bride is thus conveyed over the threshold, as it would be considered unlucky were her foot to touch the ground, being an omen of domestic misery, before she is close to the domestic shrine. As soon as the matrons have borne the bride into the hall of ancestors, they place her on the ground before the altar, the bridegTOom and bride then pros- trate themselves before joss, and go through some religious forms ; drinking’ out of the same gilt cup, and sitting’ down to a feast; the husband and wife eating’ at the same table, for the Jirst and last time in their lives. At the conclusion of the feast, the bride salutes the ladies of her husband’s family ; the party then separates, the bridegroom retiring into another department to feast with his friends, whilst the bride and ladies are conducted to the women’s apartments, to amuse and divert themselves as best they may. The Chinese custom does not permit a bride to speak to visitors for the first three days after her marriage, nor to leave the house to pay visits until 50 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. thirty days from the wedding" day have elapsed, save she leaves her husband’s domicile to see her parents, and as the Chinese are very strict in the observance of ancient customs, this code of bridal etiquette is rigidly adhered to. "We cannot conclude this chapter better than by ffivino* a selection from the work of one of the most ancient sages of the Chinese, who "vn’ote especially on The Manner of Governing- the House and the Apart- ments of the Women.” The principal state of life in this world is that of wedlock, and the perfection of a marriage state re- quires the husband to maintain a perfect harmony with his consort, but not to treat her too familiarly. As for the wife, she must exhibit a sweetness of tem- per, mLxed with gravity ; a woman has three duties to perform, she must manage the household affairs, be submissive to her husband’s parents, and show the same respect to her husband as to a master. If, according- to the old laudable custom, the father chooses a wife for the son, and the mother finds out a fit match for the daughter, this will be a guarantee of the consent of the young couple. As for concu- bines, there are many masters of families who know how to keep them under, but there are few have the art to make them live undisturbed in a house, because the wife is seldom mistress of solid virtue, for women are g-enerally addicted to unaccountable jealousies; for this reason, if }"ou have children by your wife, the best way is to take no concubine at all. If a hus- band has arrived at his fortieth year without having- children, he may then take a concubine ; for this is EULES FOR GOVERNING THE HOUSE. 67 according* to law", which looks upon the want of pos- terity as the greatest misfortune. Never give ad- mittance into your house to honzesses^ nor to a certain sort of old women, whose pretended business is to sell ornaments for the head, pendants, and arti- ficial flowers, nor to such as bring medicines, or are go-betweens in marriage affairs ; then* principal era- plo}’ment is to collect stories from all the families they visit, to divert your wife, daughters, and concu- bines ; but this is not the greatest mischief they do, what most to be feared is, their giving them a taste for gallantry and libertinism, causing them to intrigue or to run away. The singing-women are also some- times introduced into the inner apartment j these, like the others, are public pests, which every sage man would forbid to enter his door. Have no young male servants in your house who are fond of dress, affect foppish airs, and are anxious to please ; as for women-slaves, if their persons are agreeable, never suffer them to enter into your own apartment. As for midwives, it is impossible to do without them, but take care to hire those who are of unblemished repu- tation 5 take care not to hire handsome nurses, for though you may never see them, you cannot avoid suspicions- Young* persons of different sexes should not meet together, or sit in the same room, or make use of the same piece of furniture, nor take things from each other’s hands ; a sister-in-law ought to have no conversation with a brother-in-law, nor a sister to see her sister’s husband 5 if a daug*hter who is married pays her parents a visit, she must not sit at the same table with her brothers. These customs have been 58 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. wisely established^ to make an entire separation be- tween persons of different sexes, and the head of a house cannot be too strict in seeing* them observed. When a boy is ten years old, his entrance into the inner apartment ought to be forbidden ; in like man- ner, a young girl of the same age ought not to have the liberty of coming* out of the inner apartments; let it not be said they are infants, and that there is nothing to fear, for is not a girl marriageable at twelve years of age. When in the ladies’ apartments you do not hear the singing* of pieces taken out of plays, nor the tone of the comedians imitated, it is a sign of regularity and virtue. If, while the husband is retired with his wife in the innermost apartment, there are no sounds of laughter heard, it is a sign that due respect is shown them. Male or female servants ouo-ht not to be O allowed or permitted to go backward and forward in the house while it is night, without a lantern. This precaution is necessary, and prevents great incon- veniences ; both the head of the house and the nife should see this custom observed.” ANTIQUITY OF WEITTEN CHAEACTERS. 59 CHAPTER V. Written characters used by the Chinese — Number of them — Various styles of writing — Language — The four different dialects ; the Kou-ou-en, Ou-en-te-hang, Kou-ha-na, and the Hi-an-tang, or patois. The Chinese affirm, that the written characters were in use among- them more than two thousand years ante- cedent to the Christian era j but although possibly this statement may be mythological, it is certain that records now exist in China which were written centu- ries prior to that period. The number of characters which are used in the ancient code of laws for the Celestial Empire are said to exceed one hundred thousand; hut for centuries past, the number of characters which are in use do not exceed eighty thousand; each character being the symbol of a word, or signifying a sentence. There are various modes of writing the same charac- ter ; and thus it is from the multiplicity, and different styles of writing the same character, that errors con- stantly arise in translations made h}'^ our interpreters. The difficulty of acquiring a complete and perfect knowledge of the w'ritten lang’uage must be apparent to all, but when this difficulty has been vanquished, the written languag*e has the great and e\ddent advan- 60 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. tag-e of always remaining- the same^ as the character or symbol will invariably represent the object or thing- originally intended to be represented being thus un- liable to variation is a manifest advantao-e over a o spoken lang-uage alphabetically wi-itten, which is con- tinually subject to variations, both in sound and ortho- graphy — the variations arising- from fashion and caprice. The symbolic mode of expressing things and ideas adopted by the Chinese, is similar to that practised by the ancient Egyptians, before hierogh*phics were used. There are many methods of writing- the same charac- ter, which are adapted to various purposes, but the following- are those which are generally employed : — Chu-en is the ancient hieroglyphics, and is now used onl}" for inscriptions j these characters are said to have been used, in the early ages, when the Chinese wrote upon slips of bamboo with a style. Kae-shoo is the most approved style for writing- official communications and documents j complimentary odes and addresses are also written in the Kae-shoo. Isaow-tsze is the wi-iting used in business, and fi-om the constant abbreviation, or contraction of the charac- ters, is most difficult to decypher. Sung-tsze are the characters, which are used in printing- books. Kea-tseay characters are used in writing- metaphors and poetry. Chuen-choo are employed when a compound mean- ing is intended to be given j thus, in one complicated character or symbol, the meaning of an entire sentence may be conveyed. VARIOUS STYLES OF WRITING. 61 HT\ny-e are those characters which have a fig*urative rather than a literal meaning’, but are totally dissimilar to the Kea-tseay. Che-ke-tsze are a class of characters which are indicative simply of one thing* intended to be ex- pressed. Althoug’h there are many other styles of writing* used in China, the above-named are those which are usually adopted. It is considered a proof of hig*h intellectual capability to be a g*ood penman, writing* the various styles in a clear hand, the characters severally being* finely formed. The sound of the spoken lang*uag*e is exceeding’ly unpleasant to an unaccustomed ear, from the peculiarity of the monosyllabic construction of the words, and the monotonous sing’ing* method of pronunciation, which is invariably in a slow measured tone — except when the Chinese are excited ; then they shout, scream, and }^ell, at the top-pitch of their shrill voices, the sounds which are uttered being* manifold, and most discordant. Although the written characters bear the same signifi- cation throughout the Chinese Empire, the spoken languag’e of one province is totally unintelligible to the inhabitants of another; thus they are constantly compelled to express then* ideas by the formation of the written characters, and natives of China may fre- quentl}'’ be seen tracing with their forefinger on the palm of the hand, or writing, as it were in the air, the symbol of that which, orally, they are unable to make the listener comprehend the signification. Europeans who have studied the Chinese language generally divide it into four distinct dialects, namely, 62 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the first in order^ and held in the highest estimation by the Chinese, is the Kou-ou-en : this is now obsolete, but was formerly used by the ancient philosophers and sages ; the princi- pal works of most of the renowned authors of antiquity being* -^witten in this dialect. Occasionally a work is now compiled in the Kou-ou-en ; but none but the most learned either attempt, the composition, or perusal of a book, WTitten in this dialect. Ou-en-te-hang, is used for its sublimity of charac- ter, and is well adapted to the purposes for which it is employed, namely complimentary compositions, con- sisting of high-flown flattery, and hyperbolical adula- tion ; this dialect is held by the literati in great estimation, being considered nearly as fine as the Kou-ou-en. The Kou-ha-na, or court language, is that which is invariably used b}' mandarins, and government offi- cers, in all official correspondence, and is spoken at the court of Pekin, and is also used as the medium of conversation in polite circles ; in fact in chilized Chinese society a man would be considered a goth, being* unpresentable, could he not converse in the Kou-ha-na, claim he what province he might for his bii'th-place. This dialect is used by all modern lite- rary characters in their vTitings, and is considered to be possessed of a g*i*eater variety of expressions, whose sig*nifications differ but slig*htl3", and to be more adapted for the pui*pose of general intercourse, than any other dialect. The mandarins and wealth}’, throughout the empii*e of China, use the Kou-ha-na in their intercourse one with the other, and those only THE FOUR DIFFERENT DIALECTS. 63 can rise to eminence in the state who are proficients in this dialect. There are many and obvious reasons for this measure^ all ancient inscriptions^ laws^ and records, as well as the official correspondence of the past and present are in this dialect; and it is pre- sumed to have been the ordinal and unaltered lan- gmag'e, of the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire, from the earliest period. The Hi-an-tang’ is the Chinese patois; the vari- ations of this dialect are innumerable, each province and district, having’ a peculiar and distinct patois, which is used by the lower orders ; in our opinion, and in that of many others, the Hi-an-tang, or patois, can only be considered as various corruptions of the Kou-ha-na. Althoug’h the lower orders understand not a syllable of the court language, the highly educated are able to comprehend the patois of that class, from their knowledge of the Kou-ha-na. Differences of opinion have lately arisen among the missionaries in China, as to the correct mode of translating the word God, some asserting that Shin is the proper expression, whilst others affirm that Shangtee is the correct word. Su* George Staunton has lately published a most interesting pamphlet on the subject, entitled An Inquiry into the proper mode of rendering the word God in translating the Sacred Scriptures.” To this we refer our readers for information on this important topic, merely observing that from our knowledge of the piety and learning of the Kev. Mr. W. H. Medhurst, we should be inclined to take his translation of the word. The British and Foreign Bible Society are C4 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. causing’ inquiries to be made on the subject, which we trust, for the sake of our heathen brethren, be speedily and satisfactorily terminated j for we fully coincide in the opinion of Sir George, who writes, unfortunately these two liigh authorities (Medhurst and Boone) have come to diametrically opposite con- clusions, and until some kind of agreement or com- promise can be accomplished between our Protestant missionaries in China upon this vital question, a fatal obstacle seems to stand in the way, at the very thresh- hold of their pious labours.” THE HEALING ART IN CHINA. 65 CHAPTER VI. Knowledge of the Healing Art — Strange’ideas of the human frame — The pulse — Anatomical plates — Circulation of the blood — Internal struc- ture — Surgery — Dislocation of the spine — Broken ribs — Father Ripa’s account — Scarification — Acupuncture — When first known to Euro- peans — Application of caustics — The Moxa — Venesection — Midwives — ^Drugs — Extraordinary cataplasm — Styptics — Fees of medical men — Medical works — Diseases prevalent in China — Specimen of Chinese semeiology. Before commencing' this chapter^ we crave the in- dulg'ence of those g'entlemen who have made the art of healing- their study. We do not pretend to g-ive a scientific description 5 we merely state facts that have come to our knowledge. The Chinese have not a correct knowledge of anatomy ; and as their peculiar prejudices prevent them dissecting the human body^ their ideas of the orofanic structure are most erroneous : iiotwithstand- ing-j the study of medicine is held in high esteem by the natives of the Celestial Empire ; not merely because a knowledg-e of the healing art is requisite for the due preservation of life, hut they are fully impressed with the notion, there is a close connexion between the human frame and the heavenly bodies.* In former times, there was an Imperial Academy for * The Chinese esteem a knowledge of astronomy most highly, VOL. II. F 66 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the study of medicine^ which has fallen into disuse ; and the medical men of the present day obtain their theoretical learning’ from books and older practitioners. The Chinese affirm there exist two principles of life 3 namely, vital heat, and radical moisture, Yang and Yiuj* and that when these are severed, life ceases. They make three divisions of the body ; one is into the rig’ht and left parts, each having an eye, shoulder, arm, hand, leg’, and foot ; the second division consists of three parts, which are desig’iiated as the hig-h, the centre, and the lower parts j the first of these extends from the head to the breast ; the second from the breast to the navel ] the third from the navel to the sole of the foot j whilst the third separates the body, into members and intestines. Yang’, or the vital heat, is supposed to be continued in the larg’er and smaller intestines, the stomach, the g’all-bladder, and other portions of the internal org’anization, which are six in number. Yin, or radical moisture, is contained in the heart, lung’s, liver, spleen, and kidneys, which they term the six principal members. They affirm there are twelve canals, or passag-es by which the Yang’ and Yin are distributed over the frame ; and it is thus, according- to the Chinese doc- trine, that life and streng’th are maintained. No physician is ever esteemed learned, or attains hig-h repute, unless he is well acquainted with the six sources of life, which they assert orig-inate in the twelve canals. . * These words signify, literally, light and darkness. STEANGE IDEAS OF THE HUMAN FEAME. 67 The body of man^ according* to Chinese notions^ is composed of^ and influenced by the elements^ thus fire reigns in the heart, and the principal viscera which lie near it; air has peculiar influence on the liver; whilst water reig*ns lord paramount, over some ad- jacent parts. Metals preside over the lungs and larger intes- tines ; and earth influences the stomach and spleen. They also believe that the body is a kind of musical instrument; the nerves, muscles, arteries, and veins acting as strings ; each of the above-named has its own peculiar pulse ; and an ancient author writes ; “ It is by this means that the different pulses, which are like the various sounds, and divers touches of stringed instruments, are tokens whereby infallibly to judg'e of a melody ; in the same manner that a string* more or less touched in one place or in another, g’ives different sounds, and shows it is too loose or too much stretched.” It would be impossible to give the number or the various descriptions of pulses which are to be found in the human body ; every org*an, nerve, and muscle having its own peculiar pulse, which indicates some especial malady to which suffering humanity is sub- ject. The Chinese notions are most extraordinary in this respect, as they firmly believe the pulse that would mark disease in a male, would indicate a totally different complaint in a female ; and the works that have been written on the Secret of the pulse,” are most voluminous. As they believe they have satisfactorily established the twelve sources of life in the body of man, they F 2 68 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. also declare they can discern^ by external tokens, the inward disposition of these twelve parts. The head is the seat of all the senses that perform the animal operations ; and presuming’ there must he necessary relations between these senses and the sources of life, the Chinese say, There is an ag’ree- ment between the tongme and the heart, the nostrils and the lung’s, the mouth and the spleen, the ears and the kidneys, the e}'es and the liver.” They believe that from the colour of the face, eyes, nostrils, and ears, the state of the tong’ue, the sound of the voice, and the temperature of the body, they can predict the probable duration of the malady, life or death of the sick person. The anatomical plates of the Cliinese are curious specimens of ig’iiorance, the osteology of the human frame is not depicted with either minuteness or ex- actitude j the skull, fore arm, pelvis, and leg are con- sidered as single bones, the joints, toes, and fingers being’ completely unheeded. Great care has been evinced in marking’ the different points of the spine, hut neither the ligaments by which the}' are hound tog’ether, nor the muscles which bring’ them into motion, are deemed worthy of remark. The theory of the circulation of the blood, Du Halde affirms, was known by the Chinese about four hundred years after the delug’ej be tliis assertion veracious or not, no correct knowledg’e, up to the present day, do the nation possess of the circulating’ system of the human frame. Some of the plates depict tubes, which issue from the fingers and toes, these ascend into the limbs. ANATOMICAL PLATES. 69 trunk, heart, and lung’s, Avhere they are lost, having*, in the course of their journey, wandered over a great portion of the body 5 occasionally, a tube will stop in the middle of a limb, and our astonishment has been excited, how the blood can have been brought into so obedient a state, as not to make its escape by the free passage, which appears to have been left for the express purpose. It is presumed that the vital fluid is regarded as flowing through these tubes, for there is no provision analogous to the action of the arteries or veins. We will now give a description* of a plate, which professes to depict, truthfully, the internal structure : we will also state the ideas of the Chinese phy- siologist. The brain is the dwelling of the Yin prin- ciple, where it exists in perfection 5 at the base of the brain there is a reservoir of nervous matter, which, passing through the spine, communicates with the ■whole body. The trachsea extending from the larynx passes through the lungs directly to the heart, whilst the tesophagus goes over them to the stomach j the lungs are situated in the thorax, depending from the sides of the windpipe, and are composed of five lobes, the colour of which is white j the lungs influence various parts of the human frame, and sound is sup- posed to proceed from holes in them. The middle of the thorax is the seat of the breathy and all sensations of delight emanate from it 3 the heart is situated underneath the lungs, and, as re- flection is supposed to proceed fi’om it, this organ * For the anatomical terms we are indebted to our esteemed friend, the talented and skilful surgeon Mr. W. White Cooper. 70 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. is called the prince of the body. Three tubes pro- ceed fi-om the heart, which communicate with the liver, spleen, and . kidneys, but what offices are to be performed by these org-ans has never been clearly determined. The liver lies on the rig-ht side, having* seven lobes or leaves: the soul resides in this org*an, and all desires proceed from itj the g*all-hladder lies below the liver, projecting* upwards ) during* a fit of passion or ang*er, the g*all-bladder ascends, and courage is presumed to dwell in it.* The spleen is placed between the stomach and diaphragm, the food passes fi*om it into the stomach, and fi*om thence into the larger intestines, which lie in the loins, ha'^ e sixteen convolutions, and are attached to the lungs. The smaller intestines are coimected with the heart ; and the kidneys are attached to the spinal marrow. Several other organs are named, the uses of Avhich, in a Avork intended for general perusal, it would be most injudicious to specify'. The closest attention is bestowed upon the surface of the body, as there is not one square inch that has not an especial name, so as to enable the practitioner to apply, with due precision, the favourite Chinese remedy, namely, the needle ; and this process will be fully described in the folloAving* pages. It is affirmed by European practitioners that the • It is owing to this fallacy, that the Chinese atUI drink a decoction prepared from the gall-bladder of tigers and ferocious animals : and it is affirmed that they avUI use the gall-bladder of notorious robbers, under the belief that the bile contained in it will amalgamate with theirs, and imbue them with the bandit’s courage. SKILL IN SETTING BONES. 71 practical knowledge of the Chinese is far in advance of the theoretical, as they can set broken bones wdth tolerable skill. In an account which is given of the performances of Chinese surgeons, we read, “When the fracture occurs in the fore-arm, the operator, in the first instance, brings the parts into them natural position, then a roller or bandage of cotton is applied, which is rendered steady by a belt of bamboo ; and this belt serves as a substitute for our splints. When the knee-pan is displaced by any accident, it is re- stored to its natural position by a ring’, made of bam- boo, and furnished with four projecting pieces, which is placed upon the knee, and, after being’ moved, so as to eftect the reduction, is bound on the spot with bandages.” It wmuld appear that dislocations of the spine are not attended with the same degree of danger as with us, the following method being adopted when there are any displacements of the vertebrae. The Chinese have invented a back of fir-wood, which is thickly padded with cotton ; this is attached to the back of the patient by bandages, which pass over the shoulders, and round the body j previous to the application of this stay, the sufferer is made to lie down upon his face ; the assistant places his feet upon the patient’s shoulders, whilst the surg’eon, by means of a roller of cotton, raises that part of the spine where the injury has been received, and by a series of pressures, applied in different directions, and in varying degrees, readjusts the displaced bones. The 9,1'tificial back is then securely fastened on the person, being worn constantly, until the parts have regained their healthy condition. 72 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. The following- account was given hy a gentleman who witnessed the performance of the operation : — The ribs being removed by the accident from their natural position^ the patient was made to rest his feet upon two piles of bricks ; he then laid hold of two loops suspended from a beam resting upon two crut- ches. The surgeon stationed himself behind^ and by means of a belt; shifted the patient backward and forward as he thought proper, while an attendant alternately withdrew the bricks from under his feet. He was desired to breathe before each successive descent of the foot, and in this way, to give the several muscles concerned in respiration a chance of lending- their assistance in the good work. After the operator was satisfied as to the success of his endea- vours, he put the sta 3 ’’s of bamboo upon the chest, and confined them in their places by bandages carried eight times round the body. The patient was then laid upon his berth, and forbidden the use of the pillow, or to turn himself round.” The folloAving interesting account will be found in Eipa’s Residence in China,” page 68. After stating* that he was thrown from his horse, carried into a neighbouring domicile, and a surgeon sent for, Eipa continues : “ He bade me sit up in bed, placing near me a basin filled with water, in which he put a piece of thick ice, to reduce it to the fi-eezing- point. Then stripping- me to the waist, he made me stretch my neck over the basin, while he continued for a good while to pour the water on my neck with a cup. The pain caused by this operation upon the nerves which take their rise from the pia mater, was insuf- eipa’s account of an opeeation. 7 3 ferable^ but the surgeon said that it would stanch the blood and restore me to my senses^ which in a short time was actually the case^ for my sight became clear^ and my mind resumed its powers. He next bound my head with a band^ drawn tight by two men^ who held the ends, while he struck the intermediate parts vigorously with a piece of wood, which gave me great pain j this, he said, was to set the brain, which he supposed had been displaced : and after this opera- tion my head felt more free. A third operation was now performed, during which he made me, still stript to the waist, walk in the open air, supported by two persons, and while thus walking, he unexpectedly threw a basin of freezing* cold water over my chest. As this caused me to draAv my breath with great vehemence, and as my chest had been injured by the fall, my sufferings were very great under this inflic- tion 5 but I was consoled by the information that if any rib had been dislocated, this sudden and hard breathing would restore it to its natural position. ^^The operator now made me sit on the ground, and, assisted by two men, held a cloth upon my mouth and nose' until I was almost suffocated. ^ This,’ said the Chinese ^sculapius, ^ by causing a violent heaving* of the chest, will force back any rib that may have been dislocated.’ The wound in my head not being* deep, he healed it by stuffing* it with burnt cotton. He then ordered that I should continue to walk much, supported by two persons ; that I should not sit long, nor be allowed to sleep until ten o’clock at night, at which time I was to eat a little thin rice soup. He assured me that these walks in the open 74 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. air, while fasting, would prevent the blood from settling- on the chest, where it mig-ht corrupt. These remedies, thoug-h barbarous and excruciating*, cured me so completely, that in seven days I was able to resume my journey.” Surgical operations, however, are principally con- fined to the extraction of teeth, the amputation of an injured fing*er, and the operation for a hare lip. Acupunctm’e and scarification are favorite remedies with the Chinese, the former especially so; and we will describe the operation, which those who have undergone it state is a most painful one. The needles are made either of gold or silver, the manu- facture of these instruments being practised and understood h}" few ; they are extremely slender, about four inches in leng*th, and have a spiral-handle for the purpose of more easily turning* them round. AVhen acupuncture was introduced into China, it is impossible to determine, but the operation has been practised from time immemorial, was introduced from thence into Japan and Corea, and acupuncture is as much in vogue in the latter countries as in the former. The first correct information that Europeans re- ceived of acupuncture was in the year 1679, when Ten Rhyne, a medical officer in the East India Com- pany’s service, stated that a practice was prevalent in Japan, which was unknown to the Greeks, Romans, or Arabians. It appears that a Japanese soldier, who was appointed by the Emperor of Japan to con- duct the English to the palace, was seized with vomiting* and pain in the abdomen, after drmking* iced-water. He took wine and ginger, but these ACUPUNCTURE IN CHINA. 75 remedies proving’ useless, he had recourse to acupunc- ture, in the presence of Ten Rhyne, popular belief being, that acupuncture allows a subtle and acrid vapour to escape, which was the cause of the suffer- ing. The guard laid himself upon his back, placed the point of a needle on his abdomen, struck the head to make the instrument pass throug'h the skin, then turned it round several times, until the needle had apparently penetrated to the depth of an inch, drew several deep inspirations, and withdrew the needle, pressing the puncture with his fingers, to force out the imaginary vapour. Ten Rhyne affirms that the soldier repeated this operation in his pre- sence four times, when he declared that he was quite well, and perfectly free from pain. We have seen this remedy applied to one of our domestics in Hong*- Kong, who had been suffering from neuralgic pains in the shoulder : acupuncture was applied to the part affected, two needles being- left in his flesh for five days, and' our servant de- clared himself greatly relieved by having- holes drilled into his person. The use of the puncturing needles requires extreme caution, lest the operator should wound a bloodvessel, and to prevent un- skilful practitioners from adopting- this remedy, the following- edict was promulgated in China. In the 297th section of the code we read, “ That when- ever an unskilful practitioner in administering medi- cine, or using the puncturing needles, proceed con- trary to the established forms, and thereby causes the death of a patient, the magistrate shall call in other practitioners, to examine the medicine, or the 76 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. wound^ and if it appear that the injury done Avas unintentional^ the practitioner shall then he treated according’ to the statute for accidental homicides, and shall not he any long-er allowed to practise medi- cine. But if desigmedly he depart from the estab- lished forms, and deceh^es in his attempt to cure the inalad}', in order to obtain property, then, according’ to its amount, he shall be treated as a thief ; and if death ensue from his mal-practice, then, for haAdng’ used medicine and practised his art with intent to kill, he shall be beheaded.” These instruments are used for the purposes of scarification and acupuncture, which is adopted most successfully in the treatment of tumours, to which the Chinese are especially liable. If the patient does not bear the operation of the needle, it is at once withdrawn, hut if he does, and the disease proves obstinate, it is introduced two, three, or more times. The more severe the affection, the deeper must be the puncture. There is one practice of the Chinese surg’eons which entails too frequently severe suffering’ upon the DKUGS USED BY MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS. 77 patient; we allude to the application of powerful caustics : the sufferers have continually applied to our medical men for relief, cases presenting themselves where small sores originally, by the injudicious use of escharotics, have extended, until a portion of the tissue, and occasionally some important organ, has been either seriously injured or partially destroyed. One of the most powerful irritants used is called the moxa, or burning* the flowers of the amaranthus upon the skin. Bleeding is seldom resorted to, but leeches and cupping* are employed when local blood -taking is necessary : venesection is hig*hly disapproved of in fevers, the Chinese practitioners arguing in this wise, “ A fever is like a cauldron boiling* ; it is requisite to reduce the fire, and not diminish the liquid in the vessel, if we wish to cure the patient.” The practice of midwifery is entirely in the hand of females, many of whom understand the practical part of their art, most thoroughly ; some extraordinary theories, however, are maintained on this subject, one of them being, that the pulse of a pregnant woman will indicate the sex of the unborn infant. The drugs used by the Chinese practitioners are numerous, and the efficacy of some of them extra- ordinary, in their estimation. In a druggist’s shop stags’ horns embellish and ornament the walls ; these are frequently reduced to a powder, and prescribed for all pulmonary complaints. Although the number and use of mineral medicines are circumscribed, calo- mel, which they term fluid silver, is extensively pre- scribed by the Chinese physicians. 78 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Orpiment^ sulphur^ musk, camphor, alum, true frankincense, oxide's of copper, and other metals,* have been used from time immemorial, in the treat- ment of diseases, that make their appearance upon the surface of the human body. In the materia medica, a variety of roots and woods are used, which are not ground, as with us, but are pared into thin laminae, gentian and rhu- barb being thus prepared ; but many drugs are pounded in a mortar, or triturated in a slender iron vessel, to which a wheel is attached, that is provided with a projecting axle, on either side, which is worked by the feet or hands of a lad. Ginseng, combined with rhubarb, is administered in almost every disease, whilst decoctions and pills are made from numberless barks, seeds, leaves, and roots. Many filthy and disgusting substances are prescribed for poultices ; but the most extraordinary cataplasm and prescription that ever we heard of was the follow- ing : — a Chinaman injured his eye by a fall, and the native practitioner ordered half a newly killed chicken to be laid upon the cheek ; the remaining* portion to be masticated, whilst the patient remained in a re- cumbent posture. Pitch-plasters are much in vogue with Chinese practitioners, and as the people are peculiarly subject to rheumatic pains, they are employed beneficially. Powders of different kinds are also made into plas- ters, and used for the same purpose. The Chinese understand perfectly the preparation and use of styptics, as the following will testify : — * These active remedies were much used by the Arabian physicians, and the prescriptions of Celsus abound with them. FEES OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION. 79 Dr. Parker of Canton was requested to visit a Chinaman, who had attempted to cut his tongme off j he found the young- man exceeding-ly ill, and examin- ing- his mouth, found it partially filled with extrane- ous matter, that adhered to the remaining- portion of the tong-ue. The doctor did not think it advisable to remove the extraneous matter, as the wounded mem- ber appeared healing*. Within twenty- four hours the mass detached itself, leaving- the surface covered with an extemporaneous skin, as if collodium had been applied to it. The detached mass was a styptic that a native doctor had applied to stanch the bleeding-, and had perfectly answered the purpose for which it had been applied, not quitting- the wound until a new skin had been formed. The Chinese believe that when the tong-ue is cut out death must ensue immediately, and the 'wi-etched sufferer had attempted to end Ihis life in that painful manner. Among- the hig-her classes of the medical profession in China, there is a reg-ular class of fees, but many of an inferior g-rade make ag-reements with their patients to cure them for a certain sum within a g-iven time. Quack- doctors are numerous, and the walls of every city are placarded with bills, which duly set forth the efiicacy of certain nostrums which are to cure every known disease ; the details and particulars that are entered into being- frequently of the most indelicate nature. The medical work most in repute is the Pun Tsau, or Herbal of Li Shi-chin,^^ who lived in the Ming- dynasty 5 in this book is a list of two hundred and 80 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. seventy works which furnished the compiler with materials, and of four hundred and eig'hty-five miscel- laneous w'orks, which supplied descriptions of the localities and habits of the plants and animals therein mentioned. In some Chinese works a disease called the purpiira is mentioned, the symptoms of which con- sist in sanguineous tumours, and wheals, appearing all over the person : Tliis disease is certain,” says the author, “ to terminate fatallj", unless these sores can he cut up root and branch.” Lay remarks upon a disease resembling the smallpox, which has attracted much attention in China from the general fatal charac- ter of the complaint : — “ It attacks children, and seems confined to them, and this leads me to believe that the disease is not the same as that which creates such fi’ightfnl havoc among us.” The native writers of former ages direct that the room should be kept thoroughl}’ clean, no light admitted, and frankincense to be used in fumig’ation. Should the eyes become closed by the disease, the blood of an eel must be dropped into them, or the juice which is extracted from the root of the musa coccineci, a species of plan- tain. Should the patient become tormented by spec- tral apparitions, then a man’s tooth must be inclosed in paper, and burnt; the ashes must afterwards be pounded, and mixed with vine ; and to insure the efficacy of this pleasant mixture, the potion should be swallowed before the patient has broken his fast. Some of the medicines which are prescribed are most extraordinary; large sums being expended in procuring tigers’ bones, bears’ j)aws, scales of pango- lins, orthoceras, and bezoar of cows, as the efficacy of SPECIMEN OF CHINESE SEMEIOLOGY. 81 these medicaments (?) in particular complaints are considered infallible. The diseases most prevalent in China are Asiatic cholera^ fevers, rheumatisms, ophthalmia, leprosy, and cutaneous complaints of all classes. Smallpox is a great scourge, the natives having’ a peculiar prejudice against vaccination. Inoculation has been practised for a lengthened period; the Chinese practitioners inserting- a pledg’et of cotton which has been previously saturated with the virus, up the nostril : this method is also occasionally adopted in vaccination. Elephan- tiasis is frequently met with, especially in the north ; and in every part of the Celestial Empire the natives may he seen disfig’ured by, and suffering- under, unna- tural extuberances and tumours of every size, form, and description. We will conclude this chapter by g’iving- a specimen of Chinese semeiology : — If the pupil of the eye be of a white colour, then the disease lies in the lungs ; if red, then it lies in the heart ; if yellow, in the spleen ; if green, in the gall ; if black, in the kidneys ; but when the whole eye is of a yellow colour, that can neither he described nor named, then the cause of the disease lies in the middle of the chest.” VOL. II. G 82 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTER VII. Literature of the Chinese — Examination of aspirants for literary honors — Writing of Confucius — Treatise on Filial Duty, or the Seaou-kin — Honors bestowed on the family of the Sage — Period of his death — Number of descendants — A Chinese Novel, entitled Chow-an-se, or the Widower turned Philosopher — Specimen of the Moral Tales of the Chinese — Original Tale, translated expressly for this work. In no portion of the known world is education so universally general as it is in China, among the male portion of the community; literature is held in the hig’hest estimation, and literary attainments form a sure passport to the highest offices of the state. Hereditary rank and honors are unknown in China, with the exception of the imperial kindred, and the descendants of the philosopher Confucius ; thus pro- motion, emolument, rank, and the hig'hest appoint- ments, are open to the lowest person of humble birth, should he be able to soar above his fellows in mental qualifications and attainments. This judicious sys- tem, adopted by the Chinese monarchy, ensures able and efficient men to fill the various responsible offices of the state ; and although the descendants of Tartar blood are frequently selected for these posts, it as fi’equently occurs, that men of low and obscure origin. EESPECT PAID TO LITERARY MEN. 83 whose pedigrees cannot even be traced to their g'randfathers, are raised above their fellows, as a reward for their talents and g'ood learning-. Althoug-h, as before remarked, honors and rank are not hereditary, the families and descendants of men of learning-, or transcendent abilities, are treated vdth the g-reatest respect, the Chinese valuing- and respecting- learning- before wealth and hig-li birth. In proof of this the descendants of Confucius, (the celebrated sag-e of antiquity, who lived anterior to the Christian era), meet with veneration from all classes, some of them receiving- a pension from the Emperor, as a tribute of respect paid to the memory of their learned ancestor. Learning- being- held in the hig-hest estimation, the Emperor will frequently ennoble de- ceased ancestors, in compliment to the attainments of their descendants, and this distinction is hig-hly coveted; the Emperor causes the ennoblements to be entered in the booh of merit, in which is recorded the causes for this distinction; in this book are also placed, the various titles and descriptions of the several officers of state and mandarins, the causes of their preferment, with all their actions which merit praise ; should a mandarin or public servant miscon- duct himself, or be disg-raced, the reason of his dis- grace, with the punishment inflicted, is likewise recorded with punctilious accuracy. Each province in the Chinese empire has officers who are -appointed to examine aspirants for public fame; who g-o their circuits once, and frequently twice, during- the year. Frequently in the larg-er provinces the number of aspirants will reach eig-ht G 2 84 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. thousand^ from these the seventy-tAvO; which hai^e the title of Keu-jin are selected ; and these Keu-jiii must submit to repeated and severe examinations, before they obtain the distinction of being* placed upon the books as fit candidates for public offices and preferment. The themes selected by the aspirants must most scrupulously avoid all allusion to politics, or the pre- sent dynasty ; the test of superiority being* the theme, Avhich most closely resembles, in composition and sentiments, the Avorks of the ancient sag*es and philo- sophers. All orig'inality, either of idea or composi- tion is crushed, Chinese literati invariably following* the beaten track, trodden by their predecessors in the path of literature. The examinations are conducted on the following* plan : the candidate is placed in a room, AA'hich is closely Avatched, to prevent books, assistance, or papers, being* g*Aen, a subject is then proposed to him, from ancient authors, upon this a theme, or poem is Avritten, three being* alloAved for the com- position. Closely and rig'idly as the candidates are g'uarded, imposition is practised, as themes have been conve}"ed to them Avhich have occupied months in preparation. An instance occurred five years ag’o, of the son of a petty mandarin of Canton being* made a Keu-jin Avho Avas almost idiotic, this arose throug’h a large bribe having been administered to the examin- ing officer, Avho alloAved a theme to be given in as the idiot’s composition. The lampoons and satires that were published on this occasion Avere exceedingly clever, the Avhole number of disappointed literati joining in them. EXAMINATION FOE LITERARY HONORS. 85 Each candidate adopts a motto or feig-ned. name, Avhicli is superscribed to his composition j after the officers appointed have stated who are the successful candidates, a day is fixed upon, when the names of the Keu-jin, are posted ag-ainst the walls of the office used by the lieutenant-g’overnor of the province 5 a discharg’e of g'uns is heard, out walks in all digmity, surrounded by his attendants, the lieutenant-g’overnor, who bows to the names of the Keu-jin, and walks in ag’ain. A feast is then given to the fortunate seventy- two Keu-jin, at which the whole of the provincial authorities, from the highest to the lowest, are pre- sent, who load the successful candidates with applause and honors, whilst the themes, with the names, both real and feigned, are sent up to Pekin, for the Emperor’s inspection. If a candidate is unsuccessful the first, second, or third time, he can again present himself, in short no limit is fixed for the number of trials allowed, and many scholars have essayed ag’ain and ag’ain, until the ebon of their hair has been changed by the hand of time to silver, and have sunk into the vale of years deploring their non-success. When a candidate for public offices is declared to have reached the highest rank in literary attainments, he goes up to Pekin, and is examined in the presence of the Emperor ; and if then approved of, the candidate frequently attains, or has conferred upon him, high official posts and honors. Every literary honor confers rank upon the student, until he becomes a mandarin, of Avhich there are several grades, each being’ distinguished by a peculiar button and robe. 86 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. The acme of learning* considered^ and aimed at in China^ is the ability to repeat a g-reat portion of the works^ or saying-s, of the ancient sag'es 5 neither orig’inality nor g'enius being- valued so much^ or held in the same estimation^ as a retentive memory. Thus^ century after century^ the Chinese pursue the beaten track laid down by their forefathers, neither advancing’ in science nor learning- ; thus practically illustrating- their favorite maxim, all that is old is valuable — all that is new is valueless. Nevertheless, many useful discoveries in science have been made by the Chinese j we are indebted to them for the dis- covery of the magnet, which was used by them some centuries before the Christian era ; they also lay claim, and we believe with justice, to the invention of the sun-dial. As Confucius is reckoned their most renowned philosopher, sag-e, and author, we will give a few extracts from his most celebrated work; this book being universally read throughout the Chinese empire. Our readers will also find specimens of their literature in a novel, and two tales which have been translated from the orig-inal. THE SEAOU-KIN: BEING A TREATISE OF FILIAL DUTY. Section the First . — Origin and Nature of Filial Duty. How did the ancient kings render the kingdom so obedient, that the people lived in peace and hai-mony, and that no ill- will existed between superiors and inferiors ? rUial duty is the root of virtue, and the stem from wliich instruction in moral principles spring forth. Filial duty requires of us to carefully preserve from contamination the 87 EXTEACTS FEOM THE SEAOU-KIN.” bodies which we have received from our parents ; and to acquire for omselves a station in the world, thus regulating our conduct by correct principles, so as to transmit our names to future generations, and reflect glory on om’ parents. This is the ultimate aim of filial duty. Think always of your ancestors. Talk of and imitate their virtues. Section the Second. — Filial Duty as practised by the Son of Heaven.* If he loves his parents, he cannot hate other people ; if he respect his parents, he cannot treat others with neglect. When his love and respect towards his parents are perfect, those virtues will be extended to the people ; aU will imitate his example.’ WTien the one man is virtuous IMiUions will rely upon him. Section the Third. — Filial Duty exhibited by men holding high places. WTien those who are above all others are free from pride, they are not in danger from exaltation. To be elevated, and yet secure from danger is the way in which continually to maintain nobility; when you have abundance, waste not. Thus preserving their nobility and riches they will be able to protect their ancestral possessions, and keep their subjects and people in peace and quietness. Be watchful — ever watchful As though you were crossing a plank AVTiich was placed over a deep abyss. Or as when treading upon thin ice. Section the Fourth. — Filial Duty to be practised by Ministers of State. Ko robes but those which were allowed by the laws of the ancient kings should be worn; language opposed to their * The Emp eror of Giina is always styled the Son of Heaven, and is here aUnded to. 88 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. usage should not be employed. If ministers of state speak only according to the rules, and act only in harmony with the principles of these ancient kings, their words will be unex- ceptionable, and their conduct irreproachable. Morning and evening be watchful Diligently serving one master. Section the Fifth. — Filial Duty expected from Scholars. With the same love that they serve their fathers, they should serve their mothers likewise ; and with the same respect that they serve them fathers, they should serve them prince ; unmixed love then, will be the offering they make to their mothers ; unfeigned and deep, profound respect, the tribute they bring to their prince ; and towards their fathers, both these will be combined. Let this maxim be imprinted on the tablet of your mind. From the hour and time of early dawn Till late retirement at night. Always be careful not to disgrace, Or bring dishonor on those Mdio are the authors of your being. Section the Sixth . — On the observance of Filial Duty by Subjects. To observe the revolving seasons, to distinguish the diver- sities of soil, to be careful of their persons, and practise economy. Therefore from the Son of Heaven down to the conunon people, whoever does not continually conform to the requirement of filial duty, will be overtaken by calamity; there can be no exception. Therefore obey your Ruler With hmnility, obedience, and fidelity. Section the Seventh . — 2Vie first grand Law of Heaven inculcates Filial Duty, which binds Man to Man on Earth. Yin was renowned throughout the world for the exercise of this vmtue ; the glory of it hung around him like a silken robe EXTRACTS FROM THE “SEAOU-KIN.” 89 of state. Mighty mandarins of great learning delighted in his conversation ; and all the people loved to hear him speak. How great was the sage and philosopher Yin ! His words were like purified honey. Section the Eighth. — Injluence of Filial Duty on the Government of the Country. In ancient times, the illustrious kings governed the empire on the principles of fihal duty. They would not treat with con- tempt even the riders of small countries ; how much less man- darins of the first, second, or tliird classes. Hence all the state gladly sensed the ancient kings. The masters of families, in those days, would not neglect their servants or concubines, much less their wives and childi’en. They set an example of virtuous demeanor; And the nation on aU sides gladly bowed to them. Section the Ninth.-~ Filial Duty implanted in Man. Of aU things that derive their notions from heaven and earth, man is the most noble ; and of aU duties ivhich are incumbent upon him, there is none greater than filial obedience. The feelings wliich ought to characterize the intei’course betiveen father and son are of a heavenly nature, resembling the bonds wliich exist between a prince and his ministers. A truly learned and virtuous man Never commits a criminal error. Section the Tenth . — Which treats of Crime, and the Punishment thereon. There are three thousand crimes, to wliich one or the other of the five kinds of punishment is attached as a penalty ; and of these no one is greater than disobedience to parents. When ministers exercise control over their monarch, then there is no supremacy. When the maxims of ancient sages are set at nought, then the law is defied. So are those who disregard filial duty as though they had not parents. If punishment is inflicted for neglect Of this first duty, will not the reward be equal. 90 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Section the Eleventh. — In which the high Moral Feelings are shewn in their true Light. In teaching the people to love one another, there is nothing so beneficial as a proper understanding of filial duty. In teacliing them the rules of pohteness and obedience, there is nothing so good as a thorough knowledge of the duties which brothers owe to each other ; for improving their manners, instruction in music is the most efficient means that can be employed. Nothing is equal to properly inculcating the principles of propriety. Now, propriety of conduct has its foundation in respect. When princes respect their parents, childi'en take delight in imitating them. When respect is shewn to elder brothers, the younger will rejoice to follow the example. I^^3en the Son of Heaven is obeyed and respected, his ministers are delighted. Thus when one is respected, thousands and tens of thousands receive pleasure ; and the few, by paying respect, render the many hapjjy. On all men, both of high and low degree. Obey your rulers and parents. Section the Twelfth . — On the Efficacy of Remonstrance. Formerly, if the Emperor had only ten ministers who would remonstrate with him, though he were devoid of good feeling, he listened to their admonitions. The mandarins, though oftentimes venal and corrupt, yet if they had but five faithful servants who woidd point out the error of theu- ways, lost not their places. If a learned man had but five faithful friends to point out errors in his compositions, his renown would be great throughout the world. Oh, the greatest of all good gifts. Is a sincere friend that will remonstrate with you. Pointing out faults that need amendment. Section the Thirteenth. — Beneficial results which arise from the Practice of Filial Duty. Our ancient rulers and emperors obeyed their parents, and treated them with respect, therefore the gods smiled upon EXTRACTS FROM THE “ SEAOU-KIN.” 91 their reigns ; with them obedience and unity were upheld between seniors and juniors, hence arose that aU ranks moved in their several spheres. The Son of Heaven must have one mortal above him, namely, his paternal progenitor ; some one of his blood must be greater than he ; because he may have seen more days, therefore must be looked upon as an elder brother. When worshipping in the ancestral temple he displays the most superlative veneration for his elders and parents; he clothes himself with virtue as with a robe, lest he should dis- grace his ancestors. Whilst thus worshipping with reverent humility, the shades of his ancestors hover around him and bless his undertakings. All ye great ones of the earth. Respect your seniors, for by so doing ye shall prosper. Section the Fourteenth. — Filial Duty prompts respect to be paid to the Memory of Parents. Ancient philosophers instructed the people not to exter- minate the living, for the sake of the dead ; neither to injure their health by indulging in useless wailing. The time of mourning, most sagely, has been fixed for three years ; this limit of time was named to show the people that sorrow must come to a close. When a progenitor dies, a costly coffin — costly in proportion to the means of the family — must be prepared ; the corpse, wrapped in grave-clothes of a proper description, must be laid in the coffin ; the male and female members of the family and household, standing on either side of the coffin, must recount the various good quahties of the deceased parent, weeping bitter tears of son'ow and regret. A propitious bmial-place must be selected, wherein the body is to be laid down, to rest in peace for ever. When spring sheds her genial influence aroimd, then sacrificial rites must be performed at the tomb : when the fruits of autumn ripen again, the sacrificial rites and offerings are to be made. This is to be done each year, and the dead kept in continual re- membrance thereby ; but survivors must not expend their health and strength in useless walling and mourning. The 92 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. man that attends to the above 'svill have fulfilled all that fihal duty requires. Generations to come respect the sayings Of an old man, and deep thinker : jNIen call me philosopher and sage ; These distinctions are valueless. Unless unborn generations are benefited By these reflections and maxims. The tvritino-s* of this sao'e Confucius, are held in the highest estimation by the Chinese nation. Con- fucius Avas raised to the highest offices of the State throuD-h his great knoAt ledo-e and learning- : after con- ducting’ the Government as first mandarin or minister for years, he relinquished his office, as he refused to serve an immoral and licentious Emperor. He then devoted the remainder of his days to literature and travelling, and died at the age of seventy-eight and ten months, after having dedicated in the most solemn manner, the AA’hole of liis voluminous writings to the service of his country. Shan-tung proA'ince claims the honor of being the birth-place of the philosopher, where his descendants reside to this day j the present generation being the seventy-fifth, in a du’ect line. When the Emperor Kang-he ordered a return to be made of the descendants of Confucius, the males ex- ceeded ten thousand five hundred ; and this famil}”, with the exception of the Imperial blood, are the only people who enjoy the hereditary rankj the head being- ennobled, the elder or chief being- honored AA’ith a title which signifies the great duke, or mandarin — that is, descended from the learned one. * In the treatise on Filial Duty, some portion of the translation has been borrowed ; as, on comparing the text of the translation, we found that the first portion gave a more correct idea of the original than our own. A CHINESE NOVEL. 93 CHOW-AX-SE; OR, THE WIDOWER TURNED PHILOSOPHER. A Chinese Novel. A FAMOUS philosopher appeared in China towards the end of the Chow dynasty, named Chow-an-se, who was born at Mong, a city in the province of Song ; he was a mandarin of the fifth class, and became a disciple of a renowned sage, named Ly-ul, who received the nickname of the “ Infant Old Man," owing to Ills entrance into the world with a head covered with a plentiful crop of white hair. Chow-an-se never slept without being disturbed by dreams ; in his di’eams he considered himself to be an enormous butter- fly, fluttering over verdant plains, or delicious fruit trees ; each time his eyelids were closed in slumber tliis dream recurred, and at length the impression was so strong upon his mind in his waking moments, while he endeavoured hope- lessly to account for the oft-repeated dream, that he became fuUy convinced he had wings attached to his shoulders, and great mirth was afforded to those who witnessed liis vain attempts to fly away. One day after studying a treatise of Confucius under the Instniction of the sage Ly-ul, he availed liimself of the oppor- tunity to relate this continued dream to his master, requesting at the same time its interpretation. This wonderfid man listened attentively to his disciple, and in answer to liis request thus replied, — “ You have done wisely, my son, in unburthening your mind to me, I know aU the secrets of nature, and nothing is lildden from me. Know then, that you must seek for the interpretation of your dream in ages far removed from the days in which you live ; at the time then that this world was formed from chaos, the waters were first produced, and then in order followed trees and plants, wherewith the earth is now adorned ; then in one instant of time everything flou- rished and looked gay ; then it was that you were a mon- 94 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. strous white butterfly, your wings were very large, and very round, and your flight was swift, as the flight of the pigeon, you wandered at your pleasure over mountains and valleys, and without fear enjoyed the perfume of the most delicious flowers, your infinite enjoyment had no bounds and reached to the sun, and the moon, and the stars, until your knowledge at length proc\xred for you immortality. One day, in the full enjoyment of your existence, you alighted upon some enticing flowers which grew in the pleasure gardens of a great queen, into which you insinuated yourself and thereby spoiled several half-blown buds; which so excited the anger of the mys- terious bird, to whose custody the garden was entrusted, that he darted at you, struck you with his beak, and killed you on the spot. Your body was thus left lifeless, but your soul was immortal, and could not be destroyed, and since that day it has passed into an innumerable number of different bodies, and now inhabits that of Chow-an-se ; thus it is, my son, that you have acquired the disposition to become a great philosopher, and that you are capable of raising yourself to the highest pinnacle of knowledge, and of acquiring the art which I now teach you, having also the power to detach your- self from the world, and by thus purifying yourself, to search into the hidden mysteries of the human heart and mind.” From this day Ly-ul unfolded to his pupil the deepest secrets of his doctrine, and the pupil suddenly perceived that he had become quite another man, and that preserving only the form of a man, he felt that his disposition was that of a butterfly, which constantly flutters about, without fixing itself upon any object of nature, however bewitching: that is, Chow-an-se had discovered the emptiness of all mundane amusements and pursuits, which have charms for the ignorant man ; the most exalted position could not tempt him to re- nounce pliilosophy, his heart was fortified against the allure- ments of the great, for he regarded them all as the thin vapour, which is made the sport of every wind of heaven, or as the rxnstable water of a brook or rapid stream ; in one word, his A CHINESE NOVEL. 95 spirit no longer rested upon any endearing object. Thus it ■was, that Ly-ul perceiving now, that his disciple was com- pletely weaned from mundane pursuits, and that his thirst was solely for knowledge, initiated him into the mysteries of Tao-te-kin, for the five thousand words composing his treatise are each mysterious ; and now he hid no secret from so worthy a disciple. Chow-au-se was at this time wholly engrossed in study ; he read without ceasing, and, meditating upon what he read, he practised the doctrines of his master ; and the more he examined into his inward man, to purify and refine it, the more perfectly did he understand the dissimilitude of the body which dies, and of the soul which, lea'ving the body, receives fresh energy by its wonderful transformation. The mind of Chow-an-se being thus enlightened, he resigned his rank as mandarin, and his master being unable to teach him more, for he knew all things, he took leave of Ly-ul, determined to travel, hoping to acquire knowledge and make discoveries. Although he separated himself from the world to enjoy repose, he could not renounce conjugal pleasures, he had been married three times, he lost his first wife by a fever ; the second was divorced for her great talkativeness ; but the third was named Ty-en, and she it is who will now be treated of. She was of royal descent, and as Chow-an-se was of great renown, and the head of his family, she was bestowed upon him in marriage. Her husband rejoiced to find that she by far outshone her two predecessors; she was beautifully formed, of a lovely complexion, and her disposition was a happy mixture of mildness, -vivacity, and submission ; on this account it was, that the philosopher, not naturally uxorious, was passionately attached to liis wife. About this time the Emperor heard of the renown of Chow-an-se, and desiring much to see him, deputed certain oflScers of his court, to seek him out, and carrying with them valuable presents, to in-vite him to his council, oflfering to 9C CHINA AND THE CHINESE. make him his chief minister. They found the philosopher engrossed in study, and displaying their presents, communi- cated to him the will of the Emperor ; hut he was not to be bhnded by such riches, or worldly advantages, and having heard them speak, he thus replied : — “ A heifer was once fattened with the best fodder, and after that, appointed for the sacrifice ; being decked with garlands, she was led in pomp, and on her road she beheld humble oxen sweating as they were yoked to the plough, and being swollen with pride, she despised them ; but after she had been led into the temple, and beheld the uphfted knife ready to slay her, she would wiUingly have changed her lot for that of the oxen, who a short time before she so much despised ; her wishes were in vain, in a moment she was a lifeless carcass.” The plulosopher courteously refused the presents, of which he had no need, and retiuning to his studies, the coi;rtiers departed. He soon after withdrew into his native province, taking with him liis wife, and selected an agreeable mountain residence, intending there to end his days in the study of his beloved philosophy, and the innocent pleasures of a country life, far removed from the cares and snares of the world. One day, as he wallted at the foot of the mountain, en- wrapped in his meditations, he unconsclovisly approached the sepulchres of the dead, and being struck by the number of tombs, sighing, he exclaimed, “ In death aU are equal, with- out rank or distinction, the philosopher and the wise, are confounded with the unlettered and the fools ; the grave is the resting-place of every man.” Advancing thus amongst the habitations of the dead, he found himself close to a newly-formed grave, the upturned clay was not yet dry, near it sat a young woman, who did not perceive him ; she was habited in momming garments, and being on one side of the tomb, she held in her hand a white fan, wherewith continually she fanned the grave. Astonishment fiUed the mind of Chow-an-se as he beheld A CHINESE NOVEL. 97 the ixnwearled perseverance of the young -woman, and ad- dressing her, he said, “ Dare I demand to whom this grave belongs, or why, with so much labour, you fan it ? What is this mystery, which, although I am learned in aU the secrets of nature, I cannot fathom?” She rose not, as in courtesy she ought, but continuing her vocation with the white fan, she muttered inaudible sounds, and burst into a flood of tears ; -vrliich proved to her beholder that shame alone, and not the timidity of woman, prevented her from answering him. After a length of time, her tears ceasing, she thus spoke, “ You see before you a widow, by her husband’s grave, death has snatched him from her, he whose bones rest here was dear to her in life ; he loved her with equal fond- ness, and dying left her with regret, and his last words were, ‘ Beloved wife, if you wish hereafter a second time to marry, you must wait beside my grave until its moistened clay is completely dry, after that I will permit you to marry again : ’ it is on this account therefore, and fearing that the newly- turned earth wlU not be speedily di-ied up, that you behold the afilicted widow endeavouring to disperse its dampness by continued, fanning.” At this reply the philosopher with difficulty prevented him- self from laughing ; and thought withm himself, how great was the hurry of this widow to marry again, and if so, how she could dare to say she loved the husband, she had just lost, or that he had loved her. What, thought he, would she have done if they had hated each other ! Then addressing her, he said — “You wish, then, that this earth may speedily dry, but your delicate frame must sink before you can succeed ; there- fore allow me to assist you.” On hearing these words, the yoimg widow arose, and making a chin-chin of respect, grate- fully thanked him, and handed him a fan similar to her own. Chow-an-se knew the secret art by which to raise spirits ; he called them, therefore, to his assistance, and striking the grave with his white fan, instantly all dampness disappeared from the clay. Upon seeing which, the young widow’s coun- VOL. II. H 98 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. tenance was lighted up, and smiling, she loaded her benefactor with thanks, and drawing a silver pin from her hair, she offered it to him with the fan she used herself, begging he would accept them both in token of her gratitude ; but he refused the silver pin, and only kept her fan. She then departed, joy being visible in her countenance and in her gait. Chow-an-se, abandoning himself to his thoughts, rested a while in astonish- ment at the strange adventure ; then returning home, he sat in his hall, and fancying he was unobserved, he contemplated the fan, which he held in his hand, and heaving a deep sigh, spoke as follows : — “ Is it not said that two persons seek each other, to be joined together in wedlock, solely because in a former state of existence they bore inveterate hatred to each other?” Ty-en stood behind her husband, with curiosity watching his actions, and listening to his words ; coming now forward, she stood before him, and thus spoke — “ Inform me, Chow-an-se, why you sigh, and from whence has come that white fan you hold in your hand, and regard with such mystery ?” In reply, her husband related all that had passed between him, and the young widow, by the side of her hus- band’s grave. He had scarcely ended the story, when Ty-en exhibited in her countenance marks of rage, indignation, and revenge ; her eyes wandered wildly in search of the young widow, whilst with her tongue she uttered execrations upon her head, calling her the shame of women, and the curse of mankind; then tmming towards the husband, exclaimed — “ I, Ty-en, have spoken it, it is true what I say, she is a very monster of iniquity.” Chow-an-se regarded not her words or actions, but was solely occupied with his own reflections, and thinking aloud, spoke thus : — “ AVhile a wretched husband is yet alive, his wife praises him, and is attentive to his slightest wishes ; but when he is no more, she hastens to his grave, and assists in drying up the moistened earth; a picture may delineate accurately the exterior of an animal, but cannot represent A CHINESE NOVEL. 99 what is within it ; the beholder sees the countenance of a woman, but who can search into her heart?” On hearing these words of her husband, Ty-en’s fury knew no bounds. “ Men are all alike in their nature,” said she ; “ virtue and vice alone distinguish you. How dare you, before me, your wife, speak after this fashion, and condemn aU women abke ; you are unjust, and confound the •vdrtuous women, like me, with reptiles who are unworthy of life. Are you not over- come with shame and confusion, and are you not afraid of heavy punishment ? ” “ "What is the use of aU these idle words and exclamations ? ” rejoined her husband ; you should candidly acknowledge, that were I to die this instant, you, such as you are, in the enjoyment of youth and beauty, could not be persuaded, ac- cording to ancient custom, to spend five, or even three years of widowhood, without seeking a second husband.” “You know perfectly well,” answered Ty-en, “that a man- darin, after the death of his Emperor, renounces his appoint- ments, if he was faithful to his prince : a virtuous woman shoidd never think of a second husband : was it ever known that a high-born woman, like me, who had passed from her father’s family into that of her husband’s, quitted the nuptial bed of her deceased husband for that of a second ? Should I unhappily become a widow, I could not be capable of an act which would disgrace my sex : my pride would prevent me from marrying again ; not for three years, or five either, but for my whole life. Such a thought could not enter my head ; no, not even in a dream. Know that this is my un- alterable resolution, and nothing can shake it.” “ These are idle words,” said the philosopher, “ and vain resolutions : you covdd not keep them.” This remark excited the ill-humour of his wife, and she could not forbear dis- respectful language, and she answered, “ You must know, that a woman has a nobler soul, and is more constant in her conjugal love than a man, and more particularly than one of your disposition : are you indeed a pattern of fidelity, you H 2 100 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. who lost your fii'st wife in a fever, married a second, whom you divorced from caprice, and because she spoke as she thought ; and I, alas, am your third : you judge of us by yourself, and it is thus you judge wrongly; we poor women, who have the misfortune to be married to pliilosophers, such as you, who profess, but do not practise virtue, are least of all likely to marry again ; if we did so, we should be objects of derision. But why do I speak thus to you ? and why do you rejoice in my unhappiness? You are in the enjoyment of perfect health, why then make me wretched by making me tliink of your death, and that ” Then looking at the white fan which her husband still held in his hand, she threw herself upon it, snatched it from his grasp, and tore it to pieces before his eyes. “ Control your temper,” said Chow-an-se ; “ it pleases me to see your resentment on this occasion, and I delight in wit- nessing the fire of your jealousy.” These words calmed his angry wife, and they conversed together on other subjects. A few days afterwards the phi- losopher was seized with a dangerous illness, and was lying at the door of death ; but his wife never left his side, and shed continual tears, mingled with sighs, as she sorrowed at the prospect of liis loss. Chow-an-se, observing her, said, “ I perceive that I cannot recover from tliis fever ; ere morning dawns we must part for ever. AVhat a pity it was that you tore my white fan to pieces, you will regret it yourself, as with it you might have dried up the earth, which will so soon hide me from your view.” ‘‘ For mercy’s sake,” cried his wife, “ do not allow such thoughts, at this time, to disturb your repose, such suspicions are hurtful to your peace, and injurious to me. I have read the ancient books ; I understand my nation’s customs ; my heart was for once and for ever united to yours, and shall never be another’s. Do you doubt my sincerity ? then I demand to die the first, to convince you of my faithful attachment.” “ Enough,” said the philosopher, " of your constancy I am A CHINESE NOVEL. 101 now fully convinced; but 1 — perceive — I die— my sight is ” and be ceased to breathe. Ty-en rent the air with her cries, enfolded the corpse of her husband in her embrace, and would not be removed from the body for a considerable time; she then clothed the corpse with her own hands in the richest garments, and laid it in the coffin. She habited herself in mourning, and day and night the echoes of her piteous groans and demonstrations of regret sounded around the whole mountain ; she even denied herself food and repose. The inhabitants of the mountain came to pay the last tribute to the departed philosopher, Avhose reputation was extended over the whole Empire ; as these neighbours Avere withdrawing, there appeared at the entrance of the hall a young bachelor, of a handsome countenance, and well-shaped person, he was clad in Anolet-coloured robes of the richest sTk, a handsome scholar’s cap adorned his head, an em- broidered girdle confined his waist, and black satin boots were on his feet ; an aged domestic followed him, who announced that his master Avas a descendant of TaoAV, and had informed the philosopher many years before, that he would become his disciple, and he had just arrived to complete his design. Upon hearing the melancholy circumstance which brought the crowd together, he deeply lamented not having arrived in time to see the philosopher before his death; he instantly threAV oft’ his fine clothing for mourning robes ; he then ap- proached the coffin, knocked his head four times against the ground, and sighing cried aloud, “ Chow-an-se, thou wise and learned man, behold your unfortunate disciple, who has lost the benefit of sitting at your feet during your lifetime, and profiting by your lessons ; I will now prove my regard, and testify my deep regret, and wiU here mourn for one hundred days ;” haA-ing said thus, he prostrated his body four times, and bedewed the earth with his tears. This young man was of a noble family, and was named Ow-ang-sun ; having risen from the earth he sought for the widow of his lost master. 102 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. that he might pay his respects to her, he sent to her chamber two or tliree times, and she as often refused to sanction his request to be admitted ; at length he represented, that it was an ancient custom for women to show themselves, when intimate friends of their deceased husbands came to mourn, but that he had a still greater reason to enjoy this custom, as had the great and wise philosopher lived, he would have been received into his house as his disciple. This argument pre- vailed, and the widowed Ty-en came forth from her chamber, and advanced into the hall with a slow and solemn step, to receive the condolence of Ow-ang-sun, which was soon spoken and in but few words. Wlien she beheld his well-formed person, and listened to his attractive words, expressed in a respectful manner, she felt in her soul, what she had never felt before, and which she did not comprehend ; but she wished that the young man might not too soon depart. Ow-ang-sim then addressing her said, “By my evil destiny, I have lost my master, whose memory I will ever cherish ; I must find some residence, where I may dwell the hundred days of mourning, after which I will assist at the funeral rites; during the days of my mourning I should wish to read the works of this renowned philosopher, which are noAV the only means I have left to supply the place of those lessons wliich death has deprived me of.” The wldoAV hastened to reply, “ Our house will be honoured by your dwelling amongst us, during the days of our mourn- ing ; and I cannot be otherwise than gratified at such a mark of respect paid to my dear husband’s memory.” She then prepared him a repast, and served it up herself, and while Ow-ang-sun was thus occupied, she brought forth the works of Chow-an-se, and laid them on a desk, and then presented the book of Taow-te to her guest, who accepted it with graceful etiquette. On one side of the hall were two rooms, near wdiere the coffin stood, and in one of these the young man was lodged ; the young widow came frequently into the hall to weep over A CHINESE NOVEL. 