LIBRARY 
 
 OP THE 
 
 Theological Seminary, 
 
 PRINCETON, N. J. 
 
 Case, 
 
 BR 4 5 .B3 5 1873 
 
 Bampton lectures 
 
 A 
 
 A DONATION 
 
(xCf <v 
 
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THE 
 
 BAMPTON LECTURES 
 
 FOE 1873. 
 
" It has come, I know not how, to be taken for granted by 
 many persons, that Christianity is not so mnch as a subject of 
 enquiry ; but that it is, now at length, proved to be fictitious. 
 
 On the contrary, any reasonable man, who will 
 
 thoroughly consider the matter, may be as much assured as 
 he is of his own being, that there is not however so clear a case, 
 that there is nothing in it." — Extract from Bishop Butler's 
 Preface to his "Analogy of Religion." 
 
dtoatteraiica of Christian |Jta% 
 
 CONSIDERED IN 
 
 EIGHT LECTURES 
 
 PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, 
 IN THE YEAR 1873, 
 
 ON THE FOUNDATION OP THE LATE 
 
 REV. JOHN BAMPTON, M.A. 
 
 CANON OF SALISBURY. 
 
 BY THE 
 
 REV. I. GREGORY SMITH, M.A. 
 
 LATE FELLOW OF BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD; 
 VICAR OF MALVERN, AND PREBENDARY OF HEREFORD; 
 
 guitljot of "JfHiljj mxb f jjitarpfc" "Epitome of i\z fife of #mr 
 
 Dxfont and f muton : 
 
 JAMES PARKER AND CO. 
 
 1873. 
 
EXTKACT 
 
 FROM THE LAST WILL AND TESTAMENT 
 
 OF THE LATE 
 
 REV. JOHN BAMPTON, 
 
 CANON OF SALISBURY. 
 
 « I give and bequeath my Lands and Estates to the 
 
 " Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of 
 " Oxford for ever, to have and to hold all and singular the 
 " said Lands or Estates upon trust, and to the intents and 
 " purposes hereinafter mentioned ; that is to say, I will and 
 " appoint that the Vice-Chancellor of the University of 
 " Oxford for the time being shall take and receive all the 
 " rents, issues, and profits thereof, and (after all taxes, re- 
 " parations, and necessary deductions made) that he pay all 
 " the remainder to the endowment of eight Divinity Lecture 
 " Sermons, to be established for ever in the said University, 
 " and to be performed in the manner following : 
 
 " I direct and appoint, that, upon the first Tuesday in 
 " Easter Term, a Lecturer be yearly chosen by the Heads 
 " of Colleges only, and by no others, in the room adjoining 
 " to the Printing-House, between the hours of ten in the 
 " morning and two in the afternoon, to preach eight Divinity 
 " Lecture Sermons, the year following, at St. Mary's in 
 " Oxford, between the commencement of the last month in 
 " Lent Term, and the end of the third week in Act Term. 
 
vi EXTRACT PROM I A.NON BAMPTON's WILL. 
 
 "Also I direct and appoint, that the eight Divinity Lec- 
 " ture Sermons shall be preached upon either of the follow- 
 " ing Subjects — to confirm and establish the Christian Faith, 
 " and to confute all heretics and schismatics — upon the 
 " divine authority of the holy Scriptures — upon the autho- 
 " rity of the writings of the primitive Fathers, as to the 
 " faith and practice of the primitive Church — upon the Di- 
 " vinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ — upon the 
 "Divinity of the Holy Ghost — upon the Articles of the 
 " Christian Faith, as comprehended in the Apostles' and 
 " Nicene Creeds. 
 
 "Also I direct, that thirty copies of the eight Divinity 
 " Lecture Sermons shall be always printed, within two 
 "months after they are preached; and one copy shall be 
 " given to the Chancellor of the University, and one copy 
 " to the Head of every College, and one copy to the Mayor 
 " of the city of Oxford, and one copy to be put into the 
 " Bodleian Library ; and the expense of printing them shall 
 " be paid out of the revenue of the Land or Estates given 
 " for establishing the Divinity Lecture Sermons ; and the 
 " Preacher shall not be paid, nor be entitled to the revenue, 
 "before they are printed. 
 
 " Also I direct and appoint, that no person shall be quali- 
 " fied to preach the Divinity Lecture Sermons, unless he 
 " hath taken the degree of Master of Arts at least, in one of 
 "the two Universities of Oxford or Cambridge; and that 
 " the same person shall never preach the Divinity Lecture 
 " Sermons twice." 
 
TO THE 
 
 EEV. EDWARD HARTOPP CILADOCK, D.D. 
 
 PRINCIPAL OF BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD, 
 THE 
 
 REV. SAMUEL WILLIAM WAYTE, B.D. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD, 
 
 AND THE 
 
 FELLOWS AND SCHOLARS OF THOSE COLLEGES 
 
 Eijese lectures 
 
 ARE INSCRIBED. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE pressure of other duties, of which I had no 
 anticipation when I undertook the Lectureship, 
 has compelled me to modify the original plan of these 
 Lectures. This may be some excuse for their faults. 
 
 I hope that others will do more effectively what 
 I have here attempted. The moral features of Chris- 
 tianity are an essential part of its evidences, espe- 
 cially for the requirements of our time. 
 
 Among the friends to whom I am indebted for 
 assistance kindly given I have especially to thank 
 the Eev. J. B. Mozley, D.D., Eegius Professor of 
 Divinity, Canon of Ch. Ch., Oxford, and the Eev. 
 Phipps Onslow, M.A., Eector of Upper Sapey, for 
 valuable suggestions in revising. If I have omitted 
 acknowledging any obligation to previous writers, it 
 is an oversight which I regret. 
 
 The intelligence of the death of Mr. John Stuart 
 Mill arrived while these Lectures were being de- 
 livered. I trust that, in essaying to reply to some 
 of his opinions, I have never been unjust to one 
 whose candour and earnest desire to be impartial 
 command the respect of those who differ from him. 
 
 I. G. S. 
 
 Malvern, 
 
 May 31, 1873. 
 
V6I03 
 CONTENTS 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 What is Morality ?..... 1 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 Virtue is Unselfishness: Vice is Selfishness . .15 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 Christianity and the Appetites . . . .33 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 Christianity and Ambition . . . .49 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 Christianity and Self-dependence . . .63 
 
 LECTURE VI. 
 
 The Universality of Christian Morality . .77 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 Alleged Defects of Christian Morality . . . .87 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 Summary and Conclusion . . . . .99 
 
 ArrENDix . . . . • • .109 
 
LECTUEE I. 
 
 fjat is ittoralttg? 
 
 ISAIAH xxiv. 18. 
 
 " The foundations of the earth do shake" 
 
 T^OE good or for evil, in these days of ours, nothing 
 - 1 - is taken for granted. Creed, system, institution, 
 all must justify their existence. Wo prescription 
 however venerable, no authority however sacred, may 
 plead exemption. The restless tide of thought washes 
 away the accretions of ages ; the convulsive heavings 
 of doubt and enquiry lay bare the hidden principles 
 of belief; "the foundations of the round world are 
 discovered;" " the foundations shake ;" "the founda- 
 tions are cast down." Surely for good in the end. 
 Many a stately edifice, the pride of generations past, 
 comes crashing down, because reared on shifting 
 sand, "and great is the fall thereof." But that 
 which stands on the rock will stand unshaken, while 
 all else is reeling and tottering around. 
 
 So, then, Christianity must be prepared to prove 
 itself. For Christianity is simply nothing, unless it 
 is reasonable and voluntary. Only a debased and 
 sentimental Christianity would say, " Feelings are ^ 
 better than reasons, and render reasons unneces- 
 sary a ." Christianity claims no inert acquiescence, 
 
 a "People are accustomed to believe, and have been encouraged 
 in the belief by some who aspire to the character of philosophers, 
 
 B 
 
2 WHAT IS MORALITY ? [Lect. 
 
 no servile prostration ; it appeals emphatically to the 
 conscience. It must stand or fall by this criterion, — 
 Is it founded on the sand or on the rock ? 
 
 I propose in these Lectures to consider the morality 
 of the Gospel as an evidence for the doctrines of 
 which it is the accompaniment; nay, of which it 
 is the substructure and the foundation. Beligion* 
 without morality is a body without a soul. If the' 
 ethical teaching of Christianity, fairly tested, is 
 superior to that of other systems, here is one 
 of the surest arguments, if not the very surest 
 of all, for Christianity as a whole : and the argu- 
 ment is strengthened, in proportion to the degree 
 of superiority. 
 
 I need not remind you who hear me, that, outside 
 the pale of numbers b , proof positive and irrefragable, 
 is simply not to be had ; and that the most we may 
 dare to hope for is but a balance of probabilities. If 
 moral and religious truths admitted of demonstration, 
 their influence as a probation and discipline of cha- 
 racter would not be what it is. Need I implore you 
 also to bear in mind the axiom, more than ever need- 
 ful where the question is so wide in its range, so 
 momentous in its issues, that the justice of the cause 
 must not be gauged by the inadequacy of its advo- 
 
 that their feelings on subjects of this nature" (rules of conduct) 
 " are better than reasons, and render reasons unnecessary." — 
 J. S. 31 ill, On Liberty, p. 4. 
 
 b If the value of words and their relation to one another could 
 be defined as exactly as in numbers, to the exclusion of all irrele- 
 vant matter, tli< inference logically drawn from them would be, 
 as an inference, demonstrable. 
 
I] WHAT IS MORALITY? 3 
 
 cate ; an inadequacy of which he is himself only too 
 well aware. 
 
 Are we over-stating, if we call morality the founda- 
 tion of religion? Surely no. "By their fruits ye 
 shall know them," are the words of the Founder of 
 Christianity; and the test holds good, as of His 
 disciples, so of His doctrine, and, with reverence be 
 it spoken, of Himself. For what is Faith ? Not the 
 dry apprehension by the intellect of barren formula?, 
 but a willing appreciation of what is beautiful and 
 good, and a trustful surrender of self to one worthy 
 of love and reverence. What is there blameable in 
 Unbelief , but the wilful rejection of truth and holi- 
 ness ? Or, to be more exact, since all believe in one 
 thing or another, the difference lies in the object of 
 faith. There is a gradation from the lowest to the 
 highest faith; from the faith of mere materialism, 
 a faith, as it has been called, "in man's digestive! 
 powers and in the Everlasting Nothing' 1 ," up to 
 the loftiest conceptions of Almighty Holiness and 
 Love. 
 
 This connexion between faith and morality, be- 
 tween worship and common things, is an especial 
 mark of Christianity. In other religions, with which 
 we are familiar, the daily life was slightly enough 
 affected by creed or ceremony. The Greek or the 
 Eoman might go his way from altar or temple, 
 
 c The unbelief which comes from circumstances, either within 
 the man or without, for which he is not responsible, is essentially 
 different from the unbelief which comes from the will being warped 
 by any selfish prepossession. d T. Carlylc. 
 
 b2 
 
4 WHAT IS MORALITY? [Lect. 
 
 satisfied that having poured his libation, or sus- 
 pended his votive offering, he had done all that his 
 gods could require. But from the first the key-note 
 of Christianity has been, not hands cleansed by 
 lustral ablutions, but hearts pure from taint of evil ; 
 not the praises of the lips only, but a life devoted 
 to what is good. Inconsistency there is, of course, 
 among Christians, as elsewhere; and this proneness 
 to relax the obligation, to put asunder what God 
 has joined, is encouraged now-a-days by a vague and 
 unreal way of speaking, as if morality were some- 
 thing different from what is termed spirituality , 
 something of a lower sort. Still, be the faults of 
 Christians what they may, Christianity promulgated 
 itself as a new morality, though not as a morality/ 
 only; it marched over the earth, " conquering and 
 to conquer," with "Love to God, Love to Man," 
 blazoned on its banner ; even its more abstract doc- 
 trines, if not merely gazed at from afar, but realized 
 by an experimental sympathy, and assimilated into 
 the believer's being, are an inspiration of the highest 
 morality f ; and, by consent of all, the truest Chris- 
 tianity is there, where the life and the creed are 
 most truly in accordance. To many minds, if not to 
 all, the moral loveliness of the Gospel is a stronger 
 
 S. T. Coleridge has remarked that the word "Spirit," "as 
 a ]io\ver or property seated in the human soul," never occurs in 
 the New Testament but in context with some moral quality. — 
 to Reflection, p. 12. 
 1 One of the most ohvious illustrations of the connexion between 
 morality and theology is in the Manichean rejection of the doctrine 
 of the 1 ii< ; i! nation. 
 
I.] WHAT IS MORALITY? 5 
 
 proof of its truth than any manifestation of power, 
 however stupendous. 
 
 But here we are confronted by the question, old as 
 the Sophists s , yet ever new, — What is morality ? "We 
 are told of an almost infinite, quite irreconcilable, di- 
 versity of opinion about the rules of right and wrong. 
 " No two ages," it is said by a great thinker of our 
 own day, "and scarcely two countries, have decided 
 the question alike; and the decision of one age or 
 country is a wonder to another V It may be. But 
 rules are not principles. Eules of morality may 
 vary, as laws, customs, languages vary. But to 
 argue from this diversity of rules that there are no 
 fixed principles of morality would be as reasonable, 
 as to argue from the difference of dialects that these 
 have no common origin, or from difference of in- 
 flexion or of syntax, that there are no grammatical 
 principles at all. Eaces of men, like individuals, 
 may be predisposed especially to this or that virtue, 
 repelled especially by this or that vice. The hardy 
 Scandinavian, the versatile Greek, the subtle Hindu, 
 
 g Cf. Arnold's Thucy Hides, vol. iii. Pref. xxi. 
 
 h Mr. J. S. Mill, On Liberty, p. 3. It may be noticed, however, 
 that Mr. Mill, after saying " what these rules" (of conduct) " should 
 be, is one of those" (questions) " in which least progress has been 
 made in resolving," yet allows in the context that we must "except 
 a few of the most obvious cases" This is an important limitation. 
 Mr. E. B. Tyler speaks similarly of " the shifting rules by which 
 men have divided right from wrong." — Primitive Culture, ii. 97. 
 In other parts of his able and almost exhaustive book he speaks 
 of the " moral standard" even "in savages," (as, indeed, it is in 
 children,) being "real enough, but far looser and weaker than 
 ours." (i. 27.) 
 
6 WHAT IS MORALITY [Lect. 
 
 the dull Hottentot, may have each his own idea of 
 what constitutes a hero, each his own idea of a fool 
 or a knave. Particular periods in history may canon- 
 ize one moral quality, may proscribe another. One 
 generation may look too leniently on the inordinate 
 pursuit of wealth ; another on the inordinate pursuit 
 of military glory. Even at the same moment, within 
 the four corners of the same territory, may coexist 
 side by side almost contradictory standards of moral 
 excellence and of moral depravity, according to the 
 prejudices of different classes in society. Notions of 
 morality vary with the varying predispositions of 
 time and place, of circumstance and temperament. 
 Nay, the immediate impulse may vary. An Italian 
 may be swayed by sentiment chiefly ; a man of more 
 phlegmatic, less cesthetic habit, by a sterner sense of 
 duty 1 . But all this does not prove that there is 
 no fundamental consent under these discrepancies. 
 The manner of applying rules of action to particular 
 cases may vary almost endlessly ; the rules themselves 
 cannot be stereotyped independently of contingencies 
 which may arise ; but the great principles of truth, 
 purity, kindness, are as undisturbed by these vicis- 
 situdes, as the depths of the Atlantic by the storms 
 which ruffle its surface. The moral sense of even 
 the wisest and best of men is fallible j , for he is but 
 
 1 Cf. J. S. Mill, Inaugural Address to the University of St. An- 
 drew's, Feb. 1, 18G9, p. 43. 
 
 j " The fallibility of what is called the moral sense."—,/. S. Mill, 
 On Liberty, p. 5. The " odium theologieum in a sincere bigot," which 
 Mr. Mill cites in the same sentence " as one of the most unequivocal 
 
I.] WHAT IS MORALITY? 7 
 
 one. The collective voice, if not of all humanity, 
 yet of the humanity most worth listening to k , speaks 
 with no faltering voice. To this we make our appeal, 
 " Judicet orbis terrarum I" 
 
 How this sense of right and wrong comes to be 
 what it is, is no part of our question. We need not 
 pause to ask, whether it is an heirloom from the re- 
 motest past, or the product of a progressive evolution 
 from savagery to civilisation, just as, to borrow an 
 illustration 1 from an able writer on civilisation, the 
 sextant is developed from the mediaeval astrolabe, or 
 the needle-gun from the obsolete matchlock. On the 
 likelihood of this or that hypothesis we may have an 
 opinion, and a strong one. But the question itself 
 is hardly practical. Man, it has been well said, with 
 all his rare endowments, is what he is, — a being 
 
 " with such large discourse, 
 Looking before and after;" 
 
 be his lineage what it may ; even as the athlete 
 or the philosopher, with all his developed sym- 
 metry of limb or intellect, was once an embryo in 
 the womb. So conscience is, what we feel it to be, 
 
 cases of moral feeling," is simply a case of a diseased moral feeling, 
 so far as it is really hatred. So far as men in persecuting others 
 for their religious tenets have believed it "the only way to save 
 souls," the error, however deplorable, is an error of judgment 
 rather than of the moral sense, an error not about the end in 
 view, but about the means to it. 
 
 k Cf. Aristotle's appeal to those only who are competent to speak 
 H — ol ne7rai8evii€voi (JVic. Eth n I. iii. 5). 
 
 1 E. B. Tyler, Primitive Culture, i. 13. 
 
8 WHAT IS MORALITY? [Lect. 
 
 a voice claiming to direct, to urge m , to restrain, 
 even were it as certain as it is problematic, that 
 conscience had its beginning in blind instincts of 
 mere utility". Even could it be shewn, that our 
 conceptions of what we call right and wrong ori- 
 ginated in some mere physical convenience, and have 
 only by slow transmission from age to age attained 
 their matured strength as bonds of society, still the 
 fact remains — they are here, they are among us, they 
 are within us ; in thrilling tones heard above the 
 storm of passions, they assert, not their existence 
 merely, but their rightful sovereignty over us and 
 our actions. What matter whether conscience, yearly, 
 daily, hourly, expanded itself and ripened, as from 
 the feebleness of infancy, or leapt into being at the 
 Creative Word, full-grown and panoplied for the 
 strife of passions, like the virgin-goddess of Athens ? 
 Questions like these, as unnecessary for our present 
 purpose as they are interminable, may well be left 
 on one side. We take our stand on what is, not on 
 
 m Mr. J. S. Mill strangely narrows the office of conscience, by 
 regarding it mainly as " negative," . . . " with most men a power 
 chiefly in the way of restraint, — a power which acts rather in 
 staying onr hands from any great wickedness, than by the direc- 
 tion it gives to the general course of our desires and sentiments." 
 Inaugural Address to the University of S. Andrew's, p. 43. This 
 is, indeed, to bring against " the conscience of most men" the 
 same very grave accusation which Mr. Mill elsewhere ( On Liberty, 
 p. 29) brings against Christianity, of attending to the passive 
 duties of life to the neglect of those of an active kind. 
 
 n The fact that expediency and right as a rule coincide in their 
 consequences, is no proof that right is based upon expediency. 
 "Honesty is the best policy;" but, it has been well said, "the 
 man is a knave who acts on that motive." 
 
I.] WHAT IS MORALITY? 9 
 
 what may have been. We appeal to the normal con- 
 science of civilisation. 
 
 What, then, do we mean by morality? Only the 
 relations of man to man, or his relations also to a 
 power above himself? We may not exclude these 
 latter altogether. It will be said, that we are im- 
 porting alien matter into the argument; nay, that 
 we are begging the question. Not so : we do not 
 assume, in so doing, the truth of this or that theology, 
 nor even that there is any truth in any theology at 
 all. We argue simply from what we see and know ; 
 we take theology as exhibited practically in its bear- 
 ings on life and character. Nor are we importing 
 anything extraneous; for there is a mutual action 
 and reaction of morality and theology ; each is largely 
 shaped and coloured by the other ; nay, so inextri- 
 cably are they blended, that you cannot sever them 
 without violence to both. To men of different creeds 
 duty has not the same meaning. The man who does 
 not believe in a God, or, what is in fact the same 
 thing, does not believe that he knows anything about 
 Him, is a foundling on the earth, without a tie to 
 parents whom he has never known. The man taught 
 that his gods are cruel, false, licentious, indolent, or 
 capricious, is a son whose father's example conflicts 
 with all that is noblest in himself . The man who 
 
 ttov xpV TiBecrOai ravra, irov S' alvelv, orav 
 to. 6eV ciraivcov tovs 6eovs evpo> kcikovs; 
 
 Soph., Phil, 451. 
 Compare Horace's theology (Sat. I., v. 101) with its practical 
 result (Epist. I., vi. 1). 
 
 For the Pagan idea <p66vepov to Qelov, see the story of Polycrates 
 
10 WHAT IS MORALITY!' [Lect. 
 
 looks up to a just, pure, beneficent Deity has, in love 
 and reverence for Him, the strongest incentive to 
 justice, purity, benevolence. Even though the actions 
 may seem to coincide, the motive-principle does not ; 
 and motives, not actions, are the business of morality. 
 Therefore, while we fix our attention chiefly on mo- 
 rality as ruling the relations of a man to himself and 
 to his fellows, we may not in fairness close our eyes 
 to the relation in which he stands to his God. 
 
 But we are asked what we mean by Christian mo- 
 rality p ? and we are told that the morality of one 
 sect is not that of another. True, speaking super- 
 ficially. A Scotch Covenanter, for instance, and a 
 Spanish monk of the Inquisition may easily be drawn 
 so as to present very different types of morality. But 
 while the points of contrast stand out from the surface, 
 the points of identity are, if we look within, deeper 
 and more real. This at least will be granted. If we 
 find a principle of conduct which is a common feature 
 in the several groups, so strangely, sadly sundered, of 
 the Christian family, not peculiar to one period, one 
 race, one school of thought, one set of conditions, — this 
 is Christian morality. The fatalism of the Calvinist, 
 — the fear of God which seems almost to "cast out " 
 the love of God in Puritanism, — the austerity, the 
 blind submission to authority of Monachism, may be- 
 long severally to a one-sided development of Chris- 
 tianity. But the love of enemies, the forgiveness of 
 injuries, are duties recognised in theory, if not always 
 
 of Saraos (Herod., Hist., iii. 41), and the speech of Artabanus to 
 Xerxes (lb., vii. 10). •• J. S. Mill, On Liberty, p. 28. 
 