103 her husband’s coffin, but before she again retired to her cham- ber she always spoke in kind words to Ow-ang-sun, who then would salute her in return. At these frequent meetings the glances of their eyes betrayed the feelings of their hearts. Ow-ang-sun’s heart was inflamed by the glances of the newly- made widow, and her soul was di’awn towards his, she felt happy in his presence, and could not rest long in her chamber without the desire of again returning to weep over her hus- band’s corpse. She knew,’ she must then again behold her lover. She felt contented that her habitation was far removed from the busy world, as any neglect in the ceremonies of mourning for the dead would not be observed. She desired ardently to encourage the advances of Ow-ang-sun, and hasten him to declare his love, and being fertile in all feminine expedients, she bethought herself of one, which she speedily put into practice ; she sent secretly for the old ser- vant, and having spoken kindly and familiarly to him, she gave him a plentifiil supply of sam-shoo, flattered and cajoled him, called him an excellent and attentive servant, and asked him if it were true that his master was a married man? the old servant replied, that he was not yet ; and she then asked him what description of person he thought his master would prefer for his wife ? “ Oh,” said the servant, now merry with drink, could he find a wife who resembled you in all things, he would be the happiest of men.” — “ Tell me the truth,” said Chow-an-se’s widow, “ did your master speak to you after this manner?” — “An old man, like me,” an- swered the servant, “ dai'e not tell an untruth, or impose on a lady of yom- understanding and rank.” — “Well,” said Ty-en, “ you are a faithful servant, and if your master should marry me, I wUl not forget long services, and you shall receive a handsome reward for your zeal ; if he speaks to you about me assure him of my love.” “ I need not do so, most excellent lady, for my master has said, that he is dying for your sake, and would willingly wed you, but he fears what would be said, were he, who is a 104 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. disciple of the Philosopher, to marry his widow.” — “ That is not true,” said the passionate widow, “your master only promised to be the disciple of Chow-an-se; besides, I bve here far removed from the world, who therefore could know if I married again ? go, then to your master, and see if any other difficulty lies in our way ; and remember a rich present awaits you. If your master be true, return speedily to me, no matter at what hour either of night or of day ; I am im- patient to know what he says.” It was dark, but she could not easily rest, and peeped several times into the hall, in the hopes of seeing Ow-ang- sun, she then stepped softly forth, and listened at his chamber- door, but no voice could be heard ; on returning to her room, she passed close to the coffin of her dead husband, and trem- bled with fear, as she heard some sounds, which induced her to tlunk he was returning to life ; then hastening to her chamber she seized her lamp, and returning into the haU per- ceived the old servant stretched on the table close to the coffin, where joss-sticks were burning and offering laid for the dead, there he laid overcome with the drink she had given him ; any other widow might have felt indignant at this irreverence shown to the corpse of her husband, but Ty-en dared not complain, and much less awaken the sleeper. She therefore most wisely went to her bed, but repose was denied her. The next day she met the old servant walking about the hall, but he exhibited no desire to make her any answer, she therefore called him into her chamber and asked him what his master said. “ There is nothing which can be done. My master is as anxious as you are, great lady ; he acknowledges the truth of what you say, but still he says there are these three great obstacles which cannot be overcome. “ First, the coffin of your dead husband still stands in the hall, and is a very mournful sight to behold, therefore nuptials could not there be celebrated. A CHINESE NOVEL. 105 “ Secondly, the renowned Chow-an-se is well known to have loved his wife most tenderly, and owing to his great wisdom and virtue, she returned his love with devoted affec- tion ; my master fears, therefore, that her heart must ever continue united to the memory of her first husband, parti- cularly when she must discover so little merit in himself. “ Thirdly, he has no retinue of servants, no money to defray the cost of the ceremony and usual feasts, nor has he the means here of borrowing any for the purpose, for these three reasons, wliich cannot be sunnounted, he cannot accompHsh the desires of liis heart.” “ Is that all ?” replied Ty-en, “ it requires but little reflec- tion or trouble to remove such trifling difficulties. Xow, then, for the mournful coffin, which encloses only an inani- mate body, from which there can he no hope, no fear ; let it be removed into one of the servants’ chambers in the court- yard, some of the neighbouring peasants will soon cany it thither ; thus the sight of it will no longer be an obstacle in our path. “ Secondly, it is not ti'ue that Chow-an-se was either the wise man or the irreproachable sage he was taken for; he divorced his second wife to suit his caprice, and then married a younger, handsomer, and better born woman. His unde- served reputation caused the late Emperor to send him rich presents, and offer him the office of chief minister ; but the fool, conscious of his own incapacity, refused both, and fearing the anger of the Emperor, fled to this solitary abode. It is not a month since he encountered a young widow, who was fanning the grave of her husband, because she had made him a promise not to marry until the moistened earth which should cover him had di’ied up, Chow-an-se entered into conversation with her, assisted her in her task, and then besought her to give liim her fan, as a token of her love, the wretch brought it home, but I snatched it from him, and tore it into a thousand pieces ; but that was not sufficient to satisfy him, and on his deathbed he taunted me about the torn fan. 106 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. WLat regard could I have for the memory of such a man ? But yoiir master is young and comely, he has talent, and is addicted to study, he will be learned and esteemed by all the world, and being descended from royal progenitors, his birth is equal to my own, there is a conformity in our position. Heaven has guided him hither ; it is our destiny to be united. “ Thirdly, money need not stand in our path ; the nuptial feasts and decorations shall be all provided by me. Can your master believe that I was such a fool, that I did not amply provide for a day of necessity? There, take him those thousand taels ; when that is spent, he shall have more. Begone, let me know what Ow-ang-sun says in reply : aU shall be prepared for our nuptials tliis night.” The old servant took up the thousand taels, with which he hastened to his master, and shortly after returned to state that he agreed to all which she had proposed. The young widow’s joy now knew no bounds, she exchanged her mourning habits for the brightest sdks, adorning her hair, and painting her cheeks, whde by her orders the coffin was removed from the haU to the chamber she had pointed out ; the haU was then washed, decorated, and prepared for the nuptial ceremony, while many servants were engaged in pro- viding a sumptuous feast. The nuptial bed was decorated and exquisitely perfumed, the haU was illuminated with mag- nificent lanterns, and the marriage taper was hghted on the festive board. All being now ready, the bride and bridegroom advanced into the hall from their respective chambers, habited in embroidered robes, which were most becoming to their per- sons ; they placed themselves close to the nuptial torch, and were sm-prislngly beautiful to look upon, as they sat side by side, as the one added lustre to the other, hke as precious stones laid upon cloth of gold add to its beauty, and appear themselves more splendid, so did the beauty of Ty-en and the manly form of Ow-ang-sun develope each other’s splen- dour when placed side by side. After the usual forms and A CHINESE NOVEL. 107 ceremonies had been completed in the hall^ the bride and bridegroom entered the inner chamber hand in hand, where they performed the ceremony of drinking out of the cup of alliance, and then sat down together to table. The feast being ended, they approached the nuptial couch, when the bridegroom suddenly feU down in horrible convulsions, his countenance being frightfully distorted he endeavoured to rise and get into the bed, but he feU again in the attempt, he cried aloud that he was sick in the heart, and would im- mediately die. The bride, Avho was passionately enamoured of her new spouse, and caring only for him, threw herself on his body, rubbed his breast, embracing him tenderly, and then cried aloud for help. She called on her new husband by his name, but he could not reply, and appeared to be expiring. The old servant hearing the noise ran in, and seeing the condition his master was in, raised him in his arms and shook him. The distracted Ty-en asked him, “ Has my beloved Ow-ang-sim been subject to tliis malady ?” The servant informed her that a year seldom passed in which he had not an attack similar to the present, from wliich he feared now that there was no prospect of his re- covering from, as the Emperor’s physician alone could cure him, and there was only one remedy which even he could employ. “ TeU me quickly,” cried Ty-en, “ what that remedy is.” The old man informed her that the secret had been discovered by the same physician, and that it was infallible ; but that it could not be procured, as it was the brain of a newly-kiUed man, on which must be poured boiling wine, and drinking this would immediately cure liim ; that the last time that Ow-ang- sun was attacked in this manner, the Emperor had ordered the execution of a condemned criminal, but it was hopeless to look for a man’s brain where they then were. How- ever, the said physician stated, that in case there was a neces- sity, he beheved that the brain of a man, who had died a 108 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. natural death, might be used with every hope of success, pro- vided he had not been dead too many days, as the brain would for several days preserve its virtue. “ Why stand idly here ? ” cried Ty-en ; “ open the coffin of that fool, Chow-an-se ; his brain Avill restore my beloved hus- band to me once more. Would that my heart’s blood could remove this dreadful disease from him, I would willingly shed it; how can I hesitate, then, to use a lifeless carcass?” At the conclusion of these words, she rushed from the chamber, seized an axe used for cutting firewood in one hand, and a lamp in the other, and ran to the spot where Chow-an-se’s coffin was removed to ; she laid down the lamp, turned up her long hanging sleeves, and seizing the axe in both hands, she struck with it a violent blow with all her might upon the lid of her late husband’s coffin, and clave it asunder. It is true that a woman’s strength could not have performed this action with the same success upon an ordinary coffin, but Chow-an-se having had a great love for life, had ordered the lid of his coffin to be constructed of very thin boards, because he had known of many persons returning to life after they had been supposed to be dead, and he was determined not to be buried alive. It was owing to this precaution upon his part that the board was broken at the first blow, and that two or three more knocked the lid off ; after which, Ty-en having lost her breath with her unusual exertions, stopt to recover herself, and at the same instant she heard a very deep-drawn sigh, and saw her first husband move a little, and then rise up in his coffin. She was so overcome, both with siurprise and consternation, that she slirieked aloud, her limbs tottered, and unconsciously she allowed the axe to fall from her hands. “ !My beloved wife,” said Chow-an-se, " assist me to quit tills confined space.” And having succeeded in getting out of the coffin, without uttering another word, he raised the lamp, and preceded Ty-en to her chamber, who, trembling from head to foot, followed him, the perspiration falling from her brow, knowing that she had left her new husband with his servant A CHINESE NOVEL. 109 there. Upon entering the room, however, and finding that they were not to be seen, her presence of mind retm-ned, and she revolved within herself how she shoxxld acquit herself in explaining to Chow-an-se the appearance of the apartment ; then casting'a tender and submissive look upon her injured husband, she said — “ Your humble and devoted slave, from the moment of your death, has been constantly occupied, devoting herself wholly to your memory ; while thus engaged, I heard just now a noise, as if coming from your coffin, and remembering the stories you had so often repeated of persons returning to life who were supposed to be dead, I was seized with the conviction that you were one of the number. I hastened to your coffin as fast as I could ; I succeeded in open- ing it ; my hopes have been realized ; and to my joy I again behold my husband, whose loss I had never ceased to bewail.” “ Thanks, my dear wife, for your tried fidelity and love ; but why are you not in mourning attire, and why are you thus gaily decked?” “ I went to release you with a secret foreboding of my happiness; the joy I anticipated did not require a widow’s garment, and it would have ill become me to receive my husband in a mourning habit, T therefore attired myself in my bridal dress.” “ Very good indeed,” replied her husband ; “ you answer me well ; but why was my coffin placed in the servants’ chamber, and not, as according to custom, in the hall ? ” Ty-en was embarrassed at the question, and still more at seeing her husband’s attention attracted by the remains of the feast, and the evidences of late rejoicing ; and her pre- sence of mind forsaking her, she opened not her mouth. Chow-an-se made no remark, but called aloud for hot wine, and drank several cups in succession, without speaking a word, his wife stUl standing before him a convicted criminal, with downcast eyes, and consumed by remorse and confusion. At length the philosopher, pointing with his finger, said, “Behold these two men behind your back; who are they?” 110 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Tnmliig round, she saw Ow-ang-sun and his old servant about to enter the apartment ; her terror and confusion were too e\ndent to escape the observation of her injured husband : she turned a second time, but they were gone. The unhappy woman, finding that her intrigue was exposed, was unable to survive her shame and self-reproach, she accordingly with- drew into a private part of the house, and unfastening her silken girdle, she threw it over a beam and hanged herself. A deplorable end was hers, and let it be a warning to future ages, and be the cause of preventing other young and married women from following her example, by delivering themselves over to the promptings of a shameful passion. Chow-an-se, finding her hanging from the beam, cut the sUken girdle, and had not much difficulty in repairing his old coffin, in which she was laid, but from which she had not the good fortune to escape as speedily, as her husband had done. Chow-an-se quitted a habitation where such great mis- fortunes had overtaken him ; he did not seek for the young widow whose fan his wife had torn into pieces, prudently resoh-ing not to marry again, but to devote his time to tra- velling, in the course of which he met his old master, Ly-ul, and they spent the remainder of their days most agreeably in the enjoyment of each other’s society. MORAL LESSOXS. An Example of severity in Military Discipline. Leou-gin-CHEN, who commanded a body of troops, during disturbances at Cheou-cheou, became exceeding ill from the effects of over-fatigue ; a son of his, who was easily led, was prevailed upon by some of his companions, to avail himself of the opportunity afforded by his father’s illness, to spend the MORAL LESSONS. Ill night on the other side of the river Ho-ai, in violation of a O military order, which declared that death should be the punishment of its breach. One of the sentinels gave notice of this \'iolatlon of military discipline, and the Commander unhesitatingly sentenced his son to be executed. Both the father and son were beloved by the army, all the officers therefore interceded for the son, but finding the father inexorable, they imagined that they should succeed tlirough the mother, and consequently they addressed themselves to her, thinking she was unacquainted with the fact, they informed her of the danger in which her son lay, and urged her to save his life. “ I love my son dearly,” she replied, “ it wiU be a severe trial to me, and will pierce my heart to see him die so young, and in so shameful a manner ; but if his life should be spared, the family would be unfaithful and undutiful to their Prince ; know then, that for this reason I cannot, and will not oppose the execution of his just sentence.” The son was accordingly severed in two, in compliance with mibtary law, but after the execution, the father and mother mourned over his body, and bewailed their loss, ex- hitlng the most public marks of tenderness, and their visible sorrow drew tears from the eyes of those wffio were un- acquainted with them. A Mother’s Watchfulness over her Children, EVEN WHEN MaRRIED. Paow-mong-feu and his brother Tu-kin, were two of the greatest men of their day, which was in a great measure to be attributed to their mother, who soon after the birth of her youngest son was left a young widow ; she had brought up her sons with great care, and when it was necessary did not hesitate to use the rattan. One day, long after these 112 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. two sons had been married, and were managing their own families, a man of their aequaintanee came to dine with them, but their mother, according to her custom, had infonned her- self, thi’ough an old and faithful servant, who this man was, that came as a guest to her sons, and what was the nature of the conversation dm-ing the repast. She learned that the principal topic they conversed upon was a girl, whose beauty the stranger extoUed very much, and also added the sum of money for which she might be purchased, by one of them, who was desirous to make her his concubine. Their mother on hearing this information, was enraged beyond mea- sure, and calling for her sons reprimanded them severely, “ That man, who was yoiu’ guest at dinner, has an evil tongue, and his only use is to lead you from virtuous pur- suits; are there no wise, no virtuous men amongst your neighbours ? why do you select such a profligate as this man for your companion ? what was your conversation while you were at table ? instead of discoursing on topics of wisdom and virtue, all his language was calculated to deprave the heart. I cannot suffer you to continue such a hfe without my oppo- sition and warning.” She immediately left the chamber, and continued a month without speaking once to either of her sons. The youngest’s affliction was so great, that twice each day he prostrated himself at regular hours before his mother beseeching her to speak to him, if it was only one word ; the eldest, although not so much afflicted, shed abundant tears as he entreated his mother to restore them both to her favour ; but no pardon was granted to them by their mother until after the expiration of a month, and not even then until they both gave her a solemn pledge that they would renounce all intercourse with the person in question, and any others of his depraved character and disposition. AN ORIGINAL CHINESE TALE. 113 THE POOR SCHOLAR; OR, PERSEVERANCE REWARDED. AN ORIGINAL TALE. {Translated expressly from the Chinese original for this work.') A-Yatt was the son of a poor widow who lived in the pro- vince of Shan-tung, which province, be it known to the igno- rant, was the birth-place of Confucius. A-Yatt had entered his sixteenth autumn, was of a mild disposition, studious habits, and was celebrated through the whole village, for his filial duty to his mother, and the respect which he paid to learned men, and those who had passed through the troubled sea of many winters. “ My son,” said Kow-kee, — A-Yatt’s mother was so named, — “ close thy book, the sun has set ; let us eat our evening meal; thou hast studied long, and dost not devote sufficient time to thy food and rest.” “ Honored mother, I hasten to obey your voice, but while you so kindly think of my employments, totally do you neglect your own precious health, by labouring at the deli- cate, many-colom*ed embroidery, whereby you gain the food which nourishes om’ bodies, and supplies me with money to purchase books, to enlighten my ignorant mind.” “ My son, I am old, thou art young, life has nearly woven out the web of my days. When winding the skein of silk, before commencing, the fabric has only begun in thine : thou art clever and good, but, my son, neither talent nor virtue can avail aught, without pet'severance. Thou art going, in two moons’ time, to contend for the prize in learning ; ’t is the first step in the ladder of preferment; the top thou must attain if thou wilt but persevere." Ten years have passed, an old woman, bowed with years and sickness, is working in various bright colours, on a crape garment, her fingers are feeble, and her eyes are dim, but diligently she plies the broidery needle. A young man, full of VOL. II. I 114 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. liealth and vigour, is studying the work of Confucius on self- government. ‘‘A-Yatt, my son, close thy book, thou hast studied until thy cheek is pale, thy jacket is threadbare and soiled, but my son will one day wear the silken embroidered robes of the mandarin, as a reward for his perseverance.” “ Mother, my cheek is pale with despair, ten times have I been a candidate for literary honours, ten times have I been unsuccessful. I shall study no more, but seek some manual employment, whereby I may be enabled to support you and myself, your eyes are dim, my beloved and respected mother, still you continue your indefatigable industry, to procure food and raiment for yourself and your unworthy son. I close this book to open it not again.” “ A-Yatt, my son, much need hast thou to study that book, to imbue thyself with its inculcations of self-control. I have told thee, thou must persevere until the end. What though thou hast been unsuccessfid ten times, persevere again ; how many tens of drops are there in the Yang-tsze- Kang ? is it not composed of single drops, that mighty body of waters ? I will labour no more, when thou hast attained the highest honors yet conferred upon a philosopher ; save to embroider for thee thy silken robe of state. I, thy mother, the widow, for twenty-six long years, of thy father, command thee our son A-Yatt to per sever e.'’’ Ten years have passed away. Congratulations are offered to a majestic and portly man of dignified mein, who has been declared a successful candidate, and is one of the seventy-two who have been made a heu-jin. The motto attached to his theme, was — “ I, thy mother, command thee to persevere .” A-Yatt, the son of the widow Kow-kee, has his name placed in the books for preferment ; the emperor hav- ing appx’oved of his theme. Ten years have passed away. In the Hall of Audience, Avho is it that koo-tows so low and so oft before the Celestial Man — Emperor of China and the world? It is A-Yatt, the widow’s son, who has been examined in presence of the AN ORIGINAL CHINESE TALE. 115 Emperor, and has been made a mandarin of the red button, and viceroy of a province ; he has come to take leave before proceeding to his post. Ten hours have been added to the last ten years. An old feeble woman, bowed and bent double by years and infir- mity, is embroidering a blue silken robe ; ’t is the robe of state, worn only by the viceroy of a pro\dnce : the finger is feeble, and the eye very dim, but the sense of hearing is acute, for she hears, before the ear of the wife has caught the footfall of her husband, the footstep of her son, “ Enter our son, A-Yatt, did I not tell thee thou wouldst wear the silken robe of a mandarin ; did I not promise thee to labor no more when I, thy mother, had broidered thy silken robe of state ; did I not command thee to persevere? Here is thy silken robe of state ; ’t is now completely broidered by my liands; 1 labour no more. Thou didst attend to my com- mands ; thou didst persevere ; thou art a mandarin. Son A-Yatt, tell thy wife Tyan, to call thy son Sam-ung to me.” Ten minutes are added to the ten hours. A chubby boy of five years of age is led by the hand, by his mother, to the aged, grey-haired woman, who is supported in the arms of a man — stdl in the prime of life, but no longer young. “ Grandson Sam-ung, look on thy father ; he is a great man- darin, viceroy of a province, and a learned man. Grandson, when thy father was thine age we were poor — veiy poor ; I had to labour for his food and mine own ; for alas, my son’s father, was in the land of Shades. Thy father grew to be a youth, he was of studious habits ; and I, lus mother, labored early and late to procure the means of purchasing him books. Years passed, we still were very poor. Your father was an unsuccessful candidate for literary honors for fifteen years. I commanded him to persevere. Thy father obeyed me. At last he was made keu-jlu. And you may look upon thy father ; who is a great mandarin, viceroy of a province, but who also is the son of the poor widow Kow-kee. Grandson I 2 116 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Sam-ung, imprint these maxims upon thy heart, persevere in all you undertake; let not difficulties daunt you, or cause you to hover in a right pm’suit once commenced ; industriously try to overcome difficulties. Neglect not trifles, for nought is sufficiently trivial not to require attention ; for as the bound- less ocean is composed of drops, so is life made up of trifles. Be obedient to youi- parents’ commands ; and let perseverance guide all your actions. Son A-Yatt, 1 am a-weary, and fain would sleep ; depart for thy province, I am too old to go with thee. Thy mother beholds her son prosperous; be just in the government of thy province ; in the hall of thy dwell- ing let it be inscribed in golden characters the following lines : — “ To obtain and ensure success in lawful pursuits. Employ industry, energy, and perseverance ; I obeyed my mother’s commands, and heeded her maxim. Behold me a learned and mighty mandarin : The key-stone to the arch of honor Being pekseverance.” The following* specimens of the poetical compo- sitions of the Chinese are extremely interesting* j and it is affirmed that a correct opinion may be formed of a country b}'’ the national airs and melodies ; and if this be not an erroneous statement China must have been for many ag*es in the highest possible state of civilization. In the Kwoh Fung, or national airs, we find the following*, which appears to be a description of refrain arranged for two voices : — “ The bland soft wind breathes upon, and cherishes the heartwood of the flowering shrubs, hence the groves flourish and are renovated. But our beloved mother is environed with cares, and distressed with labors.” EXTRACTS FROM THE SIAU-YA, AND TSENG. 117 “ The bland soft wind cherishes by its breath the wood of the grove. Like unto it is the prudence and understanding of oiu- mother, we, her sons are men of repute.” “ The cool bubbling fountain waters and refreshes the lower part of the region Tsun, we are seven sons, whose mother’s care is like the flowing waters.” “ Sweetly, harmoniously, and with tuneful voice sings the yellow phoenix. We, seven sons, ought to solace our beloved parent.” In the Siau-Ya, or Lesser Eulogies, ^ve find the following' beautiful composition, arranged in a similar maimer : — “ The soft wind brings with it rain, I and thou were sharers in labors and privations, in truth, our hearts were closely united. You became prosperous and happy, then you changed towards me.” “ The soft wind, as it rises in the whirlwind, gradually be- comes more vehement. When we shared our labors and poverty, you cherished me in your bosom ; now you are rich and happy, you have left me — we are lost to each other.” In the Tsung, or songs of praise, we find the fol- lowino- Avritten in commemoration of the marriag-e of o Cj a monarch’s daughter ; — “ Our high dame is of lofty stature, and wears splendid robes beneath others of a sombre hue. Her hands are like a budding and tender flower, the skin of her face is smooth, the temples of her head are like the cicada, her eyebrows re- semble the Avinged silk-moth, her neck is like the Avhite larvas of the sphinx, her teeth are comparable to the seeds of the gOAU'd. She smiles most sweetly, and her laugh is agreeable.” 118 CHINA AND THE CHINESE From the Ancient Sonnets we subjoin the follow- ing', which alludes to the Empress of Yu Wang-, of the Chau dynasty. “ A talented man builds up the city, But an artful woman thi’ows it in ruins ; A beautiful and clever woman Is like the owl and kite ; Women with long tongues Are stepping-stones to misery. Commotions come not from heaven alone — They are produced by women. Tongues which can neither teach nor reprove, Ai'e those of women and eunuchs.” The following' is a martial sonnet, inviting' the fol- lowers of a Tartar general to emulate the bravery of their brother warriors : — The royal legions, now numerous and ardent. As if flying in winged crowds. Or as the restless sea, and foaming torrent. They are Ann as the mountain’s base. Resistless as the flowing stream. In sen'ied ranks they are marshalled well ; Their prowess is invincible, their motions rapid ; Thus they passed over to conquer Sii.” The following' is a specimen extracted from the Odes for Children : — SONNET INCULCATING THE NECESSITY AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION. “ It is of the utmost importance to educate chUdi'en. Do not say that your families are poor ; For those who can handle weU the pen. Go Avhere they will, never need ask for favors. ON FILIAL DUTY. 119 “ One at the age of seven showed himself a divinely endowed youth. Heaven, said he, gave me my intelligence, ^len of talent appear in the courts of the mighty emperor, Nor need they wait in attendance on mandaiin. “ In the morning I was an humble cottager. In the evening I entered the court of the Son of Heaven. Civil and military offices are not hereditary. Men must therefore rely on their own efforts. “ A passage for the sea has been cut thi’ough mountains. And stones have been melted to repair the heavens. In aU the world there is nothing that is impossible. It is the heart of man alone, that is wanting in resolution. “ Once I myself, was a poor indigent scholar. Now I ride mounted in my four horse chariot ; Aud all my fellow villagers exclaim with surprise. Let those who have children, thoroughly educate them.” SONNET INCULCATING FILIAL DUTY. “ The parents’ tender care can be dispensed. Not tiU three anxious years their cliild they’ve nursed. A father’s watchful care, a mother’s love — E’en with High Heaven equality demand. “ Let then the son his parents’ board provide With meat nutritious ; and from winter’s cold, AYith warmest silk, their feeble frames defend, Nor with their downward years his efforts cease. 120 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. “ When walking, let his arm their steps support ; When sitting, let him in attendance wait ; With tender care let him then’ comfort seek. With fond affection all their wishes meet. “ When age or sickness do their strength impair, Be all his fears and all his love aroused, — Let him with quickened step, good physic seek. And the most skilled physician’s care invite. “ And when, at last, the great event doth come, Be shi’oud and coffin carefully prepared; Yea, throughout life, by offerings and by prayer. Be parents present in his inmost heart. ‘‘Ye children, who this sacred edict hear. Obey its mandates, and your steps direct Towards duty’s paths ; for whoso doth not thus. How is he worthy of the name of man ?” Although much of the beauty and harmony of the composition is lost in the translation^ the exquisite sentiments which are inculcated by the foregoing- lines remain in their original purity. The following lines are stated to have been written 250 years before the Christian era, by a woman (Su Hwuie) upon the banishment of her husband, to whom she was tenderly attached : — “When you received the Emperor’s commands to quiet the distant frontier ; Going with you to the river’s bx-idge, we there oade our sad farewell. LINES BY A WOMAN. 121 Restraining my grief, and hiding my tears, 1 left you with these words : ‘ Oh ! do not forget my love and affection, or tarry long away ; Who would have believed that since you left, not a line from you has reached me : Have you thought that to your lone wife, e’en the spring is bleak and cold ? At the foot of the stairs, the green sward is left unmown. And our nuptial chamber, with dust and webs is all o’erstrewn. Even now, when I speak of our sad farewell, my soul with dread doth start. And my mind revolves what I would be, my lord again to see. One time to be the deep sea moon, 1 much desire. And then to be the cloud upon the mountain’s brow, is my heart’s wish. For the giddy mountain clouds, my husband’s face do meet. And the deep sea moon, year by year, shines down upon the land abroad ; The first flying here, and flying there, reach my beloved’s place. And in that for thousand, thousand miles, we might see each other’s face. F ar, far along the distant road, the mountain pass, while us dividing. Do I bemoan my lord, so long beyond the marches, he has absent been, , ^ , AVhen you left, as we bade adieu, the leaves of the reeds were yeUow. AVho then would have thought, that the Almond trees would have blossomed so oft. Before we again met.” 122 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. The writer of these lines is cited as havinof been a most talented woman 5 she also wrote a curious ana- gram, of nearly eig’ht hundred characters, which were so annexed, that Avhen read up or down, backwards or forwards, they still had an intelligible meaning. Having' now given specimens of the ancient Chinese poetiy, Ave Avill proceed to that of the present day. The following lines were composed by one of the local mandarins of Canton, Avhen he obtained permission to retire from the duties of his office on the score of old age,* in 1833 : — “ From ancient clays, my fathers trod the path Of literary fame, and placed their names Among the wise ; two generations past Attendant on their patrons, they have come To this provincial city, — -here this day, ’T is mine to be Imperial envoy — Theirs has the memory of ancestral fame. Ceased not to stimulate this feeble frame.” “ My father held an office at Lung-chau, And deep imprinted his memorial there, — He was the sure and generous friend Of learning, unencouraged and obscure ; When now I turn my head, and travel back. In thought to that domestic hall, it seems As yesterday, those early happy scenes : How was he pained, if forced to be severe. • A most curious custom is observed in China, when an official retires from office, who is beloved by the people ; in every city through which he passes they present him with a pair of new boots, retaining the pair the ex-official had worn. LINES BY MANDAEIN CHU. 123 From times remote, Kwan-tung, has been renowned For wise and mighty men ; hut none can stand Among them, or compare with Kiuh Klang ; Three idle and inglorious years are passed. And I have raised no monument of fame. By shedding round the rays of light and truth. To give the people knowledge. In this heart I feel the shame, and cannot bear the thought. “ AVhen I look backward o’er the field of fame, AVhere I have travelled a long fifty years. The struggle for ambition, and the sweat For gain, seem altogether vanity. "WIio knoweth not that Heaven’s toils, are close. Infinitely close ! Few can escape. Oh ! how few great men reach a full old age ! How few unshorn of honours, and their days. “ Untalented, unworthy, I withdraw. Bidding farewell to this stormy world. Upwards I look to the supremely good — The Emperor, to chose a virtuous man. To follow me. — Henceforth it Avill be well. The measures and the merits passing mine. But I shall silent stand, and see his grace Diffusing blessings, like the genial spring.” The name of the mandarin who composed the above was Chu; he tvas most deservedly popular among- his countrymen, as he administered the laws with equity. The people of Canton expressed deep regret at Chu’s departure, and the mandarin wrote the lines, distributing- some copies among-st his favom-ites, in order to console the people, and excite them to virtue.” 124 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. We extract some verses, from a sonnet which was addressed to Dr. Parker of Canton, by a Chinese scholar named Mo, who had recovered his sig’ht under the medical treatment of that g-entleman. A fluid darksome and opaque, long time had dimmed my sight, F or seven revolving years one eye was lost to light ; The other, darkened by a film, during three years saw no day. High Heaven’s bright and gladdening hght could not pierce it with its ray. “ Long, long I sought the hoped relief, but still I sought in vain. My treasures lavished in the search, brought no relief from pain. Till at length, I thought my garments, I must either pawn or sell. And plenty in my house I feared was never more to dwell. Then loudly did I ask, for what cause such pain I bore. For transgressions in a former life, unatoned for before ? But again came the reflection, how, of yore, oft men of Avorth, For slight errors had borne suffering great, as dreAV my sorrow forth. ***** ‘‘I have heard the friend who entered said, there’s come to us of late A native of the “ flowery flags,” far off and foreign state ; O’er tens of thousands miles of sea, to the inner land he’s come. His hope and aim to heal men’s pain, he leaves his native home. SONNET ADDKESSED TO DR. PARKER. 125 “ I quick went forth, this man I sought, this gen’rous doctor found. He gained my heart, he ’s kind and good, far high up from the ground. He gave a room, to which he came, at mom, at eve, at night. Words were but vain, were I to try, his kindness to recite. ***** “ ‘I’m but,’ said he, ‘ the workman’s tool, another’s is the hand. Before His might, and in His sight, men feeble helpless stand ; Go virtue, learn to cultivate, and never then forget That for some work of future good, thy life is spared thee yet. “ The olFring token of my thanks, he refused, nor would he take Silver or gold, they seemed as dust ; ’t is but for virtue’s sake His works are done. His skill divine I ever must adore. Nor lose remembrance of his name, till life’s last day expire. “ Thus none I told, in these brief words, this learned doctor’s praise. Well does his worth deserve that I should tablets to him raise.” The following lines were Avritten in 1841^ when our war-steamers were sent to China, to the pictures of the steam-vessels, which the Chinese paint, are fre- quently attached these words : — “ She ’s more than three hundred cubits long. And thirty odd in height and breadth ; Iron is used to bend her stiff and stout. And she ’s painted black all round about. Like a weaver’s shuttle is her shape. On both sides carriage wheels are fixed, 126 I CHINA AND THE CHINESE. And using fossil coal to make a fire. They whirl around as a swift horse flies. Of white cloth all the sails are made. In winds, both fair and foul, she goes ; On her bow is the god of the waves. At stem and stern is a revolving gun. Her form is truly terrific to men ; The god of the north displaying his sanctity. The sunken rocks, there shoaled the steamer. All who saw it witnessed to the justice of Heaven, None of the plans of the barbarians took effect, Which greatly delighted the hearts of men.” The following’ ballad is said to be in general use in the tea districts, and the Avomen sing* it, as they pluck the leaves from the tea shrub : — A Ballad on Picking Tea. “ Our household dwells amidst ten thousand hills, AVliere the tea, north and south of the village, abundantly grows. From Chinshe to Kukyii unceasingly hurried. Every morning I must early rise to do my task of tea. " By earliest dawn, I at my toilet, only half dress my hair. And seizing my basket, pass the door, Avhile yet the mist is thick, The little maids, and graver dames, hand in hand winding along. Ask me, which steep of Sunglo do you climb to-day. # * * * * A BALLAD ON PICKING TEA. 127 “ In social couples, each to aid her fellow, we seize the tea twigs ; And in low words urge one another, ‘ don’t delay’. Lest on the topmost bough, the bud has even now grown old. And lest with the morrow comes the drizzling silky rain. “ W e have picked enough ; the topmost twigs are spare of leaves. We lift our baskets filled brimful, and talk of going home. Laughing we pass along ; when just against the pool A pair of scored mallards rise, and fly away. * * # * * “ My bows of hair are all away, my face is quite begrlmmed. In whose house lives the girl so ugly as your slave. ’Tis only because that every day the tea I’m forced to pick. The soaking rains, and driving winds, have spoiled my early charms.” ***** “ This morn, without the door, I beheld a pleasant sky. Quickly I combed my girlish tuft, and firmly set my pin. With rapid steps away I speed towards the garden’s path. And forgetful of the muddy Avay omit to change my shoes. * * * * “ The yellow birds perched on the boughs, warble their sweetest songs. The weather most grateful is, when the sky’s half cloud is clear. While puUing down the twigs, each vents her troubled thoughts. We talk till our hearts are wounded, and teai%s are not restrained. 128 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. You, chirping swallows, may fly just as your wills incline, Going to pluck new tea. I’ll change to my old gown. I’ll grasp the cuff, and rolling it high up, WiU thus display my fine, and slender ann.” Some of the above poetic effusions have been trans- lated by Lacbanne, vvliilst the remainder orig-inally appeared in the Chinese Repository. The dramatic -writings of the Chinese are exceed- ingdy numerous^ and the tenor of the national drama is to inculcate morality. Monsieur Bazin (aine) affirms, that the Chinese drama does not date farther back than the Tang dynasty, although many enter- tainments, which were intended to be performed in pantomime, had been written anterior to that period. Monsieur Bazin mentions the names of eighty persons who wrote plays, as Avell as naming* plays that were written by unknown authors, who flourished during this dynasty (the Tang), the total number of written dramas being* five hundred and sixty-four. Many of these dramas have been translated, but the first person that translated a Chinese play was Father Premare, Avho, in 1731, rendered into French the play called, The Little Orphan of Tchao.” This tragedy is taken from a book entitled Yuen-gin i^^-tclwng ; which is a collection of a hundred of the best plays, that were composed during* the Yuen dynasty. A CHIIMESE TRAGEDY. 129 TCHAO CHI COU ELL; Or, the Little Orphan of the Family of Tchao. A Chinese Tragedy. Dramatis Persons. Toc-ngan-cou, Prime Minister of War, Tchao-tun, Minister of State, a mute person. Tchao-so, son of Tchao-tun, and son-in-law of the King. The King’s Daughter, wife of Tchao-so. Tching-tng, a Physician. Han- roue’. Mandarin of the Army. Cong-sun, an ancient Minister of State, retired into the country. Tching-poei, a young Lord, supposed to be the Physician’s son, and adopted by Tou-ngan-cou. OuEi'FONG, a Great Officer of the King, SIE TSEE; OR, THE PROLOGUE, Scene I. — Tou-ngan-cou, alone. A man seldom molests a tiger, and yet a tiger is always mischievous to a man. If we do not satisfy ourselves, when occasion offers, we are sure to repent. I am Tou-ngan-cou, prime minister of war in the kingdom of Tsin. The king Ling-cong, my master, had two seiwants in whom he placed entire confidence ; the business of the one was to rule the people, and was called Tchao-tun ; the other was to govern the army — that’s myself. Our employments have set us at enmity, and I have always been desirous of destroying Tchao, but have not been able to compass my design. Tchao-so his son has married the king’s daughter; I hired a Russian to take a dagger, get over the walls of Tchao-tun’s palace, and kill him ; but the wretch, attempting to execute my orders, beat his head against a tree and died upon the spot. One day Tchao-tun went out to animate the husbandmen in their labour, and found under a mulberry-tree a man half dead with famine; he gave him victuals and drink as long as he VOL. II. K 130 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. would, and saved his life. About this time a western king made his majesty a present of a great dog, called Tchin-ngao, who gave him to me ; liim I trained up to destroy my rival in the following manner : — I shut up the dog in a by-room, and ordered him to be kept from eating four or five days ; at the bottom of my garden I had placed a man of straw dressed like Tchao, and of the same size, in the belly of which were put the entrails of a sheep ; I shewed him the entrails, and let him go, when he soon tore in pieces the man of straw, and devoured the contents. After this he was shut up close again, kept from eating, and brought back to the same place ; as soon as he perceived the man of straw he fell a barking, I then let him go when he feU upon the image, tore out the entrails, and devoured them as before. This exercise lasted a hundred days, at the end of which I went to court, and said pubhcly to the king, prince, here is a traitor who has a design upon your life ; the king earnestly demanded who the traitor was ; I replied, the dog your majesty gave me can distinguish liim ; the king seemed pleased with it : foiTaerly, said he, in the reigns of Yao and Chun there was a sheep that could dis- cover a criminal by instinct, and am I so happy as to see something like it in my reign ; where is this wonderful dog ? I sent for him to the king, and at the same moment Tchao- tun was near the king in his usual dress ; as soon as Chin- ngao saw him he feU a barking ; the king ordered me to let him loose, saying. Surely Tchao-tun must be the traitor ; upon which I let him go, and he pursued Tchao-tun, who ran as fast as he could thi'ough the royal apartments, but by misfor- tune my dog displeased a mandarin of war, who killed him ; Tchao-tun ran out of the palace with a design to get into his chariot and four horses, but I had taken care to send away two of them, and broke one of the wheels, so that it was not fit to be used; but there appeared a bold able fellow, who with his shoulder supported the chariot, and drove the horses with his hand, and so conducted it through a passage between the mountains and saved the life of Tchao-tun : who was this A CHINESE TRAGEDY. 131 fellow ? why the very same that Tchao-tun had broixght back from the gates of death : as for myself I staid with the king, and told liim what I was going to do for his service, and upon the spot I caused all the family and domestics of Tchao-tun to be massacred to the number of three hundred ; there only remains Tchao-so, with the princess his wife ; he is the king’s son-in-law, and it will not be proper to put him piiblicly to death ; however to hinder a plant from growing again it is necessary to destroy even the smallest root ; I have counter- feited the king’s order, and have sent to Tchao-so, as from him, thi’ee things, a cord, a poisonous draught, and a dagger, with orders to choose one ; my commands will be executed, and I wait for an answer. \_Exit. Scene II. — Tchao-so, and the Princess his wife. Tchao-so. I am Tchao-so, and I have such a mandrinate : who would have thought that Tou-ngan-cou, urged by jealousy, Avhich always divides the mandarins of the army and the mandarins of letters, should deceive the king, and cause him to put to death our whole family to the number of three hundred persons : princess, hearken to the last words of your spouse ; I know you are with child, and if it happens to be a daughter, I have nothing to say ; but if it should be a boy. I’ll give him a name before he is born, and would have liim called the Orphan of Tchao ; bring him up carefully, that he may one day revenge his relations. The Princess. Alas ! you overwhehn me with grief. An Envoy from the King enters, and says, I bring from his Majesty a cord, poison, and a dagger, and I have orders to make these presents to his son-in-law ; he may choose which of the three he pleases, and after his death I must shut up the Princess his wife, and turn her palace into a prison; the order imports that there should not be a moment’s delay. [Perceiving the Prince, he says~\ Tchao-so, K 2 132 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. kneel down, and hear the king’s order, [lie reads] Because your family is guilty of high treason, all that belong to it have been executed besides yourself ; but remembering that you are my son-in-law, I was not wllhng to put you publicly to death ; I have therefore sent you three presents, commanding you to choose one. [ The Messenger continues and says] The order directs also, that your wife should be shut up in the palace, with strict prohibition not to let her go out, with design that the name of Tchao may be quite extinct; the king’s order admits of no delay, therefore Tchao-so make haste, and put yourself to death. Tchao-so. Alas ! Princess, what is to be done in this mis- fortune ? [He sings, bewailing his lot. The Princess. O, Heaven ! take pity on us, our whole family have been massacred, and these unfortunate wretches lie unburied. Tchao-so, singing. I shall have no grave no more than they. Princess, remember what I required you to do. The Princess. I shall never forget it. [Tchao-so repeats to the princess, singing the last advice that he gave her, and kills himself with the dagger. The Princess. Alas ! my spouse ; this sight will kill me with grief. The Messenger. Tchao-so has stabbed himself, and is dead, and Ills Avife is imprisoned in her OAvn house, I must there- fore go and give an account of my commission. [ Then he repeats two or three verses. The end of the Prologue. THE FIRST PART. Scene I. — Tou-ngan-cou, and Attendants. I fear that if the wife of Tchao-so should bring her son into the world, when he is grown up he will become a formidable A CHINESE TEAGEDY. 133 enemy, for which reason I keep her shut up in the palace as in a prison. It is almost night, I wonder why the messenger stays so long ; I cannot see him coming back. Enter a SOLDIEK. The Princess is brought to bed of a son, called the Orphan of the Family of Tchao. Tou-ngan-cou. Is this true ? What ! can this little imp be called the Orphan of the Family of Tchao? I will let him live a month, for I shall have opportunity enough to make away with the little orphan ; I ’U send orders to Han-koue, that he may guard the entrance of the palace where Tchao- so’s lady lives, that he may examine carefully everything that is brought out ; and if any one is so daring as to conceal the infant, I wiU destroy him and all his generation. This order shall be set up everywhere, and the inferior mandarins shall have notice, that if any one acts contrary to it, he shall be deemed guilty of the same crime. Scene II. — The Princess, holding her son in her arms. It seems as though the misfortunes of all mankind were in league to afflict me ; I am daughter to the King of Tsin ; the traitor Tou-ngan-cou has destroyed all my family, except this poor orphan I have got in my arms. I remember that my husband, just before his death, spoke these words : My Princess, said he, if you have a son, call him the Orphan of the House of Tchao, and take great care of him, that when he comes to age he may revenge his family ; but alas ! how shall I convey him out of this prison? There comes a thought into my head ; I have now no relation but Tching- yng, he is of my husband’s family, and, happily for him, his name was not in the list ; when he comes I ’ll trust him with the secret. 134 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Scene III. — Tching-yng, with Ms chest of medicines. I am called Tching-yng, and am a physician by profession : I served the king’s son-in-law, and he had a kindness for me that he had not for any other ; but alas ! this \iUain, Tou- ngan-cou, has destroyed all the family of Tchao, though I was so fortunate as not to be in the list. The princess is at pre- sent in her own house, and I carry her provisions every day ; I know that she has called her son the Orphan of the Family of Tchao, and designs to bring him up, hoping that he will one day revenge the death of his father, and the whole family, but I am much afraid, that he will hardly escape the talons of the cruel Tou-ngan-cou. It is said the poor Princess wants me to give her physic iindoubtedly after her lying-in; I must make haste, I am now at the door ; I have no occasion to send word, but will go in directly. Scene IV. — Tching-yng, the Princess. Tching-yng. INIadam, I understand you have sent for me ; what woidd you be pleased to have with me ? The Princess. Alas ! how has our family been destroyed in a cruel manner ! Tching-yng I have sent for you, and the reason is this ; I am brought to bed of a son, and his father, just before his death, gave him the name of the Orphan of Tchao. Tching-yng, you are one of our people, and have always been well used. Is there no method of conveying away my son that he may one day revenge his family ? Tching-yng. Madam, I see plainly you don ’t know all ; the traitor, Tou-ngan-cou, knowing that you have a son, has put up advertisements at all the gates, that if any one offers to conceal the little orphan, he and aU Ills family shall be put to death ; after this who dares receive him, or convey him out of the palace ? The Princess. Tching-yng, it is a common saying, that a A CHINESE TRAGEDY. 135 person who wants speedy help thinks of his relations, and when he is in danger trusts to his ancient friends ; if you save my son our family will have an heir. kneels doion,^ Tching-yng, take pity on me, the three hundred persons that Tou-ngan-cou has massacred are contained in this orphan. Tching-yng. Madam, rise, I beseech you ; if I hide my little master, and the traitor comes to know it, he’ll ask where is your son ? and you wiU say I have given him to Tching-yng, and then both myself and family will be put to death, and your son wiU share the same fate. The Princess. Banish all fear, and make haste away ; listen to what I say, and behold my tears ; his father died by a dagger, [she takes her girdle], the thing is determined, the mother will follow him. Tching-yng. I did not think that the Princess would have hanged herself as I see she has done ; ’t is not safe for me to stay here a moment, I ’ll open my chest of medicines, put the little prince in it, and cover liim with bundles of physical herbs. O, Heaven ! take compassion on us ; aU the family of Tchao has perished by the sword, and none but this poor orphan is left ; if I can save him I shall be very happy, and shall do a great piece of service ; but if I am discovered, I shall be put to death, and all that belongs to me. O, Tching- yng ! consider a little, if this orphan is saved, he must be taken out of the hands of Tou-ngan-cou, and to hope for this, is to hope to get free from the nets of heaven and earth. Scene V. — Han-KOUE, attended tcith Soldiers. I am Han-koue, General under Tou-ngan-cou, he has ordered me to guard the palace of Tchao-so’s widow ; but why guard it ? because the Pi’incess has had a son ; it seems he is afraid that they should carry off the infant, so has ordered me to keep strict guard, and if any one takes him away, he and all his family will be made shorter by the head. 136 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. AYell, Tou-ngan-cou, shall it be said, that you may kill at your pleasure the king’s best subjects, and those of the greatest merit ? [fle sinffs.'\ The two families of Tou and Tchao nourish an enmity, which wiU not soon be extinguished. \^He sinffs.l O Tou-ngan-cou, how odious art thou ! [He still sings, and threatens Tou-ngan-cou with the punishment of Heaven.'] I command you to keep strict watch, and if any one comes out of the palace give me immediate notice. [ To the Soldiers. Scene VI. — Tching-yng, Han-koue, and Soldiers. Han-houe. Seize this man that carries a physician’s chest. — TVlio are you ? Tching-yng. I am a poor physician, called Tching-yng. Han-kouh Whence come you ’ "Whither do you go ? Tching-yng. I come from the Princess, to whom I have been giving physic. Han-houe. What physic have you given her ? Tching-yng. That wliich is proper for childbed-women. Han-houe. AVliat is it then that you carry in your chest? Tching-yng. ’T is full of medicines. Han-houh What medicines ? Tching-yng. Such as are usually taken. Han-houe. Is there nothing else ? Tching-yng. No, nothing else in the world. Han-houe. If what you say is true you may be gone about your business. [He goes away, and Han-koue calls him bach.] Tching-yng, Tching-yng, come back, and tell me what is in your chest. Tching-yng. Medicines. Han-kouL Is there nothing else besides ? Tching-yng. Nothing at aU. Han-houe. Go your ways then. [He goes away, Han-houe A CHINESE TEAGEDY. 137 recalls him, he returns.~\ You certainly conceal something or other for when I say he gone, you seem to fly ; and when I say Come back, you seem scarce able to walk : O Tching-yng, do you think I don’t know you? \_He sings.'] You are of the family of Tchao, and I am under Tou-ngan-cou : I am sure you have got the young child in that chest, who is not yet a month old. O, Tching-yng take notice of what I say. \_He sings.] How can you get out of the tiger’s den ? Am not I the next general to Tou-ngan-cou ? Do you think I will let you go without asking any questions ? O, Tching-yng, I know you have great obligations to the family of Tchao. Tching-yng. I own it, I know them, and will endeavour to repay them. Han-koue (sings). You say you will repay the favours you have received, but I am afraid you cannot save yourself. \_Ife sends the Soldiers away.] Withdraw ; if I call you, come; if I don’t call you, don’t come. Soldiers. We wiU do as you say. Han-houe opens the chest. O Tching-yng, you said there was nothing here but medicines, and see here is a little man. [ Tching-yng falls upon his knees in confusion ; Han- houe sings over the infant that he found. Tching-yng. My lord, I beseech you be not angry, but permit me to tell you how things have happened : Tchao-tun was one of the King’s most faithful subjects, Tou-ngan-cou was jealous of liim, and would have killed him by a dog; Tchao-tun made his escape, and got out of the palace ; Ids chariot could not get along, but the brave Ling-che, remem- bering the favours he had received, carried him into the mountains, where it is not known what has become of him ; the king believed the calumnies of Tou-ngan-cou ; the son of Tchao-tun had orders to kill himself ; the princess was con- fined to her palace, where she had a son she called the Orphan, the mother and child were without any assistance ; the Prin- 138 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. cess trusted me with her son ; you have found him, my lord, and I hope you won’t blame me ; you cannot desire to destroy this young branch, and extinguish the family without re- demption. Han-houe. Tching-yng, you see if I was to carry this chUd to its enemy, there are no riches or honors that I might not gain ; but Han-kou^ has too much integrity to commit so base an action. [1/e sings.'] If Tou-ngan-cou was to see this child. O, Tching-yng, wrap up the dear orphan ; if Tou- ngan-cou asks where he is I’ll answer for you. Tching-yng. How great are my obligations ! [He wraps vp the infant, goes his way, returns hack and kneels down. Han-houe. Tching-yng, when I required you to go it was not to deceive you, therefore make the best of your way. Tching-yng. — Sir, a thousand thanks. [He goes his way, and returns hack again. Han-houe. Tching-yng, why do you return so often? [He sings.] You are afraid I should deceive you : 0, Tching- yng ! if you have not courage to expose your life, what obliges you to save the orphan against your inclinations? Learn that a faithful subject is not afraid to die, and he who is afraid to die is not a faithful subject. Tching-yng. Sir, if I go out of the palace they’ll send after me, and I shall be taken, and this poor orphan will be put to death ; be it as it wiU — go, sir, receive the reward ; all that I wish is to die with the orphan of the family of Tchao. Han-houe. You may easily save yourself and the or 2 )han, but you are afraid to credit what I say. [He sings to express his last thoughts, and hills himself. Tching-yng. Alas! what do I see? — Han-koue has laid violent hands on himself ; if one of the soldiers should give notice of it to Tou-ngan-cou, what will become of me and the PIECES PERFORMED AT THEATRES. 139 infant? We will be gone as fast as possible, and make the best of our way to the village Tai-ping, and there we will consider of proper measures. END OF THE FIRST PART. The Oriental Translation Fund, in 1830, published two plays, called the Sorrows of Kan,” and the Heir in Old Ag*e.” In 1838 the Imprimerie Royale de Paris, published the following- dramatic pieces w'hich were translated by Monsieur Bazin. The Songstress,” The Compared Tunic,” The Intrigues of an Abig-ail, and the Resentment of Tau- nofo.” Monsieur Bazin is a most indefatig-able searcher into the dramatic literature of China, for he has pro- duced an excellent translation of the Pipa Ki, or the History of a Lute, which is a drama in twenty- jour acts, wTitten during the Ming dynast}-. The style and number of pieces, which are played at a Chinese theatre, resemble the European; first there is a drama, tragedy, or comedy, and the evening’s entertainment concludes with a farce ; and occa- sionally, in some theatres, there are equestrian scenes and pyrotechnic displays. We cannot present our readers with a more amusing- Chinese burletta, or farce, than the following, which we extract from the Chinese Repository, vol. vi. page 576. 140 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. THE MENDER OF CRACKED CHINA. Dramatis Persons. Niu-chau, a Wandering Tinker. Wang-niang, a Young Lady. SCENE.— ^ Street Niu-Chau enters — across his shoulders a bamboo, to each end of which are suspended boxes containing the tools and im- plements of his trade — He is dressed meanly, his face and hands being painted in a grotesque manner. i^Sings.') Seeking a livelihood by the work of my hands, daily do I traverse the streets of the city. (Speaks.) Well, here I am, a mender of broken jars, an un- fortunate victim of ever-changing plans. To repair old fractured jars is my sole occupation and support — ’tis even so — I have no means of livehhood. [^Takes his boxes from his shoulders, places them on the ground, sits beside them, and drawing out ajar commences speaking. A disconsolate old man — I am a slave to Inconveniences, for several days I have been unable to go abroad, but seeing this morning a clear sky and fine air, I was induced to re- commence my street wanderings. But, as this is my first visit to the City of Nankin, some extra exertion is necessary, time is only lost sitting here, and so to roam again I go. \_Shoulders his boxes, and walks about shouting, plates mended! — boids mended! — -jars and pots neatly repaired! Wang-niang (Jieard within a house). Did I not hear the cry of the mender of cracked jars ? I’ll open the door and look. l^She enters, looking round.~\ Yes, there comes the mender of jars. Niu-chau. Pray have you a jar to mend? I have been long seeking a job — did you not call ? A CHINESE FAECE. 141 Wang. ^Yhat is your charge for a large jar — and how much for a small one ? Niu-chau. For large jars, one mace five cash. Wang. And for small ones ? Niu-chau. Fifty pau’ of cash. Wang. To one mace, five and fifty pair of cash, add nine candareens, and a new jar may be had. Niu-chau. What then will you give ? Wang. I will give one candareen for either size. Niu-chau. W eU, lady, how many cash can I get for this candareen ? Wang. "VYhy if the price be high, you will get eight cash. Niu-chau. And if low ? Wang. You will get but seven cash and a half. Niu-chau. Oh, you wicked tormenting thing. {Sings.) Since leaving home this morning, I have met but with a trifler. Who, in the shape of an old wife, torments, but gives me no job ; I’ll shoulder again my boxes, and continue my walk, Never asrain will I return to the house of Wang-. \^Chau moves off slowly. Wang. Jar-mender, return, quickly return, with a loud voice I entreat you, for I have something on wliich I wish to consult with you. Chau. What is it, on w'liich you wish to consult me ? Wang. I wiU give you a hundred cash to mend a large jar. Chau. And for mending a small one ? Wang. Thii’ty pairs of cash. Chau. One hundred and thirty pair ! — truly, lady, this is worth consulting about. Lady Wang, where shall I mend them? 142 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Wang. Follow me. \__ They go towards the door of the house, {Wang sings.) Before walks the Lady Wang — Chau. And behind comes the pu-kang {or jar-mender). Wang. Here then is the place — Chau. Lady Wang, permit me to pay my respects. [^Bows repeatedly in a ludicrous manner.'\ I salute you. May you prosper, and your feet become smaller. Wang. Here is the jar, now set to work and mend it. Chau ( Takes the jar in his hand, turns it about to examine it). This jar has received a severe fracture. Wang. The more scope for your skill. Chau. That is self-evident. Wang. Now I shall retire again to the inner apartment, and after closing the door, shall resume my toilet — my ap- pearance I shall beautify. On the left side of my head, I will comb my hair into a di’agon’s head tuft ; on the right side, I shall arrange it tastefully with flowers. My lips I shall color with blood-red vermilion, and a pin of jaed stone will I place in the dragon’s head tuft ; — then when my toilet is completed, I will return to the door, and sit down to look at the jar-mender. \_Exit. \^Chau sits down, straps the jar on his knee, and arranges his tools before him, and as he drills for the clamps, sings. Every hole drilled requires a pin, and every two holes drilled, Require pins a pair — so I raise my head and look around. \^At this moment Wang re-enters splendidly dressed, and sits down by the door. There sits I see a delicate young lady, before she had the appearance of an old wife ; now she is transformed into a handsome young girl ; on the left side of her head her hair is combed into a dragon’s head tuft, whilst on the right it Is A CHINESE FARCE. 143 adorned tastefully with flowers. Her lips are like ripe plums, her mouth is aU smiles, her eyes are as brilliant as the phoe- nix’s, and she stands on golden lilies, but two inches long. I look again — I must have another look. [^Down drops the jar, and is broken to pieces.'] Yi-yaw ! Here’s a dreadful smash. Wang. You must replace my jar with another, and do so quickly. Chau. For one that was broken, must a good one be given ? Had two been broken, then must a pair have been supplied — an old one being smashed, a new one must replace it. Wang. You have destroyed the jar, and in its place give me words ; give me a new one, then you may return home — not before. Chau {kneeling). Here on my knees, upon the hard ground, I beg Lady Wang, while she sits above, to listen to a few words : — Pardon me for the accident, your beauty has occa- sioned, and I will at once make you my wife. Wang. Impudent old man, how dare you presume to think, that I ever can become your wife ? Chau. Yes, it is true, I am somewhat older than Lady Wang, yet I would make her my wife. Wang. No matter then for the accident, leave this place at once, presuming man. Chau. Since you have forgiven me, I again shoulder my boxes, and will go elsewhere in search of a wife. And here, before I go, I swear never again to come near the house of Wang. You a great lady, you are but a vile ragged slut, and will yet be glad to take up with a much worse com- panion. \_Chau turning to go away, suddenly throws off his ragged upper dress, and appears as a handsome young man. 144 CHINA AND THE CHINESE Wang. Henceforth give up your wandering profession; marry me and qvut the trade of a jar-mender. I am a rich widow, so with me you shall wed, and we will pass happily the remainder of om* years. \They embrace and exeunt. The humor of these trivial farces depends com- pletely upon the tact of the actors, who ought to give due point to all the witty allusions. And when the jar-mender is enacted by the Mr. and Mrs. Keeley of China, the theatres resound with peals of laughter. RELIGION OF THE CHINESE. 145 CHAPTER Till. Religion of the Chinese — Three religious sects — Con-fou-tsze, or State Religion — Priests — Rites and ceremonies — Prayer of the Emperor Kang-he — Extract from the Chu-king, by Confucius — The followers of Lao-kiun, or Taou — Precepts and doctrines — Joss-houses — Decora- tions and idols — Demon mode of worship — Religious observances and processions — The followers of Foo, or Buddha — Beliefs — Doctrines — Precepts and commandments — Transmigration of souls — Anecdotes — Temples — Mode of worship — Priests and Nuns — Settlement of Jews — Mahomet’s followers. The Chinese are divided into three relig-ious sects, who are followers of the tenets inculcated by Con- fou-tsze or Confucius, Lao-kiun or Taou, and Foo or Buddha. The Confucian is the religion of the state (although the Emperor builds and endows tem- ples belonging to the two other sects), and the court pretend to follow the scheme of ethics and politics, laid down by their renowned philosopher. Confucius was born in the province of Shan-tung’^ about five hundred and forty-nine years before the Christian era, consequently, if this data be correct, Confucius must have been almost contemporary with Pythagoras, Thales, and Socrates, but the principles inculcated by the Chinese philosopher, far outvie those promul- VOL. II. L 146 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. gated by the sag*es of ancient Greece. Tlie memory of Confucius is held in extreme reverence by the Chinese; in every district is a temple dedicated to him^ and in every school throughout the Chinese empire is a tablet inscribed in honor of his memory, before which incense is burned morning* and evening*. The precepts inculcated by the sage are, dread and gratitude to the Lord of the world, obedience and subordination to parents and superiors, mourning* for ancestors, honest and conscientious dealings with our fellow-man, benefiting* our neighbours to the extent of our ability, and never indulging* in vice or sen- suality of any description. Confucius enforces strongly the necessity of obedience in all ranks, ages, and positions ; thus, servants and slaves must obey their masters, children must obey their parents, and the parents must obey the Emperor, who must himself obey the Lord of Heaven, whose son and delegate he (the Emperor) is.* The Avorks of Confucius, which are used by his folloAvers, are called the five cano- nical books,” and are held in the greatest veneration, the whole tenor of these works indicate morality and sound political a Icavs ; one political extract must suffice, “ Let those who produce revenue be many, and those avIio consume it feiv ; let the producers have every facility, and let the consumers practise economy, and thus there Avill be at all times a sufficiency of revenue.” The high priest of this sect is the Emperor, the subordinate priests being* the mandarins, officers of * The Emperor of China is termed by his subjects “ The Son of Heaven. BITES AND CEREMONIES. 147 state, both civil and military j the heavens, earth, sun, and moon, are worshipped, when heaven is wor- shipped the Emperor is clad in silken robes of azure blue ; when earth, his robes are saffron coloured j the sun is worshipped in crimson robes, and the moon in robes of a cream-white hue. The sacrifices are offered at fixed periods, that to heaven is made on the day of the Avinter solstice; to earth, on that of the summer solstice ; the others being’ made according’ to the inclination or pleasure of the Emperor. The victims sacrificed, are coavs, pigs, bullocks, and sheep, these are cut up and cooked, being’ afterwards placed upon altars dedicated to heaven and earth ; the form of the altar dedicated to the former is round, to the latter, square. Before taking part in any of these sacrificial rites, the folloAving regulations are enforced, a rigid fast must be maintained for three entire days, neither listening’ to music, cohabiting’ Avith Avives or concubines, or mourning for the dead during’ that period. The mode of Avorship consists in numerous prostrations before the altar, koo-toAving, or knocking the head nine times against the ground ; but Avhen the Emperor personally officiates, the koo-toAving is not performed by him, boAving to the altar being substituted for the prostrations. Once in the course of the tAvelve months, the empress, princesses, and imperial hand- maids, or concubines, are alloAved to take part in the minor sacrifices. If the various rites and ceremonies prescribed by Confucius are not folloAved by the officers of state, a fine is inflicted ; but if any priests of the sects of Taou or Buddha should attempt to imitate the cere- L 2 148 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. monies of the state relig'ioii; it is deemed profanation, and they are punished most severely; if any un- authorized or common person should attempt to hold communion with the g’ods, or make known their de- sires or wants to their g’ods, after the manner adopted or used by the Emperor, for the first offence they receive sixty-five blows with a thick bamboo on the soles of the feet ; if the offence is repeated, then they suffer death by strang’ulation. The objects wor- shipped by the followers of Confucius are numerous, but the following' are the principal thing’s and persons to which sacrifices are offered, and these sacrifices are divided into several classes, such as the chief sacri- fices, the medium sacrifices, sacrifices for the multitude, sacrifices in times of droug'ht, sickness, and war, &c. The Lord of Heaven, the heavens, or the imperial concave expanse ; the earth, the principal temple of ancestors, the g’ods of the earth and its produce, the sun, the moon, the stars, Confucius the founder of the sect, the ancient patron of the silk manufacture ; the first j)atron of agriculture, the ancient patron of medicine, the spirits of scholars and statesmen, the g’ods of heaven, earth, and the passing’ year, the four elements, the five principal mountains of China, the four seas, the highest hills, the largest ris ers, military flag’s, banners, and trophies, the god of a thoroughfare through which an army must pass, the north pole, the queen goddess of heaven and earth, are the chief objects of worship. Before going to war, the Emperor invariably offers up prayers and sacrifices to the Ruler of Heaven; and the following is the prayer of the Emperor Kang- THE PEAYER OF KANG-HE. 149 he, wliich is regarded by the followers of Confucius as a masterpiece of pious composition ; — Sovereign Lord of Heaven, the supreme ruler, receive my homage, and grant protection to the humblest of thy subjects : with respectful confidence I invoke thy aid in this war, which I am compelled to wage. Thou hast heaped on me thy favors, and hast distinguished me by thy special protection. A people without number acknowledg’e thy power. I adore in silent devotion thy manifold kindness, but know not how to manifest the gratitude which I feel. The desire of my heart is to give to my people, and let even the stranger enjoy the blessings of peace j but our factious enemy has put a stop to this most che- rished hope. Prostrate before thee, I implore thy succour, and in making this most humble prayer, I am animated with the hope of obtaining- thy signal favor. My only wish is to procure a lasting- peace throuo-hout the immense reo-ions over which thou hast O CT set me.” As before remarked, when pestilence, famine, or droug-ht threaten the Celestial Empire, then sacrifices and pra3'ers are made to the Lord of Heaven, b}' the Emperor in person j and the following- is a portion of the pra3’er offered b3' the late Emperor in 1802, when ^ egetation was nearl3^ destro3'ed for want of rain : — Kneeling, a memorial is hereby presented to cause affairs to be heard. Oh, Impenal Heaven ! were not m3' kingdom afflicted b3' extraordinai-3' changes I would not dare to present extraordinary sacrifices. But this season the droug-ht and want of refreshing moisture is most unusual j summer is 150 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. long' past, but no rain has fallen ; not only do agri- culture and human beings feel the dire calamity, but also beasts and birds, insects, herbs and trees, almost cease to live. I, the Son of Heaven, am minister to the Lord of Heaven, and am placed over mankind, being' responsible for keeping the world in order and tranquillizing the people. Although it is now im- possible for me to eat or sleep with composure, although I am dried up with grief, and tremble from fear, still after all no genial or copious rains have fallen. Some days ago I fasted, and offered rich sacrifices to the gods of the earth and its produce, and had to be thankful for gathering clouds and slight showers, but not enough to make my heart glad. Looking up I consider that Heaven’s heart is benevolence and love. The sole cause of this droim-lit is the atrocity of my sins, which I repent of, with too little sincerity and devotion ; hence, have I not been able to move Hea^nn’s bowels of compassion, to send down genial showers. Having respectfully searched the records, I find that in the twenty-fourth year of Keen-lung, my imperial grandfather, the high, honorable, and pure Emperor, reverently per- formed a great snow service. I feel impelled by ten thou- sand considerations to look up and imitate the usage, and with trembling anxiety rashly to assail Heaven, and examine myself whether in sacrificial services I have been negligent or disrespectful ] have pride and prodigality had a place in my heart, springing' up there unobserved ? have I become remiss in attend- ing to the affairs of government ; having neglected to attend to them with serious diligence and care, do I THE LATE EMPEROR’S PRAYER FOR RAIN. 151 deserve reprehension ? Whether perfect equity has been attained in conferrino* rewards and inflictino- punishments ? whether, in raising’ mausoleums, and laying out g’ardens, I have distressed people or wasted property ? whether in the appointment of offi- cers I have failed to appoint fit and proper men, and thereby the acts of government have caused vexation to the people? whether punishments have been justly inflicted or not ? whether the oppressed have found means of appeal? whether in persecuting* heterodox sects the innocent have not been involved ? Avhether, in the military operations on the western frontier, there may have been the horrors of human slaug’hter for the sake of imperial rewards ? whether the efforts to exterminate the rebellious mountaineers, or to pacify them were properly conducted ? To all these inquiries has my mind been anxiously directed. I ought to lay the plumb-line of conscience to m3' faults, strenuously endeavouring to correct Avhat is wrong still bearing* in my memory, there are many faults which ma}' not have occurred to me in my meditations. Prostrate, I beg* Imperial Heaven to pardon my ignorant stupidit}'', and to grant me self-renovation ; for myriads of innocent people are involved b}^ me, a single man j 1113' sins are so numerous it is difficult to escape from them. Summer is past, and autumn arrived — to Avait longer is impossible. Knocking* m3' head nine times on the ground, I pra3'^ Imperial Heaven to hasten and confer gracious deliverance, a speedy and divinely beneficial rain to save the people’s lives ; and in some degree redeem my ini- 152 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. quities. Oh^ Imperial Heaven ! observe these thing’s — he gracious. I tremble with fear ; with great reverence this memorial is presented.” By the above pharisaical prayer, it will be seen that the Emperor holds himself responsible for the acts of his subjects, whose father he is said to be ; thus if the Emperor sins, the Confiician tenets incul- cate that Heaven punishes the monarch, by sending pestilence and disease among' his subjects ; as being the way to enforce obedience from the father, by causing his children to suffer, and vice versa* It is asserted by ancient authors, that some of the descendants of Noah penetrated into China in the first or second century after the deluge, la3'ing the foundation of this vast and mig'hty empire, and instructed by tradition, worshipped the Almighty Ruler of the universe : this mode of worship was continued until the time of Confucius, when he founded the sect which now bears his name. The chief object of worship is TIEN, or the spirit that presides in heaven, because heaven is the most excellent work produced by the First Cause ; they believe the Ruler of Heaven to be the principle of all matter, animate and in- animate, omniscient and almighty, who knows all thoughts and actions, and is ever Avatching over the universe, directing all nations, and suffering' nought to take place contrarA* to his pleasure and aaIII. “ Tien (Confucius sav’s, in the canonical book, en- titled Chu-king) is a rewarder of virtue in mankind, supremely just, hoi}', without partiality, punishing Avickedness in the most public manner, raising up and * See Chapter on the Government of China, SACRIFICES OFFERED TO INFERIOR DEITIES. 