I.] WHAT IS MORALITY? 11 
 
 in practice, by Christians everywhere. We need not 
 go to chapter and verse in Gospel and Epistle, nor 
 to the sayings of Saint and Doctor, however eminent ; 
 but we take the pervading dominant intention of the 
 records of Christianity, and the essential moral unity 
 of Christendom. Even in the words of Him who is 
 the Truth, who " spake as never man spake," we look 
 in vain for an elaborated code of rules, or even of 
 principles. It is indeed here, in the life and teaching 
 of Christ, that we find the fullest embodiment of our 
 morality ; if, that is, we realise that He was indeed 
 made " like unto us in all things," and that His being 
 "without sin" was not immunity from temptations, 
 but a triumph over them ; if, instead of imagining 
 Him while He walked the earth clad in armour of 
 proof against evil, something between God and man, 
 like the demigod of antiquity, 
 
 " Too fair to worship, too divine to love ;" 
 
 we realise that He laid His glory by for our sake, 
 and was indeed God made Man. It is in Christ Jesus 
 that we see the " Beauty of Holiness q ." Still, it 
 cannot be too often repeated, He came not to found 
 a school of philosophy, but to live and die in entire 
 self-sacrifice for others. His life on earth contains 
 the germs of all that is good, as the seed-vessel con- 
 tains the fruit and flower ; but it is a suggestion, not 
 a demonstration of what we ought to be; that men 
 should learn not a parrot-lesson of performing certain 
 
 q For the present argument it is enough, if the Gospel narrative 
 is accepted as authentic in its outlines of the character and teaching 
 of Christ. 
 
12 WHAT IS MORALITY? [Lect. 
 
 acts, but a habit of willing with a certain, intention ; 
 should become good, not merely do good things. " 
 
 So, then, let us take morality in its fullest sense, 
 as embracing not only what man owes to man, but 
 what he believes himself to owe to a higher power, 
 so far as this affects his human relations. Let us 
 mean by morality those fundamental principles of 
 right and wrong, which are of general, if not abso- 
 lutely universal, acceptance. Let us understand by 
 Christian morality, the standard of morality generally 
 accepted among Christians. In attempting our com- 
 parison of the Christian morality with that of other 
 systems, let us be careful to discriminate between 
 what is essential and what is accidental, between 
 what is of general and what of only particular ap- 
 plication, between what is really distinctive of a 
 creed and what is not. On the one hand, we must 
 not impute to Christianity any moral excellence pre- 
 viously existing in full vigour, any amelioration 
 really due to some other cause, — for instance, to 
 nationality or to the progress of civilisation. On 
 the other hand, we must deduct from the claims of 
 systems posterior to Christianity, whether at Eome r , 
 Alexandria, or Paris, w T hat they owe to the Christian 
 atmosphere which they breathe, to the unacknowledged 
 influences of the very discipline which they repudiate 
 with scorn. Let us measure a system, not as it may 
 have been caricatured by its opponents, but as it is 
 seen in its best specimens; not contrasting, as has been 
 done, John Knox with Pericles 8 , nor, as we might 
 Nob \ 8 J. S. Mill, On Liberty, p. 361. 
 
L] WHAT IS MORALITY? 13 
 
 be tempted to do, Nero with St. Louis of France. Let 
 us mark not the highest types only of a morality, 
 but the average level of its proficiency ; not so much 
 the one or two solitary achievements of a system, 
 as its results ordinarily; not merely what it has 
 aspired to in theory, but what, though only too often 
 thwarted and baffled by human frailty, it has actually 
 done. Above all, may the Spirit of Truth, the Spirit 
 of Love, guard us from unjust disparagement of what 
 is really honourable, wherever we may meet it ; guard 
 us from stinting or grudging our praise to those who 
 deserve it, whether friends or foes of the faith which 
 we cherish. Bow down we must in lowest reverence 
 before the only faultless holiness which the world 
 has ever seen ; but let us hail with thankfulness the 
 scintillations, faint and broken though they be, which 
 attest in all times and in all places the never-ceasing 
 struggle of light against darkness, and which con- 
 verge from saint and sage in every quarter under 
 heaven, to weave a crown of glory for the brows of 
 Him who said, "I am not come to destroy, but to 
 fulfil." 
 
LECTUKE II. 
 
 Ficc is Sclftsijncss : Ftrtue is ^nselfisljness, 
 
 ST. MATTHEW x. 39. 
 
 "He that loseth his life for My sake shall find it." 
 
 rpHAT morality is not a name, but a thing ; that 
 •*- a comparison may fairly be drawn between the 
 morality of the Gospel and the morality of other sys- 
 tems ; and that the truth of a creed is evidenced by 
 the soundness of its morality; so far we have ad- 
 vanced already. Bear with me, if I ask you to pause 
 yet on the threshold. The more cautiously we move 
 at first, the surer, and swifter, too, will be our pro- 
 gress in the end. 
 
 We want a clear conception to start with, of some 
 one essential principle of right and wrong. Granted 
 that there is such a thing as duty or responsibility ; 
 that the word " ought" is not a mere expletive in 
 our vocabulary ; — still, we have to ask the limits and 
 the nature of this responsibility. How far is man 
 responsible for his conduct ? And what is it that 
 makes his conduct right or wrong ? 
 
 It may, I suppose, be taken for granted, that, just 
 as in our ordinary speech the adverb is the most im- 
 portant word of the sentence, so the conditions of an 
 
16 VICE IS SELFISHNESS: [Lect. 
 
 action qualify it as good or evil; that responsibility 
 begins and ends within the bounds of possibility, or, 
 in other words, that an action must be judged ac- 
 cording to what is possible in the circumstances ; 
 that the act of doing is more important than the thing 
 done, if for no other reason, because productive of 
 a moral habit the parent of many similar actions;^ 
 that the action is, as it has been well expressed, but 
 the clock-finger of the process going on within a man ; 
 that, in short, morality is to be found in the inten- 
 tion, not in the act. All these are axioms which 
 arc not of yesterday a . We see and feel, besides, what 
 may be termed a strong family-likeness in the cate- 
 gory of the virtues which the moralist approves and 
 commends, and something of the same deformity in 
 the vices which he reprobates. Any kind of fault, 
 if unchecked, seems invariably to lead on to others, 
 which might even have been thought diametrically 
 opposite. The tender-hearted man becomes hard as 
 a flint, in the gratification of his lust. The man who 
 is scrupulously just becomes unjust to others under 
 the spell of rancour and animosity 15 . Morality, in 
 fact, like everything else, must be taken as a whole ; 
 it is no aggregation of anomalous precedents ; it obeys 
 a law ; it is quickened by a living principle. What 
 then is it, which underlies the manifold forms of what 
 we call morally right and wrong, and gives to each 
 its being? 
 
 » Arist., 7:7//. Kicom., I. vii. 14; I. x. 13 ; I. vi. 15. 
 b Similarly, there is n close inter-dependence of virtues, at first 
 sight onconnecto '1. e.g, of courag< and purity 
 
II.] VIRTUE IS UNSELFISHNESS. 17 
 
 We must have recourse to psychology. There is 
 no need, happily for us, even to set foot on that 
 mysterious domain, where the transcendentalist 
 
 " Finds no end in wandering mazes lost." 
 
 But, while questions of ontology, of the existence 
 or non-existence of time and space, and so forth, are 
 far removed indeed from any practical bearing on our 
 question, psychology is as real and practical a study 
 as any other ; and to the moralist it is indispensable. 
 For how can questions about man's responsibility be 
 answered, without first defining what he is? And 
 this we must attempt to do, avoiding, so far as pos- 
 sible, technicalities of expression. 
 
 Let us frankly concede, at once, to materialism, 
 all that is not really tenable. As physical science 
 extends its researches, it seems scarcely to admit of 
 question, that much in our composition which has 
 hitherto been vaguely regarded as immaterial and 
 spiritual, is really the direct result of certain opera- 
 tions in our physical organization, which are as me- 
 chanical as the revolutions of the wheels in a watch. 
 But in this concession we are not for one moment 
 surrendering the great, and, as I most firmly believe, 
 the inexpugnable truth of man's free-will, of man's 
 responsibility. 
 
 That which differentiates man from the brutes 
 is not the faculty of reasoning, — for they reason 
 too, and what we are pleased to call instinctive 
 sagacity is often our own inductive process in its 
 lowest, homeliest form. Nor yet is it our emotive 
 
 c 
 
18 VICE IS SELFISHNIs [Lect. 
 
 nature, — for even our nobler qualities, fidelity or 
 courage, for instance, find their counterpart in other 
 creatures. It is this. "While the dog apparently 
 knows not whether he is faithful or faithless, and 
 the elephant reasons to all appearance without any 
 consciousness of his cleverness, man is introspective, 
 — is able to detach himself from himself, — is always, 
 more or less explicitly, sitting in judgment on him- 
 self, passing sentence on himself, awarding to himself 
 praise or blame. In brief, man is conscious. 
 
 So, then, let us regard the personality of each one 
 of us as co-extensive and identical with this conscious- 
 ness of willing. Granted, that our moral sentiments 
 are not intuitive, not innate ; or only innate, as the 
 invisible writing, which cannot be deciphered with- 
 out being held to the fire, or as the characters, well- 
 nigh obliterated, of a palimpsest. Granted, that 
 the most complicated concatenations of consecutive 
 thought may all be resolved into the bare perception 
 that this and that are like or nnlike, identical or not. 
 Granted, that the many-tinted play of the emotions 
 may all be analyzed into a mere liking or disliking 
 for this or that object presented by the senses im- 
 mediately, or mediately by the intellect. But the 
 life, the personality of each resides in his individual 
 consciousness. All else, even within the man, is but 
 as the dress which he wears, the apparatus with 
 which he is equipped, the dwelling assigned to him 
 for his sojourn. His faculties, of intellect, of emo- 
 tion, are not himself. lie is a machine, if you will ; 
 but a machine with a living person continually ad 
 
II.] VIRTUE IS UNSELFISHNESS. 19 
 
 justing, directing, controlling it ; and that person 
 is himself. 
 
 This way of regarding human nature, as it accords 
 with the investigations of modern science, is also 
 essentially in accordance with Christianity. So long 
 as we suppose that a man's intellectual ability or 
 feebleness, his emotional tastes or distastes, are him- 
 self, rather than something belonging to him, for 
 the use or abuse of which he is responsible, so long 
 a grave difficulty must remain, for those who believe 
 in a future state. This strange disparity, which we 
 see around us on every side, of mental and moral 
 endowments, how is this to be reconciled with our 
 belief in an identity of existence which survives the 
 grave ? Must not the inferiority of capacity, which is 
 a clog and a hindrance here, be a clog and a hindrance 
 hereafter? But once let us grasp the idea, that the 
 faculties, intellectual and moral, of a Shakespeare, 
 say, or of a Plato, are like his money, or his dress, 
 or his bodily health, a part of what he has, rather 
 than of what he is, a property entrusted to his keep- 
 ing, more to one, and less to another, like the talents 
 in the parable, in every case to be made the most 
 of — then we can understand how the street arab from 
 the Seven Dials, who starts in the race of life so 
 grievously weighted, or the peasant who plods along 
 with disqualifications in their own way as serious, 
 may, if they do their best, find themselves one day 
 on a level with the philosopher and the statesman, 
 who have lived and died faithful to their high calling, 
 and this, without ceasing to be themselves. 
 
 c2 
 
20 VICE IS SELFISHNESS : [Lect. 
 
 It may be said, that in thus surrendering to mate- 
 rialism so much of our being, we are opening the 
 door to the surrender of all ; tracing on the sand an 
 arbitrary line, which the next wave of scientific pro- 
 gress will efface with its touch. Not so. We are 
 merely exchanging an untenable position for one 
 which is proof against assault. We draw the line 
 between matter and spirit, where conscious volition 
 commences ; and the distinction is no arbitrary, no 
 merely theoretical one. It is founded on a fact, 
 which is, I think, generally admitted. Will any one 
 say, that a man is responsible for the images, fair 
 or foul, which flit across the retina of his intellect, 
 except so far as he allows these or those to linger 
 there? Or for the desires within him, noble or 
 ignoble, crying out to be appeased, except so far 
 as he gives ear to the one or the other? It is be- 
 cause he prefers, because he selects, because — two 
 courses lying before him — he lets himself be drawn 
 to the worse or the better, because by a supreme and 
 irrevocable fiat, an inheritance from his Creator, he 
 pronounces his deliberate decision, that the idea 
 figured to his conception by the brain, and urged 
 by all the eager advocacy of the heart, is to be con- 
 summated into action, and, because in so deciding 
 he knows that he is deciding for good or for evil, 
 herein is his responsibility. 
 
 But all this, we are told, is exploded. The will 
 acts, it is allowed, "in accordance with motive ;" 
 but to suppose that the will can "break loose from 
 continuity and act without cause" is as absurd, it 
 
II.] VIRTUE IS UNSELFISHNESS. 21 
 
 is added, as to suppose " a balance sometimes acting 
 in the usual way, but also possessed of the faculty 
 of turning by itself, without or against its weight b ." 
 But we do not say that the will is " acting without 
 cause;" for the will itself is an item in the causa- 
 tion; nay, to omit the will is to omit the most im- 
 portant factor in the calculation. We do not say 
 that the will is " breaking loose from continuity," 
 for the will itself is a connecting link in the chain 
 of continuity. With contending motives equal, as 
 sometimes happens, a man would be as powerless 
 to stir one way or the other, as the ass between the 
 two bundles of hay, but for the intervention of the 
 will. Even with one motive, to all appearance and 
 by all laws of experience outweighing the other, 
 the will, simply by its own adhesion, can reverse the 
 balance. The tender maiden chooses rather to en- 
 dure the rack or the dungeon, than succumb to the 
 torturer. The veteran confessor for his faith frus- 
 trates all the hopes of his disciples by preferring 
 shame to suffering. The scales are adjusted ; the 
 weightier motive, be it of a better or a worse sort, 
 an appetite, an ambition, a self-devotion to some un- 
 selfish cause, is sinking down ; the lighter kicks the 
 beam; but the will, like the victorious Gaul, flings 
 its sword into the scale, and all is changed in a 
 moment. True, the weights in these scales have no 
 fixed intrinsic value, but one which varies subjec- 
 tively to each of us. Even causes external to us, 
 hereditary predispositions, early influences, local asso- 
 b E. B. Tyler, Primitive Culture, i. 3. 
 
22 VICE IS SELFISHNESS: [Lect. 
 
 ciations, all must be counted in. True, habitual in- 
 dulgence may give to a propensity a force not its 
 own, may even make it, by long persistence, a tyrant 
 of that to which it should be a servant and an in- 
 strument. True, the will may become so enfeebled 
 in its miserable thraldom that only by an extra- 
 ordinary effort can it be free. Still, after all, the 
 final verdict in that little court, where each man 
 presides, arbiter of his own actions, of his own happi- 
 ness, is not in the power of any propensity or in- 
 clination, but rests with himself, and resides in the 
 conscious energy of his will c . 
 
 One part of our question is answered. But what 
 is it which makes this exercise of volition good or 
 evil morally ? 
 
 The whole universe, real or phenomenal, it matters 
 not for our present enquiry how we style it, if con- 
 sidered from the stand-point, at which we have ar- 
 rived, of each man's personality, resolves itself for 
 him into self and nonself ; and the faculties, mental 
 and moral, already spoken of, are, through the in- 
 strumentality of sense, the media of attraction or re- 
 pulsion between the world without and the smaller 
 world of each individual existence. Here, then, we 
 have a principle, wide as the range of our conceptions, 
 simple as all first principles are, determining the 
 moral character of all that we do, say, feel. When 
 the individual, using his faculties as a prehensile 
 instrument, draws the outer world to himself, there — 
 in one shape or another, in greater or less degree, 
 c See Note 13. 
 
II.] VIRTUE IS UNSELFISHNESS. 23 
 
 disguise it, deny it, as we may — there is selfish- 
 ness. When the individual, by the same media 
 of communication, lets himself be transported out of 
 himself, and drawn to the world without, there is 
 the opposite of selfishness, call it what you please, 
 self-devotion, self-renunciation, unselfish love, charity. 
 " Drawn," you will say, " to something evil — can 
 that be virtuous ?" * Stay. To say that a man is drawn 
 to anything vicious, is simply a loose and inaccurate 
 way of speaking. The pure, high-minded artist is 
 drawn to the beauty which he worships. The volup- 
 tuary, the miser, the tyrant, are stamped as vicious 
 in this, because they are, each and all, absorbing into 
 themselves the world around them, to glut their in- 
 satiable cravings for pleasure, wealth, power d . Things 
 and jiersons e . In these words is a practical touchstone 
 for us and our motives. The ideally vicious man re- 
 cognises no personality but his own. Outside him- 
 self all is impersonal. Others exist only as things 
 for his pleasure or convenience f . On the other hand, 
 the unselfish see everywhere in the world around them 
 the claims, not to be slighted, of beings like them- 
 selves. Self seems as nothing in presence of all these 
 manifold demands on their sympathy. Far from re- 
 garding their fellows as inanimate chattels, the world 
 to them teems with the sacredness of life. In the 
 noble words of one, from whom I find myself some- 
 
 a St. James, Epist. iv. 1 ; cf. Carlyle, French Revolution, bk. ii. 
 ch. viii. p. 49. e The idea is, I think, Bentham's. 
 
 f The wickedness which takes account of other personalities 
 only to torture them is a monstrosity. 
 
24 VICE IS SELFISHNESS . [Lect. 
 
 times compelled to dissent, they feel " the miserable 
 smallness of self, — the poorness and insignificance 
 of human life, if it is all to be spent in making 
 things comfortable for ourselves and our kin, in 
 raising ourselves and them one step higher on the 
 social ladder g ." 
 
 This is no mere theory. Take any statute-book 
 that you please, from the Sinaitic decalogue to the 
 latest codification of modern legislators. The things 
 forbidden, — murder, theft, adultery, and their cog- 
 nates, spring from self disregarding the rights of 
 other personalities, and into this are resoluble. Pass 
 from overt acts to the virtues and vices of moralists, 
 — cruelty, lust, deceit, what are these but self caring 
 only for self, and closing its eyes to the existence of 
 others as persons. Or take those two widely-diver- 
 gent, mutually-abhorrent affections, which we, as if 
 the inconsistency of our hearts must brand itself on 
 the mintage of our lips, class together under the ho- 
 monym of love, desecrating the highest attribute of 
 humanity — the love which is indeed hatred, for it 
 would make a holocaust of the happiness of those 
 whom it professes to cherish, to feed the devouring 
 flame of its own passion — and the self-immolating 
 love — it is no poet's dream, it can be, has been, is — 
 which " holds its life but as a pawn" for others, 
 and which, in the Apostle's fervent words, would 
 even wish itself " accursed " to secure another's 
 happiness. Are we not justified in saying, that 
 
 & J. S. Mill, Inaugural Address at St. Andrew's University, p. 44. 
 
II.] VIRTUE IS UNSELFISHNESS. 25 
 
 selfishness and unselfishness, the bane and the an- 
 tidote, grow side by side at the very root of all 
 within us which we term good and evil h ? 
 
 But, it must be kept in mind, this self-abnegation 
 for the sake of others is no suicidal frenzy, no self- 
 annihilation, no absorption of self into the soul of 
 the universe. For what in that case would be left 
 for love to live for, to energise upon? Obviously, 
 unless the result is to be an utter vacuity of inani- 
 tion, each one is bound to observe the law of self- 
 preservation, for this very reason, that he may live 
 for others; is bound to look to his own interests, 
 that he may live for others more effectively. Nor 
 is this limitation incompatible with the purest dis- 
 interestedness. The motive makes all the difference. 
 If a man saves, that he may have to give to those 
 who need ; or economises health and strength, that he 
 may work longer for others ; or studies self-culture, 
 that he may better play his part in life's drama, not 
 to catch the plaudits of the audience, but to carry 
 out the glorious conceptions of the great Designer, — 
 he will do more good to others in the end, than by 
 reckless almsgiving, or by defiance of hygienic laws, 
 or by shuffling through his part on life's stage, be- 
 cause it is his own. Here is the " gulf" that is " fixed" 
 
 h Contrast St. John xiii. 34, " A new commandment I give 
 unto you, That ye love one another ; as I have loved you, that 
 ye also love one another," with 
 
 cos nas ns avrbv rov neXas fxaXkov (piXel, 
 ol fX€V diKaias, oi 8e kcu Kepdovs x.cipiv. 
 
 Eurip., Med., 86. 
 
2G VICE IS SELFISHNESS : [Lect. 
 
 between faith and fanaticism. Both have the same 
 motive principle. Both give up self for others. Faith 
 is reasonable, and takes account of the means indis- 
 pensable to the end. Fanaticism is blind, and de- 
 spises them. Here, in this due adjustment of what 
 have been called our centripetal and centrifugal forces, 
 is that harmony of love and order which the artist 
 sighs for. Moralists have spoken of inordinancy as 
 that which vitiates affections innocent otherwise, or 
 even laudable \ But it is not the amount of energy 
 bestowed which makes them wrong, it is the motive 
 which lurks at their core. The highest ideal which 
 we can imagine of goodness and greatness is surely 
 this, entire self- devotion for the good of others as the 
 motive power, with wise regard to every considera- 
 tion which can in any way be made to subserve 
 this end. 
 