153 casting’ down the emperors of the earthy according- to his pleasure. Public calamities are the notices which the Ruler of Heaven g-ives for the reformation of manners, and these chastisements are tempered with mercy and goodness ; the following are instances, after a dreadful storm had destroyed the harvest and numberless trees, in the next moon an illustrious man, who was innocent of the crimes imputed to him, was recalled from banishment, justified from slander, and re-established in his former dig’nity then, when the impious Emperor had been struck dead by lightning* for blasphemy, did not the drought cease, and refresh- ing showers descend to invigorate the parched-up earth Mixed up with the pure worship of the Ruler of Heaven, is a mass of absurd sacrifices and worship, offered to inferior spirits, goddesses, and gods, who preside over rivers, mountains, seas, and cities; but the whole number of these spirits are dependent upon, and ruled by, Tien,* or the Supreme Ruler of Heaven. The followers of Con-fou-tsze, or Confucius, are termed, by many authors, the Ju-kea-suists, or sect of Ju-kea-su. Lao-kiun was contemporary with Con-fou-tsze, and the sect of Taou (or reason) was instituted by this philosopher: the works of Lao-kiun inculcate sound morality ; such as avoiding* honors, contempt for riches, and the happy state of the soul Avhen the owner raises himself above terrestrial thing*s, finding * Tien means, literally, Ruler or Master ; the master of the house is the Tien of the family; a governor, the Tien of the province; the Emperor being the Tien of the Celestial Empire and the inhabitants. 154 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. a reward in the consciousness of probity, and bene- fiting’ his fellow-man.* The precepts of moral con- duct inculcated b}^ Lao-kiun is like that of Epicurus, and the uhole tenor of the Chinese philosopher’s writino’s consists of the following- maxims : vehement C O desires and passions disturb the peace and tranquilhty of the soul, and the solicitude of every wise man should be, to pass his life free from care and uneasi- ness, and to attain this end, it was necessary never to reflect on the ])ast, or to dive into the hidden secrets of futurity. To g’ive ourselves up to ag’itating’ cares, to folloAV the sug’g’estions of ambition, avarice, gluttony, or thoughts for the future, is to labour for posterity, and this is madness to think of purchasing the happi- ness of others at the expense of our own ease and gratification. For repose and happiness our pur- suits and pleasures should be moderate, and desires not too violent, because if the pursuit of happiness is accompanied with annoyance, distaste, or inquietude, it ceases to be enjoyment. Whatever the followers of Lao-kiun, or Taouists, were originall}', they have now degenerated into pro- * The fabulous account of the birth of Lao-kiun is thus given in an ancient Chinese record : — The venerable Prince Lao-kiun existed before the creation, but was incarnate in the time of the Emperor Yang-kea, of the Shang dynastj- (about 1410 years prior to the Christian era), when from the regions of eternal purity and reason, a subtle fluid descended from the superior principle of nature, and was transformed into a yellow substance, about the size of a pill ; and which entering the mouth of a pure virgin caused her to conceive. In eighty-one years afterwards the child was born, and came into the world with snow-white hair, and was called the Venerable One : he lived and died ; and the second appearance of Lao-kiun was in the time of Con-fou-tsze. TENETS OF THE TAOU SECT. 155 lessors of raag’ic and enchantment ; they also study alchemy, and profess to have discovered the philoso- pher’s stone, or secret of making* g'old, and a liquid that renders those who imbibe it immortal. What this sect mean by Taoii, or reason, cannot clearly be defined, even by their priests; they say Taou, or reason, hath produced one, one has produced two, tAvo have produced three, and tlmee have pro- duced all thing's : this is said in reference to the creation of the world. The tenets inculcated b}" the priests of Taou are, the practice of virtue, repression of animal passions, the insufiiciency of Avealth to pro- cure happiness, and the fallacy of seeking- after per- fect bliss. The spirits of darkness and demons are Avorshipped, sacrifices beings made to them of three descriptions of victims, Avhich are a hog', a cock, and a fish ; and the chief priest of this sect professes to have power over the g'ods and demons of the invisible Avorld, and practises upon the superstitious fears of the votaries of Taou, by selling- charms, Avhich must be renewed annually; the belief in g'hosts is also strong'ly rooted in then- minds, and after the death of an individual, the services of a conclave of priests is required to drive forth the evil spirit, or g'host, fi'om the house. In fact, the sect of Taou may be called the mystics of China, as they profess alchemy, the art of divination, and pretend to g*reat knowledge. The temples, or joss-houses, dedicated to the Avor- ship of Taou, are usually well-proportioned building's, the interior of AA'hich are painted in g'audy colours, and decorated Avith tinsel ; g’org'eous lanterns are sus- pended from the roof, and lighted lamps burn in them 156 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. all day ; the walls glitter with gold and silver paper, arrang’ed in devices of all strang’e descriptions, ac- cording to Cliinese ideas of taste and elegance, even to a European, the cotip d’ceil on entering a joss-house is pleasing at first : hut a visitor to nu- merous joss-houses soon wearies of the sameness of these buildings, as Avhen one temple has been seen, the whole belonging to the particular sect have been inspected, as all are alike in their internal arrange- ments and decorations. The gods and deities of the Taouists are innu- merable, and like their mandarins have their various g’rades, and as aldermauic proportions are the acme of beauty in man, according to Chinese ideas, joss number one is a perfect specimen of manly beauty, being always represented with a pendulous belly, of vast capacity ; the wife and son of this number one joss are usually seated near him, the son ranking number two, and all three are clothed in silken, many- coloured, embroidered robes. The altars before the various josses are decorated according' to their rank ; thus, before the image of number one joss, in the Avealthier temples, are placed massive silver candle- sticks, the candles in Avhich are kept ever burning ; silver and porcelain vases, Avith other ornaments of the same material, filled Avith fruit; a profuse superabun- dance of artificial floAvers are arranged about the altars, and some of these elegant decorations are made from the Aving-feathers of a species of king-fisher, Avhose plumage is of most surpassing brilliance and beauty. Perfumed incense-rods or joss-sticks are continually giving forth odoriferous perfumes, as they are kept THE IDOL QUI, OR THE SPIRIT OF EVIL. 157 perpetually burning- before the idol, whose altar is thus tastefully set out. The offerings presented to the josses by the people, are fish and fat pork, dressed in a variety of ways, rice boiled and unboiled, fruits, tea and sam-shoo ; these edible offering-s remain on the altar during- the day, and in the evening are devoured by the priests with extreme gusto. With the exception of the silver candlesticks, similar decorations and appendages ap- pear on the altar of Qui, or the spirit of evil ; this god is represented as a huge hideous black monster, with honis, Anngs, hoofs, and tail, and is supposed to exer- cise a material influence over men and human affairs j and Qui is continually consulted about the destinies of the votaries and followers of Taou. Two hollow pieces of bamboo, called “ sticks of fate,” are always at hand, being laid on the altar appertaining* to the demon, these instruments must be thrown three times (the true mystic number), before an answer can be obtained to the question which has been propounded to the demon through the officiating- priest, and the answer, or omen of good and evil, depends upon the position, which the sticks of fate, may twice happen to assume when falling. The priest who throws the sticks of fate invariably receives a fee from each inquirer, and upon the amount of this gratuity, fre- quently depends the answer g-iven to the inquisitive worshipper of the spirit of evil, or of QuL We were highly amused at this piece of information, which was imparted to us by an old priest, Avho officiated at a temple in the interior, the old man said that when his fee was good, the devotees had a favourable 158 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. reply to their inquiries j when the gratuity was had, the answer was the same and unfavourable, and showed us how, by sleig’ht-of-hand, a favourable or unfavourable inquiry mig’ht be secured. Under his direction, we made our first essay with the magical sticks, and found the information quite correct as to the practicability of cheating- with the sticks of fate. Flag’s, with inscriptions recording- the cure of diseases, Avere suspended round about the joss-house, whilst paper effig’ies reposed upon the altar, Avhich the old priest assured us Avere the votive offering-s of those Avhose pra3rers had been g-ranted by Qui; or had prospered in their undertaking-s after consulting- the sticks of fate ; Ave asked him hoAv this coincided with his OAvn statement, his answer Avas a g’rin, and an assurance “ that it Avas so.” Such offering’s as those above described, prevailed amongst the ancient pagans, and are perpetuated, Avith many other heathen and absurd rites, in the llomish as Avell as in the Chinese modes of Avorship : some of these usag’es, it is asserted by European authors, Avere borroAved or learned from the J esuits avIio visited China man}" centuries ago ; but this is peremptorily denied by the natives j Avho declare that they can trace back to the remotest ages, the Avhole of the present observances and rites of their three religious sects j and Ave believe the latter assertion to be the correct one ^ as both Confucius and Lao-kiun, in their writings, have stated the various modes of AVorship and ceremonies Avhich are to be observed by their folloAvers. We Avere fortunate in being- eye*Avitnesses to the folloAving ceremonies, Avhich were enacted by Taouists INCANTIC OFFERING TO QUI. 159 (if it can be called g‘ood fortune, to be a witness of such absurdities, performed in the name and in honor of heathen g'ods) : — Riding’ in the neig’hbourhood of Victoria, accompanied by friends, our attention was attracted by a Chinese family who were dancing’, or rather jumping’, around a long’ bamboo pole, which was placed in the middle of a paddy field j on the summit of the pole a cock was tied by the leg’, and beneath the bird were hung’ the g-arments of an ag’ri- cultural laborer having’ the leg’s and arms of the trousers and jacket distended by pieces of bamboo. At the foot of the pole a fire was kindled, into which the father of the family threw tinsel dollars, and pieces of paper cut into the forms of animals, and the whole family, at intervals, uttered in chorus the most hideous cries : one of the sons played a running- accompani- ment on a g’ong, while the father occasionally struck the cock with a rod, to keep the bird fluttering’ in mid air, as it tried to escape : the remainder of the family hopping’ about and around the pole, uttering- loud cries and yells. We ascertained that this was an incantic offering- to the spirit of evil — Quij the father of the family and cultivator of the paddy field, pro- mising’ the demon a new suit of clothes, and to sacri- fice a cock in his honor, if the crop of paddy then planted should prove more plentiful than the last one. The other heathen ceremony alluded to was a reli- g-ious water procession ; which Avas one of the high rites and observances of the sect of Taou, being one joss going by night to visit the principal, or number one joss, of another temple, belonging to the same sect. The boat in which joss was conveyed, was bedecked 160 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. ■\vith flag’S; streamers, lanterns, and g’arlands of flowers 5 lig-hted lamps arranged in festoons and fan- tastic forms ornamented the exterior, and were t^vined around the masts : in the cabin a variety of eatables, silver candlesticks, ornaments, fruits, and flowers were placed upon a long table, at the head of which the idol was seated, supported on either side by a priest, who was habited in silken robes j whilst other priests sat around the festive board j musicians and singers enlivening the party with most inharmonious sounds, and tuneful discord. This vessel was followed and surrounded by numberless small boats, illuminated with coloured lanterns, these lesser craft being filled with those belonging to the sect who joined in this religious observance. Upon reaching* the shore where the temple of the other joss stood, the visited idol was seen seated at the door, surrounded by priests, and sacrificial attendants, awaiting the visitor’s arrival 5 who was borne in the arms of the two chief priests, the remainder of the priesthood following, carrying- the viands and ornaments which had been on the table. The priests of the visitor presented the edibles and ornaments to their brethren in waiting and idolatry, by whom the various articles were graciously received, and carried into their own temples. After this cere- mony, the priests of both temples took up their respective josses, and like children playing- Avith dolls, caused the idols to salute, or koo-tow to each other, in a most unbecoming and ludicrous manner, each fig-ure bobbing- and ducking simultaneously ; this affair, which was a lengthy one, being terminated, the visitors, joss, and priests, retired in the same order in THE PBIESTS OF TAOU AXD BUDDHA. IGl whicli they had arrived, the musicians appearing- to redouble their efforts to produce discordant sounds and noises 5 the visited joss returning- the compliment of the visit in all due form on the following- evening-. Painful as it was for a Christian to witness the procession of joss, it Avas still more painful to witness and behold a superstitious procession at Macao, g-ot up by those who bear the name of our blessed Saviour, we allude to the Roman Catholic procession of saints, angels, and devils, named in a previous chapter. The priests of Taou are vowed to celibac}^, and althoug-h they do not marry, break their vow of chastity continually, as even amongst the Chinese there is no class so immoral as the priests of Taou and Buddha, they lead a life of the g-reatest indolence and sensuality, never working- for their livelihood, as they are supported by the donations of the charitable, or from the endoAvments bestowed upon their temples by the Emperor, or wealthy individuals ; thus their lives are passed in luxurious ease. The worship of Foo, or Buddha, Avas introduced into China about sixty years after the Christian era, by the Emperor Ming--ti, of the Han dynasty. This potentate is said to have dreamed that the Most Holy was to be found in a certain part of India; immediately ambassadors were sent by the Emperor into India to discover the saint, and to find out the doctrines Avhich he inculcated. The ambassadors returned to China Avith the idol Foo, or Buddha, and numberless writings or books which Avere filled Avith the precepts, doctrines, and lives of the god. In what pai-t of India the Chinese ambassadors found VOL. II. M 162 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the g-od Buddha, it is impossible to determine, and no records or Avritin^s have ever yet been discovered in any part of the globe, by which the origin of Budd- hism could be traced with any degree of certainty j Buddha has appeared in this world many millions of times, under various forms, and his disciples assert the last time that the god appeared in this world was before the Christian era, when he descended from his celestial mansion, and entered the womb of Maha Maya, or Maha-yo-diva, the queen of Sodo-den, king of Mag*adhi, which country was situated in the north of Hindostan.* The Chinese call the part of India where Buddha was last born Ching-tien-choo, saying that his mother was queen of the monarch that governed that part of the world, and that during the pregnancy of Maha Maya, she constantly dreamed that she had swallowed a Avhite elephant, and hence arises the value placed upon elephants of that colour by the followers of Buddha. As we are writing solely of the Buddhaical belief, doctrines, and precepts, entertained by the Chinese, we shall confine ourselves to the statements made by that nation concerning the god Buddha; Ave have narrated the account of the god’s conception, and noAv proceed to his birth; as soon as the child Avas born, he stood upright, and Avalked forward ten paces, pointing Avitb one hand toAvards heaven, Avith the other towards the earth, uttering in a loud distinct voice, “ There is none save myself^ in the heavens or on the earth that ought to be adored.” The child- • The Buddhists of Ceylon differ slightly in their account of Buddha’s birth ; but all accounts of the god’s birth, life, and death are mere fables. CHINESE ACCOUNT OF BUDDHA. 163 hood of the god was passed in study, and his learning' surpassed that of the oldest sages and most profound philosophers ; at seventeen, he married a wife, and brought home, to bear her company, two concubines ; one son was born to him, who was called Mo-keou-lo, but whether the child lived or died the traditions do not tell j before the god was twenty years of age, he forsook the world, leaving his family to retire into a solitary place to study under four of the most cele- brated philosophers. At thirty years of age, he had learned and gained the knowledge of the whole uni- verse ; in short, he then became the god Buddha j * followers flocked to him from all parts of the empire, and at one period, it is positively affirmed, that the number of disciples or bonzes in daily attendance upon Buddha exceeded eighty thousand. Until Buddha was seventy years of ag'e his fame increased, the doctrines he promulgated gaining strength ; when he had arrived at the age mentioned, he was seized with illness, and knowing' that his spirit was about to leave the body it then occupied, called his disciples around him, to unfold the great mystery of his doctrine to them. ‘‘ Know, then,” said Buddha, “ that the principle of all things is emptiness and nothing- ; from nothing all things proceeded, and into nothing' all will return, and this is the end of all our hopes.” Buddha then desired his disciples to leave him, and all save ten quitted his presence, the god ordering- his favourite disciple, Mao-kia-ye to propagate his doc- trines, and to write his lives (which the favoured one did, assisted by the remaining nine disciples, and their • Buddha is taken from the word Budii, which signiOes wisdom. M 2 1G4 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. united labours produced five thousand volumes) ; im- mediately after delivering’ these exhortations^ the god died. The principal and fundamental doctrines of Budd- hism in China (and in all countries where Buddhaical doctrines are believed) is^ that all things originated in nothing, and will in course of time, return to nothing, and there are several heavens or places of bliss, but the summit of bliss will be total annihilation and com- plete nonentity, or being absorbed into space, will be the reward of all virtuous men, after undergoing’ various transmiofrations. The doctrine of transmigration of souls is firmly believed by all Buddhists, who affirm that Buddha was born millions of times, and that his soul had successively passed into the bodies of men, animals, and reptiles j and that as a man conducts himself in this Avorld, so will he become in his next stage of existence, a person of consequence, animal, or reptile, of g'reater or less bodily capabilities. Pere le Comte relates the following amusing anec- dotes, which are connected with this doctrine j the Jesuit states, that when living in the province of Chen-si he was sent for, to baptize a native who was very ill, and very old. Upon entering the sick man's apartment, the Father inquired what motii e had in- duced the man to wish to become a member of the Eomish church. The Chinaman replied that as he had enjoyed a pension from the Emperor, the bonzes, or priests of Buddha (to which sect he belonged) assured him that as soon as he was dead, his soul Avould enter the body of a post-horse, whose duty it would be to TKA>t?MIGKATION OF SOUL;>. 165 carry despatches from one end of the kingxlom to the other j and as he had enjoyed the Emperor’s bounty, they exhorted him to perform his duty ’v^'ell, not to stumble, nor start, nor bite an}^body, to travel well, to eat little, being’ docile and patient ; and that if he performed his business well, and was a g’ood horse, in his next stag’e of existence he would be a mandarin of the second button. “ I own. Father,” said the sick and d}dng’ man, that the thought of being a horse makes me tremble, I dream of it every night, and sometimes I believe that I am harnessed, and the rider whipping me on my journey j I then awake in a great sweat, trembling with alarm and concern, not being quite sure whether I am a horse or a man ; if I suffer all this now, what will become of me when I am a horse in reality ? This then. Father, is the resolution I have come to, folks say that those of your religion are not subject to these miseries, that men continue to be men, and shall he the same in the next world as they are in this j therefore, I beseech you, receive me among* vour people and into the bosom of a church ; do not turn a deaf ear to my entreaty. Why are you silent? — I tremble with fear. My heart misgives me j for I begin to think that men may, Avith you, be also turned into beasts of burthen after their death.” P^re le Comte goes on to say that he quieted the poor Buddhist’s alarm, and received him into the Romish church. The other anecdote is so absurdly ridiculous, that, we shall quote, verbatim et seriatim, P^re le Comte, lest we be accused of exaggeration. After stating that the priests impose upon the people in every way, 166 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. he says, Two of these bonzes one day perceived in the court of a rich peasant, two or three large ducks, prostrated themselves before the door, and beg'an to sigh and weep bitterly ; the good woman who perceived them from her chamber, came out to learn the cause of their grief. We know, said they, that the souls of our fathers have passed into the bodies of these crea- tures, and the fear that we are under that you should kill them, will certainly make us to die with grief. I own, said the woman, that we were determined to sell or kill them, but since they are your parents, I promise to keep them. This was not what the bonzes wanted, and therefore, they added, perhaps your husband will not be so charitable as yourself^ and you may rest assured that it will be fatal to us if any accident happen to them. In short, after a great deal of discourse, the good woman was so moved that she g’ave them the ducks to take care of, which they took very respectfully after twenty several pros- trations, and the self-same evening made a feast of them for their little society.” The deities worshipped are the three precious Budd- has — the past, present, and future — the god of wealth, the goddesses of mercy, small pox, pregnant and barren women. The commandments of Buddha (to the bonzes especially) were five : — 1 st, take not life from bird, beast, or reptile, or the human species ; Sndly, steal not j 3rdly, tell no lies, or use subterfug’es in conver- sation 5 4thly, lead a life of celibacy and chastity 5 5thly, drink no wine or intoxicating liquids. The sins for which punishment will be inflicted in one of the hells of the Buddhist, are in number, ten. BUDDHIST IDEAS OF A FUTURE STATE. 167 and consist of the followdng- crimes — adultery, theft, lying-, coveting-, following- the doctrine of false g’ods, slander, malice, creating- discord, envy, and using- offensive or abusive lang-uag-e, to excite another’s wrath. Mixed up with the doctrines inculcated by Buddha, are some of the precepts or observances of the sect of Con-fou-tsze, such as propitiating- the manes of an- cestors, and worshipping-, annually, at their tombs. Many of their notions concerning- a future state are absurd and obscure, the rewards and punishments of the next world being- reg-ulated according- to the sins or virtues of an individual, as well as the description of body into which the soul will pass ; thus, a learned man will be a lynx j a cruel man, a tig-er ; a brave man, a drag-on j a lascivious man, an ape j a mean man, a reptile, and so on. The followers of Buddha have some extraordinary ideas connected Avith their Avants in the other Avorld (we allude to the Chinese only), as they believe that after their departure from their present state of being- they Avill stand in need of the same g-oods, accommoda- tions, and alliances, they here enjoy. According- to this superstitious belief, these Avants may be supplied by burning- pieces of paper, Avhich represent money, eatables, animals, servants, Avives, &c., for the benefit and use of the departed ; affirming- and supposing- that these papers, by passing- throug-h the fire, become the realities they represent, and are used by the departed in their neAV state of being- or existence. These pup- pets of coloured paper portray with g-reat fidelity the various articles and goods they Avould fain convey to CHINA AND THE CHINESE. .1 08 tlieir deceased friends j dollars and sycee sih er are cut- out in tinsel-paper; the viands and various articles which cannot be thus depicted^ or shaped out by art, are written on separate pieces of paper, which also become the articles named. Connected with this paper superstition, is the following- incident, of which we were an e3"e-witness : — We observed a boatwoman in Hong’-Kong’ throwing into a fire, which Avas kindled near a grave, several pieces of paper, cut and painted to represent Chinese women ; the Avoman fanned the flame Avith her hat, uttering- (or giving tong-ue) to most ear-piercing- }-ells ; her countenance, notwithstanding her shrieks, remained unmoved, presenting- an appear- ance of complete indifference — Ave might almost say vacancy. For a considerable time Ave Avatched the Avoman ; during- the Avhole period she both fanned the flame and continued her yells Avith undiminished energy and vigour. When inquiring- the cause of this, to us, strange proceeding-, Ave learned that it Avas the anni- versarA' of the husband’s death, and the Avoman Avas burning- paper Avives, or concubines, to propitiate the manes of her deceased partner, in order to induce him to send her another husband. Their belief about mar- riage is also most extraordinary ; they say that all those Avho inari-}’ have been either united in another state of existence, or that the}- Avere bitter enemies, and that the spirit of both has never rested until they discovered the person they most hated, and married that person for the sole gratification of tormenting- them. The temples are decorated Avith effigies of the various gods and goddesses ; the altars before them being- THE SACHEB SWINE. 1G9 bedecked with joss-sticks^ artiticial flowers^ and orna- ments. On these altars are also placed all descriptions of edible offering’s^ which are consumed by the priests at the close of the day. A larg-e iron or bronze cauldron is placed on one side of the temple^ in which the paper-offering’s are burnt; on the opposite one is a hug’e bell and g’ong’, Avhich are sounded when a Avorshipper of rank and importance comes to the temple^ to announce the fact to the g’od. The chief temple of Buddha is at Honan^ near Canton ; in this edifice is placed the three imag’es of the Buddhas — the past, the present, and the future ; the statues are colossal, being- richly g’ilt, and elabo- rately caiwed. The sacred SAvine are also kept here (fit emblems of the immoral, sensual priesthood), and are fed until they reach an incredible deg’ree of obesity ; these creatures are neA^er killed, but are allowed to live the natural term of their lives, and AA'hen they die, their obsequies are performed Avith the g-reatest solemnit}". The domiciles of these pigs are never cleansed, filth accumulates until it reaches their backs, and no Aval- lowing swine can be happier than these. 'fhe mode of Avorship consists in offering up prayers in the Sanscrit or Pauli language (Avhich is not under- stood by the ignorant priests), repeating the name of Buddha many thousand times; and the devotee Avho can repeat 0-me-tu-Foo four hundred thousand times AA ill speedily be favoured Avith a personal interview from the god. A devout Buddhist is assured that all the gods and goddesses Avill protect him from harm ; that the spirit of evil shall have no power over him ; 170 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. that Buddha will not allow a faithful worshipper to commit murder j and that the last word or sentence he shall utter before death shall be the g-od’s name. We were especially struck by the similitude of the mode of worship adopted by the Chinese Buddhists and that of the Bomish Church j the Chinese and Bomish priests alike read the service in a lang-uag’e unknown to the people j and to pursue the similitude^ the priests walk up and down before the altar, num- bling- over the service with g-reat rapidity, using' many bowing's and genuflexions, ringing a hand-bell at stated intervals. The priests, or bonzes, are a dissolute, depraved, ignorant set ; and although the priesthood have not a hierarchy, still they have their superiors, or abbots, called Taho-chang’, or the great bonzes. To the chief temples of Buddha are attached monasteries, where the priests or monks reside, being’ supported in laziness by the contributions of the charitable, or from the endowments of the temple j the abbots are elected every three years, and the number of priests who lead a monastic life is stated to be about two thousand five hundred, but there are numberless priests, who are not monks, residing- aAvay from the temples. These priests purchase boys of seven or eight years of age, and instruct them in the mysteries of Buddhism (and all descriptions of vice), admitting them into their frater- nity when they have attained manhood. The nunneries connected with Buddhism are numerous, and are de- dicated to the goddess of mercy ; the number of nuns attached to these dwelling's of infamy exceeds one thou- sand, and are under the control of abbesses, who are BUDDHIST NUNNERIES. 171 elected triennial^. Any female can become a nun^ or bonzesse, be her ag’e or calling* what it may ; and female children are purchased from their parents to fill up the vacancies which are constantly occurring* from the bonzesses becoming* wearied of their profession. The promised reward to those who become nuns is, that after death they shall become absorbed into the g*od Buddha, provided they preserve their chastity, visit the sick and needy, live on veg*etables, and be ab- stemious in their diet. The dress of the nuns is the same as that of the Buddhist priests, namely, a long- black robe — their head, also, is entirely shaven ; con- sequently, in the street, it is almost impossible to disting*uish the bonze from the bonzesse. Kelig*ious services are performed by the sisterhood morning* and evening* ; the rites consisting* of the re- petition of prayers in the Pali or Sanscrit lang*uag*e, which to them is an unknown tong-ue, and the bonzesses are supported by donations and endowments. The temples or joss-houses appertaining* to the fol- lowers of Taou and Buddha are rarely cleansed, and the Chinese not being* remarkable for cleanliness, the accumulation of filth and dirt can easily be imagined, especially as mendicants are permitted to reside in the outer portions of the buildings, where they cook their food and sleep. We have now briefly noticed the three religious sects of China, and regret deeply to be compelled to say that the most learned men disbelieve in a future state, and that all classes appear to be imbued with little or no religious feelings ; laughing at their priests, and entering* the various temples to worship 172 ClfUs^A ANIJ THE CHINESE. tlieir deities with the g'reatest indifference. Although the sacred hooks^ both of Con-foii-tsze and Lao-kiim, consist of moral lessons, and inculcate the practice of virtue, the followers of both set their lessons at nought, by the vicious tenor of their lives, as every species of vice is indulged in and practised daily. The moral writings of Con-fou-tsze, the greatest philosopher, and most revered sage, are quoted by all ranks, yet immorality never reached a greater height in any portion of the created world, than it has done in China j for revelation has never shone upon the land, nor applied its healing virtue to cor- rect the sin and corruption of human nature. There is a settlement of Jews in China, who call themselves Tiaw-kin Kian, or the sect which plucks out the sinew, Avhich were discovered by the mis- sionaries, who state that the tribe of Israel have a s 3 magog'ue, keep themselves perfectly distinct from the other inhabitants of the villages, intermarrying among themselves : most of the ceremonies of the ancient Jews were observed, and tradition states that the first JeAV appeared in China two hundred years before the Christian era ; but it is an authenticated fact, that many Jews have held official appointments, both as ministers of state, and governoi's of provinces, cen- turies ago. The earliest record which can be relied upon, is that of an Arabian merchant, who in 877, mentions the Jews that traded with him in China. In the twelfth century, the Eabbi Benjamin of Toleda visited the East, to discover some of the scattered children of Israel; and the learned Babbi states, that he found JEAVS AND AIAHOMEDANS IN CHINA. 173 Jews in China, Thibet, and Persia. The Jesuit Ricci, whilst resident at Pekin in 1610, states that there Avere ten families of JeAVS residing’ in Keang-foo, and they had in their possession a copy of the Pentateuch, Avhich had been handed down from g’eneration to g’eneration for six centuries ; therefore, from the whole of these statements, it may fairly be concluded, that for man}’ ag'es Jews liaA’e been inhabitants of China. Mahomet has numerous folloAvers in China, and there is a mosque in Canton, Avdiere the rites of the Mahomedan faith are performed ; at one period the number of Mahomedans increased so rapidly, as to call forth the attention of the Chinese g’OA'ernment ; AA’hen it was ascertained, that the folloAA ers of this faith boug'ht children from then* parents for the pur- pose of training* them in the principles of Maho- medanism. 174 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTEE IX. Worshipping at the Tombs — Tombs and sepulchres — Extraordinary tomb at Sung-kiang-foo — Coffins — Funeral ceremonies — Rites in the Hall of Ancestors— Time of mourning fixed by the laws of the Empire — Tradition of Ven-kong — Mourning colour — Funeral of Ta-yang-ze, the Emperor’s eldest brother. The worship of the manes of ancestors is inculcated by Confucius, and the followers of Foo adopt the same practice, spring and autumn are the graves of the departed visited, offerings of various descriptions are made ; wine or sam-shoo is poured upon the ground, and prayers are addressed, to propitiate the ghosts of the departed : occasionally this rite is per- formed by deputy, and a man may be seen with basins of rice, fish, and meat, going from grave to g’rave, leaving* the edibles at the tombs of those for whom the savoury messes were destined. All ranks pay this tribute of respect to the dead; and at the latter end of last year, 1848, the Pekin Gazette announced that Taou-kwang, the Emperor, was going to worship at the tombs of his ancestors, observing all the great solemnities, and a large retinue was to accompany him : in a few days the same official organ stated, that the Emperor had changed his determination, as he had ordered his ministers of state WORSHIPPING AT THE TOMBS. 175 to set off for the tombs without him ; thus performing- the ancestral worship by proxy. The tribute offered to the memory of departed sages and philosophers is rather imposing, and is an annual service. A priest, from an elevated position in the court-yard of the temple, descants in a species of recitative upon the learning and piety of the de- funct philosophers, and the benefit their writings have conferred upon their fellow-men, advising all present to follow their example, and become learned and vir- tuous, with all possible speed. An altar is laid out with bowls filled with savour}' edibles, fruits, and flowers on either side is a lamb and a pig, which are sacrificed in honor of the departed sag’esj some of the blood of these animals being’ caught in a bowl, which at certain parts of the service is sprinkled on the ground j the carcasses of the victims are decorated with flowers, and at the conclusion of the service are cut up and distributed among’ the priests. The tombs or sepulchres are always built outside the city walls, and usually upon a hill, which is planted with cypress and pine trees ; the shape of the sepulchre varies in different provinces, but the gene- rality are in the form of a horse- shoe or pyramid, which is coloured or whitened, on this is written the family name of the deceased. The indigent are compelled to be content Avith coverinof the coffin with earth, which is made into a pyramidical form, between five and six feet in height, on which they plant flowers, and a species of white feathery grass. The tombs of the mandarins and wealthy are fre- 176 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. quently splendid, much elaborate carving' being' bestowed upon them } the coffin is first put into a vault, over which earth is piled to the heig'ht of twelve or fourteen feet, and nine or ten in diameter, this mass is shaped into a reg'ular hat-like form, and is plastered over with a mixture, which renders the earth imper- vious to rain. Around this are planted trees, in pairs : first, two cypress-trees, then two pine-trees, then two cypress-trees, continuing' the same round the tomb.* Near the sepulchre is placed a long* table or stand, made of stone or marble, and on this are placed can- dlesticks, and jars to burn the joss-sticks, or incense in, on either side of the table, are placed fig’ures in pairs, of men and animals, whose attitudes and ex- pressions of their countenances betoken g-rief. The finest tomb of this description is situated near Sung'-kiang'-foo, and was erected to the memory of a mandarin of hig’h rank, the site selected is peculiarly picturesque, the tomb being’ placed half-way up a well- wooded hill, to which access was obtained by a wide flig'ht of stone steps. On either side of the steps were placed stone fig'ures, most beautifully sculptured, these represented two bonzes of g-ig-antic stature, two horses completely caparisoned for I'iding', two sheep, tAvo dog's, and tAvo cats : the effect of this extraordi- nary memento, placed in this picturesque spot, pro- duces a most overpoAvering’ sensation of aAve upon the mind of the beholder. Near Ning'-po, a similar tomb is to be seen, but the fig’ures are materially smaller, and not so Avell executed, neither are the '* Strange that among the heathen Chinese, as ^vell as among Chris- tians, the cypress tree should he the emblem of grief and woe. COFFINS WITH THE DEAD KEPT IN HOUSES. 177 natural beauties of the surrounding* scenery to be compared to the sublime prospect of the hill at Sung- kiang-foo. Although the laws of China prohibit the burial of the dead within the walls of the cities, towns, and villages (would that our legislature would evince the same thouo'ht for the health and comfort of British subjects), they permit them to keep the coffins in which are deposited the dead bodies, in their domiciles, or above ground, for as long* a time as they may deem proper, and to transport, or carry these receptacles with their occupants, from place to place, or from province to province. A son would incur everlasting* disgrace Avere his parents to die aAvay from their native pro- vince, and he suffered them to be interred where they died, instead of causing* their remains to be laid in the tomb of their ancestors. These coffins are forbidden Avhile on their journey from one province to another, to be carried throug-h the cities, the bearers being’ com- pelled to convey them outside the Avails, unless an especial order to the contrary effect is obtained from the Emperor. The coffins being made of thick planks, and the joints being* most carefully cemented, not the slightest unpleasant smell or effluvia is perceptible during the process of decay Avhich the body must undergo. We now purpose describing the funeral ceremonies which are observed upon the decease of the mandarins and Avealthy ; as soon as the family are convinced that all consciousness has ceased, and life has departed the dead body is arrayed in robes of state, or in most costly apparel j ablutions are not performed, nor any VOL. II. N 178 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. unnecessary handling’ of the body suffered.* We have previously remarked upon the custom of pur- chasing’ the coffin during’ the lifetime of the intended occupant, consequently the last domicile is in readiness to receive the destined tenant. The planks of which many coffins are composed exceed six or eight inches in thickness, and are coated over internally with a description of pitch, or cement j externally they are either painted, lacquered, gilded, or carved, the joinings of the coffin being most carefully rendered au’-tight. An embroidered pillow is placed under the head, cotton and lime being also strewed in the coffin j when the body is lifted in, pledgets of cotton are put in the vacant spaces, to maintain the body in one posi- tion. For seven da}’s the nearest male relatives of the deceased sit around the coffin, on mats made from the coarsest reeds, during which period they abstain from meat and Avine, the coffin being placed in the principal room, or hall of ancestors, covered with white stuff,']' before a table or altar, on Avhich is placed an effig}" of the deceased, or a tablet of carved wood, on which the name is inscribed, either being surrounded with lighted joss-sticks, ornamental de- * Again in this instance we might with advantage follow the Chinese example : what can he more revolting to the feelings of survivors than the washing and laying out, as it is termed, of the dead, — their persons to be gazed at, and remarked upon, by those who perform this office ? The mother, wife, father, husband, daughter, or son, to be turned about by strangers — with careless indifference — is a most painful reflection to those who have been bereaved of a loved and respected relative. Why not leave them in the same state they were in when the spirit fled, merely throwing a large wrapper over them, to conceal the beloved form from the inquisitive eye of those who are to lift them into the coffin ? [ f AVhite and violet are the mourning colours of China. FU>'ERAL CEREMONIES. 179 vices, and jars filled with flowers. A curtain is drawn across a portion of the apartment, behind which are the female members of the family, who g'ive utterance at intervals to moans and cries of o-rief. o The various relations and friends Avho pay this visit of condolence, are received by the eldest son or the head of the farnil}^; the visitors prostrating’ themselves before the coffin, or koo-towing’ (while the son or head of the family gives vent to sighs and g’roans), and placing wax-candles and lighted joss-sticks on the table or altar. When this ceremony is over, the visitors are ushered into a distant apartment, to partake of fruits, sweetmeats, and tea. As soon as the day of the funeral is fixed upon, due notice is g’iven to all the relations, friends, and connections of the family, as all connected with the deceased deem it an imperative duty to attend the funereal obsequies. The funeral procession is preceded by attendants bearing* gigantic figures of slaves, animals, flags on which the name, dignities, and good qualities of the deceased are set forth, silken lanterns, lighted incense in brazen pans, and musicians playing upon the gong-, and wind in- struments. Frequentl}’' the picture of the deceased is borne upon a long’ staff, Avith silken streamers on either side, on Avhich are inscribed, in golden letters, his name and official appointments; this invariably precedes the coffin, Avhich is placed in a ponderous sort of bier, over Avhich is a canopy of violet-coloured silk, orna- mented Avith tufts, or bunches of white silk ; this massive machine, being* carried by an immense num- ber of men, Avho support the body of the bier on N Q 180 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. bamboo poles ; and frequently sixty or seventy men are employed to carry the corps of a mandarin^ or wealthy man to the g'rave. The eldest son walks at the head of the mourners^ next the bier, then follow the remaining* sons, g*randchildren, and male relatives of the family, all clad in a species of loose sackcloth ; (leaning* upon staves), with heads bowed down, as if they were overwhelmed with g*rief. The female mem- bers of the family, clad in coarse white cloth, follow in sedan-chairs, which also are covered with sackcloth; the servants, slaves, and hired mourners, bring*ing* up the rear, who fill the air with their cries and shrieks. When the procession arrives at the burial-place, the coffin is deposited in the sepulchre, offering*s being* made of wine, tea, fruits, and g*ilt paper, to the ghost of the departed ; the relations and friends prostrating themselves before the tomb, knocking* their foreheads upon the earth. Temporary buildings or rooms are erected near the sepulchre, in which tables are spread with various kinds of refreshments, for the use of the relations and friends ; but the children of the departed neither speak, eat, nor drink, whilst they remain near the sepulchre. As soon as the repast is ended, the procession returns in the same order as before. We opened this chapter, with describing* the worship at the tombs, we will now state the rites that are observed in the hall of ancestors. On the anniversary of the death of the deceased during* the period of mourning, the relations and near connections assemble in the hall of ancestors, prostrating* themselves be- fore the altar, on which food is placed (and a tablet WOBSHIPPING THE MANES OF ANCESTOES. 181 whereon the name of the deceased is inscribed)^ burn- ing* paper offering’s, intended to represent money, wives, edibles, and servants, for the use of the de- parted. The Chinese believe that the spirit of the departed hovers around the tablet on which their name is inscribed, and is reg’aled with the effluvia of the incense and viands. One day in the year is set apart for worshipping the manes of all deceased ancestors j then every relative of the family has a right to attend, there being* for that day no distinction of rank j ag*e alone taking precedence, and although the eldest may be the humblest, he offers the first sacrifice in honor of departed ancestors. As mandarins and official men are chosen from all classes, and frequently scholars have attained high literary rank who have belonged to the poor and lower orders, the amalgamation of ranks in the hall of ancestors, on the day of general mourning*, is most extraordinary. In the Hall of An- cestors is an altar, above Avhich are hung tablets, on which are written the names, ages, and dates of the decease, of the various members of the family; the names of the most learned and eminent being inscribed on separate tablets, the altar is decorated Avith floAvers, ornaments of all kinds, and burning joss-sticks; a feast is spread, and consumed by the guests, a portion of each viand being first burnt for the use of the departed ancestors, with proper offerings of all kinds, as pre- viously described. The middle classes and poor, who have not an apartment solely devoted to their ancestors, Avrite the names of their forefathers upon coloured paper. 182 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. suspending’ the inscriptions in the most conspicuous part of the house. The period of mourning- is fixed b}' the laws of China, and Avhen the Emperor or his mother dies, a solemn mourning- is ordered, the tribunals are closed, and no business of either a public or private character is allowed to be transacted throughout the empire for many days ; the ministers of state, officers holding ap- pointments about the palace, and mandarins, pass days without eating, sleeping’, or changing’ their apparel. The time of mourning for parents is ordered to last for thi’ee years, during which period a man cannot accept, or hold any official appointment j therefore, if the parents of a minister, or viceroy of a province, die, no matter how lowly their rank, the son is com- pelled by the laws of China to resign his post, until the expiration of the time of mourning ; unless the Emperor orders him to retain his office j and, as filial dutv is strongly inculcated, and enforced b}" the Go- vernment of the Empire, the monarch rarely permits, or orders a mandarin to reassume the reins of office Ijefore three years have elapsed. The three years was fixed upon by an ancient Ruler of the Celestial Empire, who gave as a reason lor naming this specific time to be passed in mourn- ing for parents, that for the first three years of a child’s existence, the parents’ attention is constantly required, to preserve the child from harm. Tradition states, that when this prince, Ven-kong', was driven from his dominions by the violence of his stepmother, he heard of his father’s death; and the people im- mediately placed soldiers, arms, and money at his PRESCRIBED PERIOD FOR MOURNING. 183 disposal, to enable him to take possession of the throne which his wicked stepmother had usurped ; the filial duty and piety of Ven-kong- would not allow him to accede to the people’s request ; and he returned the followino- answer ; “ That being- as it were a dead man for the next three years, he intended to pass them in solitude and retirement, mourning- for his lost parent, and had regard for nought save virtue and filial piety, that he chose rather to lose his kingdom than to fail in these last duties of piety, that would not permit him to take up arms at a time destined to grief, and the funeral honors that he owed to the memory of his father.” The time prescribed for mourning for other rela- tions, is in accordance with their deg-rees of affinity ; the periods being- shorter than the time allowed for mourning- for parents. The mourning colour and texture of the material never varies, the prince and the peasant being- clad alike ; the first is white, the last coarse ) cap, jacket robe, trousers, shoes, boots, and the cord which is plaited into the hair, all being white; the covers of the chairs and couches, in the abodes of the wealthv, also being- of the same colour and material. For the first month of mourning- for a parent, some wear a long robe, made of red cloth, of exceedingly coarse texture; this dress is confined round the waist by a hempen cord, and a peculiar cap or head-dress of the same colour is also worn. ]\Ianv sons, Avho venerate and respect their fathers, will keep their bodies in the hall of ancestors during- the three years of mourning- ; and this act of filial piety is looked upon as the g-reatest r 184 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. tribute of afifection which a son can pay to a deceased parent. AYe shall conclude this chapter with the following* interesting’ account^ of the funeral of one of the royal fandly of the Celestial Empire^ which we extract from P^i e du Halde, vol. ii. page 229 : — The ceremonies observed at the obsequies of the great have something* very mag’iiificent; one ma}'' judge of them by those which ivere performed at the death of Ta-yang-ze^ the eldest brother of the late Em- peror Kang-he; at which some of the missionaries were obliged to assist ; the procession began ivitli the band of trumpeters and musicians, after which they marched two and two in the following* order : ten mace-hearers, whose maces were of gilt copper, four umbrellas, and four canopies of cloth and gold ; six unloaded camels with sable skins hanging at their necks ; six camels loaded with tents and hunting equipages, "covered with great red housings which drag’ged upon the ground j six hunting* dogs led in a leash ; fourteen horses unsaddled, Avith yelloAv bridles, and sable shins hanging* down; six other horses carrying* magnificent chests full of habits that Avere to be burned ; six horses Avith embroidei’ed saddles, gilt stirrups, &c. ; fifteen gentlemen carrying boAVS, arroAvs, quivers, &c. ; eight men carrying in their hands a girdle after the Tar- tarian fashion, from Avhence hung purses filled Avith pearls; ten men carrying* in their hands caps proper for all seasons, an open chair like to that in Avhich the Emperor is carried ; another chair Avitli yelloAV cushions, the tAvo sons of the deceased supported by eunuchs, seeming to Aveep. The coffin Avith a great FUNEEAL OF ONE OF THE ROYAL FAMILY. 185 yellow canopy^ earned by eig’hty men^ clothed in green with red plumes in their capsj the Agoes in companies surrounded by their servants; the Begu- loes and other princes ; two other coffins containing two conenhines who were hanged, that they might serve the prince in the other world as they had served him in this ; the grandees of the Empire, the chairs of the de- ceased prince’s wife, and the princesses, his relations, a multitude of people, and bonzes closed tlie procession. “The eight banners, with all the mandarins, supe- rior and inferior, had gone before, and rang'ed them- selves in order of battle, to receive the body at the entrance of the garden, where it was to be deposited till the tomb of the prince Avas built. About sixteen thousand people Avere reckoned to attend this cere- mony.” 180 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTER X. Christianity when introduced into China — Ancient monument, bearing date 781 — Inscription — Nestorians — Bishops or Patriarchs — Progress of Christianity — Emissaries from the Pope sent in 1246— Build a church — ^lonte Corvino translates a portion of the Scriptures into the Mongolian tongue — 1565, many Jesuits in China — Ricci converts the Mandarin Seu and his daughter — Build churches at Xan-kin and Foo-chow-foo — Ricci received at the Court of Pekin — 1611, Ricci dies at Pekin — His character — Edict promulgated in 1627 — Death of Seu — 1645, Schaal commanded by the Emperor to correct the Calendar — Schaal appointed tutor to the young Emperor, Kang-he — Assassinated in 1669 — Verbeist taken into favour by Kang-he — Honors paid to him — 1669, French Jesuits arrive in China — Epistle from Louis the Four- teenth to the Emperor Kang-he — 1692, Edict of Toleration — Romish Church built at Pekin — Worship performed there in 1702 — De Tournon sent as Legate to China by Pope Clement in 1704 — Religious differences among the various fraternities of Roman Catholics — 1710, De Tournon made a Cardinal — His death — 1715, Mezzabarba sent as Legate by the Pope — Missionary conduct in China — Ripa’s account — 1721, the Emperor’s resolve — 1724, Edict of the Emperor Yung-ching — 1732, Father Kagler appointed President of the Astronomical board — 1736, Persecution commenced under Keen-lung — 1747, Bishop Sanz and others put to death — 1784, Priests seized at Huk-wang — 1811, Chinese priest apprehended — Missionaries put to death — ^Xone allowed at the Court of Pekin — 1820, Sir A. Ljungstedt’s account of the number of Roman Catholics — Account given by L’Anuales de la Foi — Bishoprics and Apostolic vicariates — ARssionaries of the present day — Colonial chaplain — Bishop of Hong-Kong — Members of missionary societies in China — Edict issued in March 1846, granting privileges to the Roman Catholics — Secret societies of China — Local ordinance — INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO CHINA. 187 Chinese document found at Jilacao — Their origin and progress up to this period — Our compredore — The tendency of the conduct of pro- fessing Christians, upon the Chinese, religiously and morally. From ancient records, it appears that Christianity was introduced into the Celestial Empire in the seventh centuiy, about the year 635 of the Christian era, during' the reign of Tait-simg’, the second Emperor of the dynasty of Tang'. Chinese records state, that many ambassadors came from foreig'ii countries to the capital of China, Singan-foo, in the province of Shen- se, Avhere the Emperor, Tait-sung', held his court ; among' them came a man named Alapun, who soon made himself conspicuous for his eminent virtues, and the doctrines which he promulgated. This strange man brouD-ht with liim certain sacred wu'itino's, which lie said contained the doctrines of a new^ relioion, and entreated the Emperor to examine these documents w ith care. Tait-sung received the proffered gift from Alapun, examined with the utmost care the theoretical and practical precepts contained in the scriptures, or sacred writings of the new religion, conversed Avith Alapun upon the subject, and finally gave him per- mission to preach and promulgate the new religion, or Christianity. At the commencement of the ensuino* _ O year, the following Imperial edict Avas issued. “Truth hath not an unchanging' name, nor are hoh' men confined to one inichano-ino' form. In CAery place true doctrine has been given, and Avith reiterated instructions the croAvd of the Ih'ino- have been blessed. O “ From the distant regions of Ta-tsin,* the great and Literally, great purity ; and the country here mentioned under the name of Ta-tsin, is supposed by most ancient and modern writers to be Arabia and Judea. 188 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. virtuous Alapuii has broug-ht the scriptures and the 'pictures, to offer them to our high court. If these writings be examined^ they will be found excellent, pure, aud profound ) if its origin be considered, it pro- duces that which is important; its phraseology is without superfluous words, as it holds the truth, but rejects that which is needless; it is beneficial in all affairs, and profitable to the people, and should there- fore pervade the empire. Let the officers erect a temple for the religion of Ta-tsin in the capital, and appoint twenty-one officers for its oversight.” What corroborates this, is the following extraordinary fact : in 1G25, some Chinese workmen discovered, in the province of Shen-se, near Sing”an-foo, a monument in- scribed with Chinese and S 3 uian characters, bearing the date of 731 ; the local mandarins had this monu- ment removed to a pagoda, and all missionaries then in China had free access to this monument, as well as the Chinese. The missionaries describe this monu- ment as a slab of marble, about nine feet and a half louo', and nearh’ five Avide ; on one side is the Chinese inscription, in twentA'-eight lines, there being in each column, or line, tAventv'-six characters. The Syrian inscription is on the right side, and contains seventeen characters ; at the top of the monument are nine Chi- nese characters, which signify — tablet recording the introduction of the religion of the Ta-tsin countiy into China.” The inscription on this tablet has been translated into Latin b}” Kircher, Avhich was published at Amsterdam. Dalguie, the celebrated French anti- quarian, also published a translation at Paris. The Jesuits affirm that this monument is a proof of ST. THOMAS THE APOSTLE. 189 the existence of the Romish church in China at this period; some authors state that this assertion is ab- surd^ as the Jesuits have not any records to corro- borate or support the assertion, whilst others support the statement of the Jesuits ; but this is a matter of little import now, whether it was or Avas not the doc- trines of the Romish Church that were promulg-ated in the capital of China, Singan-foo, in the province of Shen-se, during' the reign of the emperor Tait-sung*, in the year 635. We must be convinced from re- cords, that Christianity Avas introduced into China at this period, if not at an earlier date. The Reverend Mr. Medhurst states, and proves, that it is a Avell- authenticated fact, that St. Thomas the Apostle visited India, and promulgated the doctrines of the Christian religion; Ave learn from Assemannus, that the apostle Avent to a king'dom east of India, preach- ing the gospel, and founded a church in the cit}' of Cambala, Avhich many suppose Avas Pekin, returning aftenvards to Malabar. These statements are corro- borated by the Aestorians, and ritual of the Chaldean Church, for in one of their services, Avhen alluding to Saint Thomas, it is Avritten, by him the Persians, Hindoos, and Chinese, A\'ere converted to the Chris- tian faith.” These facts may prove interesting to a certain class of readers, and induce them to prosecute farther in- quiry into these interesting statements, made by ancient and modern authors of celebrity. The anti- quity of Christianity in India none can doubt, as it is proA’ed by tradition and written records ; Amro, in his account of sees Avhich Avere subject to, and acknoAA- 190 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. ledg*ed the rule of, the Nestorian patriarch, places Sina, or China, after India : Ebedjesus affirms, that the seers were placed in rotation as each was founded ; if this is a veracious statement, China must at a very early period have experienced the blessing’s of Chris- tianity. No historians agree as to the founder, or period of foundation, of the metropolitan sees of Sina and Samarkand, some stating’ that it was Achteus, others Silas; the former was Archbishop of the Chal- deans at Seleucia, in the year 410, the latter was the elder bishop, or patriarch of the sect, in the year 506, Mosheim writes, Nothing could exceed the zeal of the Nestorian Christians to spread the Christian doc- trine in the east. They gained a firm footing in Persia about a.d. 520, and established a patriarch, or spiritual head of their sect, at Seleucia. Their doc- trine spread with astonishing rapidity and success through all countries that lay beyond the limits of the Homan Empire.” There are extant authentic records, from which it appears that throughout all Persia, a great portion OF China, India, America, Syria, and other coun- tiies, there was a vast number of Nestorian churches, subject to the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Seleucia. In Gieseler’s “ Ecclesiastical History,” we read. It was about the year 550 that some Persian monks conveyed silkworms from China.” From all these statements, it would appear that the Nestorian s carried on intercourse with China from a period antecedent to the year 635. After the death of the Emperor Tait-sung, his successor, Kaout-sung, also favoured i>tekcoursp: of the nestorians with china. 191 the illustrious religion^ which spread exceedingly; temples being built where public worship was per- formed in more than ninety cities. The “ illustrious religion ” met with much opposition from the literati and the Buddhists, many of the sect being much persecuted occasionally, nevertheless it flourished under the patronage of successive Emperors ; some of them founding and endowing the places of worship which belonged to this sect, and the tablet before alluded to was erected to perpetuate the munificence of the Emperor Suh-tsung, who had founded and endowed several churches. It is affirmed that in 780, Subchal was sent by Timoth}", the head or patriarch of the Nestorians, as a missionary into China and Tartary, and that he made many converts. The “ illustrious religion ” waned under the succeeding Emperor, for in 845 an Imperial edict Avas issued by the command of the Emperor Wut-sung, which ordered all priests that belonged to the sect that came from Ta-tsin to retire into private life, and not presume to worship in their temples longer; the number of the priests is said to have exceeded three thousand. In the narrative of the Two Arabians (which was in the King- of France’s Biblioth^ue, — where is it now?) who were in China about 879, a long account is g-iven of the number of Christians that Avere killed during a revolutionary war Avhich took place in China at that period; in the city of Can-foo alone there were massacred one hundred and fifteen thousand Christians, JeAVS, Mahomedans, and Parsees, who Avere pursuing their various avocations and business. 192 CHI>’A AND THE CHINESE. Fi'om this period until the thirteenth century, the Nestorian Christians were tolerated, and promulg'ated their doctrines in China ; this has been proved h}’ facts, and many authors who have instituted a rigid research into ancient writing’s; Mosheini and Gibbon quote Chinese, Latin, Syrian, and Arabian authorities, in corroboration of their statements. In the } ear 1246, Innocent the Fourth, then Pope of Rome, sent two Franciscan friars as missionaries and ambassadors to the Emperor of China; these monks g’ave great offence to the Emperor b}* refusing* to address him as the Son of Heaven, and to koo-tow, therefore they were dismissed, without accomplishing the object of theu’ mission, which was to obtain assistance to aid the Pope, in obtaining possession of the Holy Sepulchre, then in the hands of the infidels. IVhen Marco Paulo visited China in the thirteenth centiuT, he states that he met with many heretics, or Aestorian Christians, and in the city of Kampian ^^The hulk of the people worship idols, but there are many Christians and Mahomedans. The Chris- tians have three large and handsome churches in the city.” Between the years 1288 and 1292, the Pope sent John de Monte Corvino, to the Celestial Empire to attempt the conversion, of the Emperor to the Romish Church; in this object he could not succeed, but he obtained a ^Jcrmission to build a church at Cambalu (wliich by many js supposed to be Pekin), and bap- tized four thousand and twenty persons. John de Monte Corvino translated the Aew Testament, and the whole of the Psalms into the Mongolian language. ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES. 193 copies of which are still extant. The Nestorians opposed the introduction of the Roman Catholic doc- trines most zealously, and threAV every possible obstacle in the path of Corvino ; finally frustrating’ his object, as the sect were numerous, having- churches in many parts of China. Little Avas done by the Roman Catholics for more than two centuries, but about the year 1550, Francis Xavier, celebrated alike for his learning’, missionary labors, and melancholy end, arrived at Macao, in- tending- to proceed to the seat of the Chinese g’overn- ment, but the merchants prevented him from carrying- his intention into effect, assig-ning’ as the reason, the fear of g’iving’ offence to the Emperor, Avho mig'ht order them to leave his territories, or forbid his subjects trading’ Avith them. Grieved and disappointed at the non-success of his mission, enfeebled bodily by priva- tions and Avearisome journeys, exhausted mentall3' by intense study and application, with the canker- Avorm of disappointment eating’ into his A’itals, Francis Xavier sank into his o-rave.* During- the year 1565 many of the Jesuitical fra- ternity proceeded to China, and established themselves in several places ; the father Rug'g’iero obtaining- per- mission to visit the interior of China. Presents were made to the mandarins at Shaou-kin-foo, Avho per- mitted the Jesuits to take possession of a joss-house, Avhere they established themselves, performing- the service of their church. The .Jesuits Avorked zealously, * Authors disagree as to the exact age of this extraordinary man ; some stating that he died at the age of forty-six, others before he had com- pleted his forty-seventh 5'ear. VOL. II. O 194 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. making* many converts^ and the Nestorians gradually declined in influence and nuuibers, and in 1593 the body of the Jesuits had at Macao, A cathedral with two parishes, a inisericordia with two hospitals, and foul* relig'ious bodies, namely Jesuits, Dominicans, Aug'ustines, and Capuchins.”* In 1581 the talented, persevering’, insidious Matthew Eicci, was appointed superior to the whole body of the sects or missions then in China ; he ing-ratiated himself ivith the Chi- nese, giving’ the higher orders a great desire to be- come acquainted with mathematics and learned men. Ricci made many converts, and among* them was a mandarin named Seu, who was a minister of state of the highest rank and who possessed great influence at court ; this grandee was a native of Shang-hae (and in that chapter we have given an account of the arch erected to his inemory), and was received into the bosom of the Romish Church, being baptized under the name of Paul. Father Ricci also made a prose- l}*te of the daughter of Seu or Paul, and this lady was also received into the Romish Church, under the name of Candida ] the new converts aided Ricci in every possible manner to spread the doctrines of his church, and obtain converts, Candida building churches in several provinces, monasteries or houses for the Jesuits to reside in, endowing- them most liberally. This Chinese lady possessed vast wealth, as she became a widow before she had completed her thirty- first year, consequently had the sole control of her deceased husband’s enormous riches which, during * Vide Report of the Senate to the King of Portugal, Philip the First. FATHEE EICCl’S VISIT TO PEKIN. 195 her prolong'ed life^ she principally employed in build- ing- religious institutions, acts of charity, and benefit- ing her fellow-creatures. The new convert Paul was of immense service to the Jesuit Eicci, as he not only introduced him into the highest circles amongst the influential and literati, but assisted him in the trans- lation of a portion of Euclid into the Chinese language. Many learned Jesuits now joined Eicci, and in 1600 a church was built at Nankin, and another at the luxu- rious wealthy city of Soo-choAV-foo. About this time Eicci assumed the cognomen of Sithai, and adopted the costume of the Chinese literati. The Jesuit now resolved upon Ausiting Pekin, and through the man- darin and convert Paul, obtained letters of introduc- tion to the most distinguished literati, and influential grandees, attached to the court of Pekin, and obtained permission to offer presents to the Emperor. Eicci set out for the seat of government, accom- panied by a brother named Pantoja, and arrEed there in safety 5 Avas presented to the Emperor, Avho received them graciously, accepted the profered gifts, and granted them permission to hire a dAvelling-house ; several of the fraternity noAV joined Eicci and Pan- toja at Pekin, the numbers increased so rapidly, that in 1606 the Emperor Avas petitioned by Father Eicci, to grant them leave to purchase a larger house in the city of Pekin, as the one the Jesuits then occupied AAOuld not contain one-fourth of their fraternity. This request Avas complied with j converts being con- tinually added to their number, to the great delight of Eicci; all went on flourishingly, the Jesuits slowly but surely extending their numbers in the empire, and o 2 196 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the mandarin Paul using’ all his influence to preserve the Emperor’s favour for Kicci. In 1611 Ricci was taken ill ; the infirmities of old age^ residence in a tropical climate^ combined with unwearied and con- stant bodily exertion and application to stud}', ren- dered a frame, never robust, ill calculated to sustain or struggle with disease, and the father died sur- rounded by his brethren : who obtained permission from the Emperor to inter the remains of Ricci Avith all the high rites and solemnities of the Romish Church. The line of conduct ])ursued by Ricci Avas essen- tially Jesuitical in ever}' sense of the Avord; he cared not what means AA ere used to attain the desired end ; and he even adopted, or conformed to many of the ceremonies of the Chinese state religion, “ stating that he only came to reneAv some obsolete but essential doctrines and practices, and that he preached the Shang-te Avhich the old laAVs inculcated, and that his system in the main Avas the same as that of Confucius.” We read in Gabriel Daniel’s History of the Jesuits, in the second volume, the motives Avhich influenced Father Ricci, in adopting*^ and permitting converts to follow, many heathen customs and idolatrous rites. “ The Mahomedaiis, A^•ho are SAvorn enemies to ido- latry, perform these honors to their ancestors, likewise Confucius, therefore they are not idolaters. ^^The Chinese respect neither their ancestors nor Confucius as deities or saints ; their reverence to theii’ ancestors is only to them as persons to Avhom they OAve their lives, and Confucius is merely honored as a philosopher and legislator. CHARACTER OF FATHER RICCI. 197 111 1384_, the Emperor, by an edicts prohibited columns to be erected to Confucius j all that sort of honors to he paid him which is usually paid by idolaters to persons deceased ; that the same honors which are paid to deceased ancestors^ and to Confucius, are also paid to the living* Emperor and the g’reat officers of state.” If Bicci did sanction the eng-raftino- heathen rites among* the ceremonies of the Bomish Church, no words can sufficiently express onr abhorrence of so abo- minable a line of conduct ; and that he did do so, Ave fear is too Avell proved by authentic accounts. AVe Avill g*ive the summary of his proceeding*s in China, leaA'ing* our readers to form their OAvn estimate of the character of Bicci. In the “ Anecdotes de la Chine,” Ave read, “ This Jesuit (Bicci) was active, skilful, full of extremes, and endoAved Avith all the talent to render him ao*reeable to the g'reat, or to gain the favour of princes, but so little A’ersed in the matter of faith, that the Bishop of Conon said it Avas sufficient to read his Avork on the ^ True Belio-ion/ to be satisfied that he Avas io*norant of the first principles of theology. Being* more a politician than a theolog’ian, he found the secret of remaining peacefully in China. The kings found in him a man full of complaisance j the pagans a minister Avho ac- commodated himself to their superstitions j the man- darins, a politic courtier; and the devil, a faithful servant, Avho, far from destroying, established his reign among* the heathen, and even extended it to the Christians. He preached in China the religion of Christ, according* to his OAvn fancy, that is to say, he 198 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. disfig-ured it by a faithful mixture of pag'an superstition, adopting- the sacrifices offered to Confucius and ancestors, and teaching- the Christians to assist and co-operate at the worship of idols, provided they only addressed their devotions to a cross, covered with flowers, or secretly attached to one of the candles which were lig-hted in the temples of the false g-ods.” After the decease of Eicci, the affairs of the Jesuits g-lided on smoothly until 1616, when one of the local mandarins, at Nankin, made a complaint to the Em- peror, of the Jesuits, whom he accused of inspiring- their converts Avith contempt for the honored, reve- renced, and sacred customs of their ancestors, and endeavouring- to alienate the hearts of the people from the Imperial g-overnmeiit. The J esuits now g-radually declined in favor, and in 1627, the Emperor com- manded the following- edict to be issued : — “ The men who preach a law which confuses the people, are to quit the Celestial Empire ; ” and order- ing- all mandarins^ and local authorities to send the Jesuits from their respective provinces to Canton, Avith all possible speed, there to embark for their respective homes. Many Jesuits noAV attacked the mandarin Seu (the convert Paul before alluded to), entreating- him to induce the Emperor to reA oke the decree j and as this mandarin noAV held the highest official post, being- the minister of the first grade, or Co-loa, the Emperor reposed unbounded confidence in him •, therefore, the power that he could use was immense, and his in- fluence unlimited. It is stated that the Co-ha Seu induced the Emperor to cancel the obnoxious edict, JUAN 3I0EALES AND THE JESUITS. 199 by assuring- him, that should aid be required to repel the incursions of the Tartars, the Portuguese at Macao would furnish that aid most readily, if their countrymen Avere alloAved to remain unmolested in the various provinces where they had settled. The edict was rescinded, and the Jesuits allowed to remain 5 but their j)almy days Avere well nigh over, as Fran- ciscans and Dominicans crept into China 5 moreover, their stanch advocate, and influential friend at court, the mandarin Seu, died, in the year 1031, or at the commencement of 1632. Before the death of Seu, a German J esuit, of g*reat abilities and powerful eloquence, by name Johan Schaal, arrived in China, and was introduced to the Emperor, by the Co-loa. In 1635, a Spanish Dominican, Juan Morales, arrived in the Celestial Empire, and attacked Schaal and the Avhole body of Jesuits, for permitting their converts to Avorship their ancestors. Morales exerted his influence Avith the Pope, and represented this matter in so strong a light, tliat Innocent the Tenth expressed his disapprobation of mixing up heathen rites Avith the ceremonies of the Romish Church. These dissensions among- members of the same Church caused much surprise and astonishment in China, but Schaal contriA'ed to make himself useful to the Emperor, and thus obtained some influence at Court. In 1645, Schaal was commanded by the Emperor to correct the calendar, Av hich had fallen into a mass of error; and the Jesuit completed the task in so masterly a manner, that he was raised to the dignity of chief, or president of the astronomical board, Avith 200 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the rank and authority of a mandarin of hig-h rank. Again, the star of Jesuitism appeared to be in the ascendant, as Schaal had permission granted him to send for several of his own order, who upon their arrival, were distributed over many provinces. At Pekin the Jesuits were established, and upon the deatli of the Emperor, Schaal was appointed tutor to the successor to the throne, Kang-he, then a child of nine years of age ; the regent, for what reason none can assign, seized Schaal, with several other Jesuits, and threw them into prison; causing* them to be tried and condemned to death ; this sen- tence was not carried into execution publicly, but Schaal was assassinated in prison in 1669. Chinese records state that he died from disease, in jail; but this statement is believed to have been made, merely to avoid the odium of the murder, neither is it recorded vdiat crimes the Jesuits had committed. Several of the fraternity were banished to Canton, four only being* allowed to remain at the capital, amongst this number was a brother called V erbeist : when Kang-he ascended the throne, naturally the regent was dismissed, and the Emperor commanded Verbeist (with the other Jesuits), to reply to some astronomical interrogatories ; the replies Avere correct ■ — to the consternation of the Chinese astronomers, Avho could not soh e the questions put b}* the Emperor. Kang*-he noAv took Verbeist into favor, makinof him a Ta-jin, or one of the highest amongst the literati; ennobling* all his kindred and ancestors; loading* him with honors, until the period of liis decease in 1688 ; when the Emperor commanded that Verbeist should LOUIS foueteexth’s letter to the emperor. 201 be interred Avith the liig-hest ceremonious honors^ al- loAved to be performed, at the funeral of a subject, of the Celestial Empire. About the close of the folloAnno* year many French O V Jesuits armed in Pekin, who A\ ere masters of^ and proficient in, the Chinese and Tartarian 'tong-ues, and speedily made themseh'es useful in ei'ery possible manner to the Emperor and g-oyernment j becoming* the tutors of the monarch and his court, in any science they Avished to learn : as these Jesuits A\ ere proficients in most of the sciences and fine arts, theA' speedily became of the utmost seryice at the Court of Pekin. The adyantag’es that Avould accrue to France, from a friendly intercourse, being* established betAA’een that country and China, did not escape the monarch, or ministers of the former nation, and the folloAving* reg*al epistle Avas addressed by Louis the Fourteenth to the Emperor Kang*-he : — “ Most hig-h, most excellent, most puissant, and most magnanimous prince, our dearly beloA ed friend, may God increase your grandeur Avith a happy end. Being* informed that A'our Majesty A\ as desirous to haye near your person, and in your dominions a con- siderable number of learned men yery much yersed in the European sciences, we resolved some years ago to send you six learned mathematicians, our subjects, to shoA\‘ your Majesty AAhateyer is most curious in sciences, and especially the astronomical observations of the famous academy, Ave have established in our g*ood city of Paris, but Avhereas the leng*th of the sea A'oyage, Avhich divide our territories from yours, is 202 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. liable to many accidents, and cannot be performed without much time and dang’er, we have formed the design, out of a desire to contribute towards your Majesty’s satisfaction, to send you some more of the same Father Jesuits, who are now mathematicians, with Count Syri, b}'^ land which is the shortest and safest Avay, to the end they may be the first near your Majesty, as so many pledges of our esteem and friendship, and that at the return of the said Count Syri, we may have an account of the admirable, and most extraordinary actions that are reported of your life. Whereupon we beseech God to augment the gTandeur of your Majesty, with an end altog’ether happy. Your most dear and good friend, “ Louis.” Written at Marly the 7th of August 1688, During the following year, the Jesuits conferred a great oblig'ation on the emperor of China, as Father Gerbillion succeeded in negotiating a treaty of peace between the Celestial Empire and Russia. With this successful act of diplomacy, and many others of useful- ness, the Emperor was delighted, and the missionaries had free access to the palace, seeing the Emperor daily, who conversed with them freely and familiarly. The Romish Church gained many proselytes in China, and it is affirmed that in 1C92 the missionaries baptized more than one thousand converts ; annually, numbers joining the papists. It was in this year the Emperor Kang*-he issued his celebrated edict of toleration, wherein was set forth, “ That as the Christian reliofion contained nothing hurtful, but was good and useful, no kang-he’s edict of toleration. 203 molestation was to be offered to those who professed it that the Board of Bites had seriously examined that which had reference to the Europeans Avho lived in China, and found that they merited attention and love, for the sig’nal services which they had rendered in cml and foreigui wars, by their continued studies to produce useful and curious works, and by their just and sincere affection for the public g’ood. Moreover, the Europeans are very peaceable and tranquil, do not excite commotion in the provinces, do not cause evil, or commit any bad action j their doctrine has nothing- in common with the false and dang-erous sects of the Empire, neither do their maxims lead people into sedi- tious practices. That as the Government of China did not prevent the Lamas of Tartary nor the Buddhists from having- temples, worshipping- after their own methods, offering- incense, with other religious rites, and building- pag-odas, how much less oug-ht the Euro- peans to be prevented from having- their churches, and preaching- the doctrines of their religion publicly, especially as the followers of this relig-ion did nothing- contrary to the laws, morals, or g-ood order.” This edict was commanded to be promulgated by the Emperor, in consequence of a most virulent and unprovoked attack which had been instituted ag-ainst the Christians by the vicero}' and local mandarins in the province of Che-kiang-. Within a short space of time after the edict was issued, the Emperor Kang--he was seized with a violent illness which baffled the skill of his Chinese physicians ; in despair, the Jesuit physicians were called in, Bouvet and Gerbillion, who speedily, by judicious treatment. 204 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. and the use of quinine^ subdued the disease. The gTatitude of the Emperor was boundless ; he g’ave the Jesuit physicians a dwelling* within the palace-walls (which had formerly been apportioned to the comptrol- ler^ g’overnor, and tutor of the heir- apparent), and had the abode fitted up in a most luxurious and costly manner solely at his own expense. As the Jesuits expressed a desire to have a place of worsliip attached to their abode, or contig'uous to it, the Emperor com- manded a fine chm*ch to be erected, within the precincts of the imperial palace. This church was four years in building*, and when completed, was decorated and beautified by the J esuit artists in a most sumptuous manner; the Emperor Kang*-he inditing* with his own pen the following* inscription: — ^^To the only true God ! ” The sacred edifice was consecrated, and opened with g*reat splendour, all the high ceremonials of the Eomish Church being* observed, in the year 1702. It Avas shortly after the opening’ of this church that serious dissensions broke out between the Jesuits, Franciscans, and Dominicans, Avhich finally led to the expulsion of all members of the fraternity from the Court of Pekin. The Emperor Ivang’-he is described bv all the missionaries, as well as by his own subjects, as a man possessing* lofty genius, extreme powers of penetration, sound judgment, a keen sense of rectitude, great control of temper, extreme energy ; being* capable both of forming* and carrying out gigantic enterprises. He did not trust to his ministers, but saw personally that justice was administered, and was a kind and merciful ruler. Moreover, he did not allow himself to be influenced or guided by his favorites, but obtained MAIGKAT’S opposition to the JESUITS. 205 all necessary information upon all topics connected Avith the Avelfare of his king’dom. Kang’-he evinced much kindliness of disposition toAvards the missionaries^ and the Jesuits affirm^ that just before his death he intended to haA'e been baptized, and to have openly embraced the tenets of the Roman Catholic Church. When the necessity of baptism had been urged upon the monarch previously, he replied that he did not consider it an essential point, but that he in his heart Avorshipped the same God that the Christians did. Under the instruction of the Jesuits, Kang-he had become a proficient in many sciences, as he had studied astronomy, geometry, anatomy, and physics, and delighted in the society and conversation of learned men, Avhether foreigners or his own subjects. During* the year 1693, the archi-episcopal vicar of Foo- keen — a Dominican, b}’’ name Charles Maigrat — issued an ordinance condemning* the practice and toleration of idolati’}" by the Jesuits ; it appears that Maigrat Avas an associate of the Colleo-e of Foreig*n Missions in Paris, the members of Avhich were most violently op- posed to the fraternity of the J esuits. The ordinance Avas as folloAvs : — “ We command and ordain, that every one obserAe to express the name of God, in the Chinese Avord Teeng-chu, Avhich signifies the Lord of Heaven, and that the Avord Shang-te, or Supreme Emperor, be laid aside. We expressly forbid an exposure in any church of pictures, AAdiich have an inscription on them Avith Kin-tien (adore the sky) : Ave command them to be taken doAAii, and all other pictures and expressions 206 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. which hear the same sense^ as we cannot be persuaded but that it is idolatry. We forbid the Jesuits, upon any pretence, to per- mit the Christians to perform the office of a sacrifice!*, or to be present at the sacrifices which are offered to Confucius, and other dead ancestors, twice a year. “ We also command all those who put their trust in God, to endeavour to abolish the pictures kept by pri- vate families ; and in that part of the houses where those pictures are exposed, that there be an article of the Christian faith set up in their places.” To settle all the relig-ious differences Avhich had arisen between the various sects in China, Pope Clement sent, in 1704, De Tournon, as leg*ate a latere, and he was also ordained Patriarch of Antioch. Upon the arrival of this functionary at Pekin, every obstacle was thrown in his path by the Jesuits to prevent an interview being* obtained with the Emperor. After innumerable delays, at length an audience was granted by Kang'-he to De Tournon j but scarcely had the latter presented himself before the monarch, when he was seized with severe sickness and cramps. The Emperor instantly exclaimed, “ He has been poisoned !” and ordered his court physician to administer remedies to De Tournon. The leg-ate’s recovery was a tedious one, but never again could he obtain an audience from the Emperor Kang-he, and in 1706 he quitted Pekin, and retired to Macao. De Tournon affirms, that the Jesuits in China named their converts in Fo-keen, ^Ghe Christians of Jesus,” whilst the converts which were made by the Franciscans and Dominicans were styled, in derision, KA>’G-HE FAVOES THE DOCTRINES OF RICCI. 207 the Christians of Saints Peter, Francis, and Dominic. The ill feeling' manifested by each party reached such a pitch in China, that the Emperor interfered, and instituted inquiries as to the orig'in of these disputes and the Emperor ascertained there were two parties who were contending for universal dominion and power in China ; as the Dominicans asserted they were the legitimate guardians of the Holy Office, or Holy Inquisition, whilst the other sect preached the divine right, as being the successors of St. Peter ; therefore had a divine right to control the human race, both spiritually and temporally. De Tournon about this time issued the mandate of Clement, ordering’ that no Chinese Christian, should ever practise the customs and usages which had been interdicted by the Pope. In the month of December 1700, the Emperor Kang-he caused the follow'ing edict to be issued, in which was declared, that the Emperor of China would countenance those missionaries who would preach the doctrines of Ricci, but Avould persecute those who fol- lowed the opinion of Maigrat, Bishop of Conon ; and that the Celestial Empire might be cleared of tumult- seeking men, it was commanded that the missionaries should, on the 1st July 1707, submit to an exami- nation.” The examination was to the following- effect : — “ Have you follow^ed the maxims and doctrines of Ricci ? Will 3 ’ou continue the labours of a missionary ?” When an answ^er wms given in the affirmative, an imperial license, or permission, was given to be ex- amined, wu-itten in the Chinese and Tartar languages. 208 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. whereby permission was g'ranted to remain in the Celestial Empire. If the reply was in the negative, then the examined received an order, whereby he was commanded to depart within five days for Canton. De Tournon forbade the missionaries, under pain of excom- munication, to hold converse with, or enter into any controversy upon these points. As soon as the leg’ate had issued this mandate, the Bishop of Macao im- prisoned him in his dwelling’ and placed a species of exhortation over the door, exhorting’ De Tournon to revoke his mandate within three days, under pain of excommunication; also to exhibit the credentials of his legation, to his diocesan. The legate replied to this by a severer denunciation. It appears that De Tournon’s mandates were sup- ported by the Holy Inquisition, and made into laws b}' a full conclave of inquisitors ; Clement XI. order- ing both Jesuits and friars of every community to obey implicitly the bully ex ilia die. Affairs went on in the same manner in China, each party striving for mastery, until the year 1710, Avhen the leg’ate De Tournon was made a cardinal, and six other missionaries arrived in China ; of which number Father Bipa was one ; and he states that he found De Tournon, with forty other missionaries, prisoners at Macao, but that himself and companions were allowed to remain at liberty. “ After duly considering the indignities to Avhich our holy religion was exposed in his own person, and in those of the missionaries, his Eminence (De Tournon) resolved to address a I’enionstrance to the Viceroy of Canton, and at the same time to transmit with DEATH OF CAEDINAL TOUENON. 209 it a despatch for the Emperor, announcing' his pro- motion to the rank of cardinal, and the arrival of six missionaries skilled in the arts and sciences ; and he now hoped to recover the favor of the monarch by sending- him Fathers Fabri, Pedrini, and myself, in the above capacities.” Cardinal De Toiirnon was seized Avithin a few days with illness, and after lingering' for three months, suffering’ most severe bodily pain, he departed this life in the forty-first year of his ag-e, in the year 1710, having died a prisoner at Macao. The Pope was severely mortified at the disrespectful treatment that the Cardinal De Tournon had been subjected to j nevertheless, in 1715, he sent a second legate to China, named Mezzabarba. The Emperor received this functionary courteously, but would not accede to, or grant, one sing'le concession or request. The legate Mezzabarba speedily found that the Emperor Kang’-he Avas determined not to place his subjects under the yoke of the Pope ; therefore the legate thought it prudent to make concessions, and to concede eight permissions. By these the Emperor Avas made the head of the Church : this gave great dissatisfaction to the Homan Catholics, and the Bishop of Pekin sent Father Cas- torani to Koine to obtain an abrogation of the ob- noxious permissions. There Avas nothing material occurred for years ; the Emperor still evincing’ a strong bias in favor of the Jesuits; but edicts Avere issued, Avhereby missionaries were forbidden to remain in China Avithout special permission being granted from the Emperor. VOL. II. P 210 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. We feel convinced that the conduct of the mis- sionaries in eveiT respect accelerated, and brought about, their expulsion fi*om China : and the following account, given by one of their own fraternity, hears out our assertion : — “ I may here take occasion to observe that if our European missionaries in China would conduct them- selves with less ostentation, and accommodate their manners to persons of all ranks and conditions, the number of converts would be immensely increased j hut, unfortunately, our missionaries have adopted the lofty and pompous manner known in Cliina by the appellation of Tti-mjen. Their g’arments are made of the richest materials j they go nowhere on foot, hut alwa 3 ’S in sedans, on horseback, or in boats, and with numerous attendants folloAving’ them. With a few honorable exceptions, all the missionaries live in this manner ; there is scarcelv a single missionary who can boast of having made a convert b}^ his own preaching, for they merely baptize those who have been already converted b^* others ; and in the absence of missionaries, infants, aged persons, and those that are sick, are baptized by native Christians.” — Ripa’s Residence at the Court of Pekin, p. 43. About 1721, the Emperor determined to reconcile the various sects of the priesthood tlien in China, or send them from his dominions ; and immediately tlie surve}" of the Chinese empire was completed, whereon several missionaries had been emplo}’ed, an edict was issued, forbidding anj' foreign priest, of European origin, to remain in the Celestial Empire without an especial patent, or command from the Emperor. On THE JESUITS EXPELLED FROM PEKIN. 211 one occasion, Kano--he commanded that all Eoman Catholics (Europeans) should appear before him, when the monarch requested them, if merely for their own interest, “ to have no more than one heart or mind j for what am I or my people to understand by these continual disputes among’ brethren ; one calls himself a Franciscan, another a Dominican, another a Jesuit; which irreconcilable disunion astonishes me and my people very much. Our surprise is boundless at the virulence of these hearthurning-s.” Kang’-he died in 1723, and was succeeded by Yang’- ching’, who evinced g-reat dislike to the missionaries, and the literati complained that the late Emperor had shown too much favour to the fraternity of Jesuits, who were a dangerous sect, and mig’ht cause or incite rebellion, as converts would not bow to the lawful authorities, being governed only by their priests or confessors. An edict was issued, commanding all missionaries, who were not required at the Court of Pekin for scientific purposes, to quit that portion of the Celestial Empire within a given time, but allowing them to go to, and remain at Canton. Many of the missionaries, after the storm had blown over, quitted Canton, and returned to their various posts. By the edict of Yung-ching, two hundred and seventy places of Eoman Catholic worship were de- stroyed, and nearly two hundred and fifty thousand nominal Christians left without their spiritual guar- dians. It appears that out of the thirty-six mis- sionaries who were exiled to Canton, sixteen had returned in defiance of the Emperor’s prohibition, to p 2 212 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the provinces ; this so exasperated Yuno’-ching’, that he ordered tlie remaining* twenty to he conducted as prisoners to Macao, and to leave the Celestial king’dom by the first homeward-bound vessel. Not- withstanding* these proceeding*s, the Jesuits still maintained, and were shown favour by the Emperor, for in 1732, a German Jesuit, Le P^re Kag*ler, was appointed the President or chief of the astronomical tribunal. We believe that the number of missionaries belong*- ing* to the various sects, Jesuits, Dominicans, Fran- ciscans, and others, that went to China between 1580 and 1724, did not exceed five hundred individuals; and this statement of ours is borne out by many contemporaneous authors. Yung--ching* died, and Keen-lung* ascended the throne in 1736 ; this Emperor commenced and carried on with unremitting* vig*or the persecutions of the Christians, and forbade missionaries to enter the king*dom. The viceroy of Foo-keen having* found some Christians in his province, tried, and caused them to be convicted and severely punished for dis- obedience. During* 1747, persecution extended over all the provinces; Bishop Sanz and five Dominican priests were beheaded, many other priests being* severely punished before being* banished from China. For years the Boman Catholics were treated with unmerited barbarity by the Chinese g*overnment, and the missions of Sze-chuen and Shan-se suffered terribly; the heads of it being* thrown into prison. In 1767, M. Gleyo was apprehended at Sze-chuen and thrown into prison, where he remained for fen CEUEL PERSECUTION OF THE CATHOLICS. 213 yearS; and was then only liberated throiig'h the inter- cession and exertions of a Jesuit, who had done the state (Chinese) some service. During’ 1784, every exertion was made to discover the missionaries and their aiders by the government in China, as four European priests had been found at Hu-kwang’, who were proceeding- to their respective missions. Didier Saint Martin, wlio was at that period in Sze-chuen, g’ives a most pathetic detail of his captivity, trial, and imprisonment, and the suf- ferings of his fellow-missionaries, eighteen in number, who were also imprisoned: twelve were sentenced to perpetual imprisonment, the remaining- six having- fallen victims, to the corporeal sufferings they had endured in prison. The sentence of perpetual impri- sonment was commuted to being- banished from Chinaj but, in defiance of this order, nine only chose to depart, three remaining, who concealed themselves in the houses of Chinese converts to the Romish Church. It appears that in this century, three Roman Catholics were executed j Dupresse was beheaded, Triora and Clet strangled; about 1811, a Chinese priest, Avith letters to his superior, was arrested, and the tribunal before Avhich he was summoned not re- ceiving satisfactory replies, became irritated against the European Roman Catholics; Avhen all agreed to leave China, except four, (who were the three above- named, and St. Martin), and none have ever since been allowed, at the court of Pekin. When the Jesuits flourished, in the da 3 ’S of Ricci and Verbeist, no numbers are exactly- stated either of their churches or convents, but the accounts speak of 214 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. hundreds of churches, thousands of convents, scores of missionaries, and many dozens of catechists, there- fore the veracit}'" of these statements, may Avith gTeat propriety be questioned. At this period it is a most difficult matter, to obtain access to documents apper- taining* to the Romish Church, whereby a correct account, mig’ht be obtained of the number of mis- sionaries, convents, churches, or schools. We find that in 1820, Sir A. Ljung’stedt obtained an account from Marchini, which states there were then in China six bishops and tAvo coadjutors, tAA^enty-three foreign missionaries, eighty native priests, and two hundred and fifteen thousand coiiAerts, inclusive of seven thousand in Macao and the surroundino- vicinitv. In June 1849, L’Annales de la Foi states the number of Roman Catholics then in China to be eig'ht bishops, fifty- seven priests of European extraction, one hundred and fourteen native priests, and three hundred thou- sand converts. China is divided by the Roman Catholics in the folloAA'ing* manner : three bishonrics of Pekin, Nankin, and JMacao, and ten apostolic vicariates j the bishopric of Pekin is under the Lazarists, the bishoprics of Nankin and Macao are under the Portuguese Do- minicans, Avhilst seA'eral of the apostolic Aucariates are under the Jesuits. In the last summary that Ave have seen (and we belieA e the last issued), it states there are now in the Celestial Empire, twelve bishops, eight coadjutors, eighty foreig*n missionaries, ninety native priests, and that the number of Roman Catholic converts falls little short of four hundred thousand. Those AAffio AATsh to obtain full information of the PRESENT POSITION OF MISSIONARIES IN CHINA. 215 proceedings of the former Roman Catholic mission- aries in Chma, would do well to consult the works of Ripa, Trigault, Le Comte, Amiat, Avril, Du Halde, Martinez and Mailla, which abound in interesting- information. Whether the Roman Catholics make many converts or not at the present da}-, we are unprepared to determine, hut we firmly believe they make quite as many, if not more, than the Protestants. When in China, Ave were grieved to our heart’s core to see the servants of the Romish Church indefatigably and zealously AA orking, making’ converts of the Chinese, reg-ardino- neither difficulties nor discourag-ement, whilst too many Protestant missionaries occupy their time in secular pursuits, trading- and trafficking-. Periodical statements are made of missionary labours, in Avhich are described the numbers of Chinese Avho have been converted by the Protestant missionai-ies, but Avhere- ever personal observation can be made, we fear these accounts will be found to be incorrect and exao-- O gerated. It is true there are juvenile schools, which are attended by native children, but we never have heard that the parents mere paid to allow the children to attend. At one time the gratuity used to be paid in advance for six months, but this has been stopped. The children that do attend the schools do not go there for religious instruction, but to acquire know- ledge that may be advantageous to them in a Avorldly point of view, and as the loAver orders are exceedingly poor, scholars are readily obtained, and the mission- aries avail themselves of the services of these children by employing them in various domestic occupations. 216 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. There are also some Chinese -vvho attend the chapels (but not one tithe of them even lyretend to he Protes- tants) to listen to hig-h-flown discourses and metaphors, and not to profit by religious instruction, hut who go to these places of worship to be amused, as they would with a theatrical or oratorical display. Yet we hear constantly of the larg’e number of Chinese Avhich compose the cong-reg^ations of these chapels. It is also quite true that many Chinese do, and will, read the Holy Scrijitures, not from any religious feeling*, but as they would read a tale, for amusement. We found a portion of the Holy Bible (which had been translated into Chinese) in the possession of one of our servants, who Avas a professed Buddhist. We asked him if he believed in it : he answered Yo, and gave as his reason for perusing the book, “ It talk all same Chinaman talk;” in plain English, because the phra- seolog}^ and style of the Bible is essentially Asiatic. We found, and believe to be too true, the opinion expressed by a celebrated author (in the time of Lord Amherst’s embassy) in the following Avords: “ The coiiA’ersion of a people so slenderly attached to the predominant religion Avould not be attended Avith difficulty, if Truth Avere on the tongues of those Avho undertook it.” He might also haA'e added, if their life and condnct corresponded with that truth. Alas, the lives of mauA' missionaries whom Ave have seen in China (and elsewhere) are totally foreign, and at variance Avith their sacred calling, much of their time being passed in attending* auctions, buAung* at one price, and transferring* their purchase to a native at an advanced rate, although they receive a handsome REMARKS OX THE CONDUCT OF MISSIONARIES. 217 allowance, more than sufficient for their support j we maintain that, in common honesty, a man is bound to devote his time solely to the object for which he is paid, and sent out on a mission ) which is to render service to those Avho require his aid in a moral, humane, or religious sense. The conduct of many missionaries is most unbecoming-, whether considered in a Christian or social view, and to prove the im- pression produced on the minds of the Chinese heathens, by the lives of the missionaries being- at variance with their preaching-, the common expres- sions made use of in reference to them are, Lie- preaching- devils Story-telling-, red-bristled, foreig-n devils.” This cannot be wondered at, as we Avere informed by one of our servants, that a missionary in Hong-- Kong- retailed opium, and from our personal knoAV- leclge of the man’s character, we firmly believe the statement j yet this man has been handsomely paid to devote his time to the relig-ious instruction of the Chinese, Avhom he was represented to be converting-, instead of AAdiich, if our servant spoke truth, he Avas pandering- to their vices, the destruction of their immortal souls, and causing- the decay of their bodies. In China may be heard, as it is elseAAdiere, the cant phraseology relative to the hardships endured by the missionary, Avho has left country and friends for the sake of the Gospel j all this is carefully commented upon, and finds its Avay to England and America, clothed in pleasing- Avords, Avith a suitable account of the successful missionary labours. These accounts are published, Avidely circulated, and enlarged upon 218 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. in the rhetorical flourishes of platform oratory ; we confess our total inability to discover what these g’reat hardships consist in, which are not equally shared by other voluntary exiles, professedly seeking- after g-ain. Taken g-enerall}" from the humbler spheres of life, the missionaries in China (and other places) are materially better off than they would be at home j they are well paid, dwell in good houses, are surrounded by their wives and families, and are in the daily enjo3mient of luxuries and comforts totally unkiiowui to them in their owui countiy, or sphere, from which they ema- nated. From respect to the missionary character, the missionaries are invited to the tables of the g-overnor and civil authorities j consequently, are associated Avith those belonging to a class they never could have mixed wdth under other circumstances. In totally new^ settlements, the missionar}- ma}^ meet with pri- vations, but they are only endured in common Avith many who g-o to ncAv places, AA'ith the avoAved inten- tion of making moncA', and for their interest’s sake. We knoAv hoAv unpalatable these unvarnished facts, Avill prove to man}’ Avho profess to follow in the foot- steps of our blessed Redeemer, but Ave invariably have stated, and ever Avill state our OAvn opinion unflinch- ingl}", caring not Avho is pleased or displeased : we speak the truth, and nought but the truth. The missionaries, as a bodA', do not meet Avith re- spect from the Chinese, as man}- of them engag-e in mercantile pursuits, and trade is not regarded as being’ consistent Avith the pursuits of their sacred calling-. Let it be distinctly understood, that Av-e LABOES OF DK. PARKER AND MR. ROBARTS. 219 neither wish to hold up the ting-er of derision to point at the holy cause of the Protestant Churchy nor to slander a body of men ; we only wish to show that many erroneous statements are made, and that many members of the missionary body employ part of their time in attending* auctions at Hong’-Kong*, Macao, and Canton, instead of looking* after and imparting* spiritual instruction to the Chinese. For the honor of Eng*land and England’s church, it was not any of her sons who thus unprofitably spent the time they were paid to devote, to the instruction of misguided, benighted heathens. Of the missionaries belonging* to the American Baptist Board of Foreign Missions, it is impossible to speak too highly of Dr. Parker and Mr. Robarts ; the former has established an hospit*al at Canton, where thousands of natives have been benefited, both by his medical advice and religious instruction j this g*entle- man we conscientiously believe to be a sincere Chris- tian, benevolent, and kind-hearted man, and oft-times have felt regret that his manners and deportment were not more gracious and affable; were they, his sphere of usefulness would be materially enlarged. Of the latter gentleman, Mr. Robarts, no one can speak in too commendatory a strain of his conduct ; he is a worthy servant of his divine Master. No pleasant place of abode has the missionary Robarts ; no do- mestic ties to solace him when his daily task is o’er ; no fond wife to wipe the damps of fever from his brow in sickness, or administer the soothing, cooling draught : he g*oes into the interior, tr^uiig to make converts among* the natives, lodging* and eating* Avith 220 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. them^ dressing’ as they do, adopting- all their habits and customs j and when prostrated by sickness is dependent upon strang-ers and those Chinese heathens for acts of attention and care. Great is his toil, and great will be his reward hereafter. A member of the London Missionary Society, the Reverend Mr. W. Medhurst, Avho is stationed at Shang-hae, is a most truly pious, useful, indefatigable, kind-hearted, affable, and amiable man. We know that he has made many converts, and has an attentive though small Chinese congregation j his sphere of usefulness is great, and from the peculiar kindness of his nature, urbanity, and pleasing manners, is much beloved and respected, being looked up to by the natives, and consulted by them in many domestic matters. The family of this gentleman contribute much to the spiritual benefit of the Chinese females, as the ladies speak the Shang-hae dialect, and visit many native families. With feelings of admiration do we here record the name and actions of Miss Aldersey: — this lady is a true missionary, she has quitted her own English home and its endearing- ties, to settle down among the Chinese, for the sole sake of converting- the nati\'e A\ omen. This lady has settled at Ning--po, where she has purchased a house, and intends there, with her heavenly Father’s permission, to live and to die. Miss Aldersey has gained access Avhere no male mis- sionary could, namel}", among the female members of families ; to them she gives portions of the Scriptures, tracts, written or translated into Chinese, and religious instruction ; this lady receives the Chinese women at SELF-DENYING LABOES OF MISS ALDERSEY. 221 her 0-wii abode, and has a school for their children ; the poor, needy, sorrow- stricken, and sick, find a benefactor in this Christian woman ; the former re- ceive pecuniary relief and consolation, the latter medi- cal advice j for this extraordinary amiable ornament to her sex, understands the use and application of medicinal drug's. Long- may her life be spared for her fellow-creatures’ sake. May she prosper in her pious task ; and when death calls her hence, may her reward be as g-reat, as her faith, and sincerity, have been pure. Daug'hters of Eng'land, ye oug-ht to be proud of your pious, amiable countrywoman, uho has quitted Albion’s shores to dwell among’ heathens, for the love she bears their immortal souls. Such an act of pious devotion would be most meritorious in a man, whose nature does not cling- to home endearments ; but when a woman thus sacrifices her home for strano-ers’ o benefit, her piety and faith must be of an exalted character, and lang’uag’e cannot be used of a suffi- ciently powerful nature, to express the respect and admiration, we feel for the female missionary. Miss Aldersey. The colonial chaplain of Hong’-Kong’, the Rev. Vincent Stanton, is a pious, benevolent, hard-work- ing- man, performing- his duties to the best of his ability, and they are both heavy and painful; the sickness and frequent burials in the island being- most distressing- to a man of kind and humane feeling-s. This g-entleman’s health and constitution have suffered from the pestilential air of Hong--Kong- ; and at one period it was believed that he would have been com- 222 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. pelled to have proceeded to Europe, or have lost his life. A voyag’e rendered the first unnecessary, and God’s mercy spared the last. The Reverend Georg-e Smith (late a church mis- sionary in China) has been appointed to the Bishopric of Hong’-Kong-; this g’entleman, althougdi young’, is well fitted for his post, as he is both a humble, pious Christian, and good scholar } and when in China, mixed with the natives, judiciously distributing’ tracts, pointing’ out in familiar conversation the errors of their idolatry, seeking’ to impress upon their minds the manifold blessing’s of Christianity. His discourses are clear, practical, and succinct, his enunciation distinct ; and mode of imparting’ spiritual instruction most agreeable. Nevertheless we think a grievous wrong’ has been inflicted upon the Colonial Chaplain, in ap- pointing this gentleman over his head, as Bishop of Hong’-Kong’. The Reverend George Smith, we be- lieve, was compelled to quit China, as his health failed him, from the effects of the climate ; therefore his constitution is not better, if so well calculated, to resist the scorching’ sun of the East, as that of the Colonial Chaplain, whose health although shattered, has allowed him to remain in China. Mr. Stanton has been some years in China, and has performed his duty most zealously and faithfully (being’ deservedly beloved by all good men in the Colony) • and therefore has prior claims to Mr. Smith, who Avas only in China for two years ; having arrived there in 1844 and re- turned to England in 1846. Surely those men should be promoted avIio do their duty faithfully, and who are capable of holding superior offices ; the Colonial Chap- BRITISH AND AMERICAN MISSIONS. 223 lain of Hong--Kong’ is as pious, benevolent, and as learned a man as the Reverend Georg'e Smith, more- over, is his senior by some few years j and we ag’ain repeat, that we think a g’rievous wrong’ is inflicted on any man, when a younger and not more efficient person is placed over his head — belong the party to the clergy, or to the laity. Interest is all powerful, unpatronized talent and capability being', alas ! too frequently overlooked. The various societies who send Protestant mis- sionaries to China, are the Church Missionary Society, and the London Missionary Society ; the American Episcopalian Board, the American Board of Com- missioners for Foreign Missions, the American Bap- tist Board, and the American Presbyterian Board. There are also two local societies, which are sup- ported by voluntary contributions, these are the Mor- rison Education Society, which was established in 1836, and the Medical Missionary Society, which was founded in 1838 ; the latter institution is of essential service to the Christian cause, as the members have the opportunity of alleviating’ the sufferings of the benighted heathens, and when the glow of gratitude is fresh in the heart, for benefits received, then is the time to speak of the healing power of the Gospel, when it is applied to the soul g’roaning under the weight of sin. We trust that the new Bishop of Hong-Kong’, will set himself zealously to work, to spread the Protestant faith in China, and that the Chiu’ch Missionary Society will aid him, with pious, truthful, and efficient assistants, who will devote their whole time and 224 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. energies to the duties of their calling’, treading* meekly and humbly in the footsteps of their blessed Master. The Roman Catholics are energetic, active, prompt, and zealous, and Monsieur Le Grene, when in China, obtained an edict from the Emperor, which revoked all former edicts for the suppression of Christianity, and the persecution of Christians ; as Avell as one that granted the restoration or rebuilding of Roman Catholic places of worship, which the Romish Church formerly possessed in the Empire of China; the French ambassador did his work well ; and honor to him who endeavored to restore and re-establish the Christian religion, be he a member of the Church of Eng’land or of the Church of Rome. The edict O alluded to is the following : — Ke^’ing, High Imperial Commissioner, and Go- vernor-General of Kwang-tung and Kwang-se, and Kwang, &c., &c., issues the following commands, which are respectfully recorded. ^^The Minister and Lieutenant-Governor duly re- presented to the throne, that the profession of the Lord of Heaven being in itself excellent, no punish- ment ought to he attached to it. Hereupon we received an Imperial receipt on the 2oth day of the first month (20th of February 1840), 26th year of Taou-Kwang, saying — Keying and others transmitted a request that virtuous people, who professed the religion of the Lord of Heaven, ought not on that account to be subject to punishment. The places of worship they erected, the churches AAhere they assemble to do EDICT TOLERATING CHRISTIANITY. 225 homage to the cross, and to pictures, and where they recite their prayers and preach, need not to be searched and prohibited. The whole of this pro- position was granted. “ As the relio'ion of the Lord of Heaven exhorts O people to virtue, it differs from other sects j and we, therefore, exempt the same from prohibitory regu- lations and restrictions. What has been asked at this period ought to be allowed. “ All the churches of the Lord of Heaven, built during the reign of Kang-he, in the various provinces, which were converted into temples or dwelling’s for the people, ought not to be a subject of investig’ation ; but if it can be sufficientl}* proved that some of the original edifices still exist, we permit them to be restored to the local professors of that religion. If, on the receipt of this by the mandarins of the various provinces, any true professors of the religion of the Lord of Heaven have been unauthoritatively seized, without being transgressors of the Imperial laws, Ave allow the authorities to liberate them. If any men, under pretence of religion, commit crime, and assemble people from distant villages, excite them to mischief, or if any Aillains of other sects, under the name of the religion of the Lord of Heaven, presume to create disturbances, they Avill be considered as haAing committed a treasonable crime, and be pun- ished according to the established laAVS. No foreigners are allowed, by the regulations noAV established, to go into the interior and propagate their religion ; for Ave must make a distinction. Let this be knoAvn — respect this. VOL. II. Q 226 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Having- humbly recorded the above, we address this perspicuous order to the military and people, for their general information and implicit obedience. Taou-Kwang,” “26th 5 ’’ear, 2nd month, and 21st da}";” or the 18th of March 1846. In the foregoing- edict or proclamation, we find certain sects alluded to ; these are various associations formed in China, which consist of evil-disposed men, who cause serious annoyance to the Government and all peaceably-disposed persons. The main object of these sects appears to he, overturning- the present Tartar dynasty ; and many acts of rebellion are com- mitted by the members, as well as robberies and murders. In 1845, the local government in Hong-- Kong passed an ordinance, whereby it was enacted that any Chinese, living in that colony, who was ascertained to belong to the Triad, or any secret society, should be declared guilty of felony, suffer imprisonment for the space of three years, be branded, and then expelled the colony. The most powerful of these secret associations or societies, is the Triad Society ; and it is this society that is alluded to in the 255th Section of the Penal Code of Laws, where punishment is awarded to rebels, or those who meet secretly in larg-e bodies, amountiiio" to one hundred in number. It is said that the associates or members, are ad- mitted with various and fixed ceremonies ; the novice swearing- before an idol, never to divulge what he may then learn, maintaining- ever afterwards inviolate secrecy as to the proceedings of the body, and to obey SECRET ASSOCIATIONS. 227 the commands of the delegated, officers. Whilst taking the oath, the novice stands under two drawn swords, and afterwards cuts off a cock’s head, which, as else- where remarked, is the Chinese method of taking a solemn oath ; whereby the swearer intimates that, if he then tell a lie, or prove false to his oath, he wishes his fate may he the same as the bird’s, which he has just decapitated. The members of the Triad, and other secret societies, are divided into lodges, have pass- words and signs, which are known onl}" to them- selves, many have most injudiciously and erroneously compared the members of these societies to Free- masons ; the only point of similarity consists in the secret signs, as the members of the secret societies endeavour to subvert and overthrow the e*overnment of the country, whilst the Freemasons, on the con- trary, are the upholders of all lawful authorities. It is affirmed that Gutzlaff found some of the verses, which are recited or sung at the initiation of novices, and a paper on which the oath was inscribed, the following cmious document, supposed to belong to this Society, was found in the burial-ground at Macao, in 1828 “ MANIFESTO TO INVITE AN ARMY. “ Illustrious, illustrious, the middle nation ; vast vast, the Celestial Emphe. A thousand states offered her tribute ; ten thousand nations attended her court. The Hoo-men usurped and seized her • resentment for this it is impossible to express. Invite soldiers, buy horses ; high respond the flowery bridge. Arise soldiers j uplift the pike j destroy and exterminate the Tsing dynasty.” Q 2 228 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. It appears that the secret societies date their origin from a war which took place at the end of the seven- teenth century, between the Su-loos and Manchoos. These societies are constantly tryino* to overthrow «. V O the present royal family of China, whom they term usurpers ; the members of one of them, called the water-lily sect, at the commencement of this century, rebelled and incited disturbances in four proyinces, namely, Sze-chuen, Kan-suh, Hoo-pih, and Shen-se, throwing’ them into a state of reyolt j and this rebellion was not quelled for eig’ht years. The secret societies appeared to rest tranquilly, until the year 1813, when fresh tumults Avere caused by them, and they attempted to assassinate the late Em- peror, Kea-king’, in the palace at Pekin; and would have accomplished their murderous desig’n, had it not been for the undaunted courag’e, and bravery displa}"ed by the monarch’s second son, the present Emperor, Taou-kwano’. Edicts were issued denouncinD* all sects or societies, and the local mandarins availed them- selves of this opportunity to oppress and put to death the missionaries before alluded to, and many native Christians. It Avas about this period that tAAO or more of these secret societies united, styling- their body the “ Triad Society, or Heaven, Earth, and Man,” Avhich, according’ to the Chinese doctrines, are the three principal poAvers Avliich g’overn the universe. The several societies have A arious names and deno- minations, such as the “ Pure Tea Sect,” “ Queen of HeaA’en’s Company,” Flood Family,” &c. ; in the Pekin Gazette of June 1816, a statement is made of proceeding’s Avhich had been taken against various PROCEEDINGS AGAINST SECRET SOCIETIES. 229 members of this sect^ the leader of which had been condemned to suffer death. In the following* year^ one of the members of the Imperial family was found to be an associate of a secret society ; he was im- prisoned^ fined, and degraded. Shortly after this discovery, more than two thousand members of one of these fraternities were apprehended at Canton, by the viceroy, Yu-en. During 1818, many families at Pekin were declared to be connected with secret societies, but were pardoned by the Emperor. In 1824, five hundred members of a secret society Avere taken prisoners in the proA'ince of Shan-tung; and during 1827, tumults arose at Mei-ling Pass, Avherein a local mandarin lost his life, Avhilst endeavouring to suppress it. The Chinese authorities stated, that they dared not punish the membei's of these societies, Avhen brought before their tribunals, and the Emperor im- mediately ordered them to call in the assistance of the militar}’. During 1831, the Emperor issued an Imperial edict, offering pardon to all members of any and every secret society, if they Avould give up all asso- ciation or connection Avith the various sects. Shortly after this proclamation, the viceroy of Canton sug- gested giving up Avaste lands to the people ; and this suggestion was acted upon by the Emperor, Avho also desired that tax-gatherers Avere not to oppress the poor ; that schools should be established, Avhere gra- tuitous instruction Avas to be given ; and that rigid attention should be paid to the sacred edict (which is read publicly by a local officer twice during each ‘JSO CHINA AND THE CHINESE. month)^ whereby the practice of virtue would be incul- cated and kept ah^ e in the people’s hearts. Many disturbances have been caused, within the last few years in China, by these secret societies, and serious reA^olts and tumults have occurred in the pro- vinces of Shan-se^ Hoo-nan, and Foo-keen. It is affirmed by many, that there is not a public office in China in which some of the officials do not belong’ to one of these secret societies, the military and the police also being’ connected with these bodies; and that men in self-defence join the most powerful of these societies, for protection in a time of tumult. Whilst resident in Hong’-Kong’, the following’ curi- ous circumstance came under our own knowledg’e: — Our compredore, in course of conversation with an intellig’ent specimen of the feminine creation, men- tioned that he belono*ed to an association which met o at a certain dwelling’ (indicating’ the house) at stated })eriods, and that he was a member of it, and the meeting’ would take place that evening’; mentioned his intention of taking’ French leave, if permission were not g’ranted him, as he intended joining’ the assembly. The lady g’rumbled, as ladies will, and ever have done, when put out of their way, expressed annoyance that the head servant should be absent at dinner-time, and no more Avas thought about it. In the course of the morrow this ivas mentioned, in con- versation, during’ a morning’ call, to Major Caine, then the Chief Mag’istrate of Hong’-Kong, who immediately begged the fair dame to obtain every information in her power from the compredore, as he felt convinced EXTENSIVE KAMIFICATIONS OF SECHET SOCIETIES. 231 this was one of the secret societies; saying*^ that nothing- would be suspected if a lady put questions in a careless^ insouciant manner. When the compre- dore came for orders, the lady gave them ; ordered sweets, flowers, and the thousand-and-one things which appear at a dinner- table in the East (where the house is blessed by having- a dear, domestic Avoman at the head of it), then asked the compredore if he had been to the meeting, and when he intended to go again; the man replied that he had been, and should go again soon ; the fair questioner said that she should like to know when the compredore wished ao-ain to absent himself, to make arrang-ements ac- cordingly ; the man named the evening, received his conge, and was told there were no further orders. This was communicated to us, and we told the same to the major, who had found out that numbers of men were in the habit of meeting- at the dwelling, which had been pointed out by the compredore to his mistress. Not another word Avas said by any one on the subject, secrecy having been enjoined by the major. The evening came ; the compredore absented him- self, — returned about midnight: no questions Avere asked, no remarks made; but in the morning, Ave learned from Major Caine, that he had surrounded the house Avith his police, but found it empty, entirely denuded of eA^ery article of furniture ; and the neigh- bours declared they knew not Avhere the inmates had gone to ; all they said they kneAv Avas, that business Avas carried on in the shop all day as usual ; that it was closed at dusk, and that many men had been there, and came away again, bearing parcels and 232 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. articles of furniture. How the inmates of the dwell- ing* had obtained cog'iiizance of the Major’s intent^ none can tell j hut can only imag*ine that one of the fraternit}'^ must have been among* the police. Our compredore was uoav questioned by us, in the lady’s presence ; when he coolly said, that he never stated that he helong*ed to any society, hut merely had g*one out to see his friends. Major Caine ordered him to appear at the police-court, when he Avas interro- g*ated as to his connection with the inmates of the deserted abode j the conijiredore said that he only Avent there to purchase articles Avhich they sold, and knew nought of them beyond. No clue ever could be obtained to the Avhereabouts of the former inmates of the before-named abode, neither could our compredore be proved to belong* to any secret society ; although he had been constantly seen going* in and out of this house where the meetings had been held. This fellow proA ed himself to be a great scoundrel after this discovery, planning* most cleverly, and nearly effecting* the robbery of our house. At one period in Hong-Kong, during* the Colonial Chaplain’s frequent indispositions, a sight used fre- quently to be witnessed (Avhen there Avas not a Naval Chaplain who could attend), truly sickening* and heart- rending to those, Avho had not become case-hardened b}’ too long a residence in the East. This harrowmg spectacle was, a fellow-creature’s corpse carried to the grave with onl}- a friend to read the burial-service OA’er him — or the remains of some of our braA’e fel- lows borne on the shoulders of their comrades, whose UNBECOMING NEGLECT OF THE DEAD. 233 cadaverous^ hag’g’ard countenances, evinced but too clearly the bourne to which they were also hastening-. No minister awaited the funeral train at the burial- g-round (for the reasons above given), hut some officer was hastily called upon to read the burial-service over our poor soldiers ; quitting- some frivolous amuse- ment to perform the melancholy task.* We were told by an officer, that the American missionaries had been applied to on two occasions, to attend a funeral, and read the burial-service, Avhich they refused to do ; naturally, they Avere never asked to perform the duty ag-ain. We have stated that in Hong-Kong- it is the custom to prepare daily a certain number of g-raves, in ig-no- rance Avho were to fill them at sunset : the yawning- g-rave, alas ! is too sure of a tenant at all times in that pestilential spot ; and more or less g-raves are duo-, accordino- to the sickness or unhealthiness of the season. We feel perfectly convinced that this care- less mode of proceeding-, and apparent neg’lect of the dead, tends also to produce a very dire effect upon the minds of the Chinese, as there is not a nation in the whole Avorld Avhich pays greater respect to the memory of the dead : they said we treated our dead as they did their dog-s — dug- a hole — placed them in it, and filled it up — that was the Christian man’s practice 5 but that the Chinaman’s relig-ion taug-ht him to pay respect to the remains of their relations and friends. We fear that every act of ours in China, either as * There is now a Military Chaplain and a garrison hearse ; the one is frequently incapacitated from illness ; the last, in constant requisition. 234 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. members of a Christian chiircli; or as merchants, has but one tendency : tlie British, by the immoral lives too generally adopted, by smuggling- and cheating in the sale of opium, to produce in the minds of the heathen Chinese, thoughts and sentiments which we have heard expressed in the following words : ‘^English- men cheat and swear, indulge in practices which they say are immoral : they act as we do ; therefore how can their religion be better than our own?” The line of conduct here alluded to, is indulged in by men who attend the house of God with regularity, are entertained and received by the highest local autho- rities ; thus conveying to the minds of the Chinese, that dishonest and immoral practices, are sanctioned by our sacred religion, and by our Government. Baneful, then, must be our religious and political example, especially when taken in conjunction with that of many of the American missionaries, for the Chinese know not in general the ditfei-ence between the English and Americans, calling- both Europeans ; but grievous as it may appear to the reader, the terrible effects of the line of conduct pursued by too many professing- Christians in China, can only be known to, or appreciated by those who have witnessed the results in the Celestial Empire. Fervently do we hope, that pernicious examples may be counteracted by the precepts and practices of the Bishop of Hong-Kong, the Colonial Chaplain, Mr. W. Medhurst, Mr. Eobarts, Dr. Parker, Mr. McClachie, and other pious men : Ave trust also that efficient, pious, humble, honest, hard-Avorking, gold- despising men, may be sent out to aid those already NECESSITY OF CONSISTENT EXAMPLE. 235 there, in pointing’ out the way of truth, and unde- ceiving- the natives of China, by exemplifying* prac- tically as well as theoretically, the true character of Christianity ; convincing’ the heathens that all who call themselves Christians are not the followers of our blessed Saviour, unless they practise what His words inculcate. 236 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTEK XL Our Commercial intercourse with China from 1596 up to the present period — Bond given by our Merchants to cease trading in or intro- ducing Opium into the Celestial Empire — The pledge violated — Official reasons for commencing the War with China — Imperial Edict — The Treaty of Nankin. In tlie year 1596; EnglancFs merchants first turned attention; seriously; to the manifold advantages which could be derived from intercourse with the Celestial Empire; and the following* document is the first official communication Ave have on record; and Avliich was addressed by our mighty soA ereign lady; Queen Elizabetli; to the Emperor of China : — “ Elizabeth; by the grace of God; Queen of England; France; and Ireland; the most mighty defender of the true and Christian faith against all Avho falsely profess the name of Christ : To the most high and sovereign prince; the most puissant governor of the great king- dom of China; the chiefest Emperor in those parts of Asia, and the islands adjoining; and the great monarch of the oriental regions of the Avorld; Avisheth health and many joyful and happ}' yearS; AA'ith all plenty; and abundance of things most acceptable. Whereas our honest and faithful subjects Avhich bring these letters unto your highnesS; Eichard Allot and Thomas QUEEN ELIZABETH TO THE EMPEROK. 237 Broomfeild^ merchants in the city of London, have made most earnest suit unto us, that we would com- mend their desires and endeavours of sailing’ to the reg’ions of your empire for traffic’s sake. Whereas the fame of your king’dom, so strong’ly and prudently g’overned, being’ published over the face of the whole earth, hath invited these our subjects, not onl}’ to visit your hig’hness’s dominions, but also to permit them- selves to be ruled and g’overned b}' the laws of your kino-dom durino- their abode there, as it becometh merchants, who for exchange of merchandise, are desirous to travel to distant and unknoAvn reg’ions, that they may present their wares, and musters* of divers kind of merchandize, wherewith the regions of our dominions do abound, unto the vieAV of your highness, and of your subjects, that they may en- deavour to know whether there be any other mer- chandize with us tit for your use, which they may exchange for other commodities whereof in ports of your empire there is great plenty, both natural and artificial. ^^We, yielding to these requests of these honest men, because Ave suppose that by this intercourse and traffic, no loss, but rather most exceeding benefits Avill redound to the rulers and subjects of both kingdoms, and thus help and enrich one another. And Ave do craA'e of your most sovereign majesty, that tliese our subjects, Avhen they arrive at any of your ports or cities, that they may have full and free liberty to egress and regress, and of dealing Avith your subjects 3 and may * Ivlusters, — samples or patterns of all kinds of goods, both manufac- tured and edible. 238 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. by your clemency enjoy all freedoms and privileges as are granted to the subjects of other princes. And we, on the other side, will not only perform the offices of a well-disposed and willing prince unto 3 ’our highness, but also, for the greater increase of mutual love and commerce between us and our subjects, b\^ these present letters of ours, do most willingly grant unto all and every one of your subjects, full and entire liberty into any of our dominions, to resort there, to abide and traffic, and then return, as it seemeth best to them. ‘‘ All and every of which promises we have caused to be confirmed, by annexing hereunto our roj^al seal. God, most merciful and Almighty, the Creator of heaven and earth, continually protect your kingl\" majesty. Given at our palace of Greenwich, the 11 th of July 1596, and thirty-eighth of our reign.” This document never reached its destination, as the vessel foundered during a violent storm at sea : the value of commercial intercourse with China seems at this period to have been fully appreciated, as in the Lansdowne manuscripts will be found “ The draft of a warrant to discharge ware bound for Kathay (China) which had been petitioned for and granted to the Earl of Leicester, and other adventurers for the discovery and finding out Katha}y” Walter Mildenhall was sent out by Queen Elizabeth to the court of the Great Mogul, and we find that in 1613 we had gained a footing in .Japan, and esta- blished a factory there ; this excited the jealous}^ of the Dutch, who also had a factor}^ in Japan, and FLEET SENT UNDER CAPTAIN WEDDELL. 239 differences of a serious nature arose between the English and Dutch East India Companies, which were put an end to by the British Gov ernment and the States-General of Holland entering into a treaty of defence, both countries engaging, and binding themselves, to endeavour to open and establish a free trade with China. Unfortunately, no beneficial re- sults accrued to either from this treaty ; but it would be foreign to our subject were we here to endeavour to prove who were the culpable parties. Matters remained in a most unsatisfactoiy state until 1634, when a truce and free trade” to China, and every part of the world to which the Portuguese had access, was agreed to by the viceroy of Goa, and a company of English merchants was formed, pursuant to a license issued by Charles the First. Immediately after this agreement had been entered into, a fleet of ships were sent out under the command of Captain Weddell, the merchants giving* him cre- dentials, and introductions to the Governor of Macao. As soon as the fleet arrived at Macao, the Portuguese consul informed Captain Weddell, that the Chinese would not consent to the English trading* to, or in China. Captain Weddell, who was an enterprising- man, determined that his long* expedition should not he entirely without some good result j and as the Chinese would not allow the English to trade, he resolved to explore, and discover the entrance to the Canton river. Captain Weddell fitted out a barge and pinnace, which were manned with about fifty men, and in two days, to his great joy, came within sight of the mouth of the Canton river : it is stated that the 240 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Portug’uese liacl never been permitted to approach Canton by this route^ but were compelled to use small craft j Avhich were navig-ated through circuitous nar- row straits amidst numberless islands. In a short time a Chinese san-pan approached the barg’e, and a Chinaman informed Captain Weddell through the Portuguese interpreter, that he would navigate their craft to Canton if he were well paid for so doing. This olfer was gladly acceded to, but Captain Wed- dell had proceeded but a short distance up the river, when he fell in with some Chinese war-junks, the com- mander of wliicli, ordered Captain Weddell to lay-to. The Admiral inquired who had shown the barba- rians the way into the Canton river, and expressed sur- prise that any should have the hardihood to attempt to explore, the interior of the “ Son of Heaven’s ” domi- nions. Captain Weddell intimated that the English desired to trade with the Chinese, upon the same terms as the Portuguese. The Chinese Commander, agTeed to allow some of the officers to proceed to Canton, giving them the use of a small junk for that purpose ; but when near Canton, a Chinese official boarded the junk, ordering them to return to Macao, and a license should be given them to trade. AVhen Captain Weddell returned to Macao, the pro- mised permission to trade was refused by the Chinese authorities (owing to the misrepresentations of the Por- tuguese) ; this incensed Captain Weddell, and he re- solved to proceed at once to Canton 3 accordingly the whole fleet weighed anchor, and sailed up the river to the Bogue forts. The Chinese authorities, promised to give Captain Weddell letters to the mandarins of CONFLICT WITH THE CHINESE. 241 Canton at the expiration of six days; therefore the fleet dropped anchors^ and displayed white ensigns. On the fourth daj^, the Chinese fired into a water- boat, and we read, in Staunton’s account, Herewith the fleet, being incensed, did display their bloody ensigns ; and weighing" anchor fell up Avith the flood, and berthed themselves before the castle (fort), from whence came many shots, yet not any that touched hull or rope. Whereupon, not being able to endure their bravadoes any long*er, each ship began to play furiously upon them with their broadsides, and after two or three hours, perceiving then* cowardly fainting, the boats were landed Avith about one hundred men, which sight occasioned them, A\dth great distraction, instantly to abandon the castle and fly : the boats’ crew in the mean time entering’ the same and displaying’ his Majesty’s colours of Great Britain upon the walls. The boats of the fleet seized a junk, by which a letter was sent to Canton, directed to the chief man- darins, expostulating’ on their breach of faith, ex- cusing’ the assailing, and Avithal in fair terms, requiring the liberty of trade. The letter it seems Avas delivered : for the next day, a mandarin of no great note, came tOAvards the ships with a Avdfite flag, the request was renewed and certain gifts presented : he Avas dismissed, but returned the same day Avith a junk to carry up such persons as Avould be able to conclude further upon the manner of their future proceeding’s.” Shortly after this. Captain Weddell, sent two of his officers, Kobinson and Mounteney, up to Canton, to enter into negotiations Avith the mandarins ; the vessel anchored in the river close to the city of Canton, and VOL. II. E 248 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the local mandarins agTeed^ that if Captain Weddell ■would restore the guns he had captured^ he should be at liberty to carry on trade upon the same terms as the Portiig’uese, “ and be allowed to fortify himself on any place outside the rh’er.” The g’uns were restored^ and trade commenced by two vessels being* loaded with g’ing-er and sugar, the supercargoes paying down about ten thousand rials for duties. Apparently, all was now brought to a favourable termination between the English and Chi- nese nations ; but, in a very few da}'s, the aspect of affairs totally changed ; the Chinese mandarins sent a chop or protest to Captain Weddell, declaring that he had “ forced the trade,” the two supercargoes at Can- ton Avere taken prisoners, and fire-rafts were floated down the river among our fleet, but, most proA’iden- tiall}’, Avere discovered and destroyed before any damage had been done. Meanwhile, the supercargoes at Canton had effected their oaaii release by intimidating the man- darins, threatening to set fire to the city by means of a burning-glass. Our men Avere noAv drafted into boats, and Avent up the river, attacking the Chinese war-junks, some of Avhich they destro}'ed, took the small toAAii of Fa-mou, and sailed close up to Canton. The mandarins, apprehensive of farther mischief, if our demand to be allowed to trade Avith them AA as not com- plied AA'ith, agreed to our terms, and charged the Portu- guese AA'ith instigating the previous line of action. Be tliis as it ma}^, there ought to have been one lesson taught us by the Chinese, nameh", that firmness and determination will ahvays gain the mastery over them j JEALOUSY OF THE POETUGUESE. 243 but we did not^ and have not, profited by experience. The Portug'uese were exceedingdy jealous of the per- mission to trade/^ and threw every obstacle in the path of the Eng-lish ; and when the East India Company in the following* year (1037) despatched ships to Macao (in conformity with the former ag*reement which had been entered into with the Viceroy of Goa)^the Portu- g*uese declared that the actions of Captain Weddell in the preceding yefu’; had caused the mandarins to mulct them heavily. It does not appear that any vessel was sent out by us until 1644, when the East India Com- pany sent the Hinde to Macao j but misunderstanding’s ag’ain took place, as we were overcharg-ed in the port and other dues. What the state of trade was in China, in the year 1648, is set forth in the following* letter, written by the supercarg*oes of the East India Com- pany, who were resident at Bantam, in Java : — The experiment which you desire we should make with one of our small vessels for trade into China, we are certainly informed, by those who know the present state and condition of that country very well, cannot be undertaken without the inevitable loss both of ships, men, and g’oods; for as the Tartars overrun and waste all the inland country, without settling* any g’overn- ment in the places Avhich they overcome, so some of their great men in China, with a mig'hh' fleet at sea of upwards of one thousand sail of g*reat ships, as is con- fidently reported, rob and spoil all the sea-coasts, and whatsoever vessels they can meet with ; and how one of our feeble vessels would be able to defend themselves ag*ainst such forces it is easy to determine. As for the Portug*uese in Macao, they are little better than R 2 244 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. mere rebels ag’ainst their Viceroy in Goa, having lately murdered their captain-general sent hither to them; and Macao itself is so distracted amongst themselves, that the}" are daily spilling one another’s blood. But put the case, if all these things were other^vdse, we must need say, we are in a very poor condition to seek out new discoveries, Avhile you will not allow us either factors, shipping, or sailors, scarce half sujfficient to maintain the trade already you have on foot; and therefore the Dutch but laug'h at us to see us meddle with new undertakings, being hardly able to support the old.” In 1664, the ship Svrat was despatched to Macao ; no attempt at trade having been been made in the interval, owing to our war with the Dutch. The vessel remained in China for five months, and was then compelled to re-ship her cargo, as the dues and duties demanded by the Chinese were enormous, and the ship returned without effecting the sale of the goods. The ruling d}Tiasty of the Celestial Empire was now changed, and the supercargoes wrote to the East India Company — “The new governors of China, the Tartars, are throwing every impediment in the way of trade; merchants from Canton are prevented fi*om coming’ to Macao by pirates, who take everything* before them ; provisions are not to be had.” jS'othing disheartened by this intelligence, the Com- pany ordered their agents in Bantam to ascertain which port in China would be the one most accessible, and what description of merchandise would best suit the market. The agents stated, “That Foo-chow-foois a place of great resort, affording ail Chinese commodi- TRADE WITH FORMOSA AND AMOY. 245 ties^ as raw and wrought silk, tutenague, gold, China roots, tea,” &c. &c. Before 1670 a trade had been established at For- mosa and Amoy, Koxingas the chieftain’s son having- entered into a treaty with the East India Company, whereby he promised to exempt their vessels and merchandise from all dues and duties. But no sooner was a factory established at Amoy, than the chief demanded heavy dues and duties, and monopolized the trade in sugar and furs, insisting also upon having- presents made to him of every article which he coveted; and being credited with goods to a large amount, promising payment when he should have conquered those with whom he was at variance, and declared that he would throw open all the ports to the Eng-lish, if he succeeded in overcoming- them. Nevertheless in despite of these obstacles trade was carried on at Formosa and Amo}^ In 1674 another ship was despatched by the Company to Macao, named the lleturn, but could not effect any satisfactory sales, as the supercargoes wrote, “ owing to the intestine wars now raging- in China, and the consequent distress, they sold only eleven pieces of cloth, and that at poor rates.”. About 1677, the Viceroy of Canton invited the English merchants to establish a factory at Canton ; but this proposition was negatived by the East India Company, who were carrying- on a trade at Formosa and Amoy in bullion and merchandise to the amount of fifty thousand dollars annually. The reason assig-ned for the proposal of the Viceroy of Canton being- rejected, was, that the king of Formosa would •246 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. not allow US to trade with his subjects^ if a neg*o- tiation was entered into with any other potentate in China. In 1681 the king’ of Formosa was overthrown^ and the Company withdrew from Formosa and Amoy,* attempting’ to establish factories at Canton and Foo- chow-foo j hut as soon as the Portug’uese found that a neg^otiatioii had been opened by the English with the Chinese authorities, for the purpose of establish- ing’ a factory at Canton, than they obtained, through a heavy bribe (which some authors state exceeded eight thousand pounds), the sole right of trading to, or establishing a factory at Canton. Sir John Davis most appropriately comments upon the egregiously absurd and stupid pertinacity which was evinced by the Portuguese, when they perseveringly endeavoured to exclude from the port of Canton all British mer- chants. In 1682, Avhen om* merchantmen arrived in the Canton river, a Chinese war-junk hailed them, and the admiral informed the interpreter “ there was an agreement entered into between the Emperor of China and the Portuguese, not to permit a trade with any other European nation.” In 1685, the Emperor Kang-he ordered all the ports of the Celestial Empire to be thrown open for the purposes of carrying on commercial intercourse nlth foreign nations. Never- theless, heavy exactions were enforced at Canton from all merchants, who were not subjects of the king of Portugal. No change occurred in commercial matters, of any importance, until 1689, when a duty of a dollar and a quarter per catty of tea, intended * In 1685 trade was recommenced at Amoy. PEINCIFAL AETICLEB OF EXPOET. 247 for exportation into England, was demanded, and the payment of this duty was most rigidly enforced. We find from statements which were made at that period by commercial men, that the principal articles of export were then, as now, teas, (some of them of the finest description), manufactured silks, fans, feather screens, porcelain, lacquered ware and ivory carvings. It was during this year (1689), that the free port privileges were essayed by an English merchant vessel called the Defence. The Chinese had resolved that all ships belonging to foreigners which came to China for the purposes of trade, should pay dues in accordance with the size of the vessel, and that a measurer appointed by the local mandarins, was to measure each ship, and give in his report. The ship was not to be unloaded, or one article removed from the vessel, until all the dues were paid to the Chinese authorities. The captain of the Defence awaited the arrival of the measurer for three Aveeks, but unfortunatel}' a dispute arose between the officers of the ship and this petty functionary as to the correctness of the measurement of the vessel. Extortions Avere practised by the mandarins, and after some delay, by bribing, and paying lieaA’y dues, the ship Avas allowed to discharge her cargo ] most unfortunately a serious riot arose betAveen the creAV of the Defence and some Chinese, lives being* sacri- ficed on both sides ; this exasperated the mandarin, AA'ho insisted upon being paid (as a fine), the sum of five thousand taels, which Captain Heath Avas compelled to hand over to the authorities. In 1698 or 1699, the East India Directors obtained a consul’s commission, for their principal or head 248 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. supercarg’o (at that period^ the g-entleman who held the office was named Catchpoole) j this commission constituted Mr. Catchpoole H. B. M. Consul for the empire of China and the adjacent islands, during’ the pleasm’e of the Court of Directors. During’ 1701, Mr. Catchpoole attempted to esta- blish trade at the port of Ning--po and the island of Chusan, and obtained permission to despatch mer- chantmen to each of these places. Three vessels were laden with valuable cargoes, the estimated cost of which is said to have exceeded one hundred and one thousand, three hundred pounds, and were ac- cording’ly despatched by Mr. Catchpoole to Ning-po and Chusan j this speculation turned out most un- favourably, for the dues demanded by the Chinese authorities Avere so exceeding’ly heavy, and the mo- nopolizing’ spirit of the merchants so overwhelming-, that our merchants were necessitated to Avithdraw the vessels Avith the unsold carg’oes. In 1702, Mr. Catchpoole established a factory at Pulo Condore* (an island off the coast of Cochin China), hoping’ there to establish a lucrative traffic, as many junks, bound to Siam and the Archipelago, touch at Pulo Condore, for the interchange of com- mercial commodities. During this year, exactions of the most atrocious nature Avere attempted to be practised upon our merchants at Canton by the local mandarins, who insisted that all commercial inter- course should be transacted AAith, or through one person, who was to be appointed by the Chinese * Pulo Condore was taken by us in 1701, and a fort was built there for the protection of our traders. HEAVY IMPOSTS ON ENGLISH VESSELS. 249 authorities, and to bear the title of the Emperor’s merchant. This arrangement our merchants would not consent to, declaring- that they had a perfect right to purchase of, and sell their merchandise to, whom they chose ; in despite of all remonstrance, our traders Avere forced to enter into an agreement to pay five thousand taels for every ship that arrived with cargo for sale, at the port of Canton j and Avhen this arrangement had been ratified, the plan of forcing all trade through, and into the hands of one, merchant, Avas abandoned. We find that, although the new impost of five thousand taels was levied on each vessel, the Chinese Avere not contented, hut laid on a neAV duty of fom- per cent, on all goods that were exported. The mer- chants complained bitterly of this novel extortion, hut remonstrance Avas futile, and they Avere ultimately compelled to submit to the extortion. In 1704, the celebrated Italian painter, Gerardini, quitted Pekin, as he had completed the embellishing- and adornment of the Emperor’s palace, in that city, Avhereon he had been eng-aged for eight years ; the Emperor, aa ho was greatly pleased Avith the painter’s Avorks, ordered every facility to be afforded by the mandarins, to enable Gerardini to leaA e the Celestial Empire as speedily as possible. The Emperor ap- pointed a Hopjjo at Canton, Avho was entrusted to secure a passage in a homeward-bound vessel, Avith all possible dispatch, for Gerardini ; a negotiation Avas commenced with one of the Company’s captains, Avho agreed to sail immediately, and give the painter a free passage, if the other vessels, belonging to the 260 CHINA AND THE CHINESE, fleets were permitted to be loaded speedily, and sail in compaii}’' with him. The local authorities, anxious to obey the Emperor’s command, in facilitating* the departure of Gerardini, consented to these conditions, whereb}" the departure of the Company’s vessels was materially hastened.* In 1705, our factory at Pulo Condore was destroyed, as the Malays attacked our countrymen, murdered them in a most barbarous manner, then plundered, and set fire to the factory ; it is affirmed, this dia- bolical slaughter arose through the treachery of the Cochin Chinese, who hoped to regain the island, after the destruction of our soldiers and merchants had been effected. No commercial matters of interest arose in China, until 1715, when we learn that the mandarins of Canton made overtures to the East India Company, promising them aid and protection, if vessels were sent regularly to that port, for the interchange of commercial commodities ; the Company availed them- selves readily of these auspicious advances, and agreed to despatch ships at stated periods of the 3 'ear. For the greater safety of our merchants, and British subjects generally, the following Code of Regulations was drawn up, and agreed to b)^ the mandarins : — “ Articles agreed upon between the supercargoes of the East India Compaiw and the Hoppoy or Super- intendent of foreio*n trade at Canton : — * The Emperor was a great admirer of the fine arts ; and it is cur- rently reported in China, and credited, that the monarch would not allow Gerardini to leave Pekin until he had imparted a knowledge of painting to five mandarins’ sons, who became the court painters. CODE OF REGULATIONS, S61 “ 1st. — Free trade with all Chinese, without dis- tinction. 2nd. — Liberty to hu*e Chinese servants, and to dis- miss them at pleasure. English servants committing any olfenee, to be punished by the supercargoes, and not by the Chinese. 3rd. — Liberty to purchase provisions for the fac- tory and ships. ‘^4th. — No duties to be charg’eable, on the re-ship- ment of unsold g’oods, nor on stores, such as wine, beer, &c., expended and used in the factory. “ 5th. — Liberty to erect a tent on shore for repair- ing casks, sails, &c. 6th. — English boats, with colours fl}ung, to pass and re-pass the Custom houses without examination ; and the sailors’ pockets not to be searched. 7th. — Writing’ desks, escritoires, and chests to be landed and shipped without examination. 