 One word more, before we apply this cardinal prin- 
 ciple to our enquiry. It may be objected, even by 
 those who admit man's free-agency and his respon- 
 sibility in volition, that we are, after all, only sub- 
 stituting one kind of selfishness for another ; that the 
 man Avhose motive is love, is really pleasing himself 
 as much as he who thinks only of his own ease, ad- 
 vancement, self-improvement; that, in brief, he is 
 doing what he likes best. The objection in one sense 
 neither admits of any answer, nor requires one. Of 
 course, every exercise of the will implies a choice and 
 a preference. It is a tautology, a truism to say so. 
 
 " Strong impulses are perilous ouly when not properly ba- 
 lanced."—/. 5. Mill, On Liberty, p, 35. 
 
II.] VIRTUE IS UNSELFISHNESS. 27 
 
 The will selecting what it does not like best is an 
 impossibility, except indeed, which is virtually no 
 exercise of the will at all, under constraint of a 
 physical necessity. So far no answer can be, need 
 be given. But how is the will to be brought into 
 this state of cheerfully surrendering the things 
 dearest, because nearest, to itself for the sake of 
 others? By no short nor easy process. Even in 
 those who are most happily constituted the prepara- 
 tory discipline is a work of time and toil ; of stern 
 battling with desires and appetites. I will not say 
 it is a constant crushing down of rebellious cravings, 
 for the unselfishness which we are speaking of is not 
 that dreary silence of human affections which some 
 call peace j , but a harmony of all their voices; it is 
 a constant " keeping them in subjection k ." Wisest 
 and holiest can tell us, if we ask of them, that the 
 attainment of perfect unselfishness is, like the artist's 
 pursuit of ideal beauty, a life-long striving towards 
 an ever-receding goal; it is self victorious over self; 
 it is self victor and vanquished in one. 
 
 It will be my endeavour in subsequent lectures to 
 apply this criterion of unselfishness to Christianity. 
 
 But we are asked, how we dare to claim this as 
 a specialty of Christianity, we who have seen rising 
 before our eyes a system which protests against 
 Christianity as selfish, and boasts itself more pure 
 from self-love; a system which, though an exotic 
 in England, yet approves itself to the thoughts and 
 
 j " Solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant." — Tac, Agric. 
 k 1 Cor. ix. 27. 
 
28 VICE IS SELFISHNESS: [Lect. 
 
 usages of a civilization, such as we have arrived at, 
 and is at this moment not without an indirect prac- 
 tical influence in this country ? 
 
 Now, before meeting the charge of self-seeking 
 advanced against Christianity, it must be premised 
 that "Altruism" is itself an offspring and a product 
 of Christianity. Whether, indeed, Altruism could 
 ever have been but for the fostering care of eighteen 
 centuries of Christianity, and whether it can exist 
 in any vigour apart from Christianity, may fairly 
 be doubted. 
 
 But, waiving this, let us look more closely at 
 what "Altruism" means. What is its motive and its 
 mainspring? I think we shall not be doing an in- 
 justice to the Positivist, if we say that his "Altruism" 
 means doing good to another, because this will be 
 the good of all. But this is by-no-means tantamount 
 to saying, " Do well to others, because it is their 
 due." Prudence or amiability may make it easy for 
 any one to confer benefits which will redound to the 
 good of all, the benefactor included; but a recipro- 
 city of favours like this, a co-operative partnership for 
 mutual advantages, is something different from the 
 teaching of words like these, "lie that loveth his 
 life shall lose it ; he that loseth his life for My sake 
 shall find it." 
 
 Let it be noticed, besides, that in proposing love 
 for Himself as the motive to His disciples, Christ is 
 proposing a yet higher motive than love for our 
 fellow-creatures. And this for two reasons. First, 
 because the object proposed is more truly worthy of 
 
II.] VIRTUE IS UNSELFISHNESS. 29 
 
 love. Next, because the sincerity and the reality 
 of love are then most tried and proved when it is for 
 one unseen, and apprehended only by an effort of ^ 
 thought, even as the remembrance of an absent friend 
 is a better proof of love than constancy to one whom 
 daily associations make it almost impossible to be un- 
 mindful of. So far, I think, it will be allowed that 
 Altruism falls short of the motive which Christ pro- 
 poses to His disciples: "Bear all, do all, be all for 
 My sake 1 ," and "that men may glorify your Father 
 which is in heaven™." 
 
 But exception is taken to the promises of the 
 Gospel : "He that loseth his life shall find it." 
 And to this I must ask your patience while I devote 
 to it a little space, before I conclude. 
 
 Let all be conceded that in fairness ought to be. 
 Yes. The Gospel of Christ does hold out a hope of 
 future retribution ; does enforce its precepts with a 
 blessing and a curse, — with a promise of great re- 
 ward, with a threat of severe punishment. Still, 
 even if it must be granted that what has been 
 called " other- worldliness," is really a modified form 
 of selfishness, and that those whose motive is only 
 the hope of heaven, the fear of hell, are in their 
 own way as selfish as the miser or the voluptuary, 
 are not really "lovers of that which is good," let 
 us pause before we believe that a creed which 
 again and again reiterates the great principle of 
 
 1 St. Matt. v. 11 ; x. 18, 22, 39 : St. Mark viii. 35; xiii. 9. 13 : 
 St. Luke vi. 22 ; ix. 24 ; xxi. 12, 17 : St. John xiii. 38 ; xv. 31. 
 m St. Mark v. 16. 
 
30 VICE IS SELFISHNESS: [Lect. 
 
 self-sacrifice can belie itself by encouraging a mer- 
 cenary spirit in its adherents. That some believers 
 in Christianity allow their thoughts to dwell too 
 much on its prizes and penalties, that we are all in 
 danger of doing so, is no fault of Christianity, un- 
 less, indeed, Christianity puts these things first and 
 foremost. This can hardly be affirmed. They are 
 always there, these hopes and fears, in the Gospel 
 of Christ, but they are in the background of the pic- 
 ture. The " outer darkness" reserved for the unholy, 
 far from casting its gloom over all the canvas, is 
 shrouded by a veil of mystery. The mansions of 
 the blest are only seen faintly and far away, like 
 the distant hills of the promised land seen by the 
 seer on Pisgah, Again and again Christ warns those 
 who would follow Him, that they must u count the 
 cost n " of what they are doing; that they must nerve 
 themselves to take up the Cross, to bear the Cross 
 without a murmur as He bore it up the slope of 
 Calvary, to immolate upon the Cross the self-love 
 which hinders perfect self-renunciation, even as He 
 offered Himself upon it. If Christianity ever seems 
 to allure its disciples by its promises, to scare them 
 by its threats, it is but as an earthly parent, well- 
 knowing all the time that virtue, unless sought for 
 its own sake, is not virtue, yet strengthens the 
 native weakness of purpose in his child, by wise 
 apportionment of praise and blame, of reward and 
 punishment, till the lesson has been learned, so hard 
 to learn rightly, that, though duty and happiness are 
 
 n St. Luke \iv. 28. 
 
II.] VIRTUE IS UNSELFISHNESS. 31 
 
 one, duty must always be sought first, without even 
 a sidelong glance at consequences. 
 
 Above all, the nature of the reward promised must 
 be considered. It is distant, and therefore cannot be 
 grasped even in thought without that " patient con- 
 tinuance in well doing," which is the only test, the 
 only discipline of a resolute will. It is unknown, 
 and therefore can have no charm except for those, 
 who, in the trustfulness of love, cast themselves on 
 His Word, whom they believe to be too wise, too 
 true, too loving, to deceive them. It is not merely 
 unlike vulgar notions of happiness, but contradictory 
 of them ; no prolongation of earthly joys, but a trans- 
 figuration of them ; and therefore it appeals to those 
 only who act from conviction. It is not the hire- 
 ling's coin, grudgingly worked for, grudgingly paid 
 down, but a gracious Master's approval of willing 
 service, — no bait to attract half-hearted votaries to 
 swell His train, — no vision of sensual joys or of 
 earthly dominion, — it is only for those, who, in re- 
 nouncing all that the selfish deem life worth having 
 for, can find outside themselves the happiness which 
 they have not sought. For 
 
 "Love is Heaven, and Heaven is Love." 
 
LECTUEE III. 
 
 Cfrrtetianitg antr tfje appetites, 
 
 GALATIANS v. 24. 
 
 " They that are Christ's have crucified the flesh with its 
 affections and lusts." 
 
 TF, in accordance with principles indicated in pre- 
 "*- vious lectures, we are to test a system of morality 
 by the position and attitude of self to the world with- 
 out, it will be convenient to classify the emotions : 
 for through these the individual is attracted to, or re- 
 pelled by, the objects of which he is cognisant ; by 
 these he is moved to draw them to himself or to 
 repel ; while, as has been said already, in the assent 
 which the will in each instance consciously gives or 
 withholds, the essence of morality resides. 
 
 Without pretence of philosophical exactness, it will 
 be enough for practical purposes, if we adopt an old 
 threefold division of the emotions, according to the 
 various objects on which they are exercised. There 
 are the bodily appetites, as they are called; there 
 are, what may be called, the desires of personal ag- 
 grandisement ; there are the desires, in regard to 
 which, in a stricter sense than usual, self is at once 
 centre and circumference, which end, as they begin, 
 in self, which seek their consummation in a serene 
 abstraction from external things. Thus the great 
 
 D 
 
34 CHRISTIANITY 'AND THE APPETITES. [Lect. 
 
 typical temptations of the Son of Man a ascend pro- 
 gressively from the lower appetites, and from the 
 desire of earthly dominion, to the selfishness of self- 
 dependence. 
 
 Obviously, in this enumeration the appetites of the 
 body are the lowest; they are common to man with 
 the brute; common, among men, to the coarsest or- 
 ganizations with the finest. Not that vices of this 
 class are of necessity the worst. On the contrary, 
 if a comparison must be made, and if the old saying, 
 " corruptio optimi pessima," is true, the perversion 
 of higher impulses is yet more fatal to moral excel- 
 lence than a grosser kind of depravity. Caliban, 
 with all his brutality, moves our pity even more than 
 our detestation. The sensuality of the brute-man is 
 not so hideous as the fiendish malignity of Mephis- 
 topheles. 
 
 How, then, does Christianity deal with these appe- 
 tites of the body ? 
 
 It would be idle to set about proving that Chris- 
 tianity preaches temperance and purity. If there 
 have been here and there in history fanatics who 
 have sullied the name of Christianity by "turning 
 the grace of God into lasciviousness b ," they are too 
 exceptional and too inconsiderable to be noticed. 
 Equally futile would it be, and most unjust, to at- 
 tempt to deny, that these same virtues have been 
 inculcated outside the pale of Christianity. Glowing 
 panegyrics on sobriety and purity, grave cautions 
 against excess, lofty aspirations after the repose and 
 8 St. Luke iv. 3—12. *> St. Judc Ep. I. 
 
III.] CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. 35 
 
 serenity which wait on appetites subdued, may be 
 quoted from the precepts of Greek and Eoman phi- 
 losophers, or of Oriental mystics. It may be possible 
 even to find a parallel elsewhere to what is more dis- 
 tinctive of Christianity, its earnest and repeated warn- 
 ings on the necessity of being pure in thought as 
 well as in deed, of guarding the secret well-springs 
 of intention from pollution. If the Gospel teaches, 
 "Blessed are the pure in heart ," and " He that 
 looketh on a woman to lust after her hath already 
 committed adultery with her in his heart d ;" so 
 Buddhism teaches that it is wrong even to think, 
 in regard to a married woman, that her husband is 
 a fortunate man e ; so the Boman satirist f tells us, 
 that the man who meditates a crime is guilty of the 
 action. 
 
 Where, then, is the difference ? It is here — in the 
 motive, which is the life and the essence of the pre- 
 cept. Of all the passages which might be culled from 
 the Christian Scriptures on this subject, the words 
 in the text seem to declare most emphatically the 
 Christian's motive for temperance and purity. " They 
 that are Christ's," — so writes St. Paul to his con- 
 verts in Galatia — " have crucified the flesh with its 
 affections and lusts." Ye are Christ's, — here is the 
 
 c St. Matt. v. 8. 
 
 fl St. Matt. v. 28. Mr. F. W. Newman calls this " an extrava- 
 gant and obscure way of speaking." — Defective Morality of the Neiu 
 Testament, p. 25. 
 
 e I cannot recollect in what writer on Buddhism I found this 
 statement. 
 
 f Juvenal, Satir. xiii. 209, 10; cf. Herodot., Hist., vi. 86. 
 
 d2 
 
36 CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. [Lect. 
 
 motive ; and, because ye are no longer " your own," 
 but His, who died for you, therefore your affections 
 and lusts, being a part of the nature dedicated by 
 you to Him, to whom you owe everything, must be 
 " kept under and brought into subjection g ," even 
 as He for your sake subjected Himself to the death 
 upon the Cross. Christianity regards our human 
 nature as identified with the divine in Christ; "Ye 
 are members of His Body, of His flesh h ." " Shall 
 I then take the members of Christ and make them 
 the members of a harlot i ?" Christianity regards the 
 human body as a shrine for the presence of Christ 
 by His indwelling Spirit. Our mortal bodies are 
 " temples of the Holy Ghost j ." How, then, can we 
 desecrate what Christ in His love has hallowed for 
 Himself? Others may tell us of the injurious effects 
 of intemperance to health of body and of mind, of 
 the misery which it entails, of its degradation. But 
 Christ would have us temperate, not so much from 
 calculation of consequences to ourselves ; not so much 
 with a view to our own comfort and convenience ; 
 not so much even from respect to the dignity of our 
 nature, as because intemperance is a detraction from 
 
 g 
 
 1 Cor. ix. 27. h Ephes. v. 30. 
 
 1 1 Cor. vi. 15. Mr. F. W. Newman, in his ingenious but un- 
 practical essay on the Defective Morality of the New Testament, 
 represents St. Paul as "propounding chastity only as a spiritual 
 or transcendent duty, binding therefore on the saints but not on 
 common men," (but " saints" was the designation of Christians 
 generally,) and proceeds even to argue that, according to the Apo- 
 stle's teaching, fornication with a Christian woman would not be 
 sinful [!]. (p. 24.) J 1 Cor. iii. 16. 
 
III.] CHRISTIANITY AND TEE APPETITES. 37 
 
 that willing service which we owe to Him, a breach 
 of our allegiance, a faithlessness in our love. 
 
 The comparative feebleness of other motives is 
 attested by results, as "the tree is known by its 
 fruits." Motives of self-interest are as powerless to 
 quell the insubordination of the appetites as the 
 " seven green withs" of the Philistines to bind down 
 the son of Manoah. For if it is due merely to 
 myself, if I owe it to myself alone, this temperance, 
 I am debtor and creditor in one ; nor can any one 
 gainsay my right to relax the obligation, if I please, 
 or even to cancel it altogether, giving myself a full 
 and free acquittance. If, with my eyes open, and 
 seeing what the end of the bargain must be, I still 
 choose to squander the happiness which is my birth- 
 right for a passing gratification, who shall complain, 
 for, who is wronged? But if I am bartering away 
 what is not mine but another's, the health and 
 strength which ought to be expended in His ser- 
 vice to whom I am bound by every tie of gratitude 
 and love, if I am prostituting affections which are * 
 of right His alone, then I have a motive which can 
 quench the fire within, if anything in the world can. 
 A Cicero or a Seneca may descant on the charms of 
 temperance, on the folly and baseness of excess ; but y 
 the impotency of their eloquence is evidenced not by 
 one, or two, or three vicious emperors only, but by 
 the wholesale debauchery of an Empire. The founder 
 of Buddhism may hold up to the eyes of his disciples 
 a dazzling vision of the grandeur of a superhuman 
 mastery over the senses, of a godlike isolation of the 
 
38 CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. [Lect. 
 
 spirit from the material world, but trie myriads of 
 India are the slaves of an impure superstition. The 
 Koran may enjoin temperance, but Mahometanism 
 is a byword for sensuality. Even the sterner mo- 
 rality of the Mosaic law cannot command obedience, 
 or emancipate man from the tyranny of himself. It 
 was "a schoolmaster to bring men to Christ k ;" but 
 the appetites were unruly pupils. The ceaseless and 
 reiterated rebukes of the prophets, in the later days 
 of the national existence, are but an inevitable sequel 
 to the old story of Israelitish contact with Moab, of 
 Israel's wisest, greatest kings seduced by fleshly lusts 
 from the self-control which they could extol, but 
 could not practise. Nothing short of that passionate 
 yet stedfast devotion to Christ, which is the answer 
 of the soul to His self-sacrificing love, and which the 
 Apostle speaks of as " constraining 1 " us, can keep 
 down these volcanic forces, for ever making havoc 
 and anarchy in our nature by their wild upheavings. 
 
 What can be more attractive at first sight, or, so 
 far as it goes, more compact and complete, than the 
 teaching of Epicurus ? Virtue is the highest pleasure, 
 the only true happiness. Be virtuous, and you have 
 all that you can desire. But the charmer charms in 
 vain. Men will not see it ; or, rather, they will ac- 
 cept the half of his doctrine, and refuse the rest. 
 Pleasure shall be their end; but not such pleasure 
 as he proposes. They will seek happiness, as he 
 bids them, but not in his way. Thus the amiable self- 
 love, so like benevolence to a hasty glance, which the 
 
 k Gal. iii. 24. > 2 Cor. v. 14. 
 
III.] CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. 39 
 
 master taught, soon degenerates in his scholars into 
 mere sensuality ; the optimist's acquiescence in what- 
 ever is, becomes a languid indifference to improve- 
 ment; the artistic love of beauty becomes an idolatry 
 of the senses; and the followers of one whose ideal 
 happiness was virtue, as if transformed by the wand 
 of the enchantress, grovel in the mire, and devour 
 greedily the husks of a momentary self-indulgence. 
 For the motive, if not radically wrong, is inadequate 
 and incomplete. The mainspring is wanting. Self- 
 love must be dethroned ; and in its place must stand 
 One worthy of entire self-devotion. 
 
 But has Christianity succeeded in this apparently 
 hopeless undertaking of reducing the flesh to sub- 
 mission, and of evoking harmony out of its discordant 
 cries? Are there no sins of the flesh among Chris- 
 tians ? Alas ! these vices have been in every age 
 a reproach to the "pure religion and undefiled m " 
 which we profess. Still, let this be remembered ; 
 these vices have never dared among Christians to 
 assert an undisputed sway. In every age, and not 
 least in our own, Christianity has originated heroic 
 efforts to cope with a gigantic evil; efforts which 
 serve to hold the foe in check, if not to dislodge 
 him from his position. The carnality, which assimi- 
 lates itself with other creeds so readily as to become 
 soon an integral part of the ritual and of the daily 
 life, has always been a glaring enormity among Chris- 
 tians; a thing protested against unremittingly; a 
 plague-spot, the very sight of which suggests con- 
 
 m St. James i. 27. 
 
40 CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. [Lect. 
 
 tinually new remedies, new preventives. If our great 
 cities teem with solicitations to drunkenness and un- 
 chastity, is there not an army in array of noble- 
 hearted men and women, such as no other religion 
 can shew, ever at work with their manifold organi- 
 zations, as well as with the yet stronger persua- 
 siveness of a holy example, to remove the reproach 
 from among us ? And what is it that nerves the soul 
 in this never-ceasing conflict with evil? It is no 
 sordid calculation of results to self; nor is it even 
 a nobler regard only to the welfare of our fellows and 
 to the prosperity of our country ; but, above all other 
 motives, it is that "love of Christ 11 " which believes 
 that it can never do enough for His sake who has 
 done all for us, and which rejoices in so believing. 
 
 Besides, as no other motive can so effectually sub- 
 due the lusts of the flesh, so no other motive, paradox 
 though it may sound, can hold the balance steady, 
 when by a recoil in its oscillations the pendulum sways 
 from sensuality to an undue distrust and dread of the 
 senses. The longing for purity becomes in Buddhism 
 a panic-stricken loathing of all that is material, nay, 
 by an insensible step forward, of life, of existence 
 altogether. The thirst for rest from the unworthy 
 importunities of our animal nature can only be slaked 
 by the utter annihilation of the individual. And, 
 (need I remind you ?) the very intensity of this yearn- 
 ing to be enfranchised from the bondage of the flesh 
 often drives the soul in its despair to the recklessness 
 
 n 2 Cor. v. 14. 
 
III.] CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. 41 
 
 of the grossest materialism. Often, the more sublime 
 the upward soaring, the more headlong the fall of the 
 soul, unless upborne by a strength not its own, by 
 the power of love. For if the motive of our strivings 
 after purity be of a merely selfish kind, a wish to be 
 independent of the troublous fluctuations of the ma- 
 terial universe, to be self-poised and self-contained in 
 a sublime tranquillity, then what limits shall be set to 
 our endeavours, day by day to live more completely 
 aloof from the contamination of matter, more and 
 more ensconced within a world whither the illusions 
 of the senses cannot enter ? The goal recedes ever 
 before us. But if, in our endeavours to be pure, we 
 are acting not for ourselves and by ourselves, but 
 for Christ and by Him, then we shall regard matter, 
 not as a defilement to our touch, but as a thing to be 
 handled with care and reverence in His service ; and 
 our senses, not as of necessity traitors to us in our 
 dealings with the outer world, but as emissaries whose 
 communications are to be received with caution, not 
 rejected utterly, and the desires of our lower nature 
 not as foes to be exterminated in an internecine war- 
 fare, but as mutineers to be brought back to their 
 allegiance to their king. For, to abhor the material 
 world, the senses, the affections of the body, is to 
 abhor the agents and the instruments which are all 
 to be dedicated to His service. 
 