8th. — The Hoppo, to protect the English from all insults and impositions of the mandarins and common people.” Trade was carried on more satisfactorily and ami- cably until 1718, when the records of the East India Company state (vide Lords’ Report, page 279), that a private ship, named the Anne, from Madras, seized a junk, belonging to Amoy, in satisfaction of injuries received at that port. The Emperor being intormed of this, sent a special messenger to inquire into the affafr ; and on his report, ordered the man- darins, whose duty it was to see justice done the Madras merchants, to be severely punished. The 252 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. seizure of the junk caused the English to be better treated than ever.” Our factory still existed at Amoy, and our mer- chants at this period met Muth fewer obstacles, in trad- ing* with the Chinese at this port, than at Canton, where frequently the supercargoes were compelled to detain ships laden vith valuable commodities at the mouth of the river, until the mandarins became security for the proper reception and treatment of the crew, officers, supercargoes and traders. It Avas deemed necessary, for the protection of the Ih'es and property of British subjects, frequently to bring on shore sentries, to protect the factories and their in- mates ; and it is deeply to be deplored that this Avholesome check upon a turbulent populace was ever relinquished. In 1720 Ave find that trade flourished, and having taken a regular form the Chinese resolved upon mak- ing iieAV regulations and fresh exactions, in addition to fresh duties on imports, which amounted to fifteen per cent. ; no person was alloAA’ed to supply the ships Avith provisions or Avater AA'ithout a permit from the mandarins, for which permit a heaAT fee was de- manded; there Avas also aheaAy measurement duty to he paid and present to the Hoppo, before the A essel was to be allowed to unload. A body of native mer- chants Avere noAV appointed, Avho Avere termed the Hong merchants, aaEo for the privilege of trading with the British, became security for their proper conduct, and the payment of all dues and duties de- manded ; the merchants resisted stoutly and manfully THE HONG MONOPOLY. 253 the newly-imposed duties, and the attempt to mono- polize the trade by a certain number of merchants. In 1721, a formal complaint was made to the authorities of a combination attempted by the Chinese to reg’ulate the prices of all merchandize this called for string-ent measures being- adopted by the East India Company, w-ho sent the following- instructions to theii’ supercarg-oes, which placed the liberty of traffic on its true basis : — This article is likely to be more necessary and sti-enuously to be insisted on now than ever, for our last returned supercarg-oes have broug-ht us a draft of the combinations which the Chinese were forming- to set their own prices on the g-oods to be sold to the Europeans, thereby to have their proportion of the real profit on the said g-oods, whoever appeared to be the seller.” In 1722, the Hoppo forbade all merchants, save those belong-ing- to the body called the Hong-, to carry on trade or traffic Avith Europeans j and compelled all nath'e merchants to pay forty per cent, on tea, and twenty per cent, on porcelain, which was sold by them 5 fi'om this obnoxious tax the Hong- merchants were also exempted. In 1723, meeting- Avith fresh annoyances, inquiries Avere instituted by the super- carg-o of the Walpole, and this g-entleman ascertained that the Chinese authorities, and their subordinates, had completely eng-rossed the whole trade. These officials compelled the native merchants to borroAV money from them at an exorbitant rate of interest, previously buffing- up all tea and silk which was for * A similar attempt was made recently, in the year 1847. 264 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. sale in the markets^ or in the provinces, consequently, if the merchants wished to trade with the English, they were compelled to buy the tea and silk at what- ever prices were set on these articles by the mono- polizer. Many merchants were entirely ruined by these nefarious practices, consequently there were but a limited number who could enter into a contract to furnish the Company’s ships with cargoes. In 1727 man}^ merchants quitted Canton for Amoy, being induced to leave the former from the heav}^ and constant extortions which were constantly practised and enforced by the mandarins and Hong’ merchants ; the authorities also of the latter having invited our merchants to come to, and settle at, that port. We learn that on the 22nd of April, at a consultation held this day, it was resolved to remove to Amoy, in consequence of the increased exaction, and insulting’ treatment which we are exposed to at Canton.” As soon as the Chinese authorities heard that our merchants purposed removing’ to Amoy, they desired the Hoppo to promise the merchants, that if they would remain at Canton, no farther taxes or imposts should he levied. Notwithstanding these fair promises, in the month of October, trade Avas impeded for a con- siderable period, as the native merchants entered into a combination, and teas could not he procured for shipment, save at exorbitant prices. In 1728, the Governor of Canton was appealed to, by all merchants established at that port, to abolish the Hong monopoly, but the appeal was disregarded, although the mandarin promised to take the affair into consideration. In a ver}* short time afterwards, it Avas officially announced that REMONSTRANCE OF EUROPEAN MERCHANTS. 255 the Chinese authorities had resolved that the Co-Hong was the only medium throug-h Avhich foreig’n trade could be carried on; and that an additional duty of ten per cent, would be levied on all exports. In 1730, we learn that the tax of ten per cent. Avhich was levied on exports, amounted to the enormous sum of sixteen thousand taels ; and althoiig-h our merchants used both remonstrance and expostulation, they could not succeed in g’etting- the obnoxious impost revoked. In 1732, the fraternity of European merchants, viz., Eng-lish, French, and Dutcli, Avho Avere established at Canton, united in an appeal to the local authorities, urg’ing* the necessity of abolishing* the heavy taxes and imposts Avhich Avere leA’ied upon exports. The mandarins ag*ain promised to take the matter into consideration, but no satisfactory determination Avas arrived at, and the obnoxious imposts still continued to be levied. During’ the two subsequent years, the consig’nments from England did not realize any profits AA’hatever ; consequently, in accordance Avith a previous ag’reement, the presents to the Hoppo, Avhich annually amounted to one thousand nine hundred and fifty taels per cargo, Avere aa ithheld by the merchants ; but this functionary insisted upon being* paid his annual present, and threat- ened, in case of refusal, that all trade should be stopped — thus enforcing compliance Avith the unreasonable de- mand. In 1735, silk of an inferior description to the muster shewn Avas attempted to be palmed off upon our traders by the native merchants ; aa ho refused to take back the silk Avhen required so to do, as the article Avas not in accordance AAith the sample agreed upon. A complaint Avas made to the Viceroy, Avho returned a 256 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. most insultino; reply, the purport 'of which was, ^^that he was astonished at the presumption of the barbarous foreig'ners in troubling’ him about trifles, and forbade all foreigmers in future from entering- the city, which was not allowed, and would not in future be permitted.” The supercarg-oes became g-reatly incensed at this insolent reply, and threatened to remove their factory to Amoy, if some of the dues were not diminished ; this alarmed the mandarins, who promised to reduce the Hoppo’s present, of one thousand nine hundred and fifty taels per vessel, to a nominal amount, if the factory and trade remained, and was carried on at that port. The mandarins of Amoy, hearing- of the disag-ree- ments between the local authorities and merchants at Canton, ag-ain invited traders to send carg-oes to that port ; and accordingly ships were despatched to Amoy, laden with valuable commodities. As soon as the ships anchored in the outer harbour, the supercargoes endeavoured to ascertain what duties would be de- manded, or imposed, by the local authorities ; disputes arose as to the correctness of the rule which was used to measure the vessel, which Avere terminated by the Chinese authorities agreeing to abide b}’’ their original ag-reement. According-ly, the ships broke bulk, and commenced discharging their cargoes j which Avas no sooner effected, than the mandarins insisted upon the arms and ammunition of the ships being- placed in their possession, and ordered that an officer appointed by themselA'es should remain in the factory, to take account of all goods that Avere sold. The supercargoes refused to sell goods at the prices which were offered for them. OUR MERCHANTS DECEIVED AT AMOY. 257 or to comply with these unreasonable demands, and made a formal complaint of the treatment they had experienced, which was not in accordance with the promises that had lured them to Amoy. Weeks elapsed before any notice was taken of this complaint, when, almost Avearied with the delay, the supercarg'oes received a g-rand chop from the viceroy of the province, ordering* that the foreigners should be allowed full liberty to trade, and that a decree had been issued by the Imperial Grand Council, whereby the mandarins of Amoy were expressly enjoined not to demand a duty of seven per cent., which was formerly paid by European vessels. As this gracious concession had been made, it Avas hoped that foreign trading- vessels Avould be again induced to resort, for the pur- poses of traffic, to the port of Amoy.” Despite this promising official communication, in- numerable difficulties Avere throAvn in the path of our merchants, by the Hoppo and local mandarins ; and the supercarg'oes stated in their official communica- tions to the Company, ^^That the local authorities at Amoy Avere full of delays and prevarications, denying one day Avhat they had promised the preceding •” consequently, after remaining many Aveeks at Amoy, the supercargoes Avere compelled to order the g’oods to be reshipped, and the vessels put to sea, Avith the AAffiole of their cargoes, as not a sing-le article of mer- chandise had been sold. In 1736, the Emperor Keen-lung ascended the imperial throne, and revoked the edict Avhich enforced the payment of 10 per cent, upon all exports: the imperial chop ordered that the merchants should VOL. II. s 258 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. assemble in one of the public building’s at Canton, and KNEEL, AVHILST THE ACT OF GRACE WAS READ.’’ The whole body of merchants resolutely refused to comply with this imperious command, and disputes upon disputes arose between the local mandarins and the European merchants of Canton. The Viceroy of the province demanded a present of thirty thousand taels from the merchants, as he averred that it was throug’h his intercession and influence at Pekin, which had caused the repeal of the obnoxious tax. Althoug’h the Viceroy made this statement, it was not credited, as it was throug“h the influence exerted at the court of Pekin by the J esuits, that had caused the repeal of this intolerable impost ; as the French merchants, many of whom belong’ed to the fraternity of Jesuits, had united with the Eng’lish in petitioning' ag'ainst this odious tax. The Emperor also required that all the arms and ammunition Avhich mio-ht be on board o merchant vessels, should be delivered up to the Chinese authorities : expostulations were ineffectually used, but a bribe to the amount of six thousand taels being' administered to the mandarins, the demand was laid aside. The Emperor issued the following* imperial and imperative order to the local mandarins of Canton : — “ That deeming' it necessary to intimidate the fierce barbarians, it was ordered that if any disturbance should arise, whereby bloodshed ensued, that life for Ife should be required, without anj^ regard being paid to extenuating circumstances, which the Chinese laws permitted and sanctioned when natives of the Celestial Empire were concerned, or violated the laws.” COMMODOEE ANSON VISITS CHINA. 259 It was during' 1737 that a vessel was despatched to Ning'-pO; with carg’o^ hut^ unfortunately, neither sale of g’oods nor barter could be effected ; the local mandarins rivalled their compeers at Amoy in their unreasonable and imperious demands, and the vessel returned to Canton laden with unsold merchandise. At this period, the demand for tea, silk, and other Chinese commodities had g'reatly aug’mented in Europe, and the trade g'radually increased to a con- siderable extent. Anterior to this time, the Portii- g’uese merchantmen were confined to their own port of Macao, the port of Canton being frequented by English, French, Dutch, Swedish, and Danish ves- sels. Until 1742, we do not find any event of sufficient interest recorded to merit remark : in that year. Com- modore Anson arrived in China ; the Centurion being the first British man-of-war Avhich had visited the Celestial dominions. When the Centurion came to anchor in the Canton river, the Commodore informed the mandarins that he required provisions and water, for which he was ready to pay the market-price. The mandarins stated their willingness to supply provisions if certain dues were paidj these imposts Commodore Anson refused to pay, and stated his determination not to leave the river until provisions and water had been sent on board the Centurion. As this intimation was disreg’arded by the mandarins, the Commodore weighed anchor, and dropped down the river, bringing the Centurion to anchor opposite the Canton Custom-house : the Commodore, accom- panied by the English, Dutch, Danish, and Swedish 260 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. supercarg'oeS; demanded an interview with the Viceroy of Canton. The interview took place j and the Viceroy ag'reed that supplies should be furnished to the Centurion, and g-ave permission for materials to be furnished that were required for the repairs of the vessel. To the firm, decided line of conduct which was pursued by Commodore Anson towards the man- darins, may he attributed the respect that was shown to the British flao- : had the Commodore hesitated or vacillated, fresh exactions would have been attempted, and if all the unreasonable demands had not been complied with, the Centurion umuld have remained without the like necessary supplies. In all our intercourse with the Chinese, from the earliest period up to the present time, it has in- variably been found that decisive firmness produced a most beneficial result, whilst hesitation or vacillation, when demanding’ what was in itself rig’ht, or what had been ag'reed upon, has invariably been attended with disastrous consequences. It has been remarked by those, Avho have studied the character of the Chinese, morall}'- and politically, that the presence of a man-of-war on the coast of China would in all probability have prevented much of the personal annoyance, vexatious taxation, and the enforcement of extortionate imposts, which the records of foreign intercourse present. The history of our intercourse is, in fact, little more than a recital of extortionate demands on the part of a government too proud and self-conceited to understand either their political or moral interests j and the recrimi- nations of our merchants taxing the government with EENEWED EXACTIONS AT CANTON. 261 breaches of faith, and attempting’ extortionate taxa- tion : althoug’h our merchants made complaints, they were powerless, being- unable to do more than protest ag’ainst this nefarious line of conduct.* Had a man-of-war been at hand to protect British subjects, and enforce ag’reements being- carried out that had been entered into, affairs, both commercial and political, would have assumed a different aspect in China. It has been proved, that decision and firm- ness, such as that which was displayed by Commodore Anson, when requiring- only what was morally cor- rect, being- upheld by a force not lig-htly either to be incensed or trifled with, has invariably proved the most successful way of dealing- with the Chinese nation. Shortly after the departure of the Centurion, the mandarins of Canton attempted fresh exactions, and as the Hong- merchants, succeeded in preventing- all direct intercourse taking- place between the local authorities and our merchants, it was resolved to endeavour ag-ain to establish a trade with Amoy and Ning’-po. Unfortunately, these efforts were unsuc- cessful, as the Hardniche, which was sent to Amoy in 1744, was compelled to return without a carg’o. In 1747 the taxes were ag-ain enforced which had been abolished by the Emperor in 1736, and it was found impracticable to obtain an audience or inter- view with the Chinese authorities. All trade was now stopped, which was not renewed until 1750, when the East India Company sent instructions to * The contraband traffic in opium ought never to have been tacitly sanctioned by our government. 262 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. their officers, to make presents to the local mandarins, thus stopping' the outcry which was raised by these covetous and greedy officials. In 1754, the annoy- ances which our merchants experienced at Canton, and the taxation was so heavy, that the East India Com- pany gave orders to open a trade and establish a fac- tory at Ning-po. As soon as the mandarins became cognizant of this intention, they promised not to en- force the taxes; our merchants required a written agreement to this effect, which was to bear the signa- ture of the local government ; but this concession was positively negatived. During 1755, the trade at Canton u^as entirely restricted to being carried on through the Hong merchants ; and this exclusion of all other merchants and shopkeepers proved extremely prejudicial to our mercantile interests ; consequently, two of the super- cargoes, Messrs. Harrison and Flint, were despatched to Ising-po to endeavour to establish a trade; these gentlemen were received by the local mandarins with every mai'k of respect ; but in a 's ery short time after- A\ ards, Avhen the JHolderness arrived, it Avas Avith the greatest difficulty that a cargo could be procured ; and an Imperial edict Avas issued, Avhereby all trade Avas ordered to be carried on solely at the port of Canton. Trade Avas carried on until 1759, Avhen the factory of jVing-po Avas destroyed, and edicts Avere promulgated, forbidding the Chinese to supply the ships Avith provisions. Mr. Flint visited Ning-po in 1760, but AA^as totally unable to restore the trade. In 1761 the principal supercargo, Mr. Pigou, thought it expedient to attempt sending* an embassy A PETITION FOEWAEDED TO PEKIN. 263 to Pekin, to represent the extortions that were jirac- tised by the officials, and to obtain permission to re-establish the trade in the north; Mr. Flint, who had acquired a complete knowledg-e of the mandarin or court dialect, n as selected as the g’entleman best calculated to conduct this mission successfully. It is affirmed, that the local mandarins of Canton sent presents, to the amount of twenty thousand taels, to the authorities at Pekin, as bribes, to prevent the embassy or a petition from reaching- the Emperor. Mr. Flint met with innumerable difficulties, and although he did not reach Pekin, caused his petition to be placed in the Emperor’s hands. The Emperor commanded an investigation to take place, regarding the conduct of the local authorities at Canton ; subse- quently ordering' the dismissal of the Hoppo, and taking off many taxes ; ordering, also, that the vessels belonging to the English were no longer to be styled “ the foreign devils’ ships,” but were to be termed the “ western ocean vessels.” As soon as Mr. Flint returned to Canton, the Vice- roy of Canton intimated that he wished to communi- cate Avith him. Mr. Flint, accompanied by all the supercargoes then resident at Canton, waited upon the Viceroy ; immediatel}^ the gentlemen entered the palace, their swords were taken by force from their sides, and they Avere ordered to prostrate themselves before the Viceroy ; this obeisance they positively refused to perform; the refusal had scarcely passed their lips, Avhen they Avere surrounded by the Vice- roy’s creatures, and throAvn Hat upon their faces. The Viceroy then pointed to a Chinese document, and 264 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. informed Mr. Flint that it was the Emperor’s order for his banishment to Macao for three years, at the expiration of which period he was to be compelled to leave the Celestial Empire, never again to return, unless he was prepared to sacrifice his life. This punishment was inflicted because Mr. Flint attempted to re-establish trade at Ning--po, and had had forwarded a petition to the Emperor j the Viceroy also informed the g’entlemen, that the Chinaman who had written the petition was in prison, and was to suffer death that day, because he had traitorously assisted the foreign barbarians. Mr. Flint was sent, under an armed escort, to Tsien- han, a place near Macao, where, to the dishonor of Great Britain, we regret to say he was allowed to remain for the space of two years and a half. It is stated that Mr. Flint informed the East India Com- pany that a bribe of two hundred and fifty pounds would procure his liberty but a petition was sent to the Chinese authorities, instead of the money, and Mr. Flint languished in imprisonment in a tropical climate. This was a had reward for Mr. Flint’s perse- vering’, energ'etic services, which had been of essen- tial utility to the Company, as that gentleman had become a proficient in the Chinese language, and had acted as interpreter at Canton for tAvelve years. We are compelled to coincide with the following remark, made by Sir John Davis, page 65, “China Opened,” vol. i. : — “ The ungrateful return which his energy and exertions in their sei’vice met with fi’om his employers, was such as tended, in all probability, more than any other cause, to discourage his sue- CRUEL INJUSTICE TO ME. FLINT. 265 cessors from undertaking’ so laborious, unprofitable, and even hazardous work of supererogation.” In 1763, the East India Company sent out as their agent Mr. Skottowe, who was to inquire into the cause of Mr. Flint’s imprisonment, and to obtain redress for the numerous enforced taxations. No good resulted from this mission, the authorities were most insolent to Mr. Skottowe, and the Viceroy of Canton sent a letter to H. B. M. wherein he recom- mended “ our king to take Mr. Flint and keep him in close confinement, as his nation were basking in the smiles of Imperial favor, consequently they should be most g’rateful, and should leap high into the air to show the joy of their hearts.” This insult was tamely submitted to, and the cruel injustice which had been inflicted on Mr. Flint, appeared only to prelude further extortion j for in 1765, Avhen the Argo arrived, the Hoppo insisted upon measuring the vessel ; the commander refused to allow a man-of-war to be measured, but as this gentleman had not the decision of Commodore Anson, after a prolonged dispute, which lasted nearly four months, the Hoppo carried his point, and a man-of- war belonging to the King of Great Britain was measured and paid accordingly. We learn that in 1771, the Co-Hong, or committee for regulating the prices of all articles of import and export, was abolished, the East India Company paying the enormous sum of one hundred thousand taels, to obtain the long’-sought-for privilege of buying’ and selling goods at their market value. Matters pro- ceeded in an unsatisfactory manner until 1779, when 266 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the Hong’ merchants established the Consoo fund, and the history of the origin of this fund is extra- ordinary. It is stated that in a very short time a large sum of money, exceeding three millions and eight thousand Spanish dollars, became due to the merchants at Canton, for goods sold by them to the Chinese traders j all efforts to obtain payment Avere fruitless, and the merchants caused a memorial to be laid before the government of Madras. A man-of-Avar, commanded by Captain Panton, sailed for Canton, who had received orders fi’om the Admiral to insist upon having an intervieAV with the Viceroy of Canton, that the claims of the merchants Avere to be urged, and payment enforced. Before Captain Panton could obtain an audience Avith the Viceroy, he Avas compelled to use threatening language. After many delays, an arrangement Avas entered into Avhereby it Avas agreed that half the amount should be paid in ten years, but interest Avas not to be paid for this accommodation. Shortly after Captain Panton sailed for Madras, and to indemnify themselves for being compelled to pa}' their laAvful debts, the authorities taxed all g’oods at the rate of three per cent., the only articles Avhich Avere exempted from this tax being long-cloths, cotton yarn, Avoollens, and iron. This impost upon European commerce was prac- tised until a very recent period. It is officially recorded that part of the money Avhich arose from these novel taxes, Avas disposed of in the folloAving manner by the Hong merchants, to facilitate and promote the interests of European merchants : — AN ATROCIOUS MURDER OF A GUNNER. 267 Dollars. 18,000 43.000 7,000 7,000 7,000 13.000 10.000 47,000 152,000 One source of constant difficulty in China was the disorderly conduct of sailors, as the Chinese laws require that life should he given for life f and in 1780, a Frenchman killed a Portuguese sailor, who immediately fled to his Consul’s house for refuge. The Chinese authorities insisted that, as the French- man had violated the laws of China, he should be handed over to them for punishment ; in an evil hour the criminal was given up, and he was publicly strangled. In 1784, a most atrocious murder Avas perpetrated upon an unoffending man ; in firing a salute from the Lady Hiighes, a native Avas killed, as a ball had been accidentally left in the gun : the Chinese authorities insisted upon the man being given up Avho had fired the gun, as they required life for life, and to the disgrace of Englishmen be it said, this demand Avas complied Avith, and the unfortunate gunner Avas * This is a medicinal drug, highly prized by the Chinese, is an imperial monopoly, being grown most extensively in Tartary. Yearly tribute to the Emperor, Birthday presents to the Emperor, To an ag’ent at the Court of Pekin, Presents to the Hoppo at Canton, The same to his mother or Avife, . Ditto to mandarins and officials, . Repairing the banks of the Yang- tsze-Kang, or YelloAV River, For Ginseng,* 268 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. butchered. It is quite evident that we never ought to have given up a subject of Great Britain to be tried by the Chinese and their law^s, much less to have suffered the unfortunate man to be executed for accidental homicide. Subsequentl}^^ when offences were committed that were noticed b}'' the judicial authorities, large bribes have been administered to the Chinese judges to insure a favourable decision, consequently no other authorized murders are re- corded. Until the arrival of Lord Macartney’s embassy, impositions of every species were practised, and in 1785, all provisions that were consumed by foreigners were taxed ; vessels that could not effect the sale of their cargoes were also made to pay dues, and we learn that the Bellona was compelled to pay duties on a full freight, althougn she sailed unloaded. When this vessel returned to Canton with her cargo, the Hoppo insisted that the supercargo should dispose of the whole of the cargo to his friend, at the prices which he stipulated for ; expostulations were useless, and worse than useless j redress could not be obtained, and Avhen the slightest delay arose in complying* with these unjust demands, trade was immediate!}^ ordered to be suspended by the local mandarins. In 1790, Lord Melville, then President of the Board of Trade, brought under the notice of the government the serious injury commerce sustained by the exactions which Avere practised by the Chinese authorities, and the injurious effect arising from all other ports in China, save Canton, being closed against the subjects of Great Britain, and the mono- EMBASSY OF LOED MACABTNEY. 269 poly of the Hongf merchants. It was then resolved to send an embassy to the Emperor of China, Lord Macartney being* selected as the ambassador. The following- judicious instructions were g-iven to Lord Macartney, and we can only deplore that our ambas- sador w*as unable to carry them out fully : — Merchants were to be allowed to trade at, and reside at Tien-Sing* (which is the port of Pekin), Ning’po, and Chusan. “ To have a warehouse at Pekin for then* g-oods, as the Russians formerly had. To g’rant some small, detached, unfortified island near to Chusan, as a mag’azine for unsold g’oods, and a residence for those who had charg-e of them. A similar privileg-e near Canton, and certain trifling- indulg’ences. “ To abolish the transit duties between Canton and Macao, or to cause them to be reduced. To prohibit the exaction of any duties from Eng- lish merchants over and above those settled by the Emperor’s command or edict; a copy of Avhich is to be furnished to British merchants.” The embassy sailed from Portsmouth on the 26th of September 1792, and arrived in China in the following- year ; the particulars of Lord Macartney’s -visit to China are too well known to require recapitu- lation, sufiice it to remark, that some few advantages w-ere gained by our ambassador’s visit to the Celestial Empire, which cost the nation upwards of one hundred and seventy thousand pounds. The privileges granted to our merchants were, a reduction of the expenses which the supercargoes 270 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. were cliarg’ed when they journeyed from Canton to Macao, or vice versa; the Hong- merchants w'ere also, in some deg-ree, restricted from using- prejudicial influence in commercial transactions with the mer- chants. IMany g-rievances still remained that fettered commerce heavil }" ) the principal of these, (which were complained of justly by our merchants,) were, that ships and merchandize ^’ere unfairly measured and weig-hed by the Hoppo ) that unjust charg-es Avere made upon stores, and g-oods were transferred from one A'essel to another, that the dues exacted on ship- ping- Avere exorbitantly high, and that the tax called the Consoo Fund was allowed to be enforced. Until 1805 affairs did not change in the slightest degree, or alter their aspect ; trade was frequently suspended from the AA’him and caprice of the officials, Avho required large bribes ] Avhen these were giA en commerce aaos allowed to recommence. Durino- this 3 *ear on interchange of letters and presents took place betAA'een the King- of Great Britain and the Emperor of China : and Ave subjoin the reply of the monarch of the Celestial Empire, as a specimen of regal insolence. Your Majesty’s kingdom is at a remote distance beyond the seas, but your country is obsei-A ont of its duties and obedient to its Ioaa s ; beholding from afar the glory of our empire, and respectfully admiring the perfection of our goA’ernment. Your Majesty has despatched letters for our perusal ; Ave find they are dictated by appropriate sentiments of veneration and esteem j and being- therefore inclined to fulfil the wishes of your Majesty, we have determined to accept SPECIMEN OF EEGAL INSOLENCE. 271 the whole of the accompanpng' offering*^ which has been laid at our feet.* With reg’ard to those of your Majesty^s subjects who for a long* course of years have been in the habit of trading* to our dominions^ we must remark to you^ that in our unbounded g*ood- ness, our celestial g'overnment looks upon all persons and nations Avith eyes of charity and benevolence, and invariably acts towards, and considers your subjects Avith the utmost kindness, indulgence, consideration, love, and affection. On their account, therefore, there can be no occasion for the exertions or interference of Amur Majesty’s g’overnment.” In 1806 the East India Company asked permission to send Mr. Manning* to Pekin j this gentleman Avas Avell versed in the sciences of medicine and astronomy, and offered his services to the Emperor of China as physician and astronomer, as an edict had been pro- mulgated stating* that the Emperor required the aid of scientific men. A petition was foi’Avarded by Mr. Manning to the officials, but they refused either to suffer him to proceed to Pekin, or to forAvard his petition. During* 1807 a serious disturbance arose between the sailors and Chinese at Canton ] Avith great diffi- culty the sailors gained the factories, which Avere speedily surrounded by the turbulent natives, Avho * Much of this extraordinary phraseology arose through mistaken policy. Lord Macartney allowed the embassy to be designated as “ bearing tribute ” to the Emperor of China ; and the Pekin Gazette announced, that “ red-bristled barbarian tribute-bearers had arrived,” — the petition having been headed by the interpreters as coming from the “red-bristled barbarian tribute-bearers;” this ought not to have been permitted. 272 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. commenced throAving' missiles at the building’s and the European passers-by. At length our men became uncontrollable, and sallied forth against the orders of their captain, and dealt hloAA’s most lustily among the Chinese. Unfortunately one Chinaman was killed. The mandarins demanded “ life for life, and blood for blood j” but Captain Eolles and the supercargoes posi- tiA^ely refused to give up any of our men to he butchered, as the unfortunate gunner had been, which the man- darins alluded to as being- a precedent why another subject of Great Britain should be placed in their hands. Trade was suspended for more than two months, and it cost the East India Company forty-five thousand pounds, Avhich was expended in bribes and pre- sents to the mandarins, before commerce was resumed. In 1808 it was deemed necessary to send troops from India to occupy Macao, (Avhich was, and is, a Portuguese settlement), as the French had taken possession of Portugal j Admiral Drury commanded the expedition, and landed a detachment of soldiers, the Portug’uese having’ solicited our aid ; this caused great annoyance to the Chinese authorities, who immediately suspended the trade, and forbade the natives to supply the ships with provisions. Admiral Drury was at length incensed by these petty and continual annoyances, and he informed the mandarins, that his instructions had not forbidden him to declare war ao-ainst the Chinese nation if necessai’A*. This alarmed the authorities, and they stated that the Emperor had promulgated an edict forbidding’ the occupation of Macao by armed foreigners. After much verbose discussion. Admiral Drury AAithdrew SUSPENSION OF COMMERCE IN 1814. 273 the troops and sailed for India j the Chinese affirming' that they had driven the ^red-bristled barbarians’ from their shores, building- a temple and fort on the banks of the Canton river to commemorate their victory ! The fort is called by foreig-ners Howqua’s Folly. In 1814, being’ at Avar with America, the frig-ate Doris seized an American ship at sea, and broug-ht her to Macao ] this caused all commerce to be sus- pended for months, as the Chinese affirmed that we had no business to fig-ht battles in their seas. The committee at Canton informed the mandarins that they could not control the actions of a man-of-war ; hut this the officials could not, or Avould not, compre- hend, and said that unless the Doris Avas sent away immediately, they Avould order all native servants to leave their employers, as Avell as stop the trade. In pursuance of this threat, the authorities entered the factories by force, and ordered the servants out of the houses. The select committee (at the head of which Avas Sir G. Staunton and J. Metcalf) being- at Macao, as soon as this intellig-ence reached Macao, the g-entlemen proceeded to Canton, and Sir Georg-e Staunton informed the mandarins that he Avas charg-ed by the committee with several communications of im- portance, but in none of them Avas anything- proposed for themselves, more than the prosecution of a fair and equitable commerce, under the protection of his Imperial Majesty j that they entertained every dispo- sition to obey his laAVS, that they soug-ht for no inno- vations, nor Avere desirous of interfering- in any affairs of g-overnment iu which they Avere not concerned. VOL. II. T 274 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Many subsequent interviews with the mandarins took place, and Sir Georg’e threatened, if no satisfactory arrang'ement could he made, to order all the mer- chants to quit Canton. On the 19th of October certain propositions were made, which the authorities refused to comply with, therefore Sir Georg-e carried his threat into execution, ordering’ all British subjects to leave Canton immediately, and the Company’s vessels also, which were anchored off Wham~poa, to drop down to the second bar. When the authorities found that the committee A\ ere Jinn and decided in the course they intended to pursue, which Avas, that unless trade could be carried on Avithout molestation, they intended to AvithdraAV from Canton, they sent a communication, Avhich Avas delivered by one of the Hong- merchants named Honqua, Avhich conceded the principal points that AA'ere demanded bj' Sir Georg-e Staunton and the committee. Permission Avas g’ranted to address the g’overn- ment in Chinese, throug’h the Hong- merchants, Avithout the contents being* inquired into. “ Forbade the use of disrespectful lang’uag’e and opprobrious epithets. ‘^The local mag’istrates not to visit the factory Avithout g’h'ing’ due notice. ^^The communication by boats betAA een Canton and AVhampoa to be open and free as usual. Natives may be employed as coolies, porters, tea- boilers, cooks, and in other similar capacities. Ships of war to remain at their usual anchorag’e, near Wham-poa, but Avhen the merchant ships depart, the ships of Avar to depart also. EMBASSY OF LOED AMHEEST. 275 Boats to receh'e passes at certain stations/’ It was at leng-tli resolved upon by the home g’overn- ment^ to send an embassy to the Emperor of China j accordingly Lord Amherst Avas despatched, and he reached Pekin on the 28th of August 1816, after every difficulty had been thrown in the way to prevent the embassy pm’suing' the journe}^, or reaching the capital. The embassy Avas summarily dismissed with- out seeing the Emperor ; as the ambassador had most properly refused to Iwo-toiv, unless an engagement Avas entered into that if any subject of the Celestial Empire came to Great Britain, he should perform the same ceremony to the monarch of England. This engagement the authorities deemed it derogatory to make, and Lord Amherst Avas compelled to return AAuthout accomplishing* the object of his journey 5 insults and annoyances Avere practised upon the am- bassador and his suite in ever}^ Avay ; and the following aecount, given by the Right Hon. Henry Ellis, must rouse the ire of every Englishman : — “ Many of the retinue returned as they Avent, in carts ; the motion Avas bearable until we came to the paved road, Avhen the jolting* became intolerable : it Avas repeated dislocation of e\'ery part of the frame, each jolt seemed sufficient to have destroyed life, Avhich yet remained to undergo the dreadful repetition. The elements combined Avith the Imperial displeasure to annoy us j the rain fell in torrents, not, however, so violently as to deter the spectators from indulging their curiosity, by thrusting lanterns into the carts and sedan chairs, to have a full vieAV of our persons. I certainly never felt so irritated in my life.” T c> 276 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. A most insulting' letter Avas addressed to the Prince Regent by the Emperor^ and we subjoin a portion of it : — Hereafter there is no occasion for you to send an ambassador so far, and be at the trouble of passing- oyer mountains, and crossing seas. I, therefore, sent down my pleasure to expel these ambassadors, and send them back to their own country, Avithout punishing the high crime they had committed, in entering my dominions Avithout invitation or permis- sion.” Disputes noAV arose at Canton betAveen the man- darins and our merchants, and the select committee sent a communication, reminding the local authorities of the ao-reement Avhich had been entered into in 1844. No satisfactory result ensued, and AA'hen H. B. M. frigate Alceste attempted to proceed to Canton, she Avas fired at from the forts. This roused the indignation of Captain MaxAvell, aaIio sent a broadside into the forts, AA'hen the firing ceased. The line of conduct Avhich Avas pursued by Captain Max- well Avas most judicious, and proved most beneficial to commerce, as a less insolent, overbearing course Avas pursued (for a short period only) by the local authorities. Lord Amherst also behaved as became the representative of a mighty monarch j for Avhen an intervieAv took place betAveen himself and the Gover- nor-general of Canton, he insisted upon having the seat of honour allotted to him, as being the repre- sentative of royalty ; this AA'as ceded, after some dis- cussion. In 1821, the Cliinese attacked some sailors belong- ATTACK OF THE CHINESE ON SOME SATLOES. 277 iiig- to H. B. M. ship Topaz, who Avent to procure Avater at Liii'tin : several of our men Avere Avouridecl, as well as some of the assailants^ one of whom Avas killed. The mandarins stopped the trade. Sir James Urmston (then Mr.), aa Iio Avas at the head of the Com- pany’s establishment at Canton, immediately ordered all the supercarg’oes to leave the factory. When the mandarins saAV the fleet of merchantmen pass the Bog’ue, they sent a messenger to request them to return, making apologies, and stating* their readiness to re-open commercial intercourse. In 1824, Avhilst the Balcarris Avas at anchor, a Chinese boat caused annoyance to the captain by passing’ and repassing- close to, and around his vessel : he Avarned them off, and’ as the Chinese disregarded his warning’, he threAV a piece of Avood at them. The boat pushed off to the shore, but speedily returned AAuth a dying man, AA’hicli the Chinese had placed in the boat, who they afiirmed had been mortally Avounded from the blow Avhich had been received from the piece of Avood. The Chinese authorities de- manded compensation to the amount of three thou- sand taels ; but after a long negotiation, the matter Avas compromised for three hundred and fifty dollars. In 1825, it A\as resolved by the mercantile body to endeavour to obtain a remission of the tax,* or chop, AA’hich enabled them to pass from Canton to Macao : this tax Avas a most lucrative source of profit to the mandarins, as the Avives and families of the merchants Avere not permitted to reside at Canton; * This tax had frequently been complained of, and petitions had been presented to obtain remission of this obnoxious exaction. 278 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. and a chop was requii’ed each time a gentleman quitted Cantoiij wliich cost three hundred dollars. The merchants remonstrated against this iniquitous exaction^ in a most vehement manner^ protesting that they would not longer endure it, a lengthy and bois- terous discussion ensued ; hut as the merchants were firm and decided in the course they adopted, the man- darins yielded, the obnoxious tax Avas abolished, and subsequently, in 1829, the merchants obtained per- mission to bring their families to reside at Canton. It Avas during this year that the bankruptcy of several of the Hong merchants occurred j and the mercantile community petitioned the authorities that the bank- rupt’s places might be filled by other merchants. The authorities did not condescend to notice the petition j the exhibition of this cool contempt, incensed the supercargoes, aa Iio detained the fleet until a reply was returned to their petition ; the mandarins speed- ily vouchsafed an answer, appointing substitues in the place of the bankrupt merchants, reducing, like- AAuse, the dues and charges upon each Aessel, ma- terially. In 1830, the Chinese authorities intimated, that it Avas not their pleasure that ladies should longer reside at Canton, rescinding the permission given the pre- cedino- year : discussion ensued, Avhich ended in the English yielding to the unjust tyrannical demand of the Chinese. The Avives and families of the subjects of Great Britain being ordered to leave Canton at the termination of the trading season, Ave fear that the following remarks have too much truth in them, vide Mr. Martin’s Cliina, vol. ii. page 30 : The ENGLISH LADIES BANISHED FROM CANTON. 279 Court of Directors^ however, blamed the supercar- g’oes, and superseded Messrs. Baines, Millet, and Bannerman, who had procured tliis important con- cession (of 1829) 5 the Canton g’orernment, therefore, took courag'e, and banished the Engdish ladies from Canton at the close of the season. In fact, the sole idea of the East India Company Avas the obtainment of tea and its profits; any indignity, personal or national, would not be resented, lest tea should be refused, althougli all past experience was decidedly averse to such ignoble proceeding’s.” During this year, arrangements Avere made by the Hong merchants for paying the debts of tAvo of the bankrupts, Avhich nearly amounted to tAvo millions of dollars, by instalments ; and it Avas declared that the responsibility of the united body of merchants, styled the Co-Hong’, should henceforAvard cease. Trade in opium had been carried on for eight years ; the vessels Avhicli brought the drug, and the receiving’ ships, being anchored off Whampoa. Orders Avere noAV issued by the authorities to expel the barbarian poison ships,” consequently, the opium A essels removed to a safe anchorage off Lin-tin, Avhich is situated in the Canton river, a feAV miles from Whampoa ; and from tAvelve to twenty vessels Avere generally Iving off Lin-tin, laden Avith China’s curse — opium. The Emperor was informed, that the opium ships had either been driven away or destro}'ed, and the Viceroy of the proA’ince closed his eyes upon the nefarious traffic, Avheii he found that his brother mandarins Avere engaged in the opium trade. During’ 1831, our merchants experienced many 280 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. annoyances^ the mandarins issuing- the following- obnoxious edicts : — Merchants were not to he allowed to remain during- the winter at Canton, but M’ere either to g-o away in the ships T\diich broug'ht their merchandize, or to return to M-acao. All debts that Avere due by the Hong- merchants w^ere to be paid within three months ; if at the expiration of that period the foreig-ner did not prosecute his claim, he Avould be unable to enforce his demand. Officers Avere appointed to search foreig-ners upon their arrAal j all foreig-n AAmmen AA ere forbidden to come to Canton, and chair-bearers who carried foreio-ners were threatened o AA'ith seA^ere punishment. Foreig-n merchants AA^ere not to pass twenty-four hours, or sleep in the Hong- mer- chants’ factories, and not more than three foreig-ners AA^ere to assemble at the city g-ates, and that number AA'ould only be alloAA'ed to cong-reg’ate when a petition AAms presented. From irritating- AAmrds,the authorities proceeded to obnoxious deeds, and AA-hilst the mer- chants AA^ere at JMacao, the factory AA-as forcibly en- tered, and the piece of g-round in front of the East India Company’s factory Avas taken possession of by the Chinese. The unjust restrictions uoaa" attempted to be im- posed by the Chinese our merchants resoh’ed to resist, and the keys of the factory Avere fortliAvith despatched to the local g-OA^ernment, who refused to receh e them. During- 1882, it was intimated to the supercarg-oes, that the East India Company dis- approA^ed of the course AA*hich had been adopted the preceding- year by their emjjloyes ; and throug-h some channel, this censure reached the ears of the autho- INSULTS BY THE CANTON AUTHOEITIES. 281 rities, who availed themselves of the opportunity to behave with extreme insolence to our merchants. An interview being- demanded with the Hoppo by several of our merchants^ the self-sufficient func- tionary informed them, that in future their whining- insolence^ when they threatened to appeal to the Emperor, would be totally unheeded j and if they did not like the treatment they experienced, they could g'o away ; hut he supposed it was for their advantag-e to come from so g-reat a distance to trade with the natives of the Celestial Empire, or why did they give themselves the trouble to come, or remain there. Orders were also given to the Hong merchants to keep the foreig’ii traders under restraint, and not to permit them to torment the authorities with petitions. In 1833, active but unsuccessful efforts were made to establish commercial intercourse with the northern ports, as the authorities of Canton heaped annoyance and insult upon the heads of our merchants. These insults reached such a height, that it was deemed necessary by the merchants to make official com- plaints to our Government, and accordingly Lord AVilliam Bentinck, then Governor-General of India, addressed a letter to the Governor of Canton, complain- ing of the injuries and insults to which the subjects of Great Britain had been exposed. Lord IVilliam also remonstrated upon the insult, which had been offered to the portrait of his monarch, by the Governor of Canton, who had entered the British factory by force, with many followers, and ordering- a chair to be placed before the likeness of the King of England, had seated himself with his back to the picture, to 282 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. prove the contempt in which he held the British king' and nation. Of this cautiously - worded official de- spatch, not the slig'htest notice, Avas taken by the Chinese authorities. In 1834, edicts were promulg-ated by the Emperor, forbidding' the use of opium, under the severest pe- nalties j a statement Avas also made of the drain of silver Avhich Avas experienced through trafficking in this contraband article. Official reports stated that, until the eleventh year of the Emperor’s reign, eigh- teen millions of taels Aveight of silver had left Canton, that from the fourteenth year up to the present period (1834) more than fifty millions, the announcement concluding Avith a prayer, that the drain or leak might speedily he stopped. It had been resolved by our Government, at the close of the charter of the East India Company, to send out a superintendent of the British trade, and accordingly Lord Napier, Avas honored by William the Fourth by being appointed Chief Superintendent of British trade in China. Lord Napier and his suite (among Avhom Avas Sir J ohn Davis, the late Governor of Hong-Kong', and Sir G. Ilobinson) arrived at Macao on the 15th of Jul}- 1834; shortly aftei-Avards, they ])roceeded to Canton, and the tide-Avaiters announced to the local authorities, that three foreign devils had landed ; for the Viceroy, as soon as he heard of the arrival of Lord Napier at Macao, sent a messenger to desire him to remain there until he received a ^^chop” to proceed to Canton ; hut the messenger did not arrive until Lord Napier had left Canton. The following' instructions Avere given by the Secre- LORD NAPIER APPOINTED SUPERINTENDENT. 283 tary of State for Foreign Affairs (Lord Palmerston) to the Chief Superintendent: — ^^Your Lordship will announce your arrival at Canton by letters to the Viceroy. In addition to the duty of protecting" and fostering" the trade at Canton, it will be one of your principal objects to ascertain, whether it may not be practicable to extend that trade to other parts of the Cliinese dominions. It is obvious, that with a view to the attainment of that object, the estahlishment of direct communication Avith the Imperial Court of Pekin would be most desirable, bearing* constantly in mind, hoAvever, that peculiar caution and circum- spection Avill be indispensable on this point, lest you should awaken the fears, or offend the prejudices of the Chinese g*overnment. But if any opportunity for such neg*otiations should appear to you to present itself, you Avill lose no time in reporting* the circumstance to his Majesty's g*overnment, and in asking* for instructions.” The letter Avhich Avas forAvarded by Lord Napier to the Viceroy Avas rejected, as he Avould not make any communications through the Hong* merchants, Avho Avaited upon him upon his arrival at Canton. Lord Napier received the Chinese traders affably, and dismissed them courteously, stating* ^^that he Avould communicate immediately Avith the Viceroy in the manner befitting* his Majesty's commission, and the honour of the British nation.” The letter Avas sent by Mr. Astell for transmission to the Viceroy; a deputation from Lord Napier Avent into the city, but could neither obtain an audience Avith the Viceroy, nor induce any official person to take charge of the letter; 284 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. consequently, after waiting’ more than three hours in the city, Mr. Astell and his party returned to Lord Napier with their errand unaccomplished. Several edicts were promulg’ated, in which the chief superintendent was denounced as a barbarian eye,” and a “ foreig'u devil.” The accompanying- extracts are from the edict which was addressed to the Hong’ merchants : — On this occasion the barbarian eye, Napier, has come to Canton, Avithout having’ at all resided at Macao, to Avait for orders ; nor has he requested or received a permit from the superintendent of customs, but has come Avith great speed up to Canton, thereby grossly violating’ the established laAvs. As to his object in coming* to Canton, it is for commercial business 5 the Government of the Celestial Empire in clemency, appoints officers, civil ones to rule the people, military ones to intimidate the Avicked and disobedient 3 the affairs of commerce are to be directed by the merchants themselves, — the officers of government liaA'e nothing to hear on the subject.” * ^ * a q'pg great ministers of the Celestial Empire are not permitted to hold intercourse by letter Avith outside barbarians.” * * * “ A respectful memorial must be made to the great Emperor, and the barbarian e3'e must Avait patientl}" until the mandate of the mighty one is received. If the said barbarian e}’e throws in priA'ate letters, I, the governor, Avill not at all receive or look at them : with regard to the foreign factory of the Company Avithout the walls of the city, it is a place of temporar}’ residence for foreigners coming to Canton to trade ] they are permitted only to eat, sleep, buy LORD Napier’s arrival reported to pekin. 285 and sell in the factories ; they are not allowed to g’O out perambulating* the street, or into the city.” The Governor of Canton reported the arrival of Lord Napier to the court of Pekin, stating* that a barbarian eye, in a ship of war, had arrived at Macao, on hoard which were more than one hundred and eighty persons, and that the foreigner had pre- sumed to hring- also his Avife and children into the Celestial Empire, and the announcement continues ; — ‘‘ I, your majesty’s minister, and humble slave, ordered the barbarian eye to communicate Avith the Hong merchants, hut the said barbarian eye Avould not receh^e the Hong* merchants, but afterAvards repaired to the outside of the city to present a letter to me, your majesty’s minister, Lu. On the face of the envelope, the forms and style of equality Avere used j and there Avas most absurdly Avritten the character Ta-ying- hvah (Great English Nation). Whether the said barbarian eye has or has not official rank, there are no means of thoroug*hly ascertaining ; hut even if the foreigner be an officer of the said nation, he must not presume to write letters on equality Avith the frontier officers of the Celestial Empire. On humble exami- nation, it appears that the commerce of the English barbarians has been managed by the Hong merchants and taipans (supercargoes) j there never has been a precedent. Noav it appears that it is suddenly desired to appoint an officer or superintendent, Avhich is not in accordance with old regulations. * * * the said barbarian eye, Napier, AA'ithout having* made any plain report, suddenly came, after the sun had set, to the foreig*n factories, and the next day presumed 286 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. to desire intercourse with your Majesty’s ministers by the sending- to and fro official documents and letters^ which he expected the officers of the central flowery land to receive. This was indeed far exceeding- the bounds of reason. your Majesty’s slave, Lit, con- sulted Avith my brother slave, your Majesty’s minister, Ke, and we have come to the conclusion that the common disposition of the Eng-lish barbarians is ferocious, and bloodthirsty, they rely on the streng’th of their ships, but should they provoke us, the barbarian eye Avill see that he is powerless. “ It is manifestly necessary to break doAAii the spirits of the foreig-ners 5 they must be taug’ht sub- mission. The Hoppo’s receipts from the barbarian English for the past year, has not exceeded five hundred thousand taels, and the loss of this does not affect the Imperial treasury the value of a feather’s down. These barbarians are by nature insatiably avaricious, and the more indulgence shown to them, the more overbearing do they become. In 1808 and 1829, their trade Avas stopped ; they immediately made humble supplications to have it reopened. This is a clear proof that the said nation cannot exist unless they continue to trade Avith the central land their country exists by commerce, so they dare not long continue to tliAvart our vieAvs.” On the 2nd of September, the Governor of Canton issued a proclamation stopping- all trade, and ordering- all native servants, both at Canton and Macao, to leave their barbarian masters ; the proclamation stated, “that the governor had degraded himself Avhen he endeavoured to study the barbarian character and dis- ALL TRADE STOPPED AT CANTON. 287 position ; that the said barbarian eye had listened to what had been communicated to him, as if he had been entang-led in a net. The barbarian Napier is truly stupid, ig’norant, and blinded by self-importance. It is impossible to make him comprehend reason j if such an extravag'ant, misled man, be at Canton in control of the trade, the mercantile people Avill also hereafter be unable to enjoy mutual quiet.” The governor ordered Chinese troops to be placed near the factories, and all communications with the shipping* at Wham- poa was interdicted. Under these circumstances, it was deemed necessary by Lord Napier to order her Britannic Majesty’s frigates, the Imogene and Andro- mache, to proceed from Macao to Canton, to aftbrd protection to the subjects of Great Britain. As the vessels were passing- the Bogue forts, a fire was opened upon them by the Chinese 5 most fortunately, A^Ithout causing material damage to the vessels, or loss of life. The vessels returned the fire, and proceeded on their way to Canton, anchoring at Whampoa j on the 11th, a lieutenant and boat’s crew were ordered forthwith to Canton, to protect the lives and property of the English. Lord Napier addressed a remonstrance to the Vice- roy upon the line of conduct which had been pur- sued, in stopping the trade, and adopting violent measures; this remonstrance was forwarded to the Viceroy by the Chamber of Commerce, through the Hong- merchants. A reply was given, in which the authorities stated that Lord Napier had no business at Canton. The Chief Superintendent, whose health was much debilitated by the confinement he had endured, and the annoyances to which he had been subjected, 288 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. stated his intention to return to Macao until he could receive farther instructions from the Home Govern- ment ; a wearisome correspondence ensued between the Chamber of Commerce and the Hong- merchants re- lative to the departure of the Imogene and Andromache. On the 21st of September^ Lord Napier was com- pelled to embark in a native fast-boat for Macao ] Captain Blackwood, of the Imogene, Avas requested to order both the frig-ates doAvn to Lin-tin j and the Chi- nese authorities Avould not allow Lord Napier to proceed on his journey, until they heard of the vessels being- anchored off Lin-tin. The unnecessary delay caused by the unfeeling- officials produced most fatal results, as Lord Napier, debilitated by sickness, and harassed by Avearisome annoyances, could not endure Avithout injury to his health, these fresh vexations ; and the Chief Superintendent breathed his last at Macao on the 11th of October 1834, in the forty-eig-hth year of his ag-e — three months after his arrival in China. The Eno-lish in China subscribed above two thousand dollars, for a monument to be erected to Lord Napier’s memory. On the line of conduct pursued by Lord Napier, there haAe been a diversity of opinions. We AA'ill offer but one remark : had A\ e been in Lord Napier’s position, knoAving- the character of the Chinese as Avell as Ave do, Avith tAvo men-of-Avar at our com- mand, Ave never Avould have been forced to leave Can- ton. In justice to Lord Napier, Ave quote from his despatch of the 14th of Aug-ust 1834, in aa IucIi the position he Avas placed in is explained: — My present position is, in one point of vieAAq a delicate one, because the trade is put in jeopardy on LORD NAPIER’S DIFFICULT POSITION. 289 account of the difference subsisting- between the Vice- roy and myself. I am ordered by his Majesty to g’o to Canton^ and there report myself by letter to the Viceroy. I use my best endeavours to do so j but the Viceroy is a presumptuous savag-e. . . . He rakes up obsolete orders, or perhaps makes them for the occasion ; hut the fact is, the principal merchants used formerly to wait on the Viceroy on their return from Macao, and continued to do so until the Viceroy g-ave them an order to wait upon him, whereupon they g-ave the practice up. Had I even deg-raded the King-’s commission so far as to petition throug'h the Hong- merchants for an interview, it is quite clear, from the tenor of their edicts, that it would have been refused. Were the Viceroy to send an armed force, and order me to the hoot, I could then retreat with honor, and he would implicate himself j but the authorities are afraid to attempt this decided measure. What then remains but the stoppag-e of the trade, or my retire- ment? If the trade is stopped for an}’ leng-th of time, the consequences to the merchants are most serious. . . . But the Viceroy cares no more for commerce, or for the comfort or happiness of the people, than if he did not live among- them, so long- as he receives his pay and plunder. 3Iy situation is different : I cannot hazard millions of property for any leng-th of time on the mere score of etiquette j if the trade should be stopped, which is probable enough, in the absence of the frigate, it is possible that I may be obliged to retire to Macao to let it loose again. Then has the Viceroy gained his point, and the commission is de- graded. Now, my lord, I argue, that whether the VOL. II. u 290 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. commission retires force of arms, or by the injustice practised upon the merchants, the Viceroy has com- mitted an outrag’e on the British croAvn, which should be equally chastised. The whole system of govern- ment here is one of subterfuge. ... I shall not go, however, without publishing in Chinese, and dis- seminating the same far and wide, the base conduct of the Viceroy in oppressing the merchants, native as well as foreign, and of my having* taken the step out of pure compassion to them. I can only once more implore your lordship to force them to acknowledge my authority, and the King’s commission ; and if you can do that, you will have no difficulty in opening* the ports at the same time.” In a short time after Lord Napier’s decease the trade Avas opened, and in the month of November an imperial edict was issued, to the folloAving* effect : — The English barbarians have an open market in the Inner Land, but there has hitherto been no interchange of official communication. It is abso- lutely necessary that there should be a person possess- ing* g*eneral control to have the especial direction of affairs, wherefore let the Governor of Canton order the Hong merchants to command the said separate mer- chants, that they send a letter back to their country, calling for the appointment of another person as tai- pan, to come for the control and direction of commer- cial affairs in accordance Avith the old regulation.” Sir John Davis, until instructions Avere received from home, acted as superintendent of the trade, and the folloAving gentlemen were associated Avith him, Mr. Astell and Captain Elliott Avere the second and SEVEEAL CHESTS OF OPIUM SEIZED AND BUENT. 291 third superintendents^ Mr. A. E. Johnston was the secretary, and Mr. J. E. Morrison was the Chinese translator. In January, 1835 the Argyle, from Bengal, w'as driven by foul ■\^inds on to the Chinese coast, and the captain sent for a pilot ; the boat and crew were seized by the Cliinese, who demanded five hundred dollars before they would restore them. Captain Elliott made a statement of this grievance to the local autho- rities, and the sailors were set at liberty at the latter end of February. During this month, February, several chests of opium w'ere seized in the native smuggling boats, and publicly burned by the local authorities. The Bengal government ordered Mr. Gordon to endeavour to penetrate into the interior of China, to learn hoAv the tea plant Avas cultivated ; Mr. Gordon succeeded in reaching the Nganki hills, which are about forty miles from the coast j but Avhen he made a second attempt to reach the Bohea hills, by ascend- ing the river Min, he was forcibly stopped by a body of soldiers, Avho fired into the boat. The authorities forbade all intercourse Avith foreigners, as they invari- ably associated the English name Avith the abominable traffic Avhich was carried on in opium j and all those AA'ho made the Avell-doing of their countrymen their study, endeavoured to avoid the extension of opium smug’gliug’. In January 1836 Sir G. Eobinson, Avho had super- seded Sir John Davis, addressed a despatch to Lord Palmerston, in Avhich he stated that it Avas most de- sirable to establish the commission at Canton, but that u 2 292 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. he feared it would be impossible to do so save by force of arms, as it appeared to him that the Chinese Empire had but one object in view, which was to prevent the Eng’lish from establishing* themselves permanently at Canton. In reply to this communication Lord Pal- merston ordered no document which was addressed to the authorities should bear the name of a petition, and that no official intercourse was to be held with any save members of the Chinese government. A despatch was forwarded which reached China in De- cember, vdiereby Sir. J. Robinson was ordered to hand over his credentials to Captain Elliot, as the office of chief superintendent of trade was abolished. Captain Elliot ojiened a communication with the local authorities at Canton, requesting* that the commission mio’ht be allowed to reside at Canton. After some O trifling* delay the imperial sanction was obtained, and Captain Elliot addressed a letter of thanks to the Governor of Canton, from which Ave extract the fol- lowing* : — “ The undersigned respectfully assures his Excellency, that it is at once his duty and his anxious desire, to conform in all things to the Imperial plea- sure, and he Avill therefore heedfully attend to the points adverted to in the document noAV before him.” In 1837, on the 12th of April, according*ly the commission took up then* residence at Canton, having* been prevented from residing* in the factory, for above two years and four months. The local authorities of Canton received instructions from Pekin to exert themselves, and endeavour to put a stop to the trade in opium, and ordered several merchants to quit Canton who dealt in the contraband INSTEUCTIONS FROM PEKIN AGAINST OPIUM. 293 article; this information Captain Elliot transmitted to the home g’overnment. Frequent acts of piracy occurring’^ both near Canton and Macao^ which re- mained unpunished^ the superintendent also sug’g'ested that a man-of-waiq would prove a ivholesome check upon the marauders. The local authorities of Canton, in the month of September, addressed a communication to Captain Elliot, requiring- him to send away all merchants that traded in, and all vessels that carried opium, (this proposition, althoug-h Captain Elliot mig-ht have had the inclination, he had not the power to enforce,) and to forward the Emperor’s command to the King’ of Eng’land, that henceforth all vessels carrying- the drug-, were to he prohibited from coming- into the Celestial Empire. A petition had been pre- sented at the Court of Pekin to legalize the sale of opium, (which was regretted ;) and a counter petition had, at the same time, been presented by Cliu-Tsun, Avho was a mandarin of high rank, and who held the office of Cabinet Minister. This petition was couched in most forcible language, setting- forth the ruin which the use of the drug entailed upon its votaries ; Chu~ I'&un sug-gested that the laws which existed for the smug-gling and smoking- of opium should be rigidly enforced ; stating- also, that Avhen the provincial autho- rities chose to do so, they Avere capable of causing- all violators of the laws to be apprehended and punished ; that unless the laAvs against the smoking- <^f opium Avere enforced, the people Avould speedily regard al laAvs as dead letters, despise and set them at nought ; and that all officials Avho alloAved opium either to be sold or smoked in their districts or provinces, should be 294 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. deg'raded^ fined^ and imprisoned. Chu-Tsun remarked that this question did not merely concern property, hut the welfare of a nation was at stake, and cited a passag*e from the histor}- of Formosa, pointing' out how the inhabitants of that island had become im- poverished and enervated by the use of opium ; adding*, that he believed it was the intention of the Eno-lish, by the introduction of the accursed drug*, to weaken and enervate the population. He recited the speech of the Emperor Kang'-he, in 1717, Avherein he said. There is cause for alarm lest, in future 3 ^ears, China may he endang'ered by collisions with the various nations of the West, who come hither from beyond the seasj” and, continued Chu-Tsun^ in less than one ag*e and a half, we see the heg'inning’ of the dang’er which the mig'hty and merciful Emperor ap- prehended. It has been represented that advantag*e is taken of the laws ag-ainst opium by extortionate under- ling's, worthless officials, and deprav ed characters, to benefit themselves ; is it not known, then, that when g'overnment enacts a law, there is necessarily an infraction of the law ! and althoug'h the law should sometimes be relaxed, and become ineffectual, surely on that account it should not be abolished. The laws which forbid the people to do wrong*, may be likened to the dykes which prevent the overflowing* of Avater : if any one urging* then that the dykes are very old and therefore useless, and that Ave should have them throAvn doAvn, Avhat Avords Avould express the conse- sequences of the impetuous rush, and all destroying overfloAV. Yet some base, ig’norant provincials, when discussing the subject of opium, being* perplexed and MEMORIAL AGAINST THE OPIUM TRADE. Q95 bewildered by it, think that a prohibition ivhich does not utterly prohibit is better than one which does not effectually prevent the importation of the drug. If we can but prei'ent the importation of opium, the expor- tation of sycee silver and dollars will then cease of itself. Moreover, is it not better, by continuing- the old enactments, to find even a partial remedy for the evil, than hy a change of laws to increase the impor- tation still farther. The permission, were it to be given to import the drug-, would induce people to use the drug- who now refrain doing- so from terror of the laws, which forbid its use ; the proposition to legalize the importation of opium has caused even thieves and villains, on every side, to raise their heads and open their eyes, g-azing- about and pointing- their finger, under the notion that when once these prohibitions are repealed, thenceforth and for ever, they may regard themselves free from every Avholesome restraint and cause of fear.’’ This memorial was seconded by another from one of the suh-censors named Hu-Kiu, who dilated in powerful language on the necessity of checking the exportation of silver, suggesting that an efficient official, should be forthwith despatched to punish the native traitors, which wmuld uphold the dignity of the laAvs j the barbarians would be terrified, and they would then cease to import the drug. Hu-Kiu re- marked upon the manner in which the foreign bar- barians violated the laws of China ; stating that they had levelled groves at Macao for the purpose of making- a road over them ; landing merchandize at Macao instead of Canton, in order to evade the port 296 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. charg’es, and recommended that force need only be put forth, and the barbarians ivould be humbled into subjection ; but if the foreign barbarians still persisted in bringing' and selling' the pernicious poison^ then capital punishment should be inflicted upon them^ as well as upon the natives. The subscriber concludes by saying', that he agrees with Chu Tsun in all he has said, but especially as regards the designs of the foreig'iiers in importing opium, for he was certain they wished to enervate the minds and bodies of the people, and impoverish the exchequer of the'Celestial Empire, as the barbarians never smoked the drug in their own country, but brought it all to China. Fellow-countrymen — Christians by profession — do ye not blush, at the just censures passed upon ye by the heathens, whose laws ye violate, whose bodies ye debilitate, Avhose immortal souls ye peril, by your love for the filthy lucre of gold ? At the end of this year disputes arose between Captain Elliot, and the local mandarins, as to the superscription of the official communications ; the authorities requiring a style of address, Avhich Captain Elliot Avas forbidden to use by the Home Government. The Governor of Canton ordered the Superintendent to leave for Macao, and again the flag that has braved a thousand years the battle and the breeze’’ was hauled doAAii from the factor}', and trade Avas sus- pended. In the month of July, 1838, Admiral Sir Frederick Maitland, in H. B. M. ship, Wellesley, arrived in China, and Captain Elliot despatched a com- munication to the Governor of Canton, informing him that Admiral Maitland had not visited the Celestial EFFORTS TO SUPPRESS THE OPIUM TRAFFIC. 297 Empire Avith any hostile intent^ and requested the g’overnor to send an official of suitable rank to visit Sir Frederick. Very shortly after the Wellesley arrived, a correspondence commenced between Admiral Maitland, and the Chinese Admiral Kwan, in conse- quence of an English schooner being’ fired at when passing’ the Bog’ue forts ; a mandarin boarding her, insisted upon searching the vessel, saying’ he believed that Sir Frederick Maitland, his officers and creAv with their families Avere on hoard. In the month of Auo^-ust, this affair Avas brought to an amicable conclusion by the Chinese Admiral Kwan sending officials on hoard the Wellesley y aaFo stated in Avriting, that the Admiral had neither sanctioned the firing into, or searching the schooner. Sir Frederick expressed his satisfaction, desiring the officials to inform theii* Admiral, that for the future, he might expect man}- friendly visits Avould he paid to the coasts of China, by H.M.B. men-of-Avar. In the month of October, the Wellesley left China. Every effort noAV appears to have been strenuously made to suppress the opium traffic, by the Chinese, and on the 3d of December, tAveh e boxes Avere seized, Avhich contained tAvo peculs of opium, the coolies aa ho landed them being taken prisoners ; and the Hong’ merchants informed our traders, that they Avould neither rent houses to them, nor continue the trade, if they persisted in violating the laws.* The mandarins ordered a Chinaman, Ho-Lau-kan, aaIio had been * The keepers of opium smoking-shops, and the retailers of the drug, were imprisoned ; and in the province of Hu-peh the mandarins reported that the most lenient punishment which had been, or would be, inflicted upon opium-smokers, would be cutting out a portion of the upper lip, so as to incapacitate the opium devotee from using the pipe. 298 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. convicted of dealing’ in opium, and Avas sentenced to death, to he executed in front of the factories ; this insult our merchants Avould not submit to, and a riot ensued, which was with some difficulty quelled by the local authorities. The Chamber of Commerce addressed a letter of remonstrance, to the Governor of Canton, upon turning’ the space in front of the factories into a place of public execution ; as the space appertained to the houses Avhich Avere rented by them, and Avas a g’ross Auolation of established custom. To this remonstrance the g’overnor returned the folloAAung- forcible and just reply, Avhich first set forth the reason why Ho-Lau-kin had been con- demned to death, then continued : I, the g’overnor, Avith the lieutenant - g’overnor, having’ taken into consideration that his penalty of death, Avas the result of the pernicious introduction of opium into Canton by depraved foreig’ners, commanded that the criminal should be led out to the g’round of the thirteen factories adjoining’ the foreig’ii residences and there be executed. Thus it Avas desig’ned to strike observation, to arouse careful reflection, and to cause all to admonish and A\ arn one another ; in the hope that a trembling’ obedience to the laAVS and statutes of the Celestial Empire mig’ht be produced ; that the g’ood portion of the foreig’ii community might thereby preserve for ever their commercial intercourse, and that the depraved portion might be prevented from pursuing their evil courses. These foreigners though horn and brought up beyond the pale of civilization, have yet human hearts — how should they then have been im- pressed with awe, dread, and self -conviction. Can Elliot’s peoclamation against smuggling. 299 they put pen to paper to draw up such insane whining’S In the month of December Captain Elliot arrived at Canton from Whampoa^ and addressed the following* official communication to the merchants : — 1, Charles Elliot^ Chief Superintendent of the trade of British subjects in China, moved by urg*ent conside- ration immediately affecting* the safety of the lives and property of all her Majesty’s subjects eng*ag*ed in the trade of Canton, do hereby formally g*ive notice, that all British owned schooners, cutters, and otherwise rig*g*ed small craft, either habitually or occasionally eng*ag*ed in the illicit opium traffic within the Bocca Tig*ris, should leave the waters within the space of three days, from the date of these presents, and not return within the said Bocca Tig-ris, being* still eng-ag’ed in the illicit opium traffic. * # * * “ And I, the said Chief Superintendent, do further give notice, to all British subjects in the said schooners, eng*ag*ed in the illicit traffic of opium, Avithin the Bocca Tig’ris, that the forcible resisting* of the officers of the Chinese g*overnment in the duty of searching* and seizing*, is a laAvless act, and that they are liable to consequences and penalties in the same manner, as if the aforesaid forcible resistance Avere opposed to the officers of their OAvn, or any other g*overnment, in their OAvn, or in any foreig*n country. “ Given under my hand and seal at Canton this 18th day of December, a.d. 1888. Charles Elliot, Chief Superintendent of the trade of British subjects in China.” 300 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Despite these remonstrances, both from the British and Chinese authorities, the trade in opium was still carried on ; and the Imperial Government of Pekin appeared resolved to stop if possible the use of the drug' three princes of the blood royal were deg'raded for smoking' opium, the mandarin who proposed the leg'alization of the importation of the poison, was dismissed ; executions, tortures, fines, and imprison- ment were inflicted in man}" provinces of the Empire, upon those who violated the laws ag'ainst trading' or smoking- opium. The Emperor of China, resolved to appoint a man of integ'i'ity, as commissioner, to proceed to Canton, to inquire into and put a stop to all traffic in opium j it was reported by the mandarins, that when their sovereig'n was giving- personal instruc- tions to Commissioner Lin, he became deeply affected by the recapitulation of the miseries which had been entailed upon his people, by the use of opium, that had been sold to them by foreigners ; saying, whilst the tears streamed down his cheeks, Hoav, alas ! can I (lie, and go to the shades of my Imperial ancestors, until these direful evils are removed T’ On the 23d of January 1889, the following communication was received by the authorities : Let Lin Tsih-sen, Governor of Hook-Wang, and ex-official mandarin of the board of war, be invested with the powers and privileges of an Imperial Commissioner, let him with all speed proceed to Kwan-tung to make inquir}", and to act in regard to the affairs of the sea-ports. Let also the whole naval force of the province be placed under his control. Respect this.” At this time the EVILS ATTEXDANT ON THE USE OF OPIUM. 301 trade which was carried on, was exceeding-ly trivial, no profits being" realized. The folloAving" placard Avas found upon many of the public buildings at Canton, and it was reported that it had been composed and forwarded by Commissioner Lin : be this true, or not, the sentiments would honor the most pious and enlightened Christian. The trans- lator of this beautiful composition apologizes for not being able to render justice to the original : It is beautifully composed, and Avould do no discredit to the first scholar of the land ; Ave have taken a good deal of pains to translate it, but confess Ave have not done justice to the beauty of the original — Ave must there- fore beg our readers not to judge of the merits of the original by the poverty of the translation.” THE EVILS ATTENDANT ON THE USE OF OPIUM. “ Of all the evils that afflict mankind, the greatest are those Avhich he perversely brings upon himself. In his life, he not only builds up a line of conduct, that leads him to a miserable death, but contentedly sinks doAvn to the lowest of his species, and becomes an object of hatred and scorn to his fellow-men. Having perversely brought these evds upon himself, which lead him to a miserable death : when he dies, no man pities him ! contentedly sinking down to the loAvest of his species, and becoming an object of hatred and con- tempt to his feUow-men, he is pleased with his depravity, which is not the original nature of man: to be not of the original nature of man then, and to die unpitied, is what belongs to reptiles, wild beasts, dogs, and swine ; certainly not to the human species ! “ Why do I thus express myself? reptUes and wild beasts possess no knowledge, they are not aware of the infelicity of a miserable death, and they take no steps to guard against 302 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. it ! Dogs and swine never heard of the expressions, right and wrong, glory and disgrace : they quietly receive the kicks and cui'ses of man, and they remember not his insults with a blush of shame ! Therefore it is, that men who by their own act have reduced themselves to a similar footing, are upbraided with being as reptiles, wild beasts, dogs, and swine ; and though they may be unwilling to submit to such degrading epithets, yet are they unable to shake off these appellations which have been so happily apphed to them ! But there ai’e men still more brutish than the brutes ! Rep- tiles, wild beasts, dogs, and swine, do not corrupt the morals of the age so as to cause one anxious thought to spring up in the breast of our gracious sovereign : now, however, there are men who do so, who consequently are beneath reptiles, wUd beasts, dogs, and swine ; and these men are the smokers of opium ! “ It is worthy of remark that opium-smoking commenced by one or two careless, worthless fellows, who mutually instigated each other to this vicious Indulgence, simply by way of amusement ! ^Yhen people begin to smoke, they at first observe no evil effects produced by it; when they have smoked for some time, they then require what is called renovation ; when the time for renovation comes, if they do not smoke, then the hands and feet become weak and palsied, the mouth di'ops, the eyes become glazed, rheum flows from the one, and saliva from the other ; they are subject to com- plaints Avhich resemble phlegm, asthma, and convulsive fits : when they arrive at this stage of the disease, every atom of human reason appears to ha\e left them. You may beat them, scold them, cm’se them, and insult them, yet will they not get up to give you any rejoinder ! This is the first view, showing how baneful opium is to human life ! “ And having smoked it still longer, the constitution be- gins to give way, the Interior gradually decays, thousands of worms and maggots gnaw the intestines, their faces become discolored, their teeth black, their appearance like charcoal. EVILS ATTENDANT ON THE USE OF OPIUM. 303 their shoulders rise to their ears, their necks shrink in, the thrapple protrudes, and their whole frame is hateful as that of a ghost or devil (which is the reason why they are called A peen kwei or opium-smoking devils), and in fine, they intensibly hug their bane, till death overtakes them in the very act. This is the second view that I present of the horrors of opium ! “ Fiudher, people who are in the habit of smoking opium, require the most costly viands to nourish them, and of these costly viands, the renovating item is the most costly of aU ! Day by day it goes on increasing from one and two mace, to five and six mace ; there is no certain nile, but they reckon a mace of opiiim as among their necessaries of life. A man’s wealth, as weU as his strength, has its bounds: even a rich man may not always be able to fill or replenish this leak in the cup, how much less then a poor man ? The evil habit thus leads to one cruelly neglecting the comfort of his father and mother, and leads to his unfeelingly exposing his wife and children to cold and want; he cares not for his morning or evening meal, but to do without his opium were impossible ! This then is the third view that I present of the evils of opium ! “ Moreover, opium-smokers, by indulging cliiefly in their baneful habit at night-time, waste many candles and con- sume much oil. Till morning they do not sleep, and while the sun shines upon the world, and other men rise to go to work, the opium-smoker alone is still in his slumbers ! Thus by not getting up till midday in constant succession, the employed neglects his public duties, the scholar flings aside Ills book, the workman’s occupation goes to ruin, the mer- chant di'ains his substance, the soldier and officer become slothful and impotent, and the servant lazy in obeying his master’s commands : thus then, by it, time is mis-spent, duty neglected, wealth dissipated, life lost, and families overtaken by destruction I This is the fourth view that I present of the pernicious effects of opium ! 304 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. “ Now, in reference to these foiu* points of view in which I have shown opium to be a great calamity, it is not that people don’t see it, it is not that people don’t know it ; but stiU, such is the fact, that with aU this staring them in the face, they mutually hasten, they mutually urge each other to their bane, and contentedly yield up their lives to its noxious influence ! As the waters of the great river flow to the east, and day by day roU on without ceasing ; so we find of this evil habit, when it first began, that those who smoked, avoided the gaze of other men, they kept their shame secret and feared to avow it ; now, however, it is taken in public, and even served up as a treat to guests and strangers ! At first, none but slaves and the vilest of the vile smoked it : now, however, it has infected the capped and gowned gentry of the land ! At first, it was merely used by the people of Canton and Fokien, and those parts which border on the sea ; now, however, it has gone east and west, it has crossed the frontiers into Tartary, nor is there a province of the empire where it has not found its way ! At first, none but a few depraved wretches of the male sex used it, and now Ave find that even Bonzes, Taou priests, married women, and young girls are addicted to the life-destroying drug. In every item ! in every respect ! is the evil becoming daily more graA^e, more deeply rooted than before ! so much so, that its baneful influence seems to threaten little by little to degrade the Avhole population of the Celestial Empire to a level Avith reptiles, Avdd beasts, dogs, and swine ! When the people of our empire shall have been degraded to this brutish level, then the three relations AviU be annihilated, the nine laws or punishments Avdl cease to act, the five businesses of life AviU be utterly neglected, man’s reason at an end for ever, and unnumbered woes Avill arise! From the time that there ever Avas people until noAv, never, never, Avas there a calamity, which, in its first beginnings so bland, so bewitching, threatened to consume all things Avith its blaze, like as this fearful drug I EVILS ATTEXDANT OX THE USE OF OPIUM. 305 “ Above, our sovereign, and his virtuous ministers brood over this national misfortune, and lament the havoc it has made : below, all good men, and all disinterested employers, exert themselves to counteract its effects : yet are they unable to arrest its progress ! When one reflects on all these things, even granting that the final sentence of the law should be awarded to those men who have caused such disasters, who is there that may hft up his voice and say, ‘it would not be right so to do?’ Nor does the evil stop here. Those foreigners by means of their poison dupe and befool the natives of Cliina ! It is not only that year by year they abstract thereby many millions of our money, but the du-eful appearances seem to indicate a Avish on their part, utterly to root out and extinguish us as a people ! I repeat, that from the time of our becoming a nation until now, never did any evU, at first so bland, so enticmg, blaze so fearfully as does this dreadful poison ! “ My countrymen of China well know the dangerous position they stand in, yet they contentedly hug their bane, which brings on them ruin and death ! Thus it is, that by land and by Avater, in the public markets and in the mountain passes, those who sell opium, are to be met with by hundreds and by thousands at a time I These are all so many cut- throat ruffians, as careless of them OAvn lives, as of those of others ; they go about, Avith their SAVords and spears all pre- pared, in order to prosecute with violence their illegal calling : equally depraved are the pohce and soldiery, for they, in order to turn their employment to good account, pretend that they are searching for the prohibited drug, and under this excuse turn the baggage of the hiAvful traveller upside doAvn, and subject good people to every species of annoyance. These evils and abuses day by day become more wide- spreading, more deeply-rooted, and they are entirely brought on by the smokers of opium f ^\Tien I reflect upon this, it seems to me, that, though every one of these said opium- smokers should be exterminated, yet would not their death VOL. II. X 306 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. be sufficient to atone for the crimes they have committed, for the evils they have brought about ! “Now I have heard that our gracious Emperor, after mature consultation, is about to take this abandoned class of liis subjects, and utterly cut them off! the necessity of the case imperiously calls for it, and reason strongly justifies the measure 1 Why is it that I thus express myself? Why, because a crime committed against an indi^ddual, against his propei’ty, or against a fraction of the community, is a small matter compared witli one which threatens to put the whole empire In a blaze ! and amidst a calamity which thus effects the coimtrj'^ from one end to another, is our sovereign lord to sit quietly looking on and see It raging, without putting forth the rod of his power to punish and repress ? Moreover, such are the dictates of reason that guide mankind : where there are those who degrade themselves to a level with reptiles, wild beasts, dogs, and swine, their feUow-men de- spise them: where their fellow-men despise them, they also reject and cast them off : thus misery is superadded to misery, and looking upon them like birds of prey, we may hunt them down, or as herbs, we may root them iqi, without the least feeling of pity or conqmnctlon ! it is only they who have brought tlus woe upon themselves ! “ Now, although happiness is built upon a foundation, miseiy has also a source from Avhlch it springs, and amidst the discord of those warring principles, it belongs to those above to seize the opportunity of bringing forth good out of evil ! In reference to tliis, Chin-tung-foo has said, ‘ MTien the bulk of the people are joyfuUy hastening to their ruin, and when it is not in the power of gods or devils to change their course, man can do it! and if it be asked me, how can man change their course ? I reply, by killing in order to stay killing !’ (i. e. by putting a few to death, as an example and warning to others). Now, therefore, in re- ference to opium smokers, if we do not impose those laws upon them, tliey will die from the pernicious properties of EVILS ATTENDANT ON THE USE OF OPIUM. 30 ? the drug { — if we do impose those laws upon them, then will they die under the hand of the executioner : — but it seems better that a few sliould perish under the hand of the exe- cutioner, with the prospect of being able to arrest the evil, tlian that they should die from opium and our race become exterminated. “ Again, there are appearances in nature as if heaven and earth at times repent of unnecessary severity ; moreovex’, the lioliest of men trembles while punislxing wickedness, if he has not distinctly warned the parties beforehand. Obscure indi- vidual that I am, not being in the situation of the high officers of goverixnxent, I cannot presume to know or i-egu- late their plans, and for me thus to obtrude my impertinent advice, may justly be reckoned unto ixxe as a ci’ime ! But I look upon ye all as of the saixxe species xvith myself, as my brethi’en of the human race : in the midst of my retirement I have thought of your situation with grief and pain : and deeply pity you, seeing the terrors of the law about to take hold of you ! I have, therefore, composed a short discourse, which with the kindest bowels of compassion, I offer up for your perusal, eaniestly hoping that my brethren will give good heed to the faithfulness of my intentions, and deeply ponder upon my words ! It is to the folloAviug effect : — “ Every nxan who is endowed xvith the gift of reason, knows to prize his life above all things : from the time our feeble body is scarce a cubit higli, if it be wounded, we mouini and weep ! In childhood, when ti’avei'sing a dangei’- ous road at dead midnight, we tremble and mutually wai-n each other to beware ; whatever enticement may be held out, we reject it with suspicion and feel alarmed to pro- ceed ; this is, because we fear to die ! And when grown to man’s estate, whatever is noxious to our persons, we en- deavour to avoid with the utmost anxiety ; if we cannot succeed in avoiding it, we feel sorrowful and peiliaps repair to a temple to implore divine aid. From childhood till old age, without distinguishing between the virtuous and the 308 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. depraved, the noble and the base, the object of all our active exertions by night and by day, the object for which we rack our minds with the most intense anxiety, is merely to obtain what will benefit us, and avoid what wlU injure us ; to follow after happiness, to shun misery, and nothing more. If we are overcome by dangers or sickness, we are sad : if informed that we are about to die, we are sorrowful: such is the nature of man, and opium-smokers oflfer the only exception ! These run after their death ! these sit contentedly on the brink of danger ! even as the silly moth, which keeps flut- tering round the candle which consumes him! Among men, there is no one who does not like the idea of making his name famous or honorable : if you upbraid a man with being depraved, he gets angry: if you still further insult him, by telling him that his heart is cruel as that of a wild beast or bird of prey, that he is deficient of knowledge as the reptile that crawls on the ground, and that he cannot be classed as one of the human species : methinks that at language of this kind, his eyes must ‘ like stars start from their spheres ! and each particidar hair must stand on end like quills upon the fretful porcupine ! ’ He must put himself in a posture of defiance, and hiud back the reproach with a curse ! But opium-smokers are alone different in this respect ! They, it is true, do not wish to receive snch insults, but not wishing to receive the name, and doing that which induces the appellation, is very much the same as sitting down contentedly under the reproach. Therefore it is, that they who smoke opium and clearly know that it is destroying their life, are guilty of foUy : they who smoke opium, and know that while they do so, it is sullying their name and reputation, are lost to every sense of shame ! and those who associate with the lowest of the low, the Hlest of the vile, and who in the company of such, turn day into night, have forgotten every ride of decency and pro- priety I To smoke opium, and not to look after the comfort of your parents, is to play the part of an undutiful child ! EVILS ATTENDANT ON THE USE OF OPIUM. 309 to smoke opium and give no heed to the instruction of your son, is not fulfilling your duty as a father ! to smoke opium and care not though your wife suffer cold and want, is what no kind husband would do : to corrupt the manners and customs of the age, and entail calamities upon posterity, is to be a robber of the world : to \iolate the laws, to break through the regulations, and not to repent of your crime, is the conduct of a rebel : to take the intelligent and educated mind of a Chinese, and prostitute it so as to be duped by distant foreigners, with their corroding poison, to heap up unnumbered crimes, to refuse to awake from your delusion, and to die with it in your embrace, shows that ye know not reason, and that your hearts are like those of the brutes ! “ Now then ye who smoke opium ! look at the nine fore- going crimes that ye commit ! and when ye take up the opium pipe to smoke, do one and all of you put the hand upon the heart, and ask yourselves : Do I deserve death, or not ? ought I to leave off this hateful vice, or not ? Peojile who have rebelled against high heaven, who have injured their fellow-men, who have opposed reason, who have trampled on the five relations of mankind, who have set at defiance every rule of decency and projjriety : methinks that though our sovereign’s laws may not slay them, yet that heaven and earth, gods and spirits, must exterminate them with their avenging lightning ! And though you may escape our human punishments, think you that you can escape tlie punishment of Heaven? although you have human faces and dress like men, though your houses may overfloAV with wealth, and you may fair on dainties every day, yet loaded as you are with every species of guilt, I can find no difference be- tween you and reptiles, Avild beasts, dogs, and SAvine ! Can ye hear a reproach of this kind, Avithout starting Avith horror ! Avithout the cold sweat trickling doAvn your foreheads ! “ Before I finish, a word to you who are mandarins, and employers in government offices. It belongs to you to rule the people ! You try their crimes, and you aAvard their 310 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. punishments I Let me ask of you, supposing you were called upon to judge your own crimes in this respect, pray by what law or statute would you judge them ? And ye who are scholars and learned men ! Ye have already studied a great many works ! Ye know what propriety is ! Let me then ask of you, supposing you were called upon to give an opinion of your oion conduct in this respect, pray under what standard of propriety would you class it? For the operative, for the merchant, and for every class and de- scription of the people, are there laws made and punishments annexed, — but for you On the 26th of February^ a Chinaman^ named Fung- An-g’iian^ was strangled in front of the fac- tories, for trafficking in opium ; this the merchants looked upon as an insult, and the whole of the national flags — English, French, Dutch, and Ame- rican — were hauled down, and Captain Elliot sent a letter of remonstrance to the Governor. The Go- vernor urged upon all foreigners to cease trafficking in opium, to remove all vessels containing the drug, and threatened to stop the trade in toto, unless his demand Avas complied Avith. On the lOtli of March, Commissioner Lin arrived at Canton, to enter upon the toilsome and arduous duties of his office, and on the 18th issued the folloAA^- ing’ edict : — “ Lin, High Imperial Commissioner of the Celestial Court, a director of the Board of War, and governor of Hoo-kwang, issues bis commands to the foreigners of every nation, re- cpiiring of all full acquaintance with the tenor thereof. It is known that the foreign vessels which come for a reciprocal trade to Kwang-tung, have derived from that trade very large profits. This is evidenced by the facts, that, whereas the COMMISSIONEE LIN’S EDICT. 311 vessels annually resorting hither were formerly reckoned hardly by tens, their number has of late years amounted to a hundred and several times ten ; that whatever commodities they may have brought, none have failed to find a full con- sumption ; and whatever they may have sought to purchase, never have they been unable readily to do so. Let them but ask themselves whether between heaven and earth, any place affording so advantageous a commercial mart is elsewhere to be found. It is because our great emperors, in their uni- versal benevolence, have granted you commercial privileges, that you have been favoured with these advantages. Let our port once be closed against you, and for what profits can your several nations any longer look ? Yet more — our tea and our rhubarb — seeing that, should you foreigners be deprived of them, you therein lose the means of preserving life — are without stint or grudge granted to you for expor- tation, year by year, beyond the seas. Favoui’s never have been greater! Are you grateful for these favours? You must then fear the laws, and in seeking profit for yourselves, must not do hurt to others. JVhy do you bring to our land the opium, which in your oxen lands is not made use of, by it de- frauding men of their property, and causing injury to their lives? I find that with this thing you have seduced and deluded the people of China for tens of years past, and countless are the vinjust hoards that you have thus acquired. Such conduct rouses indignation in every human heart, and is utterly inex- cusable in the eye of Celestial reason. “ The prohibitions formerly enacted by the Celestial Court against opium were comparatively lax, and it was yet possible to smuggle the drug into the various ports. Of this the great Emperor having now heard, his wrath has been fearfully aroused, nor will it rest till the evil be utterly extirjiated ? Whoever among the people of this inner land deal in oiiium, or estabhsh houses for the smoking of it, shall be instantly visited with the extreme penalty of the laws; and it is in contemplation to render capital also the crime of smoking the 312 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. drug. And you, having come Into tlie territory of the Ce- lestial Court, should pay obedience to its laws and statutes, equally with the natives of the land. “ I, the High Commissioner, having my home in the mari- time province ofFoo-kien, and consequently having early had intimate acquaintance with all the arts and shifts of the outer foreigners, have for this reason been honoured by the great Emperor with the full powers and privileges of a high im- perial commissioner, who having repeatedly performed meri- torious services, is sent to settle the affairs of the outer frontier: should I search closely into the offences of these foreigners, in forcing for a number of years the sale of opium, they would be found already beyond the bounds of indulgence ; but, reflecting that they are men from distant lands, and that they have not before been aware, that the prohibition of opium is so severe, I cannot bear, in the present plain enforce- ment of the laws and restrictions, to cut them off without instructive monition. I find that on board the warehousins: vessels, which you now have lying at anchor in the Lintin and other offings, there are stored up several times ten thousand chests of opium, which it is your jJurpose and desire illicitly to dispose of by sale. You do not consider, however, the present severity of the measures in operation, for seizure of it at the ports. Where will you again find any that will dare to give it escort ? And similar measures for the seizure of it are in operation also in every province. Where else then will you find opportunity of disposing of it ? At the present time the dealings in opium are brought utterly to a stand, and all men are convinced that it is a nauseous poison. Why will you be at the pains then of laying it up on board your foreign store-ships, and of keeping them long anchored on tlie face of the open sea, not only expending to no purpose your labour and your wealth, but exposed also to unforeseen dangers from storms or from fire. I proceed to issue my commands. When these commands reach the said foreign merchants, let them with all haste pay obedience thereto. Let them deliver COMMISSIONER LIN’s EDICT. 313 up to government every particle of the opium on board their store-ships. Let it be ascertained by the Hong merchants, who are the parties so delivering it up, and what number of chests is delivered up under each name, and what is the total quantity in catties and taels. Let these particulars be brought together in a clear tabular form, and be presented to govern- ment, in order that the opium may all be received in plain conformity thereto, that it may be burnt and destroyed, and that thus the evil may be entirely extirpated. There must not be the smallest atom concealed or withheld. At the same time let these foreigners give a bond, written jointly in the foreign and Chinese languages, making a declaration of this effect : ‘ That their vessels, which shall hereafter resort hither, will never again dare to bring opium with them ; and that should any be brought, as soon as discovery shall be made of it, the goods shall be forfeited to govermnent, and the parties shall suffer the extreme penalties of the law : and that such punishment will be willingly submitted to. I have heard that you foreigners are used to attach great importance to the word ^ good faith' If then you will really do as I, the High Commissioner, have commanded, — will deliver up every article of the opium that is ab’eady here, and will stay altogether its future intro- duction, as this will prove also that you are capable of feeling contrition for your offences, and of entertaining a salutary dread of punishment, the past may yet be left unnoticed. I, the High Commissioner, will, in that case, in conjunction with the governor and lieutenant-governor, address the throne, imploring the great Emperor to vouchsafe extraordinary favour, and not alone to remit the punishment of your past errors, but also — as we wiU further request — to devise some mode of bestowing on you his imperial rewards, as an encou- ragement of the spirit of contrition and wholesome dread thus manifested by you. After this, you wiU continue to enjoy the advantages of commercial intercourse ; and, as you will not lose the character of being good foreigners, and wiU be 314 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. enabled to acquire profits and get wealth by an honest trade, will you not indeed stand in a most honorable position ? “ If, however, you obstinately adhere to your folly, and refuse to awake — if you tliink to make up a sale-covering over your ilUcit deahngs — or to set up as a pretext, that the opium is brought by foreign seamen, and the foreign mer- chants have nothing to do with it — or to pretend, craftily, that you will carry it back to your countries, or will throw it into the sea — or to take occasion to go to other provinces in search of a door of consumption — or to stifle inquiry, by delivering up only one or two tenths of the whole quantity ; in any of these cases, it will be evident that you retain a spirit of contumacy and disobedience, that you iqjhold vice and will not reform. Then, although it is the maxim of the Celestial Court to treat with tenderness and great mildness men from afar, yet, as it cannot suffer them to indulge in scornful and contemptuous trifling with it, it will become requisite to comprehend you also in the severe course of punishment prescribed by the new law. “ On tills occasion, I, the High Commissioner, having come from the capital, have personally received the sacred com- mands : that wherever a law exists, it is to be fully enforced. And as I have brought these full powers and privileges, enabling me to perform whatever seems to me right ; powers with which those ordinarily given, for inquiring and acting- in regard to other matters, are by no means comparable ; so long as the opium traffic remains unexterminated, so long will I delay my return. I swear that I will progress with tills matter from its beginning to its ending, and that not a thought of stopping half-way shall for a moment be in- dulged. “ Furthermore, observing the present condition of the popular mind, I find so universal a spirit of indignation aroused, that should you foreigners remain dead to a sense of contrition and amendment, and continue to make gain your COMMISSIONER LIN’S EDICT. 315 sole object, there will not only be arrayed against you the martial terrors and powerful energies of our naval and mili- tary forces ; it will be but necessary to call on the able-bodied of the people (the militia), and these alone will be more than adequate to the placing all your lives within my power. Besides, either by the temporary stoppage of your trade, or by the permanent closing of the ports against you, what difficulty can there be in effectually cutting off your inter- course ? Our central empire, comprising a territory of many thousands of miles, and possessing in rich abundance all the products of the ground, has no benefit to derive from the purchase of your foreign commodities, and you may, there- fore, well fear, that from the moment such measures are taken, the livelihood of your several nations must come to an end. You, who have travelled so far, to conduct your commercial business, how is it that you are not yet alive to the great difference between the condition of vigorous exertions, and that of easy repose — the wide distance between the power of the few and the power of the many? As to those crafty foreigners, who, residing in the foreign factories, have been in the habit of dealing in opium, I, the High Commissioner, have early been provided with a list of them by name. At the same time, those good foreigners, who have not sold opium, must also not fail to be distinguished. Such of them as will point out their depraved fellow-foreigners, will compel them to deliver up their ojjium, and will step forth amongst the foremost to give the required bonds — these shall be re- garded as the good foreigners. And I, the High Commissionei', will at once, for their encouragement, reward them hberally. It rests with yourselves alone to choose whether you will have Aveal or Avoe, honour or disgrace. “I am now about to command the Hong merchants to proceed to your factories, to instruct and admonish you. A term of three days is prescribed for an address to be sent in reply to me. And, at the same time, let your duly-attested and faithful bonds be given, waiting for me, in conjunction 316 CHINA AND THE CHINESE with the governor and lieutenant-governor, to appoint a time for the opium to be delivered up. Do not indulge in idle expectations, or seek to postpone matters, deferring to re- pent, until its lateness render it ineffectual. A special edict. Taoukwang, 19th year, 2nd month, 4th day (March 18th, 1839). (True translation). J. Robert Morrison, “ Chinese Secretary, and Interpreter to the Superintendent of British Trade in China.” On the 19th of March, the Hig-h Commissioner Lin, forbade permits, or chops, to be given to foreigners who desired to proceed from Canton to Macao ; all communication was cut off with the shipping' at Whampoa, the soldiery surrounded Can- ton, and war-junks were stationed in the river, in front of the foreign factories. At the expiration of the three days, the High Com- missioner threatened two of the Hong merchants (who, it must be remembered, were responsible for the good conduct of foreigners), Howqua and Mowqua, with death, if the opium was not given up, and the bond entered into. The merchants held a meeting at the Chamber of Commerce, sending a deputation to the Hong mer- chants, with a copy of the resolutions which had been come to. “ There "was an almost universal feeling- in the community, of the absolute necessity of the foreign residents at Canton having* no communication with the opium traffic. “ Signed by W. S. Wetmore, “ Chairman.” TWO HOIN'G MERCHANTS IN CHAINS. 317 The various merchants — British, Americans, and Parsees — had ag'reed to gdve up one thousand and thirty-seven chests of opium, but the Hong* merchants returned the following’ day, saying’, that the Hig’h Commissioner said, this trifling’ quantity would not suffice, as he was aware of the many thousands of chests which they had in their possession. On the 22nd Mr. Dent, who was the larg-est holder of the mischief-working’ poison, was requested to g’o to the city g’ates to communicate with the authorities; Mr. Dent hesitated to accede to this request, having- the fate of Mr. Flint vividly impressed upon his mind, but expressed his readiness to comply with the desire of Commissioner Lin, if he would send him a safe- guard, or document, which should g-uarantee his re- turn within twenty-four hours. The Hong merchants Howqua and Mowqua, wearing heavy chains around their necks, went to Mr. Dent’s house the next day, entreating him to appear before the High Commis- sioner ; but as they did not bring the desired safe- guard, the body of merchants advised Mr. Dent to remain Avith them. On the 22nd instant. Captain Elliot addressed a communication to Commissioner Lin, stating his sincere desire to fulfil the pleasure of the Emperor of China, as soon as he was made acquainted with it, inquiring, also, if the Commissioner intended to make Avar upon British subjects and ships, and desiring an interview with the Chinese authorities. Captain Elliot addressed a circular to all British vessels advising them to proceed to Hong-Kong, and pre- 318 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. pare themselves to resist acts of aggTession ; and forwarded a letter to Captain Blake, of the Larne, requesting’ his assistance in defending* the lives and property of British subjects. On the 23rd Captain Elliot, sent a second circular to our countr}’men, detailing- the motives which com- pelled him to Anthdraw all confidence in the justice and moderation of the local government of Canton, adAusing them to demand permits or chops to leave Canton ; and to remove on board ship if it Avere practicable so to do. On the 24th of March, Captain Elliot arrived at Canton, fi’om Macao — the flag of Great Britain was hoisted, and a meeting called of the merchants, to Avhom he read the circulars Avhich he had previously issued — informing’ the Hong merchants that he Avas ready to accompany Mr. Dent to Commissioner Lin on the following day. The High Commissioner’s apprehen- sions had been excited, by the conduct of Captain Elliot, and orders Avere issued commanding every native servant to leave the factories, guards were stationed before the door of ever}’ dAvelling, and on the roofs of adjoining houses, and a triple cordon of armed boats were placed before the river fronts of the fac- tories; by the time the sun had set, not more than tAvo hundred and seventy persons Avere to be found in the factories. Stringent measures Avere adopted, to prevent pro- visions or AA ater being supplied to the inmates of the factories, letters Avere intercepted that Avere addressed to Macao, and one boatman, suffered death for at- tempting to infringe the orders of the High Com- missioner. EDICT TO DELIVER UP OPIUM. 319 On the 26th the following’ edict was promulgated, and forwarded to Captain Elliot : — Proclamation from His Excellency the High Com- missioner Lin, desiring’ foreigners speedily to de- liver up their opium, under four heads, or four reasons : — “ Fii’stly. Ye ought to make haste and deliver it up, by virtue of that reason which Heaven hath implanted in all of us. I find that during the last several tens of years, the money out of which you have duped our people by means of your destructive drug, amounts I know not to how many tens of thousands of myriads. Thus, while you have been scheming after private advantage, with minds solely bent on profit, our people have been wasting their substance, and losing their lives ; and if the reason of Heaven be just, think you that there will be no retribution ? If, however, ye will now repent and deliver up your opium, by a well-timed repentance, ye may yet avert judgment and calamities : if not, then ymur wickedness being greater, the consequences of that wicked- ness will fall more fearfully upon you! Ye are distant from your homes many tens of thousand miles ; your ships, in coming and going cross a vast and trackless ocean ; in it ye are exposed to the visitations of thunder and lightning, and raging stonns, to the dangers of being swallowed up by mon- sters of the deep; and under such perils, fear ye not the retributive vengeance of Heaven? Now, our great Emperor, being actuated by the exalted virtue of Heaven Itself, wishes to cut off this deluge of opium, which is the plainest proof that such is the intention of high Heaven I It is then a traffic on which Heaven looks with disgust ; and who is he that may oppose its will ? Thus, in the instance of the English chief, Roberts, who violated our laws ; he endeavoured to get posses- sion of Macao by force, and at Macao he died ! Again, in the 14th year of Taou-Kwang (1834), Lord Napier bolted through 320 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the Bocca Tigris, but being overwhelmed with grief and fear, he almost immediately died; and ^lorrison, who had been darkly deceiving him, died that very year also I Besides these, every one of those who have not observed our laws, have either on their return to their own country been overtaken by the judgments of Heaven, or silently cut off ere they could return thither I Thus then it is manifest that the heavenly dynasty may not be opposed! And stiU, oh, ye foreigners, do you refuse to fear and tremble thereat ? “ Secondly. You ought to make immediate delivery of this opium, in order to comply with the law of yom’ own countries, which prohibits the smoking of opium, and he who uses it is adjudged to death ! Thus plainly showing that ye yourselves know it to be an article destructive to human life. If, then, your laws forbid it to be consumed by yom'selves, and yet permit it to be sold that it may be consumed by others, this is not in conformity with the principle of doing imto others what you would that they should do unto you: if, on the other hand, your laws prohibit it being sold, and ye yet continue to seU it by stealth, then are ye sporting with the laws of your own countries I And, moreover, the laws of ovu’ Chinese empire look upon the seller as guilty of a crime of a deeper dye than the mere smoker of opium. Now you, foreigners, although ye were born in an outer country, yet for your property and maintenance do you depend entirely upon our Chinese Empire; and in our central land ye pass the greater part of our lives, and the lesser portion of your lives is passed at home ; the food that ye eat eveiy day, not less than the vast fortimes ye amass, proceed from nought but the goodness of om' Emperor; which is showered iipon you in far greater profusion than upon our own people. And how is it then, that ye alone know not to tremble and obey before the sacred majesty of your laws I In former times, although opium was prohibited, yet the penalty attached thereto, did not amount to a very severe punishment, this arose from the extreme mildness of our Government; and EDICT TO DELIVER UP OPIUM. 321 therefore it was that your clandestine dealings in the dug were not scrutinized with any extraordinary rigor. Now, however, onr great Emperor looks upon the opium trade with the most intense loathing, and bm*ns to have it cut off for ever ; so that henceforward, not only is he who sells it adjudged to death, but he who does not more than smoke it must also undergo the same penalty of the laws. Now try and reflect for one moment. If ye did not bring this opium to China, how shoidd the people of our inner land be able either to sell or smoke it ? The lives of our people which are forfeited to the laws, are taken from them by your un- righteous procedui’e ; then what reason is there that the lives of our own people should be thus sacrificed, and that ye alone should escape the awful penalty ? Now I, the High Commissioner, looking up to the great Emperor, and feehng in my own person his sacred desire to love and cherish the men fx’om afar, do mercifully spare you your lives. I wish nothing more than that ye deliver up all the opium you have got, and forthwith write out a duly prepared bond, to the effect, that you will henceforth never more bring opium to China, and should you bring it, agreeing that the cargo be confiscated, and the people who bring it put to death. This is pardoning what is past, and taking preventive measures against the future : why any longer cherish a foohsh indis- criminate generosity ! IMoreover, without discussing about the opium which ye have sold in bygone years, and adtling up its immense amounts ; let us only speak about that quan- tity which dming the last years ye have clandestinely sold, which I presume was no small matter, hardly equal to the quantity which ye have now stored up in youi’ receiving ships, and which I desire may be entirely surrendered to the mutual advantage of aU. Where is there the shghtest chance or prospect that after this you will be pennitted to dupe our deluded people out of their money, or inveigle them to do an act in which destruction overtakes them? I have with deep respect examined the statutes of this the Ta Tsing dynasty, VOL. II. Y 322 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. and upon these statutes I find it recorded, ‘ If a Chinese or a foreigner break the laws they shall be judged and condemned by the same statutes;’ and words to that effect. Now upon former occasions we have condemned foreigners to death, as in the case of having kiUed our people, they require to give life for life, of which we have instances recorded. Now think for a little : depriving an individual of his life is a crime com- mitted in a moment, and stiU the pei^petrator of it must for- feit liis own life in return. But he who sells opium has laid a plot to swindle a man out of his money, as well as to deprive him of his life ; and how can one say that it is only a single individual, or a single family that the oj)ium seller thus dupes and entangles in destruction ! And for a crime of this mag- nitude ought one to die or not to die? And stiU. wiU ye refuse to deliver up your opium ? "Wliich is the way to pre- serve your lives? Oh, ye foreigners, do ye deeply ponder upon this ! “ Thirdly. You ought to make immediate deliveiy of this opium, by reason of your feelings as men. Ye come to this market of Canton to trade, and ye profit thereby full three- fold. Every article of commerce that ye bring Avith you, no matter whether it be coarse or fine, in whole pieces or in small, there is not one lota of it that is not sold off and con- sumed ; and of the produce of our country, whether it be for feeding you, for clothing you, for any kind of use, or for mere sale, there is not a description that we do not permit you to take away with you : so that not only do you reap the profit of the inner land by the goods Avhich you bring, but moreover by means of the produce of our central land, do you gather gold from every country to which you transport it. Sup- posing that you cut off and cast away your trafiSc in the single article of opium, then the other business which you do Avill be much increased, you will thereon reap your threefold profit comfortably ; and you may, as preAuously, go on ac- quiring wealth in abundance : thus neither \dolatlng the laws, nor laying up store for after misery. What happiness, what EDICT TO DELIVEE UP OPIUM. 323 delight will be yours. But if, on the other hand, ye will persist in carrying on the opium traffic, tlien such a course of conduct must infallibly lead to the cutting off of your general trade. I would like to ask of you, if under the whole heaven ye have such an excellent market as this is ? Then without discussion about tea and rhubarb, things which you could not exist without ; and every kind and description of silk, a thing which you could not carry on your manufacture without, there are under the head of eatable articles, white sugar-candy, cassia, cassia buds, &c. &c. ; and under the head of articles for use, vermilion, gamboge, alum, camphor, &c. : how can your countries do without these ? And yet our central land is heaped up and overflowing with every kind of commodity ; and has not the slightest occasion for any of your importa- tions from abroad. If on account of opium, the port be closed against you, and it is no longer in your power to trade more, will it not be yourselves who have brought it upon your- selves ? Nay, further, as regards the article of opium, there is now no man who dares to buy it, and yet ye store it up in your receiving ships, where you have so much to pay per month for rent ; day and night ye must have labouring men to watch and guard. And why all this useless and enormous expense ^ a single typhoon, or one blaze of fire, and they are forthwith overwhelmed by the billows, or they sink amid the consuming element. "What better plan than at once to deliver up your opium, and to reap enjoyments and rewards for so doing. “ Fourthly. You ought to make a speedy delivery of the opium by reason of the necessity of the case. Ye foreigners from afar, in coming hither to trade, have passed over an unbounded ocean : your prospect for doing business depends entirely on your living on terms of harmony with your fellow- men, and keejung yoixr own station in peace and quietness. * * * * The men who go abroad are said to adhere blgotedly to a sense of honor. Now our officers are appealing to your sense of honor; and we find, to our amaze- y 2 324 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. ment, that you have not the shghtest particle of honor about ye. Are ye quite tranquil and composed at this ? If you do not now dehver up the opium to the govei’nment, pray what will be the use of keeping it on hand. Deliver it up, and your trade will flourish more than ever. Tokens of our regard will be heaped on you to overflowing. I, the High Com- missioner, as well as the local authorities, cannot bear the idea of being imnecessarily harsh, therefore it is that, though I thus weary my mouth, as it were entreating and exhorting you, yet do I not shrink from my task. Happiness and misery, glory and disgrace are in your own hands. Say not that I did not give you early warning hereof. “A special proclamation to be placed before the foreign factories. “ Taou-Kwang. “ 19th year, 2nd month, 12th day.” Two distinct communications were also sent to Captain Elliot by Lin, in which he stated the light in which he regarded Captain Elliot’s conduct, which was termed contumacious, and requiring’ that all opium should be given up. On the 27th of 3Iarch, 1839, Captain Elliot issued the following address to the merchants : — I, Charles Elliot, Chief Superintendent of trade in China — presently forcibly detained by the provincial government, together ivith all the merchants of my own, and the other foreign nations settled here, without supplies of food, deprii’ed of our servants, and cut off from all intercourse with our respective coun- tries (notwithstanding my own official demand to be set at liberty, that I might act without restraint) hai e now received the commands of the High Commissioner, to deliver into his hands all the opium held by people CAPTAIN ELLIOT DEMANDS THE OPIUM. 325 of ray o^vn country. Now being* constrained by paramount motives^ affecting* the safety of the lives and liberties of all the foreig*ners here present in Canton, and by other ver}* Aveig*hty reasons, do hereby, in the name and in the behalf of H. B. M. Govern- ment, enjoin and requu'e all her Majesty’s subjects now present in Canton, forthwith to make a surrender to me for the sendee of H. B. M. Government, to be delivered over to the Government of China, all the opium under their respective control, and to hold the British ships and vessels eng*ag*ed in the opium trade subject to my immediate control, and to forward me without delay a sealed list of all the British owned opium in their respective possession. And I, the said Chief Superintendent, do now, in the most full and unreserved manner, hold myself responsible, for and on the behalf of H. B. M. Govei*nment, to all and each of H. M. subjects surrendering* the said British owned opium into my hands, to be delivered over to the Chinese Government. And I, the said Chief Superintendent, do further caution all H. M. subjects in Canton, owners of or charo-ed with the manag-e- ment of opium, the property of British subjects, that failing* the surrender of the said opium into my hands at or before six o’clock this da}', I hereby declare H. M. Government wholly free of all manner of responsibility in respect of the said British owned opium. And it is especially to be understood that proof of British property, and value of British OAvned opium sm*rendered to me ag*reeably to this notice, shall be determined upon principles, and in a manner hereafter to be defined by her Majesty’s Government.” 326 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Within a few hours the merchants surrendered to Captain Elliot, twenty thousand two hundred and eig-hty-three chests of opium,* which Avas tendered by Captain Elliot to Commissioner Lin the following* day. The chests of opium were on hoard twenty-two vessels, and the Chinese authorities ordered them to anchor near the Bog’ue, to await fuidher orders, and Commis- sioner Lin demanded the name of every vessel, and the number of chests of opium which were on board each individual ship, making- a personal visit of inspection, to see that the ships had anchored in the Bog-ue according’ to his instructions. It Avas diu-ing- the month of Mai-ch, that the follow- ing- letter Avas addressed to our g-racious sovereig-n by the Hig-h Commissioner, who evinced the greatest anx- iety to ascertain hoAV the document was to he fonvarded. Letter to the Queex of England from the Imperial Coaimissioner, &c. Lin, High Imperial Commissioner, a Director of the Board of IVar, and Governor of the two Hoo ; Tang, a Dhector of the Board of War, and Governor of the two Kwang ; and E, a Vice-Director of the Board of W ar, and Lieutenant-Gover- nor of lAAvang-tung ; — conjointly addi-ess this communication to the Sovereign of the English nation, for the pm-pose of recpiuing the interdiction of opimn. “ That in the Avays of HeaA'en no partiality exists, and no sanction is allowed to the Injuring of others for the advantage of one's self; that in men’s natural desires there is not any great diversity (for where is he who does not abhor death and seek life ?) —these are uni\'ersally acknowledged principles ; and your honorable nation, though beyond the Avide ocean, at a distance of twenty thousand unles, acknoAvledges the same * The market value of this property exceeded nine millions of dollars. lin’s letter to queen victoria. 327 ways of Heaven, the same human nature, and has the like perception of the distinctions between life and death, benefit and injury. “ Our heavenly court has for its family aU that is within the four seas ; the great Emperor’s Heaven-like benevolence — there is none whom it does not overshadow : even regions remote, desert, and disconnected, have a paid in the general care of life and of wellbeing. “ In Kwan-tung, since the removal of the interdicts upon maritime communication, there has been a constantly-flowing stream of commercial intercourse. The jieople of the land, and those who come from abroad in foreign ships, have reposed together in the enjoyment of its advantages, for tens of years past, even until this time. And as regards the rhubarb, teas, raw silk, and similar rich and valuable products of China, should foreign nations be deprived of these, they would be without the means of continuing life. So that the heavenly court, by granting, in the oneness of its common benevolence, permission for the sale and exportation thereof — and that with- out stint and grudge — has Indeed extended its favom's to the utmost circuit [of the nations], making its heart one with the core of heaven and earth. “ But there is a tribe of depraved and barbarous people, who liav^ng manufactured opium for smoking, bring it hither for sale, and seduce and lead astray the simple folk, to the destruc- tion of their persons, and the draining of their resom’ces. Formerly the smokers thereof were few, but of late, from each to other, the practice has spread its contagion, and daily do its baneful effects more deeply pervade the central source — its rich, fruitful, and flom’ishlng population. It is not to be denied that the simple folk, inasmuch as they indulge their appetites at the expense of their lives, are indeed themselves the authors of their miseries : and why then shovdd they be pitied ? Yet, in the universal empire under the sway of the great and pure dynasty, it is of essential import, for the right direction of men’s minds, that their customs and manners 328 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. should be formed to correctness. How can it be borne that the living souls that dwell within these seas should be left wilfully to take a deadly poison ! Hence it is, that those who deal in opium, or who inhale its fumes, within this land, are all now to be siibjected to severest punishment, and that a perpetual interdict is to be placed on the practice so extensively prevailing. “ We have reflected, that this poisonous article is the clan- destine manufacture of artful schemers and depraved people of A'arious tribes under the dominion of your honorable nation. Doubtless, you, the honorable Sovereign of that nation, have not commanded the manufacture and sale of it. But amid the various nations there are a few only that make tliis opium ; it is by no means the case that all the nations are herein alike. And Ave have heard that in your honorable nation, too, the people are not permitted to inhale the drug, and that offenders in this particidar expose themselves to sure punishment. It is clearly from a knowledge of its injurious effects on man, that you have directed severe prohibitions against it. But Avhat is the prohibition of its use, in comparison Avith the pro- hibition of its being sold — of its being manufactured — as a means of thoroughly purifying the source ? “ Though not making use of it one’s self, to venture never- theless on the manufacture and sale of it, and with it to seduce the simple folk of this land, is, to seek one’s OAvn livelihood by the exposure of others to death, to seek one’s OAvn advantage by other men’s injury. And such acts are bitterly abhorrent to the nature of man— are utterly opposed to the Avays of Heaven. To the vigorous sway exercised by the celestial court over both the civilized and the barbarous, Avhat difficulty presents Itself to hinder the immediate taking of life ? But as we contemplate and give substantial being to the fidlness and vastness of the sacred intelligence, it befits us to adopt first the course of admonition. And not haAung as yet sent any communication to your honorable sovereignty, — should scA'erest measures of interdiction be all at once enforced, it LIN’S letter to the queen of ENGLAND. 329 njight be said, in excuse, that no previous knowledge thereof had been possessed. “We would now, then, concert Avith your honorable sove- reignty, means to bring to a perpetual end this opium, so hurtful to mankind : we in this land forbidding the use of it, — and you, in the nations under your dominion, forbidding its manufacture. As regards what has been already made, we Avould have your honorable nation issue mandates for the col- lection thereof, that the whole may be cast into the depths of the sea. We would thus prevent the longer existence be- tween these Heavens and this Earth, of any portion of the hurtful thing. Not only then wiU the people of this land be relieved from its pernicious influence : but the people of your honorable nation too (for as they make, how know we that they do not also smoke it ?) wiU, when the manufacture is in- deed forbidden, he likcAvise relieved from the danger of its use. Will not the result of this be the enjoyment by each of a felicitous condition of peace? For your honorable nation’s sense of duty being thus devout, shows a clear apprehension of celestial principles, and the supreme Heavens will ward off from you all calamities. It is also in perfect accordance with human nature, and must surely meet the approbation of sages. “ Besides aU this, the opium being so severely prohibited in this land, that there will be none found to smoke it, should your nation continue its manufacture, it Avill be discovered after all that no place will afford opportunity for selling it, that no profits will be attainable. Is it not far better to turn and seek other occupation than vainly to labour in the pur- suit of a losing employment ? “ And furthermore, whatever opium can be discovered in this land is entirely committed to the flames, and consumed. If any be again introduced in foreign vessels, it too must be subjected to a like process of destruction. It may well he feared, lest other commodities imported in such vessels should meet a common fate — the gem and the pebble not being dis- 330 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. tinguisbed. Under these circumstances, gain being no longer acquirable, and hurt having assmiied a Usible form, such as desire the injury of others wiD find that they themselves are the first to be injured. “ The powerful instrumentality whereby the celestial court holds in subjection all nations, is truly divine and awe-in- spiring beyond the power of computation. Let it not be said that early warning of this has not been given. “ When your Majesty receives this document, let us have a speedy communication in reply, advertising us of the measures you adopt for the entire cutting off the opium in every sea-port. Earnestly reflect hereon — earnestly observe these things. “ Taou-kwang, 1 9th year, the second month. “ Communication sent to the Sovereign of “ the English Nation.” Oil the 2nd of April, Cominissioiier Lin made the follotving- communication to Captain Elliot : that when one-fourth of the opium was in his possession, the native servants should be allowed to return to their masters, that the passag’e-boats should be allowed free egress tvlieii half of the drug was delivered up, the trade to be re-opened after three-fourths was given up, and all commercial affairs to proceed in the ordinary routine, when the whole number of chests were in his possession. On the 3rd, the Deput}^ Superintendent of trade, Mr. Johnston, accompanied by the Hong merchants, and an escort of Chinese soldiers, went doivn the river, to receive the opium for the High Commissioner. On the 5th, Commissioner Lin stated, that it was necessary that the owners of the opium should enter into an agTeement, never ag'ain to introduce opium OPIUM DELIVERED UP. 331 into the inner land ; that if such be done the vessel and carg'o should be confiscated to the use of government ; and that the parties offending* must be prepared to suffer the extreme penalty of the law.” The merchants sig’iied a bond to the following* effect^ — that they bound themselves for ever to cease trading’ in opium, and they united in this plain decla- ration, and in pledging* themselves to abide by their bond. In mercy we refrain from giving* the names of England’s merchants who signed the bond, but who recommenced the nefarious traffic at the first con- venient opportunity, stating* that this bond or pledge Avas forced from them. Such dishonorable conduct needs no comment of ours : with feAV, very few excep- tions, all the men Avhose names Avere to the bond, i*e-en 2 fa 2 *ed in the trade. On the 10th, the High Commissioner, accompanied by the Governor of Canton, Avent to the Bogue to superintend the delivery of the opium, Avhich was placed in buildings that had been erected for its reception near the Bogue. The half of the opium having been delivered up on the 5th of May, the soldiers Avere removed from the factories, and the armed boats from the river, and communication Avas alloAved to be resumed Avith the shipping, and sixteen traders, English, Americans, and Parsees, who liad been extensively engaged in the opium trade, Avere ordered to leave the Celestial Empire, never to return to it. On the. 24th, Captam Elliot left Canton, accom- panied by ten British subjects, Avhose names Avere on 832 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the list of the proscribed and banished traders : before quitting’ Cantoiq Captain Elliot issued a cii’cular to the merchants^ forbidding’ any English ship to enter the port^ and advising’ all British subjects to leave Canton, as he considered both life and property to be insecure. Our merchants addressed a despatch to the Secre- tary of State for Foreig-n Affairs, complaining of the treatment they had received from the Chinese autho- rities, also stating that they had been forced into signing a bond, and surrendering their property. The whole of their grievances were recapitulated ; the acts of aggression which had been committed by the Chinese authorities were duly set forth ; but not one syllable was introduced, which could imply that these acts of the local authorities, had been drawn down upon the merchants’ heads, in consequence of persisting to trade in a contraband article. The High Commissioner forwarded a despatch to Pekin, stating the surrender of the opium, and re- questing instructions. In the month of June, an Imperial edict arrived, praising Lin for his conduct in this matter, “which had been extremely well man- aged,” and ordering the opium to be destroyed near Canton, so that both “ the natives of the Celestial Eni])ire, and foreigners, might witness and be aware of the entire destruction of the destroring poison.” The place selected for carrying this order into effect, was Chin-kow, which is near the Bogue forts ; sixty-five officers, both civil and military, being’ present to witness the due performance of the Em- peroris command. The mode adopted for the de- OPIUM DESTROYED. 333 stmction of the drug* was the most effectual one ; spaces w'ere enclosed, in which trenches were dug*, into which a limited quantity of opium was put, salt water and lime being* mixed up with it j at low water the contents of the trenches were drawn off and thrown into the river. About five hundred workmen were employed, and the most rig*id search took place when they quitted the enclosure, to prevent any of the drug* being* purloined : one poor wretch, who was detected pilfering* a small piece of opium, underwent the extreme penalty of the law, on the spot : five minutes after the searcher had found the opium concealed, the wretched victim was a breathless disfigured mass of clay. The destruction of the opium commenced on the 3rd, and terminated on the 22nd of June, 1839, Commissioner Lin superintending* the whole process; a certain number of the civil and military authorities, keeping g*uard during the night. Reports have been spread, that the whole of the opium that had been delivered up, was not destroyed, but those who were in China, and are cognisant of the facts, and the firm unflinching integrity of the High Commissioner Lin, are fully convinced that every particle of the opium, then delivered to the Chinese authorities, was utterly and absolutely destroyed : we believe, and with justice, that Lin is regarded by all unprejudiced, clear-headed men, as one of the most talented, learned, and extra- ordinary men of the present age ; his character although stern, is a noble one, he is a true patriot, having his countr 3 '’s welfare, and not his own 'nterest, at heart.* * Being appointed an Imperial High Commissioner is the greatest 334 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. In the month of July^ a small schooner^ on her voyag’e to Hong’-Kong*, named the Black Joke, was attacked hy some Chinese soldiers^ who murdered five of the crew, 'v^"Ounding• and cruelly maltreating* a pas- seng’er, whom they left for dead, after cutting* off his ears, which they placed in tlie poor fellow’s mouth. This caused a feeling* of extreme irritation among* our countrymen, who all left Macao for Hong*-Kong*, to be beyond the jurisdiction of Lin. The Hig*h Commis- sioner was g*reatly exasperated ag*ainst the merchants who had recommenced the traffic in opium ; as he had received imperative commands from the Emperor not to leave Canton, until he could report and g*uarantee the entire suppression and abandonment of the contra- band traffic, and the continuance of the lawful trade. Lin, accompanied by the Governor of Canton, and escorted by a larg*e number of Chinese troops, visited Macao j hut when he discovered that the Eng*lish had quitted the settlement, immediately returned to Can- ton. The Hig’h Commissioner kneAV that it was impossible to surprise, or drive our fleet from Hong*-Kong*, there- fore he resolved, if possible, to starve the foreig*ners into submission, and issued an edict which forbade all natives supplying* the foreig’n vessels, or foi*eig*ners, either with provisions or water. Captain Elliot addressed a communication to the local authorities of CoAvloon, requesting* them to forward an enclosure to honor that can he conferred by the Emperor, as it invests the party rvith the power and authority of his sovereign. A most curious work has been written by Lin, upon political and scientific topics; and Chinese scholars affirm that this composition equals any that have been written by Confucius. SEVEEE MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE CHINESE. 335 Lin; this they refused to do. Captain Elliot then sent a ^ig;, ordering- the crew to g’o on shore and pur- chase provisions ; this order they carried into execu- tion, hut just as the gig- was pushing- off it was stopped by the native police ; whereupon a skirmish ensued between our sailors and the crews of three war-junks, which ended, after some hours firing-, in the war-junks retiring-. On the 5th of September, Captain Elliot addressed the following- to the Chinese “The men of the Eng-- lish nation desire nothing- but peace, but they cannot submit to be starved. The Imperial cruisers they have no vdsh to molest or impede, but they must not prevent the people selling the English provisions. To deprive men of good, is the act only of the unfriendly and hostile.” As affairs still bore the same aspect on the 11th, Captain Smith, of H.M.’s ship Volage, gave notice of his intent to blockade the river and port of Canton. In October, negotiations were entered into, for continuing- the lawful trade, between Captain Elliot and the British merchants on one side, the local g-o- vernrnent of Canton and the Hono- merchants on the O other : Captain Elliot had given security for the negotiations being- carried out in an honest, upright manner, the High Commissioner had placed his sig- nature to the document, when the arrival of the 2'homas Coutts, Avhose captain had signed the bond against trafficking in opium, caused the whole affair to be crushed. Severe measures were now adopted by the Chinese ag-ainst all the Eng-lish who were resident at Macao, and Captain Elliot deemed it 336 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. necessary to order all vessels belong-ing* to subjects of Great Britain, to congTeg’ate at Tung’-ku, where they would be under the safeg’uard of H.M.’s ships Volage and Hyacinth. On the 3rd of November an eng'ag’e- ment took place off Chuen-pe (which is about five miles from the Bogme forts), between our two men-of- war, and a fleet of sixteen war -junks, under the com- mand of Admiral Kwan ; three junks were sunk, one blo^vn up, and the rest dispersed. Several merchants had g'one in a merchantman to Hongf-Kong’, but as the vessel was fired at from the opposite mainland, Cowloon, the shipping’ subsequently withdrew to Lin- tin, and Tung’-ku. On the 6th of December, Com- missioner Lin declared commercial intercourse to be at an end, between the natives of Great Britain and China, also forbidding’ the importation of g’oods be- long-ing’ to subjects of, or the manufactm’es of. Great Britain, to be imported in any vessel then trading* to China. In the month of January 1840, all the sub- jects of Great Britain then in China, were either resident at Macao, or on board vessels which were anchored at Tung’-ku or Lin-tin. On the 8th, Cap- tain Smith, of H.M.’s ship VoJaye, forwarded a notice to the authorities sig’nif 3 ’ing’ his intention of blockad- ing- the port and river of Canton on the 15th instant. On the 14th, an Imperial edict was promulg-ated by the Chinese authorities, which stated, That the mig’hty Emperor was well pleased with all that had been done b}^ the Hig’h Commissioner Lin j that a distinction in future Avas to be made in the treatment of the Eng’lish and the natives of other foreig’n nations BLOCK.\DE OF CANTON KIVER 337 the natives of other foreig-n nations must be obedient and submissive^ they must not shelter or protect any man, woman, or child, belong-ing* to the Engdish nation, nor convey them or their property into any harbour. If they disobey these orders them punishment will be g'reat.” In the month of June, H.M.’s ships of war, Wellesley, Alligator, and the steamer Madagascar, arrived, and Commodore Sir Gordon Bremiier gave notice of the blockade of the Canton river. Shortly afterwards an attempt was made by the Chinese to set fire to the fleet, several fire rafts being* sent in among them. Captain Elliot sent a communication to the Chinese authorities, informing them that the Queen of Great Britain had appointed high and mighty men to make known the true state of affairs to the Emperor of China.” Before the termination of the month the British expedition had arrived in China, which consisted of three line-of-battle ships, two frig-ates, fourteen other ships, and four armed steamers. The land forces were composed of H.M.’s 18th, 26th, and 49th Reg*iments, and the Bengal Volunteer Corps ; our troops mustering about three thousand one hundred strong*. Lord John Russell stated, “ That the war Avas set afoot to obtain repara- tion for insults and injuries offered H.M.’s Super- intendent and subjects, to obtain indemnification for the losses the merchants had sustained under threats of violence, and lastly, get security that persons and property trading* Avith China should be protected from insult and injur}", and trade maintained upon a proper footing.” In the month of July an edict Avas issued Avhich VOL. II. z 338 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. contained the following’ scale of rewards for the cap- ture of our ships and men : — Dollars. For the capture of one of the larg'est ships 20,000 For the destruction of the same . . 10,000 For each merchantman captured, the whole carg’o j save the arms, ammunition, and opium. Each naval captain who was taken prisoner 5,000 If killed, and their heads brought . 3,000 English prisoner of no rank ... 100 For their head 50 Sepoy prisoner 30 For their head 20 It would be both useless and unprofitable were we to recapitulate the daily occurrences of the war in China, as the events are too fresh in the minds of the present g’eneration to need recounting. Sufiice it to say, that after a g’rievous expenditure of human life. Keying*, a member of the royal family, Niu-Kien, a general, Eli-pu, lieutenant-general, were authorised by the Emperor of China to accede to all our termsy using the Imperial seal and sign-manual; and the Treaty of Nan-kin was signed on the 29th of August, 1842. However diplomatists may attempt to gloss over the cause of the war with China, every clear- headed, right-hearted man, must allow that it was caused by our merchants violating the laws of the Celestial Empire, by persisting in trading* in a contra- band article, the use of which produced the most ENGLISH OFFICIAL REASONS FOR HOSTILITIES. 339 demoralizing- effects upon the population. We will not arg-ue^ if Christians^ and the Ministers of a Chris- tian Queen^ Avere acting- rig-htly in upholding- the merchants of Great Britain in violating- the laAvs of China. But this is quite certain, that having ENTERED INTO A TREATY WITH THE EmPEROR OF China, Great Britain’s monarch, and England’s SONS, ARE BOUND BY EVERY FEELING OF HONOR, HONESTY, AND PROBITY, NEITHER TO SANCTION, EN- COURAGE, OR VIOLATE THE LAWS OF ChINA BY THE IMPORTATION OF OPIUM. Ask those merchants avIio have amassed larg-e fortunes, and who have returned to their native shores, up to the past year, 1848, Iioav much of their g-old has been acquired in pandering- to the vices, and hi-ing-ino- destruction on the souls and bodies of their felloAV-men, after they had sig-ned a bond, pledg-ing- themselves never ag-ain to traffic in opium. They will not shrink from the inquii-y, as our British merchants maintain they have a rig-ht to sell opium, as they Avere forced to sig-n the bond 5 althoug-h the traffic in the accursed drug-, is China’s curse, and bring-s dis- honor, disg-race, and odium, on the name of Christian Eng-land. The folloAving- Avere the official reasons, Avhich were assig-ned by H. M. Ministers for commencing- hostilities in China: — 1st. “ To obtain a recognition of the King of England as the Independent sovereign of a civilised country. 2nd. ‘'To require an apology for the treatment of Lord Napier, as co.aiaussioner of the King of England. 3rd. “ Compensation must be made for the losses caused z 2 340 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. to British merchants by the stoppage of the trade while Lord Napier was at Canton, and for some time after his departure. 4th. “ Until particular rules are framed by the consent of both governments, British subjects shall not, for any wrong done either to another British subject, or to a Chinese sub- ject, be liable to more severe punishment than is appUcable to the like offence by the laws of England. 5th. “No hoppo, or other authority whatever, shall be at liberty to impose any tax, or duty, direct or indirect, on any foreign ships or vessels, on any articles of export or import, or any boats, coolies, or other conveyance of goods, other than, or different from the prescribed imperial tariff, 6th. “ Vessels not engaged in trade shall pay the ordi- nary pilotage, but no other duty or charge whatever. They shall be freely allowed to purchase refreshments, and articles requisite for repair or refit, and to hire workmen for such purpose. 7 th. “ IMerchant vessels shall pay shipping charges of all kinds according to their real size, as ascertained by their cer- tificate of registry. None of the persons engaged in supply- ing them with provisions or stores, shall be subject to any fee or exaction whatever in that capacity. 8th. “ British subjects may take their families to any place where they reside themselves, and may employ any sort of vehicle they may find agreeable or convenient, as freely as natives. 9th. “ British subjects may visit any part of the country under passports signed by the British commissioner, and countersigned by the Cliinese authority at the place. 10th. “ A British subject desirous of resichng, for a lawful object, in any part of the country, shall report liimself in person to the chief magistrate of the place, specifying his lodging, but shall not thereafter be in any way molested or controlled in his pursuits, so long as they are conducted in a lawful and inoffensive manner. EDICT ISSUED BEFORE THE TREATY OF NANKIN. 341 1 1th. “ British ships may proceed to any port in China at which an imperial custom-house has been established, and land and ship goods as freely, and on the same terms, as at Canton. Should there be no British commissioner or deputy commissioner at such port, British subjects that may be charged with any offences must be sent for trial to the nearest port at which a British commissioner resides. 12th. “ British traders may have boats, or other convey- ance, to carry goods from any one port of the country to another, paying the same rates of transit duties as natives.” The following’ Imperial edicts preceded the sig’ning’ of the treaty of Nankin : — “ Keying and his colleagues have sent up a document containing a report and rough sketch of the articles of the convention discussed at a personal conference with H. B. M.’s Plenipotentiary in China. “ I have inspected the report, and have a fuU knoAvledge of the whole of it. “ I, the Emperor, seriously considering the evils to the uncountable number of the people, and the important conse- quences to the greatness, power, and station of the empire, and I cannot avoid being constrained and forced to grant what is requested ; it is but one time of bitterness and trouble, but then ease, repose, and peace, may be reckoned on for ever ; and not only will the two provinces of Keang- soo and Cheakeang be preserved entire, but the empire will be held together in its integrity ! As to those items in the report relating to trade, there are some that are improper, and require further consideration. Now, as the barbarian ships are willing to leave the Chang river, and are also Avilling to retire from Chaoupaau hiU, that which they have before requested relative to a free-trade at five ports, the country of Fuhchow must be excluded; permission to trade thither cannot by any means be granted, but another port may be exchanged for it; they may be allowed to trade. 342 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. coming and going, at the four ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghae. “ As to the matter of the Hong merchants’ debts, the said great ministers must necessarily accommodate themselves to circumstances, and in a perspicuous edict explain the matter thus to the English. “ The said nation has traded with China for more than 200 years, and heretofore all has been harmony and good will ; and the trade has always been transacted by barter and money. But as the Hong merchants and yourselves have between you mutually transacted the aft'airs of trade, our public officers have hitherto never examined into, or troubled themselves about the trade. The affair of the rise and fall in prices, whether low or high, are very petty, trifling matters. Fur- ther, our speech and language are unintelligible to each other ; and most decidedly the district officers wiU not be able to manage the mattei'. " Hereafter, the Cliinese merchants at all the ports will adopt extraordinary modes of giving trouble and cheating, even to cutting — i, e., demanding excessive discounts, when there will be no hindrance or fear of laying a clear statement of the case before the district officers who will certainly punish the said merchant (delinquent); decidedly there will be no indulgence shown. As to the 6,000,000/. it is proper that I should give them, by which my sincerity and good faith will be manifest ; and they are to be collected from the salt com- missioners and provincial treasuries of the three provinces of Chekeang, Keangsoo, and Ganhwuy, the richest supplying the deficiencies of the poorest. As to correspondence being conducted on terms of perfect equality between the officers of the two governments, and the barbarians who have been made captives, and the Chinese who have been seduced (into the employ of the English), I grant all these supplicated favours ; let the captives be released ; and I order that all the matters (the three just mentioned) be allowed which have been requested. EDICT ISSUED BEFORE THE TREAT!" OF NANKIN. 