 Perhaps it will be objected, that Christianity itself 
 
 has engendered a morbid asceticism, as extreme and 
 
 as unreasonable as can be found anywhere. Are not 
 
 * Simeon on his pillar, Antony in his cave, the monks 
 
 tof rf 
 
 64- 
 
 Jt'.'.y^ 
 
 - 
 
42 CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. [Lect. 
 
 of La Trappe in their cells, worthy to be ranked with 
 the self-torturers of India ? But let us examine the 
 parallel more closely. Monasticism, even if we take 
 the word in its widest sense, as embracing both the 
 solitary life and the coenobitic, though widely pre- 
 valent among Christians under certain conditions, is 
 no integral part of Christianity, but an excrescence, 
 an abnormal product of local and temporal circum- 
 stances. Monasticism was originally provoked by the 
 fury of persecution, and by the seemingly hopeless 
 corruption and misery of the society by which Chris- 
 tianity in its infancy found itself environed. And 
 whenever the flickering, dying flame of monastic 
 ardour has been re-kindled in subsequent ages, it 
 has been as an exceptional and extraordinary protest 
 against luxury and indifference. Monasticism, if con- 
 sidered dispassionately, not with the blind partizan- 
 ship of those who welcome it as the most potent 
 agency for consolidating the power of the Papacy, 
 nor with the blind intolerance which sees in it a 
 manifestation of Antichrist, must be allowed to have 
 its merits. To some it has been, and these not a few, 
 a shelter for souls wearied out by the storms of a tur- 
 bulent age ; it has attracted others by offering them 
 a more thorough devotion of their lives to the Sa- 
 viour's service. But it is not the offspring of Chris- 
 tianity, as the names of the Essenes and of the Thera- 
 peutaB testify ; it is no specialty of the Church, as the 
 name of the Encratites reminds us ; it can only jus- 
 tify its existence under the Gospel by appealing to a 
 text here, and a text there, divorced from the general 
 
III.] CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. 43 
 
 tenor of the Gospel message. In short, whatever may- 
 have been its services to religion, monasticism fos- 
 ters the notion that there is merit in making life 
 more miserable than it need be ; it implies a derelic- 
 tion of active duties, and an abhorrence of matter 
 strangely at variance with the life and doctrine of 
 Him, who " came eating and drinking °," whose 
 first miracle was wrought at a wedding-feast p , and 
 of Apostles who learned from Him " how to use the 
 world as not abusing it q ," and how for His sake to 
 "become all things to all men r ." 
 
 Take marriage for instance. See how Christianity, 
 while vindicating the lawfulness and the dignity of 
 marriage against the disparagement of an ecstatic 
 asceticism, guards it from degenerating into the 
 legalised licentiousness of polygamy or concubinage. 
 Christianity takes the animal passion, and ennobles 
 it. " Marriage is honourable," it says, "and the 
 bed undefiled ; but whoremongers and adulterers God 
 will judge 3 ." Where else is the marriage - bond 
 riveted with so firm yet tender a hand, or hallowed 
 by a sanction so inviolable? A man is "to leave" 
 (even) "father and mother, and" (to) "cleave to his 
 wife;" and "what God has joined, no man" is to 
 "put asunder 1 ." Elsewhere, the wife is often a thing 
 to be bought and sold, a part, and not always the 
 most precious of the husband's chattels, or, at best, 
 his companion for a time in a partnership "lightly 
 
 St. Matt. xi. 19. p St. John ii. 2—11. « 1 Cor. vii. 81. 
 r 1 Cor. ix. 22 ; cf. 1 Tim. iv. 3 ; Col. ii. 16—23 ; Rom. xiv. 14 ; 
 Tit. i. 15. s Heb. xiii. 41. * St. Matt. xix. 5, 6. 
 
44 CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. [Lect. 
 
 enterprised 7 " and as lightly sundered. In Chris- 
 tianity the tie, once accepted, is all but indissoluble, 
 and its mutual responsibilities are great in propor- 
 tion. "Wantonly to sever this more than lifelong 
 compact, and to commence new relations of the same 
 kind, while the other party to the compact is yet 
 alive, is stigmatised in one word as " adultery V 
 Nay, as though to deepen and intensify the sense of 
 the sacredness of marriage, even re-marriage, in any 
 case whatever, is rather discouraged than otherwise v . 
 On every side the wedded life is fenced about, like 
 holy ground, from rash precipitancy, from fickleness 
 and instability of purpose, from the intrusion of all 
 low associations. Wedded love is to be undivided, 
 undistracted, concentrating itself — 
 
 " To love one only and to cleave to her w ;" 
 
 not losing itself aimlessly ; the large-hearted, generous 
 love which — 
 
 " Alters not when it alteration finds, 
 Nor bends with the remover to remove x ." 
 
 Can this tender reverence for marriage be paralleled 
 outside Christianity, even in the strictest days of the 
 Eoman Eepublic, even in the purest traditions of 
 the Hebrew law? And, if we look for the vital 
 principle of it, we find it here, as always in Chris- 
 tianity, to be that love of Christ which draws Him 
 and His people together inseparably for ever. The 
 
 u St. Matt. v. 32; xix. 9; Rom. vii. 3. T 1 Cor. vii. 10, 11. 
 
 w Tennyson, Dedicat. Pre/, to Idylls of the King. x Shakesp., 
 
 Sonnets. 
 
III.] CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. 45 
 
 mutual trust and joy of the wedded life are an 
 emblem of the soul's communion with its Redeemer, 
 nay, rather an expression and a realization of the 
 same feeling. The Church is "a chaste virgin es- 
 poused to one husband;" — the Bride, " adorned for 
 her Lord," waiting on earth with eager fidelity for 
 his long-promised return. He is the Bridegroom, 
 absent and far away, yet ever watching over His 
 Church, as a man cherishes "the wife of his bosom y ." 
 Can we wonder if, with so high, so pure an ideal 
 before their eyes of what wedded love may be, Chris- 
 tians, with all their controversial differences, with 
 all their inconsistencies in practice, have neverthe- 
 less consented in regarding the holiness of marriage 
 as a distinctive and fundamental tenet z ? 
 
 Indeed, the position which woman holds in Chris- 
 tianity is absolutely unique. Bound to a loving obe- 
 dience, yet not the slave, the drudge of her lord ; 
 
 y St. Matthew ix. 15; St. John iii. 29; 2 Cor. xi. 2; Rev. 
 xix. 7, xxi. 2, 9, xxii. 17. 
 
 1 And yet we are told, " No Apostle seems to have been aware, 
 nor does Jesus teach, that love ennobles and spiritualizes," (F. W, 
 Newman? 8 Defective Morality of the New Testament, p. 24,) and that 
 " defilement with women in the Apocalypse" means "marriage," 
 (lb., p. 27.) The same writer (lb., p. 28) adds, in the face of 
 1 Cor. vii. 1 — 17, "the reasons which Paul gives for marriage 
 are not moral." It is important to discriminate in this passage 
 between the general principle which the Apostle lays down of the 
 lawfulness of marriage, and his personal preference for the un- 
 married life under existing circumstances, (cf. vv. 2, 7). 
 
 The compatibility of marriage with perfect devotion to God is 
 beautifully expressed by Keble, Christian Year, "Wednesday be- 
 fore Easter : — 
 
 "And there are souls," &c. 
 
46 CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. [Lect. 
 
 not the toy of his fleeting passion, but his " yoke- 
 fellow" in all the joys and sorrows of life ; his help- 
 mate in all those gentler avocations, for which the 
 softness and delicacy of her temperament fit her, 
 without arrogating to herself his proper functions ; 
 endeared to him by the very weakness which looks 
 up to his protecting care, and yet all the time well- 
 nigh worshipped by him for the graces of which her 
 outward form is the interpreter, — this is Christian 
 womanhood. Pagan and Christian art, each in its 
 way, have given us types of female beauty, types 
 which will live for ever, in the voluptuous charms 
 of the Paphian queen rising from the waves, in the 
 more spiritual loveliness of sweet and saintly Ma- 
 donnas. As we stand and gaze at these master- 
 pieces of the chisel and of the brush, can we doubt 
 which of these two ideals of womanhood is the 
 higher ; in other words, which of the two awakens 
 the more unselfish love ? 
 
 Yes ! this tender reverence for women is no mere 
 product of culture and civilization, for it was un- 
 known to Greece and Borne in the zenith of their 
 refinement ; it is no heritage of race, for the Freya 
 of Northern Europe is the Aphrodite of Greece ; 
 it does not date its existence a from the clays of tilt 
 and tournament, though chivalry and feudality may 
 have helped to develope and deepen it; it is the 
 reflexion on earth of that self-devoting love which 
 
 * Guizot attributes it to the isolation of the feudal castle (Ilistoire 
 de la Civilisation en Europe, pp. 106, 107). But the isolation of 
 the harem produces a directly opposite effect. 
 
III.] CHRISTIANITY AND THE APPETITES. 47 
 
 brought the Son of God down from heaven; it is 
 an echo of those accents which, on the hills of 
 Galilee and in the streets of Jerusalem, ever drew 
 to the Saviour's side those who needed His love 
 the most. 
 
 " Through all channels, good and evil, 
 
 Love from its pure source enticed, 
 Finds its own eternal level 
 
 In the charity of Christ. 
 Ye who hear, behold the river 
 
 Whence it cometh, whither goes — 
 Glory be to God the Giver, 
 
 From whose throne the river flows ; 
 Flows and streams through all creation, 
 
 Counter-charm of every curse, 
 Love — the waters of salvation 
 
 Flowing through the universe b ." 
 
 b Tannhaiiser. 
 
LECTUKE IV. 
 
 Cljristianttg ant» Ambition. 
 
 2 CORINTHIANS viii. 9. 
 
 " Though He teas rich, yet for your sakes He became poor, thai 
 ye through His poverty might be rich." 
 
 "VTEXT in order to the appetites of the body come 
 -*-* the desires of personal aggrandisement; that is, 
 of wealth and power, or rather, in one word, of power. 
 For money is only a means to an end ; valuable from 
 a selfish point of view, either for the comfort and 
 luxury which it can purchase, or for the larger im- 
 portance and wider influence which it symbolises, and 
 for the acquisition of which it is one of the things 
 most needful. The miser gloating over his useless 
 hoards for their own sake, ever amassing without any 
 ulterior purpose, is simply a monstrous anomaly, too 
 monstrous to be worth noticing. Now, so far as 
 wealth ministers to the pleasures of sense, it need 
 not occupy us now, since these have been considered 
 in a previous lecture. It remains only to regard 
 wealth as one among the incentives to those forms 
 of self-love which we may class together under the 
 name of covetousness or ambition. The virtues es- 
 pecially called into play by these desires are obvi- 
 ously truth, honesty, justice, frugality, industry, li- 
 berality. The correlative vices, whether of excess 
 or defect, there is no need to specify. 
 
 E 
 
50 CHRISTIANITY AM) AMBITION. [Lect. 
 
 That Christianity has promoted open-handedness in 
 giving, while, by proposing beneficence as the end 
 and object of saving, it rescues frugality from its 
 innate tendency to become parsimony, is not ques- 
 tioned, and cannot be. Indeed, if we are to believe 
 the opponents of Christianity, a Quixotic propensity 
 to excessive almsgiving is one of its worst blemishes. 
 It may be worth while to dwell some little time on 
 this point, 
 
 " No prominence is given in Christianity to jus- 
 tice ;" so writes one of the ablest of those who have 
 impugned Christianity "asa virtue of prime import- 
 ance a ." The same writer hails the dawn of some 
 " nobler religion, which will establish a more general 
 good-will through justice than endless talk about love 
 will ever produce V But the antithesis is unpractical 
 and unreal; unless we are to take justice in the hard- 
 est and narrowest conception possible, as weighing 
 men's rights and wrongs, like the Jew's pound of flesh, 
 to the fraction of an ounce, and rigidly disallowing 
 any the most infinitesimal variation from its prescript. 
 But there is a higher, truer justice than this. The 
 man whom the old philosophy terms iwieLKr]? is far 
 above the aKpifio$LKouos c . Equity, in place of this 
 dry conformity to the letter, which may be, and often 
 is, a gross injustice in spirit, takes into account all 
 circumstances which may intensify or extenuate the 
 praise or the blame in each particular instance. With- 
 
 a F. W. Newman, On the Defective Morality of the New Testa- 
 ment, p. 19. b Ibid., p. 33. 
 6 Arist., Nicom. Mh., v. 10, 8. 
 
IV.] CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. 51 
 
 out these considerations to temper judgment, true 
 justice is not, cannot be. And this considerateness 
 depends for its very being on love. For without 
 sympathy a true understanding is impossible of rights 
 and wrongs, of merit and demerit. The absence of 
 sympathy, the presence of antipathy, prejudice the 
 appreciation of persons and things. " The only way," 
 it has been said, " of knowing human nature is to 
 love it ; and it can only be won at this price V 
 Therefore, to oppose Justice to Love, as though 
 either could exist independently of the other, is 
 unreasonable. 
 
 But is it true in any sense, that "no prominence 
 is given in Christianity to justice as a virtue of prime 
 importance?" It would be nearer the truth to say, 
 that the idea of justice pervades the Gospel from be- 
 ginning to end. When the approach of Christ is 
 heralded by His forerunner, it is thus: "He shall 
 turn the disobedient to the wisdom of the just e ." 
 When the final day of reckoning is foretold, that 
 day is to sever the "just from the unjust V But 
 it would be superfluous to string together the many 
 passages in the New Testament where justice is 
 used as a synonym for holiness, in order to shew that 
 the virtue which is the basis on which the super- 
 structure of all other virtues must be reared, and on 
 which society depends for its coherence, is not slurred 
 over by Christianity, or thrust into the background 
 as if it were not "of prime importance." Nay, to 
 
 4 Ozanam. * St. Luke i. 17. f St. Matt. xiii. 49. 
 
 e2 
 
52 CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. [Lect. 
 
 be honourable — and I need not remind you either 
 that the Greek word rendered " honest'' in our ver- 
 sion would rather be in our modern English " honour- 
 able," or that a finer sense of honour has been a 
 specialty of Christianity — implies more than to be 
 just ; and honour includes strict justice as the greater 
 includes the less g . But we must pass on to meet 
 other allegations. 
 
 Christianity is accused of fostering a " profuse 
 charity," and by consequence a habit of " mendi- 
 cancy h ; and with a singular misapprehension of the 
 relative proportion of things, the writer already 
 quoted speaks of " communion of goods as the only 
 visible religious peculiarity of the early Christian 
 Church 1 ;" as if Stephen had been stoned, Peter 
 imprisoned, Paul mobbed, " the brethren" persecuted 
 from city to city, as being Communists. 
 
 This imputation of encouraging a mischievous in- 
 discriminate almsgiving, if substantiated, would argue 
 a serious fault in evangelic morality . For the reductio 
 ad absurdum is obvious. " To command all men to 
 sell their property is to command an absurdity ; for 
 if all tried to obey, there would be no buyers j ." 
 
 * As the motive in Christianity is more unselfish, so the sense 
 of honour is more exquisite. Stoicism, by the mouth of the Stoic 
 Emperor, teaches, "Lie not, even in things indifferent, for it 
 weakens the understanding" — G. Long, M. Aurelius Antoninux, 
 p. G2. Christianity teaches, "Lie not one to another, for ye are 
 brethren in the Lord." 
 
 h F. W. Newman, On the Defective Morality of the Gospel, p. 10. 
 
 1 F. W. Newman, Against Hero-making in Religion, p. 9. j Ibid. 
 
IV.] CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. 53 
 
 It might be added, the precept, " Give to him that 
 asketh k ," if it meant incessant and indiscriminate 
 almsgiving, would be similarly its own refutation. 
 But the very fact that words like these cannot be 
 taken in their naked literalness, implies of necessity 
 that some qualification is understood by a mental 
 ellipsis to complete the sentence. The allegation 
 loses its force, nay, falls to the ground utterly, if 
 for disjointed texts we substitute the whole tenor 
 and drift of the Gospel's teaching ; if, as in fairness 
 we are bound to do, we see in its words not so 
 many stereotyped rules, but organic principles, ad- 
 dressed, indeed, primarily, with a special intention 
 to a special occasion, and yet instinct with a germi- 
 native life, unfolding itself continually to ever-vary- 
 ing requirements. 
 
 Let us take the instances in question. The charge 
 of Communism against the Church at Jerusalem is 
 soon disposed of. The very narrative on which it 
 rests, plainly shews that the husband and wife, whose 
 names have become a byword for the pretence of 
 sanctity without the reality, had full right to keep 
 their property from the common fund, if they were 
 so minded. " Whilst it remained, was it not thine 
 own?" the Apostle asks ; and even " after it was sold, 
 was it not in thine own power 1 ?" Clearly, when 
 we read how "the multitude of them which believed 
 were of one heart and of one soul ; neither said any 
 of them, that aught which he possessed was his own, 
 
 k St. Matt. v. 42. l Acts v. 4. 
 
54 CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. [Lect. 
 
 for tliey had all things common 111 ," we are to un- 
 derstand no confiscation of property, but that close- 
 ness and tenderness of sympathy which bound rich 
 and poor together in one, till the corrosive influences 
 of the world had sundered this fellowship of " the 
 brethren in the Lord." 
 
 Or take the case, — for it is a crucial one, — of the 
 Eich Young Man, to whom were addressed those me- 
 morable words, which provoke the especial indigna- 
 tion of the able sceptic already quoted, " If thou 
 wilt be perfect, go thy way, sell all thou hast, and 
 give to the poor V These are the words which he 
 stigmatises as "a fierce threat," "a crushing, arbi- 
 trary command ° ;" words which certainly fall on the 
 ear with something of harshness and austerity, and 
 which, if they stood alone, might seem to extort from 
 the followers of Christ a precipitate renunciation of 
 all their worldly possessions. These are the words 
 which sounded as a call from heaven to Antony, as 
 he worshipped in a church of Alexandria, and longed 
 for some heroic act of self-abnegation. These are 
 the words which fired the son of a merchant at Assisi 
 to forsake "his own people and his father's house," 
 for a brotherhood of barefooted friars. And it has 
 been with a view to escape from what to a cooler 
 judgment seems a suicidal infatuation, and would 
 be, if it ever could become general, simply annihila- 
 tive of our social life with its manifold privileges 
 and responsibilities, that a distinction, delusive and 
 
 ■ Actsiv. 32. " St. Matt. xix. 21. ° F. W. Newman, 
 
 Against Hero-making in Religion, p. 18. 
 
IV.] CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION, 55 
 
 impracticable, has been invented by casuists between 
 "counsels of perfection" for saints, and a lower 
 standard of obedience for ordinary Christians. But 
 the main solution of the difficulty is to be found in 
 that trite old caution, never out of date, necessary 
 alike for those to whom Christianity is an offence, 
 and for those among Christians who exaggerate some 
 favourite dogma or precept out of proportion, — that 
 one side of the truth must always be complemented 
 by the other ; a caution necessary most of all in re- 
 gard to a teaching so essentially suggestive as that of 
 the Gospel, and without which the truth itself be- 
 comes a lie. 
 
 For here surely, and here alone, is the key to this 
 and other similar injunctions of Christ ; first, to mark 
 the symptoms of the moral state of the person ad- 
 dressed p ; for the great Physician adapts his remedies 
 to each one's needs, and his glance, like the touch of 
 IthuriePs spear, detects self-deceit in its disguise : 
 next, from this moral diagnosis in the mind of Christ 
 to discover the intention which makes the precept 
 of universal application for all similar cases; for 
 human nature repeats itself: and, lastly, to guard 
 the precept from collision with other laws of mo- 
 rality, lest it trespass on ground which they have 
 pre-occupied. 
 
 Now even a c ursory glance at the narrative shews 
 that the one thing wanted to test the sincerity of 
 this would-be convert, was that he should be forced 
 
 p Compare, for instance, the command to the demoniac (St. Mark 
 v. 19), and to the leper (St. Matt. viii. 4). 
 
56 CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. [Lect. 
 
 to ask himself that question, which one way or 
 another all must ask of their own souls, and answer, 
 a Am I willing to part with what I love best in the 
 world for the truth's sake?" It is easy to play the 
 hero when self has nothing at stake. The latent 
 selfishness betrays itself in the words, " Good Master, 
 what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal 
 life q ?" It meets its indirect reproof in the demurrer 
 of Christ to be called "good" by one whose notion 
 of goodness was dwarfed by selfishness. To have kept 
 this or that commandment might be, to one naturally 
 so disposed, little more than a supine acquiescence. 
 The touchstone of real unselfishness was to consent to 
 shatter his idol. This he would not ; and thus self- 
 convicted of unreality he went away, we are told, 
 sorrowing. Surely the gist of all these precepts of 
 self-abnegation, which only the wildest fanaticism 
 can take as they stand — cut off the right hand, pluck 
 out thine eye, submit unresistingly to every insult, 
 to every outrage, fling thine alms broadcast to every 
 mendicant, provide nothing, take no thought for the 
 morrow — is briefly this : Whatever usurps the place 
 in thine heart where love should reign, must be de- 
 throned — be the pang what it may — and cast away. 
 
 But a charge, diametrically opposed to these of 
 reckless improvidence and of lavish almsgiving, comes 
 from the same quarter. The teaching of Christ is 
 accused, almost in the same breath, of fostering a 
 temper improvident and yet mercenary. The com- 
 bination is startling. In the very instance just cited, 
 « St. Matt. xix. 16. 
 
IV.] CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. 57 
 
 in His interview with the rich young man, our 
 Lord is represented as " dealing in low motives and 
 thoughts of reward — promises of power — salvation by- 
 works — investment of money for returns beyond 
 the grave — prudential adoption of virtue which may 
 soften judgment, win promotion, deliver from prospec- 
 tive judgment and hell-fire r ." It is asked, "Does 
 such a teacher build from within by implanting love 
 — does he act upon love at all, or on a selfish am- 
 bition?" And it is added with an indiscriminating 
 generalisation, " In the mind of Jesus all actions 
 seem to stand in the closest relation to the thoughts 
 of punishment and reward on a great future day." 
 "I seek in vain," says the writer, "for anything to 
 implant in the heart a sense of freedom, to excite 
 willing service, gratitude, tranquil love, careless of 
 other reward than love." These are caustic and in- 
 cisive words. Are they true ? 
 
 Now without quoting, appealing to, that personal 
 devotion to a personal Saviour which is a special 
 characteristic of St. Paul's writings s , and which has 
 its practical embodiment in his sublime description 
 of charity, let us confine ourselves at present to 
 the teaching of Christ Himself. Let it be freely 
 granted, as it must be in fairness, that our Lord 
 very frequently enforces His moral dictates through 
 the hope of reward, and through the fear of punish- 
 
 r F. "W. Newman, Against Hero-making in Religion, p. 19. 
 
 s Professor Newman arbitrarily excludes all reference to St. Paul 
 on this {joint, allowing that the Apostle's " precepts are, concerning 
 property, in full agreement with those of Greek and Roman sages," 
 but contending that they " are widely different from those of 
 Jesus." — On the Defective Morality of the New Testament, p. 11. 
 
58 CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. [Lect. 
 
 ment hereafter. But what then ? These hopes 
 and fears are not the essence of the motive, but aux- 
 iliary and subsidiary to it; useful in stemming the 
 force of temptations well-nigh irresistible, as the 
 swimmer seizes a drifting spar in his struggle with 
 the waves. Those whom the Saviour was primarily 
 addressing were not men with their minds illuminated 
 by the flash of an instantaneous revelation. They 
 were to have a slow and gradual discipline before 
 becoming in His Name the teachers of the world. 
 With their inveterate prepossessions about a Messiah 
 who should inaugurate a reign of mundane felicity, 
 with their minds steeped in the Mosaic traditions of 
 temporal rewards and punishments, they needed, like 
 children, all possible support from without for the 
 nascent efforts of the soul within. No parent or 
 teacher would act otherwise with a child, unless 
 in defiance of the laws of our nature. These pro- 
 mises and threats are as a framework round a tender 
 plant, a defence against the blast, till its inner life 
 is matured : but all the time the inner life is nou- 
 rished, not by these adventitious appliances, but by 
 deep and secret contact with the parent earth. 
 
 Nor may it be forgotten that these promises and 
 threatcnings are at most only one aspect of the teach- 
 ing of Christ. "In the world ye shall have tribula- 
 tion 1 ," for your Leader is the homeless one, "a man 
 of sorrows and acquainted with grief." Forbear 
 dreams of your own greatness, " for He is meek and 
 lowly of heart u ." " Take up thy cross x " and bear it 
 unflinchingly, for thy Lord must die on it the death 
 
 1 St. John xvi. 33. » St. Matt. xi. 29. x Ibid. xvi. 24. 
 
IV.] CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. 59 
 
 of a slave and a malefactor. " Can ye drink of My 
 cup of sorrow ? Can ye be baptised with My baptism 
 of blood?" Christ y demands of those whose hearts 
 are intent on sharing His glory, who are in thought 
 anticipating the day when they " shall sit on thrones, 
 judging the twelve tribes of Israel 2 ." But I need 
 not multiply these presageful warnings of the self- 
 renunciation required from those who would be fol- 
 lowers of Jesus. The joys foretold are far away, the 
 sufferings are imminent. Strange not to see, that to 
 embrace these promises of Christ at such a cost im- 
 plies a moral conviction that He is indeed the Truth ; 
 and that to reiterate these forebodings of what must 
 be endured by His followers, is the part not of one 
 bribing men to His side, but of one who seeks that 
 " willing service " of " gratitude " and of " love" 
 which alone can give the soul " a sense of freedom " 
 from the tyranny of self ! 
 
 Nor is it to be overlooked that the promises of re- 
 ward are collective not individualistic. The exalta- 
 tion, the aggrandisement of the individual are dis- 
 couraged invariably. When the disciples ask, " What 
 shall we have" because we have addicted ourselves 
 to Thy service ? they are answered, under the si- 
 militude of the " labourers in the vineyard a ," that 
 they are to work for love not for pay, with no evil 
 eye to fellow-labourers, with no mutinous murmurs 
 against the Lord of the vineyard. When they dispute 
 among themselves about the preeminence, they are told 
 
 y St. Matt. xx. 22. z Ibid. xix. 28. 
 
 a Ibid. xx. 1, et seq. 
 
CO CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. [Lect. 
 
 each and all to learn from " a little child b " how to be 
 lowest and least in the kingdom of their Lord. Even 
 so honourable a title as that of " Benefactors c " they 
 are to disclaim, lest the praise of men should alloy 
 the genuineness of love. The promise of future hap- 
 piness is not for one or other, singly and separately, 
 the realisation of selfish schemings. The faithful are 
 all to rejoice together, as the reapers in one great 
 harvest -field, — the world. Above all, the reward is 
 Christ Himself. His love is motive and recompense 
 in one. The renunciations are to be for His sake ; 
 and the reward is this, — to be near His throne, and 
 to gaze with adoring love on the unveiled radiancy 
 of His Presence. Truly a small inducement, except 
 to those whose hearts have caught from Him that 
 ardour of self-sacrifice which loses itself in love. 
 The selfish might have been allured to the banner 
 of the Cross by promises of inglorious repose, and 
 languid self-gratification ; but in the Christian's hea- 
 ven every faculty of body and soul is consecrated to 
 the willing service of his Lord. " This is life eternal, 
 to know Thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ 
 whom Thou hast sent." 
 
 See what Christianity has done in teaching men 
 " to spend and be spent " for others. Granted, that 
 the fingers of dying men have, ere now, relaxed their 
 grasp of their money-bags from fear and not from 
 love ; that the scared conscience has drugged itself by 
 the hope of buying heaven w r ith its ill-gotten hoards ; 
 that even into the noblest breast will intrude at times 
 
 h St. Matt, xviii. 2. c St. Luke xxii. 25. 
 
IV.] CHRISTIANITY AND AMBITION. 61 
 
 a selfish thought of recompense ; still, all this fails 
 utterly to account for the innumerable enterprises 
 which Christianity has initiated, to assuage and al- 
 leviate the woes which it cannot prevent, as it tracks 
 the devastating course of sin and sorrow through the 
 world. Christianity proclaims a communism not of 
 constraint, but of will. Property is a sacred thing, 
 it tells us d ; because it is to be employed for the good 
 of others. The poor must be frugal and industrious, 
 it teaches; that they too may have to give to the 
 more needy than themselves e . If ever, as some pre- 
 dict, Christianity could become a thing of the past, 
 its hospitals, its orphanages, its schools f would re- 
 main the trophies of its bloodless victories over the 
 greediness of Mammon. No cautious balancing of 
 future loss and gain could have called these things 
 into being. It is what the great Apostle felt when 
 he owned himself " debtor g " to all men for His Sa- 
 viour's sake ; in one word, it is gratitude. It is un- 
 selfish gratitude to One, who, though He was rich, 
 yet for our sakes made Himself poor ; who, being 
 Lord of all things, stooped for us to the manger at 
 Bethlehem and the Cross on Calvary ; who bared 
 Himself of the glory which He had from the begin- 
 ning, to wrap forlorn and destitute humanity in its 
 celestial folds. 
 
 d e.g. Rom. vii. 7. e Eph. iv. 28. f Cf. Lecky, 
 
 History of European Morals, ii. 34. g Rom. i. 14. 
 
LECTUEE V. 
 
 Cfjristtanttg antr £rf£ticpcntrmce* 
 
 ROMANS xiv. 7. 
 "None of us Uveth to himself and no man dieth to himself* 
 
 j{ S we ascend in thought from the importunities of 
 ■*-*- sense and the solicitations of ambition, to those 
 emotions in our nature which are more independent 
 of external things, we breathe a finer atmosphere, 
 the view widens below our feet, and the path of 
 Christian morality diverges more determinately than 
 ever from that of the morality which is not Christian. 
 Hitherto the difference has been, for the most part, 
 either in the motive which animates the strivings of 
 humanity after perfection, or in the degree of success 
 which these strivings obtain. But here we have in 
 Christianity a diametrically opposite ideal of perfec- 
 tion set before us for imitation. Humility, in the 
 true sense of the word, is as distinctively a Christian 
 virtue, as self-dependence, the crown and culmination 
 of non-Christian morality, is in the Gospel of Christ 
 a weakness and a vice. 
 
 For self-dependence is pride ; and pride, rather 
 than ambition, deserves to be called 
 
 " The last infirmity of noble minds." 
 
 When the lower desires have been reduced to sub- 
 mission, when the soul can look down from its philo- 
 
U CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. [Lect. 
 
 sophic watch-tower on cravings for wealth or power, 
 then, and because of these triumphs which it has 
 achieved, it is in danger of pride. And pride is not 
 only the subtlest form of self-love, but the worst; 
 for it is the perversion of the noblest faculties to a 
 most ignoble end, the deification of self; it is cruelty 
 without the excuse of passion. The foe, repulsed 
 from the outposts, works surreptitiously his insidious 
 way into the citadel itself ; and the fortress falls at 
 the very moment when its defenders dream them- 
 selves most secure from peril. 
 
 Genuine humility, as the experience of all time 
 shews, is the rarest, because the hardest of virtues ; 
 the hardest, because it involves the most absolute 
 uprooting of self from the system. No virtue has 
 so many or so plausible counterfeits. The self-de- 
 preciation which courts praise is not humility; the 
 indifference to praise, which is contempt for others, 
 is not humility; nay, the humility which secretly 
 and half-unconsciously lauds itself in and for the 
 very act of self-condemnation is but a spurious hu- 
 mility, like the cynic's pride thinly veiled under his 
 ostentatious tatters. Nowhere is the involuntary 
 homage which vice pays to virtue more strikingly 
 exemplified than by these semblances of humility, 
 which pass current in the world, so as almost to defy 
 detection. 
 
 Now, of all the characteristics of the Son of Man, 
 humility is the most remarkable. To those who sec 
 in Him the Son of God incarnate, no words can ex- 
 press the depth of His self-imposed humiliation. 
 
V.] CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. 65 
 
 Even those to whom He is only a Teacher among 
 teachers, one among many leaders of the multitude, 
 cannot but admire His divine calmness under oblo- 
 quy and insult, as well as amid the Hosannas of the 
 crowd; the calmness not of apathy, but of a nature 
 exquisitely tender in its sympathies' 1 . Even they 
 will admit, that, notwithstanding many inconsisten- 
 cies in practice, this "meekness and lowliness" of 
 spirit have been an especial badge of those who take 
 " His yoke upon 15 " their shoulders, and learn of Him 
 that self must be as nothing, and love as everything 
 in the hearts of His disciples. 
 
 Self-reliance is in other systems the aim and object 
 of all the upward soarings of the soul. For, if the 
 health of his soul is the first thing for a man to con- 
 sider ; if virtue is health, vice disease c ; then, though 
 beneficence to others may be a duty, as subserving 
 self-culture, still, the primary law being self-preser- 
 vation, the summit of moral perfection is to rise 
 above every feeling which can obstruct this work of 
 self-improvement, which can mar the symmetry, the 
 harmony, the autarchy, the entelechy of the soul. 
 There must, indeed, be no outward manifestation of 
 this inward consciousness of strength. That would 
 be arrogance; and arrogance would be a flaw in the 
 circle of self-dependence, as betokening a recognition, 
 however contemptuous, of other existences than our 
 own d . But the consciousness itself must be there. 
 
 Take, for instance, that system of philosophy, of 
 
 a e.g. St. John xi. 35. b St. Matt. xi. 29. c Grote's Plato, 
 iii. 131. d M. Antonin., Meditat., ii. 17. 
 
06 CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. [Ltect. 
 
 which it has been said by a great Christian thinker 
 that it comes " nearest to Christianity ;" which, in- 
 deed, like Christianity, lifts the soul above the trivial 
 hopes and fears of the world of sense, and, like 
 Christianity, makes virtue independent of success 
 and failure, of good fortune or bad; although its 
 hardness, its avaiaOrjoria, contrasts strongly with a 
 teaching which, instead of ruthlessly extirpating the 
 affections f , trains them tenderly round whatever it 
 can find worthiest in earth or heaven ; — take Stoicism. 
 "Be like the Olympian Jove of Phidias," the Stoic 
 writes, " in an unclouded confidence and strength g ." 
 In other words, "Be self-contained, self-centred, self- 
 orbed. So will you be able to look down with pity, 
 if not with contempt, on the errors and delusions of 
 the multitude." We have not so learned from our 
 Master. In strange contrast to this self-conscious, 
 self-satisfied intellectuality, Christ teaches His dis- 
 ciples to be as children, teachable and lowly, for their 
 strength is to be perfected in weakness 11 , and out of 
 weakness they are to be made strong \ His sternest 
 denunciations are not against sins of passion, but 
 against a hard and scornful self-righteousness. The 
 prayer which He best approves is, " God be merciful 
 to me a sinner k ." The verdict of acquittal, of com- 
 mendation at the last, is for those who are least aware 
 of their own merits ; who ask in unfeigned astonish- 
 
 e S. T. Coleridge, Aids to Reflection, p. 62. f Cf. Tacit., 
 
 Agric, 30. * Arrian., ii. 8, quoted by Lecky, Hist, of Euro- 
 
 pean Morals, i. p. 161. h 2 Cor. xii. 9. * Heb. xi. 34. 
 
 k St. Luke xviii. 13. 
 
V.] CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. 67 
 
 ment of their Judge, "When have we done aught 
 for Thee 1 ?" Fearless of the sneers of supercilious 
 Pharisees, Christ sits at meat, by a preference to 
 them hopelessly unintelligible, under the roof of 
 a publicans and sinners m ;" and singles out for a 
 special blessing the outcast whose only plea is this, 
 that she has " loved much 11 ." 
 
 Stoicism and Christianity alike teach, that the life 
 of man consists not in those external appliances 
 which to so many seem to constitute the idea of 
 living, but in the perfection of the soul; that this 
 alone is life. Both alike enjoin strictest self-ex- 
 amination °. But the practical character of this self- 
 examination, in the one case and the other, differs 
 as widely as the dialectical promptings of the Demon 
 of Socrates from the persuasive influences of the Holy 
 Ghost on the life and will of a Christian p . In the 
 Pagan philosophy man reviews his own handiwork, 
 effaces a line here, inserts a touch there ; studious 
 of the model which he proposes to himself, that he 
 may not have to reproach himself for inadequacy of 
 execution ; a severe critic of himself; true to his own 
 conceptions of excellence ; and, let it be granted, 
 caring far more to have realized his ideal than for 
 the silly plaudits of the crowd. But, all the time, 
 
 1 St. Matt. xxv. 37—39. m St.Markii. 16. n St.Lukevii. 47. 
 e.g. Persius, Satir. iv. 21. 
 
 p " The Demon of Socrates was but an intellectual guide, and 
 checked his erring judgment ; the Holy Spirit guards the vigils 
 of duty, and succours the disciple's tempted will." — Martineau, 
 Studies of Christianity, p. 307. 
 
 f2 
 
6S CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE, [Lect. 
 
 he begins and ends his task in himself. In Chris- 
 tianity the penitent rises from his knees with even 
 the sense of his own unworthiness lost in the sense 
 of God's pardoning love, and in sympathetic tender- 
 ness for his fellow-sinners. Marcns Aurelius has 
 been fitly styled "the purest, gentlest spirit of the 
 Pagan world q ;" his writings, "the highest ethical 
 product of the heathen mind r ." In words which 
 sound like an echo from Calvary, he says, " Love 
 those who have offended you, for they do it igno- 
 rantly," they "know not what they do s ." But 
 mark the undercurrent of thought and feeling. I 
 am not unfair, I trust, to this noble Eoman if I read 
 it thus : " It is beneath philosophy to waste a thought 
 on beings so unworthy; hatred is a perturbation of 
 that tranquillity of spirit which we aim at; life is 
 too short ; the work of self-improvement too moment- 
 ous 1 ." But Christian forgiveness is rather thus: 
 " How can I refuse to forgive others, I who am 
 myself so greatly forgiven? How can I but prefer 
 others in honour, I who know so well my own deficien- 
 cies ? n " For none of us liveth to himself, and no 
 man dieth to himself: whether we live or die, we 
 are the Lord's." In brief, Stoicism is a deification 
 of man for himself u ; Christianity is a deification of 
 man for his God and for his fellows. 
 
 q Lecky, History of European Morals, i. 219. r J. S. Mill, 
 
 On Liberty, p. 15. s Meditat., vii. 22. l Medit., vii. 26 ; 
 
 ii. 17; xi. 18. 
 
 u What has been said of Buddhism, " It is a barren waste of 
 intellectual perfection," (M\ Miiller, Buddhism, p. 19,) may not 
 unfairly be said of Stoicism. 
 
V.] CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. 69 
 
 These intense yearnings of sympathy flow directly 
 and flow exclusively from the Cross on Calvary. For 
 there we see, not, as some have represented it, a mere 
 substitution on the sacrificial altar of one victim for 
 another, not the mere intervention of a stranger pay- 
 ing down a sum for those who cannot pay, but heaven 
 condescending to identify itself with the sins and 
 sorrows of earth ; the divine nature attuned by love 
 to perfect unison with the heart-throbbings of hu- 
 manity. " Greater love hath no man than this, that 
 a man lay down his life for his friends." And the 
 Christian's faith or love, call it as you will, in- 
 volves a responsive unification of himself with the 
 lowest and weakest of his brethren. This it is 
 which sent forth Saul of Tarsus, Boniface, Xavier, 
 Schwartz, Patteson, to lay down their lives for those 
 who, aliens and outcasts in the world's estimation, 
 were brought near to them by the very extremity 
 of their need. " No Jew, Greek, Eoman, Brahman," 
 it has been said by one especially competent to 
 speak on the subject, "ever thought of convert- 
 ing people to his own national form of belief V 
 Even in Buddhism can we find an instance of so 
 entire a sympathy with the wretched, as that which 
 has induced Christian missionaries to devote them- 
 selves to a forlorn and lifelong exile on an island 
 peopled only by lepers y , in the spirit of Him who 
 laid His healing hand on the miserable victims of this 
 loathsome malady, who on the eve of His own agony 
 stooped down and washed His own betrayer's feet, 
 who shrank not from the polluted touch of the woman 
 1 M. Miiller, Buddhism, p. 22. J In the Greek Archipelago. 
 
70 CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. [Lect. 
 
 who had been a grievous sinner ? Others may teach, 
 that it is politic and right to leave the stricken deer 
 to pine and die alone, while the herd makes for fresh 
 pastures. Not so the Gospel of Christ. There, even 
 unworthiness has a claim on those who feel their own 
 unworthiness in the presence of their Saviour. 
 
 To the Stoic, even to one like Marcus Aurelius, 
 pain, bodily or mental, is simply a thing to be endured 
 as best may be. Dimly and uncertainly through the 
 mysterious darkness of sorrow he sees that pain is 
 a teacher, and the only teacher, for those who refuse 
 to learn otherwise. But to him it comes only as 
 a disagreeable consequence of having infringed a law 
 stronger than himself, — of having blindly come into 
 collision with nature and had the worst of it. He has 
 foolishly allowed himself to be caught and entangled 
 in the resistless, relentless mechanism of the universe, 
 and must pay the penalty ; he must extricate himself 
 from his dilemma, if he can, with a firm resolve to be 
 more wary lest he jeopardise himself again ; if not, 
 he may as well cut short his troubles summarily and 
 for ever, by making a speedy exit from a struggle in 
 which pride forbids him to confess himself beaten. 
 It is useless, he argues, to contend against what 
 must be ; Fate is inexorable ; and so, with sullen 
 and defiant acquiescence, he accepts what he cannot 
 avoid 2 . But the Christian is taught, that suffering 
 is not merely penal, but remedial for the sufferer; 
 that it is the " loving correction" which a Father 
 inflicts reluctantly; the sharp but momentary pang 
 which a wise and tender healer, probing and cauter- 
 1 M. Antoiiiii., Meditat., xi. 18, ii. 17. 
 
V.] CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. 71 
 
 ising the wound, knows must be submitted to ; that 
 patience can only thus have "her perfect work a ;" 
 that the Son of God Himself, in His life on earth, 
 had to "learn obedience by the things which He 
 suffered," and that there is no other school for His 
 followers ; that the gold must be purged of its dross 
 in the fire; that the spikenard must be bruised and 
 broken, or it will not yield the sweetness which is in 
 it; in short, that pride, the last stronghold of self 
 in the heart, must be levelled with the ground, for 
 love to be all in all. 
 
 Nor is there, as some say, anything mean or pusil- 
 lanimous in Christian humility. Because the Gospel 
 commends the "poor in spirit b ;" because it preaches, 
 " Eesist not evil c ;" because it seems to a hasty glance 
 to inculcate a tame and abject submission to extor- 
 tion and oppression d , we are told that Christianity 
 is wanting in self-assertion. But these precepts, as 
 was observed in a previous lecture, if they are to 
 have any meaning at all, must be understood with 
 those qualifications which are suggested by com- 
 paring them with other passages, by supplying the 
 omissions, incidental to speech always, and too ob- 
 vious to need specifying ; above all, by having regard 
 to the mental and moral capacity of those on whose 
 ears they fell in the first instance. "The letter 
 killeth, but the spirit giveth life e ." We must bear 
 in mind, that these precepts of submission were 
 spoken to men of a nation more stubbornly tena- 
 
 a St. James i. 4. b St. Matt. v. 3. c Ibid. v. 39. 
 
 (l Ibid. v. ' 2 Cor. iii. 6. 
 
n CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. [Lect. 
 
 cious, perhaps, than any other of its self-assertion; 
 to men who had been taught from childhood that 
 merciless retaliation is a sacred duty, that " eye for 
 eye," " tooth for tooth f ," is not merely excusable, 
 but right. We must bear in mind that an utter 
 disruption of law and order would ensue, if the words 
 were taken literally, and without context. We must 
 bear in mind that the same Teacher who says, " Ee- 
 sist not eviiy tells His " little flock h ," when left in 
 the world like " sheep among wolves 1 ," and " without 
 a shepherd," to "fear not," even though dragged 
 "before synagogues, and magistrates, and powers k ;" 
 but to confess their Master boldly before men, with- 
 out a thought of the shame, or of the peril ; — that He, 
 who pleaded so tenderly for His disciples, " Let these 
 go their way," Himself confronted His foes with the 
 intrepid declaration, "I am He;" — that He trod the 
 winepress alone, and drained the cup of agony to 
 the dregs, not, indeed, without shrinking, but with 
 an unwavering purpose, to save others at any cost 
 to Himself. Clearly the gist of these precepts of 
 submission is this, — to exorcise from the heart 
 the spirit of self-assertion, so far as it conflicts 
 with duty ; to foster and encourage self- assertion, 
 so far as it stands forward as the champion of 
 others, "fighting the good fight 1 " under the banner 
 of Love. Paradoxical as it may sound, the truest 
 courage, nay, the only true courage, is, like real 
 magnanimity, inseparable from humility. For true 
 
 * St. Matt. v. 38. 8 Ibid. v. 39. h St. Luke xii. 32. 
 