343 “ Further, with reference to what is contained in the report about sealing ; the said barbarians do not require your seal as proof, but the imperial seal of the empire to be fixed as a guarantee (of the treaty); so I shall not fall in dignity — and the feelings of my imperial station will not be lost. “ Before I have disseminated my imperial rescripts to each of the dependencies of Cliina, all sealed with the imperial seal of the empire ; and I order that my rescripts be sent under a flying seal with the despatches from the board of civil office ; and they are to be forwarded in this ceremonious manner, that all the clauses which have been clearly reported may be properly managed. “From the time of this settlement, the said great minister must especially report to the emperor, behaving with perfect sincerity, that of the things supplicated there are none which have not been granted. “ F rom this epoch of a thorough free trade, there should be everlasting peace and harmony. Your nation shoffid also treat us with mutual, perfect sincerity ; and certainly not again commence military operations in direct opposition to heavenly principles ; for not only have you already caused troubles and confusion in many provinces, but you must not again come seeking causes of quaiTel and war ; and just so, the coast and territories of the prorinces of Canton, Fuhkeen, Taewan (Formosa) Chekeang, Keangnan, Sahntong, Chihle, and Shunteen (Peking), the barbarian vessels of war are not allowed to enter and frequent. “ Since at this time we are at peace, of the officers and troops in each province, there are some that shoidd be sent away, and others detained. We have ah’eady consulted as to the ancient cities of China, her signal pyramids and bat- teries ; and it is proper that they should all be rebuilt suc- cessively, according to fonner custom; these have not been of modem erection ; but they were built for the purpose of guarding against and seizing the pirates, and were not esta- blished to guard against the said barbarians ; and we cer- 844 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. tainly must not incoherently and disorderly produce sus- picion and apprehension. Those distant provinces which have not yet heard of or possess a full knowledge of the peace ; if any of your (barbarian) sliips abruptly enter, and are suddenly attacked, you must not make this a cause of screening yourselves, borrowing pretences, and mouthing. “ The whole of the above matters rest whoUy in the deep consideration and extreme care of the said minister and his colleagues ; let them be wholly true and sincere in dehbe- rating and deciding ; and so far ever put an end to the risings of war ; there must not be the least misconception or misunderstanding. This is not an affair or time to be idle, or to dismiss the matter in a hm'ried, remiss, and irregular manner ; but regard it with severe and serious attention ! — with sincere and serious attention regard it ! “ Hurry on this edict at more than at the rate of 600 le a day, and order him (Keying) to inform himself of its con- tents. Respect this.” Treaty between Her IVIajesty and the Emperor OF China, Signed in the English and Chinese Languages, at Nan-kin, August 29, 1842. With other Documents relating thereto. \^RatiJicatimis exchanged at Hong-Kong, June 26, 1843.] Her hlajesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and his INIajesty the Emperor of China, being desirous of putting an end to the misunderstandings and consequent hostihtles which have arisen between the two countries, have resolved to conclude a treaty for that pur- pose, and have therefore named as their plenipotentiaries, that is to say : — Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Sir Henry Pottinger, Bart, a major-general in the service of the East India Company, &c., &c. TRKA.TY BETWEEN ENGL.\ND AND CHINA. 345 And his Imperial Majesty the Emperor of China, the High Commissioners Keying, a member of the Imperial House, a guardian of the Crown Prince, and general of the garrison of Canton ; and Elipu, of the Imperial Kindred, graciously permitted to wear the insignia of the first rank, and the distinction of a peacock’s feather, lately minister and gover- nor-general, &c., and now lieutenant-general commanding at Chapoo ; Who, after having communicated to each other their respective fuU powers, and found them to be in good and due fonn, have agreed upon and concluded the following articles : — Article I. —There shall henceforward be peace and friendship between her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and his Majesty the Emperor of China, and between their respective subjects, who shall enjoy fuU security and protection for their persons and property within the dominions of the other. Article II. — His Majesty the Emperor of Cliina agrees, that British subjects, with their families and establishments, shaU be allowed to reside, for the purpose of cari-j^ing on their mercantile pursuits, without molestation or restraint, at the cities and towns of Canton, Amoy, Eoochowfoo, Ningpo, and Shanghai ; and her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., will appoint superintendents, or consular officers, to reside at each of the above-named cities or towns, to be the medium of communication between the Chinese authorities and the said merchants, and to see that the just "duties and other dues of the Chinese Government, as here- after provided for, are duly discharged by her Britannic Majesty’s subjects. Article III. — It being obviously necessary and desirable that British subjects should have some ]iort whereat they 346 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. may careen and refit their ships when required, and keep scores for that purpose. Ids Majesty the Emperor of China cedes to her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., the island of Hong Kong, to he possessed in perpetuity by her Britannic Majesty, her heirs and successors, and to be governed by such laws and regulations as her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., shall see fit to direct. Akticle IV. — The Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of six millions of dollars, as the value of the opium which was delivered up at Canton in the month of March 1839, as a ransom for the lives of her Britannic Majesty’s superintendent and subjects who liad been imprisoned and threatened with death by the Cliinese high officers. Akticle V. — The Government of China haHng com- pelled the British merchants trading at Canton to deal exclusively with certain Chinese merchants, called Hong Merchants (or Co-Hong), who had been licensed by the Chinese Government for that purpose, the Emperor of China agrees to abolish that practice in future at all ports where British merchants may reside, and to permit them to carry on their mercantile transactions with whatever persons they please ; and his Imperial Majesty further agrees to pay to the British Government the sum of tlmee millions of dollars, on account of debts due to British subjects by some of the said Hong merchants, or Co-Hong, who have become insol- vent, and who owe very large sums of money to subjects of her Britannic Majesty. Akticle VI. — The Government of her Britannic Majesty having been obliged to send out an expedition to demand and obtain redi’ess for the Holent and unjust proceedings of the Chinese high authorities towards her Britannic Majesty’s officer and subjects, the Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of twelve millions of dollars, on account of the expenses TRKVl’Y BETWEEN ENGLiiND AND CHINA. 347 incurred ; and her Britannic Majesty’s plenipotentiary volun- tarily agrees, on behalf of her Majesty, to deduct from the said amount of twelve millions of dollars, any sums which may have been received by her Majesty’s combined forces, as ransom for cities and towns in China, subsecpxent to the 1st day of August 1841. Article VII. — It is agreed, that the total amount of twenty-one millions of dollars, described in the three pre- ceding Articles, shall be paid as follows : — Six millions Immediately. Six millions in 1843; that is, three millions on or before the 30th of the month of June, and three millions on or before the 31st of December. Five millions in 1844 ; that is, two millions and a half on or before the 30th of June, and two millions and a half on or before the 31st of December. Four millions in 1845 ; that is, two millions on or before the 30th of June, and two millions on or before the 31st of December. And it is further stipulated, that interest, at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum, shall be paid by the Government of China on any portion of the above sums that are not punc- tually discharged at the periods fixed. Article VIII. — The Emperor of China agrees to release, unconditionally, all subjects of her Britannic ISIajesty (whether natives of Europe or India), who may be in confine- ment at this moment in any part of the Chinese empire. Article IX. — The Emperor of China agrees to jJublish and promulgate, under His Imperial Sign Manual and Seal, a full and entire amnesty and act of indemnity to all subjects of China, on account of their having resided under, or having had dealings and Intercourse with, or having entered the ser- 348 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. vice of, her Britannic Majesty, or of her Majesty’s officers; and His Imperial Majesty further engages to release all Chinese subjects who may be at this moment in confinement for similar reasons. Akticle X. — His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees to estabhsh at all the ports which are, by the Second Article of this Treaty, to be thrown open for the resort of British Merchants, a fair and regular Tariff of export and import customs and other dues, wliich Tariff shall be publicly noti- fied and promulgated for general information ; and the Emperor further engages, that, when British merchandize shall have once paid at any of the said ports the regulated customs and dues, agreeable to the Tariff to be hereafter fixed, such merchandize may be conveyed by Chinese mer- chants to any proHnce or city in the interior of the empire of China, on paying a further amount as transit duties, Avhich shall not exceed * per cent, on the tariff value of such goods. Article XI. — It is agreed that her Britannic Majesty’s Chief High Officer in China shall correspond with the Chinese High Officers, both at the capital and in the pro- vinces, under the tenn “ communication the subordinate British Officers and Chinese High Officers in the provinces, under the tenns “ statement,” on the part of the fonuer, and on the part of the latter, “ declaration and the subordinates of both countries on a footing of perfect equality : merchants and others not holding official situations, and therefore not in- cluded in the above, on both sides, to use the term “ represen- tation” in all papers addressed to, or intended for the notice of, the respective Governments. Article XII. — On the assent of the Emperor of China to this Treaty being received, and the discharge of the first instalment of money, her Britannic Majesty’s forces avUI retire from Nankin and the Grand Canal, and will no longer * See “ Declaration.” p. .350. TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CHINA. 349 molest or stop the trade of China. The military post at Chinhae will also be withdrawn ; but the islands of Koolang- soo, and that of Chusan, will continue to be held by her Majesty’s forces until the money payments, and the arrange- ments for opening the ports to British merchants be com- pleted. Article XIII. — The Ratification of this Treaty by her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., and his Majesty the Emperor of China, shall be exchanged as soon as the great distance which separates England from China will admit ; but, in the mean time, counterpart copies of it, signed and sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on behalf of their respective Sovereigns, shall be mutually delivered, and all its provisions and arrangements shall take effect. Done at Nankin, and signed and sealed by the Plenipo- tentiaries on board her Britannic Majesty’s ship Cornwallis, this twenty-ninth day of August 1842 ; corresponding with the Chinese date, twenty-fourth day of the seventh month, in the twenty-second year of Taou-kwang. (L. S.) Henry Pottinger, Her M.’s Plenipotentiary. Seal of the Chinese High Commissioner. Signature Signature Signature of 3d of 2d of 1st Chinese Chinese Chinese Plenipotentiary. Plenipotentiary. Plenipotentiary. 350 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Declaration respecting Transit Duties. [Signed in the English and Chinese Languages.] Whereas by the tenth Article of the Treaty between Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of Cluna, con- cluded and signed on board Her Britannic iSIajesty’s ship “ Cornwallis,” at Nankin, on the 29th day of August 1842, corresponding with the Chinese date 24 th day of the 7th month, in the 22d year of Taou-kwang, it is stipulated and agreed, that His ISIajesty the Emperor of China shall establish at aU the ports wliich, by the second Article of the said Treaty, are to be thi’own open for the resort of British mer- chants, a fair and regular Tariff of export and import cus- toms and other dues ; wlilch Tariff shall be pubhcly notified and promulgated for general information ; and further, that when British merchandize shall have once paid, at any of the said ports, the regidated customs and dues, agreeably to the Tariff to be hereafter fixed, such merchandize may be con- veyed by Cliinese merchants to any province or city in the interior of the empire of China, on paying a further amount of duty as transit duty ; And whereas the rate of transit duty to be so levied was not fixed by the said Treaty ; Now therefore, the undersigned Plenipotentiaries of Her Britannic IMajesty, and of His Majesty the Emperor of China, do hereby, on proceeding to the exchange of the Batificatlons of the said Treaty, agree and declare, that the further amount of duty to be so levied on British merchan- dize, as transit duty, shall not exceed the present rates, wliich are upon a moderate scale ; and the Ratifications of the said Treaty are exchanged subject to the express decla- ration and stipulation herein contained. In witness whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the present Declaration, and have affixed thereto their respective seals. GENERAL REGULATIONS. 351 Done at Houg-Kong, the 26th day of June, one thousand eight hundred and forty-three ; corresponding with the Chinese date, Taou-kwang twenty-third year, fifth month, and twenty-ninth day. (L. S.) Henry Pottinger. Seal and Signature of the Chinese Plenipotentiary. General Kegulations, Under which the British Trade is to be conducted at the ^five ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Niny-po, and Shang-hai. I. Pilots. — AVhenever a British merchantman shall arrive off any of the five ports opened to trade, viz. Canton, Foo- chf w-foo, Amoy, Xing-po, or Shang-hai, phots shall be allowed to take her immediately into port ; and, in like manner, when such British ships shall have settled all legal duties and charges, and is about to return home, pilots shall be imme- diately granted to take her out to sea, without any stoppage or delay. Regarding the remuneration to be given these pilots, that wUl be equitably settled by the British Consul appointed to each particular port, who will determine it with due reference to the distance gone over, the risk run, &c. II. Custom-house Guards. — The Chinese Superin- tendent of Customs at each port will adopt the means that he may judge most proper to prevent the revenue suffering by fraud or smuggling. Whenever the pilot shall have brought any British merchantman into port, the Superin- tendent of Customs will depute one or two trusty Custom- 352 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. house officers, whose duty it will he to watch against frauds on the revenue. These will either live in a boat of their own, or stay on board the English ship, as may best suit their convenience. Their food and expenses will be supplied them from day to day from the Custom-house, and they may not exact any fees whatever from either the Commander or Consignee. Should they violate this regulation, they shall be punished proportionately to the amount so exacted. III. Masters of Ships reporting themselves on Arrival. — Whenever a British vessel shall have cast anchor at any one of the above-mentioned ports, the Captain will, within four-and-twenty hours after arrival, proceed to the British Consulate, and deposit his ship’s papers, bills of lading, manifest, &c. in the hands of the Consul; failing to do which, he will subject himself to a penalty of two hundred dollars. For presenting a false manifest, the penalty will be five hundred dollars. For breaking bulk and commencing to discharge, before due permission shall be obtained, the penalty Avill be five hundred dollars, and confiscation of the goods so discharged. The Consul, having taken possession of the ship’s papers, will immediately send a written communication to the Super- intendent of Customs, specifying the register tonnage of the ship and the particulars of the cargo she has on board ; all of which being done in due form, permission will then be given to discharge, and the duties levied as provided for in the tariff. IV. Commercial Dealings between English and Chinese Merchants. — It having been stipulated that English merchants may trade with whatever native merchants they please, — should any Chinese merchant fraudulently ab- scond or incur debts which he is unable to discharge, the Cliinese authorities, upon complaint being made thereof, will of course do their utmost to bring the offender to justice ; it GENERAL REGULATIONS. 353 must, however, be distinctly understood, that if the defaulter really cannot be found, or be dead, or bankrupt, and there be not wherewithal to pay, the Enghsh merchants may not appeal to the former custom of the Hong merchants paying for one another, and can no longer expect to have their losses made good to them. V. Tonnage Dues. — Every English merchantman on entering any one of tlie above-mentioned five ports, shall pay tonnage-dues at the rate of five mace per register-ton, in full of all charges. The fees formerly levied on entry and de- parture, of every description, are henceforth abolished. VI. Import and Export Duties. — Goods, whether im- ported into, or exported from, any one of the above-mentioned five ports, are henceforward to be taxed according to the tariff as now fixed and agreed upon, and no further sums are to be levied beyond those which are specified in the tariff ; all duties Incurred by an Enghsh merchant vessel, whether on goods imported or exported, or in the shape of tonnage-dues, must first be paid up in fuU ; which done, the Superintendent of Customs will grant a port clearance, and this being shown to the British Consul, he will thereupon return the ship’s papers and permit the vessel to depart. VII. — Examination of Goods at the Custom- house. — Every Enghsli merchant, having cargo to load or discharge, must give due Intimation thereof, and hand particulars of the same to the Consul, Avho will Immediately despatch a recog- nised hnguist of his own establislunent to communicate the particulars to the Superintendent of Customs, that the goods may be duly examined, and neither party subjected to loss. The English merchant must also have a properly qualified person on the spot to attend to his Interests when his goods are being examined for duty, otherwise, should there be com- plaints, these cannot be attended to. VOL. II. A A 354 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Regai’cllng such goods as are subject by the tariff to an ad valorem duty, if the English merchant cannot agree with the Chinese officer in fixing a value, then each party shall call two or three merchants to look at the goods, and the highest price at which any of these merchants would be willing to purchase, shall be assumed as the value of the goods. To fix the tare on any article, such as tea, if the English merchant cannot agree with the Custom-house officer, then each party shall choose so many chests out of every hundred, wliich being first weighed in gross, shall afterwards be tared, and the average tare iipon these chests shall be assumed as the tare upon the whole; and, upon this principle, shall the tare be fixed upon all other goods in packages. If there should stiU be any disputed points which cannot be settled, the English merchant may appeal to the Consul, who will communicate the particulars of the case to the Superin- tendent of Customs, that it may be equitably arranged. But the appeal must be made on the same day, or it wiU not be regarded. AVliile such points are still open, the Superinten- dent of Customs will delay to insert the same in his books, thus affording an opportunity that the merits of the case may be duly tried and sifted. VIII. Manner of Paying the Duties. — It is herein- before provided, that every English vessel that enters any one of the five ports shall pay all duties and tonnage-dues before she be permitted to depart. The Superintendent of Customs will select certain shroffs, or banking establishments of known stability, to whom he wiU give licenees, authorizing them to receive duties from the English merchants on behalf of Government, and the receipt of these shroffs for any monies paid them shaU be considered as a Government voucher. In the paying of these duties, different kinds of foreign money may be made use of ; but as foreign money is not of equal purity with sycee silver, the English Consuls appointed to the different ports will, according to time, place, and cii’cum- GENERAL REGUI^mONS. 355 stances, aiTange with the Superintendents of Customs at each, what coins may be taken in payment, and what per-centage may be necessary to make them equal to standard or pure sUver. IX. AVeights and Measures. — Sets of balance- yards for the weighing of goods, of money-weights and of measui'es, prepared in exact conformity to those liitherto in use at the Custom-house of Canton, and duly stamped and sealed in proof thereof, will be kept in possession of the Superintendent of Customs, and also at the British Con- sulate at each of the five ports, and tliese shall be the standards by which all duties shall be charged, and all sums paid to Government. In case of any dispute arising between British merchants and Chinese officers of Customs, regarding the weights or measures of goods, reference shall be made to these standai’ds, and disputes decided accordingly. X. Lighters or Cargo Boats. — AA'henever any English merchant shall have to load or discharge cargo, he may hire whatever kind of lighter or cargo-boat he pleases, and the sum to be paid for such boat can be settled between the parties themselves without the interference of Government. The number of these boats shall not be limited, nor shall a monopoly of them be granted to any parties. If any smug- crlino' take place in them, the offenders wifi, of course be punished according to law. Should any of these boat-people, while engaged in conveying goods for English merchants, fraudulently abscond with the property, the Chinese autho- rities will do their best to apprehend them ; but, at the same time, the English merchants must take every due precaution for the safety of thefi- goods. XL Transshipment of Goods. — Xo English merchant ships may transship goods without special permission ; should any urgent case happen where transshipment is necessar}", the A A 2 350 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. circumstances must first be transmitted to the Consul, who will give a certificate to that effect, and the Superintendent of Customs will then send a special ofiicer to be present at the transshipment. If any one presumes to transship without such permission being asked for and obtained, the whole of the goods so illicitly transshipped will be confiscated. XII. SuBORDI^'ATE CONSULAR OFFICERS. — At any place selected for the anchorage of the English merchant ships, there may be appointed a subordinate consular ofiicer, of ap- proved good conduct, to exercise due control over the seamen and others. He must exert liimself to prevent quarrels between the Enghsh seamen and natives, this being of the utmost importance. Should anything of the kind unfortu- nately take place, he will in like manner do his best to arrange it amicably. A^Tien sailors go on shore to walk, officers shall be required to accompany them, and, shotdd disturbances take place, such officers will be held responsible. The Cliinese officers may not impede natives from coming alongside the ships to sell clothes or other necessaries to the sailors living on board. XIII. Disputes between British Subjects and Chi- nese. — AVhenever a British subject has reason to complain of a Chinese, he must first proceed to the Consulate and state his grievance ; the Consul will thereupon inquire into the merits of the case, and do his utmost to arrange it amicably. In like manner, if a Chinese have reason to complain of a British subject, he shall no less listen to his complaint, and endeavour to settle it in a friendly manner. If an Enghsh merchant have occasion to address the Chinese authorities, he shall send sueh address thi’ough the Consul, who will see that the lan- guage is becoming ; and, if otherwise, will direct it to be changed, or will refuse to convey the adch’ess. If, unfortu- nately, any disputes take place of such a nature that the Consul cannot arrange them amicably, then he shall request GENERAL REGULATIONS. 857 the assistance of a Chinese officer, that they may together examine into the merits of the case, and decide it equitably. Regarding the punishment of English criminals, the English Government Avill enact the laws necessary to attain that end, and the Consul will he empowered to put them in force ; and, regarding the punishment of Chinese criminals, these will be tried and punished by their own laws, in the way provided for by the correspondence which took place at Kankin after the concluding of the peace. XIY. British Government Cruizers anchoring M ITHIN THE PoRTS. — An English Government cruizer will anchor within each of the five ports, that the Consid may have the means of better restraining sailors and others, and preventing disturbances. But these government cruizers are not to be put on the same footing as merchant A'essels, for as they bring no merchandize and do not come to trade, they Avill of course pay neither dues nor charges. The resi- dent Consul will keep the Superintendent of Customs duly informed of the arrival and departure of such government cruizers, that he may take his measures accordingly. XY. On the Security to be given for British Mer- chant Yessels. — It has hitherto been the custom, Avhen an English vessel entered the port of Canton, that a Chinese Ilong merchant stood security for her, and all duties and charges Avere paid through such security-merchant. But these security-merchants being now done away with, it is understood that the British Consul will henceforth be security for all British merchant ships entering any of the aforesaid five ports. 358 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTER XII. Goveknmest — Emperor — ^Ministry — Various tribunals — Espionage — Government of Cities — The Penal Code of China — Punishments — For various crimes, and the use of opium — Laws for presenting Petitions — Maxims of the Emperor Kang-he — Code of Laws — Pekin Gazette — Prohibitions connected with those holding the rank of Man- darins — Slavery — Laws for slaves — Laws for servants — Price of slaves. It is essential, in forming- a just estimate of the character and hahits of a nation, to be conversant -with their g’overnment and laAvs; and no country affords a more striking- example of the truth of this proposition than China. The monarchy is the most absolute that ever existed, the Emperor having- un- bounded power and authority over the lives and pro- perty of his subjects ; liis words are oracles, and his commands are obeyed and executed with alacrity and humility; being- regarded as the Yiceg-erent of the Ruler of the world, and the father of liis people : upon the reciprocal duties then of parent and children, the laws and political g-overument of China are es- tablished ; and the principle is found interwoven through all their institutions. Accordingly we find the Emperor designated as, “ Son of Heaven,” August Sovereign,” Holy Emperor,” “ Father POSITION OCCUPIED BY THE EMPEROR. 359 of the Empire/’ whilst he is treated with the most abject and servile respect and submission j none daring- to approach him except on bended knees^ or pass his habitation except on foot. The whole empire is considered to suffer in his person^ and his loss is the only misfortune his subjects should dread; should indisposition overtake him, the alarm is instantly sounded, princes and mandarins of all classes hurry to the palace courts, where on bended knees, and reg-ardless of the inclemenc}'' of the weather, they pass day and nig-ht, in token of their g-rief and respect, while they supplicate Heaven for his restoration. So g-reat is the respect and reve- rence with which the Emperor is reg-arded, that the people accord the same marks of respect, in his ab- sence, to his ministers of state, -i icero}"S, and mandarins of all g-rades, in the execution of their respective offices, reg-arding- each officer as the representative of their sovereig’n, and ^ rendering- honor to whom honor is due.’ The lang-uag-e and actions both of the Emperor and people accord well with the principles of their g-overnment ; if a province be visited Avith pesti- lence or famine, the Emperor forbids amusements ; fasting, he confines himself to his palace, and pub- lishes proclamations Avherein, “The deep lamentations whereAvith he bemoans, both night and da}-, the mis- fortunes of his children, Avhich Avound liis heart to the quick, and continually occupy his thoughts, searching for the means of restoring- them to happiness,” are set forth in gloAving- terms ; the Avhole document bearing- the impress of one addressed to the members of a large and mighty family, by a kind and indulgent parent 800 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. On the other hand their moral maxims^ and the books of their ancient sages, abound in passag’es such as these, The Son of Heaven, even onr Mig'hty Em- ])eror, hath he not been placed upon the throne by Tv-en.” ^^The Holy Emperor sits upon his throne, the parent of his people ; he should not, therefore, be feared, so much as he should he loved, for his virtue and his kindness.” Notwithstanding’ the great power wherewith the Emperor is invested, the law permits his ministers of state Innnhly to remonstrate A\ith him, and to submit Avliat they may conceive to be errors in the administration of the g’overnment ; and should the Emperor inflict punishment upon his officer for mak- ing such representations, histor}" affords man}' ex- amples of martyrs, aaIio have suffered death in their attempts to oppose the deA'iations of their prince from the paths of Avisdom, and in consequence, have received the highest encomiums from the nation, and rendered their names immortal. The position of Emperor can Ije no sinecure in China, Avhen Ave reflect, that all public documents must pass through his hands, and receive his approbation or veto. The tranquillity of the Empire depends entirely upon the indefatigable assiduity of the Prince, to preserve order and superin- tend the administration of justice ; should he and his council relax in their zeal, the viceroys and mandarins in distant parts of the empire would become tyrants, from Avhose provinces and districts justice Avould be banished, and revolt Avould ensue ; of sucli results there have been ample proofs in Chinese history, Avhich serve as examples to Avarn Emperors, to tread in the steps of their great and mighty predecessors. MINISTEY AND TRIBUNALS. 361 Avho retained their authority, and secured prosperity and tranquillity to their subjects, solely hy their inde- fatio-ahle watchfulness. o Next in official rank follows the Prime Minister, or President of the Council, called Chiorv-sian, who always possesses the confidence of his sovereign ; the number of the other ministers of state, or the Co-lao, depends upon the will of the Emperor, hut they seldom exceed five or six 3 these ministers, and the chief presidents of the supreme tribunals, together with the principal officers in the army and navy, com- pose the first order of mandarins. The council chamber of the Co-lao is adjoining- the Emperor’s Hall of audience j subordinate to this coun- cil, there are six supreme courts or tribunals, the chief presidents of which report all their proceedings to the Co-lao, for the information and decision of the Em- peror ; to these six courts, or tribunals, are confided the superintendence of the -v arious branches of state affairs, and each has its separate department. The first supreme court is called Lei-jJOiv, and to it is confided the selection of mandarins for all the pro- vinces, and conducting- the correspondence with them : it is subdivided into four departments, the first selects the mandarin, the second examines into the conduct of those in office, the third seals official documents, delivers official seals to the various mandarins on their appointments, and examines the seals of all official documents and correspondence, before they are sub- mitted to the Chief President of the Lei-pow ; and the fourth examines into the merits and conduct of the princes of the blood and all the mandarins. 862 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. The second Supreme Court is called How-pom, or Treasury; this court has the jurisdiction and super- intendence of the revenue and finances of the empire in every department, and the pa3unent of all salaries and pensions ; and is assisted in its complicated duties by a local courts or office in each of the provinces of the empire. The third Supreme Court is called Le-pom, and has jurisdiction over all rights^ ceremonies, arts, and sciences ; it repairs temples, superintends the various religious sects ; ceremonials of state, religion, or festivity ; all the arts and sciences, universities, and colleges; and examines the candidates for literary distinction. This court is subdivided into four de- partments, one attends to religious matters ; another to literary affairs ; a third to receive those Avho are to be presented at court ; and the last to public ceremonies. The fourth Supreme Court is called Ping-pom, or the war department; this superintends the organization and officering’ of the whole imperial arni}^, the building and repairing of all the fortresses, the supply of all arsenals and magazines Avith provisions, ammunition, and stores ; the manufacture of all arms, and all matters necessar}^ for the defence and safety of the empire. This court is also subdivided into four de- partments; the first, superintends the discipline of troops, and the appointment of officers ; the second, the distribution and motions of troops ; the third, the vic- tualling of the army ; and the fourth, the suppty of arms and ammunition, repairing and building fortresses. The fifth Supreme Court is called Hing-Pom, or the EXTENSIVE SYSTEM OF ESPIONAGE. 363 Criminal Chamber. This court takes coenizance of all o criminal matters throug-hout the empire ; and a sub- ordinate local court is established in each of the provinces. The sixth Supreme Court is called Cong-Pow, or Board of Public Works ; to it is confided the care of all public and royal building-s, the palaces of the Emperor, and those of the princes of the blood; tog’ether Avith public roads, bridg-es, rivers, and canals; and the preparation of plans and designs for, and the construction of^ all new public edifices. Each of these supreme courts is composed of a chief president and a vice-president, and twenty-four other members, of whom one-half are Chinese and the other Tartars. As a check, no decision of aii}^ of these tribunals can be carried into effect Avithout the sanction of each of the others, Avhich course must cause endless delays in the various executive departments of the state. The system of espionage is conducted, on an exten- sive scale, throug-hout the various offices and courts of the empire by means of the Torv-cha-yim, or public spies, Avho Avatch the acts of all the supreme courts. They have the poAver to be present at all the meeting-s of these courts, and of taking- notes of all their transactions ; officers are sent by them throug-h the provinces, on secret missions, Avho are g-reatly feared by all classes, as the first intimation any one may have of a secret com- munication having- been transmitted to the Emperor throug-h them, is too frequently the executioner’s axe. There is another class Avho are called Sung-yin-foo ; whose duty it is to keep a register of the names, ages. 364 CHmA AND THE CHINESE. number, and conduct of all the princes of the blood- royal, and also those of every individual in connection ■with the imperial court and household, and to report the qualifications of each of them to the Emperor. The mandarins who g-overn provinces, and Avho are of the first rank, are of two sorts, — the Song-tow, -who has jurisdiction over two or more provinces, and the Fow-yen, Avho is A'iceroy over one province. To these officers are despatched direct the orders of the Em- peror, and the}’" communicate his Avill to all the subordinate mandarins ; the}' acknoAvledge no superior except the Supreme Court at Pekin ; and the Song-tow is considered of such importance, that those mandarins, Avho hold the appointment, do not consider it any pro- motion to be made the chief president of a supreme court, or even a minister of state. In each of the capital toAvns of provinces there are two tribunals, the one civil and the other criminal ; the first is called Pow-cliing-sc, and is composed of a president and tAvo assistants, Avho are all mandarins of the second class j the second is called Fan-chase, and is composed of a president, Avho is a mandarin of the third class, and two subordinate mandarins of the fifth class ; these latter visit the criminal tribunals in the various districts of their provinces. The cities of the empire, being- divided into three classes, have mandarins Avhose rank corresponds Avitli their local importance as g’overnors : the first-class cities have a mandarin of the fourth order, called Chi-fow, AA ho is assisted by three deputies of the sixth and seventh classes ; besides AAdiom there are mandarins of still loAver g-rades, under him, in numbers propor- TOTAL NUMBEK OF MANDARINS. 865 tionate to the extent of the territory over which his district extends. The second-class cities are g’overned by a mandarin of the fifth order^ wlio is called Chi-cheow, and his two assistants are of the sixth and seventh order. All the other cities have a g’overnor, who is a man- darin of the seventh-class, and his two assistants are of the eig’hth and ninth classes. There are an innumerable number of mandarins also througdiout the provinces, ivlio represent the various departments of each of the supreme courts at Pekin : the total number of mandarins of all classes in China is stated to be upwards of fourteen thousand. There is a system of absolute dependence of the various authorities upon each other j the most inferior mandarin, it is true, has control over his particular district or business, but lie is subject to the next in rank above him, who in his turn is subject to a third, who ag’ain is dependent upon the vicero}'^, and this last is subject to the Supreme Court of Pekin, the mem- bers of which tremble before the Emperor, who is the source of all power. The penal code of China remained until the Ming' dynasty unaltered, since Avhich period various mo- difications, limitations, and alterations have taken place, and it is now arranged under fifteen hundred and fifty- seven heads; each emperor, since the com- mencement of the Ming' dynasty, having' made con- siderable alterations in it, great contradictions and confusion are the result. The punishments are in general most cruel, and ill-proportioned to the crimes for which they are inflicted : for the slightest offence 366 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. a mandarin is degraded^ banished, and deprived of all property. It frequent!}^ happens that the Emperor not only visits the sins of the father upon his children, but extends his wrath to the collateral branches of the family, inflicting- upon them the same punishment pronounced upon the offender. When the Emperor condemns an old favourite, as a mark of kindness he sends him a sword, with an intimation that he may take away his own life with it j and his death is fre- quently folloAved by the execution of his children and nearest relations. Theft, is punished with the basti- nado, branding, and torture : manslaughter and homi- cide are classed with murder, and as life is taken for life, it may in some measure account for the fact, that the Chinese hesitate to approach a dead body, or give information if they have seen one, from a fear possibly of being charged with a capital crime. There are a great variety of modes adopted for inflicting capital punishment 5 sometimes the culprit is beheaded, or strangled by the bow-string j at other times the cruel practice of hewing the living victim to pieces is resorted to ; the extremities are first severed one by one, in slow succession, from the trunk, and all vital parts are carefully avoided to the last, in order to prolong the pain and suffering of the unfortunate victim. Filial disobedience is considered a crime next in atrocity to murder, and is punished by the bastinado, and severe beating with bamboos of various sizes. The modes of torture are manifold, but those more generally adopted are the rack, and gradual roasting MODES OF PUNISHMENT. 3C7 before a slow fire. By the penal code mandarins are empowered to apply torture for the purpose of extract- ing* a confession of guilt j but the same law provides ample punishment for an abuse of this power^ and exempts all classes of mandarins, those above seventy and below seventeen years of age, from its penalties. Assault and theft are both punished by an attenu- ating and slow torture called the Can~gue, or wooden collar, which is inflicted for various periods of dura- tion. At sunrise each inorninof the criminals are led forth from the common prison with their wooden collars, (which are square planks, ha^dng a round hole in the centre, fitting closely to the neck, upon this collar is affixed a description in writing* of the offence for which the wearer is suffering), and conducted to the wall of the city, to which their collars are chained and secured by padlocks, where they remain exposed to public view until sunset, when they are conducted back to the prison for the night. It is painful to Avitness the attempts made by these poor Avretches to carry on a communication between their hands and their lieads, using* enormous toothpicks and earpickers, for the re- spective objects for Avhich they Avere manufactured. Banishment is continually adopted; Avhen for life the exile’s Avife and family are sent Avith him to the frontiers as slaves to the Tartar soldiery. Those Avho are sentenced for shorter periods are condemned to Avork for the period of punishment in the imperial salt-Avorks. The traffic in, or use of, opium, is punishable most severely by laAV ; a man detected in smoking opium is put to the tortm*e, until he gives up the name of the 3G8 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. person, from whom he bought the poison, and each person througdi whose liands it is traced, is similarly dealt with, until the smug’gder is discovered. The offenders are punished with death, banishment, for- feiture of property, the wooden collar, and the bas- tinado; and punishment has often been extended to the sons and brothers of the smuo-Hers. All complaints must be lodged with the inferior mandarins in the first instance, an appeal against their decisions lies to the superior tribunals, and ulti- mately to the Emperor. Women have been pro- hibited from presenting memorials, and aged men from appearing in courts of law as witnesses. These prohibitions have been alluded to in an edict of the present Governor of the Kwaiig* province, in which he asks “ How is it possible for aged men, in the winter of their age to be received as witnesses ? Among ye people of the KAvang’ province there dAAclls a spirit of litigation. It is because an old man cannot be punished, that the seditious among’st ye bribe them to be Avitnesses ; and, moreoA'er, because Avomen cannot be punished for such an offence, }'e send females into the courts of justice Avith memo- rials. Let all mandarins investigate into these prac- tices, examine all parties, discover from Avhence the bribery comes, and punish Avith severity all offenders. If any person stops my chair to force a petition upon me, I Avill cause him to be seized and bambooed. Let such person go to the inferior mandarins.” The laAV requires, that on the first and fifteenth days of each month, the sacred edict of the Emperor Kano- -he, Avhich embraces the folloAvino* sixteen MAXIMS TO BE BEAD IN COURTS. 369 maxims, shall be read aloud by the mandarins in the various courts throug-hout the empire. “ Observe faithfully all filial and brotherly duties, that the various relations of life may be properly re- g’arded. Keverence kindred, that harmony may be ex- hibited in all its beauty. Let litig’ations be avoided by the ample display of unanimity amongst those who reside in the same district. Let husbandry and the cultivation of the mul- berry tree be your first care, for by this means abun- dance of food and clothing will be secured. ‘‘ llegard economy most strictly by the observance of frugality, temperance, and modesty, Avhereby the prodigal expenditure of money will be prevented. “ Extol literary attainments, by Avhich means you will stimulate the student’s exertions. Decry all new doctrines, and extol the orthodox faith. Expound the laws, that the unlearned and stub- born may have no excuse. Display a yielding disposition, and observe strictly the ]irinciple of etiquette, whereby your deportment must be improved. Apjdy all }mur energy to give a sound education to your children, whereby they will be led from the paths of vice, and the vortex of human passions. Abstain from false accusations, that the innocent and just may live in securit}' and peace. “ Let no protection or concealment be afforded^ to the guilty, whose crimes compel them to lead a wan- YOL. II. B B 370 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. clering* and lazy life, Avhereby you Avill avoid being* in- volved in tbeir misfortunes. “ Be careful to pay Avitb regularity all imperial taxes, that you may not be harassed by tbe continual application of tbe collectors. “ Let all g’ood men act in consort with tbe man- darins, whereby crimes will be detected, and tbe escape of criminals will be prevented. Subdue the bursts of passion, Avhich will preserve you from all daiio-er. “ Apply the remedies which are prescribed by the sages of antiquity to cure the defects and diseases of your dispositions, Avhich is the only infallible means to secure a happy home, and a peaceful mind.” In reading these maxims, the mandarins address the assembled multitude, and usually taking one of them for a text, they expound the Iuaa*, and illustrate by examples, familiar to the people, the manner in Avhich it should be applied to themselves, and per- severing’ly urge them on returning* to their homes to reflect seriously upon their exhortations, and practise the doctrines they have inculcated. Nothing can be more beautiful than the moral and civil code of laAVS in China, or more ingenious than their system of checks in the administration of justice, but unfortunately, like all human institutions, and devices, they fail most glaringly in practice; prin- cipally OAving* to the non-observance of those laAvs and maxims, by the persons Avho are selected to ad- minister and expound them ; for the mandarins, like many others, sacrifice duty for the sake of present enjoyment and aggrandizement. From the highest BKIBERY AND CORRUPTION. 371 to the lowest, there are no tricks or artifices which they do not employ to deceive their superiors, and even to mislead the Emperor himself ; and they are so well versed in dissimulation, cloaked by servility and an air of disinterestedness, that it becomes a difficult matter for the Emperor to avoid mistaking- falsehood for truth. Bribery and corruption are carried to an enormous extent throug-hout the whole state, and are in a g-reat measure countenanced by the Emperor, if not the immediate result of his will ; as the salaries of the viceroys, mandarins, and other servants of the state, are so absurdly low, that they are quite inadequate to support the pomp and luxury of their respective stations; therefore injustice and extortion are the consequence, which are adopted from the prime minister doAvnwards. In this manner, contributions are levied at the top of the ladder, and each official in the descending scale is compelled fi*om self-interest and protection, to enforce exactions from his inferior, until it reaches the people; on this account, therefore, when a man becomes rich, and in his folly, or through parsimony, neglects to present offerings, or in other words to bribe the mandarin of his district, he is invariably accused of some offence, seized, and tortured to extract some of his Avealth. The reason that punish- ment for the smoking and smuggling of opium is, comparatively, rarel}- heard of is, OAviug to the pre- sents and bribes Avhich are heaped upon the man- darins, by those Avho are guilty of practising these offences. When a mandarin discovers an offender, B B 2 372 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. he is enabled to carry on a most profitable trade by bolding' the accusation in terrorem over him^ till be has ^ squeezecV out of him all be can. The King’-paow, or g’reat report^ is the Government Gazette, which is published daily at Pekin, and is a g'reat auxiliary in the bands of the Emperor to pre- serve order, and to check irreg'ularities in the man- darins. There is not anything' inserted in it, which has not reference to Government topics, and it is forwarded to all the Government employees ; it con- tains the appointments of all newly created man- darins, the promotions, and deg'radations of others, with the reasons which have induced the Emperor to make them, and the pensions granted to super- annuated officers. In it is also published a list of criminals condemned to suffer capital punishment, and the crimes they have been guilty of; any cala- mities Avhich may have happened in the empire, and the assistance rendered in consequence by the man- darins of the district, in pursuance of the Emperor’s orders. A list is also inserted of the expenses in- curred for the army and navy, for civil sen ants, and public Avorks, together with the benevolent contri- butions of the Emperor for the poor and need}'. The day is also announced on Avhich the o-reat c- O agricultural festival will take place, Avhen the Em- peror Avill till the earth, together aa ith a notice of all other public ceremonies. All iieAv laAvs and ordi- nances are thus promulgated, and in it the conduct of the mandarins is either applauded or condemned according to their deserts. But nothing dare be printed in the Gazette Avhich has not previously had MANDAEINS PROHIBITED FROM AMUSEMENTS. 373 the Emperor’s sanction^ or does not come direct from himself. In the year 1726 two officers published an account of their own^ relative to some government trans- actions which had not been previously sanctioned by the Emperor^ and which proved to be false^ in consequence of which they suffered death^ and the reason afterwards assigmed in the Gazette for their sentence was, that by their joint act they had failed ill proper respect to his majesty, and that the law declared whoever was guilty of disrespectful conduct to the Emperor should suffer death. The law prohibits mandarins from the enjoyment of all common amusements, supposing that the}^ should be occupied in the serious duties of their respective offices. They are not permitted to enter- tain their friends with theatrical representations, except at certain stated periods; walking on foot is strictly forbidden, as they should never appear ill public except in a sedan chair, and accompanied with proper attendants ; gaming, paying private visits, or assisting in public meetings, is also pro- hibited them, and they should follow no other amuse- ments than those, ivliich they can enjoy in the private recesses of their homes. AVe fear, however, that means are often found to elude the law, and ivith the exception of walking, the enactment is sadly transgressed by the mandarins, who enjoy their otiuin cum dignitate. Slavery being* recognised in China, it is practised to a great extent, and consequently the laws in re- ference to slaves are very voluminous, both for their 374 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. g’overnment^ punishment^ and protection. The law^ as it has been before shewn^ punishes certain transgres- sions by slavery of the worst description, the convicts being handed over to the Tartar soldiery as their slaves. A marriage between a slave and free person IS null and void, and is punishable by the banishment of both parties, as well as of the aiders and abettors. A slave guilty of killing or assaulting his master with malice prepense, is condemned to a slow and painful death by being hewed to pieces : he Avho strikes his master shall be beheaded ; and the accidental man- slaughter of a master b}^ a slave, is punished by im- prisonment for a term, after which the criminal is strangled. A slave accidentally wounding his master shall receive one hundred blows of a bamboo, and shall be banished for life to the distance of three thousand le. Should a slave address abusive language to his master, and the latter complains of it publicly, the slave shall be strangled. If the slave should address abusive language to any relative of his master, and such relative complains of it publicly, the slave shall receive fifty blows of a bamboo, and shall be banished for two years. If a master or one of his relatives, instead of in- forming the mandarin, beats a slave for theft or adultery, immercifull}', thereb}^ causing his death, such master or relative shall receiA e one hundred blows of a bamboo ] if the same cruelty be perpetrated by the same parties upon a slave who has not been guilty of a crime, such parties shall receive sixty blows of a bamboo, and shall be banished for one year, the family LAWS BETWEEN MASTEES AND SEEVANTS. 375 of the slave^ who has been killed^ in either of sucli cases shall be affranchised. Offences committed reciprocally between a master who has sold a slave^ and such slave, shall be treated as if they were equals, because the bond between them has been broken ; but it is different if the master has given such sla^'e his freedom, as the law says the master has not parted with his right to another, and therefore judgmient must be given as if between master and slave. The laws betAveen master and servant are different from those we have just been desciibing, a slave for instance striking his master, or his master’s maternal grandfather or grandmother, shall be punished with one hundred bloAVS of a bamboo and three years banish- ment 5 but should he wound either of such persons, the banishment shall be for life to the distance of three thousand le. In the southern provinces slavery is more preva- lent than in the north of China ; immediately before the celebration of the neAV year children are sold there, to provide money to squander in debauchery and vice j the prices vary from one dollar upwards, but female children, aa ho are considered good-looking’, fetch hig’her prices. Elderly Avomen are sold for tAventy or fifty dollars each ; and large numbers of slaves are annually exported to the Island of Formosa. 376 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTER XIII. Ranks and Honorary Distinctions — The Emperor — Dress of the Royal Family — Classes of Mandarins — The symbols, or buttons, which belong to the several grades — Costume — Distinguishing marks — Military Mandarins, their buttons and robes — Scholars, the button belonging to each class — Seals of office — Legend — The only hereditary nobles of China. The Emperor being' the fountain of all honorary dis- tinctions, elevates the meanest subject in his dominions, upon proof of his literary attainments, to the highest offices in the State, and at his jdeasure deg-rades them ag'ain ; he is irresponsible in bis caprices, except to the Ruler of Heaven, who he is considered to repre- sent, and by whose pleasure he is understood to rule and g’overn the Empire. In like manner, be also nominates his successor, selecting- the most capable of his sons, or, in case of necessity, passing' over his own family he names one from among'st the Princes of the Blood Royal, not a member of his immediate family, to ascend the throne after his decease j and should he prefer a young-er son, in consequence of merit and ability, he receh es the highest eulogiums. Should, howeA er, the successor, whom he has named, and who has been declared Avith the usual solemnities, commit MODE OF DISTINGUISHING HANK. 877 any offence against the laws, or fail in the submission or deference due to the Emperor, he may be excluded from the succession, and another may be named in his stead. A remarkable instance of this occurred in the reigm of Kang-1ie, who had nominated his only son, by his Empress, to succeed him j this Prince became sus- pected of being- implicated, with the officers of his household, in treasonable practices, and he was not onl}'- superseded, but loaded with irons and confined in the common prison j the Government Gazette was im- mediately filled with manifestos, setting* forth the de- gradation of the Prince, and the reasons which had induced the Emperor to take the step. The same Gazette also contained the nomination of one of the officers of State, as the successor to the Imperial Throne, and the whole Empire resounded with the praises of the Emperor’s conduct. The ranks of individuals in China, is most marked by distinctions in their attire, and any deviation from the appropriate costume is punishable b}" law j and should a mandarin be degraded from a superior, to an inferior class, he must set it forth in all official docu- ments, or the document is invalid, for instance, he must commence thus : I Key-ing, formerly a man- darin of the first class, but now reduced by His Imperial Majesty’s pleasure to the second class,” &c., &c. The Emperor and his immediate family are clothed in yellow, which is the royal colour j and his silken robes, and those of his eldest son, are embroidered in gold, Avith the lAing, or dragon Avith five claAVS, which 378 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. it is unlawful for a subject to wear j this device cor- responding with the royal arms adopted in this country. The robe of state has four Lungs depicted upon it, one on each shoulder, another in fi’ont, and one on the hack. The Son of Heaven wears a pearl necklace, and so do his ministers of state ; the button, or ball, which surmounts the cap, being also used as a mark of rank, the Emperor is distinguished b}’ three g’olden dragons, one above the other, each adonied with four pearls, having* one pearl between each, and a very large one above them all. The Emperor’s eldest son, or the successor nominated to the throne, has three pearls less than the Emperor upon his cap, and wears a coral necklace. The younger sons of the Emperor have five pearls less than their father upon their caps, and their necklaces are of coral, but smaller than that worn by the successor to the throne. The Other princes, not of the family of the Em- peror, and the mandarins of the first class, Avear purple robes, embroidered with a bird called Fung, the princes being distinguished by a yellow girdle ; they each wear a ruby button, or ball, on the cap, and the mandarins have fom* agates and rubies on the girdle. The mandarins of the second class, and all others, Avear purple robes, but these are distinguished by haA’ing a cock embroidered upon them, a red coral button on the cap, and four golden squares and red coral buttons on the g*irdle. The third class haAe a peacock on the robe, a THE SYMBOLS BELONGING TO MANDAEINS. 379 sapphire button on the cap^ and four g’olden squares and sapphires on the g’irdle. The fourth class wear a pelican embroidered upon the robe, a deep purple-coloured, opaque, stone button on the cap, and their girdle has four g-olden squares and a silver button to distinguish it. The fifth class have a silver pheasant embroidered on the robe, a transparent crystal button on the cap, vdth a g'irdle similar to that worn by the fourth class. The sixth class are disting-uished by a stork on their robes, with a jaed-stone button on the cap, and four silver squares upon the g’irdle. The seventh class wear a partridg-e upon their robes, a ball of embossed g’old on the cap, and four circles of silver on the girdle. The eig’hth class have a quail upon the robe, a plain g’olden button on the cap, and a silver button on the g’irdle. The ninth class have a sparrow on the robe, a silver button on the cap, and another on the g’irdle. The military mandarins* wear the same buttons in their caps, and the same g-irdles which disting’uish the respective classes of their civil brethren, but thefig’ures embroidered upon their robes are dissimilar the first class have an imag’inary animal called Kc~lin, instead of the Fung ; the second, a lion ; the third wear a panther ; the fourth, a tig’er ; the fifth, a bear ; the sixth, a very small tig’er; the seventh and eig’hth, a rhinoceros; being’ distinguished from each other only by the buttons on their caps. See Frontispiece. 380 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. The scholars Avho have jDassed examinations^ quali- fying- them as candidates for office, are disting-uished by buttons on their caps, according- to theii* qualifi- cations, and they are divided into four classes, wearing- respectively, chased g'old, plain g’old, chased silver, and plain silver buttons, but of a smaller size than those which are worn by the mandarins. There are about thirty descriptions of offices in Avhich the civil mandarins are employed, and those in Avhich military mandarins are eng-ag-ed are nearly as numerous; and the total number of both classes is upwards of fourteen thousand Besides the distinctions in dress each officer has an official seal; the Emperor’s, or the g-reat seal, Avhich leg-alizes all public acts, and the decisions of all the tribunals of the empire, is described to be eig-hteen inches square, and is formed out of 7ju-che, or jasper, taken from Yn-yu-clian, or the g-reat jasper moun- tain ; this jasper is not allowed to be used for any other purpose. Yn-yu-clian is a fruitful source for fables, connected AAith the traditionary history of the country, and among- many others the following-, Avhich g-ives the reason for this stone being- used for the royal seal. Some thousands of years ag-o, the Fong-ho-an, or Chinese phoenix, Avas observed by the Emperor of that day to descend upon the monntain, Avhere he Avas Avatched for many days by the Emperor and his Avhole court with the g-reatest anxiety, as he rested upon an enormous unheAvn rock ; after he disappeared, a most skilful lapidary Avas despatched to visit the spot, under HONOEAEY SEALS. 381 the orders of the Emperor, who having' broken a larg'e fi'ag'ment from the rock, formed from it the imperial seal, which, from its having’ been a portion of the rock selected by the sacred bird as a resting--place, who is believed to be the forerunner of the g’olden ag'e, is con- sidered to be possessed of indescribable virtue, and to secure prosperity to its possessor. The honorary seals which are given to the princes are made of gold ; those of mandarins of the first class and ministers of state are composed of silver : while those of the inferior mandarins are made either of brass or lead, and the size is regulated according to the magnitude of the official appointment; and the characters engraven upon these seals are either Chinese or Tartarian, according as the individual is sprung from either source. A seal is also given to any mandarin who ma}' be sent on a special mission into the provinces, and when seals are injured or worn out the officers must return them, to be supplied with ne^N' ones. The seals are kept in golden boxes, and are carried before the Emperor, })rince, or mandarin, by tno bearers upon a litter, and they are always laid on a table by the side of the possessor, and covered with a silken coverlet, of a colour and embroidery suitable to the rank of the individual. The princes of the blood ro}’al are, either the children of the reigning Emperor, those to whom he gives his daughters in marriage, the descendants of former dynasties, or those whose ancestors or them- selves have been ennobled for public services. They 382 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. have neither power, jurisdiction, nor authority, i n the empire : they are allowed a residence in the vicinity of the palace, with a household and revenue conformable to their rank j in return for which they are bound to attend upon the Emperor on all public cereitonies, or whenever so required by him, and they must present themselves every morning' at the palace ; in addition to which they are subjected to the most rigorous reg'u- lations, being compelled to confine their intercourse to their respective family circles, not being permitted to visit each other, or sleep outside the city of Pekin, without the express sanction of the Emperor; the position of these princes cannot be considered very enviable. The names and families of the Emperor’s sons are enrolled in a yellow book, and those of other princes in a red one. Although hereditary honors are not recognised in China, yet Confucius was so highly esteemed, and his memory is so highly honored, that his family or de- scendants are universally considered noble, and the head of the family ever since the death of the philoso- pher, has been distinguished by the title of Ching- GiN-Ti-CHi-EL,” or, the Eepresentative of the Wise Man ; every Emperor has recognised and conceded this distinction to the famil}", and the Ching-gin-ti~ chi-el attends the Emperor’s court once in every year, on these occasions he is treated with every mark of distinction, both by the courtiers and the people ; he resides in Kio-foiv, a city in the province Sliang-tung^ distinguished by being the birth-place of his wise and learned progenitor. An additional favor and mark of HONOR CONFERRED ON CONFUCIUS’ DESCENDANTS. 383 distinction is conferred upon this distinguished family, by always selecting- the g-overnor of the city of Kio- forv from its members, this being- the only exception or deviation from the law, which prohibits any man- darin holding- office in his native province. 384 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTER XIV. Revenue of the Emperor of China — How obtained — Announcements in the Pekin Gazette — Revenue of China fallen off — Memorial for a Property Tax — China retrograding — Coinage — Ancient copper coins — Tael and sycee silver — ^Dollars, their value — Local regulations — Forged dollars — Exportation of silver— Silver mines — ^Value of gold — Ancient silver and gold coins — Earthen coin — First paper currency in China — Description — Banks and Bankers — Bills of Exchange — Oriental Bank at Hong-Kong — Money-shops and changers — Pawnbrokers — Inequalitj’ of wealth in China — Revenue Return of Chinese Empire in 1847 — Revenue and Expenditure of Hong-Kong for 1848. The sum total of tlie revenue of China is said to exceed annually sixty millions pounds sterling j but about twelve millions only are remitted to Pekin, the residue being’ retained in the various provinces to meet and defray the current expenditm*e. The revenue is raised by taxes of various descriptions, levied on articles of commerce and marketable commodities j the ao’riculturist and landholder being- also taxed in proportion to the produce of the earth or value of the land. Pawnbrokers, salt merchants, and various mer- cantile establishments being’ likew ise taxed, the former especially, heavily. The Chinese g-overnment are usurers upon a very extensive scale, as money is lent to the salt and other SOURCES OF REVENUE. 385 merchants^ for which a very hig'h rate of interest is paid; we have attained this information from the various proclamations in the Pekin Gazette, one of these contains an edict from the Emperor stating*, that the superintendent of repairs cannot g*o on with the works of the palace for lack of money, complaining- bit- terly of the want of punctuality in paying- the interest. It appears the interest of the monies thus lent is set aside to defray the expenses attendant upon the embel- lishment and repairs, which are deemed requisite for the palaces ; and the above edict was in reply to a memo- rial of various merchants, which stated their inability to pay the interest then due upon the borrowed money The Board of Revenue manag-es all these affairs, re- ceives all outstanding- debts and taxes ; the collectors of these taxes frequently embezzle money, and cor- ruption appears to be indulg-ed in, by all those officers who may be connected with the financial depart- ment, either in the collection, or disbursement of the revenues. When a defalcation is discovered, or comes to the knowledg-e of the Emperor, he compels the various mandarins and officers to make the deficiency g-ood ; and the following- appeared a short time ag’o in the Pekin Gazette: ‘^We have appointed ft-om time to time, mandarins and mig-hty ministers to superintend the receipts and disbursements of our revenue. This year we added two, a Manchoo and a Chinese, these g-reat officers were instructed to examine with care into all matters ; but we find they are all blind and stupid. Chang--ching--paon, a treasury mandarin, has made away with the public money. We sent a g-reat VOL. II. c c 386 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. minister to inquire into it^ and his report has reached me this day, the document states the deficiency to be the enormous sum of nine millions two hundred and fifty thousand taels of silver. Never was the like known, and on hearing it my anger knows no bounds. Only think of mighty officers of State acting like common thieves of the country. This peculation has been going on many years, and the number in office has been great ; but still a strict investigation must take place, otherwise some of them will escape. I find, ever since the reign of Kea-kin, the mandarins in the treasury have all been blood relations. Some of them were mandarins of high rank, and not one of them has ever denounced the plunder. They oug-ht to he ashamed of such conduct. I blame myself for not seeing to it, and my mortification is exceedingly great. I direct that the peculators, defaulters, and thieves, he handed over to the board that will he appointed, and well punished. The said hoard is to inquire and report the best means of recovering or making good the deficiency by fines. Respect this.” Pwans-he-an (the mandarin, a minister of finance) has sent in a list of Manchoo defaulters, who have not paid in the sums they were ordered to furnish, to make good the nine million two hundred and fifty thousand taels of silver that Avere embezzled lately from the Imperial treasury. They are to be deprived of their situations, and imprisoned until every tael is paid.” When the mandarins of a province cannot obtain the revenue, they are very frequently ordered to make good the deficiency, and often it will be announced in the Pekin Gazette, that a memorial has been pre- KEPAIES OF EIVEBS, DYKES, AND CANALS. 387 sented to the Board of Eevenue, by the mandarin of a province, stating he has been unable to collect the several taxes. “ Ordered that the mandarins make good the de- ficiency forthwith. Bespect this.’’ Should canals break through, or overflow their boundaries, the several mandarins of the district are ordered by the Emperor to repair the damage done to the banks at their owm expense. Should this com- mand not be speedily complied wdth ; they are de- graded fi’om their ofiices, severely fined, imprisoned, and punished. When the dykes, and banks of rivers requii’e repair, the Emperor, through the Board of Bevenue, issues edicts of the following’ nature : — The Board of Bevenue orders that all, who gene- rously contribute their funds to meet the exigencies of the Empire, repairs of rivers, dykes, and canals, should obtain a receipt for the sum presented, wdiich Avill be a passport, and certify their claim to favor and em- ployment under the Imperial Government. Man- darins and collectors are ordered to make regular monthly returns of the various sums which may be paid into their respective treasuries. All mandarins who do not instantly forward the whole of the sums received to the proper officers at Pekin, shall be in- stantly degraded. Steps have been already taken to appoint the successors of defaulters. Strong remedies must be applied, as the case is desperate. Bespect this and tremble.” The Board of Bevenue has been commanded by the Emperor, to order that all monies to be levied and 388 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. collected as voluntary contributions and patriotic olFering’s shall be exacted. If necessary, the utmost severity will be used to obtain the required money. When the edict was first issued, the province of Kwan-tung’ and Hoo-pih were the only ones that were called upon to furnish money. The Yellow River has now burst its bounds, and the overflow of the mighty waters has destroyed much property, — eighty thousand taels of silver are now required to repair the banks and construct dykes. The Emperor is now compelled to call upon every and each inha- bitant of the Celestial Empire to furnish part of this money. Extortions will not be tolerated, but all must be generous, and contribute the largest sum they can collect — the Son of Heaven will be enabled thus to judge the real, dutiful, obedient subject and true lover of his country by the largeness of their donations. The pretended dutiful subject will give little towards the required sum. Respect this : Obey.” Large sums are thus collected, and during the war, immense amounts were subscribed, or extorted to de- fray the expenses, incurred in defending the Empire ; the whole of the indemnity money that was paid to Great Britain was furnished in the same manner, one province alone supplying more than thirty-five thous- and pounds sterling. The 1‘evenue of China is stated to have materially fallen olf within the last few years, which some at- tribute to the vast quantity of silver Avhich leaves the country to pay for the opium that is smuggled into the Celestial Empire by the British ; and MEMOKIAL OF A POLITICAL ECONOMIST. 389 various measures were proposed by the Imperial Government to raise the revenue, to meet the required The following' extraordinary memorial is stated to have been presented to the Emperor through the Board of Bevenue, by a Chinese political economist; whether to liken him to Sir Robert Peel, as the Chi- nese diplomatist proposes a property-tax, or to Joseph Hume, from the aptitude displayed in the calcula- tions, we know not, so leave it open for all to decide according' to their own peculiar fancy or view. ^^Your lowly slave Keen-een, the Mandarin of Monk-den, comes kneeling and beseeching your Im- perial Majesty to turn your sacred eyes upon the humble plan which I submit unto Your Mightiness. The plan is one for enriching the Imperial treasury. Many sacred favours bestowed on your slave in con- ferring' the dignity on him of Mandarin, induce him to give your Majesty his opinion on what he has seen and carefully inquired into. Your humble slave approaches the subject with caution, in sugg'esting changes in old regulations ; but the great deficiency in the revenue, arising from the late plunder, and the large sums required for maritime fortifications and hydraulic works, I find amounts to many myriads of taels. I hope my plan will replenish the coffers of the Imperial treasury, and give fresh life and energy to the people. In proposing and devising this mea- sure, I am like one groping in the night, but the reverence, honour, and esteem which I have for your Imperial Majesty are my only humble apologies. The following four measures are those I propose, and 390 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. are the results of my best judg-ment, anxious atten- tion, and zealous inquiries. ^Hst. All bonds held by the people for house taxes to be cancelled. I have noticed with astonishment the g’reat quantity of g’oods stored in the shops and dwelling's, in the towns and suburbs — the quantity of merchandize thus stored exceeds belief. The law hitherto has g’iven the taxes to tAvo wing's of the Tartar army, and g'reat fraud and extortion are prac- tised, and smug’g'ling’ to a g'reat extent, which must g'reatly affect the revenue. Fraudulent mortg'ag'es, and fictitious sales are practised to evade the taxes. I beg' to call the attention of the Board of Revenue, to have an efficient officer of hig’h standing appointed, Avhose sole duty would be to take cognizance of these things, or order and empower the police to give in a correct return of all inhabitants, and the number of persons in each abode. Remit all the old bonds, calling on the people to repair instantly to the man- darins, and honestly state the value of their property, paying a per-centage for the whole, for which they Avill get a seal on their bonds, to protect them from attempted extortion ; if the property should be mort- gaged, the mortgagee to' pay the taxes. After a fixed period all defaulters to have their property con- fiscated. This will be best for all parties, as it will give the people security against extortions and law- suits, and restore ever}" farthing of the duties. The clerks and officers must be strictly looked after. If my plan be carried out, the people will not practise frauds, neither should the inferior mandarins be allowed to extort money, and apply it to their OAvn MEMORIAL OF A POLITICAL ECONOMIST. 391 use. Strict attention to this will prevent great mis- chief. All violators of this law should be prosecuted with severity, which will have the effect of deterring others from committing- the like offence. “ 2ndly. That all taxes should be increased except the land-tax, as an increase there would bear on the poorer classes ; but all shopkeepers, markets, bazaars, and merchants who sell goods by weight, derive a much larg'er profit than those who till the ground. Pawnbrokers are very numerous; their trade is a most lucrative one ; and I learn that they only, like others, pay about five taels per annum ; coal-mines, iron-works, and large mercantile houses, pay even less. Pawnbrokers should cheerfully pay the increase. As regards taverns and tea-shops, I strong-ly urg-e and advise local governors to look to them, and report accordingly. ‘^3rdly. Provincial fees should be transferred to the public treasury. I, 3 -our humble slave, held ap- pointments in Chih-le and other districts, and know that all mandarins, and magistrates, and others, receive voluntary contributions under various names, and expend it in public Avorks, which your treasurer has accounted for. But for the present I Avould stop all public Avorks, and have the fees sent to the capital. The mandarins’ salaries I Avould reduce and remit the amount, and cause a strict inquiry as to the amount of those fees. After pa}’ing the army ex- penses, the balance should be paid into the state treasur3^ 4thly. The mandarins, or collectors of the taxes, are behind-hand in paying them in, and when urged 392 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. to do SO, make sundry excuses and delays, notwith- standing’ there is a period fixed. Look to this matter without delay, as they frequently turn bank- rupts, or pretend to be so, to avoid payment, and often propose paying- by instalments. May I request that this system will he stopped, and no instalments taken, hut that either the securities or themselves be made pay at once. This would be acting- severely and mercifully, g-reat severity must be used. When I was a local mandarin some years ago, a deficiency was discovered, and I demanded fi-om the high in- spector one thousand taels of silver, and sent them to your imperial treasury, and the remainder soon fol- lowed. ‘‘ I, your slave, have drawn up these statements Avith a view of em-iching* the treasury, and, stupid and ignorant as I am, I hope in all humility your Imperial Majesty Avill find them suited to the neces- sities of the State. I humbly crave your instructions thereupon.” This memorial was replied to by the Board of Re- venue, who stated, they thought the matter worth taking’ into consideration j the imperial signet being afiixed to the document, underneath which was writ- ten in red vermilion, Respect this.” The finances of China appear for some years past to have been in an embarrassed state, and many be- lieve this to be the precursor of the downfall of the Celestial Empire. Although w’e do not coincide with this opinion entirely, we feel convinced that the high, bright, and brilliant star of the Celestial Empire is becoming obscured by clouds; but whether these DECAY OF CITIES IN THE NOETH. 393 clouds will disperse, leaving* the star to shine with redoubled efFulg*ence^ or become denser and darker until the g'littering* orb is totally obscured, time, the great unraveller of all mysteries, alone will prove. In the north, many cities, once flourishing, and alive with commerce and the busy hum of men, are now falling into decay, and some of the finest public buildings and joss-houses are in a dilapidated state, and alloAved to remain unrepaired. There is an island near Chusan, called Poo-too-san, where there are some of the most celebrated joss-houses, to which the Chinese come from every part of the empire, perform- ing* long* and weary pilgrimages to worship in these temples, Avhich, in their ideas, are of peculiar sanc- tity ", these also are going to decay, and no grant has been made by the government to repair them — all religious edifices being* kept in repair at the national expense. In many parts of China, the pagodas on the hills are falling down, the walls crumbling* into pieces, and the whole building in a state of decay. These symptoms of national decay cannot be viewed even by the most thoughtless, without causing* feel- ings of regret and sorrow to arise, that so great and mighty a nation should he in a state of embarrassment. A political economist, a profound thinker, clear headed, of sound judgment, and possessing* extraordinary elo- quence, has remarked, thatj when once a nation has reached a certain climax of civilization and pros- perity, the tide appears to turn, and the country is hurried down the stream of adversity, until engulfed in the abyss of destruction. Eome, Greece, Thebes, Nineveh, and other countries of ancient days, bear 394 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. out this remark; and in our own days we have but to cast our eyes around the continent of Europe, and see there the fall of monarchs and monarchies — long- may Eng'land flourish, hut we fear that her days of prosperity are past and g-one by, as well as those of the empire of China. In a country where education is universal among- all classes of the male population, where civilization has made rapid progress, and where the arts and manufactures have attained an extraordinary state of perfection ; it is surprising- that the government should devote so little attention to the coinage of the empire, or the establishment of a uniform and unadulterated circulating- medium. China has but one coin, now peculiar to herself, which is totally inadequate not only for mercantile purposes, but for domestic accom- modation; this coin is a copper one, designated a cash, which is a circular piece of money, nearly the size of our farthing, and of half the weight, therefore about half its thickness. In the centre is a square hole, for the convenience of stringing- them together, and on the coin characters are inscribed in relief ; in- credible as it may appear, there are an immense quan- tity of spurious cash in circulation, and we have heard of one place in the interior of China where there are none but spurious cash in circulation. These forged cash are easily detected by an experienced eye even when strung- up with the lawful coin. Although the law punishes by strangulation the forgers of law- ful coin, it would appear that the law is not enforced, either to detect or punish the offenders ; were active measures adopted, the forgeries must necessarily COIN OF THE EMPIRE. 895 cease.* These coins are usually strung* together in hundreds, and commonly twenty in each hundred are bad j when a shopkeeper is asked why he mixes this bad coin, Avhich he will not receive back again, the reply given is, that it is a China custom ! And an abominably bad custom it is, like several others in the flowery land.” When the cash are all good, lawful, and true, about eight hundred go to the Spanish dollar, hut when mixed with spurious coin, from one thousand to one thousand and twenty are received for the dol- lar. This copper coin has, from the earliest period, been the current money of the empire, and many virtuosi and antiquarians possess fine collections, in which are to be found coins of the first dynasty of the empire. An ancient writer affirms that, beside the round money, at the beginning of the first dynasty, there was a coin that was shaped like a cutlass, and was called Tag; another resembling the hack of a tortoise, that was styled Kou-ei. During* the reign of the Emperor Sung, a minute copper coin was issued, that was so small and thin, that they floated upon water, and were called Gander’s eyes after being* in use a very short period, they were called in, as the people disliked them exceed ing*ly. During the first dynasty of Tang*, there was discovered on the banks of the Yellow Elver, above three thousand * A book is printed, pro bono publico, in which every description of false coin that is put in circulation is named. The punishment for forging an official seal and the Imperial Almoner stamps, which are used to verify the water or land conveyances of teas, silks, and salt throughout the empire, as permits are required for this purpose, is likewise death ; minor forgeries being punished by severe castigation with the bamboo. S96 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. three hundred pieces of money^ with three feet ; the whole of the characters, however, were en- tirely obliterated, as the damp and verdig’ris had completely eaten into the metal. In ancient days, when there was a scarcity of copper coin, and the Emperor could not procure the metal to make more money, fourteen hundred temples of Buddha Avere despoiled of their imag-es, which were forthwith despatched to the Imperial Treasury to be melted doAATi, and coined into money. This scarcity of specie arose from the irruption of foreigners, Avho, during the Avar, used to carry off all the coin ; this caused the Chinese to bury their money in the earth, who very frequently Avere killed or died, without disclosing the hiding place of their treasure, and to this period, money of exceedingly ancient date is constantly being’ discovered. Some old coin are of immense value in China, especially those on AA'^hich are inscribed the fabulous creatures, bird and beast, called Fong-heang and Ki-lin* The late Emperor Kang-he, had a collection formed, in which every coin was to be found, ranged in chro- nological order, from the earliest dynasty ) and in this valuable collection, coins of the most remote ages Avere to be seen, thus serving to elucidate his- torical facts that were treated by many as fables. The coins are not stamped Avith the effigy of the Emperor, as it Avould be considered highly dis- * This creature is embroidered on the breast and hack of the robes of the military mandarins ; the body of the animal is that of an ox, but is covered with scales ; the head of a tiger, with a horn in the middle of the forehead, huge teeth, whiskers, and projecting staring eyes : such is the Ki-lin, or warlike symbol of the Chinese. COIN OF THE EMPIEE. 397 respectful; but have various inscriptions, each Em- peror selecting’ the motto that suits his o^m taste, and these are constantly varied during’ each reig-n ; the Emperor Kang’-he being’ the sole monarch who never chang’ed the motto on the coin, whilst he occupied the throne, and his reig’n was a very leng’thy one. The copper of which coins were, and are made, is not pure, but is alloyed with lead, the proportions being- about four parts of the former, to six parts of the latter, and occasionally the subjects of the Celestial Empire have been prohibited from keeping’ or using’ copper utensils of any description, being- ordered to take them to the Treasury, that they mig’ht be sent to the mint to be coined into money. At the 'present time, there cannot be said to be any national silver coin in China, as the Tael, which is used as the circulating- medium, is a thick piece of silver, of an oblong- form vdth both ends rounded, the shape being- somew’hat that of a Chinese boot or san-pan ; the Chinese invariably assay this to ascertain the purity of the silver, and it is then stamped with the private mark of the merchant or shopkeeper ; the value of a tael varies from six shilling-s and a penny halfpenny to six shilling’s and eig’htpence ; but the g-eneral and medium value is six shilling’s and fourpence.* Dollars, both Spanish and Mexican, are in g’eneral circulation, the former being- more hig-hly valued than the latter, and the Chinese are most peculiar * Sycee silver is always in bars, which vary in weight ; this is, like the tael, invariably assayed ; the weight is then calculated, and valued in taela at the price current of the day. 398 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. and fastidious in the method of valuing* this coin. Of the Spanish dollars^ those of Carlos the Fourth are most prized, and some of these are esteemed more valuable than others, bearing* a premium ; to our eye they all appear the same ; we have had two dollars placed in our hands repeatedl}’^ by a China- man, each coin underg’oing’ a close and severe scrutiny, as we were informed one was worth more than the other, but were unable to discover the slightest difference in the appearance, date of coinage, or weight of the coin. The Chinese will not state where, or in what, the difference consists, nevertheless, there is some distinguishing* mark by which they determine their value. The value of the ordinary Spanish dollar varies from four shillings and threepence to four shillings and sixpence ; those of Carlos vary from four and fourpence to four and sixpence halfpenny ; Mexican dollars never pass at a liiglier rate than four shillings. In a thinking* nation like the Chinese, one so deeply calculating, where the value of an article is knovii, and studied to the utmost exacti- tude, it seems most unaccountable, that they should deteriorate the value of money, by their absurd system of stamping* each dollar, as it passes through their hands, with the private mark of the merchant or shop- keeper. By this process, the coin becomes even- tuall}'’ so exceedingly thin and battered, that it breaks into atoms j the pieces thus broken off swell the circulating* medium, as they pass b}- weight, and frequently as many as forty pieces go to the value of one dollar. COIN OF THE EMPIEE. 399 The local Government of Hong'-Kong; passed an ordinance equalizing’ the value of all dollars; the leg’islation only entailed loss upon the Government servants and troops^ who were compelled to take Mexican dollars at four shilling's and twopence, the rate fixed by the Government, as the value of all dollars, both Spanish and Mexican. The Chinese shopkeepers only allowed four shilling’s for the Mexican dollar, or Avhen they were induced to take them at four shillings and twopence, imme- diately placed an increased value on their commo- dities ; it will be found an absolute impossibility to make the Chinese inhabitants of Hong’-Kong' cal- culate the value of dollars otherwise than according to their peculiar ideas, and the mode universally adopted throughout the Chinese Empire. Much as the Chinese dislike the Mexican dollar, the rupee is their aversion and abhorrence; the Go- vernment servants and troops used to be paid in rupees (and Ave doubt not are at this period), the value varying, according to Government calculation, from two hundred and tAventy to two hundred and tAA'enty-seven for the hundred dollars ; although the Government servants and military were compelled to take the rupees at this valuation, nothing would induce the Chinese to take them at the same rate, as they Avould only allow from one shilling and six- pence to one shilling’ and sevenpence halfpenny, and some tradespeople refused to take them at any price. The Chinese are ridiculousl}' arbitrar}^ about the circulating medium, placing their own value on the precious metals and coinage of difterent countries; 400 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. thus with Eng*lish silver^ they will only occasionally take it, and then not at the full value of the coin ; our g'old coins they do not at all understand, and con- stantly refuse sovereigns, which can only occasionally be sold (generally for the use of the jewellers, who make ornaments for Europeans), at the rate of four and a half Mexican dollars, or eighteen shillings. The present emperor, Taou-kwang, a short time ago issued a coin to imitate the Spanish dollar, with which the troops were paid j this coin is about the same weight as the dollars, having inscribed on it in Chinese and Manchoo, Soldier’s pa}\” All taxes and dues are paid to the Emperor in pure silver, as no coin is received by the Board of Revenue ; thus the Government can never suffer by the depre- ciation of currency. It is affirmed that a coinage of dollars is carried on in Shun-lih, which lies south of Canton, without the sanction of the Government ; the dies have been procured from Europe, it is said, at an enormous expense, and more than one hundred work- men are employed. Although Europeans cannot detect these dollars, the shroffs* can at a single glance j and these coins, although they may be of the same weight and intrinsic value as the dollar, are invariably rejected by the Chi- nese.! It is also said that the profits arising from * Shroffs are judges of the value of coins and the precious metals. t It is a well-known fact, that one of the largest mercantile houses in China used to coin Spanish dollars, by stamping the Mexican ones : this would be thought disgraceful in Europe, but opium- smuggling appears to destroy many honorable feelings. The premises of the firm were destroyed by fire, and in one of the apartments the machinery was publicly exposed that was used in the forging process; it was talked SILVEE MINES. 401 this mint are so g'reat, that the proprietors are enabled by bribes to silence the local mandarins and officers. To prove how officials accumulate wealth, the property of Keshen that was seized and confiscated, after the neg’otiation with Captain Elliot, was valued at nine millions sterlino*. O The laws of China forbid the exportation of silver, except permission is granted, or the metal is of foreig’u origin j but this law is constantly evaded. We have elsewhere remarked that silver mines of the richest description exist in China ; the best and most exten- sive, from which the principal part of the sycee silver is obtained, are situated at Fak-thau and Sung-sing ; these mines yield annually two millions of taels, and are Avorked by a company of Chinese merchants who farm them, paying a heavy rent to the Imperial Go- vernment. The working of these mines is upon a most stu- pendous scale, as eighteen thousand men are kept continually employed in one department or other of the Avorks. Many silver mines* are forbidden to be AVorked in China, and others are completely exhausted, being ab- solutely drained of every particle of the precious metal. It Avould be totally impossible to give any certain idea of the amount of metal in circulation ; some say five millions of dollars, others eight or ten millions of taels ; about and joked about, but the firm in Canton cared for neither the gibes nor the jeers. We have no doubt that they very quietly resumed their honourable occupation as soon as practicable. • In man}" provinces cojjper mines are to be found, which are generall}' worked under the government : the largest and most productive of the copper mines lie in the province of AVan-nam. VOL. II. D I) 402 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. one assertion, in our estimation, being* as likely to be correct as the other 5 as, without statistical returns, no correct estimate or calculation can be made. There are g*old mines in China— this is quite certain, but whether or not they are worked at this time is a matter of uncertainty. Gold is sent to China fi*om Siam, and Cochin-China in bars or ing-ots ; and the inhabitants or natives of the Loochoo Islands, when they go to Foo-chow-foo to make their annual purchases of mer- chandize, also bring* bars of g*old in payment for the g*oods. Gold leaf is occasionally used as a circulating* medium, the value being* nearly eig*hteen taels of silver for one tael of g*old. Bars of g*old are looked upon as articles of merchandize, and are sold at so much per tael, at the current price, which fluctuates ex- ceedingly. Gold is forbidden to be exported as well as silver, nevertheless a larg*e amount annually leaves the em- pire in bars, ing*ots, and g*old leaf. In an old work, it is asserted, that at a very early period g’old and silver coins were current in China as well as copper; and that during* the reig*n of Yao, the founder of the flrst dynasty called Hia, coins of both the precious metals were in circulation ; and that under succeeding* dynas- ties the emperors permitted foreig*n monies to be used throughout the Celestial Empii’e. At this remote period money was also made of iron, tin, lead, and baked earth ; the latter was made by order of a monarch who reig'iied after Han, and who wished to abolish the use of copper coin. This prince caused as much copper coin to be collected as possible, and had it buried ; a pit of an enormous depth being* ANCIENT COINS. 403 dug’ to receive it. As soon as the pit was filled up, all the workmen who had been employed were put to death, fearing- they mig-ht reveal where the copper money was buried. The earthen money was made of a peculiar species of clay, mixed with a very powerful cement or g-lue ; on this fig-ures and characters were stamped of the same description as those on the iron, tin, and lead monies. Some of the ancient coins are filled with characters, which the most learned Chinese declare they cannot decypher. Many of the ancient coins are completely covered with figui-es of animals, birds, and written characters ; the value of the coin is also stamped upon several of various dynasties. One an- cient coin has upon it the following- extraordinary inscription — Kouei-yu, tching-ti, which sig-nifies, ^ Money has its course, at last it returns to the em- peror.’ Much of the old coin is composed of a mixture of silver and tin , one of them, the form of which is round, weig-hed eig-ht taels, and the fig-ure on it was the im- perial drag-on surrounded by clouds ; another was square, and weig-hed six taels, on this Avas the fig-ure of a horse. One other coin belong-ing- to the same reig-n is of an oblong- shape, divided into compartments, in each of which is imprinted the character bang-,” which sig-nifies the emperor; this coin weig-hed four taels. The Chinese assert that the various animals have alleg-orical, or symbolical meaning-s, the drag-on is the personation of those who are g-reat, g-ood, and learned ; the horse, those that are quick, but not persevering- ; D D 2 404 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. the tortoise (which is also imprinted upon some coins) those that are of Ioav^ gTovelling* nature. These monies of silver and tin are said to have been in- vented by the Emperor Tclim(j-tang, the founder of the Chang* dynasty. There was no fixed value for coins or money for- merly. as the various Emperors placed a greater or less value upon them, according to the exigencies of the State ; weight being usually the standard of value, not the size of the coin. When the system of coining g’old and silver ceased, it is impossible to determine, but from concomitant circumstances, we believe it must have been discon- tinued for a lengthened period ; this is a proof of our former assertion, that China is retrograding, as all kingdoms when in a flourishing condition, invariably pay g’reat attention to the coinage of the realm. During’ the reign of Hong’-bou, the founder of the Ming dynasty, specie became exceedingly scarce, the mandarins and soldiers being paid partly in coin, and the remainder in a bank-note, or a sheet of paper sealed with the Imperial seal 5 these notes purported to be of the value of one tael and upwards. We believe this to be the earliest authentic account of the paper currency of China, although some authors aflirm that bank-notes were issued in the century preceding* the reign of Hong-bou. These notes Avere about seven inches long’ and five wide, bore the impress of the Imperial seal, and the folloAving words were inscribed upoJi each note, ivith the value set upon it by the government : “ The Court of the Treasury having presented their petition, it is ANCIENT PAPER MONEY. 405 decreed that the paper money thus marked A\ ith the Imperial seal of Ming* shall pass current, and be put to the same use as copper coin. Those who coun- terfeit it shall be beheaded. He who shall inform ag’ainst and secure them, shall have a reward of two hundred and fifty taels. Besides, he shall receive the goods of the criminal as Avell immoveable as move- able.” Then follows the dates of the year, month, and day of the reign of the Emperor, Hong*-bou. These ancient notes are prized beyond measure by antiquarians and tlie superstitious, the latter affirm- ing that the possession of one of them, ensures good fortune, preserving the inmates of the house from all misfortunes and sickness, if the note is suspended from the largest and thickest beam which supports the ceiling or roof. Marco Paulo, who Avas in China in the thirteenth century, about the year 1260, states, that bank-notes Avere then in general use in the Empire, and Avhen defaced or injured by Avear, they Avere exchanged at the mint for neAV ones, or if preferred for gold or silver. These notes AA'ere issued for various sums, from one Venetian groat up to ten besants of gold. “ This author falls into an error, in stating that the hark of the mulberry tree Avas used to make the paper of Avhich these notes Avere made ; as the Chinese never at any period, destroyed a mulberry tree, as it is the tree most valued in China, irom being the natural food of the silk-worm. Marco Paulo was deceived, for he affirms, that they used the bark of the mul- berry trees to make the paper Avhich composed this money, for the Chinese are carefid not to destroy such 406 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. A aluable trees ; it Avas the bark of the tree called Cou-tchu, Avhich is of little value, and resembles the elder tree ; and of this they make a paper strong-er than that of bamboo.” — Du Halde, Vol. ii. pag-e 293. We find that in the fifteenth century, the g*overn- ment ordered all taxes and dues to be paid in paper, the use of silver and copper monies being- prohibited. NotAA'ithstanding* this edict and prohibition, the paper currency g-radually sank into disuse, until the govern- ment ceased to issue bank-notes. There are bankers in many parts of China, and these establishments as in England are composed of one or more partners. The method of transacting business is similar to that adopted in Europe, they receive de- posits of cash, occasionally allowing- interest if left beyond a certain time, and Avill lend money on g-ood security. The interest alloAA^ed by laAV is three per cent. per mensem, or thirty-six per cent, per annum, and at the time of repayment, interest can only be demanded up to the time the interest has not accumu- lated beyond the principal ; should it be greater, then the lender loses the overplus. Bills of exchange, or promissory notes, bearing- the names of partners of these banks, circulate, their value increasing- or de- creasing, according- to the demand for them ; these bills are sometimes made payable at sight, or at a certain period after presentation, as in England, and vary in value from a quarter of a dollar up to fifty thousand. The banks in the northern cities transact immense business, the partners frequently are mandarins, or men of immense Avealth ; the local g-overnment employ SYSTEM OF BANKING. 407 them to transact money, for the pa}nnent of the con- sular authorities, for which a moderate per-centag’e is charg-ed, we believe about two per cent. The two largest and Avealthiest banks are at Shang-hae and Canton, the latter carrying on regular and constant correspondence Avith Pekin, and Nan-kin. When money is placed in a bank, a book is given in which the receipt of the sum deposited is acknow- ledged but should the book be lost, the party Avho presents the book can obtain the money not pre- viously draAvn out j the system of cheques appears to be entirely unknoAvn. The Oriental Bank has established a branch at Hong- Kong ; Ave have heard from those connected with the establishment, that it does not answer, as Avas foretold by every one Avho understood anything' upon the subject, as from the habits of merchants in China, it would be very inconvenient, if not impossible, to keep bankino- accounts. o Surplus cash is generally, if not invariably, invested in opium, Avhen it can be purchased at a Ioav rate ; the drug is kept until the market rises, Avhen it is sold ; to the warehouse or godown of each merchant is invariably attached a treasury for money — Sycee or opium, this room is Avell built and strongly secured. Tlie compredore of each establishment has the cus- tody of this treasury, whose probity is secured to the merchant by one or more wealthy Chinese ; should any defalcation, either of specie or opium, be disco- vered, the merchant immediately calls upon the com- predore, or his security, to make the deficiency good. This system has been so long adopted in China by the merchants, that they evince great disinclination to 408 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. commence or try a different one. The only accounts, therefore, likely to be kept at the bank, are such as, from the smallness of their amounts, will not pay; as in all probability, the principal deposits will be from government servants, who could not make any consi- derable lodgments from their monthly pay, or from European shopkeepers and petty speculators, whose accounts would rarely exceed one hundred pounds. From the information we have obtained, it appears the result of the experiment has been in conformity with the mercantile predictions; the local govern- ment, however, have given e^ ery encouragement to the undertaking, and very properly have allowed the bank a military guard. Although the Chinese bankers will change coin, there are numerous money-shops and money-changers, who gain immense sums by trading* in money. The trade must be a most lucrative calling in China, if we can form an opinion from the numbers eng*aged in it. In the money- changing* shops no coin will be changed, unless an article is purchased, or some few cash paid for the accommodation. In this manner, and by intermixing spurious coin, they must make enormous profits. The money-changers may be constantly seen in the bazaars and streets, and are distinguishable by a long* string of cash, hanging, like an alderman’s or lord mayor’s chain, around their necks ; and piles of this copper coin are arranged in stands before them. Pawnbrokers flourish as much in China, if not more than in England, and are licensed by and pay a tax to the government. Tlie rate of interest at Avhich they lend money is exorbitant, but the scale is fixed by law. These establishments usually PAWN-BROKIXG ESTABLISHMENTS. 409 consist of several partners^ and it is no unusual occurrence for a Minister of State^ or Viceroy of a province^ to have shares in pawn-shops. Every de- scription of article is received in pledg'e^ and, as no questions are asked, they are the great receivers of stolen goods. Gods from temples, bells from joss- houses, pictures, trinkets, ftirniture, clothing, the most expensive to the most trivial mechanical tool, may be found in a Chinese pawnbroker’s. The mode of trans- acting business is methodical, the system similar to our own, tickets being* g’iven corresponding to om*s, and a duplicate attached to the article pledged. All in these establishments appear to thrive, and the person in charg*e of the shop generally has a most comely and prosperous appearance — his dress be- tokening* Avealth, and the embonpoint of his person is the beau ideal of Chinese ideas of masculine beauty. China is not only as striking an example as can be found amongst the nations of the earth, of great in- equality of wealth among*st the population, but of the extremes of wealth and poverty ; for in the Celestial Empire there are many Eothschilds amongst her merchants, and George Hudsons (the railroad king), amongst her monopolists, hut there are also many a Lazarus, and starA’ing mendicant in her streets. OAA’ing to the absolute monarch}’ of China, the fluc- tuation and insecurity of Avealth is greater than in any other country — to-day a mandarin is one of the richest in the land; to-morroAV he is disgraced, and not only the Avhole of his Avealth confiscated, and declared forfeited to the Emperor, hut that of his sons, brothers, and other relations, if he have any. A merchant is among'st the healthiest of his class ; 410 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. has junks, shares in banks, pawn-shops, salt-works, and mercantile establishments, has houses, lands, and is in the most prosperous circumstances ; the merchant is detected in purchasing- or smug-g-ling- opium j before sunset he is arraig-ned, in a few short days the whole of his vast wealth, that of his sons, brothers, and rela- tions, is in like manner forfeited. The mandarin and merchant are now equal — alike criminals and beg-g-ars. We have been enabled to obtain, throug-h the kind- ness of an esteemed friend, a statistical return of the revenue of Cliina for the year 1847, which we believe will be found interesting- j especially as it proves what we have before stated, namely, that the finances of China are not in a flourishing- condition. Revenue Returns of the Chinese Em'pire in 1847. T ^gIs Land-tax 28,208,695 Forwarded to the capital in kind from the various Provinces 4,7 19,385 shih of Rice and other g-rain, equivalent to . 9,438,670 Duty on Salt 4,704,382 Transit duties 4,199,335 Duties on foreign trade, including- Mong-olia 3,000,000 Tax derived from the Mines, paid in kind 2,021,105 Tribute of Silk, Cotton stuffs, and other manufactures equivalent to ... . 307,590 Sundries 2,729,607 Rent from the Land of the 8 Standards . 463,043 Tax on Tea plantations, &c 108,481 Surplus per-centag'e paid on every sum received into the public treasury . . 4,316,684 Total Taels 59,496,992 [Equal to about £17,000,000 sterling*.] EXPENDITUEE OF THE EMPIRE. 411 Public Expenditure. Taels. Pay to the Civilians^ Police, and Military Officers . . . 7,087,198 Army and Navy (one-fourth consists in kind, such as rice, flour, &c.) . . . 4,505,512 Officers of the supreme government at Pekin 668,377 Post establishment and relays for public functionaries 2,014,984 For dykes, public buildings, and other exigencies 2,860,000 For sundries 1,317,108 Deposits in the Treasuries as a reserve fund, to meet any emergency . . . 7,379,742 Stipends to scholars, expenditure at the examinations, &c 293,806 For benevolent purposes, such as donations to the aged and poor 333,572 Gratuities to distinguished men, pensions, &c 401,669 For sundry grants to priests and national establishments 182,182 Carry forward . Taels 27,044,150 [Equal to about £7,860,000 sterling.] 412 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Imperial Ustablishment paid out of the National Treasury. Taels. Taels. Broiig-ht forward .... 27,044,150 The Eio-ht Standards and Mon- . o golian auxiliaries .... 5,452,421 Kice and other articles in kind . 4,864,800 Gratuities and Pensions . . . 401,669 Allowances made to children, the ag’ed, infirm, and poor, among-st the Mantchoos . . 991,845 For religious establishments at the Llama temples, the sacri- fices attheimperial tombs,&c. 344,574 Imperial manutactures to pro- vide the court Avith articles of luxury 201,809 12,257,118 Provincial disbursements for the 18 provinces, Turkistan, and the establishment in Thibet . 6,607,380 Total of Public Expenditure . Taels 45,908,648 Paid into the imperial treasury ibr the sovereign’s private use, about . . . 12,000,000 (This sum is not specified, but is merely estimated.) Total Taels 57,908,648 [Equal to about £16,826,000 sterling.] DEFICIT IN REVENUE FOR 1847. 413 Deficit in the Devenue during 1847. Taels. In land-tax 662,181 In duties 476,898 In the g'abelle 889,712 . In sundries 299,790 In kind, 1,17.3,068 shih, equivalent to . 2,346,136 Total revenue of Ho-nan expended to suc- cour the starving’ population , . . 3,209,708 Surplus sent from the other provinces and the capital to Ho-nan 500,000 Total Taels 8,884,425 Hishursements 57,908,648 66,293,073 Receipts 59,496,992 Actual deficit Taels 6,796,081 While going’ throug-h the press, and after the first volume was printed, Ave obtained the return of the re- venue of the colony of Hong-Kong’, for the year 1848, Avhich, althoug'h this is not the place Avhere it oug'ht to have been inserted, Ave think may not inaptly he introduced here, and according’ly it is subjoined for the information of our readers. 414 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. Total revenue of the colony of Hong*- Kong-, for the year 1848 £25,091 Expenditure for the same period, ex- clusive of public works, roads, bridg'es, and the purchase of a court-house . . 40,355 Which leaves a deficiency of ... £15,264 As there is no prospect of any immediate increase of revenue, and as there does not appear to he any available means, of extracting* additional income from the already over-taxed inhabitants, we presume a con- siderable reduction of expenditure will become indis- pensably necessary. ESTIMATED POPULATION. 415 CHAPTER XV. Population of China — Canton — National virtue — Maxims inculcating the practice of filial duty — National character and vices — Fatalism of the Chinese — Anecdote — National character displayed during the War — Diseases prevalent in China among the natives. There are considerable differences of opinion rela- tive to the population of China, the estimated number of souls, varying’ from three hundred to three hundred and sixty-five millions ; and Mr. Montg’omery Martin g’iving- four hundred millions, as the probable number of the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire ; it is quite certain, that be the correct number Avhich it may, there is no portion of the g’lobe so densely populated, as this part of the world. The population of Canton alone, is computed by some at eig’hty-four thousand, by others at one million two hundred and thirty-six thousand ; and when we take into consideration the vast multitude, who reside upon the river at Canton, the numbers who dwell in each boat, and the dense manner in which these floating’ domiciles are cong’reg’ated on the water, the immense population resident within the city walls, and its environs ; one abode among’st the lower and poorer classes being’ frequently inhabited by three and four 416 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. g‘enerations ; it is fiir from being* either incredible or impossible, that the whole population of Canton, resi- dent either on the river, -within the city, and without the walls, may amount to one million two hundred and thirty-six thousand. All the villag’es, towns, and cities of China, with rivers flowing* in their vicinities, are apparently popu- lated to nearly the same extent as Canton, but it must be borne in mind that the aquatic population possess no habitation upon terra jirma. When these facts are considered in conjunction with the vast extent of the empire, the inhabitants of Avhich rarely migrate for any lengthened period, it would by no means be as- tonishing to And, as the result of an accurate census, that the total population of China might eA^en exceed the larger estimate of four hundred millions. We shall iioav take a glance at the character of the Chinese as a nation, and although Ave differ from many contemporaries, Ave can conscientiously affirm that Ave have nought extenuate, nor aug'ht set down in malice ; but liaA'e endeavoured to depict the national character as it is, Avithout romantic colouring*, so as to heighten their good qualities j or puerile depreciation, so as to attempt to lower their character, to the level of the brute creation. The characteristic good qualities of the Chinese, are parental affection, filial piety, veneration for learning*, respect for ag*e, submission to rule, hospitality, perse- verance and industry: the one especial trait in a Chinaman’s character, Avhich is Avorthy of being* imi- tated by many professing Christians, is obedience to parents, and filial duty. PKACTICE OF FILIAL DUTY. 417 The practice of this virtue is carried to a very great extent^ by all ranks^ from the hig-hest to the humblest, from the richest to the poorest, and we have known instances of daily occurrence, where children have deprived themselves of necessaries, to furnish their parents with comforts j where menials have hoarded up the gTeater portion of their earnings with scru- pulous care, in order to be enabled to contribute towards the support of their parents. By the laws of China, a son is permitted to suffer punishment for his father, if the latter has infringed the laws of his country : should the officers of justice be unable to find a son, who has been guilty of any crime or offence, they very deliberately take the father and incarcerate him, knowing full well that the delin- quent Anil speedily make his appearance, as soon as the tidings of his parent’s imprisonment reach his ears. Nothing is so abhorrent to each native of the celes- tial empire, high and low, rich and poor, as filial dis- obedience, and this crime is sev erely punished by law; possibly from political motives, for as the Emperor calls himself^ what he ought to be, the father of his people, he Avisely considers that he Avill not be regarded in tliat light, or treated Avith becoming respect, should his sub- jects be deficient in filial obedience to their natural parents. As if fearful that the practice of this virtue might temporarily escape their minds, extracts from philoso- phical works, which inculcate the necessity of this duty, are hung around their abodes, and the following are some of the moral maxims, extracted from the Avorks of Confucius, and other renoAvned sages, Avhich are VOL. II. E E 418 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. most in repute with the Chinese. These inspirations are written on coloured paper, either in g’old or black characters, and are suspended from the walls, in the same manner that pictures are hung* in Europe. The following* extracts are worthy of imitation, and would do honor to a Christian writer, who was a native of the most refined and enlightened nation in the world. AVhat terms of commendation therefore, are sufficiently great to bestow upon these sentiments, when we recall to mind they Avere written and composed by heathens ? Let a son honor his parents, not ohsei’A’ing their faults, which he should carefully conceal: he may, however, remonstrate with them three times concerning* their faults. Should the parents turn a deaf ear to their son’s exhortations, and disregard him, that does not do away with the duty that a sou has to the au- thors of his being, he must still observe towards them the same undiminished respect and affection.” “ A son should never refer to old age and its attendant infirmities AAdiilst within hearing* of his parents.” “ Let every occupation and business he instan- taneously laid aside to answer a parent’s summons.” Should his parents be in trouble, a son must not visit, nor receive his friends. Should they he sick or in pain, his demeanour and countenance must express the grief of his heart, and the sorrow Avhich fills liis breast. A son whilst liis parents are suffering bodily torment or mental pain, must refrain from listening* to music or melodious sounds, and must preserve an unruffled temper, no matter how querulous the mur- murs of his parents may he.” MAXIMS ON FILIAL DUTY. 419 ‘‘ To have a proper estimation of filial duty, a son must watch his parents’ looks, and attend to their slightest wishes: when they speak, he must listen attentively to their words, and follow their counsels. A son’s thoughts should be continually filled with the duty that he is bound to pay to his parents.” A son should be careful in attending- to the cor- poreal wants of his parents j see they are well fed, have warm clothing* for the winter, and thin light garments for the summer j he should visit their abode, or chamber, night and morning-, to hear their exhorta- tions, listen to their requests, and see they neither re- quire nor want anything that he can procure for them.” “ It is not respectful for a son to sit on the same seat, couch, or mat, Avith his father, nor to uncover his head in his presence, nor to give utterance to jests, or indulge in unseemly mirth.”* Would that all the other moral and virtuous maxims which are inculcated by the writings of the ancient philosophers, were equally well heeded and observed j were such the case China would be one of the most moral nations of the Avorld, instead of being- the most depraved. From the contemplation of filial duty and piety we are compelled to turn, and regard the opposite side of the picture of national character; and it is with reluctance that Ave are forced to state, that Ave firmly believe there is not a nation yet knoAvn to exist, on the * Inferiors invariably keep the head covered whilst in the presence of superiors, as the Chinese consider it great rudeness to remove the cap or uncover the head ; occasionally superiors will remove their caps when in company with their inferiors, but they never uncover the head when in the society of their equals. E E 2 420 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. face of the g-lohe, whose inhabitants are so habitually and systematically proflig-ate as the Chinese^ vice of the most revolting kind being openly practised^ and indulged in Avithout shame, or incurring’ punishment for the crime committed. Chastity is unknown among the loAver orders of women, and is only preserved amongst the hig’her by rigid seclusion and the Avant of opportunity. The degradation of Avomen in China is, alas, absolute and complete. Gain is the summit of a Chinaman’s am- bition, and he regards not the means by Avhich Avealth is obtained, being* deficient in probit}^ of thought, word, and deed ; distrusting’ all, they are cunning and jealous beyond measure; servilely abject to their superiors, they exhibit tyranny and injustice to all below them ; in fact, there are no judg’es AA^ho ad- minister the laws impartially or justly, as each man- darin exercises the office and functions of a judge over all beneath him, including’ the mandarins who are his inferiors in rank, save the suitors are wealthy, or deem the case of sufficient magnitude to be referred to the tribunal at Pekin (Avhere all important cases are decided by the Emperor in person,) they stand little chance of meeting’ Avith attention, or receiA-ing’ even- handed justice. All classes, from the highest to the loAvest, are addicted to gambling, cheating’ and fraud are preva- lent in their daily amusements ; the dexterity, daring, and adroitness of Chinese thieA'es is proverbial. The crimes induced by smoking’ opium are elseAA’here spoken of, and treated, of most fully in this Avork ; and may the truthful, fearful facts brought under the GENERAL PREVALENCE OF IMMORALITY. 421 notice of the public^ induce that public to lend their powerful aid in forcing upon the attention of the Legislature of Great Britain^ the necessity for sup- pressing’ the nefarious traffic in opium, which is carried on by Britain’s sons, in direct violation of the treaty entered into by the monarch of Great Britain with the monarch of the Celestial Empire. Vice appears to reig-n almost “ lord paramount” in the hearts of the natives of China, and the field is a wide one that is there open to missionary labour ] we fear the evil in most natures predominates over the better qualities, but neither nationally, nor individually, in any country that we have either visited, heard, or read of, is evil so fearfully and habitually manifested, as it is by the natives of China. There are three desires Avhich appear to prevail, and to be implanted in the breast of every Chinaman, be the grade he occupies in society what it may : first, he anxiously looks for male offspring*, to per- petuate his name and to sacrifice to his manes; secondly, he will labour, toil, thieve, and cheat inde- fatig’abh*, to enrich himself, and acquire landed pro- perty ; and, thirdly, he desires longevity, in order that he may live to see his children’s children in the enjoy- ment of the wealth, he has accumulated by his efforts and toil. We must not omit mentioning that fatalism is in- dulged in by the Chinese, and no Turk can be a greater fatalist than a Chinaman ; we have heard of a native merchant of Canton, who Avas sitting smoking* in a British merchant’s residence, Avhen the intelligence was broug-ht to him that his warehouse, or godown, Avhich 422 CHINA ANH THE CHINESE. was filled with valuable merchandize, was in flames — (and as there is no insurance ag’ainst fire in China, the loss invariably sustained when an ignition does occur is terrific); — the China merchant listened to this news with complete sang froid, coolly replying*, — Mas-kie,” which is the Ang-lo-Chinese for “ never mind,” “ if the house is to be burned, it will he burned, if not, it will not,” very tranquilly continuing* to smoke his pipe. And we could enumerate other instances of the same nature, did the limits of this work permit us so to do. The Chinese are also great stoics in their way, and have been known to endure the g*reatest bodily suffering and torture, Avhich they have borne Avithout flinching, rather than surrender their beloved treasure. During* the late war, some extraordinary instances of stoicism came under the observation of our officers : this trait was evinced by the total disregard Avhich the Chinese displayed for life — constantly sacrificing it rather than fall into the hands of the red-bristled bar- barians.” After taking* (Ave believe Chin-keang*-foo,* if our memory plays us not false) one of the cities, some officers entered a mansion from Avhich smoke Avas issuing ; the house Avas spacious, and evidently apper- tained to a Avealthy mandarin, but the premises Avere deserted by all save the proprietor, Avho was discovered dressed in his robes of state, bound to his chair, and partially consumed ; his valuables, furniture, and books being piled in heaps aroundhim, having previously been set on fire. It Avas found impossible to save the life of this noble-minded heathen, Avho had preferred and sought * Chin-keang-foo is near Nan-kin. FATALISM AND STOICISM. 423 death rather than fall into the hands of foreig*n ene- mies, which he believed would be the greatest misfor- tune and dishonor, which could befall a native of the Celestial Empire. This idea appears to have been prevalent among the higher orders, as in other towns that our troops took, horrible spectacles awaited them in every house of a superior class, which they entered : not a male inhabitant was to be seen, hut the wretched women, wives, daughters, and concubines were found with either their throats cut or hanging from ropes sus- pended from the beams ; some were dying, others dead ; in some residences the wells have been found filled with females, and the women have been seen in the act of precipitating themselves into the water, with their children in their arms. Notwithstanding this characteristic disregard of life displayed by many, there were some instances where the love of life so far gained the ascendancy as to in- duce a diametrically opposite course of conduct — for instance, upon entering some cities or towns, our troops have found written in the larg-e characters of the Chi- nese language over the doors of many houses, Take all we have, but spare our lives.” The Chinese suffer most fearfully from ophthalmia of every description, but more especially from diseases of the eyelid 5 these are encouraged, incited, and increased by the method adopted by the barber who cleanses (as he terms it, injui’es we say), the eyelid, by passing an instrument over the ridge of the lid Avhere the lashes grow, and between the eyelid and ball ; this causes inflammatory action, which generally ends in total 424 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. loss of vision. There is also a peculiarity in the natural formation of the e 3 '-elids of natives of China ; there appears to be a superabundance of skiiij Avhich AA'ill frequently lie in a fold, this causes the lid to turn the lashes toAvards the e3"eball, thus causing* great irritation and inflammation and after a time blindness ensues ; this complaint is termed by many medical men entropium. Lepros}^ is fearfully common among the natives of China, the epidermis of the hands and feet Avill become completely hardened, the muscles contracted and the joints immoveable, the fingers and toes being bent into the shape of a bird’s claw. This is one kind of leprosy, the others are where the skin becomes Imdly Avhite, the body covered Avith sores and ulcers j and when the Avhole person assumes a piebald appearance, the com- plexion being* in patches of the natural hue of the skin, and a livid cadaverous white. The inhabitants of the southern provinces are sub- ject to tumours of large size and great variety", which groAv upon every part of the person. Cutaneous diseases of evei*}^ description are met Avith all over China, and found in all ranks j a mandai*in AA'ill not think it at all outre or incorrect to inform a visitor that he has the itch, giving* occular demonstra- tion of the same. Dropsy and rheumatic affections affect the poorer classes, and elephantiasis, although not common, is oc- casionally seen. This disease, assumes a someAvhat different aspect, to that Avhich is prevalent in the East and West Indies and Ceylon. In China the leg* does not become more than twice the natural size, but PEEVALENCE OF BALDNESS, 425 the limb is covered with festering' sores ; whilst in India and Ceylon the limb will swell to an enormous size^ but is totally devoid of sores, ulcers, or irruption. Baldness is peculiarly prevalent among' the Chinese Avomen, and scarcely a female arrives at the ag'e of thirty-five years, without her head being’ denuded of hair, in patches j from what cause this arises it is im- possible to determine, but Ave believe from Avant of cleanliness, as the skin of the head is never cleansed from the filthy pork fat and messes Avhich the hair is loaded Avith. We are streno-thened in our belief and o statement from the fact, that the men are rarely bald even in extreme ag'e 5 as the fore part of their heads are shaved, the back part Avhere the hair is allowed to g'l’OAA", is constantly cleansed Avith the water AA'hich runs from the front part of the head, Avhilst underg'oing' the process of shaving'. Fevers of various kinds assail the inhabitants of particular provinces, and the smallpox rag'es Avith fearful virulence j in short there is not a disease known, to AA'hich human nature is subject, that may not be found prevalent in China, and frequently in its Avoi’st and most terrific form. 426 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. CHAPTER XVI. Extraordinary Buildings — Porcelain tower at Nan-kin — Temple of Ho-nan — Pagodas — Monuments — Bridges — Triumphal arches — Im- perial Palace at Pe-kin — Palace of the Emperor at Earth’s Repose — Palace at Je-hol — Announcements in the Pekin Gazette — Burning- glass presented by the King of England to the Emperor of China. The g’reat Porcelain Tower at Nan-kin, in the pro- \'ince of Kiang^-nan, is the most extraordinary building* in China, it was built by the Emperor Yong*-lo, and is called by the Chinese the Temple of Gratitude. The tower is erected upon a pile of bricks, and is formed upon a most substantial timber frame-work ; it stands about two hundred feet high, and is of an octangular shape. It is surrounded by a very thick wall of the same form, over which a roof is thrown from the tower, covered with green porcelain tiles, which makes a very handsome promenade, the walls and roof being* painted in arabesque. On the eastern side a marble staircase leads to the first floor, which is surrounded by a gallery or verandah, the roof of which is covered with green tiles, being* supported by several pillars j on the top of the marble staircase there are three large doors THE PORCELAIN TOWER AT NANKIN. 427 leading’ into the hall or temple, which is on the first floor, and measui'es forty feet across, which g'ives fifteen feet for each of its sides. The floor is of marble, which has the appearance of projecting* throug'h the Avail, as a cornice of marble tAVO feet thick runs round the building’ on a level Avith the floor. The temple or hall is one hundred feet in heig’ht, and it is only lig-hted by means of the three doors Ave have already described. The tower is composed of nine stories, each one abo\*e the hall being- of equal heig’ht, but the diameter of each succeeding* one decreases in equal proportion up to the top. The Avails externally and internally are covered Avith porcelain, and a ve- randah surrounds each story covered with porcelain tiles, Avhile small bells are pendant to every corner of them. The beautifully sloped roof is appropriately finished by means of a very thick spar, Avhich is planted in the floor of the eig’hth story, and passing* throug’h the centre of, and extending’ above, the roof some thirty feet. This spar is surmounted Avith a larg’e g’olden ball, and from its junction with the spar, a thick g-ilt Avire, is carried doAvn like a screw in a conical form, Avhich g’ives a novel and lig’ht appear- ance to the building’ ; the second, and each succeeding’ story, has a windoAV on each of its sides ; the floors are laid upon thick cross beams, Avhich are carved and painted in arabesque to form the ceiling’s of the rooms below them. The walls are covered with por- celain tiles, stamped with various fig’ures and devices, small niches are filled AAitli fig’ures in basso relievo, and rich gilding* adorns the whole of the interior. 428 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. a winding’ and inconvenient staircase runs up to the ninth story. There are several Buddhist monasteries throug'hout Cliina. The Temple of Longevit}', within two miles of the city of Canton, situate to the north-west of the factories, forms a residence for a great number of priests. These buildings consist of large porticos, sometimes paved with polished marble ; halls and pavilions, a principal and lesser temples, are situate in a variety of courts, these buildings being con- nected tog’ether by covered passages or galleries ; green and yellow tiles cover the roofs, which are ornamented vdth dragons and other animals, of the same colom’s and g’rotesque forms. Almost all of these monasteries have a tower or pagoda attached to them, but the size of them is considerably less than that of the Temple of Gratitude. The Temple of Ho-nan is not the least remarkable of these pagan monasteries ; it is entered throug’h a very lono- court in which there is a large stone, on which a tortoise is engraved. After passing a second gate you enter another court, where four enormous statues are placed as sentinels j on each side there are two, their appearance is very fanciful and savage, and they might be mistaken for some of the gods of ancient Rome. At the extremity of this court stands the principal temple, where the three Buddhas are placed, together with a variety of other images and several altars, which give a solemn aspect to the place. There are a large number of cells built round the principal court, which are appropriated as residences THE TEMPLE OF HO-NAN. 429 for the priests, and offices of the establishment. The sacred pigs are here domiciled in a habitation as- signed to their use, and are maintained in a state of great luxury. The reason which is given for this is to recompense the species in the persons of these favoured swine for the injuries they have sus- tained, through the oft-repeated sins committed by the disciples of Buddha in devouring the flesh of pigs, their slaughtered relatives and brethren. In one part of this monastery there is erected a de- scription of furnace in which the corpses of departed priests are reduced to ashes j these ashes are then carefully collected and placed in urns, Avhich are deposited in a neighbouring’ chamber, where they remain until the annual opening' of the adjoining mausoleum, into which they are then removed. Gardens, g’roves, and rice or paddy fields, are en- closed within the walls, and the whole premises occupy about eighty acres of land. Tradition gives a very early date to the establish- ment of this temple, but the cause of its notoriety is accounted for by the following* story. Ho-nan and the surrounding countr}^ were in a state of revolt in the reign of the Emperor Kang-he, about a hundred and fifty years since, when the Emperor’s son-in-law Avith a powerful force, reduced the rebels to sub- mission. Ho-nan is said to have experienced much of the wrath of the conquering’ prince, avIio gave orders for the slaughter of all the inhabitants. Im- mediately after issuing these orders he encountered one of the priests of this monastery, Avho possessed a corporation conformable to Chinese ideas of muscular 430 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. beauty, whom he censured and accused of hypocrisy, in assuming' to refrain from animal food and spirituous liquors, while his portly carcass g'ave the lie to his profession. The prince sentenced the unfortunate priest to be executed; but reversed the sentence of condem- nation the following- morning-, owing- to a dream which had disturbed his nocturnal slumbers. The g-od Bud- dha appeared to the prince with an ang-ry aspect, as- suming- the most hideously terrific form, asking- him how he dared to attempt to molest, much less put to death one of his priests and disciples : inquired if he knew that putting- a priest to death was one of the most heinous crimes that a man could be g'uilty of ; the punishment for which was severe and never ending-. The g-od informed the trembling- prince that if be dared to molest his servant in the slig-htest deg-ree, the empire should be overthrown, war should ravag-e the land, famine and pestilence should reig-n lords paramount in China; that his life should be short, and that upon his decease, his soul should enter the carcass of a loathsome leper ; that after drag-g-ing- on years of wretchedness under this form, he should die, when his soul should pass into the body of a loathsome reptile; that after life had quitted the reptile’s frame, his soul should pass into the reg-ions of eternal torment. But if the prince would protect his Buddhas, priests, and disciples, endow his temples, lead a g-ood life, and follow the tenets inculcated b}' Buddhism, all should prosper with him in this world, and after his decease, his soul should pass mto the regions of bliss, finally MONASTIC TEMPLES. 431 becoming^ absorbed in the o’od Buddha. In the morn- ing", therefore, the prince not only reversed the sen- tence, but overpowered the now happy priest with pre- sents, and bestowed princely riches upon the monastery. The Confucian Temple at Ning’-po was a very larg-e and celebrated one ; during the late war, how- ever, it was partially destroyed, and has not since been restored ; whether this is from want of funds, or OAving’ to an impression that the building had been too much polluted or contaminated by t\\efan- quis, is a question which Ave cannot solve, although we are inclined to believe that it is solely occasioned from want of funds, as many temples throughout the empire are falling’ into deca}'^ it is believed for the same reason. The Fokien Temple is the most conspicuous, and its internal decorations are the most gaudy of those now standing* in Ning-po, it is filled Avith idols and painted, tinselled, and decorated, most showily j but the style of decoration is similar to all the other temples in China. The monastic temples generally have attached to them Tas or pagodas, the sizes of Avhich are regulated according to the devotion and Avealth of those who endowed them ) and the same causes regulate the em- bellishments and decorations of the buildings, the most celebrated are built on rising ground, or on mountain sides. These pagan places of Avorship in- variably consist of porticos, courts, halls and paA'i- lions, Avith cells or offices built round the courts ; these are connected together by long g’alleries or coA^ered ways, ornamented Avith stone or brazen statues, and images. The roofs are covered Avith glittering yelloAv 432 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. and g’reen tiles, and ornamented with dragoons and imag’inary animals j while the interiors are decorated with arabesque painting-, tinsel, and images, and fig-ures in lasso relievo. The three gigantic figures of Buddha, the past, pre- sent, and future, stand in the principal temples, with all the usual accompaniments of altars, offerings, and burning joss-sticks. The Tas or pagodas, as we have already said, vary in height, measuring generally from one hundred and twenty, to one hundred and sixty feet, the diameter of their bases being about a fourth of their height j like the Temple of Gratitude at Nan-kin, they are built in stories, but none of them can be compared with it in beauty. Monuments are to be found in almost every city in China, which have been erected either to perpetuate the memory of some of their heroes, who have sig- nalized themselves by deeds of valour, or of princes, philosophers, or mandarins, who have done the State some service. On the top of a mountain, near the city of Nan-heon, in the province of Kwang-tung, a monu- ment has been erected to the memory of an individual, a native of the province, who from patriotic motives and at great labour and expense, cut a passage through the aforesaid mountain. His countrymen, having been previously obliged to toil their weary way over this mountain, at the imminent risk of break- ing their necks, have in gratitude recorded his praise- worthy deed upon the monument, and placed his statue thereon. A favorite place for the erection of monuments, appears to he in the neigdibourhood of temples or MONUMENTS, OR CHE-PEE. 433 monasteries, where several are to be found. These monuments, or Che- pee, are composed of stone or marble, and sometimes of brass, and consist commonly of two pieces, a base and an uprig*ht, the latter being* nicely fitted into a mortise cut in the former. Some of them stand about eight feet liigh, two feet in breadth, and one foot in thickness, but in general they are not more than four or five feet high, and their other dimensions are in proportion. A few are more ele- gantly constructed, having* tortoises or animals of the lizard species to form their bases. Upon the face of these Che-pee are engraved the names of the indi- viduals to perpetuate whose memories they have been constructed, and the reasons which had led to their erection. Some again, are records of memorable events, and some are enclosed within buildings more or less expensive. These buildings are of a square form, with a some- what rounded roof, surmounted with a grotesque figure. But ■w*hen the monument has been erected to commemorate an action of an emperor’s life, or a favor or honor conferred by him, dragons are en- graven upon the monument itself, and the roof of the building* is covered with yellow^ tiles, the -whole edifice is more elaborately ornamented, and a variety of gro- tesque figures stand within and without. One of this description is situate near the city of Soo-chow-foo, in the province of Kiang-nan, which commemorates the distinction conferred upon the in- habitants by a visit, paid to their city by the Emperor Kang-he, on which occasion he divested himself of a great part of the usual pomp and state which are VOL. II. F F 434 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. attendant upon an Imperial progress. On the marble monument within are enoraved the instructions which o the Emperor gave in person to his Viceroy, for the government of his subjects. The bridges are variously constructed, some consist of a single arch, others of three or more arches, and some are merely a series of stone piers, with large stone slabs laid across them, as described by us in our account of the famous bridg-e at Foo-chow-foo. Some bridges are built of red granite, and others of a g'rayish marble, cut into blocks five feet or more in length, which are laid alternately end-ways and cross- ways. The arches are very high, are semi-circular, circular and polygons in shape, and the bridges have steps at either end. Some are very handsome struc- tures, particularly one a few miles to the west of Pekin, which is composed of white marble, beauti- fully cut and ingeniously devised. The balustrades are composed of seventy small pillars, on either side intermixed with marble tablatures, carved with birds and animals, foliage and flowers. On the eastern end of the bridge, there is on either side a marble pedestal, supporting each an enormous lion, carved out of white marble, beneath and about which, the whelps are seen sporting’ in various atti- tudes. At the western end, two similar pedestals stand supporting’ each, the marble sculpture of a Chi- nese child, most accurately and ingeniously executed. Triumphal arches are very numerous throughout the Celestial Empire, and adorn almost every cityj some are but indifferentl}^ constructed and built of wood, but others are well worthy of observation. These TEIUMPHAL AECHES. 436 are built either of stone or marble, and consist gene- rally of one large arch, with a small one on each side. The pillars which are formed out of a single stone, act also as door-posts ; the entablature is composed of three or four faces, without mouldings, excepting one, which stands as a frieze, and on which an inscription is generally engraved. There is no cornice, but a roof is thrown over, completing the structure, and all the stones are joined together by means of tenons and mortises, like joiners’ work. These triumphal arches stand from twenty to five-and-twenty feet in height, some are ornamented with human figures, and others wdth birds, beasts, and grotesque animals, standing out in bold relief upon the masonry, while imaginary animals ornament the roof. At Amoy there is one of these triumphal arches which was built by order of one of the Emperors, however, unlike most of its fellows, it is not meant to record any national event, or the glories of a prince or warrior, but upon the entablatures of this arch are engi’aven an edict of the same emperor by whose direction it was erected, whereby he proclaimed that a royal recompense or mark of distinction, should be conferred upon the families of those widows, who should continue single, and shun a union with a second husband. Few wddow^s, it is said, have secured this royal mark of distinction for their families, with the exception of those of higher orders, who regard a second marriage as disgraceful. The imperial palace at Pekin is a vast assemblage of buildings both large and small, built within a variety of courts, amongst which they are dispersed F F 2 436 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. along* with pavilions^ porticos^ and canals, and the detached building*s are connected tog*ether by means of g*alleries and covered passag'es. The tout ensemble presents a most extraordinary appearance, the roofs being tiled with yellow porcelain, give an effect of burnished gold j extensive gardens and plantations are annexed to the royal habitation, and the whole being enclosed within a substantial brick wall, it is more like a city than a palace. The imperial wall, or Hoang-chin, has battlements along the curtain, and small towers at the angles, and over each gate. The palace is approached by three gates, the first or prin- cipal one is called the Ching-yan-men, or gate of the Midday Sun, which name is inscribed above it in Tartar and Chinese characters 5 on one side of it is a solar dial and on the other a lunar, and an enormous gong hangs in the tower above. This gate is solely for the use of the Emperor. The western gate is appropriated exclusively to the use of the members of the imperial family and princes of the blood royal, and the eastern gate is used by ministers of state and mandarins. On entering* the eastern g*ate the \dsitor is led into a spacious court about two hundred paces square, which is to the south of the imperial palace : it is paved with large bricks, and broad walks are laid down of stone flags; there is a large oblong building with verandahs at each angle ; a canal runs east and west through the court, over which are built five marble bridges, and an extensive building is raised upon a terrace on the north side, beneath which are built five vaulted gateways. Large pedestals and columns of white marble, supporting lions ram- THE IMPERIAL PALACE AT PEKIX. 437 pant, are placed at either end of the centre bridg’e, which appear to he cut out of the solid stone. The centre gateway, beneath the building* we have spoken of, leads to a second court at the entrance of which there are two other marble columns supporting* each a dragon ; the court is about half the size of the former, and leads into a third which is much larger. On the north of this third court stands a building*, somewhat similar to those in the two former built over five similar gateways, the gates of which are very massive, plated with iron, which is fastened with brass nails of enormous size. A fourth court suc- ceeds, through the centre of which flows a canal lined with white polished marble, over which are thrown five very ornamental bridges also built of the same marble, and exquisitely carved ; three handsome flights of marble stairs lead up to a very magnificent hall, and a covered gallery runs round the court, along* which are built at equal distances square open pavilions with marble steps leading to each from the court. The fifth court is about the same size as that last described, in the centre of it there are placed three square building*s upon a platform of Siam marble, six feet high, these buildings are about eighteen feet in height composed of three stories, enormous copper vases stand on the tops of these structures, and two copper lions, one on each side of the entrance to the centre one. On the north of the court is a very large and magnificent hall, where the Emperor receives daily the reports of the ministers of state, and the supreme tribunals, called the Hall of Audience. 438 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. The entrance to this hall, whose external appear- ance was mag'iiificent, was through three quadran- gular courts, encompassed by several buildings. It was a hundred feet in length, and forty in breadth, and in height about twenty, and erected upon a plat- form of granite. Two rows of large wnoden columns, whose shafts were painted red and varnished sup- ported its projecting roof; and its capitals, besides other ornaments, w^ere decorated with dragons whose feet were armed with five claws. There was nothing’ left in the hall but the throne, except a few large jars of porcelain, and a musical clock made early in the present (eighteenth) century by George Clarke of Leadenhall-street, London. The throne (being* raised upon a dais) was ascended to by steps in the front and on each side ; and above it were Chinese characters {Ching, or perfect wisdom) of glory and perfection. Tripods, and vessels of incense, were placed on each side, and before it a small table as an altar, for placing offerings of tea and fi’uit to the spirit of the absent emperor. Two courts similar in almost every respect to the fifth succeed it, to the east of this last there is a court used as a species of hippodrome, and to the north of this there is a ninth court across the centre of wliich there is a raised passage, appropriated solely to the use of the Emperor, which leads to the palace or building where the Emperor resides. It is built upon a terrace of marble, which is exquisitely polished, and the blocks so nicel}* fitted that no joining is percep- tible. The palace itself is resplendent with gilding*. Sir George Staunton, Embassy to China. THE IMPERIAL PALACE AT PEKIN. 439 painting’, and ornamental sculpture. The terrace is ascended by an inclined plane, used only to carry the Emperor’s chair up and down, on either side of which there are broad and noble steps. The hall is about one hundred and thirty feet long- and very nearly as broad j the ceiling' is elaborately carved, painted g’reen and varnished, and g’olden dragons are dispersed about, wooden pillars, the bases of which are six feet in circumference, painted red and varnished. The floor is of marble, and the Emperor sits on a throne in an alcove, after the mode of the Tartars. The gardens and pleasure-grounds attached to the palace are said to be most beautiful ; hills are embel- lished with lofty trees, which encircle cabinets and summer-houses, dedicated to pleasure and retirement, the whole forming' a picture irresistibly charming'. Stores of everything necessary for use or ornament during war or peace are kept within the palace walls and workmen and artificers of every description are resident and constantl}' employed within its precincts. However strange the appearance of this royal resi- dence may appear to European eyes, yet the magni- ficence, wealth, and splendour, which are exhibited in every variety, proclaim it to be undeniably the palace of a great and mighty Ruler. We regret that we cannot give a more accurate description of this extra- ordinary palace ; the foregoing' has been taken from Du Halde, the missionaries, and Sir G. Staunton, since whose day we have no accounts, nor do we know of any Europeans who have visited the imperial cit3^ We trust, however, that the day is not far distant when, by a wise and honorable policy, our friendly 440 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. relations with the Celestial Court will be placed upon a sure and firm basis, and our ambassador will be resident nuthin the walls of Pekin. The palace of the Empress is said to be very magmi- ficent, and is situated in the centre of the imperial flower-g’arden as the present Empress is of Tartar orig-in, we presume she has not adopted the Chinese custom of distorting- her feet, therefore may be able to employ pedestrian power, and perambulate among- the thousand walks and g-roves of this luxurious retreat. This palace resembles a garrisoned towm or citadel ; being- closely guarded by eunuchs, and no male is permitted to enter save the Emperor, or by his written permission. Few male domestics attend on the fair captives of the imperial harem, and the few that are there, are under the age of puberty — female domestics, w-ho are closely watched by the eunuchs, lest a lover or a love-letter should be introduced within the for- bidden precincts of ‘‘ earth’s repose,” minister to the domestic requirements of the ladies. The following account of the Emperor’s palace and pastimes of his country palace of Je-holf is most in- * In this garden is a building which report affirms contains a copy of every book that ever was published in China ; if this be true, this library must contain myriads upon myriads of books. t In 1 844, the following official announcements appeared in the Pekin Gazette : the first was a petition from the Superintendent of Repairs at the palace of Je-hol, in which he complained that the walls of the pleasure-grounds and garden were falling down, being in so dilapidated a condition that the stags and deer had free ingress into the flower- garden, praying that funds might be granted to carry on the necessary repairs. The second was an order to place one hundred and thirty-one thousand taels out at interest to defray the expenses of the palace at Je-hol. THE EMPEKOR's COUNTRY PALACE AT JE-HOL. 441 terestiiig', and will be found in Father Ripa’s ^^Resi- dence at the Court of Pekin/’ pag*e 72. Various habitations^ more or less large according to their use, are erected here and there in different spots about the grounds — one for his majesty, behind this one for his concubines, who lodg’e three or four in each room j another for his mother, others for his queens, and others for the eunuchs. There is also a Miao, or tem- ple of idols, which is constantly attended by a great number of Taou-she, or priests of the devil, who are eunuchs, — dressed in yellow. It is to this Miao that the Emperor goes Avith his ladies to make sacrifices and adorations during his stay in Je-hol. There are besides many cottages and summer-houses j the sum- mer-houses are built in different forms, but all in good taste and very clean. They are provided with silk curtains on all sides, so as to prevent observation from without, and have seats all around, with a table or bed in the centre. These cottagfes and summer-houses are for the service of the Emperor, who retires thither with his queens and concubines ; for at Je-hol he rarely sees any one except his ladies and eunuchs. With his ladies on foot around him he is carried about the grounds by eunuchs in an open chair. With them he sails in little boats fishing' in the canals and the lakes. With them he eats — always, however, alone, upon a raised platform, whilst they take their food seated on the floor each at her little table. Even when studying' he is surrounded by his favorite queens, as I myself have seen often.” In the imperial palace at Pekin is deposited the celebrated burning-glass, which was presented in our 442 CHINA AND THE CHINESE. king*’s name_, by Lord Macartney^ to the Emperor of China in the last century. This gdass, with the other presents from the king' of Great Britain to the mon- arch of the Celestial Empire, was exhibited at the palace of Pekin, and the g-lass was believed to be a talisman which the Eng-lish monarch had sent to en- able him to take possession of China. In vain were the Emperor, mandarins, and astronomers assured that this glass possessed no mag-ical powers and in vain were its peculiar properties explained to them — they neither could nor would comprehend what was said, and the unfortunate burning-glass, which had cost £800 sterling, was ordered to be destroyed — “ The talisman of the red-bristled barbarians was to be shivered into ten thousand million atoms — no one piece larg'er than a g-rain of rice was to be left entire.” Every effort was made to break the burning-glass, but the toil of the would-be destroyers was futile 5 and, in despite of the innumerable blows which were inflicted with heavy hammers the magic glass remained m statu quo — positively refusing to be demolished ! All was consternation in the imperial palace j the most learned astronomers and profound sages declared — that, after mature deliberation, they did not know what to do, but were now doubly convinced that none save a talisman could have borne the hearty blows of the heavy iron hammers 5 for what but a magic glass could have resisted the severe flagellation, that had been inflicted upon its surface, and remained entire ? Such w as the conclusion of the Chinese sages ; who intimated to the Emperor, that, as the talisman would not be broken, it might perchance consent to FATE OF THE FAMOUS BUENING-GLASS. 443 be buried. The question then arose where the talisman was to be buried ? and after a leng-thy consultation, it was resolved, to bury the talisman in the grounds which are attached to the palace, as the eunuchs would then be answerable for its safe keeping. To the amazement of the Emperor of China, mandarins, astronomers, and sages, the talisman was not contu- macious, and did not refuse to be interred with all due honors. Consequently, the finest and most powerful burning- -gdass that ever was constructed, is at Pekin in the possession of Taou-kwang’, the Emperor of the Celestial Empire ; but as it serenely reposes in the bosom of mother earth, we fear that it is lost to earth’s sons for ever : unless, by some lucky chance, the imperial mind can be illuminated, and made to comprehend, that burning-glasses are not talismans. THE END. London : Printed by Stewart and Murray, Old Bailey. DATE DUE GAYLORD PRINTED IN U S A DS709.S62V.2 China and the Chinese: their religion, Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer Library 1 1012 00220 7555