 ' St. Matt. x. 16. k St. Luke xii. 11. J 2 Tim. iv. 7. 
 
V.] CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. 73 
 
 courage differs from rashness, from empty boast- 
 fulness in this, that it implies a true estimate of the 
 dangers to be faced, and of a man's own ability 
 to face them ; it measures the hazard, and counts 
 the cost, and yet is content to abide the issue. The 
 martyrs of Antioch or of Lyons, lavish of their own 
 lives, refusing to avail themselves of any subterfuge, 
 however venial, from the dungeon, the stake, the 
 lions of the amphitheatre, were they timid, vacil- 
 lating, irresolute ? Was it a pusillanimous spirit, 
 which, not satisfied with the persistent profession of 
 its own faith, dared even to affront, in its aggressive 
 zeal for Christ, the massive organization, the pitiless 
 inflexibility of the Eoman Empire ? The martyrs 
 and confessors of Christianity are rather liable to the 
 charge of provoking persecution and of courting death, 
 than of cowardice. 
 
 Nor is there anything mawkish or feebly senti- 
 mental in Christian humility. With all its compas- 
 sion for the sinner, it never condones the sin. The 
 Antinomianism which " sins that grace may abound 111 ," 
 which almost glories in wrong- doing, in its eagerness 
 to magnify the Atonement, is a caricature of the 
 Gospel of Christ, intolerable to the reason and con- 
 science of men. What was said of the great me- 
 dia) val poet of Christendom, — 
 
 "He loved well, because he hated," 
 
 is essentially true of Christianity. Uncompromising 
 hatred of evil is an integral part of Christian love. 
 
 ra Rom. vi. 1. 
 
74 CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. [Lect. 
 
 There is no place in Christianity for the lukewarm 
 zeal of Laodicea. " He that is not with Me," Christ 
 has said, "is against Me;" " he that gathereth not 
 with Me, scattereth n ." The same voice, which so 
 often breathed pardon and peace on penitents, whom 
 Pharisaic scorn would have spurned from His feet, 
 denounced, in tones wherein even pity is well-nigh 
 drowned in sternness of reproof, the sin which would 
 not own itself sinful, which in its pride hardened 
 itself even against love. 
 
 Nor, lastly, can Christian humility be fairly ac- 
 cused — whatever pretext for the accusation may have 
 been given by fanatical distortions of Christianity — of 
 a morbid self- depreciation, of a morbid exaggeration 
 of its own wretchedness. The Christian may not feel 
 contempt, — even for himself. While prostrating him- 
 self in his self-abasement before the glorious ideal 
 which he fails to realise, while " abhorring himself 
 in dust and ashes," he still cannot forget that human 
 nature was created in the likeness of the divine ; that 
 this image of God on the soul, tarnished and defaced 
 by sin, was restored by the incarnation of divinity ; 
 that it is continually renewed by the sweet influences 
 of the Holy Spirit. " Self- reverence," as well as 
 "self- distrust," is part of "self-knowledge" in a 
 Christian °. 
 
 " True dignity abides with him alone, 
 Who, in the silent hour of inward thought, 
 Can still suspect and still revere himself 
 In lowliness of heart 1 '." 
 
 ■ St. Matt. xii. 30. ° "Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self- 
 
 distrust." — Tennyson, (Emm*. r Wordsworth. 
 
V.] CHRISTIANITY AND SELF-DEPENDENCE. 75 
 
 To the Stoic or the Buddhist, baffled and foiled in 
 his struggles to break loose from the thraldom of evil, 
 only one escape is left,— self-annihilation. To the 
 Christian, failure and disappointment, even in the 
 pursuit of holiness, are an incentive to new exertions. 
 His hopefulness can never die, for the mainspring of 
 hope is without, not within the soul. To him despair 
 is an impossibility, for, in the " darkness that may be 
 felt," the soul casts itself the more undoubtingly on 
 the love which never changes. For 
 
 " all through life I see a Cross, 
 
 Where sons of God yield up their breath ; 
 There is no gain except by loss ; 
 There is no life except in death ; 
 
 Nor glory, but in bearing shame ; 
 Nor justice, but in taking blame ; 
 And that eternal Passion saith, 
 ' Be emptied of glory, and right, and name 1 !' " 
 
 q Okie Grange. (Madehouse, Glasgow.) 
 
LECTURE iVL 
 
 Efje ©ntberaalitg of Christian Morality 
 
 GENESIS xxiii. 18. 
 " In Him shall all nations of the earth be blessed." 
 
 TI7E have completed — if such a word is pardonable 
 " of what is, I am well aware, so incomplete — our 
 survey of the emotions, and of the treatment which 
 they receive from Christianity and from other sys- 
 tems. Let us ascend in thought higher still. Let 
 us contemplate, as from the mountain's summit, one 
 of the most important characteristics of Christian 
 morals, their universality. 
 
 No one can be conversant with the poetry and 
 philosophy which exhibit civilization before the Chris- 
 tian era in its highest form, without observing how 
 incommensurate they are with the life of man as a 
 whole. So far as life is sunny, joyous, prosperous, 
 they express it well ; with less indeed of reserve and 
 of qualification, with a more thorough abandonment 
 to it for the moment than is possible for one whose 
 religion teaches him to grieve for others, if not for 
 himself. But life is not all sunshine. None are 
 exempt — it is a truism to say it — from pain ; to 
 many, if not to most, painful experiences prepon- 
 derate over pleasurable ; while over our brightest 
 moments death, ever drawing near, casts its dark 
 
78 THE UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 shadow before. And here Pagan philosophy fails us 
 in our need. Mark the undercurrent of sadness, 
 nay, of utter hopelessness, which ever and anon 
 forces itself to the surface, as we listen to the festive 
 lyrics of Horace, crowned with roses, and with the 
 wine-cup in his hand. See how Stoicism, in its de- 
 spairing effort to assert its indifference to evils which 
 it can neither remedy nor explain, has only one word 
 of comfort for its votary ; that he fold himself in his 
 toga and die \ The philosophies of Zeno, or of Epi- 
 curus, stand dumb before the Sphinx of man's destiny 
 with its insoluble enigma; they would fain escape, 
 if they could, from the stony gaze of those pitiless 
 eyes. But Christianity faces every aspect of our 
 existence, sunlit or under the cloud. It is no privi- 
 lege of the rich, the learned, the prosperous. It 
 knows "how to be abased and how to abound V It 
 bids its disciples " rejoice with those that do rejoice, " 
 as well as " weep with those that weep V And if 
 joy is impossible for souls beset, beaten down, all but 
 crushed under their woes, it whispers of a "peace 
 which passes understanding d ." 
 
 See, again, how each race of mankind contributes 
 its portion to the common fund of Christian morality, 
 and derives thence in return something which it de- 
 siderates. The Hebrew brings his stubborn tenacity 
 of conscience and conviction, and in the crucible of 
 the Gospel what was hard and unsympathetic glows 
 with the ardour of a world-wide diffusiveness. The 
 
 « See Note C. " Phil. iv. 12. 
 
 c Rom. xii. 15. d Phil. iv. 7. 
 
VI.] THE UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 79 
 
 Greek brings his readiness of invention in art and 
 science, and what was sensuous, material, selfish, is 
 transfigured with a glory not of earth. The Eoman 
 brings his soldier-like obedience to order, the Teuton 
 his rugged loyalty to hearth and home, and both 
 alike learn that an uncompromising sense of duty is 
 strengthened, not weakened, by tenderness of feeling. 
 Like the gate of a mediaeval monastery, Christianity 
 opens itself to all comers ; welcomes all to its shelter; 
 receives from each his peculiar inheritance of truth ; 
 imparts to each that which was wanting to complete 
 it, and fuses the scattered fragments into a whole. 
 
 Or mark the elasticity of Christianity in adapting 
 itself to various forms of government. True : in our 
 own experience, as elsewhere, the Church of Christ 
 has not always been proof against the temptation of 
 identifying itself with a political party. True : in 
 the past history of this country, as elsewhere, the 
 Church has, ere now, clung with unreasoning fidelity 
 to a dynasty that has ceased to represent the nation. 
 Still, if we review the course of ecclesiastical history 
 from first to last, it is clear that the Gospel is no hot- 
 house exotic, only kept alive by artificial appliances, 
 but a hardy plant, that can thrive, if need be, on the 
 bleak mountain side. The Gospel precept of obedience 
 to those who are in authority, applies alike to the 
 subjects of a despotic empire, of a constitutional mo- 
 narchy, of a democracy where all are on a level. 
 "When the French republican of the last century 
 called the Founder of Christianity "le bon sanscu- 
 lotte," and when the Jacobite adherent of the exiled 
 
80 TUB UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 Stuarts appealed to his creed as teaching him to 
 "honour the king," they were unconsciously combin- 
 ing their testimony to the breadth and elasticity of 
 Christian politics. When the words " Unity, Indivi- 
 sibility, Brotherhood, or Death," were inscribed over 
 the doors of the houses in Paris in 1790, it was 
 a ghastly parody of the universal fellowship which 
 the Gospel proclaims. For Christianity recognises 
 fully the two great principles, too often forced into 
 an unnatural antagonism, of spontaneity and authority, 
 because it recognises fully the rights of each indivi- 
 dual, and the rights of the community at large. On 
 the one hand, it insists unhesitatingly on the price- 
 less value of each man's personality : " What shall 
 a man give in exchange for his soul e ?" On the other 
 hand, it lays an equal or even greater stress on the 
 reciprocal obligations of society : " For we are mem- 
 bers one of another f ." The obedience which Chris- 
 tianity preaches is no Chinese obedience, no sluggish 
 and unprogressive conformity to routine, for it is tem- 
 pered and quickened by the ever-present sense of 
 personal freedom, of personal responsibility. The 
 liberty which Christianity proclaims is not anarchy, 
 for though it is " perfect liberty," it is itself a 
 "law g ." 
 
 Mark, again, the absence of minute and vexatious 
 regulations in the oldest records of Christianity. If 
 we look to the life and teaching of Christ, either as 
 pourtrayed in the simple and inartistic narrative of 
 the Gospels, or as thrown into perspective in the 
 
 e St. Mark viii. 37. f Rom. xii. 5. « St. James i. 25. 
 
VI.] THE UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 81 
 
 Epistles, we find nothing there like the Levitical 
 ordinances, nothing like the grotesque technicalities 
 of the Talmud, or of the Institutes of Menu h , elabo- 
 rate enough to occupy a student for a lifetime. The 
 Sermon on the Mount speaks to all, learned and un- 
 learned alike. The rude peasant hears homely rules 
 for the daily ordinary course of his uneventful life. 
 The philosopher, who disdains not to sit at the feet 
 of the meek and lowly Teacher, discerns the great 
 moral principles which hold the world together. 
 All recognise the expression of a something, of which 
 they were half-aware, dimly conscious before; and 
 the heart, like the earth on a morning in spring, 
 feels within itself the stir of a dormant energy. As 
 Bp. Taylor quaintly but beautifully says, the teach- 
 ing of Christ " enters like rain into a fleece of wool 1 ." 
 Even precepts such as these, "to abstain from meat 
 offered to idols k ," and not to "muzzle the ox that 
 treadeth out the corn 1 ," which have been cited as 
 a contradiction of this universality of the Gospel, 
 are no contradiction really. In both cases a great 
 principle underlies an apparently arbitrary enactment. 
 There is the principle of not even seeming to coun- 
 tenance a popular delusion. There is the principle 
 of providing for the temporal wants of those who 
 hold a spiritual office. In both cases the minuteness 
 
 h "The Institutes of Menu, the Leviticus and Deuteronomy of 
 the Hindus for so many ages, speak of killing .... and eating 
 with unwashen hands as crimes of parallel magnitude." — Cobbe, 
 Darwinism in Morals, &c, p. 227. 
 
 1 Quoted by Mr. Martineau in his Studies of Christianity. 
 
 k Acts xv. 29. ' 1 Cor. ix. 19. 
 
 G 
 
82 TEE UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 is in the expression, not in the thought ; in the illus- 
 tration, not in the thing illustrated. 
 
 The very incompleteness of Christianity as a theory 
 comes from its largeness of conception, from its not 
 being the peculiarity of any age or clime. A French 
 Positivist can elaborate on paper a system to the eye 
 faultless in its symmetry, but experience shews that 
 the practical excellence of a system is not infre- 
 quently in an inverse proportion to its excellence in 
 the abstract. "The Christian Scriptures," it has 
 been well said, "are singularly sparing of" (even) 
 "general rules m ." It has been objected, that the 
 warnings of the Gospel are pointed against sects 
 whose very names have passed away; but in their 
 characteristics the Pharisee and the Sadducee never 
 die ; the formalist and the materialist are rife in one 
 age as in another. It has been objected, that the 
 Apostles lived in hourly expectation of their Lord's 
 Second Advent; but to live as servants, always 
 watching for their Lord's return, is a cardinal prin- 
 ciple of Christianity. Strip off all that is really local, 
 temporal, personal, from the Christian Scriptures; 
 separate, so far as the human intellect can separate 
 things so closely woven together, the divine and the 
 human elements : in the residuum you find funda- 
 mental principles of life, coeval with time, and co- 
 extensive with humanity. 
 
 This universality is a characteristic as of Chris- 
 tianity so of its Founder. Sectarian partialities may 
 narrow our conception of Christ Jesus, may exag- 
 m Martineau, Studies of Christianity, p. 291. 
 
VI.] THE UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 83 
 
 gerate, may dwarf, may distort this or that feature 
 in His character, but the one-sidedness is not in Him. 
 Nay, to a careless observer the apparent inconsistency 
 almost amounts to paradox. Christ denounces Pha- 
 risaism, yet teaches His disciples to obey their Phari- 
 saical rulers. He consorts with Publicans and sin- 
 ners, and yet teaches that only "the pure in heart 
 shall see God n ." He rebukes Sabbatarian scruples, 
 and yet conforms sedulously to the very ritual which 
 He is superseding. He proclaims that " God is a 
 Spirit ," not confining His presence to the Hill of 
 Sion, or to the rival Mount of the Samaritans, and 
 yet evinces special love and reverence for the Temple, 
 makes it His favourite resort, displays an almost 
 unique severity of castigation on its behalf, and even 
 while predicting its downfal and extinction is "con- 
 sumed 5 " by zeal for its hallowed walls. He teaches 
 "as one having authority q ," and yet by a course of 
 gentle questionings which evoke intelligence in the 
 dullest or most timid listeners ; His parables are like 
 stories for a child, and yet to those who "have ears 
 to hear" are instinct with profoundest mysteries. The 
 catalogue of seeming inconsistencies is well-nigh end- 
 less. Unlike His forerunner, the Baptist, austere as 
 a hermit to king, to multitude, to himself, the "Son 
 of Man" (it is our Lord's favourite designation of 
 Himself, and it symbolises the range of His affections) 
 is at home under the roof of Levi the Publican or of 
 Simon the Pharisee ; amid the festivities of the mar- 
 
 n St. Matt. v. 8. ° St. John iv. 24. p Ibid. ii. 17. 
 
 q St. Matt. vii. 29. 
 
 g2 
 
81 THE UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 riage feast in Cana, or amid the wailings of the 
 chamber of death ; has a blessing for the rich man, 
 like Zacchaeus, who knows how to use his riches, as 
 for the poor widow dropping her scanty offering into 
 the treasury of God. lie is uncompromising with 
 sin, yet tender with the sinner; He walks alone 
 through the crowd, rapt in heavenly musings, yet 
 has an eye for Nathaniel under his fig-tree, and 
 a word of comfort for the nameless sufferer, laying 
 her trembling hand on the hem of His robe ; He 
 is unceasing, unresting in doing "His Father's busi- 
 ness r ," crowding almost an infinity of words of wis- 
 dom and of works of love into those three short years, 
 yet ever imperturbable in His calmness ; He can si- 
 lence His adversaries with a word, and yet stands 
 without a word when they suborn false witnesses 
 against Him; He is "meek and lowly" with all His 
 majesty of deportment ; with all His lowliness He is 
 a King. Truly the heart of the " Son of Man" beats 
 in accord with every pulsation of the hearts of men 
 that is not sinful. 
 
 I am not forgetting that this universality of the 
 Gospel is questioned, nay, positively and emphati- 
 cally denied by some. The able opponent of Chris- 
 tianity, from whom I have had occasion to quote in 
 some previous lectures, flatly rejects the idea as an 
 exploded error. "When people tell me," he writes, 
 " that Jesus first established the brotherhood of man, 
 the equality of races, the nullity of ceremonies ; . . . . 
 that He overthrew the narrowness of Judaism ; found 
 r St. Luke ii. 49. 
 
VI.] THE UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 85 
 
 a national but left an universal religion ; found a nar- 
 row-minded ceremonial, and originated a spiritual 
 principle ; I can do nothing but reply, that every 
 one of those statements is groundless and contrary 
 to fact 8 ." "'Tis quite incredible," he adds in an- 
 other passage, " that Jesus ever taught His disciples 
 the religious nullity of Levitical ordinances, the 
 equality of Gentiles with Jews before GodV But 
 mark, I pray you, on how slight a basis these vehe- 
 ment and sweeping assertions rest. " What His dis- 
 ciples never understood Him to teach," it is argued, 
 "He certainly did not teach effectively 11 ." But the 
 objector overlooks what surely he would be one of 
 the last to deny, that the greatest truths can only 
 be imparted gradually ; that the earliest stage in the 
 acceptance of them is often, if not always, uncon- 
 scious ; that the highest teaching is not that which 
 communicates certain formulae, but that which de- 
 posits in the mind a seed hereafter to bear fruit 
 a hundredfold; not that which loads the memory, 
 but that which quickens the apprehension ; not that 
 which imparts the thing to be learnt, but that which 
 imparts the power of learning. True, the disciples 
 did not understand their Master's meaning at the 
 time. How should they ? If when He told them 
 of earthly things, of the common duties of daily 
 life, of forgiving one another, and so forth, they 
 were dull of hearing, how could they fathom His 
 thoughts when He spoke of a divine love, wide as 
 
 s F. "W. Newman, Against Hero-making in Religion, p. 23. 
 * Ibid., p. 11. u Ibid., p. 23. 
 
8G THE UNIVERSALITY OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. VI. 
 
 the canopy of heaven, embracing all races and lands 
 without distinction ? Yet even they, these same dis- 
 ciples, so slow of understanding, had learnt the mean- 
 ing of His words, when immediately after His de- 
 parture from them they admitted a Eoman centurion 
 into their communion. When Christ Jesus cancelled 
 the prescriptive and exclusive claim of Abraham's 
 seed to be the children of God, He virtually abolished 
 the exclusiveness of privilege everywhere. When He 
 announced, " I, if I be lifted up, will draw all men to 
 Me x ," and when He commanded His bereaved and 
 bewildered followers to "go and teach all nations 7 ," 
 He established " a brotherhood of man and an equality 
 of races 2 " which neither the barbaric turbulence of 
 feudal ages, nor the more subtle disintegration of 
 modern luxury, can ever nullify. The very gradual- 
 ness of the change that came over the world is the 
 most wonderful thing about it. Not by convulsive 
 tremblings of the earth, as when the rocks of Horeb 
 in the thick darkness were rent by the clang of the 
 trumpet, but by the almost imperceptible subsidence, 
 age after age, of the barriers of caste and faction, at 
 the still small voice of Evangelic morality, will the 
 prophetic word sometime be accomplished: "Every 
 valley shall be exalted, and every mountain shall be 
 brought low a ," and "all nations of the earth shall 
 be blessed in Him b ," who came, and lived, and died, 
 and rose again, and lives for ever for all. 
 
 * St. John xii. 32. > St. Matt, xxviii. 19. ■ F. W. New- 
 man, v. supra. a St. Luke iii. 5. b Gen. xxiii. 18. 
 
LECTUEE VII. 
 
 &llcptr Htfccts of Christian floralttg, 
 
 ST. MATTHEW xi. 19. 
 
 " Wisdom is justified of her children." 
 
 HAVE reserved for separate consideration some 
 -*- special objections to Christian morality, which 
 might naturally have attached themselves to one 
 or other of the previous Lectures, because they re- 
 quire more attention than could be given in passing. 
 
 Such, for instance, is the objection, with which we 
 are familiar, that Christianity, after more than fifteen 
 centuries of ascendancy in Europe, still permits war, 
 that self-inflicted scourge of our race, to disgrace our 
 civilization and our religion; nay, that the carnage 
 is multiplied tenfold. What shall we say in reply ? 
 
 The latter part of the objection is not to the point. 
 If, as time goes on, the ingenuity of science can in- 
 vent instruments of slaughter more and more de- 
 structive, if the ponderous artillery and keen-sighted 
 rifle of our day deal death farther and wider than the 
 mediaeval cross-bow or the sharpened flint of a yet 
 ruder age, this is simply an affair of mechanics, of 
 progress in material science. Nay, some will say 
 that these increased facilities of killing make war 
 less frequent, and that in proportion as the havoc 
 
88 ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 and misery which it causes are seen and felt on 
 a larger scale, nations are less likely to have re- 
 course to it. 
 
 But this is not the real question at issue, as regards 
 Christianity. For, as we can scarcely be reminded 
 too often, in attempting a moral comparison between 
 one age or one country and another, size, bulk, extent 
 are not everything. The real horrors of war may be 
 felt as much in the skirmishings of a savage tribe as 
 in the colossal campaigns of a Napoleon. It is not 
 the number of lives which they cost, but the temper 
 in which they are conducted, that marks the difference 
 between one war and another in morality. Now it 
 cannot be denied that from being the normal state 
 of nations, hostile because neighbouring, war, under 
 the influence of Christianity, is becoming a last re- 
 source after other ways of settling a dispute have 
 failed. The moral sense of Christendom, though at 
 times corrupted by the sophistries of ambition, or 
 intimidated by huge battalions, still, as a rule, pro- 
 nounces unequivocally against the aggressor. What- 
 ever may be urged, and with reason, against war in 
 general, or more particularly against the " perpetual 
 menace " of standing armies, war must remain to the 
 end of time a necessity, so long as human nature, 
 even with religion to elevate and purify it, remains 
 what it is. In fact, the soldier holds among nations 
 something like the office of the policeman among in- 
 dividuals; and the utmost that the most sanguine 
 may dare to hope is, that the appeal to arms may 
 become less and less frequent of occurrence, and that 
 
VII.] ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 89 
 
 public opinion may side more and more strongly with 
 those who fight on the defensive. That much has 
 been done already no impartial student of history 
 will deny, if he compares Europe as it was in the 
 fifth century with what it is in our time, who have 
 just seen what might have been an internecine struggle 
 bloodlessly terminated by arbitration. We have seen, 
 too, how the horrors of war, even of war on a Titanic 
 scale, may be alleviated by a growing respect for the 
 lives and property of non-combatants, and by the 
 devoted labours of Christian men and women, ready 
 to relieve the sufferings on either side. 
 
 We must throw ourselves back in thought from 
 our own more peaceful life to the day when the vast 
 amphitheatres of the capital of the civilized world 
 were thronged with spectators, not a few of them 
 ladies of rank and culture, to see hired swordmen 
 butcher one another in cold blood; or to the older 
 time, when human sacrifices reeked on the altar a . 
 True — this " sense" a of the sanctity of human 
 life b " did not arrive at maturity all at once. The 
 world was not to be roused from its trance to a new 
 consciousness rudely and suddenly, but by a gentle 
 hand. By slow degrees the warring states of Europe 
 were welded into the confederacy which we call Chris- 
 tendom, and war came to be considered not so much 
 a trial of brute force as a kind of ordeal, an appeal 
 to the God of Eight ; and its ferocity was tempered 
 by the interchange of knightly courtesies. In the 
 
 a Euripides, Hecub., 40, 41. 
 
 b Lecky, History of European Morals, ii. 19. 
 
90 ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 far West, at the preaching of Christian missionaries, 
 women were freed for ever from the revolting obliga- 
 tion of military service, with its stain of blood c ; and 
 if Christianity could not persuade the warlike spirit 
 of the Franks to "beat their swords into plough- 
 shares, and their spears into pruning- hooks," it per- 
 suaded them to keep, as it were, a periodical Sabbath 
 from their feuds, a peace, or, at least, a truce of 
 God d . The leaven has done, is doing, its work. 
 It has leavened, is leavening, the world. 
 
 So, again, as regards slavery : Christianity is re- 
 proached that it did not abolish and efface slavery 
 summarily. Indeed, it is strange, at the first glance, 
 to read of a public slave-mart in Eome so late as the 
 sixth century of our era, and of ecclesiastics quietly 
 standing by, apparently without a word of protest 
 against the traffic in flesh and blood. But, it must 
 be repeated, the aim, the purport of the Gospel was 
 not to revolutionise society, was not to effect a for- 
 cible revulsion in human nature, but to train and 
 discipline it, as only it can be trained and disciplined, 
 gradually, or rather to help it to train and discipline 
 itself. If Christianity had attempted at one blow to 
 liberate the myriads of slaves within the Eoman- 
 Empire, this would have been to proclaim a servile 
 war, a sanguinary uprising against order and pro- 
 perty. And the attempt must have failed, because 
 premature, because the world was not ready for it. 
 But the humanising influence of Christianity was at 
 
 c By the Lex Adamnani. 
 1 11 the early part of the eleventh century. 
 
VII.] ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MOLALITY. 91 
 
 work continually to alleviate the evil e , and to pre- 
 pare the way for its extinction. In the principles 
 which it enunciated so unfalteringly, Christianity was 
 applying a solvent to the manacles of the slave, so 
 that, in the ripeness of time, they should fall from 
 his wrists at the voice of a Clarkson or a Wilberforce. 
 Even from the very first Christianity welcomed the 
 slave to her arms, and told him of an emancipation 
 commencing on earth, but to be consummated in 
 heaven. Once admitted to the Christian Covenant, 
 the slave became the freedman of Christ, and "a 
 citizen of no mean city," a citizen of the city of 
 God. As an adopted son of God, he could hence- 
 forth claim not equality merely, but brotherhood, with 
 the greatest earthly potentates. For in Christ is 
 " neither bond nor free f ." 
 
 To say, " there is no protest" in the Gospel of 
 Christ " against slavery g ," is to shut one's eyes to 
 its constant assertion of the perfect equality in God's 
 sight of all races and conditions of men, of the in- 
 herent, the indefeasible rights and responsibilities 
 of each person separately h . 
 
 Yes ! some will reply, Christianity does recognise, 
 and even exaggerate, what is due to each person 
 singly and solely, but it fails to recognise what is 
 due from each to the community of which he is 
 
 e Before the introduction of Christianity, even the Saxons, with 
 their strong domestic instincts, sold their own flesh and blood. — 
 Cf. Montalembert, Monks of the West, iii. 327. 
 
 f Gal. iii. 28. 
 
 g F. W. Newman, On the Defective Morality of the New Testa- 
 ment, p. 20. h See Note 1). 
 
02 ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 a member; an obligation, the greatness of which 
 is instinctively attested when we speak of the in- 
 dividual as belonging to the community, not of the 
 community as belonging to him. " In Pagan Ethics," 
 it is justly remarked, this duty of the citizen to the 
 State had even a " disproportionate" value attached 
 to it, so as to "infringe on the just liberty of the 
 individual." " In purely Christian Ethics," the writer 
 adds, less justly, "it is scarcely noticed or acknow- 
 ledged 1 ." And yet the very context of these words 
 suggests, in part at least, their refutation ; for almost 
 in the same sentence Christianity is accused of un- 
 duly magnifying the duty of obedience, of setting up 
 " a standard of ethics, in which the only worth pro- 
 fessedly recognised is obedience j ." But obedience, 
 the habit, that is, of deference to law or authority, 
 of postponing private predilections, private convic- 
 tions, private advantage to the public good, is an 
 important element in the patriotism which makes 
 a nation march as one man, and which sacrifices, if it 
 must be, the dearest interests of self to the welfare 
 of the community. But let us look closer. What 
 is patriotism ? whence its origin ? what the funda- 
 mental principle which it rests upon? Patriotism 
 is the development of the love of home, even as the 
 State is the development of the family. And the 
 home, the family, depends, not for its stability only 
 but for its existence, on that reverence for the sanc- 
 tity of marriage which is allowed on all sides, in 
 praise or in blame, to be an essential attribute of 
 
 1 J. S. Mill, On Liberty, p. 2<J. j Ibid. 
 
VII.] ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRLSTIAN MORALITY. 93 
 
 Christianity k . Take away this, annul the strict- 
 ness, the permanency of the marriage - bond, the 
 mutual fidelity of man and wife, and, as the family 
 loses its cohesion, so, more slowly indeed but not 
 less surely, the state is broken up, falls to pieces, 
 crumbles away into nothing ; and mankind relapses, 
 from the ennobling organizations of the city and of the 
 nation, into the chaos of savagery, into the promis- 
 cuous herding together of beasts. Have we not our- 
 selves witnessed very lately the frantic efforts of an 
 anti-social cosmopolitanism to sweep away the par- 
 titions which Christianity has sanctioned between 
 nation and nation, and between home and home ? 
 
 The objection takes a wider range. " The ideal 
 of Christian morality" is represented as " negative 
 and passive," its virtue as " innocence rather than 
 nobleness ; abstinence from evil rather than the ener- 
 getic pursuit of good 1 ." Can these words, indeed, 
 be written of the morality of the Gospel? Is not 
 the writer thinking of that older, narrower code, 
 which Christ came to expand and to vivify, when 
 he gravely tells us "'Thou shalt not' predominates 
 over ' Thou shalt ;' " thinking of some fanatical per- 
 version of Christianity by a Manes, a Calvin, or an 
 Antony of the desert, when he describes the Chris- 
 tian type of character as a " low and abject type of 
 character, which submits to what it deems the Divine 
 Will, but cannot rise to the conception of the Divine 
 Goodness 111 ." Take the Sermon on the Mount and 
 
 k See Lecture III., pp. 43—45. » J. S. Mill, On Li 
 
 p. 28. m Ibid., p. 30. 
 
94 ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 the other discourses of our Lord. The burden of 
 them is this, that men are to rise above the slavish 
 timidity which shrinks from doing good in its dread 
 of doing evil to a spirit of beneficence, wide as 
 earth and high as heaven. Take the parables of our 
 Lord. Few, very few, but embody, in one shape or 
 another, this truth, that he who folds his hands and 
 stands aloof from the great conflict of good and evil, 
 is a recreant to his Lord. Take the foreshadowings 
 of future judgment. The verdict of acquittal or of 
 condemnation turns on this, " What hast thou done 
 with thy time, thy talents, thy opportunities ? What 
 noble, unselfish purpose hast thou turned them to n ?" 
 And the crown of victory is not for him who de- 
 clines temptation, but who overcomes it °. Take the 
 life and death of Him who is to us Example as well 
 as Teacher, Example as well as Mediator. The key- 
 note of His Life, of His Ministry, of His Passion, 
 in His own words is this: "I have a work to do, 
 and how am I straitened, till it be accomplished p ;" 
 " I must be about My Father's business q ;" " I must 
 undo the works of Satan r ;" "I must do the works 
 of Him that sent Me;" "the night cometh, when 
 no man can work 5 ;" "I am come to send fire on 
 the earth ; and what will I, if it be already kindled V 
 The charge of inertness or passivity is certainly a 
 strange one to bring against Christianity. 
 
 It is admitted that " the sayings of Christ are irre- 
 
 B e.g. St. Matt. xxv. 40. ° Rev. iii. 21; St. James i. 12. 
 
 p St. Luke xii. 50. i Ibid. ii. 49. r e.g. Ibid. xiii. 16. 
 
 * St. John ix. 4 ; cf. Ibid. vii. 7, xvii. 4. * St. Luke xii. 49. 
 
VII.] ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 95 
 
 concilable with nothing which a comprehensive mo- 
 rality requires ;" and that " everything excellent in 
 ethics may be brought within them u ." And yet it is 
 objected that they ". contain only part of the truth, 
 and omit many essential elements of the highest mo- 
 rality x ." It has been the object of these Lectures 
 to shew, that no " essential element of morality " is 
 omitted in Christianity, but that all " the essential 
 elements of the highest morality" are found there 
 in a fulness and with a harmony which are absolutely 
 unique. At the same time it has been admitted, or 
 rather it has been urged very earnestly, that these 
 " elements of morality" are to be looked for in the 
 Gospel of Christ in an " elemental" form. To say 
 that "the Gospel of Christ is not a complete mo- 
 rality," and that "it is corrective of a pre-ex- 
 istent morality y ," is in effect a repetition of our 
 Lord's own words, " I am not come to destroy, but 
 to fulfil 2 ." To say that Christian morality "must 
 be eked out from the Old Testament," that "it is 
 incomplete without secular standards," and that "St. 
 Paul ekes it out from the Greeks and Eomans a ," is 
 no disparagement, but in strict accordance with our 
 Lord's retrospective allusions to the law of Moses b , 
 and to St. Paul's appeal to nature c and conscience d , 
 as a proof that the Father of all never left Himself 
 without a witness e . To say that the morality of the 
 
 u J. S. Mill, On Liberty, p. 29. x Ibid. ' Ibid., p. 28. 
 
 z St. Matt. v. 17. a J. S. Mill, On Liberty, p. 28. b St. Luke 
 
 xvi. 16. c e.g. Acts xiv. 15. d e.g. Ibid. xvii. 28. e Ibid, 
 xiv. 17. 
 
9G ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. 
 
 Gospel is couched in " terms most general," and that 
 Christian morality, as we have it, is " not the work 
 of Christ or of His Apostles f ," but the growth of 
 centuries, is in other words to admit, as we contend, 
 that the principles of the Gospel are contained in the 
 Gospel implicitly rather than explicitly ; that they 
 are not fossilised petrifactions, but living, fructifying 
 principles ; that they are so framed in order to elicit 
 and stimulate in the heart a living, fructifying prin- 
 ciple of action ; and that by their very nature, by 
 this their capacity of testing what is genuine in 
 man and what is false, they are themselves capable 
 of perversion g . 
 
 One more objection, — and yet it scarcely needs 
 an answer, especially here in a Christian University, 
 which has been a centre of light to Europe in the 
 twilight of an imperfect civilization, and which claims, 
 by its very title, to encourage and direct the pursuit 
 of knowledge of every sort and kind. Christianity is 
 accused of being hostile or indifferent to knowledge. 
 Because in Christian education the first and foremost 
 thing is godliness, — and I need not stop to remind you 
 that godliness, as the word reminds us, is the develop- 
 ment in man of a likeness to the wisdom and majesty 
 which are the attributes of God ; — therefore, yet most 
 illogically, it is argued, " Christian education is only 
 in the nurture and admonition of the Lord\" Be- 
 cause St. Paul exalts charity, that is, self-sacrificing 
 
 f J. S. Mill, On Liberty, p. 28. * See Note E. 
 
 h F. W. Newman, On the Defective Morality of the New Testa- 
 ment, p. 32. 
 
VII.] ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 97 
 
 love, above a mere intellectual proficiency, therefore 
 we are told, " Knowledge is only sarcastically glanced 
 at in the New Testament \" And though this greatest 
 of Christian teachers, while exhorting his converts to 
 be "children" in guilelessness, adds in his very next 
 words, "in understanding be ye men k ;" though he 
 charges them to be earnest and diligent in the pur- 
 suit " of whatsoever things are lovely, and of good 
 report 1 ;" though he insists that "every good gift," 
 every capacity, faculty, accomplishment of man's 
 being, is "from above, from the Father of lights m ," 
 nor scruples to make his appeal freely to the secular 
 literature of the Gentile world ; though, to pass from 
 the disciple to the Master, our Lord Himself has 
 taught us, by parable and by precept 11 , that we are 
 all responsible for the improvement and use of every 
 talent entrusted to our keeping ; yet, in the face of 
 all this, the sceptic writes, " That knowledge deserves 
 to be studied for its own sake, that the desire of 
 knowledge is a virtue, no hint is given in Scrip- 
 ture ." Yet more: "If the New Testament," he 
 adds, " is not hostile to this faculty," (he is speaking 
 of the sense of beauty,) "its silence is a grave de- 
 fect." Does an accusation like this need a reply ? 
 To take at hazard one instance out of many. Can 
 we forget whose Yoice has bidden the children of 
 men, troubled and disquieted in vain with sordid 
 
 1 F. "VV. Newman, On the Defective Morality of the New Testa- 
 ment, p. 29. k 1 Cor. xiv. 20. ■ Phil. iv. 8. m St. James 
 i. 17. n e.g. In the parable of the Slothful Servant. ° F. W. 
 Newman, On the Defective Morality of the New Testament, p. 29. 
 
 H 
 
98 ALLEGED DEFECTS OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY. [Lect. VII. 
 
 cares, to turn their weary eyes to the flowers which 
 fringe their path, to " consider the lilies of the field, 
 how they grow p ," and to rejoice in the beauty of the 
 universe, even in its minutest features. Even were 
 it true, this alleged silence of the New Testament on 
 the sense of beauty, the arts which Christianity has 
 fostered would speak to confute the cavil. The glow- 
 ing canvasses of Italy or of Spain, the stately towers 
 and spires of northern minsters, the thrilling har- 
 monies of Handel or of Bach, — these are our answer 
 to the objector who accuses our faith of discouraging 
 art, or of deadening the sense of beauty. 
 
 ? St. Matt. vi. 28. 
 
LECTURE VIII. 
 
 Summars antJ Conclusion. 
 
 ST. MATTHEW xxvii. 54. 
 
 " Truly this was the Son of God." 
 
 TT has been the endeavour of these Lectures to set 
 -*- before you some of those characteristics of Chris- 
 tian Morality which mark it off from other systems, 
 as purer and loftier than they. How imperfectly 
 the design which I proposed to myself has been ac- 
 complished, I am well aware. But I am not without 
 hope that others, more competent than I, may be 
 induced to prosecute the line of thought here sug- 
 gested, and to elaborate what is but a sketch into 
 the fulness and exactness of a finished picture. 
 For in the moral characteristics of Christianity we 
 have a foundation for our faith, deep as the inner- 
 most conscience of man, and wide as the earth's 
 circumference a . 
 
 Let me ask you to retrace very cursorily the steps 
 of our argument. 
 
 First, something was said with a view to assuring 
 ourselves that there is really any such thing as an 
 acknowledged standard of right and wrong, speaking 
 morally. For even this may not pass unchallenged ; 
 not a few, like Pilate, asking sadly or scoffingly, 
 
 a See Note F. 
 
 ii 2 
 
100 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. [Lect. 
 
 "What is truth?" Next, an attempt was made to 
 shew, mainly on psychological grounds, that the vital 
 principle of moral excellence in its every phase is 
 unselfish love, the principle of vice, selfishness. 
 
 So far our enquiry was preliminary. The next 
 stage in it was to test the moral teaching of the 
 Gospel by this rule, classifying our desires, as they 
 find their gratification in the pleasures of sense, in 
 the exercise of power over others, or in the pure con- 
 sciousness of superiority. Lastly, I called your at- 
 tention to the breadth and elasticity of the evangelic 
 morality, and essayed to reply to some noteworthy 
 objections to it, as defective and faulty. I think 
 I am not overstating the case in favour of Chris- 
 tianity, nor doing injustice to other types of moral 
 excellence, if I say, that we find a purity, a tender- 
 ness, an integrity in Christian morals, in one word, 
 an unselfishness, which we seek in vain elsewhere. 
 
 Are we to stop here? If, indeed, we are per- 
 suaded that Christ Jesus inculcated a holier rule of 
 conduct than any other teacher, while by His life 
 and death He gave to the world an example of entire 
 self-sacrifice such as it has never seen before or since, 
 can we stop short of the irresistible conclusion, that 
 the Teacher and the Teaching are divine? Can we 
 refrain from exclaiming with the eyewitness of His 
 sufferings on the Cross, " Truly this was the Son of 
 God ?" In these sublime precepts, in this reproach- 
 less life of untiring beneficence, in this unfalter- 
 ing self-devotion from the cradle at Bethlehem to 
 the Cross on Calvary, have we not found what the 
 
VIII.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 101 
 
 sceptic defies us to find — I borrow his words — " One 
 who dwarfs all others before and after Him, one 
 to whose high sympathy sages and prophets must 
 bow a ," One — will you not add with me? — who wins 
 our love, as the Son of Man, who claims our adora- 
 tion, as the Son of God most high ? 
 
 Let it be remembered, that the moral teaching 
 of Christianity and the great fundamental doctrines 
 of the Christian faith, are very closely linked to- 
 gether. For reasons given in an earlier Lecture, to 
 avoid complicating our enquiry, or seeming to antici- 
 pate our conclusion, I have purposely refrained from 
 mixing theology with morality. And yet I have felt 
 all along, as doubtless you have felt with me, and 
 I have not hesitated to give expression to the feeling, 
 that whatever there is of best and noblest in the 
 morality of the Gospel, flows as of necessity from the 
 great facts of theology which the Gospel reveals. 
 Love or unselfishness, it matters not which name we 
 choose, is, if we have reasoned rightly, that which 
 sums up in itself the characteristics of Christian 
 practice. And what else than love is the substance 
 and the purport of a Creed, which tells us of a Father 
 of all, who " spared not His Only Son for men b ;" 
 of a Saviour, who left heaven to save the helpless; 
 of a Holy Spirit, ever aiding the vacillating wills of 
 men to reject the evil and to choose the good ? 
 "Why there should be evil in the universe, why man, 
 above other creatures, should be invested with this 
 
 a F. "W. Newman, Against Hero-malcing in Religion, p. 8. 
 b Horn. viii. 32. 
 
102 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. [Lect. 
 
 awful prerogative of being free to choose good or evil, 
 life or death, is not our question. The existence of 
 evil is a fact, which must be accepted as a starting- 
 point in all our surmisings. But so much as this 
 at least must be allowed. Granted, that evil is, and 
 must be by the conditions of our nature, no system of 
 philosophy or of theology throws so strong a light on 
 the disciplinary character of evil, or supplies to men 
 so strong a motive for overcoming it, as the Creed 
 of Christendom in its purest, simplest form. 
 
 In our attempt to form a just estimate of Christian 
 morality, reference has been made to results ; for, 
 if discriminated fairly, its results tell strongly for 
 or against a creed. But, after all, "it is a shallow 
 philosophy" — I borrow, again, the words of an op- 
 ponent of Christianity — "to measure a hero not by 
 what he is, but by what he has done c ." It is well 
 said. For the hindrances in the way of those who 
 desire to do good service to the Truth are great and 
 manifold. If the amount of good done by Chris- 
 tianity in the world seems far less than was to be 
 expected, I pray you to listen to the words, as wise 
 as they are eloquent, which Ave owe to the pen of 
 one whom this University numbers with pride among 
 her sons, words written of the apparently very par- 
 tial success which attended the labours of an eminent 
 Church reformer in the eleventh century, but which 
 are true also of the apparently inadequate success of 
 Christianity in its attempt to regenerate the world : 
 "What are all reforms, restorations, victories of 
 
 c F. "W. Newman, Against Hero-making in Religion) p. 7. 
 
VIII.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 103 
 
 truth, but protests of a minority ; efforts, clogged 
 and incomplete, of the good and brave ; just enough 
 in their own day to stop instant ruin, the appointed 
 means to save what is to be saved, but in themselves 
 failures. Good men work and suffer, and bad men 
 enjoy their labours and spoil them ; a step is made 
 in advance — evil rolled back and kept in check for 
 a time, only to return perhaps the stronger. But 
 thus, and thus only, is truth passed on, and the 
 world preserved from utter corruption d ." Why this 
 should be, why decay and corruption should thus 
 impress their seal, as on all forms of outward beauty, 
 so on all that is fairest and noblest morally, — why, 
 with efforts so strenuous, so unremitting in every 
 age on the part of the brave and true to force back 
 the tide of evil, its crested waves seem ever and anon 
 as though they would submerge the earth, — this we 
 ask in vain. But let me ask of you two questions, 
 which are not beyond our scope to answer, — What 
 other force is there in the world which makes even 
 an attempt to contend with evil, moral and physical, 
 as Christianity does? And what would our life, 
 our collective life, the life of each one singly, be, 
 if the light of love which the Gospel sheds upon it 
 were, indeed, quenched and gone, if the Sun of Eight- 
 eousness were blotted out of our firmament, if the 
 salt of Christian holiness were, indeed, to lose its 
 savour ? 
 
 There are some, not a few, especially among the 
 educated and the intellectual, who put questions like 
 
 u K. W. Church, St. Anselm, p. 294. 
 
104 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. [Lect. 
 
 these aside, as if no answer need be given one way 
 or the other. When Agrippa was told of " one Jesus, 
 which was dead, whom Paul affirmed to be alive," 
 his reply was this, u I would hear the man myself ." 
 lie would not prejudge a question so startling and 
 so momentous, without at any rate hearing what Paul 
 had to say about it. But now, when we are told that 
 He who died on Calvary is " risen indeed f ," and 
 " lives for evermore g ," and " holds the keys of hell 
 and death h ," and is " mighty to save 1 ," not a few 
 turn away with an indifference which cares neither 
 to affirm nor to deny, as if the convictions, which 
 changed the whole life-course of a man like Saul 
 of Tarsus, were not worth a moment's consideration. 
 We, in our day, seem so far removed from the events 
 of the Gospel history : the Voice of which those who 
 heard it said, "He speaks as never man spake j ," 
 reaches our ears faintly and from far away, through 
 the intervening centuries; it is well-nigh lost amid 
 the angry recriminations of our controversies. Like the 
 Israelites waiting for the return of their leader from 
 the summit of Sinai, men are tempted to say in their 
 hearts, " We wot not what is become of Him k " who 
 promised to return so speedily. Men ask, longingly 
 or in scorn, " Why tarry the wheels of His chariot ?" 
 why sleeps that trumpet of the Archangel which is 
 to wake the dead to meet the Advent of their Lord ? 
 Nay, Christians, let us look back through the mist of 
 years, and see in thought the gracious form of the 
 
 e Acts xxv. 22. f St. Luke xxiv. 24. « Rev. i. 18. 
 
 h Ibid. ' Isa. lxiii. 1. j St. John vii. 46. k Acts yii. 40. 
 
VIII.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 105 
 
 Son of Man, as He " went about doing good 1 ." Let 
 us listen eagerly, amid the harsher sounds of earth, 
 for the Voice which says, " Come unto Me, all ye 
 that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you 
 rest m ." Let us believe Him, as He invites us to do, 
 "for His works' sake 11 ." If we believe that Jesus 
 taught, lived, died, as the Gospels pourtray Him 
 teaching, living, dying, then to believe that He 
 worked miracles, rose from the grave, went up into 
 heaven, follows as of course. " ! Arm of the Lord, 
 art thou not it that hath cut Eahab, and wounded 
 the dragon ? Art thou not it, which hath dried the 
 sea, the waters of the great deep ; that hath made 
 the depths of the sea a way for the redeemed to 
 pass over ° ? " ! Arm of Christ our Lord, art Thou 
 not it, which overcame Sin and Death on the Cross, 
 which made a way for His redeemed to pass through 
 the waters of death safely ? 
 
 To wait, in suspense, in uncertainty, is in one sense 
 the attitude of a believer in Christ Jesus. For we 
 "know not the day, nor the hour of His coming;" 
 and till He comes, our clearest vision only sees 
 " through a glass darkly," our largest knowledge 
 only "knows in part p ." If faith were certainty, it 
 would cease to be a probation. If it could be demon- 
 strated to the intellect, it would cease to appeal, as 
 it does, to our appreciation of right and wrong 
 morally; would cease to be a criterion, whether we 
 love self best, or something worthier. In this sense 
 
 1 Acts x. 38. m St. Matt. xi. 28. n St. John xiv. 11. 
 
 Isa. li. 9. p 1 Cor. xiii. 13. 
 
10G SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. [Lect. 
 
 a Christian waits, with a lifelong waiting, for the so- 
 lution of the insoluble, for the attainment of what is 
 here beyond attainment ; waits, well content to leave 
 many a question unanswered in this life, that he 
 would fain have answered, if it were possible. In 
 this sense, to "wait" is the Christian's watchword 
 amid his perplexities. 
 
 But in another sense, to wait, undecided and inert, 
 to sit on the bank, counting the ripples of Time's 
 stream as it glides past, while we ought to be borne 
 onward on its waters to fresh hopes and fresh ex- 
 ertions, to stand " idle in the market-place" while the 
 others are "bearing the heat and burden of the day" 
 is folly and ingratitude. It is folly, if, while in other 
 matters we are daily, hourly acting on what is mere 
 probability q , we turn away from the Christ till we 
 can have proof positive that He is what He claims to 
 be. It is ingratitude of the basest, if the trouble and 
 the responsibility of enquiry deter us from facing the 
 question, — Is it or is it not the truth, that this All- 
 holy Being lived and died for me ? ! you who have 
 yet your lives before you, whose future has as yet 
 no wasted past to sigh for, believe me, to put off the 
 earnest consideration of these things, is not only to 
 let slip time which can never be recalled, it is to 
 weave round yourselves a tangled mesh of habit 
 which will take years to unravel ; it is to sully the 
 crystal of your souls with a stain, which some day 
 you shall be fain to wash away, if it may be, with 
 tears. "How long halt ye between two opinions?" 
 '' Cf. Bishop Butler's Analogy. 
 
VIII.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 107 
 
 If Christ be God, then follow Him. If the blind 
 
 forces of a material mechanism be God, bnt I will 
 
 not finish the sentence. " Blessed is he that wait- 
 eth 1 '," so the exiled seer comforted his soul in the 
 dark days of the captivity, — " Blessed is he that 
 waiteth," not holding back his hand from the work 
 that cries out to be done, — the work to which our Lord 
 leads us on, — the work of undoing, day by day, the 
 works of darkness — till every subtle question that can 
 be devised has been laid to rest ; but working on, in 
 faith, in patience — even with but a scanty light on his 
 endeavours. Blessed they, who shall be able to say 
 at last, " This is our God, we have waited for Him, 
 and He will save us s ;" for, while we saw Him not, 
 " His statutes have been our song in the house of 
 our pilgrimage 1 ." 
 
 r Dan. xii. 12. s Isa. xxv. 9. i Ps. cxix. 54. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
NOTE A. 
 
 See Lecture I., p. 12. 
 
 It seems difficult, even for those most conversant with 
 the Talmud, to pronounce positively, how far its loftiest 
 flights of morality are really independent of Christianity. 
 "We do not believe," says a recent learned writer on the 
 Talmud, "that we have it" (the Mishna) "in its original 
 shape."— Quarterly Review, ccxlvi. p. 442. "They" (the 
 MSS.) " are only fragmentary for the most part," p. 421. 
 
 " The Canonical books" (of Buddhism) belong " to a much 
 later period " (than 550 B.C.) — M. Muller, Buddhism, p. 4. 
 
 How far the philosophy of Imperial Rome was affected 
 by the new religion emanating from Judaea, and making 
 its converts in the first century there, as elsewhere, is dis- 
 cussed by Mr. Lecky in his interesting History of European 
 Morals (i. 361, 2). "The greatest moralists of the Roman 
 Empire never mentioned Christianity, or mentioned it with 
 contempt ; they habitually disregarded the many religions 
 that had arisen among the ignorant ; and we have no direct 
 evidence of the slightest value of their having come into 
 contact with, or favoured the Christians." Still, even grant- 
 ing this, it does not follow that the leavening influence of 
 Christianity was not silently at work in the schools of 
 philosophy as in the court of the Csosars, (cf. Philippians 
 iv. 22.) Mr. G. Long (M. Aurelius Antoninus, p. 22) thinks 
 that "the Emperor knew nothing of Christianity." On 
 the other hand, see II Christianesimo nascente (by II Conte 
 Tullio Dandolo) ; Champagny, Les Antonins ; Tillemont, 
 Histoire des Empereurs (torn, ii.) and Memoires (torn. ii. art. 
 ii.) ; Allies, The Formation of Christendom ; Fleury, Les 
 
112 NOTE B. 
 
 Mceurs des Chretiens; Mamachi, Costumi dei primitwi Chris- 
 tian*; Dollinger, Introduction to History of Christianity ; 
 Turretin, Traite de la Veritt de la Religion Chretienne ; and 
 the Bibliotheqne Sacre'e, by the Dominicans, Richard and 
 Geraud (s. v. Religion). For these references, I am in- 
 debted to the learned Rev. J. Skinner, M.A., Vicar of 
 Newland. 
 
NOTE B. 
 
 See Lecture II., p. 22. 
 
 MORAL AVERAGES. 
 
 It is sometimes argued that the existence of Free-will 
 in man is inconsistent with statistical results, which, it is 
 said, shew, or tend to shew, that his actions may be reduced 
 to fixed or slightly-varying averages, and are therefore, it 
 is argued, governed, like other natural phenomena, by fixed, 
 invariable, inevitable laws. 
 
 Assuming, for the moment, that the uniformity of such 
 averages is truly stated, it may be answered, — 
 
 (1.) So far as they relate to acts which result from the 
 physical condition of man, they prove nothing as to the 
 freedom of the "Will. Even as regards moral action, so 
 far as other than moral causes intervene, these may disturb 
 the result, and the apparent constancy of the average may 
 only shew that the Will has to work with implements and 
 under conditions which limit its freedom, and give a fixity 
 to its operations which does not belong "to the "Will itself. 
 
 (2.) Free-agency is not the same thing as mere lawless 
 caprice of Will a . Independently of circumstances which 
 rouse the moral sense into action, either in the individual 
 or in masses of people, a sudden change for better or worse 
 is not to be expected. It is enough for the advocate of free- 
 agency if such a change follows the infusion into society of 
 fresh moral elements, such, for instance, as a Christian be- 
 lieves to have been revealed in the Person and teaching 
 of Christ. 
 
 a Religion and Science alike recognise Law in Nature ; the Law, to many 
 minds, implying a Lawgiver. 
 
 1 
 
114 NOTE B. 
 
 But it may be questioned whether any such fixed average 
 of moral action can be shewn to exist as is required to 
 support even a probable argument against the freedom of 
 the Will. 
 
 To take for illustration a single class of crimes committed 
 in this country, it appears from the last published Judicial 
 Statistics b of England and Wales that the total number of 
 murders reported by the police in the year 1870-1 was 130 
 as against 101 in 1869-70 ; or, allowing for the increase of 
 population, 1 in 174,647 for the year 1870-1, against 1 in 
 218,714 for the year 1869-70 ; 1 in 144,831 for the year 
 1868-9 ; 1 in 167,824 for 1867-8 ; and 1 in 158,737 for 
 1866-7 ; numbers which are only slightly altered, not re- 
 duced to any regular average, by including the attempts 
 to murder also. Thus in 1870-1 the attempts to murder 
 were 51, as against 52 in 1869-70, the proportion of such 
 offences to the population being — 
 
 For the year 1870-1, 1 to 445,178. 
 
 ,, 1869-70, 1 to 424,810. 
 
 ,, 1868-9, 1 to 358,515. 
 
 „ 1867-8, 1 to 354,907. 
 
 1866-7, 1 to 476,211. 
 
 So, again, the total number of persons summarily pro- 
 ceeded against for drunkenness, or as being drunk or dis- 
 orderly, for each year from 1866-7 to 1870-1 is returned 
 as follows c : — 
 
 1870-1. 1869-70. 1868-9. 1867-8. 1866-7. 
 
 142,343 131,870 122,310. 111,465. 100,357. 
 
 Once more, it has been stated d that the number of sen- 
 tences of penal servitude, which in the year 1830 had been 
 
 b Judicial Statistics, 1871, England and Wales, Part I., p. xiv. 
 c Ibid., p. xviii. These figures I owe to my brother, John George Smith, 
 M.A., Barrister-at-La\v. 
 
 d By the Home Secretary, Mr. Bruce, in moving the Second Reading of the 
 Prevention of Crime Bill, Feb., 1«7^, as reported in the Times, Feb. 21. 
 
NOTE B. 115 
 
 upwards of 4,100, fell, in 1869, to 2,006; in 1870, to 
 1,788; in 1871, to 1,628; and in 1872, to 1,494, shew- 
 ing in the last four years, with an increasing population, 
 a reduction of 25 per cent. 
 
 These numbers may, of course, have been largely affected 
 by legislation, police administration, and innumerable other 
 causes ; but it should be remembered that legislative Acts 
 are in great measure an embodiment of the moral feeling of 
 the community. At any rate, the wide variation in the 
 number of crimes committed from year to year tends to 
 shew that no such regularity of average has been estab- 
 lished as will avail for logical proof. 
 
 Moreover, if we take a wider view over a longer course 
 of time, is it not an acknowledged fact, that the moral cha- 
 racteristics of the same nation have varied; that one kind 
 of vice prevails in one age, another in another ; that the 
 moral habits of a community are inextricably interwoven 
 with social customs and positive laws, which again are the 
 combined product of moral and material causes ; that the 
 very frequency and excess of a particular crime or vice in 
 one age may lead to its mitigation or repression by the 
 force of public opinion, acting through positive law or 
 social custom, in another ? 
 
 Also, the moral state of a community is dependent, more 
 or less directly, upon material conditions, such as war and 
 peace, plentiful or deficient harvests, prosperity or depres- 
 sion of trade, &c. 
 
 All this, of course, is not any proof that the Will is free, 
 but it seems to be destructive of the argument against its 
 freedom derived from the supposed constancy of averages. 
 
 But perhaps it may be said, abandoning the argument 
 from the constancy or regularity of averages, that the fact 
 that moral acts and habits are dependent upon these various 
 influences, social, legislative, and material, is the very proof 
 required that they are no more the result of free agency 
 
116 NOTE B. 
 
 than any other facts of human nature ; and that, although 
 by a sort of transmutation of moral forces (like that result- 
 ing from the "correlation" of physical forces in natural 
 science) morality assumes different phases in different pe- 
 riods, one kind of vice or habit passing into another, and 
 so on, there exists from first to last a constant, invariable 
 quantity, or force, of so-called moral evil, which the so- 
 called Will is powerless to destroy or eliminate. 
 
 But it seems enough to answer, that this is a theory too 
 vague and impalpable to admit of any scientific test ; al- 
 though on a general view, e.g. of the state of Europe before 
 and after the diffusion of Christianity, the moral difference 
 may to an unbiassed mind be amply apparent. 
 
 In fact, it would seem to be a hopeless attempt to prove 
 or disprove the freedom of the Will, by registering the out- 
 ward acts of men taken in the mass. Is it not the more 
 scientific course to study the operations of the Will, not 
 where they are complicated a thousand-fold with motives 
 and causes which affect its action, and yet cannot by any 
 analysis be eliminated, but rather, after the old ethical 
 method, where it may be examined in its simplest and 
 purest form, in the inward workings of the consciousness 
 of each man, and in the outward experiences of individual- 
 istic action ? For such purposes there is little likelihood 
 that the old science of Ethics will ever be superseded by 
 Sociology. 
 
NOTE C 
 
 See Lecture VI., p. 78. 
 
 Self-murder has been dignified with the euphemistic 
 title of Euthanasia. The question of it being right or 
 wrong, speaking generally and without reference to parti- 
 cular instances, turns on the same hinge as the whole argu- 
 ment of these Lectures. Is a man's life his own property, or 
 is it a trust in his keeping for his God and his fellows ? In 
 the one case, he can fairly ask, " May I not do what I will 
 with mine own?" In the other case, the responsibility of 
 abruptly terminating it by his own act can only, if ever, 
 be justified by very extreme circumstances. 
 
NOTE D. 
 
 See Lecture VII., p. 91. 
 
 " Of no idea is it so generally known that it is indefinite, 
 ambiguous, liable to the greatest misconstructions, and, in 
 reality, consequently subjected to them, than of the idea 
 of free-will, and none is in current use, with so little in- 
 telligence. But, as we may express ourselves, the free spirit 
 being the actual existent spirit, or the spirit that actually 
 prevails in human affairs being the spirit of free-will, mis- 
 constructions in regard to it are of the most enormous con- 
 sequence. For when persons and peoples are once for all 
 possessed by the abstract notion of freedom as such, freedom 
 on its own account, no other has such irresistible power, 
 and just because it is the very inmost being of spirit, its 
 very actuality and self. Entire quarters of the globe, Africa, 
 and the East, have never had, and have not yet this idea. 
 The Greeks and Romans, Plato and Aristotle and the Stoics, 
 had it not. On the contrary, they conceived only that a man 
 by his birth (as Athenian or Spartan citizen, &c), or by 
 strength of character, by education, by philosophy (the wise 
 man is free even when a slave or in chains), only so did 
 they conceive a man to be free. This idea came into the 
 world through Christianity, in which it is that the indi- 
 vidual, as such, has an infinite worth, as being aim and 
 object of the love of God, and destined, consequently, to 
 have his absolute relation to God as spirit, to have this 
 spirit dwelling in him. Christianity it was, namely, that 
 revealed man in himself to be destined to supreme freedom. 
 .... This idea, then, is the very actuality of man, and 
 not that he has it, but that he is it. 
 
NOTE D. 119 
 
 " Christianity has made it the very actuality of its ad- 
 herents, — the very actuality of its adherents, — not to be 
 a slave, for example. If reduced to slavery, if the control 
 over their property is to depend on caprice, and not on laws 
 and courts of justice, then they find the very substance of 
 their being violated. This volition of freedom is no longer 
 an impulse, an instinct that demands its gratification ; it is 
 now a character, — - a spiritual consciousness that is above 
 impulse, that is above instinct. But this freedom, this 
 free-will, and free- agency, that possesses such implement, 
 such filling, such aims and ends, cannot remain as notion 
 only, as mere principle of the mind or the heart. It must 
 unclose itself into objectivity — into an organic actuality, 
 legal, moral, political, and religious." — Hegel, Philosophic 
 des Geistes, p. 374 ; quoted by J. H. Stirling, Lectures on 
 the Philosophy of Law, pp. 27, 28. 
 
NOTE E. 
 
 See Lecture VII., p. 96. 
 
 " To what an extent doctrines intrinsically fitted to make 
 the deepest impression upon the mind may remain in it as 
 dead beliefs, without being ever realized in the imagination, 
 the feelings, or the understanding, is exemplified by the 
 manner in which the majority of believers hold the doctrines 
 of Christianity. By Christianity I here mean what is ac- 
 counted such by all churches and sects, — the maxims and 
 precepts contained in the New Testament. These are con- 
 sidered sacred, and accepted as laws, by all professing 
 Christians. Yet it is scarcely too much to say that not 
 one Christian in a thousand guides or tests his individual 
 conduct by reference to those laws. The standard, to which 
 he does refer it, is the custom of his nation, his class, or his 
 religious profession. He has thus, on the one hand, a col- 
 lection of ethical maxims, which he believes to have been 
 vouchsafed to him by infallible wisdom as rules for his 
 government; and on the other, a set of every-day judg- 
 ments and practices, which go a certain length with some 
 of those maxims, not so great a length with others, stand 
 in direct opposition to some, and are, on the whole, a com- 
 promise between the Christian creed and the interests and 
 suggestions of worldly life. To the first of these standards 
 he gives his homage ; to the other his real allegiance. All 
 Christians believe that the blessed are the poor and humble, 
 and those who are ill-used by the world ; that it is easier 
 for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for 
 a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven ; that they 
 should judge not, lest they be judged ; that they should 
 swear not at all ; that they should love their neighbour as 
 
NOTE E. 121 
 
 themselves ; that if one take their cloak, they should give 
 him their coat also ; that they should take no thought for 
 the morrow ; that if they would be perfect, they should sell 
 all that they have and give it to the poor. They are not 
 insincere when they say that they believe these things ; 
 they do believe them, as people believe what they have al- 
 ways heard lauded and never discussed. But in the sense 
 of that living belief which regulates conduct, they believe 
 these doctrines just up to the point to which it is usual to 
 act upon them. The doctrines in their integrity are service- 
 able to pelt adversaries with ; and it is understood that they 
 are to be put forward (when possible) as the reasons for 
 whatever people do that they think laudable. But any one 
 who reminded them that the maxims require an infinity 
 of things which they never even think of doing, would gain 
 nothing but to be classed among those very unpopular cha- 
 racters who affect to be better than other people. The doc- 
 trines have no hold on ordinary believers, — are not a power 
 in their minds. They have an habitual respect for the 
 sound of them, but no feeling which spreads from the words 
 to the things signified, and forces the mind to take them in, 
 and make them conform to the formula. Whenever conduct 
 is concerned, they look round for Mr. A. and B. to direct 
 them how far to go in obeying Christ." — J. S. Mill, On 
 Liberty, p. 24. 
 
 All this is indeed indisputable, as against the incon- 
 sistencies of Christians ; but it is beside the question of the 
 excellence or faultiness of Christian morality. 
 
NOTE F. 
 
 See Lecture VIII., p. 99. 
 
 It is to be noted throughout these Lectures, in regard 
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 a motive, whether selfish or unselfish, may be real and 
 efficacious, without any consciousness of it or direct refer- 
 ence to it in each particular instance. Indeed, it is a 
 healthier habit, morally and physically, as a rule, to act 
 rightly and yet unconscious^. 